

========== eb11_13600.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Andros, Sir Edmund" to "Anise"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Andros, Sir Edmund" to "Anise"

Author: Various

Release date: October 8, 2004 [eBook #13600]
                Most recently updated: October 28, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Robinson Curriculum, Don Kretz, and the PG Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "ANDROS, SIR EDMUND" TO "ANISE" ***

THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA - ELEVENTH EDITION


  FIRST    edition, published in three volumes,       1768-1771.
  SECOND   edition, published in ten volumes,         1777-1784.
  THIRD    edition, published in eighteen volumes,    1788-1797.
  FOURTH   edition, published in twenty volumes,      1801-1810.
  FIFTH    edition, published in twenty volumes,      1815-1817.
  SIXTH    edition, published in twenty volumes,      1823-1824.
  SEVENTH  edition, published in twenty-one volumes,  1830-1842.
  EIGHTH   edition, published in twenty-two volumes,  1853-1860.
  NINTH    edition, published in twenty-five volumes, 1875-1889.
  TENTH    edition, ninth edition and eleven
  supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
  ELEVENTH edition, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.


THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION


ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME II

ANDROS to AUSTRIA

[E-Text Edition of Volume II - Part 01 of 16 - ANDROS to ANISE]




INITIALS USED IN VOLUME II. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, WITH
THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

[Note: Listing adjusted to E-Text Edition of Volume II, Part 01. The
full list of contributors appear in the complete E-text Edition of
Volume II. A complete list of all contributors to the encyclopaedia,
appears in the final volume.]


A.B.R. - ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, F.R S F.L.S. D.Sc. Keeper of the
Department of Botany, British Museum.

- ANGIOSPERMS


C.Pl. - REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. Fellow of Corpus Christi College,
Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. Author of _Life and Times of Alfred the
Great_; &c.

- ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE


E.O. - EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. Consulting Surgeon
to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities
of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
Senior Students_.

- ANEURYSM


H.M.C. - HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. Fellow and Librarian of Clare
College, Cambridge. Author of _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.

- ANGLI; ANGLO-SAXONS


H.Sm. - HUGH SHERINGHAM. Angling Editor of _The Field_ (London).

- ANGLING


I.B.B. - ISAAC BAYLEY BALFOUR, F.R.S., M.D. King's Botanist in
Scotland. Regius Keeper of Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Professor
of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Regius Professor of Botany
in the University of Glasgow, 1879-1884. Sherardian Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford, 1884-1888.

- ANGIOSPERMS (_in part_).


J.G.C.A. - JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. Student, Censor and Tutor
of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. Formerly Fellow of
Lincoln College, Oxford. Joint-author of _Studica Pontica_.

- ANGORA


L.J.S. - LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. Department of Mineralogy,
British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.

- ANHYDRITE


L.M.Br. - LOUIS MAURICE BRANDIN, M.A. Fielden Professor of French and
of Romance Philology in the University of London.

- ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE


N.W.T. - NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist
to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Societe
d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought Transference_; _Kinship
and Marriage in Australia_; &c.

- ANIMAL-WORSHIP, ANIMISM


P.C.M. - PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University
Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor
at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital,
1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal
College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903. Examiner in Zoology to
the University of London, 1903.

- ANIMAL


P.C.Y. - PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

- ANGLESEY, 1st EARL OF


P.Vi. - PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (Cambridge and
Harvard). Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of
Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Honorary Professor of History
in the University of Moscow. Author of _Villainage in England_;
_English Society in the 11th Century_; &c.

- ANGLO-SAXON LAW


T.Ba. - SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme
Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Author of _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; &c. M.P.
for Blackburn, 1910.

- ANGARY


W.H.Be. - WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.

- ANGEL


W.H.Di. - WILLIAM HENRY DINES, F.R.S.

- ANEMOMETER


W.M.R. - WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article:
ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.

- ANGELICO, FRA


PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

  Anglican Communion.
  Angola.


  [Note regarding E-text edition:
  Volume and page numbers have been incorporated into the text
  at the first paragraph break of each page as: v.02 p.0001 ]



THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME II, PART I


[v.02 p.0001]

ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (1637-1714), English colonial governor in America,
was born in London on the 6th of December 1637, son of Amice Andros,
an adherent of Charles I., and the royal bailiff of the island of
Guernsey. He served for a short time in the army of Prince Henry of
Nassau, and in 1660-1662 was gentleman in ordinary to the queen of
Bohemia (Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I. of England). He then
served against the Dutch, and in 1672 was commissioned major in
what is said to have been the first English regiment armed with the
bayonet. In 1674 he became, by the appointment of the duke of York
(later James II.), governor of New York and the Jerseys, though his
jurisdiction over the Jerseys was disputed, and until his recall in
1681 to meet an unfounded charge of dishonesty and favouritism in
the collection of the revenues, he proved himself to be a capable
administrator, whose imperious disposition, however, rendered him
somewhat unpopular among the colonists. During a visit to England in
1678 he was knighted. In 1686 he became governor, with Boston as his
capital, of the "Dominion of New England," into which Massachusetts
(including Maine), Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New
Hampshire were consolidated, and in 1688 his jurisdiction was extended
over New York and the Jerseys. But his vexatious interference with
colonial rights and customs aroused the keenest resentment, and on the
18th of April 1689, soon after news of the arrival of William, prince
of Orange, in England reached Boston, the colonists deposed and
arrested him. In New York his deputy, Francis Nicholson, was soon
afterwards deposed by Jacob Leisler (q.v.); and the inter-colonial
union was dissolved. Andros was sent to England for trial in 1690, but
was immediately released without trial, and from 1692 until 1698
he was governor of Virginia, but was recalled through the agency of
Commissary James Blair (q.v.), with whom he quarrelled. In 1693-1694
he was also governor of Maryland. From 1704 to 1706 he was governor
of Guernsey. He died in London in February 1714 and was buried at
St. Anne's, Soho.

See _The Andros Tracts_ (3 vols., Boston, 1869-1872).



ANDROS, or ANDRO, an island of the Greek archipelago, the most
northerly of the Cyclades, 6 m. S.E. of Euboea, and about 2 m. N.
of Tenos; it forms an eparchy in the modern kingdom of Greece. It is
nearly 25 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 10 m. Its surface is
for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered
valleys. Andros, the capital, on the east coast, contains about 2000
inhabitants. The ruins of Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the
west coast; the town possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Bacchus.
The island has about 18,000 inhabitants.

The island in ancient times contained an Ionian population, perhaps
with an admixture of Thracian blood. Though originally dependent on
Eretria, by the 7th century B.C. it had become sufficiently prosperous
to send out several colonies to Chalcidice (Acanthus, Stageirus,
Argilus, Sane). In 480 it supplied ships to Xerxes and was
subsequently harried by the Greek fleet. Though enrolled in the Delian
League it remained disaffected towards Athens, and in 447 had to be
coerced by the settlement of a cleruchy. In 411 Andros proclaimed its
freedom and in 408 withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the
second Delian League it was again controlled by a garrison and an
archon. In the Hellenistic period Andros was contended for as a
frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Sea, Macedonia and
Egypt. In 333 it received a Macedonian garrison from Antipater; in 308
it was freed by Ptolemy I. In the Chremonidean War (266-263) it passed
again to Macedonia after a battle fought off its shores. In 200 it
was captured by a combined Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian fleet, and
remained a possession of Pergamum until the dissolution of that
kingdom in 133 B.C. Before falling under Turkish rule, Andros was from
A.D. 1207 till 1566 governed by the families Zeno and Sommariva under
Venetian protection.



ANDROTION (c. 350 B.C.), Greek orator, and one of the leading
politicians of his time, was a pupil of Isocrates and a contemporary
of Demosthenes. He is known to us chiefly from the speech of
Demosthenes, in which he was accused of illegality in proposing
the usual honour of a crown to the Council of Five Hundred at the
expiration of its term of office. Androtion filled several important
posts, and during the Social War was appointed extraordinary
commissioner to recover certain arrears of taxes. Both Demosthenes
and Aristotle (_Rhet._ iii. 4) speak favourably of his powers as an
orator. He is said to have gone into exile at Megara, and to have
composed an _Atthis_, or annalistic account of Attica from the
earliest times to his own days (Pausanias vi. 7; x. 8). It is disputed
whether the annalist and orator are identical, but an Androtion
who wrote on agriculture is certainly a different person. Professor
Gaetano de Sanctis (in _L'Attide di Androzione e un papiro
di Oxyrhynchos_, Turin, 1908) attributes to Androtion, the
atthidographer, a 4th-century historical fragment, discovered by
B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v.). Strong
arguments against this view are set forth by E.M. Walker in the
_Classical Review_, May 1908.

[v.02 p.0002]



ANDÚJAR (the anc. _Slilurgi_), a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Jaén; on the right bank of the river Guadalquivir and the
Madrid-Cordova railway. Pop. (1900) 16,302. Andújar is widely known
for its porous earthenware jars, called _alcarrazas_, which keep water
cool in the hottest weather, and are manufactured from a whitish clay
found in the neighbourhood.



ANECDOTE (from [Greek: an]-, privative, and [Greek: ekdidomi], to give
out or publish), a word originally meaning something not published. It
has now two distinct significations. The primary one is something not
published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret
histories--Procopius, _e.g._, gives this as one of the titles of his
secret history of Justinian's court--or portions of ancient writers
which have remained long in manuscript and are edited for the first
time. Of such _anecdota_ there are many collections; the earliest was
probably L.A. Muratori's, in 1709. In the more general and popular
acceptation of the word, however, anecdotes are short accounts of
detached interesting particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections
are almost infinite; the best in many respects is that compiled by
T. Byerley (d. 1826) and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the
_Percy Anecdotes_ (1820-1823).



ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1679-1730), French surgeon, was born at Toulouse
about 1679. After studying at Montpellier and Paris, he served as
surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then after two years at
Vienna he went to Italy and served in the Austrian army. In 1710 he
was teaching surgery in Rouen, whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he
was practising in Paris. He died about 1730. He was celebrated for his
successful surgical treatment of _fistula lacrymalis_, and while
at Genoa invented for use in connexion with the operation the
fine-pointed syringe still known by his name.



ANEMOMETER (from Gr. [Greek: anemos], wind, and [Greek: metron],
a measure), an instrument for measuring either the velocity or the
pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (1)
those that measure the velocity, (2) those that measure the pressure
of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connexion between the
pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will
give information about both these quantities.

Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (1)
those which do not require a wind vane or weathercock, (2) those
which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr. Thomas Romney
Robinson, of Armagh Observatory, is the best-known and most generally
used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists
of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of
horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a
cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the
centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of
turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any
given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated.
The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is
easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented
to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also
faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence
a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round
providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer
are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane; on the other hand
it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual
velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but
violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr. Robinson first
designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the
cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third
of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by
some independent experiments, but it is very far from the truth, for
it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly
called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very
largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost
any value between two and a little over three. The result has been
that wind velocities published in many official publications have
often been in error by nearly 50%.

The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging
to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation
is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must
be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal.
Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to
follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfil
the same purpose must be employed. This type of instrument is very
little used in England, but seems to be more in favour in France. In
cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as
in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these
anemometers, known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give
most satisfactory results.

Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate
and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a
good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type of this form consists
of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind
vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the
wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring
determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate,
and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in
the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved
by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long
series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding
60 lb per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values
are erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the
anemometer.

The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while
the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the
force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for
following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make
matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often
connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A
violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by
its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the
same force would place it; by the time the motion has reached the pen
it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connexion,
and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its
position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act
the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be
indicated on the chart.

A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been
designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate
being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by
hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back
farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples
of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the
winter fierce gales often occur; a pressure of 30 lb per sq. ft. has
not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 lb are extremely
rare.

Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a
sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing
to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small
light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing
cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over
a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has
given satisfactory results.

Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a U tube containing liquid
with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is
perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument
has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an
increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in
all closed vessels with which the mouth is in airtight communication.
If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it
causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical
use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on
the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis,
the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great
variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. 1)
utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube
facing the wind, and the decrease of pressure caused inside when the
wind blows over a ring of small holes drilled through the metal of
a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. The pressure
differences on which the action depends are very small, and special
means are required to register them, but in the ordinary form of
recording anemometer (fig. 2), any wind capable of turning the vane
which keeps the mouth of the tube facing the wind is capable of
registration.

[v.02 p.0003]

The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the
exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling
or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any
convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two
connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as
though one connexion would serve, but the differences in pressure on
which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of
the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be
considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction
effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the
air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are
carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an
effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the
opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may
entirely alter the registration.

[Illustration: FIG. 1 & FIG. 2 Anemometers.]

The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is
one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on
engineering give the relation P=.005 _v_^2 when P is the pressure in
lb per sq. ft. and _v_ the velocity in miles per hour. The history
of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end of the
18th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote stating
that little reliance could be placed on it. The statement without the
qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last received
general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average conditions
of atmospheric density, the .005 should be replaced by .003, for many
independent authorities using different methods have found values very
close to this last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure
is not strictly proportional to the extent of the surface exposed.
Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter
of a sq. ft. up to two or three sq. ft., are round or square, and
for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the
relation P=.003 _v_^2 is fairly correct.

In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is
measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale.
In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a
high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an
allowance must be made. Approximately 1-1/2% should be added to the
velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft. that it
stands above sea-level.

(W.H. Di.)



ANEMONE, or WIND-FLOWER (from the Gr. [Greek: anemos], wind), a
genus of the buttercup order (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety
species in the north and south temperate zones. _Anemone nemorosa_,
wood anemone, and _A. Pulsatilla_, Pasque-flower, occur in Britain;
the latter is found on chalk downs and limestone pastures in some of
the more southern and eastern counties. The plants are perennial herbs
with an underground rootstock, and radical, more or less deeply cut,
leaves. The elongated flower stem bears one or several, white,
red, blue or rarely yellow, flowers; there is an involucre of three
leaflets below each flower. The fruits often bear long hairy styles
which aid their distribution by the wind. Many of the species are
favourite garden plants; among the best known is _Anemone coronaria_,
often called the poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with
parsley-like divided leaves, and large showy poppy-like blossoms on
stalks of from 6 to 9-in. high; the flowers are of various colours,
but the principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There
are also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the
centre are replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It is an old garden
favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties. They
grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure, which
should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted in October,
and for succession in January, the autumn-planted ones being protected
by a covering of leaves or short stable litter. They will flower in
May and June, and when the leaves have ripened should be taken up into
a dry room till planting time. They are easily raised from the
seed, and a bed of the single varieties is a valuable addition to a
flower-garden, as it affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of
handsome and often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as
the snowdrop or crocus. The genus contains many other lively
spring-blooming plants, of which _A. hortensis_ and _A. fulgens_ have
less divided leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers;
they require similar treatment. Another set is represented by _A.
Pulsatilla_, the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer
surface hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid _A.
japonica_, and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the
latter especially, are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy
perennials; they grow well in light soil, and reach 2-1/2 to 3 ft.
in height, blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf
species, represented by the native British _A. nemorosa_ and _A.
apennina_, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers for
planting in woods and shady places.

The genus _Hepatica_ is now generally included in anemone as a
subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as hepaticas, and are
varieties of the common South European _A. Hepatica_; they are
charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue flowers.



ANENCLETUS, or ANACLETUS, second bishop of Rome. About the 4th century
he is treated in the catalogues as two persons--Anacletus and Cletus.
According to the catalogues he occupied the papal chair for twelve
years (c. 77-88).



ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very great Roman
masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the elder, was born about
1560, studied under G.M. Nanino and succeeded Palestrina in 1594 as
composer to the papal chapel. Several masses and motets of his are
printed in Proske's _Musica Divina_ and other modern anthologies, and
it is hardly too much to say that they are for the most part worthy
of Palestrina himself. The date of his death is conjecturally given as
1630. His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and seems
to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of some of his
numerous compositions to his elder brother is a pardonable mistake, if
we may judge by the works that have been reprinted. But the statement,
which continues to be repeated in standard works of reference,
that "he was one of the first of Italians to use the quaver and its
subdivisions" is incomprehensible. Quavers were common property in
all musical countries quite early in the 16th century, and semiquavers
appear in a madrigal of Palestrina published in 1574. The two brothers
are probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century music
as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation to
indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have learnt
from the elder brother's master, Nanino, nor from the necessity of
preserving their purity of style by a mortified negative asceticism.
They wrote pure polyphony because they understood it and loved it, and
hence their work lives, as neither the progressive work of their
own day nor the reactionary work of their imitators could live. The
12-part _Stabat Mater_ in the seventh volume of Palestrina's complete
works has been by some authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio.

[v.02 p.0004]


ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir,
situated between the rivers Eure and Vègre, 10 m. N.E. of Dreux by
rail. Pop. (1906) 1324. It possesses the remains of a magnificent
castle, built in the middle of the 16th century by Henry II. for Diana
of Poitiers. Near it is the plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated
the armies of the League in 1590.



ANEURIN, or ANEIRIN, the name of an early 7th-century British (Welsh)
bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens (1821-1875), the editor
and translator of Aneurin's principal epic poem _Gododin_, for a
son of Gildas, the historian. _Gododin_ is an account of the British
defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth (identified by Stephens with
Dawstane in Liddesdale), where Aneurin is said to have been taken
prisoner; but the poem is very obscure and is differently interpreted.
It was translated and edited by W.F. Skene in his _Four Ancient
Books of Wales_ (1866), and Stephens' version was published by the
Cymmrodorion Society in 1888. See CELT: _Literature_ (Welsh).



ANEURYSM, or ANEURISM (from Gr. [Greek: aneurisma], a dilatation), a
cavity or sac which communicates with the interior of an artery and
contains blood. The walls of the cavity are formed either of the
dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel. The dilatation
of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result of disease or
injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflammation of the inner coats
of the artery. The breaking of a bottle or glass in the hand is apt to
cut through the outermost coat of the artery at the wrist (radial)
and thus to cause a local weakening of the tube which is gradually
followed by dilatation. Also when an artery is wounded and the wound
in the skin and superficial structures heals, the blood may escape in
to the tissues, displacing them, and by its pressure causing them to
condense and form the sac-wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased,
may be torn by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed
tissues which thus form the aneurysmal sac.

The division, of aneurysms into two classes, _true_ and _false_, is
unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which is false is not
an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is legal tender. A better
classification is into _spontaneous_ and _traumatic_. The man who has
chronic inflammation of a large artery, the result, for instance, of
gout, arduous, straining work, or kidney-disease, and whose artery
yields under cardiac pressure, has a _spontaneous_ aneurysm; the
barman or window-cleaner who has cut his radial artery, the soldier
whose brachial or femoral artery has been bruised by a rifle bullet
or grazed by a bayonet, and the boy whose naked foot is pierced by
a sharp nail, are apt to be the subjects of _traumatic_ aneurysm.
In those aneurysms which are a _saccular_ bulging on one side of the
artery the blood may be induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit
layer upon layer of pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This
laminar coagulation by constant additions gradually fills the
aneurysmal cavity and the pulsation in the sac then ceases;
contraction of the sac and its contents gradually takes place and
the aneurysm is cured. But in those aneurysms which are _fusiform_
dilatations of the vessel there is but slight chance of such cure, for
the blood sweeps evenly through it without staying to deposit clot or
laminated fibrine.

In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the blood
pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is rarely
effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now resorted
to more promptly and securely than was previously the case.
Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of treatment
by compression, or the application of an india rubber bandage, the
surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the artery, and
applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation. Experience
has shown that this method possesses great advantages, and that it has
none of the disadvantages which were formerly supposed to attend it.
Saccular dilatations of arteries which are the result of cuts or
other injuries are treated by tying the vessel above and below, and by
dissecting out the aneurysm. Popliteal, carotid and other aneurysms,
which are not of traumatic origin, are sometimes dealt with on this
plan, which is the old "Method of Antyllus" with modern aseptic
conditions. Speaking generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with
surgically the sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic
measures are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and
disappointing. For anturysm in the chest or abdomen (which cannot be
dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried of injecting a
pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of the armpit, so
that the gelatine may find its way into the blood stream and increase
the chance of curative coagulation in the distant aneurysmal sac.

(E.O.)



ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. _anfractuosus_, winding), twisting and
turning, circuitousness; a word usually employed in the plural to
denote winding channels such as occur in the depths of the sea,
mountains, or the fissures (_sulci_) separating the convolutions of
the brain, or, by analogy, in the mind.



ANGARIA (from [Greek: aggaros], the Greek form of a Babylonian word
adopted in Persian for "mounted courier"), a sort of postal system
adopted by the Roman imperial government from the ancient Persians,
among whom, according to Xenophon (_Cyrop._ viii. 6; cf. Herodotus
viii. 98) it was established by Cyrus the Great. Couriers on horseback
were posted at certain stages along the chief roads of the empire, for
the transmission of royal despatches by night and day in all weathers.
In the Roman system the supply of horses and their maintenance was a
compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could grant exemption.
The word, which in the 4th century was used for the heavy transport
vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for the animals by which
they were drawn, came to mean generally "compulsory service." So
_angaria_, _angariare_, in medieval Latin, and the rare English
derivatives "angariate," "angariation," came to mean any service which
was forcibly or unjustly demanded, and oppression in general.



ANGARY (Lat. _jus angariae_; Fr. _droit d'angarie_; Ger. _Angarie_;
from the Gr. [Greek: aggareia], the office of an [Greek: aggaros],
courier or messenger), the name given to the right of a belligerent to
seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to prevent the enemy from
doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent territory, including
that which may belong to subjects or citizens of a neutral state. Art.
53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land,
annexed to the Hague Convention of 1899 on the same subject, provides
that railway plant, land telegraphs, telephones, steamers and other
ships (other than such as are governed by maritime law), though
belonging to companies or private persons, _may be used_ for military
operations, but "must be restored at the conclusion of peace _and_
indemnities paid for them." And Art. 54 adds that "the plant of
railways coming from neutral states, whether the property of those
states or of companies or private persons, shall be sent back to them
as soon as possible." These articles seem to sanction the right of
angary against neutral property, while limiting it as against both
belligerent and neutral property. It may be considered, however,
that the right to use implies as wide a range of contingencies as the
"necessity of war" can be made to cover.

(T. BA.)



ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman being in
monotheistic religions, _e.g._. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and in
allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism the grades of
superhuman beings are continuous; but in monotheism there is a sharp
distinction of kind, as well as degree, between God on the one hand,
and all other superhuman beings on the other; the latter are the
"angels."

"Angel" is a transcription of the Gr. [Greek: angelos], messenger.
[Greek: angelos] in the New Testament, and the corresponding _mal'akh_
in the Old Testament, sometimes mean "messenger," and sometimes
"angel," and this double sense is duly represented in the English
Versions. "Angel" is also used in the English Version for [Hebrew:]
_'Abbir_, Ps. lxxviii. 25. (lit. "mighty"), for [Hebrew:]
_'Elohim_, Ps. viii. 5, and for the obscure [Hebrew:] _shin'an_,
in Ps. lxviii. 17.

[v.02 p.0005]

In the later development of the religion of Israel, _'Elohim_ is
almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in earlier times
_'Elohim_ (gods), _bn[=e] 'Elohim, bn[=e] Elim_ (sons of gods,
_i.e._ members of the class of divine beings) were general terms
for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used collectively of
superhuman beings, distinct from Yahweh, and therefore inferior,
and ultimately subordinate.[1] So, too, the angels are styled "holy
ones,"[2] and "watchers,"[3] and are spoken of as the "host of
heaven"[4] or of "Yahweh."[5] The "hosts," [Hebrew:] _Sebaoth_ in
the title _Yahweh Sebaoth_, Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time
identified with the angels.[6] The New Testament often speaks of
"spirits," [Greek: pneumata].[7] In the earlier periods of the
religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism had not been formally
stated, so that the idea of "angel" in the modern sense does not
occur, but we find the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, Angel of the Lord, or
_Mal'akh Elohim_, Angel of God. The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ is an appearance
or manifestation of _Yahweh_ in the form of a man, and the term
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ is used interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii.
2, with iii. 4; xiii. 21 with xiv. 19). Those who see the _Mal'akh
Yahweh_ say they have seen God.[8] The _Mal'akh Yahweh_ (or _Elohim_)
appears to Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c., and leads the
Israelites in the Pillar of Cloud.[9] The phrase _Mal'akh Yahweh_ may
have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King;
but it readily became a means of avoiding crude anthropomorphism, and
later on, when the angels were classified, the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ came
to mean an angel of distinguished rank.[10] The identification of the
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ with the _Logos_, or Second Person of the Trinity, is
not indicated by the references in the Old Testament; but the idea
of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct
from Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to distinguish
persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows the doctrine
of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.

In the earlier literature the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ or _Elohim_ is almost
the only _mal'akh_ ("angel") mentioned. There are, however, a few
passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the
_Mal'akh Yahweh_ or _Elohim_. There are the cherubim who guard Eden.
In Gen. xviii., xix. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and
Lot is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but
possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone.[11]
At Bethel, Jacob sees the angels of God on the ladder,[12] and later
on they appear to him at Mahanaim.[13] In all these cases the
angels, like the _Mal'akh Yahweh_, are connected with or represent a
theophany. Similarly the "man" who wrestles with Jacob at Peniel is
identified with God.[14] In Isaiah vi. the seraphim, superhuman
beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh. Thus the
pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has little to say about
angels or about superhuman beings other than Yahweh and manifestations
of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly mention angels.[15]
Nevertheless we may well suppose that the popular religion of ancient
Israel had much to say of superhuman beings other than Yahweh, but
that the inspired writers have mostly suppressed references to them as
unedifying. Moreover such beings were not strictly angels.

The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the period
immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy[16] and
Isaiah;[17] and at the same time we find angels prominent in Ezekiel
who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the
hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian religion, and
perhaps even by the angelology of Zoroastrianism.[18] Ezekiel gives
elaborate descriptions of cherubim;[19] and in one of his visions he
sees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem.[20] As
in Genesis they are styled "men," _mal'akh_ for "angel" does not occur
in Ezekiel. Somewhat later, in the visions of Zechariah, angels play
a great part; they are sometimes spoken of as "men," sometimes as
_mal'akh_, and the _Mal'akh Yahweh_ seems to hold a certain primacy
among them.[21] Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the
High Priest before the divine tribunal.[22] Similarly in Job the _bne
Elohim_, sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them
Satan, still in his rôle of public prosecutor, the defendant being
Job.[23] Occasional references to "angels" occur in the Psalter;[24]
they appear as ministers of God.

In Ps. lxxviii. 49 the "evil angels" of A.V. conveys a false
impression; it should be "angels of evil," as R.V., _i.e._ angels who
inflict chastisement as ministers of God.

The seven angels of Ezekiel may be compared with the seven eyes of
Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have been connected by
Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels,[25]
parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas (Amesha Spenta), or
seven great spirits of the Persian mythology, but the connexion is
doubtful.

In the Priestly Code, _c._ 400 B.C., there is no reference to angels
apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural in Genesis
i. 26.

During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels underwent
a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences.
In Daniel, _c._ 160 B.C., angels, usually spoken of as "men" or
"princes," appear as guardians or champions of the nations; grades are
implied, there are "princes" and "chief" or "great princes"; and
the names of some angels are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is
pre-eminent,[26] he is the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading
part is played by Raphael, "one of the seven holy angels."[27]

In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel. In the
canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering as ministers
of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as
subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and not as morally evil. The
statement[28] that God "charged His angels with folly" applies to
all angels. In Daniel the princes or guardian angels of the heathen
nations oppose Michael the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we
find Asmodaeus the evil demon, [Greek: to poneros daimonion], who
strangles Sarah's husbands, and also a general reference to "a devil
or evil spirit," [Greek: pneuma].[29] The Fall of the Angels is not
properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2, as
interpreted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the _bn[=e] Elohim_
of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above), but
they belong to a different order of thought from the angels of Judaism
and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no way suggests that the
_bne Elohim_ suffered any loss of status through their act.

The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the
gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process
by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by Milton
in _Paradise Lost_. The development of the doctrine of an organized
hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish literature of the period 200
B.C. to A.D. 100. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination
ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as
the various books of Enoch and the _Ascension of Isaiah_ supply much
information on this subject.

[v.02 p.0006]

In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the ministers of God
and the agents of revelation;[30] and Our Lord speaks of angels
as fulfilling such functions,[31] implying in one saying that they
neither marry nor are given in marriage.[32] Naturally angels are most
prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testament takes little interest
in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the
doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; we
have names, Gabriel,[33] and the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon,[34]
Beelzebub.[35] and Satan;[36] ranks are implied, archangels,[37]
principalities and powers,[38] thrones and dominions.[39] Angels
occur in groups of four or seven.[40] In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with
the "Angels" of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably
guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that
the "princes" in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the "angels"
are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the
"angels" are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or
chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel to such a use
of "angel," and it is doubtful whether the monarchical government of
churches was fully developed when the Apocalypse was written.

Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines of the
angelology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play an important
part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Midrashim and the Kabbala.
Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much
influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the
_De Hierarchia Celesti_, written in the 5th century in the name
of Dionysius the Areopagite and passing for his. The creeds and
confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and
modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings,
or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain
knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the
existence of beings intermediate between man and God.

The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels; but the
_Book of Jubilees_ and the Slavonic _Enoch_ describe their creation;
and, according to Col. i. 16, the angels were created in, unto and
through Christ.

Nor does the Bible give any formal account of the nature of angels.
It is doubtful how far Ezekiel's account of the cherubim and Isaiah's
account of the seraphim are to be taken as descriptions of actual
beings; they are probably figurative, or else subjective visions.
Angels are constantly spoken of as "men," and, including even the
Angel of Yahweh, are spoken of as discharging the various functions
of human life; they eat and drink,[41] walk[42] and speak.[43] Putting
aside the cherubim and seraphim, they are not spoken of as having
wings. On the other hand they appear and vanish,[44] exercise
miraculous powers,[45] and fly.[46] Seeing that the anthropomorphic
language used of the angels is similar to that used of God, the
Scriptures would hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in
either case. A special association is found, both in the Bible and
elsewhere, between the angels and the heavenly bodies,[47] and the
elements or elemental forces, fire, water, &c.[48] The angels are
infinitely numerous.[49]

The _function_ of the angels is that of the supernatural servants of
God. His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh, as we have
seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the _bne Elohim_ and
the seraphim are His court, and the angels are alike the court and the
army of God; the cherubim are his throne-bearers. In his dealings with
men, the angels, as their name implies, are specially His messengers,
declaring His will and executing His commissions. Through them he
controls nature and man. They are the guardian angels of the nations;
and we also find the idea that individuals have guardian angels.[50].
Later Jewish tradition held that the Law was given by angels.[51]
According to the Gnostic Basilides, the world was created by angels.
Mahommedanism has taken over and further elaborated the Jewish and
Christian ideas as to angels.

While the scriptural statements imply a belief in the existence of
spiritual beings intermediate between God and men, it is probable that
many of the details may be regarded merely as symbolic imagery. In
Scripture the function of the angel overshadows his personality; the
stress is on their ministry; they appear in order to perform specific
acts.


[Footnote 1: _E.g._ Gen. vi. 2; Job i. 6; Ps. viii. 5, xxix. I.]

[Footnote 2: Zech. xiv. 5.]

[Footnote 3: Dan. iv. 13.]

[Footnote 4: Deut. xvii. 3 (?).]

[Footnote 5: Josh. v. 14 (?).]

[Footnote 6: The identification of the "hosts" with the stars comes
to the same thing; the stars were thought of as closely connected with
angels. It is probable that the "hosts" were also identified with the
armies of Israel.]

[Footnote 7: Rev. i. 4.]

[Footnote 8: Gen. xxxii. 30; Judges xiii. 22.]

[Footnote 9: Exod. iii. 2, xiv.]

[Footnote 10: Zech. i. 11f.]

[Footnote 11: Cf. xviii. I with xviii. 2, and note change of number in
xix. 17.]

[Footnote 12: Gen. xxviii. 12, E.]

[Footnote 13: Gen. xxxii. I, E.]

[Footnote 14: Gen. xxxii. 24, 30, J.]

[Footnote 15: "An angel" of I Kings xiii. 18 might be the _Mal'akh
Yahweh_, as in xix. 5, cf. 7, or the passage, at any rate in its
present form, may be exilic or post-exilic.]

[Footnote 16: Deut. vi. 4. 5.]

[Footnote 17: Isaiah xliii. 10 &c.]

[Footnote 18: It is not however certain that these doctrines of
Zoroastrianism were developed at so early a date.]

[Footnote 19: Ezek. i.x.]

[Footnote 20: Ezek. ix.]

[Footnote 21: Zech. i. 11 f.]

[Footnote 22: Zech. iii. 1.]

[Footnote 23: Job i., ii. Cf. I Chron. xxi. 1.]

[Footnote 24: Pss. xci. 11, ciii. 20 &c.]

[Footnote 25: Tobit xii. 15; Rev. viii. 2.]

[Footnote 26: Dan. viii. 16, x. 13, 20, 21.]

[Footnote 27: Tob. xii. 15.]

[Footnote 28: Job iv. 18.]

[Footnote 29: Tobit iii. 8, 17, vi. 7.]

[Footnote 30: _E.g._ Matt. i. 20 (to Joseph), iv. 11. (to Jesus), Luke
i. 26 (to Mary), Acts xii. 7 (to Peter).]

[Footnote 31: _E.g._ Mark viii. 38, xiii. 27.]

[Footnote 32: Mark xii. 25.]

[Footnote 33: Luke i. 19.]

[Footnote 34: Rev. ix. 11.]

[Footnote 35: Mark iii. 22.]

[Footnote 36: Mark i. 13.]

[Footnote 37: Michael, Jude 9.]

[Footnote 38: Rom. viii. 38; Col, ii. 10.]

[Footnote 39: Col. i. 16.]

[Footnote 40: Rev. vii. 1.]

[Footnote 41: Gen. xviii. 8.]

[Footnote 42: Gen. xix. 16.]

[Footnote 43: Zech. iv. 1.]

[Footnote 44: Judges vi. 12, 21.]

[Footnote 45: Rev. vii. 1. viii.]

[Footnote 46: Rev. viii. 13, xiv. 6.]

[Footnote 47: Job xxxviii. 7; _Asc. of Isaiah_, iv. 18; Slav. _Enoch_,
iv. 1.]

[Footnote 48: Rev. xiv. 18, xvi. 5; possibly Gal. iv. 3; Col. ii. 8,
20.]

[Footnote 49: Ps. lxviii. 17; Dan. vii. 10.]

[Footnote 50: Matt, xviii. 10; Acts xii. 15.]

[Footnote 51: Gal. iii. 19; Heb. ii. 2; _LXX_. of Deut. xxxiii. 2.]


BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the sections on "Angels" in the handbooks of O.T.
Theology by Ewald, Schultz, Smend, Kayser-Marti, &c.; and of
N.T. Theology by Weiss, and in van Oosterzee's _Dogmatics_. Also
commentaries on special passages, especially Driver and Bevan on
_Daniel_, and G.A. Smith, _Minor Prophets_, ii. 310 ff.; and articles
_s.v._ "Angel" in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, and the _Encyclopaedia
Biblica_.

(W.H. BE.)



ANGEL, a gold coin, first used in France (_angelot, ange_) in 1340,
and introduced into England by Edward IV. in 1465 as a new issue of
the "noble," and so at first called the "angel-noble." It varied in
value between that period and the time of Charles I. (when it was
last coined) from 6s. 8d. to 10s. The name was derived from the
representation it bore of St. Michael and the dragon. The angel was the
coin given to those who came to be touched for the disease known
as king's evil; after it was no longer coined, medals, called
touch-pieces, with the same device, were given instead.



ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order _Umbelliferae_,
represented in Britain by one species, _A. sylvestris_, a tall
perennial herb with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels
of white or purple flowers. The name Angelica is popularly given to
a plant of an allied genus, _Archangelica officinalis_, the tender
shoots of which are used in making certain kinds of aromatic
sweetmeats. _Angelica balsam_ is obtained by extracting the roots with
alcohol, evaporating and extracting the residue with ether. It is of
a dark brown colour and contains angelica oil, angelica wax and
angelicin, C_{18}_H_{30}_O. The essential oil of the roots of
_Angelica archangelica_ contains ß-terebangelene, C_{10}_H_{16}, and
other terpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains ß-terebangelene,
together with methylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid.

The angelica tree is a member of the order _Avaliaceae_, a species of
_Aralia (A. spinosa_), a native of North America; it grows 8 to 12 ft.
high, has a simple prickle-bearing stem forming an umbrella-like head,
and much divided leaves.



ANGELICO, FRA (1387-1455), Italian painter. Il Beato Fra Giovanni
Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed painter-friar of
the Florentine state in the 15th century, the representative, beyond
all other men, of pietistic painting. He is often, but not accurately,
termed simply "Fiesole," which is merely the name of the town where he
first took the vows; more often Fra Angelico. If we turn his compound
designation into English, it runs thus--"the Beatified Friar John the
Angelic of Fiesole." In his lifetime he was known no doubt simply as
Fra Giovanni or Friar John; "The Angelic" is a laudatory term which
was assigned to him at an early date,--we find it in use within thirty
years after his death; and, at some period which is not defined in
our authorities, he was beatified by due ecclesiastical process. His
baptismal name was Guido, Giovanni being only his name in religion. He
was born at Vicchio, in the Tuscan province of Mugello, of unknown
but seemingly well-to-do parentage, in 1387 (not 1390 as sometimes
stated); in 1407 he became a novice in the convent of S. Domenico at
Fiesole, and in 1408 he took the vows and entered the Dominican order.
Whether he had previously been a painter by profession is not certain,
but may be pronounced probable. The painter named Lorenzo Monaco may
have contributed to his art-training, and the influence of the Sienese
school is discernible in his work.

[v.02 p.0007]

According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist were in the
Certosa of Florence; none such exist there now. His earliest extant
performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona, whither he
was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he spent all the
opening years of his monastic life. His first works executed in fresco
were probably those, now destroyed, which he painted in the convent
of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco-painter, he may have worked
under, or as a follower of, Gherardo Starnina. From 1418 to 1436
he was back at Fiesole; in 1436 he was transferred to the Dominican
convent of S. Marco in Florence, and in 1438 undertook to paint the
altarpiece for the choir, followed by many other works; he may have
studied about this time the renowned frescoes in the Brancacci chapel
in the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of
Orcagna. In or about 1445 he was invited by the pope to Rome. The pope
who reigned from 1431 to 1447 was Eugenius IV., and he it was who in
1445 appointed another Dominican friar, a colleague of Angelico, to
be archbishop of Florence. If the story (first told by Vasari) is
true--that this appointment was made at the suggestion of Angelico
only after the archbishopric had been offered to himself, and by
him declined on the ground of his inaptitude for so elevated and
responsible a station--Eugenius, and not (as stated by Vasari) his
successor Nicholas V., must have been the pope who sent the invitation
and made the offer to Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in
1447. The whole statement lacks authentication, though in itself
credible enough. Certain it is that Angelico was staying in Rome in
the first half of 1447; and he painted in the Vatican the Cappella del
Sacramento, which was afterwards demolished by Paul III. In June
1447 he proceeded to Orvieto, to paint in the Cappella Nuova of the
cathedral, with the co-operation of his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli. He
afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel of Nicholas V. In
this capital he died in 1455, and he lies buried in the church of the
Minerva.

According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men on
whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could
have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy and
self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a brother to
the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted with unceasing
diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he never retouched
or altered his work, probably with a religious feeling that such as
divine providence allowed the thing to come, such it should remain. He
was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should
be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without
fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last
Judgment and the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most
frequently treated.

Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra
Giovanni's sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able
to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now proceed
to name as among his most important productions. In Florence, in the
convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national museum), a series
of frescoes, beginning towards 1443; in the first cloister is the
Crucifixion with St. Dominic kneeling; and the same treatment recurs on
a wall near the dormitory; in the chapterhouse is a third Crucifixion,
with the Virgin swooning, a composition of twenty life-sized
figures--the red background, which has a strange and harsh effect, is
the misdoing of some restorer; an "Annunciation," the figures of about
three-fourths of life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage,
the "Virgin enthroned," with four saints; on the wall of a cell,
the "Coronation of the Virgin," with Saints Paul, Thomas Aquinas,
Benedict, Dominic, Francis and Peter Martyr; two Dominicans welcoming
Jesus, habited as a pilgrim; an "Adoration of the Magi"; the "Marys
at the Sepulchre." All these works are later than the altarpiece which
Angelico painted (as before mentioned) for the choir connected
with this convent, and which is now in the academy of Florence; it
represents the Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian (the patrons of
the Medici family), Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and
Stephen; the pediment illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but
it has long been severed from the main subject. In the Uffizi gallery,
an altarpiece, the Virgin (life-sized) enthroned, with the Infant and
twelve angels. In S. Domenico, Fiesole, a few frescoes, less fine than
those in S. Marco; also an altarpiece in tempera of the Virgin and
Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr,
now much destroyed. The subject which originally formed the predella
of this picture has, since 1860, been in the National Gallery, London,
and worthily represents there the hand of the saintly painter. The
subject is a Glory, Christ with the banner of the Resurrection, and
a multitude of saints, including, at the extremities, the saints or
beati of the Dominican order; here are no fewer than 266 figures
or portions of figures, many of them having names inscribed. This
predella was highly lauded by Vasari; still more highly another
picture which used to form an altarpiece in Fiesole, and which now
obtains world-wide celebrity in the Louvre--the "Coronation of the
Virgin," with eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic.
For the church of Santa Trinita, Florence, Angelico executed a
"Deposition from the Cross," and for the church of the Angeli, a "Last
Judgment," both now in the Florentine academy; for S. Maria Novella, a
"Coronation of the Virgin," with a predella in three sections, now
in the Uffizi,--this again is one of his masterpieces. In Orvieto
cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the ceiling,
portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen saints
and prophets, and the virgin and apostles: all these are now much
repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of Nicholas V., the acts
of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also various figures of saints, and
on the ceiling the four evangelists. These works of the painter's
advanced age, which have suffered somewhat from restorations, show
vigour superior to that of his youth, along with a more adequate
treatment of the architectural perspectives. Naturally, there are a
number of works currently attributed to Angelico, but not really his;
for instance, a "St Thomas with the Madonna's girdle," in the Lateran
museum, and a "Virgin enthroned," in the church of S. Girolamo,
Fiesole. It has often been said that he commenced and frequently
practised as an illuminator; this is dubious and a presumption arises
that illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, also
a Dominican, who died in 1448, have been ascribed to the more famous
artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in the frescoes
at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly traceable. A folio
series of engravings from these paintings was published in Florence,
in 1852. Along with Gozzoli already mentioned, Zanobi Strozzi and
Gentile da Fabriano are named as pupils of the Beato.

We have spoken of Angelico's art as "pietistic"; this is in fact
its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt suavity,
devotional fervency and beaming esoteric consciousness, which is
intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond rivalry a
particular ideal--that of ecclesiastical saintliness and detachment
from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be denied that he did not
always escape the pitfalls of such a method of treatment, the faces
becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of sexless religiosity which
hardly eludes the artificial or even the hypocritical; on other minds,
therefore, and these some of the most masculine and resolute, he
produces little genuine impression. After allowing for this, Angelico
should nevertheless be accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical
painter according to his own range of conceptions, consonant with his
monastic calling, unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness.
Exquisite as he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly
falls far short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such
as Masaccio and Lippo Lippi, but even of so distant a precursor as
Giotto, in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a
subject or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and
actions--the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations or
contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had much finish
and harmony of composition and colour, without corresponding
mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of the human frame
was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light scale of his tints
is constantly remarkable, combined with a free use of gilding; this
conduces materially to that celestial character which so pre-eminently
distinguishes his pictured visions of the divine persons, the
hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the redeemed.

[v.02 p.0008]

Books regarding Fra Angelico are numerous. We may mention those by S.
Beissel, 1895; V.M. Crawford, 1900; R.L. Douglas, 1900; I.B. Supino,
1901; D. Tumiati, 1897; G. Williamson, 1901.

(W.M.R.)



ANGELL, GEORGE THORNDIKE (1823-1909), American philanthropist, was
born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, on the 5th of June 1823. He
graduated at Dartmouth in 1846, studied law at the Harvard Law School,
and in 1851 was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he practised
for many years. In 1868 he founded and became president of the
Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in the
same year establishing and becoming editor of _Our Dumb Animals_, a
journal for the promotion of organized effort in securing the humane
treatment of animals. For many years he was active in the organization
of humane societies in England and America. In 1882 he initiated the
movement for the establishment of Bands of Mercy (for the promotion
of humane treatment of animals), of which in 1908 there were more than
72,000 in active existence. In 1889 he founded and became president
of the American Humane Education Society. He became well known as a
criminologist and also as an advocate of laws for the safeguarding of
the public health and against adulteration of food. He died at Boston
on the 16th of March 1909.



ANGEL-LIGHTS, in architecture, the outer upper lights in a
perpendicular window, next to the springing; probably a corruption of
the word angle-lights, as they are nearly triangular.



ANGELUS, a Roman Catholic devotion in memory of the Annunciation.
It has its name from the opening words, _Angelus Domini nuntiavit
Mariae_. It consists of three texts describing the mystery, recited
as versicle and response alternately with the salutation "Hail, Mary!"
This devotion is recited in the Catholic Church three times daily,
about 6 A.M., noon and 6 P.M. At these hours a bell known as the
Angelus bell is rung. This is still rung in some English country
churches, and has often been mistaken for and alleged to be a survival
of the curfew bell. The institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed
to Pope Urban II., by some to John XXII. The triple recitation is
ascribed to Louis XI. of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be thrice
said daily.



ANGELUS SILESIUS (1624-1677), German religious poet, was born in 1624
at Breslau. His family name was Johann Scheffler, but he is generally
known by the pseudonym Angelus Silesius, under which he published his
poems and which marks the country of his birth. Brought up a Lutheran,
and at first physician to the duke of Württemberg-Oels, he joined in
1652 the Roman Catholic Church, in 1661 took orders as a priest, and
became coadjutor to the prince bishop of Breslau. He died at Breslau
on the 9th of July 1677. In 1657 Silesius published under the title
_Heilige Seelenlust, oder geistliche Hirtenlieder der in ihren
Jesum verliebten Psyche_ (1657), a collection of 205 hymns, the most
beautiful of which, such as, _Liebe, die du mich zum Bilde deiner
Gottheit hast gemacht_ and _Mir nach, spricht Christus, unser Held_,
have been adopted in the German Protestant hymnal. More remarkable,
however, is his _Geistreiche Sinn-und Schluss-reime_ (1657),
afterwards called _Cherubinischer Wandersmann_ (1674). This is a
collection of "Reimsprüche" or rhymed distichs embodying a strange
mystical pantheism drawn mainly from the writings of Jakob Böhme and
his followers. Silesius delighted specially in the subtle paradoxes of
mysticism. The essence of God, for instance, he held to be love; God,
he said, can love nothing inferior to himself; but he cannot be an
object of love to himself without going out, so to speak, of himself,
without manifesting his infinity in a finite form; in other words, by
becoming man. God and man are therefore essentially one.

A complete edition of Scheffler's works (_Sämtliche poetische Werke_)
was published by D.A. Rosenthal, 2 vols. (Regensburg, 1862). Both
the _Cherubinischer Wandersmann_ and _Heilige Seelenlust_ have been
republished by G. Ellinger (1895 and 1901); a selection from the
former work by O.E. Hartleben (1896). For further notices of Silesius'
life and work, see Hoffmann von Fallersleben in _Weimarisches Jahrbuch
I_. (Hanover, 1854); A. Kahlert, _Angelus Silesius_ (1853); C.
Seltmann, _Angelus Silesius und seine Mystik_ (1896), and a biog. by
H. Mahn (Dresden, 1896).



ANGERMÜNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on Lake Münde, 43 m. from Berlin by the Berlin-Stettin
railway, and at the junction of lines to Prenzlau, Freien-walde and
Schwedt. Pop. (1900) 7465. It has three Protestant churches, a grammar
school and court of law. Its industries embrace iron founding and
enamel working. In 1420 the elector Frederick I. of Brandenburg gained
here a signal victory over the Pomeranians.



ANGERONA, or ANGERONIA, an old Roman goddess, whose name and functions
are variously explained. According to ancient authorities, she was a
goddess who relieved men from pain and sorrow, or delivered the Romans
and their flocks from _angina_ (quinsy); or she was the protecting
goddess of Rome and the keeper of the sacred name of the city, which
might not be pronounced lest it should be revealed to her enemies; it
was even thought that Angerona itself was this name. Modern scholars
regard her as a goddess akin to Ops, Acca Larentia and Dea Dia; or
as the goddess of the new year and the returning sun (according to
Mommsen, _ab angerendo_= [Greek: apo tou anapheresthai. ton haelion).]
Her festival, called Divalia or Angeronalia, was celebrated on the
21st of December. The priests offered sacrifice in the temple of
Volupia, the goddess of pleasure, in which stood a statue of Angerona,
with a finger on her mouth, which was bound and closed (Macrobius
i. 10; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 9; Varro, _L. L._ vi. 23). She was
worshipped as Ancharia at Faesulae, where an altar belonging to her
has been recently discovered. (See FAESULAE.)



ANGERS, a city of western France, capital of the department of
Maine-et-Loire, 191 m. S.W. of Paris by the Western railway to Nantes.
Pop. (1906) 73,585. It occupies rising ground on both banks of the
Maine, which are united by three bridges. The surrounding district is
famous for its flourishing nurseries and market gardens. Pierced
with wide, straight streets, well provided with public gardens, and
surrounded by ample, tree-lined boulevards, beyond which lie new
suburbs, Angers is one of the pleasantest towns in France. Of its
numerous medieval buildings the most important is the cathedral of
St. Maurice, dating in the main from the 12th and 13th centuries.
Between the two flanking towers of the west façade, the spires of
which are of the 16th century, rises a central tower of the same
period. The most prominent feature of the façade is the series of
eight warriors carved on the base of this tower. The vaulting of the
nave takes the form of a series of cupolas, and that of the choir and
transept is similar. The chief treasures of the church are its rich
stained glass (12th, 13th and 15th centuries) and valuable tapestry
(14th to 18th centuries). The bishop's palace which adjoins the
cathedral contains a fine synodal hall of the 12th century. Of the
other churches of Angers, the principal are St. Serge, an abbey-church
of the 12th and 15th centuries, and La Trinité (12th century). The
prefecture occupies the buildings of the famous abbey of St. Aubin; in
its courtyard are elaborately sculptured arcades of the 11th and 12th
centuries, from which period dates the tower, the only survival of the
splendid abbey-church. Ruins of the old churches of Toussaint (13th
century) and Notre-Dame du Ronceray (11th century) are also to be
seen. The castle of Angers, an imposing building girt with towers and
a moat, dates from the 13th century and is now used as an armoury.
The ancient hospital of St. Jean (12th century) is occupied by an
archaeological museum; and the Logis Barrault, a mansion built about
1500, contains the public library, the municipal museum, which has
a large collection of pictures and sculptures, and the Musée David,
containing works by the famous sculptor David d'Angers, who was a
native of the town. One of his masterpieces, a bronze statue of René
of Anjou, stands close by the castle. The Hôtel de Pincé or d'Anjou
(1523-1530) is the finest of the stone mansions of Angers; there are
also many curious wooden houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. The
palais de justice, the Catholic institute, a fine theatre, and
a hospital with 1500 beds are the more remarkable of the modern
buildings of the town. Angers is the seat of a bishopric, dating
from the 3rd century, a prefecture, a court of appeal and a court of
assizes. It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce,
a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of
the Bank of France and several learned societies. Its educational
institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, a lycée, a preparatory
school of medicine and pharmacy, a university with free faculties
(_facultés libres_) of theology, law, letters and science, a higher
school of agriculture, training colleges, a school of arts and
handicrafts and a school of fine art. The prosperity of the town
is largely due to the great slate-quarries of the vicinity, but the
distillation of liqueurs from fruit, cable, rope and thread-making,
and the manufacture of boots and shoes, umbrellas and parasols are
leading industries. The weaving of sail-cloth and woollen and other
fabrics, machine construction, wire-drawing, and manufacture of
sparkling wines and preserved fruits are also carried on. The chief
articles of commerce, besides slate and manufactured goods, are hemp,
early vegetables, fruit, flowers and live-stock.

[v.02 p.0009]

Angers, capital of the Gallic tribe of the Andecavi, was under the
Romans called Juliomagus. During the 9th century it became the seat of
the counts of Anjou (_q.v._). It suffered severely from the invasions
of the Northmen in 845 and the succeeding years, and of the English
in the 12th and 15th centuries; the Huguenots took it in 1585, and the
Vendean royalists were repulsed near it in 1793. Till the Revolution,
Angers was the seat of a celebrated university founded in the 14th
century.

See L.M. Thorode, _Notice de la ville d'Angers_ (Angers, 1897).



ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JULIUS (1735-1822), London merchant, and patron of
the fine arts, was born at St. Petersburg and settled in London about
1749. His collection of paintings, consisting of about forty of
the most exquisite specimens of the art, purchased by the British
government, on his death, formed the nucleus of the National Gallery.



ANGILBERT (d. 814), Frankish Latin poet, and minister of Charlemagne,
was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated at the palace school
under Alcuin. As the friend and adviser of the emperor's son, Pippin,
he assisted for a while in the government of Italy, and was later
sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796.
Although he was the father of two children by Charlemagne's daughter,
Bertha, one of them named Nithard, we have no authentic account of
his marriage, and from 790 he was abbot of St. Riquier, where his
brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. Angilbert,
however, was little like the true medieval saint; his poems reveal
rather the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the
closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne
to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814.
Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor's literary circle, and was
the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been
preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between
Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and
Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius,
and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the
greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars
(796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a
delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house
surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The
reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name
occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his
salutation.

Angilbert's poems have been published by E. Dummler in the _Monumenta
Germaniae Historica_. For criticisms of this edition see Traube in
Roederer's _Schriften für germanische Philologie_ (1888). See also A.
Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France._



ANGINA PECTORIS (Latin for "pain of the chest"), a term applied to a
violent paroxysm of pain, arising almost invariably in connexion
with disease of the coronary arteries, a lesion causing progressive
degeneration of the heart muscle (see HEART: _Disease_). An attack of
angina pectoris usually comes on with a sudden seizure of pain, felt
at first over the region of the heart, but radiating through the chest
in various directions, and frequently extending down the left arm.
A feeling of constriction and of suffocation accompanies the pain,
although there is seldom actual difficulty in breathing. When the
attack comes on, as it often does, in the course of some bodily
exertion, the sufferer is at once brought to rest, and during the
continuance of the paroxysm experiences the most intense agony. The
countenance becomes pale, the surface of the body cold, the pulse
feeble, and death appears to be imminent, when suddenly the attack
subsides and complete relief is obtained. The duration of a paroxysm
rarely exceeds two or three minutes, but it may last for a longer
period. The attacks are apt to recur on slight exertion, and even in
aggravated cases without any such exciting cause. Occasionally the
first seizure proves fatal; but more commonly death takes place as the
result of repeated attacks. Angina pectoris is extremely rare under
middle life, and is much more common in males than in females. It
must always be regarded as a disorder of a very serious nature. In the
treatment of the paroxysm, nitrite of amyl has now replaced all other
remedies. It can be carried by the patient in the form of nitrite
of amyl pearls, each pearl containing the dose prescribed by the
physician. Kept in this way the drug does not lose strength. As soon
as the pain begins the patient crushes a pearl in his handkerchief
and holds it to his mouth and nose. The relief given in this way is
marvellous and usually takes place within a very few seconds. In the
rare cases where this drug does not relieve, hypodermic injections
of morphia are used. But on account of the well-known dangers of this
drug, it should only be administered by a medical man. To prevent
recurrence of the attacks something may be done by scrupulous
attention to the general health, and by the avoidance of mental and
physical strain. But the most important preventive of all is "bed,"
of which fourteen days must be enforced on the least premonition of
anginal pain.


_Pseudo-angina_.--In connexion with angina pectoris, a far more common
condition must be mentioned that has now universally received the
name of pseudo-angina. This includes the praecordial pains which very
closely resemble those of true angina. The essential difference lies
in the fact that pseudo-angina is independent of structural disease
of the heart and coronary arteries. In true angina there is some
condition within the heart which starts the stimulus sent to the nerve
centres. In pseudo-angina the starting-point is not the heart but
some peripheral or visceral nerve. The impulse passes thence to the
medulla, and so reaching the sensory centres starts a feeling of pain
that radiates into the chest or down the arm. There are three main
varieties:--(1) the reflex, (2) the vaso-motor, (3) the toxic. The
reflex is by far the most common, and is generally due to irritation
from one of the abdominal organs. An attack of pseudo-angina may be
agonizing, the pain radiating through the chest and into the left arm,
but the patient does not usually assume the motionless attitude of
true angina, and the duration of the seizure is usually much longer.
The treatment is that of the underlying neurosis and the prognosis is
a good one, sudden death not occurring.



ANGIOSPERMS. The botanical term "Angiosperm" ([Greek: angeion],
receptacle, and [Greek: sperma], seed) was coined in the form
Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of
his primary divisions of the plant kingdom, which included flowering
plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, in contradistinction to
his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic
fruits--the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as
a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Linnaeus
with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of
the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its
modern scope only became possible after Robert Brown had established
in 1827 the existence of truly naked seeds in the Cycadeae and
Coniferae, entitling them to be correctly called Gymnosperms. From
that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual,
reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was
used antithetically by botanical writers, but with varying limitation,
as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. The advent in 1851
of Hofmeister's brilliant discovery of the changes proceeding in the
embryo-sac of flowering plants, and his determination of the correct
relationships of these with the Cryptogamia, fixed the true position
of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the
term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable
designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than
Gymnosperms, and as including therefore the classes of Dicotyledons
and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is nowadays
received and in which it is used here.

[v.02 p.0010]

The trend of the evolution of the plant kingdom has been in the
direction of the establishment of a vegetation of fixed habit and
adapted to the vicissitudes of a life on land, and the Angiosperms are
the highest expression of this evolution and constitute the dominant
vegetation of the earth's surface at the present epoch. There is no
land-area from the poles to the equator, where plant-life is possible,
upon which Angiosperms are not found. They occur also abundantly in
the shallows of rivers and fresh-water lakes, and in less number in
salt lakes and in the sea; such aquatic Angiosperms are not, however,
primitive forms, but are derived from immediate land-ancestors.
Associated with this diversity of habitat is great variety in general
form and manner of growth. The familiar duckweed which covers the
surface of a pond consists of a tiny green "thalloid" shoot, one, that
is, which shows no distinction of parts--stem and leaf, and a
simple root growing vertically downwards into the water. The great
forest-tree has a shoot, which in the course perhaps of hundreds of
years, has developed a wide-spreading system of trunk and branches,
bearing on the ultimate twigs or branchlets innumerable leaves, while
beneath the soil a widely-branching root-system covers an area of
corresponding extent. Between these two extremes is every conceivable
gradation, embracing aquatic and terrestrial herbs, creeping, erect or
climbing in habit, shrubs and trees, and representing a much greater
variety than is to be found in the other subdivision of seed-plants,
the Gymnosperms.


_Internal structure._

In internal structure also the variety of tissue-formation far exceeds
that found in Gymnosperms (see PLANTS: _Anatomy_). The vascular
bundles of the stem belong to the collateral type, that is to say,
the elements of the wood or xylem and the bast or phloem stand side
by side on the same radius. In the larger of the two great groups into
which the Angiosperms are divided, the Dicotyledons, the bundles in
the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central
pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and
phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue, known as
cambium; by the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles
(interfascicular cambium) a complete ring is formed, and a regular
periodical increase in thickness results from it by the development
of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem soon
becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists, and forms the great bulk
of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences
in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end
of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into
concentric rings, one for each season of growth--the so-called annual
rings. In the smaller group, the Monocotyledons, the bundles are more
numerous in the young stem and scattered through the ground tissue.
Moreover they contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in
diameter only in exceptional cases.


_Vegetative organs._

As in Gymnosperms, branching is monopodial; dichotomy or the forking
of the growing point into two equivalent branches which replace the
main stem, is absent both in the case of the stem and the root. The
leaves show a remarkable variety in form (see LEAF), but are generally
small in comparison with the size of the plant; exceptions occur in
some Monocotyledons, _e.g._ in the Aroid family, where in some genera
the plant produces one huge, much-branched leaf each season.

In rare cases the main axis is unbranched and ends in a flower,
as, for instance, in the tulip, where scale-leaves, forming the
underground bulb, green foliage-leaves and coloured floral leaves are
borne on one and the same axis. Generally, flowers are formed only
on shoots of a higher order, often only on the ultimate branches of
a much branched system. A potential branch or bud, either foliage or
flower, is formed in the axil of each leaf; sometimes more than one
bud arises, as for instance in the walnut, where two or three stand in
vertical series above each leaf. Many of the buds remain dormant, or
are called to development under exceptional circumstances, such as
the destruction of existing branches. For instance, the clipping of
a hedge or the lopping of a tree will cause to develop numerous buds
which may have been dormant for years. Leaf-buds occasionally arise
from the roots, when they are called adventitious; this occurs in many
fruit trees, poplars, elms and others. For instance, the young shoots
seen springing from the ground around an elm are not seedlings but
root-shoots. Frequently, as in many Dicotyledons, the primary root,
the original root of the seedling, persists throughout the life of
the plant, forming, as often in biennials, a thickened tap-root, as
in carrot, or in perennials, a much-branched root system. In many
Dicotyledons and most Monocotyledons, the primary root soon perishes,
and its place is taken by adventitious roots developed from the stem.


_Flower._

The most characteristic feature of the Angiosperm is the flower, which
shows remarkable variety in form and elaboration, and supplies the
most trustworthy characters for the distinction of the series and
families or natural orders, into which the group is divided. The
flower is a shoot (stem bearing leaves) which has a special form
associated with the special function of ensuring the fertilization of
the egg and the development of fruit containing seed. Except where
it is terminal it arises, like the leaf-shoot, in the axil of a leaf,
which is then known as a bract. Occasionally, as in violet, a flower
arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf; it is then
termed axillary. Generally, however, the flower-bearing portion of
the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage leaf-bearing or
vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system
in which the bracts are small and scale-like. Such a branch-system is
called an inflorescence. The primary function of the flower is to bear
the spores. These, as in Gymnosperms, are of two kinds, microspores
or pollen-grains, borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls) and
megaspores, in which the egg-cell is developed, contained in the
ovule, which is borne enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The
flower may consist only of spore-bearing leaves, as in willow, where
each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually,
however, other leaves are present which are only indirectly concerned
with the reproductive process, acting as protective organs for the
sporophylls or forming an attractive envelope. These form the perianth
and are in one series, when the flower is termed monochlamydeous, or
in two series (dichlamydeous). In the second case the outer series
(calyx of sepals) is generally green and leaf-like, its function being
to protect the rest of the flower, especially in the bud; while
the inner series (corolla of petals) is generally white or brightly
coloured, and more delicate in structure, its function being to
attract the particular insect or bird by agency of which pollination
is effected. The insect, &c., is attracted by the colour and scent
of the flower, and frequently also by honey which is secreted in some
part of the flower. (For further details on the form and arrangement
of the flower and its parts, see FLOWER.)


_Stamen and pollen._

Each stamen generally bears four pollen-sacs (_microsporangia_)
which are associated to form the anther, and carried up on a stalk
or filament. The development of the microsporangia and the contained
spores (pollen-grains) is closely comparable with that of the
microsporangia in Gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is
set free by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means
of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath family
(Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry. It is then dropped
or carried by some external agent, wind, water or some member of the
animal kingdom, on to the receptive surface of the carpel of the same
or another flower. The carpel, or aggregate of carpels forming the
pistil or gynaeceum, comprises an ovary containing one or more ovules
and a receptive surface or stigma; the stigma is sometimes carried up
on a style. The mature pollen-grain is, like other spores, a single
cell; except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, it has
a double wall, a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose, the
endospore or intine, and a tough outer cuticularized exospore or
extine. The exospore often bears spines or warts, or is variously
sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value
for the distinction of genera or higher groups. Germination of the
microspore begins before it leaves the pollen-sac. In very few cases
has anything representing prothallial development been observed;
generally a small cell (the antheridial or generative cell) is cut
off, leaving a larger tube-cell. When placed on the stigma, under
favourable circumstances, the pollen-grain puts forth a pollen-tube
which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its
way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the mouth
of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube-cell has meanwhile passed into
the tube, as does also the generative nucleus which divides to
form two male- or sperm-cells. The male-cells are carried to their
destination in the tip of the pollen-tube.

[v.02 p.0011]


_Pistil and embryo-sac._

The ovary contains one or more ovules borne on a placenta, which is
generally some part of the ovary-wall. The development of the ovule,
which represents the macrosporangium, is very similar to the
process in Gymnosperms; when mature it consists of one or two coats
surrounding the central nucellus, except at the apex where an opening,
the micropyle, is left. The nucellus is a cellular tissue enveloping
one large cell, the embryo-sac or macrospore. The germination of the
macrospore consists in the repeated division of its nucleus to form
two groups of four, one group at each end of the embryo-sac. One
nucleus from each group, the polar nucleus, passes to the centre of
the sac, where the two fuse to form the so-called definitive nucleus.
Of the three cells at the micropylar end of the sac, all naked cells
(the so-called egg-apparatus), one is the egg-cell or oosphere, the
other two, which may be regarded as representing abortive egg-cells
(in rare cases capable of fertilization), are known as synergidae.
The three cells at the opposite end are known as antipodal cells
and become invested with a cell-wall. The gametophyte or prothallial
generation is thus extremely reduced, consisting of but little more
than the male and female sexual cells--the two sperm-cells in the
pollen-tube and the egg-cell (with the synergidae) in the embryo-sac.


_Fertilization._

At the period of fertilization the embryo-sac lies in close proximity
to the opening of the micropyle, into which the pollen-tube has
penetrated, the separating cell-wall becomes absorbed, and the male or
sperm-cells are ejected into the embryo-sac. Guided by the synergidae
one male-cell passes into the oosphere with which it fuses, the two
nuclei uniting, while the other fuses with the definitive nucleus, or,
as it is also called, the endosperm nucleus. This remarkable
double fertilization as it has been called, although only recently
discovered, has been proved to take place in widely-separated
families, and both in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, and there is
every probability that, perhaps with variations, it is the normal
process in Angiosperms. After impregnation the fertilized oosphere
immediately surrounds itself with a cell-wall and becomes the oospore
which by a process of growth forms the embryo of the new plant. The
endosperm-nucleus divides rapidly to produce a cellular tissue which
fills up the interior of the rapidly-growing embryo-sac, and forms a
tissue, known as endosperm, in which is stored a supply of nourishment
for the use later on of the embryo. It has long been known that after
fertilization of the egg has taken place, the formation of endosperm
begins from the endosperm nucleus, and this had come to be regarded as
the recommencement of the development of a prothallium after a pause
following the reinvigorating union of the polar nuclei. This view is
still maintained by those who differentiate two acts of fertilization
within the embryo-sac, and regard that of the egg by the first
male-cell, as the true or generative fertilization, and that of the
polar nuclei by the second male gamete as a vegetative fertilization
which gives a stimulus to development in correlation with the other.
If, on the other hand, the endosperm is the product of an act of
fertilization as definite as that giving rise to the embryo itself,
we have to recognize that twin-plants are produced within the
embryo-sac--one, the embryo, which becomes the angiospermous plant,
the other, the endosperm, a short-lived, undifferentiated nurse to
assist in the nutrition of the former, even as the subsidiary embryos
in a pluri-embryonic Gymnosperm may facilitate the nutrition of the
dominant one. If this is so, and the endosperm like the embryo is
normally the product of a sexual act, hybridization will give a hybrid
endosperm as it does a hybrid embryo, and herein (it is suggested) we
may have the explanation of the phenomenon of xenia observed in the
mixed endosperms of hybrid races of maize and other plants, regarding
which it has only been possible hitherto to assert that they were
indications of the extension of the influence of the pollen beyond the
egg and its product. This would not, however, explain the formation
of fruits intermediate in size and colour between those of crossed
parents. The signification of the coalescence of the polar nuclei is
not explained by these new facts, but it is noteworthy that the second
male-cell is said to unite sometimes with the apical polar nucleus,
the sister of the egg, before the union of this with the basal polar
one. The idea of the endosperm as a second subsidiary plant is no new
one; it was suggested long ago in explanation of the coalescence of
the polar nuclei, but it was then based on the assumption that these
represented male and female cells, an assumption for which there
was no evidence and which was inherently improbable. The proof of a
coalescence of the second male nucleus with the definitive nucleus
gives the conception a more stable basis. The antipodal cells aid more
or less in the process of nutrition of the developing embryo, and may
undergo multiplication, though they ultimately disintegrate, as do
also the synergidae. As in Gymnosperms and other groups an interesting
qualitative change is associated with the process of fertilization.
The number of chromosomes (see PLANTS: _Cytology_) in the nucleus of
the two spores, pollen-grain and embryo-sac, is only half the number
found in an ordinary vegetative nucleus; and this reduced number
persists in the cells derived from them. The full number is restored
in the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the process of
fertilization, and remains until the formation of the cells from which
the spores are derived in the new generation.

In several natural orders and genera departures from the course of
development just described have been noted. In the natural order
Rosaceae, the series Querciflorae, and the very anomalous genus
_Casuarina_ and others, instead of a single macrospore a more or less
extensive sporogenous tissue is formed, but only one cell proceeds to
the formation of a functional female cell. In _Casuarina_, _Juglans_
and the order Corylaceae, the pollen-tube does not enter by means
of the micropyle, but passing down the ovary wall and through the
placenta, enters at the chalazal end of the ovule. Such a method
of entrance is styled chalazogamic, in contrast to the porogamic or
ordinary method of approach by means of the micropyle.


_Embryology._

The result of fertilization is the development of the ovule into
the seed. By the segmentation of the fertilized egg, now invested by
cell-membrane, the embryo-plant arises. A varying number of transverse
segment-walls transform it into a pro-embryo--a cellular row of which
the cell nearest the micropyle becomes attached to the apex of the
embryo-sac, and thus fixes the position of the developing embryo,
while the terminal cell is projected into its cavity. In Dicotyledons
the shoot of the embryo is wholly derived from the terminal cell of
the pro-embryo, from the next cell the root arises, and the remaining
ones form the suspensor. In many Monocotyledons the terminal cell
forms the cotyledonary portion alone of the shoot of the embryo, its
axial part and the root being derived from the adjacent cell; the
cotyledon is thus a terminal structure and the apex of the primary
stem a lateral one--a condition in marked contrast with that of the
Dicotyledons. In some Monocotyledons, however, the cotyledon is not
really terminal. The primary root of the embryo in all Angiosperms
points towards the micropyle. The developing embryo at the end of the
suspensor grows out to a varying extent into the forming endosperm,
from which by surface absorption it derives good material for growth;
at the same time the suspensor plays a direct part as a carrier of
nutrition, and may even develop, where perhaps no endosperm is formed,
special absorptive "suspensor roots" which invest the developing
embryo, or pass out into the body and coats of the ovule, or even into
the placenta. In some cases the embryo or the embryo-sac sends
out suckers into the nucellus and ovular integument. As the embryo
develops it may absorb all the food material available, and store,
either in its cotyledons or in its hypocotyl, what is not immediately
required for growth, as reserve-food for use in germination, and by so
doing it increases in size until it may fill entirely the embryo-sac;
or its absorptive power at this stage may be limited to what is
necessary for growth and it remains of relatively small size,
occupying but a small area of the embryo-sac, which is otherwise
filled with endosperm in which the reserve-food is stored. There are
also intermediate states. The position of the embryo in relation to
the endosperm varies, sometimes it is internal, sometimes external,
but the significance of this has not yet been established.

[v.02 p.0012]

The formation of endosperm starts, as has been stated, from the
endosperm nucleus. Its segmentation always begins before that of the
egg, and thus there is timely preparation for the nursing of the young
embryo. If in its extension to contain the new formations within it
the embryo-sac remains narrow, endosperm formation proceeds upon the
lines of a cell-division, but in wide embryo-sacs the endosperm is
first of all formed as a layer of naked cells around the wall of the
sac, and only gradually acquires a pluricellular character, forming
a tissue filling the sac. The function of the endosperm is primarily
that of nourishing the embryo, and its basal position in the
embryo-sac places it favourably for the absorption of food material
entering the ovule. Its duration varies with the precocity of the
embryo. It may be wholly absorbed by the progressive growth of the
embryo within the embryo-sac, or it may persist as a definite and more
or less conspicuous constituent of the seed. When it persists as
a massive element of the seed its nutritive function is usually
apparent, for there is accumulated within its cells reserve-food, and
according to the dominant substance it is starchy, oily, or rich in
cellulose, mucilage or proteid. In cases where the embryo has stored
reserve food within itself and thus provided for self-nutrition, such
endosperm as remains in the seed may take on other functions, for
instance, that of water-absorption.

Some deviations from the usual course of development may be noted.
Parthenogenesis, or the development of an embryo from an egg-cell
without the latter having been fertilized, has been described in
species of _Thalictrum_, _Antennaria_ and _Alchemilla_. Polyembryony
is generally associated with the development of cells other than the
egg-cell. Thus in _Erythronium_ and _Limnocharis_ the fertilized
egg may form a mass of tissue on which several embryos are produced.
Isolated cases show that any of the cells within the embryo-sac may
exceptionally form an embryo, _e.g._ the synergidae in species of
_Mimosa_, _Iris_ and _Allium_, and in the last-mentioned the
antipodal cells also. In _Coelebogyne_ (Euphorbiaceae) and in _Funkia_
(Liliaceae) polyembryony results from an adventitious production
of embryos from the cells of the nucellus around the top of the
embryo-sac. In a species of _Allium_, embryos have been found
developing in the same individual from the egg-cell, synergids,
antipodal cells and cells of the nucellus. In two Malayan species of
_Balanophora_, the embryo is developed from a cell of the endosperm,
which is formed from the upper polar nucleus only, the egg apparatus
becoming disorganized. The last-mentioned case has been regarded
as representing an apogamous development of the sporophyte from the
gametophyte comparable to the cases of apogamy described in Ferns. But
the great diversity of these abnormal cases as shown in the examples
cited above suggests the use of great caution in formulating definite
morphological theories upon them.


_Fruit and seed._

As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the
embryo-sac, its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the substance of
the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) to near its outer limit,
and combines with it and the integument to form the _seed-coat_; or
the whole nucellus and even the integument may be absorbed. In some
plants the nucellus is not thus absorbed, but itself becomes a seat of
deposit of reserve-food constituting the _perisperm_ which may coexist
with endosperm, as in the water-lily order, or may alone form a
food-reserve for the embryo, as in _Canna_. Endospermic food-reserve
has evident advantages over perispermic, and the latter is
comparatively rarely found and only in non-progressive series. Seeds
in which endosperm or perisperm or both exist are commonly called
_albuminous_ or _endospermic_, those in which neither is found are
termed _exalbuminous_ or _exendospermic_. These terms, extensively
used by systematists, only refer, however, to the grosser features
of the seed, and indicate the more or less evident occurrence of a
food-reserve; many so-called exalbuminous seeds show to microscopic
examination a distinct endosperm which may have other than a nutritive
function. The presence or absence of endosperm, its relative amount
when present, and the position of the embryo within it, are valuable
characters for the distinction of orders and groups of orders.
Meanwhile the ovary wall has developed to form the fruit or pericarp,
the structure of which is closely associated with the manner of
distribution of the seed. Frequently the influence of fertilization is
felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in
the formation of the fruit, as the floral receptacle in the apple,
strawberry and others. The character of the seed-coat bears a definite
relation to that of the fruit. Their function is the twofold one of
protecting the embryo and of aiding in dissemination; they may also
directly promote germination. If the fruit is a dehiscent one and the
seed is therefore soon exposed, the seed-coat has to provide for the
protection of the embryo and may also have to secure dissemination. On
the other hand, indehiscent fruits discharge these functions for the
embryo, and the seed-coat is only slightly developed.


_Dissemination._

Dissemination is effected by the agency of water, of air, of
animals--and fruits and seeds are therefore grouped in respect of this
as hydrophilous, anemophilous and zooidiophilous. The needs for these
are obvious--buoyancy in water and resistance to wetting for the
first, some form of parachute for the second, and some attaching
mechanism or attractive structure for the third. The methods in which
these are provided are of infinite variety, and any and every part of
the flower and of the inflorescence may be called into requisition to
supply the adaptation (see FRUIT). Special outgrowths, arils, of the
seed-coat are of frequent occurrence. In the feature of fruit and
seed, by which the distribution of Angiosperms is effected, we have a
distinctive character of the class. In Gymnosperms we have seeds, and
the carpels may become modified and close around these, as in _Pinus_,
during the process of ripening to form an imitation of a box-like
fruit which subsequently opening allows the seeds to escape; but
there is never in them the closed ovary investing from the outset the
ovules, and ultimately forming the ground-work of the fruit.


_Germination of Seed._

Their fortuitous dissemination does not always bring seeds upon a
suitable nidus for germination, the primary essential of which is a
sufficiency of moisture, and the duration of vitality of the embryo is
a point of interest. Some seeds retain vitality for a period of many
years, though there is no warrant for the popular notion that genuine
"mummy wheat" will germinate; on the other hand some seeds lose
vitality in little more than a year. Further, the older the seed the
more slow as a general rule will germination be in starting, but there
are notable exceptions. This pause, often of so long duration, in
the growth of the embryo between the time of its perfect development
within the seed and the moment of germination, is one of the
remarkable and distinctive features of the life of Spermatophytes. The
aim of germination is the fixing of the embryo in the soil, effected
usually by means of the root, which is the first part of the embryo
to appear, in preparation for the elongation of the epicotyledonary
portion of the shoot, and there is infinite variety in the details
of the process. In albuminous Dicotyledons the cotyledons act as the
absorbents of the reserve-food of the seed and are commonly brought
above ground (_epigeal_), either withdrawn from the seed-coat or
carrying it upon them, and then they serve as the first green organs
of the plant. The part of the stem below the cotyledons (_hypocotyl_)
commonly plays the greater part in bringing this about. Exalbuminous
Dicotyledons usually store reserve-food in their cotyledons, which
may in germination remain below ground (_hypogeal_). In albuminous
Monocotyledons the cotyledon itself, probably in consequence of its
terminal position, is commonly the agent by which the embryo is thrust
out of the seed, and it may function solely as a feeder, its extremity
developing as a sucker through which the endosperm is absorbed, or
it may become the first green organ, the terminal sucker dropping
off with the seed-coat when the endosperm is exhausted. Exalbuminous
Monocotyledons are either hydrophytes or strongly hygrophilous plants
and have often peculiar features in germination.

[v.02 p.0013]


_Vegetative reproduction._

Distribution by seed appears to satisfy so well the requirements of
Angiosperms that distribution by vegetative buds is only an occasional
process. At the same time every bud on a shoot has the capacity
to form a new plant if placed in suitable conditions, as the
horticultural practice of propagation by cuttings shows; in nature we
see plants spreading by the rooting of their shoots, and buds we know
may be freely formed not only on stems but on leaves and on roots.
Where detachable buds are produced, which can be transported through
the air to a distance, each of them is an incipient shoot which may
have a root, and there is always reserve-food stored in some part of
it. In essentials such a bud resembles a seed. A relation between
such vegetative distribution buds and production of flower is usually
marked. Where there is free formation of buds there is little flower
and commonly no seed, and the converse is also the case. Viviparous
plants are an illustration of substitution of vegetative buds for
flower.


_Phylogeny and taxonomy._

The position of Angiosperms as the highest plant-group is
unassailable, but of the point or points of their origin from the
general stem of the plant kingdom, and of the path or paths of their
evolution, we can as yet say little.

Until well on in the Mesozoic period geological history tells us
nothing about Angiosperms, and then only by their vegetative organs.
We readily recognize in them now-a-days the natural classes of
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons distinguished alike in vegetative
and in reproductive construction, yet showing remarkable parallel
sequences in development; and we see that the Dicotyledons are the
more advanced and show the greater capacity for further progressive
evolution. But there is no sound basis for the assumption that
the Dicotyledons are derived from Monocotyledons; indeed, the
palaeontological evidence seems to point to the Dicotyledons being
the older. This, however, does not entitle us to assume the origin
of Monocotyledons from Dicotyledons, although there is manifestly a
temptation to connect helobic forms of the former with ranal ones of
the latter. There is no doubt that the phylum of Angiosperms has not
sprung from that of Gymnosperms.

Within each class the flower-characters as the essential feature
of Angiosperms supply the clue to phylogeny, but the uncertainty
regarding the construction of the primitive angiospermous flower gives
a fundamental point of divergence in attempts to construct progressive
sequences of the families. Simplicity of flower-structure has appeared
to some to be always primitive, whilst by others it has been taken to
be always derived. There is, however, abundant evidence that it may
have the one or the other character in different cases. Apart from
this, botanists are generally agreed that the concrescence of parts of
the flower-whorls--in the gynaeceum as the seed-covering, and in the
corolla as the seat of attraction, more than in the androecium and the
calyx--is an indication of advance, as is also the concrescence
that gives the condition of epigyny. Dorsiventrality is also clearly
derived from radial construction, and anatropy of the ovule has
followed atropy. We should expect the albuminous state of the seed
to be an antecedent one to the exalbuminous condition, and the recent
discoveries in fertilization tend to confirm this view. Amongst
Dicotyledons the gamopetalous forms are admitted to be the highest
development and a dominant one of our epoch. Advance has been along
two lines, markedly in relation to insect-pollination, one of which
has culminated in the hypogynous epipetalous bicarpellate forms with
dorsiventral often large and loosely arranged flowers such as occur
in Scrophulariaceae, and the other in the epigynous bicarpellate
small-flowered families of which the Compositae represent the most
elaborate type. In the polypetalous forms progression from hypogyny
to epigyny is generally recognized, and where dorsiventrality with
insect-pollination has been established, a dominant group has been
developed as in the Leguminosae. The starting-point of the class,
however, and the position within it of apetalous families with
frequently unisexual flowers, have provoked much discussion. In
Monocotyledons a similar advance from hypogyny to epigyny is observed,
and from the dorsiventral to the radial type of flower. In this
connexion it is noteworthy that so many of the higher forms are
adapted as bulbous geophytes, or as aerophytes to special xerophilous
conditions. The Gramineae offer a prominent example of a dominant
self-pollinated or wind-pollinated family, and this may find
explanation in a multiplicity of factors.

Though best known for his artificial (or sexual) system, Linnaeus
was impressed with the importance of elaborating a natural system of
arrangement in which plants should be arranged according to their true
affinities. In his _Philosophia Botanica_ (1751) Linnaeus grouped the
genera then known into sixty-seven orders (_fragmenta_), all except
five of which are Angiosperms. He gave names to these but did not
characterize them or attempt to arrange them in larger groups.
Some represent natural groups and had in several cases been already
recognized by Ray and others, but the majority are, in the light
of modern knowledge, very mixed. Well-defined polypetalous and
gamopetalous genera sometimes occur in the same order, and even
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are classed together where they have
some striking physiological character in common.

Work on the lines suggested by the Linnaean _fragmenta_ was continued
in France by Bernard de Jussieu and his nephew, Antoine Laurent,
and the arrangement suggested by the latter in his _Genera Plantarum
secundum Ordines Naturales disposita_ (1789) is the first which can
claim to be a natural system. The orders are carefully characterized,
and those of Angiosperms are grouped in fourteen classes under the two
main divisions Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The former comprise
three classes, which are distinguished by the relative position of the
stamens and ovary; the eleven classes of the latter are based on the
same set of characters and fall into the larger subdivisions Apetalae,
Monopetalae and Polypetalae, characterized respectively by absence,
union or freedom of the petals, and a subdivision, _Diclines
Irregulares_, a very unnatural group, including one class only. A.P.
de Candolle introduced several improvements into the system. In his
arrangement the last subdivision disappears, and the Dicotyledons fall
into two groups, a larger containing those in which both calyx and
corolla are present in the flower, and a smaller, Monochlamydeae,
representing the Apetalae and _Diclines Irregulares_ of Jussieu.
The dichlamydeous group is subdivided into three, Thalamiflorae,
Calyciflorae and Corolliflorae, depending on the position and union of
the petals. This, which we may distinguish as the French system,
finds its most perfect expression in the classic _Genera Plantarum_
(1862-1883) of Bentham and Hooker, a work containing a description,
based on careful examination of specimens, of all known genera of
flowering plants. The subdivision is as follows:--

  DICOTYLEDONS.

  Polypetalae:
  Thalamiflorae.
  Disciflorae.
  Calyciflorae.

  Gamopetalae:
  Inferae.
  Heteromerae.
  Bicarpellatae.

  Monochlamydeae in eight series.
  Monocotyledons in seven series.

Of the Polypetalae, series 1, Thalamiflorae, is characterized by
hypogynous petals and stamens, and contains 34 orders distributed in 6
larger groups or cohorts. Series 2, Disciflorae, takes its name from
a development of the floral axis which forms a ring or cushion at the
base of the ovary or is broken up into glands; the ovary is superior.
It contains 23 orders in 4 cohorts. Series 3, Calyciflorae, has petals
and stamens perigynous, or sometimes superior. It contains 27 orders
in 5 cohorts.

Of the Gamopetalae, series 1, Inferae, has an interior ovary and
stamens usually as many as the corolla-lobes. It contains 9 orders
in 3 cohorts. Series 2, Heteromerae, has generally a superior ovary,
stamens as many as the corolla-lobes or more, and more than two
carpels. It contains 12 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 3, Bicarpellatae,
has generally a superior ovary and usually two carpels. It contains 24
orders in 4 cohorts.

The eight series of Monochlamydeae, containing 36 orders, form groups
characterized mainly by differences in the ovary and ovules, and are
now recognized as of unequal value.

The seven series of Monocotyledons represent a sequence beginning
with the most complicated epigynous orders, such as Orchideae and
Scitamineae, and passing through the petaloid hypogynous orders
(series Coronarieae) of which Liliaceae is the representative to
Juncaceae and the palms (series Calycinae) where the perianth loses
its petaloid character and thence to the Aroids, screw-pines and
others where it is more or less aborted (series Nudiflorae). Series
6, Apocarpeae, is characterized by 5 carpels, and in the last series
Glumaceae, great simplification in the flower is associated with a
grass-like habit.

[v.02 p.0014]

The sequence of orders in the polypetalous subdivision of Dicotyledons
undoubtedly represents a progression from simpler to more elaborate
forms, but a great drawback to the value of the system is the
inclusion among the Monochlamydeae of a number of orders which are
closely allied with orders of Polypetalae though differing in absence
of a corolla. The German systematist, A.W. Eichler, attempted
to remove this disadvantage which since the time of Jussieu had
characterized the French system, and in 1883 grouped the Dicotyledons
in two subclasses. The earlier Choripetalae embraces the Polypetalae
and Monochlamydae of the French systems. It includes 21 series, and
is an attempt to arrange as far as possible in a linear series those
orders which are characterized by absence or freedom of petals. The
second subclass, Gamopetalae, includes 9 series and culminates
in those which show the most elaborate type of flower, the series
Aggregatae, the chief representative of which is the great and
wide-spread order Compositae. A modification of Eichler's system,
embracing the most recent views of the affinities of the orders of
Angiosperms, has been put forward by Dr. Adolf Engler of Berlin, who
adopts the suggestive names Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae for the
two subdivisions of Dicotyledons. Dr. Engler is the principal editor
of a large series of volumes which, under the title _Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien_, is a systematic account of all the known genera
of plants and represents the work of many botanists. More recently
in _Das Pflanzenreich_ the same author organized a series of complete
monographs of the families of seed-plants.

As an attempt at a phylogenetic arrangement, Engler's system is now
preferred by many botanists. More recently a startling novelty in the
way of system has been produced by van Tieghem, as follows:

  Monocotyledons.
  Liorhizal Dicotyledons.
  Dicotyledons.
  INSEMINEAE.
  SEMINEAE.
  _Unitegmineae.
  Bitegmineae_.

The most remarkable feature here is the class of Liorhizal
Dicotyledons, which includes only the families of Nymphaeaceae
and Gramineae. It is based upon the fact that the histological
differentiation of the epidermis of their root is that generally
characteristic of Monocotyledons, whilst they have two cotyledons--the
old view of the epiblast as a second cotyledon in Gramineae being
adopted. But the presence of a second cotyledon in grasses is
extremely doubtful, and though there may be ground for reconsidering
the position of Nymphaeaceae, their association with the grasses as
a distinct class is not warranted by a comparative examination of the
members of the two orders. Ovular characters determine the grouping in
the Dicotyledons, van Tieghem supporting the view that the integument,
the outer if there be two, is the lamina of a leaf of which the
funicle is the petiole, whilst the nucellus is an outgrowth of
this leaf, and the inner integument, if present, an indusium. The
Insemineae include forms in which the nucellus is not developed, and
therefore there can be no seed. The plants included are, however,
mainly well-established parasites, and the absence of nucellus is only
one of those characters of reduction to which parasites are liable.
Even if we admit van Tieghem's interpretation of the integuments to
be correct, the diagnostic mark of his unitegminous and bitegminous
groups is simply that of the absence or presence of an indusium, not a
character of great value elsewhere, and, as we know, the number of the
ovular coats is inconstant within the same family. At the same time
the groups based upon the integuments are of much the same extent as
the Polypetalae and Gamopetalae of other systems. We do not yet
know the significance of this correlation, which, however, is not an
invariable one, between number of integuments and union of petals.

Within the last few years Prof. John Coulter and Dr. C.J. Chamberlain
of Chicago University have given a valuable general account of the
morphology of Angiosperms as far as concerns the flower, and the
series of events which ends in the formation of the seed (_Morphology
of Angiosperms_, Chicago, 1903).


AUTHORITIES.--The reader will find in the following works details
of the subject and references to the literature: Bentham and Hooker,
_Genera Plantarum_ (London, 1862-1883); Eichler, _Bluthendiagramme_
(Leipzig, 1875-1878); Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien_ (Leipzig, 1887-1899); Engler, _Syllabus der
Pflanzenfamilien_, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1903); Knuth, _Handbuch der
Blutenbiologie_ (Leipzig, 1898, 1899); Sachs, _History of Botany_,
English ed. (Oxford, 1890); Solereder, _Systematische Anatomie
der Dicotyledonen_ (Stuttgart, 1899); van Tieghem, _Elements de
botanique_; Coulter and Chamberlain, _Morphology of Angiosperms_ (New
York, 1903).

(I.B.B.; A.B.R.)



ANGKOR, an assemblage of ruins in Cambodia, the relic of the ancient
Khmer civilization. They are situated in forests to the north of the
Great Lake (Tonle-Sap), the most conspicuous of the remains being the
town of Angkor-Thom and the temple of Angkor-Vat, both of which lie on
the right bank of the river Siem-Reap, a tributary of Tonle-Sap.
Other remains of the same form and character lie scattered about the
vicinity on both banks of the river, which is crossed by an ancient
stone bridge.

Angkor-Thom lies about a quarter of a mile from the river. According
to Aymonier it was begun about A.D. 860, in the reign of the Khmer
sovereign Jayavarman III., and finished towards A.D. 900. It consists
of a rectangular enclosure, nearly 2 m. in each direction, surrounded
by a wall from 20 to 30 ft. in height. Within the enclosure, which
is entered by five monumental gates, are the remains of palaces and
temples, overgrown by the forest. The chief of these are:--

(1) The vestiges of the royal palace, which stood within an enclosure
containing also the pyramidal religious structure known as the
Phimeanakas. To the east of this enclosure there extends a terrace
decorated with magnificent reliefs.

(2) The temple of Bayon, a square enclosure formed by galleries with
colonnades, within which is another and more elaborate system of
galleries, rectangular in arrangement and enclosing a cruciform
structure, at the centre of which rises a huge tower with a circular
base. Fifty towers, decorated with quadruple faces of Brahma, are
built at intervals upon the galleries, the whole temple ranking as
perhaps the most remarkable of the Khmer remains.

Angkor-Vat, the best preserved example of Khmer architecture, lies
less than a mile to the south of the royal city, within a rectangular
park surrounded by a moat, the outer perimeter of which measures 6060
yds. On the west side of the park a paved causeway, leading over the
moat and under a magnificent portico, extends for a distance of a
quarter of a mile to the chief entrance of the main building. The
temple was originally devoted to the worship of Brahma, but afterwards
to that of Buddha; its construction is assigned by Aymonier to the
first half of the 12th century A.D. It consists of three stages,
connected by numerous exterior staircases and decreasing in dimensions
as they rise, culminating in the sanctuary, a great central tower
pyramidal in form. Towers also surmount the angles of the terraces
of the two upper stages. Three galleries with vaulting supported on
columns lead from the three western portals to the second stage.
They are connected by a transverse gallery, thus forming four square
basins. Khmer decoration, profuse but harmonious, consists chiefly in
the representation of gods, men and animals, which are displayed on
every flat surface. Combats and legendary episodes are often depicted;
floral decoration is reserved chiefly for borders, mouldings and
capitals. Sandstone of various colours was the chief material employed
by the Khmers; limonite was also used. The stone was cut into huge
blocks which are fitted together with great accuracy without the use
of cement.

See E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_ (3 vols., 1900-1904); Doudart de
Lagrée, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_ (1872-1873); A.H. Mouhot,
_Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos_ (2 vols., 1864); Fournereau
and Porcher, _Les Ruines d'Angkor_ (1890); L. Delaporte, _Voyage
au Cambodge: l'architecture Khmer_ (1880); J. Moura, _Le Royaume de
Cambodge_ (2 vols., 1883).



ANGLE (from the Lat. _angulus_, a corner, a diminutive, of which the
primitive form, _angus_, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat.
_angere_, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. [Greek:
ankos], a bend; both connected with the Aryan root _ank_-, to bend:
see ANGLING), in geometry, the inclination of one line or plane to
another. Euclid (_Elements_, book I) defines a plane angle as the
inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet
each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other (see
GEOMETRY, EUCLIDEAN). According to Proclus an angle must be either
a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was
utilized by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a
straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the
interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the
third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse
angles are certainly quantitative. A discussion of these concepts and
the various definitions of angles in Euclidean geometry is to be
found in W.B. Frankland, _The First Book of Euclid's Elements_ (1905).
Following Euclid, a right angle is formed by a straight line standing
upon another straight line so as to make the adjacent angles equal;
any angle less than a right angle is termed an acute angle, and any
angle greater than a right angle an obtuse angle. The difference
between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the complement of
the angle, and between an angle and two right angles the supplement
of the angle. The generalized view of angles and their measurement is
treated in the article TRIGONOMETRY. A solid angle is definable as
the space contained by three or more planes intersecting in a common
point; it is familiarly represented by a corner. The angle between two
planes is termed dihedral, between three trihedral, between any number
more than three polyhedral. A spherical angle is a particular dihedral
angle; it is the angle between two intersecting arcs on a sphere, and
is measured by the angle between the planes containing the arcs and
the centre of the sphere.

[v.02 p.0015]

The angle between a line and a curve (mixed angle) or between two
curves (curvilinear angle) is measured by the angle between the line
and the tangent at the point of intersection, or between the tangents
to both curves at their common point. Various names (now rarely, if
ever, used) have been given to particular cases:--amphicyrtic (Gr.
[Greek: amphi], on both sides, [Greek: kyrtos], convex) or cissoidal
(Gr. [Greek: kissos], ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr.
[Greek: xystris], a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic
(Gr. [Greek: koilae], a hollow) or _angulus lunularis_, biconcave.


[Illustration: The Angler (_Lophius piscatorius_).]


ANGLER, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, sea-devil
(_Lophius piscatorius_), a fish well known off the coasts of Great
Britain and Europe generally, the grotesque shape of its body and its
singular habits having attracted the attention of naturalists of all
ages. To the North Sea fishermen this fish is known as the "monk," a
name which more properly belongs to _Rhina squatina_, a fish allied to
the skates. Its head is of enormous size, broad, flat and depressed,
the remainder of the body appearing merely like an appendage. The wide
mouth extends all round the anterior circumference of the head;
and both jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth, which are
inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no impediment to
an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent its escape from
the mouth. The pectoral and ventral fins are so articulated as to
perform the functions of feet, the fish being enabled to move, or
rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea, where it generally hides
itself in the sand or amongst sea-weed. All round its head and also
along the body the skin bears fringed appendages resembling short
fronds of sea-weed, a structure which, combined with the extraordinary
faculty of assimilating the colour of the body to its surroundings,
assists this fish greatly in concealing itself in places which
it selects on account of the abundance of prey. To render the
organization of this creature perfect in relation to its wants, it is
provided with three long filaments inserted along the middle of the
head, which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines
of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important in the economy
of the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates in a
lappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is believed to
attract other fishes by means of its lure, and then to seize them
with its enormous jaws. It is probable enough that smaller fishes are
attracted in this way, but experiments have shown that the action
of the jaws is automatic and depends on contact of the prey with the
tentacle. Its stomach is distensible in an extraordinary degree, and
not rarely fishes have been taken out quite as large and heavy as
their destroyer. It grows to a length of more than 5 ft.; specimens
of 3 ft. are common. The spawn of the angler is very remarkable. It
consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material 2 or 3
ft. broad and 25 to 30 ft. in length. The eggs in this sheet are in a
single layer, each in its own little cavity. The spawn is free in the
sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins elongated
into filaments. The British species is found all round the coasts of
Europe and western North America, but becomes scarce beyond 60° N.
lat.; it occurs also on the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope. A second
species (_Lophius budegassa_) inhabits the Mediterranean, and a third
(_L. setigerus_) the coasts of China and Japan.



ANGLESEY, ARTHUR ANNESLEY, 1st EARL OF (1614-1686), British statesman,
son of the 1st Viscount Valentia (cr. 1621) and Baron Mountnorris (cr.
1628), and of Dorothy, daughter of Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle,
Pembrokeshire, was born at Dublin on the 10th of July 1614, was
educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was admitted to Lincoln's
Inn in 1634. Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and
being employed by the parliament in a mission to the duke of Ormonde,
now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in concluding a
treaty with him on the 19th of June 1647, thus securing the country
from complete subjection to the rebels. In April 1647 he was
returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons. He supported the
parliamentary as against the republican or army party, and appears
to have been one of the members excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard
Cromwell's parliament for Dublin city, and endeavoured to take his
seat in the restored Rump Parliament of 1659. He was made president of
the council in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for
Carmarthen borough. The anarchy of the last months of the commonwealth
converted him to royalism, and he showed great activity in bringing
about the Restoration. He used his influence in moderating measures of
revenge and violence, and while sitting in judgment on the regicides
was on the side of leniency. In November 1660 by his father's death
he had become Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris in the Irish
peerage, and on the 20th April 1661 he was created Baron Annesley of
Newport Pagnell in Buckinghamshire and earl of Anglesey in the
peerage of Great Britain. He supported the king's administration in
parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on the
abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of
taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services in the
administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He filled the
office of vice-treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on the committee
for carrying out the declaration for the settlement of Ireland and on
the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in 1671 and 1672, he was
a leading member of various commissions appointed to investigate the
working of the Acts of Settlement. In February 1661 he had obtained a
captaincy of horse, and in 1667 he exchanged his vice-treasuryship of
Ireland for the treasuryship of the navy. His public career was marked
by great independence and fidelity to principle. On the 24th of July
1663 he alone signed a protest against the bill "for the encouragement
of trade," on the plea that owing to the free export of coin and
bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign
commodities being greater than the export of home goods, "it must
necessarily follow ... that our silver will also be carried away into
foreign parts and all trade fail for want of money."[1] He especially
disapproved of another clause in the same bill forbidding the
importation of Irish cattle into England, a mischievous measure
promoted by the duke of Buckingham, and he opposed again the bill
brought in with that object in January 1667. This same year his
naval accounts were subjected to an examination in consequence of his
indignant refusal to take part in the attack upon Ormonde;[2] and he
was suspended from his office in 1668, no charge, however, against him
being substantiated. He took a prominent part in the dispute in 1671
between the two Houses concerning the right of the Lords to amend
money bills, and wrote a learned pamphlet on the question entitled
_The Privileges of the House of Lords and Commons_ (1702), in which
the right of the Lords was asserted. In April 1673 he was appointed
lord privy seal, and was disappointed at not obtaining the great seal
the same year on the removal of Shaftesbury. In 1679 he was included
in Sir W. Temple's new-modelled council.

[v.02 p.0016]

In the bitter religious controversies of the time Anglesey showed
great moderation and toleration. In 1674 he is mentioned as
endeavouring to prevent the justices putting into force the laws
against the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists.[3] In the panic of the
"Popish Plot" in 1678 he exhibited a saner judgment than most of his
contemporaries and a conspicuous courage. On the 6th of December he
protested with three other peers against the measure sent up from the
Commons enforcing the disarming of all convicted recusants and taking
bail from them to keep the peace; he was the only peer to dissent
from the motion declaring the existence of an Irish plot; and though
believing in the guilt and voting for the death of Lord Stafford, he
interceded, according to his own account,[4] with the king for him as
well as for Langhorne and Plunket. His independent attitude drew
upon him an attack by Dangerfield, and in the Commons by the
attorney-general, Sir W. Jones, who accused him of endeavouring to
stifle the evidence against the Romanists. In March 1679 he protested
against the second reading of the bill for disabling Danby. In 1681
Anglesey wrote _A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country_, as a
rejoinder to the earl of Castlehaven, who had published memoirs on
the Irish rebellion defending the action of the Irish and the Roman
Catholics. In so doing Anglesey was held by Ormonde to have censured
his conduct and that of Charles I. in concluding the "Cessation," and
the duke brought the matter before the council. In 1682 he wrote _The
Account of Arthur, Earl of Anglesey ... of the true state of Your
Majesty's Government and Kingdom_, which was addressed to the king
in a tone of censure and remonstrance, but appears not to have been
printed till 1694.[5] In consequence he was dismissed on the 9th of
August 1682 from the office of lord privy seal. In 1683 he appeared
at the Old Bailey as a witness in defence of Lord Russell, and in June
1685 he protested alone against the revision of Stafford's attainder.
He died at his home at Blechingdon in Oxfordshire on the 26th of April
1686, closing a career marked by great ability, statesmanship and
business capacity, and by conspicuous courage and independence of
judgment. He amassed a large fortune in Ireland, in which country he
had been allotted lands by Cromwell.

The unfavourable character drawn of him by Burnet is certainly unjust
and not supported by any evidence. Pepys, a far more trustworthy
judge, speaks of him invariably in terms of respect and approval as a
"grave, serious man," and commends his appointment as treasurer of
the navy as that of "a very notable man and understanding and will do
things regular and understand them himself."[6] He was a learned and
cultivated man and collected a celebrated library, which was dispersed
at his death. Besides the pamphlets already mentioned, he wrote:--_A
True Account of the Whole Proceedings betwixt ... the Duke of Ormond
and ... the Earl of Anglesey_ (1682); _A Letter of Remarks upon
Jovian_ (1683); other works ascribed to him being _The King's Right of
Indulgence in Matters Spiritual ... asserted_ (1688); _Truth Unveiled,
to which is added a short Treatise on ... Transubstantiation_ (1676);
_The Obligation resulting from the Oath of Supremacy_ (1688);
and _England's Confusion_ (1659). _Memoirs_ of Lord Anglesey were
published by Sir P. Pett in 1693, but contain little biographical
information and were repudiated as a mere imposture by Sir John
Thompson (Lord Haversham), his son-in-law, in his preface to Lord
Anglesey's _State of the Government_ in 1694. The author however
of the preface to _The Rights of the Lords asserted_ (1702), while
blaming their publication as "scattered and unfinished papers," admits
their genuineness.

Lord Anglesey married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Sir James
Altham of Oxey, Hertfordshire, by whom, besides other children, he had
James, who succeeded him, Altham, created Baron Altham, and Richard,
afterwards 3rd Baron Altham. His descendant Richard, the 6th earl
(d. 1761), left a son Arthur, whose legitimacy was doubted, and the
peerage became extinct. He was summoned to the Irish House of Peers as
Viscount Valentia, but was denied his writ to the parliament of Great
Britain by a majority of one vote. He was created in 1793 earl of
Mountnorris in the peerage of Ireland. All the male descendants of the
1st earl of Anglesey became extinct in the person of George, 2nd earl
of Mountnorris, in 1844, when the titles of Viscount Valentia and
Baron Mountnorris passed to his cousin Arthur Annesley (1785-1863),
who thus became 10th Viscount Valentia, being descended from the
1st Viscount Valentia the father of the 1st earl of Anglesey in the
Annesley family. The 1st viscount was also the ancestor of the Earls
Annesley in the Irish peerage.

[Footnote 1: _Protests of the Lords_, by J.E. Thorold Rogers (1875),
i. 27: Carti's _Life of Ormonde_ (1851), iv. 234; _Parl. Hist._ iv.
284.]

[Footnote 2: Carti's _Ormonde_, iv. 330, 340.]

[Footnote 3: _Cal. of State Pap. Dom._ (1673-1675), p. 152.]

[Footnote 4: _Memoirs_, 8, 9.]

[Footnote 5: By Sir J. Thompson, his son-in-law. Reprinted in _Somers
Tracts_ (Scott, 1812), viii. 344, and in _Parl. Hist._ iv. app. xvi.]

[Footnote 6: _Diary_ (ed. Wheatley, 1904), iv. 298, vii. 14.]


AUTHORITIES.--_Dict. of Nat. Biography_, with authorities there
collected; lives in Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_ (Bliss), iv. 181,
_Biographia Britannica_, and H. Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_
(1806), iii. 288 (the latter a very inadequate review of Anglesey's
character and career); also _Bibliotheca Anglesiana_ ... per Thomam
Philippum (1686); _The Happy Future State of England_, by Sir Peter
Pett (1688); _Great News from Poland_ (1683), where his religious
tolerance is ridiculed; _Somers Tracts_ (Scott, 1812), viii. 344;
_Notes of the Privy Council_ (Roxburghe Club, 1896); _Cal. of State
Papers, Dom._; _State Trials_, viii. and ix. 619.

(P.C.Y.)



ANGLESEY, HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, 1st MARQUESS OF (1768-1854), British
field-marshal, was born on the 17th of May 1768. He was the eldest son
of Henry Paget, 1st earl of Uxbridge (d. 1812), and was educated at
Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, afterwards entering
parliament in 1790 as member for Carnarvon, for which he sat for six
years. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary wars Lord Paget (as
he was then styled), who had already served in the militia, raised on
his father's estate the regiment of Staffordshire volunteers, in which
he was given the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel (1793). The
corps soon became part of the regular army as the 80th Foot, and it
took part, under Lord Paget's command, in the Flanders campaign of
1794. In spite of his youth he held a brigade command for a time, and
gained also, during the campaign, his first experience of the cavalry
arm, with which he was thenceforward associated. His substantive
commission as lieutenant-colonel of the 16th Light Dragoons bore the
date of the 15th of June 1795, and in 1796 he was made a colonel
in the army. In 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth Villiers,
daughter of the earl of Jersey. In April 1797 Lord Paget was
transferred to a lieut.-colonelcy in the 7th Light Dragoons, of which
regiment he became colonel in 1801. From the first he applied himself
strenuously to the improvement of discipline, and to the perfection of
a new system of cavalry evolutions. In the short campaign of 1799
in Holland, Paget commanded the cavalry brigade, and in spite of the
unsuitable character of the ground, he made, on several occasions,
brilliant and successful charges. After the return of the expedition,
he devoted himself zealously to his regiment, which under his command
became one of the best corps in the service. In 1802 he was promoted
major-general, and six years later lieutenant-general. In command of
the cavalry of Sir John Moore's army during the Corunna campaign, Lord
Paget won the greatest distinction. At Sahagun, Mayorga and Benavente,
the British cavalry behaved so well under his leadership that Moore
wrote:--"It is impossible for me to say too much in its praise.... Our
cavalry is very superior in quality to any the French have, and the
right spirit has been infused into them by the example and instruction
of their ... leaders...." At Benavente one of Napoleon's best cavalry
leaders, General Lefebvre Desnoëttes, was taken prisoner. Corunna was
Paget's last service in the Peninsula. His _liaison_ with the wife of
Henry Wellesley, afterwards Lord Cowley, made it impossible at
that time for him to serve with Wellington, whose cavalry, on many
occasions during the succeeding campaigns, felt the want of the true
cavalry leader to direct them. His only war service from 1809 to
1815 was in the disastrous Walcheren expedition (1809) in which he
commanded a division. During these years he occupied himself with his
parliamentary duties as member for Milborne Port, which he represented
almost continuously up to his father's death in 1812, when he took
his seat in the House of Lords as earl of Uxbridge. In 1810 he was
divorced and married Mrs Wellesley, who had about the same time been
divorced from her husband. Lady Paget was soon afterwards married
to the duke of Argyll. In 1815 Lord Uxbridge received command of the
British cavalry in Flanders. At a moment of danger such as that of
Napoleon's return from Elba, the services of the best cavalry general
in the British army could not be neglected. Wellington placed the
greatest confidence in him, and on the eve of Waterloo extended his
command so as to include the whole of the allied cavalry and horse
artillery. He covered the retirement of the allies from Quatre Bras
to Waterloo on the 17th of June, and on the 18th gained the crowning
distinction of his military career in leading the great cavalry charge
of the British centre, which checked and in part routed D'Erlon's
_corps d'armée_ (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN). Freely exposing his own life
throughout, the earl received, by one of the last cannon shots fired,
a severe wound in the leg, necessitating amputation. Five days later
the prince regent created him marquess of Anglesey in recognition of
his brilliant services, which were regarded universally as second only
to those of the duke himself. He was made a G.C.B. and he was also
decorated by many of the allied sovereigns.

[v.02 p.0017]

In 1818 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 1819 he
became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he acted as
lord high steward of England. His support of the proceedings against
Queen Caroline made him for a time unpopular, and when he was on one
occasion beset by a crowd, who compelled him to shout "The Queen,"
he added the wish, "May all your wives be like her." At the close of
April 1827 he became a member of the Canning administration, taking
the post of master-general of the ordnance, previously held by
Wellington. He was at the same time sworn a member of the privy
council. Under the Wellington administration he accepted the
appointment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the
discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself to
the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims which
he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying of party
animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission to the laws,
to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and improvement of
education. On the great question of the time his views were opposed
to those of the government. He saw clearly that the time was come when
the relief of the Catholics from the penal legislation of the past was
an indispensable measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter
to the Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his
view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely
lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation in
parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey's administration in
November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The times
were changed; the act of emancipation had been passed, and the task of
viceroy in his second tenure of office was to resist the agitation for
repeal of the union carried on by O'Connell. He felt it his duty now
to demand Coercion Acts for the security of the public peace; his
popularity was diminished, differences appeared in the cabinet on
the difficult subject, and in July 1833 the ministry resigned. To the
marquess of Anglesey Ireland is indebted for the board of education,
the origination of which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable
act of his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement
he remained out of office, and took little part in the affairs of
government. He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 as
master-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with his chief in
March 1852. His promotion in the army was completed by his advancement
to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four years before, he exchanged
his colonelcy of the 7th Light Dragoons which he had held over forty
years, for that of the Royal Horse Guards. He died on the 29th of
April 1854.

The marquess had a large family by each of his two wives, two sons
and six daughters by the first and six sons and four daughters by the
second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the marquessate;
but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd, 4th and 5th
marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were notorious, died in
1905, when the title passed to his cousin.

Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves in the army
and the navy. Of the first marquess's brothers one, SIR CHARLES PAGET
(1778-1839), rose to the rank of vice-admiral in the Royal Navy;
another, General SIR EDWARD PAGET (1775-1849), won great distinction
by his skilful and resolute handling of a division at Corunna,
and from 1822 to 1825 was commander-in-chief in India. One of the
marquess's sons by his second marriage, LORD CLARENCE EDWARD PAGET
(1811-1895), became an admiral; another, LORD GEORGE AUGUSTUS
FREDERICK PAGET (1818-1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the charge
of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently commanded the
brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry division in the Crimea.
In 1865 he was made inspector-general of cavalry, in 1871
lieutenant-general and K.C.B., and in 1877 full general. His Crimean
journals were published in 1881.



ANGLESEY, or ANGLESEA, an insular northern county of Wales. Its area
is 176,630 acres or about 276 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see of Bangor,
is separated from the mainland by the Menai Straits (Afon Menai),
over which were thrown Telford's suspension bridge, in 1826, and the
Stephenson tubular railway bridge in 1850. The county is flat, with
slight risings such as Parys, Cadair Mynachdy (or Monachdy, _i.e._.
"chair of the monastery"; there is a Nanner, "convent," not far away)
and Holyhead Mountain. There are a few lakes, such as Cors cerrig y
daran, but rising water is generally scarce. The climate is humid, the
land poor for the most part compared with its old state of fertility,
and there are few industries.

As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a
foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the
surface in three areas:--(1) a western region including Holyhead and
Llanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Trefdraeth,
and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough, Caerwen and
Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists and slates, often much
contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations
in the island is from N.E. to S.W. A belt of granitic rocks lies
immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from
Llanfaelog near the coast to the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between
this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of
Ordovician slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this
tract spreads out in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel
Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of
Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed
and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered
volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian. Between the eastern
and central pre-Cambrian masses carboniferous rocks are found. The
carboniferous limestone occupies a broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and
Pentraeth, and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by
Llangefni to Malldraeth sands. The limestone is underlain on the
N.W. by a red basement conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes
considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on
the N. coast about Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the S.W. round
Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is made
of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied by coal
measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near
Tall-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic and
felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron ochre have
been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found near Llanfaerynneubwll
and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead. There are abundant evidences
of glaciation, and much boulder clay and drift sand covers the older
rocks. Patches of blown sand occur on the S.W. coast.

[v.02 p.0018]

The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holyhead branch)
crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to Gaerwen and Holyhead
(Caer Gybi), also from Gaerwen to Amlwch. The staple of the island is
farming, the chief crops being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in
the centre. Copper (near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime
and sandstone, marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey,
coal especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the
county in 1901 was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough, but one
member is returned for the county. It is in the north-western circuit,
and assizes are held at Beaumaris, the only municipal borough (pop.
2326). Amlwch (2994), Holyhead (10,079), Llangefni (1751) and Menai
Bridge (Pont y Borth, 1700) are urban districts. There are six
hundreds and seventy-eight parishes.

Môn (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted form of
O.E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names are Ynys Dywyll
("Dark Isle") and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or kedyrn; "Isle of brave
folk"). It is the Mona of Tacitus (_Ann._ xiv. 29, _Agr._ xiv. 18),
Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius (62). It is called Mam Cymru
by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey isle), Ynys
Prydein, Ynys Brut are other names. According to the Triads (67),
Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island
was the seat of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs remain, on uplands
overlooking the sea, _e.g._ at Plâs Newydd. The Druids were attacked
in A.D. 61 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by Agricola in A.D. 78. In the
5th century Caswallon lived here, and here, at Aberffraw, the
princes of Gwynedd lived till 1277. The present road from Holyhead
to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally Roman. British and Roman camps,
coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed, especially by the
Hon. Mr. Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Caer Gybi is Roman. The island was
devastated by the Danes (_Dub Gint_ or black nations, _gentes_),
especially in A.D. 853.

See Edw. Breese, _Kalendar of Gwynedd_ (Venedocia), on Anglesey,
Carnarvon and Merioneth (London, 1873); and _The History of Powys
Fadog_.



ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbSO_{4},
crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and isomorphous with
barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species
by Dr. Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper-mine
in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was given by F.S.
Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey, which were formerly found
abundantly on a matrix of dull limonite, are small in size and simple
in form, being usually bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces
of a dome; they are brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of
limonite. Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi
in Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant
adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright faces. The
variety of combinations and habits presented by the crystals is very
extensive, nearly two hundred distinct forms being figured by V.
von Lang in his monograph of the species; without measurement of the
angles the crystals are frequently difficult to decipher. The hardness
is 3 and the specific gravity 6.3. There are distinct cleavages
parallel to the faces of the prism (110) and the basal plane (001),
but these are not so well developed as in the isomorphous minerals
barytes and celestite.

[Illustration: Anglesite specimen.]

Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed by the
oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes where these
have been affected by weathering processes. At Monteponi the crystals
encrust cavities in glistening granular galena; and from Leadhills,
in Scotland, pseudomorphs of anglesite after galena are known. At most
localities it is found as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing
lodes, but at some places, in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large
masses, and is then mined as an ore of lead, of which the pure mineral
contains 68%.



ANGLI, ANGLII or ANGLES, a Teutonic people mentioned by Tacitus in
his _Germania_ (cap. 40) at the end of the 1st century. He gives no
precise indication of their geographical position, but states that,
together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the Warni of
later times), they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary
was situated on "an island in the Ocean." Ptolemy in his _Geography_
(ii. 11. § 15), half a century later, locates them with more precision
between the Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems, and the Elbe, and speaks
of them as one of the chief tribes of the interior. Unfortunately,
however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence
furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indications
which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to the uncertainty of these
passages there has been much speculation regarding the original home
of the Angli. One theory, which however has little to recommend it, is
that they dwelt in the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the
canton Engilin), from which region the _Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc
est Thuringorum_ is believed by many to have come. At the present time
the majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the
beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern part
of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is derived partly
from English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of
the 4th century (see below), and partly from the fact that striking
affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to
be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion.
Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that
the island of Nerthus was Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be
observed that the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately
to a certain Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skiöldr, the
mythical founder of the Danish royal family (Skiöldungar). In English
tradition this person is connected with "Scedeland" (pl.), a name
which may have been applied to Sjaelland as well as Skåne, while in
Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated with the ancient
royal residence at Leire in Sjaelland.

Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt in a
land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the _Historia
Brittonum_. King Alfred and the chronicler Æthelweard identified this
place with the district which is now called Angel in the province of
Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent,
and this identification agrees very well with the indications given by
Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions
relating to two kings named Wermund (_q.v._) and Offa (_q.v._), from
whom the Mercian royal family were descended, and whose exploits are
connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has
preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in
their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal
family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century the Angli
invaded this country (see BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_), after which time
their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the
code mentioned above.

The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric
antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries.
Among the places where these have been found, special mention should
be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between
Rendsburg and Eckernförde, which has yielded many urns and brooches
closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still
greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel)
and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments,
articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c., and in the latter
case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to
reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of English civilization in the
age preceding the invasion of Britain.

AUTHORITIES.--Bede, _Hist. Ecc._ i. 15: King Alfred's version of
_Orosius_, i. 1. §§ 12, 19; Æthelweard's _Chronicle_, lib. i. For
traditions concerning the kings of Angel, see under OFFA (1). L.
Weiland, _Die Angeln_ (1889); A. Erdmann, _Über die Heimat und den
Namen der Angeln_ (Upsala, 1890--cf. H. Möller in the _Anzeiger für
deutsches Altertum und deutsche Litteratur_, xxii. 129 ff.); A. Kock
in the _Historisk Tidskrift_ (Stockholm), 1895, xv. p. 163 ff.; G.
Schütte, _Var Anglerne Tyskere?_ (Flensborg, 1900); R. Munro Chadwick,
_The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907); C. Engelhardt,
_Denmark in the Early Iron Age_ (London, 1866); J. Mestorf,
_Urnenfriedhofe in Schleswig-Holstein_ (Hamburg, 1886); S. Müller,
_Nordische Altertumskunde_ (Ger. trans., Strassburg, 1898), ii. p. 122
ff.; see further ANGLO-SAXONS and BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_.

(H.M.C.)

[v.02 p.0019]



ANGLICAN COMMUNION, the name used to denote that great branch of the
Christian Church consisting of the various churches in communion with
the Church of England. The necessity for such a phrase as "Anglican
Communion," first used in the 19th century, marked at once the immense
development of the Anglican Church in modern times and the change
which has taken place in the traditional conceptions of its character
and sphere. The Church of England itself is the subject of a separate
article (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF); and it is not without significance
that for more than two centuries after the Reformation the history
of Anglicanism is practically confined to its developments within the
limits of the British Isles. Even in Ireland, where it was for over
three centuries the established religion, and in Scotland, where it
early gave way to the dominant Presbyterianism, its religious was long
overshadowed by its political significance. The Church, in fact,
while still claiming to be Catholic in its creeds and in its religious
practice, had ceased to be Catholic in its institutional conception,
which was now bound up with a particular state and also with a
particular conception of that state. To the native Irishman and the
Scotsman, as indeed to most Englishmen, the Anglican Church was one of
the main buttresses of the supremacy of the English crown and nation.
This conception of the relations of church and state was hardly
favourable to missionary zeal; and in the age succeeding the
Reformation there was no disposition on the part of the English Church
to emulate the wonderful activity of the Jesuits, which, in the 16th
and 17th centuries, brought to the Church of Rome in countries beyond
the ocean compensation for what she had lost in Europe through the
Protestant reformation. Even when English churchmen passed beyond the
seas, they carried with them their creed, but not their ecclesiastical
organization. Prejudice and real or imaginary legal obstacles stood in
the way of the erection of episcopal sees in the colonies; and though
in the 17th century Archbishop Laud had attempted to obtain a bishop
for Virginia, up to the time of the American revolution the churchmen
of the colonies had to make the best of the legal fiction that
their spiritual needs were looked after by the bishop of London, who
occasionally sent commissaries to visit them and ordained candidates
for the ministry sent to England for the purpose.

The change which has made it possible for Anglican churchmen to claim
that their communion ranks with those of Rome and the Orthodox East
as one of the three great historical divisions of the Catholic Church,
was due, in the first instance, to the American revolution. The
severance of the colonies from their allegiance to the crown brought
the English bishops for the first time face to face with the idea of
an Anglican Church which should have nothing to do either with the
royal supremacy or with British nationality. When, on the conclusion
of peace, the church-people of Connecticut sent Dr. Samuel Seabury to
England, with a request to the archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate
him, it is not surprising that Archbishop Moore refused. In the
opinion of prelates and lawyers alike, an act of parliament was
necessary before a bishop could be consecrated for a see abroad; to
consecrate one for a foreign country seemed impossible, since, though
the bestowal of the _potestas ordinis_ would be valid, the crown,
which, according to the law, was the source of the episcopal
_jurisdiction_, could hardly issue the necessary mandate for the
consecration of a bishop to a see outside the realm (see BISHOP).
The Scottish bishops, however, being hampered by no such legal
restrictions, were more amenable; and on the 11th of November 1784
Seabury was consecrated by them to the see of Connecticut. In 1786,
on the initiative of the archbishop, the legal difficulties in England
were removed by the act for the consecration of bishops abroad; and,
on being satisfied as to the orthodoxy of the church in America and
the nature of certain liturgical changes in contemplation, the two
English archbishops proceeded, on the 14th of February 1787,
to consecrate William White and Samuel Prevoost to the sees of
Pennsylvania and New York (see PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH).

This act had a significance beyond the fact that it established in the
United States of America a flourishing church, which, while completely
loyal to its own country, is bound by special ties to the religious
life of England. It marked the emergence of the Church of England from
that insularity to which what may be called the territorial principles
of the Reformation had condemned her. The change was slow, and it is
not yet by any means complete.

Since the Church of England, whatever her attitude towards the
traditional Catholic doctrines, never disputed the validity of
Catholic orders whether Roman or Orthodox, nor the jurisdiction of
Catholic bishops in foreign countries, the expansion of the Anglican
Church has been in no sense conceived as a Protestant aggressive
movement against Rome. Occasional exceptions, such as the consecration
by Archbishop Plunket of Dublin of a bishop for the reformed church in
Spain, raised so strong a protest as to prove the rule. In the main,
then, the expansion of the Anglican Church has followed that of the
British empire, or, as in America, of its daughter states; its claim,
so far as rights of jurisdiction are concerned, is to be the Church
of England and the English race, while recognizing its special duties
towards the non-Christian populations subject to the empire or brought
within the reach of its influence. As against the Church of Rome, with
its system of rigid centralization, the Anglican Church represents the
principle of local autonomy, which it holds to be once more primitive
and more catholic. In this respect the Anglican communion has
developed on the lines defined in her articles at the Reformation;
but, though in principle there is no great difference between a church
defined by national, and a church defined by racial boundaries, there
is an immense difference in effect, especially when the race--as in
the case of the English--is itself ecumenical.

The realization of what may be called this catholic mission of the
English church, in the extension of its organization to the colonies,
was but a slow process.


_The Church in the Colonies._

On the 12th of August 1787 Dr. Charles Inglis was consecrated bishop
of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over all the British possessions in
North America. In 1793 the see of the Québec was founded; Jamaica
and Barbados followed in 1824, and Toronto and Newfoundland in 1839.
Meanwhile the needs of India has been tardily met, on the urgent
representations in parliament of William Wilberforce and others, by
the consecration of Dr. T.F. Middleton as bishop of Calcutta, with
three archdeacons to assist him. In 1817 Ceylon was added to his
charge; in 1823 all British subjects in the East Indies and the
islands of the Indian Ocean; and in 1824 "New South Wales and its
dependencies"! Some five years later, on the nomination of the duke
of Wellington, William Broughton was sent out to work in this enormous
jurisdiction as archdeacon of Australia. Soon afterwards, in 1835
and 1837, the sees of Madras and Bombay were founded; whilst in 1836
Broughton himself was consecrated as first bishop of Australia. Thus
down to 1840 there were but ten colonial bishops; and of these several
were so hampered by civil regulations that they were little more
than government chaplains in episcopal orders. In April of that year,
however, Bishop Blomfield of London published his famous letter to the
archbishop of Canterbury, declaring that "an episcopal church without
a bishop is a contradiction in terms," and strenuously advocating a
great effort for the extension of the episcopate. It was not in vain.
The plan was taken up with enthusiasm, and on Whitsun Tuesday of 1841
the bishops of the United Kingdom met and issued a declaration which
inaugurated the Colonial Bishoprics Council. Subsequent declarations
in 1872 and 1891 have served both to record progress and to stimulate
to new effort. The diocese of New Zealand was founded in 1841, being
endowed by the Church Missionary Society through the council, and
George Augustus Selwyn was chosen as the first bishop. Since then the
increase has gone on, as the result both of home effort and of the
action of the colonial churches. Moreover, in many cases bishops
have been sent to inaugurate new missions, as in the cases of the
Universities' Mission to Central Africa, Lebombo, Corea and New
Guinea; and the missionary jurisdictions so founded develop in time
into dioceses. Thus, instead of the ten colonial jurisdictions
of 1841, there are now about a hundred foreign and colonial
jurisdictions, in addition to those of the Protestant Episcopal Church
of the United States.

[v.02 p.0020]

It was only very gradually that these dioceses acquired legislative
independence and a determinate organization. At first, sees were
created and bishops were nominated by the crown by means of letters
patent; and in some cases an income was assigned out of public
funds. Moreover, for many years all bishops alike were consecrated in
England, took the customary "oath of due obedience" to the archbishop
of Canterbury, and were regarded as his extra-territorial suffragans.
But by degrees changes have been made on all these points.


_Provincial Organization._

(1) Local conditions soon made a provincial organization necessary,
and it was gradually introduced. The bishop of Calcutta received
letters patent as metropolitan of India when the sees of Madras and
Bombay were founded; and fresh patents were issued to Bishop Broughton
in 1847 and Bishop Gray in 1853, as metropolitans of Australia and
South Africa respectively. Similar action was taken in 1858, when
Bishop Selwyn became metropolitan of New Zealand; and again in 1860,
when, on the petition of the Canadian bishops to the crown and the
colonial legislature for permission to elect a metropolitan, letters
patent were issued appointing Bishop Fulford of Montreal to that
office. Since then metropolitans have been chosen and provinces formed
by regular synodical action, a process greatly encouraged by
the resolutions of the Lambeth conferences on the subject. The
constitution of these provinces is not uniform. In some cases, as
South Africa, New South Wales, and Queensland, the metropolitan see
is fixed. Elsewhere, as in New Zealand, where no single city can claim
pre-eminence, the metropolitan is either elected or else is the senior
bishop by consecration. Two further developments must be mentioned:
(a) The creation of diocesan and provincial synods, the first diocesan
synod to meet being that of New Zealand in 1844, whilst the formation
of a provincial synod was foreshadowed by a conference of Australasian
bishops at Sydney in 1850; (b) towards the close of the 19th century
the title of _archbishop_ began to be assumed by the metropolitans of
several provinces. It was first assumed by the metropolitans of Canada
and Rupert's Land, at the desire of the Canadian general synod in
1893; and subsequently, in accordance with a resolution of the Lambeth
conference of 1897, it was given by their synods to the bishop of
Sydney as metropolitan of New South Wales and to the bishop of Cape
Town as metropolitan of South Africa. Civil obstacles have hitherto
delayed its adoption by the metropolitan of India.


_Freedom from state control._

(2) By degrees, also, the colonial churches have been freed from their
rather burdensome relations with the state. The church of the West
Indies was disestablished and disendowed in 1868. In 1857 it was
decided, in _Regina_ v. _Eton College_, that the crown could not
claim the presentation to a living when it had appointed the former
incumbent to a colonial bishopric, as it does in the case of an
English bishopric. In 1861, after some protest from the crown lawyers,
two missionary bishops were consecrated without letters patent for
regions outside British territory: C.F. Mackenzie for the Zambezi
region and J.C. Patteson for Melanesia, by the metropolitans of Cape
Town and New Zealand respectively. In 1863 the privy council declared,
in _Long_ v. _The Bishop of Cape Town_, that "the Church of England,
in places where there is no church established by law, is in the same
situation with any other religious body." In 1865 it adjudged Bishop
Gray's letters patent, as metropolitan of Cape Town, to be powerless
to enable him "to exercise any coercive jurisdiction, or hold any
court or tribunal for that purpose," since the Cape colony already
possessed legislative institutions when they were issued; and his
deposition of Bishop Colenso was declared to be "null and void in law"
(_re The Bishop of Natal_). With the exception of Colenso the South
African bishops forthwith surrendered their patents, and formally
accepted Bishop Gray as their metropolitan, an example followed in
1865 in the province of New Zealand. In 1862, when the diocese of
Ontario was formed, the bishop was elected in Canada, and consecrated
under a royal mandate, letters patent being by this time entirely
discredited. And when, in 1867, a coadjutor was chosen for the bishop
of Toronto, an application for a royal mandate produced the reply
from the colonial secretary that "it was not the part of the crown
to interfere in the creation of a new bishop or bishopric, and not
consistent with the dignity of the crown that he should advise Her
Majesty to issue a mandate which would not be worth the paper on which
it was written, and which, having been sent out to Canada, might be
disregarded in the most complete manner." And at the present day the
colonial churches are entirely free in this matter. This, however,
is not the case with the church in India. Here the bishops of sees
founded down to 1879 receive a stipend from the revenue (with the
exception of the bishop of Ceylon, who no longer does so). They are
not only nominated by the crown and consecrated under letters
patent, but the appointment is expressly subjected "to such power of
revocation and recall as is by law vested" in the crown; and where
additional oversight was necessary for the church in Tinnevelly, it
could only be secured by the consecration of two assistant bishops,
who worked under a commission for the archbishop of Canterbury which
was to expire on the death of the bishop of Madras. Since then,
however, new sees have been founded which are under no such
restrictions: by the creation of dioceses either in native states
(Travancore and Cochin), or out of the existing dioceses (Chota
Nagpur, Lucknow, &c.). In the latter case there is no _legal_
subdivision of the older diocese, the new bishop administering
such districts as belonged to it under commission from its bishop,
provision being made, however, that in all matters ecclesiastical
there shall be no appeal but to the metropolitan of India.


_Spiritual autonomy._

(3) By degrees, also, the relations of colonial churches to the
archbishop of Canterbury have changed. Until 1855 no colonial bishop
was consecrated outside the British Isles, the first instance being
Dr. MacDougall of Labuan, consecrated in India under a commission
from the archbishop of Canterbury; and until 1874 it was held to be
unlawful for a bishop to be consecrated in England without taking the
suffragan's oath of due obedience. This necessity was removed by
the Colonial Clergy Act of 1874, which permits the archbishop at his
discretion to dispense with the oath. This, however, has not been done
in all cases; and as late as 1890 it was taken by the metropolitan of
Sydney at his consecration. Thus the constituent parts of the Anglican
communion gradually acquire autonomy: missionary jurisdictions develop
into organized dioceses, and dioceses are grouped into provinces with
canons of their own. But the most complete autonomy does not involve
isolation. The churches are in full communion with one another, and
act together in many ways; missionary jurisdictions and dioceses are
mapped out by common arrangement, and even transferred if it seems
advisable; _e.g._ the diocese Honolulu (Hawaii), previously under the
jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury, was transferred in 1900
to the Episcopal Church in the United States on account of political
changes. Though the see of Canterbury claims no primacy over the
Anglican communion analogous to that exercised over the Roman Church
by the popes, it is regarded with a strong affection and deference,
which shows itself by frequent consultation and interchange of
greetings. There is also a strong common life emphasized by common
action.

[v.02 p.0021]


_Pan-Anglican Congress._

The conference of Anglican bishops from all parts of the world,
instituted by Archbishop Longley in 1867, and known as the Lambeth
Conferences (_q.v._), though even for the Anglican communion they
have not the authority of an ecumenical synod, and their decisions
are rather of the nature of counsels than commands, have done much to
promote the harmony and co-operation of the various branches of the
Church. An even more imposing manifestation of this common life was
given by the great pan-Anglican congress held in London between the
12th and 24th of June 1908, which preceded the Lambeth conference
opened on the 5th of July. The idea of this originated with Bishop
Montgomery, secretary to the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel, and was endorsed by a resolution of the United Boards of
Mission in 1903. As the result of negotiations and preparations
extending over five years, 250 bishops, together with delegates,
clerical and lay, from every diocese in the Anglican communion, met in
London, the opening service of intercession being held in Westminster
Abbey. In its general character, the meeting was but a Church congress
on an enlarged scale, and the subjects discussed, _e.g._. the attitude
of churchmen towards the question of the marriage laws or that of
socialism, followed much the same lines. The congress, of course,
had no power to decide or to legislate for the Church, its main value
being in drawing its scattered members closer together, in bringing
the newer and more isolated branches into consciousness of their
contact with the parent stem, and in opening the eyes of the Church
of England to the point of view and the peculiar problems of the
daughter-churches.

The Anglican communion consists of the following:--(1) The Church of
England, 2 provinces, Canterbury and York, with 24 and 11 dioceses
respectively. (2) The Church of Ireland, 2 provinces, Armagh and
Dublin, with 7 and 6 dioceses respectively. (3) The Scottish Episcopal
Church, with 7 dioceses. (4) The Protestant Episcopal Church of
the United States, with 89 dioceses and missionary jurisdictions,
including North Tokyo, Kyoto, Shanghai, Cape Palmas, and the
independent dioceses of Hayti and Brazil. (5) The Canadian Church,
consisting of (a) the province of Canada, with 10 dioceses; (b) the
province of Rupert's Land, with 8 dioceses. (6) The Church in India
and Ceylon, 1 province of 11 dioceses. (7) The Church of the West
Indies, 1 province of 8 dioceses, of which Barbados and the Windward
Islands are at present united. (8) The Australian Church, consisting
of (a) the province of New South Wales, with 10 dioceses; (b) the
province of Queensland, with 5 dioceses; (c) the province of Victoria,
with 5 dioceses. (9) The Church of New Zealand, 1 province of 7
dioceses, together with the missionary jurisdiction of Melanesia.
(10) The South African Church, 1 province of 10 dioceses, with the 2
missionary jurisdictions of Masbonaland and Lebombo. (11) Nearly 30
isolated dioceses and missionary jurisdictions holding mission from
the see of Canterbury.

AUTHORITIES.--_Official Year-book of the Church of England_;
Phillimore, _Ecclesiastical Law_, vol. ii. (London, 1895); _Digest
of S.P.G. Records_ (London, 1893); E. Stock, _History of the Church
Missionary Society_, 3 vols. (London, 1899); H.W. Tucker, _The English
Church in Other Lands_ (London, 1886); A.T. Wirgman, _The Church and
the Civil Power_ (London, 1893).



ANGLING, the art or practice of the sport of catching fish by means of
a baited hook or "angle" (from the Indo-European root _ank-_, meaning
"bend").[1] It is among the most ancient of human activities, and may
be said to date from the time when man was in the infancy of the Stone
Age, eking out a precarious existence by the slaughter of any living
thing which he could reach with the rude weapons at his command. It is
probable that attack on fishes was at first much the same as attack
on animals, a matter of force rather than of guile, and conducted by
means of a rude spear with a flint head. It is probable, too, that the
primitive harpooners were not signally successful in their efforts,
and so set their wits to work to devise other means of getting at the
abundant food which waited for them in every piece of water near their
caves. Observation would soon show them that fish fed greedily on each
other and on other inhabitants of the water or living things that fell
into it, and so, no doubt, arose the idea of entangling the prey by
means of its appetite. Hence came the notion of the first hook, which,
it seems certain, was not a hook at all but a "gorge," a piece of
flint or stone which the fish could swallow with the bait but which it
could not eject afterwards. From remains found in cave-dwellings and
their neighbourhood in different parts of the world it is obvious that
these gorges varied in shape, but in general the idea was the same, a
narrow strip of stone or flake of flint, either straight or slightly
curved at the ends, with a groove in the middle round which the line
could be fastened. Buried in the bait it would be swallowed end
first; then the tightening of the line would fix it cross-wise in the
quarry's, stomach or gullet and so the capture would be assured. The
device still lingers in France and in a few remote parts of England in
the method of catching eels which is known as "sniggling." In this a
needle buried in a worm plays the part of the prehistoric gorge.

The evolution of the fish-hook from the slightly curved gorge is
easily intelligible. The ends became more and more curved, until
eventually an object not unlike a double hook was attained. This
development would be materially assisted by man's discovery of the
uses of bronze and its adaptability to his requirements. The single
hook, of the pattern more or less familiar to us, was possibly a
concession of the lake-dweller to what may even then have been a
problem--the "education" of fish, and to a recognition of the fact
that sport with the crude old methods was falling off. But it is
also not improbable that in some parts of the world the single hook
developed _pari passu_ with the double, and that, on the sea-shore
for instance, where man was able to employ so adaptable a substance as
shell, the first hook was a curved fragment of shell lashed with fibre
to a piece of wood or bone, in such a way that the shell formed the
bend of the hook while the wood or bone formed the shank. Both
early remains and recent hooks from the Fiji Islands bear out this
supposition. It is also likely that flint, horn and bone were pressed
into service in a similar manner. The nature of the line or the rod
that may have been used with these early hooks is largely a matter
of conjecture. The first line was perhaps the tendril of a plant, the
first rod possibly a sapling tree. But it is fairly obvious that the
rod must have been suggested by the necessity of getting the bait out
over obstacles which lay between the fisherman and the water, and
that it was a device for increasing both the reach of the arm and the
length of the line. It seems not improbable that the rod very early
formed a part of the fisherman's equipment.

[Footnote 1: As to whether "angling" necessarily implies a rod as well
as a line and hook, see the discussion in the law case of _Barnard_ v.
_Roberts_ (_Times L.R._, April 13, 1907), when the question arose
as to the use of night-lines being angling; but the decision against
night-lines went on the ground of the absence of the personal element
rather than on the absence of a rod. The various dictionaries
are blind guides on this point, and the authorities cited are
inconclusive; but, broadly speaking, angling now implies three
necessary factors--a personal angler, the sporting element, and the
use of recognized fishing-tackle.]


_Literary History_.--From prehistoric times down to comparatively
late in the days of chronicles, angling appears to have remained a
practice; its development into an art or sport is a modern idea. In
the earliest literature references to angling are not very numerous,
but there are passages in the Old Testament which show that
fish-taking with hook as well as net was one of the common industries
in the East, and that fish, where it was obtainable, formed an
important article of diet. In _Numbers_ (xi. 5) the children of Israel
mourn for the fish which they "did eat in Egypt freely." So much too
is proved by the monuments of Egypt; indeed more, for the figures
found in some of the Egyptian fishing pictures using short rods and
stout lines are sometimes attired after the manner of those who were
great in the land. This indicates that angling had already, in
a highly civilized country, taken its place among the methods
of diversion at the disposal of the wealthy, though from the
uncompromising nature of the tackle depicted and the apparent
simplicity of the fish it would scarcely be safe to assume that in
Egypt angling arrived at the dignity of becoming an "art." In Europe
it took very much longer for the taking of fish to be regarded even as
an amusement, and the earliest references to it in the Greek and Latin
classics are not very satisfying to the sportsman.

[v.02 p.0022]

There is, however, a passage in the _Odyssey_ (xii. 247) which is of
considerable importance, as it shows that fishing with rod and line
was well enough understood in early Greece to be used as a popular
illustration. It occurs in the well-known scene where Scylla seizes
the companions of Odysseus out of the ship and bears them upwards,
just as "some fisher on a headland with a long rod" brings small
fishes gasping to the shore. Another important, though comparatively
late, passage in Greek poetry is the twenty-first idyll of Theocritus.
In this the fisherman Asphalion relates how in a dream he hooked
a large golden fish and describes graphically, albeit with some
obscurity of language, how he "played" it. Asphalion used a rod and
fished from a rock, much after the manner of the Homeric angler. Among
other Greek writers, Herodotus has a good many references to fish and
fishing; the capture of fish is once or twice mentioned or implied by
Plato, notably in the _Laws_ (vii. 823); Aristotle deals with fishes
in his _Natural History_, and there are one or two fishing passages
in the anthology. But in Greek literature, as a whole the subject of
angling is not at all prominent. In writers of late Greek, however,
there is more material. Plutarch, for instance, gives us the famous
story of the fishing match between Antony and Cleopatra, which has
been utilized by Shakespeare. Moreover, it is in Greek that the first
complete treatise on fishing which has come down to us is written, the
_Halieutica_ of Oppian (c. A.D. 169). It is a hexameter poem in five
books with perhaps more technical than sporting interest, and not so
much even of that as the length of the work would suggest. Still it
contains some information about tackle and methods, and some passages
describing battles with big fish, in the right spirit of enthusiasm.
Also in Greek is what is famous as the first reference in literature
to fly-fishing, in the fifteenth book of Aelian's _Natural History_
(3rd century A.D.). It is there described how the Macedonians captured
a certain spotted fish in the river Astraeus by means of a lure
composed of coloured wool and feathers, which was presumably used in
the manner now known as "dapping." That there were other Greek writers
who dealt with fish and fishing and composed "halieutics" we know from
Athenaeus. In the first book of his _Deipnosophistae_ he gives a list
of them. But he compares their work unfavourably with the passage of
Homer already cited, in a way which suggests that their knowledge of
angling was not a great advance upon the knowledge of their remote
literary ancestors. In Latin literature allusions to angling are
rather more numerous than in Greek, but on the whole they are
unimportant. Part of a poem by Ovid, the _Halieuticon_, composed
during the poet's exile at Tomi after A.D. 9, still survives. In
other Roman writers the subject is only treated by way of allusion or
illustration. Martial, however, provides, among other passages, what
may perhaps be entitled to rank as the earliest notice of private
fishery rights--the epigram _Ad Piscatorem_, which warns would-be
poachers from casting a line in the Baian lake. Pliny the elder
devoted the ninth book of his _Natural History_ to fishes and
water-life, and Plautus, Cicero, Catullus, Horace, Juvenal, Pliny
the younger and Suetonius all allude to angling here and there.
Agricultural writers, too, such as Varro and Columella, deal with the
subject of fish ponds and stews rather fully. Later than any of these,
but still just included in Latin literature, we have Ausonius (_c_.
A.D. 320) and his well-known idyll the _Mosella_, which contains a
good deal about the fish of the Moselle and the methods of catching
them. In this poem is to be found the first recognizable description
of members of the salmon family, and, though the manner of their
application is rather doubtful, the names _salmo, salar_ and _fario_
strike a responsive note in the breast of the modern angler.


_Post-classical Literature_.--As to what happened in the world of
angling in the first few centuries of the Christian era we know
little. It may be inferred, however, that both fish and fishermen
occupied a more honourable position in Christendom than they ever did
before. The prominence of fishermen in the gospel narratives would in
itself have been enough to bring this about, but it also happened
that the Greek word for fish, [Greek: ICHTHUS], had an anagrammatic
significance which the devout were not slow to perceive. The initials
of the word resolve into what is practically a confession of faith,
[Greek: Iesous Christos Theou Uios Soter](Jesus Christ, Son of God,
Saviour). It is therefore not surprising that we find the fish very
prominent as a sacred emblem in the painting and sculpture of
the primitive church, or that Clement of Alexandria should have
recommended it, among other things, as a device for signet rings or
seals. The fisherman too is frequently represented in early Christian
art, and it is worthy of remark that he more often uses a line and
hook than a net. The references to fish and fishing scattered about
in the writings of the early fathers for the most part reflect the two
ideas of the sacredness of the fish and divine authorization of the
fisherman; the second idea certainly prevailed until the time of Izaak
Walton, for he uses it to justify his pastime. It is also not unlikely
that the practice of fasting (in many cases fish was allowed when meat
was forbidden) gave the art of catching fish additional importance.
It seems at any rate to have been a consideration of weight when
sites were chosen for monasteries in Europe, and in many cases when
no fish-producing river was at hand the lack was supplied by the
construction of fish-ponds. Despite all this, however, save for an
occasional allusion in the early fathers, there is hardly a connecting
link between the literature of Pagan Rome and the literature that
sprang up on the invention of printing. One volume, the _Geoponica_, a
Greek compilation concerning whose authorship and date there has
been much dispute, is attributed in _Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ to
the beginning of the 10th century. It contains one book on fish,
fish-ponds and fishing, with prescriptions for baits, &c., extracted
for the most part from other writers. But it seems doubtful whether
its date should not be placed very much earlier. Tradition makes it
a Carthaginian treatise translated into Greek. A more satisfactory
fragment of fishing literature is to be found in the Colloquy of
Ælfric, written (_ad pucros linguae latinae locutionis exercendos_)
towards the end of the same century. Ælfric became archbishop of
Canterbury in A.D. 995, and the passage in the Anglo-Saxon text-book
takes honourable rank as the earliest reference to fishing in English
writings, though it is not of any great length. It is to be noted that
the fisher who takes a share in the colloquy states that he prefers
fishing in the river to fishing in the sea. Ascribed to the 13th or
14th century is a Latin poem _De Vetula_, whose author was apparently
Richard de Fournival. It contains a passage on angling, and was placed
to the credit of Ovid when first printed (c. 1470). A manuscript in
the British museum, _Comptes des pêcheries de l'église de Troyes_
(A.D. 1349-1413), gives a minute account of the fisheries with the
weights of fish captured and the expenses of working. There is,
however, practically nothing else of importance till we come to
the first printed book on angling (a translation of Oppian, 1478,
excepted), and so to the beginning of the literature proper. This
first book was a little volume printed in Antwerp probably in 1492 at
the press of Matthias van der Goes. In size it is little more than a
pamphlet, and it treats of birds as well as fish:--_Dit Boecxken leert
hoe men mach Voghelen ... ende ... visschen vangen metten kanden. Ende
oeck andersins...._ ("This book teaches how one may catch birds ...
and ... fish with the hands, and also otherwise"). Only one copy
apparently survives, in the Denison library, and a translation
privately printed for Mr. Alfred Denison in 1872 was limited to
twenty-five copies. At least two other editions of the book appeared
in Flemish, and it also made its way, in 1502, to Germany, where,
translated and with certain alterations and additions, it seems
to have been re-issued frequently. Next in date comes the famous
_Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle_, printed at Westminster by
Wynkyn de Worde in 1496 as a part of the second edition of _The Book
of St. Albans_. The treatise is for this reason associated with the
name of Dame Juliana Berners, but that somewhat dubious compiler
can have had nothing whatever to do with it. The treatise is almost
certainly a compilation from some earlier work on angling ("bokes of
credence" are mentioned in its text), possibly from a manuscript of
the earlier part of the 15th century, of which a portion is preserved
in the Denison collection. This was published in 1883 by Mr. Thomas
Satchell under the title _An Older Form of the Treatyse of Fysshynge
wyth an Angle_. But it is also possible that a still older work was
the parent of both books, for it has been held that the manuscript is
an independent version. However this may be, it is certain that the
treatise itself has been the parent of many other works. Many of
the instructions contained in it are handed down from generation to
generation with little change except in diction. Especially is this
the case with the list of trout-flies, a meagre twelve, which survives
in many fishing books until well into the 18th century.

[v.02 p.0023]

From the beginning of the 16th century the fisherman's library begins
to grow apace, as, though books solely devoted to fishing are not yet
frequent, works on husbandry and country pursuits almost all contain
something on the subject. In Italy the fisherman and his occupation
apparently were considered poetically; the word _pescatore_ or its
cognates are common on Italian 16th and 17th century title-pages,
though in many instances the fulfilment of the implied promise is
not adequate, from an angler's point of view. From the pages of
_Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ a fairly long list of Italian writers could
be gleaned. Among them may be mentioned Sannazaro (_Piscatoria_, &c.,
Rome, 1526) and Andrea Calmo (_Rime pescatorie_, Venice, 1557). A
century later was Parthenius, who published a volume of _Halieutica_
at Naples. This writer has an amusing reference to the art of
"tickling" trout as practised in Britain. In Germany, as has been
shown, the original little Flemish treatise had a wide vogue in
the 16th century, and fishing played a part in a good many books on
husbandry such as that of Conrad Heresbach (1570). Fish and fish-ponds
formed the main topic of a Latin work by Dubravius (1552), while
Gesner in the middle of the 16th and Aldrovandi at the beginning of
the 17th centuries wrote at length on the natural history of fishes.
In France the subject is less well represented, but _Les Pescheries_
of Chris. de Gamon (Lyons, 1599) and _Le Plaisir des champs_ of Cl.
Gauchet (Paris, 1604) deserve to be noted. _Les Ruses innocentes_ by
François Fortin, first published at Paris in 1600, and several times
in later editions, is characterized by Messrs Westwood and Satchell as
"on the whole the most interesting contribution made by France to
the literature of angling." England during the most part of the 16th
century was evidently well enough served by the original treatise
out of _The Book of St. Albans_. It was republished twice by Wynkyn
de Worde, six or seven times by Copland, and some five times by other
printers. It was also practically republished in _A Booke of Fishing_
by L.M. (1590). L.M. (Leonard Mascall) ranks as an angling author, but
he did little more than borrow and edit the treatise. The same may
be said of another version of _The Book of St. Albans_ "now newly
collected by W.G. Faulkener" and issued in 1596.


_Modern Literature_.--In 1600 appeared John Taverner's _Certaine
Experiments concerning Fish and Fruite_, and after this the period of
angling literature proper begins. The _Secrets of Angling_ (1613),
by J(ohn) D(ennys). Esq., is one of the most important volumes in the
angler's library, both on account of the excellence of the verse
in which it is written and also on account of its practical value.
Gervase Markham, "the first journalist," as he has been called,
published his first book of husbandry at the same date, and, as in
most of his many books on the same subject, devoted a certain amount
of space to fishing. But Markham gathered his materials in a rather
shameless manner and his angling passages have little originality.
Thomas Barker's _The Art of Angling_ (1st ed., 1651) takes a more
honourable position, and received warm commendation from Izaak Walton
himself, who followed it in 1653 with _The Compleat Angler_. So
much has been written about this treasured classic that it is only
necessary to indicate its popularity here by saying that its editions
occupy some twenty pages in _Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ (1883), and that
since that work was published at least forty new editions have to be
added to the list. During Walton's life-time the book ran through five
editions, and with the fifth (1676) was incorporated Charles Cotton's
second part, the "instructions how to angle for a trout or grayling,
in a clear stream." In some cases too there was added a third book,
the fourth edition of _The Experienced Angler_, by Robert Venables
(1st ed., 1662). The three books together bore the title of _The
Universal Angler_. Venables's portion was dropped later, but it is
worth reading, and contained sound instruction though it has not the
literary merit of Walton and Cotton.

A few other notable books of the century call for enumeration,
_The Gentleman's Recreation_ by Nicholas Cox (1674), Gilbert's _The
Angler's Delight_ (1676), Chetham's _Vade-Mecum_ (1681), _The Complete
Troller_ by Robert Nobbes (1682), R. Franck's _Northern Memoirs_
(1694), and _The True Art of Angling_ by J.S. (1696). Of these
Chetham, Nobbes, Franck and J.S. have the merit of considerable
originality. Franck has gained some notoriety by his round abuse
of Walton. In the 18th century among others we find _The Secrets of
Angling_ by C.G. (1705), Robert Hewlett's _The Angler's Sure Guide_
(1706), _The Whole Art of Fishing_ (1714), _The Compleat Fisherman_
by James Saunders (1724), _The Art of Angling_ by R. Brookes (1740),
another book with the same title by R. and C. Bowlker (Worcester,
c. 1750), _The Complete Sportsman_ by Thomas Fairfax (c. 1760), _The
Angler's Museum_ by T. Shirley (1784), and _A Concise Treatise on
the Art of Angling_ by Thomas Best (1787). Of these only Saunders's,
Bowlker's and Best's books are of much importance, the rest being
for the most part "borrowed." One volume of verse in the 18th century
calls for notice, Moses Browne's _Piscatory Eclogues_ (1729). Among
greater names we get angling passages in Pope, Gay and Thomson; the
two last were evidently brothers of the angle.

With the 19th century angling literature becomes too big a subject to
be treated in detail, and it is only possible to glance at a few of
the more important books and writers. Daniel's _Rural Sports_ appeared
in 1801; it is a treasure-house of odd facts. In 1828 Sir Humphry Davy
published his famous _Salmonia_, which was reviewed in the _Quarterly_
by Sir Walter Scott. At about this time too were appearing the _Noctes
Ambrosianae_ in _Blackwood's Magazine_. Christopher North (Professor
Wilson) often touched upon angling in them, besides contributing a
good many angling articles to the magazine. In 1835 that excellent
angling writer Thomas Tod Stoddart began his valuable series of
books with _The Art of Angling as Practised in Scotland_. In 1839 he
published _Songs and Poems_, among which are pieces of great merit.
During this period, too, first appeared, year by year, the _Newcastle
Fishers' Garlands_, collected by Joseph Crawhall afterwards and
republished in 1864. These border verses, like Stoddart's, have often
a genuine ring about them which is missing from the more polished
effusions of Gay and Thomson. Alfred Ronalds's _The Fly-Fisher's
Entomology_ (1st ed., 1836) was a publication of great importance, for
it marked the beginning of the scientific spirit among trout-fishers.
It ran through many editions and is still a valuable book of
reference. A step in angling history is also marked by George Pulman's
_Vade-Mecum of Fly-fishing for Trout_ (1841), for it contains the
first definite instructions on fishing with a "dry fly." Another is
marked by Hewett Wheatley's _The Rod and the Line_ (1849), where is
to be found the earliest reference to the "eyed" hook. Yet another is
marked by W.C. Stewart's _The Practical Angler_ (1857), in which is
taught the new doctrine of "up-stream" fishing for trout. This is a
book of permanent value. Among the many books of this period Charles
Kingsley's _Miscellanies_ (1859) stands out, for it contains the
immortal "Chalk-Stream Studies." The work of Francis Francis begins
at about the same time, though his _A Book on Angling_, which is still
one of the most valuable text-books, was not first published till
1867. Another well-known and excellent writer, Mr. H. Cholmondeley
Pennell, began in the early 'sixties; it is to him that we owe the
admirable volumes on fresh-water fishing in the "Badminton Library."
Among other English writers mention must be made of Messrs William
Senior, John Bickerdyke and F.M. Halford, who have all performed
signal services for angling and its literature. (See further
bibliography _ad fin_.) In America the latter half of the 19th century
produced a good deal of fishing literature, much of it of a high
standard.

[v.02 p.0024]

_I go a-Fishing_ by Dr. W.C. Prime (1873), _Fishing with the Fly_ by
C.F. Orvis, A. Nelson Cheney and others (1883), _The American Salmon
Fisherman_ and _Fly Rods and Fly Tackle_ by H.P. Wells (1886 and
1885), _Little Rivers_ and other books by the Rev. H. Van Dyke--these
are only a few specially distinguished in style and matter. Germany
and France have not contributed so largely to the modern library,
but in the first country we find several useful works by Max von dem
Borne, beginning with the _Handbuch der Angelfischerei_ of 1875,
and there are a good many other writers who have contributed to
the subject, while in France there are a few volumes on fishing by
different hands. The most noticeable is M.G. Albert Petit's _La Truite
de rivière_ (1897), an admirable book on fly-fishing. As yet, however,
though there are many enthusiastic anglers in France, the sport has
not established itself so firmly as to have inspired much literature
of its own; the same may be said of Germany.


_Modern Conditions_.--In the modern history of angling there are one
or two features that should be touched upon. The great increase in the
number of fishermen has had several results. One is a corresponding
increase in the difficulty of obtaining fishing, and a notable rise in
the value of rivers, especially those which are famed for salmon and
trout. Salmon-fishing now may be said to have become a pastime of the
rich, and there are signs that trout-fishing will before long have
to be placed in the same exclusive category, while even the right to
angle for less-esteemed fish will eventually be a thing of price. The
development is natural, and it has naturally led to efforts on the
part of the angling majority to counteract, if possible, the growing
difficulty. These efforts have been directed chiefly in two ways, one
the establishment of fishing clubs, the other the adoption of angling
in salt water. The fishing club of the big towns was originally a
social institution, and its members met together to sup, converse
on angling topics and perhaps to display notable fish that they had
caught. Later, however, arose the idea that it would be a convenience
if a club could give its members privileges of fishing as well as
privileges of reunion. So it comes about that all over the United
Kingdom, in British colonies and dependencies, in the United States,
and also in Germany and France, fishing clubs rent waters, undertake
preservation and restocking and generally lead an active and useful
existence. It is a good sign for the future of angling and anglers
that they are rapidly increasing in number. One of the oldest
fishing clubs, if not the oldest, was the Schuylkill club, founded
in Pennsylvania in 1732. An account of its history was published in
Philadelphia in 1830. Among the earliest clubs in London are to be
numbered such societies as The True Waltonians, The Piscatorial,
The Friendly Anglers and The Gresham, which are still flourishing. A
certain amount of literary activity has been observable in the world
of angling clubs, and several volumes of "papers" are on the records.
Most noticeable perhaps are the three volumes of _Anglers' Evenings_
published in 1880-1894, a collection of essays by members of the
Manchester Anglers' Association. The other method of securing a
continuance of sport, the adoption of sea-angling as a substitute for
fresh-water fishing, is quite a modern thing. Within the memory of
men still young the old tactics of hand-line and force were considered
good enough for sea fish. Now the fresh-water angler has lent his
centuries of experience in deluding his quarry; the sea-angler has
adopted many of the ideas presented to him, has modified or improved
others, and has developed the capture of sea-fish into a science
almost as subtle as the capture of their fresh-water cousins. One more
modern feature, which is also a result of the increase of anglers,
is the great advance made in fish-culture, fish-stocking and
fish-acclimatization during the last half-century. Fish-culture is
now a recognized industry; every trout-stream of note and value is
restocked from time to time as a matter of course; salmon-hatcheries
are numerous, though their practical utility is still a debated
matter, in Great Britain at any rate; coarse fish are also bred for
purposes of restocking; and, lastly, it is now considered a fairly
simple matter to introduce fish from one country to another, and even
from continent to continent. In England the movement owes a great deal
to Francis Francis, who, though he was not the earliest worker in the
field, was among the first to formulate the science of fish-breeding;
his book _Fish-Culture_, first published in 1863, still remains one of
the best treatises on the subject. In the United States, where fishery
science has had the benefit of generous governmental and official
support and countenance and so has reached a high level of
achievement, Dr. T. Garlick (_The Artificial Reproduction of Fishes_,
Cleveland, 1857) is honoured as a pioneer. On the continent of Europe
the latter half of the 19th century saw a very considerable and rapid
development in fish-culture, but until comparatively recently the
propagation and care of fish in most European waters have been
considered almost entirely from the point of view of the fish-stew and
the market. As to what has been done in the way of acclimatization it
is not necessary to say much. Trout (_Salmo fario_) were introduced
to New Zealand in the late 'sixties from England; in the 'eighties
rainbow trout (_Salmo irideus_) were also introduced from California;
now New Zealand provides the finest trout-fishing of its kind in the
world. American trout of different kinds have been introduced into
England, and brown trout have been introduced to America; but neither
innovation can be said to have been an unqualified success, though
the rainbow has established itself firmly in some waters of the
United Kingdom. It is still regarded with some suspicion, as it has
a tendency to wander from waters which do not altogether suit it. For
the rest, trout have been established in Ceylon, in Kashmir and in
South Africa, and early in 1906 an attempt was made to carry them to
British Central Africa. In fact the possibilities of acclimatization
are so great that, it seems probable, in time no river of the
civilized world capable of holding trout will be without them.


METHODS AND PRACTICE

Angling now divides itself into two main divisions, fishing in fresh
water and fishing in the sea. The two branches of the sport have much
in common, and sea-angling is really little more than an adaptation of
fresh-water methods to salt-water conditions. Therefore it will not
be necessary to deal with it at great length and it naturally comes in
the second place. Angling in fresh water is again divisible into
three principal parts, fishing on the surface, _i.e._ with the fly; in
mid-water, _i.e._ with a bait simulating the movements of a small fish
or with the small fish itself; and on the bottom with worms, paste or
one of the many other baits which experience has shown that fish will
take. With the premise that it is not intended here to go into the
minutiae of instruction which may more profitably be discovered in the
many works of reference cited at the end of this article, some account
of the subdivisions into which these three styles of fishing fall may
be given.


_Fresh-Water Fishing._

_Fly-fishing_.--Fly-fishing is the most modern of them, but it is
the most highly esteemed, principally because it is the method par
excellence of taking members of the most valuable sporting family
of fish, the _Salmonidae_. It may roughly be considered under three
heads, the use of the "wet" or sunk fly, of the "dry" or floating fly,
and of the natural insect. Of these the first is the most important,
for it covers the widest field and is the most universally practised.
There are few varieties of fish which may not either consistently or
occasionally be taken with the sunk fly in one of its two forms. The
large and gaudy bunch of feathers, silk and tinsel with which salmon,
very large trout, black bass and occasionally other predaceous
fish are taken is not, strictly speaking, a fly at all. It rather
represents, if anything, some small fish or subaqueous creature on
which the big fish is accustomed to feed and it may conveniently
receive the generic name of salmon-fly. The smaller lures, however,
which are used to catch smaller trout and other fish that habitually
feed on insect food are in most cases intended to represent that
food in one of its forms and are entitled to the name of "artificial
flies." The dry or floating fly is simply a development of the
imitation theory, and has been evolved from the wet fly in course of
closer observation of the habits of flies and fish in certain waters.
Both wet and dry fly methods are really a substitute for the third and
oldest kind of surface-fishing, the use of a natural insect as a bait.
Each method is referred to incidentally below.

[v.02 p.0025]

_Spinning, &c_.--Mid-water fishing, as has been said, broadly consists
in the use of a small fish, or something that simulates it, and its
devices are aimed almost entirely at those fish which prey on their
fellows. Spinning, live-baiting and trolling[1] are these devices.
In the first a small dead fish or an imitation of it made in metal,
india-rubber, or other substance, is caused to revolve rapidly as it
is pulled through the water, so that it gives the idea of something in
difficulties and trying to escape. In the second a small fish is
put on the angler's hook alive and conveys the same idea by its own
efforts. In the third a small dead fish is caused to dart up and
down in the water without revolving; it conveys the same idea as the
spinning fish, though the manipulation is different.

[Footnote 1: Trolling is very commonly confused in angling writing and
talk with _trailing_, which simply means drawing a spinning-bait along
behind a boat in motion.]

_Bottom-Fishing_.--Bottom-fishing is the branch of angling which is
the most general. There is practically no fresh-water fish that will
not take some one or more of the baits on the angler's list if they
are properly presented to it when it is hungry. Usually the baited
hook is on or near the bottom of the water, but the rule suggested by
the name "bottom-fishing" is not invariable and often the bait is best
used in mid-water; similarly, in "mid-water fishing" the bait must
sometimes be used as close to the bottom as possible. Bottom-fishing
is roughly divisible into two kinds, float-fishing, in which a bite is
detected by the aid of a float fastened to the line above the hook and
so balanced that its tip is visible above the water, and hand-fishing,
in which no float is used and the angler trusts to his hand to feel
the bite of a fish. In most cases either method can be adopted and it
is a matter of taste, but broadly speaking the float-tackle is more
suited to water which is not very deep and is either still or not
rapid. In great depths or strong streams a float is difficult to
manage.


_The Fish_.

It is practically impossible to classify the fish an angler catches
according to the methods which he employs, as most fish can be taken
by at least two of these methods, while many of those most highly
esteemed can be caught by all three. Sporting fresh-water fish are
therefore treated according to their families and merits from the
angler's point of view, and it is briefly indicated which method or
methods best succeed in pursuit of them.

_Salmon_.--First in importance come the migratory _Salmonidae_, and
at the head of them the salmon (_Salmo salar_), which has a two-fold
reputation as a sporting and as a commercial asset. The salmon
fisheries of a country are a very valuable possession, but it is only
comparatively recently that this has been realized and that salmon
rivers have received the legal protection which is necessary to their
well-being. Even now it cannot be asserted that in England the salmon
question, as it is called, is settled. Partly owing to our ignorance
of the life-history of the fish, partly owing to the difficulty of
reconciling the opposed interests of commerce and sport, the problem
as to how a river should be treated remains only partially solved,
though it cannot be denied that there has been a great advance in the
right direction. The life-history of the salmon, so far as it concerns
the matter in hand, may be very briefly summed up. It is bred in the
rivers and fed in the sea. The parent fish ascend in late autumn
as high as they can get, the ova are deposited on gravel shallows,
hatching out in the course of a few weeks into parr. The infant salmon
remains in fresh water at least one year, generally two years, without
growing more than a few inches, and then about May assumes what is
called the smolt-dress, that is to say, it loses the dark parr-bands
and red spots of infancy and becomes silvery all over. After this it
descends without delay to the sea, where it feeds to such good purpose
that in a year it has reached a weight of 2 lb to 4 lb or more, and it
may then reascend as a grilse. Small grilse indeed may only have been
in the sea a few months, ascending in the autumn of the year of their
first descent. If the fish survives the perils of its first ascent
and spawning season and as a kelt or spawned fish gets down to the sea
again, it comes up a second time as a salmon of weight varying from
8 lb upwards. Whether salmon come up rivers, and, if so, spawn, every
year, why some fish are much heavier than others of the same age, what
their mode of life is in the sea, why some run up in spring and summer
when the breeding season is not till about November or December,
whether they were originally sea-fish or river-fish--these and other
similar questions await a conclusive answer. One principal fact,
however, stands out amid the uncertainty, and that is that without a
free passage up and down unpolluted rivers and without protection on
the spawning beds salmon have a very poor chance of perpetuating
their species. Economic prudence dictates therefore that every year a
considerable proportion of running salmon should be allowed to escape
the dangers that confront them in the shape of nets, obstructions,
pollutions, rods and poachers. And it is in the adjustment of the
interests which are bound up in these dangers (the last excepted;
officially poachers have no interests, though in practice their plea
of "custom and right" has too often to be taken into consideration)
that the salmon question consists. To secure a fair proportion of fish
for the market, a fair proportion for the rods and a fair proportion
for the redds, without unduly damaging manufacturing interests, this
is the object of those who have the question at heart, and with many
organizations and scientific observers at work it should not be long
before the object is attained. Already the system of "marking" kelts
with a small silver label has resulted in a considerable array of
valuable statistics which have made it possible to estimate the
salmon's ordinary rate of growth from year to year. It is very largely
due to the efforts of anglers that the matter has gone so far. Whether
salmon feed in fresh water is another question of peculiar interest to
anglers, for it would seem that if they do not then the whole practice
of taking them must be an anomaly. Champions have arisen on both sides
of the argument, some, scientists, asserting that salmon (parr and
kelts excluded, for both feed greedily as opportunity occurs) do not
feed, others, mostly anglers, maintaining strongly that they do, and
bringing as evidence their undoubted and customary capture by rod and
line, not only with the fly, but also with such obvious food-stuffs as
dead baits, worms and prawns. On the other side it is argued that
food is never found inside a salmon after it has been long enough in a
river to have digested its last meal taken in salt water. The very few
instances of food found in salmon which have been brought forward to
support the contrary opinion are in the scientific view to be regarded
with great caution; certainly in one case of recent years, which at
first appeared to be well authenticated, it was afterwards found that
a small trout had been pushed down a salmon's throat after capture
by way of a joke. A consideration of the question, however, which
may perhaps make some appeal to both sides, is put forward by Dr.J.
Kingston Barton in the first of the two volumes on _Fishing_ (_Country
Life_ Series). He maintains that salmon do not habitually feed
in fresh water, but he does not reject the possibility of their
occasionally taking food. His view is that after exertion, such as
that entailed by running from pool to pool during a spate, the fish
may feel a very transient hunger and be impelled thereby to snap
at anything in its vicinity which looks edible. The fact that the
angler's best opportunity is undoubtedly when salmon have newly
arrived into a pool, supports this contention. The longer they are
compelled to remain in the same spot by lack of water the worse
becomes the prospect of catching them, and "unfishable" is one of the
expressive words which fishermen use to indicate the condition of a
river during the long periods of drought which too often distinguish
the sport.

[v.02 p.0026]

_Salmon Tackle and Methods_.--It is when the drought breaks up and the
long-awaited rain has come that the angler has his chance and makes
ready his tackle, against the period of a few days (on some short
streams only a few hours) during which the water will be right;
_right_ is a very exact term on some rivers, meaning not only that the
colour of the water is suitable to the fly, but that its height shall
be within an inch or two of a given mark, prescribed by experience.
As to the tackle which is made ready, there is, as in most angling
matters, divergence of opinion. Salmon fly-rods are now made
principally of two materials, greenheart and split-cane; the former is
less expensive, the latter is more durable; it is entirely a matter of
taste which a man uses, but the split-cane rod is now rather more in
favour, and for salmon-fishing it is in England usually built with a
core of steel running from butt to tip and known as a "steel centre."
How long the rod shall be is also a matter on which anglers differ,
but from 16 ft. to 17 ft. 6 in. represents the limits within which
most rods are preferred. The tendency is to reduce rather than to
increase the length of the rod, which may be accounted for by the
adoption of a heavy line. Early in the 19th century anglers used
light-topped rods of 20 ft. and even more, and with them a light line
composed partly of horse-hair; they thought 60 ft. with such material
a good cast. Modern experience, however, has shown that a shorter rod
with a heavier top will throw a heavy dressed silk line much farther
with less exertion. Ninety feet is now considered a good fishing cast,
while many men can throw a great deal more. In the United States,
where rods have long been used much lighter than in England, the
limits suggested would be considered too high. From 12 ft. 6 in. to 15
ft. 6 in. is about the range of the American angler's choice, though
long rods are not unknown with him. The infinite variety of reels,
lines, gut collars[1] and other forms of tackle which is now presented
to the angler's consideration and for his bewilderment is too wide a
subject to be touched upon here. Something, however, falls to be said
about flies. One of the perennially fruitful topics of inquiry is what
the fish takes a salmon-fly to be. Beyond a fairly general admission
that it is regarded as something endowed with life, perhaps resembling
a remembered article of marine diet, perhaps inviting gastronomic
experiment, perhaps irritating merely and rousing an impulse to
destroy, the discussion has not reached any definite conclusion. But
more or less connected with it is the controversy as to variety of
colour and pattern. Some authorities hold that a great variety of
patterns with very minute differences in colour and shades of colour
is essential to complete success; others contend that salmon do not
differentiate between nice shades of colour, that they only draw
distinctions between flies broadly as being light, medium or dark in
general appearance, and that the size of a fly rather than its colour
is the important point for the angler's consideration. Others again
go some way with the supporters of the colour-scheme and admit the
efficacy of flies whose general character is red, or yellow, or black,
and so on. The opinion of the majority, however, is probably based on
past experience, and a man's favourite flies for different rivers
and condition of water are those with which he or someone else has
previously succeeded. It remains a fact that in most fly-books great
variety of patterns will be discoverable, while certain old standard
favourites such as the Jock Scott, Durham Ranger, Silver Doctor, and
Thunder and Lightning will be prominent. Coming out of the region of
controversy it is a safe generalization to say that the general rule
is: big flies for spring fishing when rivers are probably high, small
flies for summer and low water, and flies medium or small in autumn
according to the conditions. Spring fishing is considered the cream of
the sport. Though salmon are not as a rule so numerous or so heavy as
during the autumn run, and though kelts are often a nuisance in the
early months, yet the clean-run fish of February, March or April amply
repays patience and disappointment by its fighting powers and its
beauty. Summer fishing on most rivers in the British Islands is
uncertain, but in Norway summer is the season, which possibly explains
to some extent the popularity of that country with British anglers,
for the pleasure of a sport is largely increased by good weather.

Two methods of using the fly are in vogue, casting and harling. The
first is by far the more artistic, and it may be practised either from
a boat, from the bank or from the bed of the river itself; in the last
case the angler wades, wearing waterproof trousers or wading-stockings
and stout nail-studded brogues. In either case the fishing is similar.
The fly is cast across and down stream, and has to be brought over the
"lie" of the fish, swimming naturally with its head to the stream,
its feathers working with tempting movement and its whole appearance
suggesting some live thing dropping gradually down and across stream.
Most anglers add to the motion of the fly by "working" it with short
pulls from the rod-top. When a fish takes, the rise is sometimes seen,
sometimes not; in any case the angler should not respond with the rod
until he _feels_ the pull. Then he should _tighten_, not strike. The
fatal word "strike," with its too literal interpretation, has caused
many a breakage. Having hooked his fish, the angler must be guided by
circumstances as to what he does; the salmon will usually decide
that for him. But it is a sound rule to give a well-hooked fish no
unnecessary advantage and to hold on as hard as the tackle will allow.
Good tackle will stand an immense strain, and with this "a minute
a pound" is a fair estimate of the time in which a fish should be
landed. A foul-hooked salmon (no uncommon thing, for a fish not
infrequently misses the fly and gets hooked somewhere in the body)
takes much longer to land. The other method of using the fly, harling,
which is practised on a few big rivers, consists in trailing the
fly behind a boat rowed backward and forwards across the stream and
dropping gradually downwards. Fly-fishing for salmon is also practised
on some lakes, into which the fish run. On lakes the boat drifts
slowly along a "beat," while the angler casts diagonally over the
spots where salmon are wont to lie. Salmon may also be caught by
"mid-water fishing," with a natural bait either spun or trolled
and with artificial spinning-baits of different kinds, and by
"bottom-fishing" with prawns, shrimps and worms. Spinning is usually
practised when the water is too high or too coloured for the fly;
trolling is seldom employed, but is useful for exploring pools which
cannot be fished by spinning or with the fly; the prawn is a valuable
lure in low water and when fish are unwilling to rise; while the worm
is killing at all states of the river, but except as a last resource
is not much in favour. There are a few waters where salmon have the
reputation of not taking a fly at all; in them spinning or prawning
are the usual modes of fishing. But most anglers, wherever possible,
prefer to use the fly. The rod for the alternative methods is
generally shorter and stiffer than the fly-rod, though made of like
material. Twelve to fourteen feet represents about the range of
choice. Outside the British Islands the salmon-fisher finds the
headquarters of his sport in Europe in Scandinavia and Iceland, and in
the New World in some of the waters of Canada and Newfoundland.

[Footnote 1: The precise date when silkworm gut (now so important a
feature of the angler's equipment) was introduced is obscure. Pepys,
in his _Diary_ (1667), mentions "a gut string varnished over" which
"is beyond any hair for strength and smallness" as a new angling
secret which he likes "mightily." In the third edition (1700) of
Chetham's _Vade-Mecum_, already cited, appears an advertisement of
the "East India weed, which is the only thing for trout, carp and
bottom-fishing." Again, in the third edition of Nobbes's _Art of
Trolling_ (1805), in the supplementary matter, appears a letter signed
by J. Eaton and G. Gimber, tackle-makers of Crooked Lane (July 20,
1801), in which it is stated that gut "is produced from the silkworm
and not an Indian weed, _as has hitherto been conjectured_...." The
word "gut" is employed before this date, but it seems obvious that
silkworm gut was for a long time used under the impression that it was
a weed, and that its introduction was a thing of the 17th century. It
is probable, however, that vegetable fibre was used too; we believe
that in some parts of India it is used by natives to this day. Pepys'
"minikin" was probably cat-gut.]

_Land-locked Salmon_.--The land-locked salmon (_Salmo salar sebago_)
of Canada and the lakes of Maine is, as its name implies, now regarded
by scientists as merely a land-locked form of the salmon. It does not
often attain a greater size than 20 ft, but it is a fine fighter and
is highly esteemed by American anglers. In most waters it does not
take a fly so well as a spinning-bait, live-bait or worm. The methods
of angling for it do not differ materially from those employed for
other _Salmonidae_.

_Pacific Salmon_.--Closely allied to _Salmo salar_ both in appearance
and habits is the genus _Oncorhynchus_, commonly known as Pacific
salmon. It contains six species, is peculiar to the North Pacific
Ocean, and is of some importance to the angler, though of not nearly
so much as the Atlantic salmon. The quinnat is the largest member of
the genus, closely resembles _salar_ in appearance and surpasses him
in size. The others, sockeye, humpback, cohoe, dog-salmon and masu,
are smaller and of less interest to the angler, though some of them
have great commercial value. The last-named is only found in the
waters of Japan, but the rest occur in greater or less quantities
in the rivers of Kamchatka, Alaska, British Columbia and Oregon. The
problems presented to science by solar are offered by _Oncorhynchus_
also, but there are variations in his life-history, such as the fact
that few if any fish of the genus are supposed to survive their first
spawning season. When once in the rivers none of these salmon is of
very much use to the angler; as, though it is stated that they will
occasionally take a fly or spoon in fresh water, they are not nearly
so responsive as their Atlantic cousin and in many streams are
undoubtedly not worth trying for. At the mouths of some rivers,
however, where the water is distinctly tidal, and in certain bays of
the sea itself they give very fine sport, the method of fishing for
them being usually to trail a heavy spoonbait behind a boat. By this
means remarkable bags of fish have been made by anglers. The sport is
of quite recent development.

[v.02 p.0027]

_Sea-Trout_.--Next to the salmon comes the sea-trout, the other
migratory salmonid of Europe. This is a fish with many local names and
a good deal of local variation. Modern science, however, recognises
two "races" only, _Salmo trutta_, the sea-trout proper, and _Salmo
cambricus_ or _eriox_, the bull-trout, or sewin of Wales, which
is most prominent in such rivers as the Coquet and Tweed. The
life-history of sea-trout is much the same as that of salmon, and the
fish on their first return from the sea in the grilse-stage are called
by many names, finnock, herling and whitling being perhaps the best
known. Of the two races _Salmo trutta_ alone is of much use to the
fly-fisher. The bull-trout, for some obscure reason, is not at all
responsive to his efforts, except in its kelt stage. Then it will take
greedily enough, but that is small consolation. The bull-trout is a
strong fish and grows to a great size and it is a pity that it is not
of greater sporting value, if only to make up for its bad reputation
as an article of food. Some amends, however, are made by its cousin
the sea-trout, which is one of the gamest and daintiest fish on the
angler's list. It is found in most salmon rivers and also in not a few
streams which are too small to harbour the bigger fish, while there
are many lakes in Scotland and Ireland (where the fish is usually
known as white trout) where the fishing is superb when the trout have
run up into them. Fly-fishing for sea-trout is not a thing apart.
A three-pounder that will impale itself on a big salmon-fly, might
equally well have taken a tiny trout-fly. Many anglers, when fishing a
sea-trout river where they run large, 5 lb or more, and where there is
also a chance of a salmon, effect a compromise by using a light 13
ft. or 14 ft. double-handed rod, and tackle not so slender as to make
hooking a salmon a certain disaster. But undoubtedly to get the full
pleasure out of sea-trout-fishing a single-handed rod of 10 ft. to 12
ft. with reasonably fine gut and small flies should be used, and
the way of using it is much the same as in wet-fly fishing for brown
trout, which will be treated later. When the double-handed rod and
small salmon-flies are used, the fishing is practically the same as
salmon-fishing except that it is on a somewhat smaller scale. Flies
for sea-trout are numberless and local patterns abound, as may be
expected with a fish which has so catholic a taste. But, as with
salmon-fishers so with sea-trout-fishers, experience forms belief and
success governs selection. Among the small salmon-flies and loch-flies
which will fill his book, the angler will do well to have a store of
very small trout-flies at hand, while experience has shown that even
the dry fly will kill sea-trout on occasion, a thing that is worth
remembering where rivers are low and fish shy. July, August and
September are in general the best months for sea-trout, and as they
are dry months the angler often has to put up with indifferent sport.
The fish will, however, rise in tidal water and in a few localities
even in the sea itself, or in salt-water lochs into which streams run.
Sea-trout have an irritating knack of "coming short," that is to
say, they will pluck at the fly without really taking it. There are
occasions, on the other hand, in loch-fishing where plenty of time
must be given to the fish without tightening on it, especially if it
happens to be a big one. Like salmon, sea-trout are to be caught with
spinning-baits and also with the worm. The main controversy that is
concerned with sea-trout is whether or no the fish captured in early
spring are clean fish or well-mended kelts. On the whole, as sea-trout
seldom run before May, the majority of opinion inclines to their being
kelts.

_Non-migratory Salmonidae_.--Of the non-migratory members of the
_Salmonidae_ the most important in Great Britain is the brown trout
(_Salmo fario_). Its American cousin the rainbow trout (_S. irideus_)
is now fairly well established in the country too, while other
transatlantic species both of trout and char (which are some of them
partially migratory, that is to say, migratory when occasion offers),
such as the steelhead (_S. rivularis_), fontinalis (_S. fonlinalis_)
and the cut-throat trout (_S. clarkii_), are at least not unknown.
All these fish, together with their allied forms in America, can be
captured with the fly, and, speaking broadly, the wet-fly method will
do well for them all. Therefore it is only necessary to deal with the
methods applicable to one species, the brown trout.

_Trout_.--Of the game-fishes the brown trout is the most popular,
for it is spread over the whole of Great Britain and most of Europe,
wherever there are waters suited to it. It is a fine sporting fish and
is excellent for the table, while in some streams and lakes it grows
to a very considerable size, examples of 16 lb from southern rivers
and 20 lb from Irish and Scottish lakes being not unknown. One of the
signs of its popularity is that its habits and history have produced
some very animated controversies. Some of the earliest discussions
were provoked by the liability of the fish to change its appearance
in different surroundings and conditions, and so at one time many a
district claimed its local trout as a separate species. Now, however,
science admits but one species, though, to such well-defined varieties
as the Loch Leven trout, the estuarine trout and the gillaroo, it
concedes the right to separate names and "races." In effect all, from
the great _ferox_ of the big lakes of Scotland and Ireland to
the little fingerling of the Devonshire brook, are one and the
same--_Salmo fario_.

_Wet-Fly Fishing for Trout_.--Fly-fishing for trout is divided into
three kinds: fishing with the artificial fly sunk or "wet," fishing
with it floating or "dry" and fishing with the natural insect. Of the
two first methods the wet fly is the older and may be taken first.
Time was when all good anglers cast their flies downstream and thought
no harm. But in 1857 W.C. Stewart published his _Practical Angler_, in
which he taught that it paid better to fish up-stream, for by so doing
the angler was not only less likely to be seen by the trout but was
more likely to hook his fish. The doctrine was much discussed and
criticized, but it gradually won adherents, until now up-stream
fishing is the orthodox method where it is possible. Stewart was also
one of the first to advocate a lighter rod in place of the heavy 12
ft. and 13 ft. weapons that were used in the North in his time.
There are still many men who use the long rod for wet-fly fishing in
streams, but there are now more who find 10 ft. quite enough for their
purpose. For lake-fishing from a boat, however, the longer rod is
still in many cases preferred. In fishing rivers the main art is
to place the right flies in the right places and to let them come
naturally down with the stream. The right flies may be ascertained to
some extent from books and from local wisdom, but the right places
can only be learnt by experience. It does not, however, take long to
acquire "an eye for water" and that is half the battle, for the haunts
of trout in rapid rivers are very much alike. In lake-fishing chance
has a greater share in bringing about success, but here too the right
fly and the right place are important; the actual management of rod,
line and flies, of course, is easier, for there is no stream to be
reckoned with. Though there is little left to be said about wet-fly
fishing where the fly is an imitation more or less exact of a natural
insect, there is another branch of the art which has been stimulated
by modern developments. This is the use of salmon-flies for big trout
much in the same way as for salmon. In such rivers as the Thames,
where the trout are cannibals and run very large, ordinary trout-flies
are of little use, and the fly-fisher's only chance is to use a big
fly and "work" it, casting across and down stream. The big fly has
also been found serviceable with the great fish of New Zealand and
with the inhabitants of such a piece of water as Blagdon Lake near
Bristol, where the trout run very large. For this kind of fishing much
stronger tackle and a heavier rod are required than for catching fish
that seldom exceed the pound.

[v.02 p.0028]

_Dry Fly_.--Fishing with the floating fly is a device of southern
origin, and the idea no doubt arose from the facts that on the placid
south country streams the natural fly floats on the surface and that
the trout are accustomed to feed on it there. The controversy "dry
_versus_ wet" was long and spirited, but the new idea won the day
and now not only on the chalk-streams, but on such stretches of even
Highland rivers as are suitable, the dry-fly man may be seen testing
his theories. These theories are simple and consist in placing before
the fish an exact imitation of the insect on which it is feeding, in
such a way that it shall float down exactly as if it were an insect
of the same kind. To this end special tackle and special methods have
been found necessary. Not only the fly but also the line has to float
on the wafer; the line is very heavy and therefore the rod (split-cane
or greenheart) must be stiff and powerful; special precautions have
to be taken that the fly shall float unhindered and shall not "drag";
special casts have to be made to counteract awkward winds; and,
lastly, the matching of the fly with the insect on the water is a
matter of much nicety, for the water-flies are of many shades and
colours. Many brains have busied themselves with the solution of these
problems with such success that dry-fly fishing is now a finished art.
The entomology of the dry-fly stream has been studied very deeply by
Mr. F.M. Halford, the late G.S. Marryat and others, and improvements
both in flies and tackle have been very great. Quite lately, however,
there has been a movement in favour of light rods for dry-fly fishing
as well as wet-fly fishing. The English split-cane rod for dry-fly
work weighs about an ounce to the foot, rather more or rather
less. The American rod of similar action and material weighs much
less--approximately 6 oz. to 10 ft. The light rod, it is urged, is
much less tiring and is quite powerful enough for ordinary purposes.
Against it is claimed that dry-fly fishing is not "ordinary purposes,"
that chalk-stream weeds are too strong and chalk-stream winds too wild
for the light rod to be efficient against them. However, the light rod
is growing in popular favour; British manufacturers are building rods
after the American style; and anglers are taking to them more and
more. The dry-fly method is now practised by many fishermen both in
Germany and France, but it has scarcely found a footing as yet in the
United States or Canada.

_Fishing with the Natural Fly._--The natural fly is a very killing
bait for trout, but its use is not wide-spread except in Ireland.
In Ireland "dapping" with the green drake or the daddy-longlegs is
practised from boats on most of the big loughs. A light whole-cane rod
of stiff build, about 16 ft. in length, is required with a floss-silk
line light enough to be carried out on the breeze; the "dap"
(generally two mayflies or daddy-longlegs on a small stout-wired hook)
is carried out by the breeze and just allowed to touch the water. When
a trout rises it is well to count "ten" before striking. Very heavy
trout are caught in this manner during the mayfly season. In the North
"creeper-fishing" is akin to this method, but the creeper is the
larva of the stone-fly, not a fly itself, and it is cast more like
an ordinary fly and allowed to sink. Sometimes, however, the mature
insect is used with equally good results. A few anglers still practise
the old style of dapping or "dibbling" after the manner advised by
Izaak Walton. It is a deadly way of fishing small overgrown brooks.
A stiff rod and strong gut are necessary, and a grasshopper or almost
any large fly will serve for bait.

_Other Methods._--The other methods of taking trout principally
employed are spinning, live-baiting and worming. For big river trout
such as those of the Thames a gudgeon or bleak makes the best spinning
or live bait, for great lake trout (_Jerox_) a small fish of their
own species and for smaller trout a minnow. There are numberless
artificial spinning-baits which kill well at times, the Devon being
perhaps the favourite. The use of the drop-minnow, which is trolling
on a lesser scale, is a killing method employed more in the north of
England than elsewhere. The worm is mostly deadly in thick water, so
deadly that it is looked on askance. But there is a highly artistic
mode of fishing known as "clear-water worming." This is most
successful when rivers are low and weather hot, and it needs an expert
angler to succeed in it. The worm has to be cast up-stream rather like
a fly, and the method is little inferior to fly-fishing in delicacy
and difficulty. The other baits for trout, or rather the other baits
which they will take sometimes, are legion. Wasp-grubs, maggots,
caterpillars, small frogs, bread, there is very little the fish will
not take. But except in rural districts little effort is made to catch
trout by means less orthodox than the fly, minnow and worm, and the
tendency nowadays both in England and America is to restrict anglers
where possible to the use of the artificial fly only.

_Grayling._--The only other member of the salmon family in England
which gives much sport to the fly-fisher is the grayling, a fish
which possesses the recommendation of rising well in winter. It can be
caught with either wet or dry fly, and with the same tackle as trout,
which generally inhabit the same stream. Grayling will take most small
trout-flies, but there are many patterns of fly tied specially for
them, most of them founded on the red tag or the green insect. Worms
and maggots are also largely used in some waters for grayling, and
there is a curious contrivance known as the "grasshopper," which is a
sort of compromise between the fly and bait. It consists of a leaded
hook round the shank of which is twisted bright-coloured wool. The
point is tipped with maggots, and the lure, half artificial, half
natural, is dropped into deep holes and worked up and down in the
water. In some places the method is very killing. The grayling has
been very prominent of late years owing to the controversy "grayling
_versus_ trout." Many people hold that grayling injure a trout stream
by devouring trout-ova and trout-food, by increasing too rapidly and
in other ways. Beyond, however, proving the self-evident fact that a
stream can only support a given amount of fish-life, the grayling's
opponents do not seem to have made out a very good case, for no real
evidence of its injuring trout has been adduced.

_Char._--The chars (_Sahelinus_) are a numerous family widely
distributed over the world, but in Great Britain are not very
important to the angler. One well-defined species (_Sahelinus
alpinus_) is found in some lakes of Wales and Scotland, but
principally in Westmorland and Cumberland. It sometimes takes a small
fly but is more often caught with small artificial spinning-baits. The
fish seldom exceeds 1-1/2 lb in Great Britain, though in Scandinavia
it is caught up to 5 lb or more. There are some important chars in
America, _fontinalis_ being one of the most esteemed. Some members of
the genus occasionally attain a size scarcely excelled by the
salmon. Among them are the Great Lake trout of America, _Cristinomer
namaycush_, and the Danubian "salmon" or huchen, _Salmo hucho_. Both
of these fish are caught principally with spinning-baits, but both
will on occasion take a salmon-fly, though not with any freedom
after they have reached a certain size. An attempt has been made to
introduce huchen into the Thames but at the time of writing the result
cannot yet be estimated.

_Pike_.--The pike (_Esox lucius_), which after the _Salmonidae_ is the
most valued sporting fish in Great Britain, is a fish of prey pure and
simple. Though it will occasionally take a large fly, a worm or other
ground-bait, its systematic capture is only essayed with small fish
or artificial spinning-baits. A live bait is supposed to be the most
deadly lure for big pike, probably because it is the method employed
by most anglers. But spinning is more artistic and has been found
quite successful enough by those who give it a fair and full trial.
Trolling, the method of "sink and draw" with a dead bait, referred to
previously in this article, is not much practised nowadays, though at
one time it was very popular. It was given up because the traditional
form of trolling-tackle was such that the bait had to be swallowed
by the pike before the hook would take hold, and that necessitated
killing all fish caught, whether large or small. The same objection
formerly applied to live-baiting with what was known as a gorge-hook.
Now, however, what is called snap-tackle is almost invariably used in
live-baiting, and the system is by some few anglers extended to the
other method too. Pike are autumn and winter fish and are at their
best in December. They grow to a very considerable size, fish of 20
lb being regarded as "specimens" and an occasional thirty-pounder
rewarding the zealous and fortunate. The heaviest pike caught with a
rod in recent years which is sufficiently authenticated, weighed 37
lb, but heavier specimens are said to have been taken in Irish lakes.
River pike up to about 10 lb in weight are excellent eating.

[v.02 p.0029]

America has several species of pike, of which the muskelunge of the
great lake region (_Esox masquinongy_) is the most important. It is a
very fine fish, excelling _Esox lucius_ both in size and looks. From
the angler's point of view it may be considered simply as a large
pike and may be caught by similar methods. It occasionally reaches the
weight of 80 lb or perhaps more. The pickerel (_Esox reticulatus_) is
the only other of the American pikes which gives any sport. It reaches
a respectable size, but is as inferior to the pike as the pike is to
the muskelunge.

_Perch_.--Next to the pikes come the perches, also predatory fishes.
The European perch (_Perca fluviatilis_) has a place by itself in the
affections of anglers. When young it is easy to catch by almost any
method of fishing, and a large number of Walton's disciples have been
initiated into the art with its help. Worms and small live-baits are
the principal lures, but at times the fish will take small bright
artificial spinning-baits well, and odd attractions such as boiled
shrimps, caddis-grubs, small frogs, maggots, wasp-grubs, &c. are
sometimes successful. The drop-minnow is one of the best methods of
taking perch. Very occasionally, and principally in shallow pools, the
fish will take an artificial fly greedily, a small salmon-fly being
the best thing to use in such a case. A perch of 2 lb is a good fish,
and a specimen of 4-1/2 lb about the limit of angling expectation.
There have been rare instances of perch over 5 lb, and there are
legends of eight-pounders, which, however, need authentication.

_Black Bass_.--The yellow perch of America (_Perca flavescens_) is
very much like its European cousin in appearance and habits, but it is
not so highly esteemed by American anglers, because they are fortunate
in being possessed of a better fish in the black bass, another member
of the perch family. There are two kinds of black bass (_Micropterus
salmoides_ and _Micropterus dolomieu_), the large-mouthed and the
small-mouthed. The first is more a lake and pond fish than the second,
and they are seldom found in the same waters. As the black bass is a
fly-taking fish and a strong fighter, it is as valuable to the angler
as a trout and is highly esteemed. Bass-flies are _sui generis_,
but incline more to the nature of salmon-flies than trout-flies. An
artificial frog cast with a fly-rod or very light spinning-rod is also
a favourite lure. For the rest the fish will take almost anything in
the nature of worms or small fish, like its cousin the perch. A 4 lb
bass is a good fish, but five-pounders are not uncommon. Black bass
have to some extent been acclimatized in France.

The _ruffe_ or _pope_ (_Acerina vulgaris_) is a little fish common in
the Thames and many other slow-flowing English rivers. It is very
like the perch in shape but lacks the dusky bars which distinguish
the other, and is spotted with dark brown spots on a golden olive
background. It is not of much use to the angler as it seldom exceeds
3 oz. in weight. It takes small worms, maggots and similar baits
greedily, and is often a nuisance when the angler is expecting better
fish. Allied to the perches is the pike-perch, of which two species
are of some importance to the angler, one the wall-eye of eastern
America (_Stizostedion vitreum_) and the other the zander of Central
Europe (_Sandrus lucioperca_). The last especially is a fine fighter,
occasionally reaching a weight of 20 lb. It is usually caught by
spinning, but will take live-baits, worms and other things of that
nature. The Danube may be described as its headquarters. It is a fish
whose sporting importance will be more realized as anglers on the
continent become more numerous.

_Cyprinidae_.--The carp family (_Cyprinidae_) is a large one and its
members constitute the majority of English sporting fishes. In America
the various kinds of chub, sucker, dace, shiner, &c. are little
esteemed and are regarded as spoils for the youthful angler only, or
as baits for the better fish in which the continent is so rich. In
England, however, the _Cyprinidae_ have an honoured place in the
affections of all who angle "at the bottom," while in Europe some of
them have a commercial value as food-fishes. In India at least one
member of the family, the mahseer, takes rank with the salmon as a
"big game" fish.

_Carp, Tench, Barbel, Bream_.--The family as represented in England
may be roughly divided into two groups, those which feed on the bottom
purely and those which occasionally take flies. The first consists
of carp, tench, barbel and bream. Of these carp, tench and bream are
either river or pool fish, while the barbel is found only in rivers,
principally in the Thames and Trent. The carp grows to a great size,
20 lb being not unknown; tench are big at 5 lb; barbel have been
caught up to 14 lb or rather more; and bream occasionally reach 8 lb,
while a fish of over 11 lb is on record. All these fish are capricious
feeders, carp and barbel being particularly undependable. In some
waters it seems to be impossible to catch the large specimens, and the
angler who seeks to gain trophies in either branch of the sport needs
both patience and perseverance. Tench and bream are not quite so
difficult. The one fish can sometimes be caught in great quantities,
and the other is generally to be enticed by the man who knows how to
set about it. Two main principles have to be observed in attacking all
these fish, ground-baiting and early rising. Ground-baiting consists
in casting food into the water so as to attract the fish to a certain
spot and to induce them to feed. Without it very little can be done
with shy and large fish of these species. Early rising is necessary
because they only feed freely, as a rule, from daybreak till about
three hours after sun-rise. The heat of a summer or early autumn day
makes them sluggish, but an hour or two in the evening is sometimes
remunerative. The bait for them all should usually lie on the bottom,
and it consists mainly of worms, wasp and other grubs, pastes of
various kinds; and for carp, and sometimes bream, of vegetable baits
such as small boiled potatoes, beans, peas, stewed wheat, pieces of
banana, &c. None of these fish feed well in winter.

_Roach, Rudd, Dace, Chub_.--The next group of _Cyprinidae_ consists
of fish which will take a bait similar to those already mentioned and
also a fly. The sizes which limit the ordinary angler's aspirations
are roach about 2 lb, rudd about 2-1/2 lb, dace about 1 lb and chub
about 5 lb. There are instances of individuals heavier than this, one
or two roach and many rudd of over 3 lb being on record, while dace
have been caught up to 1 lb 6 oz., and chub of over 7 lb are not
unknown. Roach only take a fly as a rule in very hot weather when
they are near the surface, or early in the season when they are on
the shallows; the others will take it freely all through the summer.
Ordinary trout flies do well enough for all four species, but chub
often prefer something larger, and big bushy lures called "palmers,"
which represent caterpillars, are generally used for them. The fly may
be used either wet or dry for all these fish, and there is little to
choose between the methods as regards effectiveness. Fly-fishing for
these fish is a branch of angling which might be more practised than
it is, as the sport is a very fair substitute for trout fishing.
Roach, chub and dace feed on bottom food and give good sport all the
winter.

_Gudgeon, Bleak, Minnow, &c_.--The small fry of European waters,
gudgeon, bleak, minnow, loach, stickleback and bullhead, are
principally of value as bait for other fish, though the first-named
species gives pretty sport on fine tackle and makes a succulent dish.
Small red worms are the best bait for gudgeon and minnows, a maggot
or small fly for bleak, and the rest are most easily caught in a
small-meshed net. The loach is used principally in Ireland as a trout
bait, and the other two are of small account as hook-baits, though
sticklebacks are a valuable form of food for trout in lakes and pools.

_Mahseer_.--Among the carps of India, several of which give good
sport, special mention must be made of the mahseer (_Barbus mosal_),
a fish which rivals the salmon both in size and strength. It reaches a
weight of 60 lb and sometimes more and is fished for in much the same
manner as salmon, with the difference that after about 10 lb it takes
a spinning-bait, usually a heavy spoon-bait, better than a fly.

[v.02 p.0030]

_Cat-fish_.--None of the fresh-water cat-fishes (of which no example
is found in England) are what may be called sporting fish, but several
may be caught with rod and line. There are several kinds in North
America, and some of them are as heavy as 150 lb, but the most
important is the wels (_Silurus glanis_) of the Danube and
neighbouring waters. This is the largest European fresh-water fish,
and it is credited with a weight of 300 lb or more. It is a bottom
feeder and will take a fish-bait either alive or dead; it is said
occasionally to run at a spinning bait when used very deep.

_Burbot_.--The burbot (_Lota vulgaris_) is the only fresh-water member
of the cod family in Great Britain, and it is found only in a few
slow-flowing rivers such as the Trent, and there not often, probably
because it is a fish of sluggish habits which feeds only at night.
It reaches a weight of 3 lb or more, and will take most flesh or
fish baits on the bottom. The burbot of America has similar
characteristics.

_Sturgeon_.--The sturgeons, of which there are a good many species in
Europe and America, are of no use to the angler. They are anadromous
fishes of which little more can be said than that a specimen might
take a bottom bait once in a way. In Russia they are sometimes caught
on long lines armed with baited hooks, and occasionally an angler
hooks one. Such a case was reported from California in _The Field_ of
the 19th of August 1905.

_Shad_.--Two other anadromous fish deserve notice. The first is the
shad, a herring-like fish of which two species, allice and twaite
(_Clupea alosa_ and _C. finta_), ascend one or two British and several
continental rivers in the spring. The twaite is the more common, and
in the Severn, Wye and Teme it sometimes gives very fair sport to
anglers, taking worm and occasionally fly or small spinning bait. It
is a good fighter, and reaches a weight of about 3 lb. Its sheen when
first caught is particularly beautiful. America also has shads.

_Flounder_.--The other is the flounder (_Pleuronectes flesus_), the
only flat-fish which ascends British rivers. It is common a long way
up such rivers as the Severn, far above tidal influence, and it will
take almost any flesh-bait used on the bottom. A flounder of 1 lb is,
in a river, a large one, but heavier examples are sometimes caught.

_Eel_.--The eel (_Anguilla vulgaris_) is regarded by the angler more
as a nuisance than a sporting fish, but when of considerable size (and
it often reaches a weight of 8 lb or more) it is a splendid fighter
and stronger than almost any fish that swims. Its life history has
long been disputed, but it is now accepted that it breeds in the sea
and ascends rivers in its youth. It is found practically everywhere,
and its occurrence in isolated ponds to which it has never been
introduced by human agency has given rise to a theory that it travels
overland as well as by water. The best baits for eels are worms and
small fish, and the best time to use them is at night or in thundery
or very wet weather.


_Sea Angling._

Sea angling is attended by almost as many refinements of tackle and
method as fresh-water angling. The chief differences are differences
of locality and the habits of the fish. To a certain extent sea
angling may also be divided into three classes--fishing on the surface
with the fly, at mid-water with spinning or other bait, and on the
bottom; but the first method is only practicable at certain times and
in certain places, and the others, from the great depths that often
have to be sounded and the heavy weights that have to be used in
searching them, necessitate shorter and stouter rods, larger reels and
stronger tackle than fresh-water anglers employ. Also, of course, the
sea-fisherman is liable to come into conflict with very large fish
occasionally. In British waters the monster usually takes the form of
a skate or halibut. A specimen of the former weighing 194 lb has
been landed off the Irish coast with rod and line in recent years. In
American waters there is a much greater opportunity of catching fish
of this calibre.

_Great Game Fishes_.--There are several giants of the sea which are
regularly pursued by American anglers, chief among them being the
tarpon (_Tarpon atlanticus_) and the tuna or tunny (Thunnus thynnus),
which have been taken on rod and line up to 223 lb and 251 lb
respectively. Jew-fish and black sea-bass of over 400 lb have been
taken on rod and line, and there are many other fine sporting fish
of large size which give the angler exciting hours on the reefs of
Florida, or the coasts of California, Texas or Mexico. Practically
all of them are taken with a fish-bait either live or dead, and used
stationary on the bottom or in mid-water trailed behind a boat.

_British Game Fishes_.--On a much smaller scale are the fishes most
esteemed in British waters. The bass (_Labrax lupus_) heads the list
as a plucky and rather difficult opponent. A fish of 10 lb is a large
one, but fifteen-pounders have been taken. Small or "school" bass
up to 3 lb or 4 lb may sometimes be caught with the fly (generally a
roughly constructed thing with big wings), and when they are really
taking the sport is magnificent. In some few localities it is possible
to cast for them from rocks with a salmon rod, but usually a boat is
required. In other places bass may be caught from the shore with
fish bait used on the bottom in quite shallow water. They may again
sometimes be caught in mid-water, and in fact there are few methods
and few lures employed in sea angling which will not account for
them at times. The pollack (_Gadus pollachius_) and coal-fish (_Gadus
virens_) come next in esteem. Both in some places reach a weight of 20
lb or more, and both when young will take a fly. Usually, however,
the best sport is obtained by trailing some spinning-bait, such as
an artificial or natural sand-eel, behind a boat. Sometimes, and
especially for pollack, the bait must be kept near the bottom and
heavy weights on the line are necessary; the coal-fish are more prone
to come to the surface for feeding. The larger grey mullet (_Mugil
capito_) is a great favourite with many anglers, as it is extremely
difficult to hook, and when hooked fights strongly. Fishing for mullet
is more akin to fresh-water fishing than any branch of sea-angling,
and indeed can be carried on in almost fresh water, for the fish
frequent harbours, estuaries and tidal pools. They can be caught
close to the surface, at mid-water and at the bottom, and as a rule
vegetable baits, such as boiled macaroni, or ragworms are found to
answer best. Usually ground-baiting is necessary, and the finer the
tackle used the greater is the chance of sport. Not a few anglers fish
with a float as if for river fish. The fish runs up to about 8 lb in
weight. The cod (_Gadus morhua_) grows larger and fights less gamely
than any of the fish already mentioned. It is generally caught with
bait used on the bottom from a boat, but in places codling, or young
cod, give some sport to anglers fishing from the shore. The mackerel
(_Scomber scomber_) gives the best sport to a bait, usually a strip of
fish skin, trailed behind a boat fairly close to the surface, but it
will sometimes feed on the bottom. Mackerel on light tackle are game
fighters, though they do not usually much exceed 2 lb. Whiting and
whiting-pout (_Gadus merlangus_ and _Gadus luscus_) both feed on or
near the bottom, do not grow to any great size, and are best sought
with fine tackle, usually an arrangement of three or four hooks at
intervals above a lead which is called a "paternoster." If one or more
of the hooks are on the bottom the tackle will do for different kinds
of flat fish as well, flounders and dabs being the two species most
often caught by anglers. The bream (_Pagellus centrodontus_) is
another bottom-feeder which resembles the fresh-water bream both in
appearance and habits. It is an early morning or rather a nocturnal
fish, and grows to a weight of 3 lb or 4 lb. Occasionally it will feed
in mid-water or even close to the surface. The conger eel (_Conger
vulgaris_) is another night-feeder, which gives fine sport, as
it grows to a great size, and is very powerful. Strong tackle is
essential for conger fishing, as so powerful an opponent in the
darkness cannot be given any law. The bait must be on or near the
bottom. There are, of course, many other fish which come to the
angler's rod at times, but the list given is fairly complete as
representing the species which are especially sought. Beside them are
occasional (in some waters too frequent) captures such as dog-fish
and sharks, skates and rays. Many of them run to a great size and
give plenty of sport on a rod, though they are not as a rule welcomed.
Lastly, it must be mentioned that certain of the Salmonidae, smelts
_(Osmerus eperlanus),_ sea-trout, occasionally brown trout, and
still more occasionally salmon can be caught in salt water either in
sea-lochs or at the mouths of rivers. Smelts are best fished for
with tiny hooks tied on fine gut and baited with fragments of shrimp,
ragworm, and other delicacies.

[v.02 p.0031]


MODERN AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCE BOOKS.--_History and Literature:_
Prof. A.N. Mayer, _Sport with Gun and Rod_ (New York and Edinburgh),
with a chapter on "The Primitive Fish-Hook," by Barnet Phillips;
Dr.R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with
many illustrations and descriptions of early fish-books, &c.; H.
Cholmondeley Pennell and others, _Fishing Gossip_ (Edinburgh, 1866),
contains a paper on "Fishing and Fish-Hooks of the Earliest Date," by
Jonathan Couch; C.D. Badham, _Prose Halieutics_ (London, 1854), full
of curious lore, relating, however, more to ichthyophagy than angling;
_The Angler's Note-Book and Naturalist's Record_ (London, 1st series
1881, 2nd series 1888), edited by T. Satchell, the two volumes
containing much valuable matter on angling history, literature,
and other topics; R. Blakey, _Angling Literature_ (London, 1856),
inaccurate and badly arranged, but containing a good deal of curious
matter not to be found elsewhere; O. Lambert, _Angling Literature in
England_ (London, 1881), a good little general survey; J.J.
Manley, _Fish and Fishing_ (London, 1881), with chapters on fishing
literature, &c.; R.B. Marston, _Walton and Some Earlier Writers on
Fish and Fishing_ (London and New York, 1894); _Piscatorial Society's
Papers_ (vol. i. London, 1890), contains a paper on "The Useful and
Fine Arts in their Relation to Fish and Fishing," by S.C. Harding;
_Super Flumina_ (Anon.; London, 1904), gives _passim_ useful
information on fishing literature; T. Westwood and T. Satchell,
_Bibliotheca Piscatoria_ (London, 1883) an admirable bibliography
of the sport: together with the supplement prepared by R.B. Marston,
1901, it may be considered wonderfully complete.


_Methods and Practice._--General Fresh-water Fishing: F. Francis,
_A Book on Angling_ (London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly sound
text-book, particularly good on salmon fishing; H.C. Pennell
and others, _Fishing--Salmon and Trout and Pike and Coarse Fish_
(Badminton Library, 2 vols., London, 1904); John Bickerdyke, _The
Book of the All-Round Angler_ (London, 1900); Horace G. Hutchinson
and others, _Fishing (Country Life_ Series, 2 vols., London, 1904),
contains useful ichthyological notes by G.A. Boulenger, a chapter on
"The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water," by Dr.J. Kingston Barton, and
a detailed account of the principal salmon rivers of Norway, by C.E.
Radclyffe.


_Salmon and Trout._--Major J.P. Traherne, _The Habits of the Salmon_
(London, 1889); G.M. Kelson, _The Salmon Fly_ (London, 1895), contains
instructions on dressing salmon-flies; A.E. Gathorne Hardy, _The
Salmon_ ("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898); Sir H. Maxwell,
Bt., _Salmon and Sea Trout_ (Angler's Library, London, 1898); Sir E.
Grey, Bt., _Fly Fishing_ (Haddon Hall Library, London and New York,
1899); W. Earl Hodgson, _Salmon Fishing_ (London, 1906), contains a
series of coloured plates of salmon flies; Marquis of Granby, _The
Trout_ ("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1898). Wet Fly Fishing:
W.C. Stewart, _The Practical Angler_ (London, 1905), a new edition of
an old but still valuable work; E.M. Tod, _Wet Fly Fishing_ (London,
1903); W. Earl Hodgson, _Trout Fishing_ (London, 1905), contains
a series of admirable coloured plates of artificial flies. Dry Fly
Fishing: F.M. Halford, _Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice_
(London, 1902), the standard work on the subject; G.A.B. Dewar, _The
Book of the Dry Fly_ (London, 1897). Grayling: T.E. Pritt, The Book
of the Grayling (Leeds, 1888); H.A. Rolt, _Grayling Fishing in South
Country Streams_ (London, 1905).


_Coarse Fish._--C.H. Wheeley, _Coarse Fish_ (Angler's Library, London,
1897); J.W. Martin, _Practical Fishing_ (London); _Float-fishing
and Spinning_ (London, 1885); W. Senior and others, _Pike and Perch_
("Fur, Feather and Fin Series," London, 1900); A.J. Jardine, _Pike and
Perch_ (Angler's Library, London, 1898); H.C. Pennell, _The Book of
the Pike_ (London, 1884); Greville Fennell, _The Book of the Roach_
(London, 1884).


_Sea Fishing._--J.C. Wilcocks, _The Sea Fisherman_ (London, 1884);
John Bickerdyke (and others), _Sea Fishing_ (Badminton Library,
London, 1895); _Practical Letters to Sea Fishers_ (London, 1902); F.G.
Aflalo, _Sea Fish_ (Angler's Library, London, 1897); P.L. Haslope,
_Practical Sea Fishing_ (London, 1905).


_Tackle, Flies, &c._--H.C. Pennell, _Modern Improvements in Fishing
Tackle_ (London, 1887); H.P. Wells, _Fly Rods and Fly Tackle_ (New
York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds, _The Fly-Fisher's Entomology_
(London, 1883); F.M. Halford, _Dry Fly Entomology_ (London, 1902);
_Floating Flies and How to Dress them_ (London, 1886); T.E. Pritt,
_North Country Flies_ (London, 1886); H.G. M'Clelland, _How to tie
Flies for Trout and Grayling_ (London, 1905); Capt. J.H. Hale, _How
to tie Salmon Flies_ (London, 1892); F.G. Aflalo, John Bickerdyke and
C.H. Wheeley. How to buy Fishing Tackle (London).


_Ichthyology, Fisheries, Fish-Culture, &c._--Dr. Francis Day, _Fishes
of Great Britain and Ireland_ (2 vols., London, 1889); _British and
Irish Salmonidae_ (London, 1887); Dr. A.C.L.G. Günther, _Introduction
to the Study of Fishes_ (London, 1880); Dr. D.S. Jordan, _A Guide to
the Study of Fishes_ (2 vols., New York and London, 1905); F. Francis,
_Practical Management of Fisheries_ (London, 1883); _Fish Culture_
(London, 1865); F.M. Halford, _Making a Fishery_ (London, 1902); J.J.
Armistead, _An Angler's Paradise_ (Dumfries, 1902); F. Mather, _Modern
Fish-Culture_ (New York, 1899); Livingstone Stone, _Domesticated
Trout_ (Charlestown and London, 1896).


_Angling Guide Books, Geographical Information, &c._--Great Britain:
_The Angler's Diary_ (London), gives information about most important
waters in the British Isles, and about some foreign waters, published
annually; _The Sportsman's and Tourist's Guide to Scotland_ (London),
a good guide to angling in Scotland, published twice a year; Augustus
Grimble, _The Salmon Rivers of Scotland_ (London, 1900, 4 vols.); _The
Salmon Rivers of Ireland_ (London, 1903); _The Salmon and Sea Trout
Rivers of England and Wales_ (London, 1904, 2 vols.), this fine series
gives minute information as to salmon pools, flies, seasons, history,
catches, &c.; W.M. Gallichan, _Fishing in Wales_ (London, 1903);
_Fishing in Derbyshire_ (London, 1905); J. Watson, _English Lake
District Fisheries_ (London, 1899); C. Wade, _Exmoor Streams_ (London,
1903); G.A.B. Dewar, _South Country Trout Streams_ (London, 1899);
"Hi Regan," _How and Where to Fish in Ireland_ (London, 1900); E.S.
Shrubsole, _The Land of Lakes_ (London, 1906), a guide to fishing in
County Donegal. Europe: "Palmer Hackle," _Hints on Angling_ (London,
1846), contains "suggestions for angling excursions in France and
Belgium," but they are too old to be of much service; W.M. Gallichan,
_Fishing and Travel in Spain_ (London, 1905); G.W. Hartley, _Wild
Sport with Gun, Rifle and Salmon Rod_ (Edinburgh, 1903), contains a
chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem Borne, _Wegweiser für Angler
durch Deutschland, Oesterreich und die Schweiz_ (Berlin, 1877), a book
of good conception and arrangement, and still useful, though out of
date in many particulars; _Illustrierte Angler-Schule (der deutschen
Fischerei Zeitung)_, Stettin, contains good chapters on the wels and
huchen; H. Storck, Der Angelsport (Munich, 1898), contains a certain
amount of geographical information; E.B. Kennedy, _Thirty Seasons
in Scandinavia_ (London, 1904), contains useful information about
fishing; General E.F. Burton, _Trouting in Norway_ (London, 1897);
Abel Chapman, _Wild Norway_ (London, 1897); F. Sandeman, _Angling
Travels in Norway_ (London, 1895). America: C.F. Holder, _Big Game
Fishes of the United States_ (New York, 1903); J.A. Henshall, _Bass,
Pike, Perch and Pickerel_ (New York, 1903); Dean Sage and others,
_Salmon and Trout_ (New York, 1902); E.T.D. Chambers, Angler's Guide
to Eastern Canada (Québec, 1899); Rowland Ward, _The English Angler in
Florida_ (London, 1898); J. Turner Turner, _The Giant Fish of Florida_
(London, 1902). India: H.S. Thomas, _The Rod in India_ (London, 1897);
"Skene Dhu," _The Mighty Mahseer_ (Madras, 1906), contains a chapter
on the acclimatization of trout in India and Ceylon. New Zealand:
W.H. Spackman, _Trout in New Zealand_ (London, 1894); Capt. Hamilton,
_Trout Fishing and Sport in Maoriland_ (Wellington, 1905), contains a
valuable section on fishing waters.

_Fishery Law._--G.C. Oke, _A Handy Book of the Fishery Laws_ (edited
by J.W. Willis Band and A.C. M'Barnet, London, 1903).



ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, the contention that the British people in the
United Kingdom, its colonies, and the United States, are the racial
descendants of the "ten tribes" forming the kingdom of Israel, large
numbers of whom were deported by Sargon king of Assyria on the fall
of Samaria in 721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a
book called _Philo-Israel_) rests on premises which are deemed by
scholars--both theological and anthropological--to be utterly unsound.



ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE:--The French language (_q.v._) came over
to England with William the Conqueror. During the whole of the 12th
century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the literary
language of England, and it was in use at the court until the 14th
century. It was not until the reign of Henry IV. that English became
the native tongue of the kings of England. After the loss of the
French provinces, schools for the teaching of French were established
in England, among the most celebrated of which we may quote that
of Marlborough. The language then underwent certain changes which
gradually distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but,
except for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules
of pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the language
was subjected were the individual modifications of the various
authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-Norman writers, an
Anglo-Norman language, properly so called, gradually ceased to exist.
The prestige enjoyed by the French language, which, in the 14th
century, the author of the _Manière de language_ calls "le plus bel et
le plus gracious language et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole,
qui soit au monde et de touz genz mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre
(quar Dieux le fist si douce et amiable principalement à l'oneur et
loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce il peut comparer au parler des angels
du ciel, pour la grand doulceur et biaultée d'icel)," was such that it
was not till 1363 that the chancellor opened the parliamentary session
with an English speech. And although the Hundred Years' War led to a
decline in the study of French and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman
literature, the French language continued, through some vicissitudes,
to be the classical language of the courts of justice until the 17th
century. It is still the language of the Channel Islands, though there
too it tends more and more to give way before the advance of English.

[v.02 p.0032]

It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period of
Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the 12th century to
the end of the first quarter of the 13th. The end of this period is
generally said to coincide with the loss of the French provinces to
Philip Augustus, but literary and political history do not correspond
quite so precisely, and the end of the first period would be more
accurately denoted by the appearance of the history of William the
Marshal in 1225 (published for the _Societe de l'histoire de France_,
by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901). It owes its brilliancy largely to
the protection accorded by Henry II. of England to the men of letters
of his day. "He could speak French and Latin well, and is said to
have known something of every tongue between'the Bay of Biscay and
the Jordan.' He was probably the most highly educated sovereign of his
day, and amid all his busy active life he never lost his interest in
literature and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty,
they always had either a bow or a book" (_Dict. of Nat. Biog._). Wace
and Benoît de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding, and
it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her poems. An event
with which he was closely connected, viz. the murder of Thomas Becket,
gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of which are purely
Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the works of Béroul and Thomas
respectively, as well as some of the most celebrated of the
Anglo-Norman _romans d'aventure_. It is important to keep this fact in
mind when studying the different works which Anglo-Norman literature
has left us. We will examine these works briefly, grouping them
into narrative, didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and dramatic
literature.


_Narrative Literature:_ (_a_) _Epic and Romance_.--The French epic
came over to England at an early date. We know that the _Chanson
de Roland_ was sung at the battle of Hastings, and we possess
Anglo-Norman MSS. of a few _chansons de geste_. The _Pèlerinage de
Charlemagne_ (Koschwitz, _Altfranzösische Bibliothek_, 1883) was, for
instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman manuscript of the British
Museum (now lost), although the author was certainly a Parisian. The
oldest manuscript of the _Chanson de Roland_ that we possess is also
a manuscript written in England, and amongst the others of less
importance we may mention _La Chançun de Willame_, the MS. of which
has (June 1903) been published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Paul
Meyer, _Romania_, xxxii. 597-618). Although the diffusion of epic
poetry in England did not actually inspire any new _chansons de
geste_, it developed the taste for this class of literature, and the
epic style in which the tales of _Horn_, of _Bovon de Hampton_, of
_Guy of Warwick_ (still unpublished), of _Waldef_ (still unpublished),
and of _Fulk Fitz Warine_ are treated, is certainly partly due to this
circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down to us
only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a previous
poetic form, and what we possess is really only a rendering into prose
similar to the transformations undergone by many of the _chansons de
geste_ (cf. L. Brandin, _Introduction to Fulk Fitz Warine_, London,
1904).

The interinfluence of French and English literature can be studied in
the Breton romances and the _romans d'aventure_ even better than in
the epic poetry of the period. The _Lay of Orpheus_ is known to us
only through an English imitation; the _Lai du cor_ was composed by
Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century (Wulff, Lund,
1888). The _lais_ of Marie de France were written in England, and the
greater number of the romances composing the _matière de Bretagne_
seem to have passed from England to France through the medium of
Anglo-Norman. The legends of Merlin and Arthur, collected in the
_Historia Regum Britanniae_ by Geoffrey of Monmouth ([+] 1154), passed
into French literature, bearing the character which the bishop of
St. Asaph had stamped upon them. Chrétien de Troye's _Perceval_ (c.
1175) is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron (c.
1215) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G. Paris and J.
Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols., _Société des Anciens Textes_) from Geoffrey of
Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love-legend of the middle ages,
and one of the most beautiful inventions of world-literature, the
story of Tristan and Iseult, tempted two authors, Béroul and Thomas,
the first of whom is probably, and the second certainly, Anglo-Norman
(see ARTHURIAN LEGEND; GRAIL, THE HOLY; TRISTAN). One _Folie Tristan_
was composed in England in the last years of the 12th century. (For
all these questions see _Soc. des Anc. Textes_, Muret's ed. 1903;
Bédier's ed. 1902-1905). Less fascinating than the story of Tristan
and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the two
_romans d'aventure_ of Hugh of Rutland, _Ipomedon_ (published by
Kölbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) and _Protesilaus_ (still
unpublished) written about 1185. The first relates the adventures of
a knight who married the young duchess of Calabria, niece of King
Meleager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea, the king's wife. The
second poem is the sequel to _Ipomedon_, and deals with the wars and
subsequent reconciliation between Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the elder,
lord of Apulia, and Protesilaus, the younger, lord of Calabria.
Protesilaus defeats Daunus, who had expelled him from Calabria. He
saves his brother's life, is reinvested with the dukedom of Calabria,
and, after the death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently
marries Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize
Apulia, having transferred her affection for Ipomedon to his younger
son (cf. Ward, _Cat. of Rom._, i. 728). To these two romances by an
Anglo-Norman author, _Amadas et Idoine_, of which we only possess a
continental version, is to be added. Gaston Paris has proved indeed
that the original was composed in England in the 12th century
(_An English Miscellany presented to Dr. Furnivall in Honour of his
Seventy-fifth Birthday_, Oxford, 1901, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem
on the _Life of Richard Coeur de Lion_ is lost, and an English version
only has been preserved. About 1250 Eustace of Kent introduced into
England the _roman d'Alexandre_ in his _Roman de toute chevalerie_,
many passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English
poems on Alexander, namely, _King Alisaunder_ (P. Meyer, _Alexandre
le grand_, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber, _Metrical Romances_,
Edinburgh).

(_b_) _Fableaux, Fables and Religious Tales_.--In spite of the
incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we have
only some half-dozen _fableaux_ written in England, viz. _Le chevalier
à la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler les muets, Le
chevalier, sa dame et un clerc, Les trois dames, La gageure, Le prêtre
d'Alison, La bourgeoise d'Orléans_ (Bédier, _Les Fabliaux_, 1895). As
to fables, one of the most popular collections in the middle ages was
that written by Marie de France, which she claimed to have translated
from _King Alfred_. In the _Contes moralisés_, written by Nicole Bozon
shortly before 1320 (_Soc. Anc. Textes_, 1889), a few fables bear a
strong resemblance to those of Marie de France.

The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and have been
handed down to us in three collections:

(i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated from
William of Malmesbury ([+] 1143?) by Adgar in the 12th century
("Adgar's Marien-Legenden," _Altfr. Biblioth_. ix.; J.A. Herbert,
_Rom_. xxxii. 394).

(ii.) The collection of Everard of Gateley, a monk of St. Edmund at
Bury, who wrote _c_. 1250 three Mary Legends (_Rom_. xxix. 27).

(iii.) An anonymous collection of sixty Mary Legends composed _c_.
1250 (Brit. Museum Old Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have been
published in Suchier's _Bibliotheca Normannica_; in the _Altf. Bibl_.
See also Mussafia, "Studien zu den mittelalterlichen Marien-legenden"
in _Sitzungsh. der Wien. Akademie_ (t. cxiii., cxv., cxix., cxxiii.,
cxxix.).

[v.02 p.0033]

Another set of religious and moralizing tales is to be found in
Chardri's _Set dormans_ and _Josaphat, c._ 1216 (Koch, _Altfr. Bibl._,
1880; G. Paris, _Poèmes et légendes du moyen âge_).

(_c_) _History_.--Of far greater importance, however, are the works
which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The first Anglo-Norman
historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who wrote his _Estorie des
Angles_ (between 1147 and 1151) for Dame Constance, wife of Robert
Fitz-Gislebert (_The Anglo-Norman Metrical Chronicle,_ Hardy and
Martin, i. ii., London, 1888). This history comprised a first part
(now lost), which was merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's
_Historia regum Britanniae_, preceded by a history of the Trojan War,
and a second part which carries us as far as the death of William
Rufus. For this second part he has consulted historical documents, but
he stops at the year 1087, just when he has reached the period about
which he might have been able to give us some first-hand information.
Similarly, Wace in his _Roman de Rou et des dues de Normandie_ (ed.
Andresen, Heilbronn, 1877-1879, 2 vols.), written 1160-1174, stops at
the battle of Tinchebray in 1107 just before the period for which he
would have been so useful. His _Brut_ or _Geste des Bretons_ (Le
Roux de Lincy, 1836-1838, 2 vols.), written in 1155, is merely a
translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth. "Wace," says Gaston Paris,
speaking of the _Roman de Rou_, "traduit en les abrégeant des
historiens latins que nous possédons; mais çà et là il ajoute soit des
contes populaires, par exemple sur Richard 1'er, sur Robert 1'er, soit
des particularités qu'il savait par tradition (sur ce même Robert le
magnifique, sur l'expédition de Guillaume, &c.) et qui donnent à son
oeuvre un réel intérêt historique. Sa langue est excellente; son style
clair, serré, simple, d'ordinaire assez monotone, vous plaît par sa
saveur archaïque et quelquefois par une certaine grâce et une certaine
malice."

The _History of the Dukes of Normandy_ by Benoît de Sainte-More is
based on the work of Wace. It was composed at the request of Henry II.
about 1170, and takes us as far as the year 1135 (ed. by Francisque
Michel, 1836-1844, _Collection de documents inédits,_ 3 vols.). The
43,000 lines which it contains are of but little interest to the
historian; they are too evidently the work of a _romancier courtois,_
who takes pleasure in recounting love-adventures such as those he has
described in his romance of Troy. Other works, however, give us more
trustworthy information, for example, the anonymous poem on Henry
II.'s _Conquest of Ireland_ in 1172 (ed. Francisque Michel, London,
1837), which, together with the _Expugnatio hibernica_ of Giraud de
Barri, constitutes our chief authority on this subject. The _Conquest
of Ireland_ was republished in 1892 by Goddard Henry Orpen, under the
title of _The Song of Dermot and the Earl_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press).
Similarly, Jourdain Fantosme, who was in the north of England in 1174,
wrote an account of the wars between Henry II., his sons, William the
Lion of Scotland and Louis VII., in 1173 and 1174 (_Chronicle of the
reigns of Stephen_ ... III., ed. by Joseph Stevenson and Fr. Michel,
London, 1886, pp. 202-307). Not one of these histories, however, is to
be compared in value with _The History of William the Marshal, Count
of Striguil and Pembroke,_ regent of England from 1216-1219, which was
found and subsequently edited by Paul Meyer (_Société de l'histoire de
France,_ 3 vols., 1891-1901). This masterpiece of historiography
was composed in 1225 or 1226 by a professional poet of talent at the
request of William, son of the marshal. It was compiled from the notes
of the marshal's squire, John d'Early ([+] 1230 or 1231), who shared
all the vicissitudes of his master's life and was one of the executors
of his will. This work is of great value for the history of the period
1186-1219, as the information furnished by John d'Early is either
personal or obtained at first hand. In the part which deals with the
period before 1186, it is true, there are various mistakes, due to the
author's ignorance of contemporary history, but these slight blemishes
are amply atoned for by the literary value of the work. The style
is concise, the anecdotes are well told, the descriptions short and
picturesque; the whole constitutes one of the most living pictures
of medieval society. Very pale by the side of this work appear the
_Chronique_ of Peter of Langtoft, written between 1311 and 1320, and
mainly of interest for the period 1294-1307 (ed. by T. Wright,
London, 1866-1868); the _Chronique_ of Nicholas Trevet (1258?-1328?),
dedicated to Princess Mary, daughter of Edward I. (Duffus Hardy,
_Descr. Catal._ III., 349-350); the _Scala Chronica_ compiled by
Thomas Gray of Heaton ([+] _c._ 1369), which carries us to the year
1362-1363 (ed. by J. Stevenson, Maitland Club, Edinburgh, 1836); the
_Black Prince,_ a poem by the poet Chandos, composed about 1386, and
relating the life of the Black Prince from 1346-1376 (re-edited by
Francisque Michel, London and Paris, 1883); and, lastly, the different
versions of the _Brutes,_ the form and historical importance of which
have been indicated by Paul Meyer (_Bulletin de la Société des Anciens
Textes,_ 1878, pp. 104-145), and by F.W.D. Brie (_Geschichte und
Quellen der mittelenglischen Prosachronik, The Brute of England or The
Chronicles of England,_ Marburg, 1905).

Finally we may mention, as ancient history, the translation of
Eutropius and Dares, by Geoffrey of Waterford (13th century), who
gave also the _Secret des Secrets,_ a translation from a work wrongly
attributed to Aristotle, which belongs to the next division (_Rom._
xxiii. 314).

_Didactic Literature_.--This is the most considerable, if not the most
interesting, branch of Anglo-Norman literature: it comprises a
large number of works written chiefly with the object of giving both
religious and profane instruction to Anglo-Norman lords and ladies.
The following list gives the most important productions arranged in
chronological order:--

Philippe de Thaun, _Comput, c_. 1119 (edited by E. Mall, Strassburg,
1873), poem on the calendar; _Bestiaire, c_. 1130 (ed. by E. Walberg,
Paris, 1900; cf. G. Paris, _Rom._ xxxi. 175); _Lois de Guillaume le
Conquérant_ (redaction between 1150 and 1170, ed. by J.E. Matzke,
Paris, 1899); _Oxford Psalter, c_. 1150 (Fr. Michel, _Libri Psalmorum
versio antiqua gallica_, Oxford, 1860); _Cambridge Psalter, c_. 1160
(Fr. Michel, _Le Livre des Psaumes,_ Paris, 1877); _London Psalter,_
same as Oxford Psalter (cf. Beyer, _Zt. f. rom. Phil._ xi. 513-534;
xii. 1-56); _Disticha Catonis_, translated by Everard de Kirkham and
Elie de Winchester (Stengel, _Ausg. u. Abhandlungen_); _Le Roman de
fortune_, summary of Boetius' _De consolatione philosophiae,_ by
Simon de Fresne (_Hist. lit._ xxviii. 408); _Quatre livres des rois_,
translated into French in the 12th century, and imitated in England
soon after (P. Schlösser, _Die Lautverhältnisse der quatre livres des
rois,_ Bonn, 1886; _Romania,_ xvii. 124); _Donnei des Amanz,_, the
conversation of two lovers, overheard and carefully noted by the
poet, of a purely didactic character, in which are included three
interesting pieces, the first being an episode of the story of
Tristram, the second a fable, _L'homme et le serpent,_ the third a
tale, _L'homme et l'oiseau_, which is the basis of the celebrated
_Lai de l'oiselet_ (_Rom._ xxv. 497); _Livre des Sibiles_ (1160);
_Enseignements Trebor_, by Robert de Ho (=Hoo, Kent, on the left bank
of the Medway) [edited by Mary Vance Young, Paris; Picard, 101; cf.
G. Paris, _Rom._ xxxii. 141]; _Lapidaire de Cambridge_ (Pannier, _Les
Lapidaires français_); Frére Angier de Ste. Frideswide, _Dialogues,_
29th of November 1212 (_Rom._ xii. 145-208, and xxix.; M.K. Pope,
_Étude sur la langue de Frère Angier,_ Paris, 1903); _Li dialoge
Grégoire le pape_, ed. by Foerster, 1876; _Petit Plet_, by Chardri,
_c._ 1216 (Koch, _Altfr Bibliothek._ i., and Mussafia, _Z.f.r.P._
iii. 591); _Petite philosophie, c._ 1225 (_Rom._ xv. 356; xxix.
72); _Histoire de Marie et de Jésus (Rom._ xvi. 248-262); _Poème
sur l'Ancien Testament_ (_Not. et Extr._ xxxiv. 1, 210; _Soc. Anc.
Textes_, 1889, 73-74); _Le Corset_ and _Le Miroir,_ by Robert de
Gretham (_Rom._ vii. 345; xv. 296); _Lumière as Lais,_ by Pierre de
Peckham, _c._ 1250 (_Rom._ xv. 287); an Anglo-Norman redaction of
_Image du monde, c._ 1250 (_Rom._ xxi. 481); two Anglo-Norman versions
of _Quatre soeurs_ (Justice, Truth, Peace, Mercy), 13th century (ed.
by Fr. Michel, _Psautier d'Oxford,_ pp. 364-368, _Bulletin Soc. Anc.
Textes,_ 1886, 57, _Romania,_ xv. 352); another _Comput_ by Raüf de
Lenham, 1256 (P. Meyer, _Archives des missions,_ 2nd series iv.
154 and 160-164; _Rom._ xv. 285); _Le chastel d'amors,_ by Robert
Grosseteste or Greathead, bishop of Lincoln ([+] 1253) [ed. by Cooke,
_Carmina Anglo-Normannica_, 1852, Caxton Society]; _Poème sur l'amour
de Dieu et sur la haine du péché_, 13th century, second part (_Rom._
xxix. 5); _Le mariage des neuf filles du diable_ (_Rom._ xxix. 54);
_Ditie d' Urbain_, attributed without any foundation to Henry I. (P.
Meyer, _Bulletin Soc. Anc. Textes_, 1880, p. 73 and _Romania_ xxxii,
68); _Dialogue de l'évêque Saint Julien et son disciple_ (_Rom._ xxix.
21); _Poème sur l'antichrist et le jugement dernier_, by Henri d'Arci
(_Rom._ xxix. 78; _Not. et. Extr._ 35, i. 137). Wilham de Waddington
produced at the end of the 13th century his _Manuel des péchés_, which
was adapted in England by Robert of Brunne in his _Handlying Sinne_
(1303) [_Hist. lit._ xxviii. 179-207; _Rom._ xxix. 5, 47-53]; see
Furnivall,_Robert of Brunne's Handlying Synne_ (Roxb. Club, 1862);
in the 14th century we find Nicole Bozon's _Contes moralisés_ (see
above); _Traité de naturesse_ (_Rom._ xiii. 508); _Sermons_ in verse
(P. Meyer, op. cit. xlv.); _Proverbes de bon enseignement_ (op.
cit. xlvi.). We have also a few handbooks on the teaching of French.
Gautier de Biblesworth wrote such a treatise _à Madame Dyonise
de Mountechensi pur aprise de langage_ (Wright, _A Volume of
Vocabularies_; P. Meyer, _Rec. d'anc. textes_, p. 360 and _Romania_
xxxii, 22); _Orthographia gallica_ (Sturzinger, _Altfr. Bibl._ 1884);
_La manière de language_, written in 1396 (P. Meyer, _Rev. crit.
d'hist. et de litt._ nos. compl. de 1870); _Un petit livre pour
enseigner les enfants de leur entreparler comun françois_, c. 1399
(Stengel, _Z. für n.f. Spr. u. Litt._ i. 11). The important _Mirour
de l'omme_, by John Gower, contains about 30,000 lines written in very
good French at the end of the 14th century (Macaulay, _The Complete
Works of John Gower_, i., Oxford, 1899).

[v.02 p.0034]

_Hagiography_.--Among the numerous lives of saints written in
Anglo-Norman the most important ones are the following, the list of
which is given in chronological order:--_Voyage de Saint Brandan_ (or
_Brandain_), written in 1121, by an ecclesiastic for Queen Aelis of
Louvain (_Rom. St._ i. 553-588; _Z.f.r.P._ ii. 438-459; _Rom._ xviii.
203. C. Wahlund, _Die altfr. Prosaübersetz. von Brendan's Meerfahrt_,
Upsala, 1901); life of St. Catherine by Clemence of Barking (_Rom._
xiii. 400, Jarnik, 1894); life of St Giles, c. 1170, by Guillaume de
Berneville (_Soc. Anc. Textes fr._, 1881; _Rom._ xi. and xxiii. 94);
life of St. Nicholas, life of Our Lady, by Wace (Delius, 1850; Stengel,
_Cod. Digby_, 66); Uhlemann, _Gram. Krit. Studien zu Wace's Conception
und Nicolas_, 1878; life of St. George by Simon de Fresne (_Rom._ x.
319; J.E. Matzke, _Public. of the Mod. Lang. Ass. of Amer._ xvii.
1902; _Rom._ xxxiv. 148); _Expurgatoire de Ste. Patrice_, by Marie de
France (Jenkins, 1894; Eckleben, _Aelteste Schilderung vom Fegefeuer
d.H. Patricius_, 1851; Ph. de Felice, 1906); _La vie de St. Edmund le
Rei_, by Denis Pyramus, end of 12th century (_Memorials of St. Edmund's
Abbey_, edited by T. Arnold, ii. 1892; _Rom._ xxii. 170); Henri
d'Arci's life of St. Thais, poem on the Antichrist, _Visio S. Pauli_
(P. Meyer, _Not. et Extr._ xxxv. 137-158); life of St. Gregory the
Great by Frère Angier, 30th of April 1214 (_Rom._ viii. 509-544; ix.
176; xviii. 201); life of St. Modwenna, between 1225 and 1250 (Suchier,
_Die dem Matthäus Paris zugeschriebene Vie de St. Auban_, 1873, pp.
54-58); Fragments of a life of St Thomas Becket, c. 1230 (P. Meyer,
_Soc. Anc. Text. fr._, 1885); and another life of the same by Benoit
of St. Alban, 13th century (Michel, _Chron. des ducs de Normandie;
Hist. Lit._ xxiii. 383); a life of Edward the Confessor, written
before 1245 (Luard, _Lives of Edward the Confessor_, 1858; _Hist.
Lit._ xxvii. 1), by an anonymous monk of Westminster; life of
St. Auban, c. 1250 (Suchier, op. cit.; Uhlemann, "Über die vie de
St. Auban in Bezug auf Quelle," &c. _Rom. St._ iv. 543-626; ed. by
Atkinson, 1876). _The Vision of Tnudgal_, an Anglo-Norman fragment, is
preserved in MS. 312, Trinity College, Dublin; the MS. is of the
14th century; the author seems to belong to the 13th (_La vision de
Tondale_, ed. by Friedel and Kuno Meyer, 1906). In this category we
may add the life of Hugh of Lincoln, 13th century (_Hist. Lit._ xxiii.
436; Child, _The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, 1888, p. v;
Wolter, _Bibl. Anglo-Norm._, ii. 115). Other lives of saints were
recognized to be Anglo-Norman by Paul Meyer when examining the MSS.
of the Welbeck library (_Rom._ xxxii. 637 and _Hist. Lit._ xxxiii.
338-378).


_Lyric Poetry._--The only extant songs of any importance are the
seventy-one _Ballads_ of Gower (Stengel, _Gower's Minnesang_, 1886).
The remaining songs are mostly of a religious character. Most of them
have been discovered and published by Paul Meyer (_Bulletin de la Soc.
Anc. Textes_, 1889; _Not. et Extr._ xxxiv; _Rom._ xiii. 518, t. xiv.
370; xv. p. 254, &c.). Although so few have come down to us such songs
must have been numerous at one time, owing to the constant intercourse
between English, French and Provençals of all classes. An interesting
passage in _Piers Plowman_ furnishes us with a proof of the extent to
which these songs penetrated into England. We read of:

  "... dykers and deluers that doth here dedes ille,
  And dryuen forth the longe day with 'Deu, vous saue,
  Dame Emme!'"           (Prologue, 223 f.)

One of the finest productions of Anglo-Norman lyric poetry written
in the end of the 13th century, is the _Plainte d'amour_ (Vising,
Göteborg, 1905; _Romania_ xiii. 507, xv. 292 and xxix. 4), and we may
mention, merely as literary curiosities, various works of a lyrical
character written in two languages, Latin and French, or English and
French, or even in three languages, Latin, English and French. In
_Early English Lyrics_ (Oxford, 1907) we have a poem in which a lover
sends to his mistress a love-greeting composed in three languages,
and his learned friend replies in the same style (_De amico ad amicam,
Responcio_, viii and ix).


_Satire_.--The popularity enjoyed by the _Roman de Renart_ and the
Anglo-Norman version of the _Riote du Monde_ (_Z.f. rom. Phil._ viii.
275-289) in England is proof enough that the French spirit of satire
was keenly appreciated. The clergy and the fair sex presented the
most attractive target for the shots of the satirists. However, an
Englishman raised his voice in favour of the ladies in a poem entitled
_La Bonté des dames_ (Meyer, _Rom._ xv. 315-339), and Nicole Bozon,
after having represented "Pride" as a feminine being whom he supposes
to be the daughter of Lucifer, and after having fiercely attacked
the women of his day in the _Char d'Orgueil_ (_Rom._ xiii. 516), also
composed a _Bounté des femmes_ (P. Meyer, op. cit. 33) in which he
covers them with praise, commending their courtesy, their humility,
their openness and the care with which they bring up their children.
A few pieces of political satire show us French and English exchanging
amenities on their mutual shortcomings. The _Roman des Français_, by
André de Coutances, was written on the continent, and cannot be quoted
as Anglo-Norman although it was composed before 1204 (cf. Gaston
Paris: _Trois versions rimées de l'évangile de Nicodème, Soc. Anc.
Textes_, 1885), it is a very spirited reply to French authors who had
attacked the English.


_Dramatic Literature_.--This must have had a considerable influence on
the development of the sacred drama in England, but none of the
French plays acted in England in the 12th and 13th centuries has been
preserved. _Adam_, which is generally considered to be an Anglo-Norman
mystery of the 12th century, was probably written in France at
the beginning of the 13th century (_Romania_ xxxii. 637), and the
so-called Anglo-Norman _Resurrection_ belongs also to continental
French. It is necessary to state that the earliest English moralities
seem to have been imitations of the French ones.


BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Apart from the works already mentioned see generally:
Scheibner, "Über die Herrschaft der frz. Sprache in England"
(Annaberg, Progr. der Königlichen Realschule, 1880, 38 f.); Groeber,
_Grundr. der romanischen Philologie_, ii. iii. (Strassburg, 1902); G.
Paris, _La Litt. fr. au moyen âge_ (1905); _Esquisse historique de
la litt. fr. au moyen âge_ (1907); _La Litt. norm, avani l'annexion
912-1204_ (Paris, 1899); "L'Esprit normand en Angleterre," _La
Poésie au moyen âge_ (2nd series 45-74, Paris, 1906); Thomas Wright,
_Biographia britannica literaria_ (Anglo-Norman period, London, 1846);
Ten Brink, _Geschichte der englischen Litteratur_ (Berlin, 1877, i.
2); J.J. Jusserand, _Hist. litt. du peuple anglais_ (2nd ed. 1895,
vol. i.); W.H. Schofield, _English Literature from the Norman Conquest
to Chaucer_ (London, 1906); Johan Vising, _Franska Sprâket i England_
(Göteborg, 1900, 1901, 1902).

(L. BR.)


[v.02 p.0035]

ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. It is usual to speak of "the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle"; it would be more correct to say that there are four
Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. It is true that these all grow out of a common
stock, that in some even of their later entries two or more of them
use common materials; but the same may be said of several groups
of medieval chronicles, which no one dreams of treating as single
chronicles. Of this fourfold Chronicle there are seven MSS. in
existence; _C.C.C. Cant._ 173 (A); _Cott. Tib._ A vi. (B); _Cott.
Tib._ B i. (C); _Cott. Tib._ B iv. (D); _Bodl. Laud. Misc._ 636 (E);
_Cott. Domitian_ A viii. (F); _Cott. Otho_ B xi. (G). Of these G is
now a mere fragment, and it is known to have been a transcript of A.
F is bilingual, the entries being given both in Saxon and Latin. It
is interesting as a stage in the transition from the vernacular to
the Latin chronicle; but it has little independent value, being a
mere epitome, made at Canterbury in the 11th or 12th century, of a
chronicle akin to E. B, as far as it goes (to 977), is identical with
C, both having been copied from a common original, but A, C, D, E have
every right to be treated as independent chronicles. The relations
between the four vary very greatly in different parts, and the neglect
of this consideration has led to much error and confusion. The common
stock, out of which all grow, extends to 892. The present writer sees
no reason to doubt that the idea of a national, as opposed to earlier
local chronicles, was inspired by Alfred, who may even have dictated,
or at least revised, the entries relating to his own campaigns; while
for the earlier parts pre-existing materials, both oral and written,
were utilized. Among the latter the chronological epitome appended to
Bede's _Ecclesiastical History_ may be specially mentioned. But even
this common stock exists in two different recensions, in A, B, C, on
the one hand, and D, E on the other. The main points of difference are
that in D, E (1) a series of northern annals have been incorporated;
(2) the Bede entries are taken, not from the brief epitome, but from
the main body of the _Eccl. Hist._ The inference is that, shortly
after the compiling of this Alfredian chronicle, a copy of it was sent
to some northern monastery, probably Ripon, where it was expanded in
the way indicated. Copies of this northernized Chronicle afterwards
found their way to the south. The impulse given by Alfred was
continued under Edward, and we have what may be called an official
continuation of the history of the Danish wars, which, in B, C, D
extends to 915, and in A to 924. After 915 B, C insert as a separate
document a short register of Mercian affairs during the same period
(902-924), which might be called the acts of Æthelflaed, the famous
"Lady of the Mercians," while D has incorporated it, not very
skilfully, with the official continuation. Neither of these documents
exists in E. From 925 to 975 all the chronicles are very fragmentary;
a few obits, three or four poems, among them the famous ballad on
the battle of Brunanburh, make up the meagre tale of their common
materials, which each has tried to supplement in its own way. A has
inserted a number of Winchester entries, which prove that A is a
Winchester book. And this local and scrappy character it retains
to 1001, where it practically ends. At some subsequent time it
was transferred bodily to Canterbury, where it received numerous
interpolations in the earlier part, and a few later local entries
which finally tail off into the Latin acts of Lanfranc. A may
therefore be dismissed. C has added to the common stock one or
two Abingdon entries, with which place the history of C is closely
connected; while D and E have a second group of northern annals
901-966, E being however much more fragmentary than D, omitting, or
not having access to, much both of the common and of the northern
material which is found in D. From 983 to 1018 C, D and E are
practically identical, and give a connected history of the Danish
struggles under Æthelred II. This section was probably composed at
Canterbury. From 1018 the relations of C, D, E become too complicated
to be expressed by any formula; sometimes all three agree together,
sometimes all three are independent; in other places each pair in
turn agree against the third. It may be noted that C is strongly
anti-Godwinist, while E is equally pro-Godwinist, D occupying an
intermediate position. C extends to 1066, where it ends abruptly, and
probably mutilated. D ends at 1079 and is certainly mutilated. In
its later history D is associated with some place in the diocese of
Worcester, probably Evesham. In its present form D is a comparatively
late MS., none of it probably much earlier, and some of it later, than
1100. In the case of entries in the earlier part of the chronicles,
which are peculiar to D, we cannot exclude the possibility that they
may be late interpolations. E is continued to 1154. In its present
form it is unquestionably a Peterborough book. The earlier part is
full of Peterborough interpolations, to which place many of the later
entries also refer. But (apart from the interpolations) it is only the
entries after 1121, where the first hand in the MS. ends, which were
actually composed at Peterborough. The section 1023-1067
certainly, and possibly also the section 1068-1121, was composed at
St. Augustine's, Canterbury; and the former is of extreme interest
and value, the writer being in close contact with the events which he
describes. The later parts of E show a great degeneration in language,
and a querulous tone due to the sufferings of the native population
under the harsh Norman rule; "but our debt to it is inestimable; and
we can hardly measure what the loss to English history would have
been, if it had not been written; or if, having been written, it had,
like so many another English chronicle, been lost."


BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The above account is based on the introduction in vol.
ii. of the Rev. C. Plummer's edition of _Two of the Saxon Chronicles
Parallel_ (Clarendon Press, 1892, 1899); to which the student may
be referred for detailed arguments. The _editio princeps_ of the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was by Abraham Wheloc, professor of Arabic at
Cambridge, where the work was printed (1643-1644). It was based mainly
on the MS. called G above, and is the chief source of our knowledge of
that MS. which perished, all but three leaves, in the Cottonian fire
of 1723. Edmund Gibson of Queen's College, Oxford, afterwards bishop
of London, published an edition in 1692. He used Wheloc's edition, and
E, with collations or transcripts of B and F. Both Wheloc and Gibson
give Latin translations. In 1823 appeared an edition by Dr. Ingram, of
Trinity College, Oxford, with an English translation. Besides A, B, E,
F, Ingram used C and D for the first time. But both he and Gibson made
the fatal error of trying to combine the disparate materials contained
in the various chronicles in a single text. An improvement in this
respect is seen in the edition made by Richard Price (d. 1833) for
the first (and only) volume of _Monumenta Historica Britannica_ (folio
1848). There is still, however, too much conflation, and owing to the
plan of the volume, the edition only extends to 1066. A translation is
appended. In 1861 appeared Benjamin Thorpe's six-text edition in the
Rolls Series. Though not free from defects, this edition is absolutely
indispensable for the study of the chronicles and the mutual relations
of the different MSS. A second volume contains the translation. In
1865 the Clarendon Press published _Two Saxon Chronicles (A and E)
Parallel, with supplementary extracts from the others_, by the Rev.
John Earle. This edition has no translation, but in the notes and
introduction a very considerable advance was made. On this edition is
partly based the later edition by the Rev. C. Plummer, already cited
above. In addition to the translations contained in the editions
already mentioned, the following have been issued separately. The
first translation into modern English was by Miss Anna Gurney,
privately printed in 1819. This was largely based on Gibson's edition,
and was in turn the basis of Dr. Giles' translation, published in 1847,
and often reprinted. The best translation is that by the Rev. Joseph
Stevenson, in his series of _Church Historians of England_ (1853). Up
to the Conquest it is a revision of the translation contained in _Mon.
Hist. Brit._ From that point it is an independent translation.

(C. PL.)



ANGLO-SAXON LAW. 1. The body of legal rules and customs which
obtained in England before the Norman conquest constitutes, with
the Scandinavian laws, the most genuine expression of Teutonic legal
thought. While the so-called "barbaric laws" (_leges barbarorum_)
of the continent, not excepting those compiled in the territory now
called Germany, were largely the product of Roman influence, the
continuity of Roman life was almost completely broken in the island,
and even the Church, the direct heir of Roman tradition, did not carry
on a continuous existence: Canterbury was not a see formed in a Roman
province in the same sense as Tours or Reims. One of the striking
expressions of this Teutonism is presented by the language in which
the Anglo-Saxon laws were written. They are uniformly worded in
English, while continental laws, apart from the Scandinavian, are all
in Latin. The English dialect in which the Anglo-Saxon laws have been
handed down to us is in most cases a common speech derived from West
Saxon--naturally enough as Wessex became the predominant English
state, and the court of its kings the principal literary centre from
which most of the compilers and scribes derived their dialect and
spelling. Traces of Kentish speech may be detected, however, in the
_Textus Roffensis_, the MS. of the Kentish laws, and Northumbrian
dialectical peculiarities are also noticeable on some occasions, while
Danish words occur only as technical terms. At the conquest, Latin
takes the place of English in the compilations made to meet the demand
for Anglo-Saxon law texts as still applied in practice.

[v.02 p.0036]

2. It is easy to group the Anglo-Saxon laws according to the manner of
their publication. They would fall into three divisions: (1) laws and
collections of laws promulgated by public authority; (2) statements of
custom; (3) private compilations of legal rules and enactments. To
the first division belong the laws of the Kentish kings, Æthelberht,
Hlothhere and Eadric, Withraed; those of Ine of Wessex, of Alfred,
Edward the Elder, Æthelstan,[1] Edmund, Edgar, Æthelred and Canute;
the treaty between Alfred and Guthrum and the so-called treaty between
Edward and Guthrum. The second division is formed by the convention
between the English and the Welsh _Dunsaetas_, the law of the
Northumbrian priests, the customs of the North people, the fragments
of local custumals entered in Domesday Book. The third division would
consist of the collections of the so-called _Pseudo-leges Canuti_, the
laws of Edward the Confessor, of Henry I., and the great compilation
of the _Quadripartitus_, then of a number of short notices and
extracts like the fragments on the "wedding of a wife," on oaths,
on ordeals, on the king's peace, on rural customs (_Rectitudines
singularum personarum_), the treatises on the reeve (_gerefa_) and on
the judge (_dema_), formulae of oaths, notions as to wergeld, &c. A
fourth group might be made of the charters, as they are based on
Old English private and public law and supply us with most important
materials in regard to it. Looking somewhat deeper at the sources
from which Old English law was derived, we shall have to modify our
classification to some extent, as the external forms of publication,
although important from the point of view of historical criticism, are
not sufficient standards as to the juridical character of the various
kinds of material. Direct statements of law would fall under the
following heads, from the point of view of their legal origins: i.
customary rules followed by divers communities capable of formulating
law; ii. enactments of authorities, especially of kings; iii. private
arrangements made under recognized legal rules. The first would
comprise, besides most of the statements of custom included in the
second division according to the first classification, a great many
of the rules entered in collections promulgated by kings; most of the
paragraphs of Æthelberht's, Hlothhere's, and Eadric's and Ine's
laws, are popular legal customs that have received the stamp of royal
authority by their insertion in official codes. On the other hand,
from Withraed's and Alfred's laws downwards, the element of enactment
by central authority becomes more and more prominent. The kings
endeavour, with the help of secular and clerical witan, to introduce
new rules and to break the power of long-standing customs (e.g. the
precepts about the keeping of holidays, the enactments of Edmund
restricting private vengeance, and the solidarity of kindreds as to
feuds, and the like). There are, however, no outward signs enabling
us to distinguish conclusively between both categories of laws in the
codes, nor is it possible to draw a line between permanent laws and
personal ordinances of single sovereigns, as has been attempted in the
case of Frankish legislation.

[Footnote 1: The _Judicia civitatis Lundoniae_ are a gild statute
confirmed by King Æthelstan.]

3. Even in the course of a general survey of the legal lore at
our disposal, one cannot help being struck by peculiarities in the
distribution of legal subjects. Matters which seem to us of primary
importance and occupy a wide place in our law-books are almost
entirely absent in Anglo-Saxon laws or relegated to the background.
While it is impossible to give here anything like a complete or
exact survey of the field--a task rendered almost impossible by the
arbitrary manner in which paragraphs are divided, by the difficulty
of making Old English enactments fit into modern rubrics, and by the
necessity of counting several times certain paragraphs bearing on
different subjects--a brief statistical analysis of the contents of
royal codes and laws may be found instructive.

We find roughly 419 paragraphs devoted to criminal law and procedure
as against 91 concerned with questions of private law and civil
procedure. Of the criminal law clauses, as many as 238 are taken
up with tariffs of fines, while 80 treat of capital and corporal
punishment, outlawry and confiscation, and 101 include rules of
procedure. On the private law side 18 clauses apply to rights of
property and possession, 13 to succession and family law, 37 to
contracts, including marriage when treated as an act of sale; 18 touch
on civil procedure. A subject which attracted special attention was
the law of status, and no less than 107 paragraphs contain disposition
dictated by the wish to discriminate between the classes of society.
Questions of public law and administration are discussed in 217
clauses, while 197 concern the Church in one way or another, apart
from purely ecclesiastical collections. In the public law division it
is chiefly the power, interests and privileges of the king that are
dealt with, in roughly 93 paragraphs, while local administration comes
in for 39 and purely economic and fiscal matter for 13 clauses. Police
regulations are very much to the fore and occupy no less than 72
clauses of the royal legislation. As to church matters, the most
prolific group is formed by general precepts based on religious and
moral considerations, roughly 115, while secular privileges conferred
on the Church hold about 62, and questions of organization some 20
clauses.

The statistical contrasts are especially sharp and characteristic when
we take into account the chronological sequence in the elaboration of
laws. Practically the entire code of Æthelberht, for instance, is a
tariff of fines for crimes, and the same subject continues to occupy
a great place in the laws of Hlothhere and Eadric, Ine and Alfred,
whereas it appears only occasionally in the treaties with the Danes,
the laws of Withraed, Edward the Elder, Æthelstan, Edgar, Edmund and
Æthelred. It reappears in some strength in the code of Canute, but the
latter is chiefly a recapitulation of former enactments. The system of
"compositions" or fines, paid in many cases with the help of kinsmen,
finds its natural place in the ancient, tribal period of English
history and loses its vitality later on in consequence of the growth
of central power and of the scattering of maegths. Royalty and the
Church, when they acquire the lead in social life, work out a
new penal system based on outlawry, death penalties and corporal
punishments, which make their first appearance in the legislation of
Withraed and culminate in that of Æthelred and Canute.

As regards status, the most elaborate enactments fall into the period
preceding the Danish settlements. After the treaties with the Danes,
the tendency is to simplify distinctions on the lines of an opposition
between twelvehynd-men and twyhynd-men, paving the way towards
the feudal distinction between the free and the unfree. In the
arrangements of the commonwealth the clauses treating of royal
privileges are more or less evenly distributed over all reigns, but
the systematic development of police functions, especially in regard
to responsibility for crimes, the catching of thieves, the suppression
of lawlessness, is mainly the object of 10th and 11th century
legislation. The reign of Æthelred, which witnessed the greatest
national humiliation and the greatest crime in English history, is
also marked by the most lavish expressions of religious feeling and
the most frequent appeals to morality. This sketch would, of course,
have to be modified in many ways if we attempted to treat the
unofficial fragments of customary law in the same way as the
paragraphs of royal codes, and even more so if we were able to
tabulate the indirect evidence as to legal rules. But, imperfect as
such statistics may be, they give us at any rate some insight into the
direction of governmental legislation.

4. The next question to be approached concerns the pedigree of
Anglo-Saxon law and the latter's natural affinities. What is its
position in the legal history of Germanic nations? How far has it been
influenced by non-Germanic elements, especially by Roman and Canon
law? The oldest Anglo-Saxon codes, especially the Kentish and the
West Saxon ones, disclose a close relationship to the barbaric laws
of Lower Germany--those of Saxons, Frisians, Thuringians. We find a
division of social ranks which reminds us of the threefold gradation
of Lower Germany (edelings, frilings, lazzen-eorls, ceorls, laets),
and not of the twofold Frankish one (_ingenui Franci, Romani_), nor
of the minute differentiation of the Upper Germans and Lombards. In
subsequent history there is a good deal of resemblance between the
capitularies' legislation of Charlemagne and his successors on one
hand, the acts of Alfred, Edward the Elder, Æthelstan and Edgar on the
other, a resemblance called forth less by direct borrowing of
Frankish institutions than by the similarity of political problems
and condition. Frankish law becomes a powerful modifying element
in English legal history after the Conquest, when it was introduced
wholesale in royal and in feudal courts. The Scandinavian invasions
brought in many northern legal customs, especially in the districts
thickly populated with Danes. The Domesday survey of Lincolnshire,
Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, Norfolk, &c., shows remarkable deviations
in local organization and justice (lagmen, sokes), and great
peculiarities as to status (socmen, freemen), while from laws and
a few charters we can perceive some influence on criminal law
(_nidings-vaerk_), special usages as to fines (_lahslit_), the keeping
of peace, attestation and sureties of acts (_faestermen_), &c. But, on
the whole, the introduction of Danish and Norse elements, apart from
local cases, was more important owing to the conflicts and compromises
it called forth and its social results,--than on account of any
distinct trail of Scandinavian views in English law. The Scandinavian
newcomers coalesced easily and quickly with the native population.

[v.02 p.0037]

The direct influence of Roman law was not great during the Saxon
period: we notice neither the transmission of important legal
doctrines, chiefly through the medium of Visigothic codes, nor the
continuous stream of Roman tradition in local usage. But indirectly
Roman law did exert a by no means insignificant influence through the
medium of the Church, which, for all its insular character, was still
permeated with Roman ideas and forms of culture. The Old English
"books" are derived in a roundabout way from Roman models, and the
tribal law of real property was deeply modified by the introduction of
individualistic notions as to ownership, donations, wills, rights of
women, &c. Yet in this respect also the Norman Conquest increased the
store of Roman conceptions by breaking the national isolation of the
English Church and opening the way for closer intercourse with France
and Italy.

5. It would be useless to attempt to trace in a brief sketch
the history of the legal principles embodied in the documents of
Anglo-Saxon law. But it may be of some value to give an outline of a
few particularly characteristic subjects.

(a) The Anglo-Saxon legal system cannot be understood unless one
realizes the fundamental opposition between folk-right and privilege.
Folk-right is the aggregate of rules, formulated or latent but
susceptible of formulation, which can be appealed to as the expression
of the juridical consciousness of the people at large or of the
communities of which it is composed. It is tribal in its origin, and
differentiated, not according to boundaries between states, but on
national and provincial lines. There may be the folk-right of West and
East Saxons, of East Angles, of Kentish men, Mercians, Northumbrians,
Danes, Welshmen, and these main folk-right divisions remain even when
tribal kingdoms disappear and the people is concentrated in one or
two realms. The chief centres for the formulation and application of
folk-right were in the 10th and 11th centuries the shire-moots, while
the witan of the realm generally placed themselves on the higher
ground of State expediency, although occasionally using folk-right
ideas. The older law of real property, of succession, of contracts,
the customary tariffs of fines, were mainly regulated by folk-right;
the reeves employed by the king and great men were supposed to take
care of local and rural affairs according to folk-right. The law had
to be declared and applied by the people itself in its communities,
while the spokesmen of the people were neither democratic majorities
nor individual experts, but a few leading men--the twelve eldest
thanes or some similar quorum. Folk-right could, however, be broken
or modified by special law or special grant, and the fountain of such
privileges was the royal power. Alterations and exceptions were, as
a matter of fact, suggested by the interested parties themselves,
and chiefly by the Church. Thus a privileged land-tenure was
created--bookland; the rules as to the succession of kinsmen were set
at nought by concession of testamentary power and confirmations of
grants and wills; special exemptions from the jurisdiction of the
hundreds and special privileges as to levying fines were conferred.
In process of time the rights originating in royal grants of privilege
overbalanced, as it were, folk-right in many respects, and became
themselves the starting-point of a new legal system--the feudal one.

(b) Another feature of vital importance in the history of Anglo-Saxon
law is its tendency towards the preservation of peace. Society
is constantly struggling to ensure the main condition of its
existence--peace. Already in Æthelberht's legislation we find
characteristic fines inflicted for breach of the peace of householders
of different ranks--the ceorl, the eorl, and the king himself
appearing as the most exalted among them. Peace is considered not so
much a state of equilibrium and friendly relations between parties,
but rather as the rule of a third within a certain region--a house,
an estate, a kingdom. This leads on one side to the recognition of
private authorities--the father's in his family, the master's as to
servants, the lord's as to his personal or territorial dependents.
On the other hand, the tendency to maintain peace naturally takes
its course towards the strongest ruler, the king, and we witness in
Anglo-Saxon law the gradual evolution of more and more stringent and
complete rules in respect of the king's peace and its infringements.

(c) The more ancient documents of Anglo-Saxon law show us the
individual not merely as the subject and citizen of a certain
commonwealth, but also as a member of some group, all the fellows
of which are closely allied in claims and responsibilities. The most
elementary of these groups is the _maegth_, the association of agnatic
and cognatic relations. Personal protection and revenge, oaths,
marriage, wardship, succession, supervision over settlement, and good
behaviour, are regulated by the law of kinship. A man's actions are
considered not as exertions of his individual will, but as acts of the
kindred, and all the fellows of the maegth are held responsible for
them. What began as a natural alliance was used later as a means of
enforcing responsibility and keeping lawless individuals in
order. When the association of kinsmen failed, the voluntary
associations--guilds--appeared as substitutes. The gild brothers
associated in mutual defence and support, and they had to share in
the payment of fines. The township and the hundred came also in for
certain forms of collective responsibility, because they presented
groups of people associated in their economic and legal interests.

(d) In course of time the natural associations get loosened and
intermixed, and this calls forth the elaborate police legislation of
the later Anglo-Saxon kings. Regulations are issued about the sale of
cattle in the presence of witnesses. Enactments about the pursuit
of thieves, and the calling in of warrantors to justify sales of
chattels, are other expressions of the difficulties attending peaceful
intercourse. Personal surety appears as a complement of and substitute
for collective responsibility. The _hlaford_ and his _hiredmen_ are
an institution not only of private patronage, but also of police
supervision for the sake of laying hands on malefactors and suspected
persons. The _landrica_ assumes the same part in a territorial
district. Ultimately the laws of the 10th and 11th centuries show
the beginnings of the frankpledge associations, which came to act so
important a part in the local police and administration of the feudal
age.

The points mentioned are not many, but, apart from their intrinsic
importance in any system of law, they are, as it were, made prominent
by the documents themselves, as they are constantly referred to in the
latter.


BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Editions_: Liebermann, _Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen_
(1903, 1906) is indispensable, and leaves nothing to be desired as
to the constitution of the texts. The translations and notes are,
of course, to be considered in the light of an instructive, but not
final, commentary. R. Schmid, _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_ (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1858) is still valuable on account of its handiness and the
fulness of its glossary. B. Thorpe, _Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England_ (1840) is not very trustworthy. _Domesday Book_, i. ii. (Rec.
Comm.); _Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici_, i.-vi. ed. J.M. Kemble
(1839-1848); _Cartularium Saxonicum_ (up to 940), ed. W. de Gray
Birch (1885-1893); J. Earle, _Land Charters_ (Oxford, 1888); Thorpe,
_Diplomatarium Anglicanum; Facsimiles of Ancient Charters_, edited
by the Ordnance Survey and by the British Museum; Haddan and Stubbs,
_Councils of Great Britain_, i.-iii. (Oxford, 1869-1878).

[v.02 p.0038]

_Modern works_.--Konrad Maurer, _Über Angelsachsische
Rechtsverhaltnisse, Kritische Ueberschau_ (Munich, 1853 ff.), still
the best account of the history of Anglo-Saxon law; _Essays on
Anglo-Saxon Law_, by H. Adams, H.C. Lodge, J.L. Laughlin and E. Young
(1876); J.M. Kemble, _Saxons in England_; F. Palgrave, _History of the
English Commonwealth_; Stubbs, _Constitutional History of England_,
i.; Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, i.; H. Brunner,
_Zur Rechtsgeschichte der romisch-germanischen Urkunde_ (1880); Sir
F. Pollock, _The King's Peace_ (Oxford Lectures); F. Seebohm; _The
English Village Community_; Ibid. _Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law_;
Marquardsen, _Haft und Burgschaft im Angelsachsischen Recht_;
Jastrow, "Über die Strafrechtliche Stellung der Sklaven," Gierke's
_Untersuchungen_, i.; Steenstrup, _Normannerne_, iv.; F.W. Maitland,
_Domesday and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897); H.M. Chadwick, _Studies on
Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (1905); P. Vinogradoff, "Folcland" in
the _English Historical Review_, 1893; "Romanistische Einflusse im
Angelsächsischen Recht: Das Buchland" in the _Mélanges Fitting_, 1907;
"The Transfer of Land in Old English Law" in the _Harvard Law Review_,
1907.

(P. Vi.)



ANGLO-SAXONS. The term "Anglo-Saxon" is commonly applied to that
period of English history, language and literature which preceded the
Norman Conquest. It goes back to the time of King Alfred, who seems
to have frequently used the title _rex Anglorum Saxonum_ or _rex
Angul-Saxonum_. The origin of this title is not quite clear. It is
generally believed to have arisen from the final union of the various
kingdoms under Alfred in 886. Bede (_Hist. Eccl._ i. 15) states
that the people of the more northern kingdoms (East Anglia, Mercia,
Northumbria, &c.) belonged to the Angli, while those of Essex, Sussex
and Wessex were sprung from the Saxons (_q.v._), and those of Kent
and southern Hampshire from the Jutes (_q.v._). Other early writers,
however, do not observe these distinctions, and neither in language
nor in custom do we find evidence of any appreciable differences
between the two former groups, though in custom Kent presents most
remarkable contrasts with the other kingdoms. Still more curious is
the fact that West Saxon writers regularly speak of their own nation
as a part of the _Angelcyn_ and of their language as _Englisc_, while
the West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that
of Bernicia. On the other hand, it is by no means impossible that the
distinction drawn by Bede was based solely on the names Essex (East
Seaxan), East Anglia, &c. We need not doubt that the Angli and the
Saxons were different nations originally; but from the evidence at our
disposal it seems likely that they had practically coalesced in very
early times, perhaps even before the invasion. At all events the term
_Angli Saxones_ seems to have first come into use on the continent,
where we find it, nearly a century before Alfred's time, in the
writings of Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon). There can be little
doubt, however, that there it was used to distinguish the Teutonic
inhabitants of Britain from the Old Saxons of the continent.

See W.H. Stevenson, _Asser's Life of King Alfred_ (Oxford, 1904,
pp. 148 ff.); H. Munro Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_
(Cambridge, 1907); also BRITAIN, _Anglo-Saxon_.

(H.M.C.)



ANGOLA, the general name of the Portuguese possessions on the west
coast of Africa south of the equator. With the exception of the
enclave of Kabinda (_q.v._) the province lies wholly south of the
river Congo. Bounded on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean, it extends along
the coast from the southern bank of the Congo (6° S., 12° E.) to the
mouth of the Kunene river (17° 18' S., 11° 50' E.). The coast-line is
some 900 m. long. On the north the Congo forms for 80 m. the boundary
separating Angola from the Congo Free State. The frontier thence
(in 5° 52' S.) goes due east to the Kwango river. The eastern
boundary--dividing the Portuguese possessions from the Congo State and
Barotseland (N.W. Rhodesia)--is a highly irregular line. On the south
Angola borders German South-West Africa, the frontier being drawn
somewhat S. of the 17th degree of S. latitude. The area of the
province is about 480,000 sq. m. The population is estimated (1906) at
4,119,000.

The name Angola (a Portuguese corruption of the Bantu word _Ngola_)
is sometimes confined to the 105 m. of coast, with its hinterland,
between the mouths of the rivers Dande and Kwanza, forming the central
portion of the Portuguese dominions in West Africa; in a looser manner
Angola is used to designate all the western coast of Africa south
of the Congo in the possession of Portugal; but the name is now
officially applied to the whole of the province. Angola is divided
into five districts: four on the coast, the fifth, Lunda, wholly
inland, being the N.E. part of the province. Lunda is part of the
old Bantu kingdom of Muata Yanvo, divided by international agreement
between Portugal and the Congo Free State.

The coast divisions of Angola are Congo on the N. (from the river
Congo to the river Loje), corresponding roughly with the limits of
the "kingdom of Congo" (see _History_ below); Loanda, which includes
Angola in the most restricted sense mentioned above; Benguella
and Mossamedes to the south. Mossamedes is again divided into two
portions--the coast region and the hinterland, known as Huilla.


_Physical Features_.--The coast is for the most part flat, with
occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red sandstone. There is but one
deep inlet of the sea--Great Fish Bay (or Bahia dos Tigres), a little
north of the Portuguese-German frontier. Farther north are Port
Alexander, Little Fish Bay and Lobito Bay, while shallower bays are
numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient to allow large ships to
unload close inshore. The coast plain extends inland for a distance
varying from 30 to 100 m. This region is in general sparsely watered
and somewhat sterile. The approach to the great central plateau of
Africa is marked by a series of irregular terraces. This intermediate
mountain belt is covered with luxuriant vegetation. Water is fairly
abundant, though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the
sandy beds of the rivers. The plateau has an altitude ranging from
4000 to 6000 ft. It consists of well-watered, wide, rolling plains,
and low hills with scanty vegetation. In the east the tableland falls
away to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi, to the south it merges
into a barren sandy desert. A large number of rivers make their way
westward to the sea; they rise, mostly, in the mountain belt, and are
unimportant, the only two of any size being the Kwanza and the Kunene,
separately noticed. The mountain chains which form the edge of the
plateau, or diversify its surface, run generally parallel to the
coast, as Tala Mugongo (4400 ft.), Chella and Vissecua (5250 ft. to
6500 ft.). In the district of Benguella are the highest points of the
province, viz. Loviti (7780 ft.), in 12° 5' S., and Mt. Elonga (7550
ft.). South of the Kwanza is the volcanic mountain Caculo-Cabaza (3300
ft.). From the tableland the Kwango and many other streams flow north
to join the Kasai (one of the largest affluents of the Congo), which
in its upper course forms for fully 300 m. the boundary between Angola
and the Congo State. In the south-east part of the province the rivers
belong either to the Zambezi system, or, like the Okavango, drain to
Lake Ngami.


_Geology_.--The rock formations of Angola are met with in three
distinct regions: (1) the littoral zone, (2) the median zone formed
by a series of hills more or less parallel with the coast, (3) the
central plateau. The central plateau consists of ancient crystalline
rocks with granites overlain by unfossiliferous sandstones and
conglomerates considered to be of Palaeozoic age. The outcrops are
largely hidden under laterite. The median zone is composed largely of
crystalline rocks with granites and some Palaeozoic unfossiliferous
rocks. The littoral zone contains the only fossiliferous strata. These
are of Tertiary and Cretaceous ages, the latter rocks resting on a
reddish sandstone of older date. The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe
Grande region (near Benguella) are of Albian age and belong to the
_Acanthoceras mamillari_ zone. The beds containing _Schloenbachia
inflata_ are referable to the Gault. Rocks of Tertiary age are met
with at Dombe Grande, Mossamedes and near Loanda. The sandstones with
gypsum, copper and sulphur of Dombe are doubtfully considered to be
of Triassic age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly basalts, form a line
of hills almost bare of vegetation between Benguella and Mossamedes.
Nepheline basalts and liparites occur at Dombe Grande. The presence
of gum copal in considerable quantities in the superficial rocks is
characteristic of certain regions.

[v.02 p.0039]

_Climate._--With the exception of the district of Mossamedes, the
coast plains are unsuited to Europeans. In the interior, above 3300
ft., the temperature and rainfall, together with malaria, decrease.
The plateau climate is healthy and invigorating. The mean annual
temperature at Sao Salvador do Congo is 72.5° F.; at Loanda, 74.3°;
and at Caconda, 67.2°. The climate is greatly influenced by the
prevailing winds, which arc W., S.W. and S.S.W. Two seasons are
distinguished--the cool, from June to September; and the rainy,
from October to May. The heaviest rainfall occurs in April, and is
accompanied by violent storms.


_Flora and Fauna._--Both flora and fauna are those characteristic of
the greater part of tropical Africa. As far south as Benguella the
coast region is rich in oil-palms and mangroves. In the northern part
of the province are dense forests. In the south towards the Kunene are
regions of dense thorn scrub. Rubber vines and trees are abundant, but
in some districts their number has been considerably reduced by the
ruthless methods adopted by native collectors of rubber. The species
most common are various root rubbers, notably the _Carpodinus
chylorrhiza._ This species and other varieties of carpodinus are very
widely distributed. Landolphias are also found. The coffee, cotton and
Guinea pepper plants are indigenous, and the tobacco plant flourishes
in several districts. Among the trees are several which yield
excellent timber, such as the tacula (_Pterocarpus tinctorius_), which
grows to an immense size, its wood being blood-red in colour, and the
Angola mahogany. The bark of the musuemba (_Albizzia coriaria_) is
largely used in the tanning of leather. The mulundo bears a fruit
about the size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and
containing scarlet pips like a pomegranate. The fauna includes the
lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, hippopotamus,
buffalo, zebra, kudu and many other kinds of antelope, wild pig,
ostrich and crocodile. Among fish are the barbel, bream and African
yellow fish.


_Inhabitants._--The great majority of the inhabitants are of
Bantu-Negro stock with some admixture in the Congo district with the
pure negro type. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushmen. The
best-known of the Bantu-Negro tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who
dwell chiefly in the north, and the Abunda (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who
occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the
Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living
on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confounded with the
Bangala of the middle Congo. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of
Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the
upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of
Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the
majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo
and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the
Christianity professed by them in the 16th and 17th centuries and
possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as
symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native
has a "Santu" or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona.
Fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The
dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest
construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in
an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of
palm or other leaves.


_Chief Towns._--The chief towns are Sao Paulo de Loanda, the capital,
Kabinda, Benguella and Mossamedes (_q.v._). Lobito, a little north of
Benguella, is a town which dates from 1905 and owes its existence to
the bay of the same name having been chosen as the sea terminus of a
railway to the far interior. Noki is on the southern bank of the Congo
at the head of navigation from the sea, and close to the Congo Free
State frontier. It is available for ships of large tonnage, and
through it passes the Portuguese portion of the trade of the lower
Congo. Ambriz--the only seaport of consequence in the Congo district
of the province--is at the mouth of the Loje river, about 70 m. N.
of Loanda. Novo Redondo and Egito are small ports between Loanda and
Benguella. Port Alexander is in the district of Mossamedes and S. of
the town of that name.

In the interior Humpata, about 95 m. from Mossamedes, is the chief
centre of the Boer settlers; otherwise there are none but native towns
containing from 1000 to 3000 inhabitants and often enclosed by a ring
of sycamore trees. Ambaca and Malanje are the chief places in the
fertile agricultural district of the middle Kwanza, S.E. of Loanda,
with which they are in railway communication. Sao Salvador (pop. 1500)
is the name given by the Portuguese to Bonza Congo, the chief town
of the "kingdom of Congo." It stands 1840 ft. above sea-level and is
about 160 m. inland and 100 S.E. of the river port of Noki, in 6°
15' S. Of the cathedral and other stone buildings erected in the 16th
century, there exist but scanty ruins. The city walls were destroyed
in the closing years of the 19th century and the stone used to build
government offices. There is a fort, built about 1850, and a small
military force is at the disposal of the Portuguese resident. Bembe
and Encoje are smaller towns in the Congo district south of Sao
Salvador. Bihe, the capital of the plateau district of the same
name forming the hinterland of Benguella, is a large caravan centre.
Kangomba, the residence of the king of Bihe, is a large town. Caconda
is in the hill country S.E. of Benguella.


_Agriculture and Trade._--Angola is rich in both agricultural and
mineral resources. Amongst the cultivated products are mealies and
manioc, the sugar-cane and cotton, coffee and tobacco plants. The
chief exports are coffee, rubber, wax, palm kernels and palm-oil,
cattle and hides and dried or salt fish. Gold dust, cotton, ivory and
gum are also exported. The chief imports are food-stuffs, cotton and
woollen goods and hardware. Considerable quantities of coal come
from South Wales. Oxen, introduced from Europe and from South Africa,
flourish. There are sugar factories, where rum is also distilled and a
few other manufactures, but the prosperity of the province depends
on the "jungle" products obtained through the natives and from the
plantations owned by Portuguese and worked by indentured labour, the
labourers being generally "recruited" from the far interior. The trade
of the province, which had grown from about £800,000 in 1870 to
about £3,000,000 in 1905, is largely with Portugal and in Portuguese
bottoms. Between 1893 and 1904 the percentage of Portuguese as
compared with foreign goods entering the province increased from 43 to
201%, a result due to the preferential duties in force.

The minerals found include thick beds of copper at Bembe, and deposits
on the M'Brije and the Cuvo and in various places in the southern
part of the province; iron at Ociras (on the Lucalla affluent of the
Kwanza) and in Bailundo; petroleum and asphalt in Dande and Quinzao;
gold in Lombije and Cassinga; and mineral salt in Quissama. The native
blacksmiths are held in great repute.


_Communications._--There is a regular steamship communication between
Portugal, England and Germany, and Loanda, which port is within
sixteen days' steam of Lisbon. There is also a regular service between
Cape Town, Lobito and Lisbon and Southampton. The Portuguese line is
subsidized by the government. The railway from Loanda to Ambaca and
Malanje is known as the Royal Trans-African railway. It is of metre
gauge, was begun in 1887 and is some 300 m. long. It was intended to
carry the line across the continent to Mozambique, but when the line
reached Ambaca (225 m.) in 1894 that scheme was abandoned. The railway
had created a record in being the most expensive built in tropical
Africa--£8942 per mile. A railway from Lobito Bay, 25 m.N. of
Benguella, begun in 1904, runs towards the Congo-Rhodesia frontier. It
is of standard African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) and is worked by an English
company. It is intended to serve the Katanga copper mines. Besides
these two main railways, there are other short lines linking the
seaports to their hinterland. Apart from the railways, communication
is by ancient caravan routes and by ox-wagon tracks in the southern
district. Riding-oxen are also used. The province is well supplied
with telegraphic communication and is connected with Europe by
submarine cables.

[v.02 p.0040]

_Government and Revenue._--The administration of the province is
carried on under a governor-general, resident at Loanda, who acts
under the direction of the ministry of the colonies at Lisbon. At the
head of each district is a local governor. Legislative powers, save
those delegated to the governor-general, are exercised by the home
government. Revenue is raised chiefly from customs, excise duties
and direct taxation. The revenue (in 1904-1905 about £350,000)
is generally insufficient to meet expenditure (in 1904-1905 over
£490,000)--the balance being met by a grant from the mother country.
Part of the extra expenditure is, however, on railways and other
reproductive works.


_History._--The Portuguese established themselves on the west coast
of Africa towards the close of the 15th century. The river Congo was
discovered by Diogo Cam or Cao in 1482. He erected a stone pillar at
the mouth of the river, which accordingly took the title of Rio de
Padrao, and established friendly relations with the natives, who
reported that the country was subject to a great monarch, Mwani Congo
or lord of Congo, resident at Bonza Congo. The Portuguese were not
long in making themselves influential in the country. Gonçalo de Sousa
was despatched on a formal embassy in 1490; and the first missionaries
entered the country in his train. The king was soon afterwards
baptized and Christianity was nominally established as the national
religion. In 1534 a cathedral was founded at Bonza Congo (renamed Sao
Salvador), and in 1560 the Jesuits arrived with Paulo Diaz de Novaes.
Of the prosperity of the country the Portuguese have left the most
glowing and indeed incredible accounts. It was, however, about this
time ravaged by cannibal invaders (Bangala) from the interior,
and Portuguese influence gradually declined. The attention of the
Portuguese was, moreover, now turned more particularly to the southern
districts of Angola. In 1627 the bishop's seat was removed to Sao
Paulo de Loanda and Sao Salvador declined in importance. In the 18th
century, in spite of hindrances from Holland and France, steps were
taken towards re-establishing Portuguese authority in the northern
regions; in 1758 a settlement was formed at Encoje; from 1784 to 1789
the Portuguese carried on a war against the natives of Mussolo (the
district immediately south of Ambriz); in 1791 they built a fort at
Quincollo on the Loje, and for a time they worked the mines of
Bembe. Until, however, the "scramble for Africa" began in 1884, they
possessed no fort or settlement on the coast to the north of Ambriz,
which was first occupied in 1855. At Sao Salvador, however, the
Portuguese continued to exercise influence. The last of the native
princes who had real authority was a potentate known as Dom Pedro
V. He was placed on the throne in 1855 with the help of a Portuguese
force, and reigned over thirty years. In 1888 a Portuguese resident
was stationed at Salvador, and the kings of Congo became pensioners of
the government.

Angola proper, and the whole coast-line of what now constitutes the
province of that name, was discovered by Diogo Cam during 1482 and
the three following years. The first governor sent to Angola was Paulo
Diaz, a grandson of Bartholomew Diaz, who reduced to submission the
region south of the Kwanza nearly as far as Benguella. The city of
Loanda was founded in 1576, Benguella in 1617. From that date the
sovereignty of Portugal over the coast-line, from its present southern
limit as far north as Ambriz (7° 50' S.) has been undisputed save
between 1640 and 1648, during which time the Dutch attempted to expel
the Portuguese and held possession of the ports. Whilst the economic
development of the country was not entirely neglected and many useful
food products were introduced, the prosperity of the province was
very largely dependent on the slave trade with Brazil, which was not
legally abolished until 1830 and in fact continued for many years
subsequently.

In 1884 Great Britain, which up to that time had steadily refused
to acknowledge that Portugal possessed territorial rights north of
Ambriz, concluded a treaty recognizing Portuguese sovereignty over
both banks of the lower Congo; but the treaty, meeting with opposition
in England and Germany, was not ratified. Agreements concluded with
the Congo Free State, Germany and France in 1885-1886 (modified in
details by subsequent arrangements) fixed the limits of the province,
except in the S.E., where the frontier between Barotseland (N.W.
Rhodesia) and Angola was determined by an Anglo-Portuguese agreement
of 1891 and the arbitration award of the king of Italy in 1905 (see
AFRICA: _History)_. Up to the end of the 19th century the hold of
Portugal over the interior of the province was slight, though its
influence extended to the Congo and Zambezi basins. The abolition of
the external slave trade proved very injurious to the trade of the
seaports, but from 1860 onward the agricultural resources of the
country were developed with increasing energy, a work in which
Brazilian merchants took the lead. After the definite partition of
Africa among the European powers, Portugal applied herself with some
seriousness to exploit Angola and her other African possessions.
Nevertheless, in comparison with its natural wealth the development
of the country has been slow. Slavery and the slave trade continued
to flourish in the interior in the early years of the 20th century,
despite the prohibitions of the Portuguese government. The extension
of authority over the inland tribes proceeded very slowly and was not
accomplished without occasional reverses. Thus in September 1904 a
Portuguese column lost over 300 men killed, including 114 Europeans,
in an encounter with the Kunahamas on the Kunene, not far from the
German frontier. The Kunahamas are a wild, raiding tribe and
were probably largely influenced by the revolt of their southern
neighbours, the Hereros, against the Germans. In 1905 and again in
1907 there was renewed fighting in the same region.


_AUTHORITIES._--E. de Vasconcellos, _As Colonias Portuguesas_ (Lisbon,
1896-1897); J.J. Monteiro, _Angola and the River Congo_ (2 vols.
London, 1875); Viscount de Paiva Manso, _Historia do Congo....
(Documentos_) (Lisbon, 1877); _A Report of the Kingdom of Congo_
(London, 1881), an English translation, with notes by Margarite
Hutchinson, of Filippo Pigafetta's _Relatione del Reame di Congo_
(Rome, 1591), a book founded on the statements and writings of
Duarte Lopez; Rev. Thos. Lewis, "The Ancient Kingdom of Kongo" in
_Geographical Journal,_ vol. xix. and vol. xxxi. (London, 1902 and
1908); _The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battell of Leigh in Angola
and the Adjoining Regions_ (London, 1901), a volume of the Hakluyt
Society, edited by E.G. Ravenstein, who gives in appendices the
history of the country from its discovery to the end of the 17th
century; J.C. Feo Cardozo, _Memorias contendo ... a historia dos
governadores e capitaens generaes de Angola, desde 1575 até 1825_
(Paris, 1825); H.W. Nevinson, _A Modern Slavery_ (London, 1906), an
examination of the system of indentured labour and its recruitment;
_Ornithologie d'Angola_, by J.V. Barboza du Bocage (Lisbon, 1881);
"Géologie des Colonies portugaises en Afrique," by P. Choffat, in
_Com. d. service géol. du Portugal._ See also the annual reports on
the _Trade of Angola,_ issued by the British Foreign Office.



ANGORA, or ENGURI. (1) A city of Turkey (anc. _Ancyra)_ in Asia,
capital of the vilayet of the same name, situated upon a steep, rocky
hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain, on the left bank of the
Enguri Su, a tributary of the Sakaria (Sangarius), about 220 m.
E.S.E. of Constantinople. The hill is crowned by the ruins of the old
citadel, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but the town
is not well built, its streets being narrow and many of its houses
constructed of sun-dried mud bricks; there are, however, many
fine remains of Graeco-Roman and Byzantine architecture, the most
remarkable being the temple of Rome and Augustus, on the walls of
which is the famous _Monumentum Ancyranum_ (see ANCYRA). Ancyra was
the centre of the Tectosages, one of the three Gaulish tribes which
settled in Galatia in the 3rd century B.C., and became the capital of
the Roman province of Galatia when it was formally constituted in
25 B.C. During the Byzantine period, throughout which it occupied a
position of great importance, it was captured by Persians and Arabs;
then it fell into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, was held for eighteen
years by the Latin Crusaders, and finally passed to the Ottoman Turks
in 1360. In 1402 a great battle was fought in the vicinity of Angora,
in which the Turkish sultan Bayezid was defeated and made prisoner by
the Tatar conqueror Timur. In 1415 it was recovered by the Turks under
Mahommed I., and since that period has belonged to the Ottoman empire.
In 1832 it was taken by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha. Angora is
connected with Constantinople by railway, and exports wool, mohair,
grain and yellow berries. Mohair cloth is manufactured, and the town
is noted for its honey and fruit. From 1639 to 1768 there was an
agency of the Levant Company here; there is now a British consul.
Pop. estimated at 28,000 (Moslems, 18,000; Christians, largely Roman
Catholic Armenians, about 9400; Jews, 400).

[v.02 p.0041]

(2) A Turkish vilayet in north-central Asia Minor, which includes most
of the ancient Galatia. It is an agricultural country, depending for
its prosperity on its grain, wool (average annual export, 4,400,000
ft), and the mohair obtained from the beautiful Angora goats (average
annual clip, 3,300,000 lb). The fineness of the hair may perhaps be
ascribed to some peculiarity in the atmosphere, for it is remarkable
that the cats, dogs and other animals of the country are to a certain
extent affected in the same way, and that they all lose much of their
distinctive beauty when taken from their native districts. The only
important industry is carpet-weaving at Kir-sheher and Kaisarieh.
There are mines of silver, copper, lignite and salt, and many hot
springs, including some of great repute medicinally. Average annual
exports 1896-1898, £920,762; imports, £411,836. Pop. about 900,000
(Moslems, 765,000 to 800,000, the rest being Christians, with a few
hundred Jews).

(J.G.C.A.)

See C. Ritter, _Erdkunde van Asien_ (vol. xviii., 1837-1839); V.
Cuinet, _La Turquie d'Asie_, t, i. (1891); Murray's _Handbook to Asia
Minor_ (1895); and other works mentioned under ANCYRA.



ANGOULÊME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUKE OF (1573-1650), the natural son of
Charles IX. of France and Marie Touchet, was born on the 28th of April
1573, at the castle of Fayet in Dauphiné. His father dying in the
following year, commended him to the care and favour of his brother
and successor, Henry III., who faithfully fulfilled the charge. His
mother married François de Balzac, marquis d'Entragues, and one of her
daughters, Henriette, marchioness of Verneuil, afterwards became the
mistress of Henry IV. Charles of Valois, was carefully educated, and
was destined for the order of Malta. At the early age of sixteen he
attained one of the highest dignities of the order, being made grand
prior of France. Shortly after he came into possession of large
estates left by Catherine de' Medici, from one of which he took his
title of count of Auvergne. In 1591 he obtained a dispensation from
the vows of the order of Malta, and married Charlotte, daughter of
Henry, Marshal d'Amville, afterwards duke of Montmorency. In 1589
Henry III. was assassinated, but on his deathbed he commended Charles
to the good-will of his successor Henry IV. By that monarch he was
made colonel of horse, and in that capacity served in the campaigns
during the early part of the reign. But the connexion between the king
and the marchioness of Verneuil appears to have been very displeasing
to Auvergne, and in 1601 he engaged in the conspiracy formed by the
dukes of Savoy, Biron and Bouillon, one of the objects of which was
to force Henry to repudiate his wife and marry the marchioness. The
conspiracy was discovered; Biron and Auvergne were arrested and Biron
was executed. Auvergne after a few months' imprisonment was released,
chiefly through the influence of his half-sister, his aunt, the
duchess of Angouleme and his father-in-law. He then entered into
fresh intrigues with the court of Spain, acting in concert with
the marchioness of Verneuil and her father d'Entragues. In 1604
d'Entragues and he were arrested and condemned to death; at the same
time the marchioness was condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a
convent. She easily obtained pardon, and the sentence of death against
the other two was commuted into perpetual imprisonment. Auvergne
remained in the Bastille for eleven years, from 1605 to 1616. A decree
of the parlement (1606), obtained by Marguerite de Valois, deprived
him of nearly all his possessions, including Auvergne, though he still
retained the title. In 1616 he was released, was restored to his
rank of colonel-general of horse, and despatched against one of the
disaffected nobles, the duke of Longueville, who had taken Péronne.
Next year he commanded the forces collected in the Île de France, and
obtained some successes. In 1619 he received by bequest, ratified in
1620 by royal grant, the duchy of Angoulême. Soon after he was engaged
on an important embassy to Germany, the result of which was the
treaty of Ulm, signed July 1620. In 1627 he commanded the large forces
assembled at the siege of La Rochelle; and some years after in 1635,
during the Thirty Years' War, he was general of the French army in
Lorraine. In 1636 he was made lieutenant-general of the army. He
appears to have retired from public life shortly after the death of
Richelieu in 1643. His first wife died in 1636, and in 1644 he married
Francoise de Narbonne, daughter of Charles, baron of Mareuil. She had
no children and survived her husband until 1713. Angouleme himself
died on the 24th of September 1650. By his first wife he had three
children: Henri, who became insane; Louis Emmanuel, who succeeded his
father as duke of Angoulême and was colonel-general of light cavalry
and governor of Provence; and Françoise, who died in 1622.

The duke was the author of the following works:--(i)_Mémoires_, from
the assassination of Henri III. to the battle of Arques (1589-1593)
published at Paris by Boneau, and reprinted by Buchon in his _Choix de
chroniques_ (1836) and by Petitot in his _Mémoires_ (1st series, vol.
xliv.); (2) _Les Harangues, prononcés en assemblée de MM. les princes
protestants d'Allemagne_, par Monseigneur le duc d' Angoulême (1620);
(3) a translation of a Spanish work by Diego de Torres. To him has
also been ascribed the work, _La générale et fidèle Rélation de tout
ce qui s'est passé en l'isle de Ré, envoyée par le roi à la royne sa
mère_ (Paris, 1627).



ANGOULÊME, a city of south-western France, capital of the department
of Charente, 83 m. N.N.E. of Bordeaux on the railway between Bordeaux
and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 30,040. The town proper occupies an elevated
promontory, washed on the north by the Charente and on the south
and west by the Anguienne, a small tributary of that river. The more
important of the suburbs lie towards the east, where the promontory
joins the main plateau, of which it forms the north-western extremity.

The main line of the Orleans railway passes through a tunnel beneath
the town. In place of its ancient fortifications Angoulême is
encircled by boulevards known as the _Remparts_, from which fine views
may be obtained in all directions. Within the town the streets are
often dark and narrow, and, apart from the cathedral and the hôtel
de ville, the architecture is of little interest. The cathedral of
St. Pierre (see CATHEDRAL), a church in the Byzantine-Romanesque style,
dates from the 11th and 12th centuries, but has undergone frequent
restoration, and was partly rebuilt in the latter half of the igth
century by the architect Paul Abadie. The façade, flanked by two
towers with cupolas, is decorated with arcades filled in with statuary
and sculpture, the whole representing the Last Judgment. The crossing
is surmounted by a dome, and the extremity of the north transept by
a fine square tower over 160 ft. high. The hôtel de ville, also by
Abadie, is a handsome modern structure, but preserves two towers of
the chateau of the counts of Angoulême, on the site of which it is
built. It contains museums of paintings and archaeology. Angoulême is
the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes. Its public
institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
council of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of
the Bank of France. It also has a lycée, training-colleges, a school
of artillery, a library and several learned societies. It is a centre
of the paper-making industry, with which the town has been connected
since the 14th century. Most of the mills are situated on the banks
of the watercourses in the neighbourhood of the town. The subsidiary
industries, such as the manufacture of machinery and wire fabric,
are of considerable importance. Iron and copper founding, brewing,
tanning, and the manufacture of gunpowder, confectionery, heavy iron
goods, gloves, boots and shoes and cotton goods are also carried on.
Commerce is carried on in wine, brandy and building-stone.

Angoulême (_Iculisma_) was taken by Clovis from the Visigoths in
507, and plundered by the Normans in the 9th century. In 1360 it
was surrendered by the peace of Bretigny to the English; they were,
however, expelled in 1373 by the troops of Charles V., who granted
the town numerous privileges. It suffered much during the Wars of
Religion, especially in 1568 after its capture by the Protestants
under Coligny.

[v.02 p.0042]

The countship of Angoulême dated from the 9th century, the most
important of the early counts being William Taillefer, whose
descendants held the title till the end of the 12th century. Withdrawn
from them on more than one occasion by Richard Coeur-de-Lion, it
passed to King John of England on his marriage with Isabel, daughter
of Count Adhémar, and by her subsequent marriage in 1220 to Hugh X.
passed to the Lusignan family, counts of Marche. On the death of Hugh
XIII. in 1302 without issue, his possessions passed to the crown. In
1394 the countship came to the house of Orleans, a member of which,
Francis I., became king of France in 1515 and raised it to the rank
of duchy in favour of his mother Louise of Savoy. The duchy afterwards
changed hands several times, one of its holders being Charles of
Valois, natural son of Charles IX. The last duke was Louis-Antoine,
eldest son of Charles X., who died in 1844.

See A.F. Lièvre, _Angoulême: histoire, institutions et monuments_
(Angoulême, 1885).



ANGOUMOIS, an old province of France, nearly corresponding to-day to
the department of Charente. Its capital was Angoulême.

See _Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois,_ by E.
Castaigne (1845).



ANGRA, or ANGRA DO HEROISMO ("Bay of Heroism," a name given it in
1829, to commemorate its successful defence against the Miguelist
party), the former capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the
Azores, and chief town of an administrative district, comprising the
islands of Terceira, St. George and Graciosa. Pop. (1900) 10,788. Angra
is built on the south coast of Terceira in 38° 38' N. and in 27° 13'
W. It is the headquarters of a military command, and the residence of
a Roman Catholic bishop; its principal buildings are the cathedral,
military college, arsenal and observatory. The harbour, now of little
commercial or strategic importance, but formerly a celebrated naval
station, is sheltered on the west and south-west by the promontory
of Mt. Brazil; but it is inferior to the neighbouring ports of Ponta
Delgada and Horta. The foreign trade is not large, and consists
chiefly in the exportation of pineapples and other fruit. Angra served
as a refuge for Queen Maria II. of Portugal from 1830 to 1833.



ANGRA PEQUENA, a bay in German South-West Africa, in 26° 38' S.,
15° E., discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487. F.A.E. Lüderitz, of
Bremen, established a trading station here in 1883, and his agent
concluded treaties with the neighbouring chiefs, who ceded large
tracts of country to the newcomers. On the 24th of April 1884 Luderitz
transferred his rights to the German imperial government, and on the
following 7th of August a German protectorate over the district was
proclaimed. (See AFRICA, §5, and GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.) Angra
Pequena has been renamed by the Germans Lüderitz Bay, and the adjacent
country is sometimes called Lüderitzland. The harbour is poor. At the
head of the bay is a small town, whence a railway, begun in 1906, runs
east in the direction of Bechuanaland. The surrounding country
for many miles is absolute desert, except after rare but terrible
thunderstorms, when the dry bed of the Little Fish river is suddenly
filled with a turbulent stream, the water finding its way into the
bay.

The islands off the coast of Angra Pequena, together with others north
and south, were annexed to Great Britain in 1867 and added to Cape
Colony in 1874. Seal Island and Penguin Island are in the bay;
Ichaboe, Mercury, and Hollam's Bird islands are to the north; Halifax,
Long, Possession, Albatross, Pomona, Plumpudding, and Roastbeef
islands are to the south. On these islands are guano deposits; the
most valuable is on Ichaboe Island.



ANGSTRÖM, ANDERS JONAS (1814-1874), Swedish physicist, was born on
the 13th of August 1814 at Lögdö, Medelpad, Sweden. He was educated at
Upsala University, where in 1839 he became _privat docent_ in physics.
In 1842 he went to Stockholm Observatory in order to gain experience
in practical astronomical work, and in the following year ht became
observer at Upsala Observatory. Becoming interested in terrestrial
magnetism he made many observations of magnetic intensity and
declination in various parts of Sweden, and was charged by the
Stockholm Academy of Sciences with the task, not completed till
shortly before his death, of working out the magnetic data obtained
by the Swedish frigate "Eugénie" on her voyage round the world in
1851-1853. In 1858 he succeeded Adolph Ferdinand Svanberg (1806-1857)
in the chair of physics at Upsala, and there he died on the 21st of
June 1874. His most important work was concerned with the conduction
of heat and with spectroscopy. In his optical researches, _Optiska
Undersökningar,_ presented to the Stockholm Academy in 1853, he
not only pointed out that the electric spark yields two superposed
spectra, one from the metal of the electrode and the other from the
gas in which it passes, but deduced from Euler's theory of
resonance that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the same
refrangibility as those which it can absorb. This statement, as Sir
E. Sabine remarked when awarding him the Rumford medal of the
Royal Society in 1872, contains a fundamental principle of spectrum
analysis, and though for a number of years it was overlooked it
entitles him to rank as one of the founders of spectroscopy. From 1861
onwards he paid special attention to the solar spectrum. He announced
the existence of hydrogen, among other elements, in the sun's
atmosphere in 1862, and in 1868 published his great map of the normal
solar spectrum which long remained authoritative in questions of
wave-length, although his measurements were inexact to the extent
of one part in 7000 or 8000 owing to the metre which he used as his
standard having been slightly too short. He was the first, in 1867, to
examine the spectrum of the aurora borealis, and detected and measured
the characteristic bright line in its yellow green region; but he was
mistaken in supposing that this same line, which is often called by
his name, is also to be seen in the zodiacal light.

His son, KNUT JOHAN ÅNGSTRÖM, was born at Upsala on the 12th of
January 1857, and studied at the university of that town from 1877
to 1884. After spending a short time in Strassburg he was appointed
lecturer in physics at Stockholm University in 1885, but in 1891
returned to Upsala, where in 1896 he became professor of physics. He
especially devoted himself to investigations of the radiation of heat
from the sun and its absorption by the earth's atmosphere, and to that
end devised various delicate methods and instruments, including his
electric compensation pyrheliometer, invented in 1893, and apparatus
for obtaining a photographic representation of the infra-red spectrum
(1895).



ANGUIER, FRANÇOIS (c. 1604-1669), and MICHEL (1612-1686), French
sculptors, were two brothers, natives of Eu in Normandy. Their
apprenticeship was served in the studio of Simon Guillain. The chief
works of François are the monument to Cardinal de Bérulle, founder of
the Carmelite order, in the chapel of the oratory at Paris, of which
all but the bust has been destroyed, and the mausoleum of Henri II.,
last duc de Montmorency, at Moulins. To Michel are due the sculptures
of the triumphal arch at the Porte St. Denis, begun in 1674, to serve
as a memorial for the conquests of Louis XIV. A marble group of the
Nativity in the church of Val de Grâce was reckoned his masterpiece.
From 1662 to 1667 he directed the progress of the sculpture and
decoration in this church, and it was he who superintended the
decoration of the apartments of Anne of Austria in the old Louvre. F.
Fouquet also employed him for his chateau in Vaux.

See Henri Stein, _Les frères Anguier_ (1889), with catalogue of
works, and many references to original sources; Armand Sanson, _Deux
sculpteurs Normands: les frères Anguier_ (1889).



ANGUILLA, or SNAKE, a small island in the British Indies, part of the
presidency of St. Kitts-Nevis, in the colony of the Leeward Islands.
Pop. (1901) 3890, mostly negroes. It is situated in 18° 12' N. and 63°
5' W., about 60 m. N.W. of St Kitts, is 16 m. long and has an area of
35 sq. m. The destruction of trees by charcoal-burners has resulted in
the almost complete deforestation of the island. Nearly all the land
is in the hands of peasant proprietors, who cultivate sweet potatoes,
peas, beans, corn, &c., and rear sheep and goats. Cattle, phosphate
of lime and salt, manufactured from a lake in the interior, are the
principal exports, the market for these being the neighbouring island
of St. Thomas.

[v.02 p.0043]


ANGULATE (Lat. _angulus_, an angle), shaped with corners or angles;
an adjective used in botany and zoology for the shape of stems, leaves
and wings.



ANGUS, EARLS OF. Angus was one of the seven original earldoms of
the Pictish kingdom of Scotland, said to have been occupied by seven
brothers of whom Angus was the eldest. The Celtic line ended with
Matilda (_fl._ 1240), countess of Angus in her own right, who married
in 1243 Gilbert de Umfravill and founded the Norman line of three
earls, which ended in 1381, the then holder of the title being
summoned to the English parliament. Meanwhile John Stewart of Bonkyl,
co. Berwick, had been created earl of Angus in a new line. This third
creation ended with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her
own right, and widow of Thomas, 13th earl of Mar. By an irregular
connexion with William, 1st earl of Douglas, who had married Mar's
sister, she became the mother of George Douglas, 1st earl of Angus
(_c._ 1380-1403), and secured a charter of her estates for her son,
to whom in 1389 the title was granted by King Robert II. He was taken
prisoner at Homildon Hill and died in England. The 5th earl was his
great-grandson.



ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 5th earl of Angus (_c._ 1450-_c._ 1514), the famous
"Bell the Cat," was born about 1450 and succeeded his father, George
the 4th earl, in 1462 or 1463. In 1481 he was made warden of the east
marches, but the next year he joined the league against James III. and
his favourite Robert Cochrane at Lauder, where he earned his nickname
by offering to bell the cat, _i.e._ to deal with the latter, beginning
the attack upon him by pulling his gold chain off his neck and causing
him with others of the king's favourites to be hanged. Subsequently he
joined Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, in league with Edward IV.
of England on the 11th of February 1483, signing the convention at
Westminster which acknowledged the overlordship of the English
king. In March however they returned, outwardly at least, to their
allegiance, and received pardons for their treason. Later Angus was
one of the leaders in the rebellion against James in 1487 and 1488,
which ended in the latter's death. He was made one of the guardians of
the young king James IV. but soon lost influence, being superseded by
the Homes and Hepburns, and the wardenship of the marches was given
to Alexander Home. Though outwardly on good terms with James, he
treacherously made a treaty with Henry VII. about 1489 or 1491, by
which he undertook to govern his relations with James according
to instructions from England, and to hand over Hermitage Castle,
commanding the pass through Liddesdale into Scotland, on the condition
of receiving English estates in compensation. In October 1491 he
fortified his castle of Tantallon against James, but was obliged to
submit and exchange his Liddesdale estate and Hermitage Castle for the
lordship of Bothwell. In 1493 he was again in favour, received various
grants of lands, and was made chancellor, which office he retained
till 1498. In 1501 he was once more in disgrace and confined to
Dumbarton Castle. After the disaster at Flodden in 1513, at which he
was not present, but at which he lost his two eldest sons, Angus was
appointed one of the counsellors of the queen regent. He died at the
close of this year, or in 1514. He was married three times, and by his
first wife had four sons and several daughters. His third son, Gavin
Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, is separately noticed.



ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, the 6th earl (_c._ 1489-1557), son of George,
master of Douglas, who was killed at Flodden, succeeded on his
grandfather's death. In 1509 he had married Margaret (d. 1513),
daughter of Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell; and in 1514 he
married the queen dowager Margaret of Scotland, widow of James IV.,
and eldest sister of Henry VIII. By this latter act he stirred up the
jealousy of the nobles and the opposition of the French party, and
civil war broke out. He was superseded in the government on the
arrival of John Stewart, duke of Albany, who was made regent. Angus
withdrew to his estates in Forfarshire, while Albany besieged the
queen at Stirling and got possession of the royal children; then he
joined Margaret after her flight at Morpeth, and on her departure for
London returned and made his peace with Albany in 1516. He met her
once more at Berwick in June 1517, when Margaret returned to Scotland
on Albany's departure in vain hopes of regaining the regency.
Meanwhile, during Margaret's absence, Angus had formed a connexion
with a daughter of the laird of Traquair. Margaret avenged his neglect
of her by refusing to support his claims for power and by secretly
trying through Albany to get a divorce. In Edinburgh Angus held his
own against the attempts of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, to
dislodge him. But the return of Albany in 1521, with whom Margaret now
sided against her husband, deprived him of power. The regent took the
government into his own hands; Angus was charged with high treason in
December, and in March 1522 was sent practically a prisoner to France,
whence he succeeded in escaping to London in 1524. He returned to
Scotland in November with promises of support from Henry VIII., with
whom he made a close alliance. Margaret, however, refused to have
anything to do with her husband. On the 23rd, therefore, Angus forced
his way into Edinburgh, but was fired upon by Margaret and retreated
to Tantallon. He now organized a large party of nobles against
Margaret with the support of Henry VIII., and in February 1525 they
entered Edinburgh and called a parliament. Angus was made a lord of
the articles, was included in the council of regency, bore the king's
crown on the opening of the session, and with Archbishop Beaton held
the chief power. In March he was appointed lieutenant of the marches,
and suppressed the disorder and anarchy on the border. In July the
guardianship of the king was entrusted to him for a fixed period
till the 1st of November, but he refused at its close to retire, and
advancing to Linlithgow put to flight Margaret and his opponents. He
now with his followers engrossed all the power, succeeded in gaining
over some of his antagonists, including Arran and the Hamiltons,
and filled the public offices with Douglases, he himself becoming
chancellor. "None that time durst strive against a Douglas nor
Douglas's man."[1] The young king James, now fourteen, was far from
content under the tutelage of Angus, but he was closely guarded,
and several attempts to effect his liberation were prevented, Angus
completely defeating Lennox, who had advanced towards Edinburgh with
10,000 men in August, and subsequently taking Stirling. His successes
were consummated by a pacification with Beaton, and in 1527 and 1528
he was busy in restoring order through the country. In the latter
year, on the 11th of March, Margaret succeeded in obtaining her
divorce from Angus, and about the end of the month she and her lover,
Henry Stewart, were besieged at Stirling. A few weeks later, however,
James succeeded in escaping from Angus's custody, took refuge with
Margaret and Arran at Stirling, and immediately proscribed Angus and
all the Douglases, forbidding them to come within seven miles of his
person. Angus, having fortified himself in Tantallon, was attainted
and his lands confiscated. Repeated attempts of James to subdue
the fortress failed, and on one occasion Angus captured the royal
artillery, but at length it was given up as a condition of the truce
between England and Scotland, and in May 1529 Angus took refuge
with Henry, obtained a pension and took an oath of allegiance, Henry
engaging to make his restoration a condition of peace. Angus had
been chiefly guided in his intrigues with England by his brother, Sir
George Douglas of Pittendriech (_d._ 1552), master of Angus, a far
cleverer diplomatist than himself. His life and lands were also
declared forfeit, as were those of his uncle, Archibald Douglas of
Kilspindie (_d._ 1535), who had been a friend of James and was known
by the nickname of "Greysteel." These took refuge in exile. James
avenged himself on such Douglases as lay within his power. Angus's
third sister Janet, Lady Glamis, was summoned to answer the charge
of communicating with her brothers, and on her failure to appear her
estates were forfeited. In 1537 she was tried for conspiring against
the king's life. She was found guilty and burnt on the Castle Hill,
Edinburgh, on the 17th of July 1537. Her innocence has been generally
assumed, but Tytler (_Hist, of Scotland_, iv. pp. 433, 434) considered
her guilty. Angus remained in England till 1542, joining in the
attacks upon his countrymen on the border, while James refused all
demands from Henry VIII. for his restoration, and kept firm to his
policy of suppressing and extirpating the Douglas faction. On James
V.'s death in 1542 Angus returned to Scotland, with instructions
from Henry to accomplish the marriage between Mary and Edward. His
forfeiture was rescinded, his estates restored, and he was made a
privy councillor and lieutenant-general. In 1543 he negotiated the
treaty of peace and marriage, and the same year he himself married
Margaret, daughter of Robert, Lord Maxwell. Shortly afterwards strife
between Angus and the regent Arran broke out, and in April 1544
Angus was taken prisoner. The same year Lord Hertford's marauding
expedition, which did not spare the lands of Angus, made him join the
anti-English party. He entered into a bond with Arran and others to
maintain their allegiance to Mary, and gave his support to the
mission sent to France to offer the latter's hand. In July 1544 he
was appointed lieutenant of the south of Scotland, and distinguished
himself on the 27th of February 1545 in the victory over the
English at Ancrum Moor. He still corresponded with Henry VIII., but
nevertheless signed in 1546 the act cancelling the marriage and peace
treaty, and on the 10th of September commanded the van in the great
defeat of Pinkie, when he again won fame. In 1548 the attempt by
Lennox and Wharton to capture him and punish him for his duplicity
failed, Angus escaping after his defeat to Edinburgh by sea, and
Wharton being driven back to Carlisle. Under the regency of Mary of
Lorraine his restless and ambitious character and the number of his
retainers gave cause for frequent alarms to the government. On the
31st of August 1547 he resigned his earldom, obtaining a regrant _sibi
et suis haeredibus masculis et suis assignatis quibuscumque_. His
career was a long struggle for power and for the interests of his
family, to which national considerations were completely subordinate.
He died in January 1557. By Margaret Tudor he had Margaret, his only
surviving legitimate child, who married Matthew, 4th earl of Lennox,
and was mother of Lord Darnley. He was succeeded by his nephew David,
son of Sir George Douglas of Pittendriech.

[Footnote 1: Lindsay of Pitscottie (1814), ii. 314.]

[v.02 p.0044]


ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 8th earl, and earl of Morton (1555-1588), was the
son of David, 7th earl. He succeeded to the title and estates in 1558,
being brought up by his uncle, the 4th earl of Morton, a Presbyterian.
In 1573 he was made a privy councillor and sheriff of Berwick, in 1574
lieutenant-general of Scotland, in 1577 warden of the west marches and
steward of Fife, and in 1578 lieutenant-general of the realm. He gave
a strong support to Morton during the attack upon the latter, made a
vain attempt to rescue him, and was declared guilty of high treason
on the 2nd of June 1581. He now entered into correspondence with the
English government for an invasion of Scotland to rescue Morton,
and on the latter's execution in June went to London, where he
was welcomed by Elizabeth. After the raid of Ruthven in 1582 Angus
returned to Scotland and was reconciled to James, but soon afterwards
the king shook off the control of the earls of Mar and Gowrie,
and Angus was again banished from the court. In 1584 he joined
the rebellion of Mar and Glamis, but the movement failed, and the
insurgents fled to Berwick. Later they took up their residence at
Newcastle, which became a centre of Presbyterianism and of projects
against the Scottish government, encouraged by Elizabeth, who regarded
the banished lords as friends of the English and antagonists of the
French interest. In February 1585 they came to London, and cleared
themselves of the accusation of plotting against James's life; a plan
was prepared for their restoration and for the overthrow of James
Stewart, earl of Arran. In October they invaded Scotland and gained
an easy victory over Arran, captured Stirling Castle with the king in
November, and secured from James the restoration of their estates and
the control of the government. In 1586 Angus was appointed warden of
the marches and lieutenant-general on the border, and performed good
services in restoring order; but he was unable to overcome the king's
hostility to the establishment of Presbyterian government. In January
1586 he was granted the earldom of Morton with the lands entailed upon
him by his uncle. He died on the 4th of August 1588. He was succeeded
in the earldom by his cousin William, a descendant of the 5th earl.
(For the Morton title, see MORTON, JAMES DOUGLAS, 4th EARL OF.)


WILLIAM DOUGLAS, 10th earl (c. 1554-1611), was the son of William, the
9th earl (1533-1591). He studied at St. Andrews University and joined
the household of the earl of Morton. Subsequently, while visiting the
French court, he became a Roman Catholic, and was in consequence, on
his return, disinherited and placed under restraint. Nevertheless he
succeeded to his father's titles and estates in 1591, and though in
1592 he was disgraced for his complicity in Lord Bothwell's plot,
he was soon liberated and performed useful services as the king's
lieutenant in the north of Scotland. In July 1592, however, he was
asking for help from Elizabeth in a plot with Erroll and other lords
against Sir John Maitland, the chancellor, and protesting his absolute
rejection of Spanish offers, while in October he signed the Spanish
Blanks (see ERROLL, FRANCIS HAY, 9th EARL OF) and was imprisoned (on
the discovery of the treason) in Edinburgh Castle on his return in
January 1593. He succeeded on the 13th in escaping by the help of his
countess, joining the earls of Huntly and Erroll in the north.
They were offered an act of "oblivion" or "abolition" provided
they renounced their religion or quitted Scotland. Declining these
conditions they were declared traitors and "forfeited." They remained
in rebellion, and in July 1594 an attack made by them on Aberdeen
roused James's anger. Huntly and Erroll were subdued by James himself
in the north, and Angus failed in an attempt upon Edinburgh in concert
with the earl of Bothwell. Subsequently in 1597 they all renounced
their religion, declared themselves Presbyterians, and were restored
to their estates and honours. Angus was again included in the privy
council, and in June 1598 was appointed the king's lieutenant
in southern Scotland, in which capacity he showed great zeal and
conducted the "Raid of Dumfries," as the campaign against the
Johnstones was called. Not long afterwards, Angus, offended at the
advancement of Huntly to a marquisate, recanted, resisted all the
arguments of the ministers to bring him to a "better mind," and was
again excommunicated in 1608. In 1609 he withdrew to France, and
died in Paris on the 3rd of March 1611. He was succeeded by his son
William, as 11th earl of Angus, afterwards 1st marquis of Douglas
(1580-1660). The title is now held by the dukes of Hamilton.


AUTHORITIES.--_The Douglas Book_, by Sir W. Fraser (1885); _History
of the House of Douglas and Angus_, by D. Hume of Godscroft (1748,
legendary in some respects); _History of the House of Douglas_, by Sir
H. Maxwell (1902).



ANGUSSOLA or ANGUSSCIOLA, SOPHONISBA, Italian portrait painter of the
latter half of the 16th century, was born at Cremona about 1535, and
died at Palermo in 1626. In 1560, at the invitation of Philip II.,
she visited the court of Madrid, where her portraits elicited great
commendation. Vandyck is said to have declared that he had derived
more knowledge of the true principles of his art from her conversation
than from any other source. She painted several fine portraits of
herself, one of which is at Althorp. A few specimens of her painting
are to be seen at Florence and Madrid. She had three sisters, who were
also celebrated artists.



ANHALT, a duchy of Germany, and a constituent state of the German
empire, formed, in 1863, by the amalgamation of the two duchies
Anhalt-Dessau-Cöthen and Anhalt-Bernburg, and comprising all the
various Anhalt territories which were sundered apart in 1603. The
country now known as Anhalt consists of two larger portions--Eastern
and Western Anhalt, separated by the interposition of a part
of Prussian Saxony--and of five enclaves surrounded by Prussian
territory, viz. Alsleben, Mühlingen, Dornburg, Gödnitz and
Tilkerode-Abberode. The eastern and larger portion of the duchy
is enclosed by the Prussian government district of Potsdam (in
the Prussian province of Brandenburg), and Magdeburg and Merseburg
(belonging to the Prussian province of Saxony). The western or smaller
portion (the so-called Upper Duchy or Ballenstedt) is also enclosed by
the two latter districts and, for a distance of 5 m. on the west,
by the duchy of Brunswick. The western portion of the territory is
undulating and in the extreme south-west, where it forms part of the
Harz range, mountainous, the Ramberg peak attaining a height of 1900
ft. From the Harz the country gently shelves down to the Saale; and
between this river and the Elbe there lies a fine tract of fertile
country. The portion of the duchy lying east of the Elbe is mostly a
flat sandy plain, with extensive pine forests, though interspersed, at
intervals, by bog-land and rich pastures. The Elbe is the chief river,
and intersecting the eastern portion of the duchy, from east to west,
receives at Rosslau the waters of the Mulde. The navigable Saale takes
a northerly direction through the western portion of the eastern part
of the territory and receives, on the right, the Fuhne and, on the
left, the Wipper and the Bode. The climate is on the whole mild,
though somewhat inclement in the higher regions to the south-west. The
area of the duchy is 906 sq. m., and the population in 1905 amounted
to 328,007, a ratio of about 351 to the square mile. The country is
divided into the districts of Dessau, Cöthen, Zerbst, Bernburg and
Ballenstedt, of which that of Bernburg is the most, and that of
Ballenstedt the least, populated. Of the towns, four, viz. Dessau,
Bernburg, Cöthen and Zerbst, have populations exceeding 20,000. The
inhabitants of the duchy, who mainly belong to the upper Saxon race,
are, with the exception of about 12,000 Roman Catholics and 1700 Jews,
members of the Evangelical (Union) Church. The supreme ecclesiastical
authority is the consistory in Dessau; while a synod of 39 members,
elected for six years, assembles at periods to deliberate on internal
matters touching the organization of the church. The Roman Catholics
are under the bishop of Paderborn. There are within the duchy four
grammar schools (gymnasia), five semi-classical and modern schools,
a teachers' seminary and four high-grade girls' schools. Of the whole
surface, land under tillage amounts to about 60, meadowland to 7 and
forest to 25%. The chief crops are corn (especially wheat), fruit,
vegetables, potatoes, beet, tobacco, flax, linseed and hops. The land
is well cultivated, and the husbandry on the royal domains and the
large estates especially so. The pastures on the banks of the Elbe
yield cattle of excellent quality. The forests are well stocked
with game, such as deer and wild boar, and the open country is well
supplied with partridges. The rivers yield abundant fish, salmon (in
the Elbe), sturgeon and lampreys. The country is rich in lignite, and
salt works are abundant. Of the manufactures of Anhalt, the chief
are its sugar factories, distilleries, breweries and chemical works.
Commerce is brisk, especially in raw products--corn, cattle, timber
or wool. Coal (lignite), guano, oil and bricks are also articles of
export. The trade of the country is furthered by its excellent roads,
its navigable rivers and its railways (165 m.), which are worked in
connexion with the Prussian system. There is a chamber of commerce in
Dessau.

[v.02 p.0045]


_Constitution_.--The duchy, by virtue of a fundamental law, proclaimed
on the 17th of September 1859 and subsequently modified by various
decrees, is a constitutional monarchy. The duke, who bears the
title of "Highness," wields the executive power while sharing the
legislation with the estates. The diet (_Landtag_) is composed of
thirty-six members, of whom two are appointed by the duke, eight are
representatives of landowners paying the highest taxes, two of the
highest assessed members of the commercial and manufacturing classes,
fourteen of the other electors of the towns and ten of the rural
districts. The representatives are chosen for six years by indirect
vote and must have completed their twenty-fifth year. The duke
governs through a minister of state, who is the praeses of all the
departments--finance, home affairs, education, public worship and
statistics. The budget estimates for the financial year 1905-1906
placed the expenditure of the estate at £1,323,437. The public debt
amounted on the 30th of June 1904 to £226,300. By convention with
Prussia of 1867 the Anhalt troops form a contingent of the Prussian
army. Appeal from the lower courts of the duchy lies to the appeal
court at Naumburg in Prussian Saxony.


_History_.--During the 11th century the greater part of Anhalt was
included in the duchy of Saxony, and in the 12th century it came
under the rule of Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg. Albert was
descended from Albert, count of Ballenstedt, whose son Esico (d. 1059
or 1060) appears to have been the first to bear the title of count of
Anhalt. Esico's grandson, Otto the Rich, count of Ballenstedt, was the
father of Albert the Bear, by whom Anhalt was united with the mark of
Brandenburg. When Albert died in 1170, his son Bernard, who received
the title of duke of Saxony in 1180, became count of Anhalt. Bernard
died in 1212, and Anhalt, separated from Saxony, passed to his son
Henry, who in 1218 took the title of prince and was the real founder
of the house of Anhalt. On Henry's death in 1252 his three sons
partitioned the principality and founded respectively the lines of
Aschersleben, Bernburg and Zerbst. The family ruling in Aschersleben
became extinct in 1315, and this district was subsequently
incorporated with the neighbouring bishopric of Halberstadt. The last
prince of the line of Anhalt-Bernburg died in 1468 and his lands
were inherited by the princes of the sole remaining line, that of
Anhalt-Zerbst. The territory belonging to this branch of the family
had been divided in 1396, and after the acquisition of Bernburg
Prince George I. made a further partition of Zerbst. Early in the 16th
century, however, owing to the death or abdication of several
princes, the family had become narrowed down to the two branches
of Anhalt-Cöthen and Anhalt-Dessau. Wolfgang, who became prince of
Anhalt-Cöthen in 1508, was a stalwart adherent of the Reformation,
and after the battle of Mühlberg in 1547 was placed under the ban and
deprived of his lands by the emperor Charles V. After the peace
of Passau in 1552 he bought back his principality, but as he was
childless he surrendered it in 1562 to his kinsmen the princes of
Anhalt-Dessau. Ernest I. of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1516) left three sons,
John II., George III., and Joachim, who ruled their lands together
for many years, and who, like Prince Wolfgang, favoured the reformed
doctrines, which thus became dominant in Anhalt. About 1546 the three
brothers divided their principality and founded the lines of Zerbst,
Plötzkau and Dessau. This division, however, was only temporary, as
the acquisition of Cöthen, and a series of deaths among the ruling
princes, enabled Joachim Ernest, a son of John II., to unite the whole
of Anhalt under his rule in 1570.

Joachim Ernest died in 1586 and his five sons ruled the land in common
until 1603, when Anhalt was again divided, and the lines of Dessau,
Bernburg, Plötzkau, Zerbst and Cöthen were refounded. The principality
was ravaged during the Thirty Years' War, and in the earlier part of
this struggle Christian I. of Anhalt-Bernburg took an important part.
In 1635 an arrangement was made by the various princes of Anhalt,
which gave a certain authority to the eldest member of the family,
who was thus able to represent the principality as a whole. This
proceeding was probably due to the necessity of maintaining an
appearance of unity in view of the disturbed state of European
politics. In 1665 the branch of Anhalt-Cöthen became extinct, and
according to a family compact this district was inherited by Lebrecht
of Anhalt-Plötzkau, who surrendered Plötzkau to Bernburg, and took
the title of prince of Anhalt-Cöthen. In the same year the princes
of Anhalt decided that if any branch of the family became extinct its
lands should be equally divided between the remaining branches. This
arrangement was carried out after the death of Frederick Augustus
of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1793, and Zerbst was divided between the three
remaining princes. During these years the policy of the different
princes was marked, perhaps intentionally, by considerable uniformity.
Once or twice Calvinism was favoured by a prince, but in general the
house was loyal to the doctrines of Luther. The growth of Prussia
provided Anhalt with a formidable neighbour, and the establishment
and practice of primogeniture by all branches of the family
prevented further divisions of the principality. In 1806 Alexius of
Anhalt-Bernburg was created a duke by the emperor Francis II., and
after the dissolution of the Empire each of the three princes took
this title. Joining the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807, they
supported Napoleon until 1813, when they transferred their
allegiance to the allies; in 1815 they became members of the Germanic
Confederation, and in 1828 joined, somewhat reluctantly, the Prussian
_Zollverein_.

[v.02 p.0046]

Anhalt-Cöthen was ruled without division by a succession of princes,
prominent among whom was Louis (d. 1650), who was both a soldier and a
scholar; and after the death of Prince Charles at the battle of
Semlin in 1789 it passed to his son Augustus II. This prince sought to
emulate the changes which had recently been made in France by dividing
Cöthen into two departments and introducing the Code Napoléon. Owing
to his extravagance he left a large amount of debt to his nephew and
successor, Louis II., and on this account the control of the finances
was transferred from the prince to the estates. Under Louis's
successor Ferdinand, who was a Roman Catholic and brought the Jesuits
into Anhalt, the state of the finances grew worse and led to the
interference of the king of Prussia and to the appointment of a
Prussian official. When the succeeding prince, Henry, died in 1847,
this family became extinct, and according to an arrangement between
the lines of Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Bernburg, Cöthen was added to
Dessau.

Anhalt-Bernburg had been weakened by partitions, but its princes had
added several districts to their lands; and in 1812, on the extinction
of a cadet branch, it was again united under a single ruler. The
feeble rule of Alexander Charles, who became duke in 1834, and the
disturbed state of Europe in the following decade, led to considerable
unrest, and in 1849 Bernburg was occupied by Prussian troops. A
number of abortive attempts were made to change the government, and
as Alexander Charles was unlikely to leave any children, Leopold of
Anhalt-Dessau took some part in the affairs of Bernburg. Eventually
in 1859 a new constitution was established for Bernburg and Dessau
jointly, and when Alexander Charles died in 1863 both were united
under the rule of Leopold.

Anhalt-Dessau had been divided in 1632, but was quickly reunited;
and in 1693 it came under the rule of Leopold I. (see ANHALT-DESSAU,
LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF), the famous soldier who was generally known
as the "Old Dessauer." The sons of Leopold's eldest son were excluded
from the succession on account of the marriage of their father being
morganatic, and the principality passed in 1747 to his second son,
Leopold II. The unrest of 1848 spread to Dessau, and led to the
interference of the Prussians and to the establishment of the new
constitution in 1859. Leopold IV., who reigned from 1817 to 1871, had
the satisfaction in 1863 of reuniting the whole of Anhalt under his
rule. He took the title of duke of Anhalt, summoned one _Landtag_
for the whole of the duchy, and in 1866 fought for Prussia against
Austria. Subsequently a quarrel over the possession of the ducal
estates between the duke and the _Landtag_ broke the peace of the
duchy, but this was settled in 1872. In 1871 Anhalt became a state of
the German Empire. Leopold IV. was followed by his son Frederick I.,
and on the death of this prince in 1904 his son Frederick II. became
duke of Anhalt.


AUTHORITIES.--F. Knoke, _Anhaltische Geschichte_ (Dessau, 1893);
G. Krause, _Urkunden, Aktenstucke und Briefe zur Geschichte der
anhaltischen Lande und ihrer Fürsten unter dem Drucke des 30 jahrigen
Krieges_ (Leipzig, 1861-1866); O. von Heinemann, _Codex diplomaticus
Anhaltinus_ (Dessau, 1867-1883); Siebigk, _Das Herzogthum Anhalt
historisch, geographisch und statistisch dargestellt_ (Dessau, 1867).



ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF (1676-1747), called the "Old
Dessauer" (Alter Dessauer), general field marshal in the Prussian
army, was the only surviving son of John George II., prince of
Anhalt-Dessau, and was born on the 3rd of July 1676 at Dessau. From
his earliest youth he was devoted to the profession of arms, for which
he educated himself physically and mentally. He became colonel of a
Prussian regiment in 1693, and in the same year his father's death
placed him at the head of his own principality; thereafter, during the
whole of his long life, he performed the duties of a sovereign prince
and a Prussian officer. His first campaign was that of 1695 in
the Netherlands, in which he was present at the siege of Namur. He
remained in the field to the end of the war of 1697, the affairs
of the principality being managed chiefly by his mother, Princess
Henriette Catherine of Orange. In 1698 he married Anna Luise Föse,
an apothecary's daughter of Dessau, in spite of his mother's long and
earnest opposition, and subsequently he procured for her the rank of
a princess from the emperor (1701). Their married life was long and
happy, and the princess acquired an influence over the stern nature of
her husband which she never ceased to exert on behalf of his subjects,
and after the death of Leopold's mother she performed the duties of
regent when he was absent on campaign. Often, too, she accompanied him
into the field. Leopold's career as a soldier in important commands
begins with the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession. He had
made many improvements in the Prussian army, notably the introduction
of the iron ramrod about 1700, and he now took the field at the
head of a Prussian corps on the Rhine, serving at the sieges of
Kaiserswerth and Venlo. In the following year (1703), having obtained
the rank of lieutenant-general, Leopold took part in the siege of Bonn
and distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Höchstädt, in
which the Austrians and their allies were defeated by the French under
Marshal Villars (September 20, 1703). In the campaign of 1704
the Prussian contingent served under Prince Louis of Baden and
subsequently under Eugene, and Leopold himself won great glory by his
conduct at Blenheim. In 1705 he was sent with a Prussian corps to join
Prince Eugene in Italy, and on the 16th of August he displayed his
bravery at the hard-fought battle of Cassano. In the following year he
added to his reputation in the battle of Turin, where he was the first
to enter the hostile entrenchments (September 7, 1706). He served
in one more campaign in Italy, and then went with Eugene to join
Marlborough in the Netherlands, being present in 1709 at the siege
of Tournay and the battle of Malplaquet. In 1710 he succeeded to the
command of the whole Prussian contingent at the front, and in 1712, at
the particular desire of the crown prince, Frederick William, who had
served with him as a volunteer, he was made a general field marshal.
Shortly before this he had executed a _coup de main_ on the castle
of Mörs, which was held by the Dutch in defiance of the claims of the
king of Prussia to the possession. The operation was effected with
absolute precision and the castle was seized without a shot being
fired. In the earlier part of the reign of Frederick William I.,
the prince of Dessau was one of the most influential members of
the Prussian governing circle. In the war with Sweden (1715) he
accompanied the king to the front, commanded an army of 40,000 men,
and met and defeated Charles XII. in a severe battle on the island
of Rügen (November 16). His conduct of the siege of Stralsund which
followed was equally skilful, and the great results of the war
to Prussia were largely to be attributed to his leadership in the
campaign. In the years of peace, and especially after a court quarrel
(1725) and duel with General von Grumbkow, he devoted himself to the
training of the Prussian army. The reputation it had gained in the
wars of 1675 to 1715, though good, gave no hint of its coming glory,
and it was even in 1740 accounted one of the minor armies of Europe.
That it proved, when put to the test, to be by far the best military
force existing, may be taken as the summary result of Leopold's work.
The "Old Dessauer" was one of the sternest disciplinarians in an age
of stern discipline, and the technical training of the infantry, under
his hand, made them superior to all others in the proportion of five
to three (see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE). He was essentially an
infantry soldier; in his time artillery did not decide battles, but he
suffered the cavalry service, in which he felt little interest, to
be comparatively neglected, with results which appeared at Mollwitz.
Frederick the Great formed the cavalry of Hohenfriedberg and Leuthen
himself, but had it not been for the incomparable infantry trained by
the "Old Dessauer" he would never have had the opportunity of doing
so. Thus Leopold, heartily supported by Frederick William, who was
himself called the great drill-master of Europe, turned to good
account the twenty years following the peace with Sweden. During this
time two incidents in his career call for special mention: first,
his intervention in the case of the crown prince Frederick, who
was condemned to death for desertion, and his continued and finally
successful efforts to secure Frederick's reinstatement in the Prussian
army; and secondly, his part in the War of the Polish Succession on
the Rhine, where he served under his old chief Eugene and held the
office of field marshal of the Empire.

[v.02 p.0047]

With the death of Frederick William in 1740, Frederick succeeded to
the Prussian throne, and a few months later took place the invasion
and conquest of Silesia, the first act in the long Silesian wars and
the test of the work of the "Old Dessauer's" lifetime. The prince
himself was not often employed in the king's own army, though his sons
held high commands under Frederick. The king, indeed, found Leopold,
who was reputed, since the death of Eugene, the greatest of living
soldiers, somewhat difficult to manage, and the prince spent most of
the campaigning years up to 1745 in command of an army of observation
on the Saxon frontier. Early in that year his wife died. He was
now over seventy, but his last campaign was destined to be the most
brilliant of his long career. A combined effort of the Austrians and
Saxons to retrieve the disasters of the summer by a winter campaign
towards Berlin itself led to a hurried concentration of the Prussians.
Frederick from Silesia checked the Austrian main army and hastened
towards Dresden. But before he had arrived, Leopold, no longer in
observation, had decided the war by his overwhelming victory of
Kesselsdorf (December 14, 1745). It was his habit to pray before
battle, for he was a devout Lutheran. On this last field his words
were, "O Lord God, let me not be disgraced in my old days. Or if Thou
wilt not help me, do not help these scoundrels, but leave us to try it
ourselves." With this great victory Leopold's career ended. He retired
from active service, and the short remainder of his life was spent at
Dessau, where he died on the 7th of April 1747.

He was succeeded by his son, LEOPOLD II., MAXIMILIAN, PRINCE OF
ANHALT-DESSAU (1700-1751), who was one of the best of Frederick's
subordinate generals, and especially distinguished himself by the
capture of Glogau in 1741, and his generalship at Mollwitz, Chotusitz
(where he was made general field marshal on the field of battle),
Hohenfriedberg and Soor.

Another son, PRINCE DIETRICH OF ANHALT-DESSAU (d. 1769), was also a
distinguished Prussian general.

But the most famous of the sons was PRINCE MORITZ OF ANHALT-DESSAU
(1712-1760), who entered the Prussian army in 1725, saw his first
service as a volunteer in the War of the Polish Succession (1734-35),
and in the latter years of the reign of Frederick William held
important commands. In the Silesian wars of Frederick II., Moritz,
the ablest of the old Leopold's sons, greatly distinguished himself,
especially at the battle of Hohenfriedberg (Striegau), 1745. At
Kesselsdorf it was the wing led by the young Prince Moritz that
carried the Austrian lines and won the "Old Dessauer's" last fight. In
the years of peace preceding the Seven Years' War, Moritz was employed
by Frederick the Great in the colonizing of the waste lands of
Pomerania and the Oder Valley. When the king took the field again in
1756, Moritz was in command of one of the columns which hemmed in the
Saxon army in the lines of Pirna, and he received the surrender of
Rutowski's force after the failure of the Austrian attempts at relief.
Next year Moritz underwent changes of fortune. At the battle of Kolin
he led the left wing, which, through a misunderstanding with the
king, was prematurely drawn into action and failed hopelessly. In
the disastrous days which followed, Moritz was under the cloud of
Frederick's displeasure. But the glorious victory of Leuthen (December
5, 1757) put an end to this. At the close of that day, Frederick
rode down the lines and called out to General Prince Moritz,
"I congratulate you, Herr Feldmarschall!" At Zorndorf he again
distinguished himself, but at the surprise of Hochkirch fell wounded
into the hands of the Austrians. Two years later, soon after his
release, his wound proved mortal.


AUTHORITIES.--Varnhagen von Ense, _Preuss. biographische Denkmale_,
vol. ii. (3rd ed., 1872); _Militar Konversations-Lexikon_, vol. ii.
(Leipzig, 1833); Anon., _Fürst Leopold I. von Anhalt und seine Sohne_
(Dessau, 1852); G. Pauli, _Leben grosser Helden_, vol. vi.; von
Orlich, _Prinz Moritz von Anhalt-Dessau_ (Berlin, 1842); Crousatz,
_Militarische Denkwurdigkeiten des Fürsten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau_
(1875); supplements to _Militär Wochenblatt_ (1878 and 1889); Siebigk,
_Selbstbiographie des Fürsten Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau_ (Dessau,
1860 and 1876); Hosäus, _Zur Biographie des Fürsten Leopold von
Anhalt-Dessau_ (Dessau, 1876); Würdig, _Des Alten Dessauers Leben und
Taten_ (3rd ed., Dessau, 1903); _Briefe Konig Friedrich Wilhelms I. an
den Fürsten L._ (Berlin, 1905).



ANHYDRITE, a mineral, differing chemically from the more commonly
occurring gypsum in containing no water of crystallization, being
anhydrous calcium sulphate, CaSO_{4}. It crystallizes in the
orthorhombic system, and has three directions of perfect cleavage
parallel to the three planes of symmetry. It is not isomorphous with
the orthorhombic barium and strontium sulphates, as might be expected
from the chemical formulae. Distinctly developed crystals are somewhat
rare, the mineral usually presenting the form of cleavage masses. The
hardness is 3-1/2 and the specific gravity 2.9. The colour is white,
sometimes greyish, bluish or reddish. On the best developed of the
three cleavages the lustre is pearly, on other surfaces it is of the
ordinary vitreous type.

Anhydrite is most frequently found in salt deposits with gypsum; it
was, for instance, first discovered, in 1794, in a salt mine near
Hall in Tirol. Other localities which produce typical specimens of the
mineral, and where the mode of occurrence is the same, are Stassfurt
in Germany, Aussee in Styria and Bex in Switzerland. At all these
places it is only met with at some depth; nearer the surface of the
ground it has been altered to gypsum owing to absorption of water.

From an aqueous solution calcium sulphate is deposited as crystals
of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of sodium or
potassium chloride anhydrite is deposited. This is one of the several
methods by which the mineral has been prepared artificially, and
is identical with its mode of origin in nature, the mineral having
crystallized out in salt basins.

The name anhydrite was given by A.G. Werner in 1804, because of the
absence of water, as contrasted with the presence of water in gypsum.
Other names for the species are muriacite and karstenite; the former,
an earlier name, being given under the impression that the substance
was a chloride (muriate). A peculiar variety occurring as contorted
concretionary masses is known as tripe-stone, and a scaly granular
variety, from Vulpino, near Bergamo, in Lombardy, as vulpinite; the
latter is cut and polished for ornamental purposes.

(L.J.S.)



ANI (anc. _Abnicum_), an ancient and ruined Armenian city, in Russian
Transcaucasia, government Erivan, situated at an altitude of 4390 ft.,
between the Arpa-chai (_Harpasus_) and a deep ravine. In 961 it became
the capital of the Bagratid kings of Armenia, and when yielded to the
Byzantine emperor (1046) it was a populous city, known traditionally
as the "city with the 1001 churches." It was taken eighteen years
later by the Seljuk Turks, five times by the Georgians between 1125
and 1209, in 1239 by the Mongols, and its ruin was completed by an
earthquake in 1319. It is still surrounded by a double wall partly in
ruins, and amongst the remains are a "patriarchal" church finished in
1010, two other churches, both of the 11th century, a fourth built in
1215, and a palace of large size.

See Brosset, _Les Ruines d'Ani_ (1860-1861).



ANICETUS, pope c. 154-167. It was during his pontificate that
St. Polycarp visited the Roman Church.



ANICHINI, LUIGI, Italian engraver of seals and medals, a native of
Ferrara, lived at Venice about 1550. Michelangelo pronounced his
"Interview of Alexander the Great with the high-priest at Jerusalem,"
"the perfection of the art." His medals of Henry II. of France and
Pope Paul III. are greatly valued.



ANILINE, PHENYLAMINE, or AMINOBENZENE, (C_{6}H_{5}NH_{2}), an organic
base first obtained from the destructive distillation of indigo in
1826 by O. Unverdorben (_Pogg. Ann._, 1826, 8, p. 397), who named it
crystalline. In 1834, F. Runge (_Pogg. Ann._, 1834, 31, p. 65; 32,
p. 331) isolated from coal-tar a substance which produced a beautiful
blue colour on treatment with chloride of lime; this he named kyanol
or cyanol. In 1841, C.J. Fritzsche showed that by treating indigo with
caustic potash it yielded an oil, which he named aniline, from the
specific name of one of the indigo-yielding plants, _Indigofera anil_,
_anil_ being derived from the Sanskrit _n[=i]la_, dark-blue, and
_n[=i]l[=a]_, the indigo plant. About the same time N.N. Zinin found
that on reducing nitrobenzene, a base was formed which he named
benzidam. A.W. von Hofmann investigated these variously prepared
substances, and proved them to be identical, and thenceforth they took
their place as one body, under the name aniline or phenylamine. Pure
aniline is a basic substance of an oily consistence, colourless,
melting at -8° and boiling at 184° C. On exposure to air it absorbs
oxygen and resinifies, becoming deep brown in colour; it ignites
readily, burning with a large smoky flame. It possesses a somewhat
pleasant vinous odour and a burning aromatic taste; it is a highly
acrid poison.

[v.02 p.0048]

Aniline is a weak base and forms salts with the mineral acids. Aniline
hydrochloride forms large colourless tables, which become greenish
on exposure; it is the "aniline salt" of commerce. The sulphate forms
beautiful white plates. Although aniline is but feebly basic, it
precipitates zinc, aluminium and ferric salts, and on warming expels
ammonia from its salts. Aniline combines directly with alkyl iodides
to form secondary and tertiary amines; boiled with carbon disulphide
it gives sulphocarbanilide (diphenyl thio-urea), CS(NHC_{6}H_{5})_{2},
which may be decomposed into phenyl mustard-oil, C_{6}H_{5}CNS, and
triphenyl guanidine, C_{6}H_{5}N: C(NHC_{6}H_{5})_{2}. Sulphuric acid
at 180° gives sulphanilic acid, NH2.C_{6}H_{4}.SO_{3}H. Anilides, compounds
in which the amino group is substituted by an acid radical, are
prepared by heating aniline with certain acids; antifebrin or
acetanilide is thus obtained from acetic acid and aniline. The
oxidation of aniline has been carefully investigated. In alkaline
solution azobenzene results, while arsenic acid produces the
violet-colouring matter violaniline. Chromic acid converts it into
quinone, while chlorates, in the presence of certain metallic salts
(especially of vanadium), give aniline black. Hydrochloric acid and
potassium chlorate give chloranil. Potassium permanganate in neutral
solution oxidizes it to nitrobenzene, in alkaline solution to
azobenzene, ammonia and oxalic acid, in acid solution to aniline
black. Hypochlorous acid gives para-amino phenol and para-amino
diphenylamine (E. Bamberger, _Ber._, 1898, 31, p. 1522).

The great commercial value of aniline is due to the readiness with
which it yields, directly or indirectly, valuable dyestuffs. The
discovery of mauve in 1858 by Sir W.H. Perkin was the first of
a series of dyestuffs which are now to be numbered by hundreds.
Reference should be made to the articles DYEING, FUCHSINE, SAFRANINE,
INDULINES, for more details on this subject. In addition to dyestuffs,
it is a starting-product for the manufacture of many drugs, such
as antipyrine, antifebrin, &c. Aniline is manufactured by reducing
nitrobenzene with iron and hydrochloric acid and steam-distilling the
product. The purity of the product depends upon the quality of the
benzene from which the nitrobenzene was prepared. In commerce three
brands of aniline are distinguished--aniline oil for blue, which
is pure aniline; aniline oil for red, a mixture of equimolecular
quantities of aniline and ortho- and para-toluidines; and aniline
oil for safranine, which contains aniline and ortho-toluidine, and
is obtained from the distillate (_échappés_) of the fuchsine fusion.
Monomethyl and dimethyl aniline are colourless liquids prepared by
heating aniline, aniline hydro-chloride and methyl alcohol in
an autoclave at 220°. They are of great importance in the colour
industry. Monomethyl aniline boils at 193-195°; dimethyl aniline at
192°.



ANIMAL (Lat. _animalis_, from _anima_, breath, soul), a term first
used as a noun or adjective to denote a living thing, but now used to
designate one branch of living things as opposed to the other branch
known as plants. Until the discovery of protoplasm, and the series
of investigations by which it was established that the cell was a
fundamental structure essentially alike in both animals and plants
(see CYTOLOGY), there was a vague belief that plants, if they could
really be regarded as animated creatures, exhibited at the most a
lower grade of life. We know now that in so far as life and living
matter can be investigated by science, animals and plants cannot be
described as being alive in different degrees. Animals and plants
are extremely closely related organisms, alike in their fundamental
characters, and each grading into organisms which possess some of
the characters of both classes or kingdoms (see PROTISTA). The actual
boundaries between animals and plants are artificial; they are
rather due to the ingenious analysis of the systematist than actually
resident in objective nature. The most obvious distinction is that
the animal cell-wall is either absent or composed of a nitrogenous
material, whereas the plant cell-wall is composed of a carbohydrate
material--cellulose. The animal and the plant alike require food to
repair waste, to build up new tissue and to provide material which,
by chemical change, may liberate the energy which appears in the
processes of life. The food is alike in both cases; it consists of
water, certain inorganic salts, carbohydrate material and proteid
material. Both animals and plants take their water and inorganic salts
directly as such. The animal cell can absorb its carbohydrate and
proteid food only in the form of carbohydrate and proteid; it is
dependent, in fact, on the pre-existence of these organic substances,
themselves the products of living matter, and in this respect the
animal is essentially a parasite on existing animal and plant life.
The plant, on the other hand, if it be a green plant, containing
chlorophyll, is capable, in the presence of light, of building up both
carbohydrate material and proteid material from inorganic salts; if
it be a fungus, devoid of chlorophyll, whilst it is dependent on
pre-existing carbohydrate material and is capable of absorbing,
like an animal, proteid material as such, it is able to build up its
proteid food from material chemically simpler than proteid. On these
basal differences are founded most of the characters which make the
higher forms of animal and plant life so different. The animal body,
if it be composed of many cells, follows a different architectural
plan; the compact nature of its food, and the yielding nature of its
cell-walls, result in a form of structure consisting essentially of
tubular or spherical masses of cells arranged concentrically round the
food-cavity. The relatively rigid nature of the plant cell-wall, and
the attenuated inorganic food-supply of plants, make possible and
necessary a form of growth in which the greatest surface is exposed to
the exterior, and thus the plant body is composed of flattened laminae
and elongated branching growths. The distinctions between animals and
plants are in fact obviously secondary and adaptive, and point clearly
towards the conception of a common origin for the two forms of life, a
conception which is made still more probable by the existence of many
low forms in which the primary differences between animals and plants
fade out.

An animal may be defined as a living organism, the protoplasm of which
does not secrete a cellulose cell-wall, and which requires for its
existence proteid material obtained from the living or dead bodies of
existing plants or animals. The common use of the word animal as
the equivalent of mammal, as opposed to bird or reptile or fish, is
erroneous.

The classification of the animal kingdom is dealt with in the article
ZOOLOGY.

(P.C.M.)



ANIMAL HEAT. Under this heading is discussed the physiology of the
temperature of the animal body.

The higher animals have within their bodies certain sources of heat,
and also some mechanism by means of which both the production and loss
of heat can be regulated. This is conclusively shown by the fact that
both in summer and winter their mean temperature remains the same. But
it was not until the introduction of thermometers that any exact data
on the temperature of animals could be obtained. It was then found
that local differences were present, since heat production and heat
loss vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the
circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of
the internal parts. Hence it is important to determine the temperature
of those parts which most nearly approaches to that of the internal
organs. Also for such results to be comparable they must be made in
the same situation. The rectum gives most accurately the temperature
of internal parts, or in women and some animals the vagina, uterus or
bladder.

[v.02 p.0049]

Occasionally that of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use.
More usually the temperature is taken in the mouth, axilla or groin.


_Warm and Cold Blooded Animals_.--By numerous observations upon men
and animals, John Hunter showed that the essential difference between
the so-called warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals lies in the
constancy of the temperature of the former, and the variability of
the temperature of the latter. Those animals high in the scale of
evolution, as birds and mammals, have a high temperature almost
constant and independent of that of the surrounding air, whereas
among the lower animals there is much variation of body temperature,
dependent entirely on their surroundings. There are, however, certain
mammals which are exceptions, being warm-blooded during the summer,
but cold-blooded during the winter when they hibernate; such are the
hedgehog, bat and dormouse. John Hunter suggested that two groups
should be known as "animals of permanent heat at all atmospheres" and
"animals of a heat variable with every atmosphere," but later
Bergmann suggested that they should be known as "homoiothermic" and
"poikilothermic" animals. But it must be remembered there is no hard
and fast line between the two groups. Also, from work recently done
by J.O. Wakelin Barratt, it has been shown that under certain
pathological conditions a warm-blooded (homoiothermic) animal
may become for a time cold-blooded (poikilothermic). He has shown
conclusively that this condition exists in rabbits suffering from
rabies during the last period of their life, the rectal temperature
being then within a few degrees of the room temperature and varying
with it. He explains this condition by the assumption that the nervous
mechanism of heat regulation has become paralysed. The respiration and
heart-rate being also retarded during this period, the resemblance
to the condition of hibernation is considerable. Again, Sutherland
Simpson has shown that during deep anaesthesia a warm-blooded animal
tends to take the same temperature as that of its environment. He
demonstrated that when a monkey is kept deeply anaesthetized with
ether and is placed in a cold chamber, its temperature gradually
falls, and that when it has reached a sufficiently low point (about
25° C. in the monkey), the employment of an anaesthetic is no longer
necessary, the animal then being insensible to pain and incapable of
being roused by any form of stimulus; it is, in fact, narcotized
by cold, and is in a state of what may be called "artificial
hibernation." Once again this is explained by the fact that the
heat-regulating mechanism has been interfered with. Similar results
have been obtained from experiments on cats. These facts--with
many others--tend to show that the power of maintaining a constant
temperature has been a gradual development, as Darwin's theory of
evolution suggests, and that anything that interferes with the due
working of the higher nerve-centres puts the animal back again, for
the time being, on to a lower plane of evolution.


[Illustration: Chart showing diurnal variation in body temperature,
ranging from about 37.5° C. from 10 A.M. to 6 P.M., and falling to
about 36.3° C. from 2 A.M to 6 A.M.]


_Variations in the Temperature of Man and some other Animals_.--As
stated above, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is maintained
with but slight variation. In health under normal conditions the
temperature of man varies between 36° C. and 38° C., or if the
thermometer be placed in the axilla, between 36.25° C. and 37.5° C.
In the mouth the reading would be from .25° C. to 1.5° C. higher than
this; and in the rectum some .9° C. higher still. The temperature of
infants and young children has a much greater range than this, and is
susceptible of wide divergencies from comparatively slight causes.

Of the lower warm-blooded animals, there are some that appear to be
cold-blooded at birth. Kittens, rabbits and puppies, if removed from
their surroundings shortly after birth, lose their body heat until
their temperature has fallen to within a few degrees of that of the
surrounding air. But such animals are at birth blind, helpless and in
some cases naked. Animals who are born when in a condition of greater
development can maintain their temperature fairly constant. In strong,
healthy infants a day or two old the temperature rises slightly, but
in that of weakly, ill-developed children it either remains stationary
or falls. The cause of the variable temperature in infants and
young immature animals is the imperfect development of the nervous
regulating mechanism.

The average temperature falls slightly from infancy to puberty and
again from puberty to middle age, but after that stage is passed the
temperature begins to rise again, and by about the eightieth year is
as high as in infancy. A diurnal variation has been observed dependent
on the periods of rest and activity, the maximum ranging from 10 A.M.
to 6 P.M., the minimum from 11 P.M. to 3 A.M. Sutherland Simpson and
J.J. Galbraith have recently done much work on this subject. In their
first experiments they showed that in a monkey there is a well-marked
and regular diurnal variation of the body temperature, and that by
reversing the daily routine this diurnal variation is also reversed.
The diurnal temperature curve follows the periods of rest and
activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; in
monkeys which are active during the night and resting during the day,
the body temperature is highest at night and lowest through the day.
They then made observations on the temperature of animals and birds of
nocturnal habit, where the periods of rest and activity are naturally
the reverse of the ordinary through habit and not from outside
interference. They found that in nocturnal birds the temperature
is highest during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest
during the period of rest (day), but that the mean temperature is
lower and the range less than in diurnal birds of the same size. That
the temperature curve of diurnal birds is essentially similar to that
of man and other homoiothermal animals, except that the maximum occurs
earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also
that the curves obtained from rabbit, guinea-pig and dog were quite
similar to those from man. The mean temperature of the female was
higher than that of the male in all the species examined whose sex had
been determined.


Meals sometimes cause a slight elevation, sometimes a slight
depression--alcohol seems always to produce a fall. Exercise and
variations of external temperature within ordinary limits cause very
slight change, as there are many compensating influences at work,
which are discussed later. Even from very active exercise the
temperature does not rise more than one degree, and if carried to
exhaustion a fall is observed. In travelling from very cold to very
hot regions a variation of less than one degree occurs, and the
temperature of those living in the tropics is practically identical
with those dwelling in the Arctic regions.

[v.02 p.0050]

_Limits compatible with Life._--There are limits both of heat and cold
that a warm-blooded animal can bear, and other far wider limits that a
cold-blooded animal may endure and yet live. The effect of too extreme
a cold is to lessen metabolism, and hence to lessen the production of
heat. Both katabolic and anabolic changes share in the depression, and
though less energy is used up, still less energy is generated. This
diminished metabolism tells first on the central nervous system,
especially the brain and those parts concerned in consciousness.
Both heart-beat and respiration-number become diminished, drowsiness
supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until it passes into the sleep of
death. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set in towards the end,
and a death somewhat similar to that of asphyxia takes place. In some
recent experiments on cats performed by Sutherland Simpson and
Percy T. Herring, they found them unable to survive when the
rectal temperature was reduced below 16° C. At this low temperature
respiration became increasingly feeble, the heart-impulse usually
continued after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very
irregular, apparently ceasing, then beginning again. Death appeared to
be mainly due to asphyxia, and the only certain sign that it had
taken place was the loss of knee jerks. On the other hand, too high a
temperature hurries on the metabolism of the various tissues at such
a rate that their capital is soon exhausted. Blood that is too warm
produces dyspnoea and soon exhausts the metabolic capital of the
respiratory centre. The rate of the heart is quickened, the beats then
become irregular and finally cease. The central nervous system is also
profoundly affected, consciousness may be lost, and the patient falls
into a comatose condition, or delirium and convulsions may set in. All
these changes can be watched in any patient suffering from an acute
fever. The lower limit of temperature that man can endure depends on
many things, but no one can survive a temperature of 45° C. (113° F.)
or above for very long. Mammalian muscle becomes rigid with heat rigor
at about 50° C., and obviously should this temperature be reached the
sudden rigidity of the whole body would render life impossible. H.M.
Vernon has recently done work on the death temperature and paralysis
temperature (temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found
that animals of the same class of the animal kingdom showed very
similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined being
38.5° C., Fishes 39°, Reptilia 45°, and various Molluscs 46°. Also
in the case of Pelagic animals he showed a relation between death
temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of the body,
_Cestus_ having lowest death temperature and least amount of solids in
its body. But in the higher animals his experiments tend to show
that there is greater variation in both the chemical and physical
characters of the protoplasm, and hence greater variation in the
extreme temperature compatible with life.


_Regulation of Temperature._--The heat of the body is generated by the
chemical changes--those of oxidation--undergone not by any particular
substance or in any one place, but by the tissues at large. Wherever
destructive metabolism (katabolism) is going on, heat is being set
free. When a muscle does work it also gives rise to heat, and if
this is estimated it can be shown that the muscles alone during their
contractions provide far more heat than the whole amount given out
by the body. Also it must be remembered that the heart--also a
muscle,--never resting, does in the 24 hours no inconsiderable amount
of work, and hence must give rise to no inconsiderable amount of heat.
From this it is clear that the larger proportion of total heat of
the body is supplied by the muscles. These are essentially the
"thermogenic tissues." Next to the muscles as heat generators come the
various secretory glands, especially the liver, which appears never to
rest in this respect. The brain also must be a source of heat, since
its temperature is higher than that of the arterial blood with which
it is supplied. Also a certain amount of heat is produced by the
changes which the food undergoes in the alimentary canal before it
really enters the body. But heat while continually being produced is
also continually being lost by the skin, lungs, urine and faeces.
And it is by the constant modification of these two factors, (1)
heat production and (2) heat loss, that the constant temperature of
a warm-blooded animal is maintained. Heat is lost to the body through
the faeces and urine, respiration, conduction and radiation from
the skin, and by evaporation of perspiration. The following are
approximately the relative amounts of heat lost through these
various channels (different authorities give somewhat different
figures):--faeces and urine about 3, respiration about 20, skin
(conduction, radiation and evaporation) about 77. Hence it is clear
the chief means of loss are the skin and the lungs. The more air that
passes in and out of the lungs in a given time, the greater the loss
of heat. And in such animals as the dog, who do not perspire easily by
the skin, respiration becomes far more important.

But for man the great heat regulator is undoubtedly the skin, which
regulates heat loss by its vasomotor mechanism, and also by the
nervous mechanism of perspiration. Dilatation of the cutaneous
vascular areas leads to a larger flow of blood through the skin, and
so tends to cool the body, and _vice versa_. Also the special nerves
of perspiration can increase or lessen heat loss by promoting or
diminishing the secretions of the skin. There are greater difficulties
in the exact determination in the amount of heat produced, but there
are certain well-known facts in connexion with it. A larger living
body naturally produces more heat than a smaller one of the same
nature, but the surface of the smaller, being greater in proportion
to its bulk than that of the larger, loses heat at a more rapid rate.
Hence to maintain the same constant bodily temperature, the smaller
animal must produce a relatively larger amount of heat. And in the
struggle for existence this has become so.

Food temporarily increases the production of heat, the rate of
production steadily rising after a meal until a maximum is reached
from about the 6th to the 9th hour. If sugar be included in the meal
the maximum is reached earlier; if mainly fat, later. Muscular work
very largely increases the production of heat, and hence the more
active the body the greater the production of heat.

But all the arrangements in the animal economy for the production and
loss of heat are themselves probably regulated by the central nervous
system, there being a thermogenic centre--situated above the spinal
cord, and according to some observers in the optic thalamus.


AUTHORITIES.--M.S. Pembrey, "Animal Heat," in Schafer's _Textbook
of Physiology_ (1898); C.R. Richet, "Chaleur," in _Dictionnaire de
physiologie_ (Paris, 1898); Hale White, Croonian Lectures, _Lancet_,
London, 1897; Pembrey and Nicol, _Journal of Physiology_, vol. xxiii.,
1898-1899; H.M. Vernon, "Heat Rigor," _Journal of Physiology_, xxiv.,
1899; H.M. Vernon, "Death Temperatures," _Journal of Physiology_,
xxv., 1899; F.C. Eve, "Temperature on Nerve Cells," _Journal of
Physiology_, xxvi., 1900; G. Weiss, _Comptes Rendus, Soc. de Biol._,
lii., 1900; Swale Vincent and Thomas Lewis, "Heat Rigor of Muscle,"
_Journal of Physiology_, 1901; Sutherland Simpson and Percy Herring,
"Cold and Reflex Action," Journal of Physiology, 1905; Sutherland
Simpson, _Proceedings of Physiological Soc._, July 19, 1902;
Sutherland Simpson and J.J. Galbraith, "Diurnal Variation of Body
Temperature," _Journal of Physiology_, 1905; _Transactions Royal
Society Edinburgh_, 1905; _Proc. Physiological Society_, p. xx., 1903;
A.E. Boycott and J.S. Haldane, _Effects of High Temperatures on Man._



ANIMAL WORSHIP, an ill-defined term, covering facts ranging from the
worship of the real divine animal, commonly conceived as a "god-body,"
at one end of the scale, to respect for the bones of a slain animal or
even the use of a respectful name for the living animal at the other
end. Added to this, in many works on the subject we find reliance
placed, especially for the African facts, on reports of travellers who
were merely visitors to the regions on which they wrote.

[v.02 p.0051]


_Classification_.--Animal cults may be classified in two ways:
(A) according to their outward form; (B) according to their inward
meaning, which may of course undergo transformations.

(A) There are two broad divisions: (1) all animals of a given species
are sacred, perhaps owing to the impossibility of distinguishing the
sacred few from the profane crowd; (2) one or a fixed number of a
species are sacred. It is probable that the first of these forms is
the primary one and the second in most cases a development from it due
to (i.) the influence of other individual cults, (ii.) anthropomorphic
tendencies, (iii.) the influence of chieftainship, hereditary and
otherwise, (iv.) annual sacrifice of the sacred animal and mystical
ideas connected therewith, (v.) syncretism, due either to unity of
function or to a philosophic unification, (vi.) the desire to do
honour to the species in the person of one of its members, and
possibly other less easily traceable causes.

(B) Treating cults according to their meaning, which is not
necessarily identical with the cause which first led to the
deification of the animal in question, we can classify them under ten
specific heads: (i.) pastoral cults; (ii.) hunting cults; (iii.) cults
of dangerous or noxious animals; (iv.) cults of animals regarded as
human souls or their embodiment; (v.) totemistic cults; (vi.) cults
of secret societies, and individual cults of tutelary animals;
(vii.) cults of tree and vegetation spirits; (viii.) cults of ominous
animals; (ix.) cults, probably derivative, of animals associated with
certain deities; (x.) cults of animals used in magic.

(i.) The pastoral type falls into two sub-types, in which the species
(_a_) is spared and (_b_) sometimes receives special honour at
intervals in the person of an individual. (See _Cattle, Buffalo_,
below.)

(ii.) In hunting cults the species is habitually killed, but (_a_)
occasionally honoured in the person of a single individual, or (_b_)
each slaughtered animal receives divine honours. (See _Bear_, below.)

(iii.) The cult of dangerous animals is due (_a_) to the fear that the
soul of the slain beast may take vengeance on the hunter, (_b_) to a
desire to placate the rest of the species. (See _Leopard_, below.)

(iv.) Animals are frequently regarded as the abode, temporary or
permanent, of the souls of the dead, sometimes as the actual souls
of the dead. Respect for them is due to two main reasons: (_a_) the
kinsmen of the dead desire to preserve the goodwill of their dead
relatives; (_b_) they wish at the same time to secure that their
kinsmen are not molested and caused to undergo unnecessary suffering.
(See _Serpent_, below.)

(v.) One of the most widely found modes of showing respect to animals
is known as totemism (see TOTEM AND TOTEMISM), but except in decadent
forms there is but little positive worship; in Central Australia,
however, the rites of the Wollunqua totem group are directed towards
placating this mythical animal, and cannot be termed anything but
religious ceremonies.

(vi.) In secret societies we find bodies of men grouped together with
a single tutelary animal; the individual, in the same way, acquires
the nagual or individual totem, sometimes by ceremonies of the nature
of the bloodbond.

(vii.) Spirits of vegetation in ancient and modern Europe and in China
are conceived in animal form. (See _Goat_, below.)

(viii.) The ominous animal or bird may develop into a deity. (See
_Hawk_, below.)

(ix.) It is commonly assumed that the animals associated with certain
deities are sacred because the god was originally theriomorphic; this
is doubtless the case in certain instances; but Apollo Smintheus,
Dionysus Bassareus and other examples seem to show that the god may
have been appealed to for help and thus become associated with the
animals from whom he protected the crops, &c.

(x.) The use of animals in magic may sometimes give rise to a kind
of respect for them, but this is of a negative nature. See, however,
articles by Preuss in _Globus_, vol. lxvii., in which he maintains
that animals of magical influence are elevated into divinities.


_Animal Cults._

_Bear_.--The bear enjoys a large measure of respect from all savage
races that come in contact with it, which shows itself in apologies
and in festivals in its honour. The most important developments of
the cult are in East Asia among the Siberian tribes; among the Ainu of
Sakhalin a young bear is caught at the end of winter and fed for
some nine months; then after receiving honours it is killed, and the
people, who previously show marks of grief at its approaching fate,
dance merrily and feast on its body. Among the Gilyaks a similar
festival is found, but here it takes the form of a celebration in
honour of a recently dead kinsman, to whom the spirit of the bear
is sent. Whether this feature or a cult of the hunting type was the
primary form, is so far an open question. There is a good deal of
evidence to connect the Greek goddess Artemis with a cult of the bear;
girls danced as "bears" in her honour, and might not marry before
undergoing this ceremony. The bear is traditionally associated with
Bern in Switzerland, and in 1832 a statue of Artio, a bear goddess,
was dug up there.

_Buffalo_.--The Todas of S. India abstain from the flesh of their
domestic animal, the buffalo; but once a year they sacrifice a bull
calf, which is eaten in the forest by the adult males.

_Cattle_.--Cattle are respected by many pastoral peoples; they live
on milk or game, and the killing of an ox is a sacrificial function.
Conspicuous among Egyptian animal cults was that of the bull, Apis. It
was distinguished by certain marks, and when the old Apis died a new
one was sought; the finder was rewarded, and the bull underwent four
months' education at Nilopolis. Its birthday was celebrated once a
year; oxen, which had to be pure white, were sacrificed to it; women
were forbidden to approach it when once its education was finished.
Oracles were obtained from it in various ways. After death it was
mummified and buried in a rock-tomb. Less widespread was the cult of
the Mnevis, also consecrated to Osiris. Similar observances are found
in our own day on the Upper Nile; the Nuba and Nuer worship the bull;
the Angoni of Central Africa and the Sakalava of Madagascar keep
sacred bulls. In India respect for the cow is widespread, but is of
post-Vedic origin; there is little actual worship, but the products of
the cow are important in magic.

_Crow_.--The crow is the chief deity of the Thlinkit Indians of N.W.
America; and all over that region it is the chief figure in a group of
myths, fulfilling the office of a culture hero who brings the light,
gives fire to mankind, &c. Together with the eagle-hawk the crow plays
a great part in the mythology of S.E. Australia.

_Dog_.--Actual dog-worship is uncommon; the Nosarii of western Asia
are said to worship a dog; the Kalangs of Java had a cult of the red
dog, each family keeping one in the house; according to one authority
the dogs are images of wood which are worshipped after the death of a
member of the family and burnt after a thousand days. In Nepal it
is said that dogs are worshipped at the festival called Khicha Puja.
Among the Harranians dogs were sacred, but this was rather as brothers
of the mystae.

_Elephant_.--In Siam it is believed that a white elephant may contain
the soul of a dead person, perhaps a Buddha; when one is taken the
capturer is rewarded and the animal brought to the king to be kept
ever afterwards; it cannot be bought or sold. It is baptized and fêted
and mourned for like a human being at its death. In some parts of
Indo-China the belief is that the soul of the elephant may injure
people after death; it is therefore fêted by a whole village. In
Cambodia it is held to bring luck to the kingdom. In Sumatra the
elephant is regarded as a tutelary spirit. The cult of the white
elephant is also found at Ennarea, southern Abyssinia.

_Fish_.--Dagon seems to have been a fish-god with human head and
hands; his worshippers wore fish-skins. In the temples of Apollo and
Aphrodite were sacred fish, which may point to a fish cult. Atargatis
is said to have had sacred fish at Askelon, and from Xenophon we read
that the fish of the Chalus were regarded as gods.

_Goat_.--Dionysus was believed to take the form of a goat, probably as
a divinity of vegetation. Pan, Silenus, the Satyrs and the Fauns were
either capriform or had some part of their bodies shaped like that of
a goat. In northern Europe the wood spirit, Ljesche, is believed to
have a goat's horns, ears and legs. In Africa the Bijagos are said to
have a goat as their principal divinity.

_Hare_.--In North America the Algonquin tribes had as their chief
deity a "mighty great hare" to whom they went at death. According to
one account he lived in the east, according to another in the north.
In his anthropomorphized form he was known as Menabosho or Michabo.

[v.02 p.0052]

_Hawk_.--In North Borneo we seem to see the evolution of a god in the
three stages of the cult of the hawk among the Kenyahs, the Kayans and
the sea Dyaks. The Kenyahs will not kill it, address to it thanks
for assistance, and formally consult it before leaving home on an
expedition; it seems, however, to be regarded as the messenger of the
supreme god Balli Penyalong. The Kayans have a hawk-god, Laki Neho,
but seem to regard the hawk as the servant of the chief god, Laki
Tenangan. Singalang Burong, the hawk-god of the Dyaks, is completely
anthropomorphized. He is god of omens and ruler of the omen birds; but
the hawk is not his messenger, for he never leaves his house; stories
are, however, told of his attending feasts in human form and flying
away in hawk form when all was over.

_Horse_.--There is some reason to believe that Poseidon, like other
water gods, was originally conceived under the form of a horse. In
the cave of Phigalia Demeter was, according to popular tradition,
represented with the head and mane of a horse, possibly a relic of the
time when a non-specialized corn-spirit bore this form. Her priests
were called Poloi (colts) in Laconia. In Gaul we find a horse-goddess,
Epona; there are also traces of a horse-god, Rudiobus. The Gonds in
India worship a horse-god, Koda Pen, in the form of a shapeless stone;
but it is not clear that the horse is regarded as divine. The horse or
mare is a common form of the corn-spirit in Europe.

_Leopard_.--The cult of the leopard is widely found in West Africa.
Among the Ewe a man who kills one is liable to be put to death;
no leopard skin may be exposed to view, but a stuffed leopard is
worshipped. On the Gold Coast a leopard hunter who has killed his
victim is carried round the town behind the body of the leopard; he
may not speak, must besmear himself so as to look like a leopard and
imitate its movements. In Loango a prince's cap is put upon the head
of a dead leopard, and dances are held in its honour.

_Lion_.--The lion was associated with the Egyptian gods R[=e] and
Horus; there was a lion-god at Baalbek and a lion-headed goddess
Sekhet. The Arabs had a lion-god, Yaghuth. In modern Africa we find a
lion-idol among the Balonda.

_Lizard_.--The cult of the lizard is most prominent in the Pacific,
where it appears as an incarnation of Tangaloa. In Easter Island a
form of the house-god is the lizard; it is also a tutelary deity in
Madagascar.

_Mantis_.--Cagn is a prominent figure in Bushman mythology; the mantis
and the caterpillar, Ngo, are his incarnations. It was called the
"Hottentots' god" by early settlers.

_Monkey_.--In India the monkey-god, Hanuman, is a prominent figure; in
orthodox villages monkeys are safe from harm. Monkeys are said to be
worshipped in Togo. At Porto Novo, in French West Africa, twins have
tutelary spirits in the shape of small monkeys.

_Serpent_.--The cult of the serpent is found in many parts of the Old
World; it is also not unknown in America; in Australia, on the other
hand, though many species of serpent are found, there does not appear
to be any species of cult unless we include the Warramunga cult of the
mythical Wollunqua totem animal, whom they seek to placate by rites.
In Africa the chief centre of serpent worship was Dahomey; but the
cult of the python seems to have been of exotic origin, dating back to
the first quarter of the 17th century. By the conquest of Whydah
the Dahomeyans were brought in contact with a people of serpent
worshippers, and ended by adopting from them the cult which they
at first despised. At Whydah, the chief centre, there is a serpent
temple, tenanted by some fifty snakes; every python of the danh-gbi
kind must be treated with respect, and death is the penalty for
killing one, even by accident. Danh-gbi has numerous wives, who until
1857 took part in a public procession from which the profane crowd was
excluded; a python was carried round the town in a hammock, perhaps as
a ceremony for the expulsion of evils. The rainbow-god of the Ewe was
also conceived to have the form of a snake; his messenger was said to
be a small variety of boa; but only certain individuals, not the whole
species, were sacred. In many parts of Africa the serpent is looked
upon as the incarnation of deceased relatives; among the Amazulu, as
among the Betsileo of Madagascar, certain species are assigned as the
abode of certain classes; the Masai, on the other hand, regard each
species as the habitat of a particular family of the tribe.

In America some of the Amerindian tribes reverence the rattlesnake as
grandfather and king of snakes who is able to give fair winds or cause
tempest. Among the Hopi (Moqui) of Arizona the serpent figures largely
in one of the dances. The rattlesnake was worshipped in the Natchez
temple of the sun; and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl was a serpent-god.
The tribes of Peru are said to have adored great snakes in the
pre-Inca days; and in Chile the Araucanians made a serpent figure in
their deluge myth.

Over a large part of India there are carved representations of cobras
(N[=a]gas) or stones as substitutes; to these human food and flowers
are offered and lights are burned before the shrines. Among the
Dravidians a cobra which is accidentally killed is burned like a human
being; no one would kill one intentionally; the serpent-god's image is
carried in an annual procession by a celibate priestess.

Serpent cults were well known in ancient Europe; there does not, it
is true, appear to be much ground for supposing that Aesculapius was
a serpent-god in spite of his connexion with serpents. On the other
hand, we learn from Herodotus of the great serpent which defended the
citadel of Athens; the Roman _genius loci_ took the form of a serpent;
a snake was kept and fed with milk in the temple of Potrimpos, an old
Slavonic god. To this day there are numerous traces in popular belief,
especially in Germany, of respect for the snake, which seems to be a
survival of ancestor worship, such as still exists among the Zulus and
other savage tribes; the "house-snake," as it is called, cares for the
cows and the children, and its appearance is an omen of death, and the
life of a pair of house-snakes is often held to be bound up with that
of the master and mistress themselves. Tradition says that one of the
Gnostic sects known as the Ophites caused a tame serpent to coil round
the sacramental bread and worshipped it as the representative of the
Saviour. See also SERPENT-WORSHIP.

_Sheep_.--Only in Africa do we find a sheep-god proper; Ammon was the
god of Thebes; he was represented as ram-headed; his worshippers held
the ram to be sacred; it was, however, sacrificed once a year, and its
fleece formed the clothing of the idol.

_Tiger_.--The tiger is associated with Siva and Durga, but its cult is
confined to the wilder tribes; in Nepal the tiger festival is known as
Bagh Jatra, and the worshippers dance disguised as tigers. The Waralis
worship Waghia the lord of tigers in the form of a shapeless stone. In
Hanoi and Manchuria tiger-gods are also found.

_Wolf_.--Both Zeus and Apollo were associated with the wolf by the
Greeks; but it is not clear that this implies a previous cult of
the wolf. It is frequently found among the tutelary deities of
North American dancing or secret societies. The Thlinkits had a god,
Khanukh, whose name means "wolf," and worshipped a wolf-headed image.


AUTHORITIES.--For a fuller discussion and full references to these
and other cults, that of the serpent excepted, see N.W. Thomas
in Hastings' _Dictionary of Religions_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_;
Campbell's _Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom_; Maclennan's _Studies_
(series 2); V. Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_. For the
serpent, see Ellis, _Ewe-speaking Peoples_, p. 54; _Internat. Archiv_,
xvii. 113; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii. 239; Fergusson, _Tree and
Serpent Worship_; Mähly,_Die Schlange im Mythus_; Staniland Wake,
_Serpent Worship, &c._; _16th Annual Report of the American Bureau of
Ethnology_, p. 273, and bibliography, p. 312. For the bull, &c., in
Egypt, see EGYPT: _Religion_.

(N.W.T.)



ANIMÉ, an oleo-resin (said to be so called because in its natural
state it is infested with insects) which is exuded from the locust
tree, _Hymenaea coumaril_, and other species of _Hymenaea_ growing
in tropical South America. It is of a pale brown colour, transparent,
brittle, and in consequence of its agreeable odour is used for
fumigation and in perfumery. Its specific gravity varies from 1.054 to
1.057. It melts readily over the fire, and softens even with the heat
of the mouth; it is insoluble in water, and nearly so in cold alcohol.
It is allied to copal in its nature and appearance, and is much used
by varnish-makers. The name is also given to Zanzibar copal (_q.v._).

[v.02 p.0053]



ANIMISM (from _animus_, or _anima_, mind or soul), according to
the definition of Dr. E.B. Tylor, the doctrine of spiritual beings,
including human souls; in practice, however, the term is often
extended to include panthelism or animatism, the doctrine that a
great part, if not the whole, of the inanimate kingdom, as well as all
animated beings, are endowed with reason, intelligence and volition,
identical with that of man. This latter theory, which in many cases
is equivalent to personification, though it may be, like animism, a
feature of the philosophy of peoples of low culture, should not be
confused with it. But it is difficult in practice to distinguish the
two phases of thought and no clear account of animatism can yet be
given, largely on the ground that no people has yet been discovered
which has not already developed to a greater or less extent an
animistic philosophy. On theoretical grounds it is probable that
animatism preceded animism; but savage thought is no more consistent
than that of civilized man; and it may well be that animistic and
panthelistic doctrines are held simultaneously by the same person. In
like manner one portion of the savage explanation of nature may have
been originally animistic, another part animatistic.


_Origin_.--Animism may have arisen out of or simultaneously with
animatism as a primitive explanation of many different phenomena; if
animatism was originally applied to non-human or inanimate objects,
animism may from the outset have been in vogue as a theory of the
nature of man. Lists of phenomena from the contemplation of which the
savage was led to believe in animism have been given by Dr. Tylor,
Herbert Spencer, Mr. Andrew Lang and others; an animated controversy
arose between the former as to the priority of their respective
lists. Among these phenomena are: trance (_q.v._) and unconsciousness,
sickness, death, clairvoyance (_q.v._), dreams (_q.v._), apparitions
(_q.v._) of the dead, wraiths, hallucinations (_q.v._), echoes,
shadows and reflections.

Primitive ideas on the subject of the soul, and at the same time
the origin of them, are best illustrated by an analysis of the terms
applied to it. Readers of Dante know the idea that the dead have
no shadows; this was no invention of the poet's but a piece of
traditionary lore; at the present day among the Basutos it is held
that a man walking by the brink of a river may lose his life if his
shadow falls on the water, for a crocodile may seize it and draw him
in; in Tasmania, North and South America and classical Europe is
found the conception that the soul--[Greek: skia], _umbra_--is somehow
identical with the shadow of a man. More familiar to the Anglo-Saxon
race is the connexion between the soul and the breath; this
identification is found both in Aryan and Semitic languages; in Latin
we have _spiritus_, in Greek _pneuma_, in Hebrew _ruach_; and the
idea is found extending downwards to the lowest planes of culture in
Australia, America and Asia. For some of the Red Indians the Roman
custom of receiving the breath of a dying man was no mere pious duty
but a means of ensuring that his soul was transferred to a new body.
Other familiar conceptions identify the soul with the liver (see OMEN)
or the heart, with the reflected figure seen in the pupil of the eye,
and with the blood. Although the soul is often distinguished from
the vital principle, there are many cases in which a state of
unconsciousness is explained as due to the absence of the soul; in
South Australia _wilyamarraba_ (without soul) is the word used for
insensible. So too the autohypnotic trance of the magician or _shaman_
is regarded as due to his visit to distant regions or the nether
world, of which he brings back an account. Telepathy or clairvoyance
(_q.v._), with or without trance, must have operated powerfully to
produce a conviction of the dual nature of man, for it seems probable
that facts unknown to the automatist are sometimes discovered by means
of crystal-gazing (_q.v._), which is widely found among savages, as
among civilized peoples. Sickness is often explained as due to the
absence of the soul; and means are sometimes taken to lure back the
wandering soul; when a Chinese is at the point of death and his soul
is supposed to have already left his body, the patient's coat is held
up on a long bamboo while a priest endeavours to bring the departed
spirit back into the coat by means of incantations. If the bamboo
begins to turn round in the hands of the relative who is deputed to
hold it, it is regarded as a sign that the soul of the moribund has
returned (see AUTOMATISM). More important perhaps than all these
phenomena, because more regular and normal, was the daily period of
sleep with its frequent concomitant of fitful and incoherent ideas and
images. The mere immobility of the body was sufficient to show that
its state was not identical with that of waking; when, in addition,
the sleeper awoke to give an account of visits to distant lands, from
which, as modern psychical investigations suggest, he may even
have brought back veridical details, the conclusion must have been
irresistible that in sleep something journeyed forth, which was not
the body. In a minor degree revival of memory during sleep and similar
phenomena of the sub-conscious life may have contributed to the
same result. Dreams are sometimes explained by savages as journeys
performed by the sleeper, sometimes as visits paid by other persons,
by animals or objects to him; hallucinations, possibly more frequent
in the lower stages of culture, must have contributed to fortify
this interpretation, and the animistic theory in general. Seeing the
phantasmic figures of friends at the moment when they were, whether
at the point of death or in good health, many miles distant, must have
led the savage irresistibly to the dualistic theory. But hallucinatory
figures, both in dreams and waking life, are not necessarily those of
the living; from the reappearance of dead friends or enemies primitive
man was inevitably led to the belief that there existed an incorporeal
part of man which survived the dissolution of the body. The soul was
conceived to be a facsimile of the body, sometimes no less material,
sometimes more subtle but yet material, sometimes altogether
impalpable and intangible.


_Animism and Eschatology_.--The psychological side of animism has
already been dealt with; almost equally important in primitive creeds
is the eschatological aspect. In many parts of the world it is held
that the human body is the seat of more than one soul; in the island
of Nias four are distinguished, the shadow and the intelligence, which
die with the body, a tutelary spirit, termed _begoe_, and a second
which is carried on the head. Similar ideas are found among the
Euahlayi of S.E. Australia, the Dakotas and many other tribes. Just as
in Europe the ghost of a dead person is held to haunt the churchyard
or the place of death, although more orthodox ideas may be held and
enunciated by the same person as to the nature of a future life,
so the savage, more consistently, assigns different abodes to the
multiple souls with which he credits man. Of the four souls of a
Dakota, one is held to stay with the corpse, another in the village,
a third goes into the air, while the fourth goes to the land of souls,
where its lot may depend on its rank in this life, its sex, mode of
death or sepulture, on the due observance of funeral ritual, or many
other points (see ESCHATOLOGY). From the belief in the survival of the
dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, &c., at the
grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or filial piety, later
as an act of worship (see ANCESTOR WORSHIP). The simple offering of
food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into an elaborate
system of sacrifice; even where ancestor-worship is not found, the
desire to provide the dead with comforts in the future life may lead
to the sacrifice of wives, slaves, animals, &c., to the breaking or
burning of objects at the grave or to the provision of the ferryman's
toll, a coin put in the mouth of the corpse to pay the travelling
expenses of the soul. But all is not finished with the passage of the
soul to the land of the dead; the soul may return to avenge its death
by helping to discover the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself;
there is a widespread belief that those who die a violent death become
malignant spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the
haunted spot; the woman who dies in child-birth becomes a _pontianak_,
and threatens the life of human beings; and man resorts to magical or
religious means of repelling his spiritual dangers.


_Development of Animism_.--If the phenomena of dreams were, as
suggested above, of great importance for the development of animism,
the belief, which must originally have been a doctrine of human
psychology, cannot have failed to expand speedily into a general
philosophy of nature. Not only human beings but animals and objects
are seen in dreams; and the conclusion would be that they too have
souls; the same conclusion may have been reached by another line of
argument; primitive psychology posited a spirit in a man to account,
amongst other things, for his actions; a natural explanation of
the changes in the external world would be that they are due to the
operations and volitions of spirits.

[v.02 p.0054]


_Animal Souls._--But apart from considerations of this sort, it is
probable that animals must, early in the history of animistic beliefs,
have been regarded as possessing souls. Education has brought with it
a sense of the great gulf between man and animals; but in the lower
stages of culture this distinction is not adequately recognized, if
indeed it is recognized at all. The savage attributes to animals the
same ideas, the same mental processes as himself, and at the same time
vastly greater power and cunning. The dead animal is credited with a
knowledge of how its remains are treated and sometimes with a power of
taking vengeance on the fortunate hunter. Powers of reasoning are not
denied to animals nor even speech; the silence of the brute creation
may be put down to their superior cunning. We may assume that man
attributed a soul to the beasts of the field almost as soon as he
claimed one for himself. It is therefore not surprising to find that
many peoples on the lower planes of culture respect and even worship
animals (see TOTEM; ANIMAL WORSHIP); though we need not attribute
an animistic origin to all the developments, it is clear that the
widespread respect paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors, and
much of the cult of dangerous animals, is traceable to this principle.
With the rise of species, deities and the cult of individual animals,
the path towards anthropomorphization and polytheism is opened and the
respect paid to animals tends to lose its strict animistic character.


_Plant Souls._--Just as human souls are assigned to animals, so
primitive man often credits trees and plants with souls in both human
or animal form. All over the world agricultural peoples practise
elaborate ceremonies explicable, as Mannhardt has shown, on animistic
principles. In Europe the corn spirit sometimes immanent in the crop,
sometimes a presiding deity whose life does not depend on that of the
growing corn, is conceived in some districts in the form of an ox,
hare or cock, in others as an old man or woman; in the East Indies
and America the rice or maize mother is a corresponding figure; in
classical Europe and the East we have in Ceres and Demeter, Adonis
and Dionysus, and other deities, vegetation gods whose origin we can
readily trace back to the rustic corn spirit. Forest trees, no less
than cereals, have their indwelling spirits; the fauns and satyrs
of classical literature were goat-footed and the tree spirit of the
Russian peasantry takes the form of a goat; in Bengal and the East
Indies wood-cutters endeavour to propitiate the spirit of the tree
which they cut down; and in many parts of the world trees are
regarded as the abode of the spirits of the dead. Just as a process of
syncretism has given rise to cults of animal gods, tree spirits tend
to become detached from the trees, which are thenceforward only their
abodes; and here again animism has begun to pass into polytheism.


_Object Souls._--We distinguish between animate and inanimate nature,
but this classification has no meaning for the savage. The river
speeding on its course to the sea, the sun and moon, if not the stars
also, on their never-ceasing daily round, the lightning, fire, the
wind, the sea, all are in motion and therefore animate; but the savage
does not stop short here; mountains and lakes, stones and manufactured
articles, are for him alike endowed with souls like his own; he
deposits in the tomb weapons and food, clothes and implements, broken,
it may be, in order to set free their souls; or he attains the same
result by burning them, and thus sending them to the Other World for
the use of the dead man. Here again, though to a less extent than in
tree cults, the theriomorphic aspect recurs; in the north of Europe,
in ancient Greece, in China, the water or river spirit is horse or
bull-shaped; the water monster in serpent shape is even more widely
found, but it is less strictly the spirit of the water. The spirit
of syncretism manifests itself in this department of animism too; the
immanent spirit of the earlier period becomes the presiding genius
or local god of later times, and with the rise of the doctrine of
separable souls we again reach the confines of animism pure and
simple.


_Spirits in General._--Side by side with the doctrine of separable
souls with which we have so far been concerned, exists the belief in
a great host of unattached spirits; these are not immanent souls which
have become detached from their abodes, but have every appearance
of independent spirits. Thus, animism is in some directions little
developed, so far as we can see, among the Australian aborigines;
but from those who know them best we learn that they believe in
innumerable spirits and bush bogies, which wander, especially at
night, and can be held at bay by means of fire; with this belief may
be compared the ascription in European folk belief of prophylactic
properties to iron. These spirits are at first mainly malevolent;
and side by side with them we find the spirits of the dead as hostile
beings. At a higher stage the spirits of dead kinsmen are no
longer unfriendly, nor yet all non-human spirits; as fetishes (see
FETISHISM), naguals (see TOTEM), familiars, gods or demi-gods (for
which and the general question see DEMONOLOGY), they enter into
relations with man. On the other hand there still subsists a belief in
innumerable evil spirits, which manifest themselves in the phenomena
of possession (_q.v._), lycanthropy (_q.v._), disease, &c. The fear of
evil spirits has given rise to ceremonies of expulsion of evils (see
EXORCISM), designed to banish them from the community.


_Animism and Religion._--Animism is commonly described as the most
primitive form of religion; but properly speaking it is not a religion
at all, for religion implies, at any rate, some form of emotion (see
RELIGION), and animism is in the first instance an explanation of
phenomena rather than an attitude of mind toward the cause of them,
a philosophy rather than a religion. The term may, however, be
conveniently used to describe the early stage of religion in which man
endeavours to set up relations between himself and the unseen powers,
conceived as spirits, but differing in many particulars from the gods
of polytheism. As an example of this stage in one of its aspects may
be taken the European belief in the corn spirit, which is, however,
the object of magical rather than religious rites; Dr. Frazer has thus
defined the character of the animistic pantheon, "they are restricted
in their operations to definite departments of nature; their names
are general, not proper; their attributes are generic rather than
individual; in other words, there is an indefinite number of spirits
of each class, and the individuals of a class are much alike; they
have no definitely marked individuality; no accepted traditions
are current as to their origin, life and character." This stage of
religion is well illustrated by the Red Indian custom of offering
sacrifice to certain rocks, or whirlpools, or to the indwelling
spirits connected with them; the rite is only performed in the
neighbourhood of the object, it is an incident of a canoe or other
voyage, and is not intended to secure any benefits beyond a safe
passage past the object in question; the spirit to be propitiated
has a purely local sphere of influence, and powers of a very limited
nature. Animistic in many of their features too are the temporary gods
of fetishism (_q.v._), naguals or familiars, genii and even the dead
who receive a cult. With the rise of a belief in departmental gods
comes the age of polytheism; the belief in elemental spirits may still
persist, but they fall into the background and receive no cult.


_Animism and the Origin of Religion._--Two animistic theories of the
origin of religion have been put forward, the one, often termed the
"ghost theory," mainly associated with the name of Herbert Spencer,
but also maintained by Grant Allen, refers the beginning of religion
to the cult of dead human beings; the other, put forward by Dr. E.B.
Tylor, makes the foundation of all religion animistic, but
recognizes the non-human character of polytheistic gods. Although
ancestor-worship, or, more broadly, the cult of the dead, has in many
cases overshadowed other cults or even extinguished them, we have no
warrant, even in these cases, for asserting its priority, but rather
the reverse; not only so, but in the majority of cases the pantheon is
made up by a multitude of spirits in human, sometimes in animal form,
which bear no signs of ever having been incarnate; sun gods and moon
goddesses, gods of fire, wind and water, gods of the sea, and above
all gods of the sky, show no signs of having been ghost gods at any
period in their history. They may, it is true, be associated with
ghost gods, but in Australia it cannot even be asserted that the gods
are spirits at all, much less that they are the spirits of dead men;
they are simply magnified magicians, super-men who have never died; we
have no ground, therefore, for regarding the cult of the dead as the
origin of religion in this area; this conclusion is the more probable,
as ancestor-worship and the cult of the dead generally cannot be said
to exist in Australia.

[v.02 p.0055]

The more general view that polytheistic and other gods are the
elemental and other spirits of the later stages of animistic creeds,
is equally inapplicable to Australia, where the belief seems to be
neither animistic nor even animatistic in character. But we are
hardly justified in arguing from the case of Australia to a general
conclusion as to the origin of religious ideas in all other parts of
the world. It is perhaps safest to say that the science of religions
has no data on which to go, in formulating conclusions as to the
original form of the objects of religious emotion; in this connexion
it must be remembered that not only is it very difficult to get
precise information of the subject of the religious ideas of people of
low culture, perhaps for the simple reason that the ideas themselves
are far from precise, but also that, as has been pointed out above,
the conception of spiritual often approximates very closely to that of
material. Where the soul is regarded as no more than a finer sort of
matter, it will obviously be far from easy to decide whether the gods
are spiritual or material. Even, therefore, if we can say that at the
present day the gods are entirely spiritual, it is clearly possible
to maintain that they have been spiritualized _pari passu_ with the
increasing importance of the animistic view of nature and of the
greater prominence of eschatological beliefs. The animistic origin of
religion is therefore not proven.


_Animism and Mythology_.--But little need be said on the relation of
animism and mythology (_q.v._). While a large part of mythology has
an animistic basis, it is possible to believe, _e.g._ in a sky world,
peopled by corporeal beings, as well as by spirits of the dead; the
latter may even be entirely absent; the mythology of the Australians
relates largely to corporeal, non-spiritual beings; stories of
transformation, deluge and doom myths, or myths of the origin of
death, have not necessarily any animistic basis. At the same time,
with the rise of ideas as to a future life and spiritual beings, this
field of mythology is immensely widened, though it cannot be said
that a rich mythology is necessarily genetically associated with or
combined with belief in many spiritual beings.


_Animism in Philosophy_.--The term "animism" has been applied to many
different philosophical systems. It is used to describe Aristotle's
view of the relation of soul and body held also by the Stoics and
Scholastics. On the other hand monadology (Leibnitz) has also been
termed animistic. The name is most commonly applied to vitalism, a
view mainly associated with G.E. Stahl and revived by F. Bouillier
(1813-1899), which makes life, or life and mind, the directive
principle in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced
back to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a
directive force which guides energy without altering its amount.
An entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the
belief in the world soul, held by Plato, Schelling and others.


BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Tyler, _Primitive Culture_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_;
_Id_. on Burial Customs in _J.A. I_. xv.; Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_;
G.A. Wilken, _Het Animisme_; Koch on the animism of S. America in
_Internationales Archiv_, xiii., Suppl.; Andrew Lang, _Making of
Religion_; Skeat, _Malay Magic_; Sir G. Campbell, "Spirit Basis of
Belief and Custom," in _Indian Antiquary_, xxiii. and succeeding
volumes; _Folklore_, iii. 289. xi. 162; Spencer, _Principles of
Sociology_; _Mind_ (1877), 141, 415 et seq. For animism in philosophy,
Stahl, _Theoria_; Bouillier, _Du Principe vital_.

(N.W.T.)



ANIMUCCIA, GIOVANNI, Italian musical composer, was born at Florence in
the last years of the 15th century. At the request of St. Filippo Neri
he composed a number of _Laudi_, or hymns of praise, to be sung after
sermon time, which have given him an accidental prominence in musical
history, since their performance in St. Filippo's Oratory eventually
gave rise (on the disruption of 16th century schools of composition)
to those early forms of "oratorio" that are not traceable to the
Gregorian-polyphonic "Passions." St. Filippo admired Animuccia so
warmly that he declared he had seen the soul of his friend fly upwards
towards heaven. In 1555 Animuccia was appointed _maestro di capella_
at St. Peter's, an office which he held until his death in 1571. He
was succeeded by Palestrina, who had been his friend and probably his
pupil. The manuscript of many of Animuccia's compositions is still
preserved in the Vatican Library. His chief published works were
_Madrigali e Motetti a quattro e cinque voci_ (Ven. 1548) and _Il
primo Libra di Messe_ (Rom. 1567). From the latter Padre Martini has
taken two specimens for his _Saggio di Contrapunto_. A mass from the
_Primo Libra di Messe_ on the _canto fermo_ of the hymn _Conditor
alme siderum_ is published in modern notation in the _Anthologie des
maîtres religieux primitifs_ of the _Chanteurs de Saint Gervais_. It
is solemn and noble in conception, and would be a great work but for a
roughness which is more careless than archaic.

PAOLO ANIMUCCIA, a brother of Giovanni, was also celebrated as a
composer; he is said by Fetis to have been _maestro di capella_ at S.
Giovanni in Laterano from the middle of January 1550 until 1552, and
to have died in 1563.



ANISE (_Pimpinella Anisum_), an umbelliferous plant found in Egypt and
the Levant, and cultivated on the continent of Europe for medicinal
purposes. The officinal part of the plant is the fruit, which consists
of two united carpels, called a cremocarp. It is known by the name
of aniseed, and has a strong aromatic taste and a powerful odour.
By distillation the fruit yields the volatile oil of anise, which is
useful in the treatment of flatulence and colic in children. It may
be given as _Aqua Anisi_, in doses of one or more ounces, or
as the _Spiritus Anisi_, in doses of 5-20 minims. The main
constituent of the oil (up to 90%) is anethol, C_{10}H_{12}O or
C_{6}H_{4}[1.4](OCH_{3})(CH:CH.CH_{3}.) It also contains methyl
chavicol, anisic aldehyde, anisic acid, and a terpene. Most of the oil
of commerce, however, of which anethol is also the chief constituent,
comes from _Illicium verum_ (order _Magnoliaceae_, sub-order
_Wintereae_), indigenous in N.E. China, the star-anise of _liqueur_
makers. It receives its name from its flavour, and from its fruit
spreading out like a star. The anise of the Bible (Matt. xxiii. 23) is
_Anethum_ or _Peucedanum graveolens_, _i.e._ dill (_q.v._).







*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "ANDROS, SIR EDMUND" TO "ANISE" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_33239.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Cat" to "Celt"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Cat" to "Celt"

Author: Various

Release date: July 23, 2010 [eBook #33239]
                Most recently updated: January 6, 2021

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "CAT" TO "CELT" ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net









Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [oo] stands for the infinity symbol.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    Article CATALONIA: "There is much woodland, but meadows and
      pastures are rare." 'There' amended from 'These'.

    Article CATALYSIS: "It seems in this, as in other cases, that
      additional compounds are first formed which subsequently react with
      the re-formation of the catalyst." 'additional' amended from
      'addition'.

    Article CAVALRY: "... and as this particular branch of the army was
      almost exclusively commanded by the aristocracy it suffered most in
      the early days of the Revolution." 'army' amended from 'arm'.

    Article CECILIA, SAINT: "It was long supposed that she was a noble
      lady of Rome 594 who, with her husband and other friends whom she
      had converted, suffered martyrdom, c. 230, under the emperor
      Alexander Severus." 'martyrdom' amended from 'martydom'.

    Article CELT: "Two poets of this period, whom an English writer
      describes as 'the two filthy Welshmen who first smoked publicly in
      the streets,' ..." 'as' amended from 'a'.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


            VOLUME V, SLICE V

               Cat to Celt




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  CAT                                 CAUTERETS
  CATABOLISM                          CAUTIN
  CATACLYSM                           CAUTLEY, SIR PROBY THOMAS
  CATACOMB                            CAUVERY
  CATAFALQUE                          CAVA DEI TIRRENI
  CATALANI, ANGELICA                  CAVAEDIUM
  CATALEPSY                           CAVAGNARI, SIR PIERRE NAPOLEON
  CATALOGUE                           CAVAIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE
  CATALONIA                           CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGENE
  CATALPA                             CAVAILLON
  CATALYSIS                           CAVALCANTI, GUIDO
  CATAMARAN                           CAVALIER, JEAN
  CATAMARCA (province of Argentine)   CAVALIER
  CATAMARCA (city of Argentine)       CAVALIERE, EMILIO DEL
  CATANIA                             CAVALLI, FRANCESCO
  CATANZARO                           CAVALLINI, PIETRO
  CATAPHYLL                           CAVALLO, TIBERIUS
  CATAPULT                            CAVALLOTTI, FELICE
  CATARACT                            CAVALRY
  CATARGIU, LASCAR                    CAVAN (county of Ireland)
  CATARRH                             CAVAN (town of Ireland)
  CATARRHINE APE                      CAVANILLES, ANTONIO JOSE
  CATASTROPHE                         CAVATINA
  CATAUXI                             CAVE, EDWARD
  CATAWBAS                            CAVE, WILLIAM
  CATCH THE TEN                       CAVE
  CATECHISM                           CAVEA
  CATECHU                             CAVEAT
  CATECHUMEN                          CAVEDONE, JACOPO
  CATEGORY                            CAVENDISH, GEORGE
  CATENARY                            CAVENDISH, HENRY
  CATERAN                             CAVENDISH, THOMAS
  CATERHAM                            CAVENDISH, SIR WILLIAM
  CATERPILLAR                         CAVETTO
  CATESBY, ROBERT                     CAVIARE
  CAT-FISH                            CAVITE
  CATGUT                              CAVOUR, CAMILLO BENSO
  CATHA                               CAVOUR
  CATHARS                             CAVY
  CATHAY                              CAWDOR
  CATHCART, SIR GEORGE                CAWNPORE
  CATHCART, WILLIAM SCHAW CATHCART    CAXTON, WILLIAM
  CATHCART                            CAYENNE
  CATHEDRAL                           CAYENNE PEPPER
  CATHELINEAU, JACQUES                CAYEY
  CATHERINE, SAINT                    CAYLEY, ARTHUR
  CATHERINE I                         CAYLUS, ANNE CLAUDE DE LEVIS
  CATHERINE II                        CAYMAN ISLANDS
  CATHERINE DE' MEDICI                CAZALES, JACQUES ANTOINE DE
  CATHERINE OF ARAGON                 CAZALIS, HENRI
  CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA               CAZEMBE
  CATHERINE OF VALOIS                 CAZIN, JEAN CHARLES
  CATHETUS                            CAZOTTE, JACQUES
  CATHOLIC                            CEANOTHUS
  CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH, THE      CEARA
  CATILINE                            CEAWLIN
  CATINAT, NICOLAS                    CEBES
  CATLIN, GEORGE                      CEBU
  CATO, DIONYSIUS                     CECCO D'ASCOLI
  CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (statesman)    CECIL
  CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (philosopher)  CECILIA, SAINT
  CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS              CECROPIA
  CATS, JACOB                         CECROPS
  CAT'S-EYE                           CEDAR
  CATSKILL                            CEDAR CREEK
  CATSKILL MOUNTAINS                  CEDAR FALLS
  CATTANEO, CARLO                     CEDAR RAPIDS
  CATTARO                             CEFALU
  CATTEGAT                            CEHEGIN
  CATTERMOLE, GEORGE                  CEILING
  CATTLE                              CEILLIER, REMY
  CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS            CELAENAE
  CATULUS                             CELANDINE
  CAUB                                CELANO
  CAUCA                               CELEBES
  CAUCASIA                            CELERY
  CAUCASUS                            CELESTE, MADAME
  CAUCHOIS-LEMAIRE, LOUIS AUGUSTE     CELESTINA, LA
  CAUCHON, PIERRE                     CELESTINE  (popes)
  CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS              CELESTINE (sulphate)
  CAUCUS                              CELESTINES
  CAUDEBEC-EN-CAUX                    CELIBACY
  CAUDINE FORKS                       CELL
  CAUDLE                              CELLA
  CAUL                                CELLARET
  CAULAINCOURT, ARMAND LOUIS          CELLE
  CAULICULUS                          CELLIER, ALFRED
  CAULON                              CELLINI, BENVENUTO
  CAUSATION                           CELLULOSE
  CAUSEWAY                            CELSIUS, ANDERS
  CAUSSES                             CELSUS
  CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL, ARMAND-PIERRE  CELT (ancient people)
  CAUSTIC                             CELT (ancient stone tools)




CAT,[1] properly the name of the well-known domesticated feline animal
usually termed by naturalists _Felis domestica_, but in a wider sense
employed to denote all the more typical members of the family _Felidae_.
According to the _New English Dictionary_, although the origin of the
word "cat" is unknown, yet the name is found in various languages as far
back as they can be traced. In old Western Germanic it occurs, for
instance, so early as from A.D. 400 to 450; in old High German it is
_chazza_ or _catero_, and in Middle German _kattaro_. Both in Gaelic and
in old French it is _cat_, although sometimes taking the form of
_chater_ in the latter; the Gaelic designation of the European wild cat
being _cat fiadhaich_. In Welsh and Cornish the name is _cath_. If
Martial's _cattae_ refer to this animal, the earliest Latin use of the
name dates from the 1st century of our era. In the work of Palladius on
agriculture, dating from about the year A.D. 350, reference is made to
an animal called _catus_ or _cattus_, as being useful in granaries for
catching mice. This usage, coupled with the existence of a distinct term
in Gaelic for the wild species, leaves little doubt that the word "cat"
properly denotes only the domesticated species. This is confirmed by the
employment in Byzantine Greek of the term [Greek: k'attos] or [Greek:
k'atta] to designate domesticated cats brought from Egypt. It should be
added that the [Greek: a'ilouros] of the Greeks, frequently translated
by the older writers as "cat," really refers to the marten-cat, which
appears to have been partially domesticated by the ancients and employed
for mousing.

As regards the origin of the domesticated cats of western Europe, it is
well known that the ancient Egyptians were in the habit of domesticating
(at least in some degree) the Egyptian race of the African wild cat
(_Felis ocreata maniculata_), and also of embalming its remains, of
which vast numbers have been found in tombs at Beni Hasan and elsewhere
in Egypt. These Egyptian cats are generally believed by naturalists to
have had a large share in the parentage of the European breeds, which
have, however, in many cases been crossed to a greater or less extent
with the European wild cat (_F. catus_).

One of the features by which the Egyptian differs from the European wild
cat is the longer and less bushy tail; and it has been very generally
considered that the same feature is characteristic of European
domesticated cats. According, however, to Dr E. Hamilton, "the
measurement of a number of tails of the [European] wild cat and of the
domestic cat gives a range between 11 in. and 14-1/2 in., the longer
length being quite as often found in the wild cats as in the domestic.
The bushy appearance depends entirely on the length of the fur, and
accords with the thick fur of the rest of the body of the wild cat,
while in the domestic race the fur both on the body and tail is thinner
and softer."

Possibly those domesticated cats with unusually short and bushy tails
may have a larger share of European wild-cat blood; while, conversely,
such wild cats as show long tails may have a cross of domesticated
blood.

More importance was attached by Dr A. Nehring of Berlin (_SB. Ges.
Naturfor._, Berlin, 1887) to the colour of the soles of the hind-feet as
a means of determining the relationship of the domesticated cat of
Europe. According to his observations, in the Egyptian wild cat the pads
of the toes are wholly black, while the black extends back either
continuously or in long stripes as far as the calcaneum or heel-bone. In
the European wild cat, on the other hand, the black is limited to a
small round spot on the pads, while the colour of the hair as far back
as the heel-bone is yellowish or yellowish-grey. Since in all
domesticated cats retaining the colouring of the wild species the soles
of the hind-feet correspond in this particular with the Egyptian rather
than with the European wild cat, the presumption is in favour of their
descent from the former rather than from the latter.

Later, Dr Nehring (_op. cit._ 1889) came to the conclusion that the
domesticated cat has a dual parentage, one stock coming from
south-eastern Asia and the other from north-eastern Africa; in other
words, from a domesticated Chinese cat (itself derived from a wild
Chinese species) on the one hand, and from the Egyptian cat on the
other. The ordinary domesticated cats of Europe are, however, mainly of
African origin, although they have largely crossed, especially in
Germany (and probably also in Great Britain), with the wild cat. The
same author was likewise of opinion that the domestication or taming of
various species of wild cats took place chiefly among nationalities of
stationary or non-nomadic habits who occupied themselves with
agricultural pursuits, since it would be of vital importance that their
stores of grain should be adequately protected from the depredations of
rats and mice.

The foregoing opinion as to the dual parentage of our domesticated cats
receives support from observations made many years ago by E. Blyth,
which have recently been endorsed and amplified by R.I. Pocock (_Proc.
Zool. Soc. London_, 1907). According to these observations, two distinct
types of so-called tabby cats are recognizable. In the one the pattern
consists of narrow vertical stripes, and in the other of longitudinal or
obliquely longitudinal stripes, which, on the sides of the body, tend
to assume a spiral or sub-circular arrangement characteristic of the
blotched tabby. This latter type appears to be the true "tabby"; since
that word denotes a pattern like that of watered silk. One or other of
these types is to be found in cats of almost all breeds, whether
Persian, short-haired or Manx; and there appear to be no intermediate
stages between them. Cats of the striped type are no doubt descended
from the European and North African wild cats; but the origin of cats
exhibiting the blotched pattern appears to be unknown. As it was to a
cat of the latter kind that Linnaeus gave the name of _Felis catus_,
Pocock urges that this title is not available for the European wild cat,
which he would call _Felis sylvestris_. Without accepting this proposed
change in nomenclature, which is liable to lead to confusion without any
compensating advantage, it may be suggested that the blotched tabby type
represents Dr Nehring's presumed Chinese element in the cat's parentage,
and that the missing wild stock may be one of the numerous phases of the
leopard-cat (_F. bengalensis_), in some of which an incipient spiral
arrangement of the markings may be noticed on the shoulder.

As to the introduction of domesticated cats into Europe, the opinion is
very generally held that tame cats from Egypt were imported at a
relatively early date into Etruria by Phoenician traders; and there is
decisive evidence that these animals were established in Italy long
before the Christian era. The progeny of these cats, more or less
crossed with the indigenous species, thence gradually spread over
Europe, to become mingled at some period, according to Dr Nehring's
hypothesis, with an Asiatic stock. The earliest written record of the
introduction of domesticated cats into Great Britain dates from about
A.D. 936, when Hywel Dda, prince of South Wales, enacted a law for their
protection. "The Romans," writes Dr Hamilton, "were probably the
original introducers of this cat, and as the final evacuation of Britain
by that nation took place under the emperor Valentinian about A.D. 436,
the period of its introduction may certainly be dated some 500 years
previous to the Welsh chronicle and even much earlier." It is added that
the remains of cats from Roman villas at Silchester and Dursley are
probably referable to the domesticated breed.

Before proceeding to notice some of the different types of domesticated
cats, a few lines may be devoted to the wild European species, _F.
catus_. Beyond stating that in colour it conforms very closely to the
striped phase of domesticated tabby, it will be unnecessary to describe
the species. Its geographical range was formerly very extensive, and
included Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany,
Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Transylvania, Galicia, the Caucasus as far as
the Caspian, southern Russia, Italy, Spain, Greece, Rumania, Bulgaria,
Servia, and portions of central and northern Asia. "At the present
time," observes Dr Hamilton, "the wild cat has become almost extinct in
many of the above districts. Examples may perhaps occasionally still be
found in the uninhabited forests of Hungary and Transylvania, and
occasionally in Spain and Greece, as well as in the Caucasus and in some
of the Swiss cantons, but the original race has in most countries
interbred with the domestic cat wherever the latter has penetrated." In
Great Britain wild cats survive only in some of the Scottish forests,
and even there it is difficult to decide whether pure-bred specimens are
extant. Remains of the wild cat occur in English caverns; while from
those of Ireland (where the wild species has apparently been unknown
during the historic period) have been obtained jaws and teeth which it
has been suggested are referable to the Egyptian rather than to the
European wild cat. Such a determination is, however, extremely
hazardous, even if it be admitted that the remains of cats from the
rock-fissures of Gibraltar pertain to _Felis ocreata_.


PLATE I.

  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--SKINS OF THE BLOTCHED DOMESTIC CAT, SHOWING
  SOME OF THE VARIATIONS TO WHICH THE PATTERN IS LIABLE. (Cf. Fig. 5 on
  Plate II.)]

  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--SKINS OF THE STRIPED DOMESTIC CAT, GIVING THE
  "TICKED" BREED AND A PARTIALLY ALBINO SPECIMEN. (Cf. Fig. 4 on Plate
  II.)]

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--SKINS OF THE EUROPEAN WILD CAT, FROM
  ROSS-SHIRE, SCOTLAND. (Cf. Fig. 1 on Plate II.)]

  _Note_--Of the two types of colouration found in modern domestic cats,
  the striped type obviously corresponds to the original wild cat as
  seen in various parts of North Europe to-day. The origin of the
  blotched as a special type is wholly unknown.

  (Photos from Plates VIII., IX., and X., _P.Z.S._, 1907, by permission
  of the Zoological Society of London.)


PLATE II.

  [Illustration: _Photo, W.G. Berridge_. FIG. 1.--EUROPEAN WILD CAT.]

  [Illustration: _Photo, W.G. Berridge_. FIG. 2.--PALLAS'S CAT.]

  [Illustration: _Photo, R.C. Ryan_. FIG. 3.--ROYAL SIAMESE CAT.]

  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 4.--STRIPED
  DOMESTIC CAT.]

  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 5.--BLOTCHED
  DOMESTIC CAT.]

  [Illustration: _Photo, R.C. Ryan_ FIG. 6.--TAIL-LESS CAT.]

  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 7.--WHITE PERSIAN
  KITTEN.]

  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 8.--BLUE PERSIAN
  CAT.]

  [Illustration: _Photo, Topical Press Agency_. FIG. 9.--BLACK PERSIAN
  KITTEN.]


The favourite haunts of the wild cat are mountain forests where masses
or rocks or cliffs are interspersed with trees, the crevices in these
rocks or the hollow trunks of trees affording sites for the wild cat's
lair, where its young are produced and reared. In the Spanish plains,
however, the young are often produced in nests built in trees, or among
tall bamboos in cane-brakes. "To fight like a wild cat" is
proverbial, and wild cats are described as some of the most ferocious
and untamable of all animals. How far this untamable character lends
support to the view of the origin of our domesticated breeds has not yet
been determined. Hares, rabbits, field-mice, water-rats, rats,
squirrels, moles, game-birds, pigeons, and small birds, form the chief
food of the wild cat.

Apart from the above-mentioned division of the striped members of both
groups into two types according to the pattern of their markings, the
domesticated cats of western Europe are divided into a short-haired and
a long-haired group. Of these, the former is the one which bears the
closest relationship to the wild cats of Africa and of Europe, the
latter being an importation from the East. The striped (as distinct from
the blotched) short-haired tabby is probably the one most nearly allied
to the wild ancestors, the stripes being, however, to a great extent due
to the European wild cat. In one direction the tabby shows a tendency to
melanism which culminates in complete blackness, while in the other
direction there is an equally marked tendency to albinism; grey cats,
which may be regarded as tabbies whose stripes have disappeared, forming
the connecting link between the tabby and the white cat. A mixture of
the melanistic with the albinistic type will of course give rise to
parti-coloured cats. A third colour-phase, the "erythristic" or red, is
represented by the sandy cat, the female of which takes the form of the
"tortoise-shell," characterized, curiously enough, by the colour being a
blend of black, white, and sandy. The so-called orange tabby is one
phase of the erythristic type.

As to long-haired cats, there appear originally to have been two
closely-allied strains, the Angora and the Persian, of which the former
has been altogether replaced in western Europe by the latter. That these
long-haired cats have an ancestry, to some extent at any rate distinct
from the ordinary short-haired breeds, is practically certain, and it
has been suggested that they are derived from the "manul" cat, or
Pallas's cat (_Felis manul_), of the deserts of central Asia, which is a
long-haired and bushy-tailed species with comparatively slight striping.
The fact that in tabby Persians the body-markings are never so strong as
in the short-haired breeds is in some degree confirmatory of this, as
suggesting descent from a nearly whole-coloured type. At the present
day, however, Persians exhibit nearly all the colour and pattern types
of the short-haired breeds, the "orange Persian" representing the
erythristic phase.

Turning to the tailless or so-called Manx cats, in which the tail should
be represented merely by a tuft of hair without any remnant of bone, it
seems that the strain is to be met with in many parts of Russia, and
there is a very general opinion that it originally came from Japan or
some other far eastern country. Throughout Japan, China, Siam, and the
Malay countries, normal long-tailed cats are indeed seldom seen. Instead
of these are cats with more or less abbreviated tails, showing in
greater or less degree a decided kink or bend near the tip. In other
cases the tail is of the short curling type of that of a bulldog;
sometimes it starts quite straight, but divides in a fork-like manner
near the tip; and in yet other instances it is altogether wanting, as in
the typical Manx cats. These kink-tailed or tailless cats are moreover
smaller in size than the ordinary short-tailed breeds, with rather
longer hair, whose texture approaches that of rabbit-fur, and a cry said
to be like that of the jungle-cat (_F. chaus_) of India and Africa, and
more dog-like habits. Unless the jungle-cat, which is a nearly
whole-coloured species, can claim the position, the ancestry of these
Manx-Malay cats is still unknown. Kink-tailed cats, it should be added,
are also known from Madagascar.

Among the domesticated cats of India a spotted type of colouring, with a
more or less decided tendency for the spots to coalesce into stripes, is
very noticeable; and it is probable that these cats are derived from the
spotted Indian desert-cat (_F. ornata_), with a certain amount of
crossing from other species. The so-called _F. torquata_ of India is
probably based on cats of this type which have reverted to the wild
state. Other Indian cats with a tawny or fulvous type of colouring are
probably the more or less modified descendants of the jungle-cat. From
the same stock may be derived the Abyssinian breed, in which the ears
are relatively large and occasionally tipped with long hairs (thus
recalling the tufted ears of the jungle-cat). The colour is typically
reddish-brown, each individual hair being "ticked" like that of a wild
rabbit, whence the popular name of "bunny cat." Another African breed is
the Mombasa cat, in which the hair is reported to be unusually short and
stiff.

By far the most remarkable of all the Old World domesticated breeds is,
however, the royal Siamese cat, which almost certainly has an origin
quite distinct from that of the ordinary European breeds; this being
rendered evident not only by the peculiar type of colouring, but
likewise by the cry, which is quite unmistakable. Siamese cats may have
the tail either straight or kinked, but whether the latter feature
belongs of right to the breed, or has been acquired by crossing with the
ordinary black and tabby kink-tailed cats of the country, is not known.
In the royal Siamese breed the head is rather long and pointed, the body
also elongated with relatively slender limbs, the coat glossy and close,
the eyes blue, and the general colour some shade of cream or pink, with
the face, ears, feet, under-parts, and tail chocolate or seal-brown.
There is however a wholly chocolate-coloured strain in which the eyes
are yellow. The most remarkable feature about the breed is that the
young are white. "The kittens," observes a lady writer, "are born
absolutely white, and in about a week a faint pencilling comes round the
ears, and gradually all the points come. At four or five months they are
lovely, as generally they retain their baby whiteness, which contrasts
well with their almost black ears, deep-brown markings, and blue eyes."
In constitution these cats are extremely delicate. The blue eyes and the
white coat of the kitten indicate that the Siamese breed is a
semi-albino, which when adult tends towards melanism, such a combination
of characters being apparently unknown in any other animal. If the
frequent presence of a kink in the tail be an inherent feature, the
breed is evidently related to the other kink-tailed Malay cats which, as
already stated, have a cry differing from that of European cats. Should
this be so, then if the ordinary Malay cats are the descendants of the
jungle-cat, we shall have to assign the same ancestry to the Siamese
breed.

Although definite information on this point is required, it seems
probable that the southern part of North America and South America
possessed certain native domesticated breeds of cats previous to the
European conquest of the country; and if this be so, it will be obvious
that these breeds must be derived from indigenous wild species. One of
these breeds is the Paraguay cat, which when adult weighs only about
three pounds, and is not more than a quarter the size of an ordinary
cat. The body is elongated, and the hair, especially on the tail, short,
shiny and close. This small size and elongated form suggest origin from
the jaguarondi (_F. jaguarondi_), a chestnut-coloured wild species; but
information appears to be lacking with regard to the colouring of the
domesticated breed. Another South American breed is said to be free from
the hideous "caterwauling" of the ordinary cat. In old days New Mexico
was the home of a breed of hairless cats, said to have been kept by the
ancient Aztecs, but now well-nigh if not completely extinct. Although
entirely naked in summer, these cats developed in winter a slight growth
of hair on the back and the ridge of the tail.

  LITERATURE.--St George Mivart, _The Cat_ (London, 1881); R. Lydekker,
  "Cats," in _Allen's Naturalists' Library_ (1888); F. Hamilton, _The
  Wild Cat of Europe_ (London. 1896); Frances Simpson, _The Book of the
  Cat_ (London, 1903).     (R. L.*)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The word "cat" is applied to various objects, in all cases an
    application of the name of the animal. In medieval siegecraft the
    "cat" (Med. Lat. _chattus_ or _gattus_, _chatta_ or _gatta_, in Fr.
    _chat_ or _chat-chasteil_) was a movable pent-house used to protect
    besiegers when approaching a wall or gateway, for the purpose of
    sapping, mining or direct attack, or to cover a ram or other
    battering-engine. The word is also sometimes applied to a heavy
    timber fitted with iron spikes or projections to be thrown down upon
    besiegers, and to the large work known as a "cavalier." "Cat" or
    "cat-head," in nautical usage, is the projecting beam on the bows of
    a ship used to clear the anchor from the sides of the vessel when
    weighed. The stock of the anchor rests on the cat-head when hung
    outside the ship. The name is also used of a type of a vessel, now
    obsolete, and formerly used in the coal and timber trade on the
    north-east coast of England; it had a deep waist and narrow stem; it
    is still applied to a small rig of sailing boats, with a single mast
    stepped far forward, with a fore and aft sail. Among other objects
    also known by the name of "cat" is the small piece of wood pointed at
    either end used in the game of tip-cat, and the instrument of
    punishment, generally known as the "cat o' nine tails." This consists
    of a handle of wood or rope, about 18 in. long, with nine knotted
    cords or thongs. The multiplication of thongs for purposes of
    flogging is found in the old Roman _flagellum_, a scourge, which had
    sometimes three thongs with bone or bronze knots fastened to them.
    The "cat" was the regular instrument with which floggings were
    performed in the British army and navy. Since the abolition of
    flogging in the services, the use of the cat is now restricted to
    certain classes of offenders in military prisons (Army Act 1881, S
    133). In the English criminal law, where corporal punishment is
    ordered by the court for certain criminal offences, the "cat" is used
    only where the prisoner is over sixteen years of age. It may not be
    used except when actually ordered in the sentence, and must be of a
    pattern approved by a secretary of state. Further floggings are
    inflicted with the "cat" upon convicted prisoners for breaches of
    discipline in prison. They must be ordered by the visitors of the
    prison and confirmed by the home secretary.




CATABOLISM, or KATABOLISM (Gr. [Greek: kata], down, [Greek: Bole], a
throw), the biological term for the reverse of anabolism, namely the
breaking down of complex into simpler substances, destructive metabolism
(see PHYSIOLOGY).




CATACLYSM (Gr. [Greek: kataklusmos], a deluge), a great flood or deluge
(q.v.). The term is used in geology to denote an overwhelming
catastrophe which has produced sudden changes in the earth's surface;
and also, figuratively, of any great and violent change which sweeps
away the existing social or political order.




CATACOMB, a subterranean excavation for the interment of the dead or
burial-vault. In this sense the word "catacomb" has gained universal
acceptance, and has found a place in most modern languages. The original
term, _catacumbae_, however, had no connexion with sepulture, but was
simply the name of a particular locality in the environs of Rome. It was
derived from the Greek [Greek: kata] and [Greek: kumbe], "a hollow," and
had reference to the natural configuration of the ground. In the
district that bore this designation, lying close to the Appian Way, the
basilica of San Sebastiano was erected, and the extensive burial-vaults
beneath that church--in which, according to tradition, the bodies of the
apostles St Peter and St Paul rested for a year and seven months
previous to their removal to the basilicas which bear their names--were,
in very early times, called from it _coemeterium ad catacumbas_, or
_catacumbas_ alone. From the celebrity of this cemetery as an object of
pilgrimage its name became extensively known, and in entire
forgetfulness of the origin of the word, _catacumbae_ came to be
regarded as a generic appellation for all burial-places of the same
kind. This extension of the term to Christian burial-vaults generally
dates from the 9th century, and obtained gradual currency through the
Christian world. The original designation of these places of sepulture
is _crypta_ or _coemeterium_.

The largest number of Christian catacombs belong to the 3rd and the
early part of the 4th centuries. The custom of subterranean interment
gradually died out, and entirely ceased with the sack of Rome by Alaric,
A.D. 410. "The end of the catacomb graves," writes Mommsen (_Cont.
Rev._, May 1871), "is intimately connected with the end of the powerful
city itself.... Poverty took the place of wealth, ... the traditions of
the Christian tomb-architects sank into utter insignificance, and the
expanse of the wasted Campagna now offered room enough to bury the few
bodies, without having to descend as once far down below the surface of
the earth." The earliest account of the catacombs, that of St Jerome
narrating his visits to them when a schoolboy at Rome, about A.D. 354,
shows that interment in them was even then rare if it had not been
altogether discontinued; and the poet Prudentius's description of the
tomb of the Christian martyr Hippolytus, and the cemetery in which it
stood, leads us to the same conclusion. With the latter part of the 4th
century a new epoch in the history of the catacombs arose--that of
religious reverence. In the time of Pope Damasus, A.D. 366-384, the
catacombs had begun to be regarded with special devotion, and had become
the resort of large bands of pilgrims, for whose guidance catalogues of
the chief burial-places and the holy men buried in them were drawn up.
Some of these lists are still extant.[1] Pope Damasus himself displayed
great zeal in adapting the catacombs to their new purpose, restoring the
works of art on the walls, and renewing the epitaphs over the graves of
the martyrs. In this latter work he employed an engraver named Furius
Philocalus, the exquisite beauty of whose characters enables the
smallest fragment of his work to be recognized at a glance. This gave
rise to extensive alterations in their construction and decoration,
which has much lessened their value as authentic memorials of the
religious art of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Subsequent popes manifested
equal ardour, with the same damaging results, in the repair and
adornment of the catacombs, and many of the paintings covering their
walls, which have been assigned to the period of their original
construction, are really the work of these later times. The catacombs
shared in the devastation of Rome by the Goths under Vitiges in the 6th
century and by the Lombards at a later period; and partly through the
spoliation of these barbarian invaders, partly through the neglect of
those who should have been their guardians, they sank into such a state
of decay and pollution that, as the only means of preserving the holy
remains they enshrined from further desecration, Pope Paul I., in the
latter part of the 8th century, and Pope Paschal, at the beginning of
the 9th, entered upon the work of the translation of the relics, which
was vigorously carried on by successive pontiffs until the crypts were
almost entirely despoiled of their dead. The relics having been removed,
the visits of pilgrims naturally ceased, and by degrees the very
existence of those wonderful subterranean cemeteries was forgotten. Six
centuries elapsed before the accidental discovery of a sepulchral
chamber by some labourers digging for _pozzolana_ earth (May 31, 1578)
revealed to the amazed inhabitants of Rome "the existence," to quote a
contemporary record, "of other cities concealed beneath their own
suburbs." Baronius, the ecclesiastical historian, was one of the first
to visit the new discovery, and his _Annals_ in more than one place
evidence his just appreciation of its importance. The true "Columbus of
this subterranean world," as he has been aptly designated, was the
indefatigable Antonio Bosio (d. 1629), who devoted his life to the
personal investigation of the catacombs, the results of which were given
to the world in 1632 in a huge folio, entitled _Roma sotterranea_,
profusely illustrated with rude but faithful plans and engravings. This
was republished in a Latin translation with considerable alterations and
omissions by Paolo Aringhi in 1651; and a century after its first
appearance the plates were reproduced by Giovanni Bottari in 1737, and
illustrated with great care and learning. Some additional discoveries
were described by Marc Antonio Boldetti in his _Osservazioni_, published
in 1720; but, writing in the interests of the Roman Church with an
apologetic, not a scientific object, truth was made to bend to polemics,
and little addition to our knowledge of the catacombs is to be gained
from his otherwise important work. The French historian of art, Seroux
d'Agincourt, 1825, by his copious illustrations, greatly facilitated the
study of the architecture of the catacombs and the works of art
contained in them. The works of Raoul Rochette display a comprehensive
knowledge of the whole subject, extensive reading, and a thorough
acquaintance with early Christian art so far as it could be gathered
from books, but he was not an original investigator. The great pioneer
in the path of independent research, which, with the intelligent use of
documentary and historical evidence, has led to so vast an increase in
our acquaintance with the Roman Catacombs, was Padre Marchi of the
Society of Jesus. His work, _Monumenti delle arti christiane primitive_,
is the first in which the strange misconception, received with
unquestioning faith by earlier writers, that the catacombs were
exhausted sand-pits adapted by the Christians to the purpose of
interment, was dispelled, and the true history of their formation
demonstrated. Marchi's line of investigation was followed by the
Commendatore De Rossi, and his brother Michele, the former of whom was
Marchi's fellow-labourer during the latter part of his explorations; and
it is to them that we owe the most exhaustive scientific examination of
the whole subject. The Catacombs of Rome are the most extensive with
which we are acquainted, and, as might be expected in the centre of the
Christian world, are in many respects the most remarkable. No others
have been so thoroughly examined and illustrated. These may, therefore,
be most appropriately selected for description as typical examples.


  Catacombs of Rome.

Our description of the Roman Catacombs cannot be more appropriately
introduced than by St Jerome's account of his visits to them in his
youth, already referred to, which, after the lapse of above fifteen
centuries, presents a most accurate picture of these wonderful
subterranean labyrinths. "When I was a boy," he writes, "receiving my
education in Rome, I and my schoolfellows used, on Sundays, to make the
circuit of the sepulchres of the apostles and martyrs. Many a time did
we go down into the catacombs. These are excavated deep in the earth,
and contain, on either hand as you enter, the bodies of the dead buried
in the wall. It is all so dark there that the language of the prophet
(Ps. lv. 15) seems to be fulfilled, 'Let them go down quick into hell.'
Only occasionally is light let in to mitigate the horror of the gloom,
and then not so much through a window as through a hole. You take each
step with caution, as, surrounded by deep night, you recall the words of
Virgil--

  "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent."[2]

[Illustration FIG. 1.--Plan of part of the Cemetery of Sant' Agnese.
(From Martigny.)

      A. Entrance from the Basilica of St Agnes.
   1, 2. Ancient staircases leading to the first storey.
      3. Corridors from the staircases.
      4. Two ruined staircases leading to the lower storey.
      5. Steps of the rock.
      6. Air-shafts, or luminaria.
      7. Ruined vault.
      8. Blind ways.
      9. Passages built up or ruined.
     10. Passages obstructed by landslips.
     11. Unfinished passage.
     12. Passages destitute of tombs.
     13. Narrow apertures between adjoining galleries.
  14-17. Arcosolia.
  18-32. Cubicula.
     33. Chapel with vestibule and apse, and two chairs.
     34. Double chapel with three chairs.
     35. Large chapel in five divisions.]

In complete agreement with Jerome's vivid picture the visitor to the
Roman Catacombs finds himself in a vast labyrinth of narrow galleries,
usually from 3 to 4 ft. in width, interspersed with small chambers, all
excavated at successive levels, in the strata of volcanic rock subjacent
to the city and its environs, and constructed originally for the
interment of the Christian dead. The galleries are not the way of access
to the cemeteries, but are themselves the cemeteries, the dead being
buried in long low horizontal recesses, excavated in the vertical walls
of the passages, rising tier above tier like the berths in a ship, from
a few inches above the floor to the springing of the arched ceiling, to
the number of five, six or even sometimes twelve ranges. These galleries
are not arranged on any definite plan, but, as will be seen from the
plan (fig. 1), they intersect one another at different angles, producing
an intricate network which it is almost impossible to reduce to any
system. They generally run in straight lines, and as a rule preserve the
same level. The different storeys of galleries lie one below the other
(fig. 2) to the number of four or five (in one part of the cemetery of
St Calixtus they reach seven storeys), and communicate with one another
by stairs cut out of the living rock. Light and air are introduced by
means of vertical shafts (_luminaria_) running up to the outer air, and
often serving for several storeys. The drawing (fig. 3) from Northcote
gives a very correct idea of these galleries, with the tiers of graves
pierced in the walls. The doorways which are seen interrupting the lines
of graves are those of the family sepulchral chambers, or _cubicula_, of
which we shall speak more particularly hereafter.

The graves, or _loculi_, as they are commonly designated, were, in the
Christian cemeteries, with only a few exceptions (Padre Marchi produces
some from the cemetery of St Ciriaca, _Monum. primitiv._ tav. xiv.
xliii. xliv.), parallel with the length of the gallery. In the pagan
cemeteries, on the other hand, the sepulchral recess as a rule entered
the rock like an oven at right angles to the corridor, the body being
introduced endways. The plan adopted by the Christians saved labour,
economized space, and consulted reverence in the deposition of the
corpse. These _loculi_ were usually constructed for a single body only.
Some, however, were formed to contain two, three, or four, or even more
corpses. Such recesses were known respectively as _bisomi, trisomi,
quadrisomi_, &c., terms which often appear in the sepulchral
inscriptions. After the introduction of the body the _loculi_ were
closed with the greatest care, either with slabs of marble the whole
length of the aperture, or with huge tiles, three being generally
employed, cemented together with great exactness so as to prevent the
escape of the products of decomposition (fig. 4). Where any epitaph was
set up--an immense number are destitute of any inscription at all--it is
always painted or engraved on these slabs or tiles. In the earlier
interments the epitaph is usually daubed on the slab in red or black
paint. In later examples it is incised in the marbles, the letters being
rendered clearer by being coloured with vermilion. The enclosing slab
very often bears one or more Christian symbols, such as the dove, the
anchor, the olive-branch, or the monogram of Christ (figs. 5, 6). The
palm branch, which is also of frequent occurrence, is not an
indisputable mark of the last resting-place of a martyr, being found in
connexion with epitaphs of persons dying natural deaths, or those
prepared by persons in their lifetime, as well as in those of little
children, and even of pagans. Another frequent concomitant of these
catacomb interments, a small glass vessel containing traces of the
sediment of a red fluid, embedded in the cement of the _loculus_ (fig.
7), has no better claim. The red matter proves to be the remains of
wine, not of blood; and the conclusion of the ablest archaeologists is
that the vessels were placed where they are found, after the eucharistic
celebration or _agape_ on the day of the funeral or its anniversary, and
contained remains of the consecrated elements as a kind of religious
charm. Not a few of the slabs, it is discovered, have done double duty,
bearing a pagan inscription on one side and a Christian one on the
other. These are known as _opisthographs_. The bodies were interred
wrapped in linen cloths, or swathed in bands, and were frequently
preserved by embalming. In the case of poorer interments the destruction
of the body was, on the contrary, often accelerated by the use of
quicklime.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Galleries at different levels. (From
Seroux d'Agincourt)]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--View of a Gallery.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Loculi. (From de Rossi.)]

[Illustration: FIGS. 5 and 6.--Loculi. (From de Rossi.)]

Interment in the wall-recess or _loculus_, though infinitely the most
common, was not the only mode employed in the catacombs. Other forms of
very frequent recurrence are the _table tomb_ and _arched tomb_, or
_arcosolium_. From the annexed woodcuts it will be seen that these only
differ in the form of the surmounting recess. In each case the arched
tomb was formed by an oblong chest, either hollowed out of the rock, or
built of masonry, and closed with a horizontal slab. But in the
table-tomb (fig. 8) the recess above, essential for the introduction of
the corpse, is square, while in the arcosolium (fig. 9), a form of later
date, it is semicircular. Sarcophagi are also found in the catacombs,
but are of rare occurrence. They chiefly occur in the earlier
cemeteries, and the costliness of their construction confined their use
to the wealthiest classes--e.g. in the cemetery of St Domitilla, herself
a member of the imperial house. Another unfrequent mode of interment was
in graves like those of modern times, dug in the floor of the galleries
(Marchi, _u.s._, tav. xxi. xxvi.). Table-tombs and arcosolia are by no
means rare in the corridors of the catacombs, but they belong more
generally to the _cubicula_, or family vaults, of which we now proceed
to speak.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Glass Bottles. (From Bosio.)]

These _cubicula_ are small apartments, seldom more than 12 ft. square,
usually rectangular, though sometimes circular or polygonal, opening out
of the main corridors. They are not unfrequently ranged regularly along
the sides of the galleries, the doors of entrance, as may be seen in a
previous illustration (fig. 3), following one another in as orderly
succession as the bedchamber doors in the passage of a modern house. The
roof is sometimes flat, but is more usually vaulted, and sometimes
rises into a cupola. Both the roof and the walls are almost universally
coated with stucco and covered with fresco paintings--in the earlier
works merely decorative, in the later always symbolical or historical.
Each side of the cubiculum, except that of the entrance, usually
contains a recessed tomb, either a table-tomb or an arcosolium. That
facing the entrance was the place of greatest honour, where in many
instances the remains of a martyr were deposited, whose tomb, according
to primitive usage, served as an altar for the celebration of the
eucharist. This was sometimes, as in the Papal crypt of St Calixtus
(fig. 10), protected from irreverence by lattice work (_transennae_) of
marble. The cubiculum was originally designed for the reception of a
very limited number of dead. But the natural desire to be buried near
one's relatives caused new tombs to be cut in the walls, above and
around and behind the original tombs, the walls being thus completely
honeycombed with _loculi_, sometimes as many as seventy, utterly
regardless of the paintings originally depicted on the walls. Another
motive for multiplying the number of graves operated when the cubiculum
contained the remains of any noted saint or martyr. The Christian
antiquary has cause continually to lament the destruction of works of
art due to this craving. One of the most perfect examples of early
Christian pictorial decoration, the so-called "Dispute with the
Doctors," in the catacomb of Calixtus, the "antique style of beauty" of
which is noticed by Kugler, has thus suffered irreparable mutilation,
the whole of the lower part of the picture having been destroyed by the
excavation of a fresh grave-recess (Bottari, vol. ii. tav. 15). The
plates of De Rossi, Ferret, and, indeed, all illustrations of the
catacombs, exhibit frequent examples of the same destructive
superstition. The illustrations (figs. 11 and 12), taken from De Rossi's
great work, representing two of the cubicula in the cemetery of St
Calixtus, show the general arrangement of the loculi and the character
of the frescoes which ornament the walls and roof. These paintings, it
will be seen, are simply decorative, of the same style as the
wall-paintings of the baths, and those of Pompeii.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Table-tomb.]

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Arcosolia. (From Bosio.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Restoration of the Papal Crypt, Cemetery of St
Calixtus. (From de Rossi.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cubiculum in Cemetery of St Calixtus. (From de
Rossi.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Cubiculum in the Cemetery of St Calixtus. (From
de Rossi.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Plan of a supposed Church, Catacomb of Sant'
Agnese. (From Marchi.)]

Each _cubiculum_ was usually the burying-place of some one family, all
the members of which were interred in it, just as in the chantry-chapels
connected with medieval churches. In them was celebrated the
funeral-feast on the day of burial and on its anniversary, as well as
the eucharist, which was the invariable accompaniment of funerals in the
primitive church (Bingham, _Orig. Eccl._ bk. xxiii. c. iii. 12). The
funeral-banquet descended to the Christian church from pagan times, and
was too often profaned by heathen licence. St Augustine, in several
passages, inveighs against those who thus by "gluttony and insobriety
buried themselves over the buried," and "made themselves drunk in the
chapels of the martyrs, placing their excesses to the score of religious
reverence for the dead." (August., _De Mor. Eccl. Cathol._, c. 34,
_Contr. Faust_, lib. xx. c. 21, _Confess._, lib vi. c. 2) Some curious
frescoes representing these funeral-feasts, found in the _cubicula_
which were the scene of them, are reproduced by Bosio (pp. 355, 391)
and others. A romantic air has been thrown over these burial chapels by
the notion that they were the places of worship used by the Christians
in times of persecution. This to a certain extent is doubtless true, as
in the case of the chapel of Santa Priscilla, where the altar or stone
coffin of a martyr remains, with a small platform behind it for the
priest or bishop to stand upon. But that they can have been so used to
any large extent is rendered impossible by their limited dimensions, as
none of them could hold more than fifty or sixty persons. In some of the
catacombs, however, there are larger halls and connected suites of
chapels which may possibly have been constructed for the purpose of
congregational worship during the dark periods when the public exercise
of the Christian religion was made penal. The most remarkable of these
is in the cemetery of Sant' Agnese (see plan, fig. 13). It consists of
five rectangular compartments, three on one side of the corridor and two
on the other, connected by a passage intersecting the gallery at right
angles. Two of the five compartments are supposed to have been assigned
to male, and two to female worshippers, the fifth, at the extremity of
the whole, being reserved for the altar and its ministers. In the centre
of the end-wall stands a stone chair (fig. 14), considered to have been
the episcopal cathedra, with a bench for the clergy on each side. There
is no trace of an altar, which may, Marchi thinks, have been portable.
The walls of the compartments are occupied by arched sepulchral
recesses, above and below which are tiers of ordinary graves or
_loculi_. The arrangements are certainly such as indicate a
congregational purpose, but the extreme narrowness of the suite, and
still more of the passage which connects the two divisions, must have
rendered it difficult for any but a small number to take any intelligent
part in the services at the same time. Although the idea of the use of
the catacombs for religious worship may have been pressed too far, there
can be no doubt that the sacred rites of the church were celebrated
within them. We have already spoken of the eucharistic celebrations of
which the _cubicula_ were the scene; and still existing baptisteries
prove that the other sacrament was also administered there. The most
remarkable of these baptisteries is that in the catacomb of San
Pontianus (fig. 15). Ten steps lead down to a basin of sufficient depth
for immersion, supplied by a spring. Some of the subterranean chambers
contain armed seats and benches cut out of the tufa rock. These are
supposed by Marchi and others to indicate schoolrooms, where the
catechumens were instructed by the bishop or presbyters. But this theory
wants verification. It is impossible not to be struck with the
remarkable analogy between these rock-hewn chairs and those discovered
in the Etruscan tombs, of the purpose of which no satisfactory
explanation has been given.

[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Bishop's Chair. Catacomb of Sant' Agnese.]

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Baptistery of San Pontianus. (From Perret.)]


  Theories of the use of the catacombs.

Very exaggerated statements have been made as to the employment of the
catacombs as dwelling-places by the Christians in times of persecution.
We have, however, sufficient evidence that they were used as places of
refuge from the fury of the heathen, in which the believers--especially
the bishops and clergy, who would naturally be the first objects of
attack--might secrete themselves until the storm had blown over. This
was a purpose for which they were admirably adapted both by the
intricacy of their labyrinthine passages, in which any one not
possessing the clue would be inevitably lost, and the numerous small
chambers and hiding-places at different levels which might be passed
unperceived in the dark by the pursuers. As a rule also the catacombs
had more than one entrance, and frequently communicated with an
_arenaria_ or sand-quarry; so that while one entrance was carefully
watched, the pursued might escape in a totally different direction by
another. But, to quote J.H. Parker, "the catacombs were never intended,
nor fit for, dwelling-places, and the stories of persons living in them
for months are probably fabulous. According to modern physicians it is
impossible to live many days in the caves of _pozzolana_ in which many
of the catacombs are excavated." Equally exaggerated are the statements
as to the linear and lateral extent of the catacombs, and their
intercommunication with one another. Without resorting to this
exaggeration, Mommsen can speak with perfect truth of the "enormous
space occupied by the burial vaults of Christian Rome, not surpassed
even by the _cloacae_ or sewers of Republican Rome," but the data are
too vague to warrant any attempt to define their dimensions. Marchi has
estimated the united length of the galleries at from 800 to 900 m., and
the number of interments at between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000; Martigny's
estimate is 587 m.; and Northcote's, lower still, at "not less than 350
m." The idea of general intercommunication is negatived by the fact that
the chief cemeteries are separated by low ground or valleys, where any
subterranean galleries would be at once filled with water.

It now remains to speak of the history of these subterranean
burial-places, together with the reasons for, and mode of, their
construction. From the period of the rediscovery of the catacombs in the
16th century till comparatively recent times a gigantic fallacy
prevailed, repeated by writer after writer, identifying the Christian
burial-places with disused sand-pits. It was accepted as an
unquestionable fact by every one who undertook to describe the
catacombs, that the Christians of Rome, finding in the labyrinthine
mazes of the exhausted _arenariae_, which abounded in the environs of
the city, whence the sand used in building had been extracted, a
suitable place for the interment of their martyred brethren, where also
the sacred rites accompanying the interment might be celebrated without
fear of interruption, took possession of them and used them as
cemeteries. It only needed a comparison of the theory with the visible
facts to refute it at once, but nearly three centuries elapsed before
the independence of the _arenariae_ and the catacombs was established.
The discovery of this independence is due to Marchi. Starting with the
firmest belief in the old traditional view, his own researches by
degrees opened his eyes to the truth, now universally recognized, that
the catacombs were exclusively the work of the Christians, and were
constructed for the interment of the dead. It is true that a catacomb is
often connected with the earlier sand-quarry, and starts from it as a
commencement, but the two are excavated in different strata, suitable to
their respective purposes, and their plan and construction are so
completely unlike as to render any confusion between them impossible.

The igneous formation of which the greater part of the Roman Campagna
is, in its superior portion, composed, contains three strata known under
the common name of _tufa_,--the "stony," "granular," and "sandy"
tufa,--the last being commonly known as _pozzolana_.[3] The _pozzolana_
is the material required for building purposes, for admixture with
mortar; and the sandpits are naturally excavated in the stratum which
supplies it. The stony tufa (_tufa litoide_) is quarried as
building-stone. The granular tufa is useless for either purpose,
containing too much earth to be employed in making mortar, and being far
too soft to be used as stone for building. Yet it is in this stratum,
and in this alone, that the catacombs are constructed; their engineers
avoiding with equal care the solid stone of the _tufa litoide_ and the
friable _pozzolana_, and selecting the stratum of medium hardness, which
enabled them to form the vertical walls of their galleries, and to
excavate the _loculi_ and _cubicula_ without severe labour and also
without fear of their falling in. The annexed illustration (fig. 16)
from Marchi's work, when compared with that of the catacomb of Sant'
Agnese already given, presents to the eye the contrast between the wide
winding irregular passages of the sand-pit, calculated for the admission
of a horse and cart, and the narrow rectilinear accurately-defined
galleries of the catacomb. The distinction between the two is also
plainly exhibited when for some local or private reasons an ancient
_arenaria_ has been transformed into a cemetery. The modifications
required to strengthen the crumbling walls to support the roof and to
facilitate the excavation of _loculi_, involved so much labour that, as
a rule, after a few attempts, the idea of utilizing an old quarry for
burial purposes was abandoned.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Arenaria beneath the Cemetery of Calixtus.]

Another equally erroneous idea was that these vast burial-places of the
early Christians remained entirely concealed from the eyes of their
pagan neighbours, and were constructed not only without the permission
of the municipal authorities but without their cognizance. Nothing can
be farther from the truth. Such an idea is justly stigmatized by Mommsen
as ridiculous, and reflecting a discredit as unfounded as it is unjust
on the imperial police of the capital. That such vast excavations should
have been made without attracting attention, and that such an immense
number of corpses could have been carried to burial in perfect secrecy
is utterly impossible. Nor was there any reason why secrecy should have
been desired. The decent burial of the dead was a matter especially
provided for by the Roman laws. No particular mode was prescribed.
Interment was just as legal as cremation, and had, in fact, been
universally practised by the Romans until the later days of the
republic.[4] The bodies of the Scipios and Nasos were buried in still
existing catacombs; and if the Christians preferred to adopt that which
Minucius Felix calls "the better, and more ancient custom of inhumation"
(_Octavius_, c. 2), there was absolutely nothing, to quote the words of
Northcote (_Roma sotterran_. pp. 56, 61), "either in their social or
religious position to interfere with their freedom of action. The law
left them entire liberty,... and the faithful did but use their liberty
in the way that suited them best, burying their dead according to a
fashion to which many of them had been long accustomed, and which
enabled them at the same time to follow in death the example of him who
was also their model in life." Interment in rock-hewn tombs, "as the
manner of the Jews is to bury," had been practised in Rome by the Jewish
settlers for a considerable period anterior to the rise of the Christian
Church. A Jewish catacomb, now lost, was discovered and described by
Bosio (_Rom. sott._ p. 141), and others are still accessible. They are
to be distinguished from Christian catacombs only by the character of
their decorations, the absence of Christian symbols and the language of
their inscriptions. There would, therefore, be nothing extraordinary in
the fact that a community, always identified in the popular heathen mind
with the Jewish faith, should adopt the mode of interment belonging to
that religion. Nor have we the slightest trace of any official
interference with Christian burials, such as would render secrecy
necessary or desirable. Their funerals were as much under the protection
of the law, which not only invested the tomb itself with a sacred
character, but included in its protection the area in which it stood,
and the _cella memoriae_ or chapel connected with it, as those of their
heathen fellow-citizens, while the same shield would be thrown over the
burial-clubs, which, as we learn from Tertullian (_Apolog._ c. 39),
were common among the early Christians, as over those existing among the
heathen population of Rome.


  Mode of formation.

We may then completely dismiss the notion of there being any studied
secrecy in connexion with the early Christian cemeteries, and proceed to
inquire into the mode of their formation. Almost without exception, they
had their origin in small burial areas, the property of private persons
or of families, gradually ramifying and receiving additions of one
subterranean storey after another as each was required for interments.
The first step would be the acquisition of a plot of ground either by
gift or purchase for the formation of a tomb, Christians were not beyond
the pale of the law, and their faith presented no hindrance to the
property being secured to them in perpetuity. To adapt the ground for
its purpose as a cemetery, a gallery was run all round the area in the
tufa rock at a convenient depth below the surface, reached by staircases
at the corners. In the upright walls of these galleries _loculi_ were
cut as needed to receive the dead. When these first four galleries were
full others were mined on the same level at right angles to them, thus
gradually converting the whole area into a net-work of corridors. If a
family vault was required, or a burial chapel for a martyr or person of
distinction, a small square room was excavated by the side of the
gallery and communicating with it. When the original area had been mined
in this way as far as was consistent with stability, a second storey of
galleries was begun at a lower level, reached by a new staircase. This
was succeeded by a third, or a fourth, and sometimes even by a fifth.
When adjacent burial areas belonged to members of the same Christian
confraternity, or by gift or purchase fell into the same hands,
communications were opened between the respective cemeteries, which thus
spread laterally, and gradually acquired that enormous extent which,
"even when their fabulous dimensions are reduced to their right measure,
form an immense work."[5] This could only be executed by a large and
powerful Christian community unimpeded by legal enactments or police
regulations, "a living witness of its immense development corresponding
to the importance of the capital." But although, as we have said, in
ordinary times there was no necessity for secrecy, yet when the peace of
the Church was broken by the fierce and often protracted persecutions of
the heathen emperors, it became essential to adopt precautions to
conceal the entrance to the cemeteries, which became the temporary
hiding-places of the Christian fugitives, and to baffle the search of
their pursuers. To these stormy periods we may safely assign the
alterations which may be traced in the staircases, which are sometimes
abruptly cut off, leaving a gap requiring a ladder, and the formation of
secret passages communicating with the _arenariae_, and through them
with the open country.

When the storms of persecution ceased and Christianity had become the
imperial faith, the evil fruits of prosperity were not slow to appear.
Cemetery interment became a regular trade in the hands of the
_fossores_, or grave-diggers, who appear to have established a kind of
property in the catacombs, and whose greed of gain led to that
destruction of the religious paintings with which the walls were
decorated, for the quarrying of fresh _loculi_, to which we have already
alluded. Monumental epitaphs record the purchase of a grave from the
fossores, in many cases during the lifetime of the individual, not
unfrequently stating the price. A very curious fresco, found in the
cemetery of Calixtus, preserved by the engravings of the earlier
investigators (Bottari, tom. ii. p. 126, tav. 99), represents a "fossor"
with his lamp in his hand and his pick over his shoulder, and his tools
lying about him. Above is the inscription, "Diogenes Fossor in Pace
depositus."


  Decoration.

It is unnecessary to enter on any detailed description of the frescoes
which cover the walls and ceilings of the burial-chapels in the richest
abundance. It must suffice to say that the earliest examples are only to
be distinguished from the mural decorations employed by their pagan
contemporaries (as seen at Pompeii and elsewhere) by the absence of all
that was immoral or idolatrous, and that it was only very slowly and
timidly that any distinctly religious representations were introduced.
These were at first purely symbolical, meaningless to any but a
Christian eye, such as the Vine, the Good Shepherd, the Sheep, the
Fisherman, the Fish, &c. Even the personages of ancient mythology were
pressed into the service of early Christian art, and Orpheus, taming the
wild beasts with his lyre, symbolized the peaceful sway of Christ; and
Ulysses, deaf to the Siren's song, represented the Believer triumphing
over the allurements of sensual pleasure. The person of Christ appeared
but rarely, and then commonly simply as the chief personage in an
historical picture. The events depicted from the life of Christ are but
few, and always conform rigidly to the same traditional type. The most
frequent are the miracle at Cana, the multiplication of the loaves and
fishes, the paralytic carrying his bed, the healing of the woman with
the issue of blood, the raising of Lazarus, Zacchaeus, and the triumphal
entry into Jerusalem. The Crucifixion, and subjects from the Passion,
are never represented. The cycle of Old Testament subjects is equally
limited. The most common are the history of Jonah as a type of the
Resurrection, the Fall, Noah receiving the dove with the olive branch,
Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac, Moses taking off his shoes, David with the
sling, Daniel in the lions' den, and the Three Children in the fiery
furnace. The mode of representation is always conventional, the
treatment of the subject no less than its choice being dictated by an
authority to which the artist was compelled to bow. All the more
valuable of these paintings have been produced in J.H. Parker's series
of photographs taken in the catacombs by the magnesium light.[6]
Wilpert's great work, in which these frescoes are reproduced in colours,
now enables the student even better to distinguish the styles of
different centuries and follow the course of artistic development or
decay.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Fresco Ceiling. (From Bosio.)

  The subjects, beginning at the top and going to the right, are--

  (1) The paralytic carrying his bed.
  (2) The seven baskets full of fragments.
  (3) Raising of Lazarus.
  (4) Daniel in the lions' den.
  (5) Jonah swallowed by the fish.
  (6) Jonah vomited forth.
  (7) Moses striking the rock.
  (8) Noah and the dove.
      In the centre, the Good Shepherd.]


  Catacombs of Naples.

Beyond Rome and its suburbs the most remarkable Christian catacombs are
those in the vicinity of Naples, described by Pelliccia (_De Christ.
Eccl. Polit._ vol. iv. Dissert. 5), and in separate treatises by
Bellerman and Schultze. Plans of them are also given by Agincourt in his
great work on Christian art. These catacombs differ materially from
those of Rome. They were certainly originally stone-quarries, and the
hardness of the rock has made the construction practicable of wide,
lofty corridors and spacious halls, very unlike the narrow galleries and
contracted chambers in the Roman cemeteries. The mode of interment,
however, is the same as that practised in Rome, and the _loculi_ and
_arcosolia_ differ by little in the two. The walls and ceilings are
covered with fresco paintings of different dates, in some cases lying
one over the other. This catacomb contains an unquestionable example of
a church, divided into a nave and chancel, with a rude stone altar and
bishop's seat behind it.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Fresco Ceiling. (From Bosio.)

  The subjects, beginning at the bottom and going to the right, are--

  (1) Moses striking the rock.
  (2) Noah and the dove.
  (3) The three children in the furnace.
  (4) Abraham's sacrifice.
  (5) The miracle of the loaves.]

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Plan of the Catacombs of St John, Syracuse.]


  Syracuse.

At Syracuse also there are very extensive catacombs known as "the
Grottos of St John." They are also figured by Agincourt, and described
by Denon (_Voyage en Sicile et Malte_) and Fuhrer. There is an entire
underground city with several storeys of larger and smaller streets,
squares and cross ways, cut out of the rock; at the intersection of the
cross ways are immense circular halls of a bottle shape, like a
glass-house furnace, lighted by air shafts. The galleries are generally
very narrow, furnished on each side with arched tombs, and communicating
with family sepulchral-chambers closed originally by locked doors, the
marks of the hinges and staples being still visible. The walls are in
many places coated with stucco adorned with frescoes, including palms,
doves, labara and other Christian symbols. The ground-plans (figs. 19,
20), from Agincourt, of the catacomb and of one of the circular halls,
show how widely this cemetery differs in arrangement from the Roman
catacombs. The frequency of blind passages and of circular chambers will
be noticed, as well as the very large number of bodies in the cruciform
recesses, apparently amounting in one instance to nineteen. Agincourt
remarks that this cemetery "gives an idea of a work executed with design
and leisure, and with means very different from those at command in
producing the catacombs of Rome."

[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Plan of Circular Hall, Catacombs of St John,
Syracuse. (From Agincourt.)]


  Malta.

  Taormina.

Denon also describes catacombs at Malta near the ancient capital of the
island. The passages were all cut in a close-grained stone, and are very
narrow, with arched ceilings, running very irregularly, and ramifying in
all directions. The greater part of the tombs stand on either side of
the galleries in square recesses (like the table-tombs of the Roman
catacombs), and are rudely fashioned to imitate sarcophagi. The
interments are not nearly so numerous as in other catacombs, nor are
there any vestiges of painting, sculpture or inscriptions. At Taormina
in Sicily is a Saracenic catacomb, also figured by Agincourt. The main
corridor is 12 ft. wide, having three or more ranges of _loculi_ on
either side, running longitudinally into the rock, each originally
closed by a stone bearing an inscription.


  Egypt.

Passing to Egypt, a small Christian catacomb at Alexandria is described
and figured by de Rossi.[7] The _loculi_ here also are set endways to
the passage. The walls are abundantly decorated with paintings, one of a
liturgical character. But the most extensive catacombs at Alexandria are
those of Egypto-Greek origin, from the largest of which, according to
Strabo (lib. xvii. p. 795), the quarter where it is placed had the name
of the Necropolis. The plan, it will be seen, is remarkable for its
regularity (figs. 21, 22). Here, too, the graves run endways into the
rock. Other catacombs in the vicinity of the same city are described by
Pocock and other travellers, and are figured by Agincourt.

[Illustration: Fig. 21--Plan of Catacomb at Alexandria. (From
Agincourt.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Section of a Gallery in Catacomb at Alexandria.
(From Agincourt.)]


  Sidon.

Subterranean cemeteries of the general character of those described are
very frequent in all southern and eastern countries. A vast necropolis
in the environs of Saida, the ancient Sidon, is described in Renan's
_Mission en Phenicie_, and figured in Thobois's plates. It consists of a
series of apartments approached by staircases, the sides pierced with
sepulchral recesses running lengthwise into the rock.

[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Plan of a Tomb at Cervetri. (From Dennis.)]

[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Section of the Tomb of the Seats and Shields,
Cervetri. (From Dennis.)]


  Rocktombs of Etruria.

The rock-hewn tombs of Etruria scarcely come under the category of
catacombs, in the usual sense, being rather independent family
burial-places, grouped together in a necropolis. They are, however, far
too remarkable to be altogether passed over. These sepulchres are
usually hollowed out of the face of low cliffs on the side of a hill.
They often rise tier above tier, and are sometimes all on the same level
"facing each other as in streets, and branching off laterally into
smaller lanes or alleys"; and occasionally forming "a spacious square or
piazza surrounded by tombs instead of houses" (Dennis, _Cities and
Cemeteries of Etruria_, ii. 31). The construction of the tombs commonly
keeps up the same analogy between the cities of the living and those of
the dead. Their plan is for the most part that of a house, with a door
of entrance and passage leading into a central chamber or _atrium_, with
others of smaller size opening from it, each having a stone-hewn bench
or _triclinium_ on three of its sides, on which the dead, frequently a
pair of corpses side by side, were laid as if at a banquet. These
benches are often hewn in the form of couches with pillows at one end,
and the legs carved in relief. The ceilings have the representation of
beams and rafters cut in the rock. In some instances arm-chairs, carved
out of the living rock, stand between the doors of the chambers, and the
walls above are decorated with the semblance of suspended shields. The
walls are often covered with paintings in a very simple archaic style,
in red and black. As a typical example of the Etruscan tombs we give the
plan and section (figs. 23, 24) of the _Grotta detta Sedia_ at Cervetri
from Dennis (pp. 32, 35). The tombs in some instances form subterranean
groups more analogous to the general idea of a catacomb. Of this nature
is the very remarkable cemetery at Poggio Gaiella, near Chiusi, the
ancient Clusium, of a portion of the principal storey of which the
woodcut (fig. 25) is a plan. The most remarkable of these sepulchral
chambers is a large circular hall about 25 ft. in diameter, supported by
a huge cylindrical pillar hewn from the rock. Opening out of this and
the other chambers, and connecting them together, are a series of low
winding passages or _cuniculi_, just large enough for a man to creep
through on all fours. No plausible suggestion has been offered as to the
purpose of these mysterious burrows, which cannot fail to remind us of
the labyrinth which, according to Varro's description as quoted by Pliny
(_Hist. Nat._ lib. xxxvi. c. 19, S 4), was the distinguishing mark of
Porsena's tomb, and which have led some adventurous archaeologists to
identify this sepulchre with that of the great king of Etruria (Dennis,
_u.s._, pp. 393 ff.). (E. V.; O. M. D.)

[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Plan of a portion of the principal storey in
the Poggio Gajella. (From Dennis.)]

_Modern Discoveries_.--In 1873 was discovered, near the cemetery of St
Domitilla, the semi-subterranean basilica of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo,
100 ft. by 60 ft. This is now covered with a roof, and the fallen
columns have been raised up. The lower part of a pillar, which once
supported a baldachino over the altar, still preserves the name
ACILLEUS, and beneath it a bas-relief of the martyr, with his hands
bound, receiving his death-blow from the executioner. The base of a
similar column has only feet in the same attitude, and probably bore the
name NEREUS. In a grave in the apse was found a large fragment of an
inscription, composed by Pope Damasus, but set up by his successor
Siricius, which, from the note-book of a Salzburg pilgrim of the 8th
century, can be completed thus:--

                                       ------
  Militiae nomen dederant saevum      / Q    \  ue gerebant
  Officium pariter spectantes juss    | AIYR   \  anni
  Praeceptis pulsante metu servi      | RE PAR   \  ati
  Mira fides rerum subito posue       | RE FVRORE  \  m
  Conversi fugiunt ducis impia castr  | A RELINQVVNI \
  Projiciunt clypeos faleras tel      | AQ. CRVENIA    |
  Confessi gaudent Christi portar     | E IRIVMFOS     |
  Credite per Damasum possit quid     | GLORIA CHRISTI |
                                      ------------------

Nereus (see Rom. xvi. 15) and Achilleus, said to have been baptized by
St Peter, refused to do the bidding of Domitian as praetorians, and
entering the service of Flavia Domitilla, suffered martyrdom with their
mistress Petronilla, of the Aurelian family closely connected with the
Flavii, and the spiritual daughter of St Peter, who was buried in a
sarcophagus with the inscription:--

  AVRELIAE . PETRONILLAE . FIL . DVLCISSIMAE

This is now in St Peter's, but was probably originally behind the apse
of this basilica, for there is a fresco of her in an arcosolium, with a
matron named Veneranda. The original entrance to the cemetery leads
directly into a spacious corridor with no _loculi_, but recesses for
sarcophagi, and decorations of the classical style of the 2nd century.
From this a wide staircase leads directly down to a chamber, discovered
in March 1881, of a very early date. Within an arcosolium is a tablet
set up by "Aurelius Ampliatus and his son Gordian, to Aurelia Bonifatia,
his incomparable wife, a woman of true chastity, who lived 25 years, 2
months, 4 days, and 2 hours." The letters are of the 2nd century; but
above the arcosolium was found a stone with great letters, 5 or 6 in.
high: "AMPLIATI, the tomb of Ampliatus." Now Ampliatus is a servile
name: how comes it to be set up with such distinction in the sepulchre
of the Flavii? Romans xvi. 8 supplies the answer: "Salute Ampliatus,
most beloved to me in the Lord." De Rossi thinks the identification
well grounded (_Bullettino_, 1881, p. 74). Epitaphs of members of the
Flavian family have been found here, and others stating that they are
put up "EX INDULGENTIA FLAVIAE DOMITILLAE VESPASIANI NEPTIS." So that De
Rossi did not hesitate to complete an inscription on a broken stone
thus:--

            -----
  Sepulc   / RVM |
  Flavi   / ORVM |
         / |     |
         --v------

De Rossi began his excavations in the cemetery of Santa Priscilla in
1851, but for thirty years nothing but what had been described by Bosio
came to light. In 1880 he unearthed a portion near the Cappella Greca,
and found galleries that had not been touched since they were filled in
during the Diocletian persecution. The _loculi_ were intact and the
epitaphs still in their places, so that "they form a kind of museum, in
which the development, the formulae, and the symbolic figures of
Christian epigraphy, from its origin to the end of the 3rd or 4th
century, can be notified and contemplated, not in artificial specimens
as in the Lateran, but in the genuine and living reality of their
original condition." (_Bullett._, 1884, p. 68). Many of the names
mentioned in St Paul's Epistles are found here: Phoebe, Prisca,
Aquilius, Felix Ampliatus, Epenetus, Olympias, Onesimus, Philemon,
Asyncritus, Lucius, Julia, Caius, Timotheus, Tychicus, Crescens,
Urbanus, Hermogenes, Tryphaena and Trypho(sa) on the same stone. Petrus,
a very rare name in the catacombs, is found here several times, both in
Greek and in Latin. The neighbouring _Coemeterium Ostrianum_ was
anciently known as "_Fons S. Petri_," "_ubi Petrus baptizavit_," "_ubi
Petrus prius sedit_." This cemetery derives its name from Priscilla,
mother of Pudens, who is said to have given hospitality to St Peter the
Apostle. We are reminded of St Paul, and of his friends Aquila and
Prisca, by a monument erected by an imperial freedman who was
PRAEPOSITVS TABERNACVLORVM--chief tentmaker. In 1888 a corridor was
discovered which had at one time been isolated from the rest of the
cemetery. It had no _loculi_, but recesses in the wall to receive
sarcophagi. At the end of the corridor there was a large chamber, 23 ft.
by 13 ft., once lined with marble and the ceiling covered with mosaic, a
few fragments of which still remain. The only tomb here was a
sarcophagus, of which the broken front bears the letters which show it
to have been the epitaph of one of the Acilian family:--

  ACILIO GLABRIONI FILIO

In the vicinity are fragments of the epitaphs of Manius Acilius and
Priscilla, of Quintus Acilius and Caia Acilia in Greek, another Greek
inscription "Acilius Rufinus mayest thou live in God." After careful
examination of the nine Acilii, who were consuls, De Rossi concludes
that this was the resting-place of that Acilius Glabrio, consul with
Trajan, A.D. 91, who in the year of his consulate was compelled by
Domitian to fight with beasts in the arena, and then banished and put to
death in 95. The question of his Christianity seems settled by the
discovery of the sepulchre of these Christian Acilii. From this crypt a
staircase led up to the basilica in which Pope Silvester was buried, and
the whole plan of which was laid bare by De Rossi. The tomb of St
Silvester could be identified, and that of Pope Siricius "at his feet,"
as the pilgrim noted (_Bullett._, 1890, pp. 106-119).

Just before De Rossi's death, Mgr. Wilpert discovered in the Cappella
Greca a painting of the "Fractio Panis" or eucharistic feast, which he
cleansed from the dust with which it had been covered. The picture of
the Blessed Virgin and Child, which De Rossi ascribed to the 2nd, if not
to the 1st century, has received an unexpected proof of its antiquity.
In 1890 the floor of the gallery in which it stands was excavated, and
another floor was found to be 6 ft. below its supposed level. The
_loculi_ in this lower portion were intact, with inscriptions of the 2nd
century still in their places, proving that the niche in which that
picture was painted must have been considerably older than the lowering
of the floor. A flight of iron steps enables the visitor now to examine
this venerable specimen of early Christian art.

After the death of De Rossi, one of his pupils, H. Stevenson, since
dead, discovered in 1896 a small subterranean basilica in the catacomb
of Santi Pietro e Marcellino on the Via Labicana, with pious
acclamations on the plaster similar to those in the Papal crypt in St
Calixtus. Near the well-known subterranean chapel in the _Coemeterium
Ostrianum_ was discovered by Mgr. Crostarosa, in 1877, another chapel,
in which Signor Armellini found traces of St Emerentiana, foster-sister
of St Agnes. Near this a whole region of galleries has been brought to
light with _loculi_ intact.

Explorations conducted in the cemetery of Domitilla in 1897-1898 brought
to light a fine double crypt with frescoes representing Christ seated
between six male and female saints; also an inscription relating to a
new saint (Eulalius) in a cubiculum of the 3rd century. In 1899-1900
were discovered two opposite cubicula in the catacomb of Santi Pietro e
Marcellino. These were unknown to Bosio, and are both covered with
frescoes, the vault being in one case decorated with the scene which
represents Christ seated among the apostles and pronouncing sentence
upon the defunct. An inscription discovered in 1900 on the site of the
ancient cemetery of St Ciriaca, and dating from A.D. 405, states that
one Euryalus bought a site _ad mensam beati martyris Laurentii_ from a
certain _fossor_ whose name has been erased. This is interesting as an
example of what was known as _memoriae damnatio_ or the blotting out of
a name on account of some dishonourable action. From the end of the 4th
to the first half of the 5th century, the _fossores_ had the privilege
of selling sites, which frequently led to grave abuses. In 1901-1902
excavations in the cemetery of Santa Priscilla, near the Cappella Greca,
revealed a polygonal chamber. This may have originally been the
_nymphaeum_ of the great villa of the Acilii Glabriones, the _hypogaeum_
of which was discovered by De Rossi near this spot in 1888. It may have
been used as a burial-place for martyrs, and Professor Marucchi is
inclined to see in it the sepulchral chapel of Pope Marcellinus, who
died in A.D. 304 during the persecutions of Diocletian. In 1902, in that
part of the Via Ardeatina which passes between the cemeteries of
Calixtus and Domitilla, was discovered a crypt with frescoes and the
sanctuary of a martyr: it is thought that this, rather than a
neighbouring crypt brought to light in 1897, may prove to be the
sepulchral crypt of SS. Marcus and Marcellianus. In a cubiculum leading
out of a gallery in the vicinity there was also discovered an
interesting impression in plaster of an inscription of the mother of
Pope Damasus, beginning:

  HIC DAMASI MATER POSVIT LAVREN[TIA MEMBRA].

In the same year building operations in the Via di Sant' Onofrio
revealed the presence of catacombs beneath the foundations: examination
of the _loculi_ showed that no martyrs or illustrious persons were
buried here.

In 1903 a new cemetery with frescoes came to light on the Via Latina,
considered by Marucchi to have belonged to a heretical sect. In the same
year the Jewish cemetery on the Via Portuense, known to Bosio but since
forgotten, was rediscovered. The subterranean basilica of SS. Felix and
Adauctus, discovered by Boldetti and afterwards choked up with ruins,
was cleared again: the crypt, begun by Damasus and enlarged by Siricius,
contains frescoes of the 6th-7th centuries.

A good plan of the catacombs at Albano (at the 15th milestone of the
Appian way), discovered by Boldetti and described by De Rossi, has been
published by Marucchi (_Nuovo Bulletino di archeologia cristiana_, 1902,
pp. 89 ff.). In 1904 a small subterranean cemetery was discovered at
Anagnia. Catacombs have also been recently discovered on the site of
Hadrumetum near Sousse in Tunisia.     (+ W. R. B.; O. M. D.)

  AUTHORITIES.--The classical work on the catacombs of Rome is G.B. De
  Rossi's _Roma sotterranea_, on which most of the accounts in other
  languages than Italian have been based. The fine volume by Mgr.
  Wilpert, _Le Pitture delle catacombe romane_ (Rome, 1903), in which
  all the important frescoes are reproduced in colours, is to be
  regarded as an addition to the _Roma sotterranea_. All new
  discoveries made by the active _Commissione di archeologia sacra_ are
  chronicled with as little delay as possible in the _Nuovo Bulletino de
  archeologia cristiana_ published in Rome.

  The most recent accounts of the catacombs are to be found in the
  following books:--Armellini, _Gli Antichi Cimiteri cristiani di Roma e
  d' Italia_ (Rome, 1893); O. Marucchi, _Le Catacombe romane_ (Rome,
  1903; also translated into French), _Manuale di epigrafia cristiana _
  (Milan, 1904); M. Besnier, _Les Catacombes de Rome_ (Paris, 1909).

  Among the older works are: Bosio, _Roma sotterranea_, Severano's
  edition (1632), and Aringhi's edition (1651); Boldetti, _Osservazioni
  sopra i cimiteri dei santi martiri_ (Rome, 1720); Bottari, _Sculture e
  pitture sagre, &c._ (Rome, 1737-1754); Seroux d'Agincourt, _Histoire
  de l'art par les monuments_ (Paris, 1823; German ed., 1840); G.
  Marchi, _Monumenti delle arti cristiane primitive_ (Rome, 1844); Raoul
  Rochette, _Tableau des catacombes de Rome_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1853);
  Perret, _Les Catacombes de Rome_ (Paris, 1855)--a sumptuous folio
  work, but not always accurate, Roller, _Les Catacombes de Rome_
  (Paris, 1881); V. Schultze, _Die Katakomben_ (Leipzig, 1882).

  Works written in English are: Northcote and Brownlow, _Roma
  sotterranea_ (London, 1869; based upon De Rossi); Wharton Marriott,
  _The Testimony of the Catacombs_ (London, 1870); J.H. Parker, _The
  Archaeology of Rome: the Catacombs_; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary
  of Christian Antiquities_, s.v. "Catacombs"; R. Lanciani, _Pagan and
  Christian Rome_ (London, 1892); W. Lowry, _Christian Art and
  Archaeology_, ch. ii. (London, 1901; a useful introduction to the
  subject); H. Gee, "The Church in the Catacombs," in W. Lefroy's
  _Lectures in Ecclesiastical History_ (1896); Th. Mommsen, in the
  _Contemporary Review_, May 1871.

  Accounts of the catacombs will also be found in the encyclopaedias and
  manuals published under the following names: Martigny, Perate, F.X.
  Kraus (_Realencyklopadie_ and _Geschichte der christlichen Kunst_),
  Reusens, V. Schultze and C.M. Kauffmann, and in the large new
  _Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et liturgie_, published at
  Paris under the editorship of Dom F. Cabrol.

  The catacombs at Naples are described in C.F. Bellermann, _Uber die
  altesten christlichen Begrabnisstatten und besonders die Katakomben zu
  Neapel_ (Hamburg, 1839); Armellini, as above, and V. Schultze, _Die
  Katakomben von San Gennaro dei Poveri in Neapel_ (Jena, 1877).

  For the catacombs in Malta, A.A. Caruana, _Ancient Pagan Tombs and
  Christian Cemeteries in the Islands of Malta_ (Malta, 1898), and A.
  Mayr, "Die altchristlichen Begrabnisstatten auf Malta," in _Romische
  Quartalschrift_, vol. xv. pp. 216 and 352 (Rome, 1901), may be
  consulted.

  The fullest account of the Sicilian catacombs is given by J. Fuhrer,
  _Forschungen zur Sicilia sotterranea_ (Munich, 1897); and D.C.
  Barrecca, _Le Catacombe di San Giovanni in Siracusa_ (Syracuse, 1906).

  A catacomb of the 5th century, discovered at Kertch in South Russia,
  is described by J. Kulakovsky in _Materials for Russian Archaeology_
  (St Petersburg, 1896; a publication of the Russian Imperial
  Archaeological Commission), but it is written in Russian, as also is
  the account by V. Latyshev, in _Vizantieski Vremennik_, vol. vi. pp.
  337 ff. (St Petersburg, 1899).

  The catacombs at Hadrumetum (Sousse) are described by A.F. Leynard,
  _Les Catacombes d'Hadrumete, deuxieme campagne de fouilles_
  (1904-1905). See also _Revue Tunisienne_ (1905), p. 250.

  For the catacombs of Alexandria, Neroutsos Bey, _L'Ancienne
  Alexandrie_, may be consulted in addition to De Rossi's article
  mentioned in the text.     (O. M. D.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The most important of these lists are the two Itineraries
    belonging to the first half of the 7th century, in the Salzburg
    library. One still earlier, but less complete, appears in the
    _Notitia Urbis Romae_, under the title _Index Coemeteriorum_. Another
    Itinerary, preserved at Einsiedeln, printed by Mabillon, dates from
    the latter half of the same century. That found in the works of
    William of Malmesbury (Hardy's ed. vol. ii. pp. 539-544) appears to
    be copied from it, or both may be from the same source. De Rossi
    gives a comparative table of these Itineraries and other similar
    lists.

  [2] Hieron., _Comment. in Ezech._ lib xx. c. 40. The translation is
    Dean Burgon's.

  [3] In Rome the three strata are known to geologists as _tufa
    litoide_, _tufa granolare_ and _pozzolana_.

  [4] Cicero is our authority for the burial of Marius, and for Sulla's
    being the first member of the Gens Cornelia whose dead body was burnt
    (_De Legg._ ii. 22).

  [5] Mommsen's chosen example of an ancient burial-chamber, extending
    itself into a catacomb, or gathering subterranean additions round it
    till a catacomb was established, is that of the cemetery of St
    Domitilla, traditionally identified with a granddaughter of
    Vespasian, and the catacomb of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo on the Appian
    and Ardeatine way.

  [6] Parker's invaluable series of Roman photographs may be seen at
    the library of the Victoria and Albert museum, at the Ashmolean
    museum and the Bodleian library, Oxford.

  [7] _Bulletino di archaeologia cristiana_, November 1864, August
    1865. See also _Authorities_, below.




CATAFALQUE (a word of unknown origin, occurring in various forms in many
European languages, meaning a funeral scaffold or temporary stage), a
movable structure of wood sometimes richly decorated, erected
temporarily at funeral ceremonies in a church to receive the coffin or
effigy of the deceased; also an open hearse or funeral car.




CATALANI, ANGELICA (1780-1849), Italian opera-singer, daughter of a
tradesman at Sinigaglia, was educated at the convent of Santa Lucia at
Gubbio, where her magnificent soprano voice, of extraordinary compass
and purity, soon became famous. In 1795 she made her debut on the stage
at Venice, and from that moment every impresario in Europe was anxious
to engage her. For nearly thirty years she sang at all the great houses,
receiving very large fees; her first appearance in London being at the
King's theatre in 1806. She remained in England, a prima donna without a
serious rival, for seven years. Then she was given the management of the
opera in Paris, but this resulted in financial failure, owing to the
incapacity and extravagance of her husband, Captain Valabregue, whom she
married in 1806. But her continental tours continued to be enormously
successful, until she retired in 1828. She settled at Florence in 1830,
where she founded a free singing school for girls; and her charity and
kindness were unbounded. She died of cholera in Paris on the 12th of
June 1849.




CATALEPSY (from Gr. [Greek: katalepsis], a seizure), a term applied to a
nervous affection characterized by the sudden suspension of sensation
and volition, accompanied with a peculiar rigidity of the whole or of
certain muscles of the body. The subjects of catalepsy are in most
instances females of highly nervous temperament. The exciting cause of
an attack is usually mental emotion operating either suddenly, as in the
case of a fright, or more gradually in the way of prolonged depression.
The symptoms presented vary in different cases, and even in the same
individual in different attacks. Sometimes the typical features of the
disease are exhibited in a state of complete insensibility, together
with a statue-like appearance of the body which will retain any attitude
it may be made to assume during the continuance of the attack. In this
condition the whole organic and vital functions appear to be reduced to
the lowest possible limit consistent with life, and to such a degree as
to simulate actual death. At other times considerable mental excitement
will accompany the cataleptic symptoms, and the patient will sing or
utter passionate exclamations during the fit, being all the while quite
unconscious. The attack may be of short duration, passing off within a
few minutes. It may, however, last for many hours, and in some rare
instances persist for several days; and it is conceivable that in such
cases the appearances presented might be mistaken for real death, as is
alleged to have occasionally happened. Catalepsy belongs to the class of
functional nervous disorders (see MUSCLE AND NERVE: _Pathology_) in
which morbid physical and psychical conditions are mixed up. Although it
is said to occur in persons in perfect health, careful inquiry will
usually reveal some departure from the normal state, as is shown by the
greater number of the recorded cases. More particularly is this true of
females, in whom some form of menstrual derangement is generally found
to have preceded the cataleptic affection. Catalepsy is sometimes
associated with epilepsy and with grave forms of mental disease. In
ordinary cases, however, the mental phenomena bear close resemblance to
those witnessed in hysteria. In many of the subjects of catalepsy there
appears to be a remarkable weakness of the will, whereby the tendency to
lapse into the cataleptic state is not resisted but rather in some
measure encouraged, and attacks may thus be induced by the most trivial
circumstances.




CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. [Greek: katalogos], a register,
from [Greek: katalegein], to enrol or pick out), a list or enumeration,
generally in alphabetical order, of persons, things, &c., and
particularly of the contents of a museum or library. A _catalogue
raisonnee_ is such a list classified according to subjects or on some
other basis, with short explanations and notes. (See also articles
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY, and LIBRARIES.)




CATALONIA (_Cataluna_), a captaincy-general, and formerly a province of
Spain, formerly also a principality of the crown of Aragon; bounded on
the N. by the Pyrenees, W. by Aragon, S. by Valencia, and E. by the
Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 1,966,382; area, 12,427 sq. m. The
triangular territory of Catalonia forms the north-eastern corner of the
Iberian Peninsula. A full account of the physical features, and of the
modern development of commerce, communications, &c., in this area is
given in the articles on the four provinces Barcelona, Gerona, Lerida
and Tarragona, into which Catalonia was divided in 1833.

The coast, which is partly sandy, partly rocky, extends about 240 m.;
its chief harbours are those of the capital, Barcelona, of Mataro, of
Rosas and of Tarragona. The surface is much broken by spurs of the
Pyrenees, the direction of which is generally south. Running south-west
to north-east, and united on the north with one of the offsets of the
Pyrenees, is the range of the Sierra Llena, which bisects Catalonia, and
forms its central watershed. The principal rivers are the Ter, the
Llobregat, and the Ebro (q.v.), which all run into the Mediterranean.
None of them is navigable. The climate, in spite of frequent mists and
rains, sudden changes of temperature, and occasional great mid-day heat,
is healthy and favourable to vegetation. The dwarf-palm, orange, lime,
and olive grow in the warmer tracts; and on the higher grounds the
thorn-apple, pomegranate, myrtle, esparto and heaths flourish. There is
much woodland, but meadows and pastures are rare. Maize, millet, rye,
flax, liquorice and fruits of all sorts--especially nuts, almonds,
oranges, figs, walnuts and chestnuts--are produced. Wheat sufficient for
one-fourth of the population is grown, and the vine is extensively
cultivated. Few cattle, but numbers of sheep, goats and swine are
reared. Game is plentiful, and the fisheries on the coast are excellent.
The wines are for the most part rough and strong, though some are very
good, especially when matured. They are much used to adulterate those of
Oporto, or, after undergoing the blending operation termed _compage_,
are passed off as Bordeaux wines in France. The best of them,
_priorato_, is chiefly known in England, under the disguise of second or
third-rate port; it was much used in the military hospitals of America
during the Civil War.

The Catalonians are a frugal, sharp-witted, and industrious people,
having much national pride, and a strong revolutionary spirit. They are
distinct in origin from the other inhabitants of Spain, from whom they
differ in their dialect and costume. In their great energy and their
love of enterprise they resemble the Basques. Irrigation, careful
husbandry and railroad communications have much developed the resources
of their country, in themselves excellent; and there are many
manufacturing towns and industrial establishments.

Catalonia was one of the first of the Roman possessions in Spain, and
formed the north-eastern portion of Hispania Tarraconensis. About 470 it
was occupied by the Alans and Goths. It was conquered by the Moors in
712, but these invaders were in turn dispossessed by the Spaniards and
the troops of Charlemagne in 788. Catalonia was subsequently ruled by
French counts, who soon, however, made themselves independent of France.
By the marriage of Count Raymond Berenger IV. of Barcelona with
Petronilla of Aragon, Catalonia became annexed to Aragon; but this union
was frequently severed. In 1640, when Philip IV. attempted to deprive
Catalonia of its rights and privileges, it gave itself up to Louis XIII.
of France. It was restored to Spain in 1659, and was once more occupied
by the French from 1694 to 1697. Under Philip V. Catalonia, in 1714, was
deprived of its cortes and liberties. From 1808 to 1813 it was held by
France. It was the scene of civil war in 1823, and of important
revolutionary operations in the Carlist wars.

  The history and literature of Catalonia have been closely studied, and
  in many cases the results of research are published in the Catalan
  language. See _Cataluna, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza e
  historia_ (2 vols. of the illustrated series _Espana_), by P.
  Pifferrer, F. Pi Margall, and A.A. Pijoan (Barcelona, 1884); _Historia
  de Cataluna_, by V. Balaguer (11 vols., Madrid, 1886, &c.); _Historia
  de Cataluna_, by A. Bori y Fontesta (Barcelona, 1898); _Origines
  historicos de Cataluna_, by J. Balari y Jovany (Barcelona, 1899);
  _Coleccio dels monografias de Catalunya_, by J. Reig y Vilardell
  (Barcelona, 1890); _Historia del derecho en Catalonia, Mallorca y
  Valencia_, by B. Oliver (Madrid, 1876-1880); and _Antigua marina
  catalana_, by F. de Bofarull y Sans (Barcelona, 1898). The _Revista
  catalana_ (Catalan Review), published at Barcelona from 1889, contains
  many valuable papers on local affairs. See also SPAIN: sections
  _Language, Literature_ and _History_, and BARCELONA.




CATALPA, in botany, a genus belonging to the family _Bignoniaceae_ and
containing about ten species in America and eastern Asia. The best known
is _Catalpa bignonioides_, a native of the eastern United States which
is often cultivated in parks and gardens. It is a stately tree with
large heart-shaped pointed leaves and panicles of white bell-shaped
flowers streaked with yellow and brown purple.




CATALYSIS (from the Gr. [Greek: kata], down, and [Greek: luein], to
loosen), in chemistry, the name given to chemical actions brought about
by a substance, termed the "catalyst," which is recovered unchanged
after the action. The term was introduced by Berzelius, who first
studied such reactions. It is convenient to divide catalytic actions
into two groups:--(1) when the catalyst first combines with one of the
reaction components to form a compound which immediately reacts with the
other components, the catalyst being simultaneously liberated, and free
to react with more of the undecomposed first component; and (2), when
the catalyst apparently reacts by mere contact. The theory of catalysis
is treated under CHEMICAL ACTION; in this article mention will be made
of some of the more interesting examples.

A familiar instance of a catalytic action is witnessed when a mixture
of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide is heated to 350 deg.,
oxygen being steadily liberated, and the manganese dioxide being
unchanged at the end of the reaction. The action may be explained as
follows:--part of the chlorate reacts with the manganese dioxide to form
potassium permanganate, chlorine and oxygen, the chlorine subsequently
reacting with the permanganate to produce manganese dioxide, potassium
chloride and oxygen, thus

  2KClO3 + 2MnO2 = 2KMnO4 + Cl2 + O2 = 2KCl + 2MnO2 + 3O2.

This explanation is supported by the facts that traces of chlorine are
present in the gas, and the pink permanganate can be recognized when
little dioxide is used. Other oxides bring about the same decomposition
at temperatures below that at which the chlorate yields oxygen when
heated alone; but since such substances as kaolin, platinum black and
some other finely powdered compounds exercise the same effect, it
follows that the explanation given above is not quite general. Another
example is Deacon's process for the manufacture of chlorine by passing
hydrochloric acid gas mixed with air over heated bricks which had been
previously impregnated with a copper sulphate solution. The nitrous
gases employed in the ordinary chamber process of manufacturing
sulphuric acid also act catalytically. Mention may be made of the part
played by water vapour in conditioning many chemical reactions. Thus
sodium will not react with dry chlorine or dry oxygen; carbon, sulphur
and phosphorus will not burn in perfectly dry oxygen, neither does
nitric oxide give red fumes of the peroxide. In organic chemistry many
catalytic actions are met with. In the class of reaction known as
"condensations," it may be found that the course of the reaction is
largely dependent upon the nature of some substance which acts
catalytically. One of the most important is the Friedel and Craft's
reaction, in which an aromatic compound combines with an alkyl haloid in
the presence of aluminium, zinc or ferric chloride. It seems in this, as
in other cases, that additional compounds are first formed which
subsequently react with the re-formation of the catalyst. The formation
of benzoin from benzaldehyde in the presence of potassium cyanide is
another example; this action has been investigated by G. Bredig and
Stern (_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1904, 10, p. 582).

The second class of catalytic actions, viz. those occasioned by the
presence of a metal or some other substance which undergoes no change,
is of especial interest, and has received much attention. The
accelerating influence of a clean platinum plate on the rate of
combination of hydrogen and oxygen was studied by Faraday. He found that
with the pure gases the velocity of reaction increased until the mixture
exploded. The presence of minute quantities of carbon monoxide, carbon
disulphide, sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrochloric acid inhibited the
action; in the case of the first two gases, there is no alteration of
the platinum surface, since the plate brings about combination when
removed to an atmosphere of pure hydrogen and oxygen; with the last two
gases, however, the surface is altered, since the plate will not
occasion the combination when placed in the pure gases. M. Bodenstein
(_Zeit. phys. Chem._, 1904, 46, p. 725) showed that combination occurs
with measurable velocity at ordinary temperatures in the presence of
compact platinum. More energetic combination is observed if the metal be
finely divided, as, for instance, by immersing asbestos fibres in a
solution of platinum chloride and strongly heating. The "spongy"
platinum so formed brings about the combination of ammonia and oxygen to
form water and nitric acid, of nitric oxide and hydrogen to form ammonia
(see German Patent, 1905, 157,287), and of sulphur dioxide and oxygen to
form sulphur trioxide. The last reaction, which receives commercial
application in the contact process of sulphuric acid manufacture, was
studied by M. Bodenstein and W. Pohl (_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1905, 11, p.
373), who found that the equilibrium followed the law of mass-action
(see also F. W. Kuster, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1904, 42, p. 453, R.
Lucas, _Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1905, 11, p. 457). Other metals, such as
nickel, iron, &c., can also react as catalysts. The use of finely
divided nickel (obtained by reducing the oxide in a current of pure
hydrogen at a temperature of 350 deg.) has been carefully studied by P.
Sabatier and J.B. Senderens; a summary of their results is given in the
_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1905 (viii.) 4, pp. 319-488. Of special interest is
the condensation of acetylene. If this gas mixed with hydrogen be passed
over the reduced nickel in the cold, the temperature may rise to as high
as 150 deg., the acetylene disappearing and becoming replaced by a
substance like petroleum. If the nickel be maintained at 200 deg., and
the gases circulated for twenty-eight hours, a product, condensible to a
yellow liquid having a beautiful fluorescence and boiling at 45 deg., is
obtained. This substance closely resembles ordinary Pennsylvanian
petroleum. If acetylene be passed alone over nickel heated to 200
deg.-300 deg., a mixture, boiling at 60 deg.-70 deg. and having a green
colour by diffused and a red by transmitted light, was obtained. This
substance closely resembles Caucasian petroleum. The decomposition of
carbon monoxide according to the reaction 2CO <=> C + CO2 is purely
catalytic in the presence of nickel and cobalt, and also in the presence
of iron, so long as the amount of carbon dioxide present does not exceed
a certain amount (R. Schenck and W. Heller, _Ber._, 1905, 38, pp. 2132,
2139). It is of interest that finely divided aluminium and magnesium
decompose methane, ethane, and ethylene into carbon and hydrogen in the
same way as nickel. Charcoal at 350 deg. also reacts catalytically; for
example, Senderens found that ethyl alcohol was decomposed by animal
charcoal into methane, ethylene, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and a little
carbon dioxide, and propyl alcohol gave propylene, ethane, carbon
monoxide and hydrogen, while G. Lemoine obtained from ethyl alcohol and
wood charcoal a mixture of acetaldehyde and hydrogen.




CATAMARAN (a Tamil word, from _catta_, to tie, and _maram_ wood), a
surf-boat or raft used by the natives of Madras and along the Coromandel
Coast in India. It is usually made of three tree trunks lashed together,
the centre trunk being the largest and longest, and having one end bent
upward to form a kind of prow. Catamarans of a larger size are in use in
the West Indies and South America. The name is also given to two boats
lashed together. Apparently through an erroneous connexion with cat, the
name has been applied to a noisy scolding woman.




CATAMARCA, an Andean province of the Argentine Republic, lying W. of
Santiago del Estero and Tucuman and extending to the Chilean frontier,
with Los Andes and Salta on the N., Cordoba on the S.E., and Rioja on
the S. Pop. (1895) 90,161; (1904, estimate) 103,082; area, 47,531 sq. m.
The surface of the province is extremely broken, the Andes forming its
western boundary, and the Aconquija, Ancaste, Ambato, Gulampaja and
other ranges traversing it from north to south. It is composed very
largely of high plateaus with a general slope southward broken by a few
fertile valleys. The greater part of the province is arid and barren,
being sheltered from the moist, eastern winds by the high mountain
barriers of Aconquija and Ancaste. The rivers are small, and some of
them are lost in the barren, sandy wastes. Others, especially in the
foothills of the high sierras, are utilized to irrigate the fertile
valleys. The climate of some of the low, sheltered valleys is extremely
hot and unhealthy, but on the open plateaus it is peculiarly dry and
bracing and is probably beneficial in the treatment of pulmonary
diseases. The mineral resources of the province include gold, silver,
copper, lead, nickel, iron, coal and malachite, but of these only copper
and silver are mined, and these chiefly in the Andalgala district. Salt
deposits also exist, but are worked only to a limited extent. Cereals,
alfalfa and fruit are grown. Large numbers of cattle, fattened in the
alfalfa fields of Pucara, Tinogasta and Copacabana, are driven into
northern Chile across the San Francisco pass (13,124 ft. above sea
level) and mules are bred for the Bolivian market. Wine of an excellent
quality is produced and exported. Tanning leather is another industry of
the province, some of the trees growing in the Catamarca forests being
rich in tannin. Catamarca is traversed by the Northern Central railway
between Cordoba and the city of Catamarca, its capital, which passes
around the southern extremity of the Sierra de Ancaste and makes a long
detour to Chumbicha, near the Rioja frontier. The more important towns,
after Catamarca, the capital, are Andalgala and Tinogasta with
populations (estimated, 1904) of 5000 to 6000 each. Belen is the oldest
Spanish settlement in the province and was founded in 1550, being called
Barco at first. The population is largely mixed with Indian blood.




CATAMARCA (_San Fernando de Catamarca_), capital of the above province
on the Rio del Valle de Catamarca, 230 m. (318 m. by rail) N.N.W. of
Cordoba. Pop. (1895) 7397; (1905, estimate) 8000, with a large
percentage of mestizos. Catamarca is connected by railways with Rioja
and Patquia and with Cordoba. The city stands in a narrow, picturesque
valley at the foot of the Sierra de Ambato, 1772 ft. above sea level.
The valley is highly fertile, partially wooded, and produces fruit in
abundance, wine and some cereals. In the city are flour mills and
tanneries, and among its exports are leather, fruit, wine, flour, and a
curious embroidery for which the women of Catamarca have long been
famous. There is a fine church, 220 by 90 ft., and a national college
occupies the old Merced convent. The alameda is one of the prettiest in
the Argentine Republic, having a reservoir of two acres surrounded by
shrubbery and walks. Catamarca was founded in 1685 by Fernando de
Mendoza because the town of Chacra, the former provincial capital, a few
miles north of Catamarca, had been found unhealthy and subject to
inundations. Previous to the selection of Chacra as the provincial
capital, the seat of government was at San Juan de Londres, founded in
1558 and named after the capital of England by order of Philip II. in
honour of his marriage with Queen Mary. The arid surroundings of Londres
led to its partial abandonment and it is now a mere village. Cholla, a
suburb of Catamarca, is inhabited wholly by Calchaqui Indians, a remnant
of the original inhabitants of this region.




CATANIA (Gr. _Katane_, Rom. _Catina_[1]), a city and episcopal see of
Sicily, the chief town of the province of Catania, on the east coast, 59
m. by rail S. of Messina, and 151 m. by rail S.E. of Palermo (102 m.
direct). Pop. (1881) 100,417; (1905) 157,722. The principal buildings
are handsome, and the main streets, meeting in the Piazzo del Duomo, are
fine. The cathedral of S. Agatha, containing the relics of the saint,
retains its three original Norman apses (1091), but is otherwise a large
baroque edifice. The monument of Don Ferrando d'Acunea, a Spanish
viceroy of Sicily, is a fine early Renaissance work (1494). In the west
portion of the town is the huge Benedictine abbey of S. Nicola (now
suppressed), the buildings of which occupy an area of about 21 acres and
contain the museum, a library, observatory, &c. The church, dating, like
the rest of the buildings, from 1693-1735, is the largest in Sicily, and
the organ, built in 1760 by Donato del Piano, with 72 stops and 2916
pipes, is very fine. The university, founded in 1444, has regained some
of its former importance. To the south near the harbour is the massive
Castell' Ursino, erected in 1232 by Frederick II. Remains of several
ancient buildings exist, belonging in the main to the Roman period. The
theatre, covered by a stream of lava, and built partly of small
rectangular blocks of the same material, though in the main of concrete,
has been superimposed upon the Greek building, some foundations of
which, in calcareous stone, of which the seats are also made, still
exist. It is 106 yds. in diameter, and is estimated to have accommodated
7000 spectators. Close to it are the remains of the so-called Odeum, of
similar plan to the theatre but without a stage, and to the north is the
church of S. Maria Rotonda, originally a Roman domed structure, perhaps
part of a bath. To the north, in the Piazza Stesicoro, is the
amphitheatre, a considerable portion of which has been uncovered,
including the two corridors which ran round the whole building and gave
access to the seats, while a part of the arcades of the exterior has
been excavated and left open; the pillars are made of blocks of lava,
and the arches of brick. The external diameters of the amphitheatre are
410 and 348 ft., while the corresponding diameters of the arena are 233
and 167 ft. It is thus the third largest Roman amphitheatre known, being
surpassed only by that at Verona and the Colosseum. Remains of many
other Roman buildings also exist beneath the modern town, among the best
preserved of which may be noted the public baths (_Thermae Achilleae_)
under the cathedral, and those under the church of S. Maria dell'
Indirizzo. The number of baths is remarkable, and gives some idea of the
luxury of the place in Roman times. Their excellent preservation is
accounted for by their burial under the lava. The majority were
excavated by Prince Ignazio Biscari (1719-1786), who formed an important
private collection of antiquities. Of the ancient city walls no
authenticated remains exist.

Catania has a considerable export trade in sulphur, pumice stone,
asphalt, oranges and lemons, almonds, filberts, cereals, wine (the total
production of wine in the province amounted to 28,600,000 gallons in
1905) and oil. The total value of exports in 1905 was L1,647,075, and of
imports L1,326,055, the latter including notably coal, almost entirely
from the United Kingdom, and wheat, from Russian ports. The harbour is a
good one, and has been considerably enlarged since 1872; L128,000 was
voted in 1905 towards the completion of the harbour works by the Italian
government. Sulphide of carbon is produced here; and there are large
dyeworks, and a factory for making bed-stuffing from seaweed.

The ancient Catina was founded in 729 B.C. by colonists from Naxos,
perhaps on the site of an earlier Sicel settlement--the name is entirely
un-Greek, and may be derived from [Greek: katinon], which in the Sicel
language, as _catinum_ in Latin, meant a basin, and would thus be
descriptive of the situation of the town. Charondas, a citizen of
Catina, is famous as its lawgiver, but his date and his birthplace are
alike uncertain; the fragments preserved of his laws show that they
belong to a somewhat primitive period. The poet Stesichorus of Himera
died here. Very little is heard of Catina in history until 476 B.C.,
when Hiero I. removed its inhabitants to Leontini, repeopled it with
5000 Syracusans and 5000 Peloponnesians, and changed its name to Aetna.
In 461 B.C., however, with the help of Ducetius and the Syracusans, the
former inhabitants recovered possession of their city and revived the
old name. Catina was, however, an ally of Athens during the Syracusan
expedition (415-413 B.C.), and served as the Athenian base of operations
in the early part of the war. In 403 B.C. it was taken by Dionysius of
Syracuse, who plundered the city, sold the inhabitants into slavery and
replaced them with Campanian mercenaries. In the First Punic War it was
one of the first cities of Sicily to be taken by the Romans (263 B.C.).
Marcellus constructed a gymnasium here out of the booty of Syracuse. In
123 B.C. there was an eruption of Etna so violent that the tithe on the
territory of Catina payable to Rome was remitted for ten years. It
appears to have been a flourishing city in the ist century B.C., but to
have suffered from the ravages of Sextus Pompeius. It became a Roman
_colonia_ under Augustus, and it is from this period that the fertile
plain, hitherto called the plain of Leontini, begins to be called the
plain of Catina. It seems to have been at this time the most important
city in the island, to judge from the language of Strabo and the number
of inscriptions found there. In A.D. 251 a lava stream threatened the
town and entered the amphitheatre, which in the time of Theodoric had
fallen into ruins, as is clear from the fact that he permitted the use
of its fallen stones to build the city wall. It was recovered by
Belisarius in 535, sacked by the Saracens in 902 and taken by the
Normans. The latter founded the cathedral; but the town was almost
entirely destroyed by earthquake in 1170, and devastated by Henry VI. in
1197. It became the usual residence of the Aragonese viceroys of the
13th and 14th centuries. In 1669 an eruption of Etna partly filled up
the harbour, but spared the town, which was, however, almost entirely
destroyed by the earthquake of 1693. Since that catastrophe it has been
rebuilt, and has not further suffered from its proximity to Etna.

  See A. Holm, _Das alte Catania_ (Lubeck, 1873).     (T. As.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] This is the form vouched for by the inscriptions.




CATANZARO, a town and episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, capital of the
province of Catanzaro, 1125 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 22,799
(town); 32,005 (commune). The station for the town (Catanzaro Sala) is
situated on a branch line connecting the two main lines along the east
and west coasts of Calabria, 6 m. N. by W. of Catanzaro Marina on the
east coast, and 20 m. E. of S. Eufemia Biforcazione, on the west coast
line. The town enjoys a comparatively cool climate in summer, and
commands fine views. Numerous wealthy families reside here, and the town
has a trade in olive-oil, silk and velvet. The castle, built by Robert
Guiscard, has been modernized, and so has the cathedral. The see was
founded in 1121. The provincial museum contains antiquities and
especially coins from the ancient cities of Magna Graecia, and a few
pictures.




CATAPHYLL (Gr. [Greek: kata], down, [Greek: phullon], leaf), a botanical
term for the early leaf-forms produced in the lower part of a shoot,
such as bud-scales, or scales on underground stems.




CATAPULT (Lat. _catapulta_, Gr. [Greek: katapeltes]) a generic name for
warlike engines of the cross-bow type used by the ancients. Although
engines of war appear on Assyrian remains, and are mentioned in 2
Chronicles xxvi. 15, it appears that Greek armies, even of the 5th
century, did not possess them, and the first record of a large siege
train in classical literature is of the year 399 B.C., when Dionysius I.
of Syracuse, contemplating an expedition against Carthage, provided
himself with engines. From Sicily siege engines found their way some
years later into Greece; they were used by Philip of Macedon at the
siege of Byzantium in 340, and thereafter, as a natural consequence of
the regularizing or professionalizing of armies, artillery, as we may
call it, came into prominence and called into existence technical corps
to work it.

The war engines of the Romans, during the republic and early principate,
are of the same type as those of Alexander's successors in Greece. They
are usually classed as (a) catapults and (b) ballistae ([Greek:
lithoboloi]). The former were smaller and were used with arrows for what
is now called direct fire (i.e. at low angles of elevation); the latter
were large siege engines discharging heavy bolts or stones at a high
angle of elevation, like the modern howitzer. They were, of course,
principally siege engines, but the smaller natures of catapult appear in
field warfare from time to time, and eventually, during the early
principate, they are found as part of the regulation equipment of
infantry units. Both were constructed on the same principle.

[Illustration]

The essential parts of the catapult (see illustration) were the frame,
the propelling gear, the trough (corresponding to the modern barrel) and
the pedestal. The frame consisted of two horizontal beams forming top
and bottom sills, and four strong upright bars mortised into them. The
three open spaces or compartments, resembling narrow windows, between
these four uprights carried the propelling and laying gear. The
propelling gear occupied the two outer "windows." In each a thick skein
of cord or sinews was fastened to the top and bottom sills and tightly
twisted. Two stiff wooden arms were inserted in the two skeins, and a
specially strong bowstring joined the tips of these arms. In the middle
compartment was the hinged fore-end of the trough, which was at right
angles to the frame and at the back of it. The trough could be laid for
elevation by a movable prop, the upper end of which was hinged to the
trough, while the lower ran up and down a sort of trail fastened to the
pedestal. The whole equipment was laid for "line" by turning the frame,
and with it the trough, prop and trail by a pivot in the head of the
pedestal. Sliding up and down in the trough was a block, fitted with a
trigger mechanism, through which passed the middle of the bowstring. The
pedestal was a strong and solid upright resting upon, and strutted to, a
framework on the ground; its upper end, as mentioned above, took the
pivot of the frame and the head of the trail.

On coming into action the machine was laid for direction and elevation.
The block and with it the bowstring was next forced back against the
resistance of the twisted skeins to the rear end of the trough, this
being effected by a windlass attachment. The trigger being then pressed
or struck with a hammer, the bowstring was released from the block, the
stiff arms were violently brought back to the frame by the untwisting of
the skeins, and the arrow was propelled through the centre "window" with
great velocity. A small machine of the type described weighed about 85
lb., and sent a "three-span" (26-in.) arrow weighing 1/2 lb. at an
effective man-killing velocity somewhat over 400 yds.

The ballista was considerably larger and more expensive than this. In
Scipio's siege train, at the attack of New Carthage (Livy xxvi. 47. 5),
the number of the ballistae was only one-sixth that of the catapults. In
the ballista the rear end of the trough (which projected in front of the
frame) always rested upon the ground, or rather was fixed to the
framework of the pedestal--which was a heavy trestle construction--and
the trough was thus restricted to the angle of elevation, giving the
maximum range (45 deg.). Even so the range was not appreciably greater
than that of a catapult, and in the case of the largest ballistae
(ninety-pounder) it was much less. These enormous engines, which, once
in position, could not be laid on any fresh target, were used for
propelling beams and stones rather than for shooting arrows, that is,
more for the destruction of material than for man-killing effect. The
skeins that supplied the motive force of all these engines were made of
the sinews of animals, twisted raw hide, horsehair rope, and, in at
least one celebrated case, of women's hair. In 146 B.C., the authorities
of Carthage having surrendered their engines to the Romans in the vain
hope of staying their advance, new ones were hurriedly constructed, and
the women and virgins of the city cut off their hair to supply the
needed skeins.

The modern implement known as a "catapult" is formed by a forked stick,
to the forks of which are attached the ends of a piece of elastic. To
the middle of this elastic a pocket is fitted to contain a bullet or
small stone. In use the forked stick is held in the left hand and the
pocket drawn back with the right. Aim is taken and, the pocket being
released, the missile flies through the fork of the stick. Though
classed as a toy, this weapon can do considerable execution among birds,
&c., when skilfully used. The name of "catapult" has also been given to
a bowling machine which is used for cricket practice.




CATARACT (from the Lat. form _cataracta_ of the Gr. [Greek:
katarraktes], a floodgate, or waterfall, properly something which rushes
down), a downpour of water, a waterfall. The earliest use in English is
of a floodgate or portcullis, and this survives in the name of a disease
of the eye (see EYE: _Eye Diseases_), in which the crystalline lens
becomes opaque, and forms an apparent grating over the eye. The term is
also used of a device to regulate the strokes in certain types of
steam-engine.




CATARGIU (or CATARGI), LASCAR (1823-1899), Rumanian statesman, was born
in Moldavia in November 1823. He belonged to an ancient Walachian
family, one of whose members had been banished in the 17th century by
Prince Matthew Bassaraba, and had settled in Moldavia. Under Prince
Gregory Ghica (1849-1856), Catargiu rose to be prefect of police at
Jassy. In 1857 he became a member of the _Divan ad hoc_ of Moldavia, a
commission elected in accordance with the treaty of Paris (1856) to vote
on the proposed union of Moldavia and Walachia. His strongly
conservative views, especially on agrarian reform, induced the
Conservatives to support him as a candidate for the throne in 1859.
During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Catargiu was one of the
Opposition leaders, and received much assistance from his kinsman, Barbu
Catargiu (b. 1807), a noted journalist and politician, who was
assassinated at Bucharest on the 20th of June 1862. On the accession of
Prince Charles in May 1866, Lascar Catargiu became president of the
council, or prime minister; but, finding himself unable to co-operate
with his Liberal colleagues, I.C. Bratianu and C.A. Rosetti, he resigned
in July. After eight more ministerial changes, culminating in the
anti-dynastic agitation of 1870-1871, Catargiu formed, for the first
time in Rumanian history, a stable Conservative cabinet, which lasted
until 1876. His policy, which averted revolution and revived the
popularity of the crown, was regarded as unpatriotic and reactionary by
the Liberals, who resumed office in 1876; and a proposal to impeach the
whole Catargiu cabinet was only withdrawn in 1878. Catargiu remained in
opposition until 1889, when he formed another cabinet, taking the
portfolio of the Interior; but this administration fell after seven
months. In the Florescu ministry of March 1891 he occupied the same
position, and in December he again became president of the council,
retaining office until 1895. During this period he was responsible for
several useful reforms, chiefly financial and commercial. He died
suddenly at Bucharest on the 11th of April 1899.




CATARRH (from the Gr. [Greek: katarrein], to flow down), a term
principally employed to describe a state of irritation of the mucous
membrane of the respiratory passages, or what is called in popular
language a "cold." It is the result of infection by a micro-organism in
one or more of various predisposing conditions, damp, chill, fatigue,
&c. The complaint usually begins as a nasal catarrh or _coryza_ (Gr.
[Greek: korys], head), with a feeling of weight about the forehead and
some degree of difficulty in breathing through the nose, increased on
lying down. Fits of sneezing accompanied with a profuse watery discharge
from the nostrils and eyes soon follow, while the sense of smell and to
some extent that of taste become considerably impaired. There is usually
present some amount of sore throat and of bronchial irritation, causing
hoarseness and cough. Sometimes the vocal apparatus becomes so much
inflamed (laryngeal catarrh) that temporary loss of voice results. There
is always more or less feverishness and discomfort, and frequently an
extreme sensitiveness to cold. After two or three days the symptoms
begin to abate, the discharge from the nostrils and chest becoming
thicker and of purulent character, and producing when dislodged
considerable relief to the breathing. On the other hand the catarrh may
assume a more severe aspect and pass into some form of pulmonary
inflammation (see BRONCHITIS) or influenza (q.v.).

When the symptoms are first felt it is well to take a good purge, and to
encourage free perspiration by a hot bath, some diaphoretic drug, as
spirits of nitrous ether, being taken before retiring to bed. Some of
the older school of physicians still pin their faith to a dose of
Dover's powder. When the cold manifests itself by aches and pains in
back and limbs, aspirin taken three or four times in the first
twenty-four hours will often act like magic. Locally a snuff made of
menthol 1 part, ammonium chloride 3 parts and boracic acid 2 parts will
relieve the discomfort of the nose. Also, remembering the microbic
origin of the disease, gargling and nasal syringing should be repeated
at intervals. As soon as the attack shows signs of subsiding, a good
tonic and, still better, a change of air are very helpful.

The term catarrh is used in medical nomenclature in a wider sense to
describe a state of irritation of any mucous surface in the body, which
is accompanied with an abnormal discharge of its natural secretion,
hence the terms gastric catarrh, intestinal catarrh, &c.

  See also RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_, and DIGESTIVE ORGANS,
  _Pathology of_.




CATARRHINE APE, the term used to describe those apes which have the
nostrils approximated, the aperture pointing downward, and the
intervening septum narrow; distinguishing features of both the lower
"doglike" apes (Cynomorpha) and the higher "manlike" apes
(Anthropomorpha). The Catarrhini are restricted entirely to the Old
World, and include the gorilla, the chimpanzee and orang-utan.




CATASTROPHE (Gr. [Greek: katastrophe], from [Greek: katastrephein], to
overturn), a term of the ancient Greek drama for the change in the plot
which leads up to the conclusion. The word is thus used of any sudden
change, particularly of a violent or disastrous nature, and in geology
of a cataclysm or great convulsion of the earth's surface.




CATAUXI, a numerous cannibal tribe of South American Indians of the
Purus river district, Brazil. They are a fine warlike race, with
remarkably clear complexions and handsome features; round wrists and
ankles they wear rings of twisted hair. They cultivate mandioc, and make
pottery and bark canoes.




CATAWBAS (from the Choctaw for "divided"), a tribe of North American
Indians of Siouan stock; formerly the dominant people of South Carolina.
Some of their divisions extended into North Carolina. They are now
almost extinct, but were at one time able to send nearly 2000 "braves"
into battle. In the American War of Independence they furnished a
valuable contingent to the South Carolina troops. They then occupied a
number of small towns on the Catawba river, but they afterwards leased
their land and removed to the territory of the Cherokees, with whom they
had been formerly at war. There, however, they did not long remain, but
returned to a reservation in their original district. Their affinities
have not been very clearly made out, and by Albert Gallatin they were
grouped with the Cherokees, Choctaws, Muskogees and Natchez. A
vocabulary of sixty of their words was published by Horatio Hale in vol.
ii. of the _Transactions of the American Ethnological Society_ in 1848;
and a much fuller list--about 300--collected by Oscar M. Lieber, the
geologist, in 1856, made its appearance in vol. ii. of _Collections of
the South Carolina Historical Society_, 1858. Of the one hundred
Catawbas still said to be surviving, few, if any, can claim to be
full-blooded. They are in the Catawba Reservation in York county, South
Carolina. The name is familiar in connexion with the white American
wine, the praises of which have been sung by Longfellow. The grape from
which the wine is obtained was first discovered about 1801, near the
banks of the Catawba river, and named by Major Adlum in 1828, but it is
now cultivated extensively in Illinois, Ohio and New York, and
especially on the shores of Lake Erie.

  See also _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).




CATCH THE TEN, sometimes Called _Scotch Whist_, a game played with a
pack of 36 cards, from ace, king, queen to six in each suit, the ace
being highest both in play and cutting. In trumps, however, the knave
ranks highest. Any number from two to eight may play. If an even number,
partners are cut for; if odd, each plays for himself. An odd number of
players sit as they like; four players sit as at whist; six playing in
two sides sit so that no two partners shall be next each other; six
playing three sides sit so that two opponents shall divide each pair;
eight are arranged in alternate pairs. After cutting, the cards are
dealt according to the number of players. The last card is turned up for
the trump. When five or seven play, the six of spades is usually
omitted; when eight play, the four sixes are thrown out. The eldest hand
leads any card he chooses and all must follow suit if able, the penalty
for a revoke being the loss of the game. The tricks are not kept
separate but gathered in by one player for his side. At the end of the
deal there are six hands of six cards on the table. The players first
play out the first two hands, next the second two and finally the last
two, the trump card remaining on the table until the first four hands
are played out. The game is 41 points, the object of the play being to
win the cards which have a special value. These are, with their values:
knave of trumps 11, ace of trumps 4, king of trumps 3, queen of trumps
2, ten of trumps 10. All other cards have no counting value. As the ten
can be taken by any other honour the object is to "catch the ten."




CATECHISM (from Gr. [Greek: katechein], teach by word of mouth), a
compendium of instruction (particularly of religious instruction)
arranged in the form of questions and answers. The custom of
catechizing, common to all civilized antiquity, was followed in the
schools of Judaism and in the Early Church, where it helped to preserve
the Gospel narrative (see CATECHUMEN).

The catechism as we know it is intended primarily for children and
uneducated persons. Its aim is to instruct, and it differs from a creed
or confession in not being in the first instance an act of worship or a
public profession of belief. The first regular catechisms seem to have
grown out of the usual oral teaching of catechumens, and to have been
compiled in the 8th and 9th centuries. Among them the work of Notker
Labeo and of Kero, both monks of St Gall, and that of Ottfried of
Weissenburg in Alsace deserve mention. But it is not until the first
stirrings of revolt against the hierarchy, which preceded the
Reformation, that they became at all widespread or numerous. The
Waldenses of Savoy and France, the _Brethren_ (small communities of
evangelical dissenters from the medieval faith) of Germany, and the
_Unitas Fratrum_ of Bohemia all used the same catechism (one that was
first printed in 1498, and which continued to be published till 1530)
for the instruction of their children. It was based on St Augustine's
_Enchiridion_, and considers (a) Faith, i.e. the Creed, (b) Hope, i.e.
the Lord's Prayer, and (c) Love, i.e. the Decalogue.

The age of the Reformation gave a great stimulus to the production of
catechisms. This was but natural at a time when the invention of
printing had thrown the Bible open to all, and carried the war of
religious opinion from the schools into the streets. The adherents of
the "old" and the "new" religions alike had to justify their views to
the unlearned as well as to the learned, and to give in simple formulas
their reasons for the faith that was in them. Moreover, in the universal
unrest and oversetting of all authority, Christianity itself was in
danger of perishing, not only as the result of the cultured paganism of
the Renaissance, but also through the brutish ignorance of the common
folk, deprived now of their traditional religious restraints. To the
urgency of this peril the reformers were fully alive; and they sought
its remedy in education. "Let the people be taught," said Luther, "let
schools be opened for the poor, let the truth reach them in simple words
in their own mother tongue, and they will believe."

_Catechisms of the Chief Religious Communions._--(a) _Evangelical
(Lutheran and Reformed)._--It was the ignorance of the peasantry, as
revealed by the horrors of the Peasants' War of 1524-25, and his
pastoral visitation of the electorate of Saxony 1525-1527, that drew the
above exclamation from Luther, and impelled him to produce his two
famous catechisms (1529). In 1520 he had brought out a primer of
religion dealing briefly with the Decalogue, the Creed and the Lord's
Prayer; and Justus Jonas, Johannes Agricola and other leaders had done
something of the same kind. Now all these efforts were superseded by
Luther's Smaller Catechism meant for the people themselves and
especially for children, and by his Larger Catechism intended for clergy
and schoolmasters. These works, which did much to mould the character of
the German people, were set among the doctrinal standards of the
Lutheran Church and powerfully influenced other compilations. The
Smaller Catechism, with the Augsburg Confession, was made the Rule of
Faith in Denmark in 1537.

In this same year (1537) John Calvin at Geneva published his catechism
for children. It was called _Instruction and Confession of Faith for the
Use of the Church of Geneva_ (a reprint edited by A. Rilliet and T.
Dufour Was published in 1878), and explained the Decalogue, the
Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Sacraments. Though it was
meant, as he said, to give expression to a simple piety rather than to
exhibit a profound knowledge of religious truth, it was the work of a
man who knew little of the child mind, and, though it served as an
admirable and transparent epitome of his famous _Institutes_, it was too
long and too minute for the instruction of children. Calvin came to see
this, and in 1542, after his experience in Strassburg, drafted a new one
which was much more suitable for teaching purposes, though, judged by
modern standards, still far beyond the theological range of childhood.
It was used at the Sunday noon instruction of children, on which Calvin
laid much stress, and was adopted and similarly used by the Reformed
Church of Scotland. The Reformed churches of the Palatinate, on the
other hand, used the Heidelberg Catechism (1562-1563), "sweet-spirited,
experiential, clear, moderate and happily-phrased," mainly the work of
two of Calvin's younger disciples, Kaspar Olevianus and Zacharias
Ursinus. The Heidelberg Catechism, set forth by order of the elector, is
perhaps the most widely accepted symbol of the Calvinistic faith, and is
noteworthy for its emphasis on the less controversial aspects of the
Genevan theology. As revised by the synod of Dort in 1619, this
catechism became the standard of most of the Reformed churches of
central Europe, and in time of the Dutch and German Reformed churches of
America. Other compilations were those of Oecolampadius (Basel, 1526),
Leo Juda (Zurich, 1534), and Bullinger (Zurich, 1555). In France, after
Calvin's day, the Reformed church used besides Calvin's book the
catechisms of Louis Capell (1619), and Charles Drelincourt (1642), and
at the present time Bonnefon's _Nouveau Catechisme elementaire_ (14th
ed., 1900) seems most in favour. In Scotland both Calvin's Geneva
Catechism and then the Heidelberg Catechism were translated by order of
the General Assembly and annotated. In 1592 these were superseded by
that of John Craig, for a time the colleague of John Knox at the High
Church, Edinburgh.

Since 1648 the standard Presbyterian catechisms have been those compiled
by the Westminster Assembly, presented to parliament in 1647, and then
authorized by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland (July 1648)
and by the Scottish parliament (January 1649). The Larger Catechism is
"for such as have made some proficiency in the knowledge of the
Christian religion," but is too detailed and minute for memorizing, and
has never received anything like the reception accorded to the Shorter
Catechism, which is "for such as are of weaker capacity." The work was
done by a committee presided over first by Herbert Palmer, master of
Queens', Cambridge, and then by Anthony Tuckney, master of Emmanuel. The
scriptural proof texts were added at the request of the English
parliament. In his negotiations with the parliament in 1648 Charles I.
offered to license the printing of the catechism, but, as the
negotiations were broken off, this was not done. The Shorter Catechism,
after a brief introduction on the end, rule and essence of religion, is
divided into two parts:--I. The doctrines we are to believe (1)
concerning the nature of God, (2) concerning the decrees of God and
their execution--(a) in creation and providence, (b) in the covenant of
works, (c) in the covenant of grace; II. The duties we are to perform
(1) in regard to the moral law, (2) in regard to the gospel--(a) inward
duties, i.e. faith and repentance, (b) outward duties as to the Word,
the sacraments and prayer. It has 107 questions and answers, while that
of the Anglican Church has but 24, grouping as it does the ten
commandments and also the petitions of the Lord's Prayer, instead of
dealing with them singly. Though the Shorter Catechism, closely
associated as this has been from the first with Scottish public
elementary education, has had very great influence in forming and
training the character of Presbyterians in Scotland, America and the
British colonies, it is, like most other catechisms drawn up by dogmatic
theologians, more admirable as an epitome of a particular body of
divinity than as an instruction for the young and the unlearned. Its use
is now generally preceded by something more adapted to the child-mind,
and this is true also in other communions and in the case of other
catechisms.

(b) _Roman Catholic_.--There was no universal catechism published by the
Latin Church before the council of Trent, but several provincial
councils, e.g. in Germany and Scotland (where Archbishop Hamilton's
catechism appeared in 1552 and was ordered to be read in church by the
parish priest), moved in self-defence along the lines already adopted by
the reformers. The council of Trent in 1563 resolved on an authoritative
work which was finally carried through by two small papal commissions,
and issued in 1566 by Pius V. (Eng. trans, by Donovan, Dublin, 1829).
Being uncatechetical in form and addressed to the clergy rather than to
the people, it missed its intention, and was superseded by others of
less exalted origin, especially by those of the Jesuit Peter Canisius,
whose _Summa Doctrinae et Institutionis Christianae_ (1554) and its
shorter form (1556) were already in the field. The catechisms of
Bellarmine (1603) and Bossuet (1687) had considerable vogue, and a
summary of the former known as _Schema de Parvo_ was sanctioned by the
Vatican council of 1870. But the Roman Catholic Church as a whole has
never had any one official catechism, each bishop being allowed to
settle the matter for his own diocese. In England the Roman Catholic
bishops have agreed on the use of what is known as "The Penny
Catechism," which is very lucid and well constructed.

(c) _Orthodox Eastern Church._--Peter Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev,
drew up in 1643 the _Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic
Eastern Church_. This bulwark against the encroachments of the Jesuits
and the Reformed Church was standardized by the synod of Jerusalem in
1672. A smaller catechism was drawn up by order of Peter the Great in
1723. The catechisms of Levshin Platon (1762) and V.D. Philaret (1839),
each in his day metropolitan of Moscow, are bulky compilations which
cannot be memorized, though there is a short introductory catechism
prefaced to Philaret's volume (Eng. trans, in Blackmore's _Doctrine of
the Russian Church_, 1845). These works are not to any extent in the
hands of the people, but are used by the Russian clergy and
schoolmasters as guides in giving instruction. The Coptic and Armenian
churches also have what H. Bonar describes as "mere pretences at
catechisms."

(d) _Anglican._--The catechism of the Church of England is included in
the Book of Common Prayer between the Orders for Baptism and
Confirmation. It has two parts: (i.) the baptismal covenant, the Creed,
the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer, drawn up probably by Cranmer[1] and
Ridley in the time of Edward VI., and variously modified between then
(1549) and 1661; (ii.) the meaning of the two sacraments, written on the
suggestion of James I. at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604 by John
Overall, then dean of St Paul's, and afterwards bishop successively of
Coventry and Lichfield and of Norwich. This supplement to what had
become known as the Shorter Catechism established its use as against the
longer one, _King Edward VIth's Catechisme_, which had been drawn up in
1553 by John Ponet or Poynet, bishop of Winchester, and then revised and
enlarged in 1570 by Alexander Nowell, Overall's predecessor as dean of
St Paul's. The Anglican catechism with occasional modification,
especially in the sacramental section, is used not only in the Church of
England but in the Episcopal churches of Ireland, Scotland, the British
dominions and the United States of America. By the rubric of the Prayer
Book and by the 59th canon of 1603 the clergy are enjoined to teach the
catechism in church on Sundays and holidays after the second lesson at
Evening Prayer. This custom, long fallen into disuse, has largely been
revived during recent years, the children going to church for a special
afternoon service of which catechizing is the chief feature. Compared
with the thoroughness of most other catechisms this one seems very
scanty, but it has a better chance of being memorized, and its very
simplicity has given it a firm hold on the inner life and conscience of
devout members of the Anglican communion throughout the world.

(e) _Other Communions._--Almost every section of the church, e.g. the
Wesleyan Methodist, has its catechism or catechisms, but in addition to
those already enumerated only a few need be mentioned. The Socinians
embodied their tenets in the larger and smaller works drawn up by Fausto
Sozzini and Schmalz, and published at Rakow in Poland in 1605;[2] modern
Unitarians have modern catechisms. The Quakers or Friends possess a kind
of catechism said to have been written by George Fox in 1660, in which
father and son are respectively questioner and answerer, and an
interesting work by Robert Barclay, in which texts of Scripture form the
replies. Congregationalists for some time used Isaac Watts's _Catechisms
for Children and Youth_ (1730), since superseded by the manuals of J.H.
Stowell, J.H. Riddette and others. In 1898 the National Council of the
Evangelical Free Churches in England and Wales published an
_Evangelical Free Church Catechism_, the work of a committee (convened
by Rev. Hugh Price Hughes) comprising Congregationalists, Baptists,
Methodists (Wesleyan, Primitive and others), and Presbyterians, and thus
representing directly or indirectly the beliefs of sixty or seventy
millions of avowed Christians in all parts of the world, a striking
example of inter-denominational unity. More remarkable still in some
respects is _The School Catechism_, issued in 1907 by a conference of
members of the Reformed churches in Scotland, which met on the
invitation of the Church of Scotland. In its compilation representatives
of the Episcopal Church in Scotland co-operated, and the book though
"not designed to supersede the distinctive catechisms officially
recognized by the several churches for the instruction of their own
children," certainly "commends itself as suitable for use in schools
where children of various churches are taught together."

  Catechisms have a strong family likeness. In the main they are
  expositions of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Decalogue, and
  thus follow a tradition that has come down from the days when Cyril of
  Jerusalem delivered his catechetical Lectures. Even when (as in the
  Shorter Westminster Catechism and the School Catechism) the Creed is
  simply printed as an appendix, or where (as in the Free Church
  Catechism) it is not mentioned at all, its substance is dealt with.
  The order in which these three main themes are treated is by no means
  constant. The Heidelberg and Westminster Catechisms are of a more
  logical and independent character. The former is based on the Epistle
  to the Romans, and deals with the religious life as (1) Repentance,
  (2) Faith, (3) Love. Under these heads it discusses respectively the
  sin and misery of men, the redemption wrought by Christ (here are
  included the Creed and the Sacraments), and the grateful service of
  the new life (the Decalogue).

  It may be noted that Sir Oliver Lodge has adopted the catechetical
  form in his book, _The Substance of Faith Allied with Science_ (1907),
  which is described as "a catechism for parents and teachers."

  See Ehrenfeuchter, _Geschichte des Katechismus_ (1857); P. Schaff,
  _History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (3 vols., 1876-1877); Mitchell,
  _Catechisms of the Second Reformation_ (1887); C. Achelis, _Lehrbuch
  der prakt. Theologie_ (2 vols., 1898); L. Pullan, _History of the Book
  of Common Prayer_, pp. 207-208; E.A. Knox, _Pastors and Teachers_
  (1902), chs. iii. and iv.; W. Beveridge, _A Short History of the
  Westminster Assembly_ (1904), ch. x.     (A. J. G.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Cranmer bad published a separate and larger catechism on the
    basis of the work of Justus Jonas in 1548; note also _Allen's
    Catechisme, A Christen Instruccion of the Principall Pointes of
    Christes Religion_ (1551).

  [2] A Latin edition in 1609 was dedicated to James I. of England. The
    British Houses of Parliament passed a resolution ordering all copies
    of it to be publicly burned, and again in 1652 when another edition
    appeared. An English translation, probably by John Bidle, was printed
    in Amsterdam and widely circulated.




CATECHU, or CUTCH (Malay, _kachu_), an extract obtained from several
plants, its chief sources being the wood of two species of acacia (_A.
catechu_ and _A. suma_), both natives of India. This extract is known as
black catechu. A similar extract, known in pharmacy as pale catechu
(_Catechu pallidum_), and in general commerce as gambir, or _terra
japonica_, is produced from the leaves of _Uncaria gambir_ and _U.
acida_, cinchonaceous plants growing in the East Indian Archipelago. A
third product to which the name catechu is also applied, is obtained
from the fruits of the areca or betel palm, _Areca catechu_.

Ordinary black catechu is usually imported in three different forms. The
first and best quality, known as Pegu catechu, is obtained in blocks
externally covered with large leaves; the second and less pure variety
is in masses, which have been moulded in sand; and the third consists of
large cubes packed in coarse bags. The wood of the two species of
_Acacia_ yielding catechu is taken for the manufacture when the trees
have attained a diameter of about 1 ft. The bark is stripped off and
used for tanning, and the trunk is split up into small fragments, which
are covered with water and boiled. When the extract has become
sufficiently thick it is cast into the forms in which the catechu is
found in commerce. Catechu so prepared is a dark brown, or, in mass,
almost black, substance, brittle, and having generally a shining lustre.
It is astringent, with a sweetish taste. In cold water it disintegrates,
and in boiling water, alcohol, acetic acid and strong caustic alkali it
is completely dissolved. Chemically it consists of a mixture of a
peculiar variety of tannin termed catechu-tannic acid with catechin or
catechuic acid, and a brown substance due to the alteration of both
these principles. Catechu-tannic acid is an amorphous body soluble in
cold water, while catechin occurs in minute, white, silky, needle-shaped
crystals, which do not dissolve in cold water. A very minute proportion
of quercetin, a principle yielded by quercitron bark, has been obtained
from catechu.

Gambir, which is similar in chemical composition to ordinary catechu,
occurs in commerce in the form of cubes of about an inch in size, with a
pale brown or yellow colour, and an even earthy fracture. For the
preparation of this extract the plants above mentioned are stripped of
their leaves and young twigs, and these are boiled down in shallow pans.
The juice is strained off, evaporated, and when sufficiently
concentrated is cast into shallow boxes, where, as it hardens and dries,
it is cut into small cubes.

Gambir and catechu are extensively employed in dyeing and tanning. For
dyeing they have been in use in India from the most remote period, but
it was only during the 19th century that they were placed on the list of
European dyeing substances. Catechu is fixed by oxidation of the
colouring principle, catechin, on the cloth after dyeing or printing;
and treated thus it yields a variety of durable tints of drabs, browns
and olives with different mordants (see DYEING). The principal
consumption of catechu occurs in the preparation of fibrous substances
exposed to water, such as fishing-lines and nets, and for colouring
stout canvas used for covering boxes and portmanteaus under the name of
tanned canvas. Black catechu is official in most pharmacopoeias except
that of Great Britain, in which pale catechu is the official drug. The
actions and uses of the two are similar, but black catechu is the more
powerful. The dose is from five to twenty grains. The _pulvis catechu
compositus_ contains catechu and kino, and may be given in doses twice
as large as those named. The drug has the actions and uses of tannic
acid, but owing to the relative insolubility of catechu-tannic acid, it
is more valuable than ordinary tannic acid in diarrhoea, dysentery and
intestinal haemorrhage.




CATECHUMEN (Lat. _catechumenus_, Gr. [Greek: katechoumenos], instructed,
from [Greek: katechein], to teach orally), an ecclesiastical term
applied to those receiving instruction in the principles of the
Christian religion with a view to baptism. As soon as Christianity
became a missionary religion, it was found necessary to make
arrangements for giving instruction to new converts. At the beginning
the Apostles themselves seem to have undertaken this duty, and the
instruction was apparently given after baptism, for in Acts ii. 41, 42,
we are told that "they that gladly received the word were baptized ...
and they continued stedfastly in the Apostles' teaching." There are two
instances in the New Testament where reference is made to individual
instruction in this technical sense. Luke (i. 4) in dedicating the third
Gospel to Theophilus tells him that his aim in writing the book was
"that thou mightest have certainty in the things in which thou has been
instructed" ([Greek: katechethes]) and we are told that Apollos was
instructed ([Greek: katechemenos]) "in the way of the Lord" (Acts xviii.
25).

With the development of Christianity the instruction became more
definite and formal. It is probable that the duty of instructing
converts was assigned to "the teachers," who are ranked by Paul
immediately after the Apostles and prophets (1 Cor. xii. 28), and
occupied an important position in the Christian ministry. In the
_Didache_, or Teaching of the Apostles, we have an excellent
illustration of the teaching which was given to candidates for baptism
in early times. There can be little doubt that the _Didache_ was used as
a manual for catechumens for several centuries. Athanasius (_Festal
Epistles_, 39), for instance, says that "it was appointed by the Fathers
to be read by those who are just recently coming to us, and wish to be
instructed in the word of godliness" ([Greek: katecheisthai ton tes
eusebeias logon]). The instruction prescribed by the _Didache_ is very
largely ethical, and stands in striking contrast to the more elaborate
doctrinal teaching which came into vogue in later days. The _Shepherd of
Hermas_ too is another book which seems to have been used for the
purpose of catechesis, for Eusebius says that it "was deemed most
necessary for those who have need of elementary instruction" (_Eccles.
Hist._ iii. 3-6).

With the rise of theological controversy and the growth of heresy
catechetical instruction became of vital importance to the Church, and
much greater importance was attached to it. After the middle of the 4th
century it was regarded as essential that the candidate for baptism
should not only be acquainted with the spiritual truths and ethical
demands which form the basis of practical Christianity, but should also
be trained in theology and the interpretation of the creeds. Two books
have been preserved which throw a striking light upon the transformation
which had taken place in the conception of catechesis; (1) the
Catechetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem; (2) the _De rudibus
Catechizandis_ of Augustine. Cyril's Lectures may be termed the _Pearson
on the Creed_ of the 4th century. He takes each article separately,
discusses it clause by clause, explains the meaning of each word, and
justifies each statement from Scripture. Augustine's treatise was
written at the request of a catechist, named Deogratias, who had asked
him for advice. After replying to the question of Deogratias, and giving
sundry counsels as to the best method of interesting catechumens,
Augustine concludes by giving a model catechetical lecture, in which he
covers the whole of biblical history, beginning from the opening
chapters of Genesis, and laying particular stress on the doctrinal parts
of Scripture. Cyril and Augustine differ, as we should expect, in the
doctrines which they select for emphasis, but they both agree in
requiring a knowledge of sound doctrine on the part of the candidates.

In spite of the numerous references to catechumens in Patristic
literature, our knowledge of the details of the system is often very
deficient, and upon some points there is considerable diversity of
opinion amongst experts. The following are the most important questions
which come under consideration.

  1. _The Classification of Catechumens_.--Bingham and many of the older
  writers held that there were four classes of catechumens, representing
  different stages in the process of instruction: (a) "The inquirers"
  whose interest in Christianity had been sufficiently aroused to make
  them desire further information, and who received private and
  individual instruction from the teachers before they were admitted
  into the second class, (b) "The hearers" (_audientes_), who were
  admitted into the Church for the purpose of listening to sermons and
  exhortations, (c) The _prostrati_ or _genu flectentes_, who were
  allowed also to take part in the prayers, (d) The _electi_ or
  _competentes_, who had completed the period of probation and were
  deemed ready to receive baptism. Modern scholars, however, for the
  most part, deny that there is sufficient basis to justify this
  elaborate classification, and think that its advocates have confused
  the catechumenate with the system of penance. The evidence does not
  seem to warrant more than two classes, (a) the _audientes_, who were
  in the initial stages of their training, (b) the _competentes_, who
  were qualified for baptism.

  2. _The Relation of Catechumens to the Church_.--Catechumens were
  allowed of course to attend church services, but at a certain point
  were dismissed with the words "Ite catechumeni, missa est." The moment
  at which the dismissal took place cannot be exactly determined, and it
  is not clear whether the catechumens were allowed to remain for a
  portion of the Communion service, and if so, whether as spectators or
  as partial participants. A passage in Augustine seems to imply that in
  some way they shared in the Sacrament, "that which they (the
  catechumens) receive, though it be not the Body of Christ, is yet an
  holy thing and more holy than the common food which sustains us,
  because it is a Sacrament" (_De peccatorum meritis_, ii. 42). The
  explanation of these words has occasioned considerable controversy.
  Many scholars hold (and this certainly seems the most natural
  interpretation) that consecrated bread was taken from the Eucharist
  and given to the catechumens. Bingham, however, maintains that the
  reference is not to the consecrated bread, but to salt, which was
  given to them as a symbol "that they might learn to purge and cleanse
  their souls from sin."

  3. _The Duration of the Training_.--Various statements with regard to
  the duration of the catechumenical training are found in
  ecclesiastical authorities. The Apostolical Constitutions, for
  instance, fix it at three years;[1] the synod of Elvira at two.[2] The
  references in the Fathers, however, imply that for practical purposes
  it was limited to the forty days of Lent. Very probably, however, the
  forty days of actual instruction were preceded by a period of
  probation.

  4. _The Relation between the Catechumenate and Baptism_.--Catechetical
  instruction was designed as a preliminary to baptism. There were two
  directions, however, in which this purpose was enlarged: (a) We have
  no reason to suppose that when infant baptism was introduced, those
  who had been baptized in infancy were excluded from the catechetical
  training, or that instruction was deemed unnecessary in their case,
  though as a matter of fact we have no definite reference to their
  admission. The custom of postponing baptism, which was very general in
  the 4th and 5th centuries, probably made such cases more rare than is
  generally supposed, and so accounts for the absence of any allusion to
  them in connexion with the catechumenate. (b) We have no reason to
  suppose that the instruction given in the famous catechetical schools
  of Alexandria and Carthage was restricted to candidates for baptism.
  There is no doubt that "catechetical" is used in a much wider sense
  when applied to the lectures of Origen than when used of the addresses
  of Cyril of Jerusalem. The "instruction" of Origen was given to all
  classes of Christians, and not merely to those who were in the initial
  stages.

  5. _Characteristics of the Catechumenical Training_.--Besides
  instruction there were some other important features connected with
  the catechumenate. (a) The duty of _confession_ was impressed on the
  candidates. (b) The ceremony of _exorcism_ was often performed in
  order to free the catechumen from evil spirits. (c) At a certain point
  in the training the creed and the doctrine of the Sacraments were
  delivered to the candidates by the bishop with much impressive
  ceremonial. This teaching constituted the "holy secret" or "mystery"
  (_disciplina arcani_) of Christianity, and could only be imparted to
  those who were qualified to receive it. The acquisition of this
  arcanum was regarded as the most essential element in the catechetical
  discipline, and marked off its possessors from the rest of the world.
  There can be little doubt that this conception of the "Holy Secret"
  came into the Church originally from the Greek mysteries, and that
  much of the ceremonial connected with the catechumenate and baptism
  was derived from the same source.

  AUTHORITIES.--Cyril, _Catecheses_; Gregory of Nyssa, _Oratio
  Catechetica_; Chrysostom, _Catecheses ad illuminandos_; Augustine, _De
  rudibus Catechizandis_; Mayer, _Geschichte des Katechumenats ... in
  den ersten sechs Jahrhunderten_ (1868); S. Cheetham, _The Mysteries,
  Pagan and Christian_.     (H. T. A.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Apost. Constit._ viii. 2.

  [2] Canon 42.




CATEGORY (Gr.: [Greek: kategoria], "accusation"), a term used both in
ordinary language and in philosophy with the general significance of
"class" or "group." In popular language it is used for any large group
of similar things, and still more generally as a mere synonym for the
word "class." The word was introduced into philosophy as a technical
term by Aristotle, who, however, several times used it in its original
sense of "accusation." He also used the verb [Greek: kategorein], to
accuse, in the specific logical sense, to predicate; [Greek: tho
kategoroumenon] becomes the predicate; and [Greek: kategorikhe protasis]
may be translated as affirmative proposition. But though the word thus
received a new signification from Aristotle, it is not on that account
certain that the thing it was taken to signify was equally a novelty in
philosophy. In fact we find in the records of Oriental and early Greek
thought something corresponding to the Aristotelian classification.


    Hindu philosophy.

  Our knowledge of Hindu philosophy, and of the relations in which it
  may have stood to Greek speculation, scarcely enables us to give
  decisive answers to various questions that naturally arise on
  observation of their many resemblances (see an article by Richard
  Garbe in _Monist_, iv. 176-193). Yet the similarity between the two is
  so striking that, if not historically connected, they must at least be
  regarded as expressions of similar philosophic needs. The Hindu
  classification to which we specially refer is that of Kanada, who lays
  down six categories, or classes of existence, a seventh being
  generally added by the commentators. The term employed is _Padartha_,
  meaning "signification of a word." This is in entire harmony with the
  Aristotelian doctrine, the categories of which may with truth be
  described as significations of simple terms, [Greek: tha katha
  medemian sueplokhen legomena]. The six categories of Kanada are
  Substance, Quality, Action, Genus, Individuality, and Concretion or
  Co-inherence. To these is added Non-Existence, Privation or Negation.
  _Substance_ is the permanent substance in which _Qualities_ exist.
  _Action_, belonging to or inhering in substances, is that which
  produces change, _Genus_ belongs to substance, qualities and actions;
  there are higher and lower genera. _Individuality_, found only in
  substance, is that by which a thing is self-existent and marked off
  from others. _Concretion_ or Co-inherence denotes inseparable or
  necessary connection, such as that between substance and quality.
  Under these six classes, [Greek: gene tou hontos], Kanada then
  proceeds to range the facts of the universe.[1]


    Greek philosophy

  Within Greek philosophy itself there were foreshadowings of the
  Aristotelian doctrine, but nothing so important as to warrant the
  conclusion that Aristotle was directly influenced by it. Doubtless the
  One and Many, Being and Non-Being, of the Eleatic dialectic, with
  their subordinate oppositions, may be called categories, but they are
  not so in the Aristotelian sense, and have little or nothing in common
  with the later system. Their starting-point and results are wholly
  diverse. Nor does it appear necessary to do more than mention the
  Pythagorean table of principles, the number of which is supposed to
  have given rise to the decuple arrangement adopted by Aristotle. The
  two classifications have nothing in common; no term in the one list
  appears in the other; and there is absolutely nothing in the
  Pythagorean principles which could have led to the theory of the
  categories.[2]


    Plato.

  One naturally turns to Plato when endeavouring to discover the genesis
  of any Aristotelian doctrine, and undoubtedly there are in the
  Platonic writings many detached discussions in which the matter of the
  categories is touched upon. Special terms also are anticipated at
  various times, e.g. [Greek: poiotes] in the _Theaetetus_, [Greek:
  poiein] and [Greek: paschein] in the _Gorgias_, and [Greek: pros ti]
  in the _Sophist._[3] But there does not seem to be anything in Plato
  which one could say gave occasion directly and of itself to the
  Aristotelian doctrine; and even when we take a more comprehensive view
  of the Platonic system and inquire what in it corresponds to the
  widest definition of categories, say as ultimate elements of thought
  and existence, we receive no very definite answer. The Platonic
  dialectic never worked out into system, and only in two dialogues do
  we get anything like a list of ultimate or root-notions. In the
  _Sophist_, Being, Rest and Motion ([Greek: tho on autho kahi stasis
  kahi kinesis]) are laid down as [Greek: megista ton genon].[4] To
  these are presently added the Same and the Other ([Greek: tauthon kai
  thateron]), and out of the consideration of all five some light is
  cast upon the obscure notion of Non-Being [Greek: (to mhe on)]. In the
  same dialogue (262 seq.) is found the important distinction of [Greek:
  onoma] and [Greek: rhema], noun and verb. The _Philebus_ presents us
  with a totally distinct classification into four elements--the
  Infinite, the Finite, the Mixture or Unity of both and the Cause of
  this unity ([Greek: tho apeiron, tho peras, he summixis, he aitia]).
  It is at once apparent that, however these classifications are related
  to one another and to the Platonic system, they lie in a different
  field from that occupied by the Aristotelian categories, and can
  hardly be said to have anything in common with them.


    Aristotle.

  The Aristotelian doctrine is most distinctly formulated in the short
  treatise [Greek: Kategoriai], which generally occupies the first place
  among the books of the _Organon_. The authenticity of the treatise was
  doubted in early times by some of the commentators, and the doubts
  have been revived by such scholars as L. Spengel and Carl Prantl. On
  the other hand, C.A. Brandis, H. Bonitz, and Ed. Zeller are of opinion
  that the tract is substantially Aristotle's. The matter is hardly one
  that can be decided either _pro_ or _con_ with anything like
  certainty; but this is of little moment, for the doctrine of the
  categories, even of the _ten_ categories, does not stand or fall with
  only one portion of Aristotle's works.

  It is surprising that there should yet be so much uncertainty as to
  the real significance of the categories, and that we should be in
  nearly complete ignorance as to the process of thought by which,
  Aristotle was led to the doctrine. On both points It is difficult to
  extract from the matter before us anything approaching a satisfactory
  solution. The terms employed to denote the categories have been
  scrutinized with the utmost care, but they give little help. The most
  important--[Greek: k. tou ontos] or [Greek: tes ousias, gene tou
  ontos] or [Greek: ton onton, gene] simply, [Greek: tha prota] or
  [Greek: tha koina prota, ai ptoseis], or [Greek: ai diaireseis]--only
  indicate that the categories are general classes into which Being as
  such may be divided, that they are _summa genera_. The expressions
  [Greek: gene ton kategorion] and [Greek: schemata ton k.], which are
  used frequently, seem to lead to another and somewhat different view.
  [Greek: kategoria] being taken to mean that which is predicated,
  [Greek: gene ton k.] would signify the most general classes of
  predicates, the framework into the divisions of which all predicates
  must come. To this interpretation there are objections. The categories
  must be carefully distinguished from predicables; in the scholastic
  phraseology the former refer to _first intentions_, the latter to
  _second intentions_, i.e. the one denote real, the other logical
  connexion. Further, the categories cannot without careful explanation
  be defined as predicates; they are this and something more. The most
  important category, [Greek: ousia], in one of its aspects cannot be
  predicate at all.

  In the [Greek: Kategoriai] Aristotle prefixes to his enumeration a
  grammatico-logical disquisition on homonyms and synonyms, and on the
  elements of the proposition, i.e. subject and predicate. He draws
  attention to the fact that things are spoken of either in the
  connexion known as the proposition, e.g. "a man runs," or apart from
  such connexion, e.g. "man" and "runs." He then proceeds, "Of things
  spoken of apart from their connexion in a proposition ([Greek: ton
  katha medemian sumplokhen legomenon]), each signifies either Substance
  ([Greek: ousia]), or Quantity ([Greek: poson]), or Quality ([Greek:
  poion]), or Relation ([Greek: pros ti],) or Where (i.e. Place, [Greek:
  pou]), or When (i.e. Time, [Greek: pote]), or Position ([Greek:
  keisthai]), or Possession ([Greek: echein]), or Action ([Greek:
  poiein]), or Passion ([Greek: paschein]). [Greek: ousia], the first
  category, is subdivided into [Greek: prote ousia] or primary
  substance, which is defined to be [Greek: tode ti], the singular thing
  in which properties inhere, and to which predicates are attached, and
  [Greek: deuterai] [Greek: onsiai], genera or species which can be
  predicated of primary substances, and are therefore [Greek: onsia].
  only in a secondary sense. Nevertheless, they too, after a certain
  fashion, signify the singular thing, [Greek: tode ti]" (K. p. 3 b 12,
  13). It is this doctrine of [Greek: prote onsia] that has raised
  doubts with regard to the authenticity of the [Greek: Kategoriai] But
  the tenfold classification, which has also been captiously objected
  to, is given in an acknowledged writing of Aristotle's (see Topica, i.
  9, p. 103 b 20).[5] At the same time it is at least remarkable that in
  two places where the enumeration seems intended to be complete (_Met._
  p. 1017 a 25; _An. Pos._ i. 22, p. 83 a 21), only eight are mentioned,
  [Greek: exein] and [Greek: keisthai] being omitted. In other
  passages[6] six, five, four, and three are given, frequently with some
  addition, such as [Greek: kai ai allai k]. It is also to be observed
  that, despite of this wavering, distinct intimations are given by
  Aristotle that he regarded his list as complete, and he uses phrases
  which would seem to indicate that the division had been exhaustively
  carried out. He admits certainly that some predicates which come under
  one category might be referred to another, but he declines to deduce
  all from one highest class, or to recognize any relation of
  subordination among the several classes.

  The full import of the categories will never be adequately reached
  from the point of view taken up in the [Greek: Kategoriai], which
  bears all the marks of an early and preliminary study. For true
  understanding we must turn to the _Metaphysics_, where the doctrine is
  handled at large. The discussion of Being in that work starts with a
  distinction that at once gives us a clue. [Greek: tho on] is spoken of
  in many ways; of these four are classified--[Greek: tho on katha
  sumbebekos, tho om hos alethes, tho on dunamei kai energeia], and
  [Greek: tho on kata ta schemata ton kategorion]. It is evident from
  this that the categories can be regarded neither as purely logical nor
  as purely metaphysical elements. They indicate the general forms or
  ways in which Being can be predicated; they are determinations of
  Being regarded as an object of thought, and consequently as matter of
  speech. It becomes apparent also why the analysis of the categories
  starts from the singular thing, for it is the primary form under which
  all that is becomes object of knowledge, and the other categories
  modify or qualify this real individual. [Greek: Panta de ta gignomena
  hupo te tinos gignetai kai ek tinos kai ti. To de ti lego kath
  hekasten kategorian e gar tode e poson e poion e pon]. (_Met._ p. 1032
  a 13-15) ... The categories, therefore, are not logical forms, but
  real predicates; they are the general modes in which Being may be
  expressed. The definite thing, that which comes forward in the process
  from potentiality to full actuality, can only appear and be spoken of
  under forms of individuality, quality, quantity and so on. The nine
  later categories all denote entity in a certain imperfect fashion.

  The categories then are not to be regarded as heads of predicates, the
  framework into which predicates can be thrown. They are real
  determinations of Being--_allgemeine Bestimmtheiten_, as Hegel calls
  them. They are not _summa genera_ of existences, still less are they
  to be explained as a classification of namable things in general. The
  objections Mill has taken to the list are entirely irrelevant, and
  would only have significance if the categories were really--what they
  are not--an exhaustive division of concrete existences. Grote's view
  (_Aristotle_, i. 108) that Aristotle drew up his list by examining
  Various popular propositions, and throwing the different predicates
  into genera, "according as they stood in different logical relation to
  the subject," has no foundation. The relation of the predicate
  category to the subject is not entirely a logical one; it is a
  relation of real existence, and wants the essential marks of the
  prepositional form. The logical relations of [Greek: to on] are
  provided for otherwise than by the categories.

  Aristotle has given no intimation of the course of thought by which he
  was led to his tenfold arrangement, and it seems hopeless to discover
  it. Trendelenburg in various essays has worked out the idea that the
  root of the matter is to be found in grammatical considerations, that
  the categories originated from investigations into grammatical
  functions, and that a correspondence will be found to obtain between
  categories and parts of speech. Thus, Substance corresponds to noun
  substantive, Quantity and Quality to the adjective, Relation partly to
  the comparative degree and perhaps to the preposition, When and Where
  to the adverbs of time and place. Action to the active, Passion to the
  passive of the verb, Position [Greek: keisthai] to the intransitive
  verb, [Greek: echein] to the peculiar Greek perfect. That there should
  be a very close correspondence between the categories and grammatical
  elements is by no means surprising; that the one were deduced from the
  other is both philosophically and historically improbable. Reference
  to the detailed criticisms of Trendelenburg by Ritter, Bonitz, and
  Zeller will be sufficient.

  Aristotle has also left us in doubt on another point. Why should there
  be only _ten_ categories? and why should these be the ten? Kant and
  Hegel, it is well known, signalize as the great defect in the
  Aristotelian categories the want of a principle, and yet some of
  Aristotle's expressions would warrant the inference that he _had_ a
  principle, and that he thought his arrangement exhaustive. The leading
  idea of all later attempts at reduction to unity of principle, the
  division into substance and accident, was undoubtedly not overlooked
  by Aristotle, and Fr. Brentano[7] has collected with great diligence
  passages which indicate how the complete list might have been deduced
  from this primary distinction. His tabular arrangements (pp. 175, 177)
  are particularly deserving of attention. The results, however, are
  hardly beyond the reach of doubt.


    Later Greek.

  There was no fundamental change in the doctrine of the categories from
  the time of Aristotle to that of Kant, and only two proposed
  reclassifications are of such importance as to require notice. The
  Stoics adopted a fivefold arrangement of highest classes, [Greek:
  genikotata]. [Greek: to on] or [Greek: ti], Being, or somewhat in
  general, was subdivided into [Greek: hypokeimena] or subjects, [Greek:
  poia] or qualities in general, which give definiteness to the blank
  subject, [Greek: pos echonta], modes which further determine the
  subject, and [Greek: pros ti pos echonta], definite relative modes.
  These categories are so related that each involves the existence of
  one higher than itself, thus there cannot be a [Greek: pros ti pos
  echon] which does not rest upon or imply a [Greek: pos echon], but
  [Greek: pos echon] is impossible without [Greek: poion], which only
  exists in [Greek: hypokeimenon], a form or phase of [Greek: to
  hon].[8]

  Plotinus, after a lengthy critique of Aristotle's categories, sets out
  a twofold list. [Greek: to en, kinesis, stasis, tautotes, heterotes]
  are the primitive categories ([Greek: prota gene]) of the intelligible
  sphere. [Greek: ousia, pros ti, poia, poson, kinesis] are the
  categories of the sensible world. The return to the Platonic
  classification will not escape notice.


    Modern philosophy.

  Modern philosophy, neglecting altogether the dry and tasteless
  treatment of the Aristotelian doctrine by scholastic writers, gave a
  new, a wider and deeper meaning to the categories. They now appear as
  ultimate or root notions, the metaphysical or thought elements, which
  give coherence and consistency to the material of knowledge, the
  necessary and universal relations which obtain among the particulars
  of experience. There was thus to some extent a return to Platonism,
  but in reality, as might easily be shown, the new interpretation was,
  with due allowance for difference in point of view, in strict harmony
  with the true doctrine of Aristotle. The modern theory dates in
  particular from the time of Kant, who may be said to have reintroduced
  the term into philosophy. Naturally there are some anticipations in
  earlier thinkers. The Substance, Attribute and Mode of Cartesianism
  can hardly be classed among the categories; nor does Leibnitz's chance
  suggestion of a fivefold arrangement into Substance, Quantity,
  Quality, Action and Passion, and Relations, demand any particular
  notice. Locke, too, has a classification into Substances, Modes and
  Relations, but in it he has manifestly no intention of drawing up a
  table of categories. What in his system corresponds most nearly to the
  modern view of these elements is the division of kinds of real
  predication. In all judgments of knowledge we predicate either (1)
  Identity or Diversity, (2) Relation, (3) Co-existence, or necessary
  connexion, or (4) Real existence. From this the transition was easy to
  Hume's important classification of _philosophical relations_ into
  those of Resemblance, Identity, Time and Place, Quantity or Number,
  Quality, Contrariety, Cause and Effect.

  These attempts at an exhaustive distribution of the necessary
  relations of all objects of knowledge indicate the direction taken by
  modern thought, before it received its complete expression from Kant.


    Kant.

  The doctrine of the categories is the very kernel of the Kantian
  system, and, through it, of later German philosophy. To explain it
  fully would be to write the history of that philosophy. The categories
  are called by Kant Root-notions of the Understanding (_Stammbegriffe
  des Verstandes_), and are briefly the specific forms of the a priori
  or formal element in rational cognition. It is this distinction of
  matter and form in knowledge that marks off the Kantian from the
  Aristotelian doctrine. To Kant knowledge was only possible as the
  synthesis of the material or a posteriori with the formal or a priori.
  The material to which a priori forms of the understanding were applied
  was the sensuous content of the pure intuitions, Time and Space. This
  content could not be _known_ by sense, but only by intellectual
  function. But the understanding in the process of knowledge makes use
  of the universal form of synthesis, the judgment; intellectual
  function is essentially of the nature of judgment or the reduction of
  a manifold to unity through a conception. The specific or type forms
  of such function will, therefore, be expressed in judgments; and a
  complete classification of the forms of judgments is the key by which
  one may hope to discover the system of categories. Such a list of
  judgments Kant thought he found in ordinary logic, and from it he drew
  up his well-known scheme of the twelve categories. These forms are the
  determinations of all objects of experience, for it is only through
  them that the manifold of sense can be reduced to the unity of
  consciousness, and thereby constituted experience. They are a priori
  conditions, subjective in one sense, but objective as being universal,
  necessary and constitutive of experience.

  The table of logical judgments with corresponding categories is as
  follows:--

        Judgments.                               Categories.
    Universal      \        I.        / Unity.
    Particular      >  Of Quantity   <  Plurality.
    Singular       /                  \ Totality.

    Affirmative    \       II.        / Reality.
    Negative        >  Of Quality    <  Negation.
    Infinite       /                  \ Limitation.

    Categorical    \                  / Inherence and Subsistence
                   |       III.      |    (Substance and Accident).
    Hypothetical    >  Of Relation  <   Causality and Dependence
                   |                 |    (Cause and Effect).
    Disjunctive    /                  \ Community (Reciprocity).

    Problematical  \       IV.        / Possibility and Impossibility.
    Assertoric      >  Of Modality   <  Existence and Non-Existence.
    Apodictic      /                  \ Necessity and Contingency.


    Fichte.

  Kant, it is well known, criticizes Aristotle severely for having drawn
  up his categories without a principle, and claims to have disclosed
  the only possible method by which an exhaustive classification might
  be obtained. What he criticized in Aristotle is brought against his
  own procedure by the later German thinkers, particularly Fichte and
  Hegel. And in point of fact it cannot be denied that Kant has allowed
  too much completeness to the ordinary logical distribution of
  propositions; he has given no proof that in these forms are contained
  all species of synthesis, and in consequence he has failed to show
  that in the categories, or pure conceptions, are contained all the
  modes of a priori synthesis. Further, his principle has so far the
  unity he claimed for it, the unity of a single function, but the
  specific forms in which such unity manifests itself are not themselves
  accounted for by this principle. Kant himself hints more than once at
  the possibility of a completely rational system of the categories, at
  an evolution from one single movement of thought, and in his _Remarks
  on the Table of the Categories_ gave a pregnant hint as to the method
  to be employed. From any complete realization of this suggestion Kant,
  however, was precluded by one portion of his theory. The categories,
  although the necessary conditions under which alone an object of
  experience can be thrown, are merely forms of the mind's own activity;
  they apply only to sensuous and consequently subjective material.
  Outside of and beyond them lies the thing-in-itself, which to Kant
  represented the ultimately real. This subjectivism was a distinct
  hiatus in the Kantian system, and against it principally Fichte and
  Hegel directed criticism. It was manifest that at the root of the
  whole system of categories there lay the synthetizing unity of
  self-consciousness, and it was upon this unity that Fichte fixed as
  giving the possibility of a more complete and rigorous deduction of
  the pure notions of the understanding. Without the act of the Ego,
  whereby it is self-conscious, there could be no knowledge, and this
  primitive act or function must be, he saw, the _position_ or
  affirmation of itself by the Ego. The first principle then must be
  that the Ego posits itself as the Ego, that Ego = Ego, a principle
  which is unconditioned both in form and matter, and therefore capable
  of standing absolutely first, of being the _prius_ in a system.
  Metaphysically regarded this act of self-position yields the
  categories of Reality. But, so far as matter is concerned, there
  cannot be affirmation without negation, _omnis determinatio est
  negatio_. The determination of the Ego presupposes or involves the
  Non-Ego. The form of the proposition in which this second act takes to
  itself expression, the Ego is not = Not-Ego, is unconditioned, not
  derivable from the first. It is the absolute antithesis to the
  primitive thesis. The category of Negation is the result of this
  second act. From these two propositions, involving absolutely opposed
  and mutually destructive elements, there results a third which
  reconciles both in a higher synthesis. The notion in this third is
  determination or limitation; the Ego and Non-Ego limit, and are
  opposed to one another. From these three positions Fichte proceeds to
  evolve the categories by a series of thesis, antithesis and synthesis.

  In thus seizing upon the unity of self-consciousness as the origin for
  systematic development, Fichte has clearly taken a step in advance of,
  and yet in strict harmony with, the Kantian doctrine. For, after all
  that can be said as to the demonstrated character of formal logic,
  Kant's procedure was empirical, and only after the list of categories
  had been drawn out, did he bring forward into prominence what gave
  them coherence and reality. The peculiar method of Fichte, also, was
  nothing but a consistent application of Kant's own Remark on the Table
  of the Categories. Fichte's doctrine, however, is open to some of the
  objections advanced against Kant. His method is too abstract and
  external, and wants the unity of a single principle. The first two of
  his fundamental propositions stand isolated from one another, not to
  be resolved into a primitive unity. With him, too, the whole stands
  yet on the plane of subjectivity. He speaks, indeed, of the universal
  Ego as distinct from the empirical self-consciousness; but the
  universal does not rise with him to concrete spirit. Nevertheless the
  _Wissenschaftslehre_ contains the only real advance in the treatment
  of the categories from the time of Kant to that of Hegel.[9] This, of
  course, does not imply that there were not certain elements in
  Schelling, particularly in the _Transcendental Idealism_, that are of
  value in the transition to the later system; but on the whole it is
  only in Hegel that the whole matter of the Kantian categories has been
  assimilated and carried to a higher stage. The Hegelian philosophy, in
  brief, is a system of the categories; and, as it is not intended here
  to expound that philosophy, it is impossible to give more than a few
  general and quite external observations as to the Hegelian mode of
  viewing these elements of thought. With Kant, as has been seen, the
  categories were still subjective, not as being forms of the individual
  subject, but as having over against them the world of _noumena_ to
  which they were inapplicable. Self-consciousness, which was, even with
  Kant, the _nodus_ or kernel whence the categories sprang, was nothing
  but a logical centre,--the reality was concealed. There was thus a
  dualism, to overcome which is the first step in the Hegelian system.
  The principle, if there is to be one, must be universally applicable,
  all-comprehensive. Self-consciousness is precisely the principle
  wanted; it is a unity, an identity, containing in itself a
  multiplicity. The universal in absolute self-consciousness is just
  pure thinking, which in systematic evolution is the categories; the
  particular is the natural or multiform, the external as such; the
  concrete of both is spirit, or self-consciousness come to itself. The
  same law that obtains among the categories is found adequate to an
  explanation of the external thing which had so sadly troubled Kant.
  The categories themselves are moments of the universal of thought,
  type forms, or definite aspects which thought assumes; determinations,
  _Bestimmungen_, as Hegel most frequently calls them. They evolve by
  the same law that was found to be the essence of ultimate
  reality--i.e. of self-consciousness. The complete system is pure
  thought, the Universal _par excellence_.

  After the Hegelian there can hardly be said to have been a
  philosophical treatment of the categories in Germany which is not more
  or less a criticism of that system. It does not seem necessary to
  mention the unimportant modifications introduced by Kuno Fischer, J.E.
  Erdmann, or others belonging to the school. In the strongly-opposed
  philosophy of J.F. Herbart the categories can hardly be said to hold a
  prominent place. They are, with him, the most general notions which
  are psychologically formed, and he classifies them as follows:--(1)
  Thing, either as product of thought or as given in experience; (2)
  Property, either qualitative or quantitative; (3) Relation; (4) The
  Negated. Along with these he posits as categories of inner
  process--(1) Sensation, (2) Cognition, (3) Will, (4) Action. Joh. Fr.
  L. George (1811-1873),[10] who in the main follows Schleiermacher,
  draws out a table of categories which shows, in some points, traces of
  Herbartian influence. His arrangement by enneads, or series of nine,
  is fanciful, and wanting in inner principle.


    Trendelenburg.

  The most imposing of more recent attempts at a reconstruction of the
  categories is that of F.A. Trendelenburg. To him the first principle,
  or primitive reality, is Motion, which is both real as external
  movement, and ideal as inner construction. The necessary conditions of
  Motion are Time and Space, which are both subjective and objective.
  From this point onwards are developed the mathematical (point, line,
  &c.) and real (causality, substance, quantity, quality, &c.)
  categories which appear as involved in the notion of motion. Matter
  cannot be regarded as a product of motion; it is the condition of
  motion, we must think something moved. All these categories, "under
  the presupposition of motion as the first energy of thought, are ideal
  and subjective relations; as also, under the presupposition of motion
  as the first energy of Being, real and objective relations."[11] A
  serious difficulty presents itself in the next category, that of End
  (_Zweck_), which can easily be thought for inner activity, but can
  hardly be reconciled with real motion. Trendelenburg solves the
  difficulty only empirically, by pointing to the insufficiency of the
  merely mechanical to account for the organic. The consideration of
  Modality effects the transition to the forms of logical thought. On
  the whole, Trendelenburg's unique fact of motion seems rather a
  blunder. There is much more involved than he is willing to allow, and
  motion _per se_ is by no means adequate to self-consciousness. His
  theory has found little favour.


    Ulrici.

  Hermann Ulrici works out a system of the categories from a
  psychological or logical point of view. To him the fundamental fact of
  philosophy is the distinguishing activity (_unterscheidende
  Tatigkeit_) of thought. Thought is only possible by distinction,
  difference. The fixed points in the relations of objects upon which
  this activity turns are the categories, which may be called the forms
  or laws of thought. They are the aspects of things, notions under
  which things must be brought, in order to become objects of thought.
  They are thus the most general predicates or heads of predicates. The
  categories cannot be completely gathered from experience, nor can they
  be evolved a priori; but, by attending to the general relations of
  thought and its purely indefinite matter, and examining what we must
  predicate in order to know Being, we may attain to a satisfactory
  list. Such a list is given in great detail in the _System der Logik_
  (1852), and in briefer, preciser form in the _Compendium der Logik_
  (2nd ed., 1872); it is in many points well deserving of attention.


    Renouvier, Cousin, Hamilton, Mill.

  The definition of the categories by the able French logician Charles
  Bernard Renouvier in some respects resembles that of Ulrici. To him
  the primitive fact is Relation, of which all the categories are but
  forms. "The categories," he says, "are the primary and irreducible
  laws of knowledge, the fundamental relations which determine its form
  and regulate its movements." His table and his criticism of the
  Kantian theory are both of interest.[12] The criticism of Kant's
  categories by Cousin and his own attempted classification are of no
  importance. Of little more value is the elaborate table drawn out by
  Sir W. Hamilton.[13] The generalized category of the _Conditioned_ has
  but little meaning, and the subordinate categories evolve themselves
  by no principle, but are arranged after a formal and quite arbitrary
  manner. They are never brought into connexion with thought itself, nor
  could they be shown to spring from its nature and relations. J.S. Mill
  presented, "as a substitute for the abortive classification of
  Existences, termed the categories of Aristotle," the following as an
  enumeration of all nameable things:--(1) Feelings, or states of
  consciousness; (2) The minds which experience these feelings; (3)
  Bodies, or external objects which excite certain of those feelings;
  (4) Successions and co-existences, likenesses and unlikenesses,
  between feelings or states of consciousness.[14] This classification
  proceeds on a quite peculiar view of the categories, and is here
  presented only for the sake of completeness.


    Modern psychologists.

  By modern psychologists the subject has been closely investigated.
  Professor G.F. Stout (_Manual of Psychology_, vol. ii. pp. 312 foll.)
  defines categories as "forms of cognitive consciousness, universal
  principles or relations presupposed either in all cognition or in all
  cognition of a certain kind." He then treats External (or Physical)
  Reality, Space, Time, Causality and "Thinghood" from the standpoint of
  the perceptual consciousness; showing in what sense the categories of
  causality, substance and the rest exist in the sphere of perception.
  As contrasted with the ideational, the perceptual consciousness is
  concerned with practice. Perception tells the child of things as
  separate entities, not in their ultimate relations as parts of a
  coherent whole. G.T. Ladd (_Psychology Descriptive and Explanatory_,
  ch. xxi., on "Space, Time and Causality") defines the categories from
  the psychological standpoint as "those highly abstract conceptions
  which the mind frames by reflection upon its own most general modes of
  behaviour. They are our own notions resulting from co-operation of
  imagination and judgment, concerning the ultimate and unanalyzable
  forms of our own existence and development." In other words, the
  categories are highly abstract, have no content, and are realized as a
  kind of thinking which has for its object all the other mental
  processes.

  AUTHORITIES.--Besides those quoted above, see Eduard v. Hartmann,
  _Kategorienlehre_ (Leipzig, 1896), and "Begriff der
  Kategorialfunktion", in _Zeitschr. f. Philos. und phil. Krit._ cxv.
  (1899), pp. 9-19; E. Konig in the same periodical cxiii. (1889), pp.
  232-279, and cxiv. (1899), pp. 78-105; F.A. Trendelenburg, _Geschichte
  der Kategorienlehre_ (1846); P. Ragnisco _Storia critica delle
  categorie_ (2 vols., Florence, 1871); W. Windelband _Vom System der
  Kategorien_ (Tubingen, 1900); R. Eisler, _Worterbuch der
  philospphischen Begriffe_ (Berlin, 1899), pp. 400-409; S. Joda,
  _Studio critico su le categorie_ (Naples, 1881); H. Vaihinger, _Die
  transcendentale Deduktion der Kategorien_ (Halle, 1902); H.W.B.
  Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_ (Oxford, 1906), ch. iii.; F.H.
  Bradley, _Principles of Logic_ (1883); B. Bosanquet's _Knowledge and
  Reality_ (1885, 2nd ed. 1892); histories of philosophy. For further
  authorities see works quoted under ARISTOTLE and KANT, and in J.M.
  Baldwin's _Dict. Philos. Psych._ vol. iii. pt. 2, p. 685.
       (R. Ad.; X.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] For details of this and other Hindu systems see H. T. Colebrooke,
    _Miscellaneous Essays_ (1837; new ed., E. B. Cowell, 1873); H. H.
    Wilson, _Essays and Lectures on the Religions of the Hindus_
    (1861-1862); Monier Williams, _Indian Wisdom_ (4th ed., 1893); A. E.
    Gough's _Vaiseshika-Sutras_ (Benares, 1873), and _Philosophy of the
    Upanishads_ (London, 1882, 1891); Max Muller, _Sanskrit Literature_,
    and particularly his appendix to Thomson's _Laws of Thought_.

  [2] The supposed origin of that theory in the treatise [Greek: perhi
    tou pantos], ascribed to Archytas (q.v.), has been proved to be an
    error. The treatise itself dates in all probability from the
    Neo-Pythagorean schools of the 2nd century A.D.

  [3] Prantl, _Ges. der Logik_, i. 74-75; F.A. Trendelenburg,
    _Kategorienlehre_, 209. n.

  [4] _Soph_. 254 D.

  [5] Against this passage even Prantl can raise no objection of any
    moment; see _Ges. der Logik_, i. 206. n.

  [6] See Bonitz, _Iridex Aristotelicus_, s.v., and Prantl, _Ges. der
    Logik_, i. 207.

  [7] Brentano, _Bedeutung des Seienden nach A._, pp. 148-178.

  [8] For detailed examination of the Stoic categories, see Prantl,
    _Ges. d. Logik_, i. 428 sqq.; Zeller, _Ph. d. Griech._ iii. 1, 82,
    sqq,; Trendelenburg, _Kateg._ p. 217.

  [9] It does not seem necessary to do more than refer to the slight
    alterations made on Kant's Table of Categories by J.G. von Herder (in
    the _Metakritik_), by Solomon Malmon (in the _Propadeutik zu einer
    neuen Theorie des Denkens_), by J.F. Fries (in the _Neue Kritik der
    Vernunft_), or by Schopenhauer, who desired to reduce all the
    categories to one--that of Causality. We should require a new
    philosophical vocabulary even to translate the extraordinary
    compounds in which K.C.F. Krause expounds his theory of the
    categories. Notices of the changes introduced by Antonio
    Rosmini-Serbati, and of Vincenzo Gioberti's remarkable theory, will
    be found in Ragnisco's work referred to below.

  [10] _System der Metaphysik_ (1844).

  [11] _Logische Untersuchungen_, i. 376-377.

  [12] _Essais de critique generale_ (2nd ed.), _La Logique_, i. pp.
    184, 190, 207-225.

  [13] _Discussions_, p. 577.

  [14] _Logic_, i. 83; cf. Bain, _Ded. Log._, App. C.




CATENARY (from Lat. _catena_, a chain), in mathematics, the curve
assumed by a uniform chain or string hanging freely between two
supports. It was investigated by Galileo, who erroneously determined it
to be a parabola; Jungius detected Galileo's error, but the true form
was not discovered until 1691, when James Bernoulli published it as a
problem in the _Acta Eruditorum_. Bernoulli also considered the cases
when (1) the chain was of variable density, (2) extensible, (3) acted
upon at each point by a force directed to a fixed centre. These curves
attracted much attention and were discussed by John Bernoulli, Leibnitz,
Huygens, David Gregory and others.

  The mechanical properties of the curves are treated in the article
  MECHANICS, where various forms are illustrated. The simple catenary is
  shown in the figure. The cartesian equation referred to the axis and
  directrix is y = c cosh (x/c) or y = 1/2c[e^(x/c) + e^(-x/c)]; other
  forms are s = c sinh (x/c) and y^2 = c^2 + s^2, s being the arc
  measured from the vertex; the intrinsic equation is s = c tan [psi].
  The radius of curvature and normal are each equal to c sec^2 [psi].

  [Illustration]

  The surface formed by revolving the catenary about its directrix is
  named the _alysseide_. It is a minimal surface, i.e. the catenary
  solves the problem: to find a curve joining two given points, which
  when revolved about a line co-planar with the points traces a surface
  of minimum area (see VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF).

  The involute of the catenary is called the _tractory_, _tractrix_ or
  _antifriction_ curve; it has a cusp at the vertex of the catenary, and
  is asymptotic to the directrix. The cartesian equation is
                                      _                     _
                                     | c - [root](c^2 - y^2) |
    x = [root](c^2 - y^2) + 1/2c log |-----------------------|
                                     |_c + [root](c^2 + y^2)_|

  and the curve has the geometrical property that the length of its
  tangent is constant. It is named the tractory, since a weight placed
  on the ground and drawn along by means of a flexible string by a
  person travelling in a straight line, the weight not being in this
  line, describes the curve in question. It is named the antifriction
  curve, since a pivot and step having the form of the surface generated
  by revolving the curve about its vertical axis wear away equally (see
  MECHANICS: _Applied_).




CATERAN (from the Gaelic _ceathairne_, a collective word meaning
"peasantry"), the band of fighting men of a Highland clan; hence the
term is applied to the Highland, and later to any, marauders or
cattle-lifters.




CATERHAM, an urban district in the Wimbledon parliamentary division of
Surrey, England, 20 m. S. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop. (1901) 9486. It lies in a healthy, hilly district, and has
grown in modern times from a village into a large residential town.
There are large barracks in the neighbourhood, and the Metropolitan
lunatic asylum is close to the town.




CATERPILLAR, the popular name of the larva of various insects,
particularly of butterflies and moths (see LEPIDOPTERA, HEXAPODA,
METAMORPHOSIS). The word appears first in the form _caterpyl_
(_Promptorium Parvulorum_, about the middle of the 15th century). This
may be the original form, with the addition of -ar or -er; if so, it
represents the O. Fr. _chatepelose_ or _chatepeleuse_, i.e. "hairy-cat"
(_chat_, cat, and _pelouse_, hairy, Lat. _pilosus_), a name applied to
the hairy caterpillar, and also according to Cotgrave to a weevil. The
use of "cat" in this connexion is paralleled by the Swiss name for a
caterpillar, _teufelskatz_, and the popular English name for the blossom
of the willow, "catkin," somewhat resembling a caterpillar (cf.
"palmer"); the modern French is _chenille_, Latin _canicula_, a little
dog. The termination of the word seems to have been early connected with
"piller," a robber, plunderer from the destructive habits of the larva,
cf. Joel i. 4--"That which the palmer-worm hath left, hath the locust
eaten." The spelling "caterpillar," a 17th century corruption, has been
the usual form since Johnson.




CATESBY, ROBERT (1573-1605), English conspirator, son of Sir William
Catesby of Lapworth in Warwickshire, a prominent recusant who was a
descendant of Sir William Catesby, speaker of the House of Commons in
1484, executed by Henry VII. after the battle of Bosworth, was born in
1573, and entered Gloucester Hall (now Worcester College), Oxford, in
1586. He possessed a considerable estate, and was said to be wild and
extravagant in his youth. In 1596 he was one of those arrested on
suspicion during an illness of Queen Elizabeth. In 1601 he took part in
the rebellion of Essex, was wounded in the fight and imprisoned, but
finally pardoned on the payment of an enormous fine, to obtain which he
was forced to sell a portion of his property. In 1602 he despatched
Thomas Winter and the Jesuit Tesimond _alias_ Greenway to Spain to
induce Philip III. to organize an invasion of England, and in 1603,
after James's accession, he was named as an accomplice in the "Bye
Plot." Catesby was a man of great beauty of person, "above 2 yards
high," says Father Gerard, "and though slender, yet as well-proportioned
to his height as any man one should see." He possessed a clear head and
unflinching courage, and with a strong determination and fascinating
manner mastered the minds of his associates and overpowered all
opposition. He was, however, headstrong, wilful and imprudent, fit for
action, but incapable of due deliberation, and entirely wanting in
foresight. Exasperated by his personal misfortunes and at the repressive
measures under which his co-religionists were suffering, and blinded by
a religious zeal which amounted to fanaticism, he was now to be the
chief instigator of the famous Gunpowder Plot, which must in any event
have brought disaster upon the Roman Catholic cause. The idea of some
great stroke seems to have first entered his mind in May 1603. About the
middle of January 1604 he imparted his scheme of blowing up the
Parliament House to his cousin Thomas Winter, subsequently taking in Guy
Fawkes and several other conspirators and overcoming all fears and
scruples. But it was his determination, from which he would not be
shaken, not to allow warning to be given to the Roman Catholic peers
that was the actual cause of the failure of the plot. A fatal mistake
had been made in imparting the secret to Francis Tresham (q.v.), in
order to secure his financial assistance; and there is scarcely any
doubt that he was the author of the celebrated letter to his
brother-in-law, Lord Monteagle, which betrayed the conspiracy to the
government, on the 26th of October. On receiving the news of the letter
on the 28th, Catesby exhibited extraordinary coolness and fortitude, and
refused to abandon the attempt, hoping that the government might despise
the warning and still neglect precautions; and his confidence was
strengthened by Fawkes's report that nothing in the cellar had been
touched or tampered with. On the 2nd of November his resolution was
shaken by Tresham's renewed entreaties that he would flee, and his
positive assurance that Salisbury knew everything. On the evening of the
3rd, however, he was again, through Percy's insistence, persuaded to
stand firm and hazard the great stroke. The rest of the story is told in
the article GUNPOWDER PLOT. Here it need only be said that Catesby,
after the discovery of the conspiracy, fled with his fellow-plotters,
taking refuge ultimately at Holbeche in Staffordshire, where on the
night of the 8th of November he was overtaken and killed. He had married
Catherine, daughter of Thomas Leigh of Stoneleigh, Warwickshire, and
left one son, Robert, who inherited that part of the family estate which
had been settled on Catesby's mother and was untouched by the attainder,
and who is said to have married a daughter of Thomas Percy.




CAT-FISH, the name usually applied to the fishes of the family
_Siluridae_, in allusion to the long barbels or feelers about the mouth,
which have been compared to the whiskers of a cat. The _Siluridae_ are a
large and varied group, mostly inhabitants of fresh waters; some of them
by their singular form and armature are suggestive of the Devonian
mailed fishes, and were placed at one time in their vicinity by L.
Agassiz. Even such authorities as T.H. Huxley and E.D. Cope were
inclined to ascribe ganoid affinities to the _Siluridae_; but this view
has gradually lost ground, and most modern ichthyologists, if not all,
have adopted the conclusions of M. Sagemehl, who has placed the
_Siluridae_ near the carps and Characinids in the group Ostariophysi.
The Silurids and Cyprinids may be regarded as two parallel series
derived from some common stock which cannot have been very different
from the existing Characinids. In spite of the archaic appearance of
some of its members, the family _Siluridae_ does not appear to extend
far back in time, its oldest known representative being the _Bucklandium
diluvii_ of the Lower Eocene (London Clay) of Sheppey. A great number of
forms were placed by Cuvier and his successors in the family
_Siluridae_, which has since been broken up by T. Gill and other
American authors into several families, united under the name of
Nematognathi. A middle course appears the more reasonable to the
present writer, who has divided the _Siluridae_ of Cuvier into three
families, with the following definitions:--

_Siluridae_--ribs attached to strong parapophyses; operculum well
developed.

_Loricariidae_--ribs sessile; parapophyses absent; operculum more or
less developed.

_Aspredinidae_--ribs sessile; strong parapophyses; operculum absent.

These three families may be defined among the Ostariophysi by having the
parietal bones fused with the supraoccipital, no symplectic, the body
naked or with bony scutes, the mouth usually toothed, with barbels, and
usually an adipose dorsal fin.

The _Siluridae_ embrace more than one thousand species, spread over the
fresh waters of all parts of the world, but mostly from between the
tropics. They are absent from western Europe and north-west Africa, and
from North America west of the Rocky Mountains, but this deficiency has
been made good by now, the introduction of _Amiurus nebulosus_ and
allied species in various parts of continental Europe and California
having proved a success. Only a few forms are marine (_Plotosus_,
_Arius_, _Galeichthys_).

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The "Wels" (_Silurus glanis_).]

The species which has given the name to the whole family is the "Wels"
of the Germans, _Silurus glanis_, the largest European fresh-water fish,
inhabiting the greater part of Europe from the Rhine eastwards and north
of the Alps. Its head is large and broad, its mouth wide, furnished with
six barbels, of which those of the upper jaw are very long. Both jaws
and the palate are armed with broad bands of small closely-set teeth,
which give the bones a rasp-like appearance. The eyes are exceedingly
small. The short body terminates in a long, compressed, muscular tail,
and the whole fish is covered with a smooth, scaleless, slippery skin.
Specimens of 4 and 5 ft. in length, and of 50 to 80 lb. in weight, are
of common occurrence, and the fish grows to 10 ft., with a weight of 400
lb., in the Danube. Its food consists chiefly of other bottom-feeding
fishes, and in inland countries it is considered one of the better class
of food fishes. Stories about children having been found in the stomach
of very large individuals are probably inventions. An allied species
(_S. aristotelis_) is found in Greece.

The _Clarias_ and _Heterobranchus_ of Africa and south-eastern Asia have
an elongate, more or less eel-shaped body, with long dorsal and anal
fins, and are known to be able to live a long time out of water, being
provided with an accessory dendritic breathing organ situated above the
gills. Some species live in burrows during the dry season, crawling
about at night in search of food. The common Nile species, the "Harmoot"
(_Clarias lazera_), occurs abundantly in the Lake of Galilee and was
included in, if not chiefly aimed at, by the Mosaic law which forbade
the Jews to eat scaleless fishes, a prohibition which has been extended
to eels in spite of the obvious presence of minute scales in the latter.

The _Saccobranchus_ of India and Ceylon, a genus more nearly related to
_Silurus_, have also an accessory organ for breathing atmospheric air.
It consists of a long sac behind the gill-cavity, extending far back on
each side of the body under the muscles.

In the majority of the _Siluridae_, called by A. Gunther the
_Proteropterae_, a section extremely numerous in species, and
represented throughout the tropics, the dorsal fin consists of a
short-rayed and an adipose portion, the former belonging to the
abdominal vertebral column; the anal is always much shorter than the
tail. The gill-membranes are not confluent with the skin of the isthmus;
they have a free posterior margin. When a nasal barbel is present, it
belongs to the posterior nostril. This section includes among many
others the genus _Bagrus_, of which the bayad (_B. bayad_) and docmac
(_B. docmac_) frequently come under the notice of travellers on the
Nile; they grow to a length of 5 ft. and are eaten.

Of the "cat-fishes" of North America (_Amiurus_), locally called
"bull-heads" or "horned-pouts," with eight barbels, some twenty species
are known. Some of them are valued as food, especially one which is
abundant in the ponds of New England, and capable of easy introduction
into other localities (_A. nebulosus_). Others which inhabit the great
lakes (_A. nigricans_) and the Mississippi (_A. ponderosus_) often
exceed the weight of 100 lb. _Platystoma_ and _Pimelodus_ people the
rivers and lakes of tropical America, and many of them are conspicuous
in this fauna by the ornamentation of their body, by long spatulate
snouts, and by their great size.

The genus _Arius_ is composed of a great number of species and has the
widest distribution of all Silurids, being represented in almost all
tropical countries which are drained by large rivers. Most of the
species live in salt water. They possess six barbels, and their head is
extensively osseous on its upper surface; their dorsal and pectoral
spines are generally developed into powerful weapons. _Bagarius_, one of
the largest Silurids of the rivers of India and Java, exceeding a length
of 6 ft., differs from _Arius_ in having eight barbels and the head
covered with skin.

R. Semon has made observations in Queensland on the habits of _Arius
australis_, which builds nests in the sandy bed of the Burnett river.
These nests consist of circular basin-like excavations about 20 in. in
diameter, at the bottom of which the eggs are laid and covered over by
several layers of large stones. In the marine and estuarine species of
_Arius, Galcichthys_ and _Osteogeniosus_, the male, more rarely the
female, carries the eggs in the mouth and pharynx; these eggs, few in
number, are remarkably large, measuring as much as 17 or 18 millimetres
in diameter in _Arius commusonii_, a fish 3 or 4 ft. in length.

The common North American _Amiurus nebulosus_ also takes care of its
eggs, which are deposited beneath protecting objects at the bottom of
the water, failing which both parents join in excavating a sort of nest
in the mud. The male watches over the eggs, and later leads the young in
great schools near the shore, seemingly caring for them as the hen for
her chickens.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Synodonus xiphias_.]

In the _Siluridae Stenobranchiae_ of Gunther the dorsal fin consists of
an adipose portion and a short-rayed fin which belongs to the abdominal
vertebral column, and, like the adipose fin, may be sometimes absent.
The gill-membranes are confluent with the skin of the isthmus. The
Silurids belonging to this section are either South American or African.
Among the former we notice specially the genus _Doras_, which is
distinguished by having a series of bony scutes along the middle of the
side. The narrowness of their gill-openings appears to have developed in
them a habit which has excited the attention of all naturalists who have
visited the countries bordering upon the Atlantic rivers of tropical
America, viz. the habit of travelling during seasons of drought from a
piece of water about to dry up to ponds of greater capacity. These
journeys are occasionally of such a length that the fish have to travel
all night; they are so numerous that the Indians fill many baskets of
them. J. Hancock supposes that the fish carry a small supply of water
with them in their gill-cavity, which they can easily retain by closing
their branchial apertures. The same naturalist adds that they make
regular nests, in which they cover up their eggs with care and defend
them--male and female uniting in this parental duty until the eggs are
hatched. _Synodontis_ is an African genus and common in the Nile, where
the various species are known by the name of "Shal." They frequently
occur among the representations of animals left by the ancient
Egyptians. The upper part of their head is protected by strong osseous
scutes, and both the dorsal and pectoral fins are armed with powerful
spines. Their mouth is small, surrounded by six barbels, which are more
or less fringed with a membrane or with branched tentacles.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_-Malopterurus electricus_.]

The curious fact of some species of _Synodontis_ having the lower parts
darker than the upper, some being whitish above and blackish beneath,
appears to be connected with their habit of swimming in a reversed
position, the Belly turned upwards. This habit, known to the ancient
Egyptians, who have frequently represented them in that attitude, has
been described by E. Geoffrey, who says they nearly constantly swim on
their back, moving quite freely forwards and sidewards; but if alarmed,
they revert to the normal position to escape more rapidly.

The electric cat- or sheath-fishes (_Malopterurus_) have been referred
to the same section. Externally they are at once recognized by the
absence of a rayed dorsal fin, of which only a rudiment remains as a
small interneural spine concealed below the skin. The entire fish is
covered with soft, villose skin, an osseous defensive armour having
become unnecessary in consequence of the development of a powerful
electric apparatus, the strength of which, however, is exceeded by that
of the electric eel and the large species of _Torpedo_.

The electric organ of _Malopterurus_ differs essentially from that of
other fishes provided with such batteries, being part of the tegumentary
system instead of being derived from the muscles. It consists of
rhomboidal cells of a fine gelatinous substance immediately under the
skin. It is put into action by a single ganglionic cell at the anterior
extremity of the spinal cord. Contrary to what takes place in other
electric fishes, the current proceeds from the head to the tail.

The electric cat-fish, which grows to a length of 3 ft. in the Congo,
has a wide distribution in Africa, extending from the Nile to the
Zambezi and from the Senegal to the Congo. It was well known to the
ancient Egyptians, who have depicted it in their mural paintings and
elsewhere, and an account of its electric properties was given by an
Arab physician of the 12th century; then as now the fish was known under
the suggestive name of _Raad_ or _Raash_, which means "thunder."

Gunther's _Siluridae Branchicolae_ comprise the smallest and least
developed members of the family; they are referred to two genera only
from South America, _Stegophilus_ and _Vandellia_, the smallest of which
does not exceed the length of 2 in. Their body is soft, narrow,
cylindrical and elongate; the dorsal and anal fins short; the vent far
behind the middle of the length of the body; gill-membranes confluent
with the skin of the isthmus. Each maxillary is provided with a small
barbel; and the gill-covers are armed with short stiff spines. Their
small size notwithstanding, these Silurids are well known to the
Brazilians, who accuse them of entering and ascending the urethra of
persons while bathing, causing inflammation and sometimes death. Some
certainly live parasitically in the gill-cavity of large Silurids, and
F. Silvestri has observed _Stegophilus insidiosus_ to suck the blood in
the gills of _Platystoma coruscans_, a Silurid growing to a length of 6
ft.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Callichthys armatus_, from the upper Amazons.]

The mailed cat-fish of the South American genus _Callichthys_ builds
regular nests of grass on leaves, sometimes placed in a hole scooped out
in the bank, in which they cover their eggs and defend them, male and
female sharing in this parental duty. In the allied _Corydoras_ a
lengthy courtship takes place, followed by an embrace, during which the
female receives the seminal fluid in a sort of pouch formed by the
folded membranes of her ventral fins; immediately after, five or six
eggs are produced and received in the pouch, to be afterwards carefully
placed in a secluded spot. This operation is repeated many times, until
the total number of eggs, about 250, have been deposited. In accordance
with these pairing habits, the pectoral spines of the male, which are
used in amplexation, are larger and stronger than those of the female.
These fish are monogamous, and both parents remain by the side of the
nest, furiously attacking any assailant.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Loricaria lanceolata_, from the upper Amazons.]

The allied family _Loricariidae_ is entirely confined to the fresh
waters of Central and South America. C.T. Regan, who has recently
published an elaborate monograph of them, recognizes 189 species,
referred to 17 genera. Many of them are completely mailed; but all have
in common a short-rayed dorsal fin, with the ventrals below or rarely
in front of it. Their gill-openings are reduced to a short slit. The
first group of this section comprises alpine forms of the Andes, without
any armature, and with a very broad and pendent lower lip. They have
been referred to several genera (_Stygogenes, Arges, Brontes,
Astroblepus_), but are collectively called "prenadillas" by th natives,
who state that they live in subterranean craters within the bowels of
the volcanoes of the Andes, and are ejected with streams of mud and
water during eruptions. These fishes may, however, be found in surface
waters at all times, and their appearance in great quantities in the low
country during volcanic eruptions can be accounted for by numbers being
killed by the sulphuretted gases which escape during an eruption and by
their being swept down with the torrents of water issuing from the
volcano. The lowland forms have their body encased in large scutes,
either rough, scale-like, and arranged in four or five series
(_Chaetostomus_), or polished, forming broad rings round the slender and
depressed tail (_Loricaria_, fig. 5). They are mostly of small size.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Abdomen of _Aspredo batrachus_, with the ova
attached; at a the ova are removed, to show the spongy structure of the
skin, and the processes filling the interspaces between the ova.]

In certain of the mailed genera the secondary sexual differences may be
very pronounced, and have given rise to many nominal species. The shape
of the snout may differ according to the sex, and its margin may be
beset with tentacles in the male, whilst it frequently happens that the
head of the latter is margined with spines or bristles which are either
absent or considerably shorter in the female.

The _Aspredinidae_, which are also closely related to the _Siluridae_,
are represented by four genera and eighteen species from South America.
_Aspredo batrachus_ (fig. 6), of the Guianas, the largest form, reaching
to about a foot in length, deserves notice from the manner in which the
female carries her eggs attached to the belly and paired fins, in a
single layer, each egg being connected with the skin by a cup-shaped
pedunculate base supplied with blood-vessels and coated with a layer of
epithelium, the formation of which is still unexplained.     (G. A. B.)




CATGUT, the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity
prepared from the intestines of sheep, or occasionally from those of the
horse, mule and ass. Those of the cat are not employed, and therefore it
is supposed that the word is properly _kitgut, kit_ meaning "fiddle,"
and that the present form has arisen through confusion with _kit_ = cat.
The substance is used for the strings of harps and violins, as well as
other stringed musical instruments, for hanging the weights of clocks,
for bow-strings, and for suturing wounds in surgery. To prepare it the
intestines are cleaned, freed from fat, and steeped for some time in
water, after which their external membrane is scraped off with a blunt
knife. They are then steeped for some time in an alkaline ley, smoothed
and equalized by drawing out, subjected to the antiseptic action of the
fumes of burning sulphur, if necessary dyed, sorted into sizes, and
twisted together into cords of various numbers of strands according to
their uses. The best strings for musical instruments are imported from
Italy ("Roman strings"); and it is found that lean and ill-fed animals
yield the toughest gut.




CATHA, the _khat_ of the Arabs, a shrub widely distributed and much
cultivated in Arabia and tropical Africa from, Abyssinia to the Cape.
The dried leaves are used for the preparation of a kind of tea and also
as tobacco. The plant is a member of the natural order _Celastraceae_, a
family of shrubs and trees found in temperate and tropical climates and
represented in Britain by the spindle-tree (_Euonymus europaeus_).




CATHARS (CATHARI or CATHARISTS), a widespread heretical sect of the
middle ages. They were the debris of an early Christianity, scattered in
the 10th to 14th centuries over East and West, having their analogues in
the Mahommedan world as well. In the East they were called Bogomils
(q.v.) and Paulicians; in the West, Patarenes, Tixerands (i.e. Weavers),
Bulgars, Concorricii, Albanenses, Albigeois, &c.; in both, Cathars and
Manicheans. This article relates to the Western Cathars, as they appear
(1) in the Cathar Ritual written in Provencal and preserved in a
13th-century MS. in Lyons, published by Cledat, Paris, 1888; (2) in
Bernard Gui's _Practica inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis_, edited by
Canon C. Douais, Paris, 1886; and (3) in the _proces verbal_ of the
inquisitors' reports. Some were downright dualists, and believed that
there are two gods or principles, one of good and the other of evil,
both eternal; but as a rule they subordinated the evil to the good. All
were universalists in so far as they believed in the ultimate salvation
of all men.[1]

Their tenets were as follows:--The evil god, Satan, who inspired the
malevolent parts of the Old Testament, is god and lord of this world, of
the things that are seen and are temporal, and especially of the outward
man which is decaying, of the earthen vessel, of the body of death, of
the flesh which takes us captive under the law of sin and desire. This
world is the only true purgatory and hell, being the antithesis of the
world eternal, of the inward man renewed day by day, of Christ's peace
and kingdom which are not of this world. Men are the result of a primal
war in heaven, when hosts of angels incited by Satan or Lucifer to
revolt were driven out, and were imprisoned in terrestrial bodies
created for them by the adversary. But there are also celestial bodies,
bodies spiritual and not natural. These the angel souls left behind in
heaven, and they are buildings from God, houses not made with hands,
tunics eternal. Imprisoned in the garment of flesh, burdened with its
sin, souls long to be clothed upon with the habitations they left in
heaven. So long as they are at home in the body, they are absent from
the Lord. They would fain be at home with the Lord, and absent from the
body, for which there is no place in heaven since flesh and blood cannot
inherit the kingdom of God, nor corruption inherit incorruption. There
is no resurrection of the flesh. The true resurrection is the spiritual
baptism bequeathed by Christ to the _boni homines_. How shall man escape
from his prison-house of flesh, and undo the effects of his fall? For
mere death brings no liberation, unless a man is become a new creation,
a new Adam, as Christ was; unless he has received the gift of the spirit
and become a vehicle of the Paraclete. If a man dies unreconciled to God
through Christ, he must pass through another cycle of imprisonment in
flesh; perhaps in a human, but with equal likelihood in an animal's
body. For when after death the powers of the air throng around and,
persecute, the soul flees into the first lodging of clay that it
finds.[2] Christ was a life-giving spirit, and the _boni homines_, the
"good men," as the Cathars called themselves, are his ambassadors. They
alone have kept the spiritual baptism with fire which Christ instituted,
and which has no connexion with the water baptism of John; for the
latter was an unregenerate soul, who failed to recognize the Christ, a
Jew whose mode of baptism with water belongs to the fleeting outward
world and is opposed to the kingdom of God. It would be interesting to
trace Bardesanes and the Syriac Hymn of the Soul in all this.

The Cathars fell into two classes, corresponding to the Baptized and the
Catechumens of the early church, namely, the Perfect, who had been
"consoled," i.e. had received the gift of the Paraclete; and the
_credentes_ or Believers. The Perfect formed the ordained priesthood,
were women no less than men, and controlled the church; they received
from the Believers unquestioning obedience, and as vessels of election
in whom the Holy Spirit already dwelt, they were adored by the faithful,
who were taught to prostrate themselves before them whenever they asked
for their prayers. For none but the Consoled had received into their
hearts the spirit of God's Son, which cries "Abba, Father." They alone
were become adopted sons, and so able to use the Lord's Prayer, which
begins, "Our Father, which art in heaven." The Perfect alone knew God
and could address him in this prayer, the only one they used in their
ceremonies. The mere _credens_ could at best invoke the living saint,
and ask him to pray for him.

All adherents of the sect seem to have kept three Lents in the year, as
also to have fasted Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays of each week; in
these fasts a diet of bread and water was usual. But a _credens_ under
probation for initiation, which lasted at least one and often several
years, fasted always. The life of a Perfect was so hard, and, thanks to
the inquisitors, so fraught with danger, that most Believers deferred
the rite until the death-bed, as in the early centuries many believers
deferred baptism. The rule imposed complete chastity. A husband at
initiation left his wife, committing her "to God and the gospel"; a wife
her husband. A male Perfect could not lay his hand on a woman without
incurring penance of a three-days' fast. All begetting of children is
evil, for Adam's chambering with Eve was the forbidden fruit. It is good
for a man not to touch a woman; a man's relations with his own wife are
merely a means of fornication, and marriage and concubinage are
indistinguishable as against the kingdom of God, in which there is no
marrying or giving in marriage. Those only have been redeemed from earth
who were virgins, undefiled with women. The passages of the New
Testament which seem to connive at the married relation were interpreted
by the Cathars as spoken in regard of Christ and the church. The Perfect
must also leave his father and mother, and his children, for a man's
foes are they of his own household. The family must be sacrificed to
the divine kinship. He that loveth father or mother more than Christ is
not worthy of him, nor he that loveth more his son or daughter. The
Perfect takes up his cross and follows after Christ.

Next he must abstain from all flesh diet except fish. He may not even
eat cheese or eggs or milk, for they, like meat, are produced _per viam
generationis seu coitus_. Everything that is sexually begotten is
impure. Fish were supposed to be born in the water without sexual
connexion, and on the basis of this old physiological fallacy the
Cathars equally with the Catholic framed their rule of fasting. And
there was yet another reason why the Perfect should not eat animals, for
a human soul might be doing time in its body. Nor might a Perfect or one
in course of probation kill anything, for the Mosaic commandment applies
to all life. He might not lie nor take an oath, for the precept "Swear
not at all" was, like the rest of the gospel, taken seriously. This was
the chief of their "anarchist doctrines."[3]

The Cathar rites, which remain to us in a manual of the sect, "recall,"
says the Abbe Guiraud, no too favourable a witness, "those of the
primitive church with a truth and precision the more striking the nearer
we go back to the apostolic age." The medieval inquisitor saw in them an
aping of the rites of the Catholic church as he knew them; but they were
really, says the same authority, "archaeological vestiges (i.e.
survivals) of the primitive Christian liturgy. In the bosom of medieval
society they were the last witness to a state of things that the regular
development of Catholic cult had amplified and modified. They resemble
the erratic blocks which lost amid alien soils recall, where we find
them, the geological conditions of earlier ages. This being so, it is of
the deepest interest to study the Cathar cult, since through its rites
we can get a glimpse of those of the primitive church, about which want
of documents leaves us too often in the dark."

The central Cathar rite was _consolamentum_, or baptism with spirit and
fire. The spirit received was the Paraclete derived from God and sent by
Christ, who said, "The Father is greater than I." Of a consubstantial
Trinity the Cathars naturally had never heard. Infant baptism they
rejected because it was unscriptural, and because all baptism with water
was an appanage of the Jewish demiurge Jehovah, and as such expressly
rejected by Christ.

The _consolamentum_ removes original sin, undoes the sad effects of the
primal fall, clothes upon us our habitation which is from heaven,
restores to us the lost tunic of immortality. A Consoled is an angel
walking in the flesh, whom the thin screen of death alone separates from
Christ and the beatific vision. The rite was appointed by Christ, and
has been handed down from generation to generation by the _boni
homines_.

The long probation called "abstinence" which led up to it is a survival
of the primitive catechumenate with its scrutinies. The prostrations of
the _credens_ before the Perfect were in their manner and import
identical with the prostrations of the catechumen before the exorcist.
We find the same custom in the Celtic church of St Columba. Just as at
the third scrutiny the early catechumen passed a last examination in the
Gospels, Creed and Lord's Prayer, so after their year of abstinence the
credens receives creed and prayer; the allocution with which the elder
"handed on" this prayer is preserved, and of it the Abbe Guiraud remarks
that, if it were not in a Cathar ritual, one might believe it to be of
Catholic origin. It is so Christian in tone, he quaintly remarks
elsewhere, that an inquisitor might have used it quite as well as a
heretic. In it the Perfect addresses the postulant, as in the
corresponding Armenian rite, by the name of Peter; and explains to him
from Scripture the indwelling of the spirit in the Perfect, and his
adoption as a son by God. The Lord's Prayer is then repeated by the
postulant after the elder, who explains it clause by clause; the words
_panis superstantialis_ being interpreted not of the material but of
the spiritual bread, which consists of the Words of Life.

There followed the Renunciation, primitive enough in form, but the
postulant solemnly renounced, not Satan and his works and pomp, but the
harlot church of the persecutors, whose prayers were more deadly than
desirable. He renounced the cross which its priests had signed on him
with their chrism, their sham baptisms and other magical rites. Next
followed the spiritual baptism itself, consisting of imposition of
hands, and holding of the Gospel on the postulant's head. The elder
begins a fresh allocution by citing Matt. xxviii. 19, Mark xvi. 15, 16,
John iii. 3 (where the Cathars' text must originally have omitted in v.
5 the words "of water and," since their presence contradicts their
argument). Acts ix. 17, 18, viii. 14-17, are then cited; also John xx.
21-23, Matt. xvi. 18, 19, Matt. xviii. 18-20, for the Perfect one
receives in this rite power to bind and loose. The Perfect's vocation is
then defined: he must not commit adultery nor homicide, nor lie, nor
swear any oath, nor pick and steal, nor do unto another that which he
would not have done unto himself. He shall pardon his wrongdoers, love
his enemies, pray for them that calumniate and accuse him, offer the
other cheek to the smiter, give up his mantle to him that takes his
tunic, neither judge nor condemn. Asked if he will fulfil each of these,
the postulant answers: "I have this will and determination. Pray God for
me that he give me his strength."

The next episode of the rite exactly reproduces the Roman _confiteor_ as
it stood in the 2nd century; "the postulant says: '_Parcite nobis_. For
all the sins I have committed, in word or thought or deed, I come for
pardon to God and to the church and to you all.' And the Christians
shall say: 'By God and by us and by the church may they be pardoned
thee, and we pray God that he pardon you them.'"

There follows the act of "consoling." The elder takes the Gospel off the
white cloth, where it has lain all through the ceremony, and places it
on the postulant's head, and the other good men present place their
right hands on his head; they shall say the _parcias_ (spare), and
thrice the "Let us adore the Father and Son and Holy Spirit," and then
pray thus: "Holy Father, welcome thy servant in thy justice and send
upon him thy grace and thy holy spirit." Then they repeat the "Let us
adore," the Lord's Prayer, and read the Gospel (John i. 1-17).

This was the vital part of the whole rite. The _credens_ is now a
Perfect one. He is girt with the sacred thread round his naked body
under the breasts. Where the fear of the persecutor was absent he was
also clad in a black gown. The Perfect ones present give him the kiss of
peace, and the rite is over. This part of the rite answers partly to the
Catholic confirmation of a baptized person, partly to the ordination of
a pope of Rome or Alexandria. The latter in being ordained had the
Gospel laid on their heads, and the same feature occurs in old Gallican
and Coptic rites of ordaining a bishop.

Thus the Cathar ritual, like that of the Armenian dissenters (see
PAULICIANS), reflects an age when priestly ordination was not yet
differentiated from confirmation. "Is it not curious," says the Abbe
Guiraud, "to remark that the essential rite of the _consolamentum_ is in
effect nothing but the most ancient form of Christian ordination?"

The Cathar Eucharist was equally primitive, and is thus described by a
contemporary writer in a 13th-century MS. of the Milan Library:--"The
Benediction of bread is thus performed by the Cathars. They all, men and
women, go up to a table, and standing up say the 'Our Father.'[4] And he
who is prior among them, at the close of the Lord's Prayer, shall take
hold of the bread and say: 'Thanks be to the God of our Jesus Christ.
May the Spirit be with us all.' And after that he breaks and distributes
to all. And such bread is called bread blessed, although no one believes
that out of it is made the body of Christ. The Albanenses, however,
deny that it can be blessed or sanctified, because it is corporeal"
(i.e. material).

As Tertullian relates of his contemporaries in the 2nd century, so the
Cathars would reserve part of their bread of blessing and keep it for
years, eating of it occasionally though only after saying the
_Benedicite_. The Perfect kept it wrapped up in a bag of pure white
cloth, tied round the neck,[5] and sent it long distances to regions
which through persecution they could not enter. On the death-bed it
could even, like the Catholic _Viaticum_, take the place of the rite of
_Consolamentum_, if this could not be performed. Once a month this
solemn rite of breaking bread was held, the _credentes_ assisting. The
service was called _apparellamentum_, because a table was covered with a
white cloth and the Gospel laid on it. The Perfect were adored, and the
kiss of peace was passed round.

The influence of Catharism on the Catholic church was enormous. To
counteract it celibacy was finally imposed on the clergy, and the great
mendicant orders evolved; while the constant polemic of the Cathar
teachers against the cruelty, rapacity and irascibility of the Jewish
tribal god led the church to prohibit the circulation of the Old
Testament among laymen. The sacrament of "extreme unction" was also
evolved by way of competing with the death-bed _consolamentum_.

  AUTHORITIES--J.J.I. Dollinger, _Beitrage zur Sektengeschichte_
  (Munchen, 1890); Jean Guiraud, _Questions d'histoire_ (Paris, 1906);
  F.C. Conybeare, _The Key of Truth_ (Oxford, 1898); Henry C. Lea,
  _History of the Inquisition_ (New York, 1888); C. Douais,
  _L'Inquisition_ (Paris, 1906), and his _Les Heretiques du midi au
  XIIIe siecle_ (Paris, 1891); _Les Albigeois_ (Paris, 1879); also
  _Practica Inquisitionis_ (of Bernard Gui or Guidon), (Paris, 1886); L.
  Cledat, _Le Nouveau Testament, traduit au XIIIe siecle en langue
  provencale, suivi d'un rituel cathare_ (Paris, 1887); E. Cunitz in
  _Beitrage zu den theol. Wissensch._ (1852), vol. iv.; P. van Limborch,
  _Liber Sententiarum Inquis. Tholos. 1307-1323_ (Amsterdam, 1692);
  Hahn, _Gesch. der Ketzer im M.A._ (Stuttgart, 1845); Ch. Schmidt,
  _Histoire et doctrine de la secte des Cathares_ (Paris, 1849); A.
  Lombard, _Pauliciens bulgares et Bons-Hommes_ (Geneva, 1879);
  Fredericq, _Corpus documentorum haer, pravitatis Neerlandicae_ (Gent,
  1889-1896); Felix Tocco, "Nuovi documenti" in _Archiv. di studi ital._
  (1901), and his _L'Eresia nel media evo_ (Florence, 1881); P. Flade,
  _Das romische Inquisitions-verfahren in Deutschland_ (Leipzig, 1902);
  Ch. Molinier, "Rapport sur une mission en Italie," in _Archives
  scientifiques de Paris_, tom. 14 (1888); C.H. Haskins, "Robert le
  Bougre," in _American Hist. Rev._ (1902).     (F. C. C.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] A certain Peter (_Doc. Doat._, 22, p. 98) declared that could he
    but get hold of the false and perfidious God of the Catholics who
    created a thousand men in order to save a single one and damn all the
    rest, he would break him to pieces and tear him asunder with his
    nails and spit in his face.

  [2] Here we have a doctrine of metempsychosis which seems of Indian
    origin (see ASCETICISM). But Julius Caesar (_de B.G._ vi. 13) attests
    this belief among the ancient Druids of Gaul.

  [3] The Abbe Guiraud remarks that in refusing to take oaths the
    Cathars "contraried the social principles on which the constitutions
    of all states repose," and congratulates himself that society is not
    yet so thoroughly "laicized" as to have given up oaths in the most
    important acts of social life.

  [4] Cf. S. Gregorii _Ep._ ix. 12 (26): "Mos apostolorum fuit ut ad
    ipsam solummodo orationem oblationis hostiam consecrarent." ("The
    custom of the apostles was to use no other prayer but the Lord's in
    consecrating the host of the offering.")

  [5] Cf. Duchesne, _Origines_, ed. 1898, p. 177.




CATHAY, the name by which China (q.v.) was known to medieval Europe and
is still occasionally referred to in poetry, as in Tennyson's "Better
fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay." It is derived from
Khitai, or Khitat, the name which was properly that of the kingdom
established by the Khitan conquerors in the northern provinces of China
about A.D. 907, which after the fall of this dynasty in 1125 remained
attached to their former territory, and was subsequently applied by the
nations of Central Asia to the whole of China. Thus "Kitai" is still the
Russian name for China. The name penetrated to Europe in the 13th
century with the fame of the conquests of Jenghiz Khan. After the
discovery of southern China by European navigators Cathay was
erroneously believed to be a country to the north of China, and it was
the desire to reach it that sent the English adventurers of the 16th
century in search of the north-east passage.




CATHCART, SIR GEORGE (1794-1854), English soldier, third son of the 1st
Earl Cathcart, was born in London on the 12th of May 1794. He was
educated at Eton and Edinburgh University. In 1810 he entered the army,
and two years later accompanied his father to Russia as aide-de-camp.
With him he joined the Russian headquarters in March 1813; and he was
present at all the great battles of that year in Germany, and of the
following year in France, and also at the taking of Paris. The fruits of
his careful observation and critical study of these operations appeared
in the _Commentaries_ on the war in Russia and Germany 1812-1813, a
plain soldier-like history, which he published in 1850. After the peace
of 1814 he accompanied his father to the congress of Vienna. He was
present at Quatre Bras and at Waterloo, as an aide-de-camp to the duke
of Wellington, and remained on the staff till the army of occupation
quitted France. Reappointed almost immediately, he accompanied the duke
to the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle and Verona, and in 1826 to Prussia.
Promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1826, he was placed on half-pay in 1834.
He was recalled to active service in 1838, and sent as commander of the
King's Dragoon Guards to Canada, where he played an important part in
suppressing the rebellion and pacifying the country. In 1844 he returned
to England, and two years later was appointed deputy-lieutenant of the
Tower, a post which he held up to the time of his promotion to
major-general in 1851. In March 1852 he succeeded Sir Harry Smith as
governor and commander-in-chief at the Cape, and brought the Kaffir war,
then in progress, to a successful conclusion. He promulgated the first
constitution of Cape Colony, and conducted operations against the
Basuto. Cathcart was made a K.C.B. and received the thanks of both
Houses for his services (1853). In December 1853 he was made
adjutant-general of the army, but never entered upon his duties, being
sent out to the Crimean War as soon as he arrived in England. He was
even given a dormant commission entitling him to the chief command in
case of accident to Lord Raglan, and the highest hopes were fixed on him
as a scientific and experienced soldier. But these hopes were not to be
fulfilled; for he fell at the battle of Inkerman (November 5, 1854). His
remains, with those of other officers, were buried on Cathcart's Hill.
Sir George Cathcart married in 1824 Lady Georgiana Greville, who
survived him, and by whom he had a family.

  See _Colburn's United Service Magazine_, January 1855; _Correspondence
  of the Hon. Sir George Cathcart relative to Kaffraria_ (1856); A.W.
  Kinglake's _Invasion of the Crimea_, vol. v.




CATHCART, WILLIAM SCHAW CATHCART, 1ST EARL (1755-1843), English soldier
and diplomatist, was born at Petersham on the 17th of September 1755,
and educated at Eton. In 1771 he went to St Petersburg, where his
father, Charles, 9th Baron Cathcart (1721-1776), a general in the army,
was ambassador. From 1773 to 1777 he studied law, but after succeeding
to the barony in 1776 he obtained a commission in the cavalry.
Proceeding to America in 1777, he had before the close of his first
campaign twice won promotion on the field of battle. In 1778 he further
distinguished himself in outpost work, and at the battle of Monmouth he
commanded an irregular corps, the "British Legion," with conspicuous
success; for a time also he acted as quartermaster-general to the forces
in America. He returned home in 1780, and in February 1781 was made
captain and lieutenant-colonel in the Coldstream Guards. He was elected
a representative peer for Scotland in 1788, and in 1792 he became
colonel of the 29th foot. He served with distinction in the campaigns in
the Low Countries, 1793-1795, in the course of which he was promoted
major-general; and in 1801 he was made a lieutenant-general, having in
the meanwhile received the appointments of vice-admiral of Scotland
(1795), privy councillor (1798), and colonel of the 2nd Life Guards
(1797). From 1803 to 1805 Lord Cathcart was commander-in-chief in
Ireland, and in the latter year he was sent by Pitt in command of the
British expedition to Hanover (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). After the
recall of this expedition Cathcart commanded the forces in Scotland
until 1807, when he was placed in charge of the expedition to
Copenhagen, which surrendered to him on the 6th of September. Four weeks
later he was created Viscount Cathcart of Cathcart and Baron Greenock of
Greenock in the peerage of the United Kingdom, resuming the Scottish
command on his return from the front. On the 1st of January 1812 he was
promoted to the full rank of general, and a few months later he
proceeded to Russia as ambassador and military commissioner. In the
latter capacity he served with the headquarters of the allies throughout
the War of Liberation (1812-1814); his success in the delicate and
difficult task of maintaining harmony and devotion to the common cause
amongst the generals of many nationalities was recognized after the war
by his elevation to the earldom (July 1814). He then went to St
Petersburg, and continued to hold the post of ambassador until 1820,
when he returned to England. He died at his estate near Glasgow on the
16th of June 1843.

His son, CHARLES MURRAY CATHCART, 2nd earl (1783-1859), succeeded to the
title in 1843. He entered the 2nd Life Guards in 1800, and saw active
service under Sir James Craig in the Mediterranean, 1805-1806. In 1807 he
became by courtesy Lord Greenock. He took part in the Walcheren expedition
of 1809 as a major, and as a lieutenant-colonel served at Barossa,
Salamanca and Vittoria. He had already gained staff experience, and he now
served under Graham in Holland, 1814, as quartermaster-general. He was
present at Waterloo, and for his services received the C.B. and several
foreign orders. During the peace he became deeply interested in scientific
pursuits, and a new mineral discovered by him in 1841 was named
Greenockite. His later military services included the chief command in
Canada during a period of grave unrest (1846-1849). He retired from active
service in 1850, becoming a full general just before his death. The title
passed to his son and grandson as 3rd and 4th earls.




CATHCART, a parish situated partly in Renfrewshire and partly in
Lanarkshire, Scotland. The Renfrewshire portion has the larger area
(2387 acres), but the smaller population (7375), the area of the
Lanarkshire portion being 745 acres and the population (1901) 20,983.
The industries include paper-making, dyeing and sandstone quarrying, but
limestone and coal have also been worked. The parish includes the town
of Cathcart (pop. 4808), and the villages of Old and New Cathcart, but
much of it, though outside the city boundaries, is practically
continuous with some of the southern suburbs of Glasgow, with which
there is communication by electric tram and the Caledonian railway's
circular line. The White Cart flows through the parish. In the 12th
century Cathcart became a barony of the Cathcarts, who derived the title
of their lordship (1460) and earldom (1814) from it. On the Queen's
Knowe, a hillock near the ruins of Cathcart Castle, a memorial marks the
spot where Queen Mary watched the progress of the battle of Langside
(1568), the site of which lies within the parish.




CATHEDRAL, more correctly "cathedral church" (_ecclesia cathedralis_),
the church which contains the official "seat" or throne of a
bishop--_cathedra_, one of the Latin names for this, giving us the
adjective "cathedral." The adjective has gradually, for briefness of
speech, assumed the character of a substantive, but though an instance
of this (strictly incorrect) use of the word as a substantive has been
found as far back as 1587, it became common only at the end of the 18th,
or first half of the 19th, century. One of the earliest instances of the
term _ecclesia cathedralis_ is said to occur in the acts of the council
of Tarragona in 516. Another name for a cathedral church is _ecclesia
mater_, indicating that it is the mother church. As being the one
important church, it was also known as _ecclesia major_. This is the
formal expression used by Archbishop Walter Gray of York (1216-1255),
and it is preserved in modern times by the name of "_La Majeure_," by
which the old cathedral church of Marseilles is popularly known. Again,
as the chief house of God, the cathedral church was the _Domus Dei_, and
from this name the German _Domkirche_, or _Dom_, is derived, as also the
Swedish _Domkyrka_, and the Italian _Duomo_.

_History and Organization._--It was early decreed that the _cathedra_ of
a bishop was not to be placed in the church of a village, but only in
that of a city. There was no difficulty as to this on the continent of
Europe, where towns were numerous, and where the cities were the natural
centres from which Christianity was diffused among the people who
inhabited the surrounding districts. In the British islands, however,
the case was different; towns were few, and owing to other causes,
instead of exercising jurisdiction over definite areas or districts,
many of the bishops were bishops of tribes or peoples, as the bishops of
the south Saxons, the west Saxons, the Somersaetas and others. The
_cathedra_ of such a bishop was often migratory, and was at times placed
in one church, and then another, and sometimes in the church of a
village. In 1075 a council was held in London, under the presidency of
Archbishop Lanfranc, which, reciting the decrees of the council of
Sardica held in 347 and that of Laodicea held in 360 on this matter,
ordered the bishop of the south Saxons to remove his see from Selsey to
Chichester; the Wilts and Dorset bishop to remove his _cathedra_ from
Sherborne to Old Sarum, and the Mercian bishop, whose _cathedra_ was
then at Lichfield, to transfer it to Chester. Traces of the tribal and
migratory system may still be noted in the designations of the Irish see
of Meath (where the result has been that there is now no cathedral
church) and Ossory, the cathedral church of which is at Kilkenny. Some
of the Scottish sees were also migratory.

By the canon law the bishop is regarded as the pastor of the cathedral
church, the _parochia_ of which is his diocese. In view of this,
canonists speak of the cathedral church as the one church of the
diocese, and all others are deemed chapels in their relation to it.

Occasionally two churches jointly share the distinction of containing
the bishop's _cathedra_. In such case they are said to be con-cathedral
in relation to each other. Instances of this occurred in England before
the Reformation in the dioceses of Bath and Wells, and of Coventry and
Lichfield. Hence the double titles of those dioceses. In Ireland an
example occurs at Dublin, where Christ Church and St Patrick's are
jointly the cathedral churches of that diocese. In France the bishop of
Couserans (a see suppressed at the Revolution) had two con-cathedral
churches at St Lizier, and the bishop of Sisteron (a see also
suppressed) had a second throne in the church of Forcalquier which is
still called "La Con-cathedrale." Other instances might be named. In the
case of York the collegiate churches of Beverley, Ripon and Southwell
were almost in the same position, but although the archbishop had a
stall in each he had no diocesan _cathedra_ in them, and the chapters
were not united with that of the metropolitical church in the direct
government of the diocese, or the election of the archbishop, nor had
they those other rights which were held to denote the cathedral
character of a church.

Cathedral churches are reckoned as of different degrees of dignity: (1)
the simple cathedral church of a diocesan bishop, (2) the metropolitical
church to which the other diocesan cathedral churches of a province are
suffragan, (3) the primatial church under which are ranged
metropolitical churches and their provinces, (4) patriarchal churches to
which primatial, metropolitical, and simple cathedral churches alike owe
allegiance. The title of "primate" was occasionally conferred on
metropolitans of sees of great dignity or importance, such as
Canterbury, York, Rouen, &c., whose cathedral churches remained simply
metropolitical. Lyons, where the cathedral church is still known as "La
Primatiale," and Lund in Sweden, may be cited as instances of churches
which were really primatial. Lyons had the archbishops of Sens and Paris
and their provincial dioceses subject to it till the Revolution, and
Lund had the archbishop of Upsala and his province subject to it. As
with the title of primate, so also that of "patriarch" has been
conferred on sees such as Venice and Lisbon, the cathedral churches of
which are patriarchal in name alone. The cathedral church of St John
Lateran, the cathedral church of the pope as bishop of Rome and
patriarch of the West, alone in western Europe possesses potentially a
patriarchal character. Its formal designation is "_Patriarchalis
Basilica, Sacrosancta Romana Cathedralis Ecclesia Lateranensis_."

The removal of a bishop's _cathedra_ from a church deprives that church
of its cathedral dignity, although often the name clings in common
speech, as for example at Antwerp, which was deprived of its bishop at
the French Revolution.

The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is
obscure, and as in each case local considerations affected its
development, all that can be attempted is to give a general outline of
the main features which were more or less common to all. Originally the
bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which,
in no true sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a
_monasterium_. The word had not the restricted meaning which it
afterwards acquired. Hence the apparent anomaly that churches like York
and Lincoln, which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited
the name of minster or monastery. In these early communities the clergy
often lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently
married. In the 8th century, however, Chrodegang, bishop of Metz
(743-766), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral
churches, which, though widely accepted in Germany and other parts of
the continent, gained little acceptance in England. According to
Chrodegang's rule the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof,
occupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special
officer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of the
Benedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who was bishop of Wells
from 1061 to 1088, introduced it into England, and imposed its
observance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not
followed for long there, or elsewhere in England.

During the two centuries, roughly bounded by the years 900 and 1100, the
cathedral clergy became more definitely organized, and were also divided
into two classes. One was that of a monastic establishment of some
recognized order of monks, very often that of the Benedictines, while
the other class was that of a college of clergy, living in the world,
and bound by no vows, except those of their ordination, but governed by
a code of statutes or canons. Hence the name of "canon" given to them.
In this way arose the distinction between the monastic and secular
cathedral churches. In England the monastic cathedral churches were
Bath, Canterbury, Carlisle, Coventry, Durham, Ely, Norwich, Rochester,
Winchester and Worcester, all of them Benedictine except Carlisle, which
was a church of Augustinians. The secular churches were Chichester,
Exeter, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln, St Paul's (London), Salisbury,
Wells, York, and the four Welsh cathedral churches. In Ireland all were
secular except Christ Church, Dublin (Augustinian), and Down
(Benedictine), and none, even in their earliest days, were ever, it is
believed, churches of recognized orders of monks, except the two named.
In Scotland St Andrew's was Augustinian, Elgin (or Moray), Glasgow and
Aberdeen were always secular, and ordered on the models of Lincoln and
Salisbury. Brechin had a community of Culdees till 1372, when a secular
chapter was constituted. The cathedral church of Galloway, at Whithorn,
of English foundation, was a church of Praemonstratensians. In Germany,
as in England, many of the cathedral churches were monastic. In Denmark
all seem to have been Benedictine at first, except Borglum, which was
Praemonstratensian till the Reformation. The others were changed to
churches of secular canons. In Sweden, Upsala was originally
Benedictine, but was secularized about 1250, and it was ordered that
each of the cathedral churches of Sweden should have a chapter of at
least fifteen secular canons. In France monastic chapters were very
common, but nearly all the monastic cathedral churches there had been
changed to churches of secular canons before the 17th century. One of
the latest to be so changed was that of Seez, in Normandy, which was
Augustinian till 1547, when Pope Paul III. dispensed the members from
their vows, and constituted them a chapter of secular canons. The
chapter of Senez was monastic till 1647, and others perhaps even later,
but the majority were secularized about the time of the Reformation.

In the case of monastic cathedral churches there were no dignitaries,
the internal government was that of the order to which the chapter
belonged, and all the members kept perpetual residence. The reverse of
this was the case with the secular chapters; the dignities of provost,
dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, &c., soon came into being, for
the regulation and good order of the church and its services, while the
non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence,
became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of
"vicars," who officiated for them at the services of the church.

Abroad, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the
provost (_praepositus, Probst_, &c.), who was charged, not only with the
internal regulation of the church, and oversight of the members of the
chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or
seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The latter often
mainly engaged his attention, to the neglect of his domestic and
ecclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost
was too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent
from his spiritual duties. This led, in many cases, to the institution
of a new officer called the "dean," who had charge of that portion of
the provost's duties which related to the internal discipline of the
chapter and the services of the church. In some cases the office of
provost was abolished, but in others it was continued, the provost, who
was also occasionally archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter.
This arrangement was most commonly followed in Germany. In England the
provost was almost unknown. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of
the chapter of Wells, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the
other dignities, and the provost became simply the steward of certain of
the prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of Beverley
was the most notable instance of such an officer in England, but at
Beverley he was an external officer with no authority in the government
of the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter. The provost
of Eton, introduced by Henry VI., occupied a position most nearly
approaching that of a foreign cathedral provost. In Germany and in
Scandinavia, and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of
France, the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but
the office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of one hundred
and thirty-six cathedral churches existing at the Revolution,
thirty-eight only, and those either on the borders of Germany or in the
extreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others the
provost existed as a subordinate officer. There were two provosts at
Autun, and Lyons and Chartres had four each, all as subordinate
officers.

The normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church
comprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in addition to the
canons. The dean (_decanus_) seems to have derived his designation from
the Benedictine dean who had ten monks under his charge. The dean, as
already noted, came into existence to supply the place of the provost in
the internal management of the church and chapter. In England the dean
was the head of all the secular cathedral churches, and was originally
elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. He is
president of the chapter, and in church has charge of the due
performance of the services, taking specified portions of them by
statute on the principal festivals. He sits in the chief stall in the
choir, which is usually the first on the right hand on entering the
choir at the west. Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor
(_primicerius, cantor_, &c.), whose special duty is that of regulating
the musical portion of the services. He presides in the dean's absence,
and occupies the corresponding stall on the left side, although there
are exceptions to this rule, where, as at St Paul's, the archdeacon of
the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the
precentor's stall. The third dignitary is the chancellor (_scholasticus,
ecolatre, capiscol, magistral_, &c.), who must not be confounded with
the chancellor of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church is
charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity
lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly
readers. He is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. In the
absence of the dean and precentor he is president of the chapter. The
easternmost stall, on the dean's side of the choir, is usually assigned
to him. The fourth dignitary is the treasurer (_custos, sacrista,
cheficier_). He is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and
ornaments of the church, and his duty was to provide bread and wine for
the eucharist, and candles and incense, and he regulated such matters as
the ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of
the chancellor. These four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls
in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the "_quatuor majores
personae_" of the church. In many cathedral churches there were
additional dignitaries, as the praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor,
succentor-canonicorum, and others, who came into existence to supply the
places of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal
blot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly
with the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous
residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each
of whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides
receiving his share of the common funds of the church. For the most part
the canons also speedily became non-resident, and this led to the
distinction of residentiary and non-residentiary canons, till in most
churches the number of resident canons became definitely limited in
number, and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the
common funds, became generally known as prebendaries only, although by
their non-residence they did not forfeit their position as canons, and
retained their votes in chapter like the others. This system of
non-residence led also to the institution of vicars choral, each canon
having his own vicar, who sat in his stall in his absence, and when the
canon was present, in the stall immediately below, on the second form.
The vicars had no place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable
except for offences, were the servants of their absent canons whose
stalls they occupied, and whose duties they performed. Abroad they were
often called demi-prebendaries, and they formed the _bas choeur_ of the
French churches. As time went on the vicars were themselves often
incorporated as a kind of lesser chapter, or college, under the
supervision of the dean and chapter.

There was no distinction between the monastic cathedral chapters and
those of the secular canons, in their relation to the bishop or diocese.
In both cases the chapter was the bishop's _consilium_ which he was
bound to consult on all important matters and without doing so he could
not act. Thus, a judicial decision of a bishop needed the confirmation
of the chapter before it could be enforced. He could not change the
service books, or "use" of the church or diocese, without capitular
consent, and there are many episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a
diocesan chancellor, or vicar general, which still need confirmation by
the chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the bishop's council
in ruling the diocese has become a thing of the past, not in England
only, but on the continent also. In its corporate capacity the chapter
takes charge _sede vacante_ of a diocese. In England, however (except as
regards Salisbury and Durham), this custom has never obtained, the two
archbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant
dioceses in their respective provinces. When, however, either of the
sees of Canterbury or York is vacant, the chapters of those churches
take charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and
incidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province which
may be vacant at the same time.

All the English monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by Henry
VIII., and, except Bath and Coventry, were refounded by him as churches
of secular chapters, with a dean as the head, and a certain number of
canons ranging from twelve at Canterbury and Durham to four at Carlisle,
and with certain subordinate officers as minor canons, gospellers,
epistolers, &c. The precentorship in these churches of the "New
Foundation," as they are called, is not, as in the secular churches of
the "Old Foundation," a dignity, but is merely an office held by one of
the minor canons.

English cathedral churches, at the present day, may be classed under
four heads: (1) the old secular cathedral churches of the "Old
Foundation," enumerated in the earlier part of this article; (2) the
churches of the "New Foundation" of Henry VIII., which are the monastic
churches already specified, with the exception of Bath and Coventry; (3)
the cathedral churches of bishoprics founded by Henry VIII., viz.
Bristol, Chester, Gloucester, Oxford and Peterborough (the constitution
of the chapters of which corresponds to those of the New Foundation);
(4) modern cathedral churches of sees founded since 1836, viz. (a)
Manchester, Ripon and Southwell, formerly collegiate churches of secular
canons; (b) St Albans and Southwark, originally monastic churches; (c)
Truro, Newcastle and Wakefield, formerly parish churches, (d) Birmingham
and Liverpool, originally district churches. The ruined cathedral church
of the diocese of Sodor (i.e. the Southern Isles) and Man, at Peel in
the latter island, appears never to have had a chapter of clergy
attached to it.

  AUTHORITIES.--Frances, _De ecclesiis cathredralibus_ (Venice, 1698);
  Bordenave, _L'Estat des eglises cathedrales_ (Paris, 1643); Van Espen,
  _Supplement III._, cap. 5; Hericourt, _Les Loix ecclesiastiques de
  France_ (Paris, 1756); _La France ecclesiastique_ (Paris, 1790);
  Daugaard, _Om de Danske Klostre i Middelalderen_ (Copenhagen, 1830);
  Hinschius, _Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken u. Protestanten in
  Deutschland_, ii. (Berlin, 1878); Walcott, _Cathedralia_ (London,
  1865); Freeman, _Cathedral Church of Wells_ (London, 1870); Benson,
  _The Cathedral_ (London, 1878); Bradshaw and Wordsworth, _Lincoln
  Cathedral Statutes_ (Camb., 1894).     (T. M. F.)

_Architecture._--From the architectural point of view there is no
special treatment as regards dimensions or style for a cathedral other
than that required for a church or abbey, as there are cases when the
former are comparatively small buildings (like the old cathedral at
Athens), and some parish churches and abbeys are larger than many
cathedrals. In recent times, indeed, some English abbeys or minsters,
such as those of Ripon, Manchester, St Albans and Southwell, partly on
account of their dimensions, have been raised to the rank of cathedrals,
in consequence of the demand for additional sees; others, such as those
of Bristol, Gloucester, Oxford, Chester and Peterborough, became
cathedrals only on the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII.

Under the headings NAVE, AISLE, CHOIR, APSE, CHEVET, and LADY-CHAPEL,
the principal arrangements of the plan of a cathedral are dealt with,
and its architectural features, such as TOWER and SPIRE, PORCH,
TRIFORIUM, CLERESTORY and VAULT, are separately defined; while in the
article ARCHITECTURE the evolution of the various styles in England,
France, Germany, Italy and Spain, is set forth. It is only necessary
here to deal with the development of the eastern end of English and
foreign cathedrals, as it was in those that the greatest changes from
the middle of the 11th century to the close of the 16th century took
place.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of Canterbury Cathedral.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Salisbury Cathedral.]

The earliest extended development of the eastern end of the cathedral is
that which was first set out in Edward the Confessor's church at
Westminster, probably borrowed from the ancient church of St Martin at
Tours; in this church, dating probably from the 10th century, two new
elements are found, (1) the carrying of the choir aisle round a circular
apse so as to provide a processional aisle round the eastern end of the
church, and (2) five apsidal chapels, constituting the germ of the
chevet, which transformed the eastern terminations of the French
cathedrals in the 12th and 13th centuries. It is only within recent
times that the foundations of the early church at Tours with its choir
aisle and chapels have been traced under the existing church. In Edward
the Confessor's church (1050) there were probably only three chapels and
a processional aisle; in the next example at Gloucester (1089) were also
three chapels, two of which, on the north and south sides of the aisle,
still remain; the same is found in Canterbury (1096-1107) and Norwich
(1089-1119), the eastern chapel in all three cases having been taken
down to make way for the Lady-chapel in Gloucester and Norwich, and for
the Trinity chapel in Canterbury cathedral (fig. 1). The semicircular
aisle is said to have existed in the Anglo-Norman cathedral of
Winchester, but the eastern end being square, two chapels were arranged
filling the north and south ends, and an apsidal chapel projecting
beyond the east wall. This semicircular processional aisle with chevet
chapels was the favourite type of plan in the Anglo-Norman cathedrals,
and was followed up to about the middle of the 12th century, when the
English builders in some cases returned to the square east end instead
of the semicircular apsidal termination. The earliest example of this
exists in Romsey Abbey (c. 1130), where the processional path crosses
behind the presbytery, there being eastern apsidal chapels in the axis
of the presbytery aisle and a central rectangular chapel beyond. A
similar arrangement is found in Hereford cathedral, and exists in
Winchester, Salisbury (fig. 2), Durham, St Albans, Exeter, Ely, Wells
and Peterborough, except that in all those cases (except Wells) the
eastern chapels are square ended; in Wells cathedral the most eastern
chapel (the Lady-chapel) has a polygonal termination; in Durham (fig.
3), the eastern chapels are all in one line, constituting the chapel of
the nine altars, which was probably borrowed from the eastern end of
Fountains Abbey. It should be noted that in some of the above the
original design has been transformed in rebuilding; thus in St Albans,
Durham, York and Exeter cathedrals, there was no eastern ambulatory but
three parallel apses, in some cases rectangular externally. In
Southwell, Rochester, Ely and Chester, there was no processional path or
ambulatory round the east end; in Carlisle no eastern chapels; and in
Oxford only one central apse. In Ely cathedral (fig. 4) the great
central tower built by the first Norman abbot (1082-1094) fell down in
1321, carrying with it portions of the adjoining bays of the nave,
transept and choir; instead of attempting to rebuild the tower, Alan of
Walsingham conceived the idea of obtaining a much larger area in the
centre of the cathedral, and instead of rebuilding the piers of the
tower he took as the base of his design a central octagonal space, the
width of which was equal to that of nave and aisles, with wide arches to
nave, transepts and choir, and smaller arches across the octagonal
sides; from shafts in the eight pier angles, ribs in wood project
forward and carry a smaller octagon on which the lantern rests.
Internally the effect of this central octagon is of great beauty and
originality, and it is the only instance of such a feature in English
Gothic architecture. (See ARCHITECTURE, Plate VIII., fig. 82.)

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Plan of Durham Cathedral.]

The earliest example of the chevet is probably to be found in the church
of St Martin at Tours; this was followed by others at Tournus,
Clermont-Ferrand, Auxerre, Chartres, Le Mans and other churches built
during the great church-building period of the 11th century. In the
still greater movement in the 12th century, when the episcopacy,
supported by the emancipated communes, undertook the erection of
cathedrals of greater dimensions and the reconstruction of others, in
some cases they utilized the old foundations, as in Chartres (fig. 5),
Coutances and Auxerre cathedrals, while in others (as at Le Mans) they
extended the eastern termination, much in the same way as in many of the
early examples in England, with this important difference, that when the
apsidal east end was given up (about the middle of the 12th century) in
favour of the square east end in England, the French, on the other hand,
developed it by doubling the choir aisles and adding to the number of
extra chapels; thus in Canterbury, Norwich and Gloucester, there were
only three apsidal chapels in the chevet, whereas in Noyon (1150),
Soissons (1190), Reims (1212), Tours, Seez, Bayeux (1230), Clermont
(1275), Senlis, Limoges, Albi and Narbonne cathedrals there were five;
in Amiens, Le Mans and Beauvais, there were seven apsidal chapels, and
in Chartres cathedral nine. Double aisles round the choir, of which
there are no examples in England, are found in the cathedrals of Paris,
Bourges and Le Mans; the cathedral of Sens (fig. 6) (1144-1168)
possesses one feature which is almost unique, viz. the coupled columns
of the alternate bays of nave and choir and of the apse; and these were
introduced into the chapel of the Trinity in Canterbury cathedral,
probably from the designs of William of Sens, by his successor William
the Englishman. The square east end found no favour in France--Laon,
Poiters and Dol being the only cathedral examples; and of the triapsal
arrangement, viz. with apses in the axes of the choir aisle and a
central apse, the only example is that of the cathedral of Autun. The
immense development given to the eastern limb of the French cathedrals
was sometimes obtained at the expense of the nave, so that,
notwithstanding the much greater dimensions compared with English
examples, in the latter the naves are much longer and consist of more
bays than those in France.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of Ely Cathedral.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plan of Chartres Cathedral.]

In one of the French cathedrals, Bourges, there is no transept; on the
other hand there are many examples in which this part of the church is
emphasized by having aisles on each side, as at Laon, Soissons,
Chartres, Reims, Amiens, Rouen and Clermont cathedrals. Transept aisles
in England are found in Ely, York, Wells and Winchester cathedrals, in
the last being carried round the south and north ends of the transept;
aisles on the east side of the transept only, in some cases probably for
additional altars, exist in Durham, Salisbury, Lichfield, Peterborough
and Ripon cathedrals; and on the north side only in Hereford cathedral.
In Rouen cathedral, east of the transept aisles, there are apsidal
chapels, which with the three chapels in the chevet make up the usual
number. The cathedral of Poitiers has been referred to as an example of
a square east end, but a sort of compromise has been made by the
provision of three segmental apses, and there are no windows in the east
front; the most remarkable divergence from the usual design is found
here in the absence of any triforium or clerestory, owing to the fact
that the vault of the aisles is nearly as high as that of the nave, so
that it constitutes an example of what in Germany (where there are many)
are called _Hallen Kirchen_; the light being obtained through the aisle
windows only gives a gloomy effect to the nave. Another departure from
the usual plan is that found in Albi cathedral (1350), in which there
are no aisles, their place being taken by chapels between the buttresses
which were required to resist the thrust of the nave vault, the widest
in France. The cathedral is built in brick and externally has the
appearance of a fortress. In the cathedrals of the south-west of France,
where the naves are covered with a series of domes--as at Cahors,
Angouleme and St Front de Perigueux--the immense piers required to carry
them made it necessary to dispense with aisles. The cathedral of
Angouleme (fig. 7) consists of a nave covered with three domes, a
transept of great length with lofty towers over the north and south
ends, and an apsidal choir with four chevet chapels. In St Front de
Perigueux (1150), based on St Mark's at Venice, the plan consists of
nave, transept and choir, all of equal dimensions, each of them, as well
as the crossing, vaulted over with a dome, while originally there was a
simple apsidal choir.

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Plan of Sens Cathedral.]

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Plan of Angouleme Cathedral.]

Returning now to the great cathedrals in the north of France, we give an
illustration (fig. 8) of Amiens cathedral (from Viollet le Duc's
_Dictionnaire raisonne_) which shows the disposition of a cathedral,
with its nave-arches, triforium, clerestory windows and vault, the
flying buttresses which were required to carry the thrust of the vault
to the outer buttresses which flanked the aisle walls, and the lofty
pinnacles which surmounted them. In this case there was no triforium
gallery, owing to the greater height given to the aisles. In Notre Dame
at Paris the triforium was nearly as high as the aisles; in large towns
this feature gave increased accommodation for the congregation,
especially on the occasion of great fetes, and it is found in Noyon,
Laon, Senlis and Soissons cathedrals, built in the latter part of the
12th century; later it was omitted, and a narrow passage in the
thickness of the wall only represented the triforium; at a still later
period the aisles were covered with a stone pavement of slight fall so
as to allow of loftier clerestory windows.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Perspective of Amiens Cathedral.]

The cathedrals in Spain follow on the same lines as those in France. The
cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is virtually a copy of St Sernin at
Toulouse, consisting of nave and aisles, transepts and aisles, and a
choir with chevet of five chapels; at Leon there is a chevet with five
apsidal chapels, and at Toledo an east end with double aisles round the
apse with originally seven small apsidal chapels, two of them rebuilt at
a very late period. At Leon, Barcelona and Toledo the processional
passage round the apse with apsidal chapels recalls the French
disposition, there being a double aisle around the latter, but in Leon
and Toledo cathedrals the east end is masked externally by other
buildings, so that the beauty of the chevet is entirely lost. At Avila
and Salamanca (old cathedral) the triapsal arrangement is adopted, and
the same is found in the German cathedrals, with one important
exception, the cathedral of Cologne, which was based on that of Amiens,
the comparative height of the former, however, being so exaggerated that
scale has been lost, and externally it has the appearance of an
overgrown monster.

  Under the headings VAULT, FLYING BUTTRESS, PINNACLE, CLERESTORY and
  TRIFORIUM, definitions are given of these chief components of a
  cathedral or church; but as their design varies materially in almost
  every example, without a very large number of drawings it would be
  impossible to treat them more in detail. The perspective view, taken
  from Viollet le Duc's dictionary, of the interior of the nave of
  Amiens cathedral illustrates the principal features, viz. the vault
  (in this case quadripartite, with flying buttresses and pinnacle), the
  triforium (in this case limited to a narrow passage in the thickness
  of the wall), and the nave-arches, with the side aisles, beneath the
  windows of which is the decorative arcade. (R. P. S.)




CATHELINEAU, JACQUES (1759-1793), French Vendean chieftain during the
Revolution, was born at Tin-en-Manges, in the country now forming the
department of Maine-et-Loire. He became well known in the country of
Anjou, over which he travelled as a pedlar and dealer in contraband
goods. His physical strength and his great piety gave him considerable
ascendancy over the peasants, who surnamed him "the saint of Anjou." In
the first years of the Revolution, Cathelineau listened to the
exhortations of Catholic priests and royalist _emigres_, and joined the
insurrection provoked by them against the revolutionary government.
Collecting a band of peasants and smugglers, he took the chateau of
Gallais, where he captured a cannon, christened by the Vendeans the
"Missionary"; he then took the towns of Chemille, Cholet, Vihiers and
Chalonnes (March 1793). His companions committed atrocities which
brought upon them terrible reprisals on the part of the Republicans.
Meanwhile Cathelineau's troops increased, and he combined with the other
Vendean chiefs, such as N. Stofflet and Gigot d'Elbee, taking the towns
of Beaupreau, Fontenay and Saumur. The first successes of the Vendeans
were due to the fact that the Republicans had not expected an
insurrection. When the resistance to the insurgents became more serious,
differences arose among their leaders. To avoid these rivalries, it is
thought that Cathelineau was named generalissimo of the rebels, though
his authority over the undisciplined troops was not increased by the new
office. In 1793 all the Royalist forces tried to capture Nantes.
Cathelineau entered the town in spite of the resistance of General
J.B.C. Canclaux, but he was killed, and the Vendean army broke up.
Numerous relatives of Cathelineau also perished in the war of La Vendee.
His grandson, Henri de Cathelineau, figured in the war of 1870 between
France and Germany (see also VENDEE; CHOUANS).

  See C. Port, _Vie de J. Cathelineau_ (1882); "La Legende de
  Cathelineau" in the review _La Revolution francaise_, vol. xxiv.; _Les
  Origines de la Vendee_ (Paris, 1888, 2 vols.); _Dictionnaire
  historique de Maine-et-Loire_; Cretineau-Joly, _Histoire de la Vendee
  militaire_, Th. Muret, _Vie populaire de Cathelineau_ (1845).
       (R. A.*)




CATHERINE, SAINT. The Roman hagiology contains the record of six saints
of this name. 1. ST CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA, Virgin and Martyr, whose
day of commemoration recurs on the 25th of November, and in some places
on the 5th of March. 2. ST CATHERINE OF SWEDEN, a daughter of St
Bridget, who died abbess of Watzen in March 1381, and is commemorated on
the 22nd of that month. 3. ST CATHERINE OF SIENA, 1347-1380, whose
festal day is observed on the 30th of April. 4. ST CATHERINE OF BOLOGNA,
1413-1463, a visionary, abbess of the convent of the Poor Clares in
Bologna, canonized by Pope Benedict XIII., and commemorated throughout
the Franciscan order on the 9th of March. 5. ST CATHERINE OF GENOA,[1]
who belonged to the noble family of Fieschi, was born about 1447, spent
her life and her means in succouring and attending on the sick,
especially in the time of the plague which ravaged Genoa in 1497 and
1501, died in that city in 1510, was beatified by Clement V. in 1675 and
canonized by Clement XII. in 1737; her name was placed in the calendar
on the 22nd of July by Benedict XIV. 6. ST CATHERINE DE' RICCI, of
Florence, daughter of a wealthy merchant prince, was born in 1522,
became a nun in the convent of the Dominicans at Prato in 1536, and died
in 1589. She was famous during her life-time for the weekly ecstasy of
the Passion, during which in a trance she experienced the sufferings of
the Holy Virgin contemplating the Passion of her Son. She was canonized
in 1746 by Benedict XIV., who fixed her festal day on the 13th of
February. In Celtic and English martyrologies (November 25) there is
also commemorated St Catherine Audley (_c._ 1400), a recluse of Ledbury,
Hereford, who was reputed for piety and clairvoyance.


  St Catherine, virgin and martyr.

Of two of these saints, St Catherine of Alexandria, _the_ St Catherine
_par excellence_, and St Catherine of Siena, something more must be
said. Of the former history has little or nothing to tell. The Maronite
scholar, Joseph Simon Assemani (1687-1768), first identified her with
the royal and wealthy lady of Alexandria (Eusebius, _Hist. Eccl._ viii.
14) who, for refusing the solicitations of the emperor Maximinus, was
deprived of her property and banished. But Rufinus (_Hist. Eccl._ viii.
17) called this lady Dorothea, and the old Catherine legend, as recorded
in the Roman martyrology and by Simeon Metaphrastes, has quite other
features. According to it Catherine was the daughter of King Konetos,
eighteen years old, beautiful and wise. During the persecution under
Maximinus she sought an interview with the emperor, upbraided him for
his cruelties, and adjured him to give up the worship of false gods. The
angry tyrant, unable to refute her arguments himself, sent for pagan
scholars to argue with her, but they were discomfited. Catherine was
then scourged and cast into prison, and the empress was sent to reason
with her; but the dauntless virgin converted not only the empress but
the Roman general and his soldiers who had accompanied her. Maximinus
now ordered her to be broken on the wheel; but the wheel was shattered
by her touch. The headsman's axe proved more fatal, and the martyr's
body was borne by angels to Mount Sinai, where Justinian I. built the
famous monastery in her honour. Another development of the legend is
that in which, having rejected many offers of marriage, she was taken to
heaven in vision and betrothed to Christ by the Virgin Mary.

Of all these marvellous incidents very little, by the universal
admission of Catholic scholars, has survived the test of modern
criticism. That St Catherine actually existed there is, indeed, no
evidence to disprove; and it is possible that some of the elements in
her legend are due to confusion with the story of Hypatia (q.v.), the
neo-platonic philosopher of Alexandria, who was done to death by a
Christian mob. To the men of the middle ages, in any case, St Catherine
was very real; she was ranked with the fourteen most helpful saints in
heaven, and was the constant theme of preachers and of poets. Her
festival was celebrated in many places with the utmost splendour, and in
certain dioceses in France was a holy day of obligation as late as the
beginning of the 17th century. Numberless chapels were dedicated to her,
and in nearly all churches her statue was set up, the saint being
represented with a wheel, her instrument of torture, and sometimes with
a crown and a book. The wheel being her symbol she was the patron saint
of wheelwrights and mechanics; as the confounder of heathen sophistry
she was invoked by theologians, apologists, preachers and philosophers,
and was chosen as the patron saint of the university of Paris; as the
most holy and illustrious of Christian virgins she became the tutelary
saint of nuns and virgins generally. So late as the 16th century,
Bossuet delivered a panegyric upon her, and it was the action of Dom
Deforis, the Benedictine editor of his works, in criticizing the
accuracy of the data on which this was based, that first discredited the
legend. The saint's feast was removed from the Breviary at Paris about
this time, and the devotion to St Catherine has since lost its earlier
popularity. See Leon Clugnet's article in the _Catholic Encyclopaedia_,
vol. iii. (London, 1908).


  St Catherine of Siena.

St Catherine of Siena was the youngest of the twenty-five children of
Giacomo di Benincasa, a dyer, and was born, with a twin-sister who did
not survive her birth, on the 25th of March 1347. A highly sensitive and
imaginative child, she very early began to practise asceticism and see
visions, and at the age of seven solemnly dedicated her virginity to
Christ. She was attracted by what she had heard of the desert
anchorites, and in 1363-1364, after much struggle, persuaded her parents
to allow her to take the habit of the Dominican tertiaries. For a while
she led at home the life of a recluse, speaking only to her confessor,
and spending all her time in devotion and spiritual ecstasy. Her innate
humanity and sound sense, however, led her gradually to return to her
place in the family circle, and she began also to seek out and help the
poor and the sick. In 1368 her father died, and she assumed the care of
her mother Lapa. During the following years she became known to an
increasingly wide circle, especially as a peacemaker, and entered into
correspondence with many friends. Her peculiarities excited suspicion,
and charges seem to have been brought against her by some of the
Dominicans to answer which she went to Florence in 1374, soon returning
to Siena to tend the plague-stricken. Here first she met the Dominican
friar, Raimondo of Capua, her confessor and biographer.

The year 1375 found Catherine entering on a wider stage. At the
invitation of Piero Gambacorti, the ruler of the republic of Pisa, she
visited that city and there endeavoured to arouse enthusiasm for the
proposed crusade, urging princes and presidents, commanders and private
citizens alike to join in "the holy passage." To this task was added
that of trying to keep Pisa and Lucca from joining the Tuscan League
against the pope. It was at Pisa, in the church of Santa Cristina, on
the fourth Sunday in Lent (April 1), while rapt in ecstasy after the
communion, that Catherine's greatest traditional glory befell her, viz.
the _stigmata_ or impression on her hands, feet and heart, of the wounds
corresponding with those received by Christ at his crucifixion. The
marks, however, were at her prayer not made visible. There is no need to
doubt the reality of Catherine's exaltation, but it should be remembered
that she and her circle were Dominicans, and that the stigmata of St
Francis of Assisi were considered the crowning glory of the saint, and
hitherto the exclusive boast of the Franciscans. The tendency observable
in many of the austerities and miracles attributed to St Catherine to
outstrip those of other saints, particularly Francis, is especially
remarkable in this marvel of the stigmata, and so acute became the
rivalry between the two orders that Pope Sixtus IV., himself a
Franciscan, issued a decree asserting that St Francis had an exclusive
monopoly of this particular wonder, and making it a censurable offence
to represent St Catherine receiving the stigmata.

In the year 1376, the 29th of Catherine's life, Gregory XI. was living
and holding the papal court at Avignon. He was the last of seven French
popes in succession who had done so, and had perpetuated for
seventy-three years what ecclesiastical writers are fond of terming "the
Babylonian captivity of the church." To put an end to this absenteeism,
and to bring back the papacy to Italy was the cherished and anxious wish
of all good Italians, and especially of all Italian churchmen. Petrarch
had urgently pressed Urban V., Gregory's immediate predecessor, to
accomplish the desired change; and Dante had at an earlier date laboured
to bring about the same object. But these and all the other influences
which Italy had striven to bring to bear on the popes had hitherto
failed to induce them to return. In these circumstances Catherine
determined to try her powers of persuasion and argument, attempting
first by correspondence to reconcile Gregory and the Florentines, who
had been placed under an interdict, and then going in person as the
representative of the latter to Avignon, where she arrived on the 18th
of June. Gregory empowered her to treat for peace, but the Florentine
ambassadors were first tardy and then faithless. Nothing daunted,
Catherine herself besought Gregory, who, indeed, was himself so minded,
to return, and he did so, in September (taking the sea route from
Marseilles to Genoa), though perhaps intending only to make a temporary
stay in Italy. Catherine went home by land and stayed for a month in
Genoa with Madonna Orietta Scotti, a noble lady of that city, at whose
house Gregory had a long colloquy with her, which encouraged him to push
on to Rome. To this year, 1376, belongs the admission to Catherine's
circle of disciples of Stefano di Corrado Maconi, a Sienese noble
distinguished by a character full of charm and purity, and her healing
of the bitter feud between his family and the Tolomei. Another family
quarrel, that of the Salimbeni at Rocca D'Orcia, was ended by her
intervention in 1377. This year also she turned the castle of Belcaro,
which had been given to her, into a monastery.

Meanwhile the returned pope was not having an easy time. Besides
perpetuating the strife with his enemies he was alienating his friends,
and finding it increasingly difficult to pay his mercenaries. He vented
his anger upon Catherine, who reproved him for minding temporal rather
than spiritual things, but in the beginning of 1378 sent her on an
embassy to Florence and especially to the Guelph party. While she was
urging the citizens to make peace with the pope there came the news of
his death. During the troubles that ensued in Florence Catherine nearly
lost her life in a popular tumult, and sorely regretted not winning her
heart's desire, "the red rose of martyrdom." Peace was signed with the
new pope, Urban VI., and Catherine, having thus accomplished her second
great political task, went home again to Siena. Thence on the outbreak
of the schism Urban summoned her to Rome, whither, somewhat reluctantly,
she journeyed with her now large spiritual family in November. Once
arrived she gave herself heartily to Urban's cause, and wore her slender
powers out in restraining his impatient temper, quieting the revolt of
the people of Rome, and trying to win for Urban the support of Europe.
After prolonged and continual suffering she died on the 29th of April
1380.

  Catherine of Siena lived on not only in her writings but in her
  disciples. During her short course she gathered round her a devoted
  company of men and women trained to labour for the reformation of the
  individual, the church and the state. Her death naturally broke up the
  fellowship, but its members did not cease their activity and kept up
  what mutual correspondence was possible. Among them were Fra Raimondo,
  who became master-general of the Dominicans, William Flete, an
  ascetically-minded Englishman from Cambridge, Stefano Maconi, who
  joined the Carthusians and ultimately became prior-general, and the
  two secretaries, Neri di Landoccio and Francesco Malavolti. The last
  of her band, Tommaso Caffarini, died in 1434, but the work was taken
  up, though in other shape, by Savonarola, between Francis of Assisi
  and whom Catherine forms the connecting link.

  Catherine's works consist of (l) a treatise occupying a
  closely-printed quarto volume, which Fra Raimondo describes as "a
  dialogue between a soul, which asked four questions of the Lord, and
  the same Lord, who made answer and gave instruction in many most
  useful truths," (2) letters, and (3) prayers. The dialogue is
  entitled, _The Book of Divine Doctrine, given in person by God the
  Father, speaking to the mind of the most glorious and holy virgin
  Catherine of Siena, and written down as she dictated it in the vulgar
  tongue, she being the while entranced, and actually hearing what God
  spoke in her_. The work is declared to have been dictated by the saint
  in her father's house in Siena, a little before she went to Rome, and
  to have been completed on the 13th of October 1378. The book opens
  with a passage on the essence of mysticism, the union of the soul with
  God in love, and the bulk of it is a compendium of the spiritual
  teachings scattered throughout her letters. There is more monologue
  than dialogue. The book has a significant place in the history of
  Italian literature. "In a language which is singularly poor in
  mystical works it stands with the _Divina Commedia_ as one of the two
  supreme attempts to express the eternal in the symbolism of a day, to
  paint the union of the soul with the supra-sensible while still
  imprisoned in the flesh." The prayers (twenty-six in all) are mostly
  mystical outpourings repeating the aspirations found in her other
  writings. Of more interest are the letters, nearly four hundred in
  number, and addressed to kings, popes, cardinals, bishops, conventual
  bodies, political corporations and private individuals. Their
  historical importance, their spiritual fragrance and their literary
  value combine to put their author almost on a level with Petrarch as a
  14th century letter-writer. Her language is the purest Tuscan of the
  golden age of the Italian vernacular, and with spontaneous eloquence
  she passes to and fro between spiritual counsel, domestic advice and
  political guidance.

  AUTHORITIES.--The sources for the personal life of Catherine of Siena
  are (l) the _Vita_ or _Legenda_, Fra Raimondo's biography written
  1384-1395, first published in Latin at Cologne, 1553, and widely
  translated; (2) the _Processus_, a collection of testimonies and
  letters by those of her followers who survived in 1411, and had to
  justify the reverence paid to the memory of one yet uncanonized; (3)
  the _Supplementum_ to Raimondo's _Vita_, compiled by Tommaso Caffarini
  in 1414; (4) the _Legenda abbreviata_, Caffarini's summary of the
  _Vita_, translated into beautiful Italian by Stefano Maconi; (5) the
  _Letters_, of which the standard edition is that of Girolamo Gigli (2
  vols., Siena, 1713, Lucca, 1721). A selection of these has been
  published in English by V.D. Scudder (London, 1905). A complete
  bibliography is given in E.G. Gardner's _Saint Catherine of Siena_
  (London, 1907), a monumental study dealing with the religion, history
  and literature of the 14th century in Italy as they centre "in the
  work and personality of one of the most wonderful women that have ever
  lived."


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] See the study in Baron Fr. von Hugel's _Mystical Element in
    Religion_ (1909).




CATHERINE I. (1683-1727), empress of Russia. The true character and
origin of this enigmatical woman were, until quite recently, among the
most obscure problems of Russian history. It now appears that she came
of a Lithuanian stock, and was one of the four children of a small
Catholic yeoman, Samuel Skovronsky; but her father died of the plague
while she was still a babe, the family scattered, and little Martha was
adopted by Pastor Gluck, the Protestant superintendent of the Marienburg
district. Frau Gluck finally rid herself of the girl by marrying her to
a Swedish dragoon called Johan. A few months later, the Swedes were
compelled by the Russians to evacuate Marienburg, and Martha became one
of the prisoners of war of Marshal Sheremetev, who sold her to Prince
Menshikov, at whose house, in the German suburb of Moscow, Peter the
Great first beheld and made love to her in his own peculiar fashion.
After the birth of their first daughter Catherine, Peter made no secret
of their relations. He had found, at last, the woman he wanted, and she
soon became so indispensable to him that it was a torment to be without
her. The situation was regulated by the reception of Martha into the
Orthodox Church, when she was rechristened under the name of Catherine
Alekseyevna, the tsarevich Alexius being her godfather, by the bestowal
upon her of the title _Gosudaruinya_ or sovereign (1710), and, finally
(1711), by her public marriage to the tsar, who divorced the tsaritsa
Eudoxia to make room for her. Henceforth the new tsaritsa was her
husband's inseparable companion. She was with him during the campaign of
the Pruth, and Peter always attributed the successful issue of that
disastrous war to the courage and sang-froid of his consort. She was
with him, too, during his earlier Caspian campaigns, and was obliged on
this occasion to shear off her beautiful hair and wear a close-fitting
fur cap to protect her from the rays of the sun.

By the _ukaz_ of 1722 Catherine was proclaimed Peter's successor, to the
exclusion of the grand-duke Peter, the only son of the tsarevich
Alexius, and on the 7th of May 1724 was solemnly crowned empress-consort
in the Uspensky cathedral at Moscow, on which occasion she wore a crown
studded with no fewer than 2564 precious stones, surmounted by a ruby,
as large as a pigeon's egg, supporting a cross of brilliants. Within a
few months of this culminating triumph, she was threatened with utter
ruin by the discovery of a supposed _liaison_ with her gentleman of the
bedchamber, William Mons, a handsome and unscrupulous upstart, and the
brother of a former mistress of Peter. A dangerously familiar but
perfectly innocent flirtation is, however, the worst that can fairly be
alleged against Catherine on this occasion. So Peter also seemed to have
thought, for though Mons was decapitated and his severed head, preserved
in spirits, was placed in the apartments of the empress, she did not
lose Peter's favour, attended him during his last illness, and closed
his eyes when he expired (January 28, 1725). She was at once raised to
the throne by the party of progress, as represented by Prince Menshikov
and Count Tolstoy, whose interests and perils were identical with those
of the empress, before the reactionary party had time to organize
opposition, her great popularity with the army powerfully contributing
to her success. The arch-prelates of the Russian church, Theodosius,
archbishop of Novgorod, and Theophanes, archbishop of Pskov, were also
on her side for very much the same reason, both of them being unpopular
innovators who felt that, at this crisis, they must stand or fall with
Tolstoy and Menshikov.

The great administrative innovation of Catherine's reign was the
establishment of the _Verkhovny Tainy Sovyet_, or supreme privy council,
by way of strengthening the executive, by concentrating affairs in the
hands of a few persons, mainly of the party of Reform (_Ukazoi_ February
26, 1726). As to the foreign policy of Catherine I. (principally
directed by the astute Andrei Osterman), if purely pacific and extremely
cautious, it was, nevertheless, dignified, consistent and independent.
Russia, by the mere force of circumstances, now found herself opposed to
England, chiefly because Catherine protected Charles Frederick, duke of
Holstein, and George I. found that the Schleswig-Holstein question might
be reopened to the detriment of his Hanoverian possessions. Things came
to such a pass that, in the spring of 1726, an English squadron was sent
to the Baltic and cast anchor before Reval. The empress vigorously
protested, and the fleet was withdrawn, but on the 6th of August
Catherine acceded to the anti-English Austro-Spanish league. Catherine
died on the 16th of May 1727. Though quite illiterate, she was an
uncommonly shrewd and sensible woman, and her imperturbable good nature
under exceptionally difficult circumstances, testifies equally to the
soundness of her head and the goodness of her heart.

  See Robert Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_, chs. ii.-iii.
  (London, 1897); _The First Romanovs_, ch. xiv. (London, 1905).
       (R. N. B.)




CATHERINE II. (1729-1796), empress of Russia, was the daughter of
Christian Augustus, prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, and his wife, Johanna
Elizabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. The exact date and place of her birth
have been disputed, but there appears to be no reason to doubt that she
was right in saying that she was born at Stettin on the 2nd of May 1729.
Her father, who succeeded to the principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1746
and died in 1747, was a general in the Prussian service, and, at the
time of her birth, was military commandant at Stettin. Her baptismal
name was Sophia Augusta Frederica. In accordance with the custom then
prevailing in German princely families, she was educated chiefly by
French governesses and tutors. In 1744 she was taken to Russia, to be
affianced to the grand-duke Peter, the nephew of the empress Elizabeth
(q.v.), and her recognized heir. The princess of Anhalt-Zerbst was the
daughter of Christian Albert, bishop of Lubeck, younger brother of
Frederick IV., duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Peter's paternal grandfather.
The choice of her daughter as wife of the future tsar was the result of
not a little diplomatic management in which Frederick the Great took an
active part, the object being to strengthen the friendship between
Prussia and Russia, to weaken the influence of Austria and to ruin the
chancellor Bestuzhev, on whom Elizabeth relied, and who was a known
partisan of the Austrian alliance. The diplomatic intrigue failed,
largely through the flighty intervention of the princess of
Anhalt-Zerbst, a clever but very injudicious woman. But Elizabeth took a
strong liking to the daughter, and the marriage was finally decided on.
The girl had spared no effort to ingratiate herself, not only with the
empress, but with the grand-duke and the Russian people. She applied
herself to learning the language with such zeal that she rose at night
and walked about her bedroom barefoot repeating her lessons. The result
was a severe attack of congestion of the lungs in March 1744. During the
worst period of her illness she completed her conquest of the good-will
of the Russians by declining the religious services of a Protestant
pastor, and sending for Simon Todorskiy, the orthodox priest who had
been appointed to instruct her in the Greek form of Christianity. When
she wrote her memoirs she represented herself as having made up her mind
when she came to Russia to do whatever had to be done, and to profess to
believe whatever she was required to believe, in order to be qualified
to wear the crown. The consistency of her character throughout life
makes it highly probable that even at the age of fifteen she was mature
enough to adopt this worldly-wise line of conduct. Her father, who was a
convinced Lutheran, was strongly opposed to his daughter's conversion,
and supplied her with books of controversy to protect her Protestantism.
She read them, and she listened to Todorskiy, and to other advisers who
told her that the Russian crown was well worth a mass, or that the
differences between the Greek and Lutheran churches were mere matters of
form. On the 28th of June 1744 she was received into the Orthodox Church
at Moscow, and was renamed Catherine Alexeyevna. On the following day
she was formally betrothed, and was married to the archduke on the 21st
of August 1745 at St Petersburg.

At that time Catherine was essentially what she was to remain till her
death fifty-one years later. It was her boast that she was as "frank and
original as any Englishman." If she meant that she had a compact
character, she was right. She had decided on her line in life and she
followed it whole-heartedly. It was her determination to become a
Russian in order that she might the better rule in Russia, and she
succeeded. She acquired a full command of all the resources of the
language, and a no less complete understanding of the nature of the
Russian people. It is true that she remained quite impervious to
religious influences. The circumstances of her conversion may have
helped to render her indifferent to religion, but their influence need
not be exaggerated. Her irreligion was shared by multitudes of
contemporaries who had never been called upon to renounce one form of
Christianity and profess belief in another in order to gain a crown. Her
mere actions were, like those of other and humbler people, dictated by
the conditions in which she lived. The first and the most important of
them was beyond all question the misery of her married life. Her husband
was a wretched creature. Nature had made him mean, the smallpox had made
him hideous, and his degraded habits made him loathsome. And Peter had
all the sentiments of the worst kind of small German prince of the time.
He had the conviction that his princeship entitled him to disregard
decency and the feelings of others. He planned brutal practical jokes,
in which blows had always a share. His most manly taste did not rise
above the kind of military interest which has been defined as
"corporal's mania," the passion for uniforms, pipeclay, buttons, the
"tricks of parade and the froth of discipline." He detested the
Russians, and surrounded himself with Holsteiners. For ten years the
marriage was barren, and the only reason for supposing that the future
tsar Paul (q.v.), who was born on the 2nd of October 1754, was the son
of Peter, is the strong similarity of their characters. Living in the
grossly animal court of the empress Elizabeth, bound to a husband whom
she could not but despise and detest, surrounded by suitors, and
entirely uninfluenced by religion, Catherine became and remained
perfectly immoral in her sexual relations to men. The scandalous
chronicle of her life was the commonplace of all Europe. Her male
favourites were as openly paraded as the female favourites of King Louis
XV. It may be said once and for all that her most trusted agents while
she was still grand-duchess, and her chief ministers when she became
empress, were also her lovers, and were known to be so.

For some time after the marriage, the young couple were controlled by
the empress Elizabeth, who appointed court officials to keep a watch on
their conduct; but before long these custodians themselves had become
the agents of Catherine's pleasures and ambition. After the birth of
Paul she began to take an active part in political intrigues. Her
abilities forced even her husband to rely on her judgment. When in
difficulty he ran to her and flattered her with the name of Madame La
Ressource--Madame Quick Wit--which did not prevent him from insulting
and even kicking her when the immediate need of her help was over. In
1758 he endeavoured to turn the empress Elizabeth against her, and for a
time Catherine was in danger. She faced the peril boldly, and
reconquered her influence over the sovereign, but from this time she
must have realized that when the empress was dead she would have to
defend herself against her husband. That Peter both hated and dreaded
her was notorious. The empress Elizabeth died on the 5th of January
1762. The grand duke succeeded without opposition as Peter III. His
behaviour to his wife continued to be brutal and menacing, and he went
on as before offending the national sentiment of the Russian people. In
July he committed the insane error of retiring with his Holsteiners to
Oranienbaum, leaving his wife at St Petersburg. On the 13th and 14th of
that month a "pronunciamiento" of the regiments of the guard removed him
from the throne and made Catherine empress. The history of this revolt
is still obscure. It has naturally been said that she organized the
mutiny from the first, and some plausibility is conferred on this belief
by the fact that the guards were manipulated by the four Orlov brothers.
The eldest, Gregory, was her recognized chief lover, and he was
associated with his brother Alexis in the office of favourite. On the
other hand, there does not appear to have been any need for
organization. The hatred felt for Peter III. was spontaneous, and
Catherine had no need to do more than let it be known that she was
prepared to profit by her husband's downfall. Peter, who behaved with
abject cowardice, was sent to a country house at Ropcha, where he died
on the 15th or 18th of July of official "apoplexy." The truth is not
known, and Frederick the Great at least professed long afterwards to
believe that Catherine had no immediate share in the murder. She had no
need to speak. Common-sense must have shown the leaders of the revolt
that they would never be safe while Peter lived, and they had insults to
avenge.

The mere fact that Catherine II., a small German princess without
hereditary claim to the throne, ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796 amid the
loyalty of the great mass of the people, and the respect and admiration
of her neighbours, is sufficient proof of the force of her character.
Her title to be considered a great reforming ruler is by no means
equally clear. Voltaire and the encyclopaedists with whom she
corresponded, and on whom she conferred gifts and pensions, repaid her
by the grossest flattery, while doing their best to profit by her
generosity. They made her a reputation for "philosophy," and showed the
sincerity of their own love of freedom by finding excuses for the
partition of Poland. There is a very great difference between Catherine
II. as she appears in the panegyrics of the encyclopaedists and
Catherine as she appears in her correspondence and in her acts. Her
foreign admirers amused her, and were useful in spreading her
reputation. The money they cost her was a small sum in comparison to the
L12,000,000 she lavished on her long series of lovers, who began with
Soltykov and Stanislaus Poniatowski (q.v.) before she came to the
throne, and ended with the youthful Platon Zubov, who was tenant of the
post at her death. She spent money freely on purchasing works of art and
curios. Yet she confessed with her usual candour that she had no taste
for painting, sculpture or music. Her supposed love of literature does
not appear to have amounted to more than a lively curiosity, which could
be satisfied by dipping into a great number of books. She had a passion
for writing, and produced not only a mass of letters written in French,
but pamphlets and plays, comic and serious, in French and Russian. One
on the history of Oleg, the more or less legendary Varangian, who was
guardian to the son of Rurik, was described by her as an "imitation of
Shakespeare." The scheme is not unlike that of a "chronicle play." Her
letters are full of vivacity, of colour, and at times of insight and
wit, but she never learnt to write either French or German correctly.
The letters to Voltaire attributed to her are not hers, and were
probably composed for her by Andrei Shuvalov. The philosophers and
encyclopaedists who, by the mouth of Diderot, complimented Catherine on
being superior to such female affectations as modesty and chastity,
flattered her to some extent even here. She enforced outward decency in
her household, was herself temperate in eating and drinking, and was by
no means tolerant of disorderly behaviour on the part of the ladies of
her court. They flattered her much more when they dwelt on her
philanthropy and her large share of the enlightenment of the age. She
was kind to her servants, and was very fond of young children. She was
rarely angry with people who merely contradicted her or failed to
perform their service in her household. But she could order the use of
the knout and of mutilation as freely as the most barbarous of her
predecessors when she thought the authority of the state was at stake,
and she did employ them readily to suppress all opinions of a heterodox
kind, whether in matters of religion or of politics, after the beginning
of the French Revolution. Her renowned toleration stopped short of
allowing the dissenters to build chapels, and her passion for
legislative reform grew cold when she found that she must begin by the
emancipation of the serfs. There were exceptions even to her personal
kindness to those about her. She dropped her German relations. She kept
a son born to her shortly before the palace revolution of 1762, whose
paternity could not be attributed to Peter, at a distance, though she
provided for him. He was brought up in a private station under the name
of Bobrinski. She was a harsh mother to her son Paul. It seems highly
probable that she intended to exclude him from the succession, and to
leave the crown to her eldest grandson Alexander, afterwards the emperor
Alexander I. Her harshness to Paul was probably as much due to political
distrust as to what she saw of his character. Whatever else Catherine
may have been she was emphatically a sovereign and a politician who was
in the last resort guided by the reason of state. She was resolved not
to allow her authority to be disputed by her son, or shared by him.

As a ruler, Catherine professed a great contempt for system, which she
said she had been taught to despise by her master Voltaire. She declared
that in politics a capable ruler must be guided by "circumstances,
conjectures and conjunctions." Her conduct was on the surface very
unstable. In a moment of candour she confessed that she was a great
_commenceuse_--that she had a mania for beginning innumerable
enterprises which she never pursued. This, however, is chiefly true of
her internal administration, and even there it should be qualified. Many
of her beginnings were carried on by others and were not barren. Her
foreign policy was as consistent as it could be considering the forces
she had to contend against. It was steadily aimed to secure the
greatness and the safety of Russia. There can be no question, that she
loved her adopted country sincerely, and had an affection for her
people, and an opinion of their great qualities which she did not
hesitate to express in hyperbolical terms. Her zeal for the reputation
of the Russians was almost comically shown by the immense trouble she
took to compile an answer to the _Voyage en Siberie_ of the French
astronomer Chappe d'Auteroche. The book is in three big quartos, and
Catherine's answer--which was never finished--is still larger. Chappe
d'Auteroche had discovered that Siberia was not a paradise, and had
observed that the Russians were dirty in their habits, and that masters
whipped their servants, male and female. Her patriotism was less
innocently shown by her conquests. Yet it may be doubted whether any
capable ruler of Russia could have abstained from aggressions at the
expense of the rights of the Saxon family in Courland, of Poland, and of
Turkey (see RUSSIA: _History_). It does seem now to be clearly proved
that the partition of Poland was not suggested by her, as has been
frequently asserted. Catherine would have preferred to control the
country through a vassal sovereign of the type of Stanislaus
Poniatowski, the old lover whose election she secured in 1763. Poland
was incapable of maintaining its independence at the time of the first
partition (1772), and the division of the unhappy country was forced on
by Austria and Prussia. In the case of the second partition in 1793, she
did show herself to be very unscrupulous. Her opposition to the reform
of the Polish government was plainly due to a wish to preserve an excuse
for further spoliation, but her conduct was less cruel and base than
that of Prussia.

Catherine had adhered to her husband's policy of a Prussian alliance.
While Frederick the Great lived she was impressed by his ability. But
the Prussian alliance became hateful to her, and her later
correspondence with Grimm overflows with contempt of his successor
Frederick William II., who is always spoken of by her as "Brother Gu."
Her exasperation with the affectations of the Prussian king was
unquestionably increased by her discovery that he would not be induced
to apply himself to a crusade against the French Revolution, which by
employing all his forces would have left Russia free to annex the whole
of what remained of Poland. But at least she did not enter into a solemn
engagement to defend the Poles who were engaged in reforming their
constitution, and then throw them over in order to share in the plunder
of their country.

Catherine's Turkish policy was at first marked by a certain grandiosity.
When the Turks declared war in 1768 in order to support Poland, which
they looked upon as a necessary buffer state, she retaliated by the
great Greek scheme. For a time it was a pet idea with her to revive the
Greek empire, and to plant the cross, with the double-headed Russian
eagle, at Constantinople. She formed a corps of Greek cadets, caused her
younger grandson to be christened Constantine, and began the policy of
presenting Russia to the Christian subjects of the Porte as their
deliverer. In pursuit of this heroic enterprise, which excited the loud
admiration of Voltaire, she sent a fleet under Alexis Orlov into the
Mediterranean in 1770. Orlov tempted the Greeks of the Morea to take up
arms, and then left them in the lurch. When Catherine found herself
opposed by the policy of France and England, and threatened by the
jealousy of Prussia and Austria, she dropped the Greek design, observing
to Voltaire that the descendants of the Spartans were much degenerated.
The introduction into the treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji of 1774 of a clause
by which the Porte guaranteed the rights of its Christian subjects, and
of another-giving Russia the right to interfere on behalf of a new
Russian church in Constantinople, advertised the claim of the tsars to
be the natural protectors of the Orthodox in the Ottoman dominions; but
when she took up arms again in 1788 in alliance with Joseph II. (q.v.),
it was to make a mere war of conquest and partition. The Turkish wars
show the weak side of Catherine as a ruler. Though she had mounted the
throne by a military revolt and entered on great schemes of conquest,
she never took an intelligent interest in her army. She neglected it in
peace, allowed it to be shamefully administered in war, and could never
be made to understand that it was not in her power to improvise generals
out of her favourites. It is to her credit that she saw the capacity of
Suvarov, yet she never had as much confidence in him as she had in
Potemkin, who may have been a man of genius, but was certainly no
general. She took care never to have to deal with a disciplined
opponent, except the Swedes, who beat her, but who were very few.

It was the misfortune of Catherine that she lived too long. She
disgraced herself by living with her last lover, Zubov, when she was a
woman of sixty-seven, trusting him with power and lavishing public money
on him. The outbreak of the French Revolution stripped off the varnish
of philosophy and philanthropy which she had assumed in earlier years.
She had always entertained a quiet contempt for the French writers whom
she flattered and pensioned, and who served her as an advertising agency
in the west. When the result of their teaching was seen in Paris,
good-natured contempt was turned to hatred. She then became a persecutor
in her own dominions of the very ideas she had encouraged in former
years. She scolded and preached a crusade, without, however, departing
from the steady pursuit of her own interests in Poland, while
endeavouring with transparent cunning to push Austria and Prussia into
an invasion of France with all their forces. Her health began to break
down, and it appears to be nearly certain that towards the end she
suffered from hysteria of a shameful kind. It is plain that her
intellect had begun to fail just before her death, for she allowed the
reigning favourite, Platon Zubov, to persuade her to despatch his
brother Valerian, with the rank of field marshal and an army of 20,000
men, on a crack-brained scheme to invade India by way of Persia and
Tibet. The refusal of the king of Sweden to marry into her family unless
the bride would become a Lutheran is said to have thrown her into a
convulsion of rage which hastened her death. On the 9th of November
1796, she was seized by a fit of apoplexy, and died on the evening of
the 10th.

  All other accounts of Catherine II. have been superseded by
  Waliszewski's two volumes, _Le Roman d'une imperatrice_ (Paris, 1893)
  and _Autour d'un Trone: Catherine II., ses collaborateurs, ses amis,
  ses favoris_ (Paris, 1894). The original sources for the history of
  her policy and her character are to be found in the publications of
  the Imperial Russian Historical Society, vols. i.-cix. (St
  Petersburg), begun in 1867; her private and official correspondence
  will be found in vols. i., ii., iv., v., vi., vii., viii., ix., x.,
  xiii., xiv., xv., xvii., xx., xxiii., xxxii., xxxiii., xxxvi., xlii.,
  xliii., xlvii., xlviii., li., lvii., lxvii., lxviii., lxxxvii.,
  xcvii., xcviii., cvii., cxv., cxviii.




CATHERINE DE' MEDICI (1519-1589), queen of France, the wife of one
French king and the mother of three, was born at Florence in 1519. She
was a daughter of Lorenzo II. de' Medici and a French princess,
Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne. Having lost both her parents at an
early age, Catherine was sent to a convent to be educated; and she was
only fourteen when she was married (1533) at Marseilles to the duke of
Orleans, afterwards Henry II. It was her uncle, Pope Clement VII., who
arranged the marriage with Francis I. Francis, still engaged in his
lifelong task of making head against Charles V., was only too glad of
the opportunity to strengthen his influence in the Italian peninsula,
while Clement, ever needful of help against his too powerful protector,
was equally ready to hold out a bait. During the reign of Francis,
Catherine exercised no influence in France. She was young, a foreigner,
a member of a state that had almost no weight in the great world of
politics, had not given any proof of great ability, and was thrown into
the shade by more important persons. For ten years after her marriage
she had no children. In consequence, a divorce began to be talked of at
court; and it seemed not impossible that Francis, alarmed at the
possible extinction of the royal house, might listen to such a proposal.
But Catherine had the happiness of bringing him grandchildren ere he
died. During the reign of her husband, too (1547-1559), Catherine lived
a quiet and passive, but observant life. Henry being completely under
the influence of his mistress, Diane de Poitiers, she had little
authority. In 1552, when the king left the kingdom for the campaign of
Metz, she was nominated regent, but with very limited powers. This
continued even after the accession of her son Francis II. Francis was
under the spell of Mary Stuart, and she, little disposed to meddle with
politics on her own account, was managed by her uncles, the cardinal of
Lorraine and the duke of Guise. The queen-mother, however, soon grew
weary of the domination of the Guises, and entered upon a course of
secret opposition. On the 1st of April 1560 she placed in the
chancellorship Michel de l'Hopital (q.v.), who advocated the policy of
conciliation.

On the death of Francis (5th of December 1560), Catherine became regent
during the minority of her second son, Charles IX., and now found before
her a career worthy of the most soaring ambition. She was then forty-one
years old, but, although she was the mother of nine children, she was
still very vigorous and active. She retained her influence for more than
twenty years in the troubled period of the wars of religion. At first
she listened to the moderate counsels of l'Hopital in so far as to avoid
siding definitely with either party, but her character and the habits of
policy to which she had been accustomed, rendered her incapable of any
noble aim. She had only one virtue, and that was her zeal for the
interests of her children, especially of her favourite third son, the
duke of Anjou. Like so many of the Italians of that time, who were
almost destitute of a moral sense, she looked upon statesmanship in
particular as a career in which finesse, lying and assassination were
the most admirable, because the most effective weapons. By habit a
Catholic, but above all things fond of power, she was determined to
prevent the Protestants from getting the upper hand, and almost equally
resolved not to allow them to be utterly crushed, in order to use them
as a counterpoise to the Guises. This trimming policy met with little
success: rage and suspicion so possessed men's minds, that she could no
longer control the opposing parties, and one civil war followed another
to the end of her life. In 1567, after the "Enterprise of Meaux," she
dismissed l'Hopital and joined the Catholic party. But, having failed to
crush the Protestant rebellion by arms, she resumed in 1570 the policy
of peace and negotiation. She conceived the project of marrying her
favourite son, the duke of Anjou, to Queen Elizabeth of England, and her
daughter Margaret to Henry of Navarre. To this end she became reconciled
with the Protestants, and allowed Coligny to return to court and to
re-enter the council. Of this step she quickly repented. Charles IX.
conceived a great affection for the admiral and showed signs of taking
up an independent attitude. Catherine, thinking her influence menaced,
sought to regain it, first by the murder of Coligny, and, when that had
failed, by the massacre of St Bartholomew (q.v.). The whole of the
responsibility for this crime, therefore, rests with Catherine; unlike
the populace, she had not even the excuse of fanaticism. This
responsibility, however, weighed but lightly on her; while her son was
overwhelmed with remorse, she calmly enjoyed her short-lived triumph.
After the death of Charles in 1574, and the succession of Anjou under
the name of Henry III., Catherine pursued her old policy of compromise
and concessions; but as her influence is lost in that of her son, it is
unnecessary to dwell upon it. She died on the 5th of January 1589, a
short time before the assassination of Henry, and the consequent
extinction of the House of Valois. In her taste for art and her love of
magnificence and luxury, Catherine was a true Medici; her banquets at
Fontainebleau in 1564 were famous for their sumptuousness. In
architecture especially she was well versed, and Philibert de l'Orme
relates that she discussed with him the plan and decoration of her
palace of the Tuileries. Catherine's policy provoked a crowd of
pamphlets, the most celebrated being the _Discours merveilleux de la
vie, actions et deportemens de la reine Catherine de Medicis_, in which
Henri Estienne undoubtedly collaborated.

  See _Lettres de Catherine de Medicis_, edited by Hector de la Ferriere
  (Paris, 1880, seq.), in the _Collection de documents inedits sur
  l'histoire de France_; A. von Reumont, _Die Jugend Caterinas de'
  Medici_ (1854; French translation by A. Baschet, 1866); H. Bouchot,
  _Catherine de Medicis_ (Paris, 1899). For a more complete bibliography
  see Ernest Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (vol. v., by H. Lemonnier,
  and vol. vi., by J.H. Mariejol, 1904-1905). See also Miss E. Sichel's
  books, _Catherine de' Medici and the French Reformation_ (1905), and
  _The Later Years of Catherine de' Medici_ (1908).




CATHERINE OF ARAGON (1485-1536), queen of Henry VIII. of England,
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, was born on the 15th or
16th of December 1485. She left Spain in 1501 to marry Arthur, prince of
Wales, eldest son of King Henry VII., and landed at Plymouth on the 2nd
of October. The wedding took place on the 14th of November in London,
and soon afterwards Catherine accompanied her youthful husband to Wales,
where, in his sixteenth year, the prince died on the 2nd of April 1502.
On the 25th of June 1503, she was formally betrothed to the king's
second son, Henry, now prince of Wales, and a papal dispensation for the
alliance was obtained. The marriage, however, did not take place during
the lifetime of Henry VII. Ferdinand endeavoured to cheat the English
king of the marriage portion agreed upon, and Henry made use of the
presence of the unmarried princess in England to extort new conditions,
and especially to secure the marriage of his daughter Mary to the
archduke Charles, grandson of Ferdinand, and afterwards Charles V.
Catherine was thus from the first the unhappy victim of state politics.
Writing to Ferdinand on the 11th of March 1509, she describes the state
of poverty to which she was reduced, and declares the king's unkindness
impossible to be borne any longer.[1] On the old king's death, however,
a brighter prospect opened, for Henry VIII. decided immediately on
marrying her, the wedding taking place on the 11th of June and the
coronation on the 24th. Catherine now enjoyed a few years of married
happiness; Henry showed himself an affectionate husband, and the
alliance with Ferdinand was maintained against France. She was not
without some influence in state affairs. During Henry's invasion of
France in 1513 she was made regent; she showed great zeal and ardour in
the preparations for the Scottish expedition, and was riding towards the
north to put herself at the head of the troops when the victory of
Flodden Field ended the campaign. The following year an affectionate
meeting took place between the king and queen at Richmond on the return
of the former. Ferdinand's treachery, however, in making a treaty with
France roused Henry's wrath, and his angry reproaches fell upon his
unfortunate wife; but she took occasion in 1520, during the visit of her
nephew Charles V. to England, to urge the policy of gaining his alliance
rather than that of France. Immediately on his departure, on the 31st of
May 1520, she accompanied the king to France, on the celebrated visit to
Francis I., called from its splendour the Field of the Cloth of Gold;
but in 1522 war was declared against France and the emperor again
welcomed to England. In 1521 she is represented by Shakespeare as
pleading for the unfortunate duke of Buckingham.

These early years of happiness and of useful influence and activity had,
however, been gradually giving way to gloom and disappointment. Between
January 1510 and November 1518 Catherine gave birth to six children
(including two princes), who were all stillborn or died in infancy
except Mary, born in 1516, and rumour did not fail to ascribe this
series of disasters to the curse pronounced in Deuteronomy on incestuous
unions. In 1526 the condition of Catherine's health made it highly
improbable that she would have more children. No woman had ever reigned
in England, alone and in her own right, and to avoid a fresh dispute
concerning the succession, and the revival of the civil war, a male heir
to the throne was a pressing necessity. The act of marriage, which
depended for its validity on the decision of the ecclesiastical courts,
had, on account of the numerous dissolutions and dispensations granted,
not then attained the security since assured to it by the secular law.
For obtaining dissolutions of royal marriages the facilities were
especially great. Pope Clement VII. himself permitted such a dissolution
in the case of Henry's own sister Margaret, in 1528, proposed later as a
solution of the problem that Henry should be allowed two wives,[2] and
looked not unfavourably, with the same aim, on the project for marrying
the duke of Richmond to Mary, a brother to a sister.[3] In Henry's case
also the irregularity of a union, which is still generally reprobated
and forbidden in Christendom, and which it was very doubtful that the
pope had the power to legalize, provided a moral justification for a
dissolution which in other cases did not exist. It was not therefore the
immorality of the plea which obstructed the papal decree in Henry's
favour, but the unlucky imprisonment at this time of Clement VII. at the
hands of Charles V., Catherine's nephew, which obliged the pope, placed
thus "between the hammer and the anvil," to pursue a policy of delay and
hesitation. Nor was the immorality of Henry's own character the primary
cause of the project of divorce. Had this been so, a succession of
mistresses would have served as well as a series of single wives. The
real occasion was the king's desire for a male heir. But, however clear
this may be, the injustice done to Catherine was no less cruel and real.
Rumours, probably then unfounded, of an intended divorce had been heard
abroad as early as 1524. But the creation in 1525 of the king's
illegitimate son Henry, as duke of Richmond--the title borne by his
grandfather Henry VII--and the precedence granted to him over all the
peers as well as the princess Mary, together with the special honour
paid at this time by the king to his own half-sister Mary, were the
first real indications of the king's thoughts. In 1526, and perhaps
earlier, Wolsey had been making tentative inquiries at Rome on the
subject. In May 1527 a collusive and secret suit was begun before the
cardinal, who, as legate, summoned the king to defend himself from the
charge of cohabitation with his brother's wife; but these proceedings
were dropped. On the 22nd of June Henry informed Catherine that they had
been living in mortal sin and must separate. During Wolsey's absence in
July at Paris, where he had been commissioned to discuss vaguely the
divorce and Henry's marriage with Renee, daughter of Louis XII., Anne
Boleyn is first heard of in connexion with the king, his affection for
her having, however, begun probably as early as 1523, and the cardinal
on his return found her openly installed at the court. In October 1528
the pope issued a commission to Cardinal Campeggio and Wolsey to try the
cause in England, and bound himself not to revoke the case to Rome,
confirming his promise by a secret decretal commission which, however,
was destroyed by Campeggio. But the trial was a sham. Campeggio was
forbidden to pronounce sentence without further reference to Rome, and
was instructed to create delays, the pope assuring Charles V. at the
same time that the case should be ultimately revoked to Rome.[4]

The object of all parties was now to persuade Catherine to enter a
nunnery and thus relieve them of further embarrassment. While Henry's
envoys were encouraged at Rome in believing that he might then make
another marriage, Henry himself gave Catherine assurances that no other
union would be contemplated in her lifetime. But Catherine with courage
and dignity held fast to her rights, demanded a proper trial, and
appealed not only to the bull of dispensation, the validity of which was
said to be vitiated by certain irregularities, but to a brief granted
for the alliance by Pope Julius II. Henry declared the latter to be a
forgery, and endeavoured unsuccessfully to procure a declaration of its
falsity from the pope. The court of the legates accordingly opened on
the 31st of May 1529, the queen appearing before it on the 18th of June
for the purpose of denying its jurisdiction. On the 21st both Henry and
Catherine presented themselves before the tribunal, when the queen threw
herself at Henry's feet and appealed for the last time to his sense of
honour, recalling her own virtue and helplessness. Henry replied with
kindness, showing that her wish for the revocation of the cause to Rome
was unreasonable in view of the paramount influence then exercised by
Charles V. on the pope. Catherine nevertheless persisted in making
appeal to Rome, and then withdrew. After her departure Henry, according
to Cavendish, Wolsey's biographer, praised her virtues to the court.
"She is, my lords, as true, as obedient, as conformable a wife as I
could in my phantasy wish or desire. She hath all the virtues and
qualities that ought to be in a woman of her dignity or in any other of
baser estate." On her refusal to return, her plea was overruled and she
was adjudged contumacious, while the sittings of the court continued in
her absence. Subsequently the legates paid her a private visit of
advice, but were unable to move her from her resolution. Finally,
however, in July 1529, the case was, according to her wish, and as the
result of the treaty of Barcelona and the pope's complete surrender to
Charles V., revoked by the pope to Rome: a momentous act, which decided
Henry's future attitude, and occasioned the downfall of the whole papal
authority in England. On the 7th of March 1530 Pope Clement issued a
brief forbidding Henry to make a second marriage, and ordering the
restitution of Catherine to her rights till the cause was determined;
while at the same time he professed to the French ambassador, the bishop
of Tarbes, his pleasure should the marriage with Anne Boleyn have been
already made, if only it were not by his authority.[5] The same year
Henry obtained opinions favourable to the divorce from the English,
French and most of the Italian universities, but unfavourable answers
from Germany, while a large number of English peers and ecclesiastics,
including Wolsey and Archbishop Warham, joined in a memorial to the pope
in support of Henry's cause.

Meanwhile, Catherine, while the great question remained unsolved, was
still treated by Henry as his queen, and accompanied him in his visits
in the provinces and in his hunting expeditions. On the 31st of May 1531
she was visited by thirty privy councillors, who urged the trial of the
case in England, but they met only with a firm refusal. On the 14th of
July Henry left his wife at Windsor, removing himself to Woodstock, and
never saw her again. In August she was ordered to reside at the Moor in
Hertfordshire, and at the same time separated from the princess Mary,
who was taken to Richmond. In October she again received a deputation of
privy councillors, and again refused to withdraw the case from Rome. In
1532 she sent the king a gold cup as a new year's gift, which the latter
returned, and she was forbidden to hold any communication with him.
Alone and helpless in confronting Henry's absolute power, her cause
found champions and sympathizers among the people, among the court
preachers, and in the House of Commons, while Bishop Fisher had openly
taken her part in the legatine trial. Subsequently Catherine was removed
to Bishops Hatfield, while Henry and Anne Boleyn visited Francis I.
Their marriage, anticipating any sentence of the nullity of the union
with Catherine, took place after their return about the 25th of January
1533, in consequence of Anne's pregnancy. On the 10th of May Cranmer,
for whose consecration as archbishop of Canterbury Henry had obtained
bulls from Rome, opened his court, and declared on the 23rd the nullity
of Catherine's marriage and the validity of Anne's. On the 10th of
August the king caused proclamation to be made forbidding her the style
of queen; but Catherine refused resolutely to yield the title for that
of princess-dowager. Not long afterwards she was removed to Buckden in
Huntingdonshire. Here her household was considerably reduced, and she
found herself hemmed in by spies, and in fact a prisoner. In July she
had refused Henry the loan of a certain rich cloth, which had done
service at the baptism of her children, for the use of Anne Boleyn's
expected infant; and on the birth of Elizabeth and the refusal of Mary
to give up the title of princess, the latter's household was entirely
dismissed and she herself reduced to the position of attendant in
Elizabeth's retinue. A project for removing Catherine from Buckden to
Somersham, an unhealthy solitude in the isle of Ely, with a still
narrower maintenance, was only prevented by her own determined
resistance. The attempt in November to incriminate the queen in
connexion with Elizabeth Barton failed. She passed her life now in
religious devotions, taking strict precautions against the possibility
of being poisoned. On the 23rd of March 1534 the pope pronounced her
marriage valid, but by this time England had thrown off the papal
jurisdiction, the parliament had transferred Catherine's jointure to
Anne Boleyn, and the decree had no effect on Catherine's fortunes. She
refused to swear to the new act of succession, which declared her
marriage null and Anne's infant the heir to the throne, and soon
afterwards she was removed to Kimbolton, where she was well treated. On
the 21st of May she was visited by the archbishop of York and Tunstall,
bishop of Durham, who threatened her with death if she persisted in her
refusal, but only succeeded in confirming her resolution. She was kept
in strict seclusion, separated from Mary and from all outside
communications, and in December 1535 her health gave way, her death
taking place on the 8th of January 1536, not without suspicions of
poison, which, however, may be dismissed. She was buried by the king's
order in Peterborough cathedral. Before her death she dictated a last
letter to Henry, according to Polydore Vergil, expressing her
forgiveness, begging his good offices for Mary, and concluding with the
astounding assurance--"I vow that mine eyes desire you above all
things." The king himself affected no sorrow at her death, and thanked
God there was now no fear of war.

Catherine is described as "rather ugly than otherwise; of low stature
and rather stout; very good and very religious; speaks Spanish, French,
Flemish, English; more beloved by the islanders than any queen that has
ever reigned." She was a woman of considerable education and culture,
her scholarship and knowledge of the Bible being noted by Erasmus, who
dedicated to her his book on _Christian Matrimony_ in 1526. She endured
her bitter and undeserved misfortunes with extraordinary courage and
resolution, and at the same time with great womanly forbearance, of
which a striking instance was the compassion shown by her for the fallen
Wolsey.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by J.
  Gairdner, and those on Henry VIII. and Wolsey, where the case is
  summed up very adversely to Henry, and _The Divorce of Catherine of
  Aragon_, by J.A. Froude (1891), where it is regarded from the contrary
  aspect; _Henry VIII._, by A. F. Pollard (1905); _Cambridge Mod.
  History_ (1903), ii. 416 et seq. and bibliographies, p. 789; _The
  Wives of Henry VIII._, by M. Hume (1905).     (P. C. Y.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Cat. of State Pap., England and Spain_, i. 469.

  [2] _Letters and Papers_, iv. 6627, 6705, and app. 261.

  [3] _Ib._ iv. 5072.

  [4] _Cal. of State Pap., England and Spain_, iii. pt. ii. 779.

  [5] _Cal. of State Pap., Foreign and Dom._, iv. 6290.




CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA (1638-1705), queen consort of Charles II. of
England, daughter of John IV. of Portugal, and of Louisa de Gusman,
daughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia, was born on the 15/25 of
November 1638 at Villia Vicosa. She was early regarded as a useful
medium for contracting an alliance with England, more necessary than
ever to Portugal after the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 whereby
Portugal was ostensibly abandoned by France. Negotiations for the
marriage began during the reign of Charles I., were renewed immediately
after the Restoration, and on the 23rd of June, in spite of Spanish
opposition, the marriage contract was signed, England securing Tangier
and Bombay, with trading privileges in Brazil and the East Indies,
religious and commercial freedom in Portugal and two million Portuguese
crowns (about L300,000); while Portugal obtained military and naval
support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine. She reached
England on the 13th of May 1662, but was not visited by Charles at
Portsmouth till the 20th. The next day the marriage was solemnized
twice, according to the Roman Catholic and Anglican usages. Catherine
possessed several good qualities, but had been brought up in a
conventual seclusion and was scarcely a wife Charles would have chosen
for himself. Her personal charms were not potent enough to wean Charles
away from the society of his mistresses, and in a few weeks after her
arrival she became aware of her painful and humiliating position as the
wife of the selfish and licentious king. On the first presentation to
her of Lady Castlemaine, Charles's mistress _en titre_, whom he insisted
on making lady of her bedchamber, she fainted away. She withdrew from
the king's society, and in spite of Clarendon's attempts to moderate her
resentment, declared she would return to Portugal rather than consent to
a base compliance. To overcome her resistance nearly the whole of her
Portuguese retinue was dismissed. She was helpless, and the violence of
her grief and anger soon changed to passive resistance, and then to a
complete forbearance and complaisance which gained the king's regard and
favour. In the midst of Charles's debauched and licentious court, she
lived neglected and retired, often deprived of her due allowance, having
no ambitions and taking no part in English politics, but keeping up
rather her interest in her native country.

As the prospect diminished of her bearing children to Charles, several
schemes were set on foot for procuring a divorce on various pretexts. As
a Roman Catholic and near to the king's person Catherine was the special
object of attack by the inventors of the Popish Plot. In 1678 the murder
of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey was ascribed to her servants, and Titus
Oates accused her of a design to poison the king. These charges, of
which the absurdity was soon shown by cross-examination, nevertheless
placed the queen for some time in great danger. On the 28th of November
Oates accused her of high treason, and the Commons passed an address for
her removal and that of all the Roman Catholics from Whitehall. A series
of fresh depositions were sent in against her, and in June 1679 it was
decided that she must stand her trial; but she was protected by the
king, who in this instance showed unusual chivalry and earned her
gratitude. On the 17th of November Shaftesbury moved in the House of
Lords for a divorce to enable the king to marry a Protestant and have
legitimate issue; but he received little support, and the bill was
opposed by Charles, who continued to show his wife "extraordinary
affection." During the winter the calumnies against the queen were
revived by Fitzharris, who, however, before his execution in 1681
confessed to their falsity; and after the revival of the king's
influence subsequent to the Oxford parliament, the queen's position was
no more assailed.

During Charles's last illness in 1685 she showed great anxiety for his
reconciliation with the Romish Church, and it was probably effected
largely through her influence. She exhibited great grief at his death.
She afterwards resided at Somerset House and at Hammersmith, where she
had privately founded a convent. She interceded with great generosity,
but ineffectually, for Monmouth the same year. On the 10th of June 1688
she was present at the birth of the prince of Wales and gave evidence
before the council in favour of the genuineness of the child. She was
still in England at the Revolution, having delayed her return to
Portugal to prosecute a lawsuit against the second earl of Clarendon,
formerly her chamberlain. She maintained at first good terms with
William and Mary; but the practice of her religion aroused jealousies,
while her establishment at Somerset House was said to be the home of
cabals against the government; and in 1691 she settled for a short time
at Euston. She left England finally with a train of one hundred persons
in March 1692, travelling through France and arriving at Lisbon on the
20th of January 1693. She took up her residence at the palace of
Bemposta, built by herself, near Lisbon. In 1703 she supported the
Methuen Treaty, which cemented still further the alliance between
Portugal and England, and in 1704 she was appointed regent of Portugal
during the illness of her brother King Pedro II., her administration
being distinguished by several successes gained over the Spaniards. She
died on the 31st of December 1705, bequeathing her great wealth, the
result of long hoarding, after the payment of divers charitable
legacies, to King Pedro; and was buried with great ceremony and
splendour at Belem.

  See L. C. Davidson, _Catherine of Braganza_ (1908).




CATHERINE OF VALOIS (1401-1437), queen of Henry V. of England, daughter
of Charles VI. of France by his wife Isabel of Bavaria, was born in
Paris on the 27th of October 1401. The lunacy of her father and the
depravity of her mother were serious drawbacks to Catherine, and her
only education was obtained in a convent at Poissy. About 1408 a
marriage was suggested between the princess and Henry, prince of Wales,
afterwards Henry V., who renewed this proposal after he became king in
March 1413. In addition to the hand of Catherine, however, the English
king asked for a large dowry both in money and lands, and when these
demands were rejected war broke out. Once or twice during short
intervals of peace the marriage project was revived, and was favoured by
Queen Isabel. When peace was eventually made at Troyes in May 1420 Henry
and Catherine were betrothed, and the marriage took place at Troyes on
the 2nd of June 1420. Having crossed to England with Henry, the queen
was crowned in Westminster Abbey on the 23rd of February 1421, and in
the following December gave birth to a son, afterwards King Henry VI.
She joined Henry in France in May 1422, returning to England after his
death in the succeeding August. Catherine's name soon began to be
coupled with that of Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, and in 1428
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, secured the passing of an act to prevent
her from marrying without the consent of the king and council. It
appears, however, that by this time Catherine and Tudor were already
married. They lived in obscurity till 1436, when Tudor was imprisoned,
and Catherine retired to Bermondsey Abbey, where she died on the 3rd of
January 1437. Her body was buried in the Lady chapel of Westminster
Abbey, and when the chapel was pulled down during the reign of Henry
VII., was placed in Henry V.'s tomb. It lay afterwards under the
Villiers monument, and in 1878 was re-buried in Henry V.'s chantry. By
Tudor Catherine had three sons and a daughter. Her eldest son by this
marriage, Edmund, was created earl of Richmond in 1452, and was the
father of Henry VII.

  See Agnes Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_, vol. iii.
  (London, 1877).




CATHETUS (Gr. [Greek: kathetos], a perpendicular line), in architecture
the eye of the volute, so termed because its position is determined, in
an Ionic or voluted capital, by a line let down from the point in which
the volute generates.




CATHOLIC (Gr. [Greek: katholikos], general, universal), a designation
adopted in the 2nd century by the Christian Church to indicate
Christendom as a whole, in contrast with individual churches. With this
idea went the notions that Christianity had been diffused throughout the
whole earth by the apostles, and that only what was found everywhere
throughout the church could be true. The term thus in time became full
of dogmatic and political meaning, connoting, when applied to the
church, a universal authoritative and orthodox society, as opposed to
Gnostic and other "sects" (cf. the famous canon of Vincent of Lerins
A.D. 434; _quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est_). The
term "Catholic" does not occur in the old Roman symbol; but Professor
Loofs includes it in his reconstruction, based on typical phrases in
common use at the time of the ante-Nicene creeds of the East. In the
original form of the Nicene creed itself it does not occur; but in the
creed of Jerusalem (348), an amplification of the Nicene symbol, we find
"one Holy Catholic Church," and in the revision by Cyril of Alexandria
(362) "Catholic and Apostolic Church" (see CREEDS). Thus, though the
word "Catholic" was late in finding its way into the formal symbols of
the church, it is clear that it had long been in use in the original
sense defined above. It must be borne in mind, however, that the
designation "Catholic" was equally claimed by all the warring parties
within the church at various times; thus, the followers of Arius and
Athanasius alike called themselves Catholics, and it was only the
ultimate victory of the latter that has reserved for them in history the
name of Catholic, and branded the former as Arian.

With the gradual development and stereotyping of the creed it was
inevitable that the term "Catholic" should come to imply a more narrowly
defined orthodoxy. In the Eastern churches, indeed, the conception of
the church as the guardian of "the faith once delivered to the saints"
soon overshadowed that of interpretation and development by catholic
consent, and, though they have throughout claimed the title of Catholic,
their chief glory is that conveyed in the name of the Holy Orthodox
Church. In the West, meanwhile, the growth of the power of the papacy
had tended more and more to the interpretation of the word "catholic" as
implying communion with, and obedience to, the see of Rome (see PAPACY);
the churches of the East, no less than the heretical sects of the West,
by repudiating this allegiance, had ceased to be Catholic. This
identification of "Catholic" with "Roman" was accentuated by the
progress of the Reformation. The Reformers themselves, indeed, like
other dissidents and reformers before them, did not necessarily
repudiate the name of Catholic; they believed, in fact, in Catholicism,
i.e. the universal sanction of their beliefs, as firmly as did the
adherents of "the old religion"; they included the Catholic creeds,
definitions formulated by the universal church, in their service books;
they too appealed, as the fathers of Basel and Constance had done, from
the papal monarchy to the great ecclesiastical republic. The Church of
England at least, emphasizing her own essential catholicity, retained in
her translations of the ancient symbols the word "catholic" instead of
replacing it by "universal." But the appeal to the verbally inspired
Bible was stronger than that to a church hopelessly divided; the Bible,
and not the consent of the universal church, became the touchstone of
the reformed orthodoxy; in the nomenclature of the time, "evangelical"
arose in contradistinction to "Catholic," while, in popular parlance,
the "protest" of the Reformers against the "corruptions of Rome" led to
the invention of the term "Protestant," which, though nowhere assumed in
the official titles of the older reformed churches, was early used as a
generic term to include them all.

"Catholic" and "Catholicism" thus again changed and narrowed their
meaning; they became, by universal usage, identified definitely with
"Romanist" and the creed and obedience of Rome. Even in England, where the
church retained most strongly the Catholic tradition, this distinction of
"Protestant" and "Catholic" was clearly maintained, at least till the
"Catholic revival" in the Church of England of the 19th century. On the
continent of Europe the equivalent words (e.g. Ger. _Katholik,
Katholizismus_; Fr. _catholique, catholicisme_) are even more definitely
associated with Rome; they have lost the sense which they still convey to
a considerable school of Anglicans. The dissident "Catholic" churches are
forced to qualify their titles: they are "Old Catholics"
(_Alt-Katholiken_) or "German Catholics" (_Deutsch-Katholiken_). The
Church of Rome alone, officially and in popular parlance, is "the Catholic
Church" (_katholische Kirche, eglise catholique_), a title which she
proudly claims as exclusively her own, by divine right, by the sanction of
immemorial tradition, and by reason of her perpetual protest against the
idea of "national" churches, consecrated by the Reformation (see CHURCH
HISTORY, and ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH). The additional qualification of
"Roman" she tolerates, since it proclaims her doctrine of the see of Rome
as the keystone of Catholicism; but to herself she is "the Catholic
Church," and her members are "Catholics."

Yet to concede this claim and surrender without qualification the word
"Catholic" to a connotation which is at best only universal in theory,
is to beg several very weighty questions. The doctrine of the Catholic
Church, i.e. the essential unity and interdependence of "all God's
faithful people scattered throughout the world," is common to all
sections of Christians. The creed is one; it is the interpretation that
differs. In a somewhat narrower sense, too, the Church of England at
least has never repudiated the conception of the Catholic Church as a
divinely instituted organization for the safe-guarding and proclamation
of the Christian revelation. She deliberately retained the Catholic
creeds, the Catholic ministry and the appeal to Catholic antiquity (see
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF). A large section of her members, accordingly, laying
stress on this side of her tradition, prefer to call themselves
"Catholics." But, though the invention of the terms "Roman Catholic" and
"Roman Catholicism" early implied the retention by the English Church of
her Catholic claim, her members were never, after the Reformation,
called Catholics; even the Caroline divines of the 17th century, for all
their "popish practices," styled themselves Protestants, though they
would have professed their adherence to "the Catholic faith" and their
belief in "the Holy Catholic Church."

Clearly, then, the exact meaning of the term varies according to those
who use it and those to whom it is applied. To the Romanist "Catholic"
means "Roman Catholic"; to the high Anglican it means whatever is common
to the three "historic" branches into which he conceives the church to
be divided--Roman, Anglican and Orthodox; to the Protestant pure and
simple it means either what it does to the Romanist, or, in expansive
moments, simply what is "universal" to all Christians. In a yet broader
sense it is used adjectivally of mere wideness or universality of view,
as when we speak of a man as "of catholic sympathies" or "catholic in
his tastes."

The name of _Catholic Epistles_ is given to those letters (two of Peter,
three of John, one of James, one of Jude) incorporated in the New
Testament which (except 2 and 3 John) are not, like those of St Paul,
addressed to particular individuals or churches, but to a larger and
more indefinite circle of readers. (See BIBLE: _New Testament, Canon_.)

The title of _Catholicus_ ([Greek: katholikos]) seems to have been used
under the Roman empire, though rarely, as the Greek equivalent of
_consularis_ and _praefectus_. Thus Eusebius (_Hist. eccl._ viii. 23)
speaks of the catholicus of Africa ([Greek: katholikon tes Aphrikes]).
As an ecclesiastical title it was used to imply, not universal
(ecumenical), but a great and widespread jurisdiction. Thus the bishop
of the important see of Seleucia (Bagdad), though subordinate to the
patriarch of Antioch, had the title of Catholicus and power to
consecrate even archbishops; and on the division of the see there were
two _Catholici_ under the patriarch of Antioch. In Ethiopia, too, there
were _Catholici_ with less extensive powers, subject to the patriarch of
Alexandria. The title now survives, however, only as that of the head of
the Armenian Church (q.v.). A bishop's cathedral church is, however, in
Greek the _Catholicon_.

An isolated use of the word "catholic" as a secular legal term survives
in Scots law; a _catholic creditor_ is one whose debt is secured over
several or over all of the subjects belonging to the debtor.




CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH, THE, a religious community often called
"Irvingites," though neither actually founded nor anticipated by Edward
Irving (q.v.). Irving's relation to this community was, according to its
members, somewhat similar to that of John the Baptist to the early
Christian Church, i.e. he was the forerunner and prophet of the coming
dispensation, not the founder of a new sect; and indeed the only
connexion which Irving seems to have had with the existing organization
of the Catholic Apostolic body was in "fostering spiritual persons who
had been driven out of other congregations for the exercise of their
spiritual gifts." Shortly after Irving's trial and deposition (1831),
certain persons were, at some meetings held for prayer, designated as
"called to be apostles of the Lord" by certain others claiming prophetic
gifts. In the year 1835, six months after Irving's death, six others
were similarly designated as "called" to complete the number of the
"twelve," who were then formally "separated," by the pastors of the
local congregations to which they belonged, to their higher office in
the universal church on the 14th of July 1835. This separation is
understood by the community not as "in any sense being a schism or
separation from the one Catholic Church, but a separation to a special
work of blessing and intercession on behalf of it." The twelve were
afterwards guided to ordain others--twelve prophets, twelve evangelists,
and twelve pastors, "sharing equally with them the one Catholic
Episcopate," and also seven deacons for administering the temporal
affairs of the church catholic. The apostles were the channels of the
Holy Ghost and the mysteries of God, and the authoritative interpreters
of "prophetic utterance"; their teaching was brought home to the people
by the "evangelists." The function of the prophets was to explain
scripture and exhort to holiness, that of the "pastors" is explained by
their title. The central episcopacy of forty-eight was regarded as
"indicated by prophecy," being foreshown in the forty-eight boards of
the Mosaic tabernacle. For ecclesiastical purposes the church universal
is under their charge in twelve tribes; for Christendom is considered to
be divided into twelve portions or tribes, each tribe being under the
special charge of an apostle and his co-ministers, and the seat of the
Apostolic College being at Albury, near Guildford. This is an ideal
outline which has never been fulfilled. There has never been a "central
episcopacy" of forty-eight. The "apostles" alone always held the supreme
authority, though, as their number dwindled, "coadjutors" were appointed
to assist the survivors, and to exercise the functions of the
"apostolate." The last "apostle" died on the 3rd of February 1901.

For the service of the church a comprehensive book of liturgies and
offices was provided by the "apostles." It dates from 1842 and is based
on the Anglican, Roman and Greek liturgies. Lights, incense, vestments,
holy water, chrism, and other adjuncts of worship are in constant use.
The ceremonial in its completeness may be seen in the church in Gordon
Square, London, and elsewhere. The daily worship consists of "matins"
with "proposition" (or exposition) of the sacrament at 6 A.M., prayers
at 9 A.M. and 3 P.M., and "vespers" with "proposition" at 5 P.M. On all
Sundays and holy days there is a "solemn celebration of the eucharist"
at the high altar; on Sundays this is at 10 A.M. On other days "low
celebrations" are held in the side-chapels, which with the chancel in
all churches correctly built after apostolic directions are separated or
marked off from the nave by open screens with gates. The community has
always laid great stress on symbolism, and in the eucharist, while
rejecting both transubstantiation and consubstantiation, holds strongly
to a real (mystical) presence. It emphasizes also the "phenomena" of
Christian experience and deems miracle and mystery to be of the essence
of a spirit-filled church.

Each congregation is presided over by its "angel" or bishop (who ranks
as angel-pastor in the Universal Church), under him are four-and-twenty
priests, divided into the four ministries of "elders, prophets,
evangelists and pastors," and with these are the deacons, seven of whom
regulate the temporal affairs of the church--besides whom there are also
"sub-deacons, acolytes, singers, and door-keepers." The understanding is
that each elder, with his co-presbyters and deacons, shall have charge
of 500 adult communicants in his district; but this has been but
partially carried into practice. This is the full constitution of each
particular church or congregation as founded by the "restored apostles,"
each local church thus "reflecting in its government the government of
the church catholic by the angel or high priest Jesus Christ, and His
forty-eight presbyters in their fourfold ministry (in which apostles and
elders always rank first), and under these the deacons of the church
catholic." The priesthood is supported by tithes; it being deemed a duty
on the part of all members of the church who receive yearly incomes to
offer a tithe of their increase every week, besides the free-will
offering for the support of the place of worship, and for the relief of
distress. Each local church sends "a tithe of its tithes" to the
"Temple," by which the ministers of the Universal Church are supported
and its administrative expenses defrayed; by these offerings, too, the
needs of poorer churches are supplied. It claims to have among its
clergy many of the Roman, Anglican and other churches, the orders of
those ordained by Greek, Roman and Anglican bishops being recognized by
it with the simple confirmation of an "apostolic act." The community has
not changed recently in general constitution or doctrine. It does not
publish statistics, and its growth during late years is said to have
been more marked in the United States and in certain European countries,
such as Germany, than in Great Britain. There are nine congregations
enumerated in _The Religious Life of London_ (1904).

  For further details of doctrines, ritual, &c., see R. N. Bosworth,
  _Restoration of Apostles and Prophets, Readings on the Liturgy, The
  Church and Tabernacle_, and _The Purpose of God in Creation and
  Redemption_ (6th ed., 1888); G. Miller, _History and Doctrines of
  Irvingism_ (1878).




CATILINE [LUCIUS SERGIUS CATILINA] (c. 108-62 B.C.), a member of an
ancient but impoverished patrician family of Rome, the prime mover in
the conspiracy known by his name. He appears in history first as a
supporter of Sulla, and during the proscription he was conspicuous for
his greed and cruelty. He slew his inoffensive brother-in-law with his
own hand, and tortured and mutilated the much-loved Marius Gratidianus.
He was believed to have made away with his wife and his son to win the
profligate and wealthy Aurelia Orestilla; it was even suspected that he
had been guilty of an intrigue with the Vestal Fabia. In 77 he was
quaestor, in 68 praetor, and in 67-66 governor of Africa. His extortions
and subsequent impeachment by P. Clodius Pulcher having disqualified him
as a candidate for the consulship, he formed a conspiracy, in which he
was joined by young men of all classes, even Crassus and Caesar,
according to rumour, being implicated. The new consuls were to be
murdered on the 1st of January; but the plot--the execution of which
was deferred till the 5th of February--failed in consequence of the
impatience of Catiline, who gave the signal too hastily. Soon after,
Catiline, having bribed both judges and accuser, was acquitted in the
trial for extortion. His scheme was forthwith immensely widened. The
city was to be fired, and those who opposed the revolution were to be
slain; all debts were to be cancelled; and there was to be a
proscription of all the wealthy citizens. Among the conspirators were
many men of the first rank and influence. Arms and money were collected,
soldiers were enlisted, and the assistance of the slaves was sought. But
Catiline's hopes were again disappointed; once more he failed to obtain
the consulship (64); and, moreover, it soon became apparent that one of
the new consuls, Cicero, was mysteriously able to thwart all the schemes
of the conspirators. He was, in fact, informed of every detail, through
Fulvia, the mistress of Curius, one of the plotters, who was himself
soon persuaded to turn informer. The other consul, C. Antonius, in whom
Catiline hoped to find a supporter, was won over and got out of the way
by Cicero, who resigned the province of Macedonia in his favour. Before
the next _comitia consularia_ assembled, the orator had given so
impressive a warning of the danger which was impending, that Catiline
was once more rejected (63), and the consuls were invested with absolute
authority. Catiline now resolved upon open war; preparations were set on
foot throughout Italy, especially in Etruria, where the standard of
revolt was raised by the centurion C. Manlius (or Mallius), one of
Sulla's veterans. A plan to murder Cicero in his own house on the
morning of the 7th of November was frustrated. On the next day Cicero
attacked Catiline so vigorously in the senate (in his first Catilinarian
oration) that he fled to his army in Etruria. Next day Cicero awoke the
terror of the people by a second oration delivered in the forum, in
consequence of which Catiline and Manlius were declared public enemies,
and the consul Antonius was despatched with an army against them.
Meanwhile the imprudence of the conspirators in Rome brought about their
own destruction. Some deputies from the Allobroges, who had been sent to
Rome to obtain redress for certain grievances, were approached by P.
Lentulus Sura, the chief of the conspirators, who endeavoured to induce
them to join him. After considerable hesitation, the deputies decided to
turn informers. The plot was betrayed to Cicero, at whose instigation
documentary evidence was obtained, implicating Lentulus and others. They
were arrested, proved guilty, and on the 5th of December condemned to
death and strangled in the underground dungeon on the slope of the
Capitol. This act, which was opposed by Julius Caesar and advocated by
Cato Uticensis (and, indirectly, by Cicero), was afterwards vigorously
attacked as a violation of the constitution, on the ground that the
senate had no power of life and death over a Roman citizen. Thus a heavy
blow was dealt to the cause of Catiline, who, in the beginning of 62,
saw his legions, only partially armed and diminished by desertion, shut
in between those of Metellus Celer and C. Antonius. Near Pistoria he
hazarded battle with the forces of the latter, but was completely
defeated in a desperate encounter. He himself, fighting with the utmost
bravery, rushed into the ranks of the enemy and met his death.

Such was the conspiracy of Catiline and the character of its author, as
we find them in the speeches of Cicero, and the histories of Sallust and
Dio Cassius (see also Plutarch, _Cicero_; Vell. Pat. ii. 35; Florus iv.
1; Appian, _B.C._ ii. 6; Eutropius vi. 15). It must not be forgotten,
however, that our authorities were all members of the aristocratic
party. Some of the incidents given as facts by Dio Cassius are manifest
absurdities; and Cicero paid more regard to the effect than to the
truthfulness of an accusation. We find him at one time admitting that
Catiline had almost persuaded him of his honesty and merit, and even
seeking a political union with him; at another, when his alliance had
been rejected and an election was at hand, declaiming against him as a
murderer and a profligate. Lastly, though Sallust's vivid narrative is
consistent throughout, it is obvious that he cherished very bitter
feelings against the democratic party. Nevertheless, we cannot regard
Catiline as an honest enemy of the oligarchy, or as a disinterested
champion of the provincials. It is held by some historians that there
was at the time on the part of many of the Roman nobles a determination
to raise themselves to power, despite the opposition of the senate:
others with greater probability maintain that Catiline's object was
simply the cancelling of the huge debts which he and his friends had
accumulated. Catiline, by his bravery, his military talents, his
vigorous resolution, and his wonderful power over men, was eminently
qualified as a revolutionary leader. He is the subject of tragedies by
Ben Jonson and P. Crebillon, and of the _Rome sauvee_ of Voltaire.

  See P. Merimee, _Etudes sur la guerre sociale et la conjuration de
  Catiline_ (1844); E. Hagen, _Catilina_ (1854), with introductory
  discussion of the authorities; E.S. Beesley, "Catiline as a Party
  Leader" (_Fortnightly Review_, June 1865), in defence of Catiline; C.
  John, _Die Entstehungsgeschichte der catilinarischen Verschworung_
  (1876), a critical examination of Sallust's account; E. von Stern,
  _Catilina und die Parteikampfe in Rom_ 66-63 (1883), with bibliography
  in preface; C. Thiaucourt, _Etude sur la conjuration de Catiline_
  (1887), a critical examination of Sallust's account and of his object
  in writing it; J.E. Blondel, _Histoire economique de la conjuration de
  Catiline_ (1893), written from the point of view of a political
  economist; Gaston Boissier, _La Conjuration de Catiline_ (1905), and
  _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng. trans.); Tyrrell and Purser's ed. of
  Cicero's _Letters_ (index vol. s.v. "Sergius Catilina"); J.L. Strachan
  Davidson, _Cicero_ (1894), ch. v.; Warde Fowler's _Caesar_ (1892); see
  also art. ROME: _History, The Republic_.




CATINAT, NICOLAS (1637-1712), marshal of France, entered the Gardes
Francaises at an early age and distinguished himself at the siege of
Lille in 1667. He became a brigadier ten years later, _marechal de camp_
in 1680, and lieutenant-general 1688. He served with great credit in the
campaigns of 1676-1678 in Flanders, was employed against the Vaudois in
1686, and after taking part in the siege of Philipsburg at the opening
of the War of the League of Augsburg, he was appointed to command the
French troops in the south-eastern theatre of war. In 1690 he conquered
Savoy, and in 1691 Nice; the battle of Staffarda, won by him over the
duke of Savoy in 1690, and that of Marsaglia in 1693, were amongst the
greatest victories of the time. In 1696 Catinat forced the duke to make
an alliance with France. He had in 1693 been made a marshal of France.
At the beginning of the war of the Spanish Succession, Catinat was
placed in charge of operations in Italy, but he was much hampered by the
orders of the French court and the weakness of the forces for their
task. He suffered a reverse at Carpi (1701) and was soon afterwards
superseded by Villeroy, to whom he acted as second-in-command during the
campaign of Chiari. He died at St Gratien in 1712. His memoirs were
published in 1819.

  See E. de Broglie, _Catinat, 1637-1712_ (Paris, 1902).




CATLIN, GEORGE (1796-1872), American ethnologist, was born at
Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, in 1796. He was educated as a lawyer and
practised in Philadelphia for two years; but art was his favourite
pursuit, and forsaking the law he established himself at New York as a
portrait painter. In 1832, realizing that the American Indians were
dying out, he resolved to rescue their types and customs from oblivion.
With this object he spent many years among the Indians in North and
South America. He lived with them, acquired their languages, and studied
very thoroughly their habits, customs and mode of life, making copious
notes and many studies for paintings. In 1840 he came to Europe with his
collection of paintings, most of which are now in the National Museum,
Washington, as the Catlin Gallery; and in the following year he
published the _Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American
Indians_ in two volumes, illustrated with 300 engravings. This was
followed in 1844 by _The North American Portfolio_, containing 25 plates
of hunting scenes and amusements in the Rocky Mountains and the prairies
of America, and in 1848 by _Eight Years' Travels and Residence in
Europe_. In 1861 he published a curious little volume, in "manugraph,"
entitled _The Breath of Life_, on the advantage of keeping one's mouth
habitually closed, especially during sleep; and in 1868, _Last Rambles
amongst the Indians of the Rocky Mountains and the Andes_. He died in
Jersey City, New Jersey, on the 22nd of December 1872.




CATO, DIONYSIUS, the supposed author of the _Dionysii Catonis Disticha
de Moribus ad Filium_. The name usually given is simply Cato, an
indication of the wise character of the maxims inculcated, but Dionysius
is added on the authority of a MS. declared by Scaliger to be of great
antiquity. This MS. also contains Priscian's translation of the
Periegesis of the geographer Dionysius Periegetes; this has probably led
to the _Disticha_ also being attributed to him. In the middle ages the
author on the _Disticha_ was supposed to be Cato the Elder, who wrote a
_Carmen de Moribus_, but extracts from this in Aulus Gellius show that
it was in prose. Nothing is really known of the author or date of the
_Disticha_; it can only be assigned to the 3rd or 4th century A.D. It is
a small collection of moral apophthegms, each consisting of two
hexameters, in four books. They are monotheistic in character, not
specially Christian. The diction and metre are fairly good. The book had
a great reputation in the middle ages, and was translated into many
languages; it is frequently referred to by Chaucer, and in 1483 a
translation was issued from Caxton's press at Westminster.

  Editions by F. Hauthal (1869), with full account of MSS. and early
  editions, and G. Nemethy (1895), with critical notes; see also F.
  Zarncke, _Der deutsche Cato_ (1852), a history of middle age German
  translations; J. Nehab, _Der altenglische Cato_ (1879); E. Bischoff,
  _Prolegomena zum sogenannten Dionysius Cato_ (1893), in which the name
  is discussed; F. Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909), 663; for medieval
  translations and editions see Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Lit._ S 398, 3.




CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234-149 B.C.), Roman statesman, surnamed "The
Censor," _Sapiens, Priscus_, or _Major_ (the Elder), to distinguish him
from Cato of Utica, was born at Tusculum. He came of an ancient plebeian
family, noted for some military services, but not ennobled by the
discharge of the higher civil offices. He was bred, after the manner of
his Latin forefathers, to agriculture, to which he devoted himself when
not engaged in military service. But, having attracted the notice of L.
Valerius Flaccus, he was brought to Rome, and became successively
quaestor (204), aedile (199), praetor (198), and consul (195) with his
old patron. During his term of office he vainly opposed the repeal of
the lex Oppia, passed during the Second Punic War to restrict luxury and
extravagance on the part of women. Meanwhile he served in Africa, and
took part in the crowning campaign of Zama (202). He held a command in
Sardinia, where he first showed his strict public morality, and again in
Spain, which he reduced to subjection with great cruelty, and gained
thereby the honour of a triumph (194). In the year 191 he acted as
military tribune in the war against Antiochus III. of Syria, and played
an important part in the battle of Thermopylae, which finally delivered
Greece from the encroachments of the East. His reputation as a soldier
was now established; henceforth he preferred to serve the state at home,
scrutinizing the conduct of the candidates for public honours and of
generals in the field. If he was not personally engaged in the
prosecution of the Scipios (Africanus and Asiaticus) for corruption, it
was his spirit that animated the attack upon them. Even Africanus, who
refused to reply to the charge, saying only, "Romans, this is the day on
which I conquered Hannibal," and was absolved by acclamation, found it
necessary to retire self-banished to his villa at Liternum. Cato's
enmity dated from the African campaign when he quarrelled with Scipio
for his lavish distribution of the spoil amongst the troops, and his
general luxury and extravagance.

Cato had, however, a more serious task to perform in opposing the spread
of the new Hellenic culture which threatened to destroy the rugged
simplicity of the conventional Roman type. He conceived it to be his
special mission to resist this invasion. It was in the discharge of the
censorship that this determination was most strongly exhibited, and
hence that he derived the title (the Censor) by which he is most
generally distinguished. He revised with unsparing severity the lists of
senators and knights, ejecting from either order the men whom he judged
unworthy of it, either on moral grounds or from their want of the
prescribed means. The expulsion of L. Quinctius Flamininus for wanton
cruelty was an example of his rigid justice. His regulations against
luxury were very stringent. He imposed a heavy tax upon dress and
personal adornment, especially of women, and upon young slaves purchased
as favourites. In 181 he supported the lex Orchia (according to others,
he first opposed its introduction, and subsequently its repeal), which
prescribed a limit to the number of guests at an entertainment, and in
169 the lex Voconia, one of the provisions of which was intended to
check the accumulation of an undue proportion of wealth in the hands of
women. Amongst other things he repaired the aqueducts, cleansed the
sewers, prevented private persons drawing off public water for their own
use, ordered the demolition of houses which encroached on the public
way, and built the first basilica in the forum near the curia. He raised
the amount paid by the publican for the right of farming the taxes, and
at the same time diminished the contract prices for the construction of
public works.

From the date of his censorship (184) to his death in 149, Cato held no
public office, but continued to distinguish himself in the senate as the
persistent opponent of the new ideas. He was struck with horror, along
with many other Romans of the graver stamp, at the licence of the
Bacchanalian mysteries, which he attributed to the fatal influence of
Greek manners; and he vehemently urged the dismissal of the philosophers
(Carneades, Diogenes and Critolaus), who came as ambassadors from
Athens, on account of the dangerous nature of the views expressed by
them. He had a horror of physicians, who were chiefly Greeks. He
procured the release of Polybius, the historian, and his
fellow-prisoners, contemptuously asking whether the senate had nothing
more important to do than discuss whether a few Greeks should die at
Rome or in their own land. It was not till his eightieth year that he
made his first acquaintance with Greek literature. Almost his last
public act was to urge his countrymen to the Third Punic War and the
destruction of Carthage. In 157 he was one of the deputies sent to
Carthage to arbitrate between the Carthaginians and Massinissa, king of
Numidia. The mission was unsuccessful and the commissioners returned
home. But Cato was so struck by the evidences of Carthaginian prosperity
that he was convinced that the security of Rome depended on the
annihilation of Carthage. From this time, in season and out of season,
he kept repeating the cry: "Delenda est Carthago."

To Cato the individual life was a continual discipline, and public life
was the discipline of the many. He regarded the individual householder
as the germ of the family, the family as the germ of the state. By
strict economy of time he accomplished an immense amount of work; he
exacted similar application from his dependents, and proved himself a
hard husband, a strict father, a severe and cruel master. There was
little difference apparently, in the esteem in which he held his wife
and his slaves; his pride alone induced him to take a warmer interest in
his sons. To the Romans themselves there was little in this behaviour
which seemed worthy of censure; it was respected rather as a traditional
example of the old Roman manners. In the remarkable passage (xxxix. 40)
in which Livy describes the character of Cato, there is no word of blame
for the rigid discipline of his household.

Cato perhaps deserves even more notice as a literary man than as a
statesman or a soldier. He was the first Latin prose writer of any
importance, and the first author of a history of Rome in Latin. His
treatise on agriculture (_De Agricultura_, or _De Re Rustica_) is the
only work by him that has been preserved; it is not agreed whether the
work we possess is the original or a later revision. It contains a
miscellaneous collection of rules of good husbandry, conveying much
curious information on the domestic habits of the Romans of his age. His
most important work, _Origines_, in seven books, related the history of
Rome from its earliest foundations to his own day. It was so called from
the second and third books, which described the rise of the different
Italian towns. His speeches, of which as many as 150 were collected,
were principally directed against the young free-thinking and
loose-principled nobles of the day. He also wrote a set of maxims for
the use of his son (_Praecepta ad Filium_), and some rules for everyday
life in verse (_Carmen de Moribus_). The collection of proverbs in
hexameter verse, extant under the name of Cato, probably belongs to the
4th century A.D. (See CATO, DIONYSIUS.)

  AUTHORITIES.--There are lives of Cato by Cornelius Nepos, Plutarch and
  Aurelius Victor, and many particulars of his career and character are
  to be gathered from Livy and Cicero. See also F.D. Gerlach, _Marcus
  Porcius Cato der Censor_ (Basel, 1869); G. Kurth, _Caton l'ancien_
  (Bruges, 1872); J. Cortese, _De M. Porcii Catonis vita, operibus, et
  lingua_ (Turin, 1883); F. Marcucci, _Studio critico sulle Opere di
  Catone il Maggiore_ (1902). The best edition of the _De Agricultura_
  is by H. Keil (1884-1891), of the fragments of the _Origines_ by H.
  Peter (1883) in _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta_, of the fragments
  generally by H. Jordan (1860); see also J. Wordsworth, _Fragments and
  Specimens of Early Latin_ (1874); M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen
  Litteratur_ (1898); article in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman
  Biography_, Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. trans.), bk. iii. ch. xi
  and xiv.; Warde Fowler, _Social Life at Rome_ (1909).




CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.C.), Roman philosopher, called _Uticensis_
to distinguish him from his great-grandfather, "the Censor." On the
death of his parents he was brought up in the house of his uncle, M.
Livius Drusus. After fighting with distinction in the ranks against
Spartacus (72 B.C.), he became a military tribune (67), and served a
campaign in Macedonia, but he never had any enthusiasm for the military
profession. On his return he became quaestor, and showed so much zeal
and integrity in the management of the public accounts that he obtained
a provincial appointment in Asia, where he strengthened his reputation.
Though filled with disgust at the corruption of the public men with whom
he came in contact, he saw much to admire in the discipline which
Lucullus had enforced in his own eastern command, and he supported his
claims to a triumph, while he opposed the inordinate pretensions of
Pompey. When the favour of the nobles gained him the tribuneship, he
exerted himself unsuccessfully to convict L. Licinius Murena (2), one of
their chief men, of bribery. Cicero, who defended Murena, was glad to
have Cato's aid when he urged the execution of the Catilinarian
conspirators. Cato's vote on this matter drew upon him the bitter
resentment of Julius Caesar, who did his utmost to save them.

Cato had now become a great power in the state. Though possessed of
little wealth and no family influence, his unflinching resolution in the
cause of the ancient free state rendered him a valuable instrument in
the hands of the nobles. He vainly opposed Caesar's candidature for the
consulship in 59, and his attempt, in conjunction with Bibulus, to
prevent the passing of Caesar's proposed agrarian law for distributing
lands amongst the Asiatic veterans, proved unsuccessful. Nevertheless,
although his efforts were ineffectual, he was still an obstacle of
sufficient importance for the triumvirs to desire to get rid of him. At
the instigation of Caesar he was sent to Cyprus (58) with a mission to
depose its king, Ptolemy (brother of Ptolemy Auletes), and annex the
island. On his return two years later he continued to struggle against
the combined powers of the triumvirs in the city, and became involved in
scenes of violence and riot. He succeeded in obtaining the praetorship
in 54, and strenuously exerted himself in the hopeless and thankless
task of suppressing bribery, in which all parties were equally
interested. He failed to attain the consulship, and had made up his mind
to retire from the arena of civic ambition when the civil war broke out
in 49. Feeling that the sole chance for the free state lay in conceding
an actual supremacy to Pompey, whom he had formerly vigorously opposed,
he did not scruple to support the unjust measures of the nobles against
Caesar. At the outset of the war he was entrusted with the defence of
Sicily, but finding it impossible to resist the superior forces of C.
Scribonius Curio, who had landed on the island, he joined Pompey at
Dyrrhachium. When his chief followed Caesar to Thessaly he was left
behind in charge of the camp, and thus was not present at the battle of
Pharsalus. After the battle, when Pompey abandoned his party, he
separated himself from the main body of the republicans, and conducted a
small remnant of their forces into Africa. After his famous march
through the Libyan deserts, he shut himself up in Utica, and even after
the decisive defeat at Thapsus (46), in spite of the wishes of his
followers, he determined to keep the gates closed till he had sent off
his adherents by sea. While the embarkation was in progress he continued
calm and dignified; when the last of the transports had left the port he
cheerfully dismissed his attendants, and soon afterwards stabbed
himself.

He had been reading, we are told, in his last moments Plato's dialogue
on the immortality of the soul, but his own philosophy had taught him to
act upon a narrow sense of immediate duty without regard to the future.
He conceived that he was placed in the world to play an active part, and
when disabled from carrying out his principles, to retire gravely from
it. He had lived for the free state, and it now seemed his duty to
perish with it. In politics he was a typical doctrinaire, abhorring
compromise and obstinately blind to the fact that his national ideal was
a hopeless anachronism. From the circumstances of his life and of his
death, he has come to be regarded as one of the most distinguished of
Roman philosophers, but he composed no works, and bequeathed to
posterity no other instruction than that of his example. The only
composition by him which we possess is a letter to Cicero (_Ad Fam._ xv.
5), a polite refusal of the orator's request that he would endeavour to
procure him the honour of a triumph. The school of the Stoics, which
took a leading part in the history of Rome under the earlier emperors,
looked to him as its saint and patron. It continued to wage war against
the empire, hardly less openly than Cato himself had done, for two
centuries, till at last it became actually seated on the imperial throne
in the person of Marcus Aurelius. Immediately after his death Cato's
character became the subject of discussion; Cicero's panegyric _Cato_
was answered by Caesar in his _Anticato_. Brutus, dissatisfied with
Cicero's work, produced another on the same subject; in Lucan Cato is
represented as a model of virtue and disinterestedness.

  See _Life_ by Plutarch, and compare Addison's tragedy. Modern
  biographies by H. Wartmann (Zurich, 1859), and F.D. Gerlach (Basel,
  1866); C.W. Oman, _Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic, Cato
  ..._ (1902); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. v.;
  article in Smith's _Dictionary of Classical Biography_; Gaston
  Boissier, _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng. trans., 1897), esp. pp. 277
  foll.; Warde Fowler, _Social Life at Rome_ (1909).




CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS, Roman poet and grammarian, was born about 100
B.C. He is of importance as the leader of the "new" school of poetry
(_poetae novi_, [Greek: neoteroi], as Cicero calls them). Its followers
rejected the national epic and drama in favour of the artificial
mythological epics and elegies of the Alexandrian school, and preferred
Euphorion of Chalcis to Ennius. Learning, that is, a knowledge of Greek
literature and myths, and strict adherence to metrical rules were
regarded by them as indispensable to the poet. The [Greek: neoteroi]
were also determined opponents of Pompey and Caesar. The great influence
of Cato is attested by the lines:--

  "Cato grammaticus, Latina Siren,
   Qui solus legit ac facit poetas."[1]

Our information regarding his life is derived from Suetonius (_De
Grammaticis_, 11). He was a native of Cisalpine Gaul, and lost his
property during the Sullan disturbances before he had attained his
majority. He lived to a great age, and during the latter part of his
life was in very reduced circumstances. He was at one time possessed of
considerable wealth, and owned a villa at Tusculum which he was obliged
to hand over to his creditors. In addition to grammatical treatises,
Cato wrote a number of poems, the best-known of which were the _Lydia_
and _Diana_. In the _Indignatio_ (perhaps a short poem) he defended
himself against the accusation that he was of servile birth. It is
probable that he is the Cato mentioned as a critic of Lucilius in the
lines by an unknown author prefixed to Horace, _Satires_, i. 10.

  Among the minor poems attributed to Virgil is one called _Dirae_ (or
  rather two, _Dirae_ and _Lydia_). The _Dirae_ consists of imprecations
  against the estate of which the writer has been deprived, and where he
  is obliged to leave his beloved Lydia; in the _Lydia_, on the other
  hand, the estate is regarded with envy as the possessor of his
  charmer. Joseph Justus Scaliger was the first to attribute the poem
  (divided into two by F. Jacobs) to Valerius Cato, on the ground that
  he had lost an estate and had written a _Lydia_. The question has been
  much discussed; the balance of opinion is in favour of the _Dirae_
  being assigned to the beginning of the Augustan age, although so
  distinguished a critic as O. Ribbeck supports the claims of Cato to
  the authorship. The best edition of these poems is by A.F. Nake
  (1847), with exhaustive commentary and excursuses; a clear account of
  the question will be found in M. Schanz's _Geschichte der romischen
  Litteratur_; for the "new" school of poetry see Mommsen, _Hist. of
  Rome_, bk. v. ch. xii.; F. Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909), 188.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] "Cato, the grammarian, the Latin siren, who alone reads aloud the
    works and makes the reputation of poets."




CATS, JACOB (1577-1660), Dutch poet and humorist, was born at
Brouwershaven in Zeeland on the 10th of November 1577. Having lost his
mother at an early age, and being adopted with his three brothers by an
uncle, Cats was sent to school at Zierikzee. He then studied law at
Leiden and at Orleans, and, returning to Holland, he settled at the
Hague, where he began to practise as an advocate. His pleading in
defence of a wretched creature accused of witchcraft brought him many
clients and some reputation. He had a serious love affair about this
time, which was broken off on the very eve of marriage by his catching a
tertian fever which defied all attempts at cure for some two years. For
medical advice and change of air Cats went to England, where he
consulted the highest authorities in vain. He returned to Zeeland to
die, but was cured mysteriously by a strolling quack. He married in 1602
a lady of some property, Elisabeth von Valkenburg, and thenceforward
lived at Grypskerke in Zeeland, where he devoted himself to farming and
poetry. His best works are: _Emblemata_ or _Minnebeelden_ with
_Maegdenplicht_ (1618); _Spiegel van den ouden en nieuwen Tijt_ (1632);
_Houwelijck ..._ (1625); _Selfstrijt_ (1620); _Ouderdom, Buitem leven
... en Hofgedachten op Sorgvliet_ (1664); and _Gedachten op slapelooze
nachten_ (1661). In 1621, on the expiration of the twelve years' truce
with Spain, the breaking of the dykes drove him from his farm. He was
made pensionary (stipendiary magistrate) of Middelburg; and two years
afterwards of Dort. In 1627 Cats came to England on a mission to Charles
I., who made him a knight. In 1636 he was made grand pensionary of
Holland, and in 1648 keeper of the great seal; in 1651 he resigned his
offices, but in 1657 he was sent a second time to England on what proved
to be an unsuccessful mission to Cromwell. In the seclusion of his villa
of Sorgvliet (Fly-from-Care), near the Hague, he lived from this time
till his death, occupied in the composition of his autobiography
(_Eighty-two Years of My Life_, first printed at Leiden in 1734) and of
his poems. He died on the 12th of September 1660, and was buried by
torchlight, and with great ceremony, in the Klooster-Kerk at the Hague.
He is still spoken of as "Father Cats" by his countrymen.

Cats was contemporary with Hooft and Vondel and other distinguished
Dutch writers in the golden age of Dutch literature, but his Orangist
and Calvinistic opinions separated him from the liberal school of
Amsterdam poets. He was, however, intimate with Constantin Huygens,
whose political opinions were more nearly in agreement with his own. For
an estimate of his poetry see DUTCH LITERATURE. Hardly known outside of
Holland, among his own people for nearly two centuries he enjoyed an
enormous popularity. His diffuseness and the antiquated character of his
matter and diction, have, however, come to be regarded as difficulties
in the way of study, and he is more renowned than read. A statue to him
was erected at Brouwershaven in 1829.

  See Jacob Cats, _Complete Works_ (1790-1800, 19 vols.), later editions
  by van Vloten (Zwolle, 1858-1866; and at Schiedam, 1869-1870); Pigott,
  _Moral Emblems, with Aphorisms, &c., from Jacob Cats_ (1860); and P.C.
  Witsen Gejisbek, _Het Leven en de Verdiensten van Jacob Cats_ (1829).
  Southey has a very complimentary reference to Cats in his "Epistle to
  Allan Cunningham."




CAT'S-EYE, a name given to several distinct minerals, their common
characteristic being that when cut with a convex surface they display a
luminous band, like that seen by reflection in the eye of a cat. (1)
Precious cat's-eye, oriental cat's-eye or chrysoberyl cat's-eye. This,
the rarest of all, is a chatoyant variety of chrysoberyl (q.v.), showing
in the finest stones a very sharply defined line of light. One of the
grandest known specimens was in the Hope collection of precious stones,
exhibited for many years at the Victoria and Albert Museum. (2) Quartz
cat's-eye. This is the common form of cat's-eye, in which the effect is
due to the inclusion of parallel fibres of asbestos. Like the
chrysoberyl, it is obtained chiefly from Ceylon, but though coming from
the East it is often called "occidental cat's-eye"--a term intended
simply to distinguish it from the finer or "oriental" stone. It is
readily distinguished by its inferior density, its specific gravity
being only 2.65, whilst that of oriental cat's-eye is as high as 3.7. A
greenish fibrous quartz, cut as cat's-eye, occurs at Hof and some other
localities irr Bavaria. (3) Crocidolite cat's-eye, a beautiful golden
brown mineral, with silky fibres, found in Griqualand West, and much
used in recent years as an ornamental stone, sometimes under the name of
"South African cat's-eye." It consists of fibrous quartz, coloured with
oxide of iron, and results from the alteration of crocidolite (q.v.). It
is often distinguished as "tiger's-eye" (or more commonly "tiger-eye"),
whilst a blue variety, less altered, is known as "hawk's-eye." By the
action of hydrochloric acid the colour of tiger's-eye may to a large
extent be removed, and a greyish cat's-eye obtained. (4) Corundum
cat's-eye. In some asteriated corundum (see ASTERIA) the star is
imperfect and may be reduced to a luminous zone, producing an indistinct
cat's-eye effect. According to the colour of the corundum the stone is
known as sapphire cat's-eye, ruby cat's-eye, topaz cat's-eye, &c.
     (F. W. R.*)




CATSKILL, a village and the county-seat of Greene county, New York,
U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, 33 m. S. of Albany. Pop.
(1890) 4920; (1900) 5484; of whom 657 were foreign-born; (1910) 5206. It
is served by the West Shore railway, by several lines of river
steamboats, and by the Catskill Mountain railway, connecting it with the
popular summer resorts in the Catskill mountains. A ferry connects with
Catskill station (Greendale) on the east side of the Hudson. The village
is in a farming country, and manufactures woollen goods and bricks, but
it is best known as a summer resort, and as the principal gateway to the
beautiful Catskill Mountain region. The _Recorder_, a weekly newspaper,
was established here in 1792 as the _Packet_. The first settler on the
present site of Catskill was Derrick Teunis van Vechten, who built a
house here in 1680. The village was not incorporated until 1806.

  See J.D. Pinckney, _Reminiscences of Catskill_ (Catskill, 1868).




CATSKILL (formerly KAATSKIL) MOUNTAINS, a group of moderate elevation
pertaining to the Alleghany Plateau, and not properly included in the
Appalachian system of North America because they lack the internal
structures and the general parallelism of topographic features which
characterize the Appalachian ranges. The group contains many summits
above 3000 ft. elevation and half a dozen approaching 4000, Slide
Mountain (4205 ft.), and Hunter Mountain (4025 ft.), being the only ones
exceeding that figure. The bottom lands along the creeks which drain the
mountains, together with rolling uplands rising to elevations of from
1500 to 2000 ft., are under cultivation, the mountain slopes being
forested or devoted to grazing. The pure and cool atmosphere attracts
summer visitors, for whose accommodation many hotels have been built,
some of which have become celebrated. Stoney Clove and Kaaterskill Clove
are picturesque gorges, the former being traversed by a rail way, and
the latter containing three cascades having a total fall of about 300
ft. The growing need of New York City for an increased water-supply has
driven her engineers to the Catskills, where several great reservoirs
have been projected to supplement those of the Croton watershed.




CATTANEO, CARLO (1801-1869), Italian philosopher and patriot. A
republican in his convictions, during his youth he had taken part in the
Carbonarist movement in Lombardy. He devoted himself to the study of
philosophy, hoping to regenerate the Italian people by withdrawing them
from romanticism and rhetoric, and turning their attention to the
positive sciences. He expounded his ideas in a review founded by him at
Milan in 1837, called _Il Politecnico_. But when the revolution of 1848
broke out he threw himself heart and soul into the fray, and became one
of the leading spirits of the insurrection against the Austrians, known
as the Five Days of Milan (March 18-22, 1848). Together with Terzaghi,
Cernuschi and Clerici he formed a council of war which, having its
headquarters at Casa Taverna, directed the operations of the insurgents.
He was second to none in self-sacrificing energy and heroic resolution.
When on the 18th of March Field Marshal Radetzky, feeling that the
position of the Austrian garrison was untenable, sounded the rebels as
to their terms, some of the leaders were inclined to agree to an
armistice which would give time for the Piedmontese troops to arrive
(Piedmont had just declared war), but Cattaneo insisted on the complete
evacuation of Lombardy. Again on the 21st, Radetzky tried to obtain an
armistice, and Durini and Borromeo were ready to grant it, for it would
have enabled them to reorganize the defences and replenish the supplies
of food and ammunition, which could only last another day. But Cattaneo
replied: "The enemy having furnished us with munitions thus far, will
continue to furnish them. Twenty-four hours of victuals and twenty-four
hours of hunger will be many more hours than we shall need. This
evening, if the plans we have just arranged should succeed, the line of
the bastions will be broken. At any rate, even though we should lack
bread, it is better to die of hunger than on the gallows." On the
expulsion of the Austrians the question arose as to the future
government of Milan and Italy. Cattaneo was an uncompromising republican
and a federalist; so violent was his dislike of the Piedmontese monarchy
that when he heard that King Charles Albert had been defeated by the
Austrians, and that Radetzky was marching back to reoccupy Milan, he
exclaimed: "Good news, the Piedmontese have been beaten. Now we shall be
our own masters; we shall fight a people's war, we shall chase the
Austrians out of Italy, and set up a Federal Republic." When the
Austrians returned Cattaneo had to flee, and took refuge at Lugano,
where he gave lessons, wrote his _Storia della Rivoluzione del 1848_,
the _Archivio triennale delle cose d' Italia_ (3 vols., 1850-1855), and
then early in 1860 he started the _Politecnico_ once more. He bitterly
attacked Cavour for his unitarian views, and for the cession of Nice and
Savoy. In 1860 Garibaldi summoned him to Naples to take part in the
government of the Neapolitan provinces, but he would not agree to the
union with Piedmont without local autonomy. After the union of Italy he
was frequently asked to stand for parliament, but always refused because
he could not conscientiously take the oath of allegiance to the
monarchy. In 1868 the pressure of friends overcame his resistance, and
he agreed to stand, but at the last moment he drew back, still unable to
take the oath, and returned to Lugano, where he died in 1869. As a
writer Cattaneo was learned and brilliant, but far too bitter a partisan
to be judicious, owing to his narrowly republican views; his ideas on
local autonomy were perhaps wise, but, at a moment when unity was the
first essential, inopportune.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. and J. Mario, _Carlo Cattaneo_ (Florence, 1884); E.
  Zanoni, _Carlo Cattaneo nella vita e nelle opere_ (Rome, 1898); see
  also his own _Opere edite ed inedite_ (7 vols., Florence, 1881-1892),
  _Scritti politici ed epistolari_ (3 vols., Florence, 1892-1901),
  _Scritti storici, letterari_ (Milan, 1898, &c.).




CATTARO (Serbo-Croatian _Kotor_), the chief town of an administrative
district in Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. (1900) of town, 3021; of commune,
5418. Cattaro occupies a narrow ledge between the Montenegrin Mountains
and the Bocche di Cattaro, a winding and beautiful inlet of the Adriatic
Sea. This inlet expands into five broad gulfs, united by narrower
channels, and forms one of the finest natural harbours in Europe. Teodo,
on the outermost gulf, is a small naval port. Cattaro is strongly
fortified, and about 3000 troops are stationed in its neighbourhood. On
the seaward side, the defensive works include Castelnuovo (_Erceg
Novi_), which guards the main entrance to the Bocche. On the landward
side, the long walls running from the town to the castle of San
Giovanni, far above, form a striking feature in the landscape; and the
heights of the Krivoscie or Crevoscia (_Krivosije_), a group of barren
mountains between Montenegro, Herzegovina and the sea, are crowned by
small forts. Cattaro is divided almost equally between the Roman
Catholic and Orthodox creeds. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
with a small cathedral, a collegiate church and several convents. The
transit trade with Montenegro is impeded by high tariffs on both sides
of the frontier. Foreign visitors to Montenegro usually land at Cattaro,
which is connected by steamer with Trieste and by road with Cettigne.
The railway from Ragusa terminates at Zelenika, near Castelnuovo.

There are many interesting places on the shores of the Bocche.
Castelnuovo is a picturesque town, with a dismantled 14th-century
citadel, which has, at various times, been occupied by Bosnians, Turks,
Venetians, Spaniards, Russians, French, English and Austrians. The
orthodox convent of St Sava, standing amid beautiful gardens, was
founded in the 16th century, and contains many fine specimens of
17th-century silversmiths' work. There is a Benedictine monastery on a
small island opposite to Perasto (_Perast_), 8 m. east of Castelnuovo.
Perasto itself was for a time an independent state in the 14th century.
Rhizon, the modern hamlet of Risano, close by, was a thriving "Illyrian"
city as early as 229 B.C., and gave its name to the Bocche, then known
as _Rhizonicus Sinus_. Rhizon submitted to Rome in 168 B.C., and about
the same time Ascrivium, or Ascruvium, the modern Cattaro, is first
mentioned as a neighbouring city. Justinian built a fortress above
Ascrivium in A.D. 535, after expelling the Goths, and a second town
probably grew up on the heights round it, for Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, in the 10th century, alludes to "Lower Cattaro" [Greek:
to kato Dekatera]. The city was plundered by the Saracens in 840, and by
the Bulgarians in 1102. In the next year it was ceded to Servia by the
Bulgarian tsar Samuel, but revolted, in alliance with Ragusa, and only
submitted in 1184, as a protected state, preserving intact its
republican institutions, and its right to conclude treaties and engage
in war. It was already an episcopal see, and, in the 13th century,
Dominican and Franciscan monasteries were established to check the
spread of Bogomilism. In the 14th century the commerce of Cattaro
rivalled that of Ragusa, and provoked the jealousy of Venice. The
downfall of Servia in 1389 left the city without a guardian, and, after
being seized and abandoned by Venice and Hungary in turn, it passed
under Venetian rule in 1420. It was besieged by the Turks in 1538 and
1657, visited by plague in 1572, and nearly destroyed by earthquakes in
1563 and 1667. By the treaty of Campo-Formio in 1797 it passed to
Austria; but in 1805, by the treaty of Pressburg, it was assigned to
Italy, and was united in 1810 with the French empire. In 1814 it was
restored to Austria by the congress of Vienna. The attempt to enforce
compulsory military service, made and abandoned in 1869, but finally
successful in 1881, led to two short-lived revolts among the
Krivoscians, during which Cattaro was the Austrian headquarters.

  See G. Gelcich (Gelcic), _Memorie storiche sulle Bocche di Cattaro_
  (Zara, 1880).




CATTEGAT, or KATTEGAT (Scand. "cat's-throat"), a strait forming part of
the connexion between the Baltic and the North Seas. It lies north and
south between Sweden and Denmark, and connects north with the Skagerrack
and south through the Sound, the Great Belt and the Little Belt with the
Baltic Sea. Its length is about 150 m. and its extreme breadth about 90
m.




CATTERMOLE, GEORGE (1800-1868), English painter, chiefly in
water-colours, was born at Dickleburgh, near Diss, Norfolk, in August
1800. At the age of sixteen he began working as an architectural and
topographical draughtsman; afterwards he contributed designs to be
engraved in the annuals then so popular; thence he progressed into
water-colour painting, becoming an associate of the Water-Colour Society
in 1822, and a full member in 1833. In 1850 he withdrew from active
connexion with this society, and took to painting in oil. His most
fertile period was between 1833 and 1850. At the Paris exhibition of
1855 he received one of the five first-class gold medals awarded to
British painters. He also enjoyed professional honours in Amsterdam and
in Belgium. He died on the 24th of July 1868. Among his leading works
are "The Murder of the Bishop of Liege" (15th century), "The Armourer
relating the Story of the Sword," "The Assassination of the Regent
Murray by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh," and (in oil) "A Terrible Secret."
He was largely employed by publishers, illustrating the _Waverley
Novels_ and the _Historical Annual_ of his brother the Rev. Richard
Cattermole (his scenes from the wars of Cavaliers and Roundheads in this
series are among his best engraved works), and many other volumes
besides. Cattermole was a painter of no inconsiderable gifts, and of
great facility in picturesque resource; he was defective in solidity of
form and texture, and in realism or richness of colour. He excelled in
rendering scenes of chivalry, of medievalism, and generally of the
romantic aspects of the past.




CATTLE (Norman Fr. _catel_, from Late Lat. _capitate_, wealth or
property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and
particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as
"chattel" or "chattle"), a general term for the cows and oxen of
agricultural use. For the zoological account, see BOVIDAE, and the
subordinate articles there referred to; for details concerning
dairy-farming, see DAIRY.

Oxen appear to have been among the earliest of domesticated animals, as
they undoubtedly were among the most important agents in the growth of
early civilization. They are mentioned in the oldest written records of
the Hebrew and Hindu peoples, and are figured on Egyptian monuments
raised over 3000 years B.C.; while remains of domesticated specimens
have been found in Swiss lake-dwellings along with the stone implements
and other relics of Neolithic man. In infant communities a man's wealth
was measured by the number and size of his herds--Abraham, it is said,
was rich in cattle--and oxen for a long period formed, as they still do
among many savage or semi-savage tribes, the favourite medium of
exchange between individuals and communities. After the introduction of
a metal coinage into ancient Greece, this method of exchange was
commemorated by stamping the image of an ox on the new money; while the
connexion between cattle and coin as symbols of wealth has left its mark
on the languages of Europe, as is seen in the Latin word _pecunia_ and
the English "pecuniary," derived from _pecus_, cattle. The value
attached to cattle in ancient times is further shown by the Bull
figuring among the signs of the zodiac; in its worship by the ancient
Egyptians under the title of Apis; in the veneration which has always
been paid to it by the Hindus, according to whose sacred legends it was
the first animal created by the three divinities directed by the supreme
Deity to furnish the earth with animated beings; and in the important
part it played in Greek and Roman mythology. The Hindus were not allowed
to shed the blood of the ox, and the Egyptians could only do so in
sacrificing to their gods. Both Hindus and Jews were forbidden to muzzle
it when treading out the corn; to destroy it wantonly was a crime among
the Romans, punishable with exile.

_Breeds_.--There exist in Britain four interesting remnants of what were
at one time numerous enclosed herds of ancient forest cattle,[1] with
black or red points, in parks at Chillingham, Cadzow, Vaynol (near
Bangor, North Wales) and Chartley. A few of the last have been removed
to Woburn. Other representatives of old stock are a resuscitated white
Welsh breed with black points, derived from white specimens born of
black Welsh cows; several herds of a white polled breed with black
points; a herd of the ancient Polled Suffolk Dun, an excellent milking
breed; a White Belted Galloway and a White Belted Welsh breed; the old
Gloucester breed at Badminton, with a white rump, tail and underline,
related to the now extinct Glamorgan breed; the Shetland breed; and a
few herds of Dutch cattle preserved for their superior milking powers.

The prominent breeds of cattle in the British Isles[2] comprise the
Shorthorn, Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, South Devon,
Sussex, Welsh, Longhorn, Red Polled, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, West
Highland, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, Kerry and Dexter.

The Shorthorn, Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, South Devon,
Sussex, Longhorn and Red Polled breeds are native to England; the
Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Highland and Ayrshire breeds to Scotland; and
the Kerry and Dexter breeds to Ireland. The Jersey and Guernsey
breeds--often spoken of as Channel Islands cattle--belong to the
respective islands whose names they bear, and great care is taken to
keep them isolated from each other. The term Alderney is obsolete, the
cattle of Alderney being mainly a type of the Guernsey breed.

Among breeds well known in the United States[2] and not mentioned above,
the more important are the Holsteins, large black and white cattle
highly valued for their abundant milk production, and the Dutch Belted
breed, black with a broad white band round the body, also good milkers.

The _Shorthorn_[3] is the most widely distributed of all the breeds of
cattle both at home and abroad. No census of breeds has ever been taken
in the United Kingdom, but such an enumeration would show the Shorthorn
far to exceed in numbers any other breed, whilst the great majority of
cross-bred cattle contain Shorthorn blood. During the last quarter of
the 18th century the brothers Charles Colling (1751-1836) and Robert
Colling (1749-1820), by careful selection and breeding, improved the
cattle of the Teeswater district in the county of Durham. If the
Shorthorn did not originate thus, it is indisputable that the efforts of
the Collings[4] had a profound influence upon the fortunes of the breed.
It is still termed the Durham breed in most parts of the world except
the land of its birth, and the geographical name is far preferable, for
the term "shorthorn" is applicable to a number of other breeds. Other
skilled breeders turned their attention to the Shorthorns and
established famous strains, the descendants of which can still be
traced. By Thomas Booth, of Killerby and Warlaby in Yorkshire (1777),
the "Booth" strains of Shorthorns were originated; by Thomas Bates, of
Kirklevington in Yorkshire, the "Bates" families[5] (1800).

The Shorthorn is sometimes spoken of as the ubiquitous breed, its
striking characteristic being the ease with which it adapts itself to
varying conditions of soil, climate and management. It is also called
the "red, white and roan." The roan colour is very popular, and dark red
has its supporters, as in the case of the _Lincolnshire Red Shorthorns_;
white is not in favour, especially abroad. The Shorthorn breed is more
noted for its beef-making than for its milk-yielding properties,
although the non-pedigree milking Shorthorn of the north of England is
an excellent cow with dual-purpose qualifications of the first order. An
effort is being made to restore milking qualities to certain strains of
pedigree blood.

The culmination of what may be termed the Booth and Bates period was in
the year 1875, when the sales took place of Lord Dunmore's and William
Torr's herds, which realized extraordinary prices. In that black year of
farming, 1879, prices were declining, and they continued to do so till
within the last few years of the close of the 19th century, when there
set in a gradual revival, stimulated largely by the commercial
prosperity of the country. The result of extremely high prices when
line-bred animals were in fashion was a tendency to breed from all kinds
of animals that were of the same tribe, without selection. A
deterioration set in, which was aggravated by the overlooking of the
milking properties. Shorthorn breeders came to see that change of blood
was necessary. Meanwhile, for many years breeders in Aberdeenshire had
been holding annual sales of young bulls and heifers from their herds.
The late Amos Cruickshank began his annual sales in the 'forties, and
the late W.T. Talbot-Crosbie had annual sales from his Shorthorn herd in
the south-west of Ireland for a number of years. Many Aberdeen farmers
emigrated to Canada, and bought Shorthorn calves in their native county
to take with them. The Cruickshanks held their bull sales at that time,
and many of their animals were bought by the small breeders in Canada.
This continued until 1875, when the Cruickshanks had so much private
demand that they discontinued their public sales. Subsequently, when
Cruickshank sold his herd privately to James Nelson & Sons for
exportation, the animals could not all be shipped, and W. Duthie, of
Collynie, Aberdeenshire, bought some of the older cows, whilst J. Deane
Willis, of Bapton Monar, Wilts, bought the yearling heifers. Duthie
thereupon resumed the sales that the Cruickshanks had relinquished, his
averages being L30 in 1892, about L50 in 1893-1894, and L80 in 1895.
These prices advanced through English breeders requiring a little change
of blood, and also through the increasing tendency to exhibit animals of
great substance, or rather to feed animals for show. The success of this
movement strengthened the demand, whilst an inquiry for his line of
blood arose in the United States and Canada. A faithful contemporary
history of the Shorthorn breed is to be found in _Thornton's Circular_,
published quarterly since 1868; see also J. Sinclair, _History of
Shorthorn Cattle_ (1907); R. Bruce, _Fifty Years among Shorthorns_
(1907); A.H. Sanders, _Shorthorn Cattle_ (Chicago, 1901).

The _Lincolnshire Red Shorthorns_ are the best dual-purpose cattle--for
milk and meat--that possess a pedigree record, in the United Kingdom,
and their uniform cherry red colour has brought them into high favour in
tropical countries for crossing with the native breeds.

The _Hereford_ breed is maintained chiefly in Herefordshire and the
adjoining counties. Whilst a full red is the general colour of the body,
the Herefords are distinguished by their white face, white chest and
abdomen, and white mane. The legs up to the knee or hock are also often
white. As a protection against the sun in a hot climate dark spots on
the eyelids or round the orbits are valuable. The horns are moderately
long. Herefords, though they rear their own calves, have acquired but
little fame as dairy cattle. They are very hardy, and produce beef of
excellent quality. Being docile, they fatten easily and readily, and as
graziers' beasts they are in high favour.

When the Bates' Shorthorn bubble burst in America about 1877, the
Hereford gradually replaced the Shorthorn of the western ranches, and it
is now the most numerous ranch animal in the United States and Canada.
The bulls beat the bulls of all other breeds in "rustling" capacity.

In America the ranch-bred Herefords have got too small in the bone in
recent years, and Shorthorns, chiefly of the Scottish type, are being
introduced to increase their size by crossing. In the "feed lot" a
well-bred Hereford steer feeds more quickly than either a Shorthorn or
an Aberdeen-Angus.

In Queensland, Hereford cattle bred from the "Lord Wilton" strain by
Robert Christison of Lammermoor have for years been triumphant as
beef-producers in competition with the Shorthorn. When these are
quartered in the ordinary butchers' fashion, the hind-quarters outweigh
the fore-quarters, which is a reversal of the prevailing rule.

_North Devons_.--The "Rubies of the West," as they are termed from their
hue, are reared chiefly in Devon and Somerset. The colour is a whole
red, its depth or richness varying with the individual, and in summer
becoming mottled with darker spots. The Devons stand somewhat low; they
are neat and compact, and possess admirable symmetry. Although a smaller
breed than the Shorthorn or the Hereford, they weigh better than either.
The horns of the female are somewhat slender, and often curve neatly
upwards. Being fine-limbed, active animals, they are well adapted for
grazing the poor pastures of their native hills, and they turn their
food to the best account, yielding excellent beef. They have not yet
attained much celebrity as milch kine, for, though their milk is of
first-class quality, with a few notable exceptions, its quantity is
small. Latterly, however, the milking qualities have received more
attention from breeders, whose object is to qualify the Devon as a
dual-purpose breed.

The _South Devon_ or _South Hams_ cattle are almost restricted to that
southern part of the county of Devon known as the Hams, whence they are
also called "Hammers." With a somewhat ungainly head, lemon-yellow hair,
yellow skin, and large but hardly handsome udder, the South Devon breed
more resembles the Guernsey, with which it is supposed to be connected,
than the trim-built cattle of the hills of North Devon. The cows are
large, heavy milkers, and produce excellent butter. They are rarely
seen outside their locality except when they appear in the showyards.

The _Sussex_ breed resembles the North Devon in many respects, but it is
bigger, less refined in appearance, less graceful in outline, and of a
deeper brown-chestnut colour than the "dainty Devon," as the latter may
well be called when compared with them. As a hardy race, capable of
thriving on poor rough pastures, the Sussex are highly valued in their
native districts, where they were rapidly improved before the end of the
19th century. They are essentially a beef-producing breed, the cows
having little reputation as milkers. By stall-feeding they can be
ripened for the butcher at an early age. Sussex cattle are said to "die
well," that is, to yield a large proportion of meat in the best parts of
the carcase.

In the _Welsh_ breed of cattle black is the prevailing colour, and the
horns are fairly long. They do not mature very rapidly, but some of them
grow eventually into great ponderous beasts, and their beef is of prime
quality. The cows often possess considerable reputation as milkers. As
graziers' beasts Welsh cattle are well known in the midland counties of
England, where, under the name of "Welsh runts," large herds of bullocks
are fattened on the pastures or "topped up" in the yards in winter.

All the remaining strains of Welsh cattle were recognized as one breed
in 1904, when the Welsh Black Cattle Society united into one register
the Herd Books of North and South Wales.

The _Longhorn_ or "Dishley" breed of cattle is one of the most
interesting historically. It was with Longhorns that Robert Bakewell, of
Dishley, Leicestershire (1726-1795), showed his remarkable skill as an
improver of cattle in the middle of the 18th century.[6] At one period
Longhorns spread widely over England and Ireland, but, as the Shorthorns
extended their domain, the Longhorns made way for them. They are big,
rather clumsy animals, with long drooping horns, which are very
objectionable in these days of cattle transport by rail and sea. They
are slow in coming to maturity, but are very hardy. The bullocks feed up
to heavy weights, and the cows are fair milkers. No lover of cattle can
view these quaint creatures without a feeling of satisfaction that the
efforts made to resuscitate a breed which has many useful qualities to
commend it have been successful, and that the extinction which
threatened it in the 'eighties of last century is no longer imminent. In
1907 there were twenty-two Longhorn herds containing about four hundred
registered cattle located mainly in the English midlands and Man.

The _Red Poll_ breed, though old, has only come into prominence within
recent years. They were known as the East Anglian Polls, and later as
the Norfolk and Suffolk Polled cattle, being confined chiefly to these
two counties. They are symmetrically built, of medium size, and of
uniformly red colour. They have a tuft of hair on the poll. As dairy
cattle, they are noted for the length of the period during which they
continue in milk. Not less are they valued as beef-producers, and, as
they are hardy and docile, they fatten readily and mature fairly early.
Hence, like the Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, they may claim to be a
dual-purpose breed. As beef cattle they are always seen to advantage at
the Norwich Christmas cattle show, held annually in November.

The _Aberdeen-Angus_, a polled, black breed, the cows of which are often
termed "Doddies," belongs to Aberdeenshire and adjacent parts of
Scotland, but many herds are maintained in England and some in Ireland.
The steers and heifers fed for the butcher attain great weight, make
first-class show beasts, and yield beef of excellent quality. The cross
between the Shorthorn and the Aberdeen-Angus is a favourite in the meat
markets and at fat-stock competitions.

The _Galloways_ are named from the district, Kirkcudbright and
Wigtonshire, in the south-west of Scotland, to which they are native.
Like the Aberdeen-Angus cattle, they are hornless, and normally of a
black colour. But, with a thicker hide and shaggy hair, suited to a wet
climate, they have a coarser appearance than the Aberdeen-Angus, the
product of a less humid region, though it approaches the latter in
size. Galloways yield superior beef, but mature less rapidly than the
Aberdeen-Angus. They make admirable beasts for the grazier, and the
cross between the Galloway and the white Shorthorn bull, known as a
"Blue Grey," is much sought after by the grazier and the butcher.


PLATE I. BREEDS OF ENGLISH CATTLE.

  [Illustration: SHORTHORN BULL.]

  [Illustration: DEVON BULL.]

  [Illustration: HEREFORD BULL.]

  [Illustration: SOUTH DEVON BULL.]


PLATE II. BREEDS OF ENGLISH AND WELSH CATTLE.

  [Illustration: LONGHORN BULL.]

  [Illustration: RED POLLED BULL.]

  [Illustration: WELSH BULL.]

  [Illustration: SUSSEX BULL.]

  (From photographs by F. Babbage.)


PLATE III. BREEDS OF SCOTCH CATTLE.

  [Illustration: ABERDEEN-ANGUS BULL.]

  [Illustration: GALLOWAY BULL.]

  [Illustration: AYRSHIRE COW.]

  [Illustration: HIGHLAND BULL.]


PLATE IV. BREEDS OF IRISH AND CHANNEL ISLANDS CATTLE.

  [Illustration: DEXTER BULL.]

  [Illustration: KERRY COW.]

  [Illustration: GUERNSEY COW.]

  [Illustration: JERSEY COW.]

  The comparative sizes of the animals are indicated by the scale of
  reproduction of the photographs.

  (From photographs by F. Babbage.)


The _West Highland_ or Kyloe breed are perhaps the most hardy and
picturesque of British cattle. Their home is amidst the wild romantic
scenery of the Highlands and the Western Isles of Scotland, though
Highland bullocks with long, spreading curved horns may be seen in
English parks. They have not made much progress towards early maturity,
but their slowly ripened beef is of the choicest quality. The colour of
their thick shaggy hair varies from white and light dun to tawny yellow
of many shades, and black.

The _Ayrshires_ are the dairy breed of Scotland, where they have
considerably overstepped the limits of the humid western county whence
they take their name. They are usually of a white and brown colour, the
patches being well defined. The neat, shapely, upstanding horns are
characteristic. The Ayrshires are under medium size and move gracefully,
and the females display the wedge-shape typical of dairy cows. They are
a hardy breed, and, even from poor pastures, give good yields of milk,
especially useful for cheese-making purposes. The milking powers of the
breed are being improved under a system of milk-testing and records
supported by the Highland and Agricultural Society.

The _Jerseys_ are graceful, deer-like cattle, whose home is in the
island of Jersey, where, by means of stringent regulations against the
importation of cattle, the breed has been kept pure for many
generations. As its milk is especially rich in fat (so rich that it
requires to be diluted with a little water before it can be safely fed
to calves), the Jersey has attained a wide reputation as a
butter-producing breed. It is a great favourite in England, where many
pure-bred herds exist. The colours most preferred are "whole" fawns of
many shades. The light silver-grey, which was in high repute in England
in the early 'seventies of the 19th century, is out of favour. Browns
and brindles are rarely seen. The grey zone surrounding the black muzzle
gives the appearance designated "mealy-mouthed." The horns are short,
and generally artificially curved inwards; the bones are fine. The best
milch cows have a yellowish circle round the eye, and the skin at the
extremity of the tail is of a deep yellow, almost orange colour. The
cows are gentle and docile when reared in close contact with human
beings, but the bulls, despite their small size, are often fierce.

_Guernsey_ cattle are native to the islands of Guernsey, Alderney, Sark
and Herm. They are kept pure by importation restrictions. Herds of
pure-bred Guernseys also exist in the Isle of Wight and in various
counties of England and Scotland. They have not the refined and elegant
appearance of the Jerseys, which, however, they exceed in size. They are
usually of a rich yellowish-brown colour, patched with white, in some
cases their colour almost meriting the appellation of "orange and
lemon." The yellow colour inside the ears is a point always looked for
by judges. The cows, large-bellied and narrow in front, are truly
wedge-shaped, the greatly developed udder adding to the expanse of the
hinder part of the body. They yield an abundance of milk, rich in fat,
and are excellent butter-producers. The horns are yellow at the base,
curved, and not coarse. The nose is flesh-coloured and free from black
markings.

The _Canadian_ breed, black with a narrow brown stripe down the back and
a light ring round the muzzle, are descended from old Brittany cattle
imported into Canada by French settlers three hundred years ago, and are
in consequence related to the Channel Islands cattle. They are
remarkably hardy and good milkers, and it is claimed they produce butter
fat at 2 c. a lb. less cost than any other breed.

The _Kerry_ is a breed of small black cattle belonging to the south-west
of Ireland, whence they have spread into many parts, not only of their
native land, but of England as well. Although they are able to subsist
on the roughest and scantiest of fare, and are exceedingly hardy, the
cows are, nevertheless, excellent milkers, and have acquired celebrity
as a dairy breed. The colour is black, but the cows sometimes have a
little white on the udder. The horns are white, with black tips, and are
turned upwards. The Kerry is active and graceful, long and lithe in
body, and light-limbed. On the rich pastures of England it has increased
considerably in size.

The _Dexter_ breed is reputed to take its name from one Dexter, agent of
Maude, Lord Hawarden, who is credited with having established it by
selection and breeding from the best mountain types of the Kerry. Until
recently it was called the Dexter-Kerry. It is smaller and more compact
than the Kerry, shorter in the leg, and intoed before and behind. Whilst
valuable as a beef-making animal, it is equally noted for its
milk-producing capacity. Black is the usual colour, but red is also
recognized, with, in either case, a little white. When of a red colour,
the appearance of the animal has been aptly compared to that of a grand
Shorthorn viewed through the wrong end of a telescope. The Kerry and the
Dexter are readily distinguishable. The Kerry has a gay, light,
deer-like head and horn, light limbs and thin skin. The Dexter has
coarser limbs, a square body, flat back, thick shoulder, short neck, and
head and horn set on low.

A herd of _Dexter-Shorthorns_ was founded by Major Barton at Straffan,
Ireland, in 1860, in which prominent characteristics of the two breeds
have been permanently blended so that they breed true to type.

As milk-producers, and therefore as dairy cattle, certain strains of the
Shorthorn (registered as well as non-pedigree), the Lincolnshire Red
Shorthorn, South Devon, Longhorn, Red Polled, Ayrshire, Jersey,
Guernsey, Kerry and Dexter breeds have acquired eminence. Such breeds as
the Shorthorn, Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn, South Devon, Welsh, Red
Polled and Dexter are claimed as useful beef-makers as well as
milk-producers, and are classified as dual-purpose animals. The others
belong to the beef-producers. As regards colour, red is characteristic
of the Lincolnshire Shorthorn, the Hereford, Devon, Sussex and Red
Polled. Black is the dominating colour of the Welsh, Aberdeen-Angus,
Galloway, Kerry and Dexter. A yellowish hue is seen in the West
Highland, Guernsey and South Devon breeds. Various shades of fawn colour
are usual in Jersey cattle and also appear among Highlanders. The
Herefords, though with red bodies, have white faces, manes, and dewlaps,
whilst white prevails to a greater or less extent in the Shorthorn,
Longhorn and Ayrshire breeds. The Shorthorn breed is exceedingly
variable in colour; pure-bred specimens may be red, or white, or roan,
or may be marked with two or more of these colours, the roan resulting
from a blending of the white and red. Black is not seen in a pure-bred
Shorthorn. The biggest and heaviest cattle come from the beef-making
breeds, and are often cross-bred. Very large or heavy beasts, if
pure-bred, usually belong to one or other of the Shorthorn, Hereford,
Sussex, Welsh, West Highland, Aberdeen-Angus and Galloway breeds. The
Devon, Red Polled and Guernsey are medium-sized cattle; the Ayrshires
are smaller, although relatively the bullocks grow larger than bulls or
cows. The Jerseys are small, graceful cattle, but the smaller type of
Kerries, the Dexters and the Shetlanders furnish the smallest cattle of
the British Isles.

  See generally the _Herd Books_ of the various breed societies.
       (W. Fr.; R. W.)

_Rearing and Feeding._[7]--A calf at birth scales from one-twelfth to
one-fourteenth the weight of the dam. A sucking calf of one of the large
breeds should gain 3 lb. per day for the first month, 2.5 lb. for the
second, and 2 lb. during the later calf period. Colostrum, or first-day
milk after calving, contains more than five times the albuminoid
compounds found in average cows' milk. In the course of three or four
days it gradually becomes normal in composition, although the peculiar
flavour remains a few days longer. Nature has specially prepared it for
the young calf with extremely nourishing and also laxative properties,
and it is of practically no value for any other purpose. Normal cows'
milk has an albuminoid ratio slightly narrower than 1 : 4--colostrum
1 : .71. [The ratio is arrived at by adding to the percentage of
milk-sugar, possessing about the food equivalent of starch, the fat
multiplied by 2.268, and dividing by the total albuminoids--all
digestible.]

  Common nutrient ratios for older animals are stated in the following
  table of food standards by Dr Emil Wolff:--

    +-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+
    |                                   |              Food Consumed per Day.            |
    |                                   +---------------------+--------------------------+
    |                                   |         Dry.        |       Digestible.        |
    |                                   +------+-------+------+------+--------+----------+
    |                                   | Live |Organic|Albu- |      |Carbo-  |Albuminoid|
    |                                   |Weight|Matter |minoid| Fats |Hydrates|  Ratio.  |
    +-----------------------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+----------+
    |                                   |  lb. |  lb.  |  lb. |  lb. |   lb.  |  lb.     |
    |Calves,    growing, 2 to  3 months |  150 |  3.3  | 0.6  | 0.30 |   2.1  | 1 : 4.7  |
    |Young cattle  "     3 to  6   "    |  300 |  7.0  | 1.0  | 0.30 |   4.1  | 1 : 5    |
    |  "           "     6 to 12   "    |  500 | 12.0  | 1.2  | 0.30 |   6.8  | 1 : 6    |
    |  "           "    12 to 18   "    |  700 | 16.8  | 1.4  | 0.28 |   9.1  | 1 : 7    |
    |  "           "    18 to 24   "    |  850 | 20.4  | 1.4  | 0.26 |  10.3  | 1 : 8    |
    |Oxen in complete rest              | 1000 | 27.5  | 0.7  | 0.15 |   8.0  | 1 : 12   |
    | "   fattening, 1st period         | 1000 | 27.0  | 2.5  | 0.50 |  15.0  | 1 : 65   |
    | "       "      2nd period         | 1000 | 26.0  | 3.0  | 0.70 |  14.8  | 1 : 5.5  |
    | "       "      3rd period         | 1000 | 25.0  | 2.7  | 0.60 |  14.8  | 1 : 6    |
    |Milch cows                         | 1000 | 24.0  | 2.5  | 0.40 |  12.5  | 1 : 5.4  |
    +-----------------------------------+------+-------+------+------+--------+----------+

  Digestible albuminoid nitrogen is the scarcest and consequently the
  costliest ingredient in food-stuffs, but, since the introduction of
  vegetable proteid made by Mitchell's process from the castor bean, an
  easy and inexpensive means of balancing cattle food ratios is
  available. By this means the manurial value of the excrement is
  increased. The calculations necessary in arriving at a ratio are
  simplified by the employment of Jeffers's calculator (Plainsboro,
  N.J.).

There are three common methods of rearing calves, (1) The calf sucks its
mother or foster-mother. This is the natural method and the best for the
show-yard and for early fattening purposes; but it is the most
expensive, and the calves, if not handled, grow up wild and dangerous.
Store stock may be also raised by putting two calves to one cow and
weaning at three months old; a second pair in turn yielding place to a
single calf. (2) Full milk from the cow at about 90 deg. F. is given
alone until the latter part of the milk period; then the calf is trained
to eat supplementary foods to preserve the calf-fat after weaning. A
large calf at first receives daily three quarts of milk at three meals.
The amount is increased to 2 gallons by the end of the fourth week, and
to 2-1/2 gallons at 3 months, when gradual weaning begins. Linseed cake
meal is specially suitable for such calves. (3) The calf receives full
milk from the mother for one to two weeks, or better, for three to four
weeks; then it is slowly transferred to fortified separated milk or milk
substitutes. Cod-liver oil, 2 oz. daily, is a good substitute for butter
fat. In America cotton-seed oil, 1/2 oz. to the quart of milk, or an
equivalent of oleomargarine heated to 110 deg. F. and churned with
separated milk, has produced a live-weight-increase of 2 lb. daily.
Linseed simmered to a jelly and added to separated milk gives good
results. Moderate amounts are easily digested. Oatmeal or maize meal
containing 10% of linseed meal does well, later, at less cost. Milk
substitutes and calf meals require close attention in preparation, and
would not fetch the prices they do if feeders possessed the technical
knowledge necessary to select and mix common foods. Ground cake or
linseed meal is, after a time, better given dry than cooked, being then
better masticated and not so liable to produce indigestion.

Grass or fine hay in racks is provided when the calf can chew the cud.
As cattle get older, live-weight-increase grows less. Smithfield
weights[8] show that a good bullock up to a year old will increase 2 lb.
daily, a two-year-old 1-3/4 lb., and a three-year-old a little over
1-1/2 lb.

Cattle feeding on a farm consume crude produce that is inconvenient to
market, and make farmyard manure; but there is frequently no profit
left. To secure the balance on the right side the inlaid price per live
cwt. requires to be 5s. less than the sale price--say 32s. per cwt. for
lean cattle, and 37s. per cwt. for the animal when sold fat and capable
of producing 60% of dressed beef. The ordinary animal yields only about
57%. A well-bred fattening bullock begins with 2 lb. of cake and meal
per day, increasing to 8 lb. at the end of five months (6 lb. on an
average), and receives 3/4 cwt. of roots and 12 lb. of straw; at an
average cost of about 4s. 3d. per imperial stone or 50s. per cwt. of
dressed carcase. Heifers feed faster than bullocks, and age tells on the
rate at which an animal will mature: a three-year-old will develop into
prime beef more quickly and easily than a two-year-old. It is difficult
to produce "baby beef" at a profit, and it can only be done with picked
animals of the best flesh-producing breeds, which cannot be bought at a
price per cwt. below the finished sale price, for animals producing baby
beef must from start to finish (under two years old) be at all times fit
to go to the fat market. It is true that a very young animal can give a
better account of food than an older one, but this advantage is
counterbalanced by the tendency to grow rather than to fatten. (See also
AGRICULTURE.)

In cold and stormy districts cattle thrive best in covered courts, but
in a mild climate they do equally well in open yards with shelter-sheds.
The more air they get the less liable they are to tuberculosis--example
Lincolnshire and the drier south-eastern counties. The ideal method of
house-feeding cattle is singly in boxes 10 ft. square, where they are
undisturbed, and where the best manure is made because it is not washed
by rain.

On the finest British grazing lands two lots of cattle are fed in one
season. The first is finished early in July, having, without artificial
feeding, laid on eight to nine stones of beef. The second lot requires
three or four pounds of undecorticated cotton cake each towards the end
of September and in October when grass begins to fail.     (R. W.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Rev. J. Storer, _The Wild White Cattle of Great Britain_ (1879).

  [2] See Wallace's _Farm Live Stock of Great Britain_ (1907), Low's
    _Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Isles_ (1842,
    illustrated, and 1845), and E.V. Wilcox's _Farm Animals_ (1907), an
    American work.

  [3] Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1822). Sec. E.J.
    Powell, 12 Hanover Square, London, W.

  [4] C.J. Bates, "The Brothers Colling," _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._
    (1899).

  [5] C.J. Bates, _Thomas Bates and the Kirklevington Shorthorns: a
    Contribution to the History of Pure Durham Cattle_
    (Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1897).

  [6] Housman, "Robert Bakewell," _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._ (1894).

  [7] See E. Wolff, _Farm Foods_, by H.H. Cousins (1895); A.D. Hall,
    _Rothamsted Experiments_ (1905); R. Warington, _Chemistry of the
    Farm_ (15th ed., 1902); W.A. Henry, _Feeds and Feeding_ (1907); H.W.
    Mumford, _Beef Production_ (1907); H.P. Armsby, _Animal Nutrition_
    (2nd ed., 1906); T. Shaw, _Animal Breeding_ (1903); R. Wallace, _Farm
    Live Stock of Great Britain_ (4th ed., 1907).

  [8] E. J. Powell, _History of the Smithfield Club from 1798 to 1900_
    (1902).




CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS (?84-54 B.C.), the greatest lyric poet of Rome.
As regards his names and the dates of his birth and death, the most
important external witness is that of Jerome, in the continuation of the
Eusebian _Chronicle_, under the year 87 B.C., "Gaius Valerius Catullus,
scriptor lyricus Veronae nascitur," and under 57 B.C., "Catullus xxx.
aetatis anno Romae moritur." There is no controversy as to the gentile
name, _Valerius_. Suetonius, in his _Life of Julius Caesar_ (ch. 73),
mentions the poet by the names "Valerium Catullum." Other persons who
had the _cognomen_ Catullus belonged to the Valerian gens, e.g. M.
Valerius Catullus Messalinus, a _delator_ in the reign of Domitian,
mentioned in the fourth satire of Juvenal (l. 113):--

  "Et cum mortifero prudens Veiento Catullo."

Inscriptions show, further, that _Valerius_ was a common name in the
native province of Catullus, and belonged to other inhabitants of Verona
besides the poet and his family (Schwabe, _Quaestiones Catullianae_, p.
27). Scholars have been divided in opinion as to whether his _praenomen_
was _Gaius_ or _Quintus_, and in the best MSS. the volume is called
simply _Catulli Veronensis liber_. For _Gaius_ we have the undoubted
testimony, not only of Jerome, which rests on the much earlier authority
of Suetonius, but also that of Apuleius. In support of _Quintus_ a
passage was quoted from the _Natural History_ of Pliny (xxxvii. 6, 81).
But the _praenomen_ Q. is omitted in the best MSS., and in other
passages of the same author the poet is spoken of as "Catullus
Veronensis." The mistake may have arisen from confusion with Q. Catulus,
the colleague of Marius in the Cimbric War, himself also the author of
lyrical poems. Allusions in the poems show that the date of his death
given by Jerome (57 B.C.) is wrong, and that Catullus survived the
second consulship of Pompey (55 B.C.) (cf. lv. 6, cxiii. 2), and was
present in August of the following year at the prosecution of Vatinius
by Licinius Calvus (cf. liii.). The allusion in lii. 3--

  "Per consulatum peierat Vatinius,"

does not prove that Catullus must have lived to see the consulship
bestowed on Vatinius in the end of 47 B.C. but only that Vatinius, after
being praetor in 55 B.C., was in the habit of boasting of the certainty
of his attaining the consulship, as Cleopatra was in the habit of
confirming her most solemn declarations by appealing to her hope of one
day administering justice in the Capitol (cf. Haupt, "Quaestiones
Catullianae," _Opuscula_, vol. i. 1875). There is then nothing to prove
that Catullus lived beyond the month of August 54 B.C. Some of the poems
(as xxxvii. and lii.) may have been written during his last illness. If
he died in 54 B.C. or early in 53 B.C., Catullus must either have been
born later than 87 B.C., or have lived to a greater age than thirty.
Catullus is described by Ovid as "hedera iuvenalia cinctus Tempora"
(_Amor_. iii. 9. 61),--a description somewhat more suitable to a man who
dies in his thirtieth year than to one who dies three or four years
later. Further, the age at which a man dies is more likely to be
accurately remembered than the particular date either of his death or of
his birth, and the common practice of recording the age of the deceased
in sepulchral inscriptions must have rendered a mistake about this less
likely to occur. It seems, therefore, on the whole, most likely that
Jerome's words "xxx. aetatis anno" are correct, and that Catullus was
born in 84 B.C.

The statement that he was born at Verona is confirmed by passages in
Ovid and Martial. Pliny the elder, who was born at Como, speaks of
Catullus in the preface to his _Natural History_, as his "countryman"
(_conterraneus_), and the poet speaks of Verona as his home, or at least
his temporary residence, in more than one place. His occasional
residence in his native place is further attested by the statement of
Suetonius (_Julius Caesar_, 73), that "Julius Caesar accepted the poet's
apology for his scurrilous verses upon him, invited him to dine with him
on the same day, and continued his intimacy with his father as before."
As this incident could only have happened during the time that Julius
Caesar was pro-consul, the scene of it must have been in the Cisalpine
province, and at the house of the poet's father, in or near Verona. The
verses apologized for were those contained in poems xxix. and lvii., the
former of which must have been written after Caesar's invasion of
Britain, so that this interview probably took place in the winter of
55-54 B.C. The fact that his father was the host of the great
pro-consul, and lived on terms of intimacy with him, justifies the
inference, that he was, in wealth and rank, one of the principal men of
the province. The only other important statement concerning the poet's
life which rests on external authority is that of Apuleius, that the
real name of the Lesbia of the poems was Clodia. Another, which concerns
the reputation which he enjoyed after his death, is given in the _Life
of Atticus_ by Cornelius Nepos (12. 4). It is to the effect that he
regarded Lucretius and Catullus as the two greatest poets of his own
time.

The poems of Catullus consist of 116 pieces, varying in length from 2 to
408 lines, the great mass of them being, however, short pieces, written
in lyric, iambic or elegiac metre. The arrangement cannot be the poet's;
it is neither chronological nor in accordance with the character of the
topics. The shorter poems, lyric or iambic, are placed first, next the
longer epithalamia, (most being written in hexameters) amongst which the
_Attis_ is inserted and then those written in the elegiac metre. But,
though no chronological order is observed, yet internal evidence enables
us to determine the occasions on which many of the poems were written,
and the order in which they followed one another. They give a very vivid
image of various phases of the poet's life, and of the strong feelings
with which persons and things affected him. They throw much light also
on the social life of Rome and of the provincial towns of Italy in the
years preceding the outbreak of the second civil war. In this respect
they may be compared with the letters of Cicero.

The poems extend over a period of seven or eight years, from 61 or 62
till 54 B.C. Among the earliest are those which record the various
stages of the author's passion for Lesbia. It is in connexion with this
passion that he is generally mentioned, or alluded to, by the later
Roman poets, such as Propertius, Ovid, Juvenal and Martial. Her real
name, as we learn from Apuleius, was Clodia. The admiration of Catullus
for Sappho, the Lesbian poetess, which is clearly indicated by the
imitation of her language in his fifty-first and sixty-second poems,
affords an obvious explanation of the Greek name which he gave to his
Roman mistress. Clodia was the notorious sister of Publius Clodius
Pulcher, and in the year 56 she charged M. Caelius Rufus, after tiring
of him, as she had of Catullus, with an attempt to poison her. It was in
defence of Rufus that Cicero described the spell she exercised over
young men, in language which might have been applied to her previous
relations with the youthful poet, as well as those with the youthful
orator and politician.

Poems concerning Lesbia occur among both the earliest and the latest of
those contained in the series. They record the various stages of passion
through which Catullus passed, from absolute devotion and a secure sense
of returned affection, through the various conditions of distrust and
jealousy, attempts at renunciation, and short-lived "amoris
integrationes," through the "odi et amo" state, and the later state of
savage indignation against both Lesbia and his rivals, and especially
against Caelius Rufus, till he finally attains, not without much
suffering and loss, the last state of scornful indifference. Among the
earliest of the poems connected with Lesbia, and among those written in
the happiest vein, are ii. and iii., and v. and vii. The 8th, "Miser
Catulle, desinas ineptire," perhaps the most beautiful of them all,
expresses the first awakening of the poet to a sense of her
unworthiness, before the gentler have given place to the fiercer
feelings of his nature. His final renunciation is sent in a poem written
after his return from the East, with a union of imaginative and scornful
power, to his two butts, Furius and Aurelius (xi., "Furi et Aureli,
comites Catulli"), who, to judge by the way Catullus writes of them,
appear to have been hangers-on upon him, who repaid the pecuniary and
other favours they received by giving him grounds for jealousy, and
making imputations on his character (cf. xv., xvi., xviii., xxiii.).

The intrigue of Caelius Rufus with Lesbia began in 59 or 58 B.C. It was
probably in the earlier stages of this liaison that the 68th poem was
written, from which it appears that Catullus, at the time living at
Verona, and grieving for the recent death of his brother in the Troad,
had heard of Lesbia's infidelity, and, in consideration of her previous
faithlessness in his favour, was not inclined to resent it very warmly.
Two other poems in the series express the grief which Catullus felt for
the death of his brother,--one, the 65th, addressed to the orator
Hortensius, who is there, as in some of Cicero's letters, called
Hortalus or Ortalus, and sent to him along with the _Coma Berenices_
(lxvi.), a translation of a famous elegy of Callimachus. The other poem
referring to this event (ci.) must have been composed some years later,
probably in 56 B.C., when Catullus visited his brother's tomb in the
Troad, on his return from Bithynia. Between 59 and 57 B.C. most of the
lampoons on Lesbia and her numerous lovers must have been written (e.g.
xxxvii., xxxix., &c.). Some, too, of the poems expressive of his more
tender feelings to her, such as viii. and lxxvi. belong also to these
years; and among the poems written either during this period or perhaps
in the early and happier years of his liaison, some of the most charming
of his shorter pieces, expressing the affection for his young friends
Verannius and Fabullus (ix., xii., xiii.), may be included.

In the year 57 the routine of his life was for a short time broken by
his accompanying the propraetor C. Memmius, the friend to whom Lucretius
dedicates his great poem, as one of his staff, to the province of
Bithynia. His object was probably to better his fortunes by this absence
from Rome, as humorous complaints of poverty and debt (xiii., xxvi.)
show that his ordinary means were insufficient for his mode of life. He
frankly acknowledges the disappointment of these hopes, and still more
frankly his disgust with his chief (x., xxviii.). Some of the most
charming and perfect among the shorter poems express the delight with
which the poet changed the dulness and sultry climate of the province
for the freedom and keen enjoyment of his voyage home in his yacht,
built for him at Amastris on the Euxine, and for the beauty and peace of
his villa on the shores of Lake Benacus, which welcomed him home
"wearied with foreign travel." To this period and to his first return to
Rome after his visit to his native district belong the poems xlvi., ci.,
iv., xxxi. and x., all showing by their freshness of feeling and vivid
truth of expression the gain which the poet's nature derived from his
temporary escape from the passions, distractions and animosities of
Roman society. Two poems, written in a very genial and joyous spirit,
and addressed to his younger friend Licinius Calvus (xiv. and l.), who
is ranked as second only to himself among the lyrical poets of the age,
and whose youthful promise pointed him out as likely to become one of
the greatest of Roman orators, may, indeed, with most probability be
assigned to these later years (xiv.). From the expression "Odissem te
odio Vatiniano," in the third line of xiv., it may be inferred that the
poem was written not earlier than December (the "Saturnalia") of the
year 56 B.C., as it was early in that year, as we learn from a letter of
Cicero to his brother Quintus (ii. 4. 1), that Calvus first announced
his intention of prosecuting Vatinius. The short poem numbered liii.
would be written in August 54 B.C. The poems which have left the
greatest stain on the fame of Catullus--those "referta contumeliis
Caesaris," the licentious abuse of Mamurra, and probably some of those
personal scurrilities addressed to women as well as men, or too frank
confessions, which posterity would willingly have let die, may well have
been written in the last years of his life, under the influence of the
bitterness and recklessness induced by his experience. It cannot be
determined with certainty whether the longer and more artistic pieces,
which occupy the middle of the volume--the _Epithalamium_ in celebration
of the marriage of Manlius Torquatus, the 62nd poem, written in
imitation of the Epithalamia of Sappho, "Vesper adest: iuvenes,
consurgite"; the _Attis_, and the Epic Idyll representing the marriage
festival of Peleus and Thetis--belong to the earlier or the later period
of the poet's career. If the person addressed in the first part of the
68th is the Manlius of the _Epithalamium_, and the lines from 3 to 8--

  "Naufragum ut eiectum ... pervigilat,"

refer to the death of Vinia, it would follow that the first Epithalamium
was written some time before that poem, and thus belongs to the earlier
time. While the translations of Sappho,--

  "Ille mi par esse deo videtur,"

and of Callimachus (lxvi.),--

  "Omnia qui magni dispexit lumina mundi,"

belong to the earlier period, the _Attis_ and the _Peleus and Thetis_;
although perhaps suggested by the treatment of the same or similar
subjects in Greek authors, are executed with such power and originality
as declare them to be products of the most vigorous stage in the
development of the poet's genius. That his genius came soon to maturity
is a reason for hesitation in assigning any particular time between 62
and 54 B.C. for the composition of the _Attis_ and of that part of the
_Epithalamium_ ("Peliaco quondam prognatae vertice pinus") which deals
with the main subject of the poem. But the criticism of Munro in his
edition of Lucretius, which shows similarities of expression that cannot
be mere casual coincidences, between the Ariadne-episode in the
_Epithalamium_ of Catullus (from line 52 to 266) and the poem of
Lucretius, leaves little doubt that that portion at least of the poem
was written after the publication of the _De rerum natura_, in the
winter of 55-54 B.C.

No ancient author has left a more vivid impression of himself on his
writings than Catullus. Coming to Rome in early youth from a distant
province, not at that time included within the limits of Italy, he lived
as an equal with the men of his time of most intellectual activity and
refinement, as well as of highest social and political eminence. Among
those to whom his poems are addressed, or who are mentioned in them, we
find the names of Hortensius, Cicero, Cornelius Nepos, Licinius Calvus,
Helvius Cinna and Asinius Pollio, then only a youth (xii. 8). Catullus
brought into this circle the genius of a great poet, the social
vivacity of a vigorous nature, the simplicity and sincerity of an
unambitious, and the warmth of an affectionate disposition. He betrays
all the sensitiveness of the poetic temperament, but it is never the
sensitiveness of vanity, for he is characterized by the modesty rather
than the self-confidence which accompanies genius, but the sensitiveness
of a heart which gives and expects more sympathy and loyalty in
friendship than the world either wants or cares to give in return. He
shows also in some of his lighter pieces the fastidiousness of a refined
taste, intolerant of all boorishness, pedantry, affectation and sordid
ways of life. The passionate intensity of his temperament displays
itself with similar strength in the outpourings of his animosity as of
his love and affection. It was, unfortunately, the fashion of the time
to employ in the expression of these animosities a licence of speech and
of imputation which it is difficult for men living under different
social conditions to understand, still more difficult to tolerate. Munro
has examined the 29th poem--

  "Quis hoc potest videre, quis potest pati,"

the longest and most important of the lampoons on Caesar and Mamurra,
and shown with much learning and acuteness the motives and intention of
Catullus in writing them. Had Julius Caesar really believed, as
Suetonius, writing two hundred years afterwards, says he did, that "an
eternal stigma had been cast upon him by the verses concerning Mamurra,"
we should scarcely apply the word magnanimity to his condonation of the
offence. But these verses survive as a memorial not of any scandal
affecting Julius Caesar which could possibly have been believed by his
contemporaries, but of the licence of speech which was then indulged in,
of the jealousy with which the younger members of the Roman aristocracy,
who a little later fought on the side of Pompey, at that time regarded
the ascendancy both of the "father-in-law and the son-in-law," and the
social elevation of some of their instruments, and also, to a certain
extent, of the deterioration which the frank and generous nature of
Catullus underwent from the passions which wasted, and the faithlessness
which marred his life.

The great age of Latin poetry extends from about the year 60 B.C. till
the death of Ovid in 17 A.D. There are three marked divisions in this
period, each with a distinct character of its own: the first represented
by Lucretius and Catullus, the second by Virgil and Horace, the last by
Ovid. Force and sincerity are the great characteristics of the first
period, maturity of art of the second, facility of the last. The
educating influence of Greek art on the Roman mind was first fully
experienced in the Ciceronian age, and none of his contemporaries was so
susceptible of that influence as Catullus. With the susceptibility to
art he combined a large share of the vigorous and genial qualities of
the Italian race. Like most of his younger contemporaries, he studied in
the school of the Alexandrine poets, with whom the favourite subjects of
art were the passion of love, and stories from the Greek mythology,
which admitted of being treated in a spirit similar to that in which
they celebrated their own experiences. It was under this influence that
Catullus wrote the _Coma Berenices_, the 68th poem, which, after the
manner of the Alexandrines, interweaves the old tale of Protesilaus and
Laodamia with the personal experiences of the poet himself, and the
_Epithalamium_ of Peleus and Thetis, which combines two pictures from
the Greek mythology, one of the secure happiness of marriage, the other
of the passionate despair of love betrayed. In this last poem Catullus
displays a power of creative pictorial imagination far transcending that
displayed in any of the extant poetry of Alexandria. We have no means of
determining what suggested the subject of the _Attis_ to Catullus,
whether the previous treatment of the subject by some Greek writer, some
survival of the myth which he found still existing during his residence
among the "Phrygii Campi," or the growth of various forms of Eastern
superstition and fanaticism, at Rome, in the last age of the Republic.
Whatever may have been its origin, it is the finest specimen we possess,
in either Greek or Latin literature, of that kind of short poem more
common in modern than ancient times, in which some situation or passion
entirely alien to the writer, and to his own age, is realized with
dramatic intensity. But the genius of Catullus is, perhaps, even
happier in the direct expression of personal feeling than in artistic
creation, or the reproduction of tales and situations from mythology.
The warmth, intensity and sincerity of his own nature are the sources of
the inspiration in these poems. The most elaborate and one of the finest
of them is the _Epithalamium_ in honour of the marriage of a member of
the old house of Manlius Torquatus with Vinia Aurunculeia, written in
the glyconic in combination with the pherecratean metre. To this metre
Catullus imparts a peculiar lightness and grace by making the trochee,
instead of the spondee as in Horace's glyconics and pherecrateans, the
first foot in the line. His elegiac metre is constructed with less
smoothness and regularity than that of Ovid and Tibullus or even of
Propertius, but as employed by him it gives a true echo to the serious
and plaintive feelings of some of his poems, while it adapts itself, as
it did later in the hands of Martial, to the epigrammatic terseness of
his invective. But the perfection of the art of Catullus is seen in his
employment of those metres which he adapted to the Latin tongue from the
earlier poets of Greece, the pure iambic trimeter, as in iv.--

  "Phaselus ille quem videtis hospites,"

the scazon iambic, employed in viii. and xxxi.--

  "Paeninsularum, Sirmio, insularumque,"

and the phalecian hendecasyllabic, a slight modification of the Sapphic
line, which is his favourite metre for the expression of his more joyful
moods, and of his lighter satiric vein. The Latin language never flowed
with such ease, freshness and purity as in these poems. Their perfection
consists in the entire absence of all appearance of effort or
reflection, and in the fulness of life and feeling, which gives a
lasting interest and charm to the most trivial incident of the passing
hour. In reference to these poems Munro has said with truth and force:
"A generation had yet to pass before the heroic attained to its
perfection; while he (Catullus) had already produced glyconics,
phalecians and iambics, each 'one entire and perfect chrysolite,'
'cunningest patterns' of excellence, such as Latium never saw before or
after,--Alcaeus, Sappho, and the rest then and only then having met
their match."

  The work of Catullus has not come down to us intact, as is shown by
  lacunae and quotations in ancient writers which cannot now be found in
  his poems. Out of the MSS. only three have claims to intrinsic
  importance. The oldest and best appears to be the Bodleian (Canon.
  30). But little inferior is the _Sangermanensis_ (Par. 14137). Of the
  third, the _Romanus_, we shall be better able to judge when its
  discoverer, Prof. W.G. Hale, has published his collation. None of
  these MSS. are older than the 14th century. One poem, 62, is, however,
  preserved in a MS. of the 9th century (the _Thuaneus_, Par. 8071).
  Prof. R. Ellis's discovery of the Bodleian MS. and E. Baehrens's
  recognition of its value opened a new chapter in the history of the
  text. Ellis's contributions comprise an indispensable commentary (ed.
  2, 1889), an elaborate critical edition (ed. 2, 1878) and an English
  translation (1871) in the metres of the original. The text in the
  Oxford series, published in 1905, is inferior to those specified
  below. Baehrens's edition, 2 volumes (text 1876, the second edition by
  K.P. Schulze is a misnomer; and Latin commentary 1885) is still of
  value. Amongst other editions with critical or explanatory notes or
  both may be mentioned those of A. Riese (1884), L. Schwabe (1886, with
  _index verborum_), B. Schmidt (1887), J.P. Postgate (1889, text
  differing little from that in the new _Corpus Poetarunt_), E. Benoist
  and E. Thomas, with French translation by Rostand (2 vols.,
  1882-1890), S.G. Owen (1893, an _edition de luxe_), W.T. Merrill
  (1893, Boston, U.S.A., with succinct English notes), A. Palmer (1896,
  one of the best of this scholar's works); M. Haupt's text of the three
  poets Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius, edited by J. Vahlen, reached
  its sixth edition in 1904. Of the numerous contributions to the
  textual and literary criticism of the poems may be named the papers in
  M. Haupt's _Opuscula_, L. Schwabe's _Quaestiones Catullianae_ (1862),
  B. Schmidt's _Prolegomena_, H.A.J. Munro's _Criticisms and
  Elucidations of Catullus_ (1878; second edition by J.D. Duff, 1905).
  Translations into English verse by J. Cranstoun (1867), Sir T. Martin
  (1861, 1876), R. Ellis (above); a recent version in prose with the
  Latin text by F.W. Cornish (1904). For further information see
  Teuffel's _History of Roman Literature_ (tr. by Warre), S 214, or the
  more recent accounts by M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen
  Litteratur_, i. SS 102-106, and Frederic Plessis, _La Poesie latine_
  (1909), pp. 143-173.     (W. Y. S.; X.)




CATULUS, the name of a distinguished family of ancient Rome of the gens
Lutatia. The following are its most important members.

1. GAIUS LUTATIUS CATULUS, Roman commander during the First Punic War,
consul 242 B.C. He was sent with a fleet of 200 ships to Sicilian
waters, and almost without opposition occupied the harbours of Lilybaeum
and Drepanum. A hurriedly equipped fleet sent out from Carthage under
Hanno was intercepted by the praetor Publius Valerius Falto and totally
defeated (battle of the Aegates Islands, March 10, 241). Catulus, who
had been wounded at Drepanum, took no part in the operations, but on his
return to Rome was accorded the honour of a triumph, which against his
will he shared with Valerius. (See PUNIC WARS: First, ad fin.).

2. QUINTUS LUTATIUS CATULUS, Roman general and consul with Marius in 102
B.C. In the war against the Cimbri and Teutones he was sent to defend
the passage of the Alps but found himself compelled to retreat over the
Po, his troops having been reduced to a state of panic (see MARIUS,
GAIUS). In 101 the Cimbri were defeated on the Raudine plain, near
Vercellae, by the united armies of Catulus and Marius. The chief honour
being ascribed to Marius, Catulus became his bitter opponent. He sided
with Sulla in the civil war, was included in the proscription list of
87, and when Marius declined to pardon him, committed suicide. He was
distinguished as an orator, poet and prose writer, and was well versed
in Greek literature. He is said to have written the history of his
consulship and the Cimbrian War after the manner of Xenophon; two
epigrams by him have been preserved, one on Roscius the celebrated actor
(Cicero, _De Nat. Deorum_, i. 28), the other of an erotic character,
imitated from Callimachus (Gellius xix. 9). He was a man of great
wealth, which he spent in beautifying Rome. Two buildings were known as
"Monumenta Catuli": the temple of _Fortuna hujusce diei_, to commemorate
the day of Vercellae, and the Porticus Catuli, built from the sale of
the Cimbrian spoils.

  See Plutarch, _Marius, Sulla_; Appian, _B.C._ i. 74; Vell. Pat. ii.
  21; Florus iii. 21; Val. Max. vi. 3, ix. 13; Cicero, _De Oratore_,
  iii, 3. 8, _Brutus_, 35.

3. QUINTUS LUTATIUS CATULUS (c. 120-61 B.C.), sometimes called
Capitolinus, son of the above, consul in 102. He inherited his father's
hatred of Marius, and was a consistent though moderate supporter of the
aristocracy. In 78 he was consul with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who after
the death of Sulla proposed the overthrow of his constitution, the
re-establishment of the distribution of grain, the recall of the
banished, and other democratic measures. Catulus vigorously opposed
this, and a temporary compromise was effected. But Lepidus, having
levied troops in his province of Transalpine Gaul, returned to Rome at
the head of an army. Catulus defeated him at the Mulvian bridge and near
Cosa in Etruria, and Lepidus made his escape to Sardinia, where he died
soon afterwards. In 67 and 66 Catulus unsuccessfully opposed, as
prejudicial to constitutional freedom, the Gabinian and Manilian laws,
which conferred special powers upon Pompey (q.v.). He consistently
opposed Caesar, whom he endeavoured to implicate in the Catilinarian
conspiracy. Caesar, in return, accused him of embezzling public money
during the reconstruction of the temple on the Capitol, and proposed to
obliterate his name from the inscription and deprive him of the office
of commissioner for its restoration. Catulus's supporters rallied round
him, and Caesar dropped the charge. Catulus was the last _princeps
senatus_ of republican times; he held the office of censor also, but
soon resigned, being unable to agree with his colleague Licinius
Crassus. Although not a man of great abilities, Catulus exercised
considerable influence through his political consistency and his
undoubted solicitude for the welfare of the state.

  See Sallust, _Catilina_, 35. 49; Dio Cassius xxxvi. 13; Plutarch,
  _Crassus_; Suetonius, _Caesar_, 15.




CAUB, or KAUB, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 28 m. N.W. from Wiesbaden,
on the railway from Frankfort-on-Main to Cologne. Pop. 2200. It has a
Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, and a statue of Blucher. The
trade mainly consists of the wines of the district. On a crag above the
town stands the imposing ruin of Gutenfels, and facing it, on a rock in
the middle of the Rhine, the small castle Pfalz, or Pfalzgrafenstein,
where, according to legend, the Palatine countesses awaited their
confinement, but which in reality served as a toll-gate for merchandise
on the Rhine.

Caub, first mentioned in the year 983, originally belonged to the lords
of Falkenstein, passed in 1277 to the Rhenish Palatinate, and attained
civic rights in 1324. Here Blucher crossed the Rhine with the Prussian
and Russian armies, on New Year's night 1813-1814, in pursuit of the
French.




CAUCA, a large coast department of Colombia, South America, lying
between the departments of Bolivar, Antioquia, Caldas and Tolima on the
E., and the Pacific Ocean and Panama on the W., and extending from the
Caribbean Sea S. to the department of Narino. Pop. (1905, estimate)
400,000; area 26,930 sq. m. Although Cauca was deprived of extensive
territories on the upper Caqueta and Putumayo, and of a large area
bordering on Ecuador in the territorial redistribution of 1905, it
remained the largest department of the republic. The Western Cordillera,
traversing nearly its whole length from south to north, and the Central
Cordillera, forming a part of its eastern frontier, give a very
mountainous character to the region. It includes, besides, the fertile
and healthful valley of the upper Cauca, the hot, low valley of the
Atrato, and a long coastal plain on the Pacific. The region is rich in
mines and valuable forests, but its inhabitants have made very little
progress in agriculture because there are not adequate transportation
facilities. The capital of the department is Popayan at its southern
extremity, with an estimated population in 1905 of 10,000, other
important towns are Cali (16,000), Buga, Cartago and Buenaventura.




CAUCASIA, or CAUCASUS, a governor-generalship of Russia, occupying the
isthmus between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov on the west and the
Caspian Sea on the east, as well as portions of the Armenian highlands.
Its northern boundary is the Kuma-Manych depression, a succession of
narrow, half-desiccated lakes and river-beds, only temporarily filled
with water and connecting the Manych, a tributary of the Don, with the
Kuma, which flows into the Caspian. This depression is supposed to be a
relic of the former post-Pliocene connexion between the Black Sea and
the Caspian, and is accepted by most geographers as the natural frontier
between Europe and Asia, while others make the dividing-line coincide
with the principal water-parting of the Caucasus mountain system. The
southern boundary of Caucasia is in part coincident with the river Aras
(Araxes), in part purely conventional and political. It was shifted
several times during the 19th century, but now runs from a point on the
Black Sea, some 20 m. south of Batum, in a south-easterly and easterly
direction to Mt. Ararat, and thence along the Aras to within 30 m. of
its confluence with the Kura, where it once more turns south-east, and
eventually strikes the Caspian at Astara (30 deg. 35' N.). This large
territory, covering an area of 180,843 sq. m., and having in 1897
9,248,695 inhabitants (51 per sq. m.), may be divided into four natural
zones or sections:--(i.) the plains north of the Caucasus mountains,
comprising the administrative division of Northern Caucasia; (ii.) the
Caucasus range and the highlands of Daghestan; (iii.) the valleys of the
Rion and the Kura, between the Caucasus range and the highlands of
Armenia; and (iv.) the highlands of Armenia.

  (i.) The _plains of Northern Caucasia_, which include most of the
  provinces of Kuban and Terek and of the government of Stavropol, slope
  gently downwards from the foot of the Caucasus range towards the
  Kuma-Manych depression. It is only in their centre that they reach
  altitudes of as much as 2000-2500 ft. e.g. in the Stavropol "plateau,"
  which stretches northwards, separating the tributaries of the Kuban
  from those of the Terek and the Kuma. Towards the foothills of the
  Caucasus they are clothed with thick forests, while in the west they
  merge into the steppes of south Russia or end in marshy ground, choked
  with reeds and rushes, in the delta of the Kuban. In the north and
  east they give place, as the Manych and the coasts of the Caspian are
  approached, to arid, sandy, stony steppes. The soil of these plains is
  generally very fertile and they support a population of nearly
  2,800,000 Russians, composed of Cossacks and peasant immigrants,
  settled chiefly along the rivers and grouped in large, wealthy
  villages. They carry on agriculture--wheat-growing on a large
  scale--with the aid of modern agricultural machines, and breed cattle
  and horses. Vines are extensively cultivated on the low levels, and a
  variety of domestic trades are prosecuted in the villages. The higher
  parts of the plains, which are deeply trenched by the upper
  tributaries of the rivers, are inhabited by various Caucasian
  races--Kabardians and Cherkesses (Circassians) in the west, Ossetes in
  the middle, and several tribal elements from Daghestan, described
  under the general name of Chechens, in the east; while nomadic Nogai
  Tatars and Turkomans occupy the steppes.

  (ii.) The _Caucasus range_ runs from north-west to south-east from the
  Strait of Kerch to the Caspian Sea for a length of 900 m., with a
  varying breadth of 30 to 140 m., and covers a surface of 12,000 sq. m.
  The orographical characteristics of the Caucasus are described in
  detail under that heading.

  (iii.) The combined _valleys of the Rion and the Kura_, which
  intervene between the Caucasus and the Armenian highlands, and stretch
  their axes north-west and south-east respectively, embrace the most
  populous and most fertile parts of Caucasia. They correspond roughly
  with the governments of Kutais, Tiflis, Elisavetpol and Baku, and have
  a population of nearly 3,650,000. The two valleys are separated by the
  low ridge of the Suram or Meskes mountains.

  Spurs from the Caucasus and from the Armenian highlands fill up the
  broad latitudinal depression between them. Above (i.e. west of) Tiflis
  these spurs so far intrude into the valley that it is reduced to a
  narrow strip in breadth. But below that city it suddenly widens out,
  and the width gradually increases through the stretch of 350 m. to the
  Caspian, until in the Mugan steppe along that sea it measures 100 m.
  in width. The snow-clad peaks of the main Caucasus, descending by
  short, steep slopes, fringe the valley on the north, while an abrupt
  escarpment, having the characteristics of a border ridge of the
  Armenian highlands, fronts it on the south. The floor of the valley
  slopes gently eastwards, from 1200 ft. at Tiflis to 500 ft. in the
  middle, and to 85 ft. _below_ normal sea-level beside the Caspian. But
  the uniformity of the slope is interrupted by a plateau (2000-3000 ft.
  in altitude) along the southern foothills of the east central
  Caucasus, in the region known as Kakhetia, drained by the Alazan, a
  left-hand tributary of the Kura. The deep, short gorges and glens
  which seam the southern slopes of the Caucasus are inhabited by
  Ossetes, Tushes, Pshavs and Khevsurs in the west, and by various
  tribes of Lesghians in the east. In these high and stony valleys every
  available patch of ground is utilized for the cultivation of barley,
  even up to altitudes of 7000 and 8000 ft. above the level of the sea;
  but cattle-breeding is the principal resource of the mountaineers,
  whose little communities are often separated from one another by
  passes, few of which are lower than 10,000 ft. The steppes along the
  bottom of the principal valley are for the most part too dry to be
  cultivated without irrigation. It is only in Kakhetia, where numerous
  mountain streams supply the fields and gardens of the plateau of
  Alazan, that wheat, millet and maize are grown, and orchards,
  vineyards and mulberry plantations are possible. Lower down the valley
  cattle-breeding is the chief source of wealth, while in the small
  towns and villages of the former Georgian kingdom various petty
  trades, exhibiting a high development of artistic taste and technical
  skill, are widely diffused. The slopes of the Armenian highlands are
  clothed with fine forests, and the vine is grown at their base, while
  on the wide-stretching steppes the Turko-Tatars pasture cattle, horses
  and sheep. The lower part of the Kura valley assumes the character of
  a dry steppe, the rainfall not reaching 14 in. annually at Baku, and
  it is still less in the Mugan steppe, though quite abundant in the
  adjacent region of Lenkoran. The vegetation of the steppe is on the
  whole scanty. Trees are generally absent, except for thickets of
  poplars, dwarf oaks and tamarisks along the course of the Kura, the
  delta of which is smothered under a jungle of reeds and rushes. The
  Mugan steppe is, however, in spite of its dryness, a more fertile
  region in virtue of the irrigation practised; but the Kura has
  excavated its bed too deeply to admit of that being done along its
  course. The Lenkoran district, sometimes called Talysh, on the western
  side of the Kizil-Agach bay, is blessed with a rich vegetation, a
  fertile soil, and a moist climate.

  The inhabitants of the Kura valley consist principally of Iranian
  Tates and Talyshes, of Armenians and Lesghians, with Russians, Jews
  and Arabs. This conjoint valley of the Rion-Kura was in remote
  antiquity the site of several Greek colonial settlements, later the
  seat of successive kingdoms of the Georgians, and for centuries it has
  formed a bulwark against hostile invasions from the south and east. It
  is still inhabited chiefly by Georgian tribes--Gurians, Imeretians,
  Mingrelians, Svanetians--in the basin of the Rion, and by Georgians
  intermingled with Armenians in the valley of the Kura, while the
  steppes that stretch away from the lower course of the latter river
  are ranged over by Turko-Tatars. Mingrelia and Imeretia (valley of
  Rion) are the gardens of Caucasia, but the high valleys of Svanetia,
  farther north on the south slopes of the Caucasus mountains, are wild
  and difficult of access. In the cultivated parts the land is so
  exceedingly fertile and productive that it sells for almost fabulous
  prices, and its value is still further enhanced by the discovery of
  manganese and copper mines in the basin of the Rion, and of the almost
  inexhaustible supplies of naphtha and petroleum at Baku in the
  Apsheron peninsula. The principal products of the soil are mentioned
  lower down, while the general character of the vegetation is
  indicated under CAUCASUS: _Western Caucasus._ In the basin of the
  Rion, in that of the Chorokh (which runs off the Pontic highlands into
  the Black Sea south of Batura), and on the Black Sea littoral from
  Batum northwards to Sukhum-kaleh, and beyond, the climate is extremely
  hot and the rainfall heavy (see under _Climate_ below). It is in this
  valley that the principal towns (except Vladikavkaz at the north foot
  of the Caucasus) of Caucasia are situated, namely, Baku (179,133
  inhabitants in 1900), Tiflis (160,645 in 1897), Kutais (32,492), and
  the two Black Sea ports of Batum (28,512) and Poti (7666).

  (iv.) The _highlands of Armenia_ are sometimes designated the Minor
  Caucasus, Little Caucasus and Anti-Caucasus. But to use such terms for
  what is not only an independent, but also an older, orographical
  formation than the Caucasus tends to perpetuate confusion in
  geographical nomenclature. The Armenian highlands, which run generally
  parallel to the Caucasus, though at much lower elevations (5000-6000
  ft.), are a plateau region, sometimes quite flat, sometimes gently
  undulating, clothed with luxuriant meadows and mostly cultivable. From
  it rise double or triple ranges connected by cross-ridges and spined
  with outer spurs. These double and triple ranges, which have a general
  elevation of 8500-10,000 ft., stretch from the south-east angle of the
  Black Sea, 400 m. south-eastwards to the Kara-dagh and Salavat
  mountains in north Persia, and the latter link them on to the Elburz
  mountains that skirt the southern end of the Caspian Sea. Various
  names are given to the different parts of the constituent ranges, or,
  perhaps more correctly, elongated groups of mountains. The Ajar,
  Akhalt-sikh and Meskes or Trialety groups in the west are succeeded
  farther east by the Somkhet, Murguz, Ganji and Karabakh sections,
  forming the southern rim of the Kura basin, while parallel with them,
  but farther south, run the Mokry, Miskhan, Akmangan and Paltapin
  ranges, marking the northern edge of the Aras drainage area. These two
  sets of parallel ranges are linked together transversely by the
  cross-ridges of Bezobdal, Pambak, Shah-dagh and Gok-cha. From this
  last branches off the highest range in the entire series, namely, the
  Zangezur, which soars up to 10,000 ft. above the left bank of the
  Aras. From it again there shoot away at right angles, one on each
  side, the ranges of the Dar-alagoz and Bergushet. These highlands
  exhibit very considerable evidences of volcanic activity both in
  remote geological periods and also since the Tertiary epoch. Large
  areas are overlain with trachyte, basalt, obsidian, tuff and pumice.
  The most conspicuous features of the entire region, Mount Ararat
  (16,930 ft.) and Mount Alagoz (13,440 ft.), are both solid masses of
  trachyte; and both rise above the limits of perpetual snow. Extinct
  volcanoes are numerous in several of the ranges, e.g. Akmangan, Mokry,
  Karabakh and Egri-dagh (see below). It is in this region of the
  Armenian highlands that the largest lakes of Caucasia are situated,
  namely, the Gok-cha or Sevanga (540 sq. m. in area) at an altitude of
  6340 ft., the Chaldir-gol (33 sq. m.) at 6520 ft., and several smaller
  ones, such as the _gols_ of Khozapin, Khopchalu, Arpa, Toporavan and
  Tabiztskhur, all situated between 6500 and 7000 ft. above sea-level.
  The principal water-divide in this highland region is, however, the
  range of Egri-dagh (Ararat), which just south of 40 deg. S. forms for
  100 m. the boundary between Russian and Turkish Armenia, having Ararat
  at its eastern extremity and the extinct volcano of Kessa-dagh (11,260
  ft.) at its western. Its importance lies in the fact that it divides
  the streams which flow into the Black Sea and Caspian from those which
  make their way into the Persian Gulf. The Egri-dagh possesses a
  sharply defined crest, ranges at a general elevation of 8000 ft., is
  bare of timber, scantily supplied with water, and rugged and deeply
  fissured.

  The transverse water-parting between the Black Sea and the Caspian
  begins on the south side of the main range of the Caucasus, at Mount
  Zikara (12,560 ft.), a little south-west of Kasbek, and runs
  south-west along the sinuous crests of the Racha, Suram or Meskes
  (3000-5000 ft.), Vakhan (10,000-11,000 ft.), Arzyan (7000-10,000 ft.),
  and its continuation the Soganluk, thus linking the Caucasus ranges
  with those of the Armenian highlands. This line of heights separates
  the basins of the Chorokh and the Rion (Black Sea) from those of the
  Aras and the Kura (Caspian Sea). North of the Caucasus ranges the
  water-divide between these two seas descends from Mount Elbruz along
  the Sadyrlar Mountains (11,000 ft.), and finally sinks into the
  Stavropol "plateau" (1600 ft.). But the main axis of the transverse
  upheavals would appear to be continued in a north-eastern direction in
  the Andi and other parallel ranges of Daghestan, as stated under
  CAUCASUS.

  The population in this region consists principally of Armenians,
  Tatars, Turks, Kurds, Ossetes, Greeks, with Persians, Tates and a few
  Russians (see particulars below).

_Climate_.--Owing in part to the great differences in altitude in
different regions of Caucasia and in part to the directions in which the
mountain ranges run, and consequently the quarters towards which their
slopes face, the climate varies very greatly according to locality.
Generally speaking, it may be characterized as a climate of extremes on
the Armenian highlands, in the Kura valley and in northern Caucasia, and
as maritime and genial in Lenkoran, on the Black Sea coastlands, and in
the valley of the Rion. The greatest recorded range of temperature is
at Erivan (altitude 3230 ft.), namely, of 64 deg. between a January
average of 14.9 deg. and an August average of 78.8 deg. F. At
Sukhum-kaleh, on the Black Sea, the corresponding range is only 27.3
deg., between a January average of 48.8 deg. and an August average of
76.1 deg. The highest mean temperatures for the whole year are those of
Lenkoran (60.3 deg.) and of Sukhum-kaleh and Poti (about 58 deg.), and
the lowest at Ardahan (5840 ft.), in the province of Kars, namely, 37.9
deg., and at Gudaur (7245 ft.), a few miles south of Kasbek, namely,
38.6 deg. The following table gives particulars of temperature averages
at a few typical places:--

  +-------------+--------------+--------+---------+-------+
  |             |              | Annual | January | July  |
  |    Place.   |   Altitude.  |  Mean. |  Mean.  | Mean. |
  |             |              | [deg.] | [deg.]  |[deg.] |
  +-------------+--------------+--------+---------+-------+
  | Stavropol   | 2030         |  47.0  |   24.0  | 70.0  |
  | Vladikavkaz | 2345         |  47.3  |   23.4  | 68.0  |
  | Gudaur      | 7245         |  38.6  |   20.3  | 57.2  |
  | Baku        | on Caspian   |  58.0  |   38.0  | 80.0  |
  | Tiflis      | 1490         |  55.0  |   32.0  | 76.5  |
  | Batum       | on Black Sea |  59.0  |   42.0  | 75.0  |
  | Sochi       | on Black Sea |  56.3  |   40.3  | 76.1  |
  | Lenkoran    | on Caspian   |  60.3  |   39.0  | 80.6  |
  | Erivan      | 3170         |  51.0  |   51.0  | 75.0  |
  +-------------+--------------+--------+---------+-------+

In respect of precipitation the entire region of Caucasia may be divided
into two strikingly contrasted regions, a wet and a dry. To the former
belong the Black Sea littoral, where the rainfall averages 59 to 93 in.
annually, and the valleys that open upon it or are exposed to winds
blowing off it, in which the rainfall varies, however, from 20 in.
(Abbas-tuman, Borzhom) to 60 (Kutais). In Lenkoran also the rainfall
averages 40 to 50 in. in the year. Between 16 and 40 in. fall as a rule
at the northern foot of the Caucasus (Mozdok, Pyatigorsk) and in the
Kura valley (Tiflis, Novo-bayazet). On the Armenian highlands and on the
steppes north of Pyatigorsk the rainfall is less than 12 in. annually,
and even in some places less than 8 in., e.g. at the foot of Ararat.
Most rain falls at Batum and at Lenkoran in the autumn, in northern
Caucasia and in Transcaucasia in spring and summer, but in the vicinity
of the Sea of Azov in winter.

_Flora and Fauna._--Plant-life, in such a mountainous country as
Caucasia, being intimately dependent upon aspect and altitude, is
treated under CAUCASUS. The wild animals of Caucasia are for the most
part the same as those which frequent the mountainous parts of central
Europe, though there is also an irruption of Asiatic forms, e.g. the
tiger (in Lenkoran only), panther, hyaena and jackal. The more important
of the carnivores which haunt the forests, valleys and mountain slopes
are the bear (_Ursus arctos_), wolf, lynx, wild cat and fox (_Vulpes
melanotus_). The wild boar occurs around Borzhom. The aurochs (_Bos
urus_) appears to exist still in the forests of the western Caucasus. Of
interest for sportsmen, as well as serving as prey for the carnivores,
are red deer, goats (_Capra pallasit_ and _C. aegagrus_), chamois,
roebuck, moufflon (_Ovis musimon_), argali or Asiatic wild sheep (_O.
Amman_), another species of sheep in _O. gmelini_, and fallow deer
(_Capreolus pigargns_) in northern Caucasus only. Rodents are numerous,
the mouse (_Mus sylvaticus_) is very destructive, and beavers are met
with in places. The birds of prey are the same as these of central
Europe, and include the sea eagle, alpine vulture (_Gyps fulvus_),
buzzard, kites (_Gypaetus barbatus_ and _Milvus ater_), hawks (e.g.
_Astur nisus_), goshawk (_A. palumbarius_), fish-hawk (_Pandion
haliaetus_) and owls. Among the smaller birds may be enumerated finches,
the siskin, bullfinch, pipit, titmouse, wagtail, lark, fine-crested
wren, hedge-sparrow, corn-wren, nut-hatch, starling, swallow, martin,
swift, thrush, butcher bird, shrike, dipper, yellow-hammer, ortolan and
a warbler (_Accentor alpinus_). The game birds consist of grouse,
blackcock, moorhen, quail and partridge. The pheasant derives its name
from the ancient name (_Phasis_) of the Rion.

In the seas and rivers about 190 species of fishes have been enumerated.
Of these, 115 species are Mediterranean, 30 are common to the Caspian
Sea, and the remaining species are peculiar to the Black Sea. The most
useful economically are several species of sturgeon and of herring,
trout, barbel, chubb, bream, ray, sea-dace, carp, anchovy. Insects
abound, especially Coleoptera. Flies, lice, gadflies and mosquitoes are
the worst of the insect plagues. There are several snakes, including the
viper (_Pelias berus_).

_Ethnology_.--The population of Caucasia is increasing rapidly. In 1897
it numbered 9,291,090, of whom 4,886,230 were males and 4,404,867 were
females. The most densely-peopled provinces were Kutais and Tiflis, each
with 80 inhabitants to the square mile; the thinnest the Black Sea
government (20-1/2 per sq. m.), Terek (31), and Kars (39). Of the total
population 3,725,543 lived in northern Caucasia and 5,564,547 in
Transcaucasia (including Daghestan). In the latter territorial division
there exists a great disproportion between the sexes, namely, to every
100 males only 86 females; indeed in the Black Sea government there are
only 65.5 females to every 100 males. Ethnologically the population
belongs to a great variety of races. The older authorities asserted that
these numbered as many as 150, or even 300; the more recent researches
of Baron P.V. Uslar, F. Anton, von Schiefner, Zagursky, and others have
greatly reduced this number; but even then there are not less than fifty
represented.

According to the languages spoken the populations of Caucasia admit of
being classified as follows,[1] according to Senator N. Trointsky,
president of the Russian Census Committee for 1897.

  ARYANS                4,901,412
    _Slavs_                        3,183,870
      Great Russians                          1,829,793
      Little Russians                         1,305,463
      White Russians                             19,642
      Poles                                      25,117
    _Germans_                         47,391
    _Greeks_                         100,299
    _Rumanians_                        7,232
    _French and Italians_              1,435
    _Lithuanians_                      6,687
      Lithuanians proper                          5,121
      Letts                                       1,511
    _Iranians_                       315,695
      Persians                                   13,929
      Talyshes                                   34,994
      Tates                                      95,056
      Ossetes                                   171,716
    _Kurds_                           99,836
    _Armenians_                    1,116,461
    _Gypsies_                          3,041

  SEMITES                  46,739
    _Jews_                            40,498
    _Chaldaeans_ (Aisors)              5,353

  URAL-ALTAIANS         1,902,142
    _Finns_                            7,422
      Esthonians                                  4,281
    _Turko-Tatars_                 1,879,908
      Tatars                                  1,509,785
      Osmanli Turks                             139,419
      Nogai Tatars                               64,048
      Turkomans                                  24,522
      Bashkirs                                      953
      Chuvashes                                     411
      Kirghiz                                        98
      Sarts                                         158
      Karachais                                  27,222
      Kumyks                                     83,408
      Kara-papaks                                29,902
      Kalmucks                                   14,409

  CAUCASIANS            2,439,071
    _Georgians_ (including Imeretians,
         Gurians, Svanetians, Lazes,
         Mingrelians, &c.)         1,352,455
    _Circassians_
      Cherkesses (Adigheh) and Kabardians       144,847
      Abkhasians                                 72,103
    _Chechens_                       274,318
      Chechens proper                           226,496
      Ingushes[2]                                47,409
      Kistines                                      413
    _Lesghians_                      600,514
      Avaro-Andians                             212,692
      Darghis                                   130,209
      Kurins                                    159,213
      Udins                                       7,100
      Others                                     91,300

_Religion_.--Most of the Russians and the Georgians belong to the
Orthodox Greek Church (over 4,000,000 in all); but considerable numbers
(estimated at nearly 122,000, though in reality probably a good many
more) are Nonconformists of different denominations. The Georgian Lazes
are, however, Mussulmans. The Armenians are Christians, mostly of the
national Gregorian Church (979,566), though 34,000 are Roman Catholics.
The Caucasian races (except the Gregorians), together with the Turks and
Tatars, are Mussulmans of the Sunnite sect (2,021,300), and the Iranian
races mostly Mussulmans of the Shiite sect (884,100). The Kalmucks and
other Mongolic tribes are Lamaists (20,300), and some of the Kurds
profess the peculiar tenets of the Yezids.

_Industries_.--The principal occupation of the settled inhabitants is
agriculture and of the nomadic the breeding of live stock, including
camels. The cultivation of the soil is, however, attended in many parts
with great difficulties owing to the scanty rainfall and the very
primitive implements still in use, and in the valley of the Kura heavy
losses are frequently incurred from depredations by locusts. But where
irrigation is employed the yield of crops is excellent. Rye and wheat
are the most important crops harvested in northern Caucasia, but oats,
barley and maize are also cultivated, whereas in Transcaucasia the
principal crops are maize, rice, tobacco and cotton. The rice is grown
chiefly in the valley of the Kura and in Lenkoran; the tobacco in the
Rion valley and on the Black Sea coastlands, also to some extent in
Kuban; and the cotton in the eastern provinces. Various kinds of fodder
crops are grown in Transcaucasia, such as hay, rye-grass and lucerne. It
is estimated that nearly 54,000 acres are under vineyards in northern
Caucasia and some 278,000 acres in Transcaucasia, the aggregate yield of
wine being 30 million gallons annually. The best wine grows in Kakhetia,
a district lying north-east and east of Tiflis; this district alone
yields nearly 8 million gallons annually. Large numbers of mulberry
trees are planted for rearing silkworms, especially in Kutais, Erivan,
Elisavetpol (Nukha) and Baku (Shemakha); the groves occupy nearly
150,000 acres, and the winding of the silk gives employment to large
numbers of the population. Melons and water-melons are also important
objects of cultivation. Sunflowers are very extensively grown for oil in
the government of Kuban and elsewhere, and also some flax. Liquorice is
an article of export. Many varieties of fruit are grown, especially good
being the apricots, peaches, walnuts and hazel nuts. A limited area (not
more than 1150 acres) of the Black Sea coast between Sukhum-kaleh and
Batum is planted with the tea-shrub, which succeeds very well. In the
same district bamboos, ramie-fibre and attar (otto) of roses are
cultivated.

The _mining_ industry is growing rapidly in importance in spite of
costly and deficient means of communication, want of capital, and lack
of general initiative. So far the principal developments of the industry
have been in the governments of Kutais, Batum, Elisavetpol and Kuban.
Copper ore is extracted above the Murgul river (some 30 m. south of
Batum), at Akhtala south of Tiflis, and at Kedabek in Elisavetpol;
manganese to a considerably greater extent (over 400,000 tons annually)
at Chiaturi in the Kvirila valley in Kutais. Steam coal of good quality
is reported to exist about 30 m. inland from the open roadstead of
Ochemchiri in Kutais, but it is not mined. About 50,000 tons of coal of
very poor quality are, however, extracted annually, and the same
quantity of salt in the Armenian highlands and in Kuban. Small
quantities of quicksilver, sulphur and iron are obtained. But all these
are insignificant in comparison with the mineral oil industry of Baku,
which in normal times yields annually between ten and eleven million
tons of crude oil (naphtha). A good deal of this is transported by
gravitation from Baku to Batum on the Black Sea by means of a pipe laid
overland. The refined oil is exported as kerosene or petroleum, the
heavier refuse (_mazut_) is used as fuel. Naphtha is also obtained,
though in much smaller quantities, in Terek and Kuban, in Tiflis and
Daghestan. Numerous mineral springs (chalybeate and sulphurous) exist
both north and south of the Caucasus ranges, e.g. at Pyatigorsk,
Zhelesnovodsk, Essentuki, and Kislovodsk in Terek, and at Tiflis,
Abbas-tuman and Borzhom in the government of Tiflis.

_Manufacturing_ industry is confined to a few articles and commodities,
such as cement, tea, tin cans (for oil), cotton goods, oil refineries,
tobacco factories, flour-mills, silk-winding mills (especially at Shusha
and Jebrail in the south of Elisavetpol), distilleries and breweries. On
the other hand, the domestic industries are extensively carried on and
exhibit a high degree of technical skill and artistic taste. Carpets
(especially at Shusha), silk, cotton and woollen goods, felts and fur
cloaks are made, and small arms in Daghestan and at Tiflis, Nukha and
Sukhum-kaleh; silversmiths' work at Tiflis, Akhaltsikh and Kutais;
pottery at Elisavetpol and Shusha; leather shoe-making at Alexandropol,
Nukha, Elisavetpol, Shusha and Tiflis; saddlery at Sukhum-kaleh and
Ochemchiri on the Black Sea and at Temirkhan-shura in Daghestan; and
copper work at Derbent and Alexandropol. But industries of every
description were most seriously crippled by the spirit of turbulence and
disorder which manifested itself throughout Transcaucasia in the years
1904-1906, accentuated as they were further by the outbreak of the
long-rooted racial enmities between the Armenians and the Tatars,
especially at Baku in 1905.

_Commerce_.--The exports through the Black Sea ports of Batum, Poti and
Novo-rossiysk average in value a little over L10,000,000 annually,
though showing a tendency to increase slightly. By far the most
important commodity is petroleum, fully one-half of the total value. In
addition large quantities are shipped at Baku direct for the Volga and
the Transcaspian port of Krasnovodsk. The export that comes next in
value is silk, and after it may be named wheat, barley, manganese ore,
maize, wool, oilcake, carpets, rye, oats, liquorice and timber. The
import trade reaches nothing like the same value, and what there is is
confined almost entirely to Batum. The annual average vahie may be put
at not quite L2,000,000, machinery and tin-plate being a long way the
most important items. There is further a small transit trade through
Transcaucasia from Persia to the value of less than half a million
sterling annually, and chiefly in carpets, cocoons and silk, wool, rice
and boxwood; and further a sea-borne trade between Persia and Caucasian
ports (Baku and Petrovsk) to the value of over 1-1/2 millions sterling
in all. The very extensive internal trade with Russia can only be
mentioned.

_Railways_.--The principal approach to Caucasia from Russia by rail is
the line that runs from Rostov-on-Don to Vladikavkaz at the foot of the
central Caucasus range. Thence, or rather from the junction of Beslan,
14 m. north of Vladikavkaz, the main line proceeds east of Petrovsk on
the Caspian, and from Petrovsk skirts the shore southwards as far as
Baku, the distance from Vladikavkaz to Baku being 414 m. This railway,
together with the driving roads over the Caucasus mountains via the
Mamison pass (the Ossetic military road) and the Darial pass (the
Georgian military road), and the route across the Black Sea to Poti or
Batum are the chief means of communication between southern Russia and
Transcaucasia. Baku and Batum (also Poti) are connected by another main
line, 560 m. long, which traverses the valleys of the Kura and the Rion,
south of the Caucasus. From Tiflis, nearly midway on this last line, a
railway proceeds south as far as Erivan (234 m.), with a branch to Kars
(48 m.). The Erivan line is being continued into Persia, namely, to
Tabriz via Julfa on the Aras.

_History_.--To the ancient Greeks Caucasia, and the mighty range which
dominates it, were a region of mystery and romance. It was there that
they placed the scene of the sufferings of Prometheus (_vide_ Aeschylus,
_Prometheus Vinctus_), and there, in the land of Colchis, which
corresponds to the valley of the Rion, that they sent the Argonauts to
fetch the golden fleece. Outside the domain of myth, the earliest
connexion of the Greeks with that part of the world would appear to have
been through the maritime colonies, such as Dioscurias, which the
Milesians founded on the Black Sea coast in the 7th century B.C. For
more than two thousand years the most powerful state in Caucasia was
that of Georgia (q.v.), the authentic history of which begins with its
submission to Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. The southern portion of
Transcaucasia fell during the 1st century B.C. under the sway of
Armenia, and with that country passed under the dominion of Rome, and so
eventually of the Eastern empire. During the 3rd century A.D. Georgia
and Armenia were invaded and in great part occupied by the Khazars, and
then for more than a thousand years the mountain fastnesses of this
borderland between Europe and Asia were the refuge, or the
resting-place, of successive waves of migration, as people after people
and tribe after tribe was compelled to give way to the pressure of
stronger races harassing them in the rear. The Huns, for instance, and
the Avars appeared in the 6th century, and the Mongols in the 13th. In
the 10th century bands of Varangians or Russified Scandinavians sailed
out of the Volga and coasted along the Caspian until they had doubled
the Apsheron peninsula, when they landed and captured Barda, the chief
town of Caucasian Albania.

But, apart from Georgia, historical interest in Caucasia centres in the
long and persistent attempts which the Russians made to conquer it, and
the heroic, though unavailing, resistance offered by the mountain races,
more especially the Circassian and Lesghian tribes. Russian aggression
began somewhat early in the 18th century, when Peter the Great,
establishing his base at Astrakhan on the Volga, and using the Caspian
for bringing up supplies and munitions of war, captured Derbent from the
Persians in 1722, and Baku in the following year. But these conquests,
with others made at the expense of Persia, were restored to the latter
power after Peter's death, a dozen years later. At that period the
Georgians were divided into various petty principalities, the chief of
which were Imeretia and Georgia (Kharthlia), owing at times a more or
less shadowy allegiance to the sultan of the Ottoman Turks at
Constantinople. In 1770, during the course of a war between Russia and
Turkey, the Russians crossed over the Caucasus and assisted the
Imeretians to resist the Turks, and from the time of the ensuing peace
of Kuchuk-kainarji the Georgian principalities looked to their powerful
northern neighbour as their protector against the southern aggressors
the Turks. In 1783 George XIII., prince of Georgia and Mingrelia,
formally put himself under the suzerainty of Russia, and after his death
Georgia was converted (1801) into a Russian province. The same fate
overtook Imeretia, nine years later. Meanwhile the Russians had also
subdued the Ossetes (1802) and the Lesghian tribes (1803) of the middle
Caucasus. By the peace of Gulistan in 1813 Persia ceded to Russia
several districts in eastern Caucasia, from Lenkoran northwards to
Derbent. Nevertheless the mountain tribes who inhabited the higher parts
of the Caucasus were still independent, and their subjugation cost
Russia a sustained effort of thirty years, during the course of which
her military commanders were more than once brought almost to the point
of despair by the tenacity, the devotion and the adroitness and daring
which the mountaineers displayed in a harassing guerilla warfare. The
animating spirit of their resistance was Shamyl (Samuel), a chief and
priest of the Lesghians, who, a Mahommedan, proclaimed a "holy war"
against the "infidel" aggressors. At first the Russians were able to
continue their policy of conquest and annexation without serious check.
After acquiring the northern edge of the Armenian plateau, partly from
Persia in 1828 and partly from Turkey in 1829, Russia crushed a rising
which had broken out in the Caspian coast districts of Daghestan on the
north of the Caucasus. This took place during the years 1831-1832. The
next seven years were occupied with the subjugation of the Abkhasians
along the Black Sea coast, and of other Circassian tribes in the west.
Meanwhile Shamyl had roused the Lesghian tribes farther east and begun
his twenty years' struggle for freedom, a struggle which called forth
the sympathy and admiration of nearly the whole of Europe. More than
once he escaped, in a manner that seemed little short of marvellous, out
of the hands of the Russians when they held him closely invested in some
mountain fastness, as at Himry in 1831, at Akhulgo in 1839, and again at
the same stronghold in 1849. The general who at last broke the back of
the long opposition of the prophet-chief of the Lesghians was Prince
Baryatinsky, who after three years of strenuous warfare succeeded in
capturing Shamyl's stronghold of Weden, and then in surrounding that
chieftain himself on the inaccessible rocky platform of Gunib in the
heart of Daghestan. There the hitherto indomitable champion of Caucasian
independence was forced to surrender to the Russians on the 6th of
September 1859. Nevertheless the spirit of resistance in these stubborn
mountaineers was not finally broken until 1864, when the Russians
eventually stifled all opposition in the difficult valleys and glens of
the western Caucasus. But this was followed, during the next fourteen
years, by the wholesale emigration of thousands upon thousands of
Circassians, who sought an asylum in Turkish territory, leaving their
native region almost uninhabited and desolate, a condition from which it
has not recovered even at the present day. During the Russo-Turkish War
of 1877-78 the self-exiled Circassians and other Caucasian mountaineers,
supported by a force of 14,000 Turks, made a determined attempt to wrest
their native glens from the power of Russia; but, after suffering a
severe defeat at the hands of General Alkhazov, the Turks withdrew, and
were accompanied by some 30,000 Abkhasians, who settled in Asia Minor. A
few months later the Lesghians in Daghestan, who had risen in revolt,
were defeated and their country once more reduced to obedience. By the
ensuing peace of Adrianople, Russia still further enlarged her
Transcaucasian territories by the acquisition of the districts of Kars,
Batum and Ardahan. After a peaceful period of a quarter of a century the
Armenian subjects of Russia in Transcaucasia were filled with bitterness
and discontent by the confiscation of the properties of their national
(Gregorian) church by the Russian treasury. Nor were their feelings more
than half allayed by the arrangement which made their ecclesiastics
salaried officers of the Russian state. This ferment of unrest, which
was provoked in the years 1903-1904, was exacerbated in the winters that
followed by the renewed outbreak of the century-long racial feud between
the Tatars and the Armenians at Baku and other places. In fact, nearly
the whole of the region between the Caucasus and the Perso-Turkish
frontier on the south, from the Caspian Sea on the one side to the Black
Sea on the other, was embroiled in a civil war of the most sanguinary
and ruthless character, the inveterate racial animosities of the
combatants being in both cases inflamed by religious fanaticism.
Complete anarchy prevailed at the worst centres of disorder, as Baku and
Batum, the imperial authorities being more powerless to preserve even
the semblance of order than they were in the interior of Russia. Many of
the oil wells at Baku were burned, and massacres took place at that
town, at Shusha, at Erivan, at Tiflis, at Batum, at Jebrail and at other
places. An end was put to these disorders only by the mutual agreement
of the two contestants, alike horrified and exhausted by the fierce
outburst of passion, in September 1905.     (J. T. Be.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Premier Recensement general de la population de l'empire de
    Russie_, ed. N. Trointsky (St Petersburg, 1905, 2 vols.), in Russian
    and French.

  [2] Although the Ingushes speak a Chechen dialect, they have recently
    been proved to be, anthropologically, quite a distinct race.




CAUCASUS, a mountain range of Asia, wholly within the Russian empire,
stretching north-west to south-east from the Strait of Kerch (between
the Black Sea and Sea of Azov) to the Caspian Sea, over a length of 900
m., with a breadth varying from 30 to 140 m. In its general character
and conformation the Caucasus presents a closer analogy with the
Pyrenees than with the Alps. Its general uniformity of direction, its
comparatively narrow width, and its well-defined limits towards both
south and north are all features which it has in common with the former.
The range of the Caucasus, like that of the Pyrenees, maintains for
considerable distances a high average elevation, and is not cleft by
deep trenches, forming natural passes across the range, such as are
common in the Alps. In both ranges, too, some of the highest summits
stand on spurs of the main range, not on the main range itself; as Mont
Perdu and Maladetta lie south of the main backbone of the Pyrenees, so
Mount Elbruz and Kasbek, Dykh-tau, Koshtan-tau, Janga-tau and
Shkara--all amongst the loftiest peaks of the Caucasus--stand on a
subsidiary range north of the principal range or on spurs connecting the
two. On the other hand, it is interesting to compare the arrangement of
the drainage waters of the Caucasus with those of the Alps. In both
orographical systems the principal rivers start nearly all together from
a central nucleus, and in both cases they radiate to opposite quarters
of the compass; but whereas in the Alps the Rhone and the Rhine, flowing
south-west and north-east respectively, follow longitudinal valleys, and
the Aar and the Ticino, flowing north-west and south-east respectively,
follow transverse valleys, in the Caucasus the streams which flow
south-west and north-east, namely, the headwaters of the Rion and the
Terek, travel along transverse valleys, and those of the Kura and the
Kuban, flowing south-east and north-west respectively, traverse
longitudinal valleys. For purposes of description it is convenient to
consider the range in four sections, a western, a middle with two
subsections, and an eastern.

1. WESTERN CAUCASUS. This section, extending from the Strait of Kerch to
Mount Elbruz in 42 deg. 40' E., is over 420 m. long, and runs parallel
to the north-east coast of the Black Sea and at only a short distance
from it. Between the main range and the sea there intervene at least two
parallel ranges separated by deep glens, and behind it a third
subsidiary parallel range, likewise separated by a deep trough-like
valley, and known as the Bokovoi Khrebet. All these ranges are shorn
through transversely by numerous glens and gorges, and, the rainfall
being heavy and the exposure favourable, they are densely clothed with
vegetation. Many of the spurs or broken segments of ranges thus formed
abut steeply upon the Black Sea, so that this littoral region is on the
whole very rugged and not readily accessible, especially as the general
elevations are considerable. The seaward flanking ranges run up to 4000
ft. and more, and in many places shoot out cliffs which overhang the
coast some 2000-3000 ft. sheer, while the main range gradually ascends
to 10,000-12,000 ft. as it advances eastwards, the principal peaks being
Fisht (8040 ft.), Oshten (9210 ft.), Shuguz (10,640 ft.), and Psysh
(12,425 ft.). And whereas the main range is built up of hard eruptive or
crystalline rocks, the subsidiary chains are composed of softer
(Cretaceous and Tertiary) laminated formations, which easily become
disintegrated and dislocated. The snow-line runs here at about 9000 ft.
on the loftiest summits, and east of Oshten the crest of the main range
is capped with perpetual snow and carries many hanging glaciers, while
larger glaciers creep down the principal valleys. The passes lie at
relatively great altitudes and are few in number, so that although the
northern versants of the various ranges all have a tolerably gentle
slope, communication between the Black Sea and the valley of the Kuban,
and the low steppe country beyond, is the reverse of easy. The more
important passes, proceeding from west to east, are Pshekh (5435 ft.)
west of Oshten, and Shetlib (6060 ft.) east of Oshten, Pscashka (6880
ft.) east of Shuguz, Sanchar (7990 ft.) west of Psysh; and between the
last-named mountain and Elbruz, facilitating communication between
Sukhum-Kaleh (and the coast as far as Poti) and the upper valley of the
Kuban, are the passes of Marukh (11,500 ft.), Klukhor (9450 ft.) and
Nakhar (9615 ft.).

_Flora._--The southern exposure of this littoral region, the shelter
afforded against the bitter winds of the north by the lofty Caucasus
range, and the copious rainfall all combine to foster a luxuriant and
abundant vegetation. The most distinguishing feature of the flora of
this region is the predominance of arborescent growths; forests cover in
fact 56% of the area, and are not only dense but laced together with
climbing and twining plants. The commonest species of trees are such as
grow in central Europe, namely, ash, fir, pine, beech, acacia, maple,
birch, box, chestnut, laurel, holm-oak, poplar, elm, lime, yew, elder,
willow, oak. The common box is especially prevalent, but the
preponderating species are _Coniferae_, including the Caucasian species
_Pinus halepensis_ and _P. insignis_. The commonest firs are _Abies
nordmannia_ and _A. orientalis_. There are two native oaks, _Quercus
ponticus_ and _Q. sessiliflora_. A great variety of shrubs grow on these
slopes of the western Caucasus, chiefly the following species, several
of which are indigenous--_Rhododendron ponticum, Azalea pontica,
Aristotelia maqui, Agave americana, Cephalaria tatarica, Coloneaster
pyracantha, Citrus aurantium, Diospyros ebenum, Ficus carica, Illicium
anisatum, Ligustrum caucasicum, Punica granatum, Philadelphus
coronarius, Pyrus salicifolia, Rhus cotinus_ and six species of
_Viburnum_. Aquatic plants thrive excellently and occur in great
variety. The following purely Caucasian species also grow on the
coast--five species of spearwort, three of saxifrage, _Aster caucasica,
Dioscorea caucasica, Echinops raddeanus, Hedera colchica, Helleborus
caucasica_ and _Peucedanum caucasicum_. Here too are found many of the
more beautiful open-air flowering plants of a shrubby character, e.g.
magnolia, azalea, camellia, begonia and paulownia. Among the cultivated
trees and shrubs the most valuable economically are the vine, peach,
pomegranate, fig, olive (up to 1500 ft. above sea-level), chestnut,
apricot, apple, pear, plum, cherry, melon, tea (on the coast between
Sukhum-Kaleh and Batum), maize (yielding the staple food of the
inhabitants), wheat (up to 6000 ft.), potatoes, peas, currants, cotton,
rice, colza and tobacco. Before the Russian conquest the native
inhabitants of this region were Kabardians, Circassians (Adigheh) and
Abkhasians, also a Circassian race. But half a million of these people
being Mahommedans, and refusing to submit to the yoke of Christian
Russia, emigrated into Turkish territory between 1864 and 1878, and the
country where they had lived remained for the most part unoccupied until
after the beginning of the 20th century. Then, however, the Russian
government held out inducements to settlers, and these have been
responded to by Russians, Greeks, Armenians and Rumanians, but the
process of repeopling the long deserted territory is slow and difficult.
The coast-line is remarkably regular, there being no deep bays and few
seaports. The best accommodation that these latter afford consists of
more or less open roadsteads, e.g. Novo-rossiysk, Gelenjik, Anapa,
Sukhum-Kaleh, Poti and Batum. Along the coast a string of summer bathing
resorts is springing up similar to those that dot the south-east coast
of the Crimea. The most promising of these little seaside places are
Anapa, Gelenjik and Gagry.

2. MIDDLE CAUCASUS: (a) _Western Half._--This sub-section, with a length
of 200 m., reaches from Mount Elbruz to Kasbek and the Pass of Darial.
It contains the loftiest summits of the entire range, fully a dozen
exceeding Mont Blanc in altitude (see table below).

  _List of Peaks in the west central Caucasus, with their altitudes,
  names and dates of mountaineers who have climbed them._

  +--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+
  |   Name of Peak.    |Altitude|             By whom ascended.            |Date|
  |                    |in Feet.|                                          |    |
  +--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+
  |Elbruz, E. peak     | 18,345 |D.W. Freshfield, A.W. Moore and C. Tucker |1868|
  |Elbruz, W. peak     | 18,465 |F.C. Grove, H. Walker and F. Gardiner     |1874|
  |  "       "         |   "    |H. Woolley                                |1889|
  |Donguz-orun         | 14,600 |G. Merzbacher and L. Purtscheller         |1890|
  |    "               |   "    |Donkin and H. Fox                         |1888|
  |    "               |   "    |Helbling, Reichert and Weber              |1903|
  |Shtavler            | 13,105 |Ficker, W.R. Rickmers, Scheck and Wigner  |1903|
  |Ledosht-tau         | 12,580 |Schuster and Wigner                       |1903|
  |Hevai               | 13,055 |Schuster and Wigner                       |1903|
  |Lakra-tau           | 12,185 |Rolleston and Longstaff                   |1903|
  |Ushba, N.E. peak    | 15,400 |Cockin                                    |1888|
  |Ushba, S.W. peak    | 15,410 |Helbling, Schulze, Reichert, Schuster and |1903|
  |                    |        |  Weber                                   |    |
  |Ushba, both peaks   |        |Distel, Leuchs and Pfann                  |1903|
  |Sultran-kol-bashi   | 12,495 |Grove, Walker and Gardiner                |1874|
  |Bak                 | 11,739 |Collier, Solly and Newmarch               |1894|
  |Gulba               | 12,500 |Freshfield                                |1887|
  |Salynan-bashi       | 14,700 |Cockin and H.W. Holder                    |1888|
  |Shikildi-tau        | 14,170 |Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber     |1903|
  |Bshedukh            | 14,010 |Distel, Leuchs and Pfann                  |1903|
  |Ullu-tau-chana      | 13,800 |Rolleston and Longstaff                   |1903|
  |Adyr-su-bashi       | 14,335 |Holder, Cockin and Woolley                |1896|
  |Sullu-kol-bashi     | 13,970 |Merzbacher and Purtscheller               |1890|
  |Tikhtengen          | 15,135 |Rolleston and Longstaff                   |1903|
  |Gestola             | 15,940 |C.T. Dent and Donkin                      |1886|
  |Tetnuld             | 15,920 |Freshfield                                |1887|
  |   "                |   "    |Merzbacher and Purtscheller               |1890|
  |Adish or Katuyn-tau | 16,295 |Holder and Woolley                        |1888|
  |Janga-tau, E. peak  | 16,525 |Cockin                                    |1888|
  |  "      "          |   "    |Merzbacher and Purtscheller               |1890|
  |Janga-tau, E. and W.| W. peak|                                          |    |
  |  peaks             | 16,660 |Helbling, Reichert, Schulze and Weber     |1903|
  |Shkara              | 17,040 |Cockin                                    |1888|
  |Ailama              | 14,855 |Woolley                                   |1889|
  |Ullu-auz            | 15,350 |V. Sella                                  |1888|
  |Dykh-tau *          | 17,050 |Cockin, Holder and Woolley                |1888|
  |Koshtan-tau **      | 16,875 |Woolley                                   |1888|
  |Mishirghi-tau       |        |                                          |    |
  |  E. peak           | 16,350 |Woolley                                   |1889|
  |Laboda              | 14,170 |Dent and Woolley                          |1895|
  |Tsikhvarga, E. peak | 13,575 |V. Sella                                  |1890|
  |    "       W. peak | 13,575 |Holder and Cockin                         |1890|
  |Karagom-khokh or    |        |                                          |    |
  | Burdshula          | 14,295 |Holder and Cockin                         |1890|
  |Adai-khokh          | 15,275 |Holder and Cockin                         |1890|
  |Tepli               | 14,510 |V. Sella                                  |1896|
  |Kasbek              | 16,545 |Freshfield, Moore and Tucker              |1868|
  |  "                 |   "    |Woolley                                   |1889|
  |  "                 |   "    |Merzbacher                                |1890|
  |  "                 |   "    |V. Sella                                  |1896|
  |Gimarai-khokh       | 15,670 |Merzbacher                                |1890|
  |Laila, N. peak      | 13,045 |Freshfield and Powell                     |1889|
  |Laila, middle peak  | 13,155 |V. Sella                                  |1889|
  |Laila, S. peak      | 13,105 |Merzbacher and Purtscheller               |1890|
  |Khamkhakhi-khokh    | 14,065 |M. de Dechy                               |1884|
  +--------------------+--------+------------------------------------------+----+

     * Formerly the Koshtan-tau.
    ** Formerly the Dykh-tau.

  In addition to the peaks enumerated in the table, the following also
  exist between Elbruz and Kasbek all exceeding 13,000 ft. in altitude:
  Dong-osenghi, 14,265 ft.; Kurmychi, 13,310 ft.; Ullu-kara-tau, 14,070
  ft.; Jailyk, 17,780 ft.; Sarikol-bashi, 13,965 ft.; Dumala-tau, 14,950
  ft.; Sugan-tau, 14,730 ft.; Tiutiu-bashi, 14,500 ft.; Nuamkuam, 13,975
  ft.; Zurungal, 13,915 ft.; Mala-tau, 14,950 ft.; Tiutiun-tau, 15,115
  ft.; Khrumkol-tau, 14,653 ft.; Bubis-khokh, 14,500 ft.; Giulchi,
  14,680 ft.; Doppakh, 14,240 ft.; Nakhashbita-khokh, 14,405 ft.;
  Shan-khokh, 14,335 ft.; Mishirghi-tau (W. peak), 16,410 ft.;
  Fytnargyn-tau, 13,790 ft.; Gezeh-tau, 14,140 ft.; and Kaltber, 14,460
  ft.

The crest of the main range runs continuously at an altitude exceeding
10,000 ft., but even it is surpassed in elevation by the secondary range
to the north, the Bokovoi Khrebet. These two ranges are connected by
more than half a dozen short transverse spurs or necks, inclosing as
many cirques or high cauldron glens. Besides the Bokovoi Khrebet several
other short subsidiary ranges branch off from the main range at acute
angles, lifting up high montane glens between them; for instance, the
two ranges in Svanetia, which divide, the one the river (glen) Ingur
from the river (glen) Tskhenis-Tskhali, and the other the river (glen)
Tskhenis-Tskhali from the rivers (glens) Lechkhum and Racha. Down all
these glens glacier streams descend, until they find an opportunity to
pierce through the flanking ranges, which they do in deep and
picturesque gorges, and then race down the northern slopes of the
mountains to enter the Terek or the Kuban, or down the southern versant
to join the Rion or the Kura. Amongst all these high glens there is a
remarkable absence of lakes and waterfalls; nor are there down in the
lower valleys at the foot of the mountains, as one would naturally
expect in a region so extensively glaciated, any sheets of water
corresponding to the Swiss lakes. In this section of the Caucasus the
loftiest peaks do not as a rule rise on the main range, but in many
cases on the short spurs that link it with the Bokovoi Khrebet and other
subsidiary ranges.

  "The central chain of the Caucasus," writes Mr Douglas W.
  Freshfield,[1] "consists of a number of short parallel or curved
  horseshoe ridges, crowned with rocky peaks and enclosing basins filled
  by the _neves_ of great glaciers.... On either side of the main chain
  the same succession is repeated, with one important difference. On the
  north the schists come first, sometimes rising into peaks and ridges
  in a state of ruin ... but more often worn to rolling downs; then the
  limestone range--writing-desk mountains that turn their steep fronts
  to the central snows; lastly low Cretaceous foothills, that sink
  softly into the steppe. But on the south side the crystalline rocks
  are succeeded by a broad belt of slates, as to the age of which the
  evidence is at present conflicting and the opinion of geologists
  divided. East of Adai-khokh, by what seems a strange freak of nature,
  the granitic [main] range is rent over and over again to its base by
  gorges, the watershed being transferred to the parallel chain of clay
  slates ... which has followed it from the Black Sea, attaining on its
  way the height of 13,400 ft. in the Laila, and limiting the great
  parallel basins of the Rion, Ingur and Skenis Shali
  [= Tskhenis-Tskhali]...." "At the base of the central core of the chain
  spread (to the north) broad, smooth, grassy downs, the pastures of the
  Turk and the Ossete.... Their ridges attain to 9000 to 10,000 ft. They
  are composed of friable crystalline schists.... Beyond these schists
  rises a broken wall of limestone, cleft to the base by gorges, through
  which flow the mountain torrents, and capped by pale precipitous
  battlements, which face the central chain at a height of 11,000 to
  12,000 ft. Beyond, again, lies a broad furrow, or 'longitudinal fold,'
  as geologists call it, parallel to the ridges, and then rises the last
  elevation, a belt of low calcareous hills, on which, here and there
  among the waves of beech forest, purple or blue with distance, a white
  cliff retains its local colour and shines like a patch of fresh snow.
  Beyond, once more beyond, spreads the Scythian steppe, not the dead
  level of Lombardy, but an expanse of long low modulations, which would
  be reckoned hills in our home counties, seamed by long shining
  ribbons, which mark the courses of the tributaries of the Terek....
  Southwards too, immediately under the snows, we find 'crystalline
  schists,' smooth grassy heights, separated by shallow trenches, which
  form the lesser undulations of the three basins, the _drei
  Langenhochthaler Imeritiens_ of Dr Radde. These basins or
  'longitudinal folds' are enclosed on the south by the long high ridge
  of dark slates, which extends parallel to the crystalline [main] chain
  from the neighbourhood of Sukhum-Kale to the Krestovaya Gora [pass of
  Darial.] Behind this slate crest spreads a confused multitude of
  hills, Jurassic and Cretaceous in their formation.... Their outer
  edge, distant some 30 to 40 m. from the snows, is marked by a
  limestone belt, lower and less continuous than that on the north,
  which frames the gorges of the Rion, and rises in the Kuamli (6352
  ft.) and Nakarala (4774 ft.) near Kutais, its best known
  elevations."[2] It may be added that, south of the central watershed,
  the strata, both Mesozoic and Palaeozoic, are compressed, crumpled,
  faulted and frequently overfolded, with their apices pointing to the
  south.

_Glaciers._--As a rule the snow-line runs at 9500 to 10,000 ft. on the
northern face and 1000 ft. higher on the southern face. It is estimated
that there are in all over nine hundred glaciers in this section of the
range, and although they often rival those of the Alps in size, they do
not descend generally to such low altitudes as the latter. The best
known are the Bezingi or Ullu, between Dykh-tau and Janga-tau, 10-1/2 m.
long, covering an area of 31 sq.m., and descending to 6535 ft. above
sea-level; Leksyr, situated south of Adyr-su-bashi, 7-1/2 m. long, 19
sq.m. in area, and creeping down to as low as 5690 ft., this being the
lowest point to which any glacier descends on the south side of the
range; Tseya or Zea, descending 6 m. from the Adai-khokh to an altitude
of 6730 ft.; Karagom, from the same mountain, 9-1/2 m. long, 14 sq.m. in
area and reaching down to 5790 ft., the lowest on the north side;
Dyevdorak or Devdorak, from Kasbek, 2-1/2 m. long, its lower end at 7530
ft.; Khaldeh or Geresho 4-1/4 m. long, from Shkara and Janga-tau; Tuyber
from Tetnuld, 6-1/2 m. long, area 21 sq.m., and reaching down to 6565
ft.; Tsanner or Zanner, the same length and the same area, but stopping
short 240 ft. higher, likewise given off by Tetnuld; while between that
peak, Adish and Gestola originates the Adish or Lardkhat glacier, 5 m.
long and terminating at 7450 ft. The total area covered by glaciers in
the central Caucasus is estimated at 625 to 650 sq.m., the longest being
the Maliev on Kasbek, 36 m. long; but according to the investigations of
M. Rossikov several of the largest glaciers are shrinking or
retreating, the Tseya at the rate of something like 40-45 ft. per annum.

_Passes._--It is in this section that the entire mountain system is
narrowest, and here it is that (apart from the "gate" at Derbent close
beside the Caspian) the principal means of communication exist between
north and south, between the steppes of southern Russia and the
highlands of Armenia and Asia Minor. These means of communication are
the passes of Darial and Mamison. Over the former, which lies
immediately east of Kasbek, runs the Georgian military road (made
1811-1864) from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis, cutting through the mountains by
a gorge (8 m. long) of singular beauty, shut in by precipitous mountain
walls nearly 6000 ft. high, and so narrow that there is only just room
for the carriage-road and the brawling river Terek side by side. The
pass by which this road crosses the main range, farther south, is known
as the Krestovaya Gora (Mountain of the Cross) and lies 7805 ft. above
sea-level. The Mamison Pass, over which runs the Ossetic military road
(made passable for vehicles in 1889) from the Terek (below Vladikavkaz)
to Kutais in the valley of the Rion, skirting the eastern foot of the
Adai-khokh, lies at an altitude of 9270 ft. and is situated a little
south of the main range. Scarce any of the remaining passes in this
west-central region are better than mountain paths; horses can traverse
the best of them only during a few weeks in the height of summer. They
mostly range at altitudes of 9000-12,500 ft., and between the pass of
Nakhar in the west and that of Mamison in the east there is not a single
pass below 10,000 ft. The best known in this section are the three
Baksan passes of Chiper (10,800 and 10,720 ft.), Bassa (9950 ft.) and
Donguz-orun (10,490 ft.), south of Elbruz; those of Becho (11,070 ft.),
Akh-su (12,465 ft.), Bak (10,220 ft.), Adyr-su (12,305 ft.) and Bezingi
(10,090 ft.), between Elbruz and Dykh-tau; and those of Shari-vizk
(11,560 ft.), Edena, Pasis-mta or Godivizk (11,270 ft.), Shtulu-vizk
(10,860 ft.), Fytnargyn (11,130 ft.), between Dykh-tau and Adai-khokh;
the Bakh-fandak (9570 ft.), between Adai-khohk and Kasbek; and the two
Karaul passes (11,680 and 11,270 ft.) and Gurdzi-vizk (10,970 ft.),
connecting the valley of the Urukh with that of the Rion. The most
frequented pass in Svanetia is that of Latpari (9260 ft.), situated in
the first of the southern subsidiary ranges mentioned above, and thus
connecting the valley of the Ingur with the valley of the
Tskhenis-Tskhali.

_Flora._--In this section of the range again the southern slopes are
clothed with vegetation of remarkable luxuriance and richness, more
especially in the region of Svanetia (42 deg.-43 deg. E.). Not only are
the plants bigger than they grow in the Alps, but the blossoms are more
abundant. Here again forests of _Coniferae_ predominate, especially on
the northern and eastern slopes; and the other distinguishing features
of the flora are gigantic male ferns (_Aspidium filix-mas_), _Paris
incompleta_ (a member of the Trilliaceae), _Usnea_ or tree-moss, box,
holly (_Ilex aquifolium_), _Lilium monadelphum_ and many of the familiar
herbaceous plants which flower in English gardens, though here they grow
to an altogether extraordinary size--"monkshoods, _Cephalaria_,
_Mulgedia_ and groundsels, among which men on horseback might play at
hide and seek without stooping" (E. Levier). Other prominent species are
_Campanula_, _Pyrethrum_, aconite, _Cephaelis_, speedwell, _Alchemilla
sericea_, _Centaurea macrocephala_, _Primula grandis_ and a species of
primrose. And the great height (13,000 ft.) at which the flowering
plants blossom is not less remarkable than the great beauty and
abundance of the flowers. Species which grow on both the northern and
the southern slopes ascend 2000 ft. higher on the latter than on the
former. Walnuts grow up to an altitude of 5400 ft., the vine and
mulberry up to 3250 ft., the lime and ash to 4000 ft. The forests extend
to the upper end of the limestone gorges. Above that the crystalline
schists are bare of tree vegetation. The upper limit of arborescent
vegetation is considered to run at 7000-7500 ft., of shrubs such as
rhododendrons at 8500 ft., and of pasture-lands up to 9000 ft. The
principal cultivated varieties of plants in this section are wheat, rye,
oats, barley, beans, millet and tobacco.

3. MIDDLE CAUCASUS: (b) _Eastern Part._--In this sub-section, which
stretches from Kasbek and the Darial gorge eastwards to the Baba-dagh
in 48 deg. 25' E., a distance of 230 m., the Caucasus attains its
greatest breadth. For the whole of that distance the main range keeps at
an average elevation of 10,000 ft., though the peaks in many instances
tower up 2000 to nearly 5000 ft. higher, the altitudes increasing
towards the east. As the main range approaches the Caspian its granite
core gradually disappears, giving place to Palaeozoic schists, which
spread down both the northern and the southern slopes. The glaciers too
decrease in the same proportion both in magnitude and in extent. Here
the principal peaks, again found for the most part on the spurs and
subsidiary ranges, are the Tsmiakom-khokh (13,570 ft.), Shan-tau (14,530
ft.), Kidenais-magali (13,840 ft.), Zilga-khokh (12,645 ft), Zikari
(12,565 ft.), Choukhi (12,110 ft.), Julti-dagh (12,430 ft.),
Alakhun-dagh (12,690 ft.) and Maghi-dagh (12,445 ft.). On the main range
itself stand Borbalo (10,175 ft.), Great Shavi-kildeh (12,325 ft.),
Murov (11,110 ft.), Ansal (11,740 ft.), Ginor-roso (11,120 ft), while
farther east come Trfan-dagh (13,765 ft.) and Bazardyuz or Kichen
(14,727 ft.). In the same direction, but again outside the main range,
lie Shah-dagh (13,955 ft.), Shalbuz (13,675 ft.) and Malkamud (12,750
ft.).

But the most noteworthy feature of this section is the broad _highland
region of Daghestan_, which flanks the main range on the north, and
sinks down both eastwards to the Black Sea and northwards to the valley
of the Terek. On the north-west this rugged highland region is well
defined by the distinctive transverse ridge of Andi, which to the east
of Kasbek strikes off from the Caucasus range almost at right angles.
The rest of the Daghestan region consists of a series of roughly
parallel folds, of Jurassic or Cretaceous age, ranging in altitudes from
7500 up to 12,500 ft., separated from one another by deep gorge-like
river glens which cut it up into a number of arid, treeless plateaus
which have something of the appearance of independent ranges, or rather
elongated tablelands of a mountainous character. The most prominent of
these tablelands is Bash-lam, which stretches east and west between the
Chanti Argun and the Andian Koisu, both tributaries of the Terek. Upon
it rise the conspicuous peaks of Tebulos-mta (14,775 ft.), Tugo-mta
(13,795 ft.), Komito-tavi or Kachu (14,010 ft.), Donos-mta (13,560 ft.),
Diklos-mta (13,740 ft.), Kvavlos-mta or Kolos-mta (13,080 ft.),
Motshekh-tsferi (13,140 ft.) and Galavanas-tsferi (13,260 ft.). Farther
east come the Bogos tableland, stretching from south-south-west to
east-north-east between the Andian Koisu and the Avarian Koisu and
rising to over 13,400 ft. in several peaks, e.g. Antshovala (13,440
ft.), Botshokh-meer (13,515 ft.), Kosara-ku (13,420 ft.) and
Addala-shuogchol-meer (13,580 ft.); and the Dyulty tableland, reaching
12,400 ft. between the Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu. On some of
these peaks again there is a considerable amount of glaciation, more
particularly on the slopes of Diklos-mta, where the glaciers descend to
7700 ft. on the north side and to 8350 ft. on the south side. In this
section of the Caucasus the passes run somewhat lower than those between
Elbruz and Kasbek, though still at appreciable heights, fully equal to
those that lead up from the Black Sea to the valley of the Kuban in the
western section of the range. The best known are the Krestovaya Gora
(7805 ft.) on the Georgian military road, south of Darial; Kodor (9300
ft.) and Satskheni, leading up from Telav in the upper valley of the
Alazan; and Gudur (10,120 ft.) and Salavat (9280 ft.), carrying the
Akhty military road from the valley of the Samur up past the Shah-dagh
and the Bazar-dyusi to the valley of the Alazan.

The _flora_ of this section bears a general resemblance to that farther
west. Ample details will be found in Dr G. Radde's (1831-1903)
monographs on Daghestan, quoted at the end of the present article.

4. The EASTERN SECTION of the Caucasus gradually dies away east of
Baba-dagh (11,930 ft.) towards the Caspian, terminating finally in the
peninsula of Apsheron. It is, however, continued under the waters of the
Caspian, as stated in the article on that sea, and reappears on its
eastern side in the Kopet-dagh, which skirts the north-east frontier of
Persia. In this section of the Caucasus no peak exceeds 9000 ft. in
altitude and the crest of the main range retains no snow. The most
frequented pass, that of Alty-agach, necessitates a climb of not more
than 4355 ft.

_Slopes of Range._--Between the northern and the southern sides of the
range there is quite as great a difference in climate, productions and
scenery as there is between the Swiss and the Italian sides of the Alps.
In the south-western valleys and on the south-western slopes of the
Caucasus, where a heavy rainfall is combined with a warm temperature,
magnificent forests clothe the mountain-sides and dip their skirts into
the waters of the Black Sea. There not only the littoral from (say)
Sukhum-Kaleh to Batum but the inland parts of the basin of the Rion will
bear comparison with any of the provinces of Italy in point of
fertility, and in richness and variety of products. But farther inland,
upon proceeding eastwards towards Tiflis, a great change becomes
noticeable on the other side of the transverse ridge of the Suram or
Meskes mountains. Arid upland plains and parched hillsides take the
place of the rich verdure and luxuriant arborescent growth of Imeretia,
Svanetia and Mingrelia, the districts which occupy the valleys of the
Ingur and Rion and the tributaries of the latter. A very similar change
likewise becomes noticeable in the higher regions of the Caucasus
Mountains upon proceeding north of the pass of Mamison, which separates
the head-waters of the Rion from those of the Ardon, an important
tributary of the Terek. The valleys of the two streams last mentioned,
and of others that flow in the same direction, are almost wholly
destitute of trees, but where the bare rock does not prevail, the
mountain slopes are carpeted with grass. Freshfield's description of the
valley of the Terek above Kasbek will apply pretty generally to all the
valleys that descend on that face of the range: "treeless valleys, bold
rocks, slopes of forbidding steepness (even to eyes accustomed to those
of the Alps), and stonebuilt villages, scarcely distinguishable from the
neighbouring crags." But, austere and unattractive though these valleys
are, the same epithets cannot be applied to the deep gorges by which in
most cases the streams make their escape through the northern subsidiary
range. These defiles are declared to be superior in grandeur to anything
of the kind in the Alps. That of Darial (the Terek) is fairly well
known, but those of the Cherek and the Urukh, farther west, are stated
to be still more magnificent. And not only do the snow-clad ranges and
the ice-panoplied peaks which tower up above them surpass the loftiest
summits of the Alps in altitude; they also in many cases excel them in
boldness and picturesqueness of outline, and equal the most difficult of
them in steepness and relative inaccessibility.

_Hydrography._--Nearly all the larger rivers of Caucasia have their
sources in the central parts of the Caucasus range. The short, steep,
torrential streams of Mdzimta, Pzou, Bzyb and Kodor drain the country
west of Elbruz. The Ingur, Tskhenis-Tskhali, Rion and its tributaries
(e.g. the Kvirila) are longer, but also in part torrential; they drain
the great glacier region between Elbruz and Kasbek. The Rion is the
_Phasis_ of the ancients and flows through the classic land of Colchis,
associated with the legends of Medea and the Argonauts. The Lyakhva and
Aragva, tributaries of the Kura, carry off the waters of the main range
south of Kasbek, and other tributaries, such as the Yora and the Alazan,
collect the surplus drainage of the main Caucasus range farther east.
The other large river of this region, the Aras, has its sources, not in
the Caucasus range, but on the Armenian highlands a long way south-west
of Ararat. The rivers which go down from the central Caucasus northwards
have considerably longer courses than those on the south side of the
range, partly as a consequence of the gentler versant and partly also
because of the great distances to which the steppes extend across which
they make their way to the sea. The most important of these are the
Kuban and the Terek; but it is the latter that picks up most of the
streams which have their sources among the central glaciers, e.g. the
Malka, Baksan, Chegem, Cherek, Urukh, Ardon, all confined to deep narrow
glens until they quit the mountains. The Kuma, which alone pursues an
independent course through the steppes, farther north than the Terek,
has its sources, not in the main ranges of the Caucasus, but in an
outlying group of mountains near Pyatigorsk, the highest summit of
which, Besh-tau, does not exceed 4600 ft. But its waters become absorbed
in the sands of the desert steppes before they reach the Caspian. Of the
streams that carve into chequers the elevated plateau or highland region
of Daghestan four are known by the common name of the Koisu, being
distinguished _inter se_ as the Andian Koisu, the Avarian Koisu, the
Kara Koisu and the Kazikumukh Koisu, which all unite to form the Sulak.
The only other stream deserving of mention in this province is the
Samur. Both rivers discharge their waters into the Caspian; as also does
the Zumgail, a small stream which drains the eastern extremity of the
Caucasus range in the government of Baku.

_Volcanic Evidences._--Ancient, but now extinct, volcanic upheavals are
pretty common at the intersections of the main range with the transverse
ranges; of these the most noteworthy are Elbruz and Kasbek. The town of
Shemakha, near the eastern end of the system, was the scene of volcanic
outbreaks as late as 1859, 1872 and 1902; while in the adjacent
peninsula of Apsheron mud volcanoes exist in large numbers. All along
the northern foot of the system hot mineral springs gush out at various
places, such as Pyatigorsk, Zhelesnovodsk, Essentuki and Kislovodsk; and
the series is continued along the north-eastern foot of the highlands of
Daghestan, e.g. Isti-su, Eskiendery, Akhta. In this connexion it may
also be mentioned that similar evidences of volcanic activity
characterize the northern border of the Armenian highlands on the
southern side of the Rion-Kura depression, in the mountains of Ararat,
Alagoz, Akmangan, Samsar, Godoreby, Great and Little Abull, and in the
mineral springs of Borzhom, Abbas-tuman, Sleptzov, Mikhailovsk and
Tiflis.     (J. T. Be.; P. A. K.)

  _Geology._--The general structure of the Caucasus is comparatively
  simple. The strata are folded so as to form a fan. In the centre of
  the fan lies a band of crystalline rocks which disappears towards the
  east. Beneath it, on both sides, plunge the strongly folded Palaeozoic
  and Jurassic schists. On the northern flank the folded beds are
  followed by a zone of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds which rapidly
  assume a gentle inclination towards the plain. On the south the
  corresponding zone is affected by numerous secondary folds which
  involve the Sarmatian or Upper Miocene deposits. In the eastern part
  of the chain the structure is somewhat modified. The crystalline band
  is lost. The northern Mesozoic zone is very much broader, and is
  thrown into simple folds like those of the Jura. The southern Mesozoic
  zone is absent, and the Palaeozoic zone sinks abruptly in a series of
  faulted steps to the plain of the Kura, beneath which no doubt the
  continuation of the Mesozoic zone is concealed.

  [Illustration]

  The geological sequence begins with the granite and schists of the
  central zone, which form a band extending from Fisht on the west to a
  point some distance beyond Kasbek on the east. Then follow the
  Palaeozoic schists and slates. Fossils are extremely rare in these
  beds; _Buthotrephis_ has long been known, and doubtful traces of
  _Calamites_ and ferns have been found, but it was not until 1897 that
  undoubted Palaeozoic fossils were obtained. They appear to indicate a
  Devonian age. Upon the Palaeozoic beds rest a series of Mesozoic
  deposits, beginning with the Lias and ending with the Upper
  Cretaceous. Whether the series is continuous or not is a matter of
  controversy. F. Loewinson-Lessing states that there is a more or less
  marked discordance between the Lias and the Upper Jurassic and between
  the latter and the Cretaceous; E. Fournier asserts that there exists a
  very strongly marked unconformity at the base of the Tithonian, and
  other writers have expressed other views. In general the Upper
  ajurassic beds are much more calcareous on the north flank of the
  chain than they are on the south. The Mesozoic beds are followed by
  the Tertiary deposits, which on the north are nearly horizontal but on
  the south are in part included in the folds--the Eocene and Miocene
  being folded, while the later beds, though sometimes elevated, are not
  affected by the folding. The final folding of the chain undoubtedly
  occurred at the close of the Miocene period. That there were earlier
  periods of folding is almost equally certain, but there is
  considerable difference of opinion as to their dates. The difference
  in character of the Jurassic beds on the two sides of the chain
  appears to indicate that a ridge existed in that period. The last
  phase in the history of the Caucasus was marked by the growth of the
  great volcanoes of Elbruz and Kasbek, which stand upon the old rocks
  of the central zone, and by the outflow of sheets of lava upon the
  sides of the chain. The cones themselves are composed largely of acid
  andesites, but many of the lavas are augite andesites and basalts.
  There seem to have been two periods of eruption, and as some of the
  lavas have flowed over Quaternary gravels, the latest outbursts must
  have been of very recent date.

  [Illustration]

  Near the northern foot of the Caucasus, especially in the
  neighbourhood of the hot mineral springs of Pyatigorsk, a group of
  hills of igneous rocks rises above the plain. They are laccolites of
  trachytic rock, and raised the Tertiary beds above them in the form of
  blisters. Subsequent denudation has removed the sedimentary covering
  and exposed the igneous core. (P. La.)

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the older works the following are still useful: A.
  von Haxthausen, _Transkaukasia_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1856); A.
  Petzholdt, _Der Kaukasus_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1866-1867); M.G. von
  Thielmann, _Travels in the Caucasus_ (Eng. trans., 2 vols., London,
  1875); F.C. Grove, _The Frosty Caucasus_ (London, 1875); G. Radde,
  _Reisen im mingrelischen Hochgebirge_ (Tiflis, 1866) and _Vier
  Vortrage uber den Kaukasus_ (Gotha, 1874); E. Favre, _Recherches
  geologiques dans la partie centrale de la chaine du Caucase_ (Geneva,
  1875); Batsevich, Simonovich and others, _Mat. dlya geologiy Kavkaza_
  (Tiflis, 1873 seq.); O. Schneider, _Naturwissenschaftliche Beitrage
  zur Kenntnis der Kaukasuslander_ (Dresden, 1879), and J. Bryce,
  _Transcaucasia_ (London, 1878). The more important amongst the more
  recent books are D.W. Freshfield, _Exploration of the Caucasus_ (2nd
  ed., 1902, 2 vols., London); A.F. Mummery, _My Climbs in the Alps and
  Caucasus_ (London, 1895); H. Abich, _Geologische Forschungen in den
  kaukasischen Landern_ (3 vols., Vienna, 1878-1887), _Aus kaukasischen
  Landern_ (2 vols., Vienna, 1896), and "Vergleichende Grundzuge des
  Kaukasus wie der armenischen und nordpersischen Gebirge," in _Mem.
  Acad. Sc. St-Petersb._ (ser. 6, _Math. et Phys._, vii. 359-534); R.
  von Erckert, _Der Kaukasus und seine Volker_ (Leipzig, 1887); E.
  Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_ (4 vols., Lyons
  and Paris, 1885-1887); C. von Hahn, _Aus dem Kaukasus_ (Leipzig,
  1892), _Kaukasische Reisen und Studien_ (Leipzig, 1896), and _Bilder
  aus dem Kaukasus_ (Leipzig 1900); V. Sella and D. Vallino, _Nel
  Caucaso Centrale_ (Turin, 1890); K. Koch, _Der Kaukasus_ (Berlin,
  1882); C. Phillipps Woolley, _Savage Svanetia_ (2 vols., London,
  1883); E. Levier, _A travers le Caucase_ (Paris, ed. 1905), especially
  valuable for botany; G. Merzbacher, _Aus den Hochregionen des
  Kaukasus_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1901); A. Fischer, _Zwei Kaukasische
  Expeditionen_ (Berne, 1891); E. Fournier, _Description geologique du
  Caucase central_ (Marseilles, 1896); G. Radde, _Reisen an der
  persisch-russischen Grenze. Talysch und seine Bewohner_ (Leipzig,
  1886), _Die Fauna und Flora des sudwestlichen Kaspigebiets_ (Leipzig,
  1886), _Karabagh_ (Gotha, 1890), and _Aus den daghestanischen
  Hochalpen_ (Gotha, 1887); and Count J. Zichy, _Voyages au Caucase_ (2
  vols., Budapest, 1897). F. Loewinson-Lessing has an account of the
  geology of the district along the military road from Vladikavkaz to
  Tiflis in the _Guide des Excursions du VII^e Congres geol. internat_.
  (St Petersburg, 1897). N.Y. Dinnik writes on the fauna in _Bull. Soc.
  Imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscou_ (1901); J. Mourier on the
  folk-tales in _Contes et legendes du Caucase_ (1888); and on modern
  history G. Baumgarten, _Sechzig Jahre des kaukasischen Krieges_
  (Leipzig, 1861). But a very great amount of most valuable information
  about the Caucasus is preserved in articles in encyclopaedias and
  scientific periodicals, especially the _Izvestia_ and _Zapiski_ of the
  Russian and Caucasian geographical societies, in P.P. Semenov's
  _Geographical Dictionary_ (in Russian, 5 vols., St Petersburg,
  1863-1884), and in the _Russkiy encyklopedicheskiy slovar_ (1894), and
  in the _Kavkazskiy kalendar_ (annually at Tiflis). See also G. Radde
  and E. Koenig, "Der Nordfuss des Daghestan und das vorlagernde
  Tiefland bis zur Kuma" (Erganzungsheft No. 117 to _Petermanns
  Mitteilungen_), and "Das Ostufer des Pontus und seine kulturelle
  Entwickelung im Verlaufe der letzten 30 Jahre" (Erganzungsheft No. 112
  of the same); by V. Dingelstedt in _Scot. Geog. Mag_.--"Geography of
  the Caucasus" (July 1889); "The Caucasian Highlands" (June 1895); "The
  Hydrography of the Caucasus" (June 1899); "The Riviera of Russia"
  (June 1904), "The Small Trades of the Caucasus" (March 1892); and
  "Caucasian Idioms" (June 1888). The best map is that of the Russian
  General Staff on the scale of 1:210,000 (ed. 1895-1901).
       (J. T. Be.; P. A. K.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Exploration of the Caucasus_ (2nd ed., 1902), i. 30-31.

  [2] Op. cit. i. 35-36.




CAUCHOIS-LEMAIRE, LOUIS FRANCOIS AUGUSTE (1789-1861), French journalist,
was born in Paris on the 28th of August 1789. Towards the end of the
First Empire he was proprietor of the _Journal de la litterature et des
arts_, which he transformed at the Restoration into a political journal
of Liberal tendencies, the _Nain jaune_, in which Louis XVIII. himself
had little satirical articles secretly inserted. After the return from
Elba the _Nain jaune_ became Bonapartist and fell into discredit. It was
suppressed at the second Restoration. Cauchois-Lemaire then threw
himself impetuously into the Liberal agitation, and had to take refuge
in Brussels in 1816, and in the following year at the Hague, whence he
was expelled for publishing an _Appel a l'opinion publique et aux Etats
Generaux en faveur des patriotes francais_. Returning to France in 1819,
he resumed the struggle against the ultra-royalist party with such
temerity that he was condemned to one year's imprisonment in 1821 and
fifteen months' imprisonment in 1827. After the revolution of July 1830
he refused a pension of 6000 francs offered to him by King Louis
Philippe, on the ground that he wished to retain his independence even
in his relations with a government which he had helped to establish. He
made a bitter attack upon the Perier ministry in his journal _Bon sens_,
and in 1836 was one of the founders of a new opposition journal, the
_Siecle_. He soon, however, abandoned journalism for history and, having
no private means, in 1840 accepted the post of head of a department in
the Royal Archives. Of a _Histoire de la Revolution de Juillet_, which
he then undertook, he published only the first volume (1842), which
contains a historical summary of the Restoration and a preliminary
sketch of the democratic movement. He died in Paris on the 9th of August
1861.




CAUCHON, PIERRE (d. 1442), French bishop, was born near Reims in the
latter half of the 14th century. We find him rector of the university of
Paris in October 1397. In 1413 he joined the Burgundian faction, and was
exiled by the parlement of Paris. But on the triumph of his party this
decree was annulled, and Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, gave him a
canonry at Beauvais, sent him to the council of Constance, procured him
the post of _maitre des requetes_ in 1418, and finally in 1420 had him
made bishop of Beauvais. But the people were hostile to him, and he was
driven from his bishopric in 1429; whereupon he attached himself to the
English court, and in 1431 endeavoured to procure the surrender of Reims
to the English, so that Henry VI. might be crowned there. In this he
failed, and Henry was crowned in Paris on the 17th of December 1431 by
Henry Beaufort, cardinal bishop of Winchester, assisted by the bishops
of Beauvais and Noyon. On the 24th of May 1430, Joan of Arc having been
taken prisoner at Compiegne, within the limits of his diocese, Cauchon
acted as her accuser, and demanded the right of judging her. Joan was
taken to Rouen, whither Cauchon followed her, having been driven from
Beauvais. He conducted the trial with marked partiality and malevolence,
condemned the maid to imprisonment for life, and then, under pressure
from the populace and the English, had recourse to fresh perfidies,
declared Joan a relapsed heretic, excommunicated her, and handed her
over to the secular arm on the 30th of May 1431. As, in consequence of
this, it was impossible for him to return to his own diocese, he
obtained the bishopric of Lisieux in 1432 by favour of the king of
England. He assisted at the council of Basel in 1435, and died suddenly
on the 18th of December 1442. Excommunicated posthumously by Pope
Calixtus IV., his body was exhumed and thrown in the common sewer.

  See Cerf, "Pierre Cauchon de Sommievre, chanoine de Reims et de
  Beauvais, eveque de Beauvais et de Lisieux, son origine, ses dignites,
  sa mort et sa sepulture," in the _Transactions_ of the Academy of
  Reims (1896-1898).




CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, BARON (1789-1857), French mathematician, was
born at Paris on the 21st of August 1789, and died at Sceaux (Seine) on
the 23rd of May 1857. Having received his early education from his
father Louis Francois Cauchy (1760-1848), who held several minor public
appointments and counted Lagrange and Laplace among his friends, Cauchy
entered Ecole Centrale du Pantheon in 1802, and proceeded to the Ecole
Polytechnique in 1805, and to the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees in 1807.
Having adopted the profession of an engineer, he left Paris for
Cherbourg in 1810, but returned in 1813 on account of his health,
whereupon Lagrange and Laplace persuaded him to renounce engineering and
to devote himself to mathematics. He obtained an appointment at the
Ecole Polytechnique, which, however, he relinquished in 1830 on the
accession of Louis Philippe, finding it impossible to take the necessary
oaths. A short sojourn at Freiburg in Switzerland was followed by his
appointment in 1831 to the newly-created chair of mathematical physics
at the university of Turin. In 1833 the deposed king Charles X. summoned
him to be tutor to his grandson, the duke of Bordeaux, an appointment
which enabled Cauchy to travel and thereby become acquainted with the
favourable impression which his investigations had made. Charles created
him a baron in return for his services. Returning to Paris in 1838, he
refused a proffered chair at the College de France, but in 1848, the
oath having been suspended, he resumed his post at the Ecole
Polytechnique, and when the oath was reinstituted after the _coup
d'etat_ of 1851, Cauchy and Arago were exempted from it. A profound
mathematician, Cauchy exercised by his perspicuous and rigorous methods
a great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings
cover the entire range of mathematics and mathematical physics.

Cauchy had two brothers: ALEXANDRE LAURENT (1792-1857), who became a
president of a division of the court of appeal in 1847, and a judge of
the court of cassation in 1849; and EUGENE FRANCOIS (1802-1877), a
publicist who also wrote several mathematical works.

  The genius of Cauchy was promised in his simple solution of the
  problem of Apollonius, i.e. to describe a circle touching three given
  circles, which he discovered in 1805, his generalization of Euler's
  theorem on polyhedra in 1811, and in several other elegant problems.
  More important is his memoir on wave-propagation which obtained the
  _Grand Prix_ of the Institut in 1816. His greatest contributions to
  mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he
  introduced. These are mainly embodied in his three great treatises,
  _Cours d'analyse de l'Ecole Polytechnique_ (1821); _Le Calcul
  infinitesimal_ (1823); _Lecons sur les applications du calcul
  infinitesimal a la geometrie_ (1826-1828); and also in his courses of
  mechanics (for the Ecole Polytechnique), higher algebra (for the
  Faculte des Sciences), and of mathematical physics (for the College de
  France). His treatises and contributions to scientific journals (to
  the number of 789) contain investigations on the theory of series
  (where he developed with perspicuous skill the notion of convergency),
  on the theory of numbers and complex quantities, the theory of groups
  and substitutions, the theory of functions, differential equations
  and determinants. He clarified the principles of the calculus by
  developing them with the aid of limits and continuity, and was the
  first to prove Taylor's theorem rigorously, establishing his
  well-known form of the remainder. In mechanics, he made many
  researches, substituting the notion of the continuity of geometrical
  displacements for the principle of the continuity of matter. In
  optics, he developed the wave theory, and his name is associated with
  the simple dispersion formula. In elasticity, he originated the theory
  of stress, and his results are nearly as valuable as those of S.D.
  Poisson. His collected works, _OEuvres completes d'Augustin Cauchy_,
  have been published in 27 volumes.

  See C.A. Valson, _Le Baron Augustin Cauchy: sa vie et ses travaux_
  (Paris, 1868).




CAUCUS, a political term used in America of a special form of party
meeting, and in Great Britain of a system of party organization. The
word originated in Boston, Massachusetts, in the early part of the 18th
century, when it was used as the name of a political club, the "Caucus"
or "Caucas" club. Here public matters were discussed, and arrangements
made for local elections and the choosing of candidates for offices. The
first mention of the club in contemporary documents occurs in the diary
of John Adams in 1763, but William Gordon (_History of the Independence
of the United States of America_, 1788) speaks of the Caucus as having
been in existence some fifty years before the time of writing (1774),
and describes the methods used for securing the election of the
candidates the club had selected. The derivation of the word has been
much disputed. It was early connected with "caulkers," and it was
supposed referred to meetings of the caulkers in the dockyard at Boston
in 1770, to protest against the action of the British troops, or with a
contemptuous allusion to the lower class of workmen frequenting the
club. This is, however, a mere guess, and does not agree with the
earlier date at which the club is known to have existed, nor with the
accounts given of it. That it was a fanciful classical name for a
convivial club, derived from the late Greek [Greek: kaukos], a cup, is
far-fetched, and the most plausible origin is an Algonquin word
_kaw-kaw-was_, meaning to talk. Indian words and names have been popular
in America as titles for societies and clubs; cf. "Tammany" (see _Notes
and Queries._ sixth series, vols. xi. and xii.). In the United States
"caucus" is used strictly of a meeting either of party managers or of
party voters. Such might be a "nominating caucus," either for nominating
candidates for office or for selecting delegates for a nominating
convention. The caucus of the party in Congress nominated the candidates
for the offices of president and vice-president from 1800 till 1824,
when the convention system was adopted, and the place of the local
"nominating caucus" is taken by the "primaries" and conventions. The
word is used in America of the meetings of a party in Congress and other
legislative bodies and elsewhere which decide matters of policy and plan
campaigns. "Caucus" came first into use in Great Britain in 1878. The
Liberal Association of Birmingham (see LIBERAL PARTY) was organized by
Mr Joseph Chamberlain and Mr F. Schnadhorst on strict disciplinary
lines, more particularly with a view to election management and the
control of voters on the principle of "vote as you are told." This
managing body of the association, known locally as the "Six Hundred,"
became the model for other Liberal associations throughout the country,
and the Federation of Liberal Associations was organized on the same
plan. It was to this supposed imitation of the American political
"machine" that Lord Beaconsfield gave the name "caucus," and the name
came to be used, not in the American sense of a meeting, but of a
closely disciplined system of party organization, chiefly used as a
stock term of abuse applied by opponents to each other's party
machinery.




CAUDEBEC-EN-CAUX, a town of France, in the department of
Seine-Inferieure, 27 m. W.N.W. of Rouen by the Ouest-Etat railway. Pop.
(1906) 2141. It is situated on the right bank of the Seine, the tidal
wave of which (_mascaret_) can be well seen at this point. The chief
interest of the town lies in its church, a building of the 15th and the
early 16th centuries. Round its top run balustrades formed of Gothic
letters, which read as part of the Magnificat. Its west portal, the
decoration of the spire of the tower, and its stained glass are among
the features which make it one of the finest churches of the Rouen
diocese. The town also possesses several old houses. Its industries
include tanning and leather-currying, and there is trade in grain. The
port has a small trade in coal, live-stock and farm produce.




CAUDINE FORKS (_Furculae Caudinae_), a pass in Samnium, famous for the
disaster which befell the Roman army in the second Samnite War (321
B.C.). Livy (ix, 2) describes it as formed by two narrow wooded gorges,
between which lay a plain, grassy and well-watered, but entirely
enclosed by mountains. Through this plain the road (later the Via Appia)
led. The Romans, marching from Calatia to the relief of Luceria, entered
the valley unopposed, but found the exit blocked by the enemy; on
marching back they saw that the entrance and the hills surrounding the
plain were also occupied, and there was no way of escape. The plain
which lies west of Caudium (Montesarchio) seems, despite the older
views, to be the only possible site for such a disaster to an army of as
many as 40,000 men; and there is no doubt that the Romans wished to
leave it by the defile on the east, through which later ran the Via
Appia to Beneventum. The existence of three ancient bridges on the line
of the modern road renders it impossible to suppose that its course can
be essentially different from that of the ancient, though Hulsen makes
the two diverge considerably after passing Montesarchio. There are,
however, two possible entrances--one on the north by Moiano, and one on
the west by Arpaia; the former seems to answer better to Livy's
description (_via alia per cavam rupem_), while the latter is the
shortest route, having been, later on, followed by the Via Appia, and
bore the name Furculae Caudinae in the middle ages.

  See C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iii. (1802).
       (T. As.)




CAUDLE (through the O. Fr. _caudel_, from the Med. Lat. _caldellum_, a
diminutive of _caldum_, a warm drink, from _calidus_, hot), a drink of
warm gruel, mixed with spice and wine, formerly given to women in
childbed.




CAUL (from O. Eng. _calle_, Fr. _cale_, a cap), a close-fitting woman's
cap, especially one made of network worn in the 16th and 17th centuries;
hence the membranous covering to the heart or brain, the _omentum_, or
the similar covering to the intestines, and particularly, a portion of
the _amnion_, which is sometimes found remaining round the head of a
child after birth. To this, called in Scotland "sely how," holy or lucky
hood, many superstitions have been attached; it was looked on as a sign
of good luck, and when preserved, was kept as a protection against
drowning.




CAULAINCOURT, ARMAND AUGUSTIN LOUIS, MARQUIS DE (1773-1827), French
general and diplomatist, was born of a noble family. He early entered
the army, did not emigrate in the revolution, but was deprived of his
grade as captain in 1793 and served in the ranks. In 1795, through the
protection of L. Hoche, he became captain again, was colonel in the Army
of the Rhine in 1799-1800, and after the peace of Luneville (1801) was
sent to St Petersburg to negotiate an understanding between Russia and
France. On his return he was named aide-de-camp of the First Consul. He
was employed to seize some agents of the English government in Baden in
1804, which led to the accusation that he was concerned in the arrest of
the due d'Enghien, an accusation against which he never ceased to
protest. After the establishment of the empire he received various
honours and the title of duke of Vicenza (1808). Napoleon sent him in
1807 as ambassador to St Petersburg, where Caulaincourt tried to
maintain the alliance of Tilsit, and although Napoleon's ambition made
the task a difficult one, Caulaincourt succeeded in it for some years.
In 1811 he strongly advised Napoleon to renounce his proposed expedition
to Russia. During the war he accompanied the emperor, and was one of
those whom Napoleon took along with him when he suddenly abandoned his
army in Poland to return to Paris (December 1812). During the last years
of the empire, Caulaincourt was charged with all the diplomatic
negotiations. He signed the armistice of Pleswitz, June 1813,
represented France at the congress of Prague, in August 1813, at the
congress of Chatillon, in February 1814, and concluded the treaty of
Fontainebleau on the 10th of April 1814. During the first Restoration,
Caulaincourt lived in obscure retirement. When Napoleon returned from
Elba, he became minister of foreign affairs, and tried to persuade
Europe of the emperor's peaceful intentions. After the second
Restoration, Caulaincourt's name was on the list of those proscribed,
but it was erased on the personal intervention of Alexander I. with
Louis XVIII.

  Caulaincourt's memoirs appeared under the title _Souvenirs du duc de
  Vicence_ in 1837-1840. See A. Vandal, _Napoleon et Alexandre_ (Paris,
  1891-1895); Tatischeff, _Alexandre I^er et Napoleon_ (Paris, 1892); H.
  Houssaye, 1814 (Paris, 1888), and 1815 (Paris, 1893).




CAULICULUS (from Lat. _caulis_, a stalk), in architecture, the Stalks
(eight in number) with two leaves from which rise the helices or spiral
scrolls of the Corinthian capital to support the abacus.




CAULON (Gr. [Greek: Kaulonia]), a town of the district of the Bruttii,
Italy, on the east coast. Its exact site is uncertain (though the name
has been given to a modern village), and depends on the identification
of the river Sagras. It was the southernmost of the Achaean colonies,
founded either by Croton or direct from Greece itself. In the 7th
century it was allied with Croton and Sybaris, and its coins, which go
back to 550 B.C., prove its importance. It took the side of Athens in
the Peloponnesian War. In 388 B.C. it was destroyed by Dionysius, but
soon afterwards restored. It was captured during the invasion of Pyrrhus
by Campanian troops. Strabo speaks of it as deserted in his time. The
erection of the lighthouse at Capo Stilo, on the site of one of the
medieval guard towers of the coast, led to the discovery of a wall of
Greek origin, and close by of a number of terra-cottas, belonging
perhaps to a temple erected in honour of the deities of the sea. Other
remains were found at Fontanelle, 2-1/2 m. away, including the fragment
of a capital of an archaic Greek temple (P. Orsi in _Notizie degli
Scavi_, 1891, 61). These buildings may be connected with the Caulon or a
village dependent on it.     (T. As.)




CAUSATION or CAUSALITY (Lat. _causa_, derived perhaps from the root
_cav-_, as in _caveo_, and meaning something taken care of;
corresponding to Gr. [Greek: aitia]), a philosophical term for the
operation of causes and for the mental conception of cause as operative
throughout the universe. The word "cause" is correlative to "effect."
Thus when one thing B is regarded as taking place in consequence of the
action of another thing A, then A is said to be the cause of B, and B
the effect of A. The philosophical problems connected with causation are
both metaphysical and psychological. The metaphysical problem is part of
the whole theory of existence. If everything is to be regarded as
causally related with simultaneous and prior things or actions, it
follows logically that the investigation of existence must, by
hypothesis, be a regress to infinity, i.e. that we cannot conceive a
beginning to existence. This explanation has led to the postulate of a
First Cause, the nature of which is variously explained. The empirical
school sees no difficulty in assuming a single event; but such a theory
seems to deny the validity of the original hypothesis. Theologians
assert a divine origin in the form of a personal self-existent creator,
while some metaphysical schools, preferring an impersonal First Cause,
substitute the doctrine of the Absolute (q.v.). All the explanations are
alike in this respect, that at a certain point they pass from the sphere
of the senses, the physical world, to a metaphysical sphere in which the
data and the intellectual operation of cognizing them are of a totally
different quality. For example, the causal connexion between drunkenness
and alcohol is not of the same observable character as that which is
inferred between the infinite First Cause and the whole domain of
sense-given phenomena.

A second metaphysical problem connected with causation arises when we
consider the nature of necessity. It is generally assumed when two
things are spoken of as cause and effect that their relation is a
necessary one, or, in other words, that given the cause the effect must
follow. The arguments connected with this problem belong to
psychological discussions of causation. It is sufficient here to state
that, in so far as causation is regarded as necessary connexion, it can
form no part of a purely empirical theory of existence. The senses can
say only that in all observed cases B has followed A, and this does not
establish necessary connexion. The idea of causation is a purely
intellectual (a priori) one.

The psychological problems connected with causation refer (1) to the
origin of the conception in our minds; (2) to the validity of the
conception. As regards the origin of the conception modern psychological
analysis does not carry us beyond the doctrine of Locke contained in his
chapter on "Power" (_Essay_, bk. ii. ch. 21), wherein he shows that the
idea of power is got from the knowledge of our own activity. "Bodies by
their causes," he says, "do not afford us so clear and distinct an idea
of active power as we have from reflection on the operation of our
minds." Putting Locke's doctrine into modern language, we may say that a
man has the conception of cause primarily because he himself is a cause.
The conception thus obtained we "project," that is, transfer to external
objects, so far as we may find it useful to do so. Thus it is by a sort
of analogy that we say that the sun is the "cause" of daylight. The
rival theory to Locke's is that of Hume (_Treatise_, bk. i.), who
derives the conception from the unaided operation of custom. When one
object, A, has been noticed frequently to precede another object, B, an
association between A and B is generated; and by virtue of this
association, according to Hume, we say that A is the cause of B. The
weakness of this account is that many invariable successions, such as
day and night, do not make us regard the earlier members of the
successions as causing the later; while in numberless cases we assert a
causal connexion between two objects from a single experience of them.

We may proceed now to consider the validity of the conception of
causation, which has been attacked from two sides. From the side of
absolute idealism it is argued that the conception of cause, as
involving a transition in time, cannot be ultimately valid, since the
time-relation is not ultimately real. Upon this view (ably stated in
Professor Bosanquet's _Logic_, bk. i. ch. 6) the more we know of causes
and effects the less relevant becomes the time-relation and the nearer
does the conception of cause and effect approach to another conception
which is truly valid, the conception of ground and consequence. This
means that, viewed from the standpoint of science, a draught of alcohol
_causes_ intoxication in no other sense than the triangularity of a
triangle causes the interior angles to be equal to two right angles.
This argument ceases to have cogency so soon as we deny its fundamental
proposition that the time-relation is not ultimately real, but is
irrelevant from the standpoint of science. This is a sheer assertion,
contrary to all ordinary experience, which we have as much right to deny
as the absolute idealists to affirm. It is only plausible to those who
are committed to the Hegelian view of reality as consisting of a static
system of universals, a view which has long been discredited in Germany,
its native land, and is fast losing ground in England. Against the
Hegelians we must maintain that the common distinction between "ground"
and "cause" is perfectly justifiable. Whereas "ground" is an appropriate
term for the relations within a static, simultaneous system, "cause" is
appropriate to the relations within a dynamic, successive system.

From the other side the validity of causation has been attacked in the
interests of the naturalism of the mechanical sciences. J.S. Mill argues
that, scientifically, the cause of anything is the total assemblage of
the conditions that precede its appearance, and that we have no right to
give the name of cause to one of them exclusively of the others. The
answer to this is that Mill fails to recognize that cause is a
conception which we find useful in our dealings with nature, and that
whatever conceptions we find useful we are justified in using. Among the
conditions of an event there are always one or two that stand in
specially close relation to it from our point of view; e.g. the draught
of alcoholic liquor is more closely related to the man's drunkenness
than is the attraction of the earth's gravity, though that also must
co-operate in producing the effect. Such closely related conditions we
find it convenient to single out by a term which expresses their analogy
to the cause of causes, human volition.

These are the questions respecting causation which are matters of
present controversy; there are in addition many other points which
belong to the controversies of the past. Among the most important are
Aristotle's classification of causes into material, formal, efficient
and final, set forth in his _Physics_ and elsewhere, and known as his
doctrine of the Four Causes; Geulincx's Occasional Causes, meant as a
solution of certain difficulties in the cosmology of Descartes;
Leibnitz's law of Sufficient Reason; and Kant's explanation of cause and
effect as an a priori category of the understanding, intended as an
answer to Hume's scepticism, but very much less effective than the line
of explanation suggested by Locke.

The following is a list of the various technical terms connected with
causation which have been distinguished by logicians and psychologists.

The four Aristotelian causes are: (1) _Material cause_ ([Greek: yle])
the material out of which a thing is made; the material cause of a house
is the bricks and mortar of which it is composed. (2) _Formal cause_
([Greek: eidos, logos, to ti en einai]), the general external
appearance, shape, form of a thing; the formal cause of a triangle is
its triangularity. (3) _Efficient cause_ ([Greek: arche tes kineseos]),
the alcohol which makes a man drunk, the pistol-bullet which kills. This
is the cause as generally understood in modern usage. (4) _Final cause_
([Greek: telos, to ou eneka]), the object for which an action is done or
a thing produced; the final cause of a commercial man's enterprise is to
make his livelihood (see TELEOLOGY). This last cause was rejected by
Bacon, Descartes and Spinoza, and indeed in ordinary usage the cause of
an action in relation to its effect is the desire for, and expectation
of, that effect on the part of the agent, not the effect itself. The
_Proximate cause_ of a phenomenon is the immediate or superficial as
opposed to the _Remote_ or _Primary cause_. Plurality of Causes is the
much criticized doctrine of J.S. Mill that a fact may be the uniform
consequent of several different antecedents. _Causa essendi_ means the
cause whereby a change is what it is, as opposed to the _causa
cognoscendi_, the cause of our knowledge of the event; the two causes
evidently need not be the same. An object is called _causa immanens_
when it produces its changes by its own activity; a _causa transiens_
produces changes in some other object. _Causa sui_ is a term applied to
God by Spinoza to denote that he is dependent on nothing and has no need
of any external thing for his existence. _Vera causa_ is a term used by
Newton in his _Principia_, where he says, "No more causes of natural
things are to be admitted than such as are both true and sufficient to
explain the phenomena of those things"; _verae causae_ must be such as
we have good inductive grounds to believe do exist in nature, and do
perform a part in phenomena analogous to those we would render an
account of.




CAUSEWAY, a path on a raised dam or mound across marshes or low-lying
ground; the word is also used of old paved highways, such as the Roman
military roads. "Causey" is still used dialectically in England for a
paved or cobbled footpath. The word is properly "causey-way," from
_causey_, a mound or dam, which is derived, through the Norman-French
_caucie_ (cf. modern _chaussee_), from the late Latin _via calciata_, a
road stamped firm with the feet (_calcare_, to tread).




CAUSSES (from Lat. _calx_ through local Fr. _caous_, meaning "lime"),
the name given to the table-lands lying to the south of the central
plateau of France and sloping westward from the Cevennes. They form
parts of the departments of Lozere, Aveyron, Card, Herault, Lot and
Tarn-et-Garonne. They are of limestone formation, dry, sterile and
treeless. These characteristics are most marked in the east of the
region, where the Causse de Sauveterre, the Causse Mejan, the Causse
Noir and the Larzac flank the Cevennes. Here the Causse Mejan, the most
deserted and arid of all, reaches an altitude of nearly 4200 ft. Towards
the west the lesser causses of Rouergue and Quercy attain respectively
2950 ft. and 1470 ft. Once an uninterrupted table-land, the causses are
now isolated from one another by deep rifts through which run the Tarn,
the Dourbie, the Jonte and other rivers. The summits are destitute of
running water, since the rain as it falls either sinks through the
permeable surface soil or runs into the fissures and chasms, some of
great depth, which are peculiar to the region. The inhabitants
(_Caussenards_) of the higher causses cultivate hollows in the ground
which are protected from the violent winds, and the scanty herbage
permits of the raising of sheep, from the milk of which Roquefort
cheeses are made. In the west, where the rigours of the weather are less
severe, agriculture is more easily carried on.




CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL, ARMAND-PIERRE (1795-1871), French orientalist, was
born in Paris on the 13th of January 1795. His father, Jean Jacques
Antoine Caussin de Perceval (1759-1835), was professor of Arabic in the
College de France. In 1814 he went to Constantinople as a student
interpreter, and afterwards travelled in Asiatic Turkey, spending a year
with the Maronites in the Lebanon, and finally becoming dragoman at
Aleppo. Returning to Paris, he became professor of vulgar Arabic in the
school of living Oriental languages in 1821, and also professor of
Arabic in the College de France in 1833. In 1849 he was elected to the
Academy of Inscriptions. He died at Paris during the siege on the 15th
of January 1871.

Caussin de Perceval published (1828) a useful _Grammaire arabe
vulgaire_, which passed through several editions (4th ed., 1858), and
edited and enlarged Elie Bocthor's[1] _Dictionnaire francais-arabe_ (2
vols., 1828; 3rd ed., 1864); but his great reputation rests almost
entirely on one book, the _Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant
l'Islamisme, pendant l'epoque de Mahomet_ (3 vols., 1847-1849), in which
the native traditions as to the early history of the Arabs, down to the
death of Mahommed and the complete subjection of all the tribes to
Islam, are brought together with wonderful industry and set forth with
much learning and lucidity. One of the principal MS. sources used is the
great _Kitab al-Aghani_ (Book of Songs) of Abu Faraj, which has since
been published (20 vols., Boulak, 1868) in Egypt; but no publication of
texts can deprive the _Essai_, which is now very rare, of its value as a
trustworthy guide through a tangled mass of tradition.




CAUSTIC (Gr. [Greek: kaustikos], burning), that which burns. In surgery,
the term is given to substances used to destroy living tissues and so
inhibit the action of organic poisons, as in bites, malignant disease
and gangrenous processes. Such substances are silver nitrate (lunar
caustic), the caustic alkalis (potassium and sodium hydrates), zinc
chloride, an acid solution of mercuric nitrate, and pure carbolic acid.
In mathematics, the "caustic surfaces" of a given surface are the
envelopes of the normals to the surface, or the loci of its centres of
principal curvature.

In optics, the term _caustic_ is given to the envelope of luminous rays
after reflection or refraction; in the first case the envelope is termed
a catacaustic, in the second a diacaustic. Catacaustics are to be
observed as bright curves when light is allowed to fall upon a polished
riband of steel, such as a watch-spring, placed on a table, and by
varying the form of the spring and moving the source of light, a variety
of patterns may be obtained. The investigation of caustics, being based
on the assumption of the rectilinear propagation of light, and the
validity of the experimental laws of reflection and refraction, is
essentially of a geometrical nature, and as such it attracted the
attention of the mathematicians of the 17th and succeeding centuries,
more notably John Bernoulli, G.F. de l'Hopital, E.W. Tschirnhausen and
Louis Carre.


    Caustics by reflection.

  The simplest case of a caustic curve is when the reflecting surface is
  a circle, and the luminous rays emanate from a point on the
  circumference. If in fig. 1 AQP be the reflecting circle having C as
  centre, P the luminous point, and PQ any incident ray, and we join CQ
  it follows, by the law of the equality of the angles of incidence and
  reflection, that the reflected ray QR is such that the angles RQC and
  CQP are equal; to determine the caustic, it is necessary to determine
  the envelope of this line. This may be readily accomplished
  geometrically or analytically, and it will be found that the envelope
  is a cardioid (q.v.), i.e. an epicycloid in which the radii of the
  fixed and rolling circles are equal. When the rays are parallel, the
  reflecting surface remaining circular, the question can be similarly
  treated, and it is found that the caustic is an epicycloid in which
  the radius of the fixed circle is twice that of the rolling circle
  (fig. 2). The geometrical method is also applicable when it is
  required to determine the caustic after any number of reflections at a
  spherical surface of rays, which are either parallel or diverge from a
  point on the circumference. In both cases the curves are epicycloids;
  in the first case the radii of the rolling and the fixed circles are
  a(2n - 1)/4n and a/2n, and in the second, an/(2n + 1) and a/(2n + 1),
  where a is the radius of the mirror and n the number of reflections.

  [Illustration: FIG. 1. c = a]

  [Illustration: FIG. 2. c = [oo]]

  [Illustration: FIG. 3. c = (1/3)a]

  The Cartesian equation to the caustic produced by reflection at a
  circle of rays diverging from any point was obtained by Joseph Louis
  Lagrange; it may be expressed in the form

    {(4c^2 - a^2)(x^2 + y^2) - 2a^2 cx - a^2 c^2 }^3 =
           = 27a^4 c^2 y^2 (x^2 + y^2 - c^2)^2,

  where a is the radius of the reflecting circle, and c the distance of
  the luminous point from the centre of the circle. The polar form is
  {(u + p) cos 1/2[theta]}^2/3 + {(u - p) sin 1/2[theta]}^2/3 = (2k)^2/3,
  where p and k are the reciprocals of c and a, and u the reciprocal of
  the radius vector of any point on the caustic. When c = a or = [oo]
  the curve reduces to the cardioid or the two cusped epicycloid
  previously discussed. Other forms are shown in figs. 3, 4, 5, 6. These
  curves were traced by the Rev. Hammet Holditch (_Quart. Jour. Math._
  vol. i.).

  [Illustration: FIG. 4. c = 1/2a]

  [Illustration: FIG. 5. c > a]

  _Secondary caustics_ are orthotomic curves having the reflected or
  refracted rays as normals, and consequently the proper caustic curve,
  being the envelope of the normals, is their evolute. It is usually the
  case that the secondary caustic is easier to determine than the
  caustic, and hence, when determined, it affords a ready means for
  deducing the primary caustic. It may be shown by geometrical
  considerations that the secondary caustic is a curve similar to the
  first positive pedal of the reflecting curve, of twice the linear
  dimensions, with respect to the luminous point. For a circle, when the
  rays emanate from any point, the secondary caustic is a limacon, and
  hence the primary caustic is the evolute of this curve.

  [Illustration: FIG. 6. a > c > 1/2a]


    Caustics by refraction.

  The simplest instance of a caustic by refraction (or diacaustic) is
  when luminous rays issuing from a point are refracted at a straight
  line. It may be shown geometrically that the secondary caustic, if the
  second medium be less refractive than the first, is an ellipse having
  the luminous point for a focus, and its centre at the foot of the
  perpendicular from the luminous point to the refracting line. The
  evolute of this ellipse is the caustic required. If the second medium
  be more highly refractive than the first, the secondary caustic is a
  hyperbola having the same focus and centre as before, and the caustic
  is the evolute of this curve. When the refracting curve is a circle
  and the rays emanate from any point, the locus of the secondary
  caustic is a Cartesian oval, and the evolute of this curve is the
  required diacaustic. These curves appear to have been first discussed
  by Gergonne. For the caustic by refraction of parallel rays at a
  circle reference should be made to the memoirs by Arthur Cayley.

  REFERENCES.--Arthur Cayley's "Memoirs on Caustics" in the _Phil.
  Trans._ for 1857, vol. 147, and 1867, vol. 157, are especially to be
  consulted. Reference may also be made to R.S. Heath's _Geometrical
  Optics_ and R.A. Herman's _Geometrical Optics_ (1900).


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Elie Bocthor (1784-1821) was a French orientalist of Coptic
    origin. He was the author of a _Traite des conjugaisons_ written in
    Arabic, and left his Dictionary in MS.




CAUTERETS, a watering-place of south-western France in the department of
Hautes-Pyrenees, 20 m. S. by W. of Lourdes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1030. It
lies in the beautiful valley of the Gave de Cauterets, and is well known
for its copious thermal springs. They are chiefly characterized by the
presence of sulphur and silicate of soda, and are used in the treatment
of diseases of the respiratory organs, rheumatism, skin diseases and
many other maladies. Their temperature varies between 75 deg. and 137
deg. F. The springs number twenty-four, and there are nine bathing
establishments. Cauterets is a centre for excursions, the Monne (8935
ft.), the Cabaliros (7655 ft.), the Pic de Chabarrou (9550 ft.), the
Vignemale (10,820 ft.), and other summits being in its neighbourhood.




CAUTIN, a province of southern Chile, bounded N. by Arauco, Malleco and
Bio-Bio, E. by Argentina, S. by Valdivia, and W. by the Pacific. Its
area is officially estimated at 5832 sq. m. Cautin lies within the
temperate agricultural and forest region of the south, and produces
wheat, cattle, lumber, tan-bark and fruit. The state central railway
from Santiago to Puerto Montt crosses the province from north to south,
and the Cautin, or Imperial, and Tolten rivers (the latter forming its
southern boundary) cross from east to west, both affording excellent
transportation facilities. The province once formed part of the
territory occupied by the Araucanian Indians, and its present political
existence dates from 1887. Its population (1905) was 96,139, of whom a
large percentage were European immigrants, principally Germans. The
capital is Temuco, on the Rio Cautin; pop. (1895) 7078. The principal
towns besides Temuco are Lautaro (3139) and Nueva Imperial (2179), both
of historic interest because they were fortified Spanish outposts in the
long struggle with the Araucanians.




CAUTLEY, SIR PROBY THOMAS (1802-1871), English engineer and
palaeontologist, was born in Suffolk in 1802. After some years' service
in the Bengal artillery, which he joined in 1819, he was engaged on the
reconstruction of the Doab canal, of which, after it was opened, he had
charge for twelve years (1831-1843). In 1840 he reported on the proposed
Ganges canal, for the irrigation of the country between the rivers
Ganges, Hindan and Jumna, which was his most important work. This
project was sanctioned in 1841, but the work was not begun till 1843,
and even then Cautley found himself hampered in its execution by the
opposition of Lord Ellenborough. From 1845 to 1848 he was absent in
England owing to ill-health, and on his return to India he was appointed
director of canals in the North-Western Provinces. After the Ganges
canal was opened in 1854 he went back to England, where he was made
K.C.B., and from 1858 to 1868 he occupied a seat on the council of
India. He died at Sydenham, near London, on the 25th of January 1871. In
1860 he published a full account of the making of the Ganges canal, and
he also contributed numerous memoirs, some written in collaboration with
Dr Hugh Falconer, to the _Proceedings_ of the Bengal Asiatic Society and
the Geological Society of London on the geology and fossil remains of
the Sivalik Hills.




CAUVERY, or KAVERI, a river of southern India. Rising in Coorg, high up
amid the Western Ghats, in 12 deg. 25' N. lat. and 75 deg. 34' E. long.,
it flows with a general south-eastern direction across the plateau of
Mysore, and finally pours itself into the Bay of Bengal through two
principal mouths in Tanjore district. Its total length is 472 m., the
estimated area of its basin 27,700 sq.m. The course of the river in
Coorg is very tortuous. Its bed is generally rocky; its banks are high
and covered with luxuriant vegetation. On entering Mysore it passes
through a narrow gorge, but presently widens to an average breadth of
300 to 400 yds. Its bed continues rocky, so as to forbid all navigation;
but its banks are here bordered with a rich strip of cultivation. In its
course through Mysore the channel is interrupted by twelve anicuts or
dams for the purpose of irrigation. From the most important of these,
known as the Madadkatte, an artificial channel is led to a distance of
72 m., irrigating an area of 10,000 acres, and ultimately bringing a
water-supply into the town of Mysore. In Mysore state the Cauvery forms
the two islands of Seringapatam and Sivasamudram, which vie in sanctity
with the island of Seringam lower down in Trichinopoly district. Around
the island of Sivasamudram are the celebrated falls of the Cauvery,
unrivalled for romantic beauty. The river here branches into two
channels, each of which makes a descent of about 200 m. in a succession
of rapids and broken cascades. After entering the Madras presidency, the
Cauvery forms the boundary between the Coimbatore and Salem districts,
until it strikes into Trichinopoly district. Sweeping past the historic
rock of Trichinopoly, it breaks at the island of Seringam into two
channels, which enclose between them the delta of Tanjore, the garden of
southern India. The northern channel is called the Coleroon (Kolidam);
the other preserves the name of Cauvery. On the seaward face of its
delta are the open roadsteads of Negapatam and French Karikal. The only
navigation on any portion of its course is carried on in boats of
basket-work. It is in the delta that the real value of the river for
irrigation becomes conspicuous. This is the largest delta system, and
the most profitable of all the works in India. The most ancient
irrigation work is a massive dam of unhewn stone, 1080 ft. long, and
from 40 to 60 ft. broad, across the stream of the Cauvery proper, which
is supposed to date back to the 4th century, is still in excellent
repair, and has supplied a model to British engineers. The area of the
ancient system was 669,000 acres, the modern about 1,000,000 acres. The
chief modern work is the anicut across the Coleroon, 2250 ft. long,
constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton between 1836 and 1838. The Cauvery
Falls have been utilized for an electric installation, which supplies
power to the Kolar gold-mines and light to the city of Mysore.

The Cauvery is known to devout Hindus as Dakshini Ganga, or the Ganges
of the south, and the whole of its course is holy ground. According to
the legend there was once born upon earth a girl named Vishnumaya or
Lopamudra, the daughter of Brahma; but her divine father permitted her
to be regarded as the child of a mortal, called Kavera-muni. In order to
obtain beatitude for her adoptive father, she resolved to become a river
whose waters should purify from all sin. Hence it is that even the holy
Ganges resorts underground once in the year to the source of the
Cauvery, to purge herself from the pollution contracted from the crowd
of sinners who have bathed in her waters.




CAVA DEI TIRRENI, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Salerno, 6 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Salerno. Pop.
(1901) town, 7611; commune, 23,415. It lies fairly high in a richly
cultivated valley, surrounded by wooded hills, and is a favourite resort
of foreigners in spring and autumn, and of the Neapolitans in summer. A
mile to the south-west is the village of Corpo di Cava (1970 ft.), with
the Benedictine abbey of La Trinita della Cava, founded in 1025 by St
Alferius. The church and the greater part of the buildings were entirely
modernized in 1796. The old Gothic cloisters are preserved. The church
contains a fine organ and several ancient sarcophagi. The archives, now
national property, include documents and MSS. of great value (e.g. the
_Codex Legum Longobardorum_ of 1004) and fine _incunabula_. The abbot is
keeper, and also head of a boarding school.

  See M. Morcaldi, _Codex Diplomaticus Cavensis_ ( Naples and Milan,
  1873-1893).




CAVAEDIUM, in architecture, the Latin name for the central hall or court
within a Roman house, of which five species are described by Vitruvius.
(1) The _Tuscanicum_ responds to the greater number apparently of those
at Pompeii, in which the timbers of the roof are framed together, so as
to leave an open space in the centre, known as the compluvium; it was
through this opening that all the light was received, not only in the
hall itself, but in the rooms round. The rain from the roof was
collected in gutters round the compluvium, and discharged from thence
into a tank or open basin in the floor called the impluvium. (2) In the
_tetrastylon_ additional support was required in consequence of the
dimensions of the hall; this was given by columns placed at the four
angles of the impluvium. (3) _Corinthian_ is the term given to the
species where additional columns were required. (4) In the
_displuviatum_ the roofs, instead of sloping down towards the
compluvium, sloped outwards, the gutters being on the outer walls; there
was still an opening in the roof, and an impluvium to catch the rain
falling through. This species of roof, Vitruvius states, is constantly
in want of repair, as the water does not easily run away, owing to the
stoppage in the rain-water pipes. (5) The _testudinatum_ was employed
when the hall was small and another floor was built over it; no example
of this type has been found at Pompeii, and only one of the cavaedium
displuviatum.




CAVAGNARI, SIR PIERRE LOUIS NAPOLEON (1841-1879), British military
administrator, the son of a French general by his marriage with an Irish
lady, was born at Stenay, in the department of the Meuse, on the 4th of
July 1841. He nevertheless obtained naturalization as an Englishman, and
entered the military service of the East India Company. After passing
through the college at Addiscombe, he served through the Oudh campaign
against the mutineers in 1858 and 1859. In 1861 he was appointed an
assistant commissioner in the Punjab, and in 1877 became deputy
commissioner of Peshawar and took part in several expeditions against
the hill tribes. In 1878 he was attached to the staff of the British
mission to Kabul, which the Afghans refused to allow to proceed. In May
1879, after the death of the amir Shere Ali, Cavagnari negotiated and
signed the treaty of Gandamak with his successor, Yakub Khan. By this
the Afghans agreed to admit a British resident at Kabul, and the post
was conferred on Cavagnari, who also received the Star of India and was
made a K.C.B. He took up his residence in July, and for a time all
seemed to go well, but on the 3rd of September Cavagnari and the other
European members of the mission were massacred in a sudden rising of
mutinous Afghan troops. (See AFGHANISTAN.)




CAVAIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE (1762-1829), French politician, was born at
Gourdon (Lot). He was sent by his department as deputy to the
Convention, where he associated himself with the party of the Mountain
and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was constantly employed on
missions in the provinces, and distinguished himself by his rigorous
repression of opponents of the revolution in the departments of Landes,
Basses-Pyrenees and Gers. With his colleague Jacques Pinet (1754-1844)
he established at Bayonne a revolutionary tribunal with authority in the
neighbouring towns. Charges of cruelty were preferred against him by a
local society before the Convention in 1795, but were dismissed. He had
represented the Convention in the armies of Brest and of the Eastern
Pyrenees in 1793, and in 1795 he was sent to the armies of the Moselle
and the Rhine. He filled various minor administrative offices, and in
1806 became an official at Naples in Murat's government. During the
Hundred Days he was prefect of the Somme. At the restoration he was
proscribed as a regicide, and spent the last years of his life at
Brussels, where he died on the 24th of March 1829. His second son was
General Eugene Cavaignac (q.v.).

The eldest son, ELEONORE LOUIS GODEFROI CAVAIGNAC (1801-1845), was, like
his father, a republican of the _intransigeant_ type. He was bitterly
disappointed at the triumph of the monarchical principle after the
revolution of July 1830, in which he had taken part. He took part in the
Parisian risings of October 1830, 1832 and 1834. On the third occasion
he was imprisoned, but escaped to England in 1835. When he returned to
France in 1841 he worked on the staff of _La Reforme_, and carried on an
energetic republican propaganda. In 1843 he became president of the
Society of the Rights of Man, of which he had been one of the founders
in 1832. He died on the 5th of May 1845. The recumbent statue (1847) of
Godefroi Cavaignac on his tomb at Montmartre (Paris) is one of the
masterpieces of the sculptor Francois Rude.

Jean Baptiste's brother, JACQUES-MARIE, VICOMTE CAVAIGNAC (1773-1855),
French general, served with distinction in the army under the republic
and successive governments. He commanded the cavalry of the XI. corps in
the retreat from Moscow, and eventually became Vicomte Cavaignac and
inspector-general of cavalry.




CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGENE (1802-1857), French general, son of J.B.
Cavaignac, was born at Paris on the 15th of October 1802. After going
through the usual course of study for the military profession, he
entered the army as an engineer officer in 1824, and served in the Morea
in 1828, becoming captain in the following year. When the revolution of
1830 broke out he was stationed at Arras, and was the first officer of
his regiment to declare for the new order of things. In 1831 he was
removed from active duty in consequence of his declared republicanism,
but in 1832 he was recalled to the service and sent to Algeria. This
continued to be the main sphere of his activity for sixteen years, and
he won especial distinction in his fifteen months' command of the
exposed garrison of Tlemcen, a command for which he was selected by
Marshal Clausel (1836-1837), and in the defence of Cherchel (1840).
Almost every step of his promotion was gained on the field of battle,
and in 1844 the duc d'Aumale himself asked for Cavaignac's promotion to
the rank of _marechal de camp_. This was made in the same year, and he
held various district commands in Algeria up to 1848, when the
provisional government appointed him governor-general of the province
with the rank of general of division. The post of minister of war was
also offered to Cavaignac, but he refused it owing to the unwillingness
of the government to quarter troops in Paris, a measure which the
general held to be necessary for the stability of the new regime. On his
election to the National Assembly, however, Cavaignac returned to Paris.
When he arrived on the 17th of May he found the capital in an extremely
critical state. Several _emeutes_ had already taken place, and by the
22nd of June 1848 a formidable insurrection had been organized. The only
course now open to the National Assembly was to assert its authority by
force. Cavaignac, first as minister of war and then as dictator, was
called to the task of suppressing the revolt. It was no light task, as
the national guard was untrustworthy, regular troops were not at hand in
sufficient numbers, and the insurgents had abundant time to prepare
themselves. Variously estimated at from 30,000 to 60,000 men, well armed
and organized, they had entrenched themselves at every step behind
formidable barricades, and were ready to avail themselves of every
advantage that ferocity and despair could suggest to them. Cavaignac
failed perhaps to appreciate the political exigencies of the moment; as
a soldier he would not strike his blow until his plans were matured and
his forces sufficiently prepared. When the troops at last advanced in
three strong columns, every inch of ground was disputed, and the
government troops were frequently repulsed, till, fresh regiments
arriving, he forced his way to the Place de la Bastille and crushed the
insurrection in its headquarters. The contest, which raged from the 23rd
to the morning of the 26th of June, was without doubt the bloodiest and
most resolute the streets of Paris have ever seen, and the general did
not hesitate to inflict the severest punishment on the rebels.

Cavaignac was censured by some for having, by his delay, allowed the
insurrection to gather head; but in the chamber he was declared by a
unanimous vote to have deserved well of his country. After laying down
his dictatorial powers, he continued to preside over the Executive
Committee till the election of a regular president of the republic. It
was expected that the suffrages of France would raise Cavaignac to that
position. But the mass of the people, and especially the rural
population, sick of revolution, and weary even of the moderate
republicanism of Cavaignac, were anxious for a stable government.
Against the five and a half million votes recorded for Louis Napoleon,
Cavaignac received only a million and a half. Not without chagrin at his
defeat, he withdrew into the ranks of the opposition. He continued to
serve as a representative during the short remainder of the republic. At
the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd December 1851 he was arrested along with
the other members of the opposition; but after a short imprisonment at
Ham he was released, and, with his newly-married wife, lived in
retirement till his death, which took place at Ourne (Sarthe) on the
28th of October 1857.

His son, JACQUES MARIE EUGENE GODEFROI CAVAIGNAC (1853-1905), French
politician, was born in Paris on the 21st of May 1853. He made public
profession of his republican principles as a schoolboy at the Lycee
Charlemagne by refusing in 1867 to receive a prize at the Sorbonne from
the hand of the prince imperial. He received the military medal for
service in the Franco-Prussian War, and in 1872 entered the Ecole
Polytechnique. He served as a civil engineer in Angouleme until 1881,
when he became master of requests in the council of state. In the next
year he was elected deputy for the arrondissement of Saint-Calais
(Sarthe) in the republican interest. In 1885-1886 he was under-secretary
for war in the Henri Brisson ministry, and he served in the cabinet of
Emile Loubet (1892) as minister of marine and of the colonies. He had
exchanged his moderate republicanism for radical views before he became
war minister in the cabinet of Leon Bourgeois (1895-1896). He was again
minister of war in the Brisson sabinet in July 1898, when he read in the
chamber a document which definitely incriminated Captain Alfred Dreyfus.
On the 30th of August, however, he stated that this had been discovered
to be a forgery by Colonel Henry, but he refused to concur with his
colleagues in a revision of the Dreyfus prosecution, which was the
logical outcome of his own exposure of the forgery. Resigning his
portfolio, he continued to declare his conviction of Dreyfus's guilt,
and joined the Nationalist group in the chamber, of which he became one
of the leaders. He also was an energetic supporter of the Ligue de la
Patrie Francaise. In 1899 Cavaignac was an unsuccessful candidate for
the presidency of the republic. He had announced his intention of
retiring from political life when he died at his country-seat near Flee
(Sarthe) on the 25th of September 1905. He wrote an important book on
the _Formation de la Prusse contemporaine_ (2 vols., 1891-1898), dealing
with the events of 1806-1813.




CAVAILLON, a town of south-eastern France in the department of Vaucluse,
20 m. S.E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 5760; commune, 9952.
Cavaillon lies at the southern base of Mont St Jacques on the right bank
of the Durance above its confluence with the Coulon. It has a hotel de
ville of the 18th century, a church of the 12th century, dedicated to St
Veran, and the mutilated remains of a triumphal arch of the Roman
period. The town is an important railway junction and the commercial
centre of a rich and well-irrigated plain, which produces melons and
other fruits, early vegetables (artichokes, tomatoes, celery, potatoes),
and other products in profusion. Silk-worms are reared, and silk is an
important article of trade. The preparation of preserved vegetables,
fruits and other provisions, distilling, and the manufacture of straw
hats and leather are carried on. Numerous minor relics of the Roman
period have been found to the south of the present town, on the site of
the ancient _Cabellio_, a place of some note in the territory of the
Cavares. In medieval and modern history the town has for the most part
followed the fortunes of the Comtat Venaissin, in which it was included.
Till the time of the Revolution it was the see of a bishop, and had a
large number of monastic establishments.




CAVALCANTI, GUIDO (c. 1250-1300), Italian poet and philosopher, was the
son of a philosopher whom Dante, in the _Inferno_, condemns to torment
among the Epicureans and Atheists; but he himself was a friend of the
great poet. By marriage with Beatrice, daughter of Farinata Uberti, he
became head of the Ghibellines; and when the people, weary of continual
brawls, aroused themselves, and sought peace by banishing the leaders of
the rival parties, he was sent to Sarzana, where he caught a fever, of
which he died. Cavalcanti has left a number of love sonnets and canzoni,
which were honoured by the praise of Dante. Some are simple and
graceful, but many are spoiled by a mixture of metaphysics borrowed from
Plato, Aristotle and the Christian Fathers. They are mostly in honour of
a French lady, whom he calls Mandetta. His _Canzone d'Amore_ was
extremely popular, and was frequently published; and his complete
poetical works are contained in Giunti's collection (Florence, 1527;
Venice, 1531-1532). He also wrote in prose on philosophy and oratory.

  See D.G. Rossetti, _Dante and his Circle_ (1874).




CAVALIER, JEAN (1681-1740), the famous chief of the Camisards (q.v.),
was born at Mas Roux, a small hamlet in the commune of Ribaute near
Anduze (Gard), on the 28th of November 1681. His father, an illiterate
peasant, had been compelled by persecution to become a Roman Catholic
along with his family, but his mother brought him up secretly in the
Protestant faith. In his boyhood he became a shepherd, and about his
twentieth year he was apprenticed to a baker. Threatened with
prosecution for his religious opinions he went to Geneva, where he
passed the year 1701; he returned to the Cevennes on the eve of the
rebellion of the Camisards, who by the murder of the Abbe du Chayla at
Pont-de-Monvert on the night of the 24th of July 1702 raised the
standard of revolt. Some months later he became their leader. He showed
himself possessed of an extraordinary genius for war, and Marshal
Villars paid him the high compliment of saying that he was as courageous
in attack as he was prudent in retreat, and that by his extraordinary
knowledge of the country he displayed in the management of his troops a
skill as great as that of the ablest officers. Within a period of two
years he was to hold in check Count Victor Maurice de Broglie and
Marshal Montrevel, generals of Louis XIV., and to carry on one of the
most terrible partisan wars in French history.

He organized the Camisard forces and maintained the most severe
discipline. As an orator he derived his inspiration from the prophets of
Israel, and raised the enthusiasm of his rude mountaineers to a pitch so
high that they were ready to die with their young leader for the sake of
liberty of conscience. Each battle increased the terror of his name. On
Christmas day 1702 he dared to hold a religious assembly at the very
gates of Alais, and put to flight the local militia which came forth to
attack him. At Vagnas, on the 10th of February 1703, he routed the royal
troops, but, defeated in his turn, he was compelled to find safety in
flight. But he reappeared, was again defeated at Tour de Bellot (April
30), and again recovered himself, recruits flocking to him to fill up
the places of the slain. By a long series of successes he raised his
reputation to the highest pitch, and gained the full confidence of the
people. It was in vain that more rigorous measures were adopted against
the Camisards. Cavalier boldly carried the war into the plain, made
terrible reprisals, and threatened even Nimes itself. On the 16th of
April 1704 he encountered Marshal Montrevel himself at the bridge of
Nages, with 1000 men against 5000, and, though defeated after a
desperate conflict, he made a successful retreat with two-thirds of his
men. It was at this moment that Marshal Villars, wishing to put an end
to the terrible struggle, opened negotiations, and Cavalier was induced
to attend a conference at Pont d'Avene near Alais on the 11th of May
1704, and on the 16th of May he made submission at Nimes. These
negotiations, with the proudest monarch in Europe, he carried on, not as
a rebel, but as the leader of an army which had waged an honourable war.
Louis XIV. gave him a commission as colonel, which Villars presented to
him personally, and a pension of 1200 livres. At the same time he
authorized the formation of a Camisard regiment for service in Spain
under his command.

Before leaving the Cevennes for the last time he went to Alais and to
Ribaute, followed by an immense concourse of people. But Cavalier had
not been able to obtain liberty of conscience, and his Camisards almost
to a man broke forth in wrath against him, reproaching him for what they
described as his treacherous desertion. On the 21st of June 1704, with a
hundred Camisards who were still faithful to him, he departed from Nimes
and came to Neu-Brisach (Alsace), where he was to be quartered. From
Dijon he went on to Paris, where Louis XIV. gave him audience and heard
his explanation of the revolt of the Cevennes. Returning to Dijon,
fearing to be imprisoned in the fortress of Neu-Brisach, he escaped with
his troop near Montbeliard and took refuge at Lausanne. But he was too
much of a soldier to abandon the career of arms. He offered his services
to the duke of Savoy, and with his Camisards made war in the Val
d'Aosta. After the peace he crossed to England, where he formed a
regiment of refugees which took part in the Spanish expedition under the
earl of Peterborough and Sir Cloudesley Shovel in May 1705. At the
battle of Almansa the Camisards found themselves opposed to a French
regiment, and without firing the two bodies rushed one upon the other.
Cavalier wrote later (July 10, 1707): "The only consolation that
remains to me is that the regiment I had the honour to command never
looked back, but sold its life dearly on the field of battle. I fought
as long as a man stood beside me and until numbers overpowered me,
losing also an immense quantity of blood from a dozen wounds which I
received." Marshal Berwick never spoke of this tragic event without
visible emotion.

On his return to England a small pension was given him and he settled at
Dublin, where he published _Memoirs of the Wars of the Cevennes under
Col. Cavalier_, written in French and translated into English with a
dedication to Lord Carteret (1726). Though Cavalier received, no doubt,
assistance in the publication of the Memoirs, it is none the less true
that he provided the materials, and that his work is the most valuable
source for the history of his life. He was made a general on the 27th of
October 1735, and on the 25th of May 1738 was appointed
lieutenant-governor of Jersey. Writing in the following year (August 26,
1739) he says: "I am overworked and weary; I am going to take the waters
in England so as to be in a fit condition for the war against the
Spaniards if they reject counsels of prudence." He was promoted to the
rank of major-general on the 2nd of July 1739, and died in the following
year. In the parochial register of St Luke's, Chelsea, there is an
entry: "Burial A.D. 1740, May 18, Brigadier John Cavalier."

There is a story which represents him as the fortunate rival of Voltaire
for the hand of Olympe, daughter of Madame Dunoyer, author of the
_Lettres galantes_. During his stay in England he married the daughter
of Captain de Ponthieu and Marguerite de la Rochefoucauld, refugees
living at Portarlington. Malesherbes, the courageous defender of Louis
XVI., bears the following eloquent testimony to this young hero of the
Cevennes:--"I confess," he says, "that this warrior, who, without ever
having served, found himself by the mere gift of nature a great
general,--this Camisard who was bold to punish a crime in the presence
of a fierce troop which maintained itself by little crimes--this coarse
peasant who, when admitted at twenty years of age into the society of
cultivated people, caught their manners and won their love and esteem,
this man who, though accustomed to a stormy life, and having just cause
to be proud of his success, had yet enough philosophy in him by nature
to enjoy for thirty-five years a tranquil private life--appears to me to
be one of the rarest characters to be found in history."

  For a more detailed account see F. Puaux, _Vie de Jean Cavalier_
  (1868); David C.A. Agnew, _Protestant Exiles from France_, ii. 54-66
  (Lond., 1871); Charvey, _Jean Cavalier: nouveaux documents inedits_
  (1884). Eugene Sue popularized the name of the Camisard chief in _Jean
  Cavalier ou les fanatiques des Cevennes_ (1840).     (F. Px.)




CAVALIER, a horseman, particularly a horse-soldier or one of gentle
birth trained in knightly exercises. The word is taken from one of the
French words which derived ultimately from the Late Lat. _caballarius_,
a horseman, from Lat. _caballus_, properly a pack-horse, which gave the
Fr. _cheval._ a _chevalier_. This last word is the regular French for
"knight," and is chiefly used in English for a member of certain foreign
military or other orders, particularly of the Legion of Honour. Cavalier
in English was early applied in a contemptuous sense to an overbearing
swashbuckler--a roisterer or swaggering gallant. In Shakespeare (_2
Henry IV._ v. iii. 62) Shallow calls Bardolph's companions "cavaleros."
"Cavalier" is chiefly associated with the Royalists, the supporters of
Charles I. in the struggle with the Parliament in the Great Rebellion.
Here again it first appears as a term of reproach and contempt, applied
by the opponents of the king. Charles in the _Answer to the Petition_
(June 13, 1642) speaks of cavaliers as a "word by what mistake soever it
seemes much in disfavour." Further quotations of the use of the word by
the Parliamentary party are given in the _New English Dictionary_. It
was soon adopted (as a title of honour) by the king's party, who in
return applied Roundhead to their opponents, and at the Restoration the
court party preserved the name, which survived till the rise of the term
Tory (see WHIG AND TORY). The term "cavalier" has been adopted from the
French as a term in fortification for a work of great command
constructed in the interior of a fort, bastion or other defence, so as
to fire over the main parapet without interfering with the fire of the
latter. A greater volume of fire can thus be obtained, but the great
height of the cavalier makes it an easy target for a besieger's guns.




CAVALIERE, EMILIO DEL, 16th-century Italian musical composer, was born
in Rome about 1550 of a noble family. He held a post at the court of
Ferdinand I. of Tuscany from 1588 to 1597, and during his residence at
Florence was on terms of intimacy with J. Peri, O. Rinuccini, G. Caccini
and the rest of the Bardi circle. In 1597 he returned to Rome, and
became connected with the Congregation of the Oratory founded by St
Philip Neri. Here in 1600 was performed Cavaliere's contribution to the
musical reformation initiated by his circle of friends in Florence--_La
Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo_, a sacred drama, which is regarded
as the first example of what is now called oratorio. It is generally
supposed that he was no longer living when the work was performed, but
some authorities assign 1602 as the date of his death.

Cavaliere's style is more facile than that of Peri and Caccini, but he
is inferior to them in depth of musical expression. He is, however,
important as being the first to apply the new monodic style to sacred
music, and as the founder of the Roman school of the 17th century which
included Mazzocchi, Carissimi and Alessandro Scarlatti.

  See also H. Goldschmidt, _Studien zur Geschichte der italienischen
  Oper im 17. Jahrhundert_, Band i.




CAVALLI, FRANCESCO (1599?-1676), Italian musical composer, was born at
Crema in 1599 or 1600. His real name was Pier Francesco Caletti-Bruni,
but he is better known by that of Cavalli, the name of his patron, a
Venetian nobleman. He became a singer at St Mark's in Venice in 1617,
second organist in 1639, first organist in 1665, and in 1668 _maestro di
cappella_. He is, however, chiefly important for his operas. He began to
write for the stage in 1639 (_Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo_), and soon
established so great a reputation that he was summoned to Paris in 1660
to produce an opera (_Serse_) at the Louvre in honour of the marriage of
Louis XIV. He visited Paris again in 1662, bringing out his _Ercole
Amante_. His death occurred in Venice on the 14th of January 1676.
Twenty-seven operas of Cavalli are still extant, most of them being
preserved in the library of St Mark at Venice. Monteverde had found
opera a musico-literary experiment, and left it a magnificent dramatic
spectacle. Cavalli succeeded in making opera a popular entertainment. He
reduced Monteverde's extravagant orchestra to more practical limits,
introduced melodious arias into his music and popular types into his
_libretti_. His operas have all the characteristic exaggerations and
absurdities of the 17th century, but they have also a remarkably strong
sense of dramatic effect as well as a great musical facility, and a
grotesque humour which was characteristic of Italian grand opera down to
the death of Alessandro Scarlatti.




CAVALLINI, PIETRO (c. 1259-1344), Italian painter, born in Rome, was an
artist of the earliest epoch of the modern Roman school, and was taught
painting and mosaic by Giotto while employed at Rome; it is believed
that he assisted his master in the mosaic of the Navicella or ship of St
Peter, in the porch of the church of that saint. He also studied under
the Cosmati. Lanzi describes him as an adept in both arts, and mentions
with approbation his grand fresco of a Crucifixion at Assisi, still in
tolerable preservation; he was, moreover, versed in architecture and in
sculpture. According to George Vertue, it is highly probable that
Cavallini executed, in 1279, the mosaics and other ornaments of the tomb
of Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey. He would thus be the
"Petrus Civis Romanus" whose name is inscribed on the shrine; but a
comparison of dates invalidates this surmise. He died in 1344, at the
age of eighty-five, in the odour of sanctity, having in his later years
been a man of eminent piety. He is said to have carved for the Basilica
of San Paolo fuori le Mura, close to Rome, a crucifix which spoke in
1370 to a female saint. Some highly important works by Cavallini in the
church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome, have been recently
discovered.




CAVALLO, TIBERIUS (1749-1809), Anglo-Italian electrician and natural
philosopher, was born on the 30th of March 1749 at Naples, where his
father was a physician. In 1771 he came to England with the intention of
pursuing a mercantile career, but he soon turned his attention to
scientific work. Although he made several ingenious improvements in
scientific instruments, his mind was rather imitative and critical than
creative. He published numerous works on different branches of physics,
including _A Complete Treatise on Electricity_ (1777), _Treatise on the
Nature and Properties of Air and other permanently Elastic Fluids_
(1781), _History and Practice of Aerostation_ (1785), _Treatise on
Magnetism_ (1787), _Elements of Natural and Experimental Philosophy_
(1803), _Theory and Practice of Medical Electricity_ (1780), and
_Medical Properties of Factitious Air_ (1798). He died in London on the
21st of December 1809.




CAVALLOTTI, FELICE (1842-1898), Italian politician, poet and dramatic
author, was born at Milan on the 6th of November 1842. In 1860 and 1866
he fought with the Garibaldian Corps, but first attained notoriety by
his anti-monarchical lampoons in the _Gazzetta di Milano_ and in the
_Gazzettina Rosa_ between 1866 and 1872. Elected to parliament as deputy
for Corteolona in the latter year, he took the oath of allegiance after
having publicly impugned its validity. Eloquence and turbulent,
combativeness in and out of parliament secured for him the leadership of
the extreme Left on the death of Bertani in 1886. During his twelve
years' leadership his party increased in number from twenty to seventy,
and at the time of his death his parliamentary influence was greater
than ever before. Though ambitious and addicted to defamatory methods of
personal attack which sometimes savoured of political blackmail,
Cavallotti's eloquent advocacy of democratic reform, and apparent
generosity of sentiment, secured for him a popularity surpassed by that
of no contemporary save Crispi. Services rendered in the cholera
epidemic of 1885, his numerous lawsuits and thirty-three duels, his
bitter campaign against Crispi, and his championship of French
interests, combined to enhance his notoriety and to increase his
political influence. By skilful alliances with the marquis di Rudini he
more than once obtained practical control of the Italian government, and
exacted notable concessions to Radical demands. He was killed on the 6th
of March 1898 in a duel with Count Macola, editor of the conservative
_Gazetta di Venezia_, whom he had assailed with characteristic
intemperance of language. By his death the house of Savoy lost a
relentless foe, and the revolutionary elements in Italy a gifted, if not
entirely trustworthy, leader.     (H. W. S.)




CAVALRY (Fr. _cavalerie_, Ger. _Kavallerie_ or _Reiterei_, derived
ultimately from late Lat. _caballus_, horse), a word which came into use
in military literature about the middle of the 16th century as applied
to mounted men of all kinds employed for combatant purposes, whether
intended primarily for charging in masses, in small bodies, or for
dismounted fighting. By degrees, as greater refinement of terminology
has become desirable, the idea has been narrowed down until it includes
only "horsemen trained to achieve the purpose of their commander by the
combined action of man and horse," and this definition will be found to
cover the whole field of cavalry activity, from the tasks entrusted to
the cavalry "corps" of 10,000 sabres down to the missions devolving on
isolated squadrons and even troops.


  Early use of mounted warriors.

_History_--The evolution of the cavalry arm has never been uniform at
any one time over the surface of the globe, but has always been locally
modified by the conditions of each community and the stage of
intellectual development to which at any given moment each had attained.
The first condition for the existence of the arm being the existence of
the horse itself, its relative scarcity or the reverse and its
adaptability to its environment in each particular district have always
exercised a preponderating influence on the development of cavalry
organization and tactics. The indigenous horses of Europe and Asia being
very small, the first application of their capabilities for war purposes
seems everywhere to have been as draught animals for chariots, the
construction of which implies not only the existence of level surfaces,
perhaps of actual roads, but a very considerable degree of mechanical
skill in those who designed and employed them. The whole of the
classical and Oriental mythologies, together with the earliest monuments
of Egypt, Assyria and India, are convincing on this point. Nowhere can
we find a trace either of description or delineation of animals
physically capable of carrying on their backs the armed men of the
period. All the earliest allusions to the use of the horse in war either
point directly to the employment as a draught animal, or where not
specific, as in the description of the war-horse in Job, they would
apply equally well to one harnessed to a chariot as to one ridden under
the saddle.

The first trace of change is to be found, according to Prof. Wm.
Ridgeway (_Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse_, p. 243), in
an Egyptian relief showing Nubians mounted on horses of an entirely
different breed, taller and more powerful than any which had gone before
them. These horses appear to have come from the vicinity of Dongola, and
the strain still survives in the Sudan. The breed is traced into Arabia,
where only second-rate horses had been reared hitherto, and thence to
different parts of Europe, where eventually centres of cavalry activity
developed. The first detailed evidence of the existence of organized
bodies of mounted men is to be found in Xenophon, whose instructions for
the breaking, training and command of a squadron remain almost as a
model for modern practice. Their tactical employment, however, seems
still to have been relatively insignificant, for the horses were still
far too small and too few to deliver a charge with sufficient momentum
to break the heavy armed and disciplined hoplites. The strain of ancient
battle was of an entirely different order to that of modern fighting. In
the absence of projectiles of sufficient range and power to sweep a
whole area, the fighting was entirely between the front ranks of the
opposing forces. When a front rank fighter fell, his place was
immediately taken by his comrade in the rear, who took up the individual
combat, excited by his comrade's fate but relatively fresh in mind and
muscle. This process of feeding the fight from the rear could be
protracted almost indefinitely. If then, as a consequence of a charge, a
few mounted men did penetrate the ranks, they encountered such a crowd
of well-protected and fresh swordsmen that they were soon pulled off
their ponies and despatched. Now and again great leaders, Alexander,
Hannibal and Scipio Africanus, for instance, succeeded in riding down
their opponents, but in the main, and as against the Roman infantry in
particular, mounted troops proved of very little service on the
battlefield.

It was, however, otherwise in the sphere of strategy. There, information
was of even greater importance, because harder to obtain, than it is
nowadays, and the army which could push out its feelers to the greater
distance, surround its enemy and intercept his communications, derived
nearly the same advantages as it does at present. Hence both sides
provided themselves with horsemen, and when these met, each in the
performance of their several duties, charges of masses naturally ensued.
This explains the value attaching in the old days to the possession of
horse-flesh and the rapid spread of the relatively new Dongola or
African strain over the then known world.

The primitive instinct of aboriginal man is to throw stones or other
missiles for purposes of defence (apes will throw anything they can
find, but they never use sticks); hence, as the Romans penetrated ever
farther amongst the barbarian tribes, their horsemen in first line found
ever-increasing need for protection against projectiles. But the greater
the weight of armour carried, the greater the demands upon the endurance
of the horse. Then, as the weight-carrying breed was expensive and, with
the decay of the Roman Empire, corruption and peculation spread, a limit
was soon placed on the multiplication of charging cavalry, and it became
necessary to fall back on the indigenous pony, which could only carry a
rider from place to place, not charge. Thus there was a gradual
levelling down of the mounted arms, the heavy cavalry becoming too heavy
to gallop and the light not good enough for united action. Against such
opponents, the lighter and better mounted tribesmen of Asia found their
task easy. They cut off the supplies of the marching infantry, filled up
or destroyed the wells, &c., and thus demonstrated the strategic
necessity of superior mobility.

With the decay of civilization discipline also disappeared, and, as
discipline consists essentially in the spirit of self-sacrifice for the
good of the community, its opposite, self-preservation, became the
guiding principle. This in turn led to the increase of armour carried,
and thence to the demand for heavier horses, and this demand working
through several centuries led ultimately to the breeding of the great
weight-carrying animals on whose existence that of medieval chivalry
depended. These horses, however, being very costly and practically
useless for general purposes, could only become the property of the
wealthy, who were too independent to feel the need of combination, and
preferred to live on the spoliation and taxation of the weak. This
spoliation eventually impelled the weaker men to combine, and at first
their combination took the form of the construction of fortified places,
against which mounted men were powerless. On the other hand, expense put
a limit to the area which fortifications could enclose, and this again
limited the supplies for the garrison. Horsemen sweeping the country for
miles around had no difficulty in feeding themselves, and the surrender
of all beleaguered places through starvation was ultimately inevitable,
unless food could be introduced from allied towns in the vicinity. It
was of no use to introduce fighting men only into a place which
primarily required food (cf. Lucknow, 1857) to protract its resistance.
Hence some means had to be found to surround the supply-convoys with a
physically impenetrable shield, and eighteen-foot pikes in the hands of
powerful disciplined soldiers met the requirements. Against eight to ten
ranks of such men the best cavalry in the world, relying only on their
swords, were helpless, and for the time (towards the close of the 15th
century) infantry remained masters of the field on the continent of
Europe.

England meanwhile had developed on lines of her own. Thanks to her
longbowmen and the military genius of her leaders, she might have
retained indefinitely the command of the continent had it not been for
the invention of gunpowder, which, though readily accepted by the
English for sieges in France, proved the ultimate cause of their
undoing. It was the French who developed the use of siege artillery most
rapidly, and their cavalry were not slow to take the hint; unlike the
longbow and the crossbow, the pistol could be used effectively from
horseback, and presently the knights and their retainers, having the
deepest purses, provided themselves with long pistols in addition to
their lances and swords. These weapons sent a bullet through any armour
which a foot-soldier could conveniently carry, or his commander afford,
and if anything went wrong with their mechanism (which was complicated
and uncertain) the speed of his horse soon carried the rider out of
danger. A new form of attack against infantry, introduced by the French
at Cerisoles, 1544, thus developed itself. A troop or squadron, formed
in from twelve to sixteen ranks, trotted up to within pistol shot of the
angle of the square to be attacked and halted; then each rank in
succession cantered off man by man to the left, discharging his pistol
at the square as he passed, and riding back to his place behind the
column to reload. This could be prolonged indefinitely, and against such
tactics the infantry were powerless. The stakes carried by English
archers to check the direct charge of horsemen became useless, as did
also _chevaux de frise_, though the latter (which originated in the 14th
century) continued to be employed by the Austrians against the
swiftly-charging Turks till the close of the 17th century. Thus it
became necessary to devise some new impediment which, whilst remaining
mobile, would also give cover and an advantage in the final hand-to-hand
shock. The problem was solved in Bohemia, Poland and Moravia (Hussite
wars, about 1420), where, distances being great and the country open,
greater mobility and capacity in the convoys became essential. Great
trains of wagons were placed in charge of an infantry escort, of which a
part had become possessed of firearms, and these moved across country in
as many as twelve parallel lines drilled to form _laagers_, as nowadays
in South Africa. Again the cavalry proved helpless, and for nearly a
century in central Europe the word "_Wagenburg_" (wagon-fortress) became
synonymous with "army." Then an unfortunate inspiration came to the
wagon-men. A large gun was relatively cheaper to manufacture, and more
effective than a small one. To keep their assailants at a distance, they
mounted wall-pieces of about one-inch bore on their wagons. For a moment
the balance inclined in their favour, but the cavalry were quick to see
their advantage in this new idea, and they immediately followed suit.
They, too, mounted guns on wheels, and, as their mobility gave them
choice of position, they were able to concentrate their fire against any
side of the laager, and again ultimate surrender was the only way out of
the defenders' dilemma.

The interesting problem thus raised was never finally solved, for the
scene of action now shifted to western Europe, to the valley of the Po,
and more particularly to the Netherlands, where fortresses were closer
together and the clayey nature of the Rhine delta had already made paved
roads necessary. Then, the _Wagenburg_ being no longer needed for the
short transits between one fortified town and another, the infantry
reasserted themselves. Firearms having been much improved in the
interval the spearmen (pikemen) had already (about 1515) learnt to
protect themselves by musketeers trained to take advantage of cover and
ground somewhat in the same fashion as the modern skirmisher. These
musketeers kept light guns at a distance from their pikemen, but dared
not venture far out, as their fire was altogether inadequate to stop a
rush of horsemen; when the latter threatened to intervene, they had to
run for safety to the squares of pikemen, whom they assisted in turn by
keeping the cavalry beyond pistol range. Hence the horsemen had to fall
back upon more powerful guns, and these, being slow and requiring more
train, could be most economically protected by infantry (see also
ARTILLERY).


  17th-century progress.

Thus about the close of the 16th century western armies differentiated
themselves out into the still existing three types--cavalry, artillery
and infantry. Moreover, each type was subdivided, the cavalry becoming
heavy, medium and dragoons. At this period there was nothing to disturb
the equilibrium of two contending forces except the characters of their
respective leaders. The mercenary element had triumphed everywhere over
the feudal levies. The moral qualities of all were on the same
indifferent level, and battles in the open followed one recognized
course. Neither army being able to outmarch the other, both drew up
masses of pikes in parallel lines. The musketeers covered the deployment
of the heavy guns on either side, the cavalry drew up on the wings and a
strictly parallel fight ensued, for in the absence of a common cause for
which men were willing to die, plunder was the ruling motive, and all
control and discipline melted in the excitement of the contest.

It is to the growth of Protestantism that cavalry owes its next great
forward leap. To sweep the battlefield, it was absolutely essential that
men should be ready to subordinate selfish considerations to the triumph
of their cause. The Roman Catholicism of the day gave many loopholes for
the evasion of clear duty, but from these the reformed faith was free,
and it is to the reawakened sense of duty that Gustavus Adolphus
appealed. This alone rendered combination amongst his subordinate
leaders possible, and on this power of combination all his victories
depended. Other cavalry soldiers, once let loose in the charge, could
never be trusted to return to the field, the prospective plunder of the
enemy's baggage being too strong a temptation; but the king's men could
be depended on, and once brought back in formed bodies, they rode over
the enemy's skirmishers and captured his batteries. Then the equilibrium
of force was destroyed, and all arms combined made short work of the
opposing infantry alone (Breitenfeld, 1631). But the Swedish king
perished with his work half done, and matters reverted to their former
condition until the appearance of Cromwell, another great leader capable
of animating his men with the spirit of devotion, again rendered the
cavalry arm supreme. The essence of his success lay in this, that his
men were ready everywhere and always to lay down their lives for their
common cause. Whether scouting 70 m. to the front of their army, or
fighting dismounted to delay the enemy at defiles or to storm fortified
strongholds, or charging home on the battlefield, their will power,
focused on, and in turn dependent on, the personality of their great
leader, dominated all human instincts of fear, rapacity or selfishness.
It is true that they had not to ride against the modern rifle, but it is
equally true that there was no quick-firing artillery to carry terror
through the enemy's army, and it was against masses of spearmen and
musketeers, not then subjected to bursting shells or the lash of
shrapnel and rifle bullets, that the final charges had always to be
ridden home.

Each succeeding decade thereafter has seen a steady diminution in the
ultimate power of resistance of the infantry, and a corresponding
increase in the power of fire preparation at the disposal of the supreme
leader; and the chances of cavalry have fluctuated with the genius of
that leader in the employment of the means at his disposal, and the
topographical conditions existing within each theatre of war. During the
campaigns in Flanders, with its multiplicity of fortresses and clayey
soil, cavalry rapidly degenerated into mounted infantry, throwing aside
sword and lance-proof armour, and adopting long muskets and heavier
ammunition. Presently they abandoned the charge at a gallop and reverted
to an approach at the trot, and if (as at Blenheim) their influence
proved decisive on the field of battle, this was because the conditions
were common to both combatants, and the personal influence of "Corporal
John," as his soldiers called Marlborough, ensured greater steadiness
and better co-operation.


  Frederick II.; reform of the Prussian cavalry.

When Frederick II. became king of Prussia (1740), he found his cavalry
almost at the nadir of efficiency; even his cuirassiers drilled
principally on foot. "They can manoeuvre," on foot, "with the same
precision as my grenadiers, but unfortunately they are equally slow."
His enemies the Austrians, thanks to their wars against the Turks who
always charged at a gallop, had maintained greater dash and mobility,
and at Mollwitz the Prussians only escaped disaster by the astounding
rapidity of their infantry fire. In disgust the king then wrote, "Die
Cavallerie is nicht einmal werth dasz sie der Teufel weck holet," and he
immediately set about their reform with his usual energy and
thoroughness. Three years after Mollwitz, the result of his exertions
was apparent in the greatly increased importance the arm acquired on the
battlefield, and the charge of the Bayreuth dragoons at Hohenfriedberg
(June 4, 1745), who with 1500 horses rode over and dispersed 20 Austrian
battalions, bringing in 2500 prisoners and 67 colours, will always rank
as one of the most brilliant feats in military history.[1] The following
years of peace (1745-1756) were devoted to the methodical preparation of
the cavalry to meet the requirements that Frederick's methods of war
would make upon them, and it is to this period that the student should
devote special attention. From the very outbreak of the Seven Years' War
(1756) this training asserted its influence, and Rossbach (1757) and
Zorndorf (1758) are the principal examples of what cavalry handled in
masses can effect. At Rossbach General v. Seydlitz, at the head of 38
squadrons, practically began and ended the destruction of the French
army, and at Zorndorf he saved the day for the Prussians by a series of
the most brilliant charges, which successively destroyed the Russian
right wing and centre. These battles so conclusively demonstrated the
superiority of the Prussian cavalry that their enemies completely
altered their tactical procedure. They now utilized their enormous
numerical superiority by working in two separate armies, each almost as
strong as the whole Prussian force. When the latter moved against
either, the one threatened immediately threw up heavy entrenchments,
against which cavalry were, of course, ineffective, whilst the other
pursued its march. When Frederick, having more or less beaten his
immediate opponent, began to threaten the other army it entrenched
likewise. Against these methods the Prussian army soon wore itself out,
and though from time to time the cavalry locally distinguished itself,
no further opportunities for great decisive blows presented themselves.

The increased demands made upon the mobility of the Prussian horsemen
naturally resulted in the gradual rejection of everything which was not
essential to their striking power. The long muskets and bayonets were
laid aside, but the cuirass was retained for the melee, and by the close
of the great struggle the various branches of the arm had differentiated
themselves out into the types still adhered to, heavy cavalry, dragoons,
hussars, whose equipment as regards essentials thenceforward hardly
varied up to the latter years of the 19th century. The only striking
difference lies in the entire rejection of the lance in the armament of
the charging squadrons, and the reason is characteristic of the
principles of the day. The Prussian cavalry had realized that success
was decided, not primarily by actual collision, but by the moral effect
of the appearance of an absolutely closed wall of horsemen approaching
the adversary at full speed. If the necessary degree of cohesion was
attained, the other side was morally beaten before collision took place,
and either turned to flight, or met the shock with so little resolution
that it was ridden over without difficulty. In the former case any
weapon was good enough to kill a flying enemy; in the latter, in the
melee which then ensued, the crush in the ranks of the victors was still
so great that the lance was a hindrance rather than a help.

In the years succeeding the war the efficiency of the Prussian cavalry
sank very rapidly, the initial cause being the death of Seydlitz at the
early age of fifty-two. His personality had alone dominated the
discontent, lethargy and hopelessness created by ruthless financial
economies. When he was gone, as always in the absence of a great leader,
men adapted their lives to the line of least resistance. In thirty years
the wreck was complete, and within the splendid squadrons which had been
accustomed to manoeuvre with perfect precision at the highest speed,
there were (as F.A. von der Marwitz in his _Nachlass_ clearly shows) not
more than seven thoroughly trained men and horses to each, the remainder
being trained for little longer and receiving less attention than is the
case with modern 2nd line or auxiliary cavalry.


  Cavalry in the revolutionary wars.

For the generation preceding the outbreak of the French Revolution,
Frederick the Great's army, and especially his cavalry, had become the
model for all Europe, but the mainspring of the excellence of his
squadrons was everywhere overlooked. Seydlitz had manoeuvred great
masses of horsemen, therefore every one else must have great masses
also; but no nation grasped the secret, viz. the unconditional obedience
of the horse to its rider, on which his success had depended. Neither
was it possible under the prevailing social conditions to secure the old
stamp of horse, or the former attention to detail on the part of men and
officers. In France, owing to the agricultural decay of the country,
suitable remounts for charging cavalry were almost unobtainable, and as
this particular branch of the army was almost exclusively commanded by
the aristocracy it suffered most in the early days of the Revolution.
The hussars, being chiefly recruited and officered by Alsatians and
Germans from the Rhine provinces, retained their individuality and
traditions much longer than the dragoons and cuirassiers, and, to the
very close of the great wars, we find them always ready to charge at a
gallop; but the unsteadiness and poor horsemanship of the other branches
was so great that up to 1812, the year of their destruction, they always
charged at a trot only, considering that the advantage of superior
cohesion thus gained more than balanced the loss of momentum due to the
slower pace.

Generally, the growth of the French cavalry service followed the
universal law. The best big horses went to the heavy charging cavalry,
viz. the cuirassiers, the best light horses to the hussars, and the
dragoons received the remainder, for in principle they were only
infantry placed on horseback for convenience of locomotion, and were not
primarily intended for combined mounted action. Fortunately for them,
their principal adversaries, the Austrians, had altogether failed to
grasp the lesson of the Seven Years' War. Writing in 1780 Colonel Mack,
a very capable officer, said, "Even in 1769, the cavalry could not ride,
could not manage to control their horses. Not a single squadron could
keep its dressing at a gallop, and before they had gone fifty yards at
least ten out of forty horses in the first rank would break out to the
front," and though the veteran field marshal Lacy issued new
regulations, their spirit seems always to have escaped the executive
officers. The British cavalry was almost worse off, for economy had
reduced its squadrons to mere skeletons, and the traditional British
style of horsemanship, radically different from that in vogue in France,
made their training for combined action even more difficult than
elsewhere. Hence the history of cavalry during the earlier campaigns of
the Revolution is marked by no decisive triumphs, the results are always
inadequate when judged by the magnitude of the forces employed, and only
the brilliant exploit of the 15th Light Dragoons (now Hussars) at
Villers en Couche (April 24, 1794) deserves to be cited as an instance
of the extraordinary influence which even a few horsemen can exercise
over a demoralized or untrained mob of infantry.

Up to the campaign of Poland (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS) French victories
were won chiefly by the brilliant infantry fighting, cavalry only
intervening (as at Jena) to charge a beaten enemy and complete his
destruction by pursuit. But after the terrible waste of life in the
winter of 1806-7, and the appalling losses in battle, Napoleon
introduced a new form of attack. The case-shot preparation of his
artillery (see ARTILLERY) sowed confusion and terror in the enemy's
ranks, and the opportunity was used by masses of cavalry. Henceforward
this method dominated the Napoleonic tactics and strategy. The essential
difference between this system and the Frederician lies in this, that
with the artillery available in the former period it was not possible to
say in advance at what point the intervention of cavalry would be
necessary, hence the need for speed and precision of manoeuvre to ensure
their arrival at the right time and place. Napoleon now selected
beforehand the point he meant to overwhelm and could bring his cavalry
masses within striking distance at leisure. Once placed, it was only
necessary to induce them to run away in the required direction to
overwhelm everything by sheer weight of men and horses. This method
failed at Waterloo because the ground was too heavy, the slope of it
against the charge, and the whole condition of the horses too low for
the exertion demanded of them.

The British cavalry from 1793 to 1815 suffered from the same causes
which at the beginning of the 20th century brought about its breakdown
in the South African War. Over-sea transport brought the horses to land
in poor condition, and it was rarely possible to afford them sufficient
time to recover and become accustomed to the change in forage, the
conditions of the particular theatre of operations, &c., before they had
to be led against the enemy--hence a heavy casualty roll and the
introduction into the ranks of raw unbroken horses which interfered with
the precision of manoeuvre of the remainder. Their losses (about 13% per
annum) were small as compared with those of South Africa, but this is
mainly accounted for by the fact that, operations being generally in the
northern hemisphere, the change of climate was never so severe.
Tactically, they suffered, like the Austrians and Prussians, from the
absence of any conception of the Napoleonic strategy amongst their
principal leaders. As it was not known where the great blow was to fall,
they were distributed along the whole line, and thus became habituated
to the idea of operating in relatively small bodies. This is the worst
school for the cavalry soldier, because it is only when working in
masses of forty to sixty squadrons that the cumulative consequences of
small errors of detail become so apparent as to convince all ranks of
the necessity of conforming accurately to established prescriptions.
Nevertheless, they still retained the practice of charging at a gallop,
and as a whole were by far the most efficient body of horsemen who
survived at the close of the great wars.


  Later 19th century.

In the reaction that then ensued all over Europe, cavalry practically
ceased to exist. The financial and agricultural exhaustion of all
countries, and of Prussia in particular, was so complete that money was
nowhere to be found for the great concentrations and manoeuvre practices
which are more essential to the efficiency of the cavalry than to that
of the other arms. Hence a whole generation of officers grew up in
ignorance of the fundamental principles which govern the employment of
their arm. It was not till 1848 that the Prussians began again to unite
whole cavalry divisions for drill and manoeuvre, and the soldiers of the
older generation had not yet passed away when the campaigns of 1866 and
1870 brought up again the realities of the battle-field. Meanwhile the
introduction of long-range artillery and small arms had entirely
destroyed the tactical relation of the three arms on which the
Napoleonic tactics and strategy had been based, and the idea gained
ground that the battle-field would no longer afford the same
opportunities to cavalry as before. The experiences gained by the
Americans in the Civil War helped to confirm this preconception. If in
battles waged between infantries armed only with muzzle-loading rifles,
cavalry could find no opportunity to repeat past exploits, it was argued
that its chances could not fail to be still further reduced by the
breech-loader. But this reasoning ignored the principal factors of
former successes. The mounted men in America failed not as a consequence
of the armament they encountered, but because the war brought out no
Napoleon to create by his skill the opportunity for decisive cavalry
action, and to mass his men beforehand in confident anticipation. The
same reasoning applies to the European campaigns of 1866 and 1870, and
the results obtained by the arm were so small, in proportion to the
numbers of squadrons available and to their cost of maintenance as
compared with the other arms, that a strong reaction set in everywhere
against the existing institutions, and the re-creation of the dragoon,
under the new name of mounted rifleman, was advocated in the hope of
obtaining a cheap and efficient substitute for the cavalryman.

Later events in South Africa and in Manchuria again brought this
question prominently to the front, but the essential difference between
the old and new schools of thought has not been generally realized. The
"mounted rifle" adherents base their arguments on the greatly increased
efficiency of the rifle itself. The "cavalry" school, on the other hand,
maintains that, the weapons themselves being everywhere substantially
equal in efficiency, the advantage rests with the side which can create
the most favourable conditions for their employment, and that,
fundamentally, superior mobility will always confer upon its possessor
the choice of the circumstances under which he will elect to engage.
Where the two sides are nearly equally matched in mobility, neither side
can afford the time to dismount, for the other will utilize that time to
manoeuvre into a position which gives him a relative superiority for
whichever form of attack he may elect to adopt, and this relative
superiority will always more than suffice to eliminate any advantage in
accuracy of fire that his opponent may have obtained by devoting his
principal attention to training his men on the range instead of on the
mounted manoeuvre ground.

Finally, the "cavalry" school reasons that in no single campaign since
Napoleon's time have the conditions governing encounters been normal.
Either the roadless and barren nature of the country has precluded of
itself the rapid marching which forms the basis of all modern strategy,
as in America, Turkey, South Africa and Manchuria, or the relative power
of the infantry and artillery weapons, as in Bohemia (1866) and in
France (1870), has rendered wholly impossible the creation of the great
tactical opportunity characteristic of Napoleon's later method, for
there then existed no means of overwhelming the enemy with a sufficient
hail of projectiles to render the penetration of the cavalry feasible.
The latest improvement in artillery, viz. the perfected shrapnel and the
quick-firing guns, have, however, enormously facilitated the attainment
of this primary fire superiority, and, moreover, it has simplified the
procedure to such a degree that Napoleon is no longer needed to direct.
The battles of the future will thus, in civilized countries, revert to
the Napoleonic type, and the side which possesses the most highly
trained and mobile force of cavalry will enjoy a greater relative
superiority over its adversary than at any period since the days of
Frederick.

The whole experience of the past thus goes to show that no nation in
peace has ever yet succeeded in maintaining a highly trained cavalry
sufficiently numerous to meet all the demands of a great war. Hence at
the outbreak of hostilities there has always been a demand for some kind
of supplementary force which can relieve the regular squadrons of those
duties of observation and exploration which wear down the horses most
rapidly and thus render the squadrons ineffective for their culminating
duty on the battle-field. This demand has been met by the enrolment of
men willing to fight and rendered mobile by mounts of an inferior
description, and the greater the urgency the greater has been the
tendency to give them arms which they can quickly learn to use. To make
a man an expert swordsman or lancer has always taken years, but he can
be taught to use a musket or rifle sufficiently for his immediate
purpose in a very short time. Hence, to begin with, arms of this
description have invariably been issued to him. But once these bodies
have been formed, and they have come into collision with trained
cavalry, the advantages of mobility, combined with the power of shock,
have become so apparent to all, that insensibly the "dragoon" has
developed into the cavalry soldier, the rate of this evolution being
conditioned by the nature of the country in which the fighting took
place.

This evolution is best seen in the American Civil War. The men of the
mounted forces engaged had been trained to the use of the rifle from
childhood, while the vast majority had never seen a sword, hence the
formation of "mounted rifles"; and these "mounted rifles" developed
precisely in accordance with the nature of their surroundings. In
districts of virgin forests and marshland they remained "mounted
rifles," in the open prairie country of the west they became cavalry
pure and simple, though for want of time they never rivalled the
precision of manoeuvre and endurance of modern Prussian or Austrian
horse. In South Africa the same sequence was followed, and had the Boer
War lasted longer it is certain that such Boer leaders as de Wet and de
la Rey would have reverted to cavalry tactics of shock and cold steel at
the earliest possible opportunity.

Therefore when we find, extending over a cycle of ages, the same causes
producing the same effects, the natural conclusion is that the evolution
of the cavalry arm is subject to a universal law which persists in spite
of all changes of armament.

_Employment of Cavalry._--It is a fundamental axiom of all military
action that the officer commanding the cavalry of any force comprising
the three arms of the service is in the strictest sense an executive
officer under the officer commanding that particular force as a whole.
The latter again is himself responsible to the political power he
represents. When intricate political problems are at stake, it may be,
and generally is, quite impracticable that any subordinate can share the
secret knowledge of the power to which he owes his allegiance.

The essence of the value of the cavalry soldier's services lies in this,
that the demand is never made upon him in its supremest form until the
instinct of the real commander realizes that the time has come. Whether
it be to cover a retreat, and by the loss of hundreds to save the lives
of tens of thousands, or to complete a victory with commensurate results
in the opposite direction, the obligation remains the same--to stake the
last man and horse in the attainment of the immediate object in view,
the defeat of the enemy. This at once places the leader of cavalry in
face of his principal problem. It is a matter of experience that the
broader the front on which he can deliver a charge, the greater the
chances of success. However strong the bonds of discipline may be, the
line is ultimately, and at a certain nervous tension, only a number of
men on horses, acting and reacting on one another in various ways. When
therefore, of two lines, moving to meet one another at speed, one sees
itself overlapped to either hand, the men in the line thus overlapped
invariably and inevitably tend to open outwards, so as at least to meet
their enemy on an equal frontage. Hence every cavalry commander tries
to strike at the flank of his enemy, and the latter manoeuvres to meet
him, and if both have equal mobility, local collision must ensue on an
equal and parallel front. Therefore both strive to put every available
man and horse in their first line, and if men and horses were
invulnerable such a line would sweep over the ground like a scythe and
nothing could withstand it. Since, however, bullets kill at a distance,
and inequalities and unforeseen difficulties of the ground may throw
hundreds of horses and riders, a working compromise has to be found to
meet eventualities, and, other things being equal, victory inclines to
the leader who best measures the risks and uncertainties of his
undertaking, and keeps in hand a sufficient reserve to meet all chances.

Thus there has arisen a saying, which is sometimes regarded as
axiomatic, that in cavalry encounters the last closed reserve always
wins. The truth is really that he who has best judged the situation and
the men on both sides finds himself in possession of the last reserve at
the critical moment. The next point is, how to ensure the presence of
this reserve, and what is the critical moment. The battle-field is the
critical moment in each phase of every campaign--not the mere chance
locality on which a combat takes place, but the decisive arena on which
the strategic consequences of all pre-existing conditions of national
cohesion, national organization and of civilization are focussed. It is
indeed the judgment-seat of nature, on which the right of the race to
survive in the struggle for existence is weighed and measured in the
most impartial scales.

Before, however, the final decision of the battle-field can be attained,
a whole series of subordinate decisions have to be fought out, success
in each of which conditions the result of the next series of encounters.
Every commanding officer of cavalry thus finds himself successively
called on to win a victory locally at any cost, and the question of
economy of force does not concern him at all. Hence the same fundamental
rules apply to all cavalry combats, of whatever magnitude, and condition
the whole of cavalry tactics. Broadly speaking, if two cavalries of
approximately equal mobility manoeuvre against each other in open
country, neither side can afford the loss of time that dismounting to
fight on foot entails. Hence, assuming that at the outset of a campaign
each side aims at securing a decisive success, both seek out an open
plain and a mounted charge, sword in hand, for the decision. When the
speed and skill of the combatants are approximately equal, collision
ensues simultaneously along parallel fronts, and the threat of the
overlapping line is the principal factor in the decision. The better the
individual training of man and horse the less will be the chances of
unsteadiness or local failures in execution, and the less the need of
reserves; hence the force which feels itself the most perfect in the
individual efficiency of both man and horse (on which therefore the
whole ultimately depends) can afford to keep fewer men in reserve and
can thus increase the width of its first line for the direct collision.
Careful preparation in peace is therefore the first guarantee of success
in action. This means that cavalry, unlike infantry, cannot be expanded
by the absorption of reserve men and horses on the outbreak of
hostilities, but must be maintained at war strength in peace, ready to
take the field at a moment's notice, and this is actually the standard
of readiness attained on the continent of Europe at the present day.

Further, uniformity of speed is the essential condition for the
execution of closed charges, and this obviously cannot be assured if big
men on little horses and small men on big horses are indiscriminately
mixed up in the same units. Horses and men have therefore been sorted
out everywhere into three categories, _light_, _medium_ and _heavy_, and
in periods when war was practically chronic, suitable duties have been
allotted to each. It is clear, on purely mechanical grounds, that the
greater the velocity of motion at the moment of collision the greater
will be the chances of success, and this greater speed will be on the
side of the bigger horses as a consequence of their longer stride. On
the other hand, these horses, by reason of their greater weight, are
used up much more rapidly than small ones. Hence, to ensure the greater
speed at the moment of contact, it is necessary to save them as much as
possible to keep them fresh for the shock only, and this has been the
practice of all great cavalry leaders all over the world, and has only
been departed from under special circumstances, as by the Germans in
France in 1870, when their cavalry practically rode everywhere
unopposed.

Collisions, however, must be expected by every body of troops large or
small; hence each regiment--ultimately each squadron--endeavours to save
its horses as far as this is compatible with the attainment of the
special object in view, and this has led everywhere and always to a
demand for some intermediate arm, less expensive to raise and maintain
than cavalry proper, and able to cover the ground with sufficient
rapidity and collect the information necessary to ensure the proper
direction of the cavalry commands. Originally this intermediate force
received the designation of dragoons; but since under pressure of
circumstances during long periods of war these invariably improved
themselves into cavalry and became permanent units in the army
organization, fresh names have had to be invented for them, of which
Mounted Infantry and Mounted Rifles are the latest, and every
improvement in firearms has led to an increased demand for their
services.

It is now relatively easy to trace out the considerations which should
govern the employment of his cavalry by the officer commanding a force
of the three arms. Assuming for purposes of illustration an army
numerically weak in cavalry, what course will best ensure the presence
of the greatest number of sabres at the decisive point, i.e. on the
battle-field? To push out cavalry screens far to the front will be to
court destruction, nor is the information they obtain of much real
service unless the means to act upon it at once is at hand. This can
only be supplied economically by the use of strong advanced guards of
infantry, and such supplementary security and information as these may
require will be best supplied by mounted infantry, the sacrifice of whom
will disturb least the fighting integrity of the whole army.

Imagine an army of 300,000 men advancing by five parallel roads on a
front of 50 m., each column (60,000 men, 2 army corps) being covered by
a strong advance guard, coming in contact with a similarly constituted
army moving in an opposite direction. A series of engagements will
ensue, in each of which the object of the local commander will be to
paralyse his opponent's will-power by a most vigorous attack, so that
his superior officer following him on the same road will be free to act
as he chooses. The front of the two armies will now be defined by a line
of combats localized each about a comparatively small area, and between
them will be wide gaps which it will be the chief business of the
directing minds on either side to close by other troops as soon as
possible. Generally the call will be made upon the artillery for this
purpose, since they can cover the required distances far more rapidly
than infantry. Now, as artillery is powerless when limbered up and
always very vulnerable on the flanks of the long lines, a strong cavalry
escort will have to be assigned to them which, trotting forward to
screen the march, will either come in contact with the enemy's cavalry
advancing with a similar object, or themselves find an opportunity to
catch the enemy's guns at a disadvantage. These are opportunities for
the cavalry, and if necessary it must sacrifice itself to turn them to
the best account. The whole course of the battle depends on success or
failure in the early formation of great lines of guns, for ultimately
the victor in the artillery duel finds himself in command of the
necessary balance of guns which are needed to prepare the way for his
final decisive infantry attack. If this latter succeeds, then any
mounted men who can gallop and shoot will suffice for pursuit. If it
fails, no cavalry, however gallant, has any hope of definitely restoring
the combat, for against victorious infantry, cavalry, now as in the
past, can but gain a little time. This time may indeed be worth the
price at which it can be bought, but it will always be more economical
to concentrate all efforts to prevent the emergency arising.

After the Franco-German War much was written about the possibility of
vast cavalry encounters to be fought far in advance of the main armies,
for the purpose of obtaining information, and ideas were freely mooted
of wide-flung raids traversing the enemy's communications, breaking up
his depots, reserve formations, &c. But riper consideration has
relegated these suggestions to the background, for it is now evident
that such expeditions involve the dissemination of force, not its
concentration. Austria and France for example would scarcely throw their
numerically inferior cavalry against the Germans, and nothing would suit
them better than that the latter should hurl their squadrons against the
frontier guards, advanced posts, and, generally, against unbeaten
infantry; nor indeed would the Germans stultify their whole strategic
teaching by weakening themselves for the decisive struggle. It follows
therefore that cavalry reconnaissance duties will be strictly local and
tactical, and that arrangements will be made for procuring strategical
information by wireless telegraphy, balloons, motor cars, bicycles, &c.,
and that on the whole that nation will be best served in war which has
provided in peace a nucleus of mounted infantry capable of rapid
expansion to fill the gap which history shows always to have existed
between the infantry and the cavalry. Such troops need not be organized
in large bodies, for their mission is to act by "slimness," not by
violence. They must be the old "verlorene Haufe" (_anglice_, "forlorn
hope") of former days, men whose individual bravery and decision is of
the highest order. But they can never become a "decision-compelling
arm," though by their devotion they may well hope to obtain the grand
opportunity for their cavalry, and share with them in harvesting the
fruits of victory.

The great cavalry encounters of forty to sixty squadrons on either side,
which it has been shown must arise from the necessity of screening or
preventing the formation of the all-important artillery lines, will take
their form mainly from the topographical conditions of the district, and
since on a front of 60 to 100 m. these may vary indefinitely, cavalry
must be trained, as indeed it always has been, to fight either on foot
or on horseback as occasion requires. In either case, thoroughness of
preparation in horsemanship (which, be it observed, includes
horsemastership) is the first essential, for in the end victory will
rest with the side which can put in the right place with the greatest
rapidity the greatest number of sabres or rifles. In the case of rifles
there is a greater margin of time available and an initial failure is
not irremediable, but the underlying principle is the same in either
case; and since it is impossible to foretell exactly the conditions of
the collision, all alike, according to the class to which they belong,
must be brought up to the highest standard, for this alone guarantees
the smooth and rhythmical motion required for covering long distances
with the least expenditure of physical and nervous strength on the part
both of horse and rider. As a consequence of successes gained in these
preliminary encounters, opportunities will subsequently arise for the
balance of fresh or rallied squadrons in hand to ride home upon masses
of infantry disorganized and demoralized by the combined fire of
infantry and artillery, and such opportunities are likely to be much
more numerous at the outbreak of future wars than they have been in the
past, because the enormous gain in range and rapidity of fire enables a
far greater weight of metal to be concentrated on any chosen area within
a given time. It cannot be too often reiterated that cavalry never has
ridden over unshaken infantry of average quality by reason of its
momentum alone, but that every successful cavalry charge has always owed
its issue to a previously acquired moral superiority which has prevented
the infantry from making adequate use of their means of defence. Nor
will such charges entail greater losses than in the past, for, great
though the increase of range of modern infantry weapons has been, the
speed and endurance of cavalry has increased in a yet higher ratio;
whereas in Napoleon's days, with an extreme range for musketry of 1000
yds., cavalry were expected only to trot 800 yds. and gallop for 200,
nowadays with an extreme infantry range of under 4000 yds., the cavalry
are trained to trot for 8000 yds. and gallop for 2000.

Neither the experiences in South Africa nor those in Manchuria seriously
influenced the views of the leading cavalry experts as above outlined,
for the conditions of both cases were entirely abnormal. No nation in
western Europe can afford to mount the whole of its able-bodied
manhood, nor, with the restricted area of its possessions, could repeat
the Boer tactics with useful effect; in Manchuria, the theatre of
operation was so far roadless, and the motives of both combatants so
distinct from any conceivable as a basis for European strategy, that
time was always available to construct entrenchments and obstacles
physically insuperable to mounted arms. In western Europe, with its
extreme development of communications, such tactics are impracticable,
and under the system of compulsory service which is in force in all
nations, an early decision must be sought at any cost. This motive
imposes a rapid-marching campaign in the Napoleonic style, and in such
warfare there is neither time nor energy available for the erection of
extemporised fortresses. Victory must therefore fall to the side that
can develop the greatest fire power in the shortest time. The greatest
factor of fire power is the long artillery lines, and as cavalry is the
one arm which by its mobility can hamper or prevent the formation of
such lines, on its success in this task all else must depend. Hence both
sides will concentrate every available horse and man for this special
purpose, and on the issue of the collisions this mutual concentration
must entail will hang the fate of the battle, and ultimately of the
nation. But the cavalry which will succeed in this task will be the one
in which the spirit of duty burns brightest, and the oath of allegiance,
renewed daily on the cross of the sword, is held in the highest esteem.

_Organization._--The existing organization of cavalry throughout the
civilized world is an instance of the "survival of the fittest" in an
extreme form. The execution of the many manoeuvres with the speed and
precision which condition success is only possible by a force in which,
as Frederick the Great said, "every horse and trooper has been finished
with the same care that a watchmaker bestows upon each wheel of the
watch mechanism." Uniformity of excellence is in fact the keystone of
success, and this is only attainable where the mass is subdivided into
groups, each of which requires superintendence enough to absorb the
whole energy of an average commander. Thus it has been found by ages of
experiment that an average officer, with the assistance of certain
subordinates to whom he delegates as much or as little responsibility as
he pleases, finds his time fully occupied by the care of about one
hundred and fifty men and horses, each individual of which he must
understand intimately, in character, physical strength and temper, for
horse and man must be matched with the utmost care and judgment if the
best that each is capable of is to be attained. The fundamental secret
of the exceptional efficiency attained by the Prussian cavalry lies in
the fact that they were the first to realize what the above implies.
After the close of the Napoleonic Wars they made their squadron
commanders responsible, not only for the training of the combatants of
their unit, but also for the breaking in of remounts and the elementary
teaching of recruits as well, and in this manner they obtained an
intimate knowledge of their material which is almost unattainable by
British officers owing to the conditions entailed by foreign service and
frequent changes of garrisons.

Further, to obtain the maximum celerity of manoeuvre with the minimum
exertion of the horses, the squadron requires to be subdivided into
smaller units, generally known as _troops_, and experience has shown
that with 128 sabres in the ranks (the average strength on parade, after
deducting sick and young horses, and the N.C. officers required as troop
guides, &c.) four troops best satisfy all conditions; as, with this
number, the squadron will, under all circumstances of ground and
surroundings, make any change of formation in less time and with greater
accuracy than with any other number of subdivisions. The size of the
unit next above the squadron, the _regiment_, is again fixed by the
number of subordinates that an average commander can control, and the
universal experience of all arms has settled this as not less than four
and not more than eight. Experiments with eight and even ten squadrons
have been tried both in Austria and Prussia, but only exceptional men
have succeeded in controlling such large bodies effectively, and in the
end the normal has been fixed at four or five squadrons in quarters, and
three or four in the field. Of these, the larger number is undoubtedly
preferable, for, with the work of the quartermaster and the adjutant to
supervise, in addition, the regimental commander is economically applied
to the best advantage. The essential point, however, is that the officer
commanding the regiment does not interfere in details, but commands his
four squadron commanders, his quartermaster, and his adjutant, and holds
them absolutely responsible for results.

There is no unity of practice in the constitution of larger units.
Brigades vary according to circumstances from two regiments to four, and
the composition of divisions fluctuates similarly. The custom in the
German cavalry has been to form brigades of two regiments and divisions
of three brigades, but this practice arose primarily from the system of
recruiting and has no tactical advantage. The territory assigned to each
army corps provides men and horses for two regiments of cuirassiers or
lancers (classed as heavy in Germany), two of dragoons, and two of
hussars, and since it is clearly essential to ensure uniformity of speed
and endurance within those units most likely to have to work together,
it was impossible to mix the different classes. But the views now
current as to the tactical employment of cavalry contemplate the
employment not only of divisions but of whole cavalry corps, forty to
sixty squadrons strong, and these may be called on to fulfil the most
various missions. The farthest and swiftest reconnaissances are the
province of light cavalry, i.e. hussars, the most obstinate attack and
defence of localities the task of dragoons, and the decisive charges on
the battle-field essentially the duty of the heavy cavalry. It seems
probable then that the brigade will become the highest unit the
composition of which is fixed in peace, and that divisions and corps
will be put together by brigades of uniform composition, and assigned to
the several sections of the theatre of war in which each is likely to
find the most suitable field for its special character. This was the
case in the Frederician and Napoleonic epochs, when efficiency and
experience in the field far outweighed considerations of administration
and convenience in quarters.

Hitherto, horse artillery in Europe has always formed an integral
portion of the divisional organization, but the system has never worked
well, and in view of the technical evolution of artillery material is no
longer considered desirable. As it is always possible to assign one or
more batteries to any particular brigade whose line of march will bring
it across villages, defiles, &c. (where the support of its fire will be
essential), and on the battle-field itself responsibility for the guns
is likely to prove more of a hindrance than a help to the cavalry
commander, it is probable that horse artillery will revert to the
inspection of its own technical officers, and that the sole tie which
will be retained between it and the cavalry will be in the batteries
being informed as to the cavalry units they are likely to serve with in
war, so that the officers may make themselves acquainted with the
idiosyncrasies of their future commanders. The same course will be
pursued with the engineers and technical troops required for the
cavalry, but it seems probable that, in accordance with a suggestion
made by Moltke after the 1866 campaign, the supply columns for one or
more cavalry corps will be held ready in peace, and specially organized
to attain the highest possible mobility which modern technical progress
can ensure.

The general causes which have led to the differentiation of cavalry into
the three types--hussars, dragoons and heavy--have already been dealt
with. Obviously big men on little horses cannot manoeuvre side by side
with light men on big horses. Also, since uniformity of excellence
within the unit is the prime condition of efficiency, and the greatest
personal dexterity is required for the management of sword or lance on
horseback, a further sorting out became necessary, and the best light
weights were put on the best light horses and called hussars, the best
heavy weights on the best heavy horses and called lancers, the average
of either type becoming dragoons and cuirassiers. In England, the lance
not being indigenous and the conditions of foreign service making
adherence to a logical system impossible, lancers are medium cavalry,
but the difference of weights carried and type of horses is too small to
render these distinctions of practical moment. In Germany, where every
suitable horse finds its place in the ranks and men have no right of
individual selection, the distinctions are still maintained, and there
is a very marked difference between the weights carried and the types of
men and horses in each branch, though the dead weight which it is still
considered necessary to carry in cavalries likely to manoeuvre in large
masses hardly varies with the weight of the man or size of the horse.

Where small units only are required to march and scout, the kit can be
reduced to a minimum, everything superfluous for the moment being
carried on hired transport, as in South Africa. But when 10,000 horsemen
have to move by a single road all transport must be left miles to the
rear, and greater mobility for the whole is attained by carrying upon
the horse itself the essentials for a period of some weeks. Still, even
allowing for this, it is impossible to account for the extraordinary
load that is still considered necessary. In India, the British lancer,
averaging 11 st. per man, could turn out in marching order at 17 st. 8
lb. (less forage nets). In Germany, the hussar, averaging 10 st. 6 lb.,
rode at 18 st., also without forage, and the cuirassier at 21 st. to 22
st. Cavalry equipment is, in fact, far too heavy, for in the interests
of the budgets of the departments which supply saddlery, harness, &c.,
everything is made so as to last for many years. Cavalry saddles fifty
years old frequently remain in good condition, but the losses in
horse-flesh this excessive solidity entails are ignored. The remount
accounts are kept separately, and few realize that in war it is cheaper
to replace a horse than a saddle. In any case, the armament alone of the
cavalry soldier makes great demands on the horses. His sword and
scabbard weigh about 4 lb., carbine or rifle 7 lb. to 9 lb., 120 rounds
of ammunition with pouches and belts about 12 lb., lance about 5 lb.,
and two days' forage and hay at the lowest 40 lb., or a gross total of
70 lb. or 5 st., which with 11 st. for the man brings the total to 16
st.; add to this the lightest possible saddle, bridle, cloak and
blanket, and 17 st. 8 lb. is approximately the irreducible minimum. It
may be imagined what care and management of the horses is required to
enable them under such loads to manoeuvre in masses at a trot, and
gallop for distances of 5 m. and upwards without a moment for
dismounting.

_Reconnaissance and Scouting._--After 1870 public opinion, misled by the
performances of the "ubiquitous Uhlan" and disappointed by the absence
of great cavalry charges on the field of battle, came somewhat hastily
to the conclusion that the day of "shock tactics" was past and the
future of cavalry lay in acting as the eyes and ears of the following
armies. But, as often happens, the fact was overlooked that the German
cavalry screen was entirely unopposed in its reconnoitring expeditions,
and it was not till long afterwards that it became apparent how very
little these far-flung reconnaissances had contributed to the total
success.

It has been calculated by German cavalry experts that not 1% of the
reports sent in by the scouts during the advance from the Saar to the
Meuse, August 1870, were of appreciable importance to the headquarters,
and that before the orders based upon this evidence reached the front,
events frequently anticipated them. Generally the conviction has
asserted itself, that it is impossible to train the short-service
soldiers of civilized nations sufficiently to render their reports worth
the trouble of collating, and if a few cases of natural aptitude do
exist nothing can ensure that these particular men should be
sufficiently well mounted to transmit their information with sufficient
celerity to be of importance. It is of little value to a commander to
know that the enemy was at a given spot forty-eight hours previously,
unless the sender of the report has a sufficient force at his disposal
to compel the enemy to remain there; in other words, to attack and hold
him. Cavalry and horse artillery alone, however, cannot economically
exert this holding power, for, whatever their effect against worn-out
men at the close of a great battle, against fresh infantry they are
relatively powerless. Hence, it is probable that we shall see a revival
of the strategic advanced guard of all arms, as in the Napoleonic days,
which will not only reconnoitre, but fix the enemy until the army itself
can execute the manoeuvre designed to effect his destruction. The
general situation of the enemy's masses will, in western Europe,
always be sufficiently fixed by the trend of his railway communications,
checked by reports of spies, newspapers, &c., for, with neutral
frontiers everywhere within a few hours' ride for a motor cyclist,
anything approaching the secrecy of the Japanese in Manchuria is quite
unattainable, and, once the great masses begin to move, the only
"shadowing" which holds out any hope of usefulness is that undertaken by
very small selected parties of officers, perfectly mounted, daring
riders, and accustomed to cover distances of 100 m. and upwards. These
will be supported by motor cars and advanced feelers from the field
telegraphs, though probably the motor car would carry the eye-witness to
his destination in less time than it would take to draft and signal a
complete report.


PLATE I.

  [Illustration: SIXTEENTH-CENTURY CAVALRY.

  (Walthausen's _Art militaire de la cavalerie_, circa 1600.)]


PLATE II.

  [Illustration: BATTLE OF STAFFARDA, 1690. (_From a contemporary
  engraving._)]

  [Illustration: ACTION ON THE BULGANAK, 1854. (_From a lithograph by W.
  Simpson._)]

  [Illustration: GERMAN GUARD DRAGOONS. (_Photo, Gebruder Haeckel._)]


Tactical scouting, now as always, is invaluable for securing the safety
of the marching and sleeping troops, and brigade, divisional and corps
commanders will remain dependent upon their own squadrons for the
solution of the immediate tactical problem before them; but, since both
sides will employ mounted men to screen their operations, intelligence
will generally only be won by fighting, and the side which can locally
develop a marked fire superiority will be the more likely to obtain the
information it requires. In this direction the introduction of the motor
car and of cyclists is likely to exercise a most important influence,
but, whatever may be the conveyance, it must be looked upon as a means
of advance only, never of retreat. The troops thus conveyed must be used
to seize villages or defiles about which the cavalry and guns can
manoeuvre.

_Formations and Drill._--Cavalry, when mounted, act exclusively by
"shock" or more precisely by "the threat of their shock," for the
immediate result of collision is actually decided some instants before
this collision takes place. Experience has shown that the best guarantee
for success in this shock is afforded by a two-deep line, the men riding
knee to knee within each squadron at least. Perfect cavalry can charge
in larger bodies without intervals between the squadrons, but,
ordinarily, intervals of about 10 yds. between adjacent squadrons are
kept to localize any partial unsteadiness due to difficulties of ground,
casualties, &c. The obvious drawbacks of a two-deep line are that it
halves the possible extent of front, and that if a front-rank horse
falls the rear-rank horse generally tumbles over it also. To minimize
the latter evil, the charge in two successive lines, 150 to 200 yds.
apart, has often been advocated, but this has never stood the test of
serious cavalry fighting; first, because when squadrons are galloping
fast and always striving to keep the touch to the centre, if a horse
falls the adjacent horses close in with such force that their sidelong
collision may throw down more and always creates violent oscillation;
and secondly, because owing to the dust raised by the first rank the
following one can never maintain its true direction. It is primarily to
avoid the danger and difficulty arising from the dust that the ranks in
manoeuvre are closed to within one horse's length, as, when moving at
speed, the rear rank is past before the dust has time to rise.

Of all formations, the line is the most difficult to handle, and,
particularly, to conceal--hence various formations in column are
necessary for the preliminary manoeuvres requisite to place the
squadrons in position for the final deployment previous to the charge.
Many forms of these columns have been tried, but, setting aside the
columns intended exclusively for marching along roads, of which
"sections" (four men abreast) is most usual in England, only these
survive:--

  Squadron column.
  Double column of squadrons.
  Half column.

In _squadron column_, the troops of the squadron formed are in line one
behind the other at a distance equal to the front of the troop in line.
The ideal squadron consists of 128 men formed in two ranks giving 64
files, and divided into four troops of 16 files--a larger number of
troops makes the drill too complicated, a smaller number makes each
troop slow and unhandy. When the squadron is weak, therefore, the troop
should still be maintained as near 16 files as possible, the number of
troops being if necessary reduced. Thus with only 32 files, two troops
of 16 files would be better than four of only 8 files.

All other formations of the regiment or brigade are fundamentally
derived from the squadron column, only varying with the order in which
the squadrons are grouped, and the intervals which separate them. Thus
the regiment may move in _line of squadron columns_ at close interval,
i.e. 11 paces apart or in _double column_ as in the diagram. To form
_line_ for the charge, the squadrons open out, still in column, to full
interval, i.e. the width they occupy when in line; and then on the
command "Line to the front," each troop moves up to its place in line as
shown in the diagram. When in line a large body of cavalry can no longer
vary its direction without sacrificing its appearance of order, and as
above pointed out, it is this appearance of order which really decides
the result of the charge before the actual collision. Since, however,
the enemy's movements may compel a change, an intermediate formation is
provided, known as the "half column." When this formation is ordered,
the troops within each squadron wheel half right or left, and each
squadron is then able to form into column or line to the front as
circumstances demand, or the whole line can be formed into column of
troops by continuing the wheel and in this formation gallop out into a
fresh direction, re-forming line by a simple wheel in the shortest
possible time.

[Illustration: Formations]

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G.H. Elliot, _Cavalry Literature_ (1893); v. Bismarck,
  _Uses and Application of Cavalry in War_ (1818, English translation by
  Lieut.-Col. Beamish, 1855); G.T. Denison, _A History of Cavalry_
  (1877); Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, _Letters on Cavalry_
  and _Conversations on Cavalry_ (English translations, 1880 and 1892);
  Colonel Mitchell, _Considerations on Tactics_ (1854) and _Thoughts on
  Tactics and Organization_ (1838); E. Nolan, _Cavalry, its History and
  Tactics_ (1855); Roemer, _Cavalry, its History, Management and Uses_
  (New York, 1863); Maitland, _Notes on Cavalry_ (1878); F.N. Maude,
  _Cavalry versus Infantry and Cavalry, its Past and Future_; C. von
  Schmidt, _Instructions for the Training, Employment and Leading of
  Cavalry_ (English translation, 1881); V. Verdy du Vernois, _The
  Cavalry Division_ (1873); Maj.-Gen. Walker, _The Organization and
  Tactics of the Cavalry Division_ (1876); C.W. Bowdler Bell, _Notes on
  the German Cavalry Regulations of 1886_; F. de Brack, _Light Cavalry
  Outposts_ (English translation); Dwyer, _Seats and Saddles_ (1869); J.
  Jacob, _Views and Opinions_ (1857); F. Hoenig, _Die Kavallerie als
  Schlachtenkorper_ (1884); Sir Evelyn Wood, _Achievements of Cavalry_
  (1893); H.T. Siborne, _Waterloo Letters_; Desbriere and Sautai, _La
  Cavalerie de 1740 a 1789_ (1806); Warnery, _Remarques sur la
  cavalerie_ (1781); v. Canitz, _Histoire des exploits et des
  vicissitudes de la cavalerie prussienne dans les campagnes de Frederic
  II_ (1849); Cherfils, _Cavalerie en campagne_ (1888), _Service de
  surete strategique de la cavalerie_ (1874); Bonie, _Tactique
  francaise, cavalerie en campagne, cavalerie au combat_ (1887-1888);
  Foucart, _Campagne de Pologne, operations de la cavalerie, nov.
  1806-jan. 1807_ (1882), _La Cavalerie pendant la campagne de Prusse_
  (1880); De Galliffet, _Projet d'instruction sur l'emploi de la
  cavalerie en liaison avec les autres armes_ (1880), _Rapport sur les
  grandes manoeuvres de cavalerie de 1879_; Kaehler, _Die preussische
  Reiterei 1806-1876_ (French translation, _La Cavalerie prussienne de
  1806 a 1876_); _Cavalry Studies_ (translated from the French of Bonie
  and the German of Kaehler, with a paper on U.S. cavalry in the Civil
  War); v. Bernhardi, _Cavalry in Future Wars_ (English translation,
  1906); P.S., _Cavalry in the Wars of the Future_ (translated from the
  French by T. Formby, 1905); D. Haig, _Cavalry Studies_ (1907); v.
  Pelet Narbonne, _Die Kavalleriedienst_ (1901). _Cavalry on Service_
  (English translation, 1906); _Erziehung und Fuhrung von Kavallerie_.
  The principal cavalry periodicals are the _Revue de cavalerie_, the
  _Kavalleristische Monatshefte_ (Austrian), the _Cavalry Journal_
  (British), and the _Journal of the U.S. Cavalry Association_.
       (F. N. M.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The loss of the regiment was twenty-eight killed and sixty-six
    wounded.




CAVAN, a county in the province of Ulster, Ireland, bounded N. by
Fermanagh and Monaghan, E. by Monaghan and Meath, S. by Meath, Westmeath
and Longford, and W. by Longford and Leitrim. The area is 477,399 acres,
or about 746 sq. m. The surface of the county is uneven, consisting of
hill and dale, without any great extent of level ground, but only in its
northern extremity attaining a mountainous elevation. The barony of
Tullyhaw, bordering on Fermanagh, a wild dreary mountain district, known
as the kingdom of Glan or Glengavlin, contains the highest land in the
county, reaching 2188 ft. in Cuilcagh, the place of inauguration for the
Maguires, chieftains of Fermanagh, held in veneration by the peasantry,
in connexion with legends and ancient superstitions. The remainder of
the county is not deficient in wood, and contains numerous lakes,
generally of small dimensions, but of much beauty, especially Lough
Oughter, with its many inlets and islands formed by the Erne river,
between the towns of Cavan and Killashandra. The county also shares with
other counties the waters of Lough Gowna and Lough Sheelin, in which, as
elsewhere in the county, the fishing is good. The chief river in the
county is the Erne, which originates in Lough Scrabby, one of the minor
sheets of water communicating with Lough Gowna on the borders of
Longford. The river takes a northerly direction by Killashandra and
Belturbet, being enlarged during its course by the Annalee and other
smaller streams, and finally enters Lough Erne near the northern limit
of the county. The other waters, consisting of numerous lakes and their
connecting streams, are mostly tributary to the Erne. A copious spring
called the Shannon Pot, at the foot of the Cuilcagh Mountain, in the
barony of Tullyhaw, is regarded as the source of the river Shannon. The
Blackwater, a tributary of the Boyne, also rises in this county, near
Bailieborough. Several mineral springs exist in this county, the chief
of which is near the once frequented village of Swanlinbar. In the
neighbourhood of Belturbet, near the small lake of Annagh, is a
carbonated chalybeate spring. There are several other springs of less
importance; and the small Lough Leighs, or Lough-an-Leighaghs, which
signifies the healing lake, on the summit of a mountain between
Bailieborough and Kingscourt, is celebrated for its antiscorbutic
properties. The level of this lake never varies. It has no visible
supply nor vent for its discharge; nor is it ever frozen during the
severest winters.

  _Geology_.--This elongated county includes on the north-west some of
  the highland of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measures that rises above
  Lough Allen. The beds below these are referred to the English Yoredale
  series, and include some flaggy sandstones. It is on this series that
  the Shannon rises, under the high outlier of grit on Cuilcagh. The
  Carboniferous Limestone then stretches down to Cavan town, a bold
  outlier of the higher strata being left above Ballyconnell. The river
  Erne forms, in the limestone area, a characteristic series of
  expansions and loops, with islands between them, known as Lough
  Oughter. At this point we pass on to the axis of underlying Silurian
  strata that runs from Longford to Donaghadee in Co. Down, and the
  country becomes hilly and irregular, culminating about Cross Keys on
  the old Dublin coach-road. A patch of granite, indicating doubtless a
  core like that exposed at Newry, is seen in a hollow at Crossdoney. On
  the south side of this axis of older rocks, we reach Carboniferous
  shale and limestone at Lough Sheelin, and here enter on the great
  central plain. The extreme south-east of the county includes part of
  the Triassic outlier of Kingscourt. The coal-seams and concretions of
  clay-ironstone in the north-west area resemble those mentioned under
  the head of Co. Roscommon. Anthracite, probably of inorganic origin,
  has been mined without permanent success in the Silurian beds near
  Kilnaleck, and is traceable freely, associated with veins of quartz
  and haematite, at Ballyjamesduff a little farther east.

_Climate and Industries._--The climate suffers from the dampness arising
from the numerous lakes and the nature of the soil, and from the
boisterous winds which frequently prevail, more especially in the higher
districts. The soil is generally a stiff clay, cold and watery, but
capable of much improvement by drainage, for which its undulating
surface affords facilities. Only about one-sixteenth of the total area
is quite barren. Agriculture makes little progress; the extent of the
farms being generally small. Oats and potatoes are the principal crops.
Flax, once of some importance, is almost neglected. In the mountainous
parts, however, where the land is chiefly under grazing, the farms are
larger, and in stock-raising the county is progressing.

Cavan is not a manufacturing county. The bleaching of linen and the
distillation of whisky are both carried on to a small extent, but the
people are chiefly employed in agricultural pursuits and in the sale of
home produce. The soil in those districts not well adapted for tillage
is peculiarly favourable for trees. The woods were formerly very
considerable, and the timber found in the bogs is of large dimensions;
but plantations are now chiefly found in demesnes, where they are
extensive.

The county is not well served by railways. The Great Northern from
Clones to Cavan, and the Midland Great Western from Mullingar in
Westmeath to Cavan, form a through line from north to south. The Great
Northern has branches to Belturbet from Ballyhaise, and to Cootehill
from Ballybay; the Midland Great Western has a branch to Killashandra,
and from Navan in Meath to Kingscourt, just within Cavan. The Cavan &
Leitrim railway starts from Belturbet and soon leaves the county to the
west.

_Population and Administration._--The population (111,917 in 1891;
97,541 in 1901), of which about 80% are Roman Catholics, shows a
decrease among the most serious of the Irish counties, and emigration
returns are among the heaviest. The population is almost wholly rural,
the only towns being the small ones of Cavan (pop. 2822, the county
town), Cootehill (1509), Belturbet (1587) and Bailieborough (1004). The
county is divided into eight baronies, and contains thirty-two parishes
and parts of parishes. It is almost entirely within the Protestant and
Roman Catholic dioceses of Kilmore. The assizes are held at Cavan, and
quarter sessions are held at Cavan, Bailieborough, Cootehill and
Ballyconnell. Before the Union the county returned six members to the
Irish parliament, two for the county at large, and two for each of the
boroughs of Cavan and Belturbet; but since that period it has been
represented in the imperial parliament by two members only, for the east
and west divisions.

_History and Antiquities._--At the period of the English settlement, and
for some centuries afterwards, this district was known as the Brenny,
being divided between the families of O'Rourke and O'Reilly; and its
inhabitants, protected by the nature of the country, long maintained
their independence. In 1579 Cavan was made shire ground as part of
Connaught, and in 1584 it was formed into a county of Ulster by Sir John
Perrott, and subdivided into seven baronies, two of which were assigned
to Sir John O'Reilly and three to other members of the family; while the
two remaining, possessed by the septs of Mackernon and Magauran, and
situated in the mountains bordering on O'Rourke's country, were left
subject to their ancient tenures and the exactions of their Irish lord.
The county subsequently came within the scheme for the plantation of
Ulster under James I. The population is less mixed in race than in most
parts of Ulster, being generally of Celtic extraction. Some few remains
of antiquity remain in the shape of cairns, raths and the ruins of small
castles, such as Cloughoughter Castle on an island (an ancient crannog)
of Lough Oughter. Three miles from the town of Cavan is Kilmore, with
its cathedral, a plain erection containing a Romanesque doorway brought
from the abbey of Trinity Island, Lough Oughter. The bishopric dates
from about 1450. A portion of a round tower is seen in the churchyard
of the parish of Drumlane at Belturbet.




CAVAN, a market-town and the county town of Co. Cavan, Ireland, near the
centre of the county, in the west parliamentary division, 85-1/2 m. N.W.
of Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway, and the terminus of a
branch of the Great Northern railway from Clones. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 2822. It is on one of the tributary streams of the Annalee
river, in a broad valley surrounded on every side by elevated ground,
with picturesque environs, notably the demesnes of Farnham and of
Kilmore, which belongs to the bishops of that diocese. Cavan has no
buildings of antiquarian interest, but the principal county institutions
are here, and the most conspicuous building is the grammar school,
founded by Charles I. It was rebuilt in 1819 on an eminence overlooking
one of the main entrances into the town, and is capable of accommodating
100 resident pupils. The college of St Patrick is near the town. Cavan
has some linen trade, and a considerable retail business is transacted
in the town. A monastery of Dominican friars, founded by O'Reilly,
chieftain of the Brenny, formerly existed here, and became the
burial-place of the celebrated Irish general, Owen O'Neill, who died as
is supposed by poison, in 1649, at Cloughoughter. There was also the
castle of the O'Reillys, but this and all other antiquities of the town
were swept away during the violent and continuous feuds to which the
country was subjected. In 1690 the chief portion of the town was burned
by the Enniskilleners under General Wolseley, when they routed a body of
James II.'s troops under the duke of Berwick.




CAVANILLES, ANTONIO JOSE (1745-1804), Spanish botanist, was born at
Valencia on the 16th of January 1745. He was educated at the university
of that town, and in 1777 went to Paris, where he resided twelve years,
engaged in the study of botany. In 1801 he became director of the
botanic gardens at Madrid, where he died on the 4th of May 1804. In
1785-1786 he published _Monadelphiae Classis Dissertationes X._, and in
1791 he began to issue _Icones et descriptiones plantarum Hispaniae_.

His nephew, ANTONIO CAVANILLES (1805-1864), was a distinguished
advocate, and the author of a history of Spain, published at Madrid in
1860-1864.




CAVATINA (Ital. diminutive of _cavata_, the producing of tone from an
instrument, plural _cavatine_), originally a short song of simple
character, without a second strain or any repetition of the air. It is
now frequently applied to a simple melodious air, as distinguished from
a brilliant aria, recitative, &c., and often forms part of a large
movement or _scena_ in oratorio or opera.




CAVE, EDWARD (1691-1754), English printer, was born at Newton,
Warwickshire, on the 27th of February 1691. His father, Joseph Cave, was
of good family, but the entail of the family estate being cut off, he
was reduced to becoming a cobbler at Rugby. Edward Cave entered the
grammar school of that town, but was expelled for robbing the master's
hen-roost. After many vicissitudes he became apprentice to a London
printer, and after two years was sent to Norwich to conduct a printing
house and publish a weekly paper. While still a printer he obtained a
place in the post office, and was promoted to be clerk of the franks. He
was at this time engaged in supplying London newsletters to various
country papers; and his enemies, who had twice summoned him before the
House of Commons for breach of privilege, now accused him of opening
letters to obtain his news, and he was dismissed the service. With the
capital which he had saved, he set up a small printing office at St
John's Gate, Clerkenwell, which he carried on under the name of R.
Newton. He had long formed a scheme of a magazine "to contain the essays
and intelligence which appeared in the two hundred half-sheets which the
London press then threw off monthly," and had tried in vain to persuade
some publisher to take it up. In 1731 he himself put it into execution,
and began the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (see PERIODICALS), of which he was
the editor, under the pseudonym "Sylvanus Urban, Gent." The magazine had
a large circulation and brought a fortune to the projector. In 1732 he
began to issue reports of the debates in both Houses of Parliament. He
commissioned friends to note the speeches, which he published with the
initial and final letters of personal names. In 1738 Cave was censured
by parliament for printing the king's answer to an address before it had
been announced by the speaker. From that time he called his reports the
debates of a "parliament in the empire of Lilliput" (see REPORTING). To
piece together and write out the speeches for this publication was
Samuel Johnson's first literary employment. In 1747 Cave was reprimanded
for publishing an account of the trial of Lord Lovat, and the reports
were discontinued till 1752. He died on the 10th of January 1754. Cave
published Dr Johnson's _Rambler_, and his _Irene, London_ and _Life of
Savage_, and was the subject of a short biography by him.




CAVE, WILLIAM (1637-1713), English divine, was born at Pickwell in
Leicestershire. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, and
successively held the livings of Islington (1662), of All-Hallows the
Great, Thames Street, London (1679), and of Isleworth in Middlesex
(1690). Dr Cave was chaplain to Charles II., and in 1684 became a canon
of Windsor. The two works on which his reputation principally rests are
the _Apostolici_, or History of Apostles and Fathers in the first three
centuries of the Church (1677), and _Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum
Historia Literaria_ (1688). The best edition of the latter is the
Clarendon Press, 1740-1743, which contains additions by the author and
others. In both works he was drawn into controversy with Jean le Clerc,
who was then writing his _Bibliotheque universelle_, and who accused him
of partiality. He wrote several other works of the same nature which
exhibit scholarly research and lucid arrangement. He is said to have
been a good talker and an eloquent preacher. His death occurred at
Windsor on the 4th of July 1713.




CAVE (Lat. _cavea_, from _cavus_, hollow), a hollow extending beneath
the surface of the earth. The word "cavern" (Lat. _caverna_) is
practically a synonym, though a distinction is sometimes drawn between
sea caves and inland caverns, but the term "cave" is used here as a
general description. Caves have excited the awe and wonder of mankind in
all ages, and have been the centres round which have clustered many
legends and superstitions. They were the abode of the sibyls and the
nymphs in Roman mythology, and in Greece they were the temples of Zeus,
Pan, Dionysus, Pluto and the Moon, as well as the places where the
oracles were delivered at Delphi, Corinth and Mount Cithaeron. In Persia
they were connected with the obscure worship of Mithras. Their names
frequently are survivals of the superstitious ideas of antiquity, as,
for example, the Fairy, Dragon's, or Devil's Caves of France and
Germany. Long after the Fairies and Little Men had forsaken the forests
and glens of Germany, they dwelt in their palaces deep in the Harz
Mountains, in the Dwarfholes, &c., whence they came from time to time
into the upper air.

The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus slept their long sleep in a cave. The
hills of Granada are still believed by the Moorish children to contain
the great Boabdil and his sleeping host, who will awake, when an
adventurous mortal invades their repose, to restore the glory of the
Moors in Spain.

Caves have been used in all ages by mankind for habitation, refuge and
burial. In the Old Testament we read that when Lot went up out of Zoar
he dwelt in a cave with his two daughters. The five kings of the
Canaanites took refuge from Joshua, and David from Saul, in the caves of
Palestine, just as the Aquitani fled from Caesar to those of Auvergne,
and the Arabs of Algeria to those of Dahra, where they were suffocated
by Marshal Pelissier in 1845. In Central Africa David Livingstone
discovered vast caves in which whole tribes found security with their
cattle and household stuff.

The cave of Machpelah may be quoted as an example of their use as
sepulchres, and the rock-hewn tombs of Palestine and of Egypt and the
Catacombs of Rome probably owe their existence to the ancient practice
of burial in natural hollows in the rock. We might therefore expect to
find in them most important evidence as to the ancient history of
mankind, which would reach long beyond written record; and since they
have always been used by wild beasts as lairs we might reasonably
believe also that their exploration would throw light upon the animals
which have in many cases disappeared from the countries which they
formerly inhabited. The labours of Buckland, Pengelly, Falconer, Lartet
and Christy, and Boyd Dawkins have added an entirely new chapter to the
history of man in Europe, as well as established the changes that have
taken place in the European fauna. The physical history of caves will be
taken first, and we shall then pass on to the discoveries relating to
man and the lower animals which have been made in them of late years.

_Physical History._--The most obvious agent in hollowing out caves is
the sea. The set of the currents, the force of the breakers, the
grinding of the shingle inevitably discover the weak places in the
cliff, and leave caves as one of the results of their work, modified in
each case by the local conditions of the rock. Those formed in this
manner are easily recognized from their floors being rarely much out of
the horizontal; their entrances are all in the same plane, or in a
succession of horizontal and parallel planes, if the land has been
elevated at successive times. From their inaccessible position they have
been rarely occupied by man. Among them Fingal's Cave, on the island of
Staffa, off the south-west coast of Scotland, hollowed out of columnar
basalt, is perhaps the most remarkable in Europe. In volcanic regions
also there are caves formed by the passage of lava to the surface of the
ground, or by the expansion of steam and gases in the lava while it was
in a molten state. They have been observed in the regions round Vesuvius
and Etna, in Iceland and Teneriffe. We may take as an example the Grotto
del Cane ("cave of the dog"), near Pozzuoli, a few miles to the
south-west of Naples, remarkable for the flow of carbonic acid from
crevices in the floor, which fills the lower part of the cave and
suffocates any small animal, such as a dog, immersed long enough in it.

The most important class of caves, however, and that which immediately
demands our notice, is that composed of those which have been cut out of
calcareous rocks by the action of carbonic acid in the rain-water,
combined with the mechanical friction of the sand and stones set in
motion by the streams which have, at one time or another, flowed through
them. They occur at various levels, and are to be met with wherever the
strata are sufficiently compact to support a roof. Those of Brixham and
Torquay and of the Eifel are in the Devonian limestone; those of Wales,
Somerset, the Pennine chain, Ireland, the central and northern counties
of Belgium, Saxony, and Westphalia, of Maine and Anjou, of Virginia and
Kentucky, are in that of the Carboniferous age. The cave of Kirkdale in
Yorkshire, and most of those in Franconia and Bavaria, penetrate
Jurassic limestones. The Neocomian and Cretaceous limestones contain
most of the caverns of France, rendered famous by the discovery of the
remains of the cave-men along with the animals which they hunted; as
well as those of the Pyrenees, the Alps, Sicily, Greece, Dalmatia,
Carniola and Palestine. The cave of Lunelviel near Montpellier is the
most important of those which have been hollowed in limestones of the
Tertiary age. They are also met with in rocks composed of gypsum; in
Thuringia, for example, they occur in the saliferous and gypseous strata
of the Zechstein, and in the gypseous Tertiary rocks of the
neighbourhood of Paris, as, for example, at Montmorency.

Caves formed by the action of carbonic acid and the action of water are
distinguished from others by the following characters. They open on the
abrupt sides of valleys and ravines at various levels, and are arranged
round the main axes of erosion, just as the branches are arranged round
the trunk of a tree. In a great many cases the relation of the valley to
the ravine, and of the ravine to the cave, is so intimate that it is
impossible to deny that all three have been produced by the same causes.
The caves themselves ramify in the same irregular fashion as the
valleys, and are to be viewed merely as the capillaries in the general
valley system through which the rain passes to join the main channels.
Sometimes, as in the famous caves of Adelsberg, Kentucky, Wookey Hole in
Somersetshire, the Peak in Derbyshire, and in many in the Jura, they are
still the passages of subterranean streams; but very frequently the
drainage has found an outlet at a lower level, and the ancient
watercourses have been deserted. These in every case present
unmistakable proof that they have been traversed by water in the sand,
gravel and clay which they contain, as well as in the worn surfaces of
the sides and bottom. In all districts where there are caves there are
funnel-shaped depressions of various sizes called pot-holes or
swallow-holes, or betoires, "chaldrons du diable," "marmites des
geants," or "katavothra," in which the rain is collected before it
disappears into the subterranean passages. They are to be seen in all
stages, some being mere hollows which only contain water after excessive
rain, while others are profound vertical shafts into which the water is
continually falling. Gaping Ghyl, 330 ft., and Helln Pot in Yorkshire,
300 ft. deep, are examples of the latter class. The _cirques_ described
by M. Desnoyers belong to the same class as the swallow-holes.

The history of swallow-holes, caves, ravines and valleys in calcareous
strata may be summed up as follows:--The calcareous rocks are invariably
traversed by joints or lines of shrinkage, which are lines of weakness
by which the direction of the drainage is determined; and they are
composed to a large extent of carbonate of lime, which is readily
exchanged into soluble bicarbonate by the addition of carbonic acid. The
rain in its passage through the air takes up carbonic acid, and it is
still further charged with it in percolating through the surface soil in
which there is decomposing vegetable matter. As the raindrops converge
towards some one point, determined by some local accident on the
surface, and always in a line of joint, the carbonic acid attacks the
carbonate of lime with which it comes into contact, and thus a funnel is
gradually formed ending in the vertical joint below. Both funnel and
vertical joint below are being continually enlarged by this process.
This chemical action goes on until the free carbonic acid is used up.
The subterranean passages are enlarged in this manner, and what was
originally an insignificant network of fissures is developed into a
series of halls, sometimes as much as from 80 to 100 ft. high. These
results are considerably furthered by the mechanical friction of the
pebbles and sand hurried along by the current, and by falls of rock from
the roof produced by the removal of the underlying strata. In many cases
the results of this action have produced a regular subterranean river
system. The thick limestones of Kentucky, for example, are traversed by
subterranean waters which collect in large rivers, and ultimately appear
at the surface in full power. The river Axe, near Wells, the stream
flowing out of the Peak Cavern at Castleton, Derbyshire, that at
Adelsberg in Carniola, flow out of caverns in full volume. The river
Styx and the waters of Acheron disappear in a series of caverns which
were supposed to lead down to the infernal regions.

If the direction of the drainage in the rock has been altered, either by
elevations such as those with which the geologist is familiar, or by the
opening out of new passages at a lower level, these watercourses become
dry, and present us with the caves which have afforded shelter to man
and the wild animals from the remotest ages, sometimes high up on the
side of a ravine, at other times close to the level of the stream at the
bottom.

Caves, as a general rule, are as little effected by disturbances of the
rock as the ravines and valleys, which have been formed, in the main,
irrespective of the lines of fault or dislocation.

We must now examine what happens to the bicarbonate of lime which has
been formed by the action of the acid on the limestone. If a current of
air play upon the surface of the water, the carbonic acid, which floats
up the lime, so to speak, is given off and the insoluble carbonate is
deposited, and as a result of this action we have the elaborate and
fantastic stony incrustations termed stalactites and stalagmites. The
water percolating through the rock covers the sides of the cavern with a
stalactitic drapery, and if a line of drops persistently falls from the
same point to the floor, the calcareous deposit gradually descends from
the roof, forming in some cases stony tassels, and in others long
columns which are ultimately united to the calcareous boss formed by the
plash of the water on the floor. The surface also of the pools is
sometimes covered over with an ice-like sheet of stalagmite, which
shoots from the sides, and sometimes forms a solid and firm floor when
the water on which it was supported has disappeared. Sometimes the drops
form a little calcareous basin, beautifully polished inside, which
contains small pearl-like particles of carbonate of lime, polished by
friction one against the other. The most beautiful stalactitic caves in
Great Britain are those of Cheddar in Somerset, Caldy Island and Poole's
Cavern at Buxton. A portion only of the carbonate of lime is thus
deposited in the hollows of the rock from which it was taken; the rest
is carried into the open air by the streams, in part deposited on the
sides and bottom, forming tufa and the so-called petrifications, and
partly being conveyed down to the sea to be ultimately secreted in the
tissues of the Mollusca, Echinodermata and Foraminifera. Through these
it is again collected in a solid form, and in the long course of ages it
is again lifted up above the level of the water as limestone rock, and
again undergoes the same series of changes. Thus the cycle of carbonate
of lime is a neverending one from the land to the ocean, from the ocean
to the land, and so it has been ever since the first stratum of
limestone was formed out of the remains of the animals and plants of the
sea. The rate of the accumulation of stalagmite in caverns is
necessarily variable, since it is determined by the presence of varying
currents of air. In the Ingleborough cavern a stalagmite, measured in
1839 and in 1873, is growing at the rate of .2946 in. per annum. It is
obvious, therefore, that the vast antiquity of deposits containing
remains of man underneath layers of stalagmite cannot be inferred from a
thickness of a few inches or even of a few feet.

The intimate relation which exists between caves and ravines renders it
extremely probable that many of the latter have been originally
subterranean watercourses, which have been unroofed by the degradation
of the rock. In all limestone districts ravines are to be found
continued in the same direction as the caves, and the process of
atmospheric erosion may be seen in the fallen blocks of stone which
generally are to be met with at the mouths of the caverns. In
illustration of this the valley and caves of Weathercote, in Yorkshire,
may be quoted, or the source of the Axe at Wookey; and the ravine formed
in this way has very frequently been widened out into a valley by the
action of subaerial waste, or by the grinding of glaciers through it
during the glacial stage of the Pleistocene period.

  For further details as to the physical history of caverns we must
  refer the reader to the works quoted at the end of this article, by
  E.A. Martel, the intrepid explorer of most of the large European
  caves, including those of Great Britain and Ireland. The history of
  the _Glacieres_ or Ice-caves will be found in Browne's _Ice Caves in
  France and Switzerland_.

_Classification._--The caves which have offered shelter to the
_mammalia_ are classified according to their contents, and are of
various ages, ranging from the Pliocene to the present day. (1) Those
containing the Pliocene _mammalia_ belong to that age. (2) Those with
the remains of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and other extinct species,
or with paleolithic man (see ARCHAEOLOGY), are termed Pleistocene. These
are sometimes called Quaternary, under the mistaken idea that they
belong to an age succeeding the Tertiary period. (3) Those which contain
the remains of the domestic animals in association with the remains of
man either in the Neolithic, Bronze or Iron stages of civilization are
termed Prehistoric. (4) The fourth group consists of those which can be
brought into relation with the historic period, and are therefore termed
Historic.

_The Pliocene Caves._--It is a singular fact, only to be explained by
the vast denudation of the earth's surface since the Pliocene Age, that
only one cave referable to that age has as yet been discovered, that at
Doveholes near Buxton, Derbyshire, described by Boyd Dawkins in 1903
(_Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._). The cave consists of a large horizontal
chamber and a small passage, connected with a swallow-hole close by, and
exposed in the working face of a quarry in 1901, at a depth of about 40
ft. from the surface. The locality is in the limestone plateau, 1158 ft.
high, which forms the divide between the waters flowing into the Mersey
on the west and the Humber on the east. Both swallow-hole and cave were
completely blocked up with debris, and the latter was filled with red
and yellow clay, horizontally stratified and containing pebbles of
sandstone from the neighbouring ridge of Axe Edge, and bones and teeth
of fossil mammals, some waterworn and others without traces of transport
by water. All the mammals belong to well-known species found in the
Pliocene strata of East Anglia, and in Auvergne and Italy. Among them
were the sabre-toothed lion (_Machairodus crenatidens_), the hyena of
Auvergne, the mastodon, and the southern elephant (_E. meridionalis_),
and rhinoceros (_R. Etruscus_), and Steno's horse. Most of the bones had
evidently been gnawed by hyenas and accumulated in one of their dens,
and had afterwards been carried by water into the chambers deep down in
the rock, where they were found. Since that time the general level of
the district has been lowered by denudation to an extent of more than
230 ft., and all the hyena dens destroyed with the Pliocene surface not
only in this district but generally over the world. In this case a
covering of limestone some 270 ft. thick, including the depth from the
present surface, protected the remains from the denuding forces.

_The Pleistocene Caves._--The search after _ebur fossile_ or unicorns'
horn, or in other words the fossil bones which ranked high in the
_materia medica_ of the 16th and 17th centuries, led to the discovery of
the ossiferous caverns of the Harz Mountains, and of Hungary and
Franconia. The famous cave of Gailenreuth in the last of these districts
was explored by Goldfuss in 1810. The bones of the hyena, lion, wolf,
fox and stag, which it contained, were identified by Baron Cuvier, and
some of the skulls have been proved by Busk to belong to the grizzly
bear. They were associated with the bones of the reindeer, horse and
bison, as well as with those of the great cave bear. These discoveries
were of very great interest, because they established the fact that the
above animals had lived in Germany in ancient times. The first bone cave
systematically explored in England was one at Oreston near Plymouth in
1816, which proved that an extinct species of rhinoceros (_R.
leptorhinus_) lived in that district. Four years later the famous hyena
den at Kirkdale in Yorkshire was explored by Buckland. He brought
forward proof that it had been inhabited by hyenas, and that the broken
and gnawed bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, stag, bison and horse
belonged to animals which had been dragged in for food. He pointed out
that all these animals had lived in Yorkshire in ancient times, and that
it was impossible for the carcases of the rhinoceros, hyena and mammoth
to have been floated from tropical regions into the places where he
found their bones. He subsequently investigated bone caves in
Derbyshire, South Wales and Somerset, as well as in Germany, and
published his _Reliquiae Diluvianae_ in 1822, a work which laid the
foundations of the new science of cavehunting in this country. The
well-known cave of Kent's Hole near Torquay furnished McEnery, between
the years 1825 and 1841, with the first flint implements discovered in
intimate association with the bones of extinct animals. He recognized
the fact that they proved the existence of man in Devonshire while those
animals were alive, but the idea was too novel to be accepted by his
contemporaries. His discoveries have since been verified by the
subsequent investigations carried on by Godwin Austen, and ultimately by
the committee of the British Association, which worked for several years
under the guidance of Pengelly. There are four distinct strata in the
cave. 1st, The surface is composed of dark earth, and contains medieval
remains, Roman pottery and articles which prove that it was in use
during the Iron, Bronze and Neolithic Ages. 2nd, Below this is a
stalagmite floor, varying in thickness from 1 to 3 ft., and covering
(3rd) the red earth, which contained bones of the hyena, lion, mammoth,
rhinoceros and other animals, in association with flint implements and
an engraved antler, which proved man to have been an inhabitant of the
cavern during the time of its deposition. 4th, Filling the bottom of the
cave is a hard breccia, with the remains of bears and flint implements,
in the main ruder than those found above; in some places it was no less
than 12 ft. thick. The most remarkable animal found in Kent's Hole is
the sabre-toothed carnivore, _Machairodus latidens_ of Owen. While the
value of McEnery's discoveries was in dispute the exploration of the
cave of Brixham near Torquay in 1858 proved that man was coeval with the
extinct mammalia, and in the following year additional proof was offered
by the implements that were found in Wookey Hole. Similar remains have
been met with in the caves explored since that time in Wales, and in
England as far north as Derbyshire (Creswell), proving that palaeolithic
man hunted the mammoth and rhinoceros and other extinct animals over the
whole of southern and middle England.

The discoveries in Kent's Hole and in the Creswell caves prove further
that palaeolithic man was in two stages of civilization--the ruder or
riverdrift man, with implements of the type found in the river gravels
(see ARCHAEOLOGY; and PALAEOLITHIC) being the older; and the more highly
advanced, or the cave-man, mainly characterized by the better
implements, and a singular facility in depicting animal life (as shown
by the figure of a horse incised on the fragment of a bone found in the
Creswell caves), being the newer. We may also conclude from the absence
of palaeolithic implements from the glaciated regions in which most of
these caves occur, that both riverdrift and cave-men dwelt in middle and
northern Britain in the pre-glacial age, their remains being protected
in the caverns from the denuding forces that removed all traces of their
existence from the surface of the ground in glacial and post-glacial
times. The riverdrift man is, however, proved to be post-glacial in
southern and eastern England, by the occurrence of his implements in the
river gravels of that age. Both these peoples inhabited southern England
and the continent before and after the glacial period. The riverdrift
man, whose implements occur in river deposits in middle and southern
Europe, in Africa, Palestine and Hindustan, is everywhere in the same
age of primitive barbarism, and has not as yet been identified with any
living race. The cave-men are in a higher and more advanced stage, and
led a life in Europe identical with that of the Eskimos in the Arctic
regions.

_The Pleistocene Caves of the European Continent._--The researches of
Mortillet have proved that the same two groups of cave-dwellers occur in
the caves of France, the older being represented by the Chelleen and
Mousterien sections, and the newer by that of Solutre and La Madelaine.
To the former belong the human remains found in the caverns of Spy and
Neanderthal, which prove that the riverdrift man had "the most brutal of
all known human skulls." To the latter we must assign all the caves and
rock-shelters of Perigord, with the better implements, explored by
Lartet and Christy in 1863-1864 in the valleys of the Vezere and
Dordogne. These offer as vivid a picture of the life of the cave-men as
that revealed of Italian manners in the 1st century by the buried cities
of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The old floors of human occupation consist
of broken bones of animals killed in the chase, mingled with rude
implements and weapons of bone and unpolished stone, and with charcoal
and burnt stones, which indicate the position of the hearths. Flakes
without number, awls, lance-heads, hammers and saws made of flint rest
_pele-mele_ with bone needles, sculptured reindeer antlers, arrowheads
and harpoons, and bones of the reindeer, bison, horse, ibex, Saiga
antelope and musk sheep. These singular accumulations of debris mark the
places where the ancient hunters lived, and are merely the refuse cast
aside. The reindeer formed by far the greater portion of the food, and
must have lived in enormous herds at that time in the centre of France.
From this, as well as from the presence of the most arctic of the
herbivores, the musk sheep, we may infer the severe climate of that
portion of France at that time. Besides these animals the cave bear and
lion have been met with in one, and the mammoth in five localities, and
their remains bear marks of cutting or scraping which showed they fell a
prey to the hunters. The most remarkable remains left behind in these
refuse heaps are the sculptured reindeer antlers and figures engraved on
fragments of schist and on ivory. A well-defined outline of an ox stands
out boldly from one piece of antler; a second represents a reindeer
kneeling down in an easy attitude with his head thrown up in the air so
that the antlers rest on the shoulders, and the back forms an even
surface for a handle, which is too small to be grasped by an ordinary
European hand; in a third a man stands close to a horse's head, and on
the other side of the same cylinder are two heads of bisons drawn with
sufficient clearness to ensure recognition by any one who has seen that
animal. On a fourth the natural curvature of one of the tines has been
taken advantage of by the artist to engrave the head and the
characteristic recurved horns of the ibex; and on a fifth horses are
represented with large heads, upright dishevelled manes and shaggy
ungroomed tails. The most striking figure is that of the mammoth
engraved on a fragment of its own tusk; the peculiar spiral curvature of
the tusk and the long mane, which are now not to be found in any living
elephant, prove that the original was familiar to the eye of the artist.
These drawings probably employed the idle hours of the hunter, and hand
down to us the scenes which he witnessed in the chase. They are full of
artistic feeling and are evidently drawn from life. The mammoth is
engraved in its own ivory, and the reindeer and the stag on their
respective antlers. Further researches have revealed the fact that in
Auvergne and in the Pyrenees the cave-men ornamented some of their caves
with incised figures and polychrome frescoes of the wild animals.
Riviere has discovered on the walls of the grotto of La Mouthe
(Dordogne) three large hunting scenes, one with bisons and horses, a
second representing a primitive hut, a bison, reindeer, ibex and
mammoth, and a third with a mammoth, hinds and horses. In the Pyrenees
similar frescoes have been described by Cartailhac and Breuil. They are
on the walls of the cavern and roof of Altamira, and on the walls of
Marsoulas. The outlines have been engraved first, and afterwards filled
in with colour in brown and red ochre and black oxide of manganese.

The cave-men ranged over middle Europe as far south as the Pyrenees and
the Alps, and inhabited the caverns of Belgium and Germany, Hungary and
Switzerland. Their remains have not as yet been met with in southern
Europe. They lived by hunting and fishing, they were fire users, and lit
up the darkness of their caves with stone lamps filled with fat
(Altamira). They were clad in skins sewn together with sinews of
reindeer or strips of intestines. They used huts as well as caves for
habitation. They had a marvellous facility for drawing animal figures.
They possessed no domestic animals, nor were they acquainted with
spinning or with the potter's art. We have no evidence that they buried
their dead--the interments, such as those of Aurignac, Les Eyzies and
Mentone, most probably belonging to a later age.

If these remains be compared with those of existing races, it will be
found that the cave-men were in the same hunter stage of civilization as
the Eskimos, and that they are unlike any other races of hunters. If
they were not allied to the Eskimos by blood, there can be no doubt that
they handed down to the latter their art and their manner of life. The
bone needles, and many of the harpoons, as well as the flint spearheads,
arrowheads and scrapers, are of precisely the same form as those now in
use amongst the Eskimos. The artistic designs from the caves of France,
Belgium and Switzerland, are identical in plan and workmanship with
those of the Eskimos, with this difference only, that the hunting scenes
familiar to the Palaeolithic cave-dwellers were not the same as those
familiar to the inhabitants of the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Each
represented the animals which he knew, and the whale, walrus and seal
were unknown to the inland dwellers of Aquitaine, just as the mammoth,
bison and wild horse are unknown to the Eskimos. The reindeer, which
they both knew, is represented in the same way by both. The practice of
accumulating large quantities of the bones of animals round their
dwelling-places, and the habit of splitting the bones for the sake of
the marrow, are the same in both. The hides were prepared with the same
sort of instruments, and the needles with which they were sewn together
are of the same pattern. The stone lamps were used by both. In both
there was the same disregard of sepulture. All these facts can hardly be
mere coincidences caused by both peoples leading a savage life under
similar conditions. The conclusion, therefore, seems inevitable that, so
far as we have any evidence of the race to which the cave-dwellers
belong, that evidence points only in the direction of the Eskimos. It
is to a considerable extent confirmed by a consideration of the animals
found in the caves. The reindeer and musk sheep afford food to the
Eskimos now in the Arctic Circle, just as they afforded it to the
cave-men in Europe; and both these animals have been traced by their
remains from the Pyrenees to the north-east through Europe and Asia as
far as the very regions in which they now live. The mammoth and bison
also have been tracked by their remains in the frozen river gravels and
morasses through Siberia as far as the American side of Bering Strait.
Palaeolithic man appeared in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in
Europe with them, and in all human probability retreated to the
north-east along with them.

There are refuse heaps in north-eastern Siberia containing the remains
of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros as well as the reindeer and musk
sheep, which may be referred with equal justice to the cave-men or to
the Eskimos.

_Ancient Geography of Europe._--The remains of man and the animals
described in the preceding paragraphs have been introduced into the
caves either by man or the wild beasts, or by streams of water, which
may or may not now occupy their ancient courses; and the fact that the
same species are to be met with in the caves of France, Switzerland and
Britain implies that our island formed part of the continent, and that
there were no physical barriers to prevent their migration from the Alps
as far to the north-west as Ireland.

The same conclusion may be gathered from the exploration of caves in the
south of Europe, which has resulted in the discovery of African species,
in Gibraltar, Sicily and Malta. In the first of these the spotted hyena,
the serval and Kaffre cat lie side by side with the horse, grizzly bear
and slender rhinoceros (_R. leptorhinus_)--see Falconer's
_Palaeontographical Memoirs_. To these African animals inhabiting the
Iberian peninsula in the Pleistocene age, Lartet has added the African
elephant and striped hyena, found in a stratum of gravel near Madrid,
along with flint implements. The hippopotamus, spotted hyena and African
elephant occur in the caves of Sicily, and imply that in ancient times
there was a continuity of land between that spot and Africa, just as the
presence of the _Elephas antiquus_ proves the non-existence of the
Straits of Messina during a portion, to say the least, of the
Pleistocene age. A small species of hippopotamus (_H. Pentlandi_) occurs
in incredible abundance in the Sicilian caves. It has also been found in
those of Malta along with an extinct pigmy elephant species (_E.
Melitensis_). It has also been discovered in Candia and in the
Peloponnese. For these animals to have found their way to these regions,
a continuity of land is necessary. The view advanced by Dr Falconer and
Admiral Spratt, that Europe was formerly connected with Africa by a
bridge of land extending southwards from Sicily, is fully borne out by
these considerations. The present physical geography of the
Mediterranean has been produced by a depression of land to the amount of
about 400 fathoms, by which the Sicilo-African and Ibero-African
barriers have been submerged, and Crete and Malta separated from the
South-European continent. It is extremely probable that this submergence
took place at the same time that the adjoining sea-bottom was elevated
to about the same amount so as to constitute that region now known as
the Sahara.

_Pleistocene Caves of the Americas and Australia._--The Pleistocene
caverns of the Euro-Asiatic continent contain the progenitors of the
animals now alive in some parts of the Old World, the extinct forms
being closely allied to those now living in the same geographical
provinces. Those of Brazil and of Pennsylvania present us with animals
whose nearest analogues are to be found in North and South America, such
as sloths, armadillos and agoutis. Those, again, of Australia present us
with marsupials (_metatheria_) only, allied to, or identical with, those
of that most ancient continent. The extinct forms in each case are
mainly those of the larger animals, which, from their large size, and
low fecundity, would be specially liable to be beaten in the battle for
life by their smaller and more fertile contemporaries, and less likely
to survive those changes in their environment which have undoubtedly
taken place in the long lapse of ages. It is, therefore, certain that
the mammalian life in the Old, New and Australian worlds, was as well
marked out into geographical provinces in the Pleistocene age as at the
present time, and that it has been continuous in these areas from that
remote time to the present day.

_Prehistoric Caves of Neolithic Age in Europe._--The prehistoric caves
are distinguished from Pleistocene by their containing the remains of
domestic animals, and by the wild animals to which they have afforded
shelter belonging to living species. They are divisible into three
groups according to the traces of man which occur in them--into the
Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages.

The Neolithic caves are widely spread throughout Europe, and have been
used as the habitations and tombs of the early races who invaded Europe
from the East with their flocks and herds. The first of these
systematically explored was at Perthi Chwareu, near the village of
Llandegla, Denbighshire, in 1869. In the following years five others
were discovered close by, as well as a second group in the neighbourhood
of Cefn on the banks of the Elwy. They contained polished celts, flint
flakes, rude pottery and human skeletons, along with the broken bones of
the pig, dog, horse, Celtic shorthorn and goat. The remains of the wild
animals belong to the wolf, fox, badger, bear, wild boar, stag, roe,
hare and rabbit. Most of the bones were broken or cut, and the whole
group was obviously an accumulation which resulted from these caves
having been used as dwellings. They had subsequently been used for
burial. The human skeletons in them were of all ages, from infancy to
old age; and the interments had been successive until each became
filled. The bodies were buried in the contracted posture which is so
characteristic of Neolithic interments generally. The men to whom these
skeletons belonged were a short race, the tallest being about 5 ft. 6
in., and the shortest 4 ft. 10 in.; their skulls are orthognathic, or
not presenting jaws advancing beyond a vertical line dropped from the
forehead, in shape long or oval, and of fair average capacity. The face
was oval, and the cheek bones were not prominent. Some of the
individuals were characterized by a peculiar flattening of the shinbone
(platycnemism), which probably stood in relation to the free action of
the foot that was not hampered by the use of a rigid sole or sandal.
This, however, cannot be looked upon as a race character, or as a
tendency towards a simian type of leg. These Neolithic cave-dwellers
have been proved to be identical in physique with the builders of the
cairns and tumuli which lie scattered over the face of Great Britain and
Ireland. (See Thurnam, _Crania Britannica_.) They have also been met
with abundantly in France. In the Caverne de l'Homme Mort, for example,
in the department of Lozere, explored in 1871, the association of
remains was of precisely the same nature as those mentioned above, and
the human skeletons were of the same small type. The same class of
remains has also been discovered in Gibraltar, in the caves of Windmill
Hill, and some others. The human remains examined by Busk are of
precisely the same type as those of Denbighshire. In the work of Don
Manuel Gongora J. Martinez (_Antiguedades prehistoricas de Andalusia_,
1868), several interments are described in the cave of Murcielagos,
which penetrates the limestone out of which the grand scenery of the
southern Sierra Nevada has been to a great extent carved. In one place a
group of three skeletons was met with, one of which was adorned with a
plain coronet of gold, and clad in a tunic made of esparto grass finely
plaited, so as to form a pattern like that on some of the gold ornaments
in Etruscan tombs. In a second spot farther within, twelve skeletons
formed a semicircle round one covered with a tunic of skin, and wearing
a necklace of esparto grass, ear-rings of black stone, and ornaments of
shell and wild boar tusk. There were other articles of plaited esparto
grass, such as baskets and sandals. There were also flint flakes,
polished-stone axes, implements of bone and wood, together with pottery
of the same type as that from Gibraltar. The same class of remains have
been discovered in the Woman's Cave, near Alhama de Granada. From the
physical identity of the human remains in all these cases it maybe
inferred that in the Neolithic Age a long-headed, small race inhabited
the Iberian peninsula, extending through France, as far north as
Britain, and to the north-west as far as Ireland--a race considered by
Professor Busk "to be at the present day represented by at any rate a
part of the population now inhabiting the Basque provinces." This
identification of the ancient Neolithic cave-dwellers with the modern
Basque-speaking inhabitant of the western Pyrenees is corroborated by
the elaborate researches of Broca, Virchow and Thurnam on modern Basque
skulls. It may, therefore, be concluded that in the Neolithic Age an
Iberian population occupied the whole of the area mentioned above,
inhabiting caves and burying their dead in caves and chambered tombs,
and possessed of the same habits of life. The remains of the same small,
oval-featured, long-headed race have been found in Belgium in the cave
of Chauvaux, and they have been described by Sergi in southern Europe
under the name of the Mediterranean race.

There is no evidence that any other race except the Iberic buried their
dead in the caves of Britain in the Neolithic Age. In Belgium, however,
the exploration of the cave of Sclaigneaux by Soreil proves that
broad-headed men of the type defined by Huxley and Thurnam as
brachycephalic, and characterized by high cheek-bones, projecting
muscles and large stature, the average height being 5 ft. 8.4 in.
(Thurnam), inhabited and buried their dead in the caves of that region.
In France they occur in the sepulchral cave of Orrouy (Oise) in
association with those of the Iberic type. They have also been met with
in Gibraltar. This type is undistinguishable from the Celtic (Goidelic)
or Gaulish, found so abundantly in the chambered tombs of the Neolithic
Age in France. Both these ancient races are represented at the present
day by the Basques and Aquitanians of France and Spain, and by the Celts
or Gauls of France, Britain and the Mediterranean border of Spain, their
relative antiquity being proved by an appeal to their history and
geographical distribution. For just as the earliest records show that
the Iberic power extended as far north as the Loire, and as far east as
the Rhone, so we have proof of the gradual retrocession of the Iberic
frontier southwards, under the attacks of the successive Celtic hordes,
until ultimately we find the latter in possession of a considerable part
of southern Spain, forming by their union with the conquered the
powerful nation of Celt-Iberi. The Iberians were in possession of the
continent before they were dispossessed by the Goidels, and at a later
time by the Brythons. They are recognized by Tacitus in Britain in the
Silures of Wales; and they are still to be seen in the small, dark,
lithe inhabitants of North Wales. The discovery of the characteristic
skulls of both these races in the same family vault in the cave of Gop
near Prestatyn, Flintshire, proves that the two races were mingled
together in Britain as far back as the Bronze Age.

From the present distribution of this non-Aryan race it is obvious that
they were gradually pushed back westward by the advance of tribes coming
from the East, and following those routes which were subsequently taken
by the Low and High Germans.

The exploration of the Grotta dei Colombi, in the island of Palmaria,
overlooking the Gulf of Spezzia, in 1873, proves that the stories
scattered through the classical writers, that the caves on the
Mediterranean shores were inhabited by cannibals, are not altogether
without foundation. In it broken and cut bones of children and young
adults were found along with those of the goat, hog, fox, wolf,
wild-cat, flint flakes, bone implements and shells perforated for
suspension.

_Prehistoric Caves of Bronze and Iron Ages._--The extreme rarity of
articles of bronze in the European caves implies that they were rarely
used by the Bronze folk for habitation or burial. Bronze weapons mingled
with gold ornaments have, however, been discovered in the Heatheryburn
cave near Stanhope, Durham, as well as in those of Kirkhead in Cartmell,
in Thor's cave in Staffordshire, and the Cat Hole in Gower in
Glamorganshire. In the Iberian peninsula the cave of Cesareda, explored
by Signor Delgado, in the valley of the Tagus, contained bronze
articles, associated with broken and cut human bones, as well as those
of domestic animals, rendering it probable that cannibalism was
practised in early times in that region. Busk believes, however, that
the facts are insufficient to support the charge of cannibalism against
the ancient Portuguese.

Caves containing articles of iron, and therefore belonging to that
division of the prehistoric age, are so unimportant that they do not
deserve notice in this place. As man increased in civilization he
preferred to live in houses of his own building, and he no longer buried
his dead in the natural sepulchres provided for him in the rock.

Prehistoric caves have been rarely explored in extra-European areas.
Among those which abound in Palestine, one in Mount Lebanon, examined by
Canon Tristram, contained flint implements along with charcoal and
broken bones and teeth, some of which may be referred to a small ox,
undistinguishable from the small short-horn, _Bos longifrons_. In North
America the remains found by F.W. Putnam in the caves of Kentucky,
consisting of moccasins, rudely-plaited cloth, and other articles, may
be referred to the same division.

_Historic Caves in Britain._--The historic caves have only attracted
notice in fairly recent years, and in Britain alone, principally through
the labours of the Settle Cave Committee from the year 1869 to the
present day. To them is due the exploration of the Victoria cave, which
had been discovered and partially investigated as early as the year
1838. It consists of three large ill-defined chambers opening on the
face of the cliff, 1450 ft. above the sea, and filled with debris very
nearly up to the roof. It presented three distinct eras of
occupation--one by hyenas, which dragged into it rhinoceroses, bisons,
mammoths, horses, reindeer and bears. This was defined from the next
occupation, which is probably of the Neolithic Age, by a layer of grey
clay, on the surface of which rested a bone harpoon and a few flint
flakes and bones. Then after an interval of debris at the entrance was a
layer of charcoal, broken bones, fragments of old hearths, and numerous
instruments of savage life associated with broken pottery, Roman coins,
and the rude British imitations of them, various articles of iron, and
elaborate personal ornaments, which implied a considerable development
of the arts. The evidence of the coins stamps the date of the occupation
of the cave to be between the first half of the 5th century and the
English conquest. Some of the brooches present a peculiar flamboyant and
spiral pattern in relief, of the same character as the art of some of
the illuminated manuscripts, as for example one of the Anglo-Saxon
gospels at Stockholm, and of the gospels of St Columban in Trinity
College, Dublin. It is mostly allied to that work which is termed by
Franks late Celtic. From its localization in Britain and Ireland, it
seems to be probable that it is of Celtic derivation; and if this view
be accepted, there is nothing at all extraordinary in its being
recognized in the illuminated Irish gospels. Ireland, in the 6th and 7th
centuries, was the great centre of art, civilization and literature; and
it is only reasonable to suppose that there would be intercourse between
the Irish Christians and those of the west of Britain, during the time
that the Romano-Celts, or Brit-Welsh, were being slowly pushed westwards
by the heathen English invader. Proof of such an intercourse we find in
the brief notice of the _Annales Cambriae_, in which Gildas, the
Brit-Welsh historian, is stated to have sailed over to Ireland in the
year A.D. 565. It is by no means improbable that about this time there
was a Brit-Welsh migration into Ireland, as well as into Brittany.
Objects with these designs found in Germany are probably directly or
indirectly due to the Irish missionaries, who spread Christianity
through those regions. The early Christian art in Ireland grew out of
the late Celtic, and is to a great extent free from the influence of
Rome, which is stamped on the Brit-Welsh art of the same age in this
country.

Several other ornaments with enamel deserve especial notice. The enamel,
composed of red, blue and yellow, has been inserted into the hollows in
the bronze, and then heated so as to form a close union with it. They
are of the same design as those which have been met with in late Roman
tumuli in this country, and in places which are mainly in the north.
They all belong to a class named late Celtic by Franks, and are
considered by him to be of British manufacture. This view is supported
by the only reference to the art of enamelling furnished by the
classical writers. Philostratus, a Greek sophist in the court of Julia
Domna, the wife of the emperor Severus, writes, "It is said that the
barbarians living in the ocean pour these colours (those of
horse-trappings) on heated bronze, and that these adhere, grow as hard
as stone, and preserve the designs that are made in them." It is worthy
of remark that, since the emperor Severus built the wall which bears his
name, marched in person against the Caledonians, and died at York, the
account of the enamels may have reached Philostratus from the very
district in which the Victoria Cave is situated.

Associated with these were bronze ornaments inlaid with silver, and
miscellaneous iron articles, among which was a Roman key. Remains of
this kind have been met with in the Albert and Kelko caves in the
neighbourhood, in that of Dowkerbottom near Arncliffe, in that of
Kirkhead on the northern shore of Morecambe Bay, in Poole's Cavern near
Buxton, and in Thor's Cave near Ashbourne, and over a wide area ranging
from Yorkshire and the Lake district southwards into Somerset and Devon.

  _List of Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh
  Strata in Caves._

                              Thor's Cave.----------------------+
                           Poole's Cavern.------------------+   |
                                 Kirkhead.--------------+   |   |
                             Dowkerbottom.----------+   |   |   |
                                    Kelko.------+   |   |   |   |
                                 Victoria.--+   |   |   |   |   |
                                            |   |   |   |   |   |
  +---------------------------------------+-|-+-|-+-|-+-|-+-|-+-|-+
  |            Animals.                   | v | v | v | v | v | v |
  +---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+
  |DOMESTIC--                             |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |  _Canis familiaris_. Dog              | X | X | X | X | X | ? |
  |  _Sus scrofa_. Pig                    | X | X | X | X | X | ? |
  |  _Equus caballus_. Horse              | X | X | X | X | X | ? |
  |  _Bos longifrons_. Celtic short-horn  | X | X | X | X | X | ? |
  |  _Capra hircus_. Goat                 | X | X | X | X | X | ? |
  |                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |WILD--                                 |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |  _Canis vulpes_. Fox                  | X |   | X | X | X | ? |
  |  _Meles taxus_. Badger                | X |   | X |   |   | X |
  |  _Cervus elaphus_. Stag               | X |   | X | X | X | ? |
  |  _Cervus capreolus_. Roe              | X |   | X | X |   | ? |
  |                                       |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  |  Roman coins, or imitations           | X | X | X | X | X | X |
  |  Enamelled ornaments, in bronze       | X | X | X | X |   |   |
  |  Bronze ornaments, inlaid with silver | X | X | X |   | X |   |
  |  Iron articles                        | X | X | X |   | X | X |
  |  Samian ware                          | X |   | X |   | X | X |
  |  Black ware                           | X | X | X |   | X | X |
  |  Bone spoon fibulae                   | X | X | X |   |   |   |
  |  Bone combs                           | X | X | X |   |   | X |
  +---------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+

It is obvious in all these cases that men accustomed to luxury and
refinement were compelled, by the pressure of some great calamity, to
flee for refuge to caves with whatever they could transport thither of
their property. The number of spindle-whorls and personal ornaments
imply that they were accompanied by their families. We may also infer
that they were cut off from the civilization to which they had been
accustomed, because in some cases they extemporized spindle-whorls out
of fragments of Samian ware, instead of using those which were expressly
manufactured for the purpose. Why the caves were inhabited is
satisfactorily explained by an appeal to contemporary history. In the
pages of Gildas, in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, and in the _Annales
Cambriae_, we have a graphic picture of that long war of invasion by
which the inhabitants of the old Roman province of Britannia were driven
back by the Jutes, Angles and Saxons, who crossed over with their
families and household stuff. Slowly, and in the chances of a war which
extended through three centuries, they were gradually pushed back into
Cumberland, Wales and West Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. While this war
was going on the coinage became debased and Roman coins afforded the
patterns for the small bronze minimi, which are to be met with equally
in these caves and in the ruins of Roman cities. As the tide of war
rolled to the west, the English tongue and, until towards the close of
the struggle, the worship of Thor and Odin supplanted the British tongue
and the Christian faith, and a rude barbarism replaced what was left of
the Roman civilization in the island. It is to this period that relics
of this kind in the caves must be assigned. They are traces of the
anarchy of those times, and complete the picture of the desolation of
Britain, revealed by the ashes of the cities and villas that were burnt
by the invader. They prove that the vivid account given by Gildas of the
straits to which his countrymen were reduced was literally true.

The shrines of Zeus in the Idaean and Dictaean caves have been explored
by Halbher and Orsi (_Antichita dell' antro de Zeus Ideo_) and by Arthur
Evans and Hogarth (_Journal of Hellenic Studies_). These discoveries
prove that the cult of Zeus began among the Mycenaean peoples some 2000
years B.C. according to Evans, and was practised far down into the later
Greek times. They show that the Greeks are indebted to the Mycenaean
peoples not only for their art, but for the chief of their divinities.

  AUTHORITIES.--1. Britain: Boyd Dawkins, _Cave-hunting_ (1874); _Early
  Man_ (1880); Mattel, _Irlande et cavernes anglaises_ (1897); Buckland,
  _Reliquiae Diluvianae_ (1821); _Brit. Assoc. Reports_ (1860-1875);
  _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ (1870-1876); _Quart. Geol. Journ._
  (1860-1875); Pengelly, _Trans. Devonshire Association_. 2. The
  European Continent: Martel, _Les Abimes_ (1894); Cartailhac and
  Breuil, _L'Anthropologie_, xv., xvi.; Lartet and Christy, _Reliquiae
  Aquitanicae; Internat. Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology_; Marcel de
  Serres, _Les Ossemens fossiles de Lunel Viel_; Dupont, _L'Homme
  pendant les ages de la pierre dans les environs de Dinant-sur-Meuse_;
  Schmerling, _Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles decouverts dans les
  cavernes de Liege_; Merk, _Excavations at Kesserloch_, transl. J.E.
  Lee (1876). For the chief American caves, see LURAY CAVERN, MAMMOTH
  CAVE, WYANDOTTE CAVE, COLOSSAL CAVERN, JACOB'S CAVERN.     (W. B. D.)




CAVEA, the Latin name given to the subterranean cells in which the wild
beasts were confined prior to the combats in the Roman arena. The term
is sometimes applied to the amphitheatre (q.v.) itself.




CAVEAT (Latin for "let him beware," from _cavere_), in law, a notice
given by the party interested (caveator) to the proper officer of a
court of justice to prevent the taking of a certain step without
warning. It is entered in connexion with dealings in land registered in
the land registry, with the grant of marriage licences, to prevent the
issuing of a lunacy commission, to stay the probate of a will, letters
of administration, &c. Caveat is also a term used in United States
patent law (see PATENTS).

_Caveat emptor_ ("let the buyer beware") is a maxim which implies that
the responsibility for making a bad bargain over a purchase rests on the
purchaser. In an ordinary contract for the sale of goods, there is no
implied warranty or condition as to the quality or fitness for any
particular purpose of the goods supplied, with certain exceptions, and,
therefore, the buyer takes at his own risk. The maxim does not apply (a)
where the buyer, expressly or by implication, makes known to the seller
the particular purpose for which the goods are required, so as to show
that the buyer relies on the seller's skill or judgment, and that the
goods are of a description which it is in the course of the seller's
business to supply; (b) where goods are bought by description from a
seller who deals in goods of that description, for there is an implied
condition that the goods are of merchantable quality, though if the
buyer has actually examined the goods, there is no implied condition as
regards defects which the examination ought to have revealed; (c) where
the usage of trade annexes an implied warranty or condition to the goods
as to their quality or fitness for a particular purpose. The maxim of
_caveat emptor_ is said to owe its origin to the fact that in early
times sales of goods took place principally in market overt. (See
further SALE OF GOODS.)




CAVEDONE, JACOPO (1577-1660), Italian painter, born at Sassuolo in the
Modenese, was educated in the school of the Caracci, and under them
painted in the churches of Bologna. His principal works are the
"Adoration of the Magi," the "Four Doctors," and the "Last Supper"; and
more especially the "Virgin and Child in Glory," with San Petronio and
other saints, painted in 1614, and now in the Bolognese Academy.
Cavedone became an assistant to Guido Reni in Rome; his art was
generally of a subdued undemonstrative character, with rich Titianesque
colouring. In his declining years his energies broke down after his wife
had been accused of witchcraft, and after the death of a cherished son.
He died in extreme poverty, in a stable at Bologna.




CAVENDISH, GEORGE (1500-1562?), English writer, the biographer of
Cardinal Wolsey, was the elder son of Thomas Cavendish, clerk of the
pipe in the exchequer, and his wife, Alice Smith of Padbrook Hall. He
was probably born at his father's manor of Cavendish, in Suffolk. Later
the family resided in London, in the parish of St Alban's, Wood Street,
where Thomas Cavendish died in 1524. Shortly after this event George
married Margery Kemp, of Spains Hall, an heiress, and the niece of Sir
Thomas More. About 1527 he entered the service of Cardinal Wolsey as
gentleman-usher, and for the next three years he was divided from his
wife, children and estates, in the closest personal attendance on the
great man. Cavendish was wholly devoted to Wolsey's interests, and also
he saw in this appointment an opportunity to gratify his master-passion,
a craving "to see and be acquainted with strangers, in especial with men
in honour and authority." He was faithful to his master in disgrace, and
showed the courage of the "loyal servitor." It is plain that he enjoyed
Wolsey's closest confidence to the end, for after the cardinal's death
George Cavendish was called before the privy council and closely
examined as to Wolsey's latest acts and words. He gave his evidence so
clearly and with so much natural dignity, that he won the applause of
the hostile council, and the praise of being "a just and diligent
servant." He was not allowed to suffer in pocket by his fidelity to his
master, but retired, as it would seem, a wealthy man to his estate of
Glemsford, in West Suffolk, in 1530. He was only thirty years of age,
but his appetite for being acquainted with strange acts and persons was
apparently sated, for we do not hear of his engaging in any more
adventures. It is not to be doubted that Cavendish had taken down notes
of Wolsey's conversation and movements, for many years passed before his
biography was composed. At length, in 1557, he wrote it out in its final
form. It was not, however, possible to publish it in the author's
lifetime, but it was widely circulated in MS. Evidently one of these
MSS. fell into Shakespeare's hands, for that poet made use of it in his
_King Henry VIII._, although it is excessive to say, as Singer has done,
that Shakespeare "merely put Cavendish's language into verse." The book
was first printed in 1641, in a garbled text, and under the title of
_The Negotiations of Thomas Wolsey_. The genuine text, from contemporary
MSS., was given to the world in 1810, and more fully in 1815. Until that
time it was believed that the book was the composition of George
Cavendish's younger brother William, the founder of Chatsworth, who also
was attached to Wolsey. Joseph Hunter proved this to be impossible, and
definitely asserted the claim of George. The latter is believed to have
died at Glemsford in or about 1562. The intrinsic value of Cavendish's
_Life of Cardinal Wolsey_ has long been perceived, for it is the sole
authentic record of a multitude of events highly important in a
particularly interesting section of the history of England. Its
importance as a product of biographical literature was first emphasized
by Bishop Creighton, who insisted over and over again on the claim of
Cavendish to be recognized as the earliest of the great English
biographers and an individual writer of particular charm and
originality. He writes with simplicity and with a certain vivid
picturesqueness, rarely yielding to the rhetorical impulses which
governed the ordinary prose of his age.     (E. G.)




CAVENDISH, HENRY (1731-1810), English chemist and physicist, elder son
of Lord Charles Cavendish, brother of the 3rd duke of Devonshire, and
Lady Anne Grey, daughter of the duke of Kent, was born at Nice in
October 1731. He was sent to school at Hackney in 1742, and in 1749
entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he left in 1753, without taking a
degree. Until he was about forty he seems to have enjoyed a very
moderate allowance from his father, but in the latter part of his life
he was left a fortune which made him one of the richest men of his time.
He lived principally at Clapham Common, but he had also a town-house in
Bloomsbury, while his library was in a house in Dean Street, Soho; and
there he used to attend on appointed days to lend the books to men who
were properly vouched for. So methodical was he that he never took down
a volume for his own use without entering it in the loan-book. He was a
regular attendant at the meetings of the Royal Society, of which he
became a fellow in 1760, and he dined every Thursday with the club
composed of its members. Otherwise he had little intercourse with
society; indeed, his chief object in life seems to have been to avoid
the attention of his fellows. With his relatives he had little
intercourse, and even Lord George Cavendish, whom he made his principal
heir, he saw only for a few minutes once a year. His dinner was ordered
daily by a note placed on the hall-table, and his women servants were
instructed to keep out of his sight on pain of dismissal. In person he
was tall and rather thin; his dress was old-fashioned and singularly
uniform, and was inclined to be shabby about the times when the
precisely arranged visits of his tailor were due. He had a slight
hesitation in his speech, and his air of timidity and reserve was almost
ludicrous. He was never married. He died at Clapham on the 24th of
February 1810, leaving funded property worth L700,000, and a landed
estate of L8000 a year, together with canal and other property, and
L50,000 at his bankers.

Cavendish's scientific work is distinguished for the wideness of its
range and for its extraordinary exactness and accuracy. The papers he
himself published form an incomplete record of his researches, for many
of the results he obtained only became generally known years after his
death; yet in spite of the absence of anything approaching
self-advertisement he acquired a very high reputation within his own
country and abroad, recognized by the Institute of France in 1803 when
it chose him as one of its eight foreign associates. Arsenic formed the
subject of his first recorded investigation, on which he was engaged at
least as early as 1764, and in 1766 he began those communications to the
Royal Society on the chemistry of gases, which are among his chief
titles to fame. The first (_Phil. Trans._, 1766) consists of "Three
papers containing experiments on Factitious Airs," dealing mostly with
"inflammable air" (hydrogen), which he was the first to recognize as a
distinct substance, and "fixed air" (carbon dioxide). He determined the
specific gravity of these gases with reference to common air,
investigated the extent to which they are absorbed by various liquids,
and noted that common air containing one part in nine by volume of fixed
air is no longer able to support combustion, and that the air produced
by fermentation and putrefaction has properties identical with those of
fixed air obtained from marble. In the following year he published a
paper on the analysis of one of the London pump-waters (from Rathbone
Place, Oxford Street), which is closely connected with the memoirs just
mentioned, since it shows that the calcareous matter in that water is
held in solution by the "fixed air" present and can be precipitated by
lime. Electrical studies seem next to have engaged his attention, and in
1771 and 1772 he read to the Royal Society his "Attempt to explain some
of the principal phenomena of electricity by an elastic fluid," which
was followed in 1775 by an "Attempt to imitate the effects of the
Torpedo (a fish allied to the ray)" (_Phil. Trans._, 1776). But these
two memoirs contain only a part of the electrical researches he carried
out between 1771 and 1781, and many more were found after his death in a
number of sealed packets of papers. The contents of these for a long
time remained unknown, but ultimately by permission of the duke of
Devonshire, to whom they belonged, they were edited by James Clerk
Maxwell and published in 1879 by the Cambridge University Press as the
_Electrical Researches of the Hon. Henry Cavendish_. About 1777 or 1778
he resumed his pneumatic inquiries, though he published nothing on the
subject till 1783. In that year he described a new eudiometer to the
Royal Society and detailed observations he had made to determine whether
or not the atmosphere is constant in composition; after testing the air
on nearly 60 different days in 1781 he could find in the proportion of
oxygen no difference of which he could be sure, nor could he detect any
sensible variation at different places. Two papers on "Experiments with
Airs," printed in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1784 and 1785, contain his
great discoveries of the compound nature of water and the composition of
nitric acid. Starting from an experiment, narrated by Priestley, in
which John Warltire fired a mixture of common air and hydrogen by
electricity, with the result that there was a diminution of volume and a
deposition of moisture, Cavendish burnt about two parts of hydrogen
with five of common air, and noticed that almost all the hydrogen and
about one-fifth of the common air lost their elasticity and were
condensed into a dew which lined the inside of the vessel employed. This
dew he judged to be pure water. In another experiment he fired, by the
electric spark, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen (dephlogisticated air),
and found that the resulting water contained nitric acid, which he
argued must be due to the nitrogen present as an impurity in the oxygen
("phlogisticated air with which it [the dephlogisticated air] is
debased"). In the 1785 paper he proved the correctness of this
supposition by showing that when electric sparks are passed through
common air there is a shrinkage of volume owing to the nitrogen uniting
with the oxygen to form nitric acid. Further, remarking that little was
known of the phlogisticated part of our atmosphere, and thinking it
might fairly be doubted "whether there are not in reality many different
substances confounded together by us under the name of phlogisticated
air," he made an experiment to determine whether the whole of a given
portion of nitrogen (phlogisticated air) of the atmosphere could be
reduced to nitric acid. He found that a small fraction, not more than
1/120th part, resisted the change, and in this residue he doubtless had
a sample of the inert gas argon which was only recognized as a distinct
entity more than a hundred years later. His last chemical paper,
published in 1788, on the "Conversion of a mixture of dephlogisticated
and phlogisticated air into nitrous acid by the electric spark,"
describes measures he took to authenticate the truth of the experiment
described in the 1785 paper, which had "since been tried by persons of
distinguished ability in such pursuits without success." It may be noted
here that, while Cavendish adhered to the phlogistic doctrine, he did
not hold it with anything like the tenacity that characterized
Priestley; thus, in his 1784 paper on "Experiments on Air," he remarks
that not only the experiments he is describing, but also "most other
phenomena of nature seem explicable as well, or nearly as well," upon
the Lavoisierian view as upon the commonly believed principle of
phlogiston, and he goes on to give an explanation in terms of the
antiphlogistic hypothesis.

Early in his career Cavendish took up the study of heat, and had he
promptly published his results he might have anticipated Joseph Black as
the discoverer of latent heat and of specific heat. But he made no
reference to his work till 1783, when he presented to the Royal Society
some "Observations on Mr Hutchins's experiments for determining the
degree of cold at which quicksilver freezes." This paper, with others
published in 1786 and 1788, is concerned with the phenomena attending
the freezing of various substances, and is noteworthy because in it he
expresses doubt of the supposition that "the heat of bodies is owing to
their containing more or less of a substance called the matter of heat,"
and inclines to Newton's opinion that it "consists in the internal
motion of the particles of bodies." His "Account of the Meteorological
Apparatus used at the Royal Society's House" (_Phil. Trans._, 1776)
contains remarks on the precautions necessary in making and using
thermometers, a subject which is continued in the following year in a
report signed by him and six others.

Cavendish's last great achievement was his famous series of experiments
to determine the density of the earth (_Phil. Trans._, 1798). The
apparatus he employed was devised by the Rev. John Michell, though he
had the most important parts reconstructed to his own designs; it
depended on measuring the attraction exercised on a horizontal bar,
suspended by a vertical wire and bearing a small lead ball at each end,
by two large masses of lead. (See GRAVITATION.) The figure he gives for
the specific gravity of the earth is 5.48, water being 1, but in fact
the mean of the 29 results he records works out at 5.448. Other
publications of his later years dealt with the height of an aurora seen
in 1784 (_Phil. Trans._, 1790), the civil year of the Hindus (_Id._,
1792), and an improved method of graduating astronomical instruments
(_Id._, 1809). Cavendish also had a taste for geology, and made several
tours in England for the purpose of gratifying it.

  A life by George Wilson (1818-1859), printed for the Cavendish Society
  in 1851, contains an account of his writings, both published and
  unpublished, together with a critical inquiry into the claims of all
  the alleged discoverers of the composition of water. Some of his
  instruments are preserved in the Royal Institution, London, and his
  name is commemorated in the Cavendish Physical Laboratory at
  Cambridge, which was built by his kinsman the 7th duke of Devonshire.




CAVENDISH [CANDISH], THOMAS (1555?-1592), the third circumnavigator of
the globe, was born at Trimley St Martin, Suffolk. On quitting Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge (without a degree), he almost ruined himself
by his extravagance as a courtier. To repair his fortune he turned to
maritime and colonial enterprise, and in 1585 accompanied Sir Richard
Grenville to America. Soon returning to England, he undertook an
elaborate imitation of Drake's great voyage. On the 21st of July 1586,
he sailed from Plymouth with 123 men in three vessels, only one of which
(the "Desire," of 140 tons) came home. By way of Sierra Leone, the Cape
Verde Islands and C. Frio in Brazil, he coasted down to Patagonia (where
he discovered "Port Desire," his only important contribution to
knowledge), and passing through Magellan's Straits, fell upon the
Spanish settlements and shipping on the west coast of South and Central
America and of Mexico. Among his prizes were nineteen vessels of worth,
and especially the treasure-galleon, the "Great St Anne," which he
captured off Cape St Lucas, the southern extremity of California
(November 14, 1587). After this success he struck across the Pacific for
home; touched at the Ladrones, Philippines, Moluccas and Java; rounded
the Cape of Good Hope; and arrived again at Plymouth (September 9-10,
1588), having circumnavigated the globe in two years and fifty days. It
is said that his sailors were clothed in silk, his sails were damask,
and his top-mast covered with cloth of gold. Yet by 1591 he was again in
difficulties, and planned a fresh American and Pacific venture. John
Davis (q.v.) accompanied him, but the voyage (undertaken with five
vessels) was an utter failure, much of the fault lying with Cavendish
himself, who falsely accused Davis, with his last breath, of deserting
him (May 20, 1592). He died and was buried at sea, on the way home, in
the summer of 1592.

  See Hakluyt's _Principal Navigations_, (a) edition of 1589, p. 809
  (N.H.'s narrative of the voyage of 1586-1588); (b) edition of
  1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 803-825 (Francis Pretty's narrative of the
  same); (c) edition of 1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 251-253 (on the venture
  of 1585); (d) edition of 1599-1600, vol. iii. pp. 845-852 (John Lane's
  narrative of the last voyage, of 1591-1592); also _Stationers'
  Registers_ (Arber), vol. ii. pp. 505-509; the Molyneux Globe of 1592,
  in the library of the Middle Temple, London, and the Ballads in _Biog.
  Brit._, vol. i. p. 1196.




CAVENDISH, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1505-1557), founder of the English noble
house of Cavendish, was the younger brother of George Cavendish (q.v.).
His father, Thomas, was a descendant of Sir John Cavendish, the judge,
who in 1381 was murdered by Jack Straw's insurgent peasants at Bury St
Edmunds. Of William's education nothing seems known, but in 1530 he was
appointed one of the commissioners for visiting monasteries; he worked
directly under Thomas Cromwell, whom he calls "master" and to whom many
of his extant letters are addressed. In 1541 he was auditor of the court
of augmentations, in 1546 treasurer of the king's chamber, and was
knighted and sworn of the privy council. Under Edward VI. and Mary he
continued in favour at court; during the latter's reign he partially
conformed, but on the occasion of the war with France he with other
Derbyshire gentlemen refused the loan of L100 demanded by the queen. He
died in 1557. Cavendish acquired large properties from the spoils of the
monasteries, but in accordance with the wish of his third wife Elizabeth
he sold them to purchase land in Derbyshire. This wife was the
celebrated "building Bess of Hardwick," daughter of John Hardwicke, of
Hardwicke, Derbyshire; she completed the original building of Chatsworth
House,--begun in 1553 by her husband,--of which nothing now remains. Her
fourth husband was George Talbot, 6th earl of Shrewsbury. By her
Cavendish had six children; an elder son who died without issue;
William, who in 1618 was created earl of Devonshire; Charles, whose son
William became 1st duke of Newcastle; Frances, who married Sir Henry
Pierpont, and was the ancestress of the dukes of Kingston; Elizabeth,
who married Charles Stuart, earl of Lennox, and was the mother of
Arabella Stuart; and Mary, who married Gilbert Talbot, 7th earl of
Shrewsbury.




CAVETTO (Ital. diminutive of _cavo_, hollow), in architecture, the term
given to a hollow concave moulding sometimes employed in the place of
the cymatium of a cornice, as in that of the Doric order of the theatre
of Marcellus. It forms the crowning feature of the Egyptian temples, and
took the place of the cymatium in many of the Etruscan temples.




CAVIARE, or CAVIAR, the roe of various species of _Acipenser_ or
sturgeon (q.v.), prepared, in several qualities, as an article of food.
The word is common to most European languages and supposed to be of Turk
or Tatar origin, but the Turk word _khavyah_ is probably derived from
the Ital. _caviale_; the word does not appear in Russian. The best
caviare, which can only be made in winter and is difficult to preserve,
is the loosely granulated, almost liquid, kind, known in Russia as
_ikra_. It is prepared by beating the ovaries and straining through a
sieve to clear the eggs of the membranes, fibres and fatty matter; it is
then salted with from 4-6% of salt. The difficulty of preparation and of
transport has made it a table delicacy in western Europe, where it has
been known since the 16th century, as is evidenced by Hamlet's "His play
... pleased not the million, 'twas caviare to the general." It is eaten
either as an _hors d'oeuvre_, particularly in Russia and northern Europe
with kummel or other liqueurs, or as a savoury, or as a flavouring to
other dishes. The coarser quality, in Russia known as _pajusnaya_ (from
_pajus_, the adherent skin of the ovaries), is more strongly salted in
brine and is pressed into a more solid form than the _ikra_; it is then
packed in small barrels or hermetically-sealed tins. This forms a staple
article of food in Russia and eastern Europe. Though the best forms of
caviare are still made in Russia, and the greater quantity of the
coarser kinds are exported from Astrakhan, the centre of the trade,
larger amounts are made each year for export in America and also in
Germany, Norway and Sweden. The roe of tunny and mullet, pickled in
brine and vinegar, is used, under the name of "Botargo," along the
Mediterranean littoral and in the Levant.




CAVITE, a fortified seaport, the capital of the province of Cavite,
Luzon, Philippine Islands, and the seat of the principal Asiatic naval
station of the United States, on a forked tongue of land in Manila Bay,
8 m. S. of the city of Manila. Pop. (1903) 4494; with the barrios of San
Roque and Caridad (on the main peninsula), which are under the municipal
government of Cavite (15,630). Cavite is the terminus of a railway which
follows the shore of the bay from Manila. The northern part of the town,
Sangley Point (one of the two forks of the main peninsula), is the
principal coaling station of the U.S. fleet in Asiatic waters. The naval
station proper and the old town of Cavite are on the south fork of the
peninsula. Cavite's buildings are mostly of stone, with upper storeys of
wood; its streets are narrow and crooked. It has five churches (one of
these is an independent Filipino church), and is the seat of a
provincial high school. Cavite has long been the principal naval base of
the Philippine Islands, and one of the four Spanish penitentiaries in
the Islands was here. During the 19th century Cavite was the centre of
political disturbances in the Philippines; in 1896 on the parade ground
thirteen political prisoners were executed, and to their memory a
monument was erected in 1906 at the head of the isthmus connecting with
the main peninsula. The town was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in
1880. It was taken from the Spanish by an American squadron under
Commodore George Dewey in May 1898.




CAVOUR, CAMILLO BENSO, COUNT (1810-1861), Italian statesman, was born at
Turin on the 1st of August 1810. The Bensos, who belonged to the old
Piedmontese feudal aristocracy, were a very ancient house, said to be
descended from a Saxon warrior who settled at Santena in the 12th
century and married a Piedmontese heiress; Camillo's father, the marquis
Michele, married a noble Genevese lady, and both he and his wife held
offices in the household of Prince Borghese, the governor of Piedmont
under Napoleon, and husband of the latter's sister, Pauline Bonaparte.
Being a younger son (his brother Gustavo was the eldest) Cavour was
destined for the army, and when ten years old he entered the military
academy at Turin. On leaving the college at the age of sixteen he was
first of his class, and received a commission in the engineers. He spent
the next five years in the army, residing at Ventimiglia, Genoa, and
various Alpine fortresses to superintend defence works; but he spent his
leisure hours in study, especially of the English language. He soon
developed strongly marked Liberal tendencies and an uncompromising
dislike for absolutism and clericalism, which, as he had not acquired
the art of reticence, made him a suspect in the eyes of the police and
of the reactionaries; at the same time he does not seem to have joined
any secret society, for he was too loyal to conspire against the king
whose uniform he wore, and he did not believe that the time was yet ripe
for a revolution. But after the accession to the throne of Charles
Albert, whom he always distrusted, he felt that his position in the army
was intolerable, and resigned his commission (1831). From that moment we
find him in the ranks of the opponents of the government, although his
was always a loyal and straightforward opposition which held aloof from
conspiracies. During the next few years he devoted himself to the study
of political and social problems, to foreign travel, and to acquiring a
thorough knowledge of practical agriculture. Cavour's political ideas
were greatly influenced by the July revolution of 1830 in France, which
proved that an historic monarchy was not incompatible with Liberal
principles, and he became more than ever convinced of the benefits of a
constitutional monarchy as opposed both to despotism and to
republicanism. But he was not affected by the doctrinaire Liberalism of
the time, and his views were strengthened by his studies of the British
constitution, of which he was a great admirer; he was even nicknamed
"Milord Camillo." He frequently visited Paris and London, where he
plunged into the political and social questions of the day, and
contributed among other essays two admirable and prophetic articles, one
on the Irish question, in which he strongly defended the Union, and
another on the Corn Laws. He applied his knowledge of agriculture to the
management of his father's estate at Leri, which he greatly improved, he
founded the Piedmontese Agricultural Society, and took the lead in
promoting the introduction of steam navigation, railways and factories
into the country.

Thus his mind gradually evolved, and he began to dream dreams of a
united Italy free of foreign influence, but owing to the reactionary
policy of the Piedmontese government he was unable to take any active
part in politics. In 1847, however, the psychological moment seemed to
have arrived, for the new pope, Pius IX., showed marked Liberal
tendencies and seemed ready to lead all the forces of Italian patriotism
against the Austrian domination. The hopes of the Italian Liberals rose
high and the so-called neo-Guelph party, represented by such men as
Vincenzo Gioberti and Cesare Balbo, believed that an Italian
confederation might be formed under the presidency of the pope. Cavour,
although he realized that a really Liberal pope was an impossibility,
saw the importance of the movement and the necessity of profiting by it.
Together with Balbo, P. di Santa Rosa, and M. Castelli, he founded a
newspaper at Turin called _Il Risorgimento_, which advocated the ideas
of constitutional reform in Piedmont, with a view to preparing that
country for an important role in the upheaval which seemed imminent. In
January 1848 the revolution first broke out in Sicily. Cavour, in a
speech before a delegation of journalists, declared that the king must
take a decided line and grant his people a constitution. Strong pressure
was brought to bear on Charles Albert, and after much hesitation he was
induced to grant a charter of liberties (February 8, 1848). Cesare Balbo
was called upon to form the first constitutional ministry; but Cavour
was not offered a seat in it, being suspected by Liberals and
Conservatives alike. He continued his journalistic activity, and his
articles in the _Risorgimento_ came to exercise great influence both on
the king and on public opinion. When the news of the revolt of the
Milanese against the Austrians, known as the Five Days, reached Turin on
the 19th of March, Cavour felt that the time for Piedmont to act with
energy had come, and advocated war against Austria. "After deliberately
weighing each word," he wrote, "we are bound in conscience to declare
that only one path is open to the nation, the government, and the king:
war, immediate war!" Piedmont was the only part of Italy enjoying a
government at once national and independent, and if it did not hasten to
the assistance of the Milanese in their desperate struggle, if possible
before the Austrians were expelled, the monarchy could not survive. The
situation was most critical, and even the British government was not
friendly to Piedmont; but Cavour was prepared to face any danger rather
than see his country inactive. In an article in the _Risorgimento_ he
declared that, while he never believed that material help was to be
expected from England, he was convinced that she would not actively help
Austria to crush the revolution, but that if she did "she would have
against her a coalition not of princes, but of peoples." Cavour's
article made such an impression that it put an end to the king's
vacillations, and a few days after its appearance war was declared
(March 25).

For a few months patriotic and revolutionary enthusiasm carried all
before it. In Hungary, in Germany, in Paris, in Vienna itself the
revolution was triumphant; constitutions were granted, dynasties
tottered and fell, and provisional governments were set up. In all parts
of Italy, too, revolts broke out against the established order. But the
Piedmontese army, although the troops behaved with gallantry, was no
match for Austria's veteran legions, and except in a few minor
engagements, in one of which Cavour's nephew Gustavo was killed, it was
generally unsuccessful, and an armistice was concluded in the summer. In
the meanwhile the elections were being held in Piedmont. Cavour himself
was not returned until the supplementary elections in June, and he took
his seat in parliament on the right as a Conservative. His parliamentary
career was not at first very successful; he was not a ready speaker; his
habit of talking French made Italian difficult for him, and, although
French was at that time allowed in the chamber, he preferred to speak
Italian. But he gradually developed a strong argumentative power, his
speeches became models of concise reasoning, and he rose at times to the
highest level of an eloquence which was never rhetorical. After the
dissolution in January 1849, Cavour was not re-elected. The new
parliament had to discuss, in the first instance, the all-important
question of whether the campaign should be continued now that the
armistice was about to expire. The king decided on a last desperate
throw, and recommenced hostilities. On the 23rd of March the Piedmontese
were totally defeated at Novara, a disaster which was followed
immediately by the abdication of Charles Albert in favour of his son
Victor Emmanuel II.

Although the new king was obliged to conclude peace with Austria and the
Italian revolution was crushed, Cavour nevertheless did not despair; he
believed that so long as the constitution was maintained in Piedmont,
the Italian cause was safe. There were fresh elections in July, and this
time Cavour was returned. He was still in the difficult position of a
moderate Liberal at a time when there seemed to be room for none but
reactionaries and conspirators, but by his consummate ability he
convinced men that his attitude was the right one, and he made it
triumph. His speech on the 7th of March 1850, in which he said that,
"Piedmont, gathering to itself all the living forces of Italy, would be
soon in a position to lead our mother-country to the high destinies to
which she is called," made a deep impression, for it struck the first
note of encouragement after the dark days of the preceding year. He
supported the ministry of which Massimo d' Azeglio was president in its
work of reform and restoration, and in October of the same year, on the
death of Santa Rosa, he himself was appointed minister of agriculture,
industry and commerce. In 1851 he also assumed the portfolio of finance,
and devoted himself to the task of reorganizing the Piedmontese
finances. By far the ablest man in the cabinet, he soon came to dominate
it, and, in his anxiety to dominate the chamber as well, he negotiated
the union of the Right Centre with the Left Centre (a manoeuvre known as
the _connubio_), and promoted the election of Urbano Rattazzi to the
presidency of the chamber. This, which he accomplished without d'
Azeglio's knowledge, led to a split between that statesman and Cavour,
and to the latter's resignation. Cavour has been blamed for not
informing his colleagues of the compact, but for public reasons it was
not desirable that the _connubio_ should be discussed before it was
consummated. D' Azeglio indeed bore no malice, and remained Cavour's
friend. Cavour made use of his freedom to visit England and France
again, in order to sound public opinion on the Italian question. In
London he found the leaders of both parties friendly, and Lord
Palmerston told him that if the constitutional experiment in Piedmont
succeeded the Italian despots were doomed. At this time Sir James Hudson
was appointed British minister at Turin, where he became the intimate
friend of Cavour and gave him valuable assistance. In Paris, Cavour had
a long interview with Prince Louis Napoleon, then president of the
republic, and he already foresaw the great part which that ruler was
destined to play in Italian affairs. He also met several Italian exiles
in France.

On Cavour's return he found the country in the throes of a new cabinet
crisis, in consequence of which, on d' Azeglio's recommendation, he was
invited to form a ministry. By the 4th of November he was prime
minister, a position which he held with two short interruptions until
his death. He devoted the first years of his premiership to developing
the economic resources of the country; but in preparing it for greater
destinies, he had to meet the heavy expenditure by increased taxation,
and some of his measures made him the object of hostile demonstrations,
although he soon outlived his unpopularity. Cavour's first international
difficulty was with Austria; after the abortive rising at Milan in
February 1853, the Austrian government, in addition to other measures of
repression, confiscated the estates of those Lombards who had become
naturalized Piedmontese, although they had nothing to do with the
outbreak. Cavour took a strong line on this question, and on Austria's
refusal to withdraw the obnoxious decree, he recalled the Piedmontese
minister from Vienna, thus by his very audacity winning the sympathy of
the Western powers.

Then followed the Crimean War, in which Cavour first showed his
extraoidinary political insight and diplomatic genius. The first
suggestion of Piedmontese co-operation is usually believed to have come
from England, who desired the Italian contingent, not only as material
assistance, but also in order to reduce the overwhelming French
preponderance. From the Piedmontese point of view there were several
reasons why Cavour should desire his country to participate in the
campaign. Firstly, it was advisable to use every opportunity of making
the Italian question an international one; secondly, by joining the
alliance Piedmont would place the Western powers under an obligation;
thirdly, Cavour, like Balbo, believed that the Italian question was
bound up with the Eastern problem, and as Austria was demanding the
permission of the powers to occupy Alessandria, as a guarantee that
Piedmont would not profit by the war in the East to create trouble in
Italy, Piedmontese participation would in itself prove the best
guarantee; and finally, as he always looked to Italy and not merely to
Piedmont, he felt that, having proved to Europe that Italians could
combine order with liberty, it remained to show that they were capable
of fighting as well. But there were serious difficulties in the way. Had
Austria joined the allies, as at one time seemed probable, Sardinia's
position fighting by her side would have been an impossible one. On the
other hand, Piedmont could not demand definite promises of future aid
from the Western powers as some politicians desired, because these would
never have been given, lest Austria should be offended and driven into
the arms of Russia. Then, both the extreme Conservatives and the extreme
Radicals were opposed to expenditure on foreign adventures for which
they could see no use. In all these difficulties, however, Cavour was
loyally supported by the king, who saw the advantages of Piedmontese
participation, even if unattended by definite promises. General
Dabormida, the minister of foreign affairs, disapproved of this policy
and resigned. The vacant portfolio was offered to d' Azeglio, who
refused it; whereupon Cavour assumed it himself. On the same day
(January 10, 1855) the treaty with France and England was signed, and
shortly afterwards 15,000 Piedmontese troops under General La Marmora
were despatched to the Crimea.

Events at first seemed to justify the fears of Cavour's opponents.
Cholera attacked the Piedmontese soldiers, who for a long time had no
occasion to distinguish themselves in action; public opinion became
despondent and began to blame Cavour, and even he himself lost heart.
Then came the news of the battle of the Tchernaya, fought and won by the
Italians, which turned sadness and doubt into jubilation. Joy was felt
throughout Italy, especially at Milan, where the victory was the first
sign of daylight amid the gloom caused by the return of the Austrians.
Everyone realized that the Piedmontese contingent was fighting Italy's
battles. But to Cavour the announcement that Russia had accepted
Austrian mediation (January 16, 1856) was a great disappointment. He had
always hoped that if the war continued Austria would be forced to side
with Russia in return for the aid given by the emperor Nicholas in
suppressing the Hungarian revolt in 1849, and the Western powers would
then have an opportunity of helping the Italian cause. He sent a
memorandum, at Napoleon's request, to Count Walewski, the French
minister of foreign affairs, setting forth a kind of minimum programme
of Piedmont's claims. On the summoning of the congress of Paris at the
conclusion of the war, Cavour first proposed that d' Azeglio should
represent Piedmont, and on the latter's refusal decided to go himself.
After much discussion, and in spite of the opposition of Austria, who as
mediator occupied a predominant position, behaving "as though she had
taken Sevastopol," Cavour obtained that Piedmont should be treated as
one of the great powers. Although he did not expect that the congress
would liberate Italy, yet by his marvellous diplomatic skill, far
superior to that of his colleagues, he first succeeded in isolating
Austria, secondly in indirectly compromising Napoleon in the Italian
question, and thirdly in getting the wretched conditions of Italy
discussed by the representatives of the great powers, who declared that
some remedy to that state of things was necessary, not in the interests
of Italy alone, but of all Europe. A scheme of reform proposed by Count
Walewski gave Cavour the opportunity to plead the Italian cause, and
from that moment it was manifest to all that the liberation of Italy was
personified in him, the statesman who came to hold all the strings of
European politics in his hands.

Cavour's chief measure of internal reform during this period was a bill
for suppressing all monastic orders unconnected with education,
preaching or charity; this aroused strong opposition from the extremists
of both parties and also from the king, and led to the minister's
resignation. But he was soon recalled, for the country could not do
without him, and the bill was passed (May 29, 1855).

Cavour now saw that war with Austria was merely a question of time, and
he began to establish connexions with the revolutionists of all parts of
Italy, largely by means of La Farina; but it was necessary that this
policy should not be advertised to Europe, and he strongly
discountenanced Mazzini's abortive revolutionary attempts. He continued
to strengthen Piedmont's military resources, and the army soon grew too
large for the country and was obviously destined for more than merely
defensive purposes. But he well knew that although Piedmont must be made
as efficient as possible from the military point of view, it could not
defeat Austria single-handed. He would have preferred an alliance with
Great Britain, who would never demand territorial compensation; but
although British sympathies were wholly Italian, the government was
desperately anxious to avoid war. From Napoleon more was to be hoped,
for the emperor still preserved some of his revolutionary instincts,
while the insecurity of his situation at home made him eager to gain
popularity by winning military glory abroad; but he still hesitated, and
Cavour devoted the whole of his ability to overcoming his doubts. In the
midst of these negotiations came Orsini's attempt on Napoleon's life
(January 14, 1858), which threatened to alienate his Italian sympathies
and cause serious embarrassments to Piedmont. But after some
remonstrances to Piedmont for not acting with sufficient energy against
the revolutionists, the incident was settled: and Napoleon was, in fact,
afraid that if he did not help the Italian cause more such attempts
would be made. A month after the Orsini outrage he laid before Cavour a
proposal for a Franco-Piedmontese alliance and the marriage of Prince
Jerome Bonaparte with Princess Clothilde, the daughter of Victor
Emmanuel.

An "accidental" meeting between Napoleon and Cavour was arranged and
took place at Plombieres in July, and although no one knew what passed,
the news of it fell like a bombshell on the diplomatic world. No
definite treaty was signed, but the basis of an agreement was laid,
whereby France and Piedmont were to declare war against Austria with the
object of expelling her from Italy, and a north Italian state was to be
formed; in exchange for this help France was to receive Savoy and
possibly Nice. But the emperor still hesitated, and refused to decide on
war unless Austria attacked Piedmont; the British government, too, in
its anxiety to preserve peace, was not very friendly to the Italian
cause. Cavour saw that the only way to overcome all these obstacles was
to force Austria's hand. Then there was the danger lest an Italy freed
by French arms should be overwhelmed under French predominance; for this
reason Cavour was determined to secure the co-operation of volunteers
from other parts of Italy, and that the war should be accompanied by a
series of risings against Austria and the local despots. It was also
necessary that the risings should break out in the various provinces
_before_ the Piedmontese and French troops arrived, so that the latter
should not appear as invaders and conquerors, but merely as liberators.

The moment war was seen to be imminent, parties of Italians of all
classes, especially Lombards, poured into Piedmont to enlist in the
army. Cavour also had a secret interview with Garibaldi, with whom he
arranged to organize volunteer corps so that the army should be not
merely that of Piedmont, but of all Italy. Every day the situation grew
more critical, and on the 10th of January 1859 the king in his speech
from the throne pronounced the memorable words "that he could not remain
deaf to the cry of pain (_il grido di dolore_) that reached him from all
parts of Italy"--words which, although actually suggested by Napoleon,
rang like a trumpet-call throughout the land. In the meanwhile the
marriage negotiations were concluded, and during the emperor's visit to
Turin a military convention was signed between the two states, and Savoy
and Nice were promised to France as a reward for the expulsion of the
Austrians from Italy. But the British government was still unfavourable,
and Napoleon, ever hesitating, again sought an excuse for backing out of
his engagements; he jumped at the Russian proposal to settle the Italian
question by means of his own favourite expedient, a congress. To this
Austria agreed on condition that Piedmont should disarm and should be
excluded from the congress; England supported the scheme, but desired
that all the Italian states should be represented. Cavour was in despair
at the turn events were taking, and appealed to Napoleon, actually
threatening to emigrate to America and publish all his correspondence
with the emperor if the latter did not keep his engagements. He decided
at last most reluctantly to accept the English proposal, lest Piedmont
should be abandoned by all, but clung to the hope that Austria would
reject it. On the 19th of April the Austrian emperor, on the advice of
the military party, did reject it; and on the 23rd, to Cavour's
inexpressible joy, Austria sent an ultimatum demanding the disarmament
of Piedmont. Cavour replied that his government had agreed to the
congress proposed by the powers and that it had nothing more to say. On
quitting the chamber that day he said to a friend: "I am leaving the
last sitting of the last Piedmontese parliament"--the next would
represent united Italy. France now allied herself definitely with
Piedmont, and England, delighted at Cavour's acquiescence to her own
proposal and enraged by Austria's ultimatum, became wholly friendly to
the Italian cause. A few days later Austria declared war.

As La Marmora now took the chief command of the army, Cavour added the
ministry of war to the others he already held. His activity at this time
was astounding, for he was virtually dictator and controlled
single-handed nearly all the chief offices of the state. The French
troops entered Piedmont, where they were received with enthusiasm, and
the allies marched into Lombardy; the victory of Magenta, which opened
the gates of Milan to them, was shortly followed by that of Solferino.
The people rose in arms at Parma, Modena, Florence and Bologna, which
had been occupied by Austria for the pope since 1849; the local princes
were expelled and provisional governments set up. Cavour sent special
commissioners to take charge of the various provinces in Victor
Emmanuel's name. But these events, together with Prussia's menacing
attitude, began to alarm Napoleon, who, although he wished to destroy
Austrian influence in Italy, was afraid of a large and powerful Italian
state. Consequently, after Solferino, he concluded an armistice with
Austria at Villafranca on the 8th of July, without previously informing
Cavour. When Cavour heard of it he was thunderstruck; he immediately
interviewed the king at Monzambano, and in violent, almost disrespectful
language implored him not to make peace until Venice was free. But
Victor Emmanuel saw that nothing was to be gained by a refusal, and much
against his own inclination, signed the peace preliminaries at
Villafranca, adding the phrase, "pour ce qui me concerne," which meant
that he was not responsible for what the people of other parts of Italy
might do (July 12). Lombardy was to be ceded to Piedmont, Venetia to
remain Austrian, the deposed princes to be reinstated, and the pope made
president of an Italian confederation.

The cabinet resigned the next day, but remained in office provisionally,
and Cavour privately advised the revolutionists of central Italy to
resist the return of the princes, by force if necessary: "for we must
now become conspirators ourselves," he said. His policy was thus
continued after he left office, and Palmerston, who had meanwhile
succeeded Malmesbury as foreign minister, informed France and Austria
that Great Britain would never tolerate their armed intervention in
favour of the central Italian despots. The new Piedmontese ministry, of
which La Marmora was the president, but Rattazzi the leading spirit,
hesitated between annexing central Italy and agreeing to the terms of
peace, but on the 10th of November peace was signed at Zurich. Napoleon
proposed a new congress, which never met, and on the fall of the
Rattazzi-La Marmora cabinet the king, in spite of the quarrel at
Monzambano, asked Cavour to take office again. By January he was once
more premier, as well as minister for foreign affairs and of the
interior. His first act was to invite the people of Italy to declare
their own wishes with regard to annexation to Piedmont; but Napoleon
still refused to consent to the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, for he
contemplated placing one of his own relatives on the throne of the
grand-duchy. Cavour now saw that Napoleon might be ready to deal, and,
although the bargain of the preceding year had not been exactly
fulfilled, as the Austrians were still in Venice, he again brought
forward the question of Nice and Savoy. To Cavour no less than to the
king the loss of these two provinces was a cruel wrench, but it was a
choice between them and central Italy. The plebiscites in the latter
region had unanimously declared in favour of union with Piedmont, and
Napoleon became more pressing, going so far as to threaten that unless
the cession were made, the French troops would leave Lombardy at the
mercy of Austria and occupy Bologna and Florence. On the 24th of March
the treaty was signed and the emperor's opposition to the annexation of
central Italy withdrawn. On the 2nd of April the parliament representing
Piedmont, the duchies of Parma and Modena, Tuscany and Romagna, met, and
Cavour had the difficult and ungrateful task of explaining the cession
of Nice and Savoy. In spite of some opposition, the agreement was
ratified by a large majority.

The situation in the kingdom of Naples was now becoming critical, but
there seemed as yet little chance of union with upper Italy, for the
Bourbon government was a more or less regular one, and, although risings
had broken out, there was no general revolution. Cavour therefore had
to follow a somewhat double-faced policy, on the one hand negotiating
with the Bourbon king (Francis II.), suggesting a division of Italy
between him and Victor Emmanuel, and on the other secretly backing up
the revolutionary agitation. Having now learnt that Garibaldi was
planning an expedition to Sicily with his volunteers, he decided, after
some hesitation, not to oppose its departure; on the 5th of May it
sailed from Quarto near Genoa, and Cavour was only deterred from
declaring war on Naples by the fear of foreign complications. Garibaldi
with his immortal Thousand landed at Marsala, and the whole rotten
fabric of the Bourbon government collapsed. At Palermo they were
welcomed by the Piedmontese admiral Persano, and soon the whole island
was occupied and Garibaldi proclaimed dictator. The general now proposed
to cross over to the mainland, and this placed Cavour in a serious
dilemma; Russia and Austria protested against the expedition, France and
Prussia were unfriendly, Great Britain alone remained warmly
pro-Italian. He still hoped for a revolution in Naples, so that King
Victor's authority might be established before Garibaldi's arrival, but
this proved impossible. When Garibaldi crossed the straits of Messina
the Neapolitan government fell, and he entered Naples in triumph. But
there was still danger that he might be subsequently defeated, for the
Neapolitan army was still a force in being, and Cavour feared, moreover,
that, although Garibaldi himself had always loyally acted in the king of
Italy's name, the red republicans around him might lead him to commit
some imprudence and plunge the country into anarchy. The cession of
Nice, Garibaldi's birthplace, had made an impassable gulf between the
two men, and neither quite trusted the other. Cavour also feared that
Garibaldi might invade the papal states, which would have led to further
international complications. In any case, Rome must not be touched for
the present, since Napoleon was pledged to protect the pope; but as the
latter had made large armaments, and his forces, consisting largely of
brigands and foreigners under the French general Lamoriciere, were in a
menacing attitude on the frontier, Cavour decided on the momentous step
of annexing the papal states with the exception of the Roman province.
The Italian army crossed the frontier from Romagna on the 11th of
September, whereupon every power, except Great Britain and Sweden,
withdrew its minister from Turin. But the troops advanced and were
everywhere received with open arms by the people; Ancona was taken,
Lamoriciere was defeated and captured at the battle of Castelfidardo,
and on the 20th King Victor marched into the Neapolitan kingdom. On the
1st of October Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitan troops on the Volturno,
and Gaeta alone, where King Francis of Naples had retired, still held
out.

New difficulties with Garibaldi arose, for he would not resign his
dictatorship of the southern provinces, and wished to march on Rome.
Cavour had to use all his tact to restrain him and at the same time not
to appear ungrateful. He refused to act despotically, but he summoned
parliament to vote on the annexation, which it did on the 11th. Two days
later Garibaldi magnanimously gave in to the nation's will and handed
his conquests over to King Victor as a free gift. Gaeta was invested,
and after a siege prolonged through the action of Napoleon, who for some
reason unknown kept his fleet before the town, preventing any attack by
sea until England induced him to withdraw it, the garrison surrendered
on the 13th of February, and King Francis retired to Rome. Parliament
was dissolved once more; the new chamber showed an overwhelming majority
in favour of Cavour, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy.

The last question with which Cavour had to deal was that of Rome. For
some years past the pope had only been able to maintain his authority by
the help of foreign troops, and Cavour saw that as long as this state of
things lasted there could be no united Italy. In October he declared in
parliament that Rome must be the capital of Italy, for no other city was
recognized as such by the whole country, and in January 1861 a
resolution to that effect was passed. But owing to Napoleon's attitude
he had to proceed warily, and made no attempt for the present to carry
out the nation's Wishes. At the same time he was anxious that the church
should preserve the fullest liberty, and he believed in the principle of
"a free church in a free state." His great dream, save for Rome and
Venice, was now realized, and Italy was free and united. But the wear
and tear of these last years had been almost unbearable, and at last
began to tell; the negotiations with Garibaldi were particularly trying,
for while the great statesman wished to treat the hero and his
volunteers generously, far more so than seemed wise to the Conservatives
and the strictly military party, he did not wish the Italian cause to be
endangered by their imprudences, and could not permit all the
Garibaldian officers to be received into the regular army with the same
grades they held in the volunteer forces. This question, together with
that of Nice, led to a painful scene in the chamber between the two men,
although they were formally reconciled a few days later. For some time
past Cavour had been unwell and irritable, and the scene with Garibaldi
undoubtedly hastened his end. A fever set in, and after a short illness
he passed away on the 6th of June 1861. He was buried at his ancestral
castle of Santena.

The death of Cavour was a terrible loss to Italy; there remained many
problems to be solved in which his genius and personality were urgently
needed. But the great work had been carried to such a point that lesser
men might now complete the structure. He is undoubtedly the greatest
figure of the _Risorgimento_, and although other men and other forces
co-operated in the movement, it was Cavour who organized it and
skilfully conducted the negotiations which overcame all, apparently
insuperable, obstacles. "That which in Alfieri and Gioberti was
lacking," wrote T. Artom, his private secretary, "a deep and lively
sense of reality, Cavour possessed to a supreme degree. He was not a
_litterateur_; he was never a political dreamer. His views broadened
progressively; at each stage he discovered a new horizon, and he
followed his path without ever seeking anything save what was real and
possible." He was gifted with pronounced political genius and with an
astounding power of foresight. In his ideas he was always a moderate
Liberal, and although he disapproved of republicanism, he was an ardent
constitutionalist, ever refusing to resort to arbitrary methods, for he
felt that, the Italian character being what it is, Italian unity could
not last if unsupported by popular feeling. In meeting opposition he
could not, like Bismarck, rely on a great military power, for the
Piedmontese army was a small one; Austria must first be isolated and
then an alliance had to be obtained with some other power. Some of his
acts, especially his policy towards the Neapolitan kingdom, have been
criticized as politically immoral; but apart from the fact that few
revolutions--and Cavour, after all, was a revolutionist--can be
conducted without attacking vested rights, it is hard to see that any
policy which led to the destruction of a government, rightly described
as the "negation of God on earth," could be deemed immoral. He has been
accused of changing his views, but what statesman has not? Moreover, in
the extremely complicated and difficult diplomatic situations which he
had to face, what was impossible or dangerous one day became possible
and desirable the next. This was particularly the case with the
Neapolitan question. Cavour's one absorbing passion was the liberation
and regeneration of Italy, and to this he devoted his whole life and
talent.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Buzziconi, _Bibliografia Cavouriana_ (Turin, 1898);
  Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, _Cavour_ (London, 1898), an
  excellent and handy little monograph which brings out the chief points
  of Cavour's life in the right light; G. Massari, _Il Conte di Cavour_
  (Turin, 1873); W. de la Rive, _Le Comte de Cavour_ (Paris, 1862),
  interesting and valuable as the work of a contemporary and intimate
  friend of Cavour; L. Chiala, _Lettere edite ed inedite del Conte di
  Cavour_ (7 vols., Turin, 1883-1887); D. Zanichelli, _Gli Scritti del
  Conte di Cavour_ (Bologna, 1892), and _Cavour_ (Florence, 1905); H.
  von Treitschke, "Cavour," in his _Historische und politische Aufsatze_
  (Leipzig, 1871); E. Dicey, _A Memoir of Cavour_ (London, 1861); Conte
  C. di Cavour, _Discorsi parlamentari_ (8 vols., Turin, 1863-1872),
  _Opere politico-economiche_ (Cuneo, 1855); F.X. Krauss, _Cavour_
  (Mainz, 1902); E. Artom, _L'Opere politica del Senatore T. Artom nel
  Risorgimento Italano _ (Bologna, 1906), a biography of Cavour's
  devoted private secretary, containing new material.     ( L. V.*)




CAVOUR (anc. _Caburrum_ or _Forum Vibii_), a town of Piedmont, Italy, in
the province of Turin, 32 m. S.W. by rail and steam tram (via Pinerolo
from the town of Turin). Pop. (1901) town, 2091; commune, 6843. It lies
on the north side of a huge isolated mass of granite (the Rocca di
Cavour) which rises from the plain. On the summit was the Roman village,
which belonged to the province of the Alpes Cottiae. There are some
ruins of medieval fortifications. The town gave its name to the Benso
family of Chieri, who were raised to the marquisate in 1771, and of
which the statesman Cavour was a member.

  For the ancient name see Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ v.
  (Berlin, 1877), p. 825.




CAVY, a name commonly applied to several South American rodent animals
included in the family _Caviidae_ (see RODENTIA), but perhaps properly
applicable only to those belonging to the typical genus _Cavia_, of
which the most familiar representative is the domesticated guinea-pig.
Cavies in general, the more typical representatives of the _Caviidae_,
are rodents with hoof-like nails, four front and three hind toes,
imperfect collar-bones, and the cheek-teeth divided by folds of enamel
into transverse plates. The tail is short or rudimentary, the incisors
are short, and the outer surface of the lower jaw is marked by a
distinct ridge.

True cavies, or couies (_Cavia_), are best known by the guinea-pig, a
domesticated and parti-coloured race derived from one of the wild
species, all of which are uniformly coloured. They are comparatively
small and stoutly built animals, with short, rounded ears and no tail.
In habits they are partly diurnal; and live either in burrows among the
crevices of rocks, beneath the leaves of aquatic plants in marshy
districts, or underneath the floors of outbuildings. Their cries are
faint squeaks and grunts. They feed upon nearly all vegetable
substances, but drink little. Generally they associate in small
societies, and seldom wander far from home. Although the guinea-pig is a
fertile breeder, the wild species only produce one or two young at a
birth, and this but once in a year. The young come into the world in a
highly developed condition, being able to feed themselves the day
following their birth. Cavies are widely distributed in South America,
and are represented by several species. Among them may be mentioned the
aperea or restless cavy (_C. porcellus_ or _C. aperea_) of Brazil; the
Bolivian _C. boliviensis_, found at great elevations in the Andes; the
Brazilian rock-cavy (_C. rupestris_), characterized by its short blunt
claws; and the Peruvian _C. cutleri_. The latter was tamed by the Incas,
and is the ancestor of the guinea-pig. As to the origin of that name,
some writers consider it a corruption of Guiana-pig, but it is more
probable that the word "Guinea" merely signifies foreign. The guinea-pig
is a singularly inoffensive and defenceless creature, of a restless
disposition, and wanting in that intelligence which usually
characterizes domestic pets, although said to show some discrimination.
It is of no particular service to man, neither its flesh nor its fur
being generally put to use, while the statement that its presence is
sufficient to drive off rats and mice appears to be without foundation.
It is exceedingly prolific, beginning to breed at the age of two months;
the number of young varying, according to the age of the parent, from
four to twelve. It has been calculated that a single pair of guinea-pigs
may prove the parent stock of a thousand individuals in a single year.

A very different animal is the Patagonian cavy, or mara (_Dolichotis
patachonica_), the typical representative of a genus characterized by
long limbs, comparatively large ears, and a short tail. The animal is
about the size of a hare, to which it approximates in form and habits.
It is most abundant in the open districts of Patagonia, but also ranges
on to the Argentina Pampas, where it is now scarce. Although
occasionally seen in large flocks, the mara is more commonly found in
small parties or in pairs, the parties commonly moving in single file.
It has a peculiar kind of hopping gait; and is mainly diurnal, in
accordance with which habit its eyes are protected by lashes. It lives
in a burrow, generally excavated by itself; but when pursued, seeks
safety in flight, rather than by a retreat to its hole. From two to five
young are produced twice a year. A much smaller species, _D.
salinicola_, without the characteristic black band above the tail,
inhabits the salt-plains of Argentina. Maras have been introduced into
several British parks. Fossil species of _Dolichotis_ occur in the
caverns of Brazil, and also in the superficial deposits of Argentina.
     (R. L.*)




CAWDOR, a village and parish of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of parish
(1901) 925. The village is situated 5 m. S.S.W. of Nairn and 3 m. from
Gollanfield Junction on the Highland railway. The castle was the scene,
according to the tradition which Shakespeare has perpetuated, of the
murder of King Duncan by Macbeth, thane of Cawdor (or Calder), in 1040.
Since the oldest part of the structure dates from 1454, however, and
seemingly had no predecessor, the tradition has no foundation in fact.
The building stands on the rocky bank of Cawdor Burn, a right-hand
tributary of the Nairn. The massive keep with small turrets is the
original portion of the castle, and to it were added, in the 17th
century, the modern buildings forming two sides of a square.

Kilravock (pronounced _Kilrawk_) Castle, 1-1/2 m. W. of Cawdor, occupies
a commanding site on the left bank of the Nairn. Its keep dates from
1460, and the later buildings belong to the 17th century. It has been
continuously tenanted by the Roses, one of the most remarkable families
in Scotland. They came over with William the Conqueror and settled at
Kilravock in 1293, since which date son has succeeded father without the
interposition of a collateral heir, an instance of direct descent unique
in Scottish history. Moreover, nearly every Rose has borne the Christian
name of Hugh, and only one attained to a higher social rank than that of
laird. Queen Mary was received at the castle in 1562, and Prince Charles
Edward was entertained four days before the battle of Culloden. The
gardens are remarkable for their beauty.




CAWNPORE, or KANPUR, a city and district of British India in the
Allahabad division of the United Provinces. The city is situated on the
south bank of the Ganges, 40 m. south-west of Lucknow, and formed from
early times a frontier outpost of the people of Oudh and Bengal against
their northern neighbours. Clive selected it, on account of its
commanding position, as the cantonment for the brigade of troops lent
him by the nawab of Oudh. In 1801, when the Ceded Provinces were
acquired by the East India Company, it became the chief British frontier
station. But by the time of the Mutiny the frontier had left it behind,
and it was denuded of troops. Now it is chiefly known as the junction of
four railways, the East Indian, Oudh & Rohilkand, Rajputana and Indian
Midland, and as a great emporium for harness, shoes and other
leather-work. In 1901 the population was 197,170, showing an increase of
4% in the decade. In 1903 the city was devastated by an epidemic of
plague.

The name of Cawnpore is indelibly connected with the blackest episode in
the history of the Indian Mutiny--the massacre here in July 1857 of
hundreds of women and children by the Nana Sahib. The full details of
the siege and massacre will be found under INDIAN MUTINY, and here it
will suffice to refer to the local memorials of that evil time. The
entrenchment, where General Sir H.M. Wheeler with his small band of
soldiers and the European and Eurasian residents were exposed for 21
days to the fire of the mutineers, is merely a bare field, containing
the well where many women and children were shot while getting water.
This well is now surrounded by an enclosure with an inscription upon its
cross. About three-quarters of a mile away, on the banks of the river
Ganges, is the Massacre Ghat. A grassy road between banks 10 to 12 ft.
high leads down to the river, and it was among the trees on these banks
that the murderers concealed themselves who shot down the little
garrison as soon as they were embarked in the boats which were to take
them to safety. On the river bank is a temple to Siva, of hexagonal
shape, old and going to ruin. Steps lead from this temple to an enclosed
flight of stairs, which in the cold season descend to the water, but in
the rains are covered almost to the top. This is the ghat where some 600
helpless people were slain, in spite of a promise of safe-conduct from
the Nana. The remaining 200 victims, who had escaped the bullets of the
siege and survived the butchery of the river bank, were massacred
afterwards and cast down the famous well of Cawnpore, which is now
marked by a memorial and surrounded by gardens. The memorial is crowned
by the figure of an angel in white marble, and on the wall of the well
itself is the following inscription:--

  Sacred to the perpetual Memory of a great company of
  Christian people, chiefly Women and Children, who near this
  spot were cruelly murdered by the followers of the rebel
  Nana Dhundu Pant, of Bithur, and cast, the dying with the
  dead, into the well below, on the xvth day of July, MDCCCLVII.

The DISTRICT or CAWNPORE is situated between the Ganges and Jumna
rivers, and is a portion of the well-watered and fertile tract known as
the Doab, the total area being 2384 sq. m. The general inclination of
the country is from north to south. Besides the two great rivers, the
principal streams are the Arand or Rhind, the Kavan or Singar, the Isan
and the Pandu. The district is watered by four branches of the Ganges
canal, and traversed by two lines of railway. It used to be a great
centre of the indigo industry, which has now declined. The population in
1901 was 1,258,868, showing an increase of 4% during the decade.




CAXTON, WILLIAM (c. 1422-1491), the first English printer, was born
somewhere in the Weald of Kent, perhaps at Tenterden. The name, which
was apparently pronounced Cauxton, is identical with Causton, the name
of a manor in the parish of Hadlow, and was a fairly common surname in
the 15th century. The date of Caxton's birth was arbitrarily fixed in
1748 by Oldys as 1412. Blades, however, inferred that in 1438, when he
was apprenticed to Robert Large, he would not have been more than
sixteen years of age. This would place his birth in 1422-1423. Robert
Large was a rich silk mercer who became sheriff in 1430 and lord mayor
of London in 1439, and the fact of Caxton's apprenticeship to him argues
that Caxton's own parents were in a good position. Large died in 1441,
leaving a small bequest to Caxton, and his executors would be bound to
place the young man where he could finish his term. He was probably sent
direct to Bruges, then the central foreign market of the Anglo-Flemish
trade, for he presently entered business there on his own account. In
1450 his name appears in the Bruges records as standing joint surety for
the sum of L100; and in 1463 he was acting governor of the company of
Merchant Adventurers in the Low Countries. This association, sometimes
known as the "English Nation," was dominated by the Mercers' Company, to
the livery of which Caxton had been formally admitted in London in 1453.
The first governor, appointed in terms of a charter granted by Edward
IV. in 1462, was W. Obray, but Caxton's position is definitely asserted
in 1464. In that year he was appointed, together with Sir Richard
Whitehill, to negotiate with Philip, duke of Burgundy, the renewal of a
treaty concerning the wool trade, which was about to expire. These
attempts failed, but he was again employed, with two other members of
the Mercers' Company, in a similar but successful mission in October
1468 to the new duke, Charles the Bold, who earlier in the year had
married Princess Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. The last mention
of Caxton in the capacity of governor of the "English Nation" is on the
13th of August 1469, and it was probably about that time that he entered
the household of the duchess Margaret, possibly in the position of
commercial adviser. In his diplomatic mission in 1468 he had been
associated with Lord Scales, afterwards Earl Rivers and one of his chief
patrons, and at the Burgundian court he must have come in touch with
Edward IV. during his brief exile in 1470.

He had begun his translation of the popular medieval romance of Troy,
_The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_, from the French of Raoul le
Fevre, early in 1469; and, after laying it aside for some time, he
resumed it at the wish of the duchess Margaret, to whom the MS. was
presented in September 1471. During his thirty-three years' residence in
Bruges Caxton would have access to the rich libraries of the duke of
Burgundy and other nobles, and about this time he learned the art of
printing. His disciple, Wynkyn de Worde, says that he was taught at
Cologne, probably during a visit there in 1471, recorded in the preface
to the _Recuyell_; Blades suggests that he learnt from Colard Mansion,
but there is no evidence that Mansion set up his press at Bruges before
1474. He ceased to be a member of the gild of St John (a gild of
illuminators) in 1473, and the first dated book he is known to have
printed is dated 1476. Mansion and Caxton were partners or associates at
Bruges, where Caxton printed his _Recuyell_ in 1474 or 1475. His second
book, _The Game and Playe of Chesse_, from the _Liber de ludo
scacchorum_ of Jacobus de Cessolis through the French of Jehan de
Vignay, was finished in 1474, and printed soon after; the last book
printed by Mansion and Caxton at Bruges was the _Quatre derrenieres
choses_, an anonymous treatise usually known as _De quattuor
novissimis_. Other books in the same type were printed by Mansion at
Bruges after Caxton's departure.

By September 1476 Caxton had established himself in the almonry at
Westminster at the sign of the Red Pale. Robert Copland the printer, who
was afterwards one of Caxton's assistants, states that Caxton began by
printing small pamphlets. The first dated book printed in England was
Lord Rivers's translation (revised by Caxton) of _The Dictes or sayengis
of the philosophres_ (1477). From this time until his death in 1401
Caxton was busy writing and printing. His services to English
literature, apart from his work as a printer (see TYPOGRAPHY), are very
considerable. His most important original work is an eighth book added
to the _Polychronicon_ (vol. viii. in the Rolls Series edition) of Ralph
Higden. Caxton revised and printed John of Trevisa's work, and brought
down the narrative himself from 1358 to 1460, using as his authorities
_Fasciculus temporum_, a popular work in the 15th century, and an
unknown _Aureus de universo_. In the year before his death he complained
in the preface to his _Eneydos_ of the changing state of the English
language, a condition of things which he did as much as any man to
remedy. He printed Chaucer's _Canterbury Tales_ (1478? and 1483),
_Troilus and Creseide_ (1483?), the _House of Fame_ (1483?), and the
translation of Boethius (1478?); Gower's _Confessio Amantis_ (1483), and
many poems of Lydgate. His press was, however, not worked for purely
literary ends, but was a commercial speculation. For the many
service-books which he printed there was no doubt a sure sale, and he
met the taste of the upper classes by the tales of chivalry which issued
regularly from his press. He printed Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_, and
himself translated from the French the _Boke of Histories of Jason_
(1477?), _The Historye of Reynart the Foxe_ (from the Dutch, 1481 and
1489?), _Godfrey of Boloyne_ or _The Siege and Conqueste of Jherusalem_
(1481), _The Lyf of Charles the Grete_ (1485), _The Knyght Parys and the
Fayr Vyenne_ (1485), _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_ (1489?), _The Foure
Sonnes of Aymon_ (1489?); also the _Morale Proverbs_ (1478), and the
_Fayttes of Armes and of Chyualrye_ (1489) of Christine de Pisan. The
most ambitious production of his press was perhaps his version of the
_Golden Legend_, the translation of which he finished in November 1483.
It is based on the lives of the saints as given in the 13th century
_Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de Voragine, but Caxton chiefly used existing
French and English versions for his compilation. The book is illustrated
by seventy woodcuts, and Caxton says he was only encouraged to persevere
in his laborious and expensive task by the liberality of William, earl
of Arundel. The idleness which he so often deprecates in his prefaces
was no vice of his, for in addition to his voluminous translations his
output as a printer was over 18,000 pages, and he published ninety-six
separate works or editions of works, with apparently little skilled
assistance, though later printers, Wynkyn de Worde, Robert Copland and
possibly Richard Pynson, were trained under him.

The different founts of type used by Caxton are illustrated by Blades
and Duff, and there is an excellent selection of Caxtons in the British
Museum, in the University library at Cambridge, besides those in private
hands. A record price for a Caxton was reached in 1902 when Mr Bernard
Quaritch paid L2225 for _The Royal Book_ (1487?), a translation of the
popular _Somme des vices et des vertus_. His books have no title-pages,
and from 1487 onwards are usually adorned with a curious device,
consisting of the letters W.C. separated by a trade mark, with an
elaborate border above and below. The flourishes on the trade mark have
been fancifully interpreted as S.C. for Sancta Colonia, implying that
Caxton learnt his art at Cologne, and the whole mark has been read as
74, for 1474, the date of his first printed book. This device was first
used in an edition of the Sarum missal, printed for Caxton by George
Maynial in Paris, and was subsequently adopted with small alterations by
his successor at the Westminster press, Wynkyn de Worde. The first of
his books containing woodcut illustrations was his _Myrrour of the
World_ (1481), translated from Vincent de Beauvais, which has diagrams
and pictures for the assistance of young students. He had used a woodcut
initial letter in his broadside _Indulgence_ printed in 1480.

[Illustration:]

No record of Caxton's marriage or of the birth of his children has been
found, but Gerard Croppe was separated from his wife Elizabeth, daughter
of William Caxton, before 1496, when Croppe made certain claims in
connexion with his father-in-law's will.

  AUTHORITIES.--Earlier biographies of Caxton were superseded by the
  work of William Blades, whose _Life and Typography of William Caxton_
  (2 vols., 1861-1863) remains the standard authority. It contains a
  bibliography of each of the works issued from Caxton's press. For
  later discoveries see George Bullen's _Catalogue_ of the Caxton
  celebration loan collection exhibited at South Kensington in 1877;
  articles by E.J.L. Scott in the _Athenaeum_ (Feb. 10, 1900; May 21 and
  June 8, 1892); articles in _Notes and Queries_ (April 21, 1900; Feb.
  24, 1906), and the publications of the Caxton Club, Chicago, notably
  _William Caxton_, by E. Gordon Duff (1905). See also _Census of
  Caxtons_, by Seymour de Ricci, No. xv. of the illustrated monographs
  of the Bibliographical Society, 1909. Many of Caxton's translations
  are available in modern reprints; the _Golden Legend_, the _Recuyell_
  and _Godeffroy of Boloyne_, were printed by William Morris at the
  Kelmscott Press in 1892-1893; the _Boke of Curtesye_ (1868), the _Lyf
  of Charles the Crete_ (1880), Alain Chartier's _Curial_ (1888), _Foure
  Sonnes of Aymon_ (1884), _Eneydos_ (1890), _Blanchardyn and Eglantine_
  (1890), and others, by the Early English Text Society. For modern
  editions of _Reynart_ see REYNARD THE FOX. No authentic portrait of
  Caxton is known, but a MS. at Magdalene College, Cambridge, of the
  last six books of the _Metamorphoses of Ovid_, translated by Caxton,
  is probably in his handwriting.




CAYENNE, a seaport and the capital of French Guiana, on the N.W.
extremity of the island of Cayenne, and near the mouth of the river of
that name, in 4 deg. 56' 28" N., and 52 deg. 20' 36" W. Pop. about
12,600. The town forms an almost perfect square, and has clean and
well-macadamized streets. The houses, mostly of two storeys, are of
wood, strengthened on the first and ground floors by brickwork. In the
old town, which contains the government-house and Jesuits' College, the
streets are not so regularly and well built as in the new. The Place
d'Armes, a fine quadrangular space, lies between them. To the right of
the governor's house is Mount Ceperon, on which stand Fort St Michel,
the marine barracks, the signal station and the lighthouse. Here, too,
are the capacious reservoirs for the water-supply of the town, the
source of which is a lake to the south of the island. The harbour is
shallow at its entrance, and craft drawing more than 14 ft. are obliged
to anchor 6 m. from the town. There is no dock for the repair of
vessels; but there are two quays at the town. The principal exports of
Cayenne are gold, cocoa, phosphates, hides, woods and spices. The
imports are French wines, spirits and liqueurs; silk and cotton stuffs,
tobacco, hardware, glass, earthenware, clothing, preserved meat, fish,
and vegetables, maize, flour, hay, bran, oils and cattle. There is a
regular mail service between Cayenne and Martinique once a month.
Cayenne is the seat of the government of French Guiana, and was formerly
a penal settlement for political offenders. Food as well as clothing is
exorbitantly dear, the only cheap articles of consumption being bread
and French wines. The temperature of Cayenne is between 76 deg. and 88
deg. Fahr. throughout the year; but the heat is tempered by easterly
winds. Between December and March a north wind blows, unfavourable to
weak constitutions. Yellow and other fevers often attack the
inhabitants of the town, but the climate, though moist, is as a whole
healthy. (See GUIANA.)




CAYENNE PEPPER (GUINEA PEPPER, SPANISH PEPPER, CHILLY), a preparation
from the dried fruit of various species of _Capsicum_, a genus of the
natural order Solanaceae. The true peppers are members of a totally
distinct order, Piperaceae. The fruits of plants of the genus _Capsicum_
have all a strong, pungent flavour. The capsicums bear a greenish-white
flower, with a star-shaped corolla and five anthers standing up in the
centre of the flower like a tube, through which projects the slender
style. The pod-like fruit consists of an envelope at first fleshy and
afterwards leathery, within which are the spongy pulp and several seeds.
The plants are herbaceous or shrubby; the leaves are entire, and
alternate, or in pairs near one another; the flowers are solitary and do
not arise in the leaf-axils. There are about thirty species, natives of
Central and South America. They are now grown in various parts of the
world, both for the sake of the fruit and for ornament. In England the
annual sorts are sown from March to the middle of April under a frame.
They can be planted out when 2 or 3 in. high, and in June may be
transferred to a light rich soil in the open garden. They flower in July
or August, and produce pods from August till the end of September. The
perennial and shrubby kinds may be wintered in a conservatory. Several
species or varieties are used to make cayenne pepper. The annual or
common capsicum (_C. annuum_), the Guinea pepper plant, was brought to
Europe by the Spaniards, and was grown in England in 1548. It is
indigenous to South America, but is now cultivated in India, Hungary,
Italy, Spain and Turkey, with the other species of capsicum. It is a
hardy herbaceous plant, which attains a height of 2 or 3 ft. There are
numerous cultivated forms, differing in the shape and colour of the pod,
which varies from more or less roundish to narrow-conical, with a smooth
or wrinkled coat, and white, yellow, red or black in colour. The
principal source of cayenne pepper is _C. frutescens_, the spur or goat
pepper, a dwarf shrub, a native of South America, but commonly
cultivated in the East Indies. It produces a small, narrow, bright red
pod, having very pungent properties. _C. tetragonum_, or bonnet pepper,
is a species much esteemed in Jamaica; it bears very fleshy fruits.
Other well-known kinds of capsicum are the cherry pepper (_C.
cerasiforme_), with small berries; bell pepper (_C. grossum_), which has
thick and pulpy fruit, well adapted for pickling; and berry or bird
pepper (_C. baccatum_). The last mentioned has been grown in England
since 1731; its fruit is globular, and about the size of a cherry. The
West Indian stomachic _man-dram_ is prepared by mashing a few pods of
bird pepper and mixing them with sliced cucumber and shallots, to which
have been added a little lime-juice and Madeira wine. Chillies, the
dried ripe or unripe fruit of capsicums, especially _C. annuum_ and _C.
frutescens_, are used to make chilly-vinegar, as well as for pickles.
Cayenne pepper is manufactured from the ripe fruits, which are dried,
ground, mixed with wheat flour, and made into cakes with yeast; the
cakes are baked till hard like biscuit, and then ground and sifted. The
pepper is sometimes prepared by simply drying the pods and pounding them
fine in a mortar. Cayenne pepper is occasionally adulterated with red
lead, vermilion, ochre, salt, ground-rice and turmeric. The taste of the
pepper is impaired by exposure to damp and the heat of the sun. Chillies
have been in use from time immemorial; they are eaten in great quantity
by the people of Guiana and other warm countries, and in Europe are
largely consumed both as a spice and as medicine.

The dried ripe fruit of _Capsicum frutescens_ from Zanzibar, known as
pod pepper and Guinea pepper, is official in the British Pharmacopoeia
under the name _Capsici Fructus_. The fruit has a characteristic,
pungent odour and an intensely bitter taste. The chief constituents are
a crystallizable resin, capsaicin, a volatile alkaloid, capsicine and a
volatile oil. The dose is 1/2-1 grain. The British Pharmacopoeia
contains two preparations of capsicum, a tincture (dose 5-15 minims) and
an ointment. Externally the drug has the usual action of a volatile oil,
being a very powerful counter-irritant. It does not, however, cause
pustulation. Its internal action is also that of its class, but its
marked contact properties make it specially useful in gastriatony and
flatulence, and sometimes in hysteria.




CAYEY, an inland district and mountain town of the department of
Guayama, Porto Rico, celebrated for its cool, invigorating climate and
the beauty of its scenery. Pop. (1899) of the town, 3763; of the
district, 14,442. The town is surrounded by mountain summits, the
highest of which, El Torito, rises to an elevation of 2362 ft. above
sea-level. It was made a military post by the Spaniards and used as an
acclimatizing station. The old Spanish barracks have been enlarged and
improved by the American military authorities and, under the name of
"Henry Barracks," are used for the same purpose. The town is a popular
summer resort for residents of the coast cities. The surrounding country
is wooded and very fertile, being especially noted for its coffee and
tobacco. The town has large cigar factories. Cayey is connected with
Guayama by an excellent military road.




CAYLEY, ARTHUR (1821-1895), English mathematician, was born at Richmond,
in Surrey, on the 16th of August 1821, the second son of Henry Cayley, a
Russian merchant, and Maria Antonia Doughty. His father, Henry Cayley,
retired from business in 1829 and settled in Blackheath, where Arthur
was sent to a private school kept by the Rev. G.B.F. Potticary; at the
age of fourteen he was transferred to King's College school, London. He
soon showed that he was a boy of great capacity, and in particular that
he was possessed of remarkable mathematical ability. On the advice of
the school authorities he was entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, as
a pensioner. He was there coached by William Hopkins of Peterhouse, was
admitted a scholar of the college in May 1840, and graduated as senior
wrangler in 1842, and obtained the first Smith's Prize at the next
examination. In 1842, also, he was elected a fellow of Trinity, and
became a major fellow in 1845, the year in which he proceeded to the
M.A. degree. He was assistant tutor of Trinity for three years. In 1846,
having decided to adopt the law as a profession, he left Cambridge,
entered at Lincoln's Inn, and became a pupil of the conveyancer Mr
Christie. He was called to the bar in 1849, and remained at the bar
fourteen years, till 1863, when he was elected to the new Sadlerian
chair of pure mathematics in the university of Cambridge. He settled at
Cambridge in the same year, and married Susan, daughter of Robert Moline
of Greenwich. He continued to reside in Cambridge and to hold the
professorship till his death, which occurred on the 26th of January
1895. From the time he went first to Cambridge till his death he was
constantly engaged in mathematical investigation. The number of his
papers and memoirs, some of them of considerable length, exceeds 800;
they were published, at the time they were composed, in various
scientific journals in Europe and America, and are now embodied, through
the enterprise of the syndics of the Cambridge University Press, in
thirteen large quarto volumes. These form an enduring monument to his
fame. He wrote upon nearly every subject of pure mathematics, and also
upon theoretical dynamics and spherical and physical astronomy. He was
quite as much a geometrician as he was an analyst. Among his most
remarkable works may be mentioned his ten memoirs on quantics, commenced
in 1854 and completed in 1878; his creation of the theory of matrices;
his researches on the theory of groups; his memoir on abstract geometry,
a subject which he created; his introduction into geometry of the
"absolute"; his researches on the higher singularities of curves and
surfaces; the classification of cubic curves; additions to the theories
of rational transformation and correspondence; the theory of the
twenty-seven lines that lie on a cubic surface; the theory of elliptic
functions; the attraction of ellipsoids; the British Association
Reports, 1857 and 1862, on recent progress in general and special
theoretical dynamics, and on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean
motion. He is justly regarded as one of the greatest of mathematicians.
Competent judges have compared him to Leonhard Euler for his range,
analytical power and introduction of new and fertile theories. He was
the recipient of nearly every academic distinction that can be conferred
upon an eminent man of science. Amongst others may be noted honorary
degrees by the universities of Oxford, Dublin, Edinburgh, Gottingen,
Heidelberg, Leiden and Bologna. He was fellow or foreign corresponding
member of the French Institute, the academies of Berlin, Gottingen, St
Petersburg, Milan, Rome, Leiden, Upsala and Hungary; and he was
nominated an officer of the Legion of Honour by President Carnot. At
various times he was president of the Cambridge Philosophical Society,
of the London Mathematical Society and of the Royal Astronomical
Society. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1852, and
received from that body a Royal medal in 1859 and the Copley medal in
1882. He also received the De Morgan medal from the London Mathematical
Society, and the Huygens medal from Leiden. His nature was noble and
generous, and the universal appreciation of this fact gave him great
influence in his university. His portrait, by Lowes Dickinson, was
placed in the hall of Trinity College in 1874, and his bust, by Henry
Wiles, in the library of the same college in 1888.     (P. A. M.)




CAYLUS, ANNE CLAUDE PHILIPPE DE TUBIERES DE GRIMOARD DE PESTELS DE
LEVIS, COMTE DE, Marquis d'Esternay, baron de Bransac (1692-1765),
French archaeologist and man of letters, was born at Paris on the 31st
of October 1692. He was the eldest son of Lieutenant-General Count de
Caylus. His mother, Marthe Marguerite le Valois de Vilette de Murcay,
comtesse de Caylus (1673-1729), was a cousin of Mme de Maintenon, who
brought her up like her own daughter. She wrote valuable memoirs of the
court of Louis XIV. entitled _Souvenirs_; these were edited by Voltaire
(1770), and by many later editors, notably Renouard (1806), Ch.
Asselineau (1860), M. de Lescure (1874), M.E. Raunie (1881), J. Soury
(1883). While a young man Caylus distinguished himself in the campaigns
of the French army, from 1709 to 1714. After the peace of Rastadt he
spent some time in travelling in Italy, Greece, the East, England and
Germany, and devoted much attention to the study and collection of
antiquities. He became an active member of the Academy of Painting and
Sculpture and of the Academy of Inscriptions. Among his antiquarian
works are _Recueil d'antiquites egyptiennes, etrusques, grecques,
romaines, et gauloises_ (6 vols., Paris, 1752-1755), _Numismata Aurea
Imperatorum Romanorum_, and a _Memoire_ (1755) on the method of
encaustic painting with wax mentioned by Pliny, which he claimed to have
rediscovered. Diderot, who was no friend to Caylus, maintained that the
proper method had been found by J.J. Bachelier. Caylus was an admirable
engraver, and copied many of the paintings of the great masters. He
caused engravings to be made, at his own expense, of Bartoli's copies
from ancient pictures and published _Nouveaux sujets de peinture et de
sculpture_ (1755) and _Tableaux tires de l'Iliade, de l'Odysse, et de
l'Eneide_ (1757). He encouraged artists whose reputations were still in
the making, but his patronage was somewhat capricious. Diderot expressed
this fact in an epigram in his _Salon_ of 1765: "La mort nous a delivres
du plus cruel des amateurs." Caylus had quite another side to his
character. He had a thorough acquaintance with the gayest and most
disreputable sides of Parisian life, and left a number of more or less
witty stories dealing with it. These were collected (Amsterdam, 1787) as
his _Oeuvres badines completes_. The best of them is the _Histoire de M.
Guillaume, cocher_ (c. 1730).

  The _Souvenirs du comte de Caylus_, published in 1805, is of very
  doubtful authenticity. See also A. and J. de Goncourt, _Portraits
  intimes du XVIII^e siecle_; Ch. Nisard's edition of the
  _Correspondance du comte de Caylus avec le pere Paciaudi_ (1877); and
  a notice by O. Uzanne prefixed to a volume of his _Faceties_ (1879).




CAYMAN ISLANDS, a group of three low-lying islands in the West Indies.
They consist of Grand Cayman, Little Cayman and Cayman Brac, and are
situated between 79 deg. 44' and 80 deg. 26' W. and 19 deg. 44' and 19
deg. 46' N., forming a dependency of Jamaica, which lies 178 m. E.S.E.
Grand Cayman, a rock-bound island protected by coral reefs, is 17 m.
long and varies from 4 m. to 7 m. in breadth. It has two towns,
Georgetown and Boddentown. Little Cayman and Cayman Brac are both about
70 m. E.N.E. of Grand Cayman. Excepting near the rocky coast, the
islands are fruitful, mahogany and other valuable timbers with some
dyewood are grown, and large quantities of coco-nuts are produced by
the two smaller islands. Phosphate deposits of considerable value are
worked, but the principal occupation of the inhabitants is catching
turtles for export to Jamaica. The people are excellent shipwrights and
do a considerable trade in schooners built of native wood. The islands
are governed by a commissioner, and the laws passed by the local
legislative assembly are subject to the assent of the governor of
Jamaica. The population of the group is about 5000. The islands were
discovered by Columbus, who named them Tortugas from the turtles with
which the surrounding sea abounds. They were never occupied by the
Spaniards and were colonized from Jamaica by the British.




CAZALES, JACQUES ANTOINE MARIE DE (1758-1805), French orator and
politician, was born at Grenade in Languedoc, of a family of the lower
nobility. Before 1789 he was a cavalry officer, but in that year was
returned as deputy to the states general. In the Constituent Assembly he
belonged to the section of moderate royalists who sought to set up a
constitution on the English model, and his speeches in favour of
retaining the right of war and peace in the king's hands and on the
organization of the judiciary gained the applause even of his opponents.
Apart from his eloquence, which gave him a place among the finest
orators of the Assembly, Cazales is mainly remembered for a duel fought
with Barnave. After the insurrection of the 10th of August 1792, which
led to the downfall of royalty, Cazales emigrated. He fought in the army
of the _emigres_ against revolutionary France, lived in Switzerland and
in England, and did not return to France until 1803. He died on the 24th
of November 1805. His son, Edmond de Cazales, wrote philosophical and
religious studies.

  See _Discours de Cazales_, edited by Chare (Paris, 1821), with an
  introduction; F.A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed.,
  Paris, 1905.)




CAZALIS, HENRI (1840-1909), French poet and man of letters, was born at
Cormeilles-en-Parisis (Seine-et-Oise) in 1840. He wrote under the
pseudonyms of Jean Caselli and Jean Lahor. His works include: _Chants
populaires de l'Italie_ (1865); _Vita tristis_, _Reveries fantastiques_,
_Romances sans musique_ (1865); _Le Livre du neant_ (1872); _Henry
Regnault, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1872); _L'Illusion_ (1875-1893);
_Melancholia_ (1878); _Cantique des cantiques_ (1885); _Les Quatrains
d'Al-Gazali_ (1896); _William Morris_ (1897). The author of the _Livre
du neant_ has a predilection for gloomy subjects and especially for
pictures of death. His oriental habits of thought earned for him the
title of the "Hindou du Parnasse contemporain." He died in July 1909.

  See a notice by P. Bourget in _Anthologie des poetes fr. du XIX^e
  siecle_ (1887-1888); J. Lemaitre, _Les Contemporains_ (1889); E.
  Faguet in the _Revue bleue_ (October 1893).




CAZEMBE, the hereditary name of an African chief, whose territory was
situated south of Lake Mweru and north of Bangweulu, between 9 deg. and
11 deg.S. In the end of the 18th century the authority of the Cazembe
was recognized over a very extensive district. The kingdom, known also
as the Cazembe, continued to exist, though with gradually diminishing
power and extent, until the last quarter of the 19th century, when the
Cazembe sank to the rank of a petty chief. The country is now divided
between Great Britain and Belgian Congo. The British half, lying east of
the Luapula, forms part of Rhodesia, and the chief town in it is called
Kazembe. The native state, ruled by a negro race who overcame the
aboriginals, had attained a certain degree of civilization. Agriculture
was diligently followed, and cotton cloth, earthenware and iron goods
manufactured. The country contains rich deposits of copper, and copper
ore was one of the principal articles of export. The Cazembe had
despotic power and used it in barbarous fashion. He had hundreds of
wives, and his chiefs imitated his example according to their means. On
his accession every new Cazembe chose a new site for his residence. In
1796 the Cazembe was visited by Manoel Caetano Pereira, a Portuguese
merchant; and in 1798 a more important journey to the same region was
undertaken by Dr Francisco Jose Maria de Lacerda. He died in that
country on the 18th of October that year, but left behind him a
valuable journal. In 1802 two native traders or _pombeiros_, Pedro Joao
Baptista and Amaro Jose, were sent by the Portuguese on a visit to the
Cazembe; and in 1831 a more extensive mission was despatched by the
Portuguese governor of Sena. It consisted of Major Jose Monteiro and
Antonio Gamitto, with an escort of 20 soldiers and 120 negro slaves as
porters; but its reception by the Cazembe was not altogether
satisfactory. In 1868 David Livingstone visited the Cazembe, whose
capital at that time numbered no more than 1000 souls. Since 1894, when
the country was divided between Britain and the Congo State, it has been
thoroughly explored. An important copper mining industry is carried on
in the Congo division of the territory.

  See _The Lands of the Cazembe_, published by the Royal Geographical
  Society in 1873, containing translations of Lacerda and Baptista's
  journals, and a resume of Gamitto's _O Muata Cazembe_ (Lisbon, 1854);
  also Livingstone's _Last Journals_ (London, 1874).




CAZIN, JEAN CHARLES (1840-1901), French landscape-painter, son of a
well-known doctor, F.J. Cazin (1788-1864), was born at Samer,
Pas-de-Calais. After studying in France, he went to England, where he
was strongly influenced by the pre-Raphaelite movement. His chief
earlier pictures have a religious interest, shown in such examples as
"The Flight into Egypt" (1877), or "Hagar and Ishmael" (1880,
Luxembourg); and afterwards his combination of luminous landscape with
figure-subjects ("Souvenir de fete," 1881; "Journee faite," 1888) gave
him a wide repute, and made him the leader of a new school of idealistic
subject-painting in France. He was made an officer of the Legion of
Honour in 1889. His charming and poetical treatment of landscape is the
feature in his painting which in later years has given them an
increasing value among connoisseurs. His wife, Marie Cazin, who was his
pupil and exhibited her first picture at the Salon in 1876, the same
year in which Cazin himself made his debut there, was also a well-known
artist and sculptor.




CAZOTTE, JACQUES (1719-1792), French author, was born at Dijon, on the
17th of October 1719. He was educated by the Jesuits, and at
twenty-seven he obtained a public office at Martinique, but it was not
till his return to Paris in 1760 with the rank of commissioner-general
that he made a public appearance as an author. His first attempts, a
mock romance, and a coarse song, gained so much popularity, both in the
Court and among the people, that he was encouraged to essay something
more ambitious. He accordingly produced his romance, _Les Prouesses
inimitables d'Ollivier, marquis d'Edesse_. He also wrote a number of
fantastic oriental tales, such as his _Mille et une fadaises, Contes a
dormir debout_ (1742). His first success was with a "poem" in twelve
cantos, and in prose intermixed with verse, entitled _Ollivier_ (2
vols., 1762), followed in 1771 by another romance, the _Lord Impromptu_.
But the most popular of his works was the _Diable amoureux_ (1772), a
fantastic tale in which the hero raises the devil. The value of the
story lies in the picturesque setting, and the skill with which its
details are carried out. Cazotte possessed extreme facility and is said
to have turned off a seventh canto of Voltaire's _Guerre civile de
Geneve_ in a single night. About 1775 Cazotte embraced the views of the
Illuminati, declaring himself possessed of the power of prophecy. It was
upon this fact that La Harpe based his famous _jeu d'esprit_, in which
he represents Cazotte as prophesying the most minute events of the
Revolution. On the discovery of some of his letters in August 1792,
Cazotte was arrested; and though he escaped for a time through the love
and courage of his daughter, he was executed on the 25th of the
following month.

  The only complete edition is the _OEuvres badines et morales,
  historiques et philosophiques de Jacques Cazotte_ (4 vols.,
  1816-1817), though more than one collection appeared during his
  lifetime. An edition de luxe of the _Diable amoureux_ was edited
  (1878) by A.J. Pons, and a selection of Cazotte's _Contes_, edited
  (1880) by Octave Uzanne, is included in the series of _Petits Conteurs
  du XVIII^e siecle_. The best notice of Cazotte is in the _Illumines_
  (1852) of Gerard de Nerval.




CEANOTHUS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rhamnaceae,
containing about forty species of shrubs or small trees, natives of
North America. They are very attractive from their dense panicles of
white or blue flowers, and several species are known as garden plants.
The leaves of one of these, _C. americanus_, New Jersey tea, or
red-root, are used instead of the true tea; the root, which contains a
red colouring matter, has long been employed by the Indians as a
febrifuge.




CEARA, a northern maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. by the Atlantic,
E. by the Atlantic and the states of Rio Grande do Norte and Parahyba,
S. by Pernambuco, and W. by Piauhy; and having an area of 40,253 sq. m.
It lies partly upon the north-east slope of the great Brazilian plateau,
and partly upon the sandy coastal plain. Its surface is a succession of
great terraces, facing north and north-east, formed by the denudation of
the ancient sandstone plateau which once covered this part of the
continent; the terraces are seamed by watercourses, and their valleys
are broken by hills and ranges of highlands. The latter are usually
described as mountain ranges, but they are, in fact, only the remains of
the ancient plateau, capped with horizontal strata of sandstone, and
having a remarkably uniform altitude of 2000 to 2400 ft. The flat top of
such a range is called a _chapada_ or _taboleira_, and its width in
places is from 32 to 56 m. The boundary line with Piauhy follows one of
these ranges, the Serra de Ibiapaba, which unites with another range on
the southern boundary of the state, known as the Serra do Araripe.
Another range, or escarpment, crosses the state from east to west, but
is broken into two principal divisions, each having several local names.
These ranges are not continuous, the breaking down of the ancient
plateau having been irregular and uneven. The higher ranges intercept
considerable moisture from the prevailing trade winds, and their flanks
and valleys are covered with forest, but the plateaus are either thinly
wooded or open campo. These upland forests are of a scrubby character
and are called _catingas_.

The sandy, coastal plain, with a width of 12 to 18 m., is nearly bare of
vegetation. The rivers of the state are small and, with one or two
exceptions, become completely dry in the dry season. The largest is the
Jaguaribe, which flows entirely across the state in a north-east
direction with an estimated length of 210 to 465 m. The year is divided
into a rainy and dry season, the rains beginning in January to March and
lasting until June. The dry season, July to December, is sometimes
broken by slight showers in September and October, but these are of very
slight importance. The soil is thin and porous and does not retain
moisture, consequently the long, dry season turns the country into a
barren desert, relieved only by vegetation along the river courses and
mountain ranges, and by the hardy, widely-distributed carnahuba palm
(_Copernicia cerifera_), which in places forms groves of considerable
extent. Sometimes the rains fail altogether, and then a drought
(_secca_) ensues, causing famine and pestilence throughout the entire
region. The most destructive droughts recorded are those of 1711, 1723,
1777-1778, 1790, 1825, 1844-1845, and 1877-1878, the last-mentioned
destroying nearly all the live-stock in the state, and causing the death
through starvation and pestilence of nearly half-a-million people, or
over half the population. The climate, which is generally described as
healthful, is hot and humid on the coast, tempered by the cool trade
winds; but in the more elevated regions it is very hot and dry, although
the nights are cool. The sandy zone along the coast is nearly barren,
but behind this is a more elevated region with broken surfaces and sandy
soil which is amenable to cultivation and produces fruit and most
tropical products when conditions are favourable.

The higher plateau is devoted almost exclusively to cattle-raising, once
the principal industry of the state, though recurring seccas have been
an insuperable obstacle to its profitable development. There is still a
considerable export of cattle, hides and skins, but no effort is made to
develop the production of jerked beef on a large scale. Horses are
raised to a limited extent; also goats, sheep and swine. The principal
agricultural products are cotton, coffee, sugar, mandioca and tropical
fruits. The production of cotton has increased largely since the
development of cotton manufactures in Brazil. The natural vegetable
productions are important, and include _manicoba_ or Ceara rubber,
carnahuba wax and fibre, caju wine and ipecacuanha.

There are two lines of railway running inland from the coast: the
Baturite line from Fortaleza to Senador Pompeu, 179 m., and the Sobral
line from Camocim (a small port) to Ipu, 134 m. These railways were
built by the national government after the drought of 1877-1878 to give
work to the starving refugees, and are now operated under leases. Great
dams were also begun for irrigation purposes.

The misfortunes and poverty of the people have hindered their material
development to a large extent, but another obstacle is to be found in
their racial and social composition. Only a very small percentage of the
population which numbered 805,687 in 1890, and 849,127 in 1900, is of
pure European origin, the great majority being of the coloured races and
their mixtures with the whites. The number of landed proprietors,
professional men, merchants, &c., is comparatively small (about
one-sixth), and a part of these are of mixed blood; the remaining
five-sixths own no property, pay no taxes, and derive no benefits from
the social and political institutions about them beyond the protection
of the proprietors upon whose estates they live, the nominal protection
of the state, and an occasional day's wage. Education has made no
impression upon such people, and is confined almost exclusively to the
upper classes, from which some of the most prominent men in Brazilian
politics and literature have come. The state of Ceara has formed a
bishopric of the Roman Catholic Church since 1853, the bishop having his
residence at Fortaleza. The state is represented in the national
congress by three senators and ten deputies. Its local government is
vested in a president and legislative assembly of one chamber elected
for a period of four years. Three vice-presidents are elected at the
same time who succeed to the presidency in case of a vacancy according
to the number of votes received. The judicial organization consists of
the tribunal da Relacao at the state capital and subordinate courts in
the _comarcas_ and _termos_. The judges of the higher courts are
appointed for life. The capital of the state is Fortaleza, sometimes
called Ceara, which is also the principal commercial centre and shipping
port. The principal towns are Aracaty, Baturite, Acarahu, Crato,
Maranguape and Sobral.

The territory of Ceara includes three of the _capitanias_ originally
granted by the Portuguese crown in 1534. The first attempts to settle
the territory failed, and the earliest Portuguese settlement was made
near the mouth of the Rio Camocim in 1604. The French were already
established on the coast, with their headquarters at Saint Louis, now
Maranhao. Ceara was occupied by the Dutch from 1637 to 1654, and became
a dependency of Pernambuco in 1680; this relationship lasted until 1799,
when the _capitania_ of Ceara was made independent. The _capitania_
became a province in 1822 under Dom Pedro I. A revolution followed in
1824, the president of the province was deposed fifteen days after his
arrival, and a republic was proclaimed. Internal dissensions immediately
broke out, the new president was assassinated, and after a brief reign
of terror the province resumed its allegiance to the empire. Ceara was
one of the first provinces of Brazil to abolish slavery.

  See Rodolpho Theophilo, _Historia da Secca do Ceara, 1877 a 1880_
  (Fortaleza, 1883); Professor and Mrs Louis Agassiz, _A Journey in
  Brazil_ (Boston, 1869); George Gardiner, _Travels in the Interior of
  Brazil_ (London, 1846); C.F. Hartt, _Geology and Physical Geography of
  Brazil_ (Boston, 1870); and H.H. Smith, _Brazil: the Amazon and the
  Coast_ (New York, 1879).




CEAWLIN (d. 593), king of the West Saxons, first mentioned in the
_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ under the date 556 as fighting with his father
Cynric against the Britons at the battle of Beranbyrig or Barbury Hill.
Becoming king in 560, he began a career of conquest. Silchester was
taken, and moving eastwards Ceawlin and his brother Cutha defeated the
forces of AEthelberht, king of Kent, at the battle of Wibbandun in 568.
In 577 he led the West Saxons from Winchester towards the Severn valley;
gained an important victory over some British kings at Deorham, and
added the district round Gloucester, Bath and Cirencester to his
kingdom. A further advance was begun in 583. Uriconium, a town near the
Wrekin, and Pengwyrn, the modern Shrewsbury, were destroyed; but soon
Ceawlin was defeated by the Britons at Fethanleag or Faddiley, near
Nantwich, and his progress was effectually checked. Intestine strife
among the West Saxons followed. In 591 Ceawlin lost the western part of
his kingdom, and in 592 Was defeated by his nephew, Ceolric, at
Wanborough, and driven from Wessex. He was killed in 593, possibly in an
attempt to regain his kingdom. Ceawlin is included in the _Chronicle_
among the Bretwaldas.

  See _Two of the Saxon Chronicles_, ed. by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892);
  _Dictionary of National Biography_, vol. ix (London, 1887); E. Guest,
  _Origines Celticae_, vol. ii. (London, 1883).




CEBES, the name of two Greek philosophers, (1) CEBES OF CYZICUS,
mentioned in Athenaeus (iv. 156 D), seems to have been a Stoic, who
lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Some would attribute to him
the _Tabula Cebetis_ (see below), but as that work was well known in the
time of Lucian, it is probably to be placed earlier. (2) CEBES OF
THEBES, a disciple of Socrates and Philolaus. He is one of the speakers
in the _Phaedo_ of Plato, in which he is represented as an earnest
seeker after virtue and truth, keen in argument and cautious in
decision. Three dialogues, the [Greek: Hebdome], the [Greek: Phrynichos]
and the [Greek: Pinax] or _Tabula_, are attributed to him by Suidas and
Diogenes Laertius. The two former are lost, and most scholars deny the
authenticity of the _Tabula_ on the ground of material and verbal
anachronisms. They attribute it either to Cebes of Cyzicus (above) or to
an anonymous author, of the 1st century A.D., who assumed the character
of Cebes of Thebes. The work professes to be an interpretation of an
allegorical picture in the temple of Cronus at Athens or Thebes. The
author develops the Platonic theory of pre-existence, and shows that
true education consists not in mere erudition, but rather in the
formation of character.

  The _Tabula_ has been widely translated both into European languages
  and into Arabic (the latter version published with the Greek text and
  Latin translation by Salmasius in 1640). It is usually printed
  together with Epictetus. Separate editions by C.S. Jerram (with
  introduction and notes, 1878), C. Prachter (1893), and many others.
  See Zeller's _History of Greek Philosophy_; F. Klopfer, _De Cebetis
  Tabula_ (1818-1822); C. Prachter, _Cebetis Tabula quanam aetate
  conscripta esse videatur_ (1885).




CEBU, a city and municipality, port of entry, and the capital of the
province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, a
little N. of the centre. Pop. (1903) of the city proper, 18,330; of the
municipality, 31,079; in the same year, after the census enumeration,
the neighbouring municipalities of Mabolo (pop. 1903, 8454) and El Pardo
(pop. 6461) were added to the municipality of Cebu. The surrounding
country, which is level and fertile, is traversed by several good
carriage roads. The port, formed by the north-west shore of the island
of Mactan, is well protected from violent winds, and in front of it
stands a picturesque Spanish fort. The streets are wide and regularly
laid out. The government buildings are fairly good, and the church
buildings very fine. Cebu is an episcopal see, and the palace of the
bishop, although small, is widely known for its interior decorations.
The Augustinian church is famous for its so-called miraculous image of
Santo Nino. The Recoleto monastery and the seminary of San Carlos are
worthy of mention. The cathedral was finished toward the end of the
eighteenth century. The San Jose hospital here was founded by one of the
religious orders. There was a leper hospital in the outskirts of the
city until 1906, when a leper colony was established on the island of
Culion. Commercially, Cebu is the second city of the Philippines. Hemp,
tobacco, sugar and copra are the most important exports. In addition to
the trade with foreign ports, an important domestic commerce is carried
on with Manila, Bohol, Negros and northern Mindanao. Salt, pottery and
fabrics of silk, sinamay, hemp and cotton are manufactured, and sugar
sacks are woven in considerable quantity. The island of Cebu is known
for its excellent mangoes and for the rare cornucopia-shaped sponges,
called Venus's flower basket (_Euplectella aspergillum_), found here.
Historically Cebu is famous as the scene of Magellan's landing in 1521.
A cross, said to be the one first erected by him, is still preserved in
the cathedral. The great explorer lost his life in the neighbouring
island of Mactan; a monument marks the place where he was killed. The
first Spanish settlement in the Philippines was established at Cebu in
1565, and from that year to 1571 it was the capital of the colony. The
city is unincorporated. The language is Cebu-Visayan.




CECCO D'ASCOLI (1257-1327), the popular name of FRANCESCO DEGLI STABILI,
a famous Italian encyclopaedist and poet--Cecco being the diminutive of
Francesco, and Ascoli, in the marshes of Ancona, the place of the
philosopher's birth. He devoted himself to the study of mathematics and
astrology, and in 1322 was made professor of the latter science at the
university of Bologna. It is alleged that he entered the service of Pope
John XXII. at Avignon, and that he cultivated the acquaintance of Dante
only to quarrel with the great poet afterwards; but of this there is no
evidence. It is certain, however, that, having published a commentary on
the sphere of John de Sacrobosco, in which he propounded audacious
theories concerning the employment and agency of demons, he got into
difficulties with the clerical party, and was condemned in 1324 to
certain fasts and prayers, and to the payment of a fine of seventy
crowns. To elude this sentence he betook himself to Florence, where he
was attached to the household of Carlo di Calabria. But his
free-thinking and plain speaking had got him many enemies; he had
attacked the _Commedia_ of Dante, and the _Canzone d'Amore_ of Guido
Cavalcanti; and his fate was sealed. Dino di Garbo, the physician, was
indefatigable in pursuit of him; and the old accusation of impiety being
renewed, Cecco was again tried and sentenced, this time to the stake. He
was burned at Florence the day after sentence, in the seventieth year of
his age.

Cecco d'Ascoli left many works in manuscript, most of which have never
been given to the world. The book by which he achieved his renown and
which led to his death was the _Acerba_ (from _acervus_), an
encyclopaedic poem, of which in 1546, the date of the last reprint, more
than twenty editions had been issued. It is unfinished, and consists of
four books in _sesta rima_. The first book treats of astronomy and
meteorology; the second of stellar influences, of physiognomy, and of
the vices and virtues; the third of minerals and of the love of animals;
while the fourth propounds and solves a number of moral and physical
problems. Of a fifth book, on theology, the initial chapter alone was
completed. A man of immense erudition and of great and varied abilities,
Cecco, whose knowledge was based on experiment and observation (a fact
that of itself is enough to distinguish him from the crowd of savants of
that age), had outstripped his contemporaries in many things. He knew of
metallic aerolites and shooting stars; the mystery of the dew was plain
to him; fossil plants were accounted for by him through terrene
revolutions which had resulted in the formation of mountains; he is even
said to have divined the circulation of the blood. Altogether a
remarkable man, he may be described as one of the many Cassandras of the
middle ages--one of the many prophets who spoke of coming light, and
were listened to but to have their words cast back at them in
accusations of impiety and sentences of death.

  The least faulty of the many editions of the _Acerba_ is that of
  Venice, dated 1510. The earliest known, which has become excessively
  rare, is that of Brescia, which has no date, but is ascribed to 1473
  or thereabouts.




CECIL, the name of a famous English family. This house, whose two
branches hold each a marquessate, had a great statesman and
administrator to establish and enrich it. The first Lord Burghley's many
inquiries concerning the origin of his family created for it more than
one splendid and improbable genealogy, although his grandfather is the
first ascertained ancestor. In the latter half of the 15th century a
family of yeomen or small gentry with the surname of Seyceld, whose
descendants were accepted by Lord Burghley as his kinsmen, lived on
their lands at Allt yr Ynys in Walterstone, a Herefordshire parish on
the Welsh marches. Of the will of Richard ap Philip Seyceld of Allt yr
Ynys, made in 1508, one David ap Richard Seyceld, apparently his younger
son, was overseer. This David seems identical with David Cyssell,
Scisseld or Cecill, a yeoman admitted in 1494 to the freedom of Stamford
in Lincolnshire. He may well have been one of those men from the Welsh
border who fought at Bosworth, for at the funeral of Henry VII. he
appears as a yeoman of the guard and is given a livery of black cloth.
At Stamford he prospered, being three times mayor and three times member
of parliament for the borough, and he served as sheriff of
Northamptonshire in 1532-1533. Remaining in the service of Henry VIII.
he was advanced to be yeoman of the chamber and sergeant-at-arms, being
rewarded with several profitable leases and offices. His first wife was
the daughter of a Stamford alderman, and his second the already twice
widowed heir of a Lincolnshire squire. By the first marriage David Cecil
left at his death in 1536 a son and heir, Richard Cecil, who enjoyed a
place at court as yeoman of the king's wardrobe under Henry VIII. and
Edward VI. A gentleman of the privy chamber and sometime sheriff of
Rutland, Richard Cecil had his share at the distribution of abbey lands,
St Michael's priory in Stamford being among the grants made to him.
William Cecil, only son of Richard, was born, by his own account, in
1520, at Bourne in Lincolnshire. He advanced himself first in the
service of the protector Somerset, after whose fall, his great abilities
being necessary to the council, he was made a secretary of state and
sworn of the privy council. In 1571 he was created Lord Burghley, and
from 1572, when he was given the Garter, he was lord high treasurer and
principal minister to Queen Elizabeth. By his first wife, Mary Cheke,
sister of the scholar Sir John Cheke, tutor to Edward VI., he was father
to Thomas, first earl of Exeter. By a second wife, Mildred Cooke, the
most learned lady of her time, he had an only surviving son, Robert
Cecil, ancestor of the house of Salisbury.

Created earl of Exeter by James I., the second Lord Burghley was more
soldier than statesman, and from his death to the present day the elder
line of the Cecils has taken small part in public affairs. William
Cecil, 2nd earl of Exeter, took as his first wife the Lady Roos,
daughter and heir of the 3rd earl of Rutland of the Manners family. The
son of this marriage inherited the barony of Roos as heir general, and
died as a Roman Catholic at Naples in 1618 leaving no issue. A third son
of the 1st earl was Edward Cecil, a somewhat incompetent military
commander, created in 1625 Lord Cecil of Putney and Viscount Wimbledon,
titles that died with him in 1638, although he was thrice married. In
1801 a marquessate was given to the 10th earl of Exeter, the story of
whose marriage with Sarah Hoggins, daughter of a Shropshire husbandman,
has been refined by Tennyson into the romance of "The Lord of Burleigh."
This elder line is still seated at Burghley, the great mansion built by
their ancestor, the first lord.

The younger or Hatfield line was founded by Robert Cecil, the only
surviving son of the great Burghley's second marriage. As a secretary of
state he followed in his father's steps, and on the death of Elizabeth
he may be said to have secured the accession of King James, who created
him Lord Cecil of Essendine (1603), Viscount Cranborne (1604), and earl
of Salisbury (1605). Forced by the king to exchange his house of
Theobalds for Hatfield, he died in 1612, worn out with incessant labour,
before he could inhabit the house which he built upon his new
Hertfordshire estate. Of Burghley and his son Salisbury, "great
ministers of state in the eyes of Christendom," Clarendon writes that
"their wisdom and virtues died with them." The 2nd earl of Salisbury, "a
man of no words, except in hunting and hawking," was at first remarked
for his obsequiousness to the court party, but taking no part in the
Civil War came at last to sit in the Protector's parliament. After the
Restoration, Pepys saw him, old and discredited, at Hatfield, and notes
him as "my simple Lord Salisbury." The 7th earl was created marquess of
Salisbury in 1789.

Hatfield House, a great Jacobean mansion which has suffered much from
restoration and rebuilding, contains in its library the famous series of
state papers which passed through the hands of Burghley and his son
Salisbury, invaluable sources for the history of their period. (O. Ba.)




CECILIA, SAINT, in the Catholic Church the patron saint of music and of
the blind. Her festival falls on the 22nd of November. It was long
supposed that she was a noble lady of Rome who, with her husband and
other friends whom she had converted, suffered martyrdom, c. 230, under
the emperor Alexander Severus. The researches of de Rossi, however
(_Rom. sott._ ii. 147), go to confirm the statement of Fortunatus,
bishop of Poitiers (d. 600), that she perished in Sicily under Marcus
Aurelius between 176 and 180. A church in her honour existed in Rome
from about the 4th century, and was rebuilt with much splendour by Pope
Paschal I. about the year 820, and again by Cardinal Sfondrati in 1599.
It is situated in the Trastevere near the Ripa Grande quay, where in
earlier days the Ghetto was located, and gives a "title" to a cardinal
priest. Cecilia, whose musical fame rests on a passing notice in her
legend that she praised God by instrumental as well as vocal music, has
inspired many a masterpiece in art, including the Raphael at Bologna,
the Rubens in Berlin, the Domenichino in Paris, and in literature, where
she is commemorated especially by Chaucer's "Seconde Nonnes Tale," and
by Dryden's famous ode, set to music by Handel in 1736, and later by Sir
Hubert Parry (1889).

Another St Cecilia, who suffered in Africa in the persecution of
Diocletian (303-304), is commemorated on the 11th of February.

  See U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources historiques_ (1905), i. 826
  f.




CECROPIA, in botany, a genus of trees (natural order Moraceae), native
of tropical America. They are of very rapid growth, affording a light
wood used for making floats. _C. peltata_ is the trumpet tree, so-called
from the use made of its hollow stems by the Uaupe Indians as a musical
instrument. It is a tree reaching about 50 ft. in height with a large
spreading head, and deeply lobed leaves 12 in. or more in diameter. The
hollows of the stem and branches are inhabited by ants, which in return
for the shelter thus afforded, and food in the form of succulent growths
on the base of the leaf-stalks, repel the attacks of leaf-cutting ants
which would otherwise strip the tree of its leaves. This is an instance
of "myrmecophily," i.e. a living together for mutual benefit of the ants
and the plant.




CECROPS ([Greek: Kekrops]), traditionally the first king of Attica, and
the founder of its political life (Pausanias ix. 33). He was said to
have divided the inhabitants into twelve communities, to have instituted
the laws of marriage and property, and a new form of worship. The
introduction of bloodless sacrifice, the burial of the dead, and the
invention of writing were also attributed to him. He is said to have
acted as umpire during the dispute of Poseidon and Athena for the
possession of Attica. He decided in favour of the goddess, who planted
the first olive tree, which he adjudged to be more useful than the horse
(or water) which Poseidon caused to spring forth from the Acropolis rock
with a blow of his trident (Herodotus viii. 55; Apollodorus iii. 14). As
one of the autochthones of Attica, Cecrops is represented as human in
the upper part of his body, while the lower part is shaped like a dragon
(hence he is sometimes called [Greek: diphues] or _geminus_, Diod. Sic.
i. 28; Ovid, _Metam_. ii. 555). Miss J. E. Harrison (in _Classical
Review_, January 1895) endeavours to show that Cecrops is the husband of
Athene, identical with the snake-like Zeus Soter or Sosipolis, and the
father of Erechtheus-Erichthonius.




CEDAR (Lat. _cedrus_, Gr. [Greek: kedros]), a name applied to several
members of the natural order Coniferae. The word has been derived from
the Arabic _Kedr_, worth or value, or from _Kedrat_, strong, and has
been supposed by some to have taken its origin from the brook Kedron, in
Judaea.

_Cedrus Libani_, the far-famed Cedar of Lebanon, is a tree which, on
account of its beauty, stateliness and strength, has always been a
favourite with poets and painters, and which, in the figurative language
of prophecy, is frequently employed in the Scriptures as a symbol of
power, prosperity and longevity. It grows to a vertical height of from
50 to 80 ft.--"exalted above all trees of the field"--and at an
elevation of about 6000 ft. above sea-level. In the young tree, the bole
is straight and upright, and one or two leading branches rise above the
rest. As the tree increases in size, however, the upper branches become
mingled together, and the tree is then clump-headed. Numerous lateral
ramifying branches spread out from the main trunk in a horizontal
direction, tier upon tier, covering a compass of ground the diameter of
which is often greater than the height of the tree. William Gilpin, in
his _Forest Scenery_, describes a cedar which, at an age of about 118
years, had attained to a height of 53 ft. and had a horizontal expanse
of 96 ft. The branchlets of the cedar take the same direction as the
branches, and the foliage is very dense. The tree, as with the rest of
the fir-tribe, except the larch, is evergreen; new leaves are developed
every spring, but their fall is gradual. In shape the leaves are
straight, tapering, cylindrical and pointed; they are about 1 in. long
and of a dark green colour, and grow in alternate tufts of about thirty
in number. The male and female flowers grow on the same tree, but are
separate. The cones, which are on the upper side of the branches, are
flattened at the ends and are 4 to 5 in. in length and 2 in. wide; they
take two years to come to perfection and while growing exude much resin.
The scales are close pressed to one another and are reddish in colour.
The seeds are provided with a long membranous wing. The root of the tree
is very strong and ramifying. The cedar flourishes best on sandy, loamy
soils. It still grows on Lebanon, though for several centuries it was
believed to be restricted to a small grove in the Kadisha valley at 6000
ft. elevation, about 15 m. from Beyrout. The number of trees in this
grove has been gradually diminishing, and as no young trees or seedlings
occur, the grove will probably become extinct in course of time. Cedars
are now known to occur in great numbers on Mt. Lebanon, chiefly on the
western slopes, not forming a continuous forest, but in groves, some of
which contain several thousands of trees. There are also large forests
on the higher slopes of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus mountains. Lamartine
tells us that the Arabs regard the trees as endowed with the principles
of continual existence, and with reasoning and prescient powers, which
enable them to prepare for the changes of the seasons.

The wood of the cedar of Lebanon is fragrant, though not so strongly
scented as that of the juniper or red-cedar of America. The wood is
generally reddish-brown, light and of a coarse grain and spongy texture,
easy to work, but liable to shrink and warp. Mountain-grown wood is
harder, stronger, less liable to warp and more durable.

The cedar of Lebanon is cultivated in Europe for ornament only. It can
be grown in parks and gardens, and thrives well; but the young plants
are unable to bear great variations of temperature. The cedar is not
mentioned in Evelyn's _Silva_ (1664), but it must have been introduced
shortly afterwards. The famous Enfield cedar was planted by Dr Robert
Uvedale, (1642-1722), a noted schoolmaster and horticulturist, between
1662-1670, and an old cedar at Bretby Park in Derbyshire is known to
have been planted in 1676. Some very old cedars exist also at Syon
House, Woburn Abbey, Warwick Castle and elsewhere, which presumably date
from the 17th century. The first cedars in Scotland were planted at
Hopetoun House in 1740; and the first one said to have been introduced
into France was brought from England by Bernard de Jussieu in 1734, and
placed in the Jardin des Plantes. Cedar-wood is earliest noticed in
Leviticus xiv. 4, 6, where it is prescribed among the materials to be
used for the cleansing of leprosy; but the wood there spoken of was
probably that of the juniper. The term _Eres_ (cedar) of Scripture does
not apply strictly to one kind of plant, but was used indefinitely in
ancient times, as is the word cedar at present. The term _arz_ is
applied by the Arabs to the cedar of Lebanon, to the common pine-tree,
and to the juniper; and certainly the "cedars" for masts, mentioned in
Ezek. xxvii. 5, must have been pine-trees. It seems very probable that
the fourscore thousand hewers employed by Solomon for cutting timber did
not confine their operations simply to what would now be termed cedars
and fir-trees. Dr John Lindley considered that some of the cedar-trees
sent by Hiram, king of Tyre, to Jerusalem might have been procured from
Mount Atlas, and have been identical with _Callitris quadrivalvis_, or
arar-tree, the wood of which is hard and durable, and was much in
request in former times for the building of temples. The timber-work of
the roof of Cordova cathedral, built eleven centuries ago, is composed
of it. In the time of Vitruvius "cedars" were growing in Crete, Africa
and Syria. Pliny says that their wood was everlasting, and therefore
images of the gods were made of it; he makes mention also of the oil of
cedar, or _cedrium_, distilled from the wood, and used by the ancients
for preserving their books from moths and damp; papyri anointed or
rubbed with cedrium were on this account called _ced ati libri_. Drawers
of cedar or chips of the wood are now employed to protect furs and
woollen stuffs from injury by moths. Cedar-wood, however, is said to be
injurious to natural history objects, and to instruments placed in
cabinets made of it, as the resinous matter of the wood becomes
deposited upon them. _Cedria_, or cedar resin, is a substance similar to
mastic, that flows from incisions in the tree; and cedar manna is a
sweet exudation from its branches.

The genus _Cedrus_ contains two other species closely allied to _C.
Libani_--_Cedrus Deodara_, the deodar, or "god tree" of the Himalayas,
and _Cedrus atlantica_, of the Atlas range, North Africa. The deodar
forms forests on the mountains of Afghanistan, North Beluchistan and the
north-west Himalayas, flourishing in all the higher mountains from Nepal
up to Kashmir, at an elevation of from 5500 to 12,000 ft.; on the peaks
to the northern side of the Boorung Pass it grows to a height of 60 to
70 ft. before branching. The wood is close-grained, long-fibred,
perfumed and highly resinous, and resists the action of water. The
foliage is of a paler green, the leaves are slender and longer, and the
twigs are thinner than those of _C. Libani_. The tree is employed for a
variety of useful purposes, especially in building. It is now much
cultivated in England as an ornamental plant. _C. atlantica_, the Atlas
cedar, has shorter and denser leaves than _C. Libani_; the leaves are
glaucous, sometimes of a silvery whiteness, and the cones smaller than
in the other two forms; its wood also is hard, and more rapid in growth
than is that of the ordinary cedar. It is found at an altitude above the
sea of from 4000 to 6000 ft.

The name cedar is applied to a variety of trees, including species of
several genera of Conifers, _Juniperus_, _Thuja_, _Libocedrus_ and
_Cupressus_. _Thuja gigantea_ of western North America is known in the
United States as White (or Yellow) cedar, and the same name is applied
to _Cupressus Lawsoniana_, the Port Orford or Oregon cedar, a native of
the north-west States, and one of the most valuable juniper trees of
North America. The Bermuda cedar (_Juniperus bermudiana_) and the red or
American cedar (_J. virginiana_) are both much used in joinery and in
the manufacture of pencils; though other woods are now superseding them
for pencil-making. The Japanese cedar (_Cryptomeria japonica_) is a kind
of cypress, the wood of which is very durable. Another species of
cypress (_Cupressus thyoides_, also known as _Chamaecyparis thyoides_ or
_sphaeroidea_), found in swamps in the south of Ohio and Massachusetts,
is known as the American white cedar. It has small leaves and fibrous
bark, the wood is light, soft and easily-worked, and very durable in
contact with the soil, and is much used for boat-building and for making
fences and coopers' staves. The Spanish cedar is a name applied to
_Juniperus thurifera_, a native of the western Mediterranean region, and
also to another species, _J. Oxycedrus_, a common plant in the
Mediterranean region, forming a shrub or low tree with spreading
branches and short, stiff, prickly leaves. The latter was much used by
the Greeks for making images; and its empyreumatic oil, Huile de Cade,
is used medicinally for skin-diseases. A species of cypress, _Cupressus
lusitanica_, which has been naturalized in the neighbourhood of Cintra
is known as the cedar of Goa. The genus _Widdringtonia_ of tropical and
South Africa is also known locally as cedar. _W. juniperoides_ is the
characteristic tree of the Cederberg range in Cape Colony, while _W.
Whytei_, recently discovered in Nyasaland and Rhodesia (the Mlanje
cedar) is a fine tree reaching 150 ft. in height, and yielding an
ornamental light yellow-brown wood, suitable for building. The order
Cedrelaceae (which is entirely distinct from the Conifers) includes,
along with the mahoganies and other valuable timber-trees, the Jamaica
and the Australian red cedars, _Cedrela odorata_, and _C. Toona_
respectively. The cedar-wood of Guiana, used for making canoes, is a
species of the natural order Burseraceae, _Icica altissima_. It is a
large tree, reaching 100 ft. in height, the wood is easily worked,
fragrant and durable.

  See Gordon's _Pinetum_; Loiseleur-Deslongchamps, _Histoire du cedre du
  Liban_ (Paris, 1838); Loudon, _Arboretum Britannicum_, vol. iv. pp.
  2404-2432 (London, 1839); Marquis de Chambray, _Traite pratique des
  arbres resineux coniferes_ (Paris, 1845); J.D. Hooker, _Nat. Hist.
  Review_ (January, 1862), pp. 11-18; Brandis, _Forest Flora of
  North-west and Central India_, pp. 516-525 (London, 1874); Veitch,
  _Manual of Coniferae_ (2nd ed., London, 1900).




CEDAR CREEK, a small branch of the North Fork of the Shenandoah river,
Virginia, U.S.A. It is known in American history as the scene of a
memorable battle, which took place on the 19th of October 1864, between
the Union army under Major-General P.H. Sheridan and the Confederates
under Lieut.-General J.A. Early. (See SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS.)




CEDAR FALLS, a city of Black Hawk county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Cedar
river, about 100 m. W. of Dubuque. Pop. (1890) 3459; (1900) 5319; (1905,
state census) 5329 (872 being foreign-born); (1910) 5012. It is served
by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Illinois Central, the Chicago
Great Western, and the Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern railways. Its
manufactures include flour, ground feed, other cereal preparations,
hardware specialties, canned vegetables (especially Indian corn), and
planing-mill products. It is the seat of the state normal school (1876),
and has a public library. The settlement of the place, the oldest in the
county, was begun in 1847; it was laid out as a town in 1851,
incorporated as a village in 1857, chartered as a city in 1865, and for
a short time in 1853 was the county-seat.




CEDAR RAPIDS, a city of Linn county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Cedar river,
in the east central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 18,020; (1900)
25,656, of whom 4478 were foreign-born, an unusually large and
influential part being Bohemians; (1910 census) 32,811. It is served by
the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago & North-Western, the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific (which has repair shops here), and the
Illinois Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city
has an air of substantial prosperity; its principal streets are from 80
ft. to 120 ft. wide, paved with brick and asphalt, and well shaded.
Prominent among its buildings are the federal building, the auditorium,
the public library and the Masonic library, which contains one of the
best collections of Masonic literature in the world. The city has two
well-equipped hospitals, a home for aged women, a home for the
friendless, and four parks. The grounds of the Cedar Rapids country club
comprise 180 acres. Cedar Rapids is in a rich agricultural country. The
name of the city was suggested from the rapids in the river, which
afford abundant water power and have enabled the city to take first rank
in Iowa (1905) as a manufacturing centre. From 1900 to 1905 there was an
increase in the value of its manufactured products from $11,135,435 to
$16,279,706, or 46.2%. More than one-fourth of the value of its
manufactures is in Quaker Oats and other food preparations; among those
of less importance are lumber and planing-mill products, foundry and
machine-shop products, furniture, patent medicines, pumps, carriages and
waggons, packed meats and agricultural implements. Cedar Rapids has also
a large grain trade and a large jobbing business, especially in dry
goods, millinery, groceries, paper and drugs. At Cedar Rapids are Coe
College (co-educational; Presbyterian), which grew out of the Cedar
Rapids Collegiate Institute (1851), was named in honour of Daniel Coe, a
benefactor, and was chartered under its present name and opened in 1881;
the Interstate Correspondence schools, and the Cedar Rapids business
college. The first settlers came in 1838; but the city's early growth
was slow, and it was not incorporated until 1856. It has been governed
by commission since 1908.




CEFALU (anc. _Cephaloedium_), a seaport and episcopal see of the
province of Palermo, Sicily, 42 m. E. of Palermo by rail. Pop. (1901)
13,273. The ancient town (of Sicel origin, probably, despite its Greek
name) takes its name from the headland ([Greek: kephale], head) upon
which it stood (1233 ft.); its fortifications extended to the shore, on
the side where the modern town now is, in the form of two long walls
protecting the port. There are remains of a wall of massive rectangular
blocks of stone at the modern Porta Garibaldi on the south. It does not
appear in history before 396 B.C., and seems to have owed its importance
mainly to its naturally strong position. The only ancient remains on the
mountain are those of a small building in good polygonal work (a style
of construction very rare in Sicily), consisting of a passage on each
side of which a chamber opens. The doorways are of finely-cut stone, and
of Greek type, and the date, though uncertain, cannot, from the careful
jointing of the blocks, be very early. On the summit of the promontory
are extensive remains of a Saracenic castle. The new town was founded at
the foot of the mountain, by the shore, by Roger II. in 1131, and the
cathedral was begun in the same year. The exterior is well preserved,
and is largely decorated with interlacing pointed arches; the windows
also are pointed. On each side of the facade is a massive tower of four
storeys. The round-headed Norman portal is worthy of note. The interior
was restored in 1559, though the pointed arches of the nave, borne by
ancient granite columns, are still visible: and the only mosaics
preserved are those of the apse and the last bay of the choir: they are
remarkably fine specimens of the art of the period (1148) and, though
restored in 1859-1862, have suffered much less than those at Palermo and
Monreale from the process. The figure of the Saviour is especially fine.
The groined vaulting of the roof is visible in the choir and the right
transept, while the rest of the church has a wooden roof. Fine
cloisters, coeval with the cathedral, adjoin it. (See G. Hubbard in
_Journal of the R.I.B.A._ xv. 333 sqq., 1908.) The harbour is
comparatively small.     (T. As.)




CEHEGIN, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on
the right bank of the river Caravaca, a small tributary of the Segura.
Pop. (1900) 11,601. Cehegin has a thriving trade in farm produce,
especially wine, olive oil and hemp; and various kinds of marble are
obtained from quarries near the town. Some of the older houses, however,
as well as the parish church and the convent of San Francisco, which
still has well-defined Roman inscriptions on its walls, are built of
stone from the ruins of _Begastri_, a Roman colony which stood on a
small adjacent hill known as the Cabecico de Roenas. The name _Cehegin_
is sometimes connected by Spanish antiquaries with that of the _Zenaga_,
_Senhaja_ or _Senajeh_, a North African tribe, which invaded Spain in
the 11th century.




CEILING (from a verb "to ceil," i.e. to line or cover; of disputed
etymology, but apparently connected with Fr. _ciel_, Lat. _caelum_,
sky), in architecture, the upper covering of a church, hall or room.
Ceilings are now usually formed of plaster, but in former times they
were commonly either boarded (of which St Albans cathedral is perhaps
the earliest example), or showed the beams and joists, which in England
were moulded and carved, and in France and Italy were richly painted and
gilded. Sometimes the ceilings were horizontal, sometimes canted on two
sides, and sometimes they take the form of a barrel-vault. Ribs are
sometimes planted on the boarding to divide up the surface, and their
intersections are enriched with bosses. About the middle of the 16th
century the ceilings were formed in plaster with projecting ribs,
interlaced ornament and pendants, and the characteristics of the
Elizabethan style. At Bramall Hall, Broughton Castle, Hatfield, Knowle,
Sizergh and Levens in Westmorland, and Dorfold in Cheshire, are numerous
examples, some with pendants. In Italy, at the same period, the plaster
ceilings were based on the forms taken by vaulting; they were of
infinite variety and were richly decorated with sunk panels containing
the Roman conventional foliage. Raphael, about 1520, reproduced in the
Vatican some of the stucco-duro ornament which he had studied in the
Golden House of Nero, excavated under his directions. Later, about the
middle of the 16th century, great coves were formed round the room,
which were decorated with cartouches and figures in relief, garlands and
swags. The great halls of the Ducal Palace at Venice and the galleries
of the Pitti Palace at Florence were ceiled in this way. These coved
ceilings were introduced into England in the middle of the 17th century.
In Holyrood Palace at Edinburgh there is a fine ceiling of 1671, with
figures (probably executed by Italian craftsmen) and floral wreaths.

At Coleshill, Berkshire, a ceiling by Inigo Jones (1650) shows a type
which became more or less universal for a century, viz. deeply sunk
panels with modillions round, and bands enriched with foliage, fruit,
&c., in bold relief. Wren, Nicholas Hawksmoor, James Gibbs, John Webb
and other architects continued on the same lines, and in 1760 Robert
Adam introduced his type of ceiling, sometimes horizontal, and sometimes
segmental, in which panels are suggested only, with slight projecting
lines and rings of leaves, swags and arabesque work, which, like
Raphael's, was found on the ceilings of the Roman tombs and baths in
Rome and Pompeii. George Richardson followed with similar work, and Sir
W. Chambers, in the rooms originally occupied by the Royal Academy and
the learned societies in Somerset House, designed many admirable
ceilings. The moulds of all the ornamental devices of Robert Adam are
preserved and are still utilized for many modern ceilings.
     (R. P. S.)




CEILLIER, REMY (1688-1761), Benedictine monk of the Lorraine
congregation of St Vannes. He was the compiler of an immense Patrology,
_Histoire generale des auteurs sacres et ecclesiastiques_ (23 vols.,
Paris, 1720-1763), being a history and analysis of the writings of all
the ecclesiastical writers of the first thirteen centuries. He put
infinite trouble and time into the work, and many portions of it are
exceedingly well done. A later and improved edition was produced in
Paris, 1858, in 14 vols. Ceillier's other work, _Apologie de la morale
des peres de l'eglise_ (Paris, 1718), also won some celebrity.




CELAENAE, an ancient city of Phrygia, situated on the great trade route
to the East. Its acropolis long held out against Alexander in 333 and
surrendered to him at last by arrangement. His successor, Eumenes, made
it for some time his headquarters, as did Antigonus until 301. From
Lysimachus it passed to Seleucus, whose son Antiochus, seeing its
geographical importance, refounded it on a more open site as Apamea
(q.v.). West of the acropolis were the palace of Xerxes and the Agora,
in or near which is the cavern whence the Marsyas, one of the sources of
the Maeander, issues. According to Xenophon, Cyrus had a palace and
large park full of wild animals at Celaenae.

  See G. Weber, _Dineir-Celenes_ (1892).




CELANDINE, _Chelidonium majus_, a member of the poppy family, an erect
branched herb from 1 to 2 ft. high with a yellow juice, much divided
leaves, and yellow flowers nearly an inch across, succeeded by a narrow
thin pod opening by a pair of thin valves, separating upwards. The plant
grows in waste places and hedgerows, and is probably an escape from
cultivation. The lesser celandine is a species of _Ranunculus_ (_R.
Ficaria_), a small low-growing herb with smooth heart-shaped leaves and
bright yellow flowers about an inch across, borne each on a stout stalk
springing from a leaf-axil. It flowers in early spring, in pastures and
waste-places.




CELANO, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Aquila, 73 m.
E. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1901) 9725. It is finely situated on a hill
above the Lago Fucino, and is dominated by a square castle, with round
towers at the angles, erected in its present form in 1450. It contains
three churches with 13th century facades in the style of those of
Aquila. The origin of the town goes back to Lombard times. A count of
Celano is first mentioned in 1178. It was the birthplace of Thomas of
Celano, the author of the _Dies Irae_.




CELEBES,[1] one of the four Great Sunda Islands in the Dutch East
Indies. Its general outline is extremely irregular, and has been
compared to that of a starfish with the rays torn off from one side,
corresponding to the west side of the island. It consists of four great
peninsulas, extending from a comparatively small nucleus towards the
north-east, east, south-east and south, and separated by the three large
gulfs of Tomini or Gorontalo, Tolo or Tomaiki, and Boni. Of these gulfs
the first is by far the largest, the other two having much wider
entrances and not extending so far inwards. Most important among the
smaller inlets are the bays of Amurang, Kwandang and Tontoli on the
north coast, Palos and Pare-Pare on the west, and Kendari or Vosmaer on
the east. Of the numerous considerable islands which lie north-east,
east and south of Celebes (those off the west coast are few and small),
the chief are prolongations of the four great peninsulas--the Sangir and
Talaut islands off the north-east, the Banggai and Sula off the east,
Wuna and Buton off the south-east, and Saleyer off the south. Including
the adjacent islands, the area of Celebes is estimated at 77,855 sq. m.,
and the population at 2,000,000; without them the area is 69,255 sq. m.
and the population 1,250,000.

The scenery in Celebes is most varied and picturesque. "Nowhere in the
archipelago," wrote A. R. Wallace, "have I seen such gorges, chasms and
precipices as abound in the district of Maros" (in the southern
peninsula); "in many parts there are vertical or even overhanging
precipices five or six hundred feet high, yet completely clothed with a
tapestry of vegetation." Much of the country, especially round the Gulf
of Tolo, is covered with primeval forests and thickets, traversed by
scarcely perceptible paths, or broken with a few clearings and villages.
A considerable part of the island has been little explored, but the
general character seems to be mountainous. Well-defined ranges prolong
themselves through each of the peninsulas, rising in many places to a
considerable elevation. Naturally there are no great river-basins or
extensive plains, but one of the features of the island is the frequent
occurrence, not only along the coasts, but at various heights inland, of
beautiful stretches of level ground often covered with the richest
pastures. Minahassa, the north-eastern extremity, consists of a plateau
divided into sections by volcanoes (Klabat, 6620 ft., being the
highest). Sulphur springs occur here. In the west of the northern
peninsula the interior consists in part of plateaus of considerable
extent enclosed by the coast ranges. Near Lake Posso, in the centre of
the island, the mountains are higher; the Tampiko massif has a height of
nearly 5000 ft., the chains south and west of the lake have a general
altitude of about 5450 ft., with peaks still loftier. In the southern
peninsula two chains stretch parallel with the west and east coasts; the
former is the higher, with a general altitude of 3200 ft. In the south
it joins the Peak of Bonthain, or Lompo-battang, a great volcanic mass
10,088 ft. high. In the east central part of the island the mountain
Koruve exceeds 10,000 ft., and is supposed to be the highest in the
island. An alluvial coast plain, 7 to 9 m. wide, stretches along the
foot of the western chain, and between the two chains is the basin of
the Walannae river, draining northward into Lake Tempe. Little is known
of the orography of the eastern peninsula. At the base of the
south-eastern there is another large lake, Tovieti. In this peninsula
there are parallel ranges on the east and west flanks. The trench
between them is partly occupied by the vast swamp of Lake Opa.

The rivers of the narrow mountainous peninsulas form many rapids and
cataracts; as the Tondano, draining the lake of the same name to the
north-west coast of Minahassa at Menado; the Rano-i-Apo, flowing over
the plateau of Mongondo to the Gulf of Amurang; the Poigar, issuing from
a little-known lake of that plateau; the Lombagin, traversing narrow
canons; and the river of Boni, which has its outfall in the plain of
Gorontalo, near the mouth of the Bolango or Tapa, the latter connected
by a canal with the Lake of Limbotto. All these rivers are navigable by
praus or rafts for only a few miles above the mouth. In central Celebes,
the Kodina flows into Lake Posso, and the Kalaena discharges to the Gulf
of Boni; the Posso, navigable by _blottos_ (canoes formed of hollowed
tree-trunks), is the only river flowing from the lake to the Gulf of
Tomini. The rivers of the southern peninsula, owing to the relief of the
surface, are navigable to a somewhat greater extent. The Walannae flows
into Lake Tempe, and, continued by the Jenrana (Tienrana), which
discharges into the Gulf of Boni, is navigable for small boats; the
Sadang, with many affluents, flows to the west coast, and is navigable
by _sanpans_. The Jenemaja is a broad river, navigable far from the
mouth. The coasts of Celebes are often fertile and well populated; but,
as shown by the marine charts, many sand, mud and stone banks lie near
the shore, and consequently there are few accessible or natural ports
or good roadsteads.

  _Geology._--The geological observations on Celebes are too scattered
  to reveal its structure. The greater part of the island seems to be
  formed of gneiss and other crystalline rocks. These are overlaid by
  conglomerates, limestones and clay slates of very doubtful age, the
  most interesting being a radiolarian clay which occurs on the south
  side of the Matinang Mountains, at the north end of Lake Posso, &c.;
  it may correspond with the radiolarian cherts of Borneo. Tertiary beds
  are found, especially near the coast. The Eocene includes a series of
  sandstones and marls with lignite, and these are overlaid by nummulite
  limestones. The Miocene contains an _Orbitoides_ limestone. Intrusive
  and volcanic rocks of great variety and of various ages occur.
  Peridotite and gabbro form much of the eastern peninsula (Banggai).
  Leucite and nepheline rocks have been found in various parts of the
  island, especially in the south-west. In Minahassa, at the northern
  extremity, there is a large area of tuffs and agglomerates consisting
  chiefly of augite andesite, and in this area there are many recent
  volcanic cones. Eruptions still take place at intervals, but the
  volcanoes for the most part seem to have reached the solfataric stage.

_Climate._--The climate of the island, everywhere accessible to the
influence of the sea, is maritime-tropical, the temperature ranging
generally between 77 deg. and 80 deg. F., the extremes being about 90
deg. and 70 deg. F., only on the higher mountains falling during the
night to 54 deg. or 55 deg. F. The rainfall in the northern peninsula
(north of the equator) differs from that of the southern; the former has
rains (not caused by the monsoon), and of smaller amount, 102 in.
annually; the latter has a greater rainfall, 157 in., brought by the
north-western monsoon, and of which the west coast receives a much
larger share than the east.

_Fauna and Flora._--In spite of its situation in the centre of the
archipelago, Celebes possesses a fauna of a very distinctive kind. The
number of species is small, but in many cases they are peculiar to the
island. Of land birds, for example, about 160 species are known, and of
these not less than about 90 are peculiar, the majority of the remainder
being Asiatic in distinction from Australian. Mammals are few in
species, but remarkable, especially _Macacus niger_, an ape found
nowhere else but in Bachian; _Anoa depressicornis_, a small ox-like
quadruped which inhabits the mountainous districts; and the babirusa or
pig-deer of the Malays. Some of the animals are probably descendants of
specimens introduced by man; others are allied in species, but not
identical, with mammals of Java and Borneo; others again, including the
three just mentioned, are wholly or practically confined to Celebes.
There are no large beasts of prey, and neither the elephant, the
rhinoceros nor the tapir is represented. Wild-buffaloes, swine and goats
are pretty common; and most of the usual domestic animals are kept. The
horses are in high repute in the archipelago; formerly about 700 were
yearly exported to Java, but the supply has considerably diminished.

The same peculiarity of species holds in regard to the insects of the
Celebes (so far as they are known) as to the mammals and birds. Out of
118 species of butterflies, belonging to four important classes, no
fewer than 86 are peculiar; while among the rose-chafers or _Cetoniinae_
the same is the case in 19 out of 30. Equally remarkable with this
presence of peculiar species is the absence of many kinds that are
common in the rest of the archipelago; and these facts have been
considered to indicate connexion with a larger land-mass at a very
distant geological epoch, and the subsequent continuous isolation of
Celebes. This view, however, has been controverted. It is held that in
the Miocene and Pliocene periods there were land connexions with the
Philippines, Java and the Moluccas, and through the last with
Australasian lands to the east and south-east. Migration of species took
place along these lines in both directions. Those immigrants which
remained in what is now Celebes may have developed new species.
Moreover, while Celebes has species which are peculiar to itself and one
other of the islands just mentioned, it has none which it shares
exclusively with Borneo, and thus the importance of the Macassar Strait
as a biological division is indicated.

Vegetation is extremely rich; but there are fewer large trees than in
the other islands of the archipelago. Of plants that furnish food for
man the most important are rice, maize and millet, coffee, the coco-nut
tree, sago-palm, the obi or native potato, the bread-fruit and the
tamarind; with lemons, oranges, mangosteens, wild-plums, Spanish pepper,
beans, melons and sugar-cane. The shaddock is to be found only in the
lower plains. Indigo, cotton and tobacco are grown; the bamboo and the
ratan-palm are common in the woods; and among the larger trees are
sandal-wood, ebony, sapan and teak. The palm, _Arenga saccharifera_,
furnishes _gemuti_ fibres for ropes; its juice is manufactured into
sugar and a beverage called sagueir; and intoxicating drinks are
prepared from several other palms.

_Products._--As in natural vegetation and fauna, so in cultivated
products, Celebes, apart from its peculiarities, presents the
transitional link between the Asiatic and the Australian regions of the
Malayan province. For example, rice is produced here in smaller quantity
and of inferior quality to that in the western part of the archipelago,
but superior to that in the eastern section, where sago and sorghum form
the staple articles of food. The products of the forests supply about
half the total exports. The fisheries include trepang, turtle and pearl
oysters. Gold is worked under European direction in the district of
Gorontalo, but with only partial success; the search for coal in the
southern peninsula has yielded no satisfactory results; tin, iron and
copper, found in the eastern peninsula and elsewhere, are utilized only
for native industries.

_Natives._--The native population of the island is all of Malayan stock.
The three most important peoples are the Bugis (q.v.) the Macassars and
the Mandars. The medley of other Malayan tribes, of a more or less
savage type, living in the island, are known under the collective name
of Alfuros (q.v.). The Macassars are well-built and muscular, and have
in general a dark-brown complexion, a broad and expressive face, black
and sparkling eyes, a high forehead, a flattish nose, a large mouth and
long black soft hair. The women are sprightly, clever and amiable. The
men are brave and not treacherous, but ambitious, jealous and extremely
revengeful. Drunkenness is rare, but they are passionate, and running
amuck is frequent among them. In all sorts of bodily exercises, as
swinging, wrestling, dancing, riding and hunting, they take great
pleasure. Though they call themselves Mahommedans, their religion is
largely mingled with pagan superstitions; they worship animals, and a
certain divinity called Karaeng Love, who has power over their fortune
and health. Except where Dutch influence has made itself felt, little
attention has been paid by the native races to agriculture; and their
manufacturing industries are few and limited. The weaving of cotton
cloth is principally carried on by women; and the process, at least for
the finer description, is tedious in the extreme. The houses are built
of wood and bamboo; and as the use of diagonal struts is not practised,
the walls soon lean over from the force of the winds. The Macassar
language, which belongs to the Malayo-Javanese group, is spoken in many
parts of the southern peninsula; but it has a much smaller area than the
Buginese, which is the language of Boni. It is deficient in
generalizations; thus, for example, it has words for the idea of
carrying in the hand, carrying on the head, carrying on the shoulder,
and so on, but has no word for carrying simply. It has adopted a certain
number of vocables from Sanskrit, Malay, Javanese and Portuguese, but on
the whole is remarkably pure, and has undergone comparatively few recent
changes. It is written in a peculiar character, which has displaced, and
probably been corrupted from, an old form employed as late as the 17th
century. Neither bears any trace of derivation from the Sanskrit
alphabet. The priests affect the use of the Arabic letters. The
literature is poor, and consists largely of romantic stories from the
Malay, and religious treatises from the Arabic. Of the few original
pieces the most important are the early histories of Goa, Tello and some
other states of Celebes, and the _Rapang_, or collection of the decrees
and maxims of the old princes and sages. The more modern productions are
letters, laws and poems, many of the last of considerable beauty.

_Divisions, Towns, Population._--Celebes is divided by the Dutch, for
administrative purposes, into the government of Celebes with
dependencies (south-eastern and southern peninsulas and all west coast),
and the residency of Menado (north-eastern peninsula and coast of Gulf
of Tomini). The eastern peninsula and coast of the Gulf of Tolo belong
politically to the residency of Ternate (q.v.). The following table
shows approximately the distribution and composition of the
population:--

  +-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+
  |                       |          |        |      |  Other    |         |         |
  |                       |Europeans.|Chinese.|Arabs.| Oriental  | Natives.|  Total. |
  |                       |          |        |      |Foreigners.|         |         |
  +-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+
  | Government of Celebes |          |        |      |           |         |         |
  |   and Dependencies    |  1414    |  3738  |  554 |     54    | 409,739 | 415,499 |
  | Residency of Menado-- |          |        |      |           |         |         |
  |   Minahassa           |   836    |  3574  |  286 |     16    |\430,941 | 436,406 |
  |   Gorontalo           |   115    |   505  |  133 |    . .    |/        |         |
  +-----------------------+----------+--------+------+-----------+---------+---------+

  The _Government of Celebes and Dependencies_ is subdivided into the
  government territory, the vassal states (Boni, q.v., and Ternate), and
  the federal countries. The density of population for the whole
  government is estimated as 3.7 or 4 per sq. m., varying from 2.2 in
  the vassal and federated states to 14.7 to 18.4 for Macassar and the
  districts directly governed by the Dutch. The density of population in
  districts outside the influence of European government sinks to 1 and
  less per sq. m. As in the case of Minahassa, the difference must be
  explained by physical and moral conditions. Two-thirds of the natives
  live by agriculture, and one-third by trade, navigation, shipbuilding
  and other industries. In agreement with these principal occupations,
  the centres of population are found in southern Celebes, on the coast
  (not in the interior plains or on the lake, as in Menado). Palos
  (3000), with good port; Pare-Pare, connected by road with Lake Tempe;
  and Macassar (17,925), the seat of the governor and the centre of
  trade for the eastern part of the archipelago. On the south coast must
  also be named Bonthain (4000); on the east coast, Balong-Nipa; and
  Buton and Saleyer, seats of administration and ports of call on the
  island groups of the same names.

  The _Residency of Menado_ comprises three districts: Minahassa, the
  little states along the north coast west of Minahassa, and Gorontalo,
  including the other states of the northern peninsula lying along the
  Gulf of Tomini. The density of population being calculated at about
  2.7 to 3 per sq. m. for Celebes, is 16.2 for Minahassa, but only 1.5
  to 2 for the Residency of Menado. Centres of population in Menado are
  Amurang (3000), the seat of a Dutch controller, and a calling place
  for the steamers of the Indian Packet Company; Menado (10,000), the
  chief town of the residency, the principal station of the Dutch
  missionaries, with a fair amount of trade, but an unsafe roadstead;
  Tondano (12,000), near the lake and river of the same name, at an
  altitude of nearly 2000 ft., and one of the chief centres; Gorontalo,
  one of the most important towns of Celebes, carrying on direct trade
  with Singapore and Europe. All the other coast places have some
  importance as chief villages of the little states and as ports of call
  for the vessels of the steam packet company, but have only from 500 to
  1000 inhabitants.

_History._--Celebes was first discovered by the Portuguese in the early
part of the 16th century, the exact date assigned by some authorities
being 1512. The name is not used by the natives, and is apparently of
foreign origin, but has been variously derived, e.g. from the mountain
of Klabat or Kalabat, or from _Seli Besi_, an iron kris carried by the
natives, of whom those who were first asked for the name of the island
were conceived, according to this theory, to have misunderstood their
questioners. At the time of the Portuguese discovery, the Macassars were
the most powerful people in the island, having successfully defended
themselves against the king of the Moluccas and the sultan of Ternate.
In 1609 the British attempted to gain a footing. At what time the Dutch
first arrived is not certainly known, but it was probably in the end of
the 16th or beginning of the 17th century, since in 1607 they formed a
connexion with Macassar. In 1611 the Dutch East Indian Company obtained
the monopoly of trade on the island of Buton; and in 1618 an
insurrection in Macassar gave them an opportunity of obtaining a
definite establishment there. In 1660 the kingdom was subjugated, but in
1666 the war broke out anew. It was brought to an end in the following
year, and the treaty of Bonga or Banga was signed, by which the Dutch
were recognized as protectors. In 1683 the north-eastern part of the
island was conquered by Robert Paddenburg and placed under the command
of the governor of the Moluccas. In 1703 a fort was erected at Menado.
The kingdom of Boni was successfully attacked in 1824, and in August of
that year the Bonga treaty was renewed in a greatly modified form. Since
then the principal military event is the Boni insurrection which was
quelled in 1859, but this was far from pacifying the country
permanently. A series of revolts of various chiefs in 1905-6 was not
arrested without considerable fighting, but after this the whole island
was brought under Dutch authority, even where native rule survived.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In P. J. Veth's _Woordenboek van Nederlandsch Indie_
  there will be found an extensive bibliography of Celebes drawn up by
  H. C. Millies. For additional bibliography and data for the island and
  its population, see C. M. Kan, "Celebes," in the _Encyclopaedie van
  Nederlandsch Indie_, ed. by P.A. van der Lith and A. H. Spaan (The
  Hague, 1895), &c., vol. i. p. 314. See P. and F. Sarasin (who have
  carried out extensive explorations in the island), "Berichte aus
  Celebes," _Zeitschr. der Ges. f. Erdk._ xxix. 351; _Entwurf einer
  geographisch-geologischen Beschreibung der Insel Celebes_ (Wiesbaden,
  1901); _Reisen in Celebes, 1893-1896, 1902-1903_ (Wiesbaden, 1905);
  _Versuch einer Anthropologie der Insel Celebes_ (Wiesbaden, 1906); C.
  van der Hart, _Reize rondon het Eiland Celebes_ (The Hague, 1853);
  Capt. R. Mundy, _Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes_ (London,
  1848); P. J. Veth, _Een Nederlandsch reiziger op Zuid Celebes_
  (Amsterdam, 1875); J. G. F. Riedel, _Het landschap Boeool, Noord
  Selebes_ (1872); and "Die Landschaften Holontalo, Limoeto," &c., in
  _Zeitschr. fur Ethnologie_ (1871); H. Bucking, "Beitrage zur Geologie
  von Celebes," _Samml. geol. Reichsmus. Leiden_, vol. vii. pp. 29-205
  (1902), pp. 221-224 (1904); and various articles in _Tijdschrift v. h.
  Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_ and _Tijdsch. v. h. Batavian. Gen._


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The second syllable is accented.




CELERY (_Apium graveolens_), a biennial plant belonging to the natural
order Umbelliferae, which, in its wild state, occurs in England by the
sides of ditches and in marshy places, especially near the sea,
producing a furrowed stalk and compound leaves with wedge-shaped
leaflets, the whole plant having a coarse, rank taste and a peculiar
smell. It is also widely distributed in the north temperate region of
the Old World. By cultivation and blanching the stalks lose their acrid
qualities and assume the mild sweetish aromatic taste peculiar to celery
as a salad plant. The plants are raised from seed, sown either in a hot
bed or in the open garden, according to the season of the year, and
after one or two thinnings out and transplantings, they are, on
attaining a height of 6 or 8 in., planted out in deep trenches for
convenience of blanching, which is effected by earthing up and so
excluding the stems from the influence of light. A large number of
varieties are cultivated by gardeners, which are ranged under two
classes, white and red,--the white varieties being generally the best
flavoured and most crisp and tender. As a salad plant, celery,
especially if at all "stringy," is difficult of digestion. Both blanched
and green it is stewed and used in soups, the seeds also being used as a
flavouring ingredient. In the south of Europe celery is seldom blanched,
but is much used in its natural condition.

_Celeriac_, or turnip-rooted celery (_Apium graveolens_ var.
_rapaceum_), is a variety cultivated more on account of its roots than
for the stalks, although both are edible and are used for salads and in
soups. It is chiefly grown in the north of Europe. As the tops are not
required, trenching is unnecessary, otherwise the cultivation is the
same as for celery.




CELESTE, MADAME (1815-1882), French dancer and actress, was born in
Paris on the 16th of August 1815. As a little girl she was a pupil in
the ballet class at the Opera. When fifteen, she had an offer from the
United States, and made her debut at the Bowery theatre, New York.
Returning to England, she appeared at Liverpool as Fenella in
_Masaniello_, and also in London (1831). In 1834 she aroused such
enthusiasm in America that her admirers carried her on their shoulders
and took the horses out of her carriage in order to pull it themselves.
It is even said that President Jackson introduced her to his cabinet as
an adopted citizen of the Union. Having made a large fortune, she
returned to England in 1837. She now gave up dancing, and appeared as an
actress, first at Drury Lane and then at the Haymarket. In 1844 she
joined Benjamin Webster in the management of the Adelphi, and afterwards
took the sole management of the Lyceum till 1861. She made a third
visit to the United States from 1865 to 1868, and retired in 1870. Her
favourite part was Miami in Buckstone's _Green Bushes_. She died in
Paris on the 12th of February 1882.




CELESTINA, LA, the popular alternative title attached from 1519 (or
earlier) to the anonymous _Comedia de Caliste y Melibea_, a Spanish
novel in dialogue which was celebrated throughout Europe during the 16th
century. In the two earliest known editions (Burgos, 1499, and Seville,
1501) the _Comedia_ consists of sixteen acts; the reprints issued after
1501 are entitled _Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea_, and contain
twenty-one acts. Three of these reprints include a twenty-second act
which is admittedly spurious, and the authenticity of Acts XVII.-XXI. is
disputed. The authorship of the _Celestina_ and the date of its
composition are doubtful. An anonymous prefatory letter in the editions
subsequent to 1501 attributes the book to Juan de Mena or Rodrigo Cota,
but this ascription is universally rejected. The prevailing opinion is
that the author of the twenty-one acts was Fernando de Rojas, apparently
a Spanish Jew resident at the Puebla de Montalban in the province of
Toledo; R. Foulche-Delbose, however, maintains that the original sixteen
acts are by an unknown writer who had no part in the five supplementary
acts. Some scholars give 1483 as the date of composition; others hold
that the book was written in 1497. These questions are still unsettled.
Though profoundly original in treatment, the _Celestina_ has points of
analogy with the work of earlier writers, such as Juan Ruiz (q.v.), the
archpriest of Hita; his rapid sketches of Trota-conventas, Melon and
Endrina no doubt suggested the finished portraits of Celestina, Calisto
and Melibea, and the closing scene in the _Celestina_ recalls the
suicide in Diego Fernandez de San Pedro's _Carcel de Amor_. Allowing for
these and other debts of the same kind, it cannot be denied that the
_Celestina_ excels all earlier Spanish works in tragic force, in
impressive conception, and in the realistic rendering of characters
drawn from all classes of society. It passed through innumerable
editions in Spain, and was the first Spanish book to find acceptance
throughout western Europe. At least twenty works by well-known Spanish
authors are derived from it; it was adapted for the English stage as
early as 1525-1530, and was translated into Italian (1505), French
(1527) and other European languages. A Latin version by Caspar Barth was
issued under the title of _Pornoboscodidascalus latinus_ (1624) with all
the critical apparatus of a recognized classic. James Mabbe's English
rendering (1631) is one of the best translations ever published. The
original edition of 1499 has been reprinted by R. Foulche-Delbose in the
_Bibliotheca Hispanica_ (1902), vol. xii.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--R. Foulche-Delbose, "Observations sur la Celestine" in
  the _Revue hispanique_ (Paris, 1900), vol. vii. pp. 28-80 and (Paris.
  1902) vol. ix. pp. 171-199; K. Haebler, "Bemerkungen zur Celestina" in
  the _Revue hispanique_ (Paris, 1902), vol. ix. pp. 139-170; and M.
  Menendez y Pelayo's introduction to the _Celestina_ (Vigo, 1899-1900)
       (J. F.-K.)




CELESTINE (CAELESTINUS), the name of five popes.

CELESTINE I., pope from 422 to 432. At his accession the dissensions
caused by the faction of Eulalius (see BONIFACE I.) had not yet abated.
He, however, triumphed over them, and his episcopate was peaceful. When
the doctrines of Nestorius were denounced to him, he instructed Cyril,
bishop of Alexandria, to follow up the matter. The emperor Theodosius
II. convoked an ecumenical council at Ephesus, to which Celestine sent
his legates. He had some difficulties with the bishops in Africa on the
question of appeals to Rome, and with the bishops of Provence with
regard to the doctrines of St Augustine. To expedite the extirpation of
Pelagianism, he sent to Britain a deacon called Palladius, at whose
instigation St Germanus of Auxerre crossed the English Channel, as
delegate of the pope and bishops of Gaul, to inculcate orthodox
principles upon the clergy of Britain. He also commissioned Palladius to
preach the gospel in Ireland which was beginning to rally to
Christianity. Celestine was the first pope who is known to have taken a
direct interest in the churches of Britain and Ireland.     (L. D.*)

CELESTINE II., pope in 1143-1144. Guido of Citta di Castello (Tiferno),
born of noble Tuscan family, able and learned, studied under Abelard
and became a cardinal priest. Elected the successor of Innocent II. on
the 26th of September 1143, he died on the 8th of March following. He
removed the interdict which Innocent had employed against Louis VII. of
France. At the time of his death he was on the verge of a controversy
with Roger of Sicily.

  See A. Certini, _Vita_ (Foligno, 1716); M. Bouquet, _Recueil des
  historiens des Gaules_ (Paris, 1738 ff.), tome 15, 408-411; Migne,
  _Patrologiae cursus completus_, 179, 765-820; P. Jaffe, _Regesta
  Pontificum Romanorum_, 2nd ed. vol. ii. (Lipsiae, 1888), 1 ff.; Wetzer
  und Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd ed. vol. iii. (Freiburg, 1884), 578
  ff.; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed. vol. iv. (Leipzig,
  1898), 201.

CELESTINE III. (Giacinto Bobo), pope from 1191 to 1198, was cardinal
deacon of Santa Maria in Cosmedin as early as 1144, and had reached the
age of eighty-five when chosen on the 30th of March 1191 to succeed
Clement III. The first pope of the house of the Orsini, his policy was
marked by mildness and indecision. Henry VI. of Germany at once forced
the pontiff to crown him emperor, and three or four years later took
possession of the Norman kingdom of Sicily; he refused tribute and the
oath of allegiance, and even appointed bishops subject to his own
jurisdiction; moreover, he gave his brother in fief the estates which
had belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany. Celestine did not dare
so much as to threaten him with excommunication. It was Celestine's
purpose to lay England under the interdict; but Prince John and the
barons still refused to recognize the papal legate, the bishop of Ely.
Richard I. had been set free before the dilatory pope put Leopold of
Austria under the ban. In his last sickness Celestine wished to resign
his office, but the cardinals protested. Death released him from his
perplexities on the 8th of January 1198.

  See "Epistolae Coelestini III. Papae," in M. Bouquet, _Receuil des
  historiens des Gaules et de la France_, tome 19 (Paris, 1738 ff.);
  J.P. Migne, _Patrologiae cursus completus_, tome 206 (Paris, 1855),
  867 ff.; further sources in _Neues Archiv fur die altere deutsche
  Geschichtskunde_, 2. 218; 11. 398 f.; 12.411-414; P. Jaffe, _Regesta
  Pontificum Romanorum_, vol. ii. (2nd ed.. Leipzig, 1888), 577 ff.
       (W. W. R.*)

CELESTINE IV. (Godfrey Castiglione), pope in 1241, son of a sister of
Urban III. (1185-1187), was archpriest and chancellor at Milan. After
Urban's death he entered the Cistercian monastery at Hautecombe in
Savoy. In 1227 Gregory IX. created him cardinal priest of St Mark's, and
in 1233 made him cardinal bishop of Sabina. Elected to succeed Gregory
on the 25th of October 1241, he died on the 10th of November, before
consecration, and was buried in St Peter's.

  See A. Potthast, _Regesta Pontificum Romanorum_, vol. i. (Berlin,
  1874), 940 f.

CELESTINE V. (St Peter Celestine), pope in 1294, was born of poor
parents at Isernia about 1215, and early entered the Benedictine order.
Living as a hermit on Monte Morrone near Sulmone in the Abruzzi, he
attracted other ascetics about him and organized them into a
congregation of the Benedictines which was later called the Celestines
(q.v.). The assistance of a vicar enabled him to escape from the growing
administrative cares and devote himself solely to asceticism, apparently
the only field of human activity in which he excelled. His _Opuscula_,
published by Telera at Naples in 1640, are probably not genuine; he was
_indoctus libris_. A fight between the Colonna and the Orsini, as well
as hopeless dissensions among the cardinals, prevented a papal election
for two years and three months after the death of Nicholas IV. Charles
II. of Naples, needing a pope in order that he might regain Sicily,
brought about a conclave. As the election of any cardinal seemed
impossible, on the 5th of July 1294 the Sacred College united on Pietro
di Morrone; the cardinals expected to rule in the name of the celebrated
but incapable ascetic. Apocalyptic notions then current doubtless aided
his election, for Joachim of Floris and his school looked to monasticism
to furnish deliverance to the church and to the world. Multitudes came
to Celestine's coronation at Aquila, and he began his reign the idol of
visionaries, of extremists and of the populace. But the pope was in the
power of Charles II. of Naples, and became his tool against Aragon. The
king's son Louis, a layman of twenty-one, was made archbishop of Lyons.
The cardinals, scarcely consulted at all, were discontented. The pope,
who wanted more time for his devotions, offered to leave three cardinals
in charge of affairs; but his proposition was rejected. He then wished
to abdicate, and at length Benedetto Gaetano, destined to succeed him as
Boniface VIII., removed all scruples against this unheard-of procedure
by finding a precedent in the case of Clement I. Celestine abdicated on
the 13th of December 1294. There is no sufficient ground for finding an
allusion to this act in the noted line of Dante, "Che fece per viltate
il gran rifiuto" ("who made from cowardice the great refusal,"
_Inferno_, 3, 60). Boniface at length put him in prison for safe
keeping; he died in a monastic cell in the castle of Fumone near Anagni
on the 19th of May 1296. He was canonized by Clement V. in 1313.

  See Wetzer und Welte and Herzog-Hauck (with excellent bibliography) as
  above; Jean Aurelien, Superieur de la Congregation des Celestins, _La
  Vie admirable de ... Saint Pierre Celestin_ (Bar-le-Duc, 1873); H.
  Finke, _Aus den Tagen Bonifaz VIII._ (Munster, 1902), pp. 24-43.
       (W. W. R.*)




CELESTINE, or CELESTITE, a name applied to native strontium sulphate
(SrSO4), having been suggested by the celestial blue colour which it
occasionally presents. This colour has been referred to a trace of iron
phosphate, but in some cases such an explanation appears doubtful. The
mineral is usually colourless, or has only a delicate shade of blue.
Celestine crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, being isomorphous
with barytes (q.v.). The angle between the prism faces is 76 deg. 17'.
The cleavage is perfect parallel to the basal pinacoid, and less marked
parallel to the prism. Although celestine much resembles barytes in its
physical properties, having for example the same degree of hardness (3),
it is less dense, its specific gravity being 3.9. Celestine is a less
abundant mineral than barytes. It is, however, much more soluble, and
occurs frequently in mineral waters. W.W. Stoddart showed that many
plants growing on Keuper marls containing celestine near Bristol
appropriated the strontium salt, and the metal could be detected
spectroscopically in their ashes.

Celestine occurs in the Triassic rocks of Britain, especially in veins
and geodes in the Keuper marl in the neighbourhood of Bristol. At
Wickwar and Yate in Gloucestershire it is worked for industrial
purposes. Colourless crystals, of great beauty, occur in association
with calcite and native sulphur in the sulphur deposits of Sicily, as at
Girgenti. Fine blue crystals are yielded by the copper mines of
Herrengrund, in Hungary; a dark blue fibrous form is known from Jena;
and small crystals occur in flint at Meudon near Paris. Very large
tabular crystals are found in limestone on Strontian Island in Lake
Erie; and a blue fibrous variety from near Frankstown, Blair Co., Penn.,
is notable as having been the original celestine on which the species
was founded by A.G. Werner in 1798.

Celestine is much used for the preparation of strontium hydrate, which
is employed in refining beetroot sugar in Germany. The mineral is used
also as a source of various salts of strontium such as the nitrate,
which finds application in pyrotechny for the production of red fire.
     (F. W. R.*)




CELESTINES, a religious order founded about 1260 by Peter of Morrone,
afterwards Pope Celestine V. (1294). It was an attempt to unite the
eremitical and cenobitical modes of life. Peter's first disciples lived
as hermits on Mount Majella in the Abruzzi. The Benedictine rule was
taken as the basis of the life, but was supplemented by regulations
notably increasing the austerities practised. The form of government was
borrowed largely from those prevailing in the mendicant orders. Indeed,
though the Celestines are reckoned as a branch of the Benedictines,
there is little in common between them. For all that, St Celestine,
during his brief tenure of the papacy, tried to spread his ideas among
the Benedictines, and induced the monks of Monte Cassino to adopt his
idea of the monastic life instead of St Benedict's; for this purpose
fifty Celestine monks were introduced into Monte Cassino, but on
Celestine's abdication of the papacy the project fortunately was at once
abandoned. During the founder's lifetime the order spread rapidly, and
eventually there were about 150 monasteries in Italy, and others in
France, Bohemia and the Netherlands. The French houses, twenty-one in
number, formed a separate congregation, the head-house being in Paris.
The French Revolution and those of the 19th century destroyed their
houses, and the Celestine order seems no longer to exist.

Peter of Morrone was in close contact with the Franciscan Spirituals of
the extreme type (see FRANCISCANS), and he endeavoured to form an
amalgamation between them and his hermits, under the title "Poor Hermits
of Celestine." On his abdication the amalgamation was dissolved, and the
Franciscan element fled to the East and was finally suppressed by
Boniface VIII. and compelled to re-enter the Franciscan order. The habit
of the Celestines was black.

  See Helyot, _Histoire des ordres religieux_ (1792), vi. c. 23; Max
  Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. S 22, p. 134; the
  art. "Colestiner" in Wetzer und Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and
  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3).     (E. C. B.)




CELIBACY (Lat. _caelibatus_, from _caelebs_, unmarried), the state of
being unmarried, a term now commonly used in the sense of complete
abstinence from marriage; it originally included the state of widowhood
also, and any one was strictly a _caelebs_ who had no existing spouse.
Physicians and physiologists have frequently discussed celibacy from
their professional point of view; but it will be sufficient to note here
the results of statistical inquiries. It has been established by the
calculations of actuaries that married persons--women in a considerable,
but men in a much greater degree---have at all periods of life a greater
probability of living than the single. From the point of view of public
utility, the state has sometimes attempted to discourage celibacy. The
best-known enactment of this kind is that of the emperor Augustus, best
known as _Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea_. This disabled _caelibes_ from
receiving an inheritance unless the testator were related to them within
the sixth degree; it limited the amount which a wife could take by a
husband's will, or the husband by the wife's, unless they had children;
and preference was given to candidates for office in proportion to the
number of their children.[1] Ecclesiastical legislators, on the other
hand, have frequently favoured the unmarried state; and celibacy,
partial or complete, has been more or less stringently enforced upon the
ministers of different religions; many instances are quoted by H.C. Lea.
The best known, of course, are the Roman Vestals; though here even the
great honours and privileges accorded to these maidens were often
insufficient to keep the ranks filled. In the East, however, this and
other forms of asceticism have always flourished more freely; and the
Buddhist monastic system is not only far older than that of Christendom,
but also proportionately more extensive.[2] In early Judaism, chastity
was indeed enjoined upon the priests at certain solemn seasons; but
there was no attempt to enforce celibacy upon the sacerdotal caste. On
the contrary, all priests were the sons of priests, and the case of
Elizabeth shows that here, as throughout the Jewish people, barrenness
was considered a disgrace. But Alexander's conquests brought the Jews
into contact with Hindu and Greek mysticism; and this probably explains
the growth of the ascetic Essenes some two centuries before the
Christian era. The adherents of this sect, unlike the Pharisees and
Sadducees, were never denounced by Christ, who seems on the contrary to
have had real sympathy with the voluntary celibacy of an exceptional few
(Matt. xix. 12). St Paul's utterances on this subject, though they go
somewhat further, amount only to the assertion that a struggling
missionary body will find more freedom in its work in the absence of
wives and children. At the same time, St Paul claimed emphatically for
himself and the other apostles the right of leading about a wife; and he
names among the qualifications for a bishop, an elder and a deacon,
that he should be "the husband of one wife." Indeed it was freely
admitted by the most learned men of the middle ages and Renaissance that
celibacy had been no rule of the apostolic church; and, though writers
of ability have attempted to maintain the contrary even in modern times,
their contentions are unhesitatingly rejected by the latest Roman
Catholic authority.[3]

The gradual growth of clerical celibacy, first as a custom and then as a
rule of discipline, can be traced clearly enough even through the scanty
records of the first few centuries. The most ascetic Christians began to
question the legality of second marriages on the part of either sex, as
even paganism had often reprobated second marriages of women. Though
these extremists were presently branded as heretics for their eccentric
ultra-ascetic tenets (Montanists, Cathari), yet as early as Tertullian's
time (c. A.D. 220) the right of second marriages was theoretically
denied to the priesthood. This was logically followed by a revival of
the old Levitical rule which required that priests should marry none but
virgins (Lev. xxi. 7, 13). Both these rules, however, proved difficult
of enforcement and seem to have rested only on a vague basis of public
opinion; twice-married men (_digami_) were admitted to the priesthood by
Pope Calixtus I. (219-222), and even as late as the beginning of the 5th
century we find husbands of widows consecrated to the episcopate. The
so-called Apostolical Constitutions and Canons, the latter of which were
compiled in the 4th century, give us the first clear and fairly general
rules on the subject. Here we find "bishops and priests allowed to
retain the wives whom they may have had before ordination, but not to
marry in orders; the lower grades, deacons, subdeacons, &c., allowed to
marry after entering the church; but all were to be husbands of but one
wife, who must be neither a widow, a divorced woman nor a concubine"
(Lea i. 28). Many causes, however, were already at work to carry public
feeling beyond this stage. Quite apart from the few enthusiasts who
would have given a literal interpretation to the text in Matt, xix. 12,
vows of virginity became more and more frequent as the virtue itself was
lauded by ecclesiastical writers in language of increasing fervour.
These vows were at first purely voluntary and temporary; but public
opinion naturally grew less and less tolerant of those who, having once
formed and published so solemn a resolution, broke it afterwards. Again
not only was the church doctrine itself more or less consciously
influenced by the Manichaean tenet of the diabolical origin of all
matter, including the human body, but churchmen were also naturally
tempted to compete in asceticism with the many heretics who held this
tenet, and whose abstinence brought them so much popular consideration.
Moreover, in proportion as the clergy, no longer mere ringleaders of a
despised and persecuted sect, became beneficiaries and administrators of
rich endowments--and this at a time when the external safeguards against
embezzlement were comparatively weak--a strong feeling grew up among the
laity that church revenues should not go to support the priest's
family.[4] Lastly, such partial attempts as we have already described to
enforce upon the clergy a special rule of continence, by their very
failure, suggested more heroic measures. Therefore, side by side with
the evidence for difficult enforcement of the old rules, we find an
equally constant series of new and more stringent enactments.

The first church council which definitely forbade marriage to the higher
clergy was the local Spanish synod of Elvira (A.D. 305). A similar
interpretation has sometimes been claimed for the third canon of that
general council of Nicaea to which we owe the Nicene creed (325), but
this is now abandoned by the best authorities on all sides. There can be
no doubt, however, that the 4th century opened a wide breach in this
respect between the Eastern and Western churches. The modern Greek
custom is "(a) that most candidates for Holy Orders are dismissed from
the episcopal seminaries shortly before being ordained deacons, in order
that they may marry (their partners being in fact mostly daughters of
clergymen), and after their marriage, return to the seminaries in order
to take the higher orders; (b) that, as priests, they still continue the
marriages thus contracted, but may not remarry on the death of their
wife; and (c) that the Greek bishops, who may not continue their married
life, are commonly not chosen out of the ranks of the married secular
clergy, but from among the monks."[5] The Eastern Church, therefore,
still adheres fairly closely to the rules laid down by the Apostolical
Canons in the 4th century. In the West, however, a decisive forward step
was taken by Popes Damasus and Siricius during the last quarter of that
century. The famous decretal of Siricius (385) not only enjoined strict
celibacy on bishops, priests and deacons, but insisted on the instant
separation of those who had already married, and prescribed the
punishment of expulsion for disobedience (Siric. _Ep._ i. c. 7; Migne,
_P.L._ xiii. col. 1138). Although we find Siricius a year later writing
to the African Church on this same subject in tones rather of persuasion
than of command, yet the beginning of compulsory sacerdotal celibacy in
the Western Church may be conveniently dated from his decretal of A.D.
385. Leo the Great (d. 461) and Gregory the Great (d. 604) further
extended the rule of celibacy to subdeacons.

For the next three or four centuries there is little to note but the
continual evidence of open or secret resistance to these decrees, and
the parallel frequency and stringency of ecclesiastical legislation,
which by its very monotony bears witness to its own want of success. At
least seven episcopal constitutions of the 8th and 9th centuries forbade
the priest to have even his mother or his sister in the house.[6] Nor
did the only difficulty lie in such secret breaches of the law; in many
districts the priesthood tended to become a mere hereditary caste, to
the disadvantage of church and state alike. In northern and southern
Italy public clerical marriages were extremely frequent, whether with or
without regular forms.[7] The see of Rouen was held for more than a
century (942-1054) by three successive bishops who were family men and
two of whom were openly married.[8] In England St Swithun (d. 862) was
married, though very likely by special papal dispensation; and the
married clergy were apparently predominant in Alfred's time. In spite of
Dunstan's reforms at the end of the 10th century, the Norman Lanfranc
found so many wedded priests that he dared not decree their separation;
and when his successor St Anselm attempted to go further, this seemed a
perilous novelty even to so distinguished an ecclesiastic as Henry of
Huntingdon, who wrote: "About Michaelmas of this same year (1102)
Archbishop Anselm held a council in London, wherein he forbade wives to
the English priesthood, heretofore not forbidden; which seemed to some a
matter of great purity, but to others a perilous thing, lest the clergy,
in striving after a purity too great for human strength, should fall
into horrible impurity, to the extreme dishonour of the Christian name"
(lib. vii.; Migne, _P.L._ cxcv. col. 944). Yet this was at a time when
the decisive and continued action of two great popes ought to have left
no possible doubt as to the law of the church.

The growing tendency of the clergy to look upon their endowments as
hereditary fiefs, their consequent worldliness and (it must be added)
their vices, aroused the indignation of two very remarkable men in the
latter half of the 11th century. St Pietro Damiani (988-1072) was a
scholar, hermit and reformer, who did more perhaps than any one else to
combat the open marriages of the clergy. He complained that exhortation
was wasted even on the bishops, "because they despair of attaining to
the pinnacle of chastity, and have no fear of condemnation in open synod
for the vice of lechery.... If this evil were secret [he adds], it might
perhaps be borne."[9] His _Liber Gomorrhianus_, addressed to and
approved by St Leo IX., is sufficient in itself to explain the vehemence
of his crusade, though it emphasizes even more strongly the impolicy of
proceeding more severely against the open marriages of the clergy than
against concubinage and other less public vices.[10] Damiani found a
powerful ally in the equally ascetic but far more imperious and
statesmanlike Hildebrand, afterwards Pope Gregory VII. Under the
influence of these two men, five successive popes between 1045 and 1073
attempted a radical reform; and when, in this latter year, Hildebrand
himself became pope, he took measures so stringent that he has sometimes
been erroneously represented not merely as the most uncompromising
champion, but actually as the author of the strict rule of celibacy for
all clerics in sacred orders. His mind, strongly imbued with the
theocratic ideal, saw more clearly than any other the enormous increase
of influence which would accrue to a strictly celibate body of clergy,
separated by their very ordination from the strongest earthly ties; and
no statesman has ever pursued with greater energy and resolution a plan
once formulated. In order to break down the desperate, and in many
places organized, resistance of the clergy, he did not shrink from the
perilous course, so contrary to his general policy, of subjecting them
to the judgment of the laity. Not only were concubinary priests--a term
which was now made to include also those who had openly
married--forbidden to serve at the altar and threatened with actual
deposition in cases of contumacy, but the laity were warned against
attending mass said by "any priest certainly known to keep a concubine
or _subintroducta_."[11]

But these heroic measures soon caused serious embarrassment. If the
laity were to stand aloof from all incontinent priests, while (as the
most orthodox churchmen constantly complained) many priests were still
incontinent, then this could only result in estranging large bodies of
the laity from the sacraments of the church. It became necessary,
therefore, to soften a policy which to the lay mind might imply that the
virtue of a sacrament was weakened by the vices of its ministers; and,
whereas Peter Lombard (d. 1160) concludes that no excommunicated priest
can effect transubstantiation, St Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) agrees with
all the later Schoolmen in granting him that power, though to the peril
of his own soul.[12] For, by the last quarter of the 13th century, the
struggle had entered upon a new phase. The severest measures had been
tried, especially against the priests' unhappy partners. As early as the
council of Augsburg (952) these were condemned to be scourged, while Leo
II. and Urban II., at the councils of Rome and Amalfi (1051, 1089),
adjudged them to actual slavery.[13] Such enactments naturally defeated
their own purpose. More was done by the gentler missionary zeal of the
Franciscans and Dominicans in the early 13th century; but St Thomas
Aquinas had seen half a century of that reform and had recognized its
limitations; he therefore attenuated as much as possible the decree of
Nicholas II. His contemporary St Bonaventura complained publicly that he
himself and his fellow-friars were often compelled to hold their tongues
about the evil clergy; partly because, even if one were expelled,
another equally worthless would probably take his place, but "perhaps
principally lest, if the people altogether lost faith in the clergy,
heretics should arise and draw the people to themselves as sheep that
have no shepherd, and make heretics of them, boasting that, as it were
by our own testimony, the clergy were so vile that none need obey them
or care for their teaching."[14] In other passages of his works St
Bonaventura tells us plainly how little had as yet been gained by
suppressing clerical marriages; and the evidence of orthodox and
distinguished churchmen for the next three centuries is equally
decisive. Alvarez Pelayo, a Spanish bishop and papal penitentiary, wrote
in 1322 "The clergy sin commonly in these following ways ... fourthly,
in that they live very incontinently, and would that they had never
promised continence! especially in Spain and southern Italy, in which
provinces the sons of the laity are scarcely more numerous than those of
the clergy." Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly pleaded before the council of
Constance in 1415 for the reform of "that most scandalous custom, or
rather abuse, whereby many [clergy] fear not to keep concubines in
public."[15]

Meanwhile, as has been said above, the custom of open marriage among
clergy in holy orders (priests, deacons and subdeacons) was gradually
stamped out. A series of synods, from the early 12th century onwards,
declared such marriages to be not only unlawful, but null and void in
themselves. Yet the custom lingered sporadically in Germany and England
until the last few years of the 13th century, though it seems to have
died out earlier in France and Italy. There was also a short-lived
attempt to declare that even a clerk in lower orders should lose his
clerical privileges on his marriage; but Boniface VIII. in 1300
definitely permitted such marriages under the already-quoted conditions
of the Apostolic Canons; in these cases, however, a bishop's licence was
required to enable the cleric to officiate in church, and the episcopal
registers show that the diocesans frequently insisted on the celibacy of
parish-clerks. As the middle ages drew to a close, earnest churchmen
were compelled to ask themselves whether it would not be better to let
the priests marry than to continue a system under which concubinage was
even licensed in some districts.[16] Serious proposals were made to
reintroduce clerical marriage at the great reforming councils of
Constance (1415) and Basel (1432); but the overwhelming majority of
orthodox churchmen were unwilling to abandon a rule for which the saints
had fought during so many centuries, and to which many of them probably
attributed an apostolic origin.[17] This conservative attitude was
inevitably strengthened by the attacks first of Lollard and then, of
Lutheran heretics; and Sir Thomas More was driven to declare, in answer
to Tyndale, that the marriage of priests, being essentially null and
void, "defileth the priest more than double or treble whoredom." It is
well known that this became one of the most violently disputed questions
at the Reformation, and that for eight years it was felony in England to
defend sacerdotal marriage as permissible by the law of God (Statute of
the Six Articles, 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14). The diversity of practice on
this point drew one of the sharpest lines between reformers and
orthodox, until the disorders introduced by these religious wars tempted
the latter to imitate in considerable numbers the licence of their
rivals.[18] This moved the emperor Charles V. to obtain from Paul III.
dispensations for married priests in his dominions; and his successor
Ferdinand, with the equally Catholic sovereigns of France, Bavaria and
Poland, pleaded strongly at the council of Trent (1545) for permissive
marriage. The council, after some hesitation, took the contrary course,
and in the 9th canon of its 24th session it erected sacerdotal celibacy
practically, if not formally, into an article of faith. In spite of
this, the emperor Joseph II. reopened the question in 1783. In France
the revolutionary constitution of 1791 abolished all restrictions on
marriage, and during the Terror celibacy often exposed a priest to
suspicion as an enemy to the Republic; but the better part of the clergy
steadily resisted this innovation, and it is estimated that only about
2% were married. The Old Catholics adopted the principle of sacerdotal
marriage in 1875.

The working of the system in modern times is perhaps too controversial a
question to be discussed here; but one or two points may be noted on
which all fairly well informed writers would probably agree. It can
scarcely be denied that the Roman Catholic clergy have always owed much
of their influence to their celibacy, and that in many cases this
influence has been most justly earned by the celibate's devotion to an
unworldly ideal. Again, the most adverse critics would admit that much
was done by the counter-Reformation, and that modern ecclesiastical
discipline on this point is considerably superior to that of the middle
ages; while, on the other hand, many authorities of undoubted orthodoxy
are ready to confess that it is not free from serious risks even in
these days of easy publicity and stringent civil discipline.[19] Lastly,
statistical research has shown that the children of the married British
clergy have been distinguished far beyond their mere numerical
proportion.[20]

  AUTHORITIES.--Henry Charles Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_ (3rd
  ed., 1907, 2 vols), is by far the fullest and best work on this
  subject, though a good deal of important matter omitted by Dr Lea may
  be found in _Die Einfuhrung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeit_ by the
  brothers Johann Anton and Augustin Theiner, which was put on the Roman
  _Index_, though Augustin afterwards became archivist at the Vatican
  (Altenburg, 1828, 2 vols.). The history of monastic celibacy has not
  yet been fully treated anywhere; the most important evidence of the
  episcopal registers is either still in MS. or has been published only
  in comparatively recent years. The most learned work on clerical
  celibacy from the strictly conservative point of view is that of
  Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, _Storia Polemica del celibato sacro_
  (Rome, 1774); but many of his most important conclusions are set
  aside by the abbe E. Vacandard in his contribution to the
  _Dictionnaire de theologie catholique_ (vol. ii. art. "Celibat
  ecclesiastique").     (G. G. Co.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] W. Smith, _Dict. of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed.), vol.
    ii. p. 44.

  [2] "In the 14th century, the city of Ilchi, in Chinese Tartary,
    possessed 14 monasteries, averaging 3000 devotees in each; while in
    Tibet, at the present time, there are in the vicinity of Lhassa 12
    great monasteries, containing a population of 18,500 lamas. In Ladak
    the proportion of lamas to the laity is as 1 to 13, in Spiti 1 to 7,
    and in Burmah 1 to 30" (Lea i. 103).

  [3] 1 Cor. vii. 25 sq., ix. 5; 1 Tim. iii. 2, 11, 12; Titus i. 6; E.
    Vacandard in _Dict. de Theol. Cath._, s.v. "Celibat."

  [4] This was a natural argument for the defenders of clerical
    celibacy even in far later times. St Bonaventura (d. 1274) puts this
    very strongly: "For if archbishops and bishops now had children, they
    would rob and plunder all the goods of the Church so that little or
    nothing would be left for the poor. For since they now heap up wealth
    and enrich nephews removed from them by almost incalculable degrees
    of affinity, what would they do if they had legitimate children?...
    Therefore the Holy Ghost in His providence hath removed this
    stumbling-block," &c. &c. (_In Sent._ lib. iv. dist. xxxvii art. i.
    quaest. 3).

  [5] Hefele, _Beitrage zur Kirchengesch. u.s.w._ i. 139.

  [6] See the quotations in Lea i. 156. These prohibitions were renewed
    in the 13th and 14th centuries (ibid. i. 410).

  [7] Ratherius, _Itinerarium_, c. 5 (Migne, _P.L._ cxxxvi. col. 585).
    Gulielmus Apulus writes of southern Italy in 1059: "In these parts
    priests, deacons and the whole clergy were publicly married" (_De
    Normann._ lib. ii.).

  [8] Dom Pommeraye, _S. Rotomag. Eccl. Concilia_, pp. 56, 65; cf.
    similar instances on p. 315 of Dr A. Dresdner's _Kultur-und
    Sittengeschichte d. italienischen Geistlichkeit im 10. und 11. Jhdt._
    (Breslau, 1890).

  [9] _Opusc._ xvii. praef. The saint's evidence is carefully weighed
    by Dresdner (l.c.), especially on pp. 309 ff. and 321 ff.

  [10] Even Pope Innocent III. was compelled to decide that priests who
    had kept two or more concubines, successively or simultaneously, did
    not thereby incur the disabilities which attended digamists; or, in
    other words, that a layman who had contracted two lawful marriages
    and then proceeded to ordination on the death of his second wife,
    could be absolved only by the pope; whereas the concubinary priest,
    "as a man branded with simple fornication," might receive a valid
    dispensation from his own bishop (Letter to archbishop of Lund in
    1212. _Regest._ lib. xvi. ep. 118; Migne, _P.L._ ccxvi. col. 914). As
    the great canonist Gratian remarked on a similar decretal of Pope
    Pelagius, "Here is a case where lechery has more rights at law than
    has chastity" (_Decret._ p. i. dist. xxxiv. c. vii. note a).

  [11] The actual originator of this policy was Nicholas II., probably
    at Hildebrand's suggestion; but the decree remained practically a
    dead letter until Gregory's accession.

  [12] Peter Lombard, _Sentent._ lib. iv. dist. 13; Aquinas, _Summa
    Theol._ pars iii. Q. lxxxiii. art. 7, 9.

  [13] Labbe-Mansi, _Concilia_, vol. xix. col. 796 and xx. col. 724. Dr
    Lea is probably right in suggesting that it was a confused
    recollection of these decrees which prompted one of Cranmer's judges
    to assure him that "his children were bondmen to the see of
    Canterbury." Strype, _Memorials of Cranmer_, bk iii. c. 28 (ed. 1812,
    vol. i. p. 601).

  [14] Bonaventura, _Libell. Apologet._ quaest. i.; cf. his parallel
    treatise _Quare Fratres Minores praedicent_. The first visitation of
    his friend Odo Rigaldi, archbishop of Rouen, shows that about 15% of
    the parish clergy in that diocese were notoriously incontinent
    (_Regestrum Visitationum_, ed. Bonnin, Rouen, 1852, pp. 17 ff.).
    Vacandard (loc. cit. p. 2087) appeals rather misleadingly to this
    record as proving the progress made during the half-century before
    Odo's time. It is probable that there were many more offenders than
    these 15% known to the archbishop.

  [15] Alvarus Pelagius, _De Planctu Ecclesiae_, ed. 1517, f. 131a,
    col. 2; cf. f. 102b, col. 2; Hermann von der Hardt, _Constantiensis
    Concilii_, &c. vol. i. pars. viii. col. 428.

  [16] This more or less regular sale of licences by bishops and
    archdeacons flourished from the days of Gregory VII. to the 16th
    century; see index to Lea, s.v. "Licences." Dr Lea has, however,
    omitted the most striking authority of all. Gascoigne, the most
    distinguished Oxford chancellor of his day, writing about 1450 of
    John de la Bere, then bishop of St David's, says that he had refused
    to separate the clergy of his diocese from their concubines, giving
    publicly as his reason, "for then I your bishop should lose the 400
    marks which I receive yearly in my diocese for the priests' lemans"
    (Gascoigne, _Lib. Ver._ ed. Rogers, p. 36). Even Sir Thomas More, in
    his polemic against the Reformers, admitted that this concubinage was
    too often tolerated in Wales (_English Works_, ed. 1557, p. 231, cf.
    619).

  [17] One of Dr Lea's few serious mistakes is his acceptance of the
    spurious pamphlet in favour of priestly marriage which was attributed
    in the 11th century to St Ulrich of Augsburg (i. 171).

  [18] Janssen, _Gesch. d. deutschen Volkes_, 13th ed., vol. viii. pp.
    423, 4, 9; 434; Lea ii. 195, 204. ff.

  [19] Lea (ii. 339. ff.) gives a long series of quotations to this
    effect from church synods and orthodox disciplinary writers of modern
    times.

  [20] Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British Genius_ (London, 1904, p.
    80), "Even if we compare the church with the other professions with
    which it is most usually classed, we find that the eminent children
    of the clergy considerably outnumber those of lawyers, doctors and
    army officers put together." Mr Ellis points put, however, that "the
    clerical profession ... also produces more idiots than any other
    class."




CELL (from Lat. _cella_, probably from an Indo-European _kal_--seen in
Lat. _celare_, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat.
_cera_, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb), in
its earliest application a small detached room in a building,
particularly a small monastic house (see ABBEY), generally in the
country, belonging to large conventual buildings, and intended for
change of air for the monks, as well as places to reside in to look
after the lands, vassals, &c. Thus Tynemouth was a cell to St Albans;
Ashwell, Herts, to Westminster Abbey. The term was also used of the
small sleeping apartments of the monks, or a small apartment used by the
anchorite or hermit. This use still survives in the application to the
small separate chambers in a prison (q.v.) in which prisoners are
confined. The word is applied to various small compartments which build
up a compound structure such as a honeycomb, to the minute compartments
in a tissue, &c. More particularly the word is used, in electrical
science, of the single constituent compartments of a voltaic battery
(q.v.), and in biology of the living units of protoplasm of which plants
and animals are composed (see CYTOLOGY).




CELLA, in architecture, the Latin name for the sanctuary of a Roman
temple, corresponding with the naos of the Greek temple. In the Etruscan
temples, according to Vitruvius, there were three cellas, side by side;
and in the temple of Venus built by Hadrian at Rome there were two
cellas, both enclosed, however, in a single peristyle.




CELLARET (i.e. little cellar), strictly that portion of a sideboard
which is used for holding bottles and decanters, so called from a cellar
(which in general may be any underground unlighted apartment) being
commonly used for keeping wine. Sometimes it is a drawer, divided into
compartments lined with zinc, and sometimes a cupboard, but still an
integral part of the sideboard. In the latter part of the 18th century,
when the sideboard was in process of evolution from a side-table with
drawers into the large and important piece of furniture which it
eventually became, the cellaret was a detached receptacle. It was most
commonly of mahogany or rosewood, many-sided or even octagonal, and
occasionally oval, bound with broad bands of brass and lined with zinc
partitions to hold the ice for cooling wine. Sometimes a tap was fixed
in the lower part for drawing off the water from the melted ice.
Cellarets were usually placed under the sideboard, and were, as a rule,
handsome and well-proportioned; but as the artistic impulse which
created the great 18th-century English school of furniture died away,
their form grew debased, and under the influence of the English Empire
fashion, which drew its inspiration from a bastard classicism, they
assumed the shape of sarcophagi incongruously mounted with lions' heads
and claw-feet. Hepplewhite called them "gardes du vin"; they are now
nearly always known as "wine-coolers."




CELLE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the
left bank of the navigable Aller, near its junction with the Fuse and
the Lachte, 23 m. N.E. of Hanover, on the main Lehrte-Hamburg railway.
Pop. (1905) 21,400. The town has a Roman Catholic and five Protestant
churches, among the latter the town-church with the burial vault of the
dukes of Luneburg-Celle. Here rest the remains of Sophia Dorothea, wife
of the elector George of Hanover, afterwards George I. of England, and
those of Caroline Matilda, the divorced wife of Christian VII. of
Denmark and sister of George III. of England, who resided here from 1772
until her death in 1775. The most interesting building in Celle is the
former ducal palace, begun in 1485 in Late Gothic style, but with
extensive Renaissance additions of the close of the 17th century. The
building of the court of appeal (_Oberlandesgericht_), with a valuable
library of 60,000 volumes and many MSS., including a priceless copy of
the _Sachsenspiegel_, the museum and the hall of the estates
(_Landschaftshaus_) are also worthy of notice. There are manufactures of
woollen yarn, tobacco, biscuits, umbrellas and printers' ink, and a
lively trade is carried on in wax, honey, wool and timber. Celle is the
seat of the court of appeal from the superior courts of Aurich, Detmold,
Gottingen, Hanover, Hildesheim, Luneburg, Osnabruck, Stade and Verden.
Founded in 1292, the town was the residence of the dukes of
Luneburg-Celle, a cadet branch of the ducal house of Brunswick, from the
14th century until 1705.

  See Dehning, _Geschichte der Stadt Celle_ (Celle, 1891).




CELLIER, ALFRED (1844-1891), English musical composer, was born at
Hackney on the 1st of December 1844. From 1855 to 1860 he was a
chorister at the Chapel Royal, St James's, under the Rev. Thomas
Helmore, where Arthur Sullivan was one of his youthful colleagues. His
first appointment was that of organist at All Saints' church, Blackheath
(1862). In 1866 he succeeded Dr Chipp as director of the Ulster Hall
concerts, Belfast, at the same time acting as conductor of the Belfast
Philharmonic Society. In 1868 he returned to London as organist of St
Alban's, Holborn. From 1871 to 1875 he was conductor at the Prince's
theatre, Manchester; and from 1877 to 1879 at various London theatres.
During this period he composed many comic operas and operettas, of which
the most successful was _The Sultan of Mocha_, which was produced at
Manchester in 1874, in London at the St James's theatre in 1876, and
revived at the Strand theatre in 1887. In 1880 Cellier visited America,
producing a musical version of Longfellow's _Masque of Pandora_ at
Boston (1881). In 1883 his setting of Gray's _Elegy_ in the form of a
cantata was produced at the Leeds Festival. In 1886 he won the great
success of his life in _Dorothy_, a comic opera written to a libretto by
B.C. Stephenson, which was produced at the Gaiety theatre on the 25th of
September 1886, and, transferred first to the Prince of Wales theatre
and subsequently to the Lyric theatre, ran until April 1889. _Doris_
(1889), and _The Mountebanks_, which was produced in January 1892, a few
days after the composer's death, were less successful. Cellier owed much
to the influence of Sir Arthur Sullivan. He had little of the latter's
humour and vivacity, but he was a fertile melodist, and his writing is
invariably distinguished by elegance and refinement. He died in London
on the 28th of December 1891.




CELLINI, BENVENUTO (1500-1571), Italian artist, metal worker and
sculptor, was born in Florence, where his family, originally landowners
in the Val d'Ambra, had for three generations been settled. His father,
Giovanni Cellini, was a musician and artificer of musical instruments;
he married Maria Lisabetta Granacci, and eighteen years elapsed before
they had any progeny. Benvenuto (meaning "Welcome") was the third child.
The father destined him for the same profession as himself, and
endeavoured to thwart his inclination for design and metal work. When he
had reached the age of fifteen his youthful predilection had become too
strong to be resisted, and his father reluctantly gave consent to his
being apprenticed to a goldsmith, Antonio di Sandro, named Marcone. He
had already attracted some notice in his native place, when, being
implicated in a fray with some of his companions, he was banished for
six months to Siena, where he worked for Francesco Castoro, a goldsmith;
from thence he removed to Bologna, where he became a more accomplished
flute-player and made progress in the goldsmith's art. After visiting
Pisa, and after twice resettling for a while in Florence (where he was
visited by the sculptor Torrigiano, who unsuccessfully suggested his
accompanying him to England), he decamped to Rome, aged nineteen. His
first attempt at his craft here was a silver casket, followed by some
silver candlesticks, and later by a vase for the bishop of Salamanca,
which introduced him to the favourable notice of Pope Clement VII.;
likewise at a later date one of his celebrated works, the gold medallion
of "Leda and the Swan,"--the head and torso of Leda cut in hard
stone--executed for Gonfaloniere Gabbriello Cesarino, which is now in
the Vienna museum; he also reverted to music, practised flute-playing,
and was appointed one of the pope's court-musicians. In the attack upon
Rome by the constable de Bourbon, which occurred immediately after, in
1527, the bravery and address of Cellini proved of signal service to
the pontiff; if we may believe his own accounts, his was the very hand
which shot the Bourbon dead, and he afterwards killed Philibert, prince
of Orange. His exploits paved the way for a reconciliation with the
Florentine magistrates, and his return shortly after to his native
place. Here he assiduously devoted himself to the execution of medals,
the most famous of which (executed a short while later) are "Hercules
and the Nemean Lion," in gold repousse work, and "Atlas supporting the
Sphere," in chased gold, the latter eventually falling into the
possession of Francis I. From Florence he went to the court of the duke
of Mantua, and thence again to Florence and to Rome, where he was
employed not only in the working of jewelry, but also in the execution
of dies for private medals and for the papal mint. Here in 1529 he
avenged a brother's death by slaying the slayer; and shortly afterwards
had to flee to Naples to shelter himself from the consequences of an
affray with a notary, Ser Benedetto, whom he wounded. Through the
influence of several of the cardinals he obtained a pardon; and on the
elevation of Paul III. to the pontifical throne he was reinstated in his
former position of favour, notwithstanding a fresh homicide of a
goldsmith which he had committed more by accident than of malice
prepense in the interregnum. Once more the plots of Pierluigi Farnese, a
natural son of Paul III., led to his retreat from Rome to Florence and
Venice, and once more he was restored with greater honour than before.
On returning from a visit to the court of Francis I., being now aged
thirty-seven, he was imprisoned on a charge (apparently false) of having
embezzled during the war the gems of the pontifical tiara; he remained
some while confined in the castle of Sant' Angelo, escaped, was
recaptured, and treated with great severity, and was in daily
expectation of death on the scaffold. At last, however, he was released
at the intercession of Pierluigi's wife, and more especially of the
Cardinal d' Este of Ferrara, to whom he presented a splendid cup. For a
while after this he worked at the court of Francis I. at Fontainebleau
and in Paris; but he considered the duchesse d'Etampes to be set against
him, and the intrigues of the king's favourites, whom he would not stoop
to conciliate and could not venture to silence by the sword, as he had
silenced his enemies in Rome, led him, after about five years of
laborious and sumptuous work, and of continually-recurring jealousies
and violences, to retire in 1545 in disgust to Florence, where he
employed his time in works of art, and exasperated his temper in
rivalries with the uneasy-natured sculptor Baccio Bandinelli. The first
collision between the two had occurred several years before when Pope
Clement VII. commissioned Cellini to mint his coinage. Now, in an
altercation before Duke Cosimo, Bandinelli insultingly stigmatized
Benvenuto as guilty of gross immorality; in his autobiography Cellini
rather repels than denies the charge, but he certainly repels it with
demonstrative and grotesque vivacity. Two somewhat similar charges had
been made ere this: one in Paris, which he braved out in court--the
other, in Florence, was a mere private quarrel, and perhaps undeserving
of attention. During the war with Siena Cellini was appointed to
strengthen the defences of his native city, and, though rather shabbily
treated by his ducal patrons, he continued to gain the admiration of his
fellow-citizens by the magnificent works which he produced. He died in
Florence in 1571, unmarried, and leaving no posterity, and was buried
with great pomp in the church of the Annunziata. He had supported in
Florence a widowed sister and her six daughters.

Besides the works in gold and silver which have been adverted to,
Cellini executed several pieces of sculpture on a grander scale. The
most distinguished of these is the bronze group of "Perseus holding the
head of Medusa," a work (first suggested by Duke Cosimo de' Medici) now
in the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence, full of the fire of genius and the
grandeur of a terrible beauty, one of the most typical and unforgettable
monuments of the Italian Renaissance. The casting of this great work
gave Cellini the utmost trouble and anxiety; and its completion was
hailed with rapturous homage from all parts of Italy. The original
relief from the foot of the pedestal--Perseus and Andromeda--is in the
Bargello, and replaced by a cast.

Not less characteristic of its splendidly gifted and barbarically
untameable author are the autobiographical memoirs which he composed,
beginning them in Florence in 1558,--a production of the utmost energy,
directness and racy animation, setting forth one of the most singular
careers in all the annals of fine art. His amours and hatreds, his
passions and delights, his love of the sumptuous and the exquisite in
art, his self-applause and self-assertion, running now and again into
extravagances which it is impossible to credit, and difficult to set
down as strictly conscious falsehoods, make this one of the most
singular and fascinating books in existence. Here we read, not only of
the strange and varied adventures of which we have presented a hasty
sketch, but of the devout complacency with which Cellini could
contemplate a satisfactorily achieved homicide; of the legion of devils
which he and a conjuror evoked in the Colosseum, after one of his not
innumerous mistresses had been spirited away from him by her mother; of
the marvellous halo of light which he found surrounding his head at dawn
and twilight after his Roman imprisonment, and his supernatural visions
and angelic protection during that adversity; and of his being poisoned
on two several occasions. If he is unmeasured in abusing some people, he
is also unlimited in praising others. The autobiography has been
translated into English by Thomas Roscoe, by J.A. Symonds, and by A.
Macdonald. Cellini also wrote treatises on the goldsmith's art, on
sculpture, and on design (translated by C.R. Ashbee, 1899).

Among his works of art not already mentioned, many of which have
perished, were a colossal Mars for a fountain at Fontainebleau and the
bronzes of the doorway, coins for the Papal and Florentine states, a
Jupiter in silver of life size, and a bronze bust of Bindo Altoviti. The
works of decorative art are, speaking broadly, rather florid than
chastened in style.

In addition to the bronze statue of Perseus and the medallions already
referred to, the works of art in existence to-day executed by him are
the celebrated salt-cellar made for Francis I. at Vienna; a medallion of
Clement VII. in commemoration of the peace between the Christian
princes, 1530, with a bust of the pope on the reverse and a figure of
Peace setting fire to a heap of arms in front of the temple of Janus,
signed with the artist's name; a medal of Francis I. with his portrait,
also signed; and a medal of Cardinal Pietro Bembo. Cellini, while
employed at the papal mint at Rome during the papacy of Clement VII. and
later of Paul III., executed the dies of several coins and medals, some
of which still survive at this now defunct mint. He was also in the
service of Alessandro de' Medici, first duke of Florence, for whom he
executed in 1535 a forty-soldi piece with a bust of the duke on one side
and standing figures of the saints Cosmo and Damian on the other. Some
connoisseurs attribute to his hand several plaques, "Jupiter crushing
the Giants," "Fight between Perseus and Phinaeus," a Dog, &c.

The important works which have perished include the uncompleted chalice
intended for Clement VII.; a gold cover for a prayer-book as a gift from
Pope Paul III. to Charles V.,--both described at length in his
autobiography; large silver statues of Jupiter, Vulcan and Mars, wrought
for Francis I. during his sojourn in Paris; a bust of Julius Caesar; and
a silver cup for the cardinal of Ferrara. The magnificent gold "button,"
or morse, made by Cellini for the cope of Clement VII., the competition
for which is so graphically described in his autobiography, appears to
have been sacrificed by Pius VI., with many other priceless specimens of
the goldsmith's art, in furnishing the indemnity of 30,000,000 francs
demanded by Napoleon at the conclusion of the campaign against the
States of the Church in 1797. According to the terms of the treaty, the
pope was permitted to pay a third of that sum in plate and jewels.
Fortunately there are in the print room of the British Museum three
water-colour drawings of this splendid morse by F. Bertoli, done at the
instance of an Englishman named Talman in the first half of the 18th
century. The obverse and reverse, as well as the rim, are drawn full
size, and moreover the morse with the precious stones set therein,
including a diamond then considered the second largest in the world, is
fully described.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The autobiography already named is the foundation of
  most of the works written concerning Cellini's life. See also
  _Cellini, His Times and Contemporaries_, by "the Author of the Life of
  Sir Kenelm Digby" (1899); L. Dimier, _Cellini a la cour de France_
  (1898); Eugene Plon, _Cellini, orfevre, medailleur, &c._ (1883);
  Bolzenthal, _Skizzen zur Kunstgeschichte der modernen Medaillen-Arbeit
  1429-1840_ (Berlin, 1840); A. Armand, _Les Medailleurs italiens des
  XVe et XVIe siecles_ (3 vols., Paris, 1883-1887); Dr Francesco Tassi,
  _Vita di Benvenuto Cellini_ (Firenze, 1829), _Vita di Benvenuto
  Cellini scritta da lui medisimo_ (1832); E. Babelon, _La Gravure en
  pierres fines_ (Paris, 1894); A. Heiss, _Les Medailleurs florentins_
  (Paris, 1887); J. Friedlander, _Die italienischen Schaumunzen des
  funfzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Berlin, 1880-1882); N. Rondot, _Les
  Medailleurs lyonnais_ (Macon, 1897); Dr Julius Cahn, _Medaillen und
  Plaketten der Sammlung W.P. Metzler_ (Frankfort-on-Main, 1898);
  Molinier, _Les Plaquettes_; I.B. Supino, _Il Medagliere Mediceo nel R.
  Museo Nazionale di Firenze_ (Florence, 1899); _L'Arte di Benvenuto
  Cellini_ (Florence, 1901); C. von Fabriczy, _Medaillen der
  italienischen Renaissance_ (Leipzig); L. Forrer, _Biographical
  Dictionary of Medallists, &c._ (London, 1904), &c.
       (W. M. R.; E. A. J.)




CELLULOSE, the name given to both an individual--cellulose proper, in
the restricted sense of a chemical individual--and to a group of
substances, the celluloses or cellulose group, which constitute in
infinitely varied forms the containing envelope of the plant cell. They
are complex carbohydrates, or "saccharo-colloids" (Tollens), and are
resolved by ultimate hydrolysis into monoses. The typical cellulose is
represented by the empirical formula C6H10O5, identical with that of
starch, with which it has many chemical analogies as well as
physiological correlations. The representative "cellulose" is the main
constituent of the cotton fibre substance, and is obtainable by treating
the raw fibre with boiling dilute alkalis, followed by chlorine gas or
bromine water, or simply by alkaline oxidants. The cellulose thus
purified is further treated with dilute acids, and then exhaustively
with alcohol and ether. Chemical filter-paper (Swedish) is practically
pure cellulose, the final purification consisting in exhaustive
treatment with hydrofluoric acid to remove silicious inorganic residues.
The "cellulose" group, however, comprises a series of substances which,
while presenting the characters generally similar to those of cotton
cellulose, also exhibit marked divergences. The resemblances are
maintained in their synthetical reactions; but reactions involving the
decomposition of the complex show many variations. For example, cotton
cellulose is difficultly hydrolysed; other celluloses are more or less
readily split up by dilute acids, the extreme members readily yielding
sugars: the hexoses--dextrose, mannose and galactose; and the
pentoses--xylose and arabinose; these less resistant cell-wall
constituents are termed hemi-celluloses.

The celluloses proper are essentially non-nitrogenous, though originating
in the cell protoplasm. The cell-walls of the lower cryptogams, similarly
purified, retain a notable proportion--2.0-4.0%--of constitutional
nitrogen. When hydrolysed these fungoid celluloses yield, in addition to
monoses, glucosamine and acetic acid. The celluloses of the phanerogams
are generally associated, in a degree ranging from physical mixture to
chemical union, with other complicated substances, constituting the
"compound celluloses." The nature of the associated groups affords a
convenient classification into pecto-celluloses, ligno-celluloses and
cuto-celluloses. _Pecto-celluloses_ are so named because the associated
substances--carbohydrates, together with their oxidation products, i.e.
containing either two carbonyls (CO) in the unit group or carboxyl (CO.OH)
groups in a complex--are readily hydrolysed by weak acids to the
gelatinous "pectic acids" or their salts. _Ligno-celluloses_ are the
substances of lignified tissue, the non-cellulose constituents of which
are characterized by the presence of benzenoid and furfuroid groups; and
although essentially complex, they may be regarded as homogeneous, and are
conveniently grouped under the name _lignone_. The lignone complex reacts,
by its unsaturated groups, with the halogens. It is a complex containing
but little hydroxyl; and is of relatively high carbon percentage
(55.0-57.0%). _Cuto-celluloses_ predominate in the protective coatings of
plant organs, and are characterized by constituent groups, the
decomposition products of which are compounds of the fatty series, and
also wax alcohols, acids, cholesterols, &c.

The typical pecto-cellulose is the flax fibre, i.e. the bast fibre of
the flax plant (_Linum usitatissimum_), as it occurs in the plant, or as
the commercial textile fibre in its raw state. Rhea, or ramie, is
another leading textile fibre in which the cellulose occurs associated
with alkali-soluble colloidal carbohydrates. Pecto-celluloses are found
in the stems of the Gramineae (cereal straws, esparto), and in the
fibro-vascular bundles of monocotyledons used as textile and rope-making
fibres. They are the chief constituents of the fleshy parenchyma of
fruits, tubers, rhizomes. Ligno-celluloses find their chemical
representative in the jute fibre. They constitute the woods, and are
therefore of the widest distribution and the highest industrial utility.
It is important to note that a complex having all the chemical
characteristics of a ligno-cellulose occurs in a soluble colloidal form
in the juice of the white currant. The formation of ligno-cellulose is
the chemical equivalent of the morphological change of the plant cell
known as "lignification." The topical cuto-celluloses are the epidermal
tissues of all growing plants or organs, which are easily detached from
the underlying tissues which it is their function to protect. To
subserve this function, they are extremely resistant to the attack of
reagents. The associated groups are mostly of the normal saturated
series, and of very high molecular weight.

_Cellulose and Botanical Science._--The elaboration of cellulose, i.e.
of the cell walls, and its morphological and physiological aspects are
discussed in the articles PLANTS: _Physiology, Anatomy_: and CYTOLOGY;
while in the article COAL the part played by cellulose in the formation
of these deposits receives treatment: here we may deal with its general
relation to agriculture. In the analysis of fodder plants and other
vegetable produce, the residue obtained after successive acid and
alkaline hydrolysis is the "crude fibre" of the agricultural chemist,
and is generally taken as a measure of the actual cellulose contents of
the raw material. We give in tabular form the average percentage of
crude fibre in typical food-stuffs and agricultural produce:--

  SEEDS

  +----------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
  | Seeds of |Per cent of|Leguminous and|Per cent of|
  | Cereals. |   Fibre.  |  Oil Seeds.  |   Fibre.  |
  +----------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
  | Wheat    |    2.8    | Rape         |    6.4    |
  | Barley   |    6.3    | Cotton       |    7.5    |
  | Oats     |    9.0    | Beans        |   10.0    |
  | Maize    |    5.2    | Peas         |   10.0    |
  | Rye      |    8.0    | Lentils      |   10.0    |
  | Rice     |    2.5    | Vetches      |    7.2    |
  +----------+-----------+--------------+-----------+


  FODDER CROPS

  +-----------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+---------+---------+
  |Stems and Foliage|Per cent |  Fodder Crops.  |Per cent of| Cereal  |Per cent |
  | of Root Crops.  |of Fibre.|                 |  Fibre.*  | Straws. |of Fibre.|
  +-----------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+---------+---------+
  | White Turnip    |   3.9   | Grasses         |   32.0    | Oats    |  60.68  |
  | Swedish Turnip  |   4.2   | Meadow Hay      |   25.8    | Wheat   |  75.77  |
  | Carrot          |   3.1   | Clover & Trefoil|   23.5    | Barley  |  71.74  |
  | Mangel          |   2.6   | Vetches         |   25.9    |         |         |
  | Parsnip         |   2.6   | Lucerne         |   26.7    |         |         |
  |                 |         | Sainfoin        |   28.7    |         |         |
  +-----------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+---------+---------+

  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+
  |                  |           |           | Stems and |  Fodder   |  Cereal  |
  |                  |Leguminous.| Oil Seeds.|Foliage of |  Crops.   |  Straws. |
  |                  |           |           |Root Crops.|           |          |
  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+
  |Average % of water|    14     |     7     |    87     |   70-80   |    15    |
  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+

    * This percentage is calculated on airdry-produce containing 15% of
    water.

The above figures have a purely empirical value, since they represent a
complicated mixture of various residues derived from the celluloses and
compound celluloses. This mixture may be further resolved, and by
special quantitative methods the proportions of actual cellulose,
ligno-cellulose and cuto-celluloses estimated (J. Konig, _Ber._, 1906,
39, p. 3564). The figures are taken as an inverse measure of
digestibility; at the same time it has been established that this group
of relatively indigestible food constituents are more or less digestible
and assimilable as flesh and fat producers. The percentage or
coefficient of digestibility of the celluloses of the more important
food-stuffs--green fodder, hay, straw and grains--varies from 20 to 75%.
It has also been established that their physiological efficiency is,
under certain conditions, quite equal to that of starch.

It must also be borne in mind that the indigestible food residues, as
finally voided by the animal, have played an important mechanical part
as an aid to digestion of those constituents more readily attacked in
the digestive tract of animals. They are further an important factor of
the agricultural cycle. Returned to the soil as "farm-yard manure,"
mixed with other cellulosic matter which has served as litter, they add
"fibre" to the soil and, as a mechanical diluent of the mineral soil
components, maintain this in a more open condition, penetrable by the
atmospheric gases, and promoting distribution of moisture. Further by
breaking down, with production of "humus," a complex of colloidal
"unsaturated" bodies of acid function, they fulfil important chemical
functions by interaction with the mineral soil constituents.

_Chemistry of Cellulose._--Purified cotton cellulose, which is the
definitive prototype of the cellulose group or series, is a complex of
monoses or their "residues." It is resolved by solution in sulphuric
acid and subsequent hydrolysis of the esters thus produced into
dextrose. This fundamental fact with its elementary composition, most
simply expressed by the formula C6H10O5, has caused it to be regarded as
a polyanhydride of dextrose. Forming, as it does, simple esters in the
ratio of the reacting hydroxyls 3OH: C6H10O5, and taking into account
its direct converson into [omega]-brom-methyl furfural (Fenton) a
constitutional formula has been proposed by A.G. Green (_Zeit. Farb.
Textil Chem._ 3, pp. 97 and 309 (1904)), which is a useful
generalization of its reactions, and its ultimate relations to the
simpler carbohydrates, viz.,

  CH(OH).CH.CH(OH)
  |      >O  >O
  CH(OH).CH.CH2 .

Green considers, moreover, that a group thus formulated may consistently
represent the actual dimensions of the reacting unit, but that unit of
larger dimensions, if postulated, is easily derived from the above by
oxygen linkings.

From another point of view the unit group has been formulated as

    /CH(OH).CH(OH)
  CO        >CH2
    \CH(OH).CH(OH) ,

the main linking of such units in the complex taking place as between
their respective CO and CH2 groups in the alternative enolic form
CH-C(OH). This view gives expression to the genetic relations of the
celluloses to the ligno-celluloses, to the tendency to carbon
condensation as in the formation of coals, and pseudo-carbons, to the
relative resistance of cellulose to hydrolysis, and its other points of
differentiation from starch, and more particularly to the ketonic
character of its carbonyl (CO) groups, which is also more in harmony
with the experimental facts established by Fenton as to the production
of methyl furfural.

The probability, however, is that no simple molecular formula adequately
represents the constitution of cellulose as it actually exists or indeed
reacts. On the other hand, it has been suggested that cellulose is to be
regarded as representing a condition of matter analogous to that of a
saline electrolyte in solution, i.e. as a complex of molecular
aggregates, and of residues (of monose groups) having distinct and
opposite polarities; such a complex is essentially labile and its
configuration will change progressively under reaction. The exposition
of this view is the subject of a publication by Cross and Bevan
(_Researches on Cellulose_, ii. 1906). The main purpose is to give full
effect to the colloidal characteristics of cellulose and its
derivatives, with reference to the modern theory of the colloidal state
as involving a particular internal equilibrium of amphoteric
electrolytes.

The typical cellulose is a white fibrous substance familiar to us in the
various forms of bleached cotton. Other fibrous celluloses are equally
characteristic as to form and appearance, e.g. bleached flax, hemp,
ramie. It is hygroscopic, absorbing 6 to 7% its weight of moisture from
the air. When dry, it is an electrical insulator, and has a specific
inductive capacity of about 7: when wetted it is a conductor, and
manifests electrolytic phenomena.[1] It is insoluble in water and in the
ordinary solvents; it dissolves, however, in a 40-50% solution of zinc
chloride, and in ammoniacal solutions of copper oxide (3% CuO, 15% NH3):
from these solutions it is obtained as a highly hydrated, gelatinous
precipitate, from the former by dilution or addition of alcohol, from
the latter by acidification; these solutions have important industrial
application. Projected or drawn into a precipitating solution they may
be solidified continuously to threads of various, but controlled
dimensions: the regenerated cellulose, now amorphous, in its finer
dimensions is known as artificial silk or lustra-cellulose. These forms
of cellulose retain the general characters of the original fibrous and
"natural" celluloses. In composition they differ somewhat by combination
with water (of hydration), which they retain in the air-dry condition.
They also further combine with an increased proportion of atmospheric
moisture, viz. up to 10-11% of their weight.

_Derivatives._--Important derivatives are the esters or ethereal salts
of both inorganic and organic acids, cellulose behaving as an alcohol,
the highest esters indicating that it reacts as a trihydric alcohol of
the formula n[C6H7O2(OH)3]. The nitrates result by the action of
concentrated nitric acid, either alone or in the presence of sulphuric
acid: the normal dinitrate represents a definite stage in the series of
nitrates, and the ester at this point manifests the important property
of solubility in various alcoholic solvents, notably ether-alcohol. Such
nitrates are the basis of collodion, of artificial silk by the processes
of Chardonnet and Lehner, and of celluloid or xylonite. Higher nitrates
are also obtainable up to the limit of the trinitrate, which is
insoluble in ether or alcohol, but is soluble in nitroglycerin,
nitrobenzene and other solvents. These higher nitrates are the basis of
the most important modern explosives.

Cellulose reacts directly with acetic anhydride to form low esters; in
the presence of sulphuric acid the reaction proceeds to higher limits;
the triacetate is soluble in chloroform. The acid sulphuric ester,
C6H8O3(SO4H)2, is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid, but its
relation to the original cellulose is doubtful. The monobenzoate and
dibenzoate are formed by benzoyl chloride reacting on alkali-cellulose
(see below). Cellulose xanthates are obtained from carbon bisulphide and
alkali-cellulose; these are water soluble derivatives and the basis of
"viscose," and of important industries. Mixed esters---aceto-sulphate,
aceto-benzoate, nitrobenzoyl nitrates, aceto-nitro-sulphates--have also
been investigated.

Cellulose (cotton), when treated with a 15-20% caustic soda solution,
gives the compound C6H10O5.H2O.2NaOH, alkali-cellulose, the original
riband-like form with reticulated walls of the cellulose being
transformed into a smooth-walled cylinder. The structural changes in the
ultimate fibre determine very considerable changes in the dimensions of
fabrics so treated. The reactions and structural changes were
investigated by J. Mercer, and are known generally as "mercerization."
In recent years a very large industry in "mercerized" fabrics (cotton)
has resulted from the observation that if the shrinkages of the yarns
and fabrics be antagonized by mechanical means, a very high lustre is
developed.

Similar, but less definite compounds, are formed with the oxides of
lead, manganese, barium, iron, aluminium and chromium. These
derivatives, which also find industrial applications in the dyeing and
printing of fabrics, differ but little in appearance from the original
cellulose, and are without influence on its essential characteristics.

_Decompositions._--Hydrolysis:--By solution in sulphuric acid followed
by dilution and boiling the diluted solution cellulose hydrolyses to
fermentable sugars; this reaction is utilized industrially in the
manufacture of glucose from rags. Hydrochloric acid produces a friable
mass of "hydrocellulose," probably C12H22O11, insoluble in water, but
readily attacked by alkalis, with the production of soluble derivatives;
some dextrose is formed in the original reaction. Hydrobromic acid in
ethereal solution gives furfurane derivatives. Cold dilute acids have no
perceptible action on cellulose. The actions of such acids are an
important auxiliary to bleaching, dyeing and printing processes, but
they require careful limitation in respect of concentration and
temperature. Cellulose is extremely resistant to the action of dilute
alkalis: a 1-2% solution of sodium hydrate having little action at
temperatures up to 150 deg. hence the use of caustic soda, soda ash and
sodium silicate in bleaching processes, i.e. for the elimination of the
non-cellulose components of the raw fibres. Oxidation in acid solutions
gives compounds classed as "oxycelluloses," insoluble in water, but more
or less soluble in alkalis; continued oxidation gives formic, acetic and
carbonic acids. Oxidation in alkaline solution is more easily controlled
and limited; solutions of bleaching powder, or more generally of
alkaline hydrochlorites, receive industrial application in oxidizing the
coloured impurities of the fibre, or residues left after more or less
severe alkali treatments, leaving the cellulose practically unaffected.
This, however, is obviously a question of conditions: this group of
oxidants also oxidize to oxycellulose, and under more severe conditions
to acid products, e.g. oxalic and carbonic acids. Certain bacteria also
induce decompositions which are resolutions into ultimate products of
the lowest molecular dimensions, as hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane,
acetic acid and butyric acid (Omeliansky) (_Handb. Techn. Mykologie_ [F.
Lafar] pp. 245-268), but generally the cellulose complex is extremely
resistant to the organic ferments. Cellulose burns with a luminous flame
to carbon dioxide and water; dry distillation gives a complicated
mixture of gaseous and liquid products and a residue of charcoal or
pseudo-carbon. Chromic acid in sulphuric acid solutions effects a
complete oxidation, i.e. combustion to water and carbonic acid.

_Ligno-celluloses._--These compounds have many of the characteristics of
the cellulose esters; they are in effect ethereal compounds of cellulose
and the quinonoid lignone complex, and the combination resists
hydrolysis by weak alkalis or acids. The cellulose varies in amount from
80 to 50%, and the lignone varies inversely as the degree of
lignification, that is, from the lignified bast fibre of annuals, of
which jute is a type, to the dense tissues of the perennial
dicotyledonous woods, typified by the beech. The empirical formula of
the lignone complex varies from C19H22O9 (jute) to C26H30O10 (pine
wood). In certain reactions the non-cellulose or lignone constituents
are selectively converted into soluble derivatives, and may be separated
as such from the cellulose which is left; for example, chlorination
gives products soluble in sodium sulphite solution, by the combination
of unsaturated groups of the lignone with the halogen, while digestion
with bisulphite solutions at elevated temperatures (140 deg.-160 deg.)
gives soluble sulphonated derivatives. This last reaction is employed
industrially in the preparation of cellulose for paper-making from
coniferous woods. These reactions are "quantitative" since they depend
upon well-defined constitutional features of the lignone complex, and
the resolution of the ligno-cellulose takes place with no further change
in the lignone than the synthetical combination with the substituting
groups. The constituent groups of the lignone specifically reacting are
of benzenoid type of the probable form

        HC
       //\
   HC //  \CO
      |   |
  H2C \   /CO
       \ /
        CO ,

deduced from the similarity of the chlorinated derivatives to
mairogallol, the product of the action of chlorine on pyrogallol in
acetic acid solution (A. Hantzsch, _Ber._ 20, p. 2033). The complex
contains methoxy (OCH3) groups. There is also present a residue which is
readily broken down by oxidizing agents, and indeed by simple
hydrolysis, to acetic acid. Another important group of actual
constituents are pentosanes--partially isolated as "wood gum" by
solution in alkalis--and furfural derivatives (hydroxy furfurals)
derived from these. The actual constitutional relationships of these
main groups, as well as the localization of the methoxy groups, are
still problematical.

Certain colour reactions are characteristic, though they are in some
cases reactions of certain constituents invariably present in the
natural forms of the ligno-cellulose; which may be removed without
affecting the essential character of the lignone complex. Aniline salts
generally give a yellow coloration, dimethyl-para-phenylenediamine gives
a deep red coloration, phloroglucin in hydrochloric acid gives a crimson
coloration. Reactions more definitely characteristic of the lignone
are:--ferric ferrocyanide, which is taken up and transformed into
Prussian blue throughout the fibre, without affecting its structure,
although there may be as much as a 50% gain in weight; iodine in
potassium iodide solution gives a deep brown colour due to absorption of
the halogen, a reaction which admits of quantitative application, i.e.
as a measure of the proportion of ligno-cellulose in a fibrous mixture;
nitric acid gives a deep orange yellow coloration; digested with the
dilute acid (5-10% HNO3) at 50 deg. the ligno-celluloses are entirely
resolved, the lignone complex being attacked and dissolved in the form
of nitroso-ketonic acids, which, on continued heating, are finally
resolved to oxalic, acetic, formic and carbonic acids.

_Derivatives of Ligno-cellulose._--By reaction with chlorine jute yields
the derivative C19H18Cl4O9, soluble in alcohol, and in acetic acid; this
derivative has the reactions of a quinone chloride. By reaction with
sodium sulphite it is converted into a hydroquinone sulphonate of deep
purple colour. The reaction of the ligno-celluloses (pine wood) with the
bisulphites yields the soluble derivatives of the general formula
C26H29O9.SO3H (containing two O.CH3 groups). Jute reacts with nitric
acid in presence of sulphuric acid to form nitrates; and with acetic
anhydride to form low acetates. It reacts with alkaline hydrates with
structural changes similar to those obtained with cotton; and by the
further action of benzoyl chloride and of carbon bisulphide upon the
resulting compounds there result the corresponding benzoates and
xanthates respectively. But these synthetical derivatives are mixtures
of cellulose and lignone derivatives, and so far of merely theoretical
interest.

_Decompositions of Ligno-cellulose._--In addition to the specific
resolutions above described which depend upon the distinctive chemical
characters of the cellulose and lignone respectively, the following may
be noted: to simple hydrolytic agents the two groups are equally
resistant, therefore by boiling with dilute acids or alkalis the groups
are attacked _pari passu_. Weak oxidants may also be used as bleaching
agents to remove coloured by-products without seriously attacking the
ligno-cellulose, which is obtained in its bleached form. Nitric acid of
all strengths effects complete resolution. Chromic acid in dilute
solutions combines with the lignone complex, but in presence of
hydrolysing acids total oxidation of the lignone is determined. The
principal products are oxalic, carbonic, formic and acetic acids. This
reaction is an index of constitution. Generally, the lignone is attacked
under many conditions and by many reagents which are without action upon
cellulose, by virtue of its unsaturated constitution, and its acid and
aldehydic residues.

_Cuto-cellulose._--A typical cuto-cellulose is the cuticle (peel) of the
apple which, when purified by repeated hydrolytic treatment and finally
by alcohol and ether, gives a product of the composition C = 75.66%, H =
11.37%, O = 14.97%. Hydrolysis by strong alkalis gives stearo-cutic
acid, C28H48O4, and oleo-cutic acid, C14H20O4 (Fremy). Cork is a complex
mixture containing various compound celluloses: extraction with alcohol
removes certain fatty alcohols and acids, and aromatic derivatives
related to tannic acid; the residue is probably a mixture of cellulose,
ligno-cellulose, cerin, C20H32O and suberin; the latter yields stearic
acid, C18H36O2 and the acid C22H42O3. The cuto-celluloses have been only
superficially investigated, and, with the exception of cork, are of but
little direct industrial importance.

_Industrial Uses of Cellulose_.--The applications of cellulose to the
necessities of human life, infinitely varied in kind as they are
colossal in magnitude, depend upon two groups of qualities or
properties, (1) structural, (2) chemical. The manufactures of vegetable
textiles and of paper are based upon the fibrous forms of the naturally
occurring celluloses, together with such structural qualities as are
expressed in the terms strength, elasticity, specific gravity. As
regards chemical properties, those which come into play are chiefly the
negative quality of resistance to chemical change; this is obviously a
primary factor of value in enabling fabrics to withstand wear and tear,
contact with atmospheric oxygen and water, and such chemical treatments
as laundrying; positive chemical properties are brought into play in the
auxiliary processes of dyeing, printing, and the treatment and
preparation in connexion with these. Staple textiles of this group are
cotton, flax, hemp and jute; other fibres are used in rope-making and
brush-making industries. These subjects are treated in special articles
under their own headings and in the article FIBRES. The course of
industrial development in the 19th century has been one of enormous
expansion in use and considerable refinement in methods of preparation
and manufacture. Efforts to introduce new forms of cellulose have had
little result. Rhea or ramie has been a favourite subject of
investigation; the industry has been introduced into England, and
doubtless its development is only a question of time, as on the
continent of Europe the production of rhea yarns is well established,
though it is still only a relatively small trade--probably two or three
tons a day total production. The paper trade has required to seek new
sources of cellulose, in consequence of the enormous expansion of the
uses of paper. Important phases of development were: (1) in the period
of 1860 to 1870, the introduction of esparto, which has risen to a
consumption of 250,000 tons a year in the United Kingdom, at which
figure it remains fairly steady; (2) the decade 1870 to 1880, which saw
the development of the manufacture of cellulose from coniferous woods,
and this industry now furnishes a staple of world-wide consumption,
though the industry is necessarily localized in countries where the
coniferous woods are available in large quantities. As a development of
the paper industry we must mention the manufacture of paper textiles,
based upon the production of pulp yarns. Paper pulps are worked into
flat strips, which are then rolled into cylindrical form, and by a final
twisting process a yarn is produced sufficiently strong to be employed
in weaving.

What we may call the special cellulose industries depend upon specific
chemical properties of cellulose, partly intrinsic, partly belonging to
the derivatives such as the esters. Thus the cellulose nitrates are the
bases of our modern high explosives, as well as those now used for
military purposes. Their use has been steadily developed and perfected
since the middle of the 19th century. The industries in celluloid,
xylonite, &c., also depend upon the nitric esters of cellulose, and the
plastic state which they assume when treated with solvent liquids, such
as alcohol, amyl acetate, camphor and other auxiliaries, in which state
they can be readily moulded and fashioned at will. They have taken an
important place as structural materials both in useful and artistic
applications. The acetates of cellulose have recently been perfected,
and are used in coating fine wires for electrical purposes, especially
in instrument-making; this use depends upon their electrical properties
of high insulation and low inductive capacity. Hydrated forms of
cellulose, which result from treatment with various reagents, are the
bases of the following industries: vegetable parchment results from the
action of sulphuric acid upon cellulose (cotton) in the form of paper,
followed by that of water, which precipitates the partially
colloidalized cellulose. This industry is carried out on "continuous"
machinery, the cellulose, in the form of paper, being treated in rolls.
Vulcanized fibre is produced by similar processes, as for instance by
treating paper with zinc chloride solvents and cementing together a
number of sheets when in the colloidal hydrated state; the goods are
exhaustively washed to remove, last traces of soluble electrolytes; this
is necessary, as the product is used for electrical insulation. The
solvent action of cupro-ammonium is used in treating cellulose goods,
cotton and paper, the action being allowed to proceed sufficiently to
attack the constituent fibres and convert them into colloidal
cupro-ammonium compounds, which are then dried, producing a
characteristic green-coloured finish of colloidal cellulose and
rendering the goods impervious to water. The important industry of
mercerization has been mentioned above; this is carried out on both
yarns and cloth of cotton goods chiefly composed of Egyptian cottons. A
high lustrous finish is produced, giving the goods very much the
appearance of silk.

Of special importance are the more recent developments in the production
of artificial fibres of all dimensions, by spinning or drawing the
solutions of cellulose or derivatives. Three such processes are in
course of evolution, (1) The first is based on the nitrates of cellulose
which are dissolved in ether-alcohol, and spun through fine glass jets
into air or water, the unit threads being afterwards twisted together to
constitute the thread used for weaving (process of Chardonnet and
Lehner). These processes were developed in the period 1883 to 1897, at
which later date they had assumed serious industrial proportions. (2)
The cupro-ammonium solution of cellulose is similarly employed, the
solution being spun or drawn into a strong acid bath which instantly
regenerates cellulose hydrate in continuous length. (3) Still more
recently the "viscose" solution of cellulose, i.e. of the cellulose
xanthogenic acid, has been perfected for the production of artificial
silk or lustra-cellulose; the alkaline solution of the cellulose
derivative being drawn either into concentrated ammonium salt solutions
or into acid baths. This product, known as artificial silk, prepared by
the three competing processes, was in 1908 an established textile with a
total production in Europe of about 5000 tons a year, a quantity which
bids fair to be very largely increased by the advent of the viscose
process, which will effect a very considerable lowering in the cost of
production. The viscose solution of cellulose is also used for a number
of industrial effects in connexion with paper-sizing, paper-coating,
textile finishes, and the production of book cloth and leather cloth,
and, solidified in solid masses, is used in preparing structural solids
which can be moulded, turned and fashioned.

  For the special literature of cellulose treated from the general point
  of view of this article, the reader may consult the following works by
  C.F. Cross and E.J. Bevan: _Cellulose_ (1895, 2nd ed. 1903),
  _Researches on Cellulose_, i. (1901), _Researches on Cellulose_, ii.
  (1906).     (C. F. C.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] C.F. Cross and E.J. Bevan, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1895, 67, p. 449;
    C.R. Darling, _Jour. Faraday Soc._ 1904; A. Campbell, _Trans. Roy.
    Soc._ 1906.




CELSIUS, ANDERS (1701-1744), Swedish astronomer, was born at Upsala on
the 27th of November 1701. He occupied the chair of astronomy in the
university of his native town from 1730 to 1744, but travelled during
1732 and some subsequent years in Germany, Italy and France. At
Nuremberg he published in 1733 a collection of 316 observations of the
aurora borealis made by himself and others 1716-1732. In Paris he
advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland, and took
part, in 1736, in the expedition organized for the purpose by the French
Academy. Six years later he described the centigrade thermometer in a
paper read before the Swedish Academy of Sciences (see THERMOMETRY). His
death occurred at Upsala on the 25th of April 1744. He wrote: _Nova
Methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi_ (1730); _De
observationibus pro figura telluris determinanda_ (1738); besides many
less important works.

  See W. Ostwald's _Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften_, No. 57
  (Leipzig, 1904), where Celsius's memoir on the thermometric scale is
  given in German with critical and biographical notes (p. 132); Marie,
  _Histoire des sciences_, viii. 30; Poggendorff s _Biog.-literarisches
  Handworterbuch_.




CELSUS (c. A.D. 178), a 2nd-century opponent of Christianity, known to
us mainly through the reputation of his literary work, _The True Word_
(or _Account_; [Greek: alethes logos]), published by Origen in 248,
seventy years after its composition. In that year, though the Church was
under no direct threat of attack, owing to the inertia of the emperor
Philip the Arabian, the atmosphere was full of conflict. The empire was
celebrating the l000th anniversary of its birth, and imperial
aspirations and ideas were naturally prominent. Over against the state
and the worship of the Caesar stood as usual the Christian ideal of a
rule and a citizenship not of this world, to which a thousand years were
but as a day. A supernatural pride was blended with a natural anxiety,
and it was at this juncture that Origen brought to light again a book
written in the days of Marcus Aurelius, which but for the great
Alexandrian might have been lost for ever. Sometimes quoting, sometimes
paraphrasing, sometimes merely referring, he reproduces and replies to
all Celsus's arguments. His work shows many signs of haste, but he more
than compensates for this by the way in which he thus preserves a
singularly interesting memorial of the 2nd century. When we remember
that only about one-tenth of the _True Word_ is really lost and that
about three-quarters of what we have is verbatim text, it would be
ungracious to carp at the method.


    The argument

  Celsus opens the way for his own attack by rehearsing the taunts
  levelled at the Christians by the Jews. Jesus was born in adultery and
  nurtured on the wisdom of Egypt. His assertion of divine dignity is
  disproved by his poverty and his miserable end. Christians have no
  standing in the Old Testament prophecies, and their talk of a
  resurrection that was only revealed to some of their own adherents is
  foolishness. Celsus indeed says that the Jews are almost as ridiculous
  as the foes they attack; the latter said the saviour from Heaven had
  come, the former still looked for his coming. However, the Jews have
  the advantage of being an ancient nation with an ancient faith. The
  idea of an Incarnation of God is absurd; why should the human race
  think itself so superior to bees, ants and elephants as to be put in
  this unique relation to its maker? And why should God choose to come
  to men as a Jew? The Christian idea of a special providence is
  nonsense, an insult to the deity. Christians are like a council of
  frogs in a marsh or a synod of worms on a dunghill, croaking and
  squeaking, "For our sakes was the world created." It is much more
  reasonable to believe that each part of the world has its own special
  deity; prophets and supernatural messengers had forsooth appeared in
  more places than one. Besides being bad philosophy based on fictitious
  history, Christianity is not respectable. Celsus does not indeed
  repeat the Thyestean charges so frequently brought against Christians
  by their calumniators, but he says the Christian teachers who are
  mainly weavers and cobblers have no power over men of education. The
  qualifications for conversion are ignorance and childish timidity.
  Like all quacks they gather a crowd of slaves, children, women and
  idlers. "I speak bitterly about this," says Celsus, "because I feel
  bitterly. When we are invited to the Mysteries the masters use another
  tone. They say, 'Come to us ye who are of clean hands and pure speech,
  ye who are unstained by crime, who have a good conscience towards God,
  who have done justly and lived uprightly.' The Jews say, 'Come to us
  ye who are sinners, ye who are fools or children, ye who are
  miserable, and ye shall enter into the kingdom of Heaven.' The rogue,
  the thief, the burglar, the poisoner, the spoiler of temples and
  tombs, these are their proselytes. Jesus, they say, was sent to save
  sinners; was he not sent to help those who have kept themselves free
  from sin? They pretend that God will save the unjust man if he repents
  and humbles himself. The just man who has held steady from the cradle
  in the ways of virtue He will not look upon." He pours scorn upon the
  exorcists--who were clearly in league with the demons themselves--and
  upon the excesses of the itinerant and undisciplined "prophets" who
  roam through cities and camps and commit to everlasting fire cities
  and lands and their inhabitants. Above all Christians are disloyal,
  and every church is an illicit collegium, an insinuation deadly at any
  time, but especially so under Marcus Aurelius. Why cannot Christians
  attach themselves to the great philosophic and political authorities
  of the world? A properly understood worship of gods and demons is
  quite compatible with a purified monotheism, and they might as well
  give up the mad idea of winning the authorities over to their faith,
  or of hoping to attain anything like universal agreement on divine
  things.


  The philosophy of Celsus

Celsus and Porphyry (q.v.) are the two early literary opponents of
Christianity who have most claim to consideration, and it is worth
noticing that, while they agree alike in high aims, in skilful address
and in devoted toil, their religious standpoints are widely dissimilar.
Porphyry is above all a pure philosopher, but also a man of deep
religious feeling, whose quest and goal are the knowledge of God;
Celsus, the friend of Lucian, though sometimes called Epicurean and
sometimes Platonist, is not a professed philosopher at all, but a man of
the world, really at heart an agnostic, like Caecilius in Minucius Felix
(q.v.), whose religion is nothing more or less than the Empire. He is
keen, positive, logical, combining with curious dashes of scepticism
many genuine moral convictions and a good knowledge of the various
national religions and mythologies whose relative value he is able to
appreciate. "His manner of thought is under the overpowering influence
of the eclectic Platonism of the time, and not of the doctrine of the
Epicurean school. He is a man of the world, of philosophic culture, who
accepts much of the influential Platonism of the time but has absorbed
little of its positive religious sentiment. In his antipathy to
Christianity, which appears to him barbaric and superstitious, he gives
himself up to the scepticism and satire of a man of the world through
which he comes in contact with Epicurean tendencies." He quotes
approvingly from the _Timaeus_ of Plato: "It is a hard thing to find out
the Maker and Father of this universe, and after having found him it is
impossible to make him known to all." Philosophy can at best impart to
the fit some notion of him which the elect soul must itself develop. The
Christian on the contrary maintained that God is known to us as far as
need be in Christ, and He is accessible to all. Another sharp antithesis
was the problem of evil. Celsus made evil constant in amount as being
the correlative of matter. Hence his scorn of the doctrine of the
resurrection of the body held then in a very crude form, and his
ridicule of any attempt to raise the vulgar masses from their
degradation. The real root of the difficulty to Platonist as to Gnostic
was his sharp antithesis of form as good and matter as evil.


  Place and date.

Opinion at one time inclined to the view that the _True Word_ was
written in Rome, but the evidence (wholly internal) points much more
decisively to an Egyptian, and in particular an Alexandrian origin. Not
only do the many intimate references to Egyptian history and customs
support this position, but it is clear that the Jews of Celsus are not
Western or Roman Jews, but belong to the Orient, and especially to that
circle of Judaism which had received and assimilated the idea of the
Logos.

The date also is clearly defined. Besides the general indication that
the Empire was passing through a military crisis, which points to the
long struggle waged by Marcus Aurelius against the Marcomanni and other
Germanic tribes, there is a reference (_Contra Celsum_, viii. 69) to the
rescript of that emperor impressing on governors and magistrates the
duty of keeping a strict watch on extravagances in religion. This edict
dates from 176-177, and inaugurated the persecution which lasted from
that time till the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180. During these years
Commodus was associated with Marcus in the imperium, and Celsus has a
reference to this joint rule (viii. 71).


  Value in the history of Christianity.

Celsus shows himself familiar with the story of Jewish origins. Any
pagan who wished to understand and criticize Christianity intimately had
to begin by learning from the Jews, and this accounts for the opening
chapters of his argument. He has a good knowledge of Genesis and Exodus,
refers to the stories of Jonah, Daniel (vii. 53) and Enoch (v. 52), but
does not make much use of the Prophets or the Psalter. As regards the
New Testament his position is closely in agreement with that reflected
in the contemporary _Acts of the Martyrs of Scili_. He speaks of a
Christian collection of writings, and knew and used the gospels, but was
influenced less by the fourth than by the Synoptics. There is more
evidence of Pauline ideas than of Pauline letters.

The gnostic sects and their writings were well known to him (viii. 15
and vi. 25), and so was the work of Marcion. There are indications, too,
of an acquaintance with Justin Martyr and the Sibylline literature (vii.
53, op. v. 61). "He is perfectly aware of the internal differences
between Christians, and he is familiar with the various stages of
development in the history of their religion. These are cleverly
employed in order to heighten the impression of its instability. He
plays off the sects against the Catholic Church, the primitive age
against the present, Christ against the apostles, the various revisions
of the Bible against the trustworthiness of the text and so forth,
though he admits that everything was not really so bad at first as it is
at present."

The _True Word_ had very little influence either on the mutual
relations of Church and State, or on classical literature. Echoes of it
are found in Tertullian and in Minucius Felix, and then it lay forgotten
until Origen gave it new life. A good deal of the neo-Platonic polemic
naturally went back to Celsus, and both the ideas and phrases of the
_True Word_ are found in Porphyry and Julian, though the closing of the
New Testament canon in the meantime somewhat changed the method of
attack for these writers.

Of more importance than these matters is the light which the book sheds
on the strength of the Church about the year 180. It is of course easy
to see that Celsus had no apprehension of the spiritual needs even of
his own day which it was the Christian purpose to satisfy, that he could
not grasp anything of the new life enjoyed by the poor in spirit, and
that he underrated the significance of the Church, regarding it simply
as one of a number of warring sections (mostly Gnostic), and so seeing
only a mark of weakness. And yet, there is all through an undercurrent
which runs hard against his surface verdicts, and here and there comes
to expression. He is bound to admit that Christianity has been stated
reasonably; against the moral teaching of Jesus he can only bring the
lame charge of plagiarism, and with the Christian assertion that the
Logos is the Son of God he completely accords. Most suggestive, however,
is his closing appeal to the Christians. "Come," he says, "don't hold
aloof from the common regime. Take your place by the emperor's side.
Don't claim for yourselves another empire, or any special position." It
is an overture for peace. "If all were to follow your example and
abstain from politics, the affairs of the world would fall into the
hands of wild and lawless barbarians" (viii. 68). Forced to admit that
Christians are not _infructuosi in negotiis_, he wants them to be good
citizens, to retain their own belief but conform to the state religion.
It is an earnest and striking appeal on behalf of the Empire, which was
clearly in great danger, and it shows the terms offered to the Church,
as well as the strength of the Church at the time. Numerically,
Christians may have formed perhaps a tenth of the population, i.e. in
Alexandria there would be fifty or sixty thousand, but their power in a
community was out of all proportion to their mere numbers.

  LITERATURE.--Th. Keim, _Celsus' Wahres Wort_ (1873); Pelagaud, _Etude
  sur Celse_ (1878); K.J. Neumann's edition in _Scriptores Graeci qui
  Christianam impugnaverunt religionem_, and article in Hauck-Herzog's
  _Realencyk. fur prot. Theol._, where a very full bibliography is
  given. See also W. Moeller, _Hist, of the Chr. Church_, i. 169 ff.; A.
  Harnack, _Expansion of Christianity_, ii. 129 ff.; J.A. Froude, _Short
  Studies_, iv.




CELT, or KELT, the generic name of an ancient people, the bulk of whom
inhabited the central and western parts of Europe. (For the sense of a
primitive stone tool, see the separate article, later.) Much confusion
has arisen from the inaccurate use of the terms "Celt" and "Celtic." It
is the practice to speak of the dark-complexioned people of France,
Great Britain and Ireland as "black Celts," although the ancient writers
never applied the term "Celt" to any dark-complexioned person. To them
great stature, fair hair, and blue or grey eyes were the characteristics
of the Celt. The philologists have added to the confusion by classing as
"Celtic" the speeches of the dark-complexioned races of the west of
Scotland and the west of Ireland. But, though usage has made it
convenient in this work to employ the term, "Celtic" cannot be properly
applied to what is really "Gaelic."

The ancient writers regarded as homogeneous all the fair-haired peoples
dwelling north of the Alps, the Greeks terming them all _Keltoi_.
Physically they fall into two loosely-divided groups, which shade off
into each other. The first of these is restricted to north-western
Europe, having its chief seat in Scandinavia. It is distinguished by a
long head, a long face, a narrow aquiline nose, blue eyes, very light
hair and great stature. Those are the peoples usually termed Teutonic by
modern writers. The other group is marked by a round head, a broad face,
a nose often rather broad and heavy, hazel-grey eyes, light chestnut
hair; they are thick-set and of medium height. This race is often termed
"Celtic" or "Alpine" from the fact of its occurrence all along the great
mountain chain from south-west France, in Savoy, in Switzerland, the Po
valley and Tirol, as well as in Auvergne, Brittany, Normandy, Burgundy,
the Ardennes and the Vosges. It thus stands midway not only
geographically but also in physical features between the "Teutonic" type
of Scandinavian and the so-called "Mediterranean race" with its long
head, long face, its rather broad nose, dark brown or black hair, dark
eyes, and slender form of medium height. The "Alpine race" is commonly
supposed to be Mongoloid in origin and to have come from Asia, the home
of round-skulled races. But it is far more probable that they are the
same in origin as the dark race south of them and the tall fair race
north of them, and that the broadness of their skulls is simply due to
their having been long domiciled in mountainous regions. Thus the
"Celtic" ox (_Bos longifrons_), from remote ages the common type in the
Alpine regions, is characterized by the height of its forehead above the
orbits, by its highly-developed occipital region, and its small horns.
Not only do animals change their physical characteristics in new
environment, but modern peoples when settled in new surroundings for
even one or two centuries, e.g. the American of New England and the Boer
of South Africa, prove that man is no less readily affected by his
surroundings.

The northern race has ever kept pressing down on the broad-skulled,
brown-complexioned men of the Alps, and intermixing with them, and at
times has swept right over the great mountain chain into the tempting
regions of the south, producing such races as the Celto-Ligyes,
Celtiberians, Celtillyrians, Celto-Thracians and Celto-Scythians. In its
turn the Alpine race has pressed down upon their darker and less warlike
kindred of the south, either driven down before the tall sons of the
north or swelling the hosts of the latter as they swept down south.

As the natives of the southern peninsula came into contact with these
mixed people, who though differing in the shape of the skull
nevertheless varied little from each other in speech and colour of their
hair and eyes, the ancient writers termed them all "Keltoi." But as the
most dreaded of these Celtic tribes came down from the shores of the
Baltic and Northern Ocean, the ancients applied the name Celt to those
peoples who are spoken of as Teutonic in modern parlance. The Teutons,
whose name is generic for Germans, appear in history along with the
Cimbri, universally held to be Celts, but coming from the same region as
the Guttones (Goths) by the shores of the Baltic and North Sea. Again,
the Germani themselves first appear in the Celtic host destroyed by
Marcellus at Clastidium in 225 B.C. All the true Celtae or Galatae in
France had come across the Rhine; the Belgic tribes in northern France
were Cimbri, who also had crossed the Rhine: in Caesar's day the Germans
were still constantly crossing that river, and so-called Gauls who lived
near the Germans, e.g. the Treveri, closely resembled the latter in
their habits, while in later times were to come Goths and Franks from
beyond the great river. It is then not strange that the Gallic name for
a henchman (_ambactus_) is the same as the Gothic (_ambahts_).

The earliest invaders, under the name of Celtae, had occupied all
central Gaul, doubtless mixing with the aboriginal Ligurians and
Iberians, who, however, maintained themselves respectively in the later
Provence and in Aquitania. The Celts had firmly established themselves
by the 7th century B.C. and we know not how long before, the Bituriges
(whose name survives in Berri) being the dominant tribe. In the Alps and
the Danube valley some of the Celts had dwelt from the Stone Age; there
they had developed the working of copper, discovered bronze (an alloy of
copper and tin), and the art of smelting iron (see HALLSTATT). The
Umbrians, who were part of the Alpine Celts, had been pressing down into
Italy from the Bronze Age, though checked completely by the rise of the
Etruscan power in the 10th century B.C. The invention of iron weapons
made the Celts henceforth irresistible. One of the earliest movements
after this discovery was probably that of the Achaeans of Homer, who
about 1450 B.C. invaded Greece (see ACHAEANS), bringing with them the
use of iron and brooches, the practice of cremating the dead, and the
style of ornament known as Geometric. Later the Cimmerians (see SCYTHIA
and CIMMERII) passed down from the Cimbric Chersonese, doubtless
following the amber routes, and then turned east along the Danube, some
of their tribes, e.g. the Treres, settling in Thrace, and crossing into
Asia; others settled in southern Russia, leaving their name in the
Crimea; then when hard pressed by the Scythians most of them passed
round the east end of the Euxine into Asia Minor, probably being the
people known as Gimirri on Assyrian monuments, and ravaged that region,
the relics of the race finally settling at Sinope.

At the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the Celts of France had grown
very powerful under the Biturigian king Ambigatus. They appear to have
spread southwards into Spain, occupying most of that country as far
south as Gades (Cadiz), some tribes, e.g. Turdentani and Turduli,
forming permanent settlements and being still powerful there in Roman
times; and in northern central Spain, from the mixture of Celts with the
native Iberians, the population henceforward was called Celtiberian.
About this time also took place a great invasion of Italy; Segovisus and
Bellovisus, the nephews of Ambigatus, led armies through Switzerland,
and over the Brenner, and by the Maritime Alps, respectively (Livy V.
34). The tribes who sent some of their numbers to invade Italy and
settle there were the Bituriges, Arverni, Senones, Aedui, Ambarri,
Carnuti and Aulerci.

Certain material remains found in north Italy, e.g. at Sesto Calende,
may belong to this invasion. The next great wave of Celts recorded was
that which swept down on north Italy shortly before 400 B.C. These
invaders broke up in a few years the Etruscan power, and even occupied
Rome herself after the disaster on the Allia (390 B.C.). Bought off by
gold they withdrew from Rome, but they continued to hold a great part of
northern Italy, extending as far south as Sena Gallica (_Sinigaglia_),
and henceforward they were a standing source of danger to Rome,
especially in the Samnite Wars, until at last they were either subdued
or expelled, e.g. the Boii from the plains of the Po. At the same time
as the invasion of Italy they had made fresh descents into the Danube
valley and the upper Balkan, and perhaps may have pushed into southern
Russia, but at this time they never made their way into Greece, though
the Athenian ladies copied the style of hair and dress of the Cimbrian
women. About 280 B.C. the Celts gathered a great host at the head of the
Adriatic, and accompanied by the Illyrian tribe of Autariatae, they
overthrew the Macedonians, overran Thessaly, and invaded Phocis in order
to sack Delphi, but they were finally repulsed, chiefly by the efforts
of the Aetolians (279 B.C.). The remnant of those who returned from
Greece joined that part of their army which had remained in Thrace, and
marched for the Hellespont. Here some of their number settled near
Byzantium, having conquered the native Thracians, and made Tyle their
capital. The Byzantines had to pay them a yearly tribute of 80 talents,
until on the death of the Gallic king Cavarus (some time after 220 B.C.)
they were annihilated by the Thracians. The main body of the Gauls who
had marched to the Hellespont crossed it under the leadership of
Leonnorius and Lutarius. Straightway they overran the greater part of
Asia Minor, and laid under tribute all west of Taurus, even the Seleucid
kings. At last Attila, king of Pergamum, defeated them in a series of
battles commemorated on the Pergamene sculptures, and henceforth they
were confined to a strip of land in the interior of Asia Minor, the
Galatia of history. Their three tribes--Trocmi, Tolistobogians and
Tectosages--submitted to Rome (189 B.C.), but they remained autonomous
till the death of their king Amyntas, when Augustus erected Galatia into
a province. Their descendants were probably the "foolish Galatians" to
whom St Paul wrote (see GALATIA).

Ancient writers spoke of all these Gauls as Cimbri, and identified them
with the Cimmerians of earlier date, who in Homeric times dwelt on the
ocean next to the Laestrygones, in a region of wintry gloom, but where
the sun set not in summer. Nor was it only towards the south and the
Hellespont that the Celtic tide ever set. They passed eastward to the
Danube mouth and into southern Russia, as far as the Sea of Azov,
mingling with the Scythians, as is proved by the name Celto-scyths.
Mithradates VI. of Pontus seems to have negotiated with them to gain
their aid against Rome, and Bituitus, a Gallic mercenary, was with him
at his death.

The Celts had continually moved westwards also. The Belgae, who were
Cimbric in origin, had spread across the Rhine and given their name to
all northern France and Belgium (_Gallia Belgica_). Many of these tribes
sent colonies over into south-eastern Britain, where they had been
masters for some two centuries when Caesar invaded the island (see
BRITAIN). But there is evidence that from the Bronze Age there had been
settlers in northern Britain who were broad-skulled and cremated their
dead, a practice which had arisen in south Germany in the early Bronze
Age or still earlier. It is not unlikely that, as tradition states,
there were incursions of Celts from central Gaul into Ireland during the
general Celtic unrest in the 6th century B.C. It is certain that at a
later period invaders from the continent, bringing with them the later
Iron Age culture, commonly called La Tene, which had succeeded that of
Hallstatt, had settled in Ireland. Not only are relics of La Tene
culture found in Ireland, but the oldest Irish epics celebrate tall,
fair-haired, grey-eyed heroes, armed and clad in Gallic fashion, who had
come from the continent. The Celts in Italy, in the Balkan, in France
and in Britain, overspread the Indo-European peoples, who differed from
themselves but slightly in speech. The Celts represented Indo-European q
by p, whilst the Greeks, Illyrians, Thracians, Ligurians, and aborigines
of France, Britain and Ireland represented it by k, c or qu. The
Umbrian-Sabellian tribes had the same phonetic peculiarity as the Celts.
Thus Gallic _petor_ (_petor-ritum_, "four-wheeler"), Umbrian _petur_,
Homeric [Greek: pisures], Boeotian (Achaean) [Greek: pettares], Welsh
_pedwar_; but Gaelic _cethir_, Lat. _quatuor_. The Celts are thus
clearly distinguished from the Gaelic-speaking dark race of Britain and
Ireland, and in spite of usage it must be understood that it is strictly
misleading to apply the term Celtic to the latter language.

  See also Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, vol. i., and _Oldest Irish
  Epic_; Ripley, _The Races of Europe_; Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_.
       (W. Ri.)


CELTIC LANGUAGES

_Introduction_.--The Celtic languages form one group of the
Indo-European family of languages. As might be expected from their
geographical distribution, they hold a position between the Italic and
Teutonic groups. They are distinguished from these and other branches of
the family by certain well-marked characteristics, the most notable of
which are the loss of initial and inter-vocalic p, cf. Ir. _athair_ with
Lat. _pater_; Ir. _lan_, "full," Welsh _llawn_, Breton _leun_, with Lat.
_plenus_; Gaulish _are-_, "beside," Ir. ar. Welsh, Breton ar, with Gr.
[Greek: peri], [Greek: para]; and the change of I. E. e to i, cf. Ir.
_fir_, "true," Welsh _gwir_, Breton _gwir_, Lat. _verus_. We may further
mention that the I. E. labialized velar gv is represented by b, e.g. Ir.
bo, "cow," Welsh _buwch_, Gr. [Greek: bous], Sanskr. _gaus_; Ir. _ben_,
"woman," Gr. [Greek: gyne], whilst the medial aspirates bh, dh, gh
result in simple voiced stops. I. E. sonant r and l become ri, li. Other
distinctive features of the modern dialects are not found in Gaulish,
partly owing to the character of the monuments. Such are the
-ss-preterite and the fusion of simple prepositions with pronominal
elements, e.g. Ir. _fri-umm_, "against me," Welsh _wrth-yf_, Breton
_ouz-inn_. The initial mutations which are so characteristic of the
living languages did not arise until after the Romans had left Britain.
The Celtic languages betray a surprising affinity with the Italic
dialects. Indeed, these two groups seem to stand in a much closer
relationship to one another than any other pair. As features common to
both Celtic and Italic we may mention: (i) the gen. sing, ending -i of
masc. and neut. stems in o; (2) verbal nouns in _-tion_; (3) the b-
future; (4) the passive formation in -r.

The various Celtic dialects may be divided as follows:--(1) Gaulish; (2)
Goidelic, including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx; (3) Brythonic,
including Welsh, Breton and Cornish. Gaulish and Brythonic, like Oscan
and Umbrian among the Italic dialects, change the I. E. labialized velar
guttural qv to p, whilst the Goidelic dialects retain the qv which later
gives up the labial element and becomes k, e.g. Gaulish _petor-_,
"four," Ir. _cethir_, Welsh _petguar_, Breton _pevar_, Lat. _quattuor_;
Ir. _cia_, "who," Welsh _pwy_, Lat. _quis_; Gaulish _epo-_, "horse,"
Welsh _eb-ol_, Breton _eb-eul_, Ir. _ech_, Lat. _equus_. Several
attempts have been made to prove the existence of Celtic dialects with
qv on the continent. Forms containing p occur in the Coligny calendar,
discovered in 1897, by the side of others with qv, a state of affairs
not yet satisfactorily accounted for. The Rom tablets, discovered in
1898, have not been interpreted as yet, but p forms are found on them
exclusively. In an excursus we shall deal with the language of the
Picts.

  No comprehensive handbook of the Celtic languages on the lines of
  Grober's _Grundriss der romanischen Philologie_ or Paul's _Grundriss
  der germanischen Philologie_ was available in 1909. The reader may
  refer to Windisch's article "Keltische Sprachen" in Ersch und Gruber's
  _Allgemeine Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste_, and V.
  Tourneur, _Esquisse d'une histoire des etudes celtiques_ (Liege, 1905;
  vol. ii. with full bibliography). Also H. Zimmer, "Die kelt.
  Litteraturen" in _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, T. i. Abh. xi. I, Berlin
  and Leipzig, 1909. The materials for the study of the older forms of
  the languages are to be found in Zeuss's _Grammatica Celtica_ as
  revised by Ebel. A comparative grammar of the Celtic dialects has been
  prepared by H. Pedersen (Gottingen, 1908). See also Whitley Stokes and
  A. Bezzenberger, _Wortschatz der keltischen Spracheinheit_ (Gottingen,
  1894).

I. GAULISH.--Celtic place-names are found as far east as the Dniester
and Dobrudja, and as far north as Westphalia. The language of the
Galatians in Asia Minor must have stood in a very close relation to
Gaulish. Indeed few traces of dialectical differences are to be observed
in continental Celtic. Unfortunately no literary monuments written in
the ancient speech of Gaul have come down to us, though Caesar makes
mention of religious poems orally transmitted by the Druids, and we also
hear of _bardi_ and _vates_. But a large number of personal and
place-names have been preserved. The classical writers have, moreover,
recorded a certain number of Gaulish words which can generally be
identified without difficulty by comparing them with words still living
in the modern dialects, e.g. _pempedula_, "cinquefoil," cf. Welsh
_pump_, "five," and _deilen_, "leaf"; _ambactus_, Welsh _amaeth_;
_petorritum_, "four-wheeled chariot," cf. Welsh _pedwar_, "four," and
Ir. _roth_, "wheel," or _rith_, "course." We have further between thirty
and forty inscriptions (three in north Italy) which we may without
hesitation ascribe to the Gauls. These inscriptions are written in
either N. Etruscan or Greek or Latin characters. We are thus in a
position to reconstruct much of the old system of declension, which
resembles Latin very closely on the one hand, and on the other
represents the forms which are postulated by the O. Ir. paradigms. Hence
Gaulish is particularly valuable as preserving the final vowels which
have disappeared in early Irish and Welsh. The few verb-forms which
occur in the remains of Gaulish are quite obscure and have not hitherto
admitted of a satisfactory explanation. The statements of ancient
authors with regard to the Belgae are conflicting, but there cannot be
much doubt that the language of the latter was substantially the same as
Gaulish. Caesar observes that there was little difference between the
speech of the Gauls and the Britons in his day, and we may regard
Gaulish as closely akin to the ancestor of the Brythonic dialects. It is
difficult to say when Gaulish finally became extinct. It disappeared
very rapidly in the south of France, but lingered on, possibly till the
6th century, in the northern districts, and it seems unnecessary to
discredit Jerome's statement that the speech of the Galatians in Asia
Minor bore a strong resemblance to the language he had heard spoken in
the neighbourhood of Trier. There is no evidence that Breton has been
influenced by continental Celtic. The number of Gaulish words which have
come down in the Romance languages is remarkably small, and though at
first sight the sound-changes of French and Welsh seem to bear a strong
likeness to one another, any influence of Gaulish pronunciation on
French is largely discounted when we find the same changes occurring in
other dialects where there is little or no question of Celtic influence.

  The proper names occurring in classical writers, on inscriptions and
  coins, have been collected by A. Holder in his monumental
  _Altceltischer Sprachschatz_ (Leipzig, 1896-1908). The inscriptions
  have been most recently treated by J. Rhys in the _Proceedings of the
  British Academy_, vol. ii. See also a paper in this volume entitled
  "Celtae and Galli" by the same author for the text of the Coligny and
  Rom inscriptions. The value of Gaulish for grammatical purposes is set
  forth by Whitley Stokes in a paper on "Celtic Declension" in the
  _Proceedings of the London Philological Society_ (1885-1886). For the
  extent over which Gaulish was spoken, its relation to Latin and its
  influence on Romance, see E. Windisch's article on "Keltische Sprache"
  in the section "Die vorromanischen Volkssprachen" in Grober's
  _Grundriss der romanischen Philologie^2_, vol. i. pp. 373 ff. Cf.
  further the introduction to J. Loth's _Chrestomathie bretonne_ (Paris,
  1890); G. Dottin, _Manuel pour servir a I'etude des antiquites
  celtiques_ (Paris, 1906); R. Thurneysen, _Keltoromanisches_ (Halle,
  1884).

II. GOIDELIC AND BRYTHONIC.--When the monuments of the Celtic dialects
of the British Islands begin to appear, we find a wide divergence
between the two groups. We can only mention some of the more important
cases here. The Brythonic dialects have gone very much farther in giving
up inflectional endings than Goidelic. In Irish all final syllables in
general disappear except long vowels followed by s or r and u < o
preceded by i. But these reservations do not hold good for Brythonic.
Thus, whilst O. Irish possesses five cases the Brythonic dialects have
only one, and they have further lost the neuter gender and the dual
number in substantives. In phonology there are also very striking
differences, apart from the treatment of the labialized velar qv already
mentioned. The sonant n appears in Brythonic as an, whereas in Goidelic
the nasal disappears before k, t with compensatory lengthening of the
vowel, e.g. I. E. _*kmtom_, Ir. _cet_, "hundred," W. _cant_, Bret.
_kant_; Prim. Celt. _*jovnko-_, O. Ir. _oac_, Mod. Ir. og, "young," W.
_ieuanc_, Bret, _iaouank_. t, k standing after a vowel and preceding l,
n (and also r if k precede) disappear in Goidelic with compensatory
lengthening of the vowel, e.g. Prim. Celt. _*statla-_, Ir. _sal_,
"heel," W. _sawdl_; Prim. Celt. _*petno-_, Ir. _en_, "bird," O. W.
_etn_, Mod. W. _edn._ Similarly b, d, g disappear in Goidelic when
standing after a vowel and preceding l, r, n with compensatory
lengthening of the vowel, but in Welsh they produce a vowel forming a
diphthong with the preceding vowel, e.g. Prim. Celt. _*neblo-_, Ir.
_nel_, "cloud," W. _niwl_; Prim. Celt. _*ogno-_, cf. Lat. _agnus_, Ir.
_uan_, "lamb," from _*on_, W. _oen_; Prim. Celt. _*vegno-_, cf. Ger.
_Wagen_, Ir. _fen_, "wagon," O. W. _guein_, Mod. W. _gwain_. The
Goidelic dialects have preserved the vowels of accented syllables on the
whole better than Brythonic. Thus Brythonic has changed Prim. Celt, a (=
I. E. a, o) to o (W. aw, Bret. eu); and Prim. Celt. u to i, e.g. Ir.
_brathir_, "brother," W. _brawd_, Bret. _breur_; Gaulish _dunum_, Ir.
_dun_, "fort," W. _din_. Already in Gaulish the I. E. diphthongs show a
tendency to become simple long vowels and the latter are treated
differently by Goidelic and Brythonic. In early times I. E. _eu, ou_
both became o and I. E. ei gave e. In Goidelic o, e, in accented
syllables were diphthongized in the early part of the 8th century to ua,
ia if the next syllable did not contain the vowels e or i, whereas in
Brythonic o gave =u (written u) and e became in W. ui (wy), and in Bret.
oe (_oue_), e.g. Gaulish _Teuto-_, _Toutius_, Ir. _tuath_, "people," W.,
Bret. _tud_; Brythonic _Leto-cetum_, Ir. _tuath_, "grey," W. _llwyd_,
Bret, _loued_. Similarly in loan-words, Ir. _ceir_, _fial_, W. _cwyr_,
O. Corn. _guil_, from Lat. _cera_, _velum_. Further I. E. ai, oi are
preserved in Irish as ai (ae), oi (oe), Mod. Ir. ao, but in Welsh I. E.
ai gave either ai or oe, whilst oi changed to _u_ (written u), Ir.
_toeb_, "side," W., Bret. tu; I. E. _*oinos_, Ir. _oen_, "one," W.,
Bret. un; Prim. Celt. _*saitlo-_, cf. Lat. _saeculum_, W. _hoedl_,
"age," Bret. _hoal_. In Goidelic accented e changes to i before _i, u_
in the following syllable, cf. Ir. _fid_, "wood," gen. sing, _fedo_, O.
H. G. _witu_, and i changes to e before a or o under similar conditions.
In like manner u becomes o before a or o, whilst o changes to u before
i, u, cf. Ir. _muir_, "sea," Prim. Celt. _*mori_, gen. sing. _mora_. Of
Brythonic finals which disappear, a, i, (o), j alone influence preceding
vowels, whilst an i (y) which received the stress in O. W. was also able
to modify vowels which went before it. In Goidelic the combinations
_sqv_, sv appear respectively as sc, s (medially, f), but in Brythonic
they both give _chw_; Prim. Celt. _*sqvetlon_, Ir. _scel_, "story," W.
_chwedl_; Prim. Celt. _*svesor_, Ir. _siur_, "sister," but _mo fiur_,
"my sister" (whence Scottish _piuthar_ by false de-aspiration), W.
_chwaer_, Bret. _c'hoar_. In Brythonic initial s becomes h in the 7th
century, but this is unknown in Goidelic, e.g. Ir. _salann_, "salt," W.
_halen_, Cornish _haloin_, Bret, _holenn_; Lat. _se-men_, Ir. _sil_,
"seed," W. _hil_. Initial v gives f in Goidelic in the course of the 7th
century, whereas in Brythonic it appears as _gu, gw_, cf. Lat. _verus_,
Ir. _fir_, W., Bret. _gwir_. We may also mention that in Goidelic
initial j and medial v disappear, e.g. Gaulish _Jovincillus_, W.
_ieuanc_, "young," Bret, _iouank_, Ir. _oac, oc_; W. _bywyd_, "food,"
Ir. _biad_. Post-consonantic j in Brythonic sometimes gives -id (Mod. W.
_-ydd_, Mod. Bret, -ez), e.g. Gaulish _nevio-, novio-_, O. Bret,
_nowid_, W. _newydd_, Bret, _nevez_, Ir. _nue._ I.E. -kt and -pt both
appear in Goidelic as _-cht_ but in Brythonic as _-ith_, cf. Lat.
_septem_, O. Ir. _secht_, W. _seith_, Bret. _seiz_.

We unfortunately know very little about the position of the stress in
ancient Gaulish. According to Meyer-Lubke in place-names the penult was
accented if the vowel was long, otherwise the stress lay on the
preceding syllable, e.g. _Augustodunum_, O. Fr. _Ostedun_, now _Autun;
Catalaunos_ (Chalons), _Tricasses_ (Fr. Troyes), _Bituriges_ (Fr.
Bourges). In Goidelic the stress, which is strongly expiratory, is
always placed on the first syllable except in certain cases in verbs
compounded with prepositional prefixes. In Old Welsh and Old Breton, on
the other hand, the final syllable, i.e. the primitive penult, received
the stress, but in both languages the stress was shifted in the middle
period to the penultimate. The Goidelic dialects, like the Slavonic,
distinguish between palatalized and nonpalatalized consonants, according
as the consonant was originally followed by a front (e, i) or back vowel
(a, o, u), a phenomenon which is entirely unknown to Brythonic.

Finally, the two groups differ radically in the matter of initial
mutation or, as it is often called, aspiration. These mutations are by
no means confined to initial consonants, as precisely the same changes
have taken place under similar conditions in the interior of words. The
Goidelic changes included under this head probably took place for the
most part between the 5th and 7th centuries, whilst in Brythonic the
process seems to have begun and continued later. It is easier to fix the
date of the changes in Brythonic than in Goidelic, as a number of
British names are preserved in lives of saints, and it is possible to
draw conclusions from the shape that British place-names assumed in the
mouths of the Anglo-Saxons. In Goidelic, we find two mutations, the
vocalic and the nasal. Initial mutation only takes place between words
which belong together syntactically, and which form one single
stress-group, thus between article, numeral, possessive pronoun or
preposition, and a following substantive; between a verbal prefix and
the verb itself.

  1. When the word causing mutation ended in a vowel we get the vocalic
  mutation, called by Irish grammarians aspiration. The sounds affected
  are the tenues k (c), t, p; the mediae g, d, b; the liquids and nasals
  m, n, r, l, s, and Prim. Celt. v (Ir. f, W. gw). At the present day
  the results of this mutation in Irish and Welsh may be tabulated as
  follows. Where the sound is at variance with the traditional
  orthography, the latter is given in brackets. In the case of n, r, l
  in Goidelic we get a different variety of n, r, l sound. In Welsh in
  the case of r, l, the absolute initial is a voiceless r, l written rh,
  ll, which on mutation become voiced and are written r, l. In Irish s
  becomes h written sh and the mutation of f is written fh, which,
  however, is now silent. Examples:--Irish, cu, "hound," _do chu_, "thy
  hound"; Welsh ci, dy gi (do, dy represent a Prim. Celt. _*tovo_);
  Irish _mathair_, "mother," _an mhathair_, "the mother," Welsh _mam, y
  fam_ (the feminine of the article was originally _*senta, senda)._

    +--------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
    |Original|         |       |       |       |       |         |         |
    | sound  |    k    |   t   |   p   |   g   |   d   |    b    |    m    |
    +--------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
    | Irish  |[chi](ch)| h(th) | f(ph) | Z(gh) | Z(dh) | v,w(bh) | v,w(mh) |
    +--------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+
    | Welsh  |    g    |  d    |  b    |  nil  | d(dd) |   v(f)  |   v(f)  |
    +--------+---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+

  2. When the word causing mutation originally ended in a nasal, we get
  the nasal mutation called by Irish grammarians eclipse. The sounds
  affected are k (c), t, p; g, d, b; Prim. Celt. v (Ir. f, W. gw). In
  mod. Irish and mod. Welsh the results are tabulated below. Irish f
  becomes w written bh, whilst W. gw gives _ngw_. Examples:--Irish
  _bliadhna_, "year," _seacht m-bliadhna_, "seven years," cf. Latin
  _septem_, Welsh _blynedd, saith mlynedd_; Irish _tir_, "country," _i
  d-tir_, "in a country," Welsh _tref_, "town," _yn nhref_, "in a
  town," cf. Latin _in._

    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
    | Original Sound |  k  |  t  |  p  |  g  |  d  |  b  |
    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
    | Irish          |  g  |  d  |  b  |  ng |  n  |  m  |
    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
    | Welsh          | ngh |  nh |  mh |  ng |  n  |  m  |
    +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

  3. In Welsh k (c), t, p undergo a further change when the word causing
  mutation originally ended in s. There is nothing corresponding to this
  consonantal mutation in Goidelic. In this case k (c), t, p become the
  spirants [chi] (ch), th, f (ph), e.g. _lad_, "father," _ei thad_, "her
  father," ei represents a primitive _*esias._ In the interior of words
  in Brythonic, cc, pp, tt give the same result as initial k, t, p by
  this mutation.

The relation in which the other Celtic dialects stand to this system
will be mentioned below in dealing with the various languages. It will
be noted from what has been said above that, with the exception of the
different treatment of the labialized velar qv, and the nasal sonant n,
the features which differentiate the Brythonic from the Goidelic
dialects first appear for the most part after the Romans had left
Britain. At the beginning of the Christian era the difference between
the two groups can only have been very slight. And Strachan has shown
recently that Old Irish and Old Welsh agree in a very striking manner in
the use of the verbal particle ro and in other syntactical peculiarities
connected with the verb.

(i.) _Goidelic_.--The term Goidelic is used to embrace the Celtic
dialects of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. In each case the
national name for the speech is _Gaelic_ (Ir. _Gaedhlig_, Scottish
_Gaidhlig_, Manx _Gailck_), from Ir. Scottish _Gaodhal, Gaedheal_, Mid.
Ir. _Goedel_, W. _Gwyddel_, "a Gael, inhabitant of Ireland or Scotland."
Old Irish may be regarded as the ancestor of Scottish and Manx Gaelic,
as the forms of these dialects can be traced back to Old Irish, and
there are practically no monuments of Scottish and Manx in the oldest
period. Scottish and Irish may be regarded as standing to one another in
much the same relation as broad Scottish and southern English. The
divergences of Scottish and Manx from Irish will be mentioned below. The
language of the Ogam inscriptions is the oldest form of Goidelic with
which we are acquainted. Some 300 inscriptions have up to the present
been discovered in this alphabet, the majority of them hailing from the
south-west of Ireland (Kerry and Cork). In Scotland 22 are known, whilst
in England and Wales about 30 have turned up. Most of the latter are in
South Wales, but odd ones have been found in North Wales, Devon and
Cornwall, and one has occurred as far east as Hampshire. The Isle of Man
also possesses two. The letters in the oldest inscriptions are formed by
strokes or notches scored on either side of the edge of an upright
stone. Thus we obtain the following alphabet:--

  --'----''----'''----''''----'''''--   --,----,,----,,,----,,,,----,,,,,--
    h    d      t      c        q         b    l      v      s        n

  --/----//----///----////----/////--   --.----..----...----....----.....--
    m    g      ng     z        r         a    o      u      e        i

This system, which was eked out with other signs, would seem to have
been framed in the south-west of Ireland by a person or persons who were
familiar with the Latin alphabet. Some of the inscriptions probably go
back to the 5th century and may even be earlier. As illustrations of the
simplest forms of Ogam inscriptions we may mention the following:
_Doveti maqqi Cattini_, i.e. "(the stone) of Dovetos son of Cattinos";
_Trenagusu Maqi Maqi-Treni_ is rendered in Latin _Trenegussi Fili
Macutreni hic jacit; Sagramni Maqi Cunatami_, "(the stone) of Sagramnos
son of Cunotamos"; _Ovanos avi Ivacattos_, "(the stone) of Ovanus
descendant of Ivacattus." It will be seen that in the oldest of these
inscriptions q is still kept apart from k (c), and that the final
syllables have not disappeared (cf. _maqqi_, O. Ir. _maicc_), but it
appears certain that in Ogamic writing stereotyped forms were used long
after they had disappeared in ordinary speech. Several stones contain
bilingual inscriptions, but the key to the Ogam alphabet is supplied by
a treatise on Ogamic writing contained in the Book of Ballymote, a
manuscript of the late 14th century. It should be mentioned that the
Welsh stones are early whilst the Scottish ones are almost without
exception late, and several of the latter have so far defied
interpretation. In addition to the Irish Ogams there are a number of
Christian inscriptions in Latin character, but, with one exception, they
are not older than the 8th century.

  See R.R. Brash, _The Ogam Inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhil_ (London,
  1879); R.A. Stewart Macalister, _Studies in Irish Epigraphy_ (London),
  vol. i. (1897), vol. ii. 1902, vol. iii. 1907. The Welsh inscriptions
  are contained in J. Rhys, _Lectures on Welsh Philology_[2] (London,
  1879). The Scottish stones have also been treated by Rhys in the
  _Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries_ (Edinburgh,
  1892). See also G.M. Atkinson for the tract in the Book of Ballymote,
  _Kilkenny Journal of Archaeology_ (1874). The Irish Christian
  inscriptions were published by Margaret Stokes as the annual volumes
  of the Roy. Hist, and Archaeol. Association of Ireland (1870-1877),
  and have been republished by R.A. Stewart Macalister.

(a) _Irish._--We are able to trace the history of the Irish language
continuously for a period of 1200 years, and from the time that the
literary documents begin we are better supplied with linguistic material
for the study of the language than is the case with any other Celtic
dialect. At the same time that form of Irish which is to be found in the
oldest documents has preserved a number of features which have entirely,
or almost entirely, disappeared from the Brythonic languages. For this
reason scholars have largely occupied themselves with Irish, which for
purposes of comparative philology may be regarded as the classic Celtic
language.

  The history of Irish is divided into three periods:--Old Irish
  (700-1100), the documents mainly representing the language of the 8th
  and 9th centuries; Middle Irish, extending roughly from 1100 to 1550;
  Modern Irish from 1550 to the present day. These periods merge into
  one another to such an extent that no firm division can be made. The
  language of some manuscripts of the 14th century contains forms which
  are really Old Irish, and Middle Irish orthography was partly employed
  by historians and antiquarians in the middle of the 17th century. Old
  Irish, as compared with Brythonic, preserves a wealth of inflectional
  forms in declension and conjugation, but many of these tend to
  disappear very early. In the modern dialects of Ireland and Scotland
  there is a rigid rule of orthography that a palatalized, or, as it is
  termed, slender consonant in medial or final position, must be
  preceded by a palatal vowel (i), and a non-palatalized consonant by a
  non-palatal or broad vowel (a, o, u). This is the famous rule of the
  grammarians known as _caol le caol agus leathan le leathan_ ("slender
  to slender and broad to broad"), but it is not so strictly adhered to
  in the spoken language as is commonly stated. In the older language
  the quality of medial and final consonants is only denoted very
  imperfectly, thus non-palatalized final consonants are regularly not
  denoted as such, e.g. O. and Mid. Ir. _fir_, Mod. Ir. _fior_. In Old
  and Mid. Irish the initial mutations are only regularly denoted in the
  case of the vocalic mutation of c, p, t, s, f, and the nasal mutation
  of b, d, g. The vocalic mutation of c, p, t, s, f was denoted by
  writing ch, ph, th, sh, fh, the first three symbols of which were
  derived from the Latin alphabet. Another method of denoting the
  mutation was to write a dot over the letter, originally the punctum
  delens, which was justified in the case of mutated f as the latter
  early became silent. But no such devices were ready at hand in the
  case of the medial b, d, g, and the mutated forms of these consonants
  were consequently not represented at all in the orthography. The same
  remark holds good in the case of the nasal mutation (eclipse) of the
  tenues. But it is easy to demonstrate that the same condition of
  affairs as we find in the modern language must have obtained in Old
  Irish. This insufficiency of symbols renders the orthography of the
  early stages of the language very complicated. We find that b, d, g
  were used initially to denote the voiced stops, but medially and
  finally they represent spirants, the voiced stops in this case being
  denoted by c, p, t. It is not until much later times that the h in the
  mutated forms of the tenues, or the use of the dot, was extended to
  the mediae. Thus in Mid. Irish we find _do bochtaib in choimded_ (Mod.
  Ir. _dobhochtaibh_), Mid. Ir. _ro-gab_ = Mod. Ir. _do ghabh_. The
  nasal mutation of c, p, t was first denoted by writing these sounds
  double and finally in the 18th century by writing gc, bp, dt. The
  spirants arising out of Prim. Celt. g, d, b came in Old Irish to be
  confused with those which developed out of Prim. Celt, p, t, k, in
  other than initial positions. In final positions in polysyllables we
  commonly find d and b written but medially th and ph, e.g. _didnad_,
  "consolation," gen. sing, _dithnatha_. For the ending -ad cp. Lat.
  _-atu-_. On the other hand we find g written medially and ch finally.
  These rules, however, are not yet applied in the oldest documents.

  When we turn to the inflections we find that most of the old
  terminations have disappeared, but that their influence on preceding
  consonants is still felt and serves to distinguish one form from
  another; thus in the declension of _fer_, "man," nom. sing. _fer_,
  gen. sing. _fir_, dat. sing, _fiur_, acc. sing, _fer n-_, nom. pl.
  _fir_, gen. pl. _fer n-_, corresponding to Prim. Celt. (Gaulish)
  _viros, viri, viro, viron, viri, viron_, the influence of the
  following sound still differentiates the cases from one another. In
  the later language the initial mutations come more and more to be
  used for this purpose. In Middle Irish the declensions and
  conjugations are much simplified and the neuter gender is given up in
  substantives. In the verb the athematic conjugation has disappeared
  and the distinction of primary and secondary endings is not observed.
  On the other hand Irish has developed a peculiar system of absolute
  and conjoint inflection with different sets of endings. The conjoint
  endings are always used in the case of compound verbs, and in simple
  verbs they are employed after certain proclitics, e.g. the negative
  particles. Thus _berid_, "he bears," is an absolute form; _do-beir_,
  "he gives," _ni beir_, "he does not bear," are conjoint forms.
  Further, the verb system is partly dominated by the various devices
  employed to express relatival function. There are three main types of
  conjugation in Old Irish corresponding to the Latin first, third and
  fourth conjugations, the Latin types _moneo_ and _audio_ being
  difficult to distinguish in Irish. In the modern language there is in
  reality but one conjugation. The old Irish verb system comprises
  present and imperfect indicative, imperative, pres. subjunctive in
  -a-or -s- with corresponding past subjunctive, future in -f- or -s- or
  -e- or with reduplication along with corresponding secondary future,
  -s- preterite, -t- preterite, reduplicated preterite, a preterite
  containing a long stem-vowel, together with deponential and passive
  forms in -rd. This system is eked out with the verbal prefix ro, which
  among other functions changes a preterite into a perfect or a present
  into a perfect. Such a cumbrous system was bound to fall to pieces. A
  number of isolated forms have come down, but the only tenses which
  have survived into the modern period are the present and imperfect
  indicative, the imperative, the present subjunctive, the -s-
  preterite, the -b- and -e- future with corresponding secondary forms,
  and some of the passive forms in -r. At the same time in the modern
  language there is an increasing tendency to use analytical forms. Two
  noteworthy features of the Irish verb remain to be mentioned. The one
  is the use of pronouns as objects infixed between particle and verb,
  or in a verb compounded with a preposition between preposition and
  verb. There are two sets of forms according as to whether the verb
  occurs in a relative clause or not. Thus -m- is the ordinary infixed
  pronoun of the 1st pers. sing., whilst -dom- is the corresponding
  relative form. In the 3rd pers. sing. aspiration may be employed, e.g.
  _ni ceil_, "he does not hide," _ni cheil_, "he does not hide it." This
  has been given up in the modern language. Secondly in verbs compounded
  with prepositions the accent of the verb varies according as to
  whether the verb is used enclitically or not--thus after the negative
  ni or in the infinitive and imperative. Hence we have _do-beir_, "he
  gives," by the side of _ni tabair_, "he does not give," infin.
  _tabairt_; _do-gniu_, "I do," _ni denim_, "I do not do," infin.
  _denum_. The changes caused by this alternation in addition to others
  due to the working of the Irish accent and to the initial and internal
  mutations have played havoc with the verb system and render it
  exceedingly difficult to reconstruct the paradigms. In the later
  periods of the language analogy naturally plays a great part, and many
  of the complicated forms are done away with, but even in the modern
  dialects the alternation between enclitic and orthotonic forms still
  survives in the commonest verbs, e.g. Irish _bheir se_ "he gives," _ni
  thabhair se_, "he does not give," infin. _tabhairt_; Scottish _bheir
  e, cha toir, toirt_; Manx _ver eh, cha der, coyrt_; Irish _ni se_, "he
  does," _ni dheanann se_, "he does not do," infin. _deanamh_; Scottish
  _ni e_, "he does," _cha dean e_, "he will not do," infin. _deanamh_;
  Manx _nee eh, cha jean eh, jannoo_.

  In the early period Irish borrowed a number of words from Latin. These
  are mainly connected with the church or with articles of civilization
  which would be imported from Roman Britain. Some of these show traces
  of British pronunciation, e.g. O. Ir. _trindoit_, from Latin
  _trinitatem_ with o for a. In others again Lat. p is represented in
  Ir. by c, which may be due to the substitution of q as being the
  nearest Irish sound to the foreign p. Thus we find Ir. _corcur_,
  "purple," _casc_, "Easter"; _cenciges_, "Whitsuntide"; _cruimther_,
  "presbyter." In addition to these several loans were received from
  Norse. In the Mid. Irish period many French words came in, and during
  the middle and modern periods the number of English words introduced
  is legion. Pedersen has tried to show in his _Vergl. Gramm._ that a
  considerable number of words were borrowed from Brythonic (Welsh) at
  an early date.

  [For the Latin loan-words, see J. Vendryes, _De hibernicis vocabulis
  quae a latina lingua originem duxerunt_ (Paris, 1902); Kuno Meyer has
  collected a number of loan-words from Norse, Anglo-Saxon, Early
  English, Latin and Early French in _Revue celtique_, xii. 460 and
  xiii. 505. See also Whitley Stokes, _Bezzenberger's Beitrage_, xviii.
  56 ff. For Celtic names in Norse see W. Stokes, _Revue celtique_, iii.
  186 ff., and W.A. Craigie, _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ i. 439 ff.]

  With regard to the dialects of Irish, there is a well-known rhyme
  which states the peculiarities of the speech of the four provinces,
  and dialectical differences must have existed at an early period,
  though they do not make their appearance in the literary language
  until the 18th century. At the present day the Irish of Leinster has
  vanished entirely, and we have unfortunately no records of it. But in
  the other three provinces the vernacular still lives, and we find the
  Irish of Munster, Connaught and Ulster marked off from one another by
  well-defined peculiarities. In general it may be stated that the south
  of Ireland is more conservative than the north. In Munster there is a
  tendency to shift the word-stress from the initial syllable to a heavy
  derivative syllable, e.g. -an. This does not take place in Connaught,
  whilst in Ulster the tendency is to shorten the vowel. Again in
  monosyllables ending in ll, nn, m, and under certain other conditions
  a short vowel becomes a diphthong in the south, in Connaught it is
  merely lengthened, but in Ulster the original length is retained, e.g.
  Ulster _ball_, "member, limb," Connaught _ball_, Munster _baull_.
  Final dh, gh in Munster are sounded as g. In certain cases the north
  prefers the vocalic mutation where the west and south have the nasal,
  thus notably in the dative singular after preposition and article,
  e.g. Munster-Connaught _do'n bhfear_, "to the man," Ulster _do'n
  fhear_. In the south synthetic verb-forms are employed to a much
  larger extent than in the north.

  In the early part of the 19th century Irish was still the speech of
  more than half the inhabitants of Ireland. A German traveller reckoned
  that out of a total population of seven millions in 1835 four millions
  spoke Irish as their mother-tongue. The famine of 1846-1847 was felt
  most in those districts that were purely Irish, and these were the
  parts that were and still are chiefly affected by the tide of
  emigration. Add to this the fact that the influence of O'Connell and
  his satellites, and above all that of the Roman Catholic clergy, was
  against the language. In spite of the efforts of the Gaelic League
  (founded 1893), which have met with considerable success, the language
  is rapidly dying of internal decay. The speakers of Irish are chiefly
  confined to the following counties, where over 20% of the population
  speak Gaelic:--Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, Sligo,
  Donegal. The following figures will illustrate the decay of the
  language since the famine:--

    Year.     Monoglots.   Bilinguists.

    1851       319,602      1,204,684
    1861       163,275        942,261
    1871       103,562        714,313
    1881        64,167        885,765
    1891        38,192        642,053
    1901        20,953        620,189


  According to the 1901 census report the speakers of Irish were
  distributed as follows:--Leinster, 26,436; Munster, 276,268;
  Connaught, 245,580; Ulster, 92,858. The Gaelic movement, which has
  thriven largely on account of its anti-English character, would have a
  much better chance of galvanizing the ancient language of Ireland if
  it were not for the supreme difficulties of Irish spelling and
  phonetics. Of the hundreds of thousands of persons who attend the
  classes of the League not more than one or two per cent. at the
  outside arrive at any state of proficiency. Presbyterian Gaels in
  Scotland are taught to read the Bible but Irish Catholics are not
  encouraged to do so. The result of this is seen in the fact that,
  whilst many, if not all, of the local Nationalist newspapers under the
  pressure of the League publish badly-printed and little-read columns
  in Irish, there are only two regularly appearing periodicals which
  contain any large amount of Irish. Half the contents--and those the
  most important--of the weekly organ of the league, _An Claidheamh
  Soluis_ ("the flaming sword"), are in English. The latter was started
  in 1898 under the title of _Fainne an Lae_ ("the ring of day," i.e.
  the dawn). The other periodical is the monthly _Gaelic Journal_
  (_Irisleabhar na Gaedhilge_), a would-be literary magazine of very
  inferior quality which has led a precarious existence since 1882. In
  1898 it was decided to hold a festival called the _Oireachtas_
  ("hosting, gathering") on the lines of the Welsh _Eisteddfod_. The
  venture was a great success and similar meetings have been held every
  year since, whilst each province and many of the counties have their
  annual local Gaelic _feis_ (festival). The literary output of the
  movement has been prodigious, consisting in the main of a number of
  short stories and dramas (mostly propagandist), but nothing of any
  particular merit has as yet been forthcoming. The best-known writers
  are Dr Douglas Hyde (collector of folk-stories--_Beside the Fire_,
  1890, _An Sgeulaidhe Gaedhealach_, 1895 (reprinted from vol. x. of the
  _Annales de Bretagne_), _Love Songs of Connaught_, 1893, _Religious
  Songs of Connaught_, 1905); P. O'Leary (author of two lengthy stories,
  _Seadna_, 1904, _Niamh_, 1907); P. Dinneen (author of an historical
  tale, _Cormac Ua Connaill_, 1901); P. O'Shea, better known as "Conan
  Maol," author of a collection of short stories entitled _An Buaiceas_,
  1903.

  AUTHORITIES ON IRISH LANGUAGE.--For the study of Old Irish--Zeuss,
  _Grammatica Celtica^2_ (Berlin, 1871); B. Guterbock and R. Thurneysen,
  Indices to the Irish words treated in Zeuss (Leipzig, 1881); E.
  Windisch published the first grammar of Old Irish in 1879 (trans. by
  N. Moore, Pitt Press, 1882), but Windisch's treatment of the verb was
  rendered obsolete by the discovery of the laws of the Irish accent by
  H. Zimmer, _Keltische Studien_ (Berlin, 1884), and R. Thurneysen,
  _Revue celtique_, vi. 309, J. Vendreys, _Grammaire du Vieil-Irlandais_
  (Paris, 1908); R. Thurneysen, _Handbuch des Alt-Irischen_ (Heidelberg,
  1909). Mention should also be made of J. Strachan, _Selections from
  the Old Irish Glosses_ (Dublin, 1904); and the same writer's _Old
  Irish Paradigms_ (Dublin, 1905), _Stories from the Tain_ (Dublin,
  1908). See also various papers on the Irish verb in the _Transactions
  of the London Philological Society_ by Strachan (1895-1902); H.
  Pedersen, _Aspirationen i Irsk_ (Copenhagen, 1898); C. Sarauw, _Irske
  Studier_ (Copenhagen, 1901); G.J. Ascoli, _Archivio glottologico
  italiano_, vols. v. and vi. For the study of Middle Irish--E.
  Windisch, _Irische Texte mit Worterbuch_ (Leipzig, 1880). (Other
  volumes in conjunction with W. Stokes.)

  Editions of texts by W. Stokes, Kuno Meyer and others in the _Revue
  celtique, Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie, Eriu_. K. Meyer has
  issued an exhaustive Mid. Irish glossary (A-D) as a supplement to the
  _Archiv fur celtische Lexikographie_. The remainder is being published
  under the auspices of the Royal Irish Academy. The first grammar of
  Modern Irish was published by Francis Molloy in 1677 at Rome under the
  title of _Grammatica Latino-Hibernica_. Molloy was followed by
  Jeremiah Curtin in 1728 with a book called _Elements of the Irish
  Language_. Numerous other grammars were published towards the end of
  the 18th and at the beginning of the 19th century, but few of them
  have any value. The more important of them are enumerated in the
  introduction to O'Donovan's _Grammar_ and to Windisch's _Kurzgefasste
  irische Grammatik_, and in Pedersen's _Aspirationen i Irsk_, pp.
  29-47. We may mention W. Neilson's _Grammar_ (1808) as it is important
  for the Irish of E. Ulster. But the greatest native grammarian was
  John O'Donovan, who traversed Ireland in connexion with the Ordnance
  Survey, and published in 1854 a comprehensive grammar noting the
  differences between the various dialects. A little grammar published
  by Molloy in 1867 is instructive on account of the author's peculiar
  point of view. The most useful books for the study of the living
  language are the series of booklets (five) published by Father
  O'Growney, one of the chief promoters of the present movement. Mention
  should also be made of J.P. Henry's _Handbook of Modern Irish_, pts.
  i.-iv., and of the grammars by P.W. Joyce (Dublin, 1896) and the
  Christian Brothers (Dublin, 1901). For the northern form of Irish J.P.
  Craig's _Grammar of Modern Irish_ is useful (^2 Dublin, 1904). The
  phonetics of a Munster dialect have been investigated by R. Henebry,
  _A Contribution to the Phonology of Desi Irish_ (Greifswald, 1901).
  The dialect of the Aran Islands off the coast of Galway has been
  described by F.N. Finck, _Die Araner Mundart_, i. _Lautlehre und
  Grammatik_, ii. _Worterbuch_ (Marburg, 1899). G. Dottin has given an
  account of a dialect of North Connaught (Mayo) in the _Revue
  celtique_, xiv. pp. 97-137. A study of the speech of the north was
  published by E.C. Quiggin under the title of _A Dialect of Donegal,
  Phonology and Texts_ (Cambridge, 1906). For an account of the decay of
  Irish see H. Zimmer, "Die keltische Bewegung in Irland," _Preussische
  Jahrbucher_ for 1898, vol. 93, p. 59 ff., and the last chapter of
  Douglas Hyde's _Literary History of Ireland_ (London, 1901).

  The work of the earlier compilers of glosses will be mentioned in the
  literature section below. The first dictionary of the modern language
  of any importance was that published by J. O'Brien in 1768. Next came
  E. O'Reilly with his _Irish-English Dictionary_ (Dublin, 1817). This
  book contains a vast store of words gathered on no principle whatever
  from all manner of sources, and has therefore to be used with caution,
  but even at the present day it renders considerable service. A second
  edition with a supplement by O'Donovan was published after the
  latter's death in 1864. The first trustworthy dictionary of the modern
  language was published under the auspices of the Irish Texts Society
  by P.J. Dinneen (London, 1904). English-Irish dictionaries have been
  compiled by D. Foley (Dublin, 1855); E.E. Fournier (Dublin, 1903); T.
  O'Neill Lane (Dublin, 1904).

(b) _Scottish Gaelic._--Scottish Gaelic is the form of Goidelic speech
which was introduced into Scotland by the Dalriadic Scots who came over
from Ireland in the early centuries of our era. We possess practically
no early monuments of the language. We have one or two inscriptions in
Latin characters, such as that at St Vigeans and the Ogams mentioned
above, which have not yet been solved. In the _Book of Deir_ there is a
colophon of a few lines probably written by an Irish scribe in the 9th
century, and as the language of these lines differs in no wise from the
Irish of the period, we do not know if they accurately represent the
Gaelic of Scotland or if they may not be pure Irish. In the same MS.
there are further Gaelic scraps belonging to the 11th and 12th
centuries. The word-forms in these entries are identical with those
current at the time in Ireland, but the historical orthography seems to
show more signs of decay than is the case in Irish. The medieval
Scottish MSS. in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh are only just being
published, but they seem either to hail from Ireland or to be written in
pure Irish. The end of the 15th century brought a change. The Lordship
of the Isles, the great bond between Ireland and Scotland, was broken
up. The Gaels of Scotland, thrown on their own resources, advanced their
own dialect to the position of a literary language and tried to discard
the Irish orthography. The _Book of the Dean of Lismore_, compiled about
1500, is written in a kind of phonetic orthography which has not as yet
been sufficiently investigated. The language of those poems which are
not directly ascribed to Irish poets, and which may therefore be
regarded as representing the literary language of the Highlands at the
time, seems to occupy a position midway between Irish and Scottish
Gaelic. But until the beginning of the 18th century the Highlands were
under the literary dominion of Ireland, so much so that Bedell's Irish
version of the Scriptures was circulated in Scotland with a glossary
from 1690 to 1767, and Bishop Carsewell's version of Knox's Prayer-book
(1567) is pure Irish. The language of the people is poorly represented
in the 16th and 17th centuries, and the orthography is not fixed until
we reach the 18th century.

  Irish and Scottish Gaelic differ considerably in point of vocabulary,
  but there are also important divergences in phonetics and inflections.
  In the first place, Scottish Gaelic as written has entirely given up
  the nasal mutation (eclipse), e.g. Scottish _ar bo_, "our cow," Irish
  _ar m-bo_; Scottish _nan tir_, "of the countries," Irish _na d-tir_.
  It should, however, be observed that in Skye and the Outer Isles the
  nasal mutation has been partly restored and in some places there are
  even parallels to the Welsh nasal mutation of c, p, t to _ngh, mh,
  nh._ Secondly, post-vocalic c, p, t are commonly preceded by a
  breathed sound not represented in writing, thus _mac_ "son," is
  pronounced _mahk_; _slat_, "rod," as _slaht_. Again there is a
  tendency to insert a sibilant in the group rt, thus _ceart_, "right,"
  is sounded _kearst_, and the distinction between palatalized and
  non-palatalized sounds is not so rigidly observed as in Irish. The
  group _cht_ is in Scotland pronounced as if _chk_. We may also mention
  that Scottish Gaelic preserves an old e in a number of words where
  Irish now has a, thus, Old Ir. _fer_, Scottish G. _fer_, Irish _far_,
  but in both cases the spelling is _fear_ (in this respect Scottish
  Gaelic goes hand in hand with Manx and the almost extinct Irish of
  Down). Similarly, we find that in Scottish Gaelic and Manx stressed
  vowels preceding a palatalized consonant have not undergone
  palatalization to the same extent as in Irish, e.g. in Ireland
  _duine_, "man," < _*dunjo-_, is pronounced _din'd_, but in Scotland
  _dun'd_ (in Manx written _dooinney_). A further peculiarity of
  Scottish Gaelic is that it substitutes lenes or voiceless mediae for
  the voiced stops, and even l, r, n sounds show a great tendency to
  give up the voice. Scottish Gaelic goes farther even than Irish in the
  confusion of vowel-sounds, e.g. Lat. _coxa_, Ir. _cos_, "foot," Sc.
  _cas_; Ir. _codal_, Sc. _cadal_. When we turn to the inflections we
  find that analogy has here played a much greater part than in Irish.
  There is a tendency to make the plural of all substantives except
  masculine monosyllables end in -an. In the conjugation the synthetic
  forms have with one or two exceptions entirely disappeared and the
  present forms have become momentary in force. Hence in ordinary
  grammars it is stated that the present has become a future, thus _ni
  mi_ means "I shall do." The past participle chiefly ends in -te as
  against Irish -the, -te, or -tha, -ta, according to the quality of the
  preceding sound. The present (future) and past subjunctive
  (conditional, representing both the imperfect indic. and secondary
  future of Irish) supply the place of the Irish consuetudinal forms. In
  idiom also Scottish has diverged very considerably from Irish, e.g. in
  the use of _tha_ (Ir. ta) for is.

  It seems now to be agreed that the various dialects of Scottish Gaelic
  fall into two main divisions--northern and southern. Mackinnon states
  that the boundary between the two passes roughly up the Firth of Lorne
  to Loch Leven, then across country from Ballachulish to the Grampians.
  The country covered by the northern dialect was of old the country of
  the Northern Picts, whilst the portion of Argyllshire south of the
  boundary line, together with Bute and Arran, made up the kingdom of
  Dalriada. The Gaelic district south of the Grampians belonged to the
  Southern Picts. The southern dialect is commonly regarded as the
  literary language. It approaches more nearly to Irish and preserves
  the inflections much better than the speech of the north.

  The following characteristics of the northern dialects may be
  mentioned:--(1) The diphthongization of open e to ia is carried much
  farther in the north than in the south. (2) The vowel ao in the north
  is more regularly the high-back-narrow-unrounded vowel-sound, whereas
  the south in many cases has a low-front-wide-round sound. (3) The
  north has _str_ in initial position where the south prefers sr.
  Further, the northern dialects go very far in dropping unaccented
  final vowels. It may be remarked that in the reduction of derivative
  endings containing long vowels Scotland goes hand-in-hand with Ulster
  Irish, thus Connaught _aran_, "bread," is in Ulster and Scotland
  _aran_. Again, Scottish agrees with North Irish in the loss of
  synthetic verb-forms and in using as negative _cha_, Mid. Ir. _nico,
  nocha_. But, on the other hand, Scotland, with the exception of South
  Argyll and some of the Isles, diphthongizes accented a, o, e, in
  monosyllables, before ll, nn, m, thus resembling the speech of
  Munster. In South Argyll the original short vowel is half lengthened.

  As to the southern limits of Gaelic speech in Scotland, the boundary
  between Gaelic and English in medieval times was the so-called
  Highland line, and at the War of Independence it is probable that it
  extended to Stirling, Perth and the Ochil and Sidlaw Hills, the Inglis
  being limited to a very narrow strip along the coast. Dr J.A.H. Murray
  traced the linguistic frontier in 1869-1870 with the following
  results. The line started about 3 m. west of the town of Nairn on the
  Moray Firth and ran in a south-east direction to the Dee, 4 m. above
  Ballater. On the other side of the Dee it began 4 m. above Balmoral
  and followed the boundary of Perth and Forfar as far as Glen Shee,
  where it went off to the south-west as far as Dunkeld. After passing
  Birnam Hill it turned due west until the upper part of Glen Almond was
  reached, where it bent to the southward, passing through Comrie and
  along the braes of Doune to the Teith, 3 or 4 m. below Callander.
  Thence it ran along the north shore of Lake Monteith to Gartmore, and
  from there to Rowardennan on the east side of Loch Lomond. On the west
  side it passed through Glen Douglas down Loch Long and the Firth of
  Clyde, leaving Bute and Arran to the west. At the present day this
  boundary has probably receded to the extent of several miles, and even
  in 1870 there were districts such as Bute and the region round Dunoon
  where Gaelic was only spoken by the oldest natives and the immigrant
  population. The language is not found in the north-east of Caithness,
  the boundary running, according to Murray, roughly from a little
  north-east of Lybster to the mouth of the Forss. Celtic was driven out
  of Shetland and Orkney by Scandinavian some time during the middle
  ages. (See further J.A.H. Murray, _The Dialect of the Southern
  Counties of Scotland_, London, 1875; _Revue celtique_, vol. ii. pp.
  180-187.)

  Until the 18th century Gaelic was spoken in Galloway and on the
  uplands of Ayr and Lanark. The following figures from the census
  returns illustrate the decrease in the number of persons who speak
  Gaelic:--

            Monolinguists.       Bilinguists.

    1881       No return           231,594
                               (this includes
                             Gaelic monolinguists)
    1891       43,738              210,677
    1901       28,106              202,700

  In the last-mentioned year it appears that nearly one-half of the
  speakers of Gaelic are reported from the counties of Inverness and
  Ross (23,893 monolinguists and 82,573 bilinguists). From about 1300 we
  find Scottish emigrants filtering into the glens of Antrim, where the
  Gaelic that is spoken is still unmistakably Scottish. There have long
  been local societies of Highlanders for the cultivation of their
  native tongue, the most important one being _An Comunn Gaidhealach_
  (founded 1891). This society holds an annual gathering called the
  _Mod_ (=Eng. "moot") on the lines of the Welsh Eisteddfod, and
  recently the Scottish Education Department has countenanced the
  teaching of Gaelic in Highland schools. But the political element
  plays little or no part in the language movement in Scotland, and the
  latter is not likely to assume the proportions of the Gaelic League in
  Ireland. As a rule, however, Highlanders are better able to read their
  own language than Irish Gaels, for, the majority being Protestants,
  they are encouraged to read their Bibles. There are only two
  periodicals which devote half their space to Gaelic. The one is _An
  Deo-Greine_ ("the sunbeam"), founded October 1905; and the other is
  the Catholic propagandist quarterly _Guth na Bliadhna_ ("the voice of
  the year"), started in 1904. Up to 1905 a fortnightly newspaper
  printed wholly in Gaelic appeared in Prince Edward Island, under the
  title of _An Mac-talla_ ("the echo"), and efforts have been made to
  revive it. A weekly newspaper wholly in Gaelic was started in 1908 by
  R. Stuart Erskine under the title of _Alba_.

  AUTHORITIES ON SCOTTISH GAELIC.--The first grammar of Scottish Gaelic
  was compiled by W. Shaw (_An Analysis of the Galic Language_, 1778).
  The most useful one was that published by Alexander Stewart, _Elements
  of Gaelic Grammar_ (Edinburgh, 1801). A revised edition of this work
  with many additions and corrections was published by H.C. Gillies,
  London, 1902. This book is rather spoilt by the author's attitude, and
  requires to be supplemented and corrected. G. Henderson and C.W.
  Robertson have published important papers on the modern dialects in
  the _Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_, the _Celtic Review_ and
  the _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_. The most useful
  work on Gaelic philology is Alexander Macbain's _Etymological Gaelic
  Dictionary_ (Inverness, 1896) (a later edition by W.J. Watson). The
  chief dictionaries are _Dictionarium Scoto-Celticum_, published by the
  Highland Society of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1828); R.A. Armstrong,
  _Gaelic Dictionary_ in two parts (London, 1825); N. McAlpine,
  _Pronouncing Gaelic Dictionary_ (Edinburgh, 1847) (this book gives the
  pronunciation of Islay); Macleod and Dewar, _Gaelic and English
  Dictionary_ (latest edition, Edinburgh, 1901); _Faclair Gaidhlig_,
  published by E. Macdonald, Herne Bay, appearing in parts since 1902.

(c) _Manx._--Our sources of information with regard to the language of
the Isle of Man are even more scanty in the early period than they are
in the case of Scotland. There are a number of references to the island
in Irish literature, but the earliest monument of the vernacular we
possess is the version of the Book of Common Prayer made by Bishop
Phillips in 1610. In this translation the traditional Irish orthography
is not followed. The spelling resembles the orthography which was
employed in Scotland by the compiler of the _Book of the Dean of
Lismore_. How far this system was used is a question which it is
difficult to decide. In Scotland the Irish orthography has prevailed in
a slightly modified form, but Manx writers adhered to a mode of spelling
which was as phonetic as any system based on English, or, probably more
correctly Anglo-Scottish, orthography could be. This fact, combined with
the rapid phonetic decay of the language, makes it extremely difficult
to discover what sound-values are to be attached to the various symbols.
At the beginning of the 18th century English was not understood by
two-thirds of the natives, and in 1764 the S.P.C.K. issued a paper
containing this statement: "The population of the Isle is 20,000, of
whom the far greater number are ignorant of English." But from this time
English gradually crept in. The last edition of the Manx Bible was
issued in 1819, and of the New Testament in 1840. The present writer's
great-grandmother refused to speak English, his grandfather (b. 1815)
preached in Manx and English, and his father (b. 1844) only spoke
English. The following figures illustrate the rapid decline of the
language:--

           Monolinguists.      Bilinguists.
  1875          190               12,340
                           (out of a population
                            of 41,084 exclusive
                            of Douglas)
  1901         None                4,419

  Manx stands in a much closer relation to Scottish Gaelic than Irish,
  and fishermen state that they could understand a good deal of what is
  said in South Argyll, though they are quite at a loss at Kinsale. Manx
  exhibits the same tendency as Scottish to use analytical and
  periphrastic forms in the verb, thus _jannoo_, "to do," is used like
  Scottish _deanamh_ with an infinitive to express the past and future.
  The present has acquired a momentary (future) signification, and the
  past participle ends in -it (Scottish -te). The negative is _cha_ as
  in Scotland and Ulster. Manx goes as far as northern Scottish in
  dropping unstressed final vowels, e.g. _chiarn_, "lord," Irish,
  _tighearna_; -yn is the favourite plural ending in substantives. The
  nasal mutation has been partly given up. Old Irish stressed e is
  frequently retained, e.g. _fer_, "man," Irish _far_ (spelt _fear_),
  and the vowels o and a are confused as in Scottish, e.g. Manx _cass_,
  "foot," Scottish _cas_, Irish _cos_. Manx is divided in itself about
  the treatment of short accented vowels before _ll, nn, m_. According
  to Rhys the south side lengthens, whilst the north side diphthongizes;
  e.g. Irish _crann_, "tree," _clann_, "offspring," S. Manx _kron_,
  _klon_, N. Manx, _kroun_, _kloun_ (written _croan_, _cloan_). In the
  matter of stress Manx is quite original, going farther even than the
  dialects of the south of Ireland. Not only does it shift the stress in
  the case of heavy derivative suffixes like -an and reduce the
  preceding vowel, e.g. Ir. _fuaran_, Sc. _fuaran_, Manx _fran_,
  "spring," but even in cases like _caghlaa_, "variety," Sc. Ir.
  _caochladh_, O. Ir. _coimmchloud_; _coraa_, "voice," Ir. _comhradh_.
  The Mid. English stress on the final is further retained in words from
  the French such as _ashoon_, "nation," _livrey_, "deliver."

  As other features peculiar to Manx we may mention the following. An
  intervocalic s or sh shows a tendency to become lisped and voiced to
  d. In monosyllables post-vocalic final m, n, are often preceded by an
  intrusive b, d respectively, thus _ben_ "woman," may be heard as
  _bedn_. Ir. a becomes more palatal and is often ae. Ir. sc becomes st,
  _sht_, e.g. Ir. _fescor_, "evening," Manx _fastyr_; Ir. _uisce_,
  "water," Manx _ushtey_.

  AUTHORITIES ON MANX.--The place and personal names of the Isle of Man
  have been collected by A.W. Moore in _Manx Names_[2] (London, 1903)
  (33% of the proper names are Scandinavian). The chief source of
  information about the spoken language is J. Rhys, _The Outlines of the
  Phonology of Manx Gaelic_ (London, 1895) (the book has unfortunately
  no index and no texts). The only serious attempt to represent spoken
  Manx graphically is the transcription of a song by J. Strachan in the
  _Zeitschr. fur celtische Philologie_, vol. i. p. 54. The native
  grammarian is J. Kelly, who in 1803 published _A Practical Grammar of
  the Ancient Gaelic or Language of the Isle of Man, usually called
  Manks_. This book was republished by W. Gill for the Manx Society in
  1859, and a facsimile reprint of this latter was made for Quaritch,
  London, 1870. A useful little book entitled, _First Lessons in Manx_
  was published by Edwin Goodwin (Dublin, 1901). There are two
  dictionaries, one by A. Cregeen, Douglas 1835, which is now being
  reprinted for _An Cheshaght Gailckagh_, a Douglas society which is
  endeavouring to encourage the use of Manx and to get it introduced
  into the schools. The other dictionary is by J. Kelly in two
  parts--(i) Manx and English, (2) English and Manx, published by the
  Manx Society in 1866. Kelly also prepared a Triglot of Manx, Irish and
  Gaelic, based upon English, which has never been published. A useful
  paper on the language appeared in the _Transactions of the London
  Philological Society_ for 1875 by H. Jenner, "The Manx Language: Its
  Grammar, Literature and Present State."     (E. C. Q.)

(ii). _Brythonic._ The term Brythonic is used to denote the Celtic
dialects of Wales, Brittany and Cornwall. Unlike the Goidels the
Brythonic peoples have no common name for their language. Forms of
Brythonic speech were doubtless current throughout England and Wales and
the Lowlands of Scotland at the time of the Saxon invasion. The S.E. of
Britain may have been extensively Romanized, and it is not impossible
that remnants of Goidelic speech may have lingered on in out-of-the-way
corners. No literary documents dating from this period have been
preserved, but some idea of the character of Brythonic may be gathered
from the numerous inscriptions which have come to light. In the middle
of the 6th century Brythonic was confined to the western half of Britain
south of the Clyde and Forth. The colonization of Britannia minor or
Armorican Brittany during the 5th and 6th centuries will be described
later. In the latter part of the 6th century the W. Saxons pushed their
conquests as far as the estuary of the Severn, and from that time the
Brythons of S.W. Britain were cut off from their kinsmen in Wales. Early
in the 7th century the Brythons of Strathclyde were similarly isolated
by the battle of Chester (613). The kingdom of Strathclyde maintained a
separate existence until the 10th century, and it is generally stated
that Brythonic speech did not die out there until the 12th century. The
question as to how far Brythonic names and words have survived in these
districts has never been properly investigated. Certain it is that
Brythonic numerals survived amongst shepherds in Cumberland, Westmorland
and N.W. Yorkshire down to the second half of the 19th century, just as
herrings are still counted in Manx by Manx fishermen otherwise quite
innocent of the language. Accordingly, from the 7th century onwards
Brythonic became gradually limited in Great Britain to three
districts--Strathclyde, Wales, and Cornwall and Devon. During the 7th
century the Brythons of Wales and Strathclyde often fought side by side
against the Angles, and it is from this period that the name by which
the Welsh call themselves is supposed to date, _Cymro_ < _*Combrox_, pl.
_Cymry_ < _*Combroges_, i.e. "fellow-countrymen" as opposed to W.
_allfro_, Gaul. _Allobroges_, "foreigners." We have no means of
determining when Celtic speech became extinct in the petty states of the
north which retained their independence longest.

The chief features which distinguish the Brythonic from the Goidelic
dialects have already been enumerated. In the course of the 6th and 7th
centuries final short vowels disappeared. In compound names the final
vowel remains in the first component until the 7th century. Short vowels
in other than initial syllables when immediately preceding the stress
(on the historical penultimate) disappear, whilst long ones are
shortened, e.g. Welsh _cardawt_ from Lat. _caritatem_. Other vowels in
unstressed position are apt to be reduced, thus o, u, give i in O.W.
(Mid. W. y). A marked characteristic of Welsh as distinguished from
Cornish and Breton is the treatment of a under the influence of a
following i. In Welsh the result is ei, in Corn. and Bret. e, e.g. Welsh
_seint_, "saints," Bret. _sent_, sing. _sant_. The mutations seem to
have started in the second half of the 6th century in the case of the
tenues.

  See J. Loth, _Les Mots latins dans les langues Brittoniques_ (Paris,
  1892); J. Loth, _Chrestomathie bretonne_ (Paris, 1890).

(a) _Welsh (Cymraeg)._--It is usual to divide the history of the Welsh
language into three periods--Old, Middle and Modern. To the oldest
period belong the collections of glosses, the earliest of which go back
to about 800. The middle period extends from 1100 to 1500.

  As a rule the medial mutation of the tenues and mediae is not denoted
  in O. Welsh. Intervocalic g is sometimes retained but generally it has
  disappeared, whilst after r and l it is still written. In the course
  of the 9th century initial w (v) becomes gu (later gw). As the O.
  Welsh documents consist almost entirely of isolated words, we know
  scarcely anything about the morphology of the language during this
  period. To the middle period belong the ancient poems from the Black
  Book of Carmarthen, but the language of these compositions is
  evidently much older than the date of the manuscript (12th century),
  as it preserves a number of very archaic features. Other important
  sources of information for this period are the O. Welsh Laws contained
  in a MS. of the 12th century. To a somewhat later date belong the
  Mabinogion (14th century MS.), and the prose versions of French
  romances published by R. Williams (15th century). In Middle Welsh the
  consonant mutations are in general denoted in writing, though not
  consistently, and from this period dates the introduction of w and y
  (O.W. u, i) to denote vowel sounds. The symbol ll to denote a
  voiceless l was already employed in Mid. W. but rh (= voiceless r), dd
  (= Eng. th in "thou") and f (= v) either do not appear or only become
  regular during the modern period In Mod. W. the orthography is
  regularized and does not differ materially from that of the late
  medieval documents. In O.W. the old stress on the final syllable (the
  historical penult) appears to have been preserved, but during the
  middle period the accent was shifted to the penult. In consequence of
  this change aw (a) in final syllables is reduced to o in Mod. W., e.g.
  Mid. W. _pechawt_ < Lat. _peccatum_, Mod. W. _pechod_.

  The comparative wealth of inflection preserved by O. Ir. has almost
  entirely disappeared in Welsh. There are only the faintest traces of
  the case forms, the dual and the neuter gender. Compared with the
  Irish nominal declension according to -o- (-jo-), -a-, -i-, -u-, -s-,
  guttural, dental and nasal stems, Welsh only distinguishes the nom.
  sing. and plur., the latter sometimes retaining an old formation. Thus
  masc. -o- stems show palatal modification, e.g. _corn_, "horn," plur.
  _cyrn_ < _*korni_; the plural ending of -u- stems, O. Gaulish _-oves_,
  gives O.W. -ou, Mid. W. -eu, Mod. W. -au, e.g. _penneu_, "heads." The
  termination _-ones_ of the -n- stems appears as -on. The infixation of
  pronominal objects between a verbal particle and the verb itself
  continues in use down to the present day as in Breton. In the third
  person sing. of the pres. ind. there are instances in the oldest Welsh
  of the peculiar alternation between orthotonic and absolute forms
  which characterize the Irish paradigms, e.g. _pereid_, "it endures,"
  but _ny phara_. The several types of conjugation represented in Irish
  have become obscured, traces remaining only in the endings of the
  third sing. of the pres. ind., the pret. ind. (Mid. W. -as, -es, -is)
  and the pret. passive (Mid. W. -at, -et, -it). The verb system of
  Welsh comprises the following tenses: indic. present (also used as
  future), imperative, imperfect, preterite (in Mid. W. forms with s
  have become prevalent as in Irish, but forms corresponding to the
  Irish preterites in t or with reduplication or unreduplicated with
  long vowel are not infrequent in the early poetry), pluperfect (a new
  formation), pres. and pret. passive. In the subj. early W.
  distinguishes pres. and past, but the latter comes to be replaced by
  the pluperfect indicative. The sign of the subj. is -h- < s, which
  reminds one of the Irish s-subj., though the formation is somewhat
  different. There are also traces of a future formation containing h
  < s. (See also under WALES.)


    History and extent.

  We have seen already that Wales began to exist as a separate entity
  roughly at the end of the 6th and beginning of the 7th centuries. In
  the second half of the 8th century the Welsh were confined in pretty
  much their present limits by Offa, king of Mercia, who constructed the
  Dyke going by his name, which has approximately remained the political
  boundary between England and Wales ever since. From this time onwards
  the bitter feeling against England which we find expressed in the
  fervid compositions of Iolo Goch and other political bards served to
  prevent any serious inroads of English on Welsh-speaking territory.
  With the advent of the Tudors, however, there came a great change.
  Henry VII. owed his throne in large measure to the support he had
  received from Wales and he prided himself on his Welsh ancestry. A
  consequence of this was that throughout the 16th century Wales
  received exceptionally favourable treatment at the hands of the
  English sovereign and parliament. In 1562 a decree was issued ordering
  a translation of the Bible to be made into Welsh. All this could
  naturally not be without effect on the attitude of the leaders of the
  people towards England. The change is already apparent in the poems of
  Lewis Glyn Cothi and others. And the striking difference in the manner
  in which the Reformation was regarded in Ireland and Wales is worthy
  of remark. During the Stuart wars the Welsh nobles fought invariably
  on the Royalist side, and there is plenty of other evidence that the
  aristocracy of Wales was becoming thoroughly anglicized both in
  sentiment and language. At the same time the practice of the Tudors
  was reversed in many particulars. Thus it became the custom to appoint
  Englishmen ignorant of the national language to the Welsh bishoprics.
  In this manner it is not a matter for surprise that a feeling of
  estrangement should grow up between the bulk of the population, who
  only knew Welsh, and the clergy and nobles, their intellectual
  leaders. The neglect of the national language is evident from the
  large number of English words which have even crept into such
  classical works as Prichard's _Canwyll y Cymry_ and Ellis Wynn's
  _Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsg_. It is stated that, of the 269 works
  published by Welshmen between 1546 and 1644, 44 were in Latin, 184 in
  English and only 41 in Welsh, and of these 37 consist of works of
  piety. Thus at the beginning of the 18th century there seemed a fair
  chance that Welsh would soon become extinct like Cornish.

  An extraordinary change was brought about by the Methodist movement in
  Wales. The preachers, in order to get hold of the masses, addressed
  them in the vernacular, and their efforts were crowned with enormous
  success. At the same time a minister of the Established Church,
  Griffith Jones, went about Wales establishing lay schools to which
  young and old might come to learn to read the Welsh Bible. Between
  1737 and 1761 3395 such schools sprang up, at which no fewer than
  158,238 persons of all ages learned to read their native language.
  After Griffith Jones's death this work was carried on by others,
  notably by Charles of Bala (1755-1814), who passed over to Calvinistic
  Methodism and whose schools were transformed after the model of the
  Sunday schools instituted in 1782 by Robert Raikes. Charles of Bala
  was largely instrumental in the founding of the British and Foreign
  Bible Society, and Wales was provided with 100,000 copies of the Bible
  and Testament at very moderate prices. Bishop's Morgan's version of
  the Scriptures made in 1588 (final revision 1620) represents the
  speech of North Wales which had remained more or less free from
  English influence, so that the language of the Welsh Bible is rightly
  regarded as the literary model. Three-fourths of the inhabitants of
  Wales belong to the various Nonconformist sects, and therefore pass
  almost without exception through the Sunday school, where they are
  drilled in its sole object of study, the Welsh Bible.

  With the increasing employment of Welsh owing to the Nonconformist
  movement there was also awakened a new interest in the past history of
  the principality. A society calling itself the _Cymdeithas y
  Cymmrodorion_ was founded in London in 1751, and during the succeeding
  half-century two periodicals exclusively in Welsh were started, the
  one, _Trysorfa y Gwybodaeth_, in 1770, the other, _Cylchgrawn
  Cymraeg_, in 1793. The year 1792 witnessed the creation of an
  important society, the _Cymdeithas y Cymreigyddion_, in London, in
  which the moving spirits were William Owen (Pughe), Owen Jones and
  Edward Williams. The results of their indefatigable search for ancient
  Welsh manuscripts were published in three volumes under the title
  _Myvyrian Archaiology_ (London, 1801-1807). Owen further published an
  edition of the greatest medieval Welsh poet Dafydd ap Gwilym, and also
  the first copious dictionary. But this was not all. In Goronwy Owen
  (1722-1769) a poet had arisen whose works could stand comparison with
  the compositions of the medieval writers, and it was owing to the
  efforts of the three men above mentioned that the national Eisteddfod
  (=session, from _eistedd_, "to sit") was revived. The origin of these
  literary festivals is shrouded in obscurity. It is recorded that a S.
  Welsh prince, Gruffydd ap Rhys, held a festival lasting forty days in
  1135 to commemorate a victorious campaign at which poets and minstrels
  competed for gifts and other rewards. Gruffydd's son Rhys ap Gruffydd
  is reported to have instituted a similar contest in 1176, at which the
  successful competitors received a chair whilst the others were given
  presents. It would seem that after the loss of Welsh independence a
  carefully graded order and a system of jealously guarded rules came
  into existence. Similar national festivals were held under royal
  patronage under Henry VIII. in 1523 and again under Elizabeth in 1568.
  From 1568 until 1819 no general eisteddfod for all Wales was held.
  Since 1819 the national festival has been held annually and every
  little town has its own local celebration. Hence the Nonconformist
  Sunday school, the pulpit and the eisteddfod may be regarded as the
  most potent factors in resisting the inroads of English. The whole
  question of the vitality of Welsh and what may be called the political
  and social history of the language is treated in great detail by H.
  Zimmer, "Der Pan-Keltismus in Gross-britannien und Irland," i., in
  _Preussische Jahrbucher_, vol. xcii. (1898). In elementary schools in
  Wales the use of Welsh has been permitted since 1893.

  With regard to the extent over which Welsh is spoken a detailed map is
  given in J.E. Southall's _Welsh Language Census of 1891_ (Newport,
  1895). A line drawn from the southern end of the estuary of the Dee
  about 2 m. W. of Connah's Quay to Aberthaw in Glamorgan would
  practically include all those districts where Welsh is spoken by 60%
  of the population, and considerable deductions would have to be made
  for parts of Flint, Montgomery, most of Radnor and the N. part of
  Brecon. Little is spoken in the southern half of the Gower peninsula
  or in S. Pembrokeshire. Over much of Anglesey 97-1/2% of the population
  spoke Welsh and in parts of Cardiganshire 98.3%. Of a total population
  in 1901 of 2,012,876, 929,824 were returned as speakers of Welsh, of
  whom 280,905 were monoglots. That Welsh is a very living language may
  be gathered from the following statistics. Between 1801 and 1898 no
  fewer than 8425 volumes were published in the vernacular, whilst in
  1895 there were appearing regularly 2 quarterlies, 2 bi-monthlies, 28
  religious and literary monthlies and 25 weekly papers. In 1909 the
  number was probably greater. The danger for Welsh lies rather in the
  direction of internal decay. The speech of the people is saturated
  with English words and idiom, and modern writers like Daniel Owen
  submit to the same influence instead of returning to the classical
  models of the 17th century.

  Much remains to be done as regards the classification of the modern
  Welsh dialects. It is usual to divide them into four groups--(1) Powys
  (N.E.); (2) Gwynedd (N.W.); (3) Dyfed (S.W.); (4) Gwent (S.E.). One of
  the chief points on which N. and S. diverge is the pronunciation of
  the vowels i, u, y, which in the S. all tend to become i. The
  difference between N. and S. was noticeable as early as the time of
  Giraldus Cambrensis. See M. Nettlau, _Beitrage zur cymrischen
  Grammatik_ (Leipzig, 1887), also _Rev. celt._ ix. pp. 64 ff., 113 ff.;
  T. Darlington, "Some Dialectal Boundaries in Mid-Wales," _Trans, of
  the Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion_, 1900-1901. The only scientific
  description of a living dialect is "Spoken N. Welsh," by H. Sweet,
  _Trans, of the London Phil. Soc._, 1882-1884.

  AUTHORITIES ON WELSH LANGUAGE.--For the study of older Welsh:--J.C.
  Zeuss, _Grammatica Celtica_ (Berlin[2], 1871)--an index to the O.
  Welsh glosses cited in this work was compiled by V. Tourneur, _Archiv
  f. celt. Lexikographie_, iii. 109-137; J. Strachan, _An Introduction
  to Early Welsh_, with a Reader (Manchester, 1909); J. Rhys, _Lectures
  on Welsh Philology_ (London[2], 1879). Editions of texts--_The Black
  Book of Carmarthen_, facsimile edition by J. Gwenogvryn Evans
  (Pwllheli, 1906); J. Rhys and J. Gwenogvryn Evans, _The Text of the
  Mabinogion_ (Oxford, 1887); _The Myvyrian_ _Archaiology of Wales_
  (1801-1807; reprinted Denbigh, 1870); W.F. Skene, _The Four Ancient
  Books of Wales_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868); Aneurin Owen, _Ancient
  Laws and Institutes of Wales_ (London, 1841); facsimile edition by
  A.W. Wade-Evans, _Welsh Medieval Law_ (Oxford, 1909); K. Meyer,
  _Peredur ap Efrawc_ with glossary (Leipzig, 1887); R. Williams,
  _Selections from the Hengwrt Manuscripts_ (London, 1876-1892); J.E.
  Southall, _Wales and Her Language_ (Newport, 1892). The earliest Welsh
  grammar was published as long ago as 1567 in Milan by Griffiths
  Roberts, reprinted in facsimile as supplement to the _Revue celtique_
  (Paris, 1883). An account of the language was prefixed to Owen Pughe's
  Dictionary (1803). During the 19th century many manuals of indifferent
  value saw the light of day. The most authoritative works are:--T.
  Rowland, _A Grammar of the Welsh Language_ (Wrexham, 1853^1, 1876^4),
  (still the most complete work), the same author also published a
  companion volume of _Welsh Exercises_ (Wrexham, n.d.); W. Spurrell, _A
  Grammar of the Welsh Language_ (Carmarthen^3, 1870); E. Anwyl, _A
  Welsh Grammar for Schools, (i.) Accidence, (ii.) Syntax_ (London^2,
  1898). Other useful manuals for the beginner:--T. Jones, _A Guide to
  Welsh_, pts. i. ii. new ed. (Wrexham, n.d.); S.J. Evans, _The Elements
  of Welsh Grammar_ (Newport^3, 1903). Dictionaries:--The first Welsh
  dictionary was compiled by William Salesbury (London, 1547; facsimile
  reprint, London, 1877); W. Owen Pughe, _A Dictionary of the Welsh
  Language_ (2 vols., London, 1803; reprinted Denbigh, 1870); W.
  Spurrell, _Welsh-English and English-Welsh Dictionary_ (Carmarthen^6,
  1904); a smaller one by W. Richards in 2 vols. (Wrexham, n.d.), and
  many others. A dictionary on a large scale was planned by D. Silvan
  Evans and subsidized by the government. Only A-Dd has, however,
  appeared (Carmarthen, 1893-1906), cp. J. Loth in _Archiv. f. celt.
  Lex._ vol. i. for additions and corrections. A survey of Welsh
  periodical literature is contained in T.M. Jones's _Llenyddiaeth fy
  Ngwlad_ (Treffynnon, 1893). For Welsh folklore see J. Rhys, _Celtic
  Folklore, Welsh and Manx_ (Oxford, 1901). H.H. Vaughan, _Welsh
  Proverbs_ (London, 1889), also _Rev. celt._ iii. 419 ff. See also G.
  Dottin, _Revue de synthese historique_, vi. 317 ff.; H. Zimmer and
  L.C. Stern in _Kultur der Gegenwart_, Teil 1, Abt. xi. 1.
       (E. C. Q.)

(b) _Breton_.--Breton (_Brezonek_) is the name given to the language
spoken by those Britons who fled from the south-west of England to
Armorica (see BRITTANY) in the 5th and 6th centuries of our era to avoid
being harassed by the Saxons. The first migration probably took place
about 450. The Dumnonii and Cornovii founded small states in Brittany,
or Britannia Minor, as it was termed, and were followed in the second
half of the 6th and into the 7th century by a long stream of refugees
(cf. J. Loth, _L'Emigration bretonne_, Paris, 1883; A. de la Borderie,
_Histoire de la Bretagne^2_, vol. i., 1905).

  In the earliest stages it is difficult to distinguish Breton from
  Welsh. The history of the language may be divided into Old Breton from
  the 7th to the 11th centuries, Middle Breton from the 11th to the 17th
  centuries, and Modern Breton. In Old Breton the only material we
  possess consists of glosses and names occurring in lives of saints,
  Frankish authors, and charters. However, we find a few characteristics
  which serve to show that the old glosses are really Breton and not
  Welsh. Thus, an original a never becomes a diphthong (au, aw) in Old
  Breton, but remains o. In Bret, gn becomes gr. Further, in O.W.
  pretonic u is weakened to an indeterminate sound written i and later
  y, a phenomenon which does not occur in Breton, e.g. Lat. _culcita_
  appears in O.W. as _cilcet_, but in O. Br. as _colcet_. A marked
  characteristic of Breton is the confusion of i and e, e.g. Ir. _lis_,
  "court," W. _llys_, Br. _les_. In Old Breton as in Old Welsh neither
  the initial nor the medial mutations are expressed in writing, whilst
  in Middle Breton only the latter are regularly denoted. In this period
  the language diverges very rapidly from Welsh. As prominent features
  we may mention the following. Stressed o (=Prim. Celt. and Ir. a)
  becomes eu, in unstressed syllables e; thus the suffix _-aco_ becomes
  _-euc_ and later -ec, but in Welsh _-auc_ and later -oc, -og.
  Postvocalic -tr, -tl become -dr, -dl as in Welsh, but in Middle Breton
  they pass into -zr, -zl, which in the modern language appear as _-er,
  -el; e.g._ Mid. Br. _lazr_, Mod. Br. _laer_, "robber," W. _lleidr_,
  Lat. _latro_. Further, -lt becomes -ot, -ut, e.g. Br. _aot_, _aout_,
  "cliff," W. _allt_; Br. _autrou_, "lord," Ir. _altram_, W. _alltraw_,
  _athraw_, Corn. _altrou_; and, more important still, th, [+a] (W. dd)
  become s, z, e.g. Mid. Br. _clezeff_, "sword," Mod. Br. _kleze_, W.
  _cleddyf_. The orthography only followed the pronunciation very
  slowly, and it is not until 1659 that we find any attempt made to
  reform the spelling. In this year a Jesuit priest, Julien Maunoir (Br.
  Maner), published a manual in which a new spelling is employed, and it
  is usual to date Modern Breton from the appearance of this book,
  although in reality it marks no new epoch in the history of the
  language. It is only now that the initial mutations are consistently
  denoted in writing (medially they are already written in the 11th
  century), and the differences between the dialects first come into
  view at this time. As in Welsh the accent is withdrawn during the
  middle period from the final to the penultimate (except in the Vannes
  dialect), which causes the modern unstressed vowel to be reduced in
  many cases. Again, in Old Welsh and Old Breton a short stressed vowel
  in words of one syllable was lengthened, e.g. _tad_, "father," pl.
  _tadau_, but in Modern Breton the accent tends to lengthen all
  stressed vowels. Breton has gone its own way in the matter of initial
  mutation. The nasal mutation has been entirely given up in the initial
  position, whilst a new mutation, called medial provection, has arisen
  in the case of b, d, g, which become p, k, t after a few words which
  originally ended for the most part in z or ch. The vocalic mutation of
  initial g in Breton is _c'h_. We may also make mention of one or two
  other points on which Breton differs widely from Welsh. Breton has
  given up the combination ng, e.g. Mid. Br. _moe_, Mod. Br. _moue_,
  "mane," W. _mwng_, Ir. _mong_. The language betrays a fondness for
  nasalized vowels, and in this connexion it may be noted that v
  representing an original m (W. f, Ir. mh), though generally written ff
  in Middle Breton, now frequently appears as nv; Mid. Br. _claff_, Mod.
  Br. _klanv_, "sick, ill," W. _claf_, M. Ir. _clam_. Final g after r
  and l and sometimes in monosyllables after a vowel is represented in
  Breton by _c'h_, whilst in Welsh in the one case we find a vowel and
  in the other nil, e.g. Br. _erc'h_, "snow," W. _eiry_, _eira_; Br.
  _lec'h_, "place," W. _lle_. In Welsh mb, nd immediately preceding the
  stress appear in the modern language as mm, nn but in Breton we find
  mp, nl, e.g. Br. _kantol_, "candle," W. _cannwyll_, Lat. _candela_;
  Br. _kemper_, "confluence" (in place names), W. _cymmer_, Ir.
  _combor_.

  With regard to the extent of country over which Breton is spoken we
  shall do well to note the seats of the old Breton bishoprics. These
  were Quimper, St Pol de Leon, Treguier, St Brieuc, St Malo, Dol and
  Vannes. Under Count Nominoe the Bretons succeeded in throwing off the
  Frankish yoke (841-845) and founded an independent state. At this time
  of greatest political expansion the language boundary was formed by a
  line which started roughly a little to the west of Mont St Michel at
  the mouth of the Couesnon, and stretched to the mouth of the Loire.
  During the next three centuries, however, in consequence of political
  events which cannot be enumerated here, we find French encroaching
  rapidly on Breton, and the old dioceses of Dol, St Malo, St Brieuc,
  and in part Vannes became Romance-speaking (cp. J. Loth, _Revue
  celtique_, xxviii. 374-403). So that since the 13th and 14th centuries
  the boundary between French and Breton begins in the north about
  Plouha (west of St Brieuc Bay), and stretches to the mouth of the
  Vilaine in the south. That is to say, the Breton speakers are confined
  to the department of Finistere and the west of the departments
  Cotes-du-Nord and Morbihan. Lower Brittany contains a population of
  1,360,000, of whom roughly 1,250,000 speak Breton. The number of
  monoglot Bretons is stated to have been 768,000 in 1878, 679,000 in
  1885, and over 500,000 in 1898. There is an infinity of dialects and
  subdialects in Brittany, but it is usual to divide them into four
  groups. These are the dialects of (1) Leon in Finistere; (2)
  Cornouailles in Finistere, the Cotes-du-Nord and a part of Morbihan;
  (3) Treguier in the Cotes-du-Nord and Finistere; (4) Vannes in
  Morbihan and a portion of the Cotes-du-Nord. The first three resemble
  one another fairly closely, but the speech of Vannes has gone its own
  way entirely. The dialect of Leon is regarded as the literary dialect,
  thanks to Legonidec.

  The modern language is unfortunately saturated with words borrowed
  from French which form at least a quarter of the whole vocabulary. The
  living speech is further characterized by innumerable cases of
  consonantal metathesis and by parasitic nasalization. Loth gives
  specimens of the most important varieties of Breton in his
  _Chrestomathie bretonne_, pp. 363-380, but here we must confine
  ourselves to pointing out the two most salient differences between the
  speech of Vannes and the rest of Brittany. In Vannes the stress has
  not been shifted from the final syllable. In Haute-Cornouailles and
  Goelo there is a tendency to withdraw the stress on to the
  antepenultimate, whilst in Treguier certain enclitics attract the
  accent to the final. s, z of the other dialects representing Welsh th
  become h in Vannes, e.g. W. _caeth_, Br. _keaz, kez_, "poor,
  miserable," Vannes _keah, keh_. This phenomenon occurs sporadically in
  other dialects. It may also be mentioned that Prim. Celt, non-initial
  d, W. dd, is retained as z in Leon but disappears when final or
  standing between vowels in the other dialects, e.g. O. Br. _fid_, W.
  _ffydd_, "faith," Leon _feiz_, in Cornouailles, Treguier and Vannes,
  _fe_. It is doubtful if the most serious differences between the
  dialects are older than the 16th century.

  In the middle ages the language of the Breton aristocracy was French.
  Upper Brittany was politically more important than the western
  portion. The consequence was that no patronage was extended to the
  vernacular, and Breton sank to the level of a patois with no unity for
  literary purposes. But a new era dawned with the beginning of the 19th
  century. The national consciousness was awakened at the time of the
  Revolution, when the Bretons became aware of the difference between
  themselves and their French neighbours. It may be mentioned by the way
  that the Breton language was regarded with suspicion by the leaders of
  the First Republic and attempts were made to suppress it. A Breton
  named Legonidec had to flee to England for fighting against the
  Republic. He came under the influence of the movement in Wales, and on
  his return sought to create a Breton literary language. He published
  an excellent grammar (_Grammaire celto-bretonne_, Paris, 1807) and a
  dictionary (_Dictionnaire breton-francais_, Paris, 1821), from which
  he omitted the numerous French words which had crept into the language
  and for which native terms already existed. Legonidec's example fired
  a number of writers with zeal for their native tongue and the clergy
  became interested. Under their auspices manuals of Breton were
  published and the language was utilized in a number of schools. A
  society called the _Association Bretonne_ was founded in the year
  1844. But under the Second Empire, for reasons which are not easy to
  discover, this Breton awakening was declared to be contrary to the
  interests of the state, and all the means at the disposal of a highly
  centralized government like that of France were employed to throttle
  the movement. Down to the present day the use of Breton is strictly
  forbidden in all the state schools, and the influence of the Roman
  Catholic clergy has for the most part been hostile to the language.
  However, the attitude of the government aroused considerable
  dissatisfaction in the early 'nineties, and in 1896 the _Association
  Bretonne_ (disbanded in 1859 and reconstructed in 1873) appointed a
  permanent committee with the object of preserving and propagating the
  national language. At the same time some of the clergy headed by Abbe
  Buleon began to move, and Breton was introduced into many of the
  schools not under state control. In 1898 was founded the _Union
  Regionaliste Bretonne_, the most important section of which endeavours
  to foster the native speech in conjunction with the _Comite de
  preservation du breton_ (founded 1896). In 1899 the annual meeting of
  the U.R.B. was modelled on the lines of the Irish Oireachtas, the
  Welsh Eisteddfod and the Scottish Mod, and festivals of this kind have
  been held ever since. Many Breton newspapers publish columns in
  Breton, thus _Ar Bobl_ (a weekly newspaper founded in 1904 and
  published at Carhaix) frequently devotes half its columns to the
  language. But there is also a weekly four-page newspaper which is
  wholly in Breton. This is _Kroaz ar Vretoned_, edited by F. Vallee and
  published at St Brieuc. In addition to this there are three monthly
  magazines wholly in Breton. The first is _Ar Vro_, edited by the poet
  Jaffrennou, and in 1908 in its fifth year. The second is _Dihunamb_,
  written in the dialect of Vannes and started in 1905. The third is
  _Feiz ha Breiz_, started 1899.

  AUTHORITIES FOR BRETON.--For the external history of Breton see H.
  Zimmer, "Die keltische Bewegung in der Bretagne," _Preussische
  Jahrbucher_ for 1899, xcix. 454-497. For Old and Middle Breton, J.
  Loth, _Chrestomathie bretonne_ (Paris, 1890), and the same writer's
  _Vocabulaire vieux-breton_ (Paris, 1884). Loth and E. Ernault have
  been indefatigable in investigating the history of the language. Their
  numerous contributions are mainly to be found scattered through the
  _Revue celtique, Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_ and the
  _Annales de Bretagne_. Ernault has also published _Glossaire
  moyen-breton_ in 2 vols. (Paris, 1895-1896); _Dictionnaire
  etymologique du moyen-breton_ (Paris, 1888). Another etymological
  dictionary was published by V. Henry (Paris, 1900). Grammars,
  &c.:--Dialect of Leon: Legonidec, _Grammaire celto-bretonne_ (Paris,
  1807, 1838[2], also contained in H. de la Villemarque's edition of
  Legonidec's Dictionary); F. Vallee, _Lecons elementaires de grammaire
  bretonne_ (St Brieuc, 1902); E. Ernault, _Petite Grammaire bretonne_
  (St Brieuc, 1897, the latter also takes account of the dialects of
  Treguier and Cornouailles). Dialect of Treguier: L. le Clerc,
  _Grammaire bretonne_ (St Brieuc, 1908); J. Hingant, _Elements de la
  grammaire bretonne_ (Treguier, 1868); P. le Roux, "Mutations et
  assimilations de consonnes dans le dialecte armoricain de Pleubian,"
  _Annales de Bretagne_, xii. 3-31. Dialect of Vannes: A. Guillevic and
  P. le Goff, _Grammaire bretonne du dialecte de Vannes_ (Vannes, 1902);
  _Exercises sur la grammaire bretonne_ (Vannes, 1903); H. d'Arbois de
  Jubainville, "Etude phonetique sur le dialecte breton de Vannes,"
  _Revue celtique_, i. 85 ff. 211 ff.; E. Ernault, "Le Dialecte
  vannetais de Sarzeau," _Rev. celt._ iii. 47 ff., 232 ff.; J. Guillome,
  _Grammaire francaise-bretonne_ (Vannes, 1836). As a curiosity we
  mention P. Treasure, _An Introduction to Breton Grammar_ (Carmarthen,
  1903). Dictionaries: Legonidec, _Dictionnaire francais-breton_ (St
  Brieuc, 1847), _Breton-Francais_ (St Brieuc, 1850), both republished
  by de la Villemarque and representing the Leon dialect; A. Troude,
  _Nouveau Dictionnaire pratique francais et breton du dialecte de Leon
  avec les acceptations diverses dans les dialectes de Vannes, de
  Treguier, et de Cornouailles_ (Brest, 1869), and _Nouveau Dictionnaire
  pratique breton-francais_ (Brest, 1876); E. Ernault, "Supplement aux
  dictionnaires bretons-francais," _Revue celtique_, iv. 145-170. The
  Breton words in Gallo, the French patois of Upper Brittany, were
  collected by E. Ernault, _Revue celtique_, v. 218 ff.

(c) _Cornish._--The ancient language of Cornwall (_Kernuak, Carnoack_)
stood in a much closer relation to Breton than to Welsh,[1] though in
some respects it sides with the latter against the former.

  It agrees with Breton on the following points:--It has given up the
  nasal mutation of initials but provects the mediae. Prim. Celt. a is
  not diphthongized, but becomes e, e.g. Corn, _ler_, "floor," Br.
  _leur_, W. _llawr_, Ir. _lar_. _Ng_ is lost as in Breton, e.g. _toy_,
  "to swear," Br. _toui_, W. _tyngu_, Ir. _tongu_; nd becomes nt before
  the stress and not nn as in Welsh, e.g. Corn. Br. _hanter_, "half," W.
  _hanner_. Cornish like Breton does not prefix a vowel to words
  beginning with s + consonant, e.g. Corn. _spirit_, later _spyrys_, Br.
  _spered_, W. _yspryd_. On the other hand, O. Cornish does not confuse
  i and e to the same extent as Bret., e.g. W. _helyg_, "willow," O.
  Cornish _heligen_, Br. _halek_. Further, Cornish does not change th, d
  to s, z as in Breton, _e.g. beth_, "grave," Br. _bez_, W. _bedd_, and
  initial g disappears in the vocalic mutation as in Welsh. Peculiar to
  Cornish is the change of non-initial t, d to s, z. This occurs in the
  oldest Cornish after n, l, e.g. O. Corn, _nans_, "valley," W. _nant_;
  Corn. _tas_, "father," W. _tad_. A feature of later Cornish is the
  introduction of a d before post-vocalic m, n, e.g. _pedn_, "head," W.
  _pen_. In later Cornish the accent seems to have fallen on the
  penultimate as in Modern Welsh and Breton.

  In 936 the "Welsh" were driven out of Exeter by AEthelstan, and from
  that time the Tamar appears to have formed a general boundary between
  English and Cornish, though there seems to be evidence that even as
  late as the reign of Elizabeth Cornish was spoken in a few places to
  the east of that river. The decay of Cornish has been largely
  attributed to the Reformation. Neither the Prayer-book nor the
  Scriptures were translated into the vernacular, and we find the same
  apathy on the part of the Church of England in Cornwall as in Wales
  and Ireland. Unfortunately the Methodist movement came at a time when
  it was too late to save the language. By 1600 Cornish had been driven
  into the western parts of the duchy and in 1662 we are informed by
  John Ray that few of the children could speak it. Lhuyd gives a list
  of the parishes in which Cornish was spoken, but goes on to state that
  every one speaks English. In 1735 there were only a few people along
  the coast between Penzance and Land's End who understood Cornish, and
  Dolly Pentreath of Mousehole, who died in 1777, is commonly stated to
  have been the last person who spoke it, though Jenner seems to show
  that there were others who lived until well into the 19th century who
  were able to converse in the dialect. However, the modern English
  speech of West Cornwall is full of Celtic words, and nine-tenths of
  the places and people from the Tamar to Land's End bear Cornish names.
  Celtic words still in use are to be found in Jago's _Dialect of
  Cornwall_ (Truro, 1882); thus the name for the dog-fish is _morgy_,
  "sea-dog."

  AUTHORITIES FOR CORNISH.--A mass of details about Cornish is collected
  in H. Jenner's _Handbook of the Cornish Language_ (London, 1904). (Cf.
  J. Loth's review in the _Revue celtique_, xxvii. 93.) Lhuyd's
  _Archaeologica Britannica_ (1707) contains a grammar of the language
  as spoken in his day, and a _Sketch of Cornish Grammar_ is to be found
  as an appendix to Norris's _Ancient Cornish Drama_. A dictionary was
  published by R. Williams entitled _Lexicon Cornu-Britannicum_
  (Landovery, 1865), to which W. Stokes published a supplement of about
  2000 words in the _Transactions of the London Philological Society_
  for 1868-1869. We may also mention the _English-Cornish Dictionary_,
  by F.W.P. Jago (Plymouth, 1887), and a _Glossary of Cornish Names_, by
  J. Bannister (Truro, 1871). W. Stokes published a Glossary to _Beunans
  Meriasek_ in the _Archiv fur celtische Lexikographie_, i. 101, and
  important articles by J. Loth have appeared in the _Revue celtique_,
  vols. xviii. to xxiv. W.S. Lach-Szyrma, "Les Derniers Echos de la
  langue cornique," _Revue celtique_, iii. 239 ff. H. Jenner, "Some
  Rough Notes on the Present Pronunciation of Cornish Names," _Rev.
  celt._ xxiv. 300-305.

III. THE LANGUAGE OF THE ANCIENT PICTS.--The evidence from which we can
draw any conclusions as to the affinities of the language of the Picts
is so extremely scanty that the question has been the subject of great
controversy. The Picts are first mentioned by Eumenius (A.D. 297), who
regarded them as having inhabited Britain in the time of Caesar. In the
year 368 they are described by Ammianus Marcellinus as invading the
Roman province of Britain in conjunction with the Irish Scots. In
Columba's time we find the whole of Scotland east of Drumalban and north
of the Forth divided into two kingdoms--north and south Pictland--and it
is reasonable to identify the Picts, at any rate in part, with the
Caledonians of the classical authors. Galloway and Co. Down were also
inhabited by Picts. Bede in enumerating the languages of Britain
mentions those of the Britons, Picts, Scots and the English. The names
by which the Picts are known in history have aroused considerable
discussion. It seems natural to connect Lat. _Picti_ with the _Pictones_
and _Pictavi_ of Gaul, but in Irish they are known as _Cruithne_, which
appears in Welsh as _Prydyn_, "Pict"; cp. _Prydein_, "Britain," forms
corresponding to the earliest Greek name for these islands, [Greek:
nesoi Pretanikai].

Three conflicting theories have been held as to the character of the
Pictish language. Rhys, relying on the strange character of the Scottish
Ogam inscriptions, pronounces it to be non-Celtic and non-Indo-European.
In this he has been followed by Zimmer, who bases his argument on the
Pictish rule of succession. Skene maintained that the Picts spoke a
language nearly allied to Goidelic, whilst Stokes, Loth, Macbain,
D'Arbois and Meyer are of opinion that Pictish was more closely related
to Brythonic. Of personal names mentioned by classical writers we have
Calgacus and Argentocoxus, both of which are certainly Celtic. The names
occurring in Ptolemy's description of Scotland have a decidedly Celtic
character, and they seem, moreover, to bear a greater resemblance to
Brythonic than to Goidelic, witness such tribal designations as Epidii,
Cornavii, Damnonii, Decantae, Novantae. In the case of all these names,
however, it should be borne in mind that they probably reached the
writers of antiquity through Brythonic channels. Bede mentions that the
east end of the Antonine Wall terminated at a place called in Pictish
_Pean-fahel_, and in Saxon _Penneltun_. _Pean_ resembles Old Welsh
_penn_, "head," Old Irish _cenn_, and the second element may possibly be
connected with Gaelic _fal_, Welsh _gwawl_, "rampart." The names of the
kings in the Pictish chronicles are not an absolutely trustworthy guide,
as owing to the Pictish rule of succession the bearers of the names may
in many cases have been Brythons. The names of some of them occur in one
source in a Goidelic, in another in a Brythonic form. It is of course
possible that the southern part of Pictish territory was divided between
Goidels and Brythons, the population being very much mixed. On the other
hand there are a number of elements in place-names on Pictish ground
which do not occur in Wales or Ireland. Such are _pet_, _pit_, "farm"
(?), _for_, _fother_, _fetter_, _foder_, "lower" (?). _Aber_,
"confluence," on the contrary, is pure Brythonic (Gaelic _inver_).
Though the majority of scholars are of opinion that Pictish was nearly
akin to the Brythonic dialects, we are entirely in the dark as to the
manner in which that language was ousted by the Goidelic speech of the
Dalriadic Scots. In view of the comparatively unimportant part played
for a considerable period in Scottish affairs by the colony from
Ireland, it is well-nigh incredible that Pictish should have been
supplanted by Gaelic.

  AUTHORITIES.--J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (London[2], 1905), _The Welsh
  People_ (London[3], 1902), "The Language and Inscriptions of the
  Northern Picts," in _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of
  Scotland_ (1892); H. Zimmer, "Das Mutterrecht der Pikten," in
  _Savignys Zeitschrift_ (1895); also trans. by G. Henderson in _Leabhar
  nan Gleann_ (Inverness, 1898); W.F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_
  (Edinburgh, 1876); A. Macbain in appendix to reprint of Skene's
  _Highlanders of Scotland_ (Stirling, 1902); A. Macbain, "Ptolemy's
  Geography of Scotland," in _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of
  Inverness_, xviii. 267-288; W. Stokes, _Bezzenbergers Beitrage_,
  xviii. 267 ff.; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux
  celtiques a forme d'animaux_ (Paris, 1906). The various theories have
  been recently reviewed and criticized by T. Rice Holmes in an appendix
  to his _Caesar's Invasion of Britain_ (London, 1907).

IV. HISTORY OF CELTIC PHILOLOGY.--For many centuries the affinities of
the Celtic languages were the subject of great dispute. The languages
were in turn regarded as descended from Hebrew, Teutonic and Scythian.
The first attempt to treat the dialects comparatively was made by Edward
Lhuyd in his _Archaeologia Britannica_ (Oxford, 1707), but the work of
this scholar seems to have remained unnoticed. A century later Adelung
in Germany divided the dialects into true Celtic (= Goidelic) and Celtic
influenced by Teutonic (= Brythonic). But it took scholars a long time
to recognize that these languages belonged to the Indo-European family.
Thus they were excluded by Bopp in his comparative grammar, though he
did not fail to notice certain resemblances between Celtic and Sanskrit.
James Pritchard was the first to demonstrate the true relationship of
the group in his _Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations_ (London, 1831),
but his conclusions were not accepted. As late as 1836 Pott denied the
Indo-European connexion. A year later Pictet resumed Pritchard's
arguments, and Bopp himself in 1838 admitted the languages into the
charmed circle, showing in an able paper entitled _Uber die keltischen
Sprachen_ that the initial mutations were due to the influence of
terminations now lost. But it was reserved to a Bavarian historian, J.C.
Zeuss (1806-1856), to demonstrate conclusively the Indo-European origin
of the Celtic dialects. Zeuss, who may worthily rank with Grimm and Diez
among the greatest German philologists, rediscovered the Old Irish
glosses on the continent, and on them he reared the magnificent
structure which goes by his name. The _Grammatica Celtica_ was first
published in 1853. The material contained in this monumental work was
greatly extended by a series of important publications by Whitley Stokes
and Hermann Ebel, so much so that the latter was commissioned to prepare
a second edition, which appeared in 1871. Stokes has rendered the
greatest service to the cause of Celtic studies by the publication of
countless texts in Irish, Cornish and Breton. In 1870 the _Revue
celtique_ (vol. xxviii. in 1908) was founded by Henri Gaidoz, whose
mantle later fell upon H. d'Arbois de Jubainville. In 1879 E. Windisch
facilitated the study of Irish by publishing a grammar of Old Irish, and
a year later a volume of important Middle Irish texts with an exhaustive
glossary, the first of its kind. Since then Windisch and Stokes have
collaborated to bring out some of the greatest monuments of Irish
literature in the series of _Irische Texte_. The text of the Wurzburg
glosses was published by Zimmer (1881) and by Stokes (1887), and that of
the Milan glosses by Ascoli. An important step forward was the discovery
of the laws of the Irish accent made simultaneously by Zimmer and
Thurneysen. This discovery led to a thorough investigation of the
difficult verb system of Old Irish--a task which has largely occupied
the attention of Strachan in England, Thurneysen and Zimmer in Germany,
and Pedersen and Sarauw in Denmark. In a sense the publication of the
_Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus_ (Cambridge, 1901-1903) may be regarded as
marking the close of this epoch. The older stages of Irish have hitherto
so monopolized the energies of scholars that other departments of Celtic
philology save Breton have been left in large measure unworked. J.
Strachan had begun to tap the mine of the Old Welsh poems when his
career was cut short by death. J. Loth and E. Ernault have concentrated
their attention on Breton, and can claim that the development of the
speech of Brittany has been more thoroughly investigated than that of
any other Celtic language. The number of periodicals devoted entirely to
Celtic studies has increased considerably of recent years. In 1896 K.
Meyer and L. C. Stern founded the _Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_
(now in its 7th volume), and in 1897 the _Archiv fur celtische
Lexikographie_ began to appear under the direction of K. Meyer and W.
Stokes. As a supplement to the latter Meyer has been publishing his
invaluable contributions to Middle Irish lexicography. In Ireland a new
periodical styled _Eriu_ was started by the Irish School of Learning in
1904. The Scottish _Celtic Review_, dealing more particularly with
Scottish and Irish Gaelic, began to appear in 1903, and the
_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_ are in the 26th
volume. For Wales we have _Y Cymmrodor_ since 1877, and the
_Transactions of the Hon. Society of Cymmrodorion_ since 1892, and for
Brittany the _Annales de Bretagne_, published by the Faculty of Letters
at Rennes (founded 1886).

  See V. Tourneur, _Esquisse d'une histoire des etudes celtiques_
  (Liege, 1905).     (E. C. Q.)


CELTIC LITERATURE

  Ogam inscriptions.

I. IRISH LITERATURE.--In the absence of a native coinage it is extremely
difficult to say when the use of letters was introduced into Ireland. It
is probable that the Latin alphabet first came in with Christianity.
With the exception of the one bilingual Ogam inscription as yet
discovered in Ireland (that at Killeen Cormac) all the inscriptions in
Roman letters are certainly later than 500. Indeed, apart from the stone
reading "LIE LUGUAEDON MACCI MENUEH," they are all contemporary with or
later than the Old Irish glosses. With regard to the Ogam inscriptions
we cannot make any confident assertions. Owing to the lack of criteria
for dating certain Irish sound-changes accurately it is impossible to
assign chronological limits for the earlier stones. The latter cannot be
later than the 5th century, but there is nothing to show whether they
are Christian or not, and if pagan they may be a century or two earlier.
It is true that the heroes and druids of the older epics are represented
in the stories as making constant use of Ogam letters on wood and stone,
and as the state of civilization described in the oldest versions of the
Ulster sagas seems largely to go back to the beginning of the Christian
era, it is not impossible that this peculiar system of writing had been
framed by them. The Ogam system is certainly based on the Latin and not
the Greek alphabet, and was probably invented by some person from the
south of Ireland who received his knowledge of the Roman letters from
traders from the mouth of the Loire. It may, however, be regarded as
certain that the Ogam script was never employed in early times for
literary purposes. We are told that the Gaulish druids disdained to
commit their lore to writing, although they were familiar with the use
of Greek letters, and their Irish confreres probably resembled them in
this respect. Tradition connects the codification of the Brehon Laws
with the name of Patrick, and there is reason for believing, as we shall
see later, that the greatest Irish epic was first committed to writing
in the 7th century.


  Old Irish MSS.

  Hymns.

The great bulk of Irish literature is contained in MSS. belonging to the
Middle Irish period (1100-1550), and in order to be able to treat this
literature as a whole it will be convenient for us to deal first with
those documents which are termed Old Irish, especially as the
contemporary remains of the literature of the earlier period are almost
exclusively of a religious nature. Most of the Old Irish documents have
been printed by Stokes and Strachan in the _Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus_,
and where no reference is given the reader is referred to that
monumental work. The extraordinary outburst of intellectual activity in
Ireland from the 6th to the 9th centuries and the compositions of
Irishmen in the Latin language, belong to the history of medieval
European literature and fall outside the scope of this article. For the
_Confession of St Patrick_ and his "Letter to the Subjects of Coroticus"
see PATRICK. The only Irish document ascribed to the saint is the
strange so-called "Hymn," the _faeth fiada_, more properly _foid fiada_,
"the cry of the deer." This is a rhythmical incantation which is said to
have rendered the saint and his companions invisible to King Loigaire
and his druids. The Trinity and powers of nature are invoked to help him
to resist spells of women and smiths and wizards. The hymn, which
contains a number of strange grammatical forms, is undoubtedly referred
to in the Book of Armagh, and may very well go back to the 5th century.
The Latin hymns contained in two MSS. dating from the end of the 11th or
beginning of the 12th century, a Trinity College, Dublin, MS., and a MS.
belonging to the Franciscan monastery in Dublin, are of interest to us
as exhibiting the influence of the native metrical system. Quantity and
elision are ignored, and rhymes, assonances, alliterations and harmonies
abound in true Irish fashion. The line consists of two units which
commonly contain either seven or eight syllables apiece. The earliest
and best-known of these religious poems are the Hymn of Secundinus
(Sechnall d. 447) on St Patrick, and the two hymns attributed to St
Columba (d. 597) beginning "_Noli pater_" and "_Altus prosator_," the
latter of which exhibits some of the peculiarities of the so-called
Hibernian Latin of the _Hisperica Famina_ and the _Lorica_ of Gildas.
The date of the Irish hymns in the _Liber Hymnorum_ ranges, according to
Stokes and Strachan, from the 7th to the 11th centuries. Ultan's hymn on
St Brigit beginning "_Brigit be bithmaith_," which is by far the most
artistic of the collection, was perhaps composed in the 7th century.
Definite metrical laws had evidently been elaborated when this poem was
written. The beat is iambic, but the natural accent of the words is
rigidly observed. The long line consists of two units of five syllables
each. The rhymes are dissyllabic and perfect. Alliteration is always
observed in the latter half of each line and assonances are found
knitting up the half-lines. The short prayer ascribed to Ninine or to
Fiacc is a highly alliterative piece without rhyme, the date of which
cannot be fixed. The well-known hymn on St Patrick traditionally
ascribed to Fiacc, bishop of Sletty, and the piece beginning "_Sen De_,"
traditionally ascribed to Colman, are assigned on linguistic grounds to
the beginning of the 9th century. The lines going by the name of
"Sanctan's Hymn" probably belong to the same century, whilst the
metrical catalogue of marvels performed by St Brigit contains such a
medley of older and later forms, probably due to interpolation, that it
is impossible to determine its age. The few lines entitled "Mael-Isu's
Hymn" are the most recent of all and probably belong to the 11th century
(Mael-Isu d. 1086). The Patrician documents by Muirchu Maccu Machtheni,
who professed to write at the command of Bishop Aed of Sletty (d. 698),
and by Tirechan, who is said to have received his information from
Bishop Ultan (d. 656), are contained in the Book of Armagh, a MS.
compiled by Ferdomnach in 807. These documents, like the _Life of St
Columba_ by Adamnan, the MS. of which was written by Dorbbene, abbot of
Hi (d. 713), contain a number of names and forms of great importance for
the study of the language.


  Earliest prose.

The earliest pieces of connected prose in Irish are three:--(1) the
Cambray Homily, contained in an 8th-century codex at Cambray copied by a
continental hand from a MS. in the Irish character; the language is very
archaic and dates from the second half of the 7th or the beginning of
the 8th century; (2) the additions to the notes of Tirechan on the life
of St Patrick in the Book of Armagh; these seem to go back to the early
8th century; (3) the tract on the Mass in the Stowe Missal, which is in
all probability nearly as old as the Cambray Homily, though contained in
a 10th or 11th century MS. Of especial interest are the spells and poems
found in the Stowe Missal and two continental MSS. The Stowe MS. (now
deposited in the Royal Irish Academy) contains three rather badly
preserved spells for a sore eye, a thorn and disease of the urine. A St
Gall codex has preserved four Irish incantations of the 8th and 9th
centuries. These are respectively against a thorn, urinary disease,
headache and various ailments. Another charm, which is partly obscure,
occurs in the 9th-century codex preserved at the monastery of St Paul in
Carinthia. The same MS. also contains (1) a humorous poem treating of
the doings of a bookish writer and his favourite cat Pangur Ban; (2) a
riddling poem ascribed to Suibne Geilt, a king who is said to have lost
his reason at the battle of Moira (A.D. 637); (3) verses extracted from
a poem ascribed to St Moling (d. 697), who may very well have been the
actual author; (4) a poem in praise of some Leinster princeling called
Aed.


  Old glosses.

For our knowledge of the older language, however, we have to rely mainly
on the numerous glosses scattered about in a large number of MSS., which
it is impossible to enumerate here. Indeed, such an enumeration is now
rendered superfluous owing to the publication of the _Thesaurus
Palaeohibernicus_, in which all the various glosses have been collected.
For our purpose it will be sufficient to mention the three most
important codices containing Old Irish glosses. These are as
follows:--(1) The Codex Paulinus at Wurzburg, which contains the
thirteen epistles of St Paul, and the Epistle to the Hebrews, with a
great mass of explanatory glosses, partly in Latin, partly in Irish,
partly mixed. The chief source of the commentary is the commentary of
Pelagius, who is often cited by name. The date of this highly important
MS. is much disputed; part of the Irish glosses seem to date from about
700, whilst the rest may be placed a little before 800. (2) The Codex
Ambrosianus, formerly at Bobbio, now at Milan, which contains a
commentary on the psalter with a large number of Irish glosses. In their
present state these glosses were copied in the first half of the 9th
century. (3) Glosses on Priscian contained in four MSS., of which the
most important is the Codex Sangallensis, dating from the middle of the
9th century. Apart from the biblical glosses and scholia the other chief
texts or authors provided with Irish glosses are Augustine, Bede, the
Canons, the Computus, Eutychius, Juvencus, Philargyrius, Prudentius and
Servius.

The Milan and the St Gall codices just mentioned both contain several
short poems in Irish. In two stanzas in the Swiss MS. we find expressed
for the first time that keen sympathy with nature in all her moods which
is so marked a feature of Irish and Welsh verse.

Two ponderous religious poems have now to be noticed. To Oengus the
Culdee is attributed the lengthy _Felire_ or Calendar of Church
Festivals, consisting of 365 quatrains in _rinnard_ metre, one for each
day in the year. The language of this dry compilation, which is heavily
glossed and annotated, points to 800 as the date of composition, and
Oengus, who is stated to have lived about that time, may well have been
the author. This calendar has been twice edited by W. Stokes with an
English translation, the first time for the Royal Irish Academy (Dublin,
1880), and again for the Bradshaw Society (London, 1905).

It may perhaps be as well to enumerate here the later Irish
martyrologies. (1) The _Martyrology of Tallaght_ (Tamlacht), founded on
an 8th-century calendar, but containing additions down to 900 (ed. D.H.
Kelly, Dublin, 1857). (2) The metrical _Martyrology of O'Gorman_, c.
1166-1174, edited by Stokes for the Bradshaw Society (London, 1895). (3)
The _Martyrology of Donegal_, an important compilation in prose made by
Michael O'Clery in 1630, edited by J.H. Todd (Dublin, 1864). A
composition which is wrongly assigned to Oengus the Culdee is the
_Saltair na Rann_ or Psalter in Quatrains, contained in an Oxford MS.
(Rawlinson B 502) and published without a translation by Stokes (Oxford,
1883). The work proper consists of 150 poems corresponding to the number
of Psalms in the psalter, but 12 poems have been added, and in all it
contains 2098 quatrains, chiefly in _deibide_ metre of seven syllables.
The poems are mainly based on biblical (Old Testament) history, but they
preserve a large measure of medieval sacred lore and cosmogony. The
psalter received additions as late as 998, and the Oxford MS. belongs to
the 12th century. We should perhaps also mention here the famous _Amra_
or Eulogy of St Columba, commonly attributed to Dallan Forgaill, a
contemporary of the saint, but Stokes takes the view that it was written
in the 9th century, and is intentionally obscure. The oldest but not the
best copy of the _Amra_ is preserved in the Trinity College, Dublin, MS.
of the _Liber Hymnorum_, but it also occurs in LU. and elsewhere. It
invariably appears heavily gloss-laden, and the glosses and commentary
added thereto are out of all proportion to the text. This piece, which
is not extant in its integrity, was probably intended as artificial
alliterative prose, but, as we have it, it is a medley of isolated
phrases and irrelevant comment.


  Old collectors.

  Book of the Dun Cow.

  Book of Leinster.

  Yellow Book of Lecan.

  Book of Ballymote.

  Speckled Book.

During the 9th and 10th centuries Ireland was harassed by the Vikings,
and a host of scholars seem to have fled to the continent, carrying with
them their precious books, many of which are preserved in Italy,
Switzerland, Germany and elsewhere. Hence very few early Irish MSS. are
preserved in Ireland itself. When the fury of the storm was past, Irish
scholars showed increased interest in the old literary documents, and
copied all that they could lay hands on into miscellaneous codices. The
earliest of these collections, such as the _Cin of Druim Snechta_, the
_Yellow Book of Slane_, the _Book of Dubdaleithe_, the _Psalter of
Cashel_, exist no longer, though their names have come down and certain
of them were known in the 17th century. However, copies of a goodly
portion of the contents of these old books are preserved to us in one
form or another, but mainly in a series of huge miscellaneous codices
ranging in date from the 12th to the 16th century. The oldest is _Lebor
na h-uidre_, or Book of the Dun Cow, preserved in the Royal Irish
Academy and published in facsimile (Dublin, 1870). This MS. was compiled
in part in the monastery of Clonmacnoise by Moelmuire MacCelechair, who
was slain in 1106. The Book of the Dun Cow (where necessary we shall
abbreviate as LU.) derives its name from a legend that Ciaran of
Clonmacnoise (d. 544) took down the story of the _Tain Bo Cualnge_ on a
parchment made from the hide of his favourite cow. The name seems to
have been wrongly applied to the 12th-century MS. in the 15th century.
LU. is almost entirely devoted to romance, the stories which it contains
belonging mainly to the Ulster cycle. The next MS. in point of age is
the Book of Leinster (abbreviated LL.) now in Trinity College, Dublin.
It was transcribed by Finn, son of Gorman, bishop of Kildare (d. 1160).
LL. also contains a large number of romances in addition to other
important matter, mainly historical and genealogical, bearing more
particularly on the affairs of Leinster. The Yellow Book of Lecan
(YBL.), also in Trinity College, Dublin, was written at different times
by the MacFirbis family, but chiefly by Gilla Isa, son of Donnchad Mor
MacFirbis about 1391. The MacFirbises were hereditary scribes and
genealogists to the O'Dowds, chiefs of the Hy Fiachrach (Co. Sligo).
YBL. contains a vast amount of romance, and is indispensable as
supplementing and checking the contents of LU. and LL. The most
extensive collection of all is the Book of Ballymote (BB.), now
belonging to the Royal Irish Academy, which was compiled about the
beginning of the 15th century by various scribes. The book was in the
possession of the chiefs of Ballymote for more than a century. In 1522
it was purchased by the O'Donnells for 140 milch cows. BB. only contains
little romantic matter, but it has preserved much valuable historical
and genealogical material. The contents of the _Leabhar Breac_ (LB.), or
Speckled Book, now in the Royal Irish Academy, are chiefly
ecclesiastical and religious. LB. seems to have been compiled in large
measure before 1544. All these five codices have been published in
facsimile by the Royal Irish Academy with a description of their
contents. Two important Mid. Ir. MSS. in the Bodleian (Rawlinson B 512
and Laud 610), containing a good deal of romantic material, are also
published in facsimile by Henry Frowde.


  Other MSS. material.

Other MSS. which require special mention are (1) The Great Book of
Lecan, compiled in the year 1417 by Gilla Isa Mor MacFirbis, in the
Royal Irish Academy; (2) The Book of Lismore, the property of the duke
of Devonshire at Lismore Castle. This codex was compiled in the latter
half of the 15th century from the lost book of Monasterboice and other
MSS. Its contents are described in the introduction to Stokes's _Lives
of Saints from the Book of Lismore_ (Oxford, 1890). (3) The Book of
Fermoy in the Royal Irish Academy. The contents are described in the
introduction to O'Beirne Crowe's edition of the _Tain Bo Fraich_
(Dublin, 1870). (4) The Book of Hy Maine recently acquired by the Royal
Irish Academy. The scribe who wrote it died in 1372. O'Curry, O'Longan
and O'Beirne Crowe drew up a MS. catalogue of the Irish MSS. in the
Royal Irish Academy, and O'Donovan performed the same service for the
Trinity College, Dublin, collection. A briefer account of the Irish MSS.
in TCD. will be found in Abbott's Catalogue of the MSS. in that library.
O'Curry also drew up a list of the Irish MSS. in the British Museum, and
S.H. O'Grady has printed part i. of a descriptive catalogue of this
collection (London, 1901), part ii. by T. O'Maille. The twenty-six MSS.
in the Franciscan monastery in Dublin are described by J.T. Gilbert in
the _Fourth Report of the Royal Commission on Historical MSS._ W.F.
Skene catalogued the collection of MSS. in the Advocates' Library,
Edinburgh, a printed catalogue of which has been issued by D. Mackinnon
(Edinburgh, 1909; see also _Trans. Gaelic Soc. of Inverness_, xvi.
285-309).

In order to give some idea of the enormous extent of Irish MS. material
we may quote some calculations made by O'Curry, who states that if the
five oldest vellum MSS. were printed the result would be 9400 quarto
pages. Other vellum MSS. ranging in date from 1300 to 1600 would fill
9000 pages of the same size, whilst the innumerable paper MSS. belonging
chiefly to the early 18th century would cover no less than 30,000 pages.
The well-known French scholar, D'Arbois de Jubainville, published in
1883 a tentative catalogue of Irish epic literature. His work is by no
means complete, but his figures are instructive. He mentions 953 Irish
MSS. containing epic matter preserved in Irish and English libraries. To
these have to be added another 56 in continental libraries. Of this mass
of material 133 Irish and British MSS. and 35 continental MSS. were
written before 1600. It should, however, be stated that the same subject
is treated over and over again, and much of the later material is
absolutely valueless.


  Character of Middle Irish.

Before we pass on to the consideration of the literature itself, it will
be well to make a few preliminary observations on the nature of the
language in which the pieces are written and on the status of the poet
in medieval Ireland. The language in which the huge miscellaneous
codices enumerated above are contained is called by the general name of
Middle Irish, which is a very wide term. Irish scribes often copied
their original somewhat mechanically, without being tempted to change
the language to that of their own time. Thus in many parts of LU. we
find a thin Middle Irish veneer on what is largely Old Irish of the 8th
or 9th century. Hence such a MS. often preserves forms which had been
current several centuries before, and it may even happen that a 14th or
15th century MS. such as YBL. contains much older forms than a
corresponding passage in LL. Of recent years several scholars--notably
Strachan--have devoted much attention to the Old Irish verb-forms, so
that we have now safe criteria for establishing with some degree of
certainty the age of recensions of stories and poems preserved in late
MSS. In this way a number of compositions have been assigned to the 9th,
10th and 11th centuries, though actual written documents belonging to
this period are comparatively rare.


  The "fili."

It remains for us to say a few words about the _fili_, the professional
literary man in Ireland. The _fili_ (from the stem _vel-_, "to see,"
Welsh, Breton, _gwelet_, "to see") appears to have been originally a
diviner and magician, and corresponds to the _vates_, [Greek: ouateis],
of the ancient Gauls mentioned by classical writers. In Ireland he is
represented as sole possessor of three methods of divination: the _imbas
forosnai_, _teinm loida_ and _dichetal di chennaib cnaime_. The first
two of these were forbidden by Patrick, but they seem to have survived
as late as the 10th century. Part of the tremendous influence exercised
by the _fili_ was due to the belief in his powers of satire. By reciting
a satirical poem or incantation he was able to raise blotches on the
face of and so disfigure any person who aroused his displeasure.
Numerous cases of this occur in Irish literature. The origin of the
science of the _fili_ is sometimes traced back to the _Dagda_, one of
the figures of the Irish pantheon, and they were held in such esteem
that the annalists give the obituaries of the head-ollams as if they
were so many princes. With the introduction of Christianity they seem to
have gradually superseded the druid, and their functions are therefore
very wide. We are told that they acted in three capacities: (i) as
story-tellers (_fer comgne_ or _scelaige_); (2) as judges (_brithem_),
including the professions of arbiters, legislators and lawyers; (3) as
poets proper (_fercerte_). We are here only concerned with the _fili_ in
his capacity of story-teller and poet. In accordance with the minute
classification of the various ranks of society in early Ireland, the
social status of the literary man was very carefully defined. The
degrees vary slightly in different documents, but the following list of
ten from the _Senchus Mor_ is very instructive: (1) The highest degree
is the _ollam_ (ollave), who knows 350 stories; (2) the _anruth_, 175
stories; (3) the _clii_, 80 stories; (4) the _cana_, 60 stories; (5) the
_doss_, 50 stories; (6) the _macfuirmid_, 40 stories; (7) the
_fochlocon_, 30 stories; (8) the _drisac_, 20 stories; (9) the _taman_,
10 stories; (10) the _oblaire_, 7 stories. In LL. we are told that the
stories (_scel_) are divided into primary and secondary, and that the
latter are only obligatory on the first four of the grades enumerated.
Again, certain styles of composition seem to have been the monopoly of
certain grades. Thus the poem which was most highly rewarded and
demanded the highest technical skill was called the _anomain_, and was
the exclusive right of the _ollam_. A notable instance of this kind of
composition is the _Amra_ of Columba, attributed to Dallan Forgaill. The
higher grades were allowed a number of attendants, whom the kings had to
support along with the poet himself. Thus the _fochlocon_ had two and
the _doss_ four attendants. In the 6th century Dallan Forgaill, the
chief _fili_ of Ireland, claimed the right to be attended by thirty
_filid_, which was the number of the train allowed to the supreme king.
The reigning monarch, Aed MacAinmirech, weary of the pretensions of the
poets, attempted to banish them, which led to the famous assembly of
Druim Ceta, where Columba intervened and reduced the number to
twenty-four (the train of a provincial king). In the plan of the hall of
Tara, preserved in LL. and YBL., the _sui littre_ or doctor in theology
has the seat of honour opposite the king. The _ollam brithem_ or supreme
judge or lawyer ranks with the highest rank of nobility, whilst the
_ollam fili_ is on a footing with the nobleman of the second degree.

We have already stated that the stories which formed the stock-in-trade
of the poets were divided into primary and secondary stories. Of the
latter there were 100, but little is known of them. However, several
more or less complete lists of the primary stories have come down to us.
The oldest catalogue (contained in LL.) gives the titles of 187 of these
tales arranged under the following heads--destructions, cow-spoils,
courtships, battles, caves, navigations, violent deaths, expeditions,
elopements and conflagrations; together with the following, which also
reckon as prime-stories--irruptions, visions, loves, hostings and
migrations. Of these stories sixty-eight have been preserved in a more
or less complete form. The tales enumerated in these catalogues, which
in their substance doubtless go back to the 8th or even to the 7th
century, fall into four main categories: (1) the mythological cycle, (2)
the Cuchulinn cycle, (3) the Finn cycle, (4) pieces relating to events
of the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries. Meyer has estimated that of the 550
titles of epic tales in D'Arbois's _Catalogue_ about 400 are known to
us, though many of them only occur in a very fragmentary state; and
about 100 others have since been discovered which were not known in
1883.

The course of training undergone by the _fili_ was a very lengthy one.
It is commonly stated to have extended over twelve years, at the end of
which time the student was thoroughly versed in all the legendary,
legal, historical and topographical lore of his native country, in the
use of the innumerable and excessively complicated Irish metres, in Ogam
writing and Irish grammar. The instruction in the schools of poetry
seems to have been entirely oral, and the course consisted largely in
learning by heart the verses in which the native lore was enshrined.
These schools of learning existed in one form or another down to the
17th century. In the early days the _fili_ is represented as employing a
mysterious archaic form of speech--doubtless full of obscure
kennings--which was only intelligible to the initiated. An instance of
this _berla feine_, as it was termed, is the piece entitled _Acallam an
Da Shuad_ (Colloquy of the Two Sages, _Rev. celt._ xxvi. 4 ff.). In this
piece two _filid_ of the 1st century A.D. are represented as contending
in this dialect for the office of chief _ollam_ of Ireland, much to the
chagrin of King Conchobar, to whom their speeches were unintelligible.
It was in consequence of this that Conchobar ruled that the office of
_fili_ should no longer carry with it of necessity the office of judge
(_brithem_). It ought to be observed that the church never showed itself
hostile to the _filid_, as it did to the druids. Dubthach, chief _fili_
of Ireland in the time of St Patrick, is represented as the saint's
constant companion, and the famous Flann Mainistrech (d. 1056), though a
layman and _fili_, was head of the monastery school at Monasterboice.


  The bard.

Before leaving the subject of the literary classes, we must notice an
inferior grade of poet--the bard. Like the official _filid_, the bards
were divided into grades. There were both patrician and plebeian bards,
each subdivided into eight degrees, having their own peculiar metres.
Like the _fili_ the bard had to go through a long course of study, and
he was generally attached to the house of some chieftain whose praises
he had to sing. In course of time the office of _fili_ became extinct,
owing to a variety of causes, and from the 13th to the 16th century we
find the hitherto despised family bard stepping into the place of the
most influential literary man in Ireland. His importance was fully
realized by the English government, which did its best to suppress the
order.


  Medieval romances.

The medieval romances form by far the most attractive part of Irish
literature, and it is to them that we shall first turn our attention.
Two main groups of stories have to be distinguished. The one is the
Ulster cycle, with Conchobar and Cuchulinn as central figures. The other
is the Southern or Leinster-Munster cycle, revolving round Finn and
Ossian. Further stories dealing with mythological and historical
personages will be mentioned in their turn.


  Ulster cycle.

  The "Tain."

The Ulster cycle may be regarded as Ireland's most important
contribution to the world's literature. The chief and at the same time
the lengthiest romance in which the heroes of this group figure is the
great epic, the _Tain Bo Cualnge_ or the Cattle-raid of Cooley (Co.
Louth). Here we find ourselves in a world of barbaric splendour, and we
are constantly reminded of the Iliad, though the Irish epic from a
purely literary point of view cannot bear comparison with the work of
Homer. The main actors in the drama are Conchobar, king of Ulster, the
great warrior Cuchulinn (see CUCHULINN), Ailill and Medb, king and queen
of Connaught, and Fergus, Conchobar's predecessor as king of Ulster, now
in exile in Connaught. These persons may or may not have actually lived,
but the Irish annalists and synchronists agree in placing them about the
beginning of the Christian era. And there cannot be any doubt as to the
antiquity of the state of civilization disclosed in this great saga. It
has been repeatedly pointed out that the Irish heroes are equipped and
conduct themselves in the same manner as the Gauls described by the
Greek traveller Posidonius, and Prof. W. Ridgeway has shown recently
that several articles of dress and armour correspond exactly to the La
Tene types of the continent. To mention a few primitive traits among
many--the Irish champions of the _Tain_ still fight in chariots,
war-dogs are employed, whilst the heads of the slain are carried off in
triumph and slung round the necks of the horses. It may also be
mentioned that Emain Macha, Conchobar's residence, is reported by the
annalists to have been destroyed in A.D. 323, and that portions of
Meath, which is stated to have been made into a separate province in the
2nd century A.D., are in the _Tain_ regarded as forming part of Ulster.
Noteworthy is the exalted position occupied by the druid in the Ulster
sagas, showing how little the romances were influenced by Christianity.
No Roman soldier ever set foot in Ireland, and this early epic
literature is of supreme value as a monument of primitive Celtic
civilization. Ireland has always been a pastoral country. In early times
no native coins were in circulation: the land belonged to the tribe.
Consequently a man's property consisted mainly of cattle. Cattle-raids
were an event of daily occurrence, and Sir Walter Scott has made us
familiar with similar expeditions on the part of the Scottish
Highlanders in the 18th century. Hence it is not a matter for surprise
that the theme of the greatest Irish epic is a cattle-raid. At the time
there were two wonderful bulls in Ireland, the Bond or Brown Bull of
Cualnge, and the Findbennach or White-horn, belonging to Medb. These two
animals are of no ordinary nature. Other stories represent them as
having existed under many different forms before they were reborn as
bulls. First they appear as swineherds belonging to the supernatural
people of the _sid_ of fairy mounds; then they are metamorphosed
successively as ravens, warriors, sea-monsters and insects. It was Queen
Medb's ambition to gain possession of the Brown Bull of Cualnge, and for
this purpose she collected the united hosts of Ireland to raid the
province of Ulster and carry him off. Medb chooses the season when she
knows the Ulstermen are all incapacitated as the result of a curse laid
upon them by a fairy woman. Cuchulinn alone is exempt from this
debility.

The story is divided into a number of sections, and has been summarized
by Miss Hull as follows:--(1) the prologue, relating, in the form of a
night dialogue between Ailill and Medb, the dispute between them which
brought about the raid; (2) the collecting of Medb's hosts and the
preliminary movements of the army, during which period she first became
aware of the presence and powers of Cuchulinn. Her inquiry of Fergus as
to who this formidable foe is leads to a long section called (3)
Cuchulinn's boy-deeds, in which Fergus relates the remarkable prodigies
of Cuchulinn's youth, and warns Medb that, though the hero is but a
beardless youth of seventeen, he will be more than a match for all her
forces. (4) A long series of single combats, of which the first part of
the tale is made up; they are at first gay and bombastic in character,
but become more grave as they proceed, and culminate in the combat of
Cuchulinn with his old companion, Fer Diad. This section contains the
account of Cuchulinn's "distortion" or frenzy, which always occurred
before any great output of the hero's energy, and of the rout of the
hosts of Medb which followed it. (5) The general awakening of the
warriors of Ulster from their lethargy, and their gathering by septs
upon the Hill of Slane, clan by clan being described as it comes up in
order. (6) The final Battle of Gairech and Ilgairech, followed (7) by
the rout of Medb's army and (8) the tragic death of the bulls.

The text of the _Tain_ has come down to us as a whole or in part in
nearly a score of MSS., most of which, however, are modern. The most
important MSS. containing the story are LU., LL. and YBL. Of these LU.
and YBL. are substantially the same, whilst LL. contains a longer and
fuller text later in both style and language. LL. attempts to give a
complete and consistent narrative in more polished form. In ancient
times there were doubtless other versions now lost, but from the middle
of the 12th century the scribes seem to have taken few liberties with
the text, whilst previously the _filid_ were constantly transforming the
material and adding fresh matter. The YBL. version preserves a number of
forms as old as the O. Ir. glosses (i.e. 8th century or earlier), and a
curious story contained in LL. seems to point to the fact that the
_Tain_ was first committed to writing in the 7th century. Senchan
Torpeist, who lived in the first half of the 7th century and succeeded
Dallan Forgaill as chief _ollam_ of Ireland, summoned the _filid_ to
inquire which of them knew the _Tain_ in its entirety. As they were only
familiar with fragments he despatched them to discover it. One of them
seated himself at the grave of Fergus MacRoig, who appeared to him in a
mist and dictated the whole story to him in three days and three nights.

At this point it will be well to say a few words about the form of the
_Tain_. The old Irish epic is invariably in prose with poems of varying
length interspersed. The narrative and descriptive portions are in prose
and are frequently followed by a brief epitome in verse. Dialogues,
eulogies and laments also appear in metrical form. The oldest poems,
termed rhetoric, which are best represented in LU., seem to be
declamatory passages in rhythmical prose, not unlike the poetical
passages in the Old Testament, and the original _Tain_ may have
consisted of such rhetorics bound together with short connecting pieces
of prose. At a later date poems were inserted in the metres of the
_filid_ (particularly the quatrain of four heptasyllabic lines) which
Thurneysen and Windisch consider to have been developed out of medieval
Latin verse. When in course of time the old rhetorics became
unintelligible they were often omitted altogether or new poems
substituted. Thus the LL. version contains a larger number of poems than
the LU.-YBL. copy, whilst LU. preserves a number of rhetorics which do
not appear in the later MS. The prose portions in LU. are very poor from
a literary point of view. These passages are abrupt, condensed and
frequently obscure, with no striving after literary effect such as we
find in LL. The form in which many episodes are cast is not unlike a
mnemonic, leaving the story-teller to fill in the details himself. In
the 11th century certain portions of the theme possessing great human
interest were vastly extended, new poems were added, and in this manner
such episodes come to form sagas complete in themselves. The most
notable instance of this is the "Fight with Fer Diad," which is not
contained in LU. The genesis of the _Tain_ may thus be briefly
summarized as follows. The story was first committed to writing in the
7th or 8th century, after which it was worked up by the _filid_.
Extended versions existing in the 10th or 11th century form the basis of
the copies we now possess.

Though the sagas of the Ulster cycle are eminently Irish and pagan in
character and origin, it cannot be denied that traces of foreign
influence are to be observed. A number of Latin and Norse loan-words
occur in them, and there can be little doubt that the monkish scribes
consciously thrust the supernatural element into the background.
However, although figures of Vikings are unmistakable in a few cases,
and in one story Cuchulinn is made to fight with Hercules, such foreign
elements can easily be detected in the older tales. They only affect
minor details, and do not influence the body of the romances.

From what we have already said it will be plain that the Irish epic is
in a fluid state. The _Tain_ is of interest in the history of literature
as representing the preliminary stage through which the great verse
epics of other nations have had to pass, but its value as a work of art
is limited by its form. We must now say a few words about the character
and style of these romances. As already stated, the atmosphere is
frankly pagan and barbaric, with none of that courtly element which we
find in the Arthurian epics. The two features which strike one most
forcibly in the medieval Irish romances are dramatic force and humour.
The unexpected and weird is always happening, the effect of which is
considerably heightened by the grim nature of the actors. In particular
the dialogues are remarkably brilliant and clever, and it is a matter
for surprise that this gifted race never developed a drama of its own.
This is doubtless partly due to the political conditions of the island.
And, moreover, we are constantly struck by the lack of sustained effort
which prevented the _filid_ from producing great epics in verse.
Dramatic material is abundantly present in the old epics, but it has
never been utilized. As one might expect from the vernacular literature
of Ireland, these romances are pervaded by a keen sense of humour. We
feel that the story-teller is continually expecting a laugh and he
exaggerates in true Irish fashion, so that the stories are full of
extravagantly grotesque passages. In the later LL. version we notice a
tendency to linger over pathetic situations, but this is unknown in the
earlier stage. Perhaps the most serious defect of all Irish literary
products is the lack of any sense of proportion, which naturally goes
hand in hand with the love of the grotesque. Far too much attention is
paid to trivial incidents and minute descriptions, however valuable the
latter may be to the antiquarian, to the detriment of the artistic
effect. Further, the story-teller does not know when to stop. He goes
meandering on long after the main portion of the story is finished, with
the result that Irish romances are apt to end in a most uninteresting
anticlimax. Finally we are wearied with a constant repetition of the
same epithets and similes, and with turgid descriptions; even the
grotesque exaggerations pall when we find them to be stereotyped. But
the early epics do not offend our sense of propriety in expression to
the same extent as the later Finn cycle.

The _Tain Bo Cualnge_ formed a kind of nucleus round which a number of
other tales clustered. A number of these are called _remscela_ or
introductory stories to the _Tain_. Such are the "Revealing of the Tain"
(already mentioned), the "Debility of the Ultonians" (giving the story
of the curse), "The Cattle-Driving of Regamon, Dartaid and Flidais,"
"_Tain bo Regamna_," "The Cattle-Driving of Fraech," "The Dispute of the
Swineherds," telling the previous history of the Bulls, "The Capture of
the Fairy Mound," "The Dream of Mac oc," the "Adventures of Nera," the
"Wooing of Ferb." Other stories form a kind of continuation of the
_Tain_. Thus the "Battle of Rosnaree" ("_Cath Ruis na Rig_") relates how
Conchobar, as a result of the loss of the Bull, sends an army against
the kings of Leinster and Tara, and would have been routed but for the
prowess of Cuchulinn. The "Great Rout of the Plain of Murthemne" and
"Cuchulinn's Death" tell how the hero's downfall is compassed by a
monstrous brood of ill-shapen beings whose father and brothers had been
slain by him during the _Tain_. He finally meets with his end at the
hands of Lugaid, son of Curoi mac Daire (the central hero of a Munster
cycle which has not come down to us), and Erc, king of Tara. We are also
told of the terrible vengeance taken on the murderers by Conall Cernach.
Other stories deal with the "Conception of Conchobar," the "Conception
of Cuchulinn," "The Glories of Conchobar's Reign," with an account of
how he acquired the Throne from Fergus, "The Wooing of Emer and the
Hero's Education in Scotland under Scathach," "The Siege of Howth,"
"Bricriu's Feast and the Exile of the Sons of Doel Dermait," "The Battle
of the Boyne" (_Eriu_, vol. ii.), "The Deaths of Ailill, Medb and Conall
Cernach," "Destruction of Bruden Da Choca," "The Tragical Death of
Conlaech at the hands of Cuchulinn his father," "The Deaths of Goll and
Garbh," "The Sickbed of Cuchulinn," in which the hero is lured away for
a time into the invisible land by a fairy, Fand, wife of Manandan, "The
Intoxication of the Ultonians," telling of a wild raid by night across
the entire extent of the island from Dun-da-Benn near Coleraine to the
fort of Curoi MacDaire at Temair-Luachra in Kerry, "The Death of
Conchobar," "The Phantom Chariot of Cuchulinn," in which the hero is
brought up from the grave to witness before St Patrick and King Loigaire
to the truth of the Christian doctrine.

Four other stories in connexion with the Ulster cycle remain to be
mentioned. The first is "_Scel mucci Maic Datho_" ("The Story of
MacDatho's Pig"). Various writers of antiquity inform us that at the
feasts of the Gauls the champion received the best portion of meat,
which frequently led to brawls. In this savage but picturesque Irish
story we find the Ulstermen vaunting their achievements against the
Connaughtmen, until at last the contest lies between Conall Cernach and
Cet MacMagach. Nowhere, perhaps, is the dramatic element better brought
out.

Apart from the _Tain_ the greatest and at the same time the longest saga
in which Cuchulinn figures is _Fled Bricrend_ (Bricriu's Feast). Bricriu
is the mischief-maker among the Ulstermen, and he conceives the idea of
building a banqueting hall in order to invite Conchobar and his nobles
to a feast. After much hesitation they consent. Bricriu in turn incites
the three chief heroes, Cuchulinn, Conall Cernach and Loigaire Buadach,
to claim the champion's portion. He does the same thing with the spouses
of the three warriors, who declaim in obscure verse the achievements and
excellences of their several husbands in a passage entitled the "Women's
War of Words." Loosely attached to this story follows a wild series of
adventures in which the powers of the three champions are tested,
Cuchulinn always proving his superiority. In order to decide the
dispute, visits are paid to Medb at Rath Cruachan and to Curoi in Kerry,
and the story ends with the "beheading incident," which occurs in the
romance of "Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight." _Fled Bricrend_ presents
a number of textual difficulties. The text of the oldest MS. (LU.) shows
signs of contamination, and several versions of the story seem to have
been current.

But the story of the Ulster cycle which is better known than any other,
is the story of the "Tragical Death of the Sons of Usnech, or the Life
and Death of Deirdre," one of the "Three Sorrows of Story-telling." This
is the only tale of the group which has survived in the minds of the
common people down to the present day. It is foretold of Deirdre, a
girl-child of great beauty, that she will be the cause of great
misfortunes, but Conchobar, having lost his wife, determines to have her
brought up in solitude and marry her himself. However, the maiden
chances to see a noble youth named Naisi, one of the three sons of
Usnech, and persuades him to carry her off to Scotland, where they live
for many years. At length they are induced to return after several of
the most prominent Ulster warriors have gone bail for their safety. But
Conchobar resorts to treachery, and the three sons of Usnech are slain,
whilst the account of Deirdre's end varies. The oldest version of the
story is found in LL., and the characters are as rugged and
unsophisticated as those of the _Tain_. But in the later versions the
savage features are toned down.

Before passing on, we must mention several old stories which are
independent of the Ulster cycle, but which deal with events which are
represented as having taken place before the Christian era. Few of the
old romances deal directly with what we may call Irish mythology. The
"Battle of Moytura" tells of the tremendous struggle between the Tuatha
De Danann and their enemies, the Fomorian pirates. Connected with the
events of this saga is the story of the "Tragic Deaths of the Sons of
Tuirenn," which, though mentioned in Cormac's glossary, is not found in
any MS. older than the 18th century. The three sons of Tuirenn have
slain Cian, father of Lug Lamfhada, who lays upon them a huge eric-fine.
They go through terrific ordeals and accomplish their task, but return
home to die. This is the second of the "Three Sorrows of Story-telling."
An old story dealing with Tuatha De Danann personages, but having a
certain bearing on the Cuchulinn cycle, is the "Courtship of Etain,"
who, though of supernatural (_sid_) birth, is wedded to Eochaid Airem, a
mortal king. In her previous existence she was the wife of the
supernatural personage Midir of Bri-leith, who wins back Etain from her
mortal husband in a game of chess and carries her off to his fairy
mound.

For sake of completeness we may add the titles of two other well-known
stories here. The one is the "Story of Baile the Sweet-spoken," which
tells of the deaths of two lovers for grief at the false tidings of each
other's death. The other is the "Fate of the Children of Lir," the third
of the "Three Sorrows of Story-telling," which is only known in a modern
dress. It relates how the four daughters of Lir (father of the sea-god
Manandan and the original of Shakespeare's Lear) were changed into swans
by a cruel stepmother, and how, after 900 years of wandering on the
ocean, they at length regain their human form through the
instrumentality of St Mochaomhog.

A large number of sagas, which claim to be founded on historical events,
present a great similarity to the tales of the Ulster cycle. Most of
them are mentioned in the old catalogues. We can only name the more
important here. The "Destruction of Dind-Rig and Exile of Labraid
Loingsech" relates how the kingdom of Leinster was snatched by one
brother from another in the 6th century B.C., and how the son of the
murdered prince with the aid of a British force sacked Dind-Rig, the
fortress of the usurper. The story of the visit of the pigmies to the
court of Fergus MacLeite, king of Ulster in the 2nd century B.C., is
only contained in a 15th-century MS. This tale is commonly stated to
have given Swift the idea of his _Gulliver's Travels to Lilliput_.
"_Caithreim Chonghail Claringnigh_," which only occurs in a modernized
17th-century version, deals with a revolution in the province of Ulster,
supposed to have taken place before the Christian era.

The most important Old Irish saga after the _Tain_ is beyond doubt the
_Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel_, contained in LU. It deals with
events in the reign of the High-King Conaire Mor, who is said by the
annalists to have been slain in 43 B.C. after a reign of seventy years.
Conaire, who was a descendant of the Etain mentioned above, was a just
ruler, and had banished among other lawless persons his own five foster
brothers. These latter devoted themselves to piracy and made common
cause with one Ingcel, a son of the king of Britain, who had been
outlawed by his father. The high-king was returning from Co. Clare when
he found the whole of Meath in flames. He turned aside into Leinster and
made for Da Derga's hostel. The pirates perceive this, and Ingcel is
sent to spy out the hostel and discover the size of Conaire's force.
This gives the story-teller a chance for one of those lengthy minute
descriptions of persons in which his soul delighted. This catalogue
occupies one-half of the whole story. The pirates make their attack, and
the king and most of his followers are butchered.

We can do no more than enumerate the titles of other historical tales:
The "Destruction of the Hostel of MacDareo," describing the insurrection
of the Aithech-Tuatha (1st century A.D.), "The Expulsion of the Deisi"
and the "Battle of Mag Lemna" (2nd century A.D.), "Battle of Mag
Mucrime" (A.D. 195 or A.D. 218), "Siege of Drom Damgaire" (3rd century),
"Adventures of the Sons of Eochaid Muigmedoin, father of Niall
Noigiallach" (4th century), "Death of Crimthann" (reigned 366-378),
"Death of Dathi" (d. 428), "Death of Murchertach, son of Erc," and
"Death of Diarmait, son of Cerball" (6th century) "Wooing of Becfola,
who became the wife of Diarmait, son of Aed Slane" (reigned 657-664),
"Battle of Mag Rath" (637), "Battle of Carn Conaill" (c. 648), "Death of
Maelfothartaig MacRonain" (7th century), who was a kind of Irish
Hippolytus, "Battle of Allen" (722).

It will be well to deal here with another class of story in its various
stages of development. We have seen that in the older romances there is
a close connexion between mortals and supernatural beings. The latter
are represented as either inhabiting the _sid_ mounds or as dwelling in
islands out in the ocean, which are pictured as abodes of bliss and
variously called _Mag Mell_ (Plain of Delight), _Tir na n-Oc_ (Land of
Youth) and _Tir Tairngiri_ (Land of Promise). The visits of mortals to
the Irish Elysium form the subject of three romances which we must now
examine. The whole question has been exhaustively dealt with by Kuno
Meyer and Alfred Nutt in the _Voyage of Bran_ (London, 1895-1897).
Condla Caem, son of Conn Cetchathach, was one day seated by his father
on the hill of Usnech, when he saw a lady in strange attire approaching
invisible to all but himself. She describes herself, as coming from the
"land of the living," a place of eternal delight, and invites the prince
to return with her. Conn invokes the assistance of his druid to drive
away the strange visitor, who in parting throws an apple to Condla. The
young man partakes of no food save his apple, which does not diminish,
and he is consumed with longing. At the end of a month the fairy-maiden
again makes her appearance. Condla can hold out no longer. He jumps into
the damsel's skiff of glass. They sail away and were seen no more. This
is the _Imram_ or Adventure of Condla Caem, the oldest text of which is
found in LU. A similar story is entitled _Imram Brain maic Febail_,
contained in YBL. and Rawlinson B 512 (the end also occurs in LU.), only
with this difference that Bran, with twenty-seven companions, puts to
sea to discover _tir na mban_ (the land of maidens). After spending some
time there, one of his comrades is seized with home-sickness. They
return, and the home-sick man, on being set ashore, immediately turns to
dust. A later story preserved in BB., YBL. and the Book of Fermoy, tells
of the visit of Cormac, grandson of Conn Cetchathach, to Tir Tairngiri.
These themes are also worked into tales belonging to the Ossianic cycle,
and Finn and Ossian in later times become the typical warriors who
achieve the quest of the Land of Youth. The romances we have just
mentioned are almost entirely pagan in character, but a kindred class of
story shows us how the old ideas were transformed under the influence of
Christianity. A typical instance is _Imram curaig Maelduin_, contained
in YBL. and in part in LU. Maelduin constructs a boat and sets out on a
voyage with a large company to discover the murderer of his father. This
forms the framework of the story. Numerous islands in the ocean are
visited, each containing some great marvel. _Imram ua Corra_ (Book of
Fermoy) and _Imram Snedgusa ocus Mac Riagla_ (YBL.) contain the same
plan, but in this case the voyage is undertaken as an expiation for
crime. In the 11th century an unknown monkish writer compiled the
_Navigatio S. Brendani_, drawing the material for his episodes from
_Imram curaig Maelduin._ This famous work only appears in an Irish dress
in a confused and disconnected "Life of St Brendan" in the Book of
Lismore. The same MS. contains yet another voyage, the "Adventure of
Tadg MacCein."


  Fenian or Ossianic cycle.

We must now turn our attention to the later heroic cycle, commonly
called the Fenian or Ossianic. Unfortunately the origin of the stories
and poems connected with Finn and his warriors is obscure, and scholars
are by no means agreed over the question (see FINN MAC COOL). In the
earlier cycle the figures and the age in which they live are sharply
drawn, and we can have no hesitation in assuming that the _Tain_
represents in the main the state of Ireland at the beginning of the
Christian era. Finn and his companions are nebulous personages, and,
although it is difficult to discover the actual starting-point of the
legend, from the 12th century onwards we are able to trace the
development of the saga with some degree of certainty. A remarkably
small amount of space is devoted to this cycle in the oldest MSS. Of the
134 pages contained in LU. only half-a-dozen deal with Finn as against
58 with Cuchulinn. In LL. the figures are, Ulster cycle 100 pp.,
Ossianic 25 pp., the latter being mainly made up of short ballads,
whilst in 15th-century MSS., such as the Book of Lismore and Laud 610,
the proportion is overwhelmingly in favour of the later group. Again in
Urard MacCoisi's list of tales, which seems to go back to the 10th
century, only two appear to deal with subjects taken from the Ossianic
cycle. In the first instance Finn seems to have been a poet, and as such
he appears in the 12th-century MSS., LU. and LL. Thus the subjects of
the Ossianic cycle in the earliest MSS. appear in a new dress. The
vehicle of the older epic is prose, but the later cycle is clothed in
ballad form. Of these ballads about a dozen, apart from poems in the
_Dindsenchus_ are preserved in LU., LL. and YBL., and none of these
poems are probably much older than the 11th century. In the commentary
to the _Amra_ of Columbkille a beautiful poem on winter is attributed to
Finn. At the same time we do find a few prose tales, e.g. "_Fotha catha_
_Cnucha_" in LU., describing the death of Cumall, Finn's father, and in
LL. and Rawlinson B 502, part of which Zimmer assigns to the 7th
century, we have the first story in which Finn actually occurs. But it
is remarkable that in no case do tales belonging to the Finn cycle
contain any of the old rhetorics which occur in the oldest of the Ulster
romances. Already in LL., by the side of Finn, Ossian, Cailte and Fergus
Finnbel are represented as poets, and the strain of lament over the
glories of the past, so characteristic a feature of the later
developments of the legend, is already sounded. Hence by the 12th
century the stories of the Fiann and their destruction at the battle of
Gabra must have been fully developed, and from this time onward they
appear gradually to have supplanted the Cuchulinn cycle in popular
favour. Several reasons have been assigned for this. In the first place
until the time of Brian Boroime the high-kings of Ireland had almost
without exception been drawn from Ulster, and consequently the northern
traditions were pre-eminent. This exclusiveness on the part of the north
was largely broken down by the Viking invasions, and during the 11th
century the leading poets were attached to the court of Brian and his
descendants. In this manner an opportunity was afforded to the
Leinster-Munster Fenian cycle to develop into a national saga. John
MacNeill has pointed out Finn's connexion with a Firbolg tribe, and
maintains that the Fenian cycle was the property of the subject race.
Zimmer has attempted to prove with great plausibility that Finn and his
warriors were transformed on the model of the Ulster heroes. Thus one
text deals with the boyish exploits of Finn in the manner of Cuchulinn's
youthful feats recorded in the _Tain_. And it is possible that the
_Siaburcharpat Conchulainn_ gave rise to the idea of connecting Ossian
and Cailte with Patrick. As Cuchulinn was opposed to the whole of
Ireland in the _Tain_, so Finn, representing Ireland, is pitted against
the whole world in the _Battle of Ventry_.

We have already stated that the form assumed by the stories connected
with Finn in the earliest MSS. is that of the ballad, and this continued
down to the 18th century. But here again the Irish poets showed
themselves incapable of rising from the ballad to the true epic in
verse, and in the 14th century we find the prose narrative of the older
cycle interspersed with verse again appearing. The oldest composition of
any length which deals with the Ossianic legends is the _Acallam na
Senorach_ or Colloquy of the Old Men, which is mainly preserved in three
15th-century MSS., the Book of Lismore, Laud 610 and Rawlinson 487. In
this text we have the framework common to so much of the later Ossianic
literature. Ossian and Cailte are represented as surviving the battle of
Gabra and as living on until the time of Patrick. The two warriors get
on the best of terms with the saint, and Cailte is his constant
companion on his journey through Ireland. Patrick inquires the
significance of the names of the places they visit, and Cailte recounts
his reminiscences. In this manner we are given nearly a hundred stories,
the subjects of some of which occur in the short ballads in older MSS.,
whilst others appear later as independent tales. A careful comparison of
the _Acallam_ with the Cuchulinn stories, whether from the point of view
of civilization or language or art, discloses that the first lengthy
composition of the Ossianic cycle is but a feeble imitation of the older
group. All that had become unintelligible in the Ulster stories, owing
to their primitive character, is omitted, and in return for that the
reminiscences of the Viking age play a very prominent part.

With the 16th century we reach the later treatment of the legend in the
_Battle of Ventry_. In this tedious story Daire, the king of the whole
world, comes to invade Ireland with all his forces, but is repulsed by
Finn and his heroes. The _Battle of Ventry_, like all later stories, is
a regular medley of incidents taken from the writers of antiquity and
European medieval romance. The inflated style to which the Irishman is
so prone is here seen at its worst, and we are treated to a nauseous
heaping up of epithet upon epithet, e.g. we sometimes find as many as
twenty-seven adjectives accompanying a substantive running in
alliterating sets of three.

Of greater literary interest are the later ballads connected with Finn
and Ossian. The latter has become the typical mouthpiece of the departed
glory of the Fenian warriors, and Nutt has pointed out that there is a
striking difference in spirit between the _Acallam na Senorach_ and the
15th-16th century poems. In the latter Ossian is represented as a
"pagan, defiant and reckless, full of contempt and scorn for the howling
clerics and their churlish low-bred deity," whilst Patrick is a sour and
stupid fanatic, harping with wearisome monotony on the damnation of Finn
and all his comrades. The earliest collection of these later Ossianic
poems is that made in Scotland by James Macgregor, dean of Lismore,
early in the 16th century. Another miscellany is the _Duanaire Finn_, a
MS. in the Franciscan monastery in Dublin, compiled from earlier MSS. in
1627. This "song-book," which has been edited for the Irish Texts
Society by John MacNeill (part i. 1908), contains no less than
sixty-nine Ossianic ballads, amounting in all to some ten thousand
lines. Other Ossianic poems of dates varying from the 15th to the 18th
century have been published in the _Transactions of the Ossianic
Society_ (Dublin, 1854-1861), including amongst others "The Battle of
Gabhra," "Lamentation of Oisin (Ossian) after the Fenians," "Dialogue
between Oisin and Patrick," "The Battle of Cnoc an Air," and "The Chase
of Sliabh Guilleann." These ballads still survive amongst the peasants
at the present day. We further possess a number of prose romances, which
in their present form date from the 16th to the 18th century; e.g. _The
Pursuit of Diarmaid and Grainne_, _Finn and Grainne_, _Death of Finn_,
_The Clown in the Drab Coat_, _Pursuit of the Gilla Decair_, _The
Enchanted Fort of the Quicken-tree_, _The Enchanted Cave of Ceis
Corann_, _The Feast in the House of Conan_.

  At the present moment it is impossible to give a complete survey of
  the other branches of medieval Irish literature. The attention of
  scholars has been largely devoted to the publication of the sagas to
  the neglect of other portions of the wide field. An excellent survey
  of the subject is given by K. Meyer, _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_, i.
  xi. 1. pp. 78-95 (Berlin-Leipzig, 1909).


  Nature poetry.

We have already pointed out that as early as the Old Irish period
nameless Irish poets were singing the praises of nature in a strain
which sounds to our ears peculiarly modern. At the present time it is
difficult to say how much of what is really poetic in Irish literature
has come down to us. Our MSS. preserve whole reams of the learned
productions of the _filid_ which were so much prized in medieval
Ireland, but it is, generally speaking, quite an accident if any of the
delightful little lyrics entered in the margins or on blank spaces in
the MSS. have remained. The prose romances sometimes contain beautiful
snatches of verse, such as the descriptions of Mag Mell in _Serglige
Conculaind_, _Tochmarc Etaine_, and the _Voyage of Bran_ or the _Lament
of Cuchulinn over Fer Diad_. Mention has also been made of the exquisite
nature poems ascribed to Finn, which have been collected into a pamphlet
with English renderings by Kuno Meyer (under the title of "Four Old
Irish Songs of Summer and Winter," London, 1903). The same writer points
out that the ancient treatise on Irish prosody published by Thurneysen
contains no less than 340 quotations from poems, very few of which have
been preserved in their entirety. To Meyer we also owe editions of two
charming little texts which sufficiently illustrate the lyrical powers
of the early poets. The one is a poem referred to the 10th century in
the form of a colloquy between Guaire of Aidne and his brother Marban.
Guaire inquires of his brother why he prefers to live in a hut in the
forest, keeping the herds and swine of the king, to dwelling in the
king's palace. The question calls forth so wonderful a description of
the delights of nature as viewed from a shieling that Guaire exclaims,
"I would give my glorious kingship to be in thy company, Marban" (_King
and Hermit_, ed. with trans. by K. Meyer, London, 1901). Another text
full of passionate emotion and tender regret ascribed to the 9th century
tells of the parting of a young poet and poetess, who after plighting
their troth are separated for ever (_Liadain and Curithir_, ed. with
trans. by K. Meyer, London, 1902). In the _Old Woman of Beare_ (publ. K.
Meyer in _Otia Merseiana_) an old hetaira laments her departed youth,
comparing her life to the ebbing of the tide (10th century).


  Professional literature.

We must now step aside from pure literature and turn our attention to
the various productions of the professional learned classes of Ireland
during the middle ages. The range of subjects coming under this heading
is a very wide one, comprising history, genealogies, hagiology,
topography, grammar, lexicography and metre, law and medicine. It will
perhaps be as well first of all to deal with the learned _filid_ whose
works have been preserved. Irish tradition preserves the names of a
number of antiquarian poets of prehistoric or early medieval times, such
as Amergin, one of the Milesian band of invaders; Moran Roigne, son of
Ugaine Mor, Adna and his successor Ferceirtne, Torna (c. 400), tutor to
Niall Noigiallach, Dallan Forgaill, Senchan Torpeist, and Cennfaelad (d.
678), but the poems attributed to these writers are of much later date.
We can only enumerate the chief of those whose works have been
preserved. To Maelmura (d. 887) is attributed a poem on the Milesian
migrations. About the same time lived Flanagan, son of Cellach, who
wrote a long composition on the deaths of the kings of Ireland,
preserved in YBL., and Flann MacLonain (d. 918), called by the Four
Masters the Virgil of Ireland, eight of whose poems have survived,
containing in all about 1000 lines. Cormacan, son of Maelbrigde (d.
946), composed a vigorous poem on the circuit of Ireland performed by
Muirchertach, son of Niall Glundub. A poet whose poems are most valuable
from an antiquarian point of view is Cinaed Ua h-Artacain (d. 975). Some
800 lines of his have been preserved in LL. and elsewhere. Contemporary
with him is Eochaid O'Flainn (d. c. 1003), whose chief work is a long
chronological poem giving a list of the kings of Ulster from Cimbaeth
down to the destruction of Emain in 331. A little later comes MacLiac
(d. 1016), who celebrated in verse the glories of the reign of Brian
Boroime. His best-known work is a lament over Kincora, the palace of
Brian. Contemporary with MacLiac is MacGilla Coim Urard MacCoisi (d.
1023). To Cuan ua Lothchain (d. 1024), chief poet in the reign of
Maelsheachlainn II., are ascribed poems on the antiquities of Tara.
Sixteen hundred lines of his have come down to us. A writer who enjoyed
a tremendous reputation in medieval Ireland was Flann Mainstrech (d.
1056), who in spite of his being a layman was head of the monastery
school at Monasterboice. He is the author of no fewer than 2000 lines in
LL., and many other poems of his are contained in other MSS. His
best-known work is a _Book of Synchronisms_ of the kings of Ireland and
those of the ancient world. We have also poems from his pen on the
monarchs descended from Niall Noigiallach and on the chronology of the
high-kings and provincial kings from the time of Loigaire. Flann's
successor, Gilla Coemgin (d. 1072), gives us a chronological poem
dealing with the annals of the world down to A.D. 1014. He also is the
author of the Irish version of Nennius which contains substantial
additions dealing with early Ireland. Minor writers of the same nature
whose works have come down to us are Colman O'Sesnain (d. 1050), Neide
ua Maelchonaire (d. 1136), Gilla na noem ua Duinn (d. 1160), Gilla
Moduda O'Cassidy (1143). In the 13th century these historical poems
become very rare. In the next century we again find antiquarian poets of
whom the best-known is John O'Dugan (d. 1372). His most valuable
composition treats of the tribes of the northern half of Ireland at the
time of the northern conquest. This work, containing 1660 lines in all
in debide metre, was completed by his younger contemporary Gilla na naem
O'Huidhrin. From the beginning of the 13th century the official poets
began to give way to the hereditary bards and families of scribes. Among
the chief bardic families we may mention the O'Dalys, the MacWards, the
O'Higinns, the MacBrodys and the MacDaires. We must here content
ourselves with glancing at a few of the more prominent names. Muiredach
Albanach (c. 1214-1240), whose real name was O'Daly, has left behind in
addition to the religious verses a considerable number of poems in
praise of various patrons in Ireland and Scotland. He is said by Skene
to be the first of the Macvurrichs, bards to Macdonald of Clanranald. A
number of his compositions are preserved in the Book of the Dean of
Lismore. Gilla Brigde MacConmidhe was a contemporary of the
last-mentioned bard. He wrote a number of poems in praise of the
O'Neills and O'Donnells. We may next mention the name of an abbot of
Boyle, Donnchad Mor O'Dalaig (d. 1244), a writer whose extant poems are
usually of a religious character. Many of them are addressed to the
Virgin. Most of them appear in late MSS., but some few are preserved in
the Book of the Hy Maine. Donnchad Mor is said to be the greatest
religious poet that Ireland has produced. Many other members of the
O'Daly family belonging to the 14th and 15th centuries have left poems
behind them, but we cannot mention them here. Angus O'Daly, who lived in
the second half of the 16th century, was employed by the English to
satirize the chief Gaelic families in Ireland. Two members of the
O'Higinn family deserve mention, Tadg mor O'Higinn (d. 1315). and Tadg
Og O'Higinn (d. 1448), a voluminous writer who eulogized the O'Neills,
O'Connors and O'Kellys. Tadg Og also composed a number of religious
poems, which enjoyed enormous popularity in both Ireland and Scotland. A
_duanaire_ was inserted into YBL., which contains some forty poems by
him.

Closely connected with the compositions of the official poets are the
works of native topography. Most of the sagas contain a number of
explanations of the origins of place-names. The _Dindsenchus_ is a
compilation of such etymologies. But its chief value consists in the
amount of legendary matter it contains, adduced in support of the
etymologies given. The _Dindsenchus_ has come down to us in various
forms both in prose and in verse. Irish tradition ascribes it to Amergin
MacAmalgaid, who lived in the 6th century, but if the kernel of the work
goes back as early as this it must have been altered considerably in the
course of the centuries. Both prose and verse forms of it are contained
in LL. A kindred compilation is the _Coir Anmann_ (Fitness of Names),
which does for personal names what the _Dindsenchus_ does for
geographical names. We further possess a versified compendium of
geography for educational purposes dealing with the three continents,
from the pen of Airbertach MacCosse-dobrain (10th century).


  History.

No people on the face of the globe have ever been more keenly interested
in the past of their native country than the Irish. This will already
have been patent from the compositions of the _filid_, and now we may
describe briefly the historical works in prose which have come down to
us. The latter may be divided into two classes, (1) works containing a
connected narrative, (2) annals. Closely allied to these are the sagas
dealing with the high-kings. Even in the serious historical compositions
we often find the manner of the sagas imitated, e.g. the supernatural
plays a prominent part, and we are treated to the same exaggerated
descriptions. The earliest of these histories is the wars of the Gael
and Gall (_Cogad Gaedel re Gallaib_), which gives an account of the
Viking invasions of Ireland, the career of Brian Boroime and the
overthrow of the Norsemen at the battle of Clontarf. This composition, a
portion of which is contained in LL., is often supposed to be in part
the work of MacLiac, and it is plain from internal evidence that it must
have been written by an eye-witness of the battle, or from materials
supplied by a person actually present. Numerous shorter tracts dealing
with the same period exist, but as yet few of them have been published.
_Caithreim Cellachain Caisil_ treats of the conflicts between the
Vikings and the Irish, and the _Leabhar Oiris_ gives an account of Irish
history from 979 to 1027. Compilations relating to local history are the
Book of Fenagh and the Book of Munster. Another ancient work also partly
preserved in LL. is the Book of Invasions (_Leabhar Gabhala_). This
deals with the five prehistoric invasions of Ireland (see IRELAND:
_Early History_) and the legendary history of the Milesians. The most
complete copy of the _Leabhar Gabhala_ which has been preserved was
compiled by Michael O'Clery about 1630. The _Boroma_ or History of the
Leinster Tribute contained in LL. belongs rather to romance. Another
history is the _Triumphs of Turlough O'Brian_, written about the year
1459 by John MacCraith, a Munster historian (edited by S.H. O'Grady,
Camb. Press). This inflated composition is an important source of
information on Munster history from the landing of the Normans to the
middle of the 14th century. We also possess several documents in Irish
concerning the doings of the O'Neills and O'Donnells at the close of the
16th century. A life of Hugh Roe O'Donnell, by Lughaidh O'Clery, has
been published, and a contemporary history of the _Flight of the Earls_,
by Tadhg O'Cianan, was being prepared in 1908. But the most celebrated
Irish historian is certainly Geoffrey Keating (c. 1570-1646), who is at
the same time the greatest master of Irish prose. Keating was a Munster
priest educated in France, who drew down upon himself the displeasure of
the English authorities and had to go into hiding. He travelled up and
down Ireland examining all the ancient records, and compiled a history
of Ireland down to the Norman Conquest. His work, entitled _Forus Feasa
ar Eirinn_, was never published, but it circulated from end to end of
Ireland in MS. Keating's history is anything but critical. Its value for
the scholar lies in the fact that the author had access to many
important sources of information now lost, and has preserved accounts of
events independent of and differing from those contained in the Four
Masters. In addition to the history and a number of poems, Keating is
also the author of two theological works in Irish, the Defence of the
Mass (_Eochairsgiath an Aifrinn_) and a collection of sermons entitled
the Three Shafts of Death (_Tri biorghaoithe an Bhais_), which are
models of Irish prose.

From the writers of historical narrative we turn to the annalists, the
most important sources of information with regard to Irish history. We
have already mentioned the _Synchronisms_ of Flann Mainistrech. Apart
from this work the earliest collection of annals which has come down to
us is the compilation by Tigernach O'Braein (d. 1088), abbot of
Clonmacnoise. Tigernach, whose work is partly in Latin, partly in Irish,
states that all Irish history previous to 305 B.C. is uncertain. No
perfect copy is known of this work, but several fragments are in
existence. The _Annals of Innisfallen_ (a monastery on an island in the
Lower Lake of Killarney), which are also in Latin and Irish, were
perhaps compiled about 1215, though they may have begun two centuries
earlier. The invaluable _Annals of Ulster_ were compiled on Belle Isle
on Upper Lough Erne by Cathal Maguire (d. 1498), and afterwards
continued by two different writers down to 1604. This work, which deals
with Irish affairs from A.D. 431, exists in several copies. The _Annals
of Loch Ce_ (near Boyle in Roscommon) were copied in 1588 and deal with
Irish events from 1014 to 1636. The _Annals of Connaught_ run from 1224
to 1562. The _Chronicon Scotorum_, one copy of which was transcribed
about 1650 by the famous antiquary Duald MacFirbis, deals with Irish
affairs down to 1135. The _Annals of Boyle_ extend down to 1253. The
_Annals of Clonmacnoise_, which come down to 1408, only exist in an
English translation made by Connell MacGeoghegan in 1627. The most
important of all these collections is the _Annals of the Four Masters_
(so christened by Colgan), compiled in the Franciscan monastery of
Donegal by Michael, Conary and Cucogry O'Clery and Ferfesa O'Mulconry.
The O'Clerys were for a long period the hereditary ollams to the
O'Donnells. Michael O'Clery (1575-1643), the greatest of the four, was a
lay brother in the order of St Francis, and devoted his whole life to
the history of Ireland. He collected all the historical MSS. he could
find, and was encouraged in his undertaking by Fergal O'Gara, prince of
Coolavin, who paid all expenses. The great work, which was begun in 1632
and finished in 1636, begins with the arrival in Ireland of Ceasair,
granddaughter of Noah, and comes down to 1616. Nearly all the materials
from which O'Clery drew his statements are now lost. O'Clery is also the
author of a catalogue of the kings of Ireland, the genealogies of the
Irish saints, and the Martyrology of Donegal and the Book of Invasions.

Of less interest, but every whit as important, are the lists of
genealogies which occupy a great deal of space in LL., YBL. and BB., and
two Trinity College, Dublin, MSS. (H. 3.18 and H. 2.4). But by far the
most important collection of all is that made by the last great
shanachie Duald MacFirbis, compiled between 1650 and 1666 in the college
of St Nicholas at Galway. The only portions of any considerable length
which have as yet been published deal with two Connaught tribes; viz.
the Hy Fiachrach from Duald mac Firbis and the Hy Maine (O'Kellys), and
a Munster tribe, the Corcalaidhe, both from YBL. Valuable information
with regard to early Irish history is often contained in the prophecies
or, as they are sometimes termed, _Baile_ (_raptures, visions_), a
notable example of which is _Baile in Scail_ (Vision of the Phantom).


  Religious literature.

When we turn from secular to religious themes we find that Ireland is
also possessed of a very extensive Christian literature, which is
extremely valuable for the comparative study of medieval literature.
Apart from the martyrologies already mentioned in connexion with Oengus
the Culdee, a number of lives of saints and other ecclesiastical
literature have come down to us. One of the most important documents is
the Tripartite Life of St Patrick, which cannot very well have been
composed before the 10th or 11th century, as it is full of the
extravagant miracles which occur in the later lives of saints. The work
consists of three separate homilies, each complete in itself. A later
version of the Tripartite Life was printed by Colgan in 1647. The
_Leabhar Breac_ contains a quantity of religious tracts, most of which
have been published. R. Atkinson issued a number of them under the title
of _Passions and Homilies from Leabhar Breac_ (Dublin, 1887). These are
not original Irish compilations, but translations from Latin lives of
saints. Nor do they deal with the lives of any Irish saints. Stokes has
published nine lives of Irish saints from the Book of Lismore, including
Patrick, Brigit, Columba, Brendan, Findian (Clonard), Ciaran, Senan,
Findchua and Mochua. They are written in the form of homilies preceded
by short explanations of a text of scripture. These lives also occur in
the _Leabhar Breac_. Other lives of saints have been published by
O'Grady in _Silva Gadelica_. The longest life of St Columba was compiled
in 1536 at the command of Manus O'Donnell. This tedious work is a
specimen of hagiology at its worst. The _Leabhar Breac_ further contains
a number of legends, such as those on the childhood of Christ, and
scattered through many MSS. are short anecdotes of saints which are very
instructive.

But the most interesting Irish religious text is the _Vision of Adamnan_
(preserved in LU.), which Stokes assigns to the 11th century. The soul
of Adamnan is represented as leaving his body for a space to visit
heaven and hell under the conduct of an angel. The whole treatment of
the theme challenges comparison with Dante's great poem, but the Irish
composition contains many ideas peculiar to the land of its origin.
Later specimens of this kind of literature tend to develop into
grotesque buffoonery. We may mention the _Vision of Fursae_, the _Vision
of Tundale_ (Tnugdal), published by V. Friedel and K. Meyer (Paris,
1907), Laisren's _Vision of Hell_ and the _Vision of Merlino_. A further
vision attributed to Adamnan contains a stern denunciation of the Irish
of the 11th century. Another form of religious composition, which was
very popular in medieval Ireland, was the prophecy in verse, but
scarcely any specimens have as yet been published. Kuno Meyer edited a
tract on the Psalter in his _Hibernica Minora_ from a 15th century
Oxford MS., but he holds that the text goes back to 750. A number of
collections of monastic rules both in prose and verse have been edited
in _Eriu_, and the MSS. contain numerous prayers, litanies and religious
poems.

In LU. are preserved two sermons, _Scela na esergi_ (Tidings of
Resurrection) and _Scela lai bratha_ (Tidings of Doomsday); and a number
of other homilies have been published, such as the "Two Sorrows of the
Kingdom of Heaven," "The Penance of Adam," the "Ever-new Tongue," and
one on "Mortals' Sins." All the homilies contained in LB. have been
published by R. Atkinson in his _Legends and Homilies from Leabhar
Breac_ (Dublin, 1887), and E. Hogan, _The Irish Nennius_ (Dublin, 1895).
The popular "Debate of the Body and the Soul" appears in Ireland in the
form of a homily. A collection of maxims and a short moral treatise have
been published by K. Meyer.

  For the religious literature in general the reader may refer to
  O'Curry, _Lectures on the MS. Materials of Ancient Irish History_ (pp.
  339-434), and G. Dottin, "Notes bibliographiques sur l'ancienne
  litterature chretienne de l'Irlande," in _Revue d'histoire et de
  litterature religieuses_, v. 162-167. See also _Revue celtique_, xi.
  391-404. ib. xv. 79-91.

Here we may perhaps mention an extraordinary production entitled
_Aisling Meic Conglinne_, the Vision of Mac Conglinne, found in LB. and
ascribed to the twelfth century (ed. K. Meyer, London, 1892). Cathal
MacFinguine, king of Munster (d. 737), was possessed by a demon of
gluttony and is cured by the recital of a strange vision by a vagrant
scholar named MacConglinne. The composition seems to be intended as a
satire on the monks, and in particular as a travesty of medieval
hagiology. Another famous satire, entitled the Proceedings of the Great
Bardic Institution, holds up the professional bards and their
extortionate methods to ridicule. This curious work contains the story
of how the great epic, the _Tain bo Cualnge_, was recovered (see
_Transactions of the Ossianic Society_, vol. v.).


  Gnomic literature.

Collections of pithy sayings in the form of proverbs and maxims must
have been made at a very early period. Not the least remarkable are the
so-called Triads (publ. K. Meyer, Dublin, 1906), which illustrate every
statement with 3 examples. Over 200 such triads were brought together in
the 9th century. There are also two documents attributed to 1st-century
personages, "The Testament of Morann MacMoin to his son Feradach," which
is quoted as early as the 8th century, and "The Instructions of
Cuchulinn to his foster-son Lugaid." K. Meyer has published _Tecosca
Cormaic_ or the Precepts of Cormac MacAirt to his son Cairpre (Dublin,
1909). Other collections such as the _Senbriathra Fithail_ still await
publication.


  Classical stories.

With that enthusiasm for the classics which is characteristic of the
Irish, it is not strange that we should find medieval versions of some
of the better-known authors of antiquity. It is interesting to note that
only those works are translated that could be utilized by the
professional story-teller. So much so, that in the ancient (10th
century) catalogue of sagas enumerated by Urard MacCoisi we find mention
of _Togail Troi_ and _Scela Alexandir maic Pilip_. We get descriptions
of battle weapons and clothing similar to those occurring in the native
sagas. _Togail Troi_ is taken from the medieval prose version, _Historia
de Excidio Troiae_ of Dares Phrygius. The oldest Irish copy is found in
LL. This version is exceedingly valuable, as it enables us to determine
the meaning of words and formulas in the sagas which are otherwise
obscure. An Irish abstract of the _Odyssey_, following an unknown
source, and part of the story of Theseus have been published by K.
Meyer. _Scela Alexandir_ is preserved in LB. and BB. _Imthechta
Aeniusa_, taken from the _Aeneid_, is contained in BB. A number of MSS.
contain the _Cath Catharda_, a version of books vi. and vii. (?) of
Lucan's _Pharsalia_, which has been published by Wh. Stokes. There is
further at least one MS. containing a version of Statius's _Thebaid_ and
of Heliodorus's _Aethiopica_. Somewhat later, the medieval literature of
western Europe comes to be represented in translations. Thus we have
Irish versions, amongst others of the _Gesta Romanorum_, the _Historia
Brittonum_, the Wars of Charlemagne, the History of the Lombards, Sir
John Maundeville's Travels (trans. by Fingin O'Mahony in 1475), the Book
of Ser Marco Polo (abridged), Guy Earl of Warwick, Bevis of Southampton,
the Quest of the Holy Grail, Octavian, the chronicle of Turpin, Barlaam
and Josaphat, and the story of Fierabras. The Arthurian cycle is
developed in independent fashion in the Adventures of the Eagle Boy and
the Adventures of the Crop-eared Dog. For translation literature see M.
Nettlau, _Revue celtique_, x. pp. 184, 460-461.


  Philology.

Hand in hand with the interest of the medieval Irish scholars in the
history of their island goes the cultivation of the native tongue. Owing
to the profound changes produced by the working of the Irish laws of
accent and initial mutation, it is doubtful if any other language lends
itself so well to wild etymological speculation. By the beginning of the
Middle Irish period a good part of the cumbrous Old Irish verb-system
had become obsolete, and texts which were at all faithfully copied had
to be plentifully supplied with glosses. Moreover, if, as is probable,
all the historical and legal lore was in verse, a large part of it must
have been unintelligible except to those who knew the _berla fene_. But
even before this Cormac mac Cuillenain, the bishop-king of Cashel (d.
903), had compiled a glossary of archaic words which are accompanied by
explanations, etymologies, and illustrative passages containing an
amount of invaluable information concerning folk-lore and legendary
history. This glossary has come down to us in various recensions all
considerably later in date than the original work (the oldest copy is in
LB.). Later collections of archaic words are O'Mulconry's Glossary (13th
century), the Lecan Glossary (15th century), which draws principally
from the glosses in the _Liber Hymnorum_, O'Davoren's Glossary (16th
century), drawn principally from the Brehon Laws, a 16th century list of
Latin and Irish names of plants employed in medicine, and O'Clery's
Glossary (published at Louvain, 1643). BB. contains a curious tract on
Ogamic writing. An Irish treatise on grammar, called _Uraicept na
n-eces_, the Poet's Primer, traditionally ascribed to Cennfaelad and
others, is contained in BB. and YBL. It appears to be a kind of medley
of Donatus and the notions of the medieval Irish concerning the origin
of their language. The St Gall glosses on Priscian contain Irish terms
for all the nomenclature of the Latin grammarians, and show how
extensive was the use made of Irish even in this department of learning.


  Prosody.

Thurneysen had edited from BB., Laud 610 and a TCD. MS. three treatises
on metric which give an account of the countless metres practised by the
_filid_. It is impossible for us here to enter into the question of
Irish prosody in any great detail. We have seen that there is some
reason for believing that the primitive form of Irish verse was a kind
of rhythmical alliterative prose as contained in the oldest versions of
the sagas. The _filid_ early became acquainted with the metres of the
Latin church hymns, whence rhyme was introduced into Ireland. (This is
the view of Thurneysen and Windisch. Others like Zeuss have maintained
that rhyme was an invention of the Irish.) In any case the _filid_
evolved an intricate system of rhymes for which it is difficult to find
a parallel. The medieval metres are called by the general name of _Dan
Direch_, "Direct Metre." Some of the more general principles were as
follows. The verses are grouped in stanzas of four lines, each stanza
being complete in itself. Each line must contain a fixed number of
syllables, whilst the different metres vary as to the employment of
internal and end rhyme, assonance and alliteration. The Irish elaborated
a peculiar system of consonantal correspondence which counted as rhyme.
The consonants were divided with a considerable degree of phonetic
accuracy into six groups, so that a voiceless stop (c) rhymes with
another voiceless stop (t, p), a voiced stop (b) with another voiced
stop (d, g), and so forth. The commonest form of verse is the four-line
stanza of seven syllables. Such a verse with rhymes _abab_ and
monosyllabic or dissyllabic finals belongs to the class _rannaigecht_. A
similar stanza with _aabb_ rhymes is the basis of the so-called _debide_
(cut in two) metres. A peculiarity of the latter is that the rhyming
word ending the second line must contain at least one syllable more than
the rhyming word which ends the first. Another frequently employed metre
is the _rindard_, consisting of lines of six syllables with dissyllabic
endings. In the metrical treatises examples are given of some 200 odd
metres. The result of the complicated technique evolved in Ireland was
an inclination to sacrifice sense to musical harmony. See K. Meyer, _A
Primer of Irish Metrics_ (Dublin,1909).


  Law.

We can conclude this survey of medieval Irish literature by mentioning
briefly two departments of learning to which much attention was paid in
Ireland. These are law and medicine. The so-called Brehon Laws (q.v.)
are represented as having been codified and committed to writing in the
time of St Patrick. There is doubtless some grain of truth in this
statement, as a fillip may have been given to this codification by the
publication of the Theodosian Code, which was speedily followed by the
codes of the various Teutonic tribes. The Brehon Laws were no doubt
originally transmitted from teacher to pupil in the form of verse, and
traces of this are to be found in the texts which have been preserved.
But the Laws as we have them do not go back to the 5th century. In our
texts isolated phrases or portions of phrases are given with a
commentary, and this commentary is further explained by some later
commentators. Kuno Meyer has pointed out that in the commentary to one
text, _Crith Gablach_, there are linguistic forms which must go back to
the 8th century, and Arbois de Jubainville, who apart from Sir Henry
Maine is the only scholar who has dealt with the subject, has attempted
to prove from internal evidence that part of the oldest tract, the one
on _Athgabail_ or Seizure, cannot, in its present form, be later than
the close of the 6th century. Cormac's Glossary contains a number of
quotations from the commentary to _Senchus Mor_, which would therefore
seem to have been in existence about 900. The Irish Laws were
transcribed by O'Donovan and O'Curry, and have been published with a
faulty text and translation in five volumes by the government
commissioners originally appointed in 1852. A number of other law tracts
must have existed in early times, and several which have been preserved
are still unedited. Kuno Meyer has published the _Cain Adamnain_ or
Adamnan's Law from an Oxford MS. Adamnan succeeded in getting a law
passed which forbade women to go into battle. An interesting but
little-investigated text in prose and verse called _Leabhar na gCeart_
or Book of Rights was edited with an English translation by O'Donovan
(1847). It deals with the rights to tribute of the high-king and the
various provincial kings. The text of the Book of Rights is preserved in
YBL. and BB. In its present form it shows distinct traces of the
influence of the Viking invasions, and cannot go back much beyond the
year 1000. At one time it was incorporated in a larger work now lost,
the Psalter of Cashel. We also possess a 9th-century treatise on Sunday
observance (_Cain Domnaig_).


  Medicine.

The medical profession in Ireland was hereditary in a number of
families, such as the O'Lees (from Irish _liaig_, "a leech"), the
O'Hickeys (Irish _icide_, "the healer"), the O'Shiels, the O'Cassidys,
and many others. These families each had their own special leech-books,
some of which are still preserved. In addition to these there are many
others. The medical literature which has come down to us is contained in
MSS. ranging from the 13th to the 18th centuries. The Irish MSS. are
translations from the Latin with the invariable commentary, and they
further contain additions derived from experience. YBL. contains four of
these tracts, and amongst others we may mention the Book of the
O'Hickeys, a translation of the _Lilium Medicinae_ of Bernard Gordon
(written 1303), the Book of the O'Lees (written in 1443), the Book of
the O'Shiels, transcribed in 1657, and the Book of MacAnlega,
transcribed in 1512. Of these texts only two have been published as yet
from MSS. in Edinburgh. O'Curry drew up a MS. catalogue of the medical
MSS. in the Royal Irish Academy, and many more are described in
O'Grady's catalogue of Irish MSS. in the British Museum. Some few MSS.
deal with the subject of astronomy, but up to the present no description
of the texts has been published.


  Later Irish literature.

With the steady advance of the English power after 1600 it was only
natural that the school of bardic poets should decline. But at the
beginning of the 17th century for the last time they gave a great
display of their resources. Tadhg MacDaire, the ollam of the earl of
Thomond, composed a poem in elaborate verse exalting the line of Eber
(represented by the reigning families of Munster) at the expense of the
line of Eremon (represented by the reigning families of the other
provinces). In a body of verse attributed to Torna Eces (c. 400), but
obviously of more recent origin, the Eremonian, Niall Noigiallach, is
lavishly praised, and Tadhg's attack takes the form of a refutation of
Torna's pretensions. The challenge was immediately taken up by Lughaidh
O'Clery. The recriminations of the two bards extend to nearly 3000 lines
of verse, and naturally drew down the attention of the whole Irish world
of letters. Soon all the hereditary poets were engaged in the conflict,
which raged for many years, and the verses of both parties were
collected into a volume of about 7000 lines in _debide_ metre, known as
the _Contention of the Poets_. Amongst the prominent poets of the period
may be mentioned Tadhg Dall O'Higinn (d. shortly before 1617) and
Eochaidh O'Hussey, who between them have left behind nearly 7000 lines
in the classical metres, Bonaventura O'Hussey and Ferfesa O'Cainti. The
intricate classical measures gradually broke down. Dr Douglas Hyde gives
it as his opinion that the exceedingly numerous metres known in Middle
Irish had become restricted to a couple of dozen, and these nearly all
heptasyllabic. Nevertheless they continued to be employed till into the
18th century. However, during the 17th century we find a new school
arising with new principles and new methods. These consisted in (1) the
adoption of vowel rhyme in place of consonantal rhyme, (2) the adoption
of a certain number of accents in each line in place of a certain number
of syllables. Thus, according to what we have just said, the accented
syllables in a line with four accents in one line will fall on, say, the
following vowels e, u, u, e, and the line rhyming with it will have
the same sounds in the same or a different sequence. (For English
imitations see Hyde, _A Literary History of Ireland_, pp. 548 ff.)

The consequences of the changed political conditions were of the
greatest importance. The bards, having lost their patrons in the general
upheaval, threw behind them the old classical metres and turned to the
general public. At the same time they had to abandon the countless
chevilles and other characteristics of the old bardic language, which
were only understood by the privileged few. But to compensate for this
much more freedom of expression and naturalness were possible for the
first time in Irish verse. The new metres made their appearance in
Ireland about 1600, and the learned Keating himself was one of the first
to discard the ancient prosody. During the latter half of the 17th
century and throughout the 18th century the body of verse produced in
Ireland voices the sorrows and aspirations of the whole nation, and the
literary activity in almost every county was correspondingly great. It
is only during the last few years that the works of any of the poets of
this period have been published. Pierce Ferriter was the last chieftain
who held out against Cromwell's army, and he was hanged in 1653. His
poems have been edited by P.S. Dinneen (Dublin, 1903). The bard of the
Williamite wars was David O'Bruadar (d. 1697-1698). From this period
date three powerful satires on the state of affairs in Munster, and in
particular on the Cromwellian settlers. They are of a coarse and savage
nature, for which reason they have never been printed. Their titles are
the Parliament of Clan Thomas, the Adventures of Clan Thomas, and the
Adventures of Tadhg Dubh (by Egan O'Rahilly). A description of the
parliament of Clan Thomas is given by Stern in the _Zeitschr. f. celt.
Phil._ v. pp. 541 ff.

A little later we come across a band of Jacobite poets. The gallant
figure of Charles Edward was so popular with Irish bards that a
conventional stereotyped form arose in which the poet represents himself
as wandering in a wood and meeting a beautiful lady. We are treated to a
full description of all her charms, and the poet compares her to all the
fair heroines of antiquity. But she replies that she is none of these.
She is Erin seeking refuge from the insults of foreign suitors and
looking for her mate. The idea of such poems is a beautiful one, but
they become tedious when one has read a dozen of them only to find that
there are scores of others in exactly the same strain. Besides the
Visions (_Aisling_), as they are termed, there are several noteworthy
war-songs, whilst other poems are valuable as giving a picture of the
state of the country at the time. We can do no more than mention the
names of John O'Neaghtan (d. c. 1720; edition of his poems by A.
O'Farrelly, Dublin, 1908), Egan O'Rahilly, who flourished between 1700
and 1726; Tadhg O'Naghten, Andrew MacCurtin (d. 1479), Hugh MacCurtin,
author of a grammar and part editor of O'Begley's _Dictionary_; John
Clarach MacDonnell (1691-1754), John O'Tuomy (d. 1775); Andrew Magrath,
Tadhg Gaolach O'Sullivan (d. c. 1795), author of a well-known volume of
religious poems, a valuable source of information for the Munster
dialect; and Owen Roe O'Sullivan (d. 1784), the cleverest of the
Jacobite poets (his verses and _bons mots_ are still well known in
Munster). These poets hailed mostly from the south, and it is chiefly
the works of the Munster poets that have been preserved. Ulster and
Connaught also produced a number of writers, but very little beyond the
mere names has been preserved except in the case of the Connaught poet
Raftery (1784-1835), whose compositions have been rescued by Hyde
(_Abhrain an Reachtuire_, Dublin, 1903). Torlough O'Carolan (1670-1738),
"the last of the bards," was really a musician. Having become blind he
was educated as a harper and won great fame. His poems, which were
composed to suit his music, are mostly addressed to patrons or fair
ladies. His celebrated "Ode to Whisky" is one of the finest bacchanalian
songs in any language. Michael Comyn (b. c. 1688) is well known as the
author of a version based upon older matter of "Ossian in the Land of
Youth." This appears to be the only bit of deliberate creation in the
later Ossianic literature. Comyn also wrote a prose story called "The
Adventures of Torlogh, son of Starn, and the Adventures of his Three
Sons." Brian MacGiolla Meidhre or Merriman (d. 1808) is the author of
perhaps the cleverest sustained poem in the Irish language. His work,
which is entitled the _Midnight Court_, contains about 1000 lines with
four rhymes in each line. It describes a vision in which Aoibhill, queen
of the Munster fairies, is holding a court. A handsome girl defends
herself against an old man, and complains to the queen that in spite of
all her charms she is in danger of dying unwed. Merriman's poem, which
was written in 1781, has recently been edited with a German translation
by L.C. Stern (_Zeitschrift fur celtische Philologie_, v. 193-415).
Donough MacConmara (Macnamara) (d. c. 1814) is best known as the author
of a famous lyric "The Fair Hills of Holy Ireland," but he also wrote a
mock epic describing his voyage to America and how the ship was chased
by a French cruiser. He is carried off in a dream by the queen of the
Munster fairies to Elysium, where, instead of Charon, he finds Conan,
the Thersites among the Fenians, acting as ferryman (_Eachtra Ghiolla an
Amarain, or The Adventures of a Luckless Fellow_, edited by T. Flannery,
Dublin, 1901).

During the first half of the 19th century nothing new was produced of a
high order, though the peasants retained their love for poetry and
continued to copy the MSS. in their possession. Then came the famine and
the consequent drain of population which gave Irish the death-blow as a
living literary force. The modern movement has been dealt with above in
the section on Irish language.

It remains for us to glance briefly at the later religious literature
and the collections of folk-tales. The translation of the New Testament
made by William O'Donnell and published in 1603 was first undertaken in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who sent over to Dublin the first fount of
Irish type. Bishop Bedell, one of the very few Protestant clergymen who
undertook to learn Irish, translated the remainder of the Scriptures
with the help of a couple of natives, but the whole Bible was not
translated and published until 1686. This version naturally never became
popular, but it is a valuable source of information with regard to
Modern Irish. It is perhaps of interest to note that the earliest
specimen of printing in Irish is a ballad on Doomsday (Dublin, 1571). A
version of the English Prayer Book was published in 1716.

The scholars of the various Irish colleges on the continent were
particularly active in the production of manuals of devotion mainly
translated from Latin. We can mention only a few of the more important.
_Sgathan an chrabhaidh_ (The Mirror of the Pious), published in 1626 by
Florence Conry; _Sgathan sacramente na h-Aithrighe_ (Mirror of the
Sacrament of Penance), by Hugh MacCathmhaoil, published at Louvain,
1618; _The Book of Christian Doctrine_, by Theobald Stapleton (Brussels,
1639); _Parrthas an Anma, or The Paradise of the Soul_, by Anthony
Gernon (Louvain, 1645); a book on _Miracles_, by Richard MacGilla Cody
(1667); _Lochran na gcreidmheach, or Lucerna Fidelium_, by Francis
O'Mulloy (Louvain, 1676); O'Donlevy's _Catechism_ (1742). O'Gallagher,
bishop of Raphoe, published a collection of sermons which went through
twenty editions and are still known at the present day. He is one of the
earliest writers in whom the characteristics of the speech of the north
are noticeable. The only Catholic version of any considerable portion of
the Scriptures up till quite recently was the translation of the
Pentateuch by Archbishop MacHale, who also turned six books of the
_Iliad_ into Irish. It is only within recent years that attention has
been paid to the collection of folk-songs and tales in Irish, although
as long ago as 1825 Crofton Croker published three volumes of folk-lore
in the south of Ireland which attracted the attention of Sir Walter
Scott. Nor do the classic stories of Carleton fall within our province.
We may mention among others Patrick O'Leary's _Sgeuluidheacht Chuige
Mumhan_ (Dublin, 1895); Hyde's _Beside the Fire_ (London, 1890) and _An
Sgeuluidhe Gaedhealach_, reprinted from vol. x. of the _Annales de
Bretagne_ (London, 1901); Daniel O'Fogharta's _Siamsa an Gheimhridh_
(Dublin, 1892); J. Lloyd's _Sgealaidhe Oirghiall_ (Dublin, 1905); and
Larminie's _West Irish Folk-Tales_ (London, 1893). The most important
collections of folk-songs are _Love-Songs of Connaught_ (Dublin, 1893)
and _Religious Songs of Connaught_ (Dublin, 1906), both published by
Hyde. The most extensive collection of proverbs is the one entitled
_Seanfhocla Uladh_ by Henry Morris (Dublin, 1907). See also T.
O'Donoghue, _Sean-fhocail na Mumhan_ (Dublin, 1902).

  AUTHORITIES.--In the absence of a comprehensive history, the best
  manual is Eleanor Hull's _Text Book of Irish Literature_ (2 parts,
  London, 1904-1908; vol. 2 contains a bibliographical appendix). D.
  Hyde's larger _History of Irish Literature_ (London, 1899) is only
  trustworthy as regards the more _modern_ period. A full bibliography
  of all published material is contained in G. Dottin's article "La
  litterature gaelique de l'Irlande" (_Revue de synthese historique_,
  vol. iii. pp. 1 ff.). Dottin's article has been translated into
  English and supplemented by Joseph Dunn under the title of _The Gaelic
  Literature of Ireland_ (Washington, 1906, privately printed). The
  following are important works:--W. Stokes and J. Strachan, _Thesaurus
  Palaeohibernicus_ (2 vols., Cambridge, 1901-1903); J.H. Bernard and R.
  Atkinson, _Liber Hymnorum_ (London, 1895); E. O'Curry, _Lectures on
  the MS. Materials of Ancient Irish History_ (Dublin, 1873) and
  _Lectures on the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish_ (3 vols.,
  Dublin, 1873); P.W. Joyce, _A Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (2
  vols., London, 1903); E. O'Reilly, _Irish Writers_ (Dublin, 1820);
  S.H. O'Grady, _Catalogue of Irish MSS. in the British Museum_ (London,
  1901); H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Introduction a l'etude de la
  litterature celtique_ (Paris, 1883), _Essai d'un catalogue de la
  litterature epique de l'Irlande_ (Paris, 1883), _L'Epopee celtique en
  Irlande_ (Paris, 1892), _La Civilisation des Celtes et celle de
  l'epopee homerique_ (Paris, 1899); E. Windisch, _Tain Bo Cualnge_, ed.
  with an introd. and German trans. (Leipzig, 1905); L. Winifred
  Faraday, _The Cattle-Raid of Cualnge_ (London, 1904); the Irish text
  according to LU. and YBL. has been published as a supplement to
  _Eriu_; Eleanor Hull, _The Cuchulinn-saga_ (London, 1899); W.
  Ridgeway, "The Date of the First Shaping of the Cuchulinn Cycle,"
  _Proceedings of the British Academy_, vol. ii. (London, 1907); A.
  Nutt, _Cuchulin, the Irish Achilles_ (London, 1899); H. Zimmer,
  "Keltische Beitrage" in _Zeitschrift f. deutsches Altertum_, vols. 32,
  33 and 35, and "Uber den compilatorischen Charakter der irischen
  Sagentexte in sogenannten Lebor na hUidre," Kuhn's _Zeitschr._ xxviii.
  pp. 417-689. We cannot here enumerate the numerous heroic texts which
  have been edited. For texts published before 1883 see d'Arbois's
  _Catalogue_, and the same writer gives a complete list in _Revue
  Celtique_, vol. xxiv. pp. 237 ff. The series of _Irische Texte_, vols.
  i.-iv. (Leipzig, 1880-1901), by E. Windisch (vols. ii.-iv. in
  conjunction with W. Stokes), contains a number of important texts.
  Others, more particularly those belonging to the Ossianic cycle, are
  to be found in S.H. O'Grady's _Silva Gadelica_ (2 vols. London, 1892).
  See also R. Thurneysen, _Sagen aus dem alten Irland_ (Berlin, 1901);
  P.W. Joyce, _Old Celtic Romances_ (London[2], 1901).

  For the Ossianic cycle see H. Zimmer, "Keltische Beitrage III." in
  vol. 35 of the _Zeitschr. f. deutsches Altertum_, also _Gottinger
  Gelehrte Anzeigen_, 1887, pp. 153-199; A. Nutt, _Ossian and the
  Ossianic Literature_ (London, 1899); L.C. Stern, "Die ossianischen
  Heldenlieder," in _Zeitschr. f. vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte_
  for 1895, trans. by J.L. Robertson in _Transactions of the Inverness
  Gaelic Society_, vol. xxii.; J. MacNeill, _Duanaire Finn_ (London,
  1908); _Book of the Dean of Lismore_, ed. by T. Maclauchlan
  (Edinburgh, 1862), and in vol. i. of A. Cameron's _Reliquiae Celticae_
  (Edinburgh, 1892); _Transactions of the Ossianic Society_ (6 vols.,
  Dublin, 1854-1861); Miss Brooke, _Reliques of Ancient Irish Poetry_
  (Dublin, 1789).

  Keating's _History_ was translated by John O'Mahony (New York, 1866).
  The first part was edited with Eng. trans. by W. Halliday
  (Dublin,1811) and the whole work in 3 vols. for the Irish Texts
  Society by D. Comyn and P. Dinneen (London, 1901-1908). Comparatively
  few specimens have been published of the older bards. Several from a
  Copenhagen MS. were printed by Stern in the _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._
  vol. ii.; J. Hardiman, _Irish Minstrelsy_ (2 vols., Dublin, 1831);
  J.C. Mangan, _The Poets and Poetry of Munster_ (Dublin^4, no date); G.
  Sigerson, _The Bards of the Gael and Gall_ (Dublin, 1906). Editions of
  the poems of Ferriter, Geoffrey O'Donoghue, O'Rahilly, John O'Tuomy,
  Andrew Magrath, John Claragh MacDonnell, Tadhg Gaolach and Owen Roe
  O'Sullivan by Dinneen, Gaelic League, Dublin, and Irish Texts Society,
  London, 1900-1903. (E. C. Q.)

II. SCOTTISH GAELIC LITERATURE.--It is not until after the Forty-five
that we find any great manifestation of originality in the literature of
the Scottish Highlands. The reasons for this are not far to seek. Just
as the dialects of Low German in the middle ages were overshadowed by
the more brilliant literary dialect of the south, so Scotch Gaelic was
from the outset seriously handicapped by the great activity of the
professional literary class in Ireland. We may say that down to the
beginning of the 18th century the literary language of the Highlands was
the Gaelic of Ireland. During the dark days of the penal laws and with
the extinction of the men of letters and their patrons in Ireland, an
opportunity was given to the native Scottish muse to develop her powers.
Another potent factor also made itself felt. After Culloden the causes
of the clan feuds and animosities of the past were removed. The
Highlands, perhaps for the first time in history, formed a compact whole
and settled down to peace and quietude. A remarkable outburst of
literary activity ensued, and the latter half of the 18th century is the
period which Scottish writers love to call the golden age of Gaelic
poetry. But before we attempt to deal with this period in detail, we
must examine the scanty literary products of Gaelic Scotland prior to
the 18th century.


  "Book of Deer."

The earliest document containing Gaelic matter which Scotland can claim
is the _Book of Deer_, now preserved in the Cambridge University
Library. This MS. contains portions of the Gospels in Latin written in
an Irish hand with illuminations of the well-known Irish type. At the
end there occurs a colophon in Irish which is certainly as old as the
9th century. Inserted in the margins and blank spaces are later notes
and memoranda partly in Latin, partly in Gaelic. The Gaelic entries were
probably made between 1000 and 1150. They relate to grants of land and
other privileges made from time to time to the monastery of Deer
(Aberdeenshire). The most interesting portion deals with the legend of
Deer and its traditional foundation by St Columba. The language of these
entries shows a striking departure from the traditional orthography
employed in contemporary Irish documents. The Advocates' Library in
Edinburgh contains a number of MSS. probably written in Scotland between
1400 and 1600, but with one exception the language is Irish.


  "Book of the Dean of Lismore."

The solitary exception just mentioned is the famous codex known as the
_Book of the Dean of Lismore_. The pieces contained in this volume are
written in the crabbed current Roman hand of the period, and the
orthography is phonetic, both of which facts render the deciphering of
this valuable MS. a task of supreme difficulty. The contents of this
quarto volume of 311 pages are almost entirely verse compositions
collected and written down by Sir James Macgregor, dean of Lismore in
Argyllshire, and his brother Duncan, between the years 1512 and 1526. A
disproportionate amount of space is allotted to the compositions of
well-known Irish bards such as Donnchadh Mor O'Daly (d. 1244),
Muiredhach Albanach (c. 1224), Tadhg Og O'Higgin (d. 1448), Diarmaid
O'Hiffernan, Torna O'Mulconry (d. 1468). But native bards are also
represented. We can mention Allan Mac Rorie, Gillie Calum Mac an Ollav,
John of Knoydart, who celebrates the murder of the young lord of the
isles by his Irish harper in 1490, Finlay MacNab, and Duncan Macgregor,
the transcriber of the greater part of the volume. The poems of the
last-mentioned writer are in praise of the Macgregors. A few other poems
are by Scottish authors such as Campbell, Knight of Glenorchy (d. 1513),
the earl of Argyll and Countess Isabella. A number consist of satires on
women. These Scottish writers are still under the influence of Irish
metric, and regularly employ the four-lined stanza. They do not appear
to adhere to the stricter Irish measures, but delight rather in the
freer forms going by the name of _oglachas_. The Irish rules for
alliteration and rhyme are not rigidly observed.

The linguistic peculiarities of the Dean's Book await investigation, but
among the pieces which represent the Scottish vernacular of the day are
the _Ossianic Ballads_. These, twenty-eight in number, extend to upwards
of 2500 lines, and form by far the most important part of the
collection. Thus the Dean's Book was compiled a full hundred years
before the earliest similar collection of heroic ballads was made in
Ireland. In Scotland the term Ossianic is used loosely of both the
Ulster and the Fenian cycles, and it may be as well to state that three
of the pieces in the volume deal with Fraoch, Conlaoch and the Bloody
Rout of Conall Cearnach. It is interesting to note that nine of the
poems are directly attributed to Ossian, two to Ferghus File, one to
Caoilte Mac Ronan, and one to Conall Cearnach, whilst others are
ascribed to Allan MacRorie, Gillie Calum Mac an Ollav and Caoch
O'Cluain, who are otherwise unknown. The Dean's Book was first
transcribed by Ewen MacLachlan in 1813. Thomas MacLauchlan published the
text of the Ossianic ballads with modern Gaelic and English renderings
in 1862. In the same volume W.F. Skene gave a useful description of the
MS. and its contents. Alexander Cameron revised the text of the portion
printed by MacLauchlan, and his amended text is printed in his
_Reliquiae Celticae_, vol. i. (See also L.C. Stern, _Zeitschr. f. celt.
Phil._ i. 294-326.)


  "Book of Fernaig."

Between the Book of the Dean and the Forty-five we find another great
gap, which is only bridged over by a collection which presents many
points of resemblance to Macgregor's compilation. The _Book of Fernaig_,
which is also written in a kind of phonetic script, was compiled by
Duncan Macrae of Inverinate between 1688 and 1693. The MS. contains
about 4200 lines of verse of different dates and by different authors.
The contents of the collection are mainly political and religious, with
a few poems which are termed didactic. As in the Dean's Book love-songs
and drinking-songs are conspicuously absent, whilst the religious poetry
forms about one-half of the contents. In state politics the authors are
Jacobite, and in church politics Episcopalian. The Ossianic literature
is represented by 36 lines. There are a number of poems by 16th-century
writers, among whom is Bishop Carsewell. Mackinnon has pointed out that
the language of the _Book of Fernaig_ corresponds exactly to the dialect
spoken in Kintail at the present day. The text of the _Book of Fernaig_
is printed in its entirety in vol. ii. of Cameron's _Reliquiae
Celticae_, and many of the poems are to be found in standard orthography
in G. Henderson's _Leabhar nan Gleann_. The metres employed in the poems
show the influence of the English system of versification. (See Stern,
_Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ ii. pp. 566 ff.)


  "Red and Black Books of Clanranald."

Two other Highland MSS. remain to be noticed. These are the _Red_ and
_Black Books of Clanranald_, which are largely taken up with the
histories of the families of Macdonald and with the achievements of
Montrose, written in the ordinary Irish of the period by the Macvurichs,
hereditary bards to the Clanranald chiefs. The _Red Book_ was obtained
by Macpherson in 1760 from Neil Macvurich, nephew of the last great
bard, and it figured largely in the Ossianic controversy. In addition to
poems in Irish by Neil Macvurich, who died at a great age some time
after 1715, and other bardic matter, the MSS. now contain only three
Ossianic poems, and these are in Irish. During the Ossianic controversy
the _Red Book of Clanranald_ was supposed to contain the originals of
much of Macpherson's famous work; but, on the book coming into the hands
of the enthusiastic Gaels of the closing years of the 18th century, and
on its contents being examined and found wanting, the MS. was tampered
with.


  Mary Macleod.

Mackenzie's _Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ contains poems written by a
number of writers who flourished towards the end of the 17th century and
at the beginning of the 18th. These are Mary Macleod, John Macdonald
(Iain Lom), Archibald Macdonald, Dorothy Brown, Cicely Macdonald, Iain
Dubh Iain 'Ic. Ailein (b. c. 1665), the Aosdan Matheson (one of his
poems was rendered in English by Sir Walter Scott under the title of
"Farewell to Mackenzie, High Chief of Kintail"), Hector Maclean (also
known through a translation by Scott called "War-song of Lachlan, High
Chief of Maclean"), Lachlan Mackinnon, Roderick Morrison (an Clarsair
Dall), and John Mackay of Gairloch, but we can here only notice the
first two. The famous Mary Macleod, better known as Mairi Nighean
Alastair Ruaidh (c. 1588-1693), was family bard to Sir Norman Macleod
of Bernera, and later to John "Breac" Macleod of Macleod, in honour of
whom most of her poems were composed. Like very many of the Highland
poets Mary had little or no education, and it would seem that none of
the poems which have come down to us were composed before 1660. Her
pieces are composed in the modern Irish metres with the characteristic
vowel rhymes of the accented syllables. As might perhaps be expected it
was only the Macvurichs (the professional bards of the Clanranald) who
went on practising the classical _debide_ metre. This they still
continued to do during the first quarter of the 18th century. Mary
Macleod's best-known pieces comprise a dirge on the drowning of Iain
Garbh (Mac'Ille Chalum) in the Minch, a song "An Talla 'm bu ghnath le
MacLeoid," and an ode to Sir Norman Macleod of Bernera, produced during
her exile in Mull, which begins "'S mi'm shuidhe air an tulaich." For
the details of her career, which are the subject of some dispute, the
reader may be referred to a paper by Alexander Mackenzie in the
_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, vol. xxii. pp. 43-66.
Mary Macleod is accounted one of the most musical and original of the
Highland bards.


  "Iain Lom."

John Macdonald, better known as Iain Lom (d. c. 1710), was a vigorous
political poet whose verses exercised an extraordinary influence during
his lifetime. He is said to have received a yearly pension from Charles
II. for his services to the Stuart cause. His best-known poems are _Mort
na Ceapach_, on the murder of the heir of Keppoch, who was eventually
avenged through the poet's efforts, and a piece on the battle of
Inverlochay (1645). However great the inspiration of Mary Macleod and
Iain Lorn, they were after all but political or family bards. In
succession to them there arose a small band of men with loftier
thoughts, a wider outlook and greater art. The literature of the
Scottish Highlands culminates in the names of Alexander Macdonald,
Duncan Ban MacIntyre and Dugald Buchanan.


  Alexander Macdonald.

Alexander Macdonald, commonly called Alasdair MacMaighstir Alasdair (b.
c. 1700), was the son of an Episcopalian clergyman in Moidart. He was
sent to Glasgow University to fit himself for a professional career. But
an imprudent marriage caused him to abandon his studies, and about 1729
he received an appointment as a Presbyterian teacher in his native
district. He was moved from place to place, and from 1739 to 1745 he
taught at Corryvullin on the Sound of Mull, the scene of some of his
most beautiful lyrics. About 1740 he was invited to compile a Gaelic
vocabulary, which was published in 1741. Macdonald has thus the double
distinction of being the author of the first book printed in Scotch
Gaelic and of being the father of Highland lexicography. The news of the
landing of the Pretender brought visions of release to the
poverty-stricken poet, who was by this time heartily sick of teaching
and farming. He turned Roman Catholic, and was present at the unfurling
of the Stuart standard. He was given the rank of captain, but rendered
greater services to the Jacobite cause with his stirring poems than with
the sword. After Culloden he suffered great privations. But in 1751 he
visited Edinburgh and brought out a collection of his poetry, which has
the honour of being the first original work printed in Scotch Gaelic.
His volume was therefore entitled _Ais-eiridh na Seann Chanain
Albannaich_ (Resurrection of the Ancient Scottish Tongue). Till the day
of his death he led a more or less wandering life, as he was dependent
on the generosity of Clanranald. Only a small part of Macdonald's
compositions have been preserved (thirty-one in all). These naturally
fall into three groups--love-songs, descriptive poems and patriotic and
Jacobite poems. In his love-songs and descriptive poems Macdonald struck
an entirely new note in Gaelic literature. His _Moladh Moraig_ and
_Cuachag an Fhasaich_ (also called _A'Bhanarach Dhonn_) are his
best-known compositions in the amatory style. But he is distinctly at
his best in the descriptive poems. We have already seen that even as
early as the 8th century the poets of Ireland gave expression to that
intimate love of nature which is perhaps the most striking feature in
Celtic verse. Macdonald had a wonderful command of his native Gaelic.
His verse is always musical, and his skilful use of epithet, often very
lavishly strewn, enables him to express with marvellous effect the
various aspects of nature in her gentler and sterner moods alike. His
masterpiece, the _Birlinn of Clanranald_, which is at the same time,
apart from Ossianic ballads, the longest poem in the language, describes
a voyage from South Uist to Carrickfergus. Here Macdonald excels in
describing the movement of the ship and the fury of the storm. In _Allt
an t-Siucair_ (The Sugar Brook) we are given an exquisite picture of a
beautiful scene in the country on a summer morning. Other similar poems
full of melody and colour are _Failte na Mor-thir_ (Hail to the
Mainland), _Oran an t-Samhraidh_ (Ode to Summer), and _Oran an
Gheamhraidh_ (Ode to Winter). When this gifted son of the muses
identified himself with the Stuart cause he poured forth a stream of
inspiring songs which have earned for him the title of the Tyrtaeus of
the Rebellion. Among these we may mention _Oran nam Fineachan Gaelach_
(The Song of the Clans), _Brosnachadh nam Fineachan gaidhealach_ (A Call
to the Highland Clans), and various songs to the prince. But
incomparably the finest of all is _Oran Luaighe no Fucaidh_ (Waulking
Song). Here the prince is addressed as a young girl with flowing locks
of yellow hair on her shoulders, and called Morag. She had gone away
over the seas, and the poet invokes her to return with a party of
maidens (i.e. soldiers) to dress the red cloth, in other words, to beat
the English red-coats. The song contains forty-seven stanzas in all,
with the characteristic refrain of the waulking-songs. _Am Breacan
Uallach_ is a spirited poem in praise of the kilt and plaid, which had
been forbidden by the English government. Macdonald is also the author
of a number of poems in MS. which have been called the quintessence of
indecency. His works have gone through eight editions, the last of which
is dated 1892.

In connexion with Macdonald's Jacobite songs it will be well to mention
here the name of a kindred spirit, John Roy Stuart (Iain Ruadh
Stiubhart). Stuart was a gallant soldier who was serving in Flanders
with the French against the English when the rebellion broke out. He
hurried home and distinguished himself on the field of battle. After
Culloden he gave vent to his dejection in two pathetic songs, one on the
battle itself, while the other deals with the sad lot of the Gael.


  Duncan Ban.

The only poet of nature who can claim to rival Macdonald is a man of a
totally different stamp. Duncan Ban Maclntyre (Donnachadh Ban,
1724-1812) was born of poor parents in Glenorchy, and never learned to
read and write or to speak English. He was present on the English side
at the battle of Falkirk, on which he wrote a famous ode, and shortly
afterwards he was appointed gamekeeper to the earl of Breadalbane in
Coire Cheathaich and Ben Dorain, where he lived for many years until he
accepted a similar appointment from the duke of Argyll in
Buachaill-Eite. Stewart of Luss is credited with having taken down the
6000 lines of verse of his own composition which MacIntyre had carried
about with him for many years, and his works were published in 1768. In
his later years he was first a volunteer and afterwards a member of the
city guard in Edinburgh. In addition to his poems descriptive of nature
MacIntyre composed a number of Jacobite martial songs, songs of love and
sentiment, and comic and satiric pieces. The poem _Mairi bhan og_
addressed to his wife is, on account of its grace and delicate
sentiment, generally held to be the finest love-song in the language.
But it is above all as the poet of ben and corrie that MacIntyre is
remembered. He has been called the Burns of the Highlands, but the
bitterness and intellectual power of the Ayrshire poet are absent in
MacIntyre. Duncan Ban describes fondly and tenderly the glories of his
native mountains as only one can who spends his life in daily communion
with them. His two great compositions are styled _Ben Dorain_ and _Coire
Cheathaich_. The former is a long poem of 550 lines divided into eight
parts, alternating with a sort of strophe and antistrophe, one slow
called _urlar_ in stately trochees, the other swift called _siubhal_ in
a kind of galloping anapaests; the whole ending with the _crunluath_ or
final quick motion. It is said to follow very accurately the lilt of a
pipe-tune. The poem, which might be called the "Song of the Deer," has
been well done into English by J. S. Blackie. _Coire Cheathaich_ (The
Misty Corrie), a much shorter poem than Ben Dorain, gives a loving
description of all the prominent features in the landscape--the flowers,
the bushes, the stones, the hillocks with the birds and game, and the
whirling eddies with the glistening salmon. MacIntyre's works went
through three editions in his lifetime, and a twelfth was issued in
1901.


  Rob Donn.

  John MacCodrum.

From Duncan Ban we pass on to consider the compositions of two men who
hailed from the outlying parts of Gaeldom. Robert Mackay, or, as he is
generally called, Rob Donn (1714-1778), was a native of Strathmore,
Sutherlandshire, who, like Duncan Ban, never learned to read or write.
His life, which was uneventful, was spent almost entirely within the
confines of the county of his birth. He left behind a large number of
poems which may be roughly classified as elegiac, love and satiric
poems. His elegies are of the typical Highland kind. The singer is
overwhelmed with sadness and despairing in his loss. His best-known
composition in this style is "The Death-Song of Hugh." Having just heard
of the death of Pelham, the prime minister, Mackay finds a poor friend
of his dying alone amid squalor in the heart of the mountains. In a poem
composed on the spot the poet contrasts the positions of the two men and
reflects on the vanity of human existence. Among his love-poems the
"Shieling Song" is deservedly famous. But it was above all as a satirist
that Mackay excelled during his lifetime. Indeed he seems to have had
the sharpest tongue of all the Highland bards. We have already seen what
powers were attributed to satirical poets in Ireland in medieval times,
and though bodily disfigurements were no longer feared in the 18th
century, nothing was more dreaded, both in Ireland and Scotland, than
the lash of the bard. Hence many of Rob Donn's compositions have lost
their point, and opinions have been greatly divided as to his merits as
a poet. His collected poems were first published in 1829, a second
edition appeared in 1871, and in 1899 two new editions were issued
simultaneously, the one by Hew Morrison, the other by Adam Gunn and
Malcolm Macfarlane. Another satirical poet who enjoyed a tremendous
reputation in his own day was John MacCodrum, a native of North Uist and
a contemporary of the men just mentioned. It is related of MacCodrum
that the tailors of the Long Island refused to make any clothes for him
in consequence of a satire he had directed against them. He was
encountered in a ragged state by the Macdonald, who on learning the
cause of his sorry condition promoted him to the dignity of bard to his
family. Consequently a number of his compositions are addressed to his
patrons, but one delightful poem entitled _Smeorach Chlann-Domhnuill_
(The Mavis of Clan Donald) describes in verses full of melody the
beauties of his beloved island home.


  Dugald Buchanan.

In the lyrical outburst which followed the Forty-five it was only to be
expected that religious poetry should be represented. We have seen that
much of the space in the Dean's Book and in the _Book of Fernaig_ is
allotted to verse of a pious order, though apart from the works of such
Irish singers as Donnchadh O'Daly the poems do not reach a very high
pitch of excellence. The first religious poem to be printed in Scotch
Gaelic was a long hymn by David Mackellar, published in 1752. But
incomparably the greatest writer of hymns and sacred poems is Dugald
Buchanan (1716-1768). Buchanan was born in Strathyre in Perthshire and
was the son of a miller. He received a desultory kind of education and
tried his hand at various trades. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster
at Drumcastle near Kinloch Rannoch. He was selected to assist Stewart of
Killin in preparing the first Highland version of the New Testament for
the Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge (published 1767), and at
the same time he issued an edition of his own poems. Of all Gaelic books
this has been far and away the most popular, having gone through no less
than forty editions. Buchanan seems to have been very susceptible to
religious influences, and the stern Puritan doctrines of retribution and
eternal damnation preached around him so worked on his mind that from
his ninth to his twenty-sixth year he was a prey to that mental anguish
so eloquently described by Bunyan. The awful visions which presented
themselves to his vivid imagination find expression in his poems, the
most notable of which are "The Majesty of God," "The Dream," "The
Sufferings of Christ," "The Day of Judgment," "The Hero," "The Skull,"
"Winter" and "Prayer." In the "Day of Judgment," a poem of about 120
stanzas, we are given in sublime verses a vivid delineation of the crack
of doom as the archangel sounds the last trumpet. The poet then goes on
to depict the awful scenes consequent upon the wreck of the elements,
and pictures the gathering together of the whole human race before the
Throne. But Buchanan's masterpiece is admittedly "The Skull." Traces of
the influence of English writers have been observed in all the poet's
writings, and it seems certain that the subject of his greatest poem was
suggested by Shakespeare. The poet seated by a grave espies a skull. He
takes it up and muses on its history. This poem in 44 stanzas concludes
with a picture of the torments of hell and the glories of heaven.


  Macpherson's "Ossian."

The writers whom we have been discussing are practically unknown save to
those who are able to read them in the original. Now we have to turn our
attention to a man whose works have never been popular in the Highlands,
but who nevertheless plays a prominent part in the history of European
literature. Though the precise origin of the Fenian cycle may remain a
moot-point to all time, the development of the literature centring in
the names of Finn and Ossian is at any rate clear from the 11th century
onwards. The interest taken in Celtic studies since the middle of the
19th century in Ireland and Scotland and elsewhere has accumulated a
body of evidence which has settled for all time the celebrated dispute
as to the authenticity of Macpherson's Ossian. James Macpherson
(1736-1796), a native of Kingussie, showed a turn for versification
whilst yet a student at college. Whilst acting as tutor at Moffat he was
asked by John Home as to the existence of ancient Gaelic literature in
the Highlands. After some pressing Macpherson undertook to translate
some of the more striking poems, and submitted to Home a rendering of
"The Death of Oscar." Blair, Ferguson and Robertson, the foremost men in
the Edinburgh literary circles of the day, were enthusiastic about the
unearthing of such unsuspected treasures, and at their instance
Macpherson published anonymously in 1760 his _Fragments of Ancient
Poetry, collected in the Highlands of Scotland and translated from the
Gaelic or Erse Language_. This publication contained in all fifteen
translations, preceded by a preface from the pen of Blair. Published
under such auspices, Macpherson's venture was bound to succeed. In the
preface it was stated that among other ancient poems an epic of
considerable length existed in Gaelic, and that if sufficient
encouragement were forthcoming the author of the versions would
undertake to recover and translate the same. A subscription was raised
at once, and Macpherson set out on a journey of exploration in the
Highlands and islands. As the result of this tour, on which he was
accompanied by two or three competent Gaelic scholars, Macpherson
published in London in 1762 a large quarto containing his epic styled
_Fingal_ with fifteen other smaller poems. In the following year a still
larger epic appeared with the title of _Temora_. It was in eight books,
and contained a number of notes in addition to _Cath-Loda_ and other
pieces, along with the seventh book of _Temora_ in Gaelic as a specimen
of the original. Ten years later a new edition of the whole was issued.
The authenticity of Macpherson's translations was soon impugned by Dr
Johnson, Hume and Malcolm Laing, and the author was urged by his friends
to publish the originals. Macpherson prevaricated, even though the
Highlanders of India sent him a cheque for L1000 to enable him to
vindicate the antiquity of their native literature. Macpherson at
different times, and particularly towards the end of his life, seems to
have had some intention of publishing the Gaelic of his Ossian, but he
was naturally deterred by the feeling that his knowledge of Gaelic was
becoming shakier with his continued absence from the Highlands. At any
rate he left behind a quantity of Gaelic matter in MS. which was
ultimately published by the Highland Society of London in 1807. This
MS., however, was revised and transcribed by Ross and afterwards
destroyed, so that we are ignorant of its nature. The Highland Society
also instituted an inquiry into the whole question, but their
conclusions were somewhat negative. They succeeded in establishing that
the characters introduced by Macpherson were familiar in the Highlands
and that Ossianic ballads really existed, which Macpherson had utilized.
Macpherson's claims still found ardent advocates, such as Clark, in the
'seventies, but the question was finally disposed of in papers by
Alexander Macbain (1885) and L.C. Stern (1895). We can here only
summarize briefly the main lines of argument. (1) Macpherson's Ossian is
full of reminiscences of Homer, Milton and the Hebrew prophets. (2) He
confuses the Ulster and the Fenian heroic cycles in unpardonable
fashion. (3) The Gaelic text of 1807 only represents one-half of the
English versions (11 poems out of 22 poems). Some Gaelic fragments from
different pens appeared prior to 1807, but these differ considerably
from the "official" version. (4) In the Gaelic text of 1807 the version
of the passage from _Temora_ is quite different from that published in
1763. (5) Macpherson's Gaelic is full of offences against idiom and
unnaturally strained language. (6) The names Morven and Selma are
entirely of his own invention (see also MACPHERSON, JAMES). As a result
of the stir caused by Macpherson's work a number of men set about
collecting the genuine popular literature of the Highlands. A few years
before the appearance of _Fingal_, Jeremy Stone, a schoolmaster at
Dunkeld, had collected ten Ossianic ballads and published one of them in
an English versified translation. For this collection see a paper by D.
Mackinnon in the _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, vol.
xiv. pp. 314 ff. Unfortunately other persons were led to follow
Macpherson's example. The chief of these imitators were (1) John Clark,
who in 1778 published, along with several others, an English poem
_Mordubh_, later translated into Gaelic by Gillies; (2) R. Macdonald,
son of Alexander Macdonald, who is the author of _The Wish of the Aged
Bard_; (3) John Smith of Campbeltown (d. 1807), author of fourteen
Ossianic poems styled _Seandana_, published in English in 1780 and in
Gaelic in 1787; (4) D. MacCallum of Arisaig, who in 1821 published
_Collath_ and a complete _Mordubh_ "by an ancient bard Fonar."


  Later poets.

We have now reviewed in turn the greatest writers of the Scottish
Highlands. The men we have dealt with created a kind of tradition which
others have attempted to carry on. Ewen Maclachlan (1775-1822), the
first transcriber of the Dean's Book, was assistant librarian of King's
College and rector of the grammar school of Aberdeen. Amongst other
things he translated the greater part of seven books of Homer's _Iliad_
into Gaelic heroic verse, and he also had a large share in the
compilation of the Gaelic-English part of the Highland Society's
_Dictionary_. A number of Gaelic poems were published by him in 1816.
These consist of poems of nature, e.g. _Dain nan Aimsirean, Dan mu
chonaltradh, Smeorach Chloinn-Lachuinn_, and of a well-known love-song,
the _Ealaidh Ghaoil_. William Ross (1762-1790), a schoolmaster at
Gairloch, is the typical Highland poet of the tender passion, and he is
commonly represented as having gone to an early grave in consequence of
unrequited affection. His finest compositions are _Feasgar Luain_ and
_Moladh na h-oighe Gaelich_. Another exquisite song _Cuachag nan
Craobh_, is usually attributed to this poet, but it seems to go back to
the beginning of the 18th century. A fifth edition of Ross's poems
appeared in 1902. The most popular writer of sacred poems after Buchanan
is undoubtedly Peter Grant, a Baptist minister in Strathspey, whose
_Dain Spioradail_ (first published in 1809) reached a twentieth edition
in 1904, Sweetness, grace and simplicity are the characteristics which
have endeared him to the heart of the Gael. Two other well-known
hymn-writers spent their lives in Nova Scotia--James Macgregor
(1759-1830) and John Maclean, a native of Tiree. The compositions of the
latter have been published under the title _Clarsach na Coille_
(Glasgow, 1881). But John Morrison (1790-1852), the poet-blacksmith of
Rodel, Harris, is the most worthy of the name of successor to Buchanan.
His works have been carefully edited in two volumes by George Henderson
(2nd edition, 1896). His poems are remarkably musical and imaginative.
Two of the most characteristic are _An Iondruinn_ and _Tha duin' og agus
seann duin' agam_. William Livingston or MacDhunleibhe (1808-1870) was a
native of Islay. He received scarcely any education, and was apprenticed
as a tailor, but he early made his way to the mainland. He was ever a
fierce Anglophobe, and did his best to make up for the deficiencies of
his early training. He published in English a _Vindication of the Celtic
Character_, and attempted to issue a _History of Scotland_ in parts. His
poems, which have been at least twice published (1858, 1882), are
equally powerful in the expression of ruthless fierceness and tearful
sorrow. In _Fios thun a' Bhaird_ he sings pathetically of the passing of
the older order in Islay, and another powerful poem entitled _Duan
Geall_ deals with the campaign of the Highlanders under Sir Colin
Campbell in the Crimea. Livingston's contemporary, Evan Maccoll
(1808-1898), the son of a small farmer on Lochfyneside, in his early
years devoured eagerly all the English literature and Gaelic lore that
came in his way. In 1836 he issued a volume of songs called the
_Mountain Minstrel_, containing his productions in Gaelic and English.
Two years later two volumes appeared, one entirely in Gaelic, styled
_Clarsach nam Beann_, the other in English under the old title. A third
edition of the Gaelic collection was published in 1886. Maccoll acted
for many years as clerk in the custom-house at Liverpool, and afterwards
he filled a similar post at Kingston, Canada. He has been called the
Moore of Highland song. His spirit is altogether modern, and his poems
are much nearer the Lowland type than those of the older bards. Among
his best-known pieces are _Bas Mairi_ and _Duanag Ghaoil_. We can do no
more than mention the names of John Maclachlan of Rahoy (1804-1874),
James Munro (1794-1870), well known as a grammarian, Dugald Macphail (b.
1818), Mrs Mary Macpherson, Angus Macdonald (1804-1874), Mrs Mary
Mackellar (1834-1890) and Neil Macleod (b. 1843), author of a popular
collection _Clarsach an Doire_ (1st ed., 1883; 3rd ed., 1904). Neil
Macleod is also the writer of the popular song _An Gleann's an robh mi
og_. Others whom we cannot mention here are known as the authors of one
or more songs which have become popular. It is natural to compare the
state of affairs at the beginning of the 20th century with that
obtaining in 1800. In the dawn of the 19th century every district in the
Highlands had its native poet, whilst a century later not a single
Gaelic bard of known reputation existed anywhere within its borders. It
is only too evident that the new writers prefer English to Gaelic as a
medium of literature, partly because they know it better, but also
because in it they appeal to a far wider public.


  Prose writers.

It will have been observed that we have said nothing about prose works
written in Gaelic. Original Gaelic prose is conspicuous by its absence.
The first printed work is the translation of Knox's _Liturgy_ by Bishop
Carsewell, published in 1567 (reprinted in 1873). Calvin's Catechism is
said to have been issued in 1631. The Psalms and Shorter Catechism
appeared in 1659, while two other psalters saw the light before the end
of the century, one by Kirke (1684), the other issued by the Synod of
Argyll (1694). The language of all these publications may, however, be
termed Irish. Apart from reprints of the catechism and psalter, the only
other Gaelic matter which appeared in print before 1750 were Kirke's
Irish version of the Bible in Roman type with a vocabulary (1690), and
the _Vocabulary_ by Alexander Macdonald (1741). But from the middle of
the 18th century translations of the works of English religious writers
streamed from the various presses. Alleine, Baxter, Boston, Bunyan,
Doddridge and Jonathan Edwards were all prime favourites, and their
works have gone through many editions. Apart from a well-meant but
wholly inadequate version of Schiller's _Tell_, the only non-religious
work which can be termed literature existing in a Gaelic translation is
a portion of the _Arabian Nights_, though fragments of other classics
such as Lamb's _Tales from Shakespeare_ have appeared in magazines. The
one-sided character of Gaelic literature, in addition to exercising a
baneful influence on Highland character, has in the long run of
necessity proved adverse to the vitality of the language. The best
standard of Gaelic is by common consent the language of the Scriptures.
James Stewart of Killin's version of the New Testament, published by the
Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge, was followed by a
translation of the Old Testament in four parts (1783-1801), the work of
John Stewart of Luss and John Smith of Campbeltown. The whole Gaelic
Bible saw the light in 1807. But the revision of 1826 is regarded as
standard. The translators and revisers had no norm to follow, and it is
difficult to say how far they were influenced by Irish tradition. Much
in the Gaelic version seems to savour of Irish idiom, and it is a pity
that some competent scholar such as Henderson has not investigated the
question. Of original prose works we can mention two. The one is a
_History of the Forty-five (Eachdraidh a' Phrionnsa, no Bliadhna
Thearlaich_), published in 1845 by John Mackenzie, the compiler of the
_Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ (1806-1848). A second edition of this book
appeared in 1906. The other is the more famous _Caraid nan Gaedheal_, by
Norman Macleod (new edition, 1899). This volume consists mainly of a
number of dialogues dealing with various departments of Highland life,
which were originally contributed to various magazines from 1829 to
1848. Macleod's style is racy and elegant, and his work is deservedly
popular.

In conclusion we must take notice of the more important collections of
folklore. Gaelic, like Irish, is extraordinarily rich in proverbs. The
first collection of Gaelic proverbs was published in 1785 by Donald
Macintosh. This work was supplemented and enlarged in 1881 by Alexander
Nicolson, whose book contains no fewer than 3900 short sayings. A large
collection of Gaelic folk-tales was gleaned and published by J.F.
Campbell under the title of _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_ (4
vols., Edinburgh, 1862). Alexander Carmichael published a version of the
_Tain Bo Calnge_, called _Toirioc na Taine_, which he collected in South
Uist (_Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, ii. 25-42),
also the story of Deirdre and the sons of Uisneach in prose taken down
in Barra (ib. xiii. 241-257). Five volumes of popular stories, collected
by J.G. Campbell, D. MacInnes, J. Macdougall and Lord Archibald
Campbell, have been published (1889-1895) by Nutt under the title _Waifs
and Strays of Celtic Tradition_. These collections contain a good deal
of matter pertaining to the old heroic cycles. Seven ballads dealing
with the Ulster cycle were collected and printed by Hector Maclean under
the title _Ultonian Hero-ballads_ (Glasgow, 1892). Macpherson gave a
fillip to collectors of Ossianic lore, and a number of MSS. going back
to his time are deposited in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh. J.F.
Campbell spent twelve years searching for variants, and his results were
published in his _Leabhar na Feinne_ (1872). This volume contains 54,000
lines of heroic verse. The Edinburgh MSS. were transcribed by Alexander
Cameron, and published after his death by Alexander Macbain and John
Kennedy in his _Reliquiae Celticae_. This work is therefore a complete
corpus of Gaelic heroic verse. Finally the charms and incantations of
the Highlands have been collected and published by Alexander Carmichael
in two sumptuous volumes under the title _Carmina Gadelica_ (1900).

  AUTHORITIES.--The standard work is Magnus Maclean, _The Literature of
  the Highlands_ (London, 1904); see also various chapters in the same
  writer's _Literature of the Celts_ (London, 1902); L.C. Stern, _Die
  Kultur der Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1, pp. 98-109; Nigel MacNeill, _The
  Literature of the Highlanders_ (Inverness, 1892); J.S. Blackie, _The
  Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands_ (Edinburgh, 1876);
  P.T. Pattison, _Gaelic Bards_ (1890); L. Macbean, _Songs and Hymns of
  the Scottish Highlands_ (Edinburgh, 1888); John Mackenzie, _Sarobair
  nam Bard Gaelach_, or _The Beauties of Gaelic Poetry_ (new ed.,
  Edinburgh, 1904); A. Sinclair, _An t-Oranaiche_ (Glasgow, 1879); _The
  Book of Deer_, edited for the Spalding Club by Dr Stuart (1869);
  Alexander Macbain, _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_,
  vols. xi. and xii.; _The Book of the Dean of Lismore_, edited by T.
  Maclauchlan (1862); Alexander Cameron, _Reliquiae Celticae_
  (Inverness, 1892-1894); John Reid, _Bibliotheca Scoto-Celtica_
  (Glasgow, 1832); _Catalogue_ of the books in the Celtic department,
  Aberdeen University Library (1897); George Henderson, _Leabhar nan
  Gleann_ (Inverness, 1898); D. Mackinnon, "The Fernaig MS." in
  _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, xi. 311-339; J.S.
  Smart, _James Macpherson, An Episode in Literature_ (London, 1905);
  L.C. Stern, "Die Ossianischen Heldenlieder" in _Zeitschrift fur
  vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte_ (1895), translated by J.L.
  Robertson in _Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness_, xxv.
  257-325; G. Dottin, _Revue de synthese historique_, viii. 79-91; M.C.
  Macleod, _Modern Gaelic Bards_ (Stirling, 1908).     (E. C. Q.)

III. MANX LITERATURE.--The literary remains written in the Manx language
are much slighter than those of any other Celtic dialect. With one small
exception nothing pertaining to the saga literature of Ireland has been
preserved. The little we possess naturally falls under two
heads--original compositions and translations. With regard to the first
category we must give the place of honour to an Ossianic poem contained
in a MS. in the British Museum (written in 1789), which relates how
Orree, Finn's enemy, was tormented by the women of Finn's household when
the latter was away hunting, how he in revenge set fire to the house,
and how Finn had him torn in pieces by wild horses. Most of the existing
literature of native origin, however, consists of ballads and carols,
locally called carvels. These used to be sung on Christmas eve in the
churches, the members of the congregation each bringing a candle. Any
one who pleased could get up and sing one. These carvels deal largely
with the end of the world, the judgment-day and the horrors of hell.
About eighty of them were published under the title of _Carvalyn
Gailckagh_ (Douglas, 1891). An attempt is being made by _Yn Cheshaght
Gailckagh_ to revive the _Oiel Voirrey_ (=Irish _Oidhche Fheile
Mhuire_), "the feast of Mary," as the festival used to be called, and
gatherings in the old style have been held in Peel for the last two or
three years. Apart from the carvels there are other ballads in
existence, the most important of which were printed in vol. xvi. of the
_Publications of the Manx Society_. The earliest is an 18th-century song
of Manannan Mac y Lheir, traditionally supposed to have been written in
the 16th century, and which tells of the conversion of the island by St
Patrick. Then comes _Baase Ittiam Dhone_ (The Death of Brown William),
dealing with the death of William Christian, who was shot as a traitor
in 1662. The best-known Manx song is _Mylecharaine_ (=Irish
_Maolchiaran_). It is directed against a man of this name who was the
first to give a dowry to his daughter, the custom having previously been
for the bridegroom to pay money to the father of the bride. Others are
_Ny Kirree fo Sniaghtey_ (The Sheep under the Snow), a song about the
loss of the Douglas herring fleet in 1787 (reprinted at Douglas, 1872),
and _O Vannin Veg Veen_ (Dear little Mona). A further ballad was taken
down by J. Strachan and is published in the _Zeitschrift fur celtische
Philologie_, i. 79. In 1760 Joseph Bridson wrote a "Short Account of the
Isle of Man" in Manx (_Coontey Ghiare jeh Ellan Vannin ayns Gailck_),
which was reprinted in vol. xx. of the _Publications of the Manx
Society_. The translated literature is almost entirely of a religious
character. Jenner prints a list of twenty-three volumes in his article
referred to below, but we can only here mention the most important. The
first is the translation of the English Prayer-Book by Bishop Phillips,
1610 (published by A.W. Moore, Oxford, 1895). The _Sermons_ of Bishop
Wilson in 3 vols. (1783) are a very rare work, highly important for our
knowledge of Manx prose, and it is to be hoped that _Yn Cheshaght
Gailckagh_ will see their way to reprint it. A translation of parts of
Milton's _Paradise Lost_ (_Pargys Caillit_) by Thomas Christian, 1796,
is reprinted in vol. xx. of the _Publications of the Manx Society_. The
later translation of the Church of England Prayer-Book was printed in
1765 and again in 1777 and 1840. But by far the most important of all is
the translation of the Bible. The energetic Bishop Wilson managed to get
parts of the Scriptures translated and the Gospel of St Matthew was
printed in 1748. Wilson's successor, Bishop Hildesley, completed the
work, and in 1775 the whole Bible appeared. The last reprint of the
Bible appeared in 1819, that of the New Testament in 1810 (?). As a
curiosity it may be mentioned that recently _Aesop's Fables_ have been
translated into the vernacular (Douglas, 1901).

  AUTHORITIES.--H. Jenner, "The Manx Language: its Grammar, Literature
  and Present State," _Transactions of the London Philological Society_
  (1875), pp. 172 ff.; _Publications of the Manx Society_, vols. xvi.,
  xx., xxi.; L.C. Stern, _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1, pp.
  110-11.


  Early MSS.

IV. WELSH LITERATURE.--The oldest documents consist of glosses of the
9th and 10th centuries found in four MSS.--Oxoniensis prior and
posterior, the Cambridge Juvencus and Martianus Capella. These glosses
were published by J. Loth in his _Vocabulaire vieux-breton_ (1884), but
their value is entirely philological. In addition, we possess two short
verses, written in Irish characters, preserved in the Juvencus
Manuscript in the University Library at Cambridge (printed in Skene's
_Four Ancient Books of Wales_). This manuscript is a versification of
the Gospels dating from the 9th century. The value of these two verses
is threefold: they give us, in the first place, a specimen of the Welsh
language at a time when the modern laws of euphony were in a
comparatively elementary stage; secondly, they are of the utmost
importance to the historian tracing the development of Welsh
versification, and, in future research, they must be taken into account
by the historian of modern metres in other languages; and, thirdly, the
similarity of their form and diction to other verses, attributed to
Llywarch Hen, and preserved in a much later orthography, will be a
serious consideration to the higher critic in Welsh literature.


  "Black Book of Carmarthen."

  "Book of Aneirin."

  "Book of Taliessin."

  "Red Book of Hergest."

All the prose and verse of the succeeding centuries, that is to say from
the 10th to the beginning of the 14th, is preserved in four important
manuscripts, written during the latter half of the period. The first of
these manuscripts is the _Black Book of Carmarthen_, a small quarto
vellum manuscript of fifty leaves, written in Gothic letters by various
hands during the reign of Henry II. (published in facsimile by
Gwenogvryn Evans, Oxford, 1907). This book belonged originally to the
priory of Black Canons at Carmarthen, from whom it passed to the church
of St David; at the suppression of the monasteries in the reign of Henry
VIII. it was presented by the treasurer of that church to Sir John
Price, one of the king's commissioners, and from him it passed
eventually into the hands of Sir Robert Vaughan, the owner of the famous
Hengwrt collection. It is now among the Peniarth Manuscripts,
undoubtedly the most valuable collection of Welsh manuscripts in the
United Kingdom. The second manuscript is the _Book of Aneirin_, a small
quarto manuscript of nineteen leaves of vellum, written about 1250. It
was at one time in the possession of Sir Thomas Phillips of Middlehill,
and now belongs to the free library of the city of Cardiff. The third is
the _Book of Taliessin_, in the Hengwrt and subsequently in the Peniarth
collection. It is a small quarto manuscript containing thirty-eight
leaves, written in Gothic letters, about the early part of the 14th
century. The fourth manuscript, and in some respects the most important,
is the _Red Book of Hergest_, so called from Hergest Court, one of the
seats of the Vaughans. It is a folio volume of 360 leaves written by
different hands between the beginning of the 14th and the middle of the
15th century. This manuscript, which is the most extensive compilation
of the medieval prose and verse of Wales, is now in the possession of
Jesus College, Oxford, and is kept in the Bodleian Library of that
university. The main body of the poems contained in these four MSS. was
printed by W. F. Skene with a tentative English version in his _Four
Ancient Books of Wales_.

The other Welsh manuscripts, ranging down from the 15th to the 18th
century, are far too numerous to notice, and it is outside the scope of
this article to deal minutely with the original sources of the text of
Welsh writings.

We will now only endeavour to sketch the history of Welsh literature
from these early centuries down to our own times, and to show how the
Celtic people of Wales have developed a literature true to their own
genius, and how that literature stands to this day both a minister to
the culture of the Welsh people and a sure indication of it.


  Gildas

1. _Early Latin Writers._--The works now known as those of Gildas (q.v.)
and Nennius (q.v.) are written in Latin; they throw considerable light
on the origin of Welsh romantic literature and on the history of the
earlier poems. Gildas was born at Ailclyd, the modern Dumbarton, that
part of Britain which is called by Welsh writers _Y Gogledd_, or the
North. Several dates have been assigned for his birth and death, but he
probably flourished between 500 and 580, and his book, _De Excidio
Britanniae_ seems to have been written about 560. This work is a sketch
of British history under the Romans and in the period after their
withdrawal from the country, and includes the period of the wars of the
Britons with the Picts, Scots and Saxons. Mr Skene suggests very
reasonably that the well-known letter of the Britons to Aetius, asking
for Roman aid, is misplaced, and that if put in its own place some of
the anachronisms of Gildas will disappear. This work, which contains
some spirited attacks on the leaders of the Britons for their sins, is
strangely full of contradictions. It seems to be the work of some person
well versed in the facts of that part of British history, to which he
had an easy access, but who supplemented them with traditional details
and with dates which were mere guess-work. Mr Skene thinks that the work
of Nennius was originally written in Welsh in the north and was
afterwards translated into Latin. To this nucleus was added the
genealogies of the Saxon kings down to 738. Afterwards some person,
called Marc in the Vatican manuscript, appended probably about 823 the
life of St Germanus and the legends of St Patrick, which were
subsequently incorporated with the history. Some South Welshman added to
the oldest manuscript of the history in these countries, about 977, a
chronicle of events from 444 to 954, in which there are genealogies
beginning with Owain, son of Hywel Dda, king of South Wales. This
chronicle, which is not found in other manuscripts, has been made the
basis of two later chronicles brought down to 1286 and 1288
respectively. It is consequently not the work of one author. A learned
Irishman named Gilla Coemgin, who died in 1072, translated it into Irish
and added many things concerning the Irish and the Picts. The _Historia
Britonum_ is more valuable for the legendary matter which it contains
than for what may be accepted as history, for it gives us the British
legends of the colonization of Great Britain and Ireland, the exploits
of King Arthur and the prophecies of Merlin, which are not found
elsewhere before the 12th century. The date of the book is of the
greatest importance to the history of medieval romance, and there can be
no doubt that it is earlier than the Norman Conquest and that the
legends themselves are of British origin.

2. _The Epic Period, 700-950._--The higher criticism of the early poetry
of Wales contained in the four ancient manuscripts already mentioned has
undergone a good many changes since their contents first excited the
curiosity of English scholars. In turn Welshmen, with more zeal than
discretion, have displayed an amazing charlatanism in the extraordinary
theories which they put forth, and Englishmen have shown an utmost
meanness in belittling what is undoubtedly a most valuable monument of
the past. But now the labours of Zeuss and others who have made a study
of Celtic philology furnish us with much safer canons of criticism than
existed in 1849, when even a learned Welshman, the late Thomas Stephens,
who did more than any one else to establish the claims of his country to
a real literature, doubted the authenticity of a large number of the
poems said to have been written by Taliessin, Aneirin, Myrddin and
Llywarch Hen, who are supposed to have lived in the 5th century. A great
service was done to Welsh literature by the publication of the texts of
those poems from the four ancient manuscripts by W.F. Skene. In addition
to the text, translations of the poems were furnished by Dr Silvan Evans
and the Rev. Robert Williams, but the translation, though on the whole a
very creditable work, is full of mistakes which few men, writing at that
time, could have avoided. The publication of the text of the Black Book,
with notes by Dr Gwenogvryn Evans, will be of great service towards
clearing up the mist which envelops this older literature.

Most of the poems in these four manuscripts are attributed to four
poets, Aneirin, Llywarch Hen, Taliessin and Myrddin, who are said to
have lived and written in Cumbria or Y Gogledd, where the actors in the
events referred to also lived. The greater part of this region enjoyed
substantial independence down to the end of the 9th century, with the
exception of the interval from 655, when they were subjected to the
kingdom of Northumbria by Oswy after the defeat of Cadwallawn and Penda,
to the battle of Dunnichen in 686, when Ecfrid, king of Northumbria, was
defeated. From the 7th to the 9th century Cumbria, including under that
name all the British territory from the Ribble to the Clyde, was the
principal theatre of British and Saxon conflict. The rise of the dynasty
of Maelgwn Gwynedd, who, according to Welsh tradition, was a descendant
of Cunedda Wledig, one of the Picts of the north, brought Wales into
close connexion with the Cumbrian kingdom, and prepared both North and
South Wales for the reception of the northern traditions and the rise of
a true Welsh literature.

Whether the poets of the north really wrote any of the poems which in a
modified form have come down to us or not, there can be no doubt that a
number of lays attributed to them lived in popular tradition, and that
under the sudden burst of glory which the deeds of Cadwallawn called
forth and which ended in the disastrous defeat of 655, a British
literature began to spring up, and was nourished by the hopes of a
future resurrection under his son Cadwaladr, whose death was disbelieved
in for such a long time. These floating lays and traditions gradually
gathered into North Wales, brought thither by the nobility and the bards
who fled before advancing hosts of the victorious Saxon kings of the
north. The heroes of the north became now the heroes of Wales, and the
sites of the battles they fought were identified with places of similar
name in Wales and England.


  Aneurin

By far the longest and the most famous poem of this series is attributed
to Aneurin. This spelling of his name is comparatively modern, and in
the old manuscripts it is given as Aneirin. The later form seems to have
been affected by the form _eurin_, "golden," and to owe the continuation
of the misspelling to a belief that the poet and Gildas, whose name is
supposed to be the Latin form of the Old English _gylden_, were one and
the same person. This poem, called the _Gododin_ (with notes by T.
Stephens and published by Prof. Powel for the Cymmrodorion Society,
London, 1888), is extremely obscure, both on account of its vocabulary
and its topography and allusions. It deals mainly with "the men who went
to Cattraeth," which is supposed to have been fought between the Britons
and the Scots under Aedan, king of Dalriada, and the pagan Saxons and
their British subjects in _Devyr_ (Deira) and _Bryneich_ (Bernicia), and
the half-pagan Picts of Guotodin, a district corresponding to the
northern half of the Lothians along the Firth of Forth. Critics have
attempted with partial success to cast some light on its obscurity by
supposing that the poem as a whole is made up of two parts dealing with
two distinct battles. This may or may not be, but there is no doubt that
many of the stanzas of the poem as found in the manuscript are not in
their proper places, and a critical readjustment of the different
stanzas and lines would do much towards solving its problem. It seems
probable, too, that the original nucleus of the poem was handed down
orally, and recited or sung by the bards and minstrels at the courts of
different noblemen. It thus became the common stock-in-trade of the
Welsh rhapsodist, and in time the bards, using it as a kind of
framework, added to it here and there pieces of their own composition
formed on the original model, especially when the heroes named happened
to be the traditional forefathers of their patrons, and occasionally
introduced the names of new heroes and new places as it suited their
purpose; and all this seems to have been done in early times. Older
fragments dealing too with the legendary heroes of the Welsh were
afterwards incorporated with the poem, and some of these fragments
undoubtedly preserve the orthographical and grammatical forms of the 9th
century. So that, on the whole, it seems as fruitless to look for a
definite record of historical events in this poem as it would be to do
so in the Homeric poems, but like them, though it cannot any longer be
regarded as a correct and definite account of a particular battle or
war, it still stands to this day the epic of the warriors of its own
nation. It matters not whether these heroes fought at far Cattraeth or
on some other forgotten field of disaster; this song still reflects, as
a true national epic, the sad defeats and the brave but desperate
rallies of the early Welsh. Like the music of the Welsh, its dominant
note is that of sadness, expressing the exultation of battle and the
very joy of life in minor notes. To a great extent Welsh poets are to
this day true and faithful disciples of this early master.


  Taliessin.

Many of the poems attributed to Taliessin are undoubtedly late. Indeed,
both Taliessin and Myrddin,[2] the one as the mythological chief of all
Welsh bards and the other as a great magician, seem pre-eminently suited
to attract a great deal of later Welsh poetry under their aegis; but the
older poems attributed to them are worthy of any literature. Sometimes,
as in the verses attributed to Llywarch Hen beginning _Stafell
Cynddylan_, an early specimen of poetic grief over departed glory, we
find that gentle elegiac note which is so common in early English
poetry. In the Taliessinic poems, the _Battle of Argoed Llwyvain_ and
others, we have that boldness of portraiture which is found in the
_Gododin_, whilst in many a noble line we seem to hear again the ravens
screaming shrilly over their sword-feasts, and the strong strokes of the
advancing warriors.


  Merlin.

It was but natural that all the pseudo-prophetic poems, written of
course after the events which they foretold, should be attributed to the
chief among seers, Myrddin, or, as his name is written in English,
Merlin; so that all the poems accredited to him, with the exception
perhaps of the _Avallenau_, were not written before the 12th century.

In most of the poems attributed to Llywarch Hen and in some of the
Myrddin poems, the verses begin with the same line, which, though it has
no direct reference to the subject of the poem itself, is used as a
refrain or catch-word, exactly like the refrains employed by Mr
Swinburne and others in their ballads. These lines generally refer to
some natural object or objects, as, for instance, "the snow of the
mountain" or "bright are the tops of the broom."

The first period, then, of Welsh literature lies between 700 and 950. It
is in most respects the epic period, the period in which poets wrote of
great men and their deeds, the legendary and the historic heroes of the
Cymry, men like Urien Rheged, and heroes like Hyveidd Hir. Even in the
next period the epic note had not quite died out.


  The Gododin series.

3. _The Prose Romances and the Poet Princes, 1100-1290._--It will be
seen that there is a considerable gap between the first and second
period of Welsh literature. It must not be supposed, however, that
nothing was composed or written during these years. Indeed, it may well
be that some of the poetry attributed to the minor bards of the last
period was composed between 900 and 1100, and that some other poetry too
was written and lost. But there are abundant reasons for believing that
Welsh poetry was at a very low ebb during those years. The progress of
Wales as a political unit had suffered a check after the battle of
Chester in 613. The effects of this defeat were not immediate, as the
Welsh had still enough of their characteristic hopefulness to expect
ultimate victory; we therefore have reasons for believing that the
Gododin series of poems were still used--or perhaps used then for the
first time--to spur on "the hawks of war" to greater efforts. Gradually,
however, the Angles, hemming them in on all sides from the Clyde to the
Severn, began to press nearer and nearer; the Welsh at last seem to have
lost heart, and no one any longer "had the desire of song." Content with
their old epics and their older myths, which owe perhaps to these years
a darker and more sombre tinge, they allowed their song to be hushed.
The great lords had hardly chosen their final abodes; the smaller lords
had all been killed in war and their places taken now by one, now by
another, so that the warrior prince himself had not the leisure, and
hardly the inspiration necessary, for song, and the bards found but
scanty patronage among such a diminished and poverty-stricken nobility.
The only order that seemed to prosper was that of the monks, and we owe
them our gratitude for preserving the ancient writings and the ancient
traditions; but they were simply copyists, though they had undoubtedly
some hand in giving the _Gododin_ its final form and in setting in its
convenient framework the names of the forefathers of their aristocratic
abbots.

In the year 1044 Gruffydd ab Llewelyn conquered Hywel ab Edwin and
became king of Wales. By means of his diplomacy and his arms he
succeeded in stemming the tide of Saxon invasion that was threatening to
overflow even the little remnant of land that was left to the Welsh, and
his strong rule gave the Welsh muse another opportunity. Gruffydd,
however, died in 1063, and was eventually succeeded in 1073 by Trahaern
in North Wales, and Rhys ab Owen in South Wales. The rule of these two
princes was destined to be the last period of literary inertness in the
long interval following the confinement of Wales to her inaccessible
highlands.

During these years a man was hiding in Ireland, called Gruffydd ab
Cynan, a scion of the old branch of Welsh kings. In Brittany, too, Rhys
ab Tewdwr, a claimant to the throne of South Wales, had sought the
protection of his Breton kinsmen. In 1073 Rhys ab Tewdwr obtained the
throne of Rhys ab Owen, and, after many years of hard fighting, Gruffydd
ab Cynan, with the help of Rhys ab Tewdwr, defeated Trahaern at the
battle of Myrydd Carn in 1081. On the accession of these two powerful
princes the whole country broke forth into songs of praise and
jubilation, and the long night was at an end.

It is important to remember that both Gruffydd and Rhys had a direct
personal influence on the literary revival of their times. Gruffydd ab
Cynan while in exile had seen how the Irish _Oenach_ was held, and had
seen prizes given for poetry and song. We have it on the authority of
Welsh writers that he reorganized the bards and improved the music, and
in many other ways gave a great and beneficial impulse to Welsh
literature. He may have brought over some of the later Irish legends
which have had such a powerful effect on the literature of Wales.


  Geoffrey of Montmouth.

Rhys ab Tewdwr, too, brought with him from Brittany an enthusiasm for
the old Celtic tales, and perhaps some of the tales themselves which had
been by that time forgotten in Wales, tales of the Round Table, and
Arthur "begirt with British and Armoric knights," of knightly deeds and
magical metamorphoses, which were destined to influence profoundly all
the literatures of the West. We find, therefore, in this period that
poetry flourished mostly in the North under Gruffydd ab Cynan, and prose
in the south under Rhys ab Tewdwr, where the new enthusiasm for the old
Welsh legends resulted in the _History of Britain_ of Geoffrey of
Monmouth, which is an expansion of the books attributed to Gildas and
Nennius. It was written in Latin sometime before 1147, and is dedicated
to Robert, earl of Gloucester, the grandson of Rhys ab Tewdwr. In the
introductory epistle, Geoffrey states that Walter, archdeacon of Oxford,
had given him a very ancient book in the British tongue, giving an
account of the kings of Britain from Brutus to Cadwaladr, and that he
had translated it into Latin at the archdeacon's request. The book,
however, is a compilation and not a translation, but the materials were
probably drawn from British sources. In this history Geoffrey asserts
that the deeds of Arthur "were commonly related in a pleasing manner."
He was perhaps originally but the hero of some popular ballad, or of a
forgotten stanza of the _Gododin_, and the importance of his name in the
literature of the world seems to be due to an accident. We cannot,
however, in this article consider the Arthurian Legend (q.v.) as a
whole; we must be content with dealing with the most important of the
romantic tales which are contained in the _Red Book of Hergest_. They
may be divided into four classes:--

(i.) The _Mabinogi_ proper, containing (1) _Pwyll_, prince of Dyvet; (2)
_Branwen_, daughter of Llyr; (3) _Manawyddan_, son of _Llyr_; (4)
_Math_, son of Mathonwy.

(ii.) Old British tales referring to Roman times, viz. (1) _Lludd_ and
_Llevelys_; (2) The Dream of _Macsen Wledic_.

(iii.) British Arthurian tales, viz. (1) _Kilhwch_ and _Olwen_; (2) The
Dream of _Rhonabwy_.

(iv.) Later tales of chivalry, viz. (1) The Lady of the Fountain; (2)
_Peredur_, son of _Evrawc_; (3) _Geraint_, son of _Erbin_.


  The Mabinogion.

The group of four romances in the first class forms a cycle of legends
and is called in the manuscript _Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi_--the Four
Branches of the Mabinogi; so it is only these four tales that can,
strictly speaking, be called _Mabinogion_. In these stories we have the
relics of the ancient Irish mythology of the _Tuatha De Danann_,
sometimes mixed with later myths. The _Caer Sidi_, where neither disease
nor old age affects any one, is the _Sid_ of Irish mythology, the
residence of the gods of the _Aes Side_. It is called in one of the old
poems the prison of _Gweir_, who no doubt represents _Gaiar_, son of
Manandan MacLir, the Atropos who cut the thread of life of Irish
mythology. _Llyr_ is the Irish sea-god Lir, and was called _Llyr
Llediaith_, or the half-tongued, implying that he spoke a language only
partially intelligible to the people of the country. _Bran_, the son of
Llyr, is the Irish Bran MacAllait, Allait being one of the names of Lir.
_Manawyddan_ is clearly the Manandan or Manannan MacLir of Irish
mythology. These tales contain other characters which may not have been
borrowed from Irish mythology but which are common to both mythologies;
for example, Rhiannon, the wife of Pwyll who possessed marvellous birds
which held warriors spell-bound for eighty years by their singing, comes
from _Annwn_, or the unseen world, and her son Pryderi gives her, on the
death of Pwyll, as a wife to Manawyddan.

Of the second class the first story relates to Lludd, son of Beli the
Great, son of Manogan, who became king after his father's death, while
his brother Llevelys becomes king of France and shows his brother how to
get rid of the three plagues which devastated Britain:--first, a strange
race, the Coranians, whose knowledge was so great that they heard
everything no matter how low soever it might be spoken; second, a shriek
which came into every house on May eve, caused by the fighting of two
dragons; and third, a great giant who carried off all the provisions of
the king's palace every day. The second tale relates how Maxen, emperor
of Rome, has a dream while hunting, in which he imagines that he visits
Britain, and in _Caer Seint_ or Carnarvon sees a beautiful damsel,
Helen, whom he ultimately finds and marries. Both tales are British in
origin and are founded on traditions referring to Roman times.

The most important of these tales are undoubtedly those contained in the
first class, and the story of _Kilhwch_ and _Olwen_. The form in which
they are found in the _Red Book of Hergest_ is, as we have already said,
comparatively speaking, modern. But it is apparent to any one reading
these tales that the writers or compilers, as Matthew Arnold has
suggested, are "pillaging an antiquity, the secret of which they do not
fully possess." The foundations of the tales are the old Celtic
traditions of the gods and the older heroes, and they clearly show
Goidelic influence both in the persons they introduce and in their
incidents. The tales would at first exist only in oral tradition, and
after the advent of Christianity the characters they contain lost their
title of divinity and became simply heroes--warriors and magicians. In
time the monks began to write these ancient traditions, embellishing
them and suppressing no doubt what they considered to be most
objectionable. These then are the tales which we now possess--the
traditional doings of the old heroes as set in order by Christian
writers.

The changes which these later copyists wrought in the substance of the
tales fall into two main divisions. In the first place, they attempted
to find some connexion between tales or cycles of tales which originally
had no connexion whatever, and were therefore forced to invent new
incidents or to introduce other incidents from the outside in order to
establish this connexion; and secondly, as in the case of the _Gododin_,
the tales were twisted and altered to support references to and
explanations of names known to the writer. So we find in the tale of
_Math vab Mathonwy_ the incident of the pigs is expanded to explain some
place-names which the writer knew. It is this also that gives a local
interest to the tales; for instance, _Dyvet_, the land of _Pwyll_, has
come to be regarded as the home of _Hud a Lledrith_, of magic and
enchantment. Some places in North Wales, especially in the vicinity of
Carnarvon, seem to be well known to the writers, and, therefore, to have
associated with them to all time the glamour of the Mabinogion.

Besides the scholastic efforts of the monks, which in course of time so
greatly changed these old legends, there was another class of men who
had no little influence on the form and matter of Welsh, and
consequently of European, romance. These were the Welsh jongleurs--the
professional story-tellers, against whom the bards proper nursed a
deadly hatred because, presumably, their tales drew larger audiences and
won greater rewards than the _awdlau_ of the poets. There is little
doubt that this order existed in Wales at a very early period, being
quite a natural evolution of the older poet who sang in comparatively
free metres of the deeds of the great dead. It is these men who invented
the term _Mabinogi_, which is supposed to mean a "tale for young
people"; but whatever the word may mean, the fact that they were the
stock-in-trade of the professional story-teller will explain a good many
of their structural peculiarities.

Thus there existed two distinct classes of tales, though it is to be
supposed that the subject matter of both was more or less common; there
are, in the first place, the "four branches" and the tales of the second
class, and, secondly, tales like those of the third class. With the
exception of the Irish influence, which we have already referred to, and
some later additions from early continental romance in the third class,
we may take it that these three classes are of purely British origin.
The _pedair cainc_ are the old tales which were first committed to
writing at an early period before the influence of the Armoric Arthur
began to be felt, that is to say, about the beginning of the reign of
Rhys ab Tewdwr in 1073. The other tales, that is those we have put in
the third class, remained for a much longer time unwritten and were not
set in writing before the early Arthur of Armoric and British romance
had been evolved. This will account for the fact that Arthur is not
mentioned in the first class of tales, and that in the third class he is
simply a British Arthur. The third class is, therefore, in a sense later
than the first and second, but its materials are as old as the oldest of
the Mabinogion proper, and they show the influence of Irish mythology to
the same extent. In the first class Irish names like _Penardim_, which
have not been assimilated, show conclusively that the tale is a written
one, while the eloquence of the descriptions in _Kilhwch ac Olwen_ seem
to point to the fact that it was up to a late period a _spoken_ tale.
Other such tales there were once, but they have now been lost.

The romances of the fourth class do not claim much notice. They are
mostly imitations or translations of Norman French originals, and they
belong to the history of European chivalry rather than to the history of
Welsh literature.

As literature the Mabinogion may rank among the world's classics. We
cannot here point out their beauties, but it will be sufficient to
notice that the unknown writer who gave them their final form was a true
artist in every sense of the word. In _Branwen verch Lyr_, for instance,
the whole setting of the story is that of a great tragedy, a tragedy
neither Hellenic nor Shakespearean, but the strong and ruthless tragedy
of the Celts,--the tragedy of nature among unnatural surroundings, the
tragedy which in our times Mr Thomas Hardy has so successfully
developed. In this tale, Branwen is introduced as the sister of
Manawyddan, the king of all Britain, and as the "fairest maid in the
world." But as the tragedy deepens we read how this woman, dowered with
beauty and goodness and nobility of lineage, is simply used as a pawn in
a political game, and the full force of the tragedy falls on her own
undeserving head. She is subjected to all kinds of indignities in her
husband's court in Ireland, but throughout all her severe trials she
preserves the cold and detached haughtiness which characterizes the
full-bosomed heroines of the northern sagas; and, in the end, when her
brother has delivered her and punished the Irish, and when she has
safely reached the shores of her own Mon, she raises her eyes and
beholds the two islands, Britain and Ireland. "'Ah God!' said she, 'is
it well that two islands have been made desolate for my sake?' And she
gave a deep groan and died." So was her tragedy consummated, and the
writer, with a superb tragic touch, mentions the very shape of the grave
in which they left her on the bank of the Alaw in Mon.

One of the earliest poets of this period whose productions we can be
certain of is Meilir, bard of Trahaern, whom Gruffydd ab Cynan defeated
at the battle of Carn, and afterwards of the conqueror Gruffydd himself.
His best piece is the _Death-bed of the Bard_, a semi-religious poem
which is distinguished by the structure of the verse, poetic feeling and
religious thought. Meilir was the head of a family of bards; his son was
Gwalchmai, one of the best Welsh poets; the latter had two sons, Einion
and Meilir, some of whose poetry has reached us. In _Gorhoffedd
Gwalchmai_, Gwalchmai's Delight, there is an appreciation of the charms
of nature, medieval parallels to which are only to be found in Ireland.
His _Arwyrain i Owain_ is an ode of considerable beauty and full of
vigour in praise of Owain Gwynedd, king of North Wales, on account of
his victory of Tal y Moelvre, part of which has been translated by Gray
under the name of "The Triumphs of Owen." Kynddelw, who lived in the
second half of the 12th century, was a contemporary of Gwalchmai, and
wrote on a great number of subjects including religious ones; indeed
some of his eulogies have a kind of religious prelude. He had a command
of words and much skill in versification, but he is pleonastic and fond
of complicated metres and of ending his lines with the same syllable.

Among the other poets of the second half of the 12th century may be
mentioned Owain Kyveiliog and Howel ab Owain Gwynedd. The first named
was prince of Powys, and was distinguished also as a soldier. The
_Hirlas_, or drinking-horn, is a long poem where the prince represents
himself as carousing in his hall after a fight; bidding his cup-bearer
fill his great drinking-horn, he orders him to present it in turn to
each of the assembled warriors. As the horn passes from hand to hand he
eulogizes each in a verse beginning _Diwallaw di venestr_, "Fill,
cup-bearer." Having thus praised the deeds of two warriors, Tudyr and
Moreiddig, he turns round to challenge them, but suddenly recollecting
that they had fallen in the fray, and listening, as it were, to their
dying groans, he bursts into a broken lamentation for their loss. The
second was also a prince; he was the eldest of the many sons of Owain
Gwynedd, and ruled for two years after his father until he fell in a
battle between himself and his step-brother Dafydd. He was a young man
of conspicuous merit, and one of the most charming poets of Wales, his
poems being especially free from the conceits, trivial commonplaces, and
complicated metres of the professional bards, while full of a gay
humour, a love of nature and a delicate appreciation of women. The Welsh
poets went on circuit like their Irish brethren, staying in each place
according as hospitality was extended to them. When departing, a bard
was expected to leave a sample of his versification behind him. In this
way many manuscripts came to be written, as we find them in different
hands. Llywarch ab Llywelyn has left us one of those departing eulogies
addressed to Rhys Gryg, prince of South Wales, which affords a
favourable specimen of his style.


  13th century poets.

The following are a few of the poets of the 13th century whose poems are
still extant. Davydd Benvras was the author of a poem in praise of
Llywelyn ab Iorwerth; his works, though not so verbose or trite as
bardic poems of this class usually are, do not rise much above the
bardic level, and are full of alliteration. Elidir Sais was, as his name
implies, able to speak the English language, and wrote chiefly religious
poetry. Einiawn ab Gwgawn is the author of an extant address to Llywelyn
ab Iorwerth of considerable merit. Phylip Brydydd, or Philip the poet,
was household bard to Rhys Gryg (Rhys the hoarse), lord of South Wales.
One of his pieces, an apology to Rhys Gryg, is a striking example of the
fulsome epithets a household bard was expected to bestow upon his
patron, and of the privileged domesticity in which the bards lived,
which, as in Ireland, must have been fatal to genius. Prydydd Bychan,
the Little Poet, was a South Wales bard whose extant work consists of
short poems all addressed to his own princes. The chief feature of his
_Englynion_ is the use of a kind of assonance in which in some cases
the final vowels agreed alternately in each quatrain, and in others each
line ended in a different vowel, in both cases with alliteration and
consonance of final consonants or full rhyme. Llygad Gwr is known by an
ode in five parts to Llywelyn ab Gruffydd, written about the year 1270,
which is a good type of the conventional flattery of a family bard.
Howel Voel, who was of Irish extraction, possessed some poetical merit;
his remonstrance to Llywelyn against the imprisonment of his brother
Owain is a pleasing variety upon the conventional eulogy. It has many
lines beginning with the same word, e.g. _gwr_, man. The poems of
Bleddyn Vardd, or Bleddyn the Bard, which have come down to us are all
short eulogies and elegies. One of the latter on Llywelyn ab Gruffydd is
a good example of the elaborate and artificial nature of Welsh
versification.

The most illustrious name among the poets of this century is Gruffydd ab
yr Ynad Coch, "Gruffydd, son of the Red Justice," who wrote many
religious poems of great merit. His greatest work, however, is the elegy
to Llywelyn ab Gruffydd, the last prince of Wales. It is easily first
among all the elegies written in the Welsh language. We do not find in
it that artficial grief which is too evident in the _Marwnadau_ of the
Welsh poets; it re-echoes an intense personal grief, and throughout the
whole piece the poet feels that he stands at the end of all things,--the
end of his own ideals, the extinction of all Cymric hopes. So poignant
is his grief, and in so universal a manner does the catastrophe of
Llywelyn's death present itself to him, that he imagines that all the
natural features of the Welsh fatherland know that the last great
Welshman is dead; the winds howl over the mountains, the rain-clouds
gather thick, the waves rage with grief against the Welsh coasts, and
far away on the hills the giant oak-trees beat against each other in the
fury of their passion. Sadly, in this manner, closes the second period
of Welsh literature.

4. _The Golden Age of the Cywydd, 1340-1440._--Just as, after the loss
of the North, the Welsh muse was hushed, so after the final subjugation
of Wales in 1282, hardly a note was heard for many a long year. The
ancient patrons of literature were dead, and the country had not yet
settled down to the steady rule of England. Indeed, the conquest of
Wales effectively put an end to the older Welsh poetry of that type
which we noticed in the last period. These older bards were without
exception subjects of the princes of North Wales, where the old heroic
poetry was still popular, and when the power of these princes came to an
end the old poetry too ceased. When the Welsh muse emerges again from
the darkness of this interval she is no longer of the North; the new
poets are drawn from the Welshmen of the South, a land which had
practically ceased to be a part of an independent Wales shortly after
the Norman conquest of England. We find, too, that the poetry which
poured forth from the Welsh bards of the south is of an altogether
different type, it is modern in all its essentials, in diction, in
language, and, comparatively speaking, in sentiment. Indeed, there is an
infinitely greater difference between Dafydd ab Gwilym and Gruffydd ab
yr Ynad Coch than there is between him and any poet writing in the
alliterative metres in the 19th century. So that we must suppose that at
the time when the poets of North Wales still sang of war and
mead-drinking in a style and diction that was an inheritance from the
times of the _Gododin_, the poets of the South, unharassed by wars, were
developing a new poetry of their own, a poetry that had relinquished for
ever the Old Welsh models and was at last in line with the great
poetical movements of Europe. And, judging from the fact that the
earliest of these poets whose works are accessible to us are in the full
zenith of their poetical development, we must believe that their work is
the consummation of a period, that is to say, that they must have had a
long line of predecessors whose works were lost during the period
intervening between the loss of Welsh independence and the rise of
Dafydd ab Gwilym. These men wrote, as we have already said, in South
Wales, a country which was then under the rule of the Norman lords, who,
with the lapse of years and the rise of new systems, were fast becoming
Welsh. It is no wonder, then, that the poets who wrote under their
patronage should show unmistakable traces of Norman influence. Most of
the barons still spoke French, and it was only natural that they should
be well versed in French poetry. The poets followed the lead of their
patrons, and their work was modelled to a very great extent on French
and Provencal poetry. Nor does this account altogether for the wonderful
similarity between Welsh _cywyddau_ and other poems of this period and
the French lays; we must remember that the Welsh poets lived under
conditions similar to those under which the troubadours and the
trouveres lived, and it was natural that the same environments should
produce the same kind of work. The Provencal _alba_ and the French
_aube_, the _serenade_ and other forms, became well known in South Wales
and were of course read by the Welsh poets. We find continual references
in the poets to "books of love" under the name of _llyfr Ofydd_, or the
"book of Ovid," and a reference in one of Dafydd ab Gwilym's poems shows
conclusively that one particular _llyfr Ofydd_ was a work of the French
poet Chrestien de Troyes. Indeed, one of the commonest names among the
poets of this period--the _llatai_,[3] or love-messenger--may be a
Romance word borrowed through the Norman-French from the Italian
_Galeotto_, originally the name of the book of the loves of Galahaad,
but afterwards the ordinary word for a go-between. This book of
Galeotto, by the way, was the book which taught Paolo and Francesca da
Rimini, in Dante's _Divina Commedia_, the tragic secret of love.

Another movement also was favourable to the rise of the new Welsh
poetry. The iron hand of the church, which had been the censor of poetry
for so many centuries, was slowly relaxing its grasp, and the men who a
few years before would have sung religious hymns to the Virgin, now laid
their tributes at the feet of divine womanhood as they saw it in the
Welsh maidens and matrons living among them. The pale queen of heaven no
longer held hearts captive; they had transferred their allegiance to the
"brow that was as the snow of yesternight," and "the cheeks that were
like the passion-flower." The Iolo MSS. assert that some time between
January 1327 and November 1330 there were held, under the patronage of
Ivor Hael, Dafydd ab Gwilym's patron, and others, the three
_Eisteddfodau Dadeni_, or the Eisteddfods of the Revival of the Muse, to
reorganize the bards, and to set in order all matters pertaining to
Welsh poetry. The most important bards who are reported as present at
some or all of these meetings were Dafydd ab Gwilym, Sion Cent, Rhys
Goch of Eryri, and Iolo Goch. It is now, however, generally agreed that
this account is a fabrication and that the date of all the poets is
later.


  Dafydd ab Gwilym.

Dafydd ab Gwilym is certainly the most distinguished of all the Welsh
poets, and were it not for the absolute impossibility of adequately
translating his _cywyddau_ he would rank amongst the greatest poets of
medieval times. By far the greater part of his poetry is written in the
metre called _cywydd_, with heptasyllabic lines rhyming in couplets. It
was he who imparted so much lustre to this metre that it became the
vehicle of all the most important poetry from his time to the 19th
century, and he is generally referred to by his contemporaries as the
special poet of the cywydd--_Dafydd gywydd gwin_, "Dafydd of the
wine-sweet cywydd." Most of his poems deal with love in the spirit of
the medieval writers of France and of Provence, but with this very
important difference, that the French writers must base their reputation
on their treatment of love as a theme, whereas Dafydd's claim to fame is
based on his treatment of nature and of out-door life. In many cases,
indeed, love is only a conventional peg whereon he may hang his
observations on nature, and Welsh literature may claim the distinction
of having had its Wordsworth in the 14th century. His treatment of
nature is not merely realistic and objective, it has a certain quaint
and elusive symbolism and a subjectiveness which come as a revelation to
those who are acquainted with the medieval poetry of other nations. Many
of the poems attributed to him are undoubtedly the work of later hands,
but even after making all possible deductions, there is still an
infinite variety among what remains, ranging as his poems do from a
sturdy denunciation of monkish fraudulence to the most delicate and
pathetic recollections of departed joys. He has, besides, considerable
importance as a teacher, as when, for instance, he invites the nun "to
leave her watercress and paternosters of Romish monks," and to come with
him "to the cathedral of the birch to listen to the cuckoo's sermons,"
for, "were it not an equally worthy deed to save his (Dafydd's) soul in
the birch-grove as to do so by following the ritual of Rome and St James
of Compostella"? Even in his old age, when he is beginning to repent of
his rash and merry youth, nature has not deserted him,--the very tree
under which in the old days he used to meet his sweetheart has become
bent and withered in sympathy with him. Though Dafydd yields not the
palm to any poet of his class throughout the world, and though his
influence is still a potent factor in the literature of Wales, we are
certain of hardly a single fact about his life. He flourished between
1340 and 1390. His works were published in London in 1789. This edition
was reprinted by Ffoulkes of Liverpool in 1870. See L.C. Stern,
_Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ vol. vii.

Sion Cent was chaplain to the Scudamores of Kentchurch in Herefordshire,
and though, therefore, in orders, was a most bitter opponent of the
pretentious and the evil life of the monks of his time. All his writings
show signs of the influence of the moralists of the middle ages, and
treat of religious or of moral subjects. His poetry is strong and
austere, interfused here and there with the most biting satire. He died
about 1400. Like many of his contemporaries, Dunbar, Villon, Menot and
Manrique, his dominant note is that of sadness and regret.

Rhys Goch Eryri had a sprightly muse which deals with fanciful subjects.
His themes are often similar to those of Dafydd ab Gwilym, but whereas
the subject of Dafydd's muse was nature and his treatment universal,
Rhys Goch's are simply natural objects which he treats in a vigorous but
narrow and cold manner.

Iolo Goch, that is, Iorwerth the Red, deserves a special mention as the
poet who voiced the aspirations of a new Wales when Owen Glyndwr began
to rise into power, and it is to one of his poems that we owe a most
minute description of Sycharth, Owen Glyndwr's home. His poetry is
slightly more archaic in diction than that of his contemporaries, as his
subject--war and the glory of Welsh heroes--belonged more properly to
the age before his own. In one very striking _cywydd_ composed after
Glyndwr's downfall, he calls upon this hero to come again and claim his
own, and addresses himself fancifully to all the countries of the world
where his hero may be in hiding. He died after 1405, and, if the dates
generally given for his birth be even approximately correct, he must
have lived to a prodigious age (cf. _Gweithiau Iolo Goch_, by Charles
Ashton, London, 1896).

Rhys Goch ap Rhiccert claims to be named with Dafydd ab Gwilym as a
writer of lyrics in praise of beautiful women. He has one advantage,
however, over his more famous contemporary in the variety of his metres.
The musical lilt and the delicate workmanship of his poems, with their
recurring refrain, give him a unique position among his medieval
contemporaries as the first purely lyrical poet. His _floreat_ is
probably a little later than that of Dafydd ab Gwilym, for we must not
be misled by the late orthography of his poems.

Dafydd Nanmor is chiefly famous for two exquisite cywyddau, _Cywydd
Marwnad Merch_, or Elegy of a Maiden, and _Cywydd i wallt Llio_, or
Cywydd to Llio's Hair. In both these poems he shows elegance rather than
depth, and a fancy as bold as that of his great master Dafydd. In the
first of these cywyddau his grief is so great that he wishes that he
were but the shroud around his dead sweetheart, and, in the second, Llio
Rhydderch's golden hair over her white brow is compared to the
refulgence of lightning over the fine snow. He is supposed to be a
younger contemporary of Rhys Goch Eryri, but there are many facts to
warrant a supposition that he lived much later, even as late as 1490.

Llywelyn Goch ap Meurig Hen deserves to be mentioned as the author of
the famous _Marwnad Lleucu Llwyd_, an elegy which is far more convincing
in its sincerity than Dafydd Nanmor's _cywydd_. Few of his compositions
are extant, but the one already mentioned is sufficient to place him in
the first rank of the poets of the period. He lived approximately from
1330 to 1390.

The other poets of this period who deserve some mention are Dafydd Ddu o
Hiraddug, who wrote poems on religious subjects, and who is supposed to
have translated part of the _Officium Beatae Mariae_ into Welsh;
Gruffydd Grug, between whom and Dafydd ab Gwilym a most fierce poetic
quarrel raged, but who is the author of a beautiful elegy on his
opponent; Gruffydd Llwyd ab Dafydd, who was the poet of Owen Glyndwr,
and whose cywydd in praise of his patron is one of the best of that
type; Hywel Swrdwal and Gwilym ab Ieuan Hen.


  Eisteddfod of 1451.

5. _The Silver Age of the Cywydd, 1440-1550._--The insurrection of Owen
Glyndwr, though originally the result of a private quarrel, was the
general revolt of a nation against the conquerors whom it hated, and the
English king knew well enough that the discontent with his rule was
fanned by the older and more national Welsh institutions, and by none
more than by the system of wandering bards. The conditions which had
given rise to this system were fast dying out, but the noblemen, who
fortunately were still intensely Welsh, were loth to give up their
family bards, and the bards themselves, never a too industrious class,
were too glad of their freedom and easy life to turn to more profitable
work. We find, therefore, that a law was passed in 1403, the fourth year
of Henry IV.'s reign, prohibiting bards "and other vagrants" from
exercising their profession in Gwynedd or North Wales. This law,
however, like its predecessor in the reign of Edward I., failed utterly
in its purpose. By prohibiting the Welsh noblemen from giving their
patronage to the bards, and, therefore, from distinguishing between the
real bards and the mendicant rhymesters, this law took away the only
safeguard against the latter class, with the result that by about 1450
they had become a pest to the country. About that time there flourished
a poet called Llawdden, who, noticing the very unsatisfactory state of
poetry in Wales, induced his kinsman, Gruffydd ab Nicolas, a nobleman
living in Y Drenewydd (Newtown), to petition Henry VI. for permission to
hold an eisteddfod similar in purpose to the three _Eisteddfodau Dadeni_
of the last period. This famous eisteddfod was held at Caerfyrddin
(Carmarthen) in 1451, and shortly before the actual eisteddfod was held
a "statute" was drawn up under the direction of Llawdden, regulating the
different orders of bards and musicians and setting in order the
_cynghaneddion a mesurau_, the different kinds of alliterative verse to
be presented to the assembled bards at the meeting. Among those present
at that eisteddfod the most distinguished was Dafydd ab Edmwnd, who then
made famous the dictum that the purpose of an eisteddfod was "to bring
to mind the past, to consider the present, and to deliberate about the
future." He, therefore, proposed emendations in "the rules of Welsh
verse," making them more strict, so as to keep the unlearned rhymesters
from the privileged bardic class. This measure had a most important
effect on Welsh literature. It effectively put an end to the charming
spontaneity which distinguishes the poetry of Dafydd ab Gwilym and his
contemporaries, and by introducing an arbitrary set of rules gave an
artificial tone to almost all the poetry of the next two hundred years.
It had, indeed, exactly the same retarding effect on Welsh poetry as the
Unities had on the French drama. So that, whereas the poems of Dafydd ab
Gwilym, though written in the difficult alliterative metres, are nearly
all light and have a sweet lyrical re-echo, the poetry of Dafydd ab
Edmwnd and his successors is often heavy and nearly always artificial.
After making, however, all these deductions, it is a debatable point
whether the hard and fast rules which now regulated Welsh poetry did not
eventually justify their existence. They have helped, by inciting to
carefulness, to keep the idiom and the language pure and undefiled, and
to this day style in Welsh poetry is not necessarily a striving after
the uncommon as it too often is in English.

There are some poets included in this period who belong more properly to
the last, but even these show signs of the attempt at correctness and
distinction which was supplanting the old simplicity. Ieuan ap Rhydderch
ab Ieuan Llwyd, who is supposed to be a brother of the Llio Rhydderch of
Dafydd Nanmor's poem, is the author of some cywyddau and other poems
addressed to the Virgin, the structure of which shows great skill
accompanied by force and clearness. He flourished about 1425. Dafydd ab
Meredydd ap Tudur, who flourished about 1420, is the author of a cywydd
"to Our Saviour." About the same time lived Rhys Nanmor, Ieuan Gethin ab
Ieuan, and Ieuan Llwyd ab Gwilym. Among the earliest of the poets who
belong properly to this period is Meredydd ap Rhys, whose cywyddau are a
fair specimen of the generality of poems written in these years. Among
the most famous of his works is a cywydd "begging for a fishing-net,"
and another giving thanks for the same. We shall find that many of his
contemporaries were able to write long and interesting poems on such
seemingly dry and uninteresting subjects, but it is vain to look for
anything beyond good verse in such compositions. Of poetry, as generally
understood, there is none.


  Dafydd ab Edmwnd

The commanding figure in this period is, of course, Dafydd ab Edmwnd,
who was a disciple of Meredydd ap Rhys. He bears somewhat the same
relation to his contemporaries as Dafydd ab Gwilym does to his, and to
strain an analogy, we might say that as Dryden was to Milton, so Dafydd
ab Edmwnd was to Dafydd ab Gwilym. He was regarded by his contemporaries
as the greatest poet that North Wales had ever produced, and some would
set him up as a rival even to Dafydd ab Gwilym himself. He would
probably have produced much greater poetry had he understood that the
cywydd and the other metres were strait and shackled enough without the
_cymeriadau_ and other devices which he introduced, or at least
sanctioned and made popular. He begins many of his cywyddau and odes
with the same letter; he is the chief among Welsh formalists, but in
spite of his self-imposed restrictions he is a great poet also. His most
famous poems are three _Cywyddau Merch_ or "Poems to a Lady," and his
_Cywydd i Wallt Merch_, "cywydd to a lady's hair." He is the author of
the lines already quoted: "thy brow," he sings, "is as the snow of
yesternight, and thy cheeks like a shower of roses." He died about 1480.
Dafydd ab Edmwnd's disciples were Gutyn Owain and Tudur Aled, who was
also his nephew. Gutyn Owain lived between 1420 and 1500, and was one of
the men appointed by the king's commissioners to trace, or perhaps to
manufacture, the Welsh pedigree of Henry VII. He belonged entirely to
the school inaugurated by Dafydd ab Edmwnd, and though he was by no
means wanting in imagination, the highest distinction of his verse is
its intricacy of form and very often the felicity of his couplets.

Just as the rise of Owen Glyndwr in the beginning of the century had
given a new impulse and a new interest to poetry, so in 1485, when Henry
VII.--the "little bull" as he is called by the poets--ascended the
throne of England, a particular kind of poetry called _brud_, half
history and half prophecy, became popular, and we have in the
manuscripts much writing of this description, a good deal of it
worthless as poetry. Occasionally, however, some of these "bruts" may
claim to be called poetry, especially the compositions of Robin Ddu o
Fon, who wrote poems in praise of the Tudors and hailed them as the
deliverers of the nation, even before Henry VII. had landed in England,
and Dafydd Llwyd ab Llywelyn, whose works deserve to be much better
known than they are at present. One of the best cywyddau among his works
is the "Address to the Raven," to whom he promises a right royal feast
when the hero whom all Wales is expecting has met his royal enemy. Tudur
Aled, too, was a zealous partisan of Henry VII. and wrote many cywyddau
in praise of Sir Rhys ap Thomas, the great champion of Henry's cause in
South Wales. He is also famous as having supplemented and made a new
recension of Dafydd ab Edmwnd's rules of poetry in the eisteddfod held
at Caerwys in 1524. Tudur Aled has always been more widely known in
Wales than almost any other of the earlier poets except Dafydd ab
Gwilym. This is perhaps due to the quotability and sententiousness of
his couplets. There is a certain refreshing dryness about his poetry
which partly makes up for his want of imagination. One of the most
interesting poets of this century is Lewis Glyn Cothi, who lived between
1410 and 1490. During the Wars of the Roses he was a zealous
Lancastrian, and his bitterest enemies were the men of Chester, who had
treated him scurvily while he was there in hiding, and his _awdl_,
satirizing the men of that city, is one of the most vigorous
compositions in the language. Indeed, among so many _cywyddau_ of this
period in conventional praise of different patrons, it is most
refreshing to find such an outburst of sincere personal feeling, boldly
and fiercely expressed. He wrote an _awdl_ also rejoicing in the victory
of Henry VII. Most of his work, however, consists of _cywyddau
mawl_--praise of patrons--containing weary and unpoetical pedigrees.
Gruffydd Hiraethog, who flourished about 1540, was a disciple of Tudur
Aled. A fierce poetical dispute raged between him and Sion Brwynog of
Anglesey, who was a contemporary of his. About this time there were many
poets in Wales who were imitators of Dafydd ab Gwilym, and who did not
follow implicitly the lead of Dafydd ab Edmwnd, like those whom we have
mentioned. Much of their poetry is feeble, but Bedo Brwynllysg
especially stands out from among the rest, and his poetry, though highly
imitative and often over fanciful, is of a much higher order than the
genealogical poems of Lewis Glyn Cothi and others. In the same way the
only poem of any merit of Ieuan Denlwyn printed in the _Gorchestion_ is
written in this imitative strain. Other poets of the middle of this
period are Deio ap Ieuan Du, Iorwerth Fynglwyd, Lewys Morganwg, Ieuan
Brydydd Hir, and Tudur Penllyn, who wrote a superb _cywydd_ to Dafydd ab
Siencyn, the outlaw.

Towards the end of the period we begin to breathe a literary atmosphere
that is gradually but surely changing,--it is the change from the misty
Wales of Roman Catholic times to the modern Wales after the Reformation.
The poetical incoherencies of the old metres and the tricks of fancy of
the old stylists occasionally form a somewhat incongruous dress for the
thoughts of later poets. The old spirit and the glamour were gradually
wearing away, only to be momentarily revived in the poetry of Goronwy
Owen, nearly two centuries later. Two or three figures, indeed, stand
out prominently during these years, among whom are some of the bards
ordained _penceirddiaid_ (master-poets) in the second Caerwys Eisteddfod
held in 1568, viz. William Llyn, William Cynwal, Sion Tudur, and Sion
Phylip. William Llyn (1530?-1580) was a pupil of Gruffydd Hiraethog. His
complicated _awdlau_ are marvels of ingenuity, but many of them are on
that very account almost unintelligible. He was, however, a complete
master of the _cywydd_, in which he sometimes displays a sense of style
and a sweetness of imagery allied to a melodiousness of language
unequalled by the other poets of the period. His best-known work is the
famous _marwnad_ to his master, Gruffydd Hiraethog. Sion Tudur (d.
1602), also a disciple of G. Hiraethog, was connected in some capacity
or other with the cathedral at St Asaph. He is a realist, and delights
in giving vivid word pictures in a less fanciful strain than his
predecessors. Sion Phylip (1543-1620) wrote a famous _marwnad_ to his
father and a _cywydd_ "to a sea-gull," which is a superb piece of
nature-painting in the style of Dafydd ab Gwilym. While dealing with
this second Eisteddfod at Caerwys, we may note that Simwnt Fychan's
"Laws of Poetry" were accepted at this festival.

Two poets of this period, whom an English writer describes as "the two
filthy Welshmen who first smoked publicly in the streets," were captains
in Queen Elizabeth's navy, viz. Thomas Prys (d. 1634) of Plas Iolyn, and
William Myddleton (1556-1621), called in Welsh Gwilym Canoldref. The
former wrote, among other things, humorous _cywyddau_ descriptive of
life in London and in the English navy of those days, in a style which
was afterwards attempted by Lewys Morys. The work of Myddleton, by
which he is best known, is his translation of the Psalms (1603) into
Welsh _cywydd_ metre, a difficult and profitless experiment.

With Edmwnd Prys (1541-1624), the famous archdeacon of Merioneth, we
come to distinctly modern times. He is hardly a great poet, if we judge
him by the canons which are now popular. His gift was a gift of terse
and biting statement, and his _cywyddau_ on the whole have more of
literary than of poetical merit. He was a man of vast learning, and his
works are full of scholastic and often difficult allusions. His most
famous _cywyddau_ are those written in the literary quarrel between him
and Wiliam Cynwal. "Wiliam Cynwal," says Goronwy Owen, "though the
greater poet, was like a man fighting with bare fists against complete
armour," and it may be freely granted that in this, the most famous
quarrel in Welsh literature, the palm of victory rested with the
contentious old ecclesiastic. We shall deal with the rest of Edmwnd
Prys's literary work in the section on the rise of popular poetry.

Here the age of the _cywydd_ and the _awdl_, as the chief forms of
verse, ends. They appear again in the succeeding centuries, but as
aliens among a nation that no longer paid them homage. The distinctly
Welsh fashion in song was dying out.

6. _Prose, 1550-1750._--One of the most striking features of Welsh
literature is the almost entire absence of prose between 1300 and 1550.
The genius of the people has always been an eminently poetical and
imaginative one, and the history of Wales, politically and socially, has
always been a fitter subject for poetry than for prose. During this
period, Wales enjoyed a rest from propagandists and revolutionaries
which has seldom been the happy lot of any other nation--they lay
content with their own old traditions, acquiescing proudly in their
separation from the other nations of Europe, and in their aloofness from
all the movements which shook England and the continent during those
years. Dynasties came and went, one religion ousted another religion, a
new learning exposed the absurdities of the old, but the Welsh, among
their hills, knew nothing of it; and when new ideas began to brood over
the consciousness of the nation, they never got beyond the stage of
providing new subjects for _cywyddau_. The Peasant Revolt, for instance,
had but little effect on Welsh history, its most important contribution
to the heritage of the nation being Iolo Goch's superb "_Cywydd_ to the
Labourer." Even the Reformation, which helped to change the whole fabric
of English literature, had little effect on that of Wales, and the age
of the _cywydd_ dragged out wearily its last years without experiencing
the slightest quickening from the great movement which was remaking
Europe. Hardly a prophet or reactionary raised his voice in defence or
condemnation, and the Welsh went on serenely making and reading poetry.
The two political movements in which Wales was really interested, the
revolt of Glyndwr and the accession of Henry VII., paid their tribute to
its poetry alone, and both enterprises had sufficient of romance in them
to repel the historian and to capture the poet. Naturally, therefore, we
have no prose in this period, because there was no cause strong enough
to produce it. What prose the nation required they found in the tales of
romance, in the legends of Arthur and Charlemagne and the Grail, and, as
for pedigrees and history, were they not written in the _cywyddau_ of
the poets?

The little prose that was produced during this period (1300-1550) was of
an extraordinary kind. It was simply an exercise in long sentences and
in curiously built compounds, and therefore more nearly allied to
poetry. It generally took the form of _dewisbethau_, a list of the
"choice things" of such and such a person, or of the later triads
(_trioedd_), which, starting from an ancient nucleus, gradually grew
till, at the present day, Wales has a gnomic literature out of all
proportion to the rest of its prose. Modern Welsh prose, however, is
only very indirectly connected with these compositions. It is almost
altogether a product of the Biblical literature which began to appear
after the Reformation, and we shall proceed to give here the main facts
and dates in its development. The first Welsh book was printed in 1546.
It consisted of extracts in Welsh from the Bible and the Prayer Book,
and a calendar. The author was Sir John Prys (1502-1555). The most
important name in the early part of this period is William Salesbury
(1520?-1600?). His chief books were, _A Dictionary in Englyshe and
Welshe_ (printed in 1547, and published in facsimile reprint by the
Cymmrodorion Society), _Kynniver Llith a Ban_ (1551), the Prayer Book in
Welsh (1567), and the most important of all his works, the translation
of the New Testament (1567). It is difficult to form any estimate, at
this distance of time, of the impetus which William Salesbury gave to
Welsh prose, but it must be regretfully admitted that his great work was
marred by many defects. He had a theory that Welsh ought to be written
as much like Latin as possible, and the result is that his language is
very poor Welsh, both in spelling and idiom; it is an artificial
dialect. It is a striking testimony, however, to his influence that many
of the constructions and words which he manufactured are found to this
day in correct literary Welsh.

In 1567 was published a _Welsh Grammar_ by Dr Gruffydd Roberts, a Roman
Catholic priest living at Milan (reprinted in facsimile, Paris, 1883),
and in 1583, under the direction of Dr Rhosier Smyth, his _Drych
Cristionogawl_ was published at Rouen. Many other important Welsh books
were produced during these years, but the work which may be regarded as
having the greatest influence on the subsequent literature of Wales was
the translation of the _Welsh Bible_ (1588) by Dr William Morgan
(1547?-1604), bishop of Llandaff, and afterwards of St Asaph. The
Authorized Version (1620) now in use is a revision of this work by Dr
Richard Parry, bishop of St Asaph (1560-1623). In 1592 the _Welsh
Grammar_ of Sion Dafydd Rhys (1534-1609) was published--a most valuable
treatise on the language and on the rules of Welsh poetry. It was
followed in 1621 by the _Welsh Grammar_, and in 1632 by the _Welsh
Dictionary_ of Dr John Davies o Fallwyd (1570?-1644).

There are two prose compositions which stand entirely by themselves in
this period of Bibles and grammars--the _History_ of Ellis Gruffydd, and
Morris Kyffin's _Deffyniad y Ffydd_. The former was a soldier in the
English army during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and wrote a long
history of England from the earliest times to his own day. This
document, which has never been published, and which lies hidden away
among the Mostyn MSS., is a most important and valuable original
contribution to the history of the author's contemporaries, and it sheds
considerable light on the inner life of the court and the army. It is
written in a delightfully easy style, contrasting favourably with the
stiff diction of this period of translations. The work of Morris Kyffin
(1555?-1598?) which we have mentioned is a translation of Bishop Jewel's
_Apologia Ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (1562) and was published in 1595. This
work is the first piece of modern Welsh prose within reach of the
ordinary reader, written in the rich idiom of the spoken Welsh. It is a
precursor of many other books of its kind, a long series culminating in
the immortal _Bardd Cwsc_. In this sense Morris Kyffin may with perfect
justice be hailed as the father of modern Welsh prose.

Most of the works which were afterwards written in the strong idiomatic
Welsh of Morris Kyffin were on religious subjects, and many of them were
translated from the English. The first was _Ymarfer o Dduwioldeb_ (1630)
by Rowland Vychan o Gaergai (a translation of Bailey's _Practice of
Piety_), which was followed in 1632 by Dr John Davies's _Llyfr y
Resolution_, and in 1666 by _Hanes y Ffydd Ddiffuant_ (A History of the
True Faith) by Charles Edwards. All these authors and many of their
successors were strong adherents of the Established Church, which was
then intensely Welsh in sentiment. But in the midst of these churchmen,
a flame-bearer of dissent appeared--Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd, who published
in 1653 "a mystery to be understood of some, and scorned of
others"--_Llyfr y Tri Aderyn_ (The Book of the Three Birds). It is in
the form of a discussion between the eagle (Cromwell), the dove
(Dissent) and the raven (the Established Church). This book is certainly
the most important original composition published during the 17th
century, and to this day remains one of the widely-read classics of the
Welsh tongue. Morgan Llwyd wrote many other books in Welsh and English,
all more or less in the vein of the first book.

During the remaining years of this period, the prose output of the Welsh
press consisted mainly of devotional books, written or translated for or
at the instigation of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. The
Established Church, with the help of this society, made a gallant
attempt to lighten the darkness of Wales by publishing books of this
description, and it is mainly due to its exertions that the lamp of
Welsh prose was kept burning during these years. Among the clergy who
produced books of this description were Edward Samuel (1674-1748), who
published among other works _Holl Ddyledswydd Dyn_, a translation of
_The Whole Duty of Man_ (1718); Moses Williams (1684-1742), a most
diligent searcher into Welsh MSS. and translator; Griffith Jones of
Llanddowror (1683-1761), the father of Welsh popular education; Iago ab
Dewi (1644?-1722) and Theophilus Evans (1694-1769), the famous author of
_Drych y Prif Oesoedd_ (1716 and 1740). This book, like _Llyfr y Tri
Aderyn_ and _Y Bardd Cwsc_, has an established position for all time in
the annals of Welsh literature.

We come now to the greatest of all Welsh prose writers, Ellis Wyn o
Lasynys (1671-1734). His first work was a translation of Jeremy Taylor's
_Holy Living_, under the title of _Rheol Buchedd Sanctaidd_ (1701). His
next work was the immortal _Gweledigaethau y Bardd Cwsc_ (1703). The
foundation of this work was L'Estrange's translation of the _Suenos_ of
the Spaniard Quevedo. Ellis Wyn has certainly followed his original
closely, even as Shakespeare followed his, but by his inimitable magic
he has transmuted the characters and the scenery of the Spaniard into
Welsh characters and scenery of the 17th century. No writer before or
after him has used the Welsh language with such force and skill, and he
will ever remain the stylist whom all Welsh writers will strive to
imitate. The magic of his work has endowed the stately idiom of Gwynedd
with such glamour that it has now become the standard idiom of Welsh
prose. See Stern, _Z. f. celt. Phil._ iii. 165 ff.

7. _The Rise of Popular Poetry, 1600-1750._--When Henry VII. ascended
the throne, the old hostility of the Welsh towards the English
disappeared. They had realized their wildest hope, that of seeing a
Welshman wearing "the crown of London." Naturally enough, therefore, the
descendants of the old Welsh gentry began to look towards England for
recognition and preferment, and their interest in their own little
country necessarily began to wane. The result was that the traditional
patrons of the Welsh muse could no longer understand the language of the
poets, and the poets were forced to seek some more profitable
employment. Besides, the old conditions were changing; the medieval
traditions were indeed dying hard, but it gradually and imperceptibly
came about that the poets of the older school had no audience. The only
poets who still followed the old traditions were the rich farmers who
"sang on their own land," as the Welsh phrase goes. A new school,
however, was rising. The nation at large had a vast store of
folk-poetry, full of all the poetical characteristics of the Celt, and
it was this very poetry, despised as it was, that became ultimately the
groundwork of the new literature.

The first landmark in this new development was the publication in 1621
of Edmwnd Prys's metrical version of the Psalms (followed by later
editions in 1628, 1630, 1638 and 1648), and of the first poem of the
_Welshmen's Candle_ (_Cannwyll y Cymry_) of Rhys Pritchard, vicar of
Llandovery (1569-1644). This was published in 1646. These works were not
written in the old metres peculiar to Wales, but in the free metres,
like those of English poetry. The former work is of the utmost
importance, as these Psalms were about the first metrical hymns in use.
They are often rugged and uncouth, but many of the verses--such as the
23rd Psalm--have a haunting melody of their own, which grips the mind
once and for ever. The second work, the first complete edition of which
was published in 1672, consisted of moral verses in the metres of the
old folk-songs (_Penillion Telyn_), and for nearly two centuries was the
"guide, philosopher and friend" of the common people. Many other poets
of the early part of this period wrote in these metres, such as Edward
Dafydd o Fargam (fl. 1640), Rowland Fychan, Morgan Llwyd o Wynedd and
William Phylip (d. 1669). Poetry in the free metres, however, was
generally very crude, until it was given a new dignity by the greatest
poet of the period, Huw Morus o Bont y Meibion (1622-1709). Most of his
earlier compositions, which are among his best, and which were
influenced to a great extent by the cavalier poetry of England, are love
poems, perfect marvels of felicitous ingenuity and sweetness. He fixed
the poetic canons of the free metres, and made what was before homely
and uncouth, courtly and dignified. He wrote a _cywydd marwnad_ to his
contemporary, Edward Morus o'r Perthi Llwydion (d. 1689), who was also a
poet of considerable merit. Most of his work is composed of "moral
pieces" and carols. Other poets of the period were Sion Dafydd Las
(1650-1691), who was among the last of the family bards, and Dafydd
Jones o Drefriw (fl. 1750). Towards the end of the period comes Lewys
Morys (1700-1765). His poetry alone does not seem to warrant his fame,
but he was the creator of a new period, the inspirer and the patron of
Goronwy Owen. According to the lights of the 18th century, he was, like
his brothers Richard and William, a scholar. His poetry, except a few
well-known pieces, will never be popular, because it does not conform to
modern canons of taste. His greatest merit is that he wrote the popular
poetry then in vogue with a scholar's elegance.

8. _The Revival, 1750-1830._--The two leading figures in this period are
Goronwy Owen (1722-1769) and William Williams, Pantycelyn (1717-1791).
Goronwy Owen wrote all his poetry in the _cynghanedd_, and his work gave
the old metres a new life. He raised them from the neglect into which
they had fallen, and caused them to be, till this day, the vehicle of
half the poetical thought of Wales. But he was in no way a
representative of his age; he, like Milton, sang among a crowd of
inferior poets themes quite detached from the life of his time, so that
he also, like his English brother, lacks "human interest." After Dafydd
ab Gwilym, he is the greatest poet who sang in the old metres, and the
influence of his correct and fastidious muse remains to this day.
William Williams, however, wrote in the free metres in a way that was
astoundingly fresh. It is not enough to say of him that he was a
hymnologist; he is much more, he is the national poet of Wales. He had
certainly the loftiest imagination of all the poets of five centuries,
and his influence on the Welsh people can be gauged by the fact that a
good deal of his idiom and dialect has fixed itself indelibly on modern
literary Welsh. Besides the hymns, he wrote a religious epic,
_Theomemphus_, which is to this day the national epic of evangelical
Wales. Even as Goronwy Owen is the father of modern Welsh poetry in the
old metres, so William Williams is the great fountain-head of the free
metres, because he set aflame the imagination of every poet that
succeeded him. With two such pioneers, it is natural that the rest of
this period should contain many great names. Thomas Edwards (Twm o'r
Nant) (1739-1810) has been called by an unwarrantably bold hyperbole,
"the Welsh Shakespeare." Most of his works are interludes and ballads,
and he used to be very popular with the common people; he is, to this
day, probably the oftenest quoted of all the Welsh poets. William Wynn,
rector of Llangynhafal (1704-1760), is the author of a "_Cywydd_ of the
Great Judgment," which bears comparison with Goronwy Owen's masterpiece.
Evan Evans (Ieuan Brydydd Hir) (1731-1789) was famous both as a poet and
as a scholar and antiquarian. Edward Rhisiart (1714-1777), the
schoolmaster of Ystradmeurig, was a scholar and a writer of pastorals in
the manner of Theocritus. Most of the other poets who flourished towards
the end of this period--Dafydd Ddu Eryri (1760-1822), Gwallter Mechain
(1761-1849), Robert ab Gwilym Ddu (1767-1850), Dafydd Ionawr
(1751-1827), Dewi Wyn o Eifion (1784-1841)--were brought into prominence
by the Eisteddfod, which began to increase in influence during this
period until it has become to-day the national festival. They all wrote
for the most part in _cynghanedd_, and the work of nearly all of them is
marked by correctness rather than by poetical inspiration.

9. _Prose after 1830._--In the preceding periods, we have seen that
Welsh prose, though abundant in quantity, had a very narrow range. Few
writers rose above theological controversy or moral treatises, and the
humaner side of literature was almost entirely neglected. In this
period, however, we find a prose literature that, with the exception of
scientific works, is as wide in its range as that of England, and all
departments are well and competently represented, though by but few
names. Dr Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) struck a new note when he began to
contribute his literary and theological essays to the periodicals, but,
though many have equalled and even surpassed him as theological
essayists, few, if any, of his followers have attempted the literary and
critical essays on which his fame as writer must mainly rest. Together
with Gwilym Hiraethog (1802-1883), the author of the inimitable
_Llythyrau Hen Ffarmwr_, he may be regarded as the pioneer of the new
literature. Samuel Roberts (1800-1885), generally known as S.R., wrote
numerous tracts and books on politics and economics, and as a political
thinker he was in many respects far in advance of his English
contemporaries. It was in this period, too, that Wales had her national
novelist, Daniel Owen (1836-1895). He was a novelist of the Dickens
school, and delighted like his great master "in writing mythology rather
than fiction." He has created a new literary atmosphere, in which the
characters of Puritanical and plebeian Wales move freely and without
restraint. He can never be eclipsed just as Sir Walter Scott cannot be
eclipsed, because the Wales which he describes is slowly passing away.
He has many worthy disciples, among whom Miss Winnie Parry is easily
first. Indeed, in her finer taste and greater firmness of touch, she
stands on a higher plane than even her great master. The inspiring
genius of the latter part of this period is Owen M. Edwards (b. 1858),
and, as a stylist, all writers of Welsh prose since Ellis Wynn have to
concede him the laurel. His little books of travel and history and
anecdote have created, or rather, are creating a new school of writers,
scrupulously and almost pedantically careful and correct, an ideal
which, on its philological side is the outcome of the scientific study
of the language as inaugurated by Sir John Rhys and Professor Morris
Jones. One of the earliest, if not the ablest writer of this "new Welsh"
was the independent and original Emrys ap Iwan (d. 1906), whose
_Homiliau_ was published in 1907.

10. _Poetry after 1820._--The origins of this period are really placed
in the last period. Its great characteristics are the development of the
lyric, and the influence of English and continental ideas. Just as the
_cywydd_ was among the older writers the favourite form of poetry, so
the lyric becomes now paramount, almost to the exclusion of other forms.
The first great name, after those already mentioned in the development
of this form of poetry, is that of Anne Griffiths (1776-1805). Her
poetry is exclusively composed of hymns, but to the English mind, the
word "hymn" is entirely inadequate to give any idea of the passion, the
mysticism and the rich symbolistic grace of her poems. She gave to the
Welsh lyric the depth and the rather melancholy intensity which has
always characterized it. Evan Evans (Ieuan Glan Geirionydd) (1795-1855)
was also a hymnologist, but he wrote many secular lyrics and
_awdlau_--among the former being the famous _Morfa Rhuddlan_. Ebenezer
Thomas (Eben Fardd) (1802-1863) was a famous _Eisteddfodwr_; his best
work is his _awdlau_, and no one will deny him the distinction of being
the master poet of the _awdl_ in the 19th century. Gwilym Cawrdaf
(1795-1848), also a writer of _awdlau_, has the gift of simple and
direct expression, well exemplified in _Hiraeth Cymro am ei wlad_.
Daniel Ddu (1792-1846) was a scholar who wrote some touching lyrics and
hymns. Gwilym Hiraethog (1802-1883) attempted an epic, _Emmanuel_, with
indifferent success. His shorter works and some of his _awdlau_ are of a
much higher order. Caledfryn (1801-1869) was a direct successor of Dewi
Wyn and the earlier writers of _awdlau_, but his _Drylliad y Rothsay
Castle_ is superior to anything which his master wrote. Similar in
genius, though not on quite as high a plane, were Nicander (1809-1874),
Cynddelw (1812-1875), Gwalchmai (1803-1897) and Tudno (1844-1895).

John Blackwell (Alun) (1797-1840) was a lyricist of the first order.
With Ieuan Glan Geirionydd, he is the pioneer of the secular lyric of
the 19th century. Succeeding to this group of lyricists, we have another
later group, Ceiriog (1832-1887), Talhaiarn (1810-1869) and Mynyddog
(1833-1877), who certainly had the advantage over their predecessors in
freshness, in vigour and in human interest, but they lacked the
scholastic training of the earlier group, and so their work is often
uneven, and cannot therefore be fairly compared with that of the earlier
poets. Ceiriog, of course, is the greater name of the three, and is to
Wales what Robert Burns was to Scotland, sharing with him his poetical
faults and merits. He is called the national poet of Wales, because he
was the first to sing of the land and the nation he knew, and he cast
the glamour of his genius over the life of the _gwerin_, the peasants of
Wales.

Somewhat higher flights were essayed by Gwilym Marles (1834-1879) and
Islwyn (1832-1878). Their poetry is Wordsworthian and mystical, and well
exemplifies the love of metaphysics and speculation which is growing in
Wales. Islwyn's _Y storm_, though uneven, is full of powerful passages,
and he was a master of blank verse. Of the remaining poets of the period
living in 1908, the most distinguished was the Rev. Elvet Lewis in the
older generation, and Eifion Wyn in the younger--both writers of lyrics.
Other lyrical poets of the first class are Gwylfa and Silyn Roberts. In
the old metres, two poets stand out prominent above all others--J.
Morris Jones and T. Gwynn Jones. The _Awdl i Famon_ of the former, and
the _Ymadawiad Arthur_ of the latter, gave reason to believe that Welsh
poetry was only entering on its golden period.

  AUTHORITIES.--_General_.--T. Stephens, _Literature of the Kymry_
  (London[2], 1876); L.C. Stern in _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1
  pp. 114-130; Gweirydd ap Rhys. _Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 1300-1650_
  (London, 1885); C. Ashton, _Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, 1651-1850_
  (Liverpool, 1893); J. Loth, _Les Mabinogion_ (2 vols., Paris, 1889);
  E. Anwyl, _Prolegomena to Welsh Poetry_ (London, 1905), also on the
  Mabinogi in _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ i. 277 ff.; I.B. John, _The
  Mabinogion_ (London, 1901); T. Shankland, _Diwygwyr Cymru_, reprinted
  from _Seren Gomer_ (1899); W.J. Gruffydd, _Foreign Influences on Welsh
  Literature in the XIV. and XV. Centuries_, Guild of Welsh Graduates
  (1908); Gwilym Lleyn, _Llyfryddiaeth y Cymry_ (Llanidloes, 1867);
  Robert Williams, _Enwogion Cymru_ (Llandovery, 1852); Owen Jones,
  _Cymru_ (2 vols., London, 1875); D.W. Nash, _History of the Battle of
  Cattraeth_ (Tenby, 1861); _Encyclopaedia Cambrensis_ (10 vols.,[2]
  1889-1896); C. Ashton, _Bywyd ac amserau yr Esgob Morgan_ (Treherbert,
  1891); J. Foulkes, _J. Ceiriog Hughes, ei fywyd a'i waith_ (Liverpool,
  1887); J.M. Jones, _Llenyddiaeth fy ngwlad_ (Holywell, 1893); H. Elvet
  Lewis, _Sweet Singers of Wales_ (London, 1889); H.W. Lloyd, _Welsh
  Books Printed Abroad in the XVI. and XVII. Centuries_ (London, 1881).

  _Anthologies, Selected Prose and Verse, &c._--W.F. Skene, _The Four
  Ancient Books of Wales_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868); W. Owen (Pughe),
  Iolo Morganwg and Owen Jones (Myfyr), _Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales_
  (3 vols., London, 1801;[2] Denbigh, 1870, in 1 vol.); Dr John Davies
  (o Fallwyd), _Flores Poetarum Britannicorum_ (Shrewsbury, 1710;
  Swansea, 1814; reprinted London, 1864); Iolo Morganwg, _Iolo
  Manuscripts_ (Llandovery, 1848); E. Evans, _Some Specimens of the
  Poetry of the Antient Welsh Bards translated into English, &c._
  (London, 1764); Hugh Jones, _Dewisol Ganiadau yr Oes Hon_ (Shrewsbury,
  1759;[5] Merthyr, 1827), _Diddanwch Teuluaidd_ (London, 1763); David
  Jones, _Blodeugerdd Cymry_ (Shrewsbury[2], 1779); Owen Jones, _Ceinion
  Llenyddiaeth Gymreig_ (2 vols., London, 1876); W. Lewis Jones,
  _Caniadau Cymru_ (Bangor[2], 1908); W. Jenkyn Thomas, _Penillion
  Telyn_ (Carnarvon, 1894); Myrddin Fardd, _Cynfeirdd Lleyn_ (1905);
  _Cyfres Lien Cymru_, vols. i.-vi. (Cardiff, 1900-1906); W.J. Gruffydd,
  _Y Flodeugerdd Newydd_ (Cardiff, 1908); O.M. Edwards, _Beirdd y
  Berwyn_ (Conway, 1903).

  _Versification, &c_,--Dafydd Morganwg, _Yr Ysgol Farddol_ (Cardiff[3],
  1887); Iolo Morganwg, _Cyfrinach Beirdd Ynys Prydain_ (Merthyr,
  1829;[2] Carnarvon, 1874); _Simwnt Vychan and Dafydd Ddu Athraw,
  Dosparth Edeyrn Davod Aur_, ed. by J. Williams ab Ithel (Llandovery,
  1856); J. Morris Jones, "Welsh Versification," _Zeitschr.f. celt.
  Phil._ iv. pp. 106-142.

  _Collected Works, Editions and Reprints_,--J. Gwenogvryn Evans and
  John Rhys, _Y Llyvyr Coch o Hergest_ (2 vols. Oxford, 1887-1890),
  _Pedeir Kainc y Mabinogi_ (Oxford, 1897); J. Gwenogvryn Evans, _The
  Black Book of Carmarthen_ (Oxford, 1907; also in facsimile, Oxford,
  1888), _Llyvyr Job trans. by Dr Morgan, 1558_ (reprinted 1888), _Oll
  Synwyr pen_ [Salesbury] (Bangor, 1902); J. Morris Jones and John Rhys,
  _Llyvyr Agkyr Llandewivrevi_ (Oxford, 1894); Aneurin Owen, _Ancient
  Laws and Institutes of Wales_ (2 vols., London, 1841), _Brut y
  Tywysogion_ (London, 1863); J. Williams ab Ithel, _Gododin with Notes
  and Translation_ (Llandovery, 1852); T. Stephens, _Gododin with Notes
  and Translation_, ed. by T. Powel (London, 1888); R. Williams,
  _Selections from the Hengwrt MSS._ (2 vols., London, 1876-1892); T.
  Powel, _Ystorya de Carolo Magno_ (London, 1883); _Psalmau Dafydd
  trans. by W. Morgan_ (facsimile, 1896); Owen Jones (Myfyr) and W. Owen
  (Pughe), _Barddoniaeth Dafydd ab Gwilym_ (London, 1789); Walter Davies
  and J. Jones, _Poetical Works of Lewis Glyn Cothi_ (1837); Prince
  Louis Bonaparte, _Athrawaeth Gristnogavl by Morys Clynoc_ (facsimile
  London, 1880); Walter Davies, _Caniadau Huw Morus_ (2 vols., 1823);
  _Psalmau Dafydd gan W. Middleton_ (Llanfair, 1827); J. Morris Jones,
  _Gweledugaethai y Bardd cwsg gan Elis Wynne_ (Bangor, 1898); R. Jones,
  _The Poetical Works of Goronwy Owen_ (2 vols. London, 1876); W.J.
  Gruffydd, _Cywyddau Goronwy Owen_ (Newport, 1906); T.E. Ellis,
  _Gweithiau Morgan Llwyd_ (Bangor, 1899); J.H. Davies, _Yn y Llyvyr
  hwn_ (Bangor, 1902); S.J. Evans, _Drych y Prif Oesoedd gan Th. Evans_
  (Bangor, 1902); W.P. Williams, _Deffyniad Ffydd Eglwys Loegr gan Morys
  Kyffin_ (Bangor, 1908); N. Cynhafal Jones, _Gweithiau W. Williams
  Pantycelyn_ (2 vols., 1887-1891); O.M. Edwards, _Gweithiau Islwyn_
  (1897).     (W. J. G.)

V. BRETON LITERATURE.--Unlike the literature of Wales, the literature of
Brittany is destitute of originality, and we find nothing to compare
with the _Mabinogion_. Till the 19th century all the monuments which
have come down to us are copies of French models, though the retention
down to the 17th century of that intricate system of versification found
in Welsh and Cornish may indicate that what was really Breton in spirit
has not been preserved (v. J. Loth, _La Metrique galloise_, ii.
177-203). It is usual to divide the literature into three periods in
conformity with the language in which the monuments are written--Old,
Middle, and Modern Breton. No connected monuments of the first period
(8th to 11th centuries) have come down to us. For our knowledge of the
language of this period we must have recourse to the manuscripts
containing glosses and the names occurring in ancient documents. The
chief collections of glosses are (1) the Oxford glosses on Eutychius;
(2) the Luxemburg glosses; (3) the Bern glosses on Virgil; (4) the
glosses on Amalarius (Corpus Christi, Cambridge); (5) five _Collationes
Canonum_, the chief manuscripts being at Paris and Orleans. All these
glosses have been published in one volume by J. Loth (_Vocabulaire
Vieux-Breton_, Paris, 1884). From a linguistic point of view the Breton
names in the Latin lives of saints are very important, particularly
those of St Samson, St Paul, Aurelian, St Winwaloe, St Ninnoc, St Gildas
and St Brieuc. Of even greater value are the names in the Charter of
Redon, which was written in the 11th century, but dates largely from the
9th (published by A. de Courson, 1865); we may also mention the Charter
of Landevennec (11th century). In the Middle Breton period, which
extends from the 11th to the 17th centuries, we are obliged, down to the
15th century, to rely on official documents such as the Charter of
Quimperle. French seems to have been the language of the aristocracy and
the medium of culture. Hence the oldest connected texts are either
translated or imitated from French, and are full of French words. We
might mention a Book of Hours belonging to the 16th century, published
by Whitley Stokes, and three religious poems bound up with the _Grand
Mystere de Jesus_; further, the _Life of St Catherine_ (1576) in prose
(published by Ernault, _Revue celtique_, viii. 76), translated from the
_Golden Legend_, the _Mirror of Death_, containing 3360 verses, which
was composed in 1519 and printed in 1576, the _Mirror of Confession_, a
translation from the French in prose (1621), the _Christian Doctrine_, a
translation in verse (1622), a collection of carols (_An Nouelou
ancien_, 1650, _Rev. celt._ vols. x.-xiii.) and the _Christian
Meditations_ of J. Cadec, 1651 (_Rev. Celt._ xx. 56). The earliest
Breton printed work is the _Catholicon_ of Jean Lagadeuc, a
Breton-Latin-French dictionary, dated 1464 but printed first in 1499
(reprinted by R.F. Le Men, Lorient, 1867). Modern Breton begins with the
orthographical reforms of the Jesuit, Julien Maunoir, whose grammar (_Le
Sacre College de Jesus_) and dictionary appeared in 1659. Throughout the
modern period we find numerous collections of religious poems and
manuals of devotion in prose and verse, which we cannot here attempt to
enumerate. But the bulk of Breton literature before the 19th century
consists of mysteries and miracle plays. This class of literature had a
tremendous vogue in Brittany, and the native stage was only killed about
1850. It is stated, for instance, that no less than 15,000 copies were
sold of the _Tragedy of the Four Sons of Aymon_, first published in
1815. It is impossible to give the titles of all the dramas which have
come down to us (about 120). The manuscript collection of the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris is described in the _Revue celtique_,
xi. 389-423 (many since published) and Le Braz gives a useful list of
other manuscripts in the bibliographical appendix to his _Theatre
celtique_. A few of these plays belong to the Middle Breton period. The
_Life of St Nonn_, the mother of St David, belongs to the end of the
15th century, and follows the Latin life (published by Ernault in the
_Revue celtique_, viii. 230 ff., 405 ff.). _Le Grand Mystere de Jesus_
(1513) follows the French play of Arnoul Gresban and Jean Michel
(published by H. de la Villemarque, Paris, 1865). A French original is
also followed in the _Mystere de Sainte Barbe_ (1st ed., 1557, 2nd ed.,
1647, reprinted by Ernault, Nantes, 1885). These mystery plays may be
divided into four categories according to the subjects with which they
deal: (1) Old Testament subjects; (2) New Testament subjects; (3) lives
of saints; (4) romances of chivalry. There is occasionally a dash of
local colouring in these plays; but the subject matter is taken from
French sources or, in the case of the third category, from Latin lives.
Even when the life of a Breton saint, e.g. St Gwennole, is dramatized,
the treatment is the traditional one accorded to all saints of whatever
origin. Amongst the most favourite subjects in addition to those already
mentioned we may note the following: _Vie des quatre fils Aymon_, _Ste
Tryphine et le roi Arthur_, _Huon de Bordeaux_, _Vie de Louis Eunius_,
_Robert le Diable_. These mysteries commonly contain from 5000 to 9000
lines of either 12 or 8 syllables apiece. For the sake of completeness
we may add the names of three farces, described by Le Braz: _Ar Farvel
goapaer_ (_Le bouffon moqueur_), _Ian Melarge_ (_Mardi-gras_), _La Vie
de Mardi-gras, de triste Mine, sa femme, et de ses enfants_. The actors,
who were always peasants, came to be regarded with an unfavourable eye
by the clergy, who finally succeeded in killing the Breton stage.

We look in vain for any manifestation of originality in Breton
literature until we reach the 19th century. The consciousness of
nationality then awakened and found expression in verse.

The movement led by Le Gonidec (described above in the section on Breton
language) caused ardent patriots to endeavour to create a national
literature, more especially when the attention of the whole world of
letters was directed to Brittany after the publication of the _Barzas
Breiz_. The most prominent of these pioneers were Auguste Brizeux, F.M.
Luzel and Prosper Proux. Brizeux (1803-1858), better known as a French
poet, wrote a collection of lyrics entitled _Telen Arvor_, or the
_Armorican Harp_ (Lorient, 1844, reprinted Paris, 1903). Luzel's
original compositions were published under the title of _Bepred Breizad,
Toujours Breton_ (Morlaix, 1865), and Prosper Proux is known as the
author of _Canaouenno gret gant eur C'hernewod_ (1838) and _Ar Bombard
Kerne_, or _The Hautboy of Cornouailles_ (Guingamp, 1866). Dottin also
mentions _Telenn Remengol_, by J. Lescour (Brest, 1867); _Telenn
Gwengam_, by the same writer (Brest, 1869), a volume of _Chansoniou_ by
Y.M. Thomas (Lannion, 1870), and another by C. Rannou. This was a very
creditable beginning, but the themes of these writers are apt to be
somewhat conventional and the constant recurrence of the same situation
or the same idea grows monotonous. An anthology of poems connected with
this movement appeared at Quimperle in 1862 under the title of _Bleuniou
Breiz, Poesies anciennes et modernes de la Basse-Bretagne_ (reprinted,
Paris, 1905). Several of La Fontaine's fables were published in a Breton
dress by P.D. de Goesbriand (Morlaix, 1836), and a collection of fables
in verse which is thought very highly of by cultivated Bretons appeared
under the title of _Marvaillou Grac'h koz_ by G. Milin (Brest, 1867). A
book of Georgics in the dialect of Vannes appeared under the title of
_Levr al labourer_ (The Farmer's Book) by l'Abbe Guillome (Vannes,
1849), and Le Gonidec prepared a translation of the Scriptures, which
was revised by Troude and Milin, and published at St Brieuc in 1868. But
the real literature of Brittany consists of legends, folk-tales and
ballads. The first to tap this source was Hersart de la Villemarque
(1815-1895), who issued in 1839 his famous collection of ballads
entitled _Barzas Breiz_, but which cannot be regarded as an anthology of
Breton popular poetry. The publication of this work gave rise to a
controversy which is almost as famous as that caused by Macpherson's
forgeries. De la Villemarque was endowed with considerable poetic gifts,
and, coming as he did at a time when folk-poetry was the fashion, he
determined to collect the popular literature of his own country.
However, he was not content to publish the poems as he found them
circulating in Brittany. With the aid of several collaborators he
transformed his material, eliminating anything that was crude and gross.
The poems included in his collection may be divided into three classes:
(1) Poems rearranged by himself or others. These consist mainly of
love-songs and ballads. (2) Modern poems transferred to medieval times.
(3) Spurious poems dealing with such personages as Nominoe and Merlin.
The compiler of the _Barzas Breiz_ unfortunately laboured under the
delusion that these Breton folk-songs were in the first instance the
work of medieval bards corresponding to Taliessin and Llywarch Hen in
Wales, and that it was possible to make them appear in their primitive
dress. The very title of the collection indicates the artificial nature
of the contents. For _Barzas_ (in the 2nd edition of 1867 spelt
_Barzaz_) is not a Breton word at all but is formed on Welsh _barddas_
(bardic poems). For the whole controversy the reader may consult H.
Gaidoz and P. Sebillot, "Bibliographie des traditions et de la
litterature populaire de la Bretagne" (_Revue celtique_, v. 277 ff., and
G. Dottin in the _Revue de synthese historique_, viii. 95 ff.). In
Brittany it is usual to divide the popular poetry into _gwerziou_ and
_soniou_. The _gwerziou_ (complaintes) deal with local history,
folk-lore, religious legends and superstitions, and are in general much
more original than the other class. The _soniou_ consist of love-songs,
satires, carols and marriage-lays, as well as others dealing with
professional occupations, and seem in many cases to show traces of
French influence. The first scholar who published the genuine ballad
literature of Brittany was F.M. Luzel, who issued two volumes under the
title of _Gwerziou Breiz-Izel, chants populaires de la Basse-Bretagne_
(Lorient and Paris, 1868, 1874). This collection contains several of the
originals of poems in the _Barzas Breiz_. Luzel is also the author of a
collection of Breton tales in French translation, _Contes bretons
recueillis et traduits par F.M. Luzel_ (Quimperle, 1870). The same
author published _Les Legendes chretiennes de la Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris,
1881) and _Veillees bretonnes, moeurs, chants, contes et recits
populaires des Bretons-Armoricains_ (Morlaix, 1879). Another
indefatigable collector of Breton legends is Anatole le Braz, who was
commissioned by the minister of public instruction to investigate the
stories current with reference to _An Ankou_ (death). Le Braz's results
are to be found in his _La Legende de la mort_ (1902[2]). A well-known
collection of stories with a French translation was issued by the
lexicographer Troude under the title of _Ar marvailler brezounek_
(Brest, 1870), and one of the most popular books at the present day is
_Pipi Gonto_, by A. le Moal (St Brieuc, vol. i. 1902, vol. ii. 1908). A
recent collection of stories with a religious tendency is C.M. le Prat's
_Marvailhou ar Vretoned_ (Brest, 1907). The modern movement, which
started in the 'nineties of last century, has already produced numerous
dramas and volumes of lyrics, and it may now be affirmed in all
seriousness that Brittany is producing something really national. The
scope of the writers of the earlier movement was very limited and little
originality was displayed in their productions. The literary output of
the last ten years in Brittany may truly be termed prodigious, and much
of it reaches quite a high level. The dramas which are being produced
are mainly propagandist in the interests either of the _Union
Regionaliste Bretonne_ or of temperance reform. These are for the most
part very crude, but they have been received with great enthusiasm, and
this has led to the revival of the old mysteries, though in a somewhat
modified form. The foremost living writer is Fanch Jaffrennou, who
writes under the name of "_Taldir_" (Brow of Steel) and is the author of
two very striking volumes of lyrics--_An Hirvoudou_ or _Sighs_ (St
Brieuc, 1899) and _An Delen Dir_ or _The Harp of Steel_ (St Brieuc,
1900). The latter is the most interesting outcome of the modern
movement. Among other poets we may mention N. Quellien (_Annaik_, Paris,
1880; _Breiz, Poesies bretonnes_, Paris, 1898), Erwan Berthou (_Dre an
Delen hag ar c'horn-boud, Par la harpe et par le cor de guerre_, St
Brieuc, 1904), C.M. le Prat, who writes under the name of Klaoda (_Mouez
Reier Plougastel_, "The Voice of the Cliffs of Plougastel," St Brieuc,
1905), J. Cuillandre (_Mouez an Aochou, La Voix des greves_, Rennes,
1903), abbe Lec'hvien, _Gwerziou ha soniou_ (St Brieuc, 1900), and,
further, two anonymous volumes of verse, _An Tremener, Gwerziou ha
soniou_ (Brest, 1900), and _Kanaouennou Kerne_ (Brest, 1900). Two older
collections are mentioned by Dottin--J. Cadiou, _En Breiz-Izel_
(Morlaix, 1885) and _Ivona_ (Morlaix, 1886). An anthology of latter-day
lyrics appeared at Rennes in 1902 under the title of _Bleuniou
Breiz-Izel, Dibab Barzoniezou_. Of the numerous plays those most
deserving of mention from a literary point of view are perhaps _Ar
Vezventi_ by T. le Garrec; the comedy _Alanik al Louarn_ by J.M. Perrot
(Brest, 1905) based on the farce of Pathelin; Tanguy Malmanche, _Le
Conte de l'ame qui a faim_, in which Breton superstitions connected with
the spirits of the dead are introduced with strange effect; J. le Bayon,
_En Eutru Keriolet_ (Vannes, 1902), which deals with the life and death
of a blaspheming Breton nobleman of the early part of the 17th century;
F. Jaffrennou, _Pontkallek_ (Brest, 1903), which tells of the betrayal
of a noble Breton who was put to death by the French in 1720; and the
farce _Eur Pesk-Ebrel_ by L. Rennadis (Morlaix, 1900).

  AUTHORITIES.--A history of Breton literature does not exist, though we
  possess ample materials for such a work. The following works and
  articles may be consulted: G. Dottin. _Revue de synthese historique_,
  viii, 93-104, contains a full bibliography; J. Loth, _Chrestomathie
  bretonne_ (Paris, 1890); L.C. Stern in _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, i.
  xi. 1, pp. 132-137; A. le Braz, _Le Theatre celtique_ (Paris, 1904);
  H. Gaidoz and P. Sebillot, "Bibliographie des traditions et de la
  litterature populaire de la Bretagne" (_Revue celtique_, v. 277-338;
  supplement by P. Sebillot_, Revue de Bretagne, de Vendee, et d'Anjou_,
  1894); F.M. Luzel, "Formules initiates et finales des conteurs en
  Basse-Bretagne" (_Revue celtique_, iii. 336 ff.); L.F. Sauve,
  "Formulettes et traditions diverses de la Basse-Bretagne" (_Revue
  celtique_, v. 157 ff.); _Charmes_, "Oraisons et conjurations
  magiques," ib vi. 66 ff.; "Devinettes bretonnes," _ib._ iv 60 ff.;
  "Proverbes et dictons de la Basse-Bretagne," _ib._ i-iii. For Breton
  proverbs see also A. Brizeux, "Furnez Breiz," in _Oeuvres de A.
  Brizeux_ (Paris, 1903); J. Loth, "Chansons en bas-vannetais" (_Revue
  celtique_, vii. 171 ff.); N. Quellien, _Chansons et danses des
  Bretons_ (Paris, 1889); E. Ernault, "Chansons populaires" (_Revue
  celtique_, xxiii. 121 ff.); P. le Roux, "Une Chanson bretonne du
  xviii^e siecle" (_Revue celtique_, xix. 1). Since 1901 a complete
  bibliography of modern works pertaining to Breton language and
  literature appears from time to time in the _Annales de Bretagne._
       (E. C. Q.)

VI. CORNISH LITERATURE.--The literature of Cornwall is more destitute of
originality and more limited in scope than that of Brittany, and it is
remarkable that the medieval drama should occupy the most prominent
place in both. The earliest Cornish we know consists of proper names and
a vocabulary. About 200 Cornish names occur among the manumissions of
serfs in the Bodmin Gospels (10th century). They were printed by Whitley
Stokes in the _Revue celtique_, i. 232. Next comes the Cottonian
Vocabulary, which seems to follow a similar Anglo-Saxon collection and
is contained in a 12th-century MS. at the British Museum. It consists of
seven pages and the words are classified under various headings, such as
heaven and earth, different parts of the human body, birds, beasts,
fishes, trees, herbs, ecclesiastical and liturgical terms. At the end we
find a number of adjectives. This vocabulary was printed by Zeuss[2], p.
1065, and again in alphabetical order by Norris in the _Ordinalia_. The
language of this document is termed Old Cornish, although the forms it
contains correspond to those of Mid. Welsh and Mid. Breton.

The first piece of connected Cornish which we know consists of a poem,
or portion of a play(?), of forty-one lines discovered by Jenner in the
British Museum. This fragment was probably written about 1400 and deals
with the subject of marriage (edited by W. Stokes in the _Revue
celtique_, iv. 258). A little later is the _Poem of Mount Calvary_ or
_the Passion_, of which five MSS. are in existence. The poem has been
twice printed, first by Davies Gilbert with English translation by John
Keigwin (1826), and again by W. Stokes for the London Philological
Society in 1862. It consists of 259 stanzas of eight lines of seven
syllables apiece, and contains a versified narrative of the events of
the Passion made up from the Gospels and apocryphal sources, notably the
Gospel of Nicodemus. But the bulk of Cornish literature is made up of
plays, and in this connexion it may be noted that there still exist in
the west of Cornwall the remains of a number of open-air amphitheatres,
locally called _plan an guari_, where the plays seem to have been acted.
The earliest representatives of this kind of literature in Cornwall form
a trilogy going under the name of _Ordinalia_, of which three MSS. are
known, one a 15th-century Oxford MS. from which the two others are
copied. The _Ordinalia_ were published by Edwin Norris under the title
of _The Ancient Cornish Drama_ (Oxford, 1859). The first play is called
_Origo Mundi_ and deals with events from the Old Testament down to the
building of Solomon's temple. The second play, the _Passio Domini_, goes
on without interruption into the third, the _Resurrectio Domini_, which
embraces the Harrowing of Hell, the Resurrection and Ascension, the
legend of St Veronica and Tiberius, and the death of Pilate. Here again
the pseudo-Gospel of Nicodemus is drawn upon, and interwoven with the
Scriptural narrative we find the Legend of the Cross. As the title
_Ordinalia_ indicates, these plays are of learned origin and are
imitated from English sources. The popular name for these dramas,
_quari-mirkle_, is a literal translation of the English term miracle
play, and Norris shows that whole passages were translated word for
word. Many of the events are represented as having taken place in
well-known Cornish localities, but apart from this scarcely any traces
of originality can be discovered. The same remark holds good in the case
of another play, _Beunans Meriasek_ or the _Life of St Meriasek._ This
deals in an incoherent manner with the life and death of Meriasek (in
Breton _Meriadek_), the son of a duke of Brittany, and interwoven with
this theme is the legend of St Silvester and the emperor Constantine,
quite regardless of the circumstance that St Silvester lived in the 4th
and St Meriasek in the 7th century. The MS. of this play was written by
"Dominus Hadton" in the year 1504, and is preserved in the Peniarth
library. The language is more recent than that of the _Ordinalia_, and
there is a certain admixture of English. The _Life of St Meriasek_ falls
into two parts, and at the end of each the spectators are invited to
carouse. St Meriasek was in earlier times the patron saint of Camborne,
where his fountain is still to be seen and pilgrims to it were known by
the name of _Merra-sickers._ In this play, consequently, we might expect
to find something really Cornish. But le Braz has shown that the author
of this motley drama was content to draw his materials from Latin and
English lives of saints. The story of Meriasek himself was taken from a
Breton source and closely resembles the narrative of the 17th-century
Breton hagiographer, Albert le Grand. The last play we have to mention
is _Gwreans an Bys_ (The Creation of the World), of which five complete
copies are known. Two of these are in the Bodleian and one in the
British Museum, which also possesses a further fragment. The oldest text
was revised by William Jordan of Helston in 1611, but there are
indications that parts of it at any rate are older than the Reformation.
This play bears a great resemblance to the first part of the _Origo
Mundi_, and may have been imitated from it. It was printed first by
Davies Gilbert in 1827 with a translation by John Keigwin, and again by
W. Stokes in the _Transactions of the London Philological Society_ for
1864. The language shows considerable signs of decay, and Lucifer and
his angels are often made to speak English. The only other original
compositions of any length written in Cornish are _Nebbaz Gerriau dro
tho Carnoack_ (A Few Words about Cornish), by John Boson (printed in the
_Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall_, 1879), and the _Story of
John of Chy-an-Hur_ (Ram's House), a folk-tale which appears in Ireland
and elsewhere. The latter was printed in Lhuyd's _Grammar_ and in
Pryce's _Archaeologia_. Andrew Borde's _Booke of the Introduction of
Knowledge_ (1542) contains some Cornish conversations (see _Archiv f.
celt. Lexikographie_, vol. i.), and in Carew's _Survey of Cornwall_ a
number of words and phrases are to be found. Apart from the Cornish
preface to Lhuyd's _Grammar_, the other remains of the language consist
of a few songs, verses, proverbs, epigrams, epitaphs, maxims, letters,
conversations, mottoes and translations of chapters and passages of
Scripture, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Commandments, King
Charles's Letter, &c. These fragments are to be found (1) in the Gwavas
MS. in the British Museum, a collection ranging in date from 1709 to
1736; (2) in the Borlase MS. (1750); (3) in Pryce's _Archaeologia
Cornu-Britannica_ (1790); (4) in D. Gilbert's editions of the _Poem of
the Passion_ (1826) and the Creation of the World (1827). They are
enumerated, classified and described by Jenner in his _Handbook._

  AUTHORITIES.--H. Jenner, _Handbook of the Cornish Language_ (London,
  1904); A. le Braz, _Le Theatre celtique_ (Paris, 1905); E. Norris,
  _The Ancient Cornish Drama_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1859); T.C. Peter, _The
  Old Cornish Drama_ (London, 1906); L.C. Stern, _Die Kultur d.
  Gegenwart_, i. xi. 1, pp. 131-132.     (E. C. Q.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] J. Loth gives it as his opinion that as late as 1400-1600 a
    Cornishman and a Breton might have been able to understand one
    another.

  [2] It is indeed probable that Myrddin is a purely fictitious
    character, whose name has been made up from Caer Fyrddin
    (=Maridunum), which was certainly not a personal name.

  [3] Another derivation of this word is from _llad_, "profit" + _hai_,
    a suffix denoting the agent. Others derive it from or connect it with
    the Irish _slad-_.




CELT, a word in common use among British and French archaeologists to
describe the hatchets, adzes or chisels of chipped or shaped stone used
by primitive man. The word is variously derived from the Welsh _cellt_,
a flintstone (that being the material of which the weapons are chiefly
made, though celts of basalt felstone and jade are found); from being
supposed to be the implement peculiar to the Celtic peoples; or from a
Low Latin word _celtis_, a chisel. The last derivation is more probably
correct. The word has come to be somewhat loosely applied to metal as
well as stone axe-heads. The general form of stone celts is that of
blades approaching an oval in section, with sides more or less straight
and one end broader and sharper than the other. In length they vary from
about 2 to as much as 16 in. The largest and finest specimens are found
in Denmark: one in an English collection being of beautiful white flint
13 in. long, 1-1/2 in. thick and 3-1/2 in. broad. Those found in Denmark
are sometimes polished, but usually are left rough. Those found in
north-western Europe are ground to a more or less smooth surface. That
some were held in the hand and others fixed in wooden handles is clear
from the presence of peculiar polished spaces produced by the friction
of the wood. In the later stone adzes holes are sometimes found pierced
to receive the handles.

The bronze celts vary in size from an inch to a foot in length. The
earlier specimens are much like the stone ones in shape and design, but
the later manufactures show a marked improvement, the metal being
usually pierced to receive the handles. It is noteworthy that the
celtmakers never cast their axes with a transverse hole through which
the handle might pass. Bronze celts are usually plain, but some are
ornamented with ridges, dots or lines. That they were made in the
countries where they are found is proved by the presence of moulds.

A point worthy of mention is the position which stone celts hold in the
folk-lore and superstitious beliefs of many lands. In the West of
England the country folks believe the weapons fell originally from the
sky as "thunderbolts," and that the water in which they are boiled is a
specific for rheumatism. In the North and Scotland they are
preservatives against cattle diseases. In Brittany a stone celt is
thrown into a well to purify the water. In Sweden they are regarded as a
protection against lightning. In Norway the belief is that, if they are
genuine thunderbolts, a thread tied round them when placed on hot coals
will not burn but will become moist. In Germany, Spain, Italy, the same
beliefs prevail. In Japan the stones are accounted of medicinal value,
while in Burma and Assam they are infallible specifics for ophthalmia.
In Africa they are the weapons of the Thunder-God. In India and among
the Greeks the hatchet appears to have had a sacred importance, derived,
doubtless, from the universal superstitious awe with which these weapons
of prehistoric man were regarded.

  See Sir J. Evans's _Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Lord
  Avebury's _Prehistoric Times_ (1865-1900) and _Origin of Civilization_
  (1870); E.B. Tylor's _Anthropology, and Primitive Culture_, &c. For
  the history of polished stone axes up to the 17th century see Dr
  Marrel Bandouin and Lionel Bonnemere in the _Bulletin de la Societe
  d'Anthropologie de Paris_, April-May 1905.







*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "CAT" TO "CELT" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_33295.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Celtes, Konrad" to "Ceramics"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Celtes, Konrad" to "Ceramics"

Author: Various

Release date: July 30, 2010 [eBook #33295]
                Most recently updated: January 6, 2021

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "CELTES, KONRAD" TO "CERAMICS" ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net







Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


             VOLUME V, SLICE VI

         Celtes, Konrad to Ceramics




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  CELTES, KONRAD         CENTO (town of Italy)
  CELTIBERIA             CENTO (composition)
  CEMENT                 CENTRAL AMERICA
  CEMETERY               CENTRAL FALLS
  CENCI, BEATRICE        CENTRALIA
  CENOBITES              CENTRAL INDIA
  CENOMANI               CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR
  CENOTAPH               CENTUMVIRI
  CENSOR                 CENTURION
  CENSORINUS             CENTURIPE
  CENSUS                 CENTURY
  CENTAUREA              CEOS
  CENTAURS               CEPHALIC INDEX
  CENTAURUS              CEPHALONIA
  CENTAURY               CEPHALOPODA
  CENTENARY              CEPHEUS
  CENTERVILLE            CEPHISODOTUS
  CENTIPEDE              CERAM
  CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA     CERAMICS




CELTES, KONRAD (1459-1508), German humanist and Latin poet, the son of a
vintner named Pickel (of which Celtes is the Greek translation), was
born at Wipfeld near Schweinfurt. He early ran away from home to avoid
being set to his father's trade, and at Heidelberg was lucky enough to
find a generous patron in Johann von Dalberg and a teacher in Agricola.
After the death of the latter (1485) Celtes led the wandering life of a
scholar of the Renaissance, visiting most of the countries of the
continent, teaching in various universities, and everywhere establishing
learned societies on the model of the academy of Pomponius Laetus at
Rome. Among these was the _Sodalitas litteraria Rhenana_ or _Celtica_ at
Mainz (1491). In 1486 he published his first book, _Ars versificandi et
carminum_, which created an immense sensation and gained him the honour
of being crowned as the first poet laureate of Germany, the ceremony
being performed by the emperor Frederick III. at the diet of Nuremberg
in 1487. In 1497 he was appointed by the emperor Maximilian I. professor
of poetry and rhetoric at Vienna, and in 1502 was made head of the new
Collegium Poetarum et Mathematicorum, with the right of conferring the
laureateship. He did much to introduce system into the methods of
teaching, to purify the Latin of learned intercourse, and to further the
study of the classics, especially the Greek. But he was more than a mere
classicist of the Renaissance. He was keenly interested in history and
topography, especially in that of his native country. It was he who
first unearthed (in the convent of St Emmeran at Regensburg) the
remarkable Latin poems of the nun Hrosvitha of Gandersheim, of which he
published an edition (Nuremberg, 1501), the historical poem _Ligurinus
sive de rebus gestis Frederici primi imperatoris libri x._ (Augsburg,
1507), and the celebrated map of the Roman empire known as the _Tabula
Peutingeriana_ (after Konrad Peutinger, to whom he left it). He
projected a great work on Germany; but of this only the _Germania
generalis_ and an historical work in prose, _De origine, situ, moribus
et institutis Nurimbergae libettus_, saw the light. As a writer of Latin
verse Celtes far surpassed any of his predecessors. He composed odes,
elegies, epigrams, dramatic pieces and an unfinished epic, the
_Theodoriceis_. His epigrams, edited by Hartfelder, were published at
Berlin in 1881. His editions of the classics are now, of course, out of
date. He died at Vienna on the 4th of February 1508.

  For a full list of Celtes's works see Engelbert Klüpfel, _De vita et
  scriptis Conradi Celtis_ (2 vols., Freiburg, 1827); also Johann
  Aschbach, _Die früheren Wanderjahre des Conrad Celtes_ (Vienna, 1869);
  Hartmann, _Konrad Celtes in Nürnberg _(Nuremberg, 1889).




CELTIBERIA, a term used by Greek and Roman writers to denote, sometimes
the whole north-east of Spain, and sometimes the north-east part of the
central plateau of the peninsula. The latter was probably the correct
use. The Celtiberi, in this narrower sense, were not so much one tribe
as a group of cantons--Arevaci, Pelendones, Berones and four or five
others. They were the most warlike people in Spain, and for a long time
offered a stubborn resistance to the Romans. Originally Carthaginian
mercenaries, they were induced to serve the Romans in a similar
capacity, and Livy (xxiv. 49) distinctly states that they were the first
mercenaries in the Roman army. They did not, however, keep faith, and
several campaigns were undertaken against them. In 179 B.C. the whole
country was subdued by T. Sempronius Gracchus, who by his generous
treatment of the vanquished gained their esteem and affection. In 153
they again revolted, and were not finally overcome until the capture of
Numantia (133). The twenty years' war waged round this city, and its
siege and destruction by Scipio the Younger (133 B.C.) form only the
most famous episode in the long struggle, which has left its mark in
entrenchments near Numantia excavated in 1906-1907 by German
archaeologists. After the fall of Numantia, and still more after the
death of Sertorius (72 B.C.), the Celtiberians became gradually
romanized, and town life grew up among their valleys; Clunia, for
instance, became a Roman municipality, and ruins of its walls, gates and
theatre testify to its civilization; while Bilbilis (Bambola), another
municipality, was the birthplace of the eminently Roman poet Martial.
The Celtiberians may have been so called because they were thought to
be the descendants of Celtic immigrants from Gaul into Iberia (Spain),
or because they were regarded (cf. Lucan iv. 9) as a mixed race of Celts
and Spaniards (Iberians); in either case the name represents a
geographer's theory rather than an ascertained fact. That a strong
Celtic element existed in Spain is proved both by numerous traditions
and by the more trustworthy evidence of place-names. The Celtic
place-names of Spain, however, are not confined to Celtiberia or even to
the north and east; they occur even in the south and west.

  A long description of the manners and customs of the Celtiberi is
  given by Diodorus Siculus (v. 33, 34). Their country was rough and
  unfruitful as a whole (barley, however, was cultivated), being chiefly
  used for the pasture of sheep. Its inhabitants either led a nomadic
  life or occupied small villages; large towns were few. Their infantry
  and cavalry were both excellent. In battle, they adopted the
  wedge-shaped formation of the column. They carried double-edged swords
  and short daggers for use hand to hand, the steel of which was
  hardened by being buried underground; their defensive armour was a
  light Gallic shield or a round wicker buckler, and greaves of felt
  round their legs. They wore brazen helmets with purple crests, and
  rough-haired black cloaks, in which they slept on the bare ground.
  Like the Cantabri, they washed themselves with urine instead of water.
  They were said to offer sacrifice to a nameless god (Strabo iii. p.
  164) at the time of the full moon when all the household danced
  together before the doors of the houses. Although cruel to their
  enemies, they were hospitable to strangers. They ate meat of all
  kinds, and drank a kind of mead. E. Hübner's article in
  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. (1886-1893), collects all the
  ancient references, which are almost all brief. Strabo's notice (bk.
  iii.), based perhaps on Poseidonius, is fullest.     (F. J. H.)




CEMENT (from Lat. _caementum_, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form
of _caedimentum_, from _caedere_, to cut), apparently first used of a
mixture of broken stone, tiles, &c., with some binding material, and
hence of any material capable of adhering to, and uniting into a
coherent mass, fragments of a substance not in itself adhesive. The term
is often applied to adhesive mixtures employed to unite objects or parts
of objects (see below), but in engineering, when used without
qualification, it means Portland cement, its modifications and
congeners; these are all hydraulic cements, i.e. when set they resist
the action of water, and can, under favourable conditions, be allowed to
set under water.

_Hydraulic Cements_.--It was well known to builders in the earliest
historic times that certain limes would, when set, resist the action of
water, i.e. were hydraulic; it was also known that this property could
be conferred on ordinary lime by admixture of silicious materials such
as pozzuolana or tufa. We have here the two classes into which hydraulic
cements are divided.


  Pozzuolanic cement.

When pure chalk or limestone is "burned," i.e. heated in a kiln until
its carbonic acid has been driven off, it yields pure lime. This slakes
violently with water, giving slaked lime, which can be made into a
smooth paste with water and mixed with sand to form common mortar. The
setting of the mortar is due to the drying of the lime (a purely
physical phenomenon, no chemical action occurring between the lime and
the sand). The function of the sand is simply that of a diluent to
prevent undue shrinkage and cracking in drying. Subsequent hardening of
the mortar is caused by the gradual absorption of carbonic acid from the
air by the lime, a skin of carbonate of lime being formed; but the
action is superficial. Mortar made from pure or "fat" lime cannot
withstand the action of water, and is only used for work done above
water-level. If, however, such "fat" lime is mixed in the presence of
water, not with sand but with silica in an active form, i.e. amorphous
and (generally) hydrated, or with a silicate containing silica in an
active condition, it will unite with the silica and form a silicate of
lime capable of resisting the action of water. The mixture of the lime
and active silica or silicate is a pozzuolanic cement. The simplest of
all pozzuolanic cements would be a mixture of pure lime and hydrated
silica, but though the latter is prepared artificially for various
purposes, it is too expensive to be used as a cement material. A similar
obstacle lies in the way of using a certain native form of active
silica, viz. kieselguhr, for it is too valuable as an absorbent of
nitroglycerine, for the manufacture of dynamite, to be available for
making pozzuolanic cement. There are, however, many silicious
substances occurring abundantly in nature which can thus be used. They
are mostly of volcanic origin, and include pumice, tufa, santorin earth,
trass and pozzuolana itself. The following analyses show their general
composition:--

  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
  |                             |Neapolitan |   Roman   |           |
  |                             |  Pozzuo-  |  Pozzuo-  |   Trass   |
  |                             |   lana    |   lana    |(per cent) |
  |                             |(per cent) |(per cent) |           |
  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------|
  | Soluble silica (SiO2)       |   27.80   |   32.64   |   19.32   |
  | Insoluble silicious residue |   35.38   |   25.94   |   50.40   |
  | Alumina (Al2O3)             | / 19.80   | / 22.74   |   13.86   |
  | Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)        | \         | \         |    3.10   |
  | Lime (CaO)                  |    5.68   |    4.06   |   · ·     |
  | Magnesia (MgO)              |    0.35   |    1.37   |    0.13   |
  | Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)   |   Trace   |   Trace   |   · ·     |
  | Combined water (H2O)        | /  4.27   | /  8.92   |    7.57   |
  | Carbonic anhydride (CO2)    | \         | \         |   · ·     |
  | Moisture                    |    · ·    |    · ·    |    5.04   |
  | Alkalis and loss            |    6.72   |    4.33   |    0.58   |
  |                             +-----------+-----------+-----------+
  |                             |  100.00   | 100.00    |   100.0   |
  +-----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

An artificial product which serves perfectly as a pozzuolana is
granulated blast-furnace slag. The slag, which must contain a high
percentage of lime, is granulated by being run while fused into
abundance of water. This granulated slag differs from the same slag
allowed to cool slowly, in that a portion of the energy which it
possesses while fused is retained after it has solidified. It bears to
ordinary slowly-cooled slag a similar relation to that borne by plastic
sulphur to ordinary crystalline sulphur. This potential energy becomes
kinetic when the slag is brought into contact with lime in the presence
of water, and causes the formation of a true hydraulic silicate of lime.
The following analysis shows the composition of a typical slag:--

                                       Per Cent.
  Insoluble residue                      1.04
  Silica (SiO2)                         31.50
  Alumina (Al2O3)                       18.56
  Manganous oxide (MnO)                  0.44
  Lime (CaO)                            42.22
  Magnesia (MgO)                         3.18
  Soda (Na2O)                            0.70
  Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)              0.45
  Sulphur (S)                            2.21
                                       ------
                                       100.30
  Deduct oxygen equivalent to sulphur    1.10
                                       ------
                                        99.20

Granulated slag of this character is ground with slaked lime until both
materials are in a state of fine division and intimately mixed. The
usual proportions are three of slag to one of slaked lime by weight. The
product termed slag cement sets slowly, but ultimately attains a
strength scarcely inferior to that of Portland cement. Although it is
cheap and suitable for many purposes, its use is not large and tends to
decrease. Pozzuolanic cements are little used in England. Generally
speaking, they are only of local importance, their cheapness depending
largely on the nearness and abundance of some suitable volcanic deposit
of the trass or tufa class. They are not usually manufactured by the
careful grinding together of the pozzuolana and the lime, but are mixed
roughly, a great excess of pozzuolana being employed. This excess does
no harm, for that part which fails to unite with the lime serves as a
diluent, much as does sand in mortar. In fact, ordinary pozzuolanic
cement made on the spot where it is to be used may be regarded as a
better kind of common mortar having hydraulic qualities. Good hydraulic
mortars may be made from lime mixed with furnace ashes or burnt clay as
the pozzuolanic constituent.


  Portland Cement

Cements of the Portland type differ in kind from those of the
pozzuolanic class; they are not mechanical mixtures of lime and active
silica ready to unite under suitable conditions, but consist of definite
chemical compounds of lime and silica and lime and alumina, which, when
mixed with water, combine therewith, forming crystalline substances of
great mechanical strength, and capable of adhering firmly to clean inert
material, such as stone and sand. They are made by heating to a high
temperature an intimate mixture of a calcareous substance and an
argillaceous substance. The commonest of such substances in England are
chalk and clay, but where local conditions demand it, limestone, marl,
shale, slag or any similar material may be used, provided that the
correct proportions of lime, silica and alumina are maintained. The
earliest forms of cements of the Portland class were the hydraulic
limes. These are still largely used, and are prepared by burning
limestones containing clayey matter. Some of these naturally possess a
composition differing but little from that of the mixture of raw
materials artificially prepared for the manufacture of Portland cement
itself. Although hydraulic limes have been in use from the most ancient
times, their true nature and the reason of their resistance to water
have only become known since 1791. Next in antiquity to hydraulic lime
is Roman cement, prepared by heating an indurated marl occurring
naturally in nodules. Its name must not be taken to imply that it was
used by the ancients; in point of fact the manufacture of this substance
dates back only to 1796.

With the growth of engineering in the early part of the 19th century
arose a great demand for hydraulic cement. The supply of materials
containing naturally suitable proportions of calcium carbonate and clay
being limited, attempts were made to produce artificial mixtures which
would serve a similar end. Among those who experimented in this
direction was Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds, who added clay to finely ground
limestone, calcined the mixture, and ground the product, which he called
Portland cement. The only connexion between Portland cement and the
place Portland is that the cement when set somewhat resembles Portland
stone in colour. True, it is possible to manufacture Portland cement
from Portland stone (after adding a suitable quantity of clay), but this
is merely because Portland stone is substantially carbonate of lime; any
other limestone would serve equally well. Although Portland cement is
later in date than either Roman cement or hydraulic lime, yet on account
of its greater industrial importance, and of the fact that, being an
artificial product, it is of approximately uniform composition and
properties, it may conveniently be treated of first. The greater part of
the Portland cement made in England is manufactured on the Thames and
Medway. The materials are chalk and Medway mud; in a few works the
latter is replaced by gault.

  The composition of typical samples of chalk and clay is shown in the
  following  analyses:--

  +-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |              Chalk.               |                                   Clay.                                    |
  +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------+---------+------------------+-------+----------+
  |                         |Per cent.|                            |Per cent.|                  |       |          |
  |Silica (SiO2)            |   0.92  | Insoluble silicious matter |  26.67  |Consisting of     |       |          |
  |Alumina+ferric oxide     |         | Silica (SiO2)              |  31.24  |  Quartz (SiO2)   | 19.33 |          |
  |  (Al2O2 + Fe2O3)        |   0.24  | Alumina (Al2O3)            |  16.60  |  Silica (SiO2)   |  5.19 |\         |
  |Lime (CaO)               |  55.00  | Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3)       |   8.66  |  Alumina (Al2O3) |  1.47 | >Feldspar|
  |Magnesia (MgO)           |   0.36  | Lime (CaO)                 |   0.25  |  Magnesia (MgO)  |  0.03 | | 7.34%  |
  |Carbonic anhydride (CO2) |  43.40  | Magnesia (MgO)             |   1.91  |  Soda (Na20)     |  0.65 |/         |
  |                         |  -----  | Soda (Na2O)                |   1.00  |                  | ----- |          |
  |                         |  99.92  | Potash (K2O)               |   0.45  |                  | 26.67 |          |
  |                         |         | Sodium Chloride (NaCl)     |   1.86  |                  |       |          |
  |                         |         | Combined water, organic    |         |                  |       |          |
  |                         |         |   matter, and loss         |  11.36  |                  |       |          |
  |                         |         |                            | ------  |                  |       |          |
  |                         |         |                            | 100.00  |                  |       |          |
  +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------+---------+------------------+-------+----------+


    Mixing.

    Loading the kiln.

  [Illustration: FIG. 1]

  These materials are mixed in the proportion of about 3:1 by weight so
  that the dried mixture contains approximately 75% of calcium
  carbonate, the balance being clay. The mixing may be effected in
  several ways. The method once exclusively used consists in mixing the
  raw materials with a large quantity of water in a wash mill, a machine
  having radial horizontal arms driven from a central vertical spindle
  and carrying harrows which stir up and intermix any soft material
  placed in the pit in which the apparatus revolves. The raw materials
  in the correct proportion are fed into this mill together with a large
  quantity of water. The thin watery "slip" or slurry flows into large
  settling tanks ("backs") where the solids in suspension are deposited;
  the water is drawn off, leaving behind an intimate mixture of chalk
  and clay in the form of a wet paste. This is dug out, and after being
  dried on floors heated by flues is ready for burning. This process is
  now almost obsolete. According to present practice the raw materials
  are mixed in a wash mill with so much water that the resulting slurry
  contains 40 to 50% of water. The slurry, which is wet enough to flow,
  is ground between millstones so as to complete the process of
  comminution begun in the wash mill. Thorough grinding and mixing are
  of the utmost importance, as otherwise the cement ultimately produced
  will be unsound and of inferior quality. The drying of the slurry is
  generally effected by the waste heat of the kilns, so that while one
  charge is burning another is drying ready for the next loading of the
  kilns. The kilns commonly employed are "chamber kilns," circular
  structures not unlike an ordinary running lime kiln, but having the
  top closed and connected at the side with a wide flue in which the
  slurry is exposed to the hot products of combustion from the kiln. The
  farther ends of the flues of several such kilns are connected with a
  chimney shaft. The slurry, in drying on the floor of the flue, forms a
  fairly tough cake which cracks spontaneously in the process of drying
  into rough blocks suitable for loading into the kiln. At the bottom of
  the kiln is a grate of iron bars, and on this wood and coke are piled
  to start the fire. A layer of dried slurry is loaded on this, then a
  layer of coke, then a layer of slurry, and so on until the kiln is
  filled with coke and slurry evenly distributed. Fresh slurry is run on
  to the drying floors, and the kiln is started. The construction of an
  ordinary chamber kiln may be gathered from the accompanying diagram
  (fig. l). The operation of burning is a slow one. An ordinary kiln,
  which will contain about 50 tons of slurry and 12 tons of coke, will
  take two days to get fairly alight, and will be another two or three
  days in burning out. Therefore, allowing adequate time for loading and
  unloading, each kiln will require about one week for a complete run.
  The output will be about 30 tons of "clinker" ready to be ground into
  cement. The grinding of the hard rock-like masses of clinker is
  effected between millstones, or in modern plants in ball-mills,
  tube-mills and edge-runners. It is an important part of the
  manufacture, because the finished cement should be as fine and
  "floury" as possible. The foregoing description represents the
  procedure in use in many English factories. There are various
  modifications in practice according to local conditions: a few of
  these may be described. In all cases, however, the main operations are
  the same, viz. intimately mixing the raw materials, drying the
  mixture, if necessary, and burning it at a clinkering temperature
  (about 1500° C. =2732° F.). Thus when hard limestone is the form of
  calcium carbonate locally available, it is ground dry and mixed with
  the correct proportion of clay also dried and ground. The mixture is
  slightly damped, moulded into rough bricks, dried and burned. A
  possible alternative is to burn the limestone first and mix the
  resulting lime with clay, the mixture being burned as before. By this
  method grinding the hard limestone is avoided, but there is an extra
  expenditure of fuel in the double burning.


    Other kilns.

  Many different forms of kiln are used for burning Portland cement.
  Besides the chamber kilns which have been described, there are the
  old-fashioned bottle kilns, which are similar to the chamber kilns,
  but are bottle-shaped and open at the top; they do not dry the slurry
  for their next charge. Their use is becoming obsolete. There are also
  stage kilns of the Dietzsch type, which consist of two vertical
  shafts, one above the other, but not in the same vertical line,
  connected by a horizontal channel. At this middle portion and in the
  upper part of the lower shaft the burning proper proceeds; the upper
  shaft is full of unburnt raw material which is heated by the hot gases
  coming from the burning zone, and the lower shaft contains clinker
  already burned and hot enough to heat the incoming air which supplies
  that necessary for combustion at the clinkering zone. A pair of
  Dietzsch kilns, built back to back, are shown in fig. 2. There are
  other forms of shaft kiln, such as the Schneider, in which there is a
  burning zone, a heating and cooling zone as in the Dietzsch, but no
  horizontal stage, the whole shaft being in the same vertical plane.
  Another form is the Hoffmann or ring kiln, made up of a number of
  compartments arranged in a ring and connected with a central chimney;
  in these compartments rough brick-shaped masses of the raw materials
  are stacked, and between these bricks fuel is sprinkled. At a given
  moment one of these compartments is burning and at its full
  temperature; the air for combustion is drawn in through one or more
  compartments behind it which have just finished burning, and is
  thereby strongly heated; the products of combustion pass away through
  one or more compartments in front of it and heat their contents before
  they are subjected to actual combustion. It will be seen that the
  principle of the ring kiln is similar to that of the stage kiln. In
  each case the clinker which has just been burned and is fully hot
  serves to heat the air-supply to the compartment where combustion is
  actually proceeding; in like manner the raw materials about to be
  burned are well heated by the waste gases from the compartment in full
  activity before they themselves are burned. (It may be noted that here
  and generally in this article "burn" is used in the technical sense;
  it is technically correct to speak of cement clinker being "burned",
  although it is not a fuel; in accurate terms it is the fuel which is
  burned, and it is the heat it generates which raises the clinker to a
  high temperature, i.e. technically "burns" it.) By this device a great
  part of the heat is regenerated and a saving of fuel is effected.

  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]


    Rotatory kilns.

  The methods of burning cement described above are obsolescent. They
  are being replaced by the rotatory process, so called because the
  cement is burned in rotating cylinders instead of in fixed kilns.
  These cylinders vary from 60 to 150 ft. in length, an ordinary length
  in modern practice being 100 to 120 ft.; their diameter
  correspondingly varies from 6 ft. to 7 ft. 6 in. The cylinders are
  made of steel plate, lined with refractory bricks, are carried on
  rollers at a slight angle with the horizontal, and are rotated by
  power. At the upper end the raw material is fed in either as a dry
  powder or as a slurry; at the lower end is a powerful burner. In the
  early days of rotatory kilns producer gas was used as a fuel, but with
  little success; about 1895 petroleum was used in the United States
  with complete success, but at a relatively heavy cost. At the present
  time, finely powdered coal injected by a blast of air is almost
  universally employed, petroleum being used only where it is actually
  cheaper than coal. In the working of this type of kiln the rotation
  and slight inclination of the cylinder cause the raw material to
  descend towards the lower end. At the upper end the raw material is
  dried and heated moderately. As it descends it reaches a part of the
  kiln where the temperature is higher; here the carbonic acid of the
  carbonate of lime, and the combined water of the clay are driven off,
  and the resulting lime begins to act chemically on the dehydrated
  clay. The material is then in a partially burnt and slightly sintered
  state, but it is not fully clinkered and would not make Portland
  cement. The material continues to descend by the rotation of the kiln
  and reaches the lower end nearest the burner where the temperature is
  highest, and is there heated so highly that the union of the lime,
  silica and alumina is complete, and fully burnt clinker falls out of
  the kiln. It is extremely hot, and is cooled usually by being passed
  down one or more rotating cylinders, similar to the first, but
  smaller, and acting as coolers instead of kilns. On its way down the
  cylinders the clinker meets a current of cold air and is cooled, the
  air being correspondingly warmed and passing on to aid in the
  combustion of the fuel used in heating the kiln. This regenerative
  heating is similar in principle and effect to that obtained by means
  of the shaft and ring kilns described above. The output of these kilns
  varies from 200 to 400 tons per kiln per week according to their size
  and the nature of the raw materials burned, as against 30 tons per
  week for an ordinary chamber kiln. A large saving in labour is also
  secured. The rotatory system presents many advantages and is rapidly
  replacing the older methods of cement making. Fig. 3 represents
  diagrammatically a rotatory cement plant on the Hurry & Seaman system,
  which was one of the first to make cement by the rotatory process
  successfully on a large scale, using powdered coal as fuel. Rotatory
  kilns of various other makes are now in use, but the same principles
  are embodied, namely, the employment of a rotating inclined cylinder
  for burning the raw materials, a burner fed with powdered coal and a
  blast of air, and some device such as a cooling cylinder or cooling
  tower by which the clinker may be cooled and the air correspondingly
  heated on its way to the burner.

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]

  Another method of making Portland cement which has been proposed and
  tried with some success consists in fusing the raw materials together
  in an apparatus of the type of a blast furnace. The high temperature
  necessary to fuse cement clinker makes this process difficult to
  accomplish commercially, but it has many inherent merits and may be
  the process of the future, displacing the rotatory method.


    Cement clinker.

  Portland cement clinker, however produced, is a hard, rock-like
  substance of semi-vitrified appearance and very dark colour. The
  product from a well-run rotatory kiln is all evenly burnt and properly
  vitrified; that from an ordinary fixed kiln of whatever type is apt to
  contain a certain amount (5 to 15%) of underburnt material, which is
  yellowish and friable and is not properly clinkered. This material
  must be picked out, as such underburnt stuff contains free lime or
  unsaturated lime compounds. These may slake slowly in the finished
  cement and cause such expansion as may destroy the work of which it
  forms part. Well-burnt, well-picked clinker when ground yields good
  Portland cement. Nothing is added during or after grinding save a
  small amount (1 to 2%) of calcium sulphate in the form either of
  gypsum or of plaster of Paris, which is sometimes needed to make the
  cement slower-setting. For the same purpose a small quantity of water
  (up to 2%) may be added either by moistening the clinker or by blowing
  steam into the mills in which the clinker is ground. This small
  addition for this specified purpose is recognized as legitimate, but
  the employment of various cheap materials such as ragstone and
  blast-furnace slag, sometimes added as diluents or make-weights, is
  adulteration and therefore fraudulent.


    Composition.

  The composition of Portland cement varies within comparatively narrow
  limits, and for given raw materials the variations are tending to
  become smaller as regularity and skill in manufacture increase. The
  following analysis may be taken as typical of cements made from chalk
  and clay on the Thames and Medway:--

                             Per cent.
    Silica (SiO2)              22.0
    Insoluble residue           1.0
    Alumina (Al2O3)             7.5
    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)        3.5
    Lime (CaO)                 62.0
    Magnesia (MgO)              1.0
    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)   1.5
    Carbonic anhydride (CO2)    0.5
    Water (H2O)                 0.5
    Alkalis                     0.5
                              -----
                              100.0

  There may be variations from this composition according to the nature
  of the raw materials employed. Thus the silica may range from 19 to
  27%, the alumina and ferric oxide jointly from 7 to 14%, the lime from
  60 to 67%. All such variations are permissible provided that the
  quantity of silica and alumina is sufficient to saturate the whole of
  the lime and to leave none of it in a "free" condition, likely to
  cause the cement to expand after setting. Other things being equal,
  the higher the percentage of lime within the limits indicated above
  the stronger is the cement, but such highly limed cement is less easy
  to burn than cement containing about 62% of lime; and unless the
  burning is thorough and the raw materials are intimately mixed, the
  cement is apt to be unsound. Although the ultimate composition of
  cement, that is, the percentage of each base and acid present, can be
  accurately determined by analysis, its proximate composition, i.e. the
  nature and amount of the compounds formed from these acids and bases,
  can only be ascertained indirectly and with difficulty. The
  foundations of our knowledge on this subject were laid by H. le
  Chatelier, whose work has since been supplemented by that of Spenser
  B. Newberry, W.B. Newberry and Clifford Richardson. As the outcome of
  these inquiries it has been established that tricalcium silicate
  3CaO·SiO2 is the essential constituent of Portland cement. The
  constituent of next importance is an aluminate, but whether this is
  dicalcium aluminate, 2CaO·Al2O3, or tricalcium aluminate, 3CaO·Al2O3,
  is still in doubt. In the following description it is assumed to be
  the tricalcium aluminate. The remaining silicates and aluminates
  present, and ferric oxide and magnesia, if existing in the moderate
  quantities which are usual in Portland cement of good quality, are of
  minor importance and may be regarded as little more than impurities.
  The silicates and aluminates of which Portland cement is composed are
  believed to exist not as individual units but as solid solutions of
  each other, these solid solutions taking the form of minerals
  recognizable as individuals. The two principal minerals are termed
  alite and celite; according to the best opinion, alite consists of a
  solid solution of tricalcium aluminate in tricalcium silicate, and
  celite of a solid solution of dicalcium aluminate in dicalcium
  silicate. Celite is little affected by water, and has but small
  influence on the setting; alite is decomposed and hydrated, this
  action constituting the main part of the setting of Portland cement.
  Both the components of alite react, and for simplicity their reactions
  may be stated in separate equations, thus:--

    (1)  2(3CaO·SiO2) + 9H2O = 2(CaO·SiO2)·5H2O + 4Ca(OH)2
        Tricalcium silicate.    Hydrated mono-     Calcium
                               calcium silicate.  hydroxide.

    (2)  3CaO·Al2O3 + 12H2O = 3CaO·Al2O3·12H2O
        Tricalcium aluminate.  Hydrated tricalcium
                                 aluminate.

  Since alite is a solid solution and, although an individual mineral,
  is not a chemical unit, the proportion of tricalcium silicate to
  tricalcium aluminate in a given specimen of alite will vary; but,
  whatever the proportions, each of these substances will react in its
  characteristic manner according to the equations given above.

  The precise mechanism of the process of setting of Portland cement is
  not known with certainty, but it is probably analogous to that of the
  setting of plaster of Paris, consisting in the dissolution of the
  compounds produced by hydration while they are in a more soluble form,
  their transition to a less soluble form, the consequent
  supersaturation of the solution, and the deposition of the surplus of
  the dissolved substance in crystals which interlock and form a
  coherent mass. This theory being accepted, it is evident that a small
  quantity of water, by successive dissolution and deposition of a
  substance capable of existing in a more soluble and in a less soluble
  form, is able to bring about the crystallization of an indefinitely
  large quantity of material. It is not necessary that there should be
  present sufficient water to dissolve the whole of the reacting
  substance at any one time; it is sufficient if there is enough for
  hydration and a small surplus for the crystallization by successive
  stages as above described. It is generally admitted that the aluminate
  is the chief agent in the first setting of the cement, and that its
  ultimate hardening and attainment of strength are due to the
  tricalcium silicate.

  As mentioned above, the constituents other than the tricalcium
  silicate and tricalcium aluminate of which alite is composed, are of
  minor importance. The function of the ferric oxide present in ordinary
  cement is little more than that of a flux to aid the union of silica,
  alumina and lime in the clinker; its role in the setting of the cement
  is altogether secondary. In fact, excellent Portland cement can be
  prepared from materials free from iron. Such cement, if free also from
  manganese, is white, and its manufacture has been proposed for
  exterior decorative use. Magnesia, if present in Portland cement in
  quantity not exceeding 5%, appears to be inert, but there is evidence
  that in larger proportion, e.g. 10-15%, it may hydrate and set after
  the general setting of the cement, and may give rise to disruptive
  strains causing the cement to "blow" and fail. In so-called natural
  cement which is comparatively lightly burnt, the magnesia appears to
  be inert, and as much as 20 to 30% may be present. Another constituent
  of Portland cement which influences its setting time is calcium
  sulphate, naturally formed from the sulphur in the raw materials or
  fuel, or intentionally added to the finished cement as gypsum or
  plaster of Paris. It has a remarkable retarding effect on the
  hydration of the calcium aluminate, and consequently on the setting of
  the cement; thus it is that a little gypsum is often added to convert
  a naturally quick-setting cement into one which sets slowly. It will
  be observed that in the hydration of tricalcium silicate, the main
  constituent of Portland cement, a large portion of the lime appears as
  calcium hydroxide, i.e. slaked lime. It is evident that this will form
  a pozzuolanic cement if a suitable silicious material such as trass is
  added to the cement. The ultimate product when set may be regarded as
  a mixed Portland and pozzuolanic cement. The use of trass in this
  manner as an adjunct to Portland cement has been advocated by W.
  Michaelis, and undoubtedly increases the strength of the material, but
  it has not become general.


    Testing.

  The quality of Portland cement is ascertained by its analysis and by
  determining its specific gravity, fineness, mechanical strength and
  soundness. A good sample will usually have a composition within the
  limits cited above and approximating to the typical figures given
  above. It will be ground so finely that not more than 3% will be left
  on a sieve of 76 × 76 meshes per sq. in., the wires of the sieve being
  0.005 in. in diameter. It will have, when freshly burned, a specific
  gravity not lower than 3.15, and briquettes made from it and kept in
  water will possess a tensile strength of 400-500 lb. per sq. in. seven
  days after they are made, while briquettes made from a mixture of 3
  parts by weight of sand and 1 of cement will give about 225 lb. per sq.
  in. at twenty-eight days. Formerly the soundness of cement was
  determined by keeping thin pats of the cement in cold water for
  twenty-eight days, or in warm water (110°-120° F.) for twenty-four
  hours, and examining for cracks or other signs of expansion. Modern
  practice is to measure the expansion of a test piece of cement kept in
  water at a temperature of 212° F. The simplest and most generally used
  method is due to H.L. le Châtelier, and consists in measuring the
  increase in circumference of a cylinder of cement 30 mm. in diameter
  by means of a split ring encircling the cylinder, the motion of which
  is magnified by two light rods extending radially. Another
  quantitative test for soundness is that formulated by L. Deval, who
  has shown that briquettes of 3 of sand and 1 of cement kept in water
  for two days at 80° C. = 176° F. attain approximately the same
  strength as similar briquettes attain at seven days in water at the
  ordinary temperature. In like manner briquettes kept at 176° F. for
  seven days are approximately equal in strength to those kept at the
  ordinary temperature for twenty-eight days. A cement not perfectly
  sound will give low results in the hot test, and a cement of
  indifferent soundness will crack and go to pieces. The test is
  admittedly severe, but can be passed without difficulty by cement made
  with proper care and skill. There are many modifications and
  elaborations of all the tests which have been mentioned. Cement for
  all important work is submitted to a rigorous system of testing and
  analysis before it is accepted and used.

_Hydraulic Lime_ is a cement of the Portland as distinct from the
pozzuolanic class. The most typical hydraulic lime is that known as
Chaux du Theil, made from a limestone found at Ardèche in France. This
limestone consists of calcium carbonate most intimately intermixed with
very finely divided silica. It contains but little alumina and oxide of
iron, which are the constituents generally necessary to bring about the
union of silica and lime to form a cement, but in spite of this the
silica is so finely divided and so well distributed that it unites
readily with the lime when the limestone is burned at a sufficiently
high temperature. English hydraulic limes are of a different class; they
contain a good deal of alumina and ferric oxide, and in composition
resemble somewhat irregular Portland cement.

  Analyses of the two classes of hydraulic lime are as follows:--

                                Chaux de Theil.    Blue Lias.
                                   Per cent.        Per cent.

    Insoluble silicious matter       0.3              2.39
    Silica (SiO2)                   21.7             14.17
    Alumina (Al2O3)                  1.8              6.79
    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)             0.6              2.34
    Lime (CaO)                      74.0             63.43
    Magnesia (MgO)                   0.7              1.54
    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)        0.3              1.63
    Carbonic anhydride (CO2) \       0.6            / 3.64
    Water (H20)              /                      \ 2.69
    Alkalis and loss                 · ·              1.38
                                   -----            ------
                                   100.0            100.00

  Hydraulic lime contains a good deal of uncombined lime, and has to be
  slaked before it is used as a cement. In France this slaking is
  conducted systematically by the makers, the freshly burned lime being
  sprinkled with water and stored in large bins where slaking proceeds
  slowly and regularly until the whole of the surplus uncombined lime
  is slaked and rendered harmless, while the cementitious compounds,
  notably tricalcium silicate, remain untouched. In English practice
  hydraulic lime is slaked by the user. Seeing that regular and perfect
  slaking is more easily attained when working systematically on a large
  scale and by storing the material for a long period, the French method
  is the better and more rational. The product may then be regarded as a
  cement of the Portland class mixed with slaked lime. When gauged with
  water and made into a mortar it sets slowly, but ultimately becomes
  almost as strong as Portland cement. Its slow setting is an advantage
  for some purposes, e.g. for foundations and abutments where
  settlements may occur. The structure is free to take its permanent
  position before the lime sets, and cracks are thus avoided. A case in
  point is the employment of hydraulic lime in place of Portland cement
  as grouting outside the cast-iron tubes used for lining tunnels made
  by the shield system.

_Roman Cement_ is another cement of the Portland class which came into
use shortly before the manufacture of artificial Portland cement was
attempted. It is still in use, though only for special purposes where a
quick-setting material is required. It is made from septaria nodules
which are dredged up on the Kent and Essex coasts and consist of about
60% of calcium carbonate mixed with clay, the mass being sufficiently
indurated to remain coherent under water. The nodules are not prepared
in any way, but simply burned at a moderate red heat.

  The resulting cement varies somewhat in composition, but approximates
  to the following figures:--

                                   Per cent.
    Insoluble silicious matter       5.86
    Silica (SiO2)                   19.62
    Alumina (Al203)                 10.30
    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)             7.44
    Manganese dioxide (MnO2)         1.57
    Lime (CaO)                      44.54
    Magnesia (MgO)                   2.92
    Sulphuric anhydride (SO3)        2.61
    Carbonic anhydride (CO2)         3.43
    Water (H2O)                      0.25
    Alkalis and loss                 1.46
                                   ------
                                   100.00

  The most characteristic constituent is the oxide of iron, which gives
  the cement a reddish colour, and the presence of manganese also
  differentiates Roman from Portland cement, which rarely contains
  appreciable quantities of that element. The high percentage of alumina
  causes the cement to be quick-setting, and it becomes hard in about
  five minutes. It resists the action of water, salt or fresh, very
  well, and is therefore useful in situations where the work is likely
  to be submerged immediately after it has been put in place.

The term _Natural Cements_ is applied to cements made by burning
mixtures of clay and carbonate of lime naturally occurring in
approximately suitable proportions. They may be regarded as badly-mixed
Portland cements, and need no special description. American "natural"
cements are of a somewhat different class. They are usually made from a
silicious limestone containing magnesia, and are comparatively lightly
burned.

  The following analysis is typical of a cement of this kind:--

                                        Per cent.
    Silica (SiO2)                         24.30
    Alumina (Al203)                        7.22
    Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)                   5.06
    Lime (CaO)                            33.70
    Magnesia (MgO)                        20.94
    Water, carbonic anhydride, and loss    8.78
                                         ------
                                         100.00

  These irregular cements of the Portland class are good building
  materials for ordinary purposes, but are not so suitable as good
  artificial Portland cement for heavy and important undertakings.

_Passow Cement _is a recent product which is in a class by itself. It is
made by granulating blast furnace slag of suitable composition and
finely grinding the product, either alone or with an admixture of about
10% of Portland cement clinker. It differs from ordinary slag cement
(see above) in that it is not a pozzuolanic cement depending on the
interaction of granulated slag and lime. The particular method of
granulating slag for Passow cement produces a material which sets _per
se_ and attains a strength comparable with that of Portland cement.
Passow cement has been successfully made from slag of different
compositions in Germany, England and America.


  Uses of hydraulic cements.

The chief use of hydraulic cements, whether of the pozzuolanic or
Portland class, is to act as an adhesive material in work which is to be
exposed to water. No doubt in times of remote antiquity it was found
that the jointing of masonry which was to be immersed required the use
of a cement indifferent to the action of water. Ordinary mortar failed
in such positions; mortar made from lime prepared from limestones or
chalks containing a little clay was found to stand; mortar made from
lime mixed with trass or similar active silicious material was also
found to stand. On this observation rests the whole of the present
enormous employment of hydraulic cements. It was a natural transition to
utilize these cements not merely for jointing masonry but also for
making concrete, and the only reason why hydraulic cements, as distinct
from cements which are not hydraulic (e.g. ordinary mortar), are used
for the latter purpose is their great mechanical strength. Their use in
above-water work is checked by the low price of common brick. Even in
such work, where it would be thought that masses of burnt clay would be
the cheapest conceivable material, concrete is at least on level terms
with its rival. It must be remembered that one of the great advantages
of concrete is that five-sixths of its total mass may be provided from
local sand and gravel, on which no carriage has to be paid. The cement,
on which alone freight is to be reckoned, converts these from loose
incoherent material into a solid stone. Thus it comes about that the
largest use of cement is for manufacturing concrete for dock and harbour
work, and for the making of foundations. It is also employed for the
building of light bridges, floors, and pipes constructed of cement
mortar disposed round a skeleton of iron rods. Such composite structures
take advantage at once of the high tensile strength of iron and of the
high compressive strength of cement mortar. (See also CONCRETE.)

Good hydraulic cements are highly permanent materials provided certain
conditions be observed. It might be supposed that hydraulic cements from
their nature would be indifferent to the action of water, but this is
only true if the structures of which they form part are sufficiently
compact. In this case the action of the water is checked by the film of
carbonate of lime which eventually forms oh the surface of calcareous
cement. This, together with the compactness of the mortar, hinders the
ingress and egress of water, and prevents the dissolution and ultimate
destruction of the cement. But where the concrete or mortar is not well
made and is porous, the continual passage of water through it will
gradually break up and dissolve away the calcareous constituents of the
cement until its strength is utterly destroyed. This destructive action
is increased if the water contains sulphates or magnesium salts, both of
which act chemically on the calcareous constituents of the cement. As
sea-water contains both sulphates and magnesium salts, it is especially
necessary in concrete for harbour work to take every care to produce an
impervious structure. There are various minor external causes for the
failure and ultimate destruction of cement mortar and concrete, but
their discussion is a matter for the specialist. Failure from inherent
vice in the cement has been already touched on; it can always be traced
to want of skill and care in manufacture.

_Calcium Sulphate Cements._--Under this term are comprehended all
cements whose setting properties primarily depend on the hydration of
calcium sulphate. They include plaster of Paris, Keene's cement and many
variants of these two types. The raw material is gypsum (q.v.). This may
be almost chemically pure, when it is generally used for Keene's cement;
or it may contain smaller or greater quantities of impurities, in which
case it is suitable for the preparation of cements of the plaster of
Paris class. The mode of preparation is to calcine the gypsum at
temperatures which depend on the class of cement to be produced. If
plaster of Paris is to be made, calcination is carried out at about 204°
C. (=400° F.); at this temperature, gypsum, CaS04.2H20, loses
three-quarters of its combined water and becomes 2CaSO4.H20. If a cement
of the Keene's cement class is to be prepared the temperature used is
higher, e.g. 500° C. (=932° F.), and the whole of the combined water of
the gypsum is expelled, the anhydrous sulphate CaSO4 being obtained.


    Plaster of Paris; Keene's cement.

  To produce plaster of Paris European practice consists in baking the
  mineral in ovens, and in America in heating it in kettles. Both
  processes are inferior in economy to calcination in rotatory kilns, a
  process which may be regarded as the method of the present and the
  immediate future. Keene's cement and its congeners are made in fixed
  kilns so constructed that only the gaseous products of combustion come
  into contact with the gypsum to be burnt, in order to avoid
  contamination with the ash of the fuel.

  The setting of plaster of Paris depends on the fact that when
  2CaSO4·H2O is treated with water it dissolves, forming a
  supersaturated solution of CaSO4·2H2O. The excess held temporarily in
  solution is then deposited in crystals of CaSO4·2H2O. In the light of
  this knowledge the mode of setting of plaster of Paris becomes clear.
  The plaster is mixed with a quantity of water sufficient to make it
  into a smooth paste; this quantity of water is quite insufficient to
  dissolve the whole of it, but it dissolves a small part, and gives a
  supersaturated solution of CaSO4.2H2O. In a few minutes the surplus
  hydrated calcium sulphate is deposited from the solution, and the
  water is capable again of dissolving 2CaSO4·H2O, which in turn is
  fully hydrated and deposited as CaSO4·2H2O. The process goes on until
  a relatively small quantity of water has by instalments dissolved and
  hydrated the 2CaSO4·H2O, and has deposited CaSO4·2H2O in felted
  crystals forming a solid mass well cemented together. The setting is
  rapid, occupying only a few minutes, and is accompanied by a
  considerable expansion of the mass. There is reason to suppose that
  the change described takes place in two stages, the gypsum first
  forming orthorhombic crystals and then crystallizing in the
  monosymmetric system. Gypsum thus crystallized is in its normal
  monosymmetric form, more stable under ordinary conditions than the
  orthorhombic form. Correlatively in its process of dehydration to form
  plaster of Paris, monosymmetric gypsum is converted into the
  orthorhombic form before it begins to be dehydrated.

  The principles which govern the preparation and setting of the other
  class of calcium sulphate cements, that is, cements of the Keene
  class, are not fully understood, but there is a fair amount of
  knowledge on the subject, both empirical and scientific. The essential
  difference between the setting of Keene's cement and that of plaster
  of Paris is that the former takes place much more slowly, occupying
  hours instead of minutes, and the considerable heating and expansion
  which characterize the setting of plaster of Paris are much less
  marked.

  It is the practice in Great Britain to burn pure gypsum at a low
  temperature so as to convert it into the hydrate 2CaSO4·H2O, to soak
  the lumps in a solution of alum or of aluminium sulphate, and to
  recalcine them at about 500° C. On grinding they give Keene's cement.
  Instead of alum various other salts, e.g. borax, may be used. The
  quantity of these materials is so small that analyses of Keene's
  cement show it to be almost pure anhydrous calcium sulphate, and make
  it difficult to explain what, if any, influence these minute amounts
  of alum and the like can exert on the setting of the cement. It seems
  probable that the effect of the salts is inconsiderable, and that the
  governing condition is the temperature at which the cement has been
  burnt. The setting of Keene's cement takes place by the same sort of
  process which has been described for the setting of plaster of Paris,
  the chief differences being that the substance dissolved is anhydrous
  calcium sulphate and that the operation takes a longer time.

  All cements having calcium sulphate as their base are suitable only
  for indoor work because of the solubility of this substance. They form
  excellent decorative plasters on account of their clean white colour
  and the sharpness of castings made from them, this latter quantity
  being due to their expansion when setting.

  See D.B. Butler, _Portland Cement_ (London, 1905); E.C. Eckel,
  _Cements, Limes and Plasters_ (New York, 1905); G.R. Redgrave and
  Charles Spackman, _Calcareous Cements_ (London, 1905); F.H. Lewis,
  "Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements in the United States," _The Mineral
  Industry_ (New York, 1898); W.H. Stanger and Bertram Blount, "Cement
  Manufacture in Great Britain," _The Mineral Industry_, New York, 1897
  and 1905; _Id_. "The Testing of Hydraulic Cements," _Journ. Soc. Chem.
  Ind.,_ 1894, 13, p. 455; _Id., Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._, 1901; B.
  Blount, "Recent Progress in the Cement Industry," _Journ. Soc. Chem.
  Ind.,_ 1906, 25, p. 1020; H.L. le Chatelier, _Recherrhes
  experimenlales sur la constitution des mortiers hydrauliques;_ Desch,
  _Concrete_, No. 2, pp. 101-102; Davis, _Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.,_ 1905,
  26, p. 727.     (B. Bl.)

  _Adhesive Cements._--Mixtures of animal, vegetable and mineral
  substances are employed in great variety in the arts for making
  joints, mending broken china and other objects, &c. A strong cement
  for alabaster and marble, which sets in a day, may be prepared by
  mixing 12 parts of Portland cement, 8 of fine sand and 1 of infusorial
  earth, and making them into a thick paste with silicate of soda; the
  object to be cemented need not be heated. For stone, marble, and
  earthenware a strong cement, insoluble in water, can be made as
  follows:--skimmed-milk cheese is boiled in water till of a gluey
  consistency, washed, kneaded well in cold water, and incorporated
  with quicklime; the composition is warmed for use. A similar cement
  is a mixture of dried fresh curd with 1/10th of its weight of
  quicklime and a little camphor; it is made into a paste with water
  when employed. A cement for Derbyshire spar and china, &c., is
  composed of 7 parts of rosin and 1 of wax, with a little plaster of
  Paris; a small quantity only should be applied to the surfaces to be
  united, for, as a general rule, the thinner the stratum of a cement,
  the more powerful its action. Quicklime mixed with white of egg,
  hardened Canada balsam, and thick copal or mastic varnish are also
  useful for cementing broken china, which should be warmed before their
  application. For small articles, shellac dissolved in spirits of wine
  is a very convenient cement. Cements such as marine glue are solutions
  of shellac, india-rubber or asphaltum in benzene or naphtha. For use
  with wood which is exposed to moisture, as in the case of wooden
  cisterns, a mixture may be made of 4 parts of linseed oil boiled with
  litharge, and 8 parts of melted glue; other strong cements for the
  same purpose are prepared by softening gelatine in cold water and
  dissolving it by heat in linseed oil, or by mixing glue with
  one-fourth of its weight of turpentine, or with a little bichromate of
  potash. _Mahogany cement_, for filling up cracks in wood, consists of
  4 parts of beeswax, 1 of Indian red and yellow-ochre to give colour.
  _Cutler's cement_, used for fixing knife-blades in their hafts, is
  made of equal parts of brick-dust and melted rosin, or of 4 parts of
  rosin with 1 each of beeswax and brick-dust. For covering bottle-corks
  a mixture of pitch, brick-dust and rosin is employed. A cheap cement,
  sometimes employed to fix iron rails in stone-work, is melted
  brimstone, or brimstone and brick-dust. For pipe-joints, a mixture of
  iron turnings, sulphur and sal ammoniac, moistened with water, is
  employed. _Japanese cement_, for uniting surfaces of paper, is made by
  mixing rice-flour with water and boiling it. _Jewellers'_ or _Armenian
  cement_ consists of isinglass with mastic and gum ammoniac dissolved
  in spirit. Gold and silver chasers keep their work firm by means of a
  cement of pitch and rosin, a little tallow, and brick-dust to thicken.
  _Temporary cement_ for lathe-work, such as the polishing and grinding
  of jewelry and optical glasses, is compounded thus:--rosin, 4 oz.;
  whitening previously made red-hot, 4 oz.; wax, ¼ oz.




CEMETERY (Gr. [Greek: koimêtêrion], from [Greek: koiman], to sleep),
literally a sleeping-place, the name applied by the early Christians to
the places set apart for the burial of their dead. These were generally
extra-mural and unconnected with churches, the practice of interment in
churches or churchyards being unknown in the first centuries of the
Christian era. The term cemetery has, therefore, been appropriately
applied in modern times to the burial-grounds, generally extra-mural,
which have been substituted for the overcrowded churchyards (q.v.) of
populous parishes both urban and rural.

From 1840 to 1855, attention was repeatedly called to the condition of
the London churchyards by correspondence in the press and by the reports
of parliamentary committees, the first of which, that of Mr Chadwick,
appeared in 1843. The vaults under the pavement of the churches, and the
small spaces of open ground surrounding them, were crammed with coffins.
In many of the buildings the air was so tainted with the products of
corruption as to be a direct and palpable source of disease and death to
those who frequented them. In the churchyards coffins were placed tier
above tier in the graves until they were within a few feet (or sometimes
even a few inches) of the surface, and the level of the ground was often
raised to that of the lower windows of the church. To make room for
fresh interments the sextons had recourse to the surreptitious removal
of bones and partially-decayed remains, and in some cases the contents
of the graves were systematically transferred to pits adjacent to the
site, the grave-diggers appropriating the coffin-plates, handles and
nails to be sold as waste metal. The neighbourhood of the churchyards
was always unhealthy, the air being vitiated by the gaseous emanations
from the graves, and the water, wherever it was obtained from wells,
containing organic matter, the source of which could not be mistaken. In
all the large towns the evil prevailed in a greater or less degree, but
in London, on account of the immense population and the consequent
mortality, it forced itself more readily upon public attention, and
after more than one partial measure of relief had been passed the
churchyards were, with a few exceptions, finally closed by the act of
1855, and the cemeteries which now occupy a large extent of ground to
the north, south, east and west became henceforth the burial-places of
the metropolis. Several of them had been already established by private
enterprise before the passing of the Burial Act of 1855 (Kensal Green
cemetery dates from 1832), but that enactment forms the epoch from
which the general development of cemeteries in Great Britain and Ireland
began. Burial within the limits of cities and towns is now almost
everywhere abolished, and where it is still in use it is surrounded by
such safeguards as make it practically innocuous. This tendency has been
conspicuous both in the United Kingdom and the United States. The
increasing practice of cremation (q.v.) has assisted in the movement for
disposing of the dead in more sanitary conditions; and the proposals of
Sir Seymour Haden and others for burying the dead in more open coffins,
and abandoning the old system of family graves, have had considerable
effect. The tendency has therefore been, while improving the sanitary
aspects of the disposal of the dead, to make the cemeteries themselves
as fit as possible for this purpose, and beautiful in arrangement and
decoration.

The chief cemeteries of London are Kensal Green cemetery on the Harrow
Road; Highgate cemetery on the slope of Highgate Hill; the cemetery at
Abney Park (once the residence of Dr Watts); the Norwood and Nunhead
cemeteries to the south of London; the West London cemetery at Brompton;
the cemeteries at Ilford and Leytonstone in Essex; the Victoria cemetery
and the Tower Hamlets cemetery in East London; and at a greater
distance, accessible by railway, the great cemetery at Brookwood near
Woking in Surrey, and the cemetery at New Southgate. The general plan of
all these cemeteries is the same, a park with broad paths either laid
out in curved lines as at Kensal Green and Highgate, or crossing each
other at right angles as in the case of the West London cemetery. The
ground on each side of these paths is marked off into grave spaces, and
trees and shrubs are planted in the intervals between them. The
buildings consist of a curator's residence and one or more chapels, and
usually there is also a range of family graves with imposing tombs,
massive structures containing in their corridors recesses for the
reception of coffins, generally closed only by an iron grating. The
provincial cemeteries in the main features of their arrangements
resemble those of the metropolis. One of the most remarkable is St
James's cemetery at Liverpool, which occupies a deserted quarry. The
face of the eastern side of the quarry is traversed by ascending
gradients off which open catacombs formed in the living rock,--a soft
sandstone; the ground below is planted with trees, amongst which stand
hundreds of gravestones. The main approach on the north side is through
a tunnel, above which, on a projecting rock, stands the cemetery chapel,
built in the form of a small Doric temple with tetrastyle porticos.

Many of the cities of America possess very fine cemeteries. One of the
largest, and also the oldest, is that of Mount Auburn near Boston.
Others of importance are the Laurel Hill cemetery (1836) at
Philadelphia; the Greenwood cemetery (1838) at Brooklyn (New York); the
Lake View cemetery at Cleveland, Ohio; while the cemeteries at New
Orleans (q.v.) are famous for their beauty.

The chief cemetery of Paris is that of Père la Chaise, the prototype of
the garden cemeteries of western Europe. It takes its name from the
celebrated confessor of Louis XIV., to whom as rector of the Jesuits of
Paris it once belonged. It was laid out as a cemetery in 1804. It has an
area of about 200 acres, and contains about 20,000 monuments, including
those of all the great men of France of the 19th century--marshals,
generals, ministers, poets, painters, men of science and letters, actors
and musicians. Twice the cemetery and the adjacent heights have been the
scene of a desperate struggle; in 1814 they were stormed by a Russian
column during the attack on Paris by the allies, and in 1871 the
Communists made their last stand among the tombs of Père la Chaise; 900
of them fell in the defence of the cemetery or were shot there after its
capture, and 200 of them were buried in quicklime in one huge grave and
700 in another. There are other cemeteries at Mont Parnasse and
Montmartre, besides the minor burying-grounds at Auteuil, Batignolles,
Passy, La Villette, &c. In consequence of all these cemeteries being
more or less crowded, a great cemetery was laid out in 1874 on the
plateau of Méry sur Oise, 16 m. to the north of Paris, with which it is
connected by a railway line. It includes within its circuit fully 2 sq.
m. of ground. The French cemetery system differs in many respects from
the English. Every city and town is required by law to provide a
burial-ground beyond its barriers, properly laid out and planted, and
situated if possible on a rising ground. Each interment must take place
in a separate grave. This, however, does not apply to Paris, where the
dead are buried, forty or fifty at a time, in the _fosses communes_, the
poor being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 20 francs being made
in all other cases. The _fosse_ is filled and left undisturbed for five
years, then all crosses and other memorials are removed, the level of
the ground is raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and interments begin
again. For a fee of 50 francs a _concession temporaire_ for ten years
can be obtained, but where it is desired to erect a permanent monument
the ground must be bought by the executors of the deceased. In Paris the
undertakers' trade is the monopoly of a company, the _Société des pompes
funèbres_, which in return for its privileges is required to give a free
burial to the poor.

The _Leichenhäuser_, or dead-houses, of Frankfort and Munich form a
remarkable feature of the cemeteries of these cities. The object of
their founders was twofold--(1) to obviate even the remotest danger of
premature interment, and (2) to offer a respectable place for the
reception of the dead, in order to remove the corpse from the confined
dwellings of the survivors. At Frankfort the dead-house occupies one of
the wings of the propylaeum, which forms the main entrance to the
cemetery. It consists of the warder's room, where an attendant is always
on duty, on each side of which there are five rooms, well ventilated,
kept at an even temperature, and each provided with a bier on which a
corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers is placed a ring connected by
a light cord with a bell which hangs outside in the warder's room. The
use of the dead-house is voluntary. The bodies deposited there are
inspected at regular intervals by a medical officer, and the warder is
always on the watch for the ringing of the warning bell. One revival,
that of a child, has been known to take place at Frankfort. The
Leichenhaus of Munich is situated in the southern cemetery outside the
Sendling Gate. At one end of the cemetery there is a semicircular
building with an open colonnade in front and a projection behind, which
contains three large rooms for the reception of the dead. At both
Frankfort and Munich great care is taken that the attendants receive the
dead confided to them with respect, and no interment is permitted until
the first signs of decomposition appear; the relatives then assemble in
one of the halls adjoining the Leichenhaus, and the funeral takes place.
In any case there is, with ordinary care, little fear of premature
interment, but in another way such places of deposit for the dead are of
great use in large towns, as they prevent the evil effects which result
from the prolonged retention of the dead among the living. Mortuaries
for this purpose have also been established in many places in England.

In Italy the _Campo Santo_ (Holy Field) is best illustrated by the
famous one at Pisa, from which the name has been given to other Italian
burying-grounds. Of the cemeteries still in use in southern Europe the
catacombs (q.v.) of Sicily are the most curious. There is one of these
under the old Capuchin monastery of Ziza near Palermo, where in four
large airy subterranean corridors 2000 corpses are ranged in niches in
the wall, many of them shrunk up into the most grotesque attitudes, or
hanging with pendent limbs and head from their places. As a preparation
for the niche, the body is desiccated in a kind of oven, and then
dressed as in life and raised into its place in the wall. At the end of
the principal corridor at Ziza there is an altar strangely ornamented
with a kind of mosaic of human skulls and bones.

Cemeteries have been in use among many Eastern nations from time
immemorial. In China, the high grounds near Canton and Macao are crowded
with tombs, many of them being in the form of small tumuli, with a low
encircling wall, forcibly recalling the ringed barrows of western
Europe. But the most picturesque cemeteries in the world are those of
the Turks. From them it was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern
cemetery, with its ornamental plantations, was derived. Around
Constantinople the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress woods under
whose branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never reopened;
a new resting-place is formed for every one, and so the dead now occupy
a wider territory than that which is covered by the homes of the living.
The Turks believe that till the body is buried the soul is in a state of
discomfort, and the funeral, therefore, takes place as soon as possible
after death. No coffin is used, the body is laid in the grave, a few
boards are arranged round it, and then the earth is shovelled in, care
being taken to leave a small opening extending from the head of the
corpse to the surface of the ground, an opening not unfrequently
enlarged by dogs and other beasts which plunder the grave. A tombstone
of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban in the
case of a man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low relief if the
grave is that of a woman. The turban by its varying form indicates not
only the rank of the sleeper below but also the period of his death, for
the fashion of the Turkish head-dress is always changing. A cypress is
usually planted beside the grave, its odour being supposed to neutralize
any noxious exhalations from the ground, and thus every cemetery is a
forest, where by day hundreds of turtle doves are on the wing or
perching on the trees, and where bats and owls swarm undisturbed at
night. Especially for the Turkish women the cemeteries are a favourite
resort, and some of them are always to be seen praying beside the narrow
openings that lead down into a parent's, a husband's, or a brother's
grave. Some of the other cemeteries of Constantinople contrast rather
unfavourably with the simple dignity of those which belong to the Turks.
That of the Armenians abounds with bas-reliefs which show the manner of
the death of whoever is buried below, and on these singular tombstones
there are frequent representations of men being decapitated or hanging
on the gallows.

  See also the articles BURIAL AND BURIAL ACTS; CREMATION; FUNERAL
  RITES; CHURCHYARD.




CENCI, BEATRICE (1577-1599), a Roman woman, famous for her tragic story;
poetic fancy has woven a halo of romance about her, which modern
historic research has to a large extent destroyed. Born at Rome, she was
the daughter of Francesco Cenci (1549-1598), the bastard son of a
priest, and a man of great wealth but dissolute habits and violent
temper. He seems to have been guilty of various offences and to have got
off with short terms of imprisonment by bribery; but the monstrous
cruelty which popular tradition has attributed to him is purely
legendary. His first wife, Ersilia Santa Croce, bore him twelve
children, and nine years after her death he married Lucrezia Petroni, a
widow with three daughters, by whom he had no offspring. He was very
quarrelsome and lived on the worst possible terms with his children,
who, however, were all of them more or less disreputable. He kept
various mistresses and was even prosecuted for unnatural vice, but his
sons were equally dissolute. His harsh treatment of his daughter
Beatrice was probably due to his discovery that she had had an
illegitimate child as the result of an intrigue with one of his stewards
(A. Bertolotti, in his _Francesco Cenci_, publishes Beatrice's will in
which she provides for this child), but there is no evidence that he
tried to commit incest with her, as has been alleged. The eldest son
Giacomo was a riotous, dishonest young scoundrel, who cheated his own
father and even attempted to murder him (1595). Two other sons, Rocco
and Cristoforo, both of them notorious rakes, were killed in brawls.
Finally Francesco's wife Lucrezia and his children Giacomo, Bernardo and
Beatrice, assisted by a certain Monsignor Guerra, plotted to murder him.
Two bravos were hired (one of them named Olimpio, according to
Bertolotti, was probably Beatrice's lover), and Francesco was
assassinated while asleep in his castle of Petrella in the kingdom of
Naples (1598). Giacomo afterwards had one of the bravos murdered, but
the other was arrested by the Neapolitan authorities and confessed
everything. Information having been communicated to Rome, the whole of
the Cenci family were arrested early in 1599; but the story of the
hardships they underwent in prison is greatly exaggerated. Guerra
escaped; Lucrezia, Giacomo and Bernardo confessed the crime; and
Beatrice, who at first denied everything, even under torture, also ended
by confessing. Great efforts were made to obtain mercy for the accused,
but the crime was considered too heinous, and the pope (Clement VIII.)
refused to grant a pardon; on the 11th of September 1599, Beatrice and
Lucrezia were beheaded, and Giacomo, after having been tortured with
red-hot pincers, was killed with a mace, drawn and quartered. Bernardo's
penalty, on account of his youth, was commuted to perpetual
imprisonment, and after a year's confinement he was pardoned. The
property of the family was confiscated.

  The romantic character of the history of this family has been the
  subject of poems, dramas and novels. Shelley's tragedy is well known
  as a magnificent piece of writing, although the author adopts a purely
  fictitious version of the story. Nor is F.D. Guerrazzi's novel,
  _Beatrice Cenci_ (Milan, 1872), more trustworthy. The first attempt to
  deal with the subject on documentary evidence is A. Bertolotti's
  _Francesco Cenci e la sua famiglia_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1879),
  containing a number of interesting documents which place the events in
  their true light; cf. Labruzzi's article in the _Nuova Antologia_,
  1879, vol. xiv., and another in the _Edinburgh Review_, January 1879.




CENOBITES (from Gr. [Greek: koinos], common, and [Greek: bios], life),
monks who lived together in a convent or community under a rule and a
superior,--in contrast to hermits or anchorets who live in isolation.
The Basilians (q.v.) in the East and the Benedictines (q.v.) in the West
are the chief cenobitical orders (see MONASTICISM).




CENOMANI, a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica, whose territory
corresponded generally to Maine in the modern department of Sarthe.
Their chief town was Vindinum or Suindinum (corrupted into Subdinnum),
afterwards Civitas Cenomanorum (whence Le Mans), the original name of
the town, as usual in the case of Gallic cities, being replaced by that
of the people. According to Caesar (_Bell. Gall._ vii. 75. 3), they
assisted Vercingetorix in the great rising (52 B.C.) with a force of
5000 men. Under Augustus they formed a _civitas stipendiaria_ of Gallia
Lugdunensis, and in the 4th century part of Gallia Lugdunensis iii.
About 400 B.C., under the leadership of Elitovius (Livy v. 35), a large
number of the Cenomani crossed into Italy, drove the Etruscans
southwards, and occupied their territory. The statement of Cato (in
Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 130), that some of them settled near Massilia
in the territory of the Volcae, may indicate the route taken by them.
The limits of their territory are not clearly defined, but were probably
the Athesis (Adige or Etsch) on the east, the Ollius (Oglio, or perhaps
the Addua) on the west, and the Padus on the south. Livy gives their
chief towns as Brixia (Brescia) and Verona; Pliny, Brixia and Cremona.
The Cenomani nearly always appear in history as loyal friends and allies
of the Romans, whom they assisted in the Gallic war (225 B.C.), when the
Boii and Insubres took up arms against Rome, and during the war against
Hannibal. They certainly joined in the revolt of the Gauls under
Hamilcar (200), but after they had been defeated by the consul Gaius
Cornelius (197) they finally submitted. In 49, with the rest of Gallia
Transpadana, they acquired the rights of citizenship.

The orthography and the quantity of the penultimate vowel of Cenomani
have given rise to discussion. According to Arbois de Jubainville, the
Cenom[)a]ni of Italy are not identical with the Cenom[=a]ni (or
Cenomanni) of Gaul. In the case of the latter, the survival of the
syllable "man" in Le Mans is due to the stress laid on the vowel; had
the vowel been short and unaccented, it would have disappeared. In
Italy, Cenomani is the name of a people; in Gaul, merely a surname of
the Aulerci.

  See A. Voisin, _Les Cénomans anciens et modernes_ (Le Mans, 1862); A.
  Desjardins, _Géographic historique de la Gaule romaine,_ ii.
  (1876-1893); Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Premiers Habitants de
  l'Europe_ (1889-1894); article and authorities in _La Grande
  Encyclopédie_; C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii.
  pt. 2 (1899); full ancient authorities in A. Holder, _Alt-celtischer
  Sprachschatz_, i. (1896).




CENOTAPH (Gr. [Greek: kenos], empty, [Greek: taphos], tomb), a monument
or tablet to the memory of a person whose body is buried elsewhere. The
custom arose from the erection of monuments to those whose bodies could
not be recovered, as in the case of drowning.




CENSOR (from Lat. _censere_, assess, estimate; in Gr. [Greek:
timaetaes]). I. _In ancient Rome_, the title of the two Roman officials
who presided over the census, the registration of individual citizens
for the purpose of determining the duties which they owed to the
community. In the etymology of the word lurks the idea of the arbitrary
assignment of burdens or duties. Varro defines _census_ as _arbitrium_,
and derives the name _censores_ from the position of these magistrates
as _arbitri populi_ (Varro, _de Ling. Lat._ v. 81; _ap._ Non. p. 519).
This original idea of "discretionary power" was never entirely lost;
although ultimately it came to be more intimately associated with the
appreciation of morals than with the assignment of burdens. From the
point of view of its moral significance the censorship was the Roman
manifestation of that state control of conduct which was a not unusual
feature of ancient societies. It is true that Rome possessed sumptuary
laws, and laws dealing with moral offences, which it was the duty of
other magistrates to enforce; but the organization for the control of
conduct was mainly exhibited in the censorship, and, as thus exhibited,
was at once simple and comprehensive.

The censorship was believed to have been instituted in 443 B.C. to
relieve the consuls of the duties of registration. Since the periods of
registration were quinquennial, it was not a continuous office; but its
tenure does not seem to have been fixed until 434 B.C., when a _lex
Aemilia_ provided that the censors should hold office for eighteen
months. This magistracy was at first confined to patricians; a plebeian
censor is first mentioned in 351 B.C. A _lex Publilia_ of 339 B.C. is
said to have enacted that one censor must be a plebeian. Two plebeian
censors were for the first time elected in 131 B.C. The election always
took place in the Comitia Centuriata (see COMITIA). The censorship,
although lacking the powers implied in the imperium and the right of
summoning the senate and the people, was not only one of the higher
magistracies, but was regarded as the crown of a political career. It
was an irresponsible office; and the only limitations on its powers were
created by the restriction of tenure to a year and a half, the fact that
re-election was forbidden, and the restraint imposed on each censor by
the fact that no act of his was valid without the assent of his
colleague.

The original functions of the censors were (1) the registration of
citizens in the state-divisions, such as tribes and centuries; (2) the
taxation of such citizens based on an estimate of their property; (3)
the right of exclusion from public functions on moral grounds, known as
the _regimen morum_; (4) the solemn act of purification (_lustrum_)
which closed the census. Two other functions were subsequently
added:--(5) the selection of the senate (_lectio senatus_, see SENATE),
and (6) certain financial duties such as the leasing of the contracts
for tax-collecting and for the repair of public buildings. The first
four of these functions were those of the census, which was a detailed
examination of the citizen body as represented by heads of families
(_patres familiarum_) in the Campus Martius. The equites were a select
portion of this citizen body; but the review of these knights took
place, not in the Campus, but in the Forum (see EQUITES). It was in
connexion with this review of the ordinary citizens and the knights, as
well as with the choice of senators, that the censors published their
edicts stating the moral rules which they intended to enforce. The
offences which they punished were sometimes concerned with family life
and private relations, sometimes with breaches of political duty.
Certain professions, such as that of an actor or gladiator, also invoked
their stigma, and at times the disqualifications they pronounced were
the consequence of a previous judicial condemnation. _Infamia_ was the
general name given to the disabilities pronounced by the censor. These
varied in degree from the deprivation of a senator of his seat, or a
knight's loss of his horse, to exclusion from the tribes or centuries,
an exclusion which entailed the loss of voting power. All the
disabilities pronounced by one pair of censors might be removed by their
successors.

The censorship, although its control over the senate came to be
weakened (see SENATE), lasted as long as the republic; and it was only
suspended, not abolished, during the principate. Although the princeps
exercised censorial functions, he was seldom censor. Yet the office
itself was held by Claudius I. and Vespasian. Domitian assumed the title
of life censor (_censor perpetuus_), but the precedent was not followed.
A fruitless attempt to galvanize the republican office into new life was
made in A.D. 251, during the reign of the emperor Decius.

  AUTHORITIES.--Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, ii. 331 foll. (3rd
  ed., Leipzig, 1887); Daremberg-Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités
  grecques et romaines_, i. 990 foll. (1875, &c.); Lange, _Romische
  Alterthumer_, i. 572 foll. (Berlin, 1856, &c.); de Boor, _Fasti
  Censorii_ (Berlin, 1873); Gerlach, _Die romische Censur in ihrem
  Verhaltnisse zur Verfassung_ (Basel, 1842); Nitzsch, "Über die Census"
  in _Neues Jahrbuch f. Phil._ lxxiii. 730 (Leipzig, 1856); Zumpt, "Die
  Lustra der Römer" in _Rhein. Museum_, xxv. 465, xxvi. i.
       (A. H. J. G.)

II. In modern times the word "censor" is used generally for one who
exercises supervision over, or criticizes, the conduct of other persons.
In the universities of Oxford and Cambridge it is the title of the
official head or supervisor of the non-collegiate students (i.e. those
who are not attached to a college, hall or hostel). In Oxford the censor
is nominated by the vice-chancellor and the proctors, and holds office
for five years; in Cambridge he is similarly appointed, and holds office
for life. The censors of the Royal College of Physicians are the
officials who grant licences.

_Council of Censors_, in American constitutional history, is the name
given to a council provided by the constitution of Pennsylvania from
1776 to 1790, and by the constitution of Vermont from 1777 to 1870.
Under both constitutions the council of censors was elected once in
seven years, for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the
governmental departments, the conduct of the state officers, and the
working of the laws, and as to whether the constitution had been
violated in any particular. The Vermont council of censors, limited in
number to thirteen, had power, if they thought the constitution required
amending in any particular, to call a convention for the purpose. A
convention summoned by the council in 1870 amended the constitution by
abolishing the censors.

  For the censorship of the press, see PRESS LAWS; for the censorship of
  plays, THEATRE: _Law_, and LORD CHAMBERLAIN.




CENSORINUS, Roman grammarian and miscellaneous writer, flourished during
the 3rd century A.D. He was the author of a lost work _De Accentibus_,
and of an extant treatise _De Die Natali_, written in 238, and dedicated
to his patron Quintus Caerellius as a birthday gift. The contents are of
a varied character: the natural history of man, the influence of the
stars and genii, music, religious rites, astronomy, the doctrines of the
Greek philosophers. The second part deals with chronological and
mathematical questions, and has been of great service in determining the
principal epochs of ancient history. The whole is full of curious and
interesting information. The style is clear and concise, although
somewhat rhetorical, and the Latinity, for the period, good. The chief
authorities used were Varro and Suetonius. Some scholars, indeed, hold
that the entire work is practically an adaptation of the lost _Pratum_
of Suetonius. The fragments of a work _De Natali Institutione_, dealing
with astronomy, geometry, music and versification, and usually printed
with the _De Die Natali_ of Censorinus, are not by him. Part of the
original MS., containing the end of the genuine work, and the title and
name of the author of the fragment are lost.

  The only good edition with commentary is still that of H. Lindenbrog
  (1614); the most recent critical editions are by O. Jahn (1845), F.
  Hultsch (1867), and J. Cholodniak (1889). There is an English
  translation of the _De Die Natali_ (the first eleven chapters being
  omitted) with notes by W. Maude (New York, 1900).




CENSUS (from Lat. _censere_, to estimate or assess; connected by some
with _centum, i.e._ a count by hundreds), a term used to denote a
periodical enumeration restricted, in modern times, to population, and
occasionally to industries and agricultural resources, but formerly
extending to property of all kinds, for the purpose of assessment.

Operations of this character have been conducted with different objects
from very ancient times. The fighting strength of the children of Israel
at the Exodus was ascertained by a count of all males of twenty years
old and upwards, made by enumerators appointed for each clan. The
Levites, who were exempted from military duties, were separately
enumerated from the age of thirty upwards, and a similar process was
ordained subsequently by Solomon, in order to distribute amongst them
the functions assigned to the priestly body in connexion with the
temple. The census unwillingly carried out by Joab at the behest of
David related exclusively to the fighting men of the community, and the
dire consequences ascribed to it were quoted in reprobation of such
inquiries as late as the middle of the 18th century. It appears, too,
that a register of the population of each clan was kept during the
Babylonian captivity and its totals were published on their return to
Jerusalem. In the Persian empire there was apparently some method in
force by which the resources of each province were ascertained for the
purpose of fixing the tribute. In China, moreover, an enumeration of
somewhat the same nature was an ancient institution in connexion with
the provincial revenues and military liabilities. In Egypt, Amasis had
the occupation of each individual annually registered, nominally to aid
the official supervision of morals by discouraging disreputable means of
subsistence; and this ordinance, according to Herodotus, was introduced
by Solon into the Athenian scheme of administration, where it developed
later into an electoral record.

It was in Rome, however, that the system from which the name of the
inquiry is derived was first established upon a regular footing. The
original census was ascribed to Servius Tullius, and in the constitution
which goes by his name it was decreed that every fifth year the
population should be enumerated along with the property of each
family--land, live-stock, slaves and freedmen. The main object was to
ensure the accurate division of the people into the six main classes and
their respective centuries, which were based upon considerations of
combined numbers and wealth. With the increase of the city the operation
grew in importance, and was followed by an official _lustrum_, or
purificatory sacrifice, offered on behalf of the people by the censors
or functionaries in charge of the classification. Hence the name of
lustrum came to denote the intercensal term, or a period of five years.
The word census, too, came to mean the property qualification of the
class, as well as the process of registering the resources of the
individual. Later, it was used in the sense of the imposition itself, in
which it has survived in the contracted form of _cess_. Unfortunately
the statistics of population thus collected were subordinated to the
fiscal interests of the inquiry, and no record has been handed down
relating to the population of the city and its neighbourhood. In the
time of Augustus the census was extended to the whole empire. In the
words of the Gospel of St Luke, he ordered "the whole world to be
_taxed_," or, according to the revised version, to be _enrolled_. The
compilation of the results of this the most comprehensive enumeration
till then attempted was engaging the attention of the emperor, it is
said, just before his death, but was never completed. The various
inquiries instituted during the middle ages, such as the Domesday Book
and the Breviary of Charlemagne, were so far on the Roman model that
they took little or no account of the population, the feudal system
probably rendering information regarding it unnecessary for the purposes
of taxation or military service.

The foundations of the census on the modern system were laid in Europe
towards the middle or end of the 17th century. Sweden led the way, by
making compulsory the parish record of births, deaths and marriages,
kept by the clergy, and extending it to include the whole of the
domiciled population of the parish. In France, Colbert, in 1670, ordered
the extension to the rural communes of the system which had for many
years been in force in Paris of registering and periodically publishing
the domestic occurrences of the locality. Five years before this,
however, a periodical enumeration by families and individuals had been
established in the colony of New France, and was continued in Quebec
from 1665 till 1754. This, therefore, may be considered to be the
earliest of modern censuses.

Efforts have been almost unceasingly made since 1872 by statistical
experts in periodical conference to bring about a general understanding,
first, as to the subjects which may be considered most likely to be
ascertained with approximate accuracy at a census, and secondly--a point
of scarcely less importance--as to the form in which the results of the
inquiry should be compiled in order to render comparison possible
between the facts recorded in the different areas. In regard to the
scope of the inquiry, it is recognized that much is practicable in a
country where the agency of trained officials is employed throughout the
operation which cannot be expected to be adequately recorded where the
responsibility for the correctness of the replies is thrown upon the
householder. The standard set up by eminent statisticians, therefore,
may be taken to represent an ideal, not likely to be attained anywhere
under present conditions, but towards which each successive census may
be expected to advance. The subjects to which most importance is
attached from the international standpoint are age, sex, civil
condition, birthplace, illiteracy and certain infirmities. Occupation,
too, should be included, but the record of so detailed a subject is
usually considered to be better obtained by a special inquiry, rather
than by the rough and ready methods of a synchronous enumeration. This
course has been adopted in Germany, Belgium and France, and an approach
to it is made in the decennial census of Canada and the United States.
Religious denomination, another of the general subjects suggested, is of
considerably more importance in some countries than in others, and the
same may be said of nationality, which is often usefully supplemented by
the return of mother-tongue. Nor should it be forgotten that the
internal classification and the combinations of the above subjects are
also matters to be treated upon some uniform plan, if the full value of
the statistics is to be extracted from the raw material. On the whole,
the progress towards a general understanding on many, if not most, of
the questions here mentioned which has been made in the present
generation, is a gratifying tribute to those who have long laboured in
the cause of efficient enumeration.


THE BRITISH EMPIRE

_England and Wales._--Up to the beginning of the 19th century the number
of the population was a matter of estimate and conjecture. In 1753 a
bill was introduced by a private member of the House of Commons, backed
by official support, to provide for the annual enumeration of the people
and of the persons in receipt of parochial relief. It was violently
opposed as "subversive of the last remains of English liberty" and as
likely to result in "some public misfortune or an epidemical distemper."
After passing that House, however, the bill was thrown out by the House
of Lords. The fear of disclosing to the enemies of England the weakness
of the country in fighting-material was one of the main objections
offered to the proposal. By the end of the century, however, owing to a
great extent to the publication of the essays of Malthus, the pendulum
had swung far in the opposite direction, it was thought desirable to
possess the means of judging from time to time the relations between an
increasing population and the means of subsistence. A census bill,
accordingly, again brought in by a private member, became law without
opposition at the end of 1800, and the first enumeration under it took
place in March of the following year, the operations being confined to
Great Britain. The inquiry was entrusted in England to the overseers,
acting under the justices of the peace and the high constables, and in
Scotland, to village schoolmasters, under the sheriffs. A supplementary
statement of births, deaths and marriages for each parish was required
from the clergy, who transmitted it to parliament through the bishops
and primates successively. There was no central office or control. The
schedule required the number of houses, inhabited and otherwise, the
population of each family, by sex, and the occupation, under one of the
three heads, (a) agriculture, (b) trade, manufacture or industry, or (c)
other than these two. The results, which were not satisfactory, were
published without comment. Ten years later, the chief alteration in the
inquiry was the substitution of the main occupation of the family for
that of the individual. The report on this census contained a very
valuable exposition of the difficulties involved in such operations and
the numerous sources of error latent in an apparently simple set of
questions. In 1821 an attempt to get a return of ages was made, but it
was not repeated in 1831, when the attention of the enumerators was
concentrated upon greater detail in the occupation record. Their efforts
were successful in getting a better, but still far from complete result.
The creation, in 1834, of poor law unions, and the establishment, in
1836, of civil registration districts, as a rule coterminous with them,
provided a new basis for the taking of a census, and the operations in
1841 were made over accordingly to the supervision of the
registrar-general and his staff. The inquiry was extended to the sex,
age and occupation of every individual; those born in the district were
distinguished from others, foreigners being also separately returned.
The number of houses inhabited, uninhabited and under construction
respectively, was noted in the return. The parish statement of births,
deaths and marriages was sent up by the clergy for the last time. The
most important innovation, however, was the transfer of the
responsibility for filling up the schedule from the overseers to the
householders, thereby rendering possible a synchronous record.

With some modification in detail, the system then inaugurated has been
since maintained. In 1851 the relationship to the head of the family,
civil condition, and the blind and deaf-mute were included in the
inquiry. On this occasion, the act providing for the census was
interpreted to authorize the collection of details regarding
accommodation in places of public worship and the attendance thereat, as
well as corresponding information about educational establishments. A
separate report was published on the former subject which proved
something of a storm centre. The census of 1871 obtained for the first
time a return of persons of unsound mind not confined in asylums. During
the next ten years, the separate areas for which population returns had
to be prepared were seriously multiplied by the creation of sanitary
districts, to the number of 966. The necessity, for administrative or
other purposes, of tabulating separately the returns for so many
cross-divisions of the country constitutes one of the main difficulties
of the English census operations, more particularly as the boundaries of
these areas are frequently altered. In anticipation of the census of
1891, a treasury committee was appointed to consider the various
suggestions made in regard to the form and scope of the inquiry. Its
proposals were adopted as to the subdivision of the occupation column
into employer, employed and independent worker, and as to the record
upon the schedule of the number of rooms occupied by the family, where
not more than five. Separate entry was also made of the persons living
upon property or resources, but not following any occupation. No action
was taken, however, upon the more important recommendation that midway
between two censuses a simple enumeration by sex and age should be
effected. A return was also prepared in 1891, for Wales, of those who
could speak only Welsh, only English, and both languages, but, owing to
the inclusion of infants, the results were of little value. In 1901 the
same information was called for, excluding all under three years of age.
The term tenement, too, was substituted for that of storey, as the
subdivision of a house, whilst in addition to inhabited and uninhabited
houses, those occupied by day, but not by night, were separately
recorded. The nationality of those born abroad, which used to be
returned only for British subjects, was called for from all not born
within the kingdom.

_Scotland._--In the acts relating to the census from 1801 to 1851,
provision for the enumeration of Scotland was made with that for England
and Wales, allowance being made for the differences in procedure, which
mainly concerned the agency to be employed. In 1855, however, civil
registration of births and deaths was established in Scotland, and the
conduct of the census of 1861 was, by a separate act, entrusted to the
registrar-general of that country. The same course was followed at the
three succeeding enumerations, but in 1901 the former practice was
resumed. The complexity of administrative areas, though far less than in
England, was simplified, and the census compilation proportionately
facilitated, by the passing of the Local Government Act for Scotland, in
1889. In 1881, the definition of a house in Scotland was made identical
with that in England, since previously what was called a house in the
northern portion of Great Britain was known as a tenement in the south,
and vice versa. Since 1861 a return has been called for in Scotland of
the number of rooms with one or more windows, and that of children of
school-age under instruction is also included in the inquiry. The number
of persons speaking Gaelic was recorded for the first time in 1881. The
question was somewhat expanded at the next census, and in 1901 was
brought into harmony with the similar inquiry as to Welsh and Manx.

_Ireland_.--An estimate of the population of Ireland was made as early
as 1672, by Sir W. Petty, and another in 1712, in connexion with the
hearth-money, but the first attempt to take a regular census was made in
1811, through the Grand Juries. It was not successful, and in 1821
again, the inquiry was considered to be but little more satisfactory.
The census of 1831 was better, but the results were considered
exaggerated, owing to the system of paying enumerators according to the
numbers they returned. The census, therefore, was supplemented by a
revisional inquiry three years afterwards, in order to get a good basis
for the newly introduced system of public instruction. The completion of
the ordnance survey and the establishment of an educated constabulary
force brought the operations of 1841 up to the level of those of the
sister kingdom. The main difference in procedure between the two
inquiries is that in Ireland the schedule is filled in by the
enumerator, a member of the constabulary, or, in Dublin, of the
metropolitan police, instead of being left to the householder. The
tabulation of the returns, again, is carried out at the central office
from the original schedule, and not, as in England, from the book into
which the former has been copied by the enumerating agency. The inquiry
in Ireland is more extensive than that in Great Britain. It includes,
for instance, a considerable amount of information regarding holdings
and stock. The details of house accommodation are fuller. A column is
provided for the degree of education, and another for religious
denomination, an addition which has always been successfully resisted in
England. This last information was made voluntary in 1881 and the
following enumerations without materially affecting the extent of the
record. The inquiry as to infirmities, too, is made to extend to those
_temporarily_ incapacitated from work, whether at home or in a hospital.
There is also a column for the entry of persons speaking the Irish
language only or able to speak both that and English. In the report of
1901 for England and Wales (p. 170) a table is given showing, for the
three divisions of the United Kingdom, the relative number of persons
speaking the ancient languages either exclusively or in addition to
English.

_British Colonies and Dependencies._--A simultaneous and uniform census
of the British empire is an ideal which appeals to many, but its
practical advantages are by no means commensurate with the difficulties
to be surmounted. Scattered as are the colonies and dependencies over
the world, the date found most suitable for the inquiry in the mother
country and the temperate regions of the north is the opposite in the
tropics and inconvenient at the antipodes. Then, again, as to the scope
of the inquiry, the administrative purposes for which information is
thus collected vary greatly in the different countries, and the inquiry,
too, has to be limited to what the conditions of the locality allow, and
the population dealt with is likely to be able and willing to answer. By
prearrangement, no doubt, uniformity may be obtained in regard to most
of the main statistical facts ascertainable at a census, at all events
in the more advanced units of the empire, and proposals to this effect
were made by the registrar-general of England and Wales in his report
upon the figures for 1901. Previous to that date, the only step towards
compilation of the census results of the empire had been a bare
statement of area and population, appended without analysis; comparison
or comment, to the reports for England and Wales, from the year 1861
onwards. In 1905, however, the returns published in the colonial reports
were combined with those of the United Kingdom, and the subjects of
house-room, sex, age, civil condition, birthplace, occupation, and,
where available, instruction, religion and infirmities, were reviewed as
fully as the want of uniformity in the material permitted (Command
paper, 2860, 1906). The measures taken by the principal states, colonies
and dependencies for the periodical enumeration of their population are
set forth below.

_Canada_.--The first enumeration of what was afterwards called Lower
Canada, took place, as above stated, in 1665, and dealt with the legal,
or domiciled, population, not with that actually present at the time of
the census, a practice still maintained, in contrast to that prevailing
in the rest of the empire. The record was by families, and included the
sex, age and civil condition of each individual, with a partial return
of profession or trade. Later on, the last item was abandoned in favour
of a fuller return of agricultural resources, a feature which has
remained a prominent part of the inquiry. After the British occupation,
a census was taken in 1765 and 1784, and annually from 1824 to 1842, the
information asked for differing from time to time. Enumerations were
conducted independently by the different states until 1871, when the
first federal census was taken of the older parts of the Dominion. Since
then, the enumeration has been decennial, except in the case of the more
recently colonized territories of Manitoba and the North-West, where an
intermediate census was found necessary in 1885-1886. The census of
Canada is organized on the plan adopted in the United States rather than
in accordance with British practice, and includes much which is the
subject of annual returns in the latter country, or is not officially
collected at all. The details of deaths in the year preceding the
census, for instance, are called for, there being no registration of
such occurrences in the rural tracts. In consideration of the large
immigrant population again, the birthplace of each parent is recorded,
with details as to nationality, naturalization and date of immigration.
Occupation is dealt with minutely, in conjunction with temporary
unemployment, average wage or salary earned, and other particulars. No
less than eleven schedules are employed, most of them relating to
details of industries and production. The duty of filling up so
comprehensive a return, involving an answer to 561 questions, is not
left to the householder, but entrusted to enumerators specially engaged,
working under the supervision of the Department of Agriculture. Owing to
the sparse population and difficulties of communication in a great part
of the dominion, the inquiry, though referred to a single date, is not
completed on that day, a month being allowed to the enumerator for the
collection of his returns and their revision and transmission to the
central office. A special feature in the operations is the provision,
necessitated by the record of the _legal_ population, for the inclusion
in the local return of the persons temporarily absent on the date of the
census, and their adjustment in the general aggregates, a matter to
which considerable attention is paid. The very large mass of detail
collected at these inquiries entails an unusually long time spent in
compilation; the statistics of population, accordingly, are available
considerably in advance of those relating to production and industries.

_Australasia_.--As the sphere of the census operations in Canada has
been gradually spreading from the small beginnings on the east coast to
the immense territories of the north-west, so, in the island continent,
colonization, first concentrated in the south-east, has extended along
the coasts and thence into the interior, except in the northern region.
The first act of effective occupation of the country having been the
establishment of a penal settlement, the only population to be dealt
with in the earlier years of British administration was that under
restraint, with its guardians and a few scattered immigrants in the
immediate neighbourhood of Sydney Cove. This was enumerated from 1788
onwards by official "musters," at first weekly, and afterwards at
lengthening intervals. The record was so inaccurate that it had no
statistical value until 1820, when the muster was taken after due
preparation and with greater care, approximating to the system of a
regular census. The first operation, however, called by the latter name,
was the enumeration of 1828, when an act was passed providing for the
enumeration of the whole population, the occupied area and the
live-stock. The details of population included sex, children and adults
respectively, religion and _status_, that is whether free (immigrants or
liberated convicts), on ticket-of-leave, or under restraint. A similar
inquiry was made in 1833 and again in 1836. In 1841 a separate census
was taken of New Zealand and Tasmania respectively. The scope of the
inquiry in New South Wales was somewhat extended and made to include
occupations other than agriculture and stock-breeding. Five years later,
the increase of the population justified the further addition of
particulars regarding birthplace and education. The record of _status_,
too, was made optional, and in 1856 was omitted from the schedule. In
that year, moreover, Victoria, which had become a separate colony, took
its own census. South Australia, too, was enumerated in 1846, ten years
after its foundation as a colony. From 1861 the census has been taken
decennially by all the states except Queensland, where, as in New
Zealand, it has been quinquennial since 1875 and 1881 respectively. Up
to and including the census of 1901 each state conducted separately its
own inquiries. The scheme of enumeration is based on that of Great
Britain, modified to suit the conditions of a thin and widely scattered
population. The schedules are distributed by enumerators acting under
district supervisors; but it is found impossible to collect the whole
number in a single day, nor does the mobility of the population in the
rural tracts make such expedition necessary. In more than one state the
police are employed as enumerators, but elsewhere, a staff has to be
specially recruited for the purpose. The operations were improved and
facilitated by means of an interstatal conference held before the census
of 1891, at which a standard schedule was adopted and a series of
general tables agreed upon, to be supplemented in greater detail
according to the requirements of each state. The standard schedule, in
addition to the leading facts of sex, age, civil condition, birthplace,
occupation and house-room, includes education and sickness as well as
infirmities, and leaves the return of religious denomination optional
with the householder. Under the head of occupation, the bread-winner is
distinguished from his dependants and is returned as employer, employed,
or working on his own account, as is now the usual practice in
census-taking. Each state issues its own report, in which the returns
are worked up in the detail required for both local administrative
purposes, and for comparison with the corresponding returns for the
neighbouring territory. The reports for New South Wales and Victoria are
especially valuable in their statistical aspect from the analysis they
contain of the vital conditions of a comparatively young community under
modern conditions of progress.

_South Africa._--Almost from the date of their taking possession of the
Cape of Good Hope and its vicinity, the Netherlands East Indian Company
instituted annual returns of population, live-stock and agricultural
produce. The results from 1687 for nearly a century were recorded, but
do not appear to have been more accurate than those subsequently
obtained on the same method by the British government, by whom they were
discontinued in 1856. The information was collected by district
officials, unguided by any general instructions as to form or procedure.
The first synchronous census of the colony, as it was then constituted,
took place in 1865, on a fairly comprehensive schedule. Ten years later
the inquiry was extended to religion and civil condition, and for the
census of 1891, again, a rather more elaborate schedule was used. The
next census was deferred till 1904, in consequence of the
disorganization produced by the Boer war. The inquiry was on the same
lines as its predecessors, with a little more detail as to industries
and religious denomination. Speaking generally, the administration of
the operations is conducted upon the Australian plan, with special
attention to allaying the distrust of the native and more ignorant
classes, for which purpose the influence of the clergy was enlisted. In
some tracts it was found advisable to substitute a less elaborate
schedule for that generally prescribed. In Natal, indeed, where the
first independent census was taken in 1891, the Kaffir population was
not on that occasion enumerated at all. In 1904, however, they were
counted on a very simple schedule, by sex and by large age-groups up to
40 years old, with a return of birthplace, in a form affording a fair
indication of race. Natives of India, an element of considerable extent
and importance in this colony, are enumerated apart from the white
population, but in full detail, recognizing the remarkable difference
between the European and the Oriental in the matter of age distribution
and civil condition. The Transvaal and the Orange River colonies were
enumerated in 1904. In the latter, a census had been taken in 1890, in
considerable detail, but that of the Transvaal, in 1896, seems to have
been far from complete or accurate even in regard to the white
population. In Southern Rhodesia the white residents were enumerated in
1891, but it was not until 1904 that the whole population was included
in the census. The difficulty in all these cases is that of procuring a
sufficient quantity of efficient agency, especially where a large and
illiterate native population has to be taken into account. For this
reason, amongst others, no census had been taken up to 1906 of Northern
Rhodesia, the British possessions and protectorates of eastern Africa,
or, again, of Nigeria and the protectorates attached to the West African
colonies of Gambia, Sierra Leone and Lagos.

_The West Indies._--Each of the small administrative groups here
included takes its census independently of the rest, though since 1871
all take it about the date fixed for that of the United Kingdom. The
information required differs in each group, but the schedule is, as a
rule, of a simple character, and the results of the inquiry are usually
set forth with comparatively little comment or analysis. In some of the
groups distinctions of colour are returned in general terms; in others,
not at all. On the other hand, considerable detail is included regarding
the indentured labourers recruited from India, and those of this class
who are permanently settled on the land in Guiana and Trinidad. No
census was taken in the former, or in Jamaica and Barbados, in 1901.

_Ceylon_.--Here the census is taken decennially, on the same date as in
India, in consideration of the constant stream of migration between the
two countries. The schedule is much the same as in India with the
substitution of race for caste. Until 1901, however, it was not filled
in by the enumerator, as in India, but was distributed before and
collected after the appointed date as in Great Britain.

_India_.--The population of India is the largest aggregate yet brought
within the scope of a synchronous and uniform enumeration. It amounts to
three-fourths of that of the British Empire, and but little less than a
fifth of the estimated population of the world. Between 1853 and 1881
each province conducted its own census operations independently, with
little or no attempt at uniformity in date, schedule or tabulation. In
the latter year the operations were placed for the first time under
central administration, and the like procedure was adopted in 1891 and
1901, with such modification of detail as was suggested by the
experience of the preceding census. On each occasion new areas had to be
brought within the sphere of enumeration, whilst the necessity for the
use in the wilder tracts of a schedule simpler in its demands than the
standard, grew less as the country got more accustomed to the inquiry,
and the efficiency of the administrative agency increased. Not more than
5% of the householders in India can read and write, and the proportion
capable of fully understanding the schedule and of making the entries in
it correctly is still lower. From the literate minority, therefore,
agency has to be drawn in sufficient strength to take down every
particle of the information dictated by the heads of families. As it
would be impossible for an enumerator to get through this task in the
course of the census night for more than a comparatively small number of
houses, the operation is divided into two processes. First a preliminary
record is made a short time before the night in question, of the persons
ordinarily residing in each house. Then, on that night, the enumerator,
reinforced if necessary by aid drafted from outside, revisits his beat,
and brings the record up to date by striking out the absent and entering
the new arrivals. The average extent of each beat is arranged to include
about 300 persons. Thus, in 1901, not far from a million men were
required for enumeration alone. To this army must be added the
controlling agency, of at least a tenth of the above number, charged
with the instruction of their subordinates, the inspection and
correction of the preliminary record, and the transmission of the
schedule books to the local centre after the census has been taken. The
supply of agency for these duties is, fortunately, not deficient.
Irrespective of the large number of clerks, village scribes and state
and municipal employés which can be drawn upon with but slight
interruption of official routine, there is a fair supply of casual
literary labour up to the moderate standard required. The services, too,
of the educated public are often voluntarily placed at the disposal of
the local authorities for the census night, with no desire for
remuneration beyond out-of-pocket expenses, and the addition, perhaps,
of a personal letter of thanks from the chief official of the district.
By means of a well-organized chain of tabulating centres, the
preliminary totals, by sexes, of the 294 millions enumerated in 1901
were given to the public within a fortnight of the census, and differed
from the final results by no more than 94,000, or .03%. The schedule
adopted contains in addition to the standard subjects of sex, age, civil
condition, birthplace, occupation and infirmities, columns for
mother-tongue, religion and sect, and caste and sub-caste. It is printed
in about 20 languages. The results for each province or large state are
tabulated locally, by districts or linguistic divisions. The final
compilation is done by a provincial superintendent, who prepares his own
report upon the operations and results. This work has usually an
interest not found in corresponding reports elsewhere, in the prominent
place necessarily occupied in it by the ethnographical variety of the
population.


FOREIGN COUNTRIES

Inquiries by local officials in connexion with measures of taxation,
such as the hearth-tax in France, were instituted in continental Europe
as early as the 14th century; but as the basis of an estimate of
population they were intrinsically untrustworthy. Going outside Europe,
an extreme instance of the results of combining a census with more
definite administrative objects may be found in the census of China in
1711, when the population enumerated in connexion with a poll-tax and
liability to military service, was returned as 28 millions; but forty
years later, when the question was that of the measures for the relief
of widespread distress, the corresponding total rose to 103 millions!
The notion of obtaining a periodical record of population and its
movement, dissociated from fiscal or other liabilities, originated, as
stated above, in Sweden, where, in 1686, the birth and death registers,
till then kept voluntarily by the parish clergy, were made compulsory
and general, the results for each year being communicated to a central
office. A census, as a special undertaking, was not, however, carried
out in that country until 1749. The example of Sweden was followed in
the next year by Finland, and twenty years later, by Norway, where the
parish register was an existing institution, as in the neighbouring
state. Several other countries followed suit in the course of the 18th
century, though the results were either partial or inaccurate. Amongst
them was Spain, though here a trustworthy census was not obtained until
1857, or perhaps 1887. Some of the small states of Italy, too, recorded
their population in the middle of the above century, but the first
general census of that country took place in 1861, after its
unification. In Austria, a census was taken in 1754 by the parish
clergy, concurrently with the civil authorities and the military
commandants. Hungary was in part enumerated thirty years later. The
starting-point of the modern census, however, in either part of the dual
monarchy, was not until 1857. Speaking generally, most of the principal
countries began the current series of their censuses between 1825 and
1860. The German empire has taken its census quinquennially since its
foundation, but long before 1871 a census at short intervals used to be
taken in all the states of the Zollverein, for the purpose of
ascertaining the contribution to the federal revenue, the amount of
which was revisable every three years. The last great country to enter
the census field was Russia. From 1721, what are known as revisions of
the population were periodically carried out, for military, fiscal and
police purposes; but these were conducted by local officials without
central direction or systematic organization. In 1897 a general census
was taken as synchronously throughout the empire as was found possible.
It embraced a population second to that of India alone, as China,
probably the most populous country in the world, has not yet been
subjected to this test. The inquiry was made in great detail, under
central control, and on a plan sufficiently elastic to suit the
requirements of so varied a country and population. As in India, the
schedules had to be issued in an unusual number of languages, and were
dealt with locally in the earlier stages of tabulation. The principal
regions of which the population is still a matter of mere conjecture are
the Turkish empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China and the Indo-Chinese
peninsula, in Asia, nearly nine-tenths of Africa, and a considerable
portion of South America.     (J. A. B.)


UNITED STATES

Modern census-taking seems to have originated in the United States.
Professor von Mayr declares in a recent and authoritative work, "It was
no European state, but the United States of America that made a
beginning of census-taking in the large and true sense of that word,"
and Professor H. Wagner, writing of the censuses of Sweden, said to have
been taken in the 18th century, uses these words, "Since 1749 careful
parish registers have been kept by the clergy and have in general the
value of censuses." The same authority, although mentioning a reported
census of Norway in 1769, indicates his conviction that the first real
census of that country was in 1815. Sweden, Norway and the United States
are the only countries with any claim to have taken the first modern
census, as distinguished from a register of tax-payers, &c., the lineal
descendant of the old Roman census, and the innovation seems to be due
to the United States. If so, the first modern census was the American
census of 1790. At the present date more than three-fifths of the
estimated population of the world has been enumerated in this way. It is
of interest accordingly to note how and why the device originated.

The Federal census, which began in 1790 and has been taken every ten
years since under a mandate contained in the Constitution of the United
States, was the outgrowth of a controversy in the convention which
prepared the document. Representatives of the smaller states as a rule
claimed that the vote, and so the influence, of the states in the
proposed government should be equal. Representatives of the larger
states as a rule claimed that their greater population and wealth were
entitled to recognition. The controversy ended in the creation of a
bicameral legislature in the lower branch of which the claim of the
larger states found recognition, while in the upper, the Senate, each
state had two votes. In the House of Representatives seats were to be
distributed in proportion to the population, and the convention,
foreseeing rapid changes of population, ordained an enumeration of the
inhabitants and a redistribution or reapportionment of seats in the
House of Representatives every ten years.

The provision of the Constitution on the subject is as
follows:--"Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among
the several states which may be included within this Union according to
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
term of years and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after
the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every
subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law
direct."

In 1790 the population was reported classed as slaves and free, the free
classed as white and others, the free whites as males and females, and
the free white males as under or above sixteen years of age. In 1800
and 1810 the same classification was preserved, except that five
age-groups instead of two were given for free white males and the same
five were applied also to free white females. In connexion with the
census of 1810 an attempt, perhaps the earliest in any country, was made
to gather certain industrial statistics showing "the number, nature,
extent, situation and value of the arts and manufactures of the United
States." In 1820 a sixth age class was introduced for free white males,
an age classification of four periods was applied to the free coloured
and the slaves of each sex, and the number of aliens and of persons
engaged in agriculture, in manufactures and in commerce was called for.
The inquiry into industrial statistics begun in 1810 was also repeated
and extended.

In 1830 thirteen age classes were employed for free whites of each sex,
and six for the free coloured and the slaves of each sex. The number of
aliens, of the deaf and dumb and the blind were also gathered.

The law under which the census of 1840 was taken contained a novel
provision for the preparation in connexion with the census of
statistical tables giving "such information in relation to mines,
agriculture, commerce, manufactures and schools as will exhibit a full
view of the pursuits, industry, education and resources of the country."
This was about the first indication of a tendency, which grew in
strength for half a century, to load the Federal census with inquiries
having no essential or necessary connexion with its main purpose, which
was to secure an accurate enumeration of the population as a basis for a
reapportionment of seats in the House of Representatives. This tendency
was largely due to a doubt whether the Federal government under the
Constitution possessed the power to initiate general statistical
inquiries, a doubt well expressed in the 9th edition of the
_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ by Francis A. Walker, himself a prominent
member of the party whose contention he states:--

  "The reservation by the states of all rights not granted to the
  general government makes it fairly a matter of question whether purely
  statistical inquiries, other than for the single purpose of
  apportioning representation, could be initiated by any other authority
  than that of the states themselves. That large party which advocates a
  strict and jealous construction of the constitution would certainly
  oppose any independent legislation by the national Congress for
  providing a registration of births, marriages and deaths, or for
  obtaining social and industrial statistics, whether for the
  satisfaction of the publicist or for the guidance of the legislature.
  Even though the supreme court should decide such legislation to be
  within the grant of powers to the general government, the distrust and
  opposition, on constitutional grounds, of so large a portion of the
  people, could not but go far to defeat the object sought."

The difficulty stated in the foregoing quotation, although now mainly of
historic importance, exerted great influence upon the development of the
American census prior to 1900.

The pioneer work of the census of 1840 in the fields of educational
statistics, statistics of occupations, of defective classes and of
causes of death, suffered from numerous errors and defects. Public
discussion of them contributed to secure radical modifications of scope
and method at the census of 1850. Before the census law was passed, a
census board, consisting of three members of the president's cabinet,
was appointed to draft plans for the inquiry, and the essential features
of its report prepared after consultation with a number of leading
statisticians were embodied in the law.

The census of 1850 was taken on six schedules, one for free inhabitants,
one for slaves, one for deaths during the preceding year, one for
agriculture, one for manufactures and one for social statistics. The
last asked for returns regarding valuation, taxation, educational and
religious statistics, pauperism, crime and the prevailing rates of wages
in each municipal division. It was also the first American census to
give a line of the schedule to each person, death or establishment
enumerated, and thus to make the returns in the individual form
indispensable for a detailed classification and compilation. The results
of this census were tabulated with care and skill, and a preliminary
analysis gave the salient results and in some cases compared them with
European figures.

The census of 1860 followed the model of its predecessor with slight
changes. When the time for the next census approached it was felt that
new legislation was needed, and a committee of the House of
Representatives, with James A. Garfield, afterwards president of the
United States, at its head, made a careful and thorough study of the
situation and reported an excellent bill, which passed the House, but
was defeated by untoward influences in the Senate. In consequence the
census of 1870 was taken with the outgrown machinery established twenty
years earlier, a law characterized by Francis A. Walker, the
superintendent of the census, who administered it, as "clumsy,
antiquated and barbarous." It suffered also from the fact that large
parts of the country had not recovered from the ruin wrought by four
years of civil war. In consequence this census marks the lowest ebb of
American census work. Tie accuracy of the results is generally denied by
competent experts. The serious errors were errors of omission, were
probably confined in the main to the Southern states, and were
especially frequent among the negroes.

Since 1870 the development of census work in the United States has been
steady and rapid. The law, which had been prepared for the census of
1870 by the House committee, furnished a basis for greatly improved
legislation in 1879, under which the tenth census was taken. By this law
the census office for the first time was allowed to call into existence
and to control an adequate local staff of supervisors and enumerators.
The scope of the work was so extended as to make the twenty-two quarto
volumes of the tenth census almost an encyclopaedia, not only of the
population, but also of the products and resources of the United States.
Probably no other census in the world has ever covered so wide a range
of subjects, and perhaps none except that of India and the eleventh
American census has extended through so many volumes. The topics usually
contained in a census suffered from the great addition of other and less
pertinent matter, and the reputation of the work was unfavourably
affected by the length of time required to prepare and publish the
volumes (the last ones not appearing until near the end of the decade),
the original underestimate of the cost of the work, which made frequent
supplementary appropriations necessary, the resignation of the
superintendent, Francis A. Walker, in 1882, and the disability and death
of his successor, Charles W. Seaton. The eleventh census was taken under
a law almost identical with that of the tenth, and extended through
twenty-five large volumes, presenting a work almost as encyclopaedic,
but much more distinctively statistical.

The popular opinion of a census, at least in the United States, depends
largely upon the degree to which its figures for the population of the
country, of states, and especially of cities, meet or fail to meet the
expectations of the interested public. Judged by this standard, the
census of 1890 was less favourably received than that of 1880. The
enumerated population of the country in 1880 was larger than had been
anticipated; and in the face of these figures it was difficult for local
complaints, even where they were made, to find hearing and acceptance.
But according to the eleventh census the decennial rate of growth of
population fell suddenly from over 30%, which the figures had shown
between 1870 and 1880, and in every preceding decade of the century,
except that of the Civil War, to less than 25%, in spite of an
immigration nearly double that of any preceding decade. For this change
no adequate explanation was offered by the census office. Hence the
protests of those who believed that the figures for population were too
small swelled into a general chorus of dissatisfaction. But the census
was probably more correct than the critics. Most of the motives
influencing popular estimates of population in the United States tend to
exaggeration. The convention which drafted the Constitution of the
United States attempted to secure a balance of interests by apportioning
both representatives in Congress and direct taxes according to
population. A passage in _The Federalist_ suggests the motives of the
convention as follows:--

  "As the accuracy of the census to be obtained by Congress will
  necessarily depend in a considerable degree on the disposition if not
  co-operation of the states, it is of great importance that the states
  should feel as little bias as possible to swell or reduce the amount
  of their numbers. Were their share of representation alone to be
  governed by this rule, they would have an interest in exaggerating
  their inhabitants. Were the rule to decide their share of taxation
  alone, a contrary temptation would prevail. By extending the rule to
  both objects the states will have opposite interests, which will
  control and balance each other, and produce a requisite impartiality."

With the disappearance of direct taxation as a source of federal
revenue, the motive mentioned for understating the population
disappeared. On the other hand, the desire for many representatives in
Congress has been reinforced by the more influential feelings of local
pride and of rivalry with other cities of somewhat similar size. Hence a
complaint that the population is overstated is seldom heard, and hence,
also, popular charges of an under-count afford little evidence that the
population was really larger than stated by the census.

After the detailed tabulation had been completed, it was shown that the
number of persons under ten years of age in 1890 was surprisingly small,
and that this deficiency in children was a leading cause of the slow
growth in population. Before the tabulation had been made Francis A.
Walker wrote:--"If the birth-rate among the previously existing
population did not suffer a sharp decline ... the census of 1890 cannot
be vindicated. To ascertain the facts we must await the tabulation of
the population by periods of life, and ascertain how many of the
inhabitants of the United States of 1890 were under ten years of age."
These results thus confirmed the accuracy of the count of 1890. Efforts
to invalidate the census returns by comparison with the registration
records of Massachusetts cannot be deemed conclusive, since in the
United States, as in Great Britain, the census must be deemed more
accurate and less subject to error than registration records. A strong
argument in favour of the eleventh census, apart from its
self-consistency, is that its results as a whole fit in with the
subsequent state enumerations. In eleven cases such enumerations have
been taken; and on computing from them and the results of the federal
census of 1880 what the population at the date of the eleventh census
should have been, if the annual rate of increase had been uniform, it
appears that in no case, except New York City and Oregon, was the
difference between the enumerations and these estimates over 4%. In
Oregon about 30,000 more people were found in 1890 than the estimate
would lead one to expect; in New York city, about 100,000 less. It seems
not improbable that in the latter, where the difficulties incident to a
count during the summer are almost insurmountable, serious omissions
occurred. Still, such a comparison confirms the accuracy of the eleventh
census as a whole.

The results of the twelfth census (1900) further refute the argument
that would maintain the eleventh census to be inaccurate because it
showed a smaller rate of increase in population during the preceding
decade than had been recorded by other censuses during earlier decades.
The rate of increase during the decade ending in 1900 was even less than
that for the preceding decade; and it is impossible that a falling off
so marked could in two successive enumerations be the result of sheer
inaccuracy. The rate of increase from 1890 to 1900, eliminating from the
computation the population of Alaska, Hawaii, Indian Territory and
Indian reservations, was 20.7; the rate of increase if these places are
included--in which case the figures of the population of Hawaii in 1890
must be taken from the census of the Hawaiian government in that
year--was 21%.

  The law regulating the twelfth census deserves to rank with those of
  1790, 1850 and 1879 as one of the four important laws relative to
  census work. By this law the census office was far more independent
  than ever before. Appointments and removals were made by the director
  of the census rather than by the secretary of the interior, and in all
  plans for the execution of the law the head of the office was
  responsible for success. The law divided the subjects of census
  inquiry into two parts--first, those of primary importance, requiring
  the aid of the enumerator; and, secondly, those of subsidiary
  importance, capable of production without the aid of the enumerator.
  The former had to be finished and published by 1st July 1902; the
  latter were not to be undertaken until the former were well advanced
  towards completion. By this means the attention of the office could be
  concentrated on a small number of subjects rather than distributed
  over the long list treated in the volumes of the tenth and eleventh
  censuses.

  Under the federal form of government, with its delegation of all
  residuary powers to the several states, the United States have no
  system of recording deaths, births and marriages. Hence there is no
  such basis as exists in nearly every other civilized state for a
  national system of registration, and the country depends upon the
  crude method of enumerators' returns for its information on vital
  statistics, except in the states and cities which have established a
  trustworthy registration system of their own. These are the New
  England states and a few others in their vicinity or influenced by
  their example. Enumerators' returns in this field are so incomplete
  that hardly two-thirds of the deaths which have occurred in any
  community during the preceding year are obtained by an enumerator
  visiting the families, no satisfactory basis for the computation of
  death-rates is afforded, and the returns have comparatively little
  scientific value. In the regions where census tables and
  interpretations are derived from registration records kept by the
  several states or cities they are often made more complete than those
  in the state or municipal documents. The census of agriculture is also
  liable to a wide margin of error, owing to defects in farm accounts
  and the inability of many farmers to state the amount or the value
  even of the leading crops. The census figures relate to the calendar
  year preceding 1st June 1900, and hurried and careless answers about
  the preceding year's crop are almost sure to have been given by many
  farmers in the midst of the summer's work.

  The difficulties facing the manufacturing census were of a different
  character. A large proportion of the industries of the country keep
  satisfactory accounts, and can answer the questions with some
  correctness. But manufacturers are likely to suspect the objects of
  the census, and to fear that the information given will be open to the
  public or betrayed to competitors. Furthermore, the manufacturing
  schedule presupposes some uniformity in the method of accounting among
  different companies or lines of business, and this is often lacking.
  Another source of error in the manufacturing census of the United
  States is that the words of the census law are construed as requiring
  an enumeration of the various trades and handicrafts, such as
  carpentering. The deficiencies in such returns are gross and
  notorious, but the census office feels obliged to seek for them and to
  report what it finds, however incomplete or incorrect the results may
  be. Even on the population returns certain answers, such as the number
  of the divorced or the number unable to read and write, may be open to
  question.

  The wide range of the American census, and the publication of
  uncertain figures, find a justification in the fact that the
  development of accurate census work requires a long educational
  process in the office, and, above all, in the community. Rough
  approximations must always precede accurate measurements; and these
  returns, while often inaccurate, are better than nothing, and probably
  improve with each decade.

  Besides, the breadth of its scope, in which the American census stands
  unrivalled, the most important American contribution to census work
  has been the application of electricity to the tabulation of the
  results, as was first done in 1890. The main difficulties which this
  method reduced were two. The production of tables for so enormous a
  population as that of the United States through the method of tallying
  by hand requires a great number of clerks and a long period of time,
  and when complete cannot be verified except by a repetition of the
  process. The new method abbreviates the time, since an electric
  current can tally almost simultaneously the data, the tallying of
  which by hand would be separated by appreciable intervals. The method
  also renders comparatively easy the verification of the results of
  certain selected parts.

  Judged by European standards the cost of the American census is very
  great. The following table gives the total and the per capita cost of
  each enumeration.

    +------+---------------------+------+-----------------------+
    |      |         Cost.       |      |         Cost.         |
    |      +----------+----------+      +------------+----------+
    | Date.| Total in |Per Capita| Date.|  Total in  |Per Capita|
    |      | dollars. |in cents. |      |  dollars.  |in cents. |
    +------+----------+----------+------+------------+----------+
    | 1790 |   44,377 |   1.12   | 1850 |  1,423,351 |    6.13  |
    | 1800 |   66,109 |   1.24   | 1860 |  1,969,377 |    6.26  |
    | 1810 |  178,445 |   2.46   | 1870 |  3,421,198 |    8.87  |
    | 1820 |  208,526 |   2.16   | 1880 |  5,790,678 |   11.48  |
    | 1830 |  378,545 |   2.94   | 1890 | 11,547,127 |   18.33  |
    | 1840 |  833,371 |   4.88   | 1900 | 16,116,930 |   21.16  |
    +------+----------+----------+------+------------+----------+

  For the sake of comparison it may be stated that the per capita cost
  of the English census of 1901 was 2.24 cents, or little more than
  one-tenth that of the American census. This difference is due in part
  to the greater scope and complexity of the American census, and in
  part to the fact that in the United States the field work is done by
  well-paid enumerators, while in England it is done in most cases by
  the heads of families, who are not paid.

  The course of events has clearly established the fact that the
  authority of the Federal government in this field is greater than the
  strict constructionists of a previous generation as represented by
  General Walker in the passage already quoted believed it to be.
  Decision after decision of individual instances has made it a settled
  practice for the Federal government to co-operate with or to
  supplement the state governments in the gathering of statistics that
  may furnish a basis for state or Federal legislation. The law has
  allowed the Federal census office in its discretion to compile and
  publish the birth statistics of divisions in which they are accurately
  kept; one Federal report on the statistics of marriages and divorces
  throughout the country from 1867 to 1886 inclusive was published in
  1889, and a second for the succeeding twenty-year period was published
  in 1908-1909; an annual volume gives the statistics of deaths for
  about half the population of the country, including all the states and
  cities which have approximately complete records of deaths; Federal
  agencies like the bureau of labour and the bureau of corporations have
  been created for the purpose of gathering certain social and
  industrial statistics, and the bureau of the census has been made a
  permanent statistical office.

  The Federal census office has been engaged in the compilation and
  publication of statistics of many sorts. Among its important lines of
  work may be mentioned frequent reports during the cotton ginning
  season upon the amount of cotton ginned, supplemental census reports
  upon occupations, on employees and wages, and on further
  interpretation of various population tables, reports on street and
  electric railways, on mines and quarries, on electric light and power
  plants, on deaths in the registration area 1900-1904, on benevolent
  institutions, on the insane, on paupers in almshouses, on the social
  statistics of cities and on the census of manufactures in 1905.
  Congress has recently entrusted it with still further duties, and it
  has developed into the main statistical office of the Federal
  government, finding its nearest analogue probably in the Imperial
  Statistical Office in Berlin.     (W. F. W.)




CENTAUREA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Compositae,
containing between four and five hundred species, and of wide
distribution, but with its principal centre in the Mediterranean region.
The plants are herbs with entire or cut often spiny-toothed leaves, and
ovoid or globose involucres surrounding a number of tubular, oblique or
two-lipped florets, the outer of which are usually larger and neuter,
the inner bisexual. Four species are native in Britain. _C. nigra_ is
knapweed, common in meadows and pastureland; _C. Cyanus_ is the
bluebottle or cornflower, a well-known cornfield weed; _C. Calcitrapa_
is star-thistle, a rare plant, found in dry waste places in the south of
England, and characterized by the rose-purple flower-heads enveloped by
involucral bracts which end in a long, stiff spine. Besides cornflower,
a few other species are worth growing as garden plants; they are readily
grown in ordinary soil:--_C. Cineraria_, a half-hardy perennial, native
of Italy, is remarkable for its white downy foliage; _C. babylonica_
(Levant) has large downy leaves and a tall spike of small yellow
flowers; _C. dealbata_ (Caucasus) is a low-growing plant with larger
rose-coloured heads; _C. macrocephala_ (Caucasus) has large yellow
heads; _C. montana_ (Pyrenees) large handsome blue heads; and _C.
ragusina_ (S.E. Europe) beautiful silver-haired leaves and yellow
flowers.




CENTAURS, in Greek mythology, a race of beings part horse part man,
dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly and Arcadia. The name has been
derived (1) from [Greek: kentein] (goad) and [Greek: tauros] (bull),
implying a people who were primarily herdsmen, (2) from [Greek: kentein]
and the common termination [Greek: -auros] or [Greek: -aura] ("air")
i.e. "spearmen." The former is unsatisfactory partly from the
philological standpoint, and the latter, though not certain, is
preferable. The centaurs were the offspring of Ixion and Nephele (the
rain-cloud), or of Kentauros (the son of these two) and some Magnesian
mares or of Apollo and Hebe. They are best known for their fight with
the Lapithae, caused by their attempt to carry off Deidameia on the day
of her marriage to Peirithous, king of the Lapithae, himself the son of
Ixion. Theseus, who happened to be present, assisted Peirithous, and the
Centaurs were driven off (Plutarch, _Theseus_, 30; Ovid, _Metam._ xii.
210; Diod. Sic. iv. 69, 70). In later times they are often represented
drawing the car of Dionysus, or bound and ridden by Eros, in allusion to
their drunken and amorous habits. Their general character is that of
wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the slaves of their animal
passions, with the exception of Pholus and Chiron. They are variously
explained by a fancied resemblance to the shapes of clouds, or as
spirits of the rushing mountain torrents or winds. As children of
Apollo, they are taken to signify the rays of the sun. It is suggested
as the origin of the legend, that the Greeks in early times, to whom
riding was unfamiliar, regarded the horsemen of the northern hordes as
one and the same with their horses; hence the idea of the Centaur as
half-man, half-animal. Like the defeat of the Titans by Zeus, the
contests with the Centaurs typified the struggle between civilization
and barbarism.

  In early art they were represented as human beings in front, with the
  body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back: later, they were
  men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae, and the
  adventure of Heracles with Pholus (Apollodorus, ii. 5; Diod. Sic. iv.
  II) are favourite subjects of Greek art (see Sidney Colvin, _Journal
  of Hellenic Studies_, i. 1881, and the exhaustive article in Roscher's
  _Lexikon der Mythologie_). Fig. 34 in article GREEK ART (the west
  pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia) represents the attempt of
  the Centaurs to carry off the bride of Peirithous.




CENTAURUS ("THE CENTAUR"), in astronomy, a constellation of the southern
hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
century B.C.), Ptolemy catalogued thirty-seven stars in it.
_[alpha]-Centauri_ is a splendid binary star. Its components are of the
1st magnitude, and revolve in a period of eighty-one years; and since
its parallax is 0.75", it is the nearest star to the earth;
_[omega]-Centauri_, the finest globular star-cluster in the heavens,
consists of about 6000 stars in a space of about 20' diameter, of which
about 125 variables have been examined. _Nova Centauri_, a "new" star,
was discovered in 1895 by Mrs Fleming in photographs taken at Harvard.




CENTAURY (_Erythraea Centaurium_, natural order Gentianaceae), an annual
herb with erect, smooth stem, usually branched above, and a terminal
inflorescence with numerous small red or pink regular flowers with a
funnel-shaped corolla. The plant occurs in dry pastures and on sandy
coasts in Britain, and presents many varieties, differing in length of
stem, degree of branching, width and shape of leaves, and laxity or
closeness of the inflorescence. Several other species of the genus are
grown as rock-plants.




CENTENARY (from Lat. _centenarius_, of or belonging to a hundred, from
_centeni_, distributive of _centum_, hundred), a space of a hundred
years, and particularly the celebration of an event on the lapse of a
hundred years, a centennial anniversary. The word "centennial" (from
Lat. _centennis_, from _centum_, and _annus_, a year), though usually an
adjective as in "the Centennial State," the name given to Colorado on
its admission to statehood in 1876, is also used as a synonym of
centenary.




CENTERVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Appanoose county, Iowa,
U.S.A., in the south part of the state, about 90 m. N.W. of Keokuk. Pop.
(1890) 3668; (1900) 5256; (1905, state census) 5967 (487 being
foreign-born); (1910) 6936. Centerville is served by the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific and the Iowa
Central railways. Among the principal buildings are the county
court-house and the Federal building, and the city has a public library
and a hospital. It is in one of the most productive coal regions of the
state; it ships coal, limestone and livestock, has large bottling works,
and manufactures iron, brick and tile, machine-shop products, woollen
goods, shirts, cigars and flour. The place was platted in 1846, was
called Chaldea until 1849, when the present name was adopted, was
incorporated as a town in 1855, and in 1870 was chartered as a city of
the second class. The city limits were extended in 1906-1907.




CENTIPEDE, the characteristic member of the group Chilopoda, a class of
the Arthropoda, formerly associated with the Diplopoda (Millipedes), the
Pauropoda and the Symphyla, to constitute the now abandoned group
Myriapoda. The resemblance between the Chilopoda and the Diplopoda is
principally superficial and due to the elongation and vermiform shape of
the body, which in both is composed of a number of similar or subsimilar
somites not differentiated as are those of Insecta, existing Arachnida
and most Crustacea, into series or "tagmata" of varying function. Until
1893 no one doubted the correctness of the assumption that the Chilopoda
and Diplopoda were orders of a class Myriapoda of the same systematic
status as the Arachnida or Hexapoda. But in that year, R.I. Pocock and
J.S. Kingsley independently pointed out that they differ as much from
each other as either differs from the Hexapoda; and should, therefore,
rank as distinct classes of Arthropods. Pocock, indeed, definitely
associated the Chilopoda with the Hexapoda in a group, the
Opisthogoneata (Opisthogonea), equivalent to a group, the Progoneata
(Prosogonea), comprising the Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla. As the
basis for this classification was taken the position of the generative
orifices which open in the Opisthogonea at the posterior end and in the
Prosogonea near the anterior end of the body. As a matter of fact, in
the Chilopoda they are situated on the penultimate or pretelsonic
somite; in the Hexapoda upon the antepenultimate somite (male) or a
little farther forward (female). Moreover, the recent researches of
Heymons into the embryology of _Scolopendra_, one of the Chilopods, has
shown a close correspondence in the number of cephalic metameres between
the Chilopoda and Hexapoda, a correspondence which has not yet been
established in the case of the Diplopoda or Symphyla. This last
discovery bears out the view of relationship between the centipedes and
insects, to the exclusion of the Diplopoda, Symphyla and Pauropoda. But
even if in the future it can be shown that all these groups can be
brought into line with respect to the metamerism of the head, the
position of the generative orifices will remain as a fundamental and
constant character, distinguishing the Chilopoda from the other groups
of so-called "Myriapods" and the Hexapoda from the Symphyla, which in
many particulars they resemble.

  _Structure of the Chilopoda._--The exoskeletal elements of a typical
  somite consist of a dorsal plate or tergum, a ventral plate or
  sternum, a lateral or pleural membrane, often strengthened with
  chitinous sclerites, and a pair of appendages. At the anterior
  extremity there is a head-shield or cephalite, which bears eyes, when
  present, and a pair of antennae. In all centipedes, except the
  _Scutigeridae_, the preantennal portion of the cephalite is sharply
  reflexed, ventrally forming an area called the clypeus. The inferior
  edge of this bears the labrum, which is usually represented by a small
  median, and two large lateral plates. The appendages are modified as a
  single pair of antennae, four pairs of jaws or gnathites, a variable
  number of walking legs and a single pair of generative limbs or
  gonopods. The antennae, articulated to the forepart of the head and
  preoral in position, are long and flexible and consist of fourteen or
  more segments. The jaws of the first pair of mandibles are stout and
  bi-segmented, with a dentate cutting edge. Those of the second pair or
  maxillae vary considerably in structure in different groups. They are
  foliaceous and are usually regarded as biramous. In some genera
  (_Scutigera_, _Lithobius_) the inner branch consists of two distinct
  segments meeting those of the opposite side in the middle line. The
  outer branch, which is always larger, consists of three or four
  segments. Generally, however, the basal segments of the two branches
  are coalesced with each other and with the corresponding segments of
  the opposite side to form a single broad transverse plate. The above
  described condition seen in _Scutigera_ suggests that two pairs of
  jaws may be involved in the formation of the maxillae in the
  Chilopoda. The jaws of the third pair, the palpognaths or second pair
  of maxillae, resemble dwarfed walking legs, and consist of five or six
  segments, of which the basal or coxa is united mesially to its fellow.
  The jaws of the fourth pair, the toxicognaths or poison-jaws, are long
  and powerful, and consist like the legs primarily of six segments,
  whereof the basal is large and usually fused with its fellow to form a
  large coxal plate, the second is small and generally suppressed by
  fusion with the third, the fourth and fifth are also small, while the
  sixth is transformed into a great piercing fang, at the tip of which
  opens the duct of a poison gland lodged within the appendage.

  The tergal elements of the somites bearing the antennae, mandibles and
  maxillae appear to be represented by the head-shield or cephalite. The
  tergal element of the somite bearing the palpognath is usually
  suppressed; that of the toxicognath is sometimes of large size as in
  some Geophilomorpha (_Himantarium_), sometimes small as in
  _Scutigera_, _Lithobius_, _Craterostigmus_, sometimes suppressed
  probably by fusion with the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite as
  in the Scolopendromorpha. The sternal plates of all the jaw-bearing
  somites have disappeared, except in the case of the somite of the
  toxicognath, where it may be vestigial. In the case of the somites
  bearing the walking legs the tergal and sternal elements are preserved
  without fusion with the corresponding plates of the preceding or
  succeeding somites, so that great flexibility of the body is retained.
  The only exception to this is presented by _Scutigera_, where the
  terga corresponding to the somites bearing the fifteen pairs of legs
  are reduced by fusion and suppression to seven. The walking legs are
  articulated to the inferior portion of the pleural or lateral area of
  the somites close to the external margins of the sterna, which widely
  separate those of the left from those of the right side. Generally
  speaking the legs resemble each other, although as a rule they
  progressively increase in length towards the posterior end of the
  body. They consist typically of six segments, of which the basal is
  termed the coxa and the apical the tarsus. The tarsus is armed with a
  single terminal claw, and, except in the Geophilomorpha and a few
  genera of other orders, is divided by a mesial transverse joint into
  two segments, as is the case in _Scolopendra_ and _Lithobius_ for
  example. But in some of the longer-legged, swift-footed centipedes of
  the order Lithobiomorpha (e.g. _Henicops_, _Cermalobius_) the tarsi
  are further subdivided. The multiplication of sub-segments reaches its
  maximum in _Scutigera_, where the tarsi are extremely long, slender,
  flexible and annulated. The legs of the last pair are directed
  backwards in a line parallel with the long axis of the body, so that
  their coxae, fused in some cases with the pleural sclerites
  (_Scolopendra_, _Geophilus_), or free and of large size (_Scutigera_,
  _Lithobius_), serve to protect the small genital and anal somites.
  They are often greatly modified. In the males of some species of
  _Lithobius_ one or more of the segments is inflated or furnished with
  tubercle-bearing, tactile bristles; in some Geophilomorpha the whole
  limb is thickened in the male sex. In most Scolopendromorpha the basal
  segment is armed beneath with spines or spikes (_Dacetum_,
  _Scolopocryptops_); sometimes the whole appendage is thickened and
  terminated by a sharp and serrate claw (_Theatops_, _Plutonium_). In
  these cases the legs act as weapons of defence and offence. In other
  cases (_Newportia_) the tarsi lose the claw, become many-jointed and
  act as feelers, while in _Alipes_ the terminal segments are flattened,
  leaf-like and furnished with a peculiar stridulating organ. The
  genital somite is always small and sometimes retractile within the
  somite bearing the last pair of legs. Its tergal plate is usually
  retained, but its sternal plate is generally suppressed. In females of
  the Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha the appendages of this
  somite--the gonopods--are jointed, forcipate and relatively well
  developed although small. In the females of the other orders they are
  greatly reduced or absent. In the males their development varies
  considerably. They are well developed in _Scutigera_, where they form
  two pairs of digitiform sclerites, whereas in the Geophilomorpha they
  are reduced to a pair of very short, two-jointed limbs. The anal
  somite is always small and limbless. In _Craterostigmus_ the genital
  and anal somites are represented by a pair of elongate valves
  projecting between the legs of the last pair. The structure of the
  gonopods is unknown, and the homology between the two valves and the
  skeletal elements of the somites in question not clearly understood.

  A study of the development of _Scolopendra_ has shown that the
  antennae of the adult are the appendages of the second postoral
  metamere and the mandibles those of the fourth, the first postoral
  metamere, which has a pair of transient preantennal appendages, and
  the third, which has no appendages, being excalated at an early stage
  of embryonic growth. Furthermore, behind the legs of the last pair two
  pairs of appendages are present. The second of these persists as the
  gonopods of the adult, but the first is suppressed. Possibly, however,
  it is represented in the male of _Scutigera_ by the anterior branches
  of the gonopods. The cerebral or cephalic portion of the nervous
  system consists of a quadrilobate mass. From the two upper lobes,
  which are set transversely, arise the ocular nerves; from the two
  lower lobes, which are united by a transverse commissure, spring the
  antennal nerves in front and the chords which form the oesophageal
  collar behind. These chords unite below the oesophagus to form the
  compound suboesophageal ganglion, whence the nerves for the four pairs
  of jaws arise. The ventral system consists of a double chord uniting
  in each of the leg-bearing segments in a ganglionic swelling which
  gives off four pairs of nerves to the limbs and tissues of the somite.
  There is a single ganglion in the genital segment.

  [Illustration: Modified from Heymons, _Bib. Zool._, 1901, by
  permission of E. Nagele.

    FIG. 1.

    A, Diagram of anterior extremity of an early embryo of
    _Scolopendra_, ventral view; cl, clypeus; lb, labrum; m, mouth; p.a,
    preantennal appendage; a, antenna; int, premandibular rudiment; mdl,
    mandible; mx, maxilla; p.g, palpognath; t.g, toxicognath; lg. 1,
    first pair of walking legs.

    B, Posterior end of a later embryo of _Scolopendra_, ventral view,
    showing the anal segment or telson (t); the legs of the last pair in
    the adult (lg. 21) and the two rudimentary pairs of legs (lg. 22,
    lg. 23).]

  Eyes are frequently absent. When present they may be either simple or
  compound, i.e. consisting externally of a single lens (monomeniscous)
  of or an aggregation of lenses (polymeniscous). Simple eyes vary in
  number on each side of the head from one, as in _Henicops_, to many as
  forty, as in some species of _Lithobius_. In _Scolopendra_, where
  there are four, the corneal lens is a biconvex thickening of the
  cuticle. The soft or retinal portion of the eye beneath the lens
  consists of an aggregation of large cells forming a single layer
  continuous with the epidermic cells of the circumocular area. Thus the
  eye is monostichous. The arrangement of the cells, however, is
  peculiar. They are invaginated to form what may be described as a very
  deep cup with exceedingly thick walls and correspondingly narrow
  median space, the outer surface of the cup being formed by the inner
  or proximal ends of the cells and the inner surface by their outer or
  distal ends. It results from this arrangement that the cells forming
  all but the bottom of the invagination lie horizontally, i.e. at right
  angles to the vertical axis of the eye. From the distal ends of the
  cells are secreted chitinous rhabdomeres, forming a rhabdom which
  occupies and fills up the central portion of the cup beneath the
  middle of the corneal lens. The outer ends of the cells are nucleated
  and are continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve, which passes
  from the outer surface of the bottom of the cup to the brain. Compound
  eyes are found only in the _Scutigeridae_. Externally the eye consists
  of one hundred or more little lenses or lenticles. The retinal portion
  is composed of a corresponding number of ocular units or ommatidia.
  Each ommatidium is an elongated cone with its broad extremity abutting
  against the corneal lenticle. It consists of a non-nucleated
  crystalline cone developed from embryonic cells, and is enveloped in
  three tiers of large nucleated cells. The cells of the outermost tier
  are heavily pigmented; those of the middle and innermost (proximal)
  tiers, the retinal cells, are at their inner extremities produced into
  threads continuous with the fibres of the optic nerve. In the space
  between these cells and the crystalline cone which they surround,
  there is a layer of rhabdomeres deposited apparently by the cells.

  [Illustration: A and B after Heymons, _Bibl Zool_, 1901, by permission
  of E. Nagele.

  C after Adensamer, _Verh. z. b. Verein_, Vienna, 1893, pl. vii.

    FIG. 2.

    A, Brain of _Scolopendra_. n.ant, Antennal nerves; n.opt, ocular
    nerves; n.pr.ant, preantennal nerves; oes. comm, oesophageal
    commissure.

    B, Section of Eye of Scolopendra. len, Corneal lens; ret, retinal or
    visual cells; n.opt, optic nerve.

    C, Ocular unit or ommatidium of compound Eye of _Scutigera_. len,
    corneal lenticle; c.c, crystalline cone; 1, pigmented cells of
    outermost tier; 2, 3, retinular cells of middle and innermost tiers;
    rbd, rhabdomeres; n.opt, optic nerve; pg, pigment cells.]

  The alimentary canal is a simple tube running without convolutions
  from the mouth to the anus. Its anterior portion or pharynx, which
  arises from the stomodaeal invagination in the embryo, is short; a
  pair of large, so-called salivary glands open into it. The mesenteric
  part of the canal is relatively wide and receives at its junction with
  the hind-gut the excretory products of a pair of very long and slender
  malpighian tubes of proctodaeal origin. The posterior end of the
  canal, arising from the proctodaeum, is relatively short and narrow.

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of Alimentary Canal of _Lithobius_.

    a, Anus.

    mg, Mid-Gut.

    hg, Hind-Gut.

    mt, Malphighian tubule.

    s.gl, Salivary gland.

    lg. 1, lg. 15, Legs of first and fifteenth pairs.]

  The generative organs vary in structural details in different
  centipedes. In the male of _Lithobius_ the testes consist of a single
  coiled tube lying above the alimentary canal. The slender vas deferens
  which proceeds from its hinder end divides posteriorly into a right
  and left branch, embracing the gut and uniting beneath it to form a
  common chamber or atrium within the genital orifice. The atrium
  receives the secretion of two pairs of large accessory glands; and a
  pair of tubes, or vesiculae seminales, open, one on each side, into
  the divided sperm ducts close to their point of origin above the
  intestine. The organs of the female are very similar. There is a large
  median ovary followed by a short oviduct forming a circum-intestinal
  collar and a common atrium. Into the latter open a pair of short
  receptacula seminis and the slender duct of two pairs of large
  accessory glands. There is nothing in the female corresponding to the
  supra-intestinal vesiculae seminales of the male. In the male of
  _Scolopendra_, on the contrary, there are as many as twelve pairs of
  somewhat sausage-shaped testes, approximated two by two. From each
  pair proceed two slender ducts which open into a median duct coiled in
  the posterior third of the body and much expanded in the last three of
  the leg-bearing segments. The right and left portions of the
  intestinal ring of the genital duct are unequally developed, and there
  are no vesiculae seminales, but two pairs of accessory glands
  communicate with the genital atrium as in _Lithobius_. In the female
  _Scolopendra_ the right and left portions of the intestinal collar are
  also unequally developed, and only a single pair of accessory glands
  besides the receptacula seminis open into the atrium.

  [Illustration: After Heymons, _Bibl. Zool_, 1901, by permission of E.
  Nagele.

    FIG. 4.--Posterior portion of generative organs of male of
    _Scolopendra_ (A), of female (B). t, Testes; v.d, vas deferens; ov,
    ovary; _r.s_, receptaculum seminis; gl. acc, accessory glands; g.o,
    generative orifice.]

  The heart is tubular and lies in the middle dorsal line immediately
  beneath the integument. It consists of a series of chambers
  corresponding roughly to the leg-bearing segments, and lies in a
  blood-sinus formed by a pericardial membrane whence large alary
  muscles extend to the sides of the body. Each chamber gives off in
  _Scolopendra_ a pair of fine lateral vessels, and is furnished at its
  posterior extremity with a pair of orifices by which the blood
  re-enters the organ from the pericardial space. From the anterior
  chamber, which lies in the first or second leg-bearing segment,
  proceed three arteries, a median which runs forwards into the head to
  supply the brain and other organs, and a lateral which with its fellow
  of the opposite side forms an oesophageal aortic collar. From the
  sides of the latter arise vessels to the gnathites, and from its
  inferior portion an unpaired vessel passes forwards into the head and
  another backwards above the nerve chord to the posterior end of the
  body, supplying each segment in its course with a delicate lateral
  branch. In _Scolopendra_ the chambers of the heart, excepting the
  first and last, which are small, are subequal in size; but in forms
  like _Scutigera_ where the terga are very unequal in size a
  corresponding inequality in the size of the chambers is manifested.

  [Illustration: A after Newport, _Phil. Trans._, 1843. B after Haase,
  _Zool. Beitrage_, i. pt. 65, 1884, by permission of J.N. Kern. C after
  Haase, loc. cit.

    FIG. 5.

    A, Anterior extremity of _Scolopendra_, showing two chambers of the
    heart (h), the aortic ring (a), the alae cordis (a.m) and a cardiac
    orifice (o).

    B, Two segments of _Scolopendra_, showing the branching and
    anastomosing tracheae and a spiracle (sp).

    C, A pair of tufted tracheae of _Scutigera_. d, Dorsal plate; t.s,
    tracheal sac; tr, tracheal tubes.]

  In all centipedes, except _Scutigera_, respiration is effected by
  chitinized tracheal tubes which extend with their ramifications
  throughout the body and open to the exterior by means of spiracles
  perforating the lateral or pleural membrane of more or fewer of the
  somites below the edge of the terga. Spiracles are never present upon
  the anal, genital and last leg-bearing somites, and only rarely, as in
  _Henicops_, upon the somite bearing the legs of the first pair. In the
  majority of cases the spiracles are circular, sigmoid or slit-like
  orifices, with chitinized rim, leading into a pocket-like integumental
  infolding, from which emanate numerous small tracheal tubes which soon
  anastomose to form the main tracheal trunks. In _Dacetum_, one of the
  _Scolopendridae_, there is no pocket-like infolding, the small
  tracheal tubes opening direct to the exterior on a large subcircular
  plate where their apertures fuse to form a complicated network. The
  apertures, as in the case of other genera, are protected by fine
  hairs; and the tracheae themselves are strengthened by a fine spiral
  filament. In the _Lithobiidae_ the tracheae do not anastomose; but in
  _Scolopendra_ and _Geophilus_ the main trunks in each segment fuse
  transversely with those of the opposite side and also longitudinally
  with those of the preceding and succeeding segments.

  In _Scutigera_ the tracheae differ both in structure and position from
  those of all other Chilopoda. The spiracles, unpaired and seven in
  number, open in the median dorsal line. Each leads into a short sac
  from which five tracheal tubes depend into the pericardial
  blood-sinus.

  Existing Chilopoda may be classified as follows, into five orders
  referable to two subclasses--

    Subclass I.         Pleurostigma.
       Order 1             Geophilomorpha.
       Order 2             Scolopendromorpha.
       Order 3             Craterostigmomorpha.
       Order 4             Lithobiomorpha.

    Subclass II.        Notostigma.
       Order 5             Scutigeromorpha.

SUBCLASS I, PLEUROSTIGMA.--Chilopods furnished with a rich system of
branching tracheal tubes, the spiracles of which are paired and open
upon the pleural area of more or fewer of the somites. Each leg-bearing
somite contains a distinct tergum and sternum, the number of sterna
never exceeding that of the terga. Eyes are either preserved or lost;
when preserved they are represented either by a single one-lensed
ocellus or by an aggregation of such ocelli on each side of the head.
The anterior portion of the head, bearing the labrum, is bent sharply
downwards and backwards beneath the larger posterior portion lying
behind the antennae, so that these appendages, approximated in the
middle line, project directly forwards from the margin of the head
formed by this retroversion of the labral area. The maxillae are short
and have no sensory organ; the palpognaths consist of four segments, and
the toxicognaths have their basal segments fused to form a single coxal
plate.

  _Order 1. Geophilomorpha_.--Chilopods with a large and indefinite
  number of somites, most of which are partially or completely divided
  into a smaller anterior segment, represented by a pretergal and two
  presternal sclerites, and a larger posterior segment bearing the
  spiracles and legs. Spiracles are present upon all the leg-bearing
  somites except the first and last; and the legs which are short and
  subequal in length consist of six segments, the basal of which remains
  small. There are no eyes, and the antennae consist invariably of
  fourteen segments. The tergal plate of the somite bearing the
  toxicognaths always remains distinct and separates the head-shield
  from the tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The penultimate and
  antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are reduced on the
  preaxial side of the appendage to the condition of arthrodial
  integumental folds and suppressed on the postaxial side where the
  distal segment or fang is firmly jointed to the femoral segment. In
  the last leg-bearing somite the pleural sclerites coalesce with the
  coxa of the appendage; but the second segment (trochanter) of this
  appendage does not fuse with the third (femur). The genital and anal
  somites are not retractile within the last leg-bearing somite, and the
  gonopods typically persist in the male as small two-jointed appendages
  and in the female as jointed or unjointed sclerites. The young are
  hatched with the full number of segments.

  [Illustration: FIG. 6. (After Latzel, _Die Myr. öst.-ung. Mon._ vol.
  i. "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880.)

    A, Upper view of anterior extremity in _Geophilus_.

      a, Basal segments of antennae.

      c, Cephalic plate.

      t.palp, Tergal plate of somite, bearing palpognaths.

      t.tox, Tergal plate of somite, bearing toxicognaths (_tox_).

      t.lg.1, Tergal plate of somite, bearing legs of first pair.

    B, Toxicognaths of _Scolopendra_, showing the large coxal plate and
    the reduced penultimate and antepenultimate segments.

    C, Terminal segment or fang of the same, showing the orifice of the
    poison gland.]

  _Remarks._--The Geophilomorpha are universally distributed in suitable
  localities. The number of families into which the order should be
  divided is as yet unsettled, some authors admitting several groups of
  this rank, others referring all the genera to a single family,
  _Geophilidae_. In habits the _Geophilidae_ are mostly subterranean,
  living in the earth and feeding principally upon earthworms.
  Occasionally they may be found eating fruit or fungi, probably for the
  sake of moisture. Although without eyes, they are extremely sensitive
  to light, and when exposed to it crawl away in serpentine fashion to
  the nearest sheltered spot, feeling the way with their antennae. They
  can, however, progress with almost equal facility backwards, using
  the legs of the posterior pair as feelers. Differing from the majority
  of the family in habits are the two species _Linotaenia maritima_ and
  _Schendyla submarina_, which live under stones or seaweed between
  tide-marks on the coasts of western Europe. Most, if not all, the
  species are provided with glands, which open upon the sterna and
  secrete a fluid which in some forms (_Himantarium_) is blood-red,
  while in others it is phosphorescent. In the tropical form _Orphnaeus
  phosphoreus_ the fluid is known to possess this property; and its
  luminosity has been repeatedly observed in England in the autumn in
  the case of _Linotaenia acuminata_ and _L. crassipes_.

  The number of pairs of legs within this family varies from between
  thirty and forty to over one hundred and seventy. Corresponding
  discrepancies are observable in size, the smallest specimens being
  less than 1 in. long and barely 1 mm. wide, while the largest example
  recorded, a specimen of _Notiphilides_ from Venezuela, was 11 in. long
  and 1/3 of an inch wide.

  When pairing takes place the female fertilizes herself by taking up a
  spermatophore which a male has left upon a sheet of web for that
  purpose. The female lays a cluster of eggs in some sheltered spot,
  sometimes in a specially prepared nest, and encircling them with her
  body, keeps guard until the young disperse and shift for themselves.

  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Scolopendra morsitans_ (after Buffon).

    A, a, Cephalic plate.

    b, Tergum of segment, bearing first pair of legs (d).

    c, Tip of palpognath.

    e, Antenna.

    f, Toxicognath.

    g, Last pair of appendages, enlarged and directed backwards.]

  _Order 2. Scolopendromorpha._--Chilopods differing principally from
  the Geophilomorpha in that the number of leg-bearing somites is
  definitely fixed at twenty-three or twenty-one. These are
  differentiated into larger and smaller, which alternate with nearly
  complete regularity. The anterior portion of each somite is only
  partially cut off as a subsegment. The tergal plate of the somite
  bearing the toxicognaths is suppressed, probably by fusion with the
  tergum of the first leg-bearing somite. The antennae consist of a
  number of segments varying from seventeen to about thirty, and usually
  differing in the individuals of a species. The second segment
  (trochanter) of the legs of the last pair is coalesced with the third
  (femur). In only one genus, namely _Plutonium_, which occurs in Italy,
  is there a pair of spiracles for each leg-bearing segment, except the
  first and last, as in the Geophilomorpha. In most genera there are
  only nine pairs of spiracles situated upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th,
  12th, 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th leg-bearing segments, as in
  _Scolopendra_, _Cormocephalus_, _Cryptops_, &c. In genera with
  twenty-three pairs of legs, like _Scolopocryptops_, there is an
  additional pair of spiracles on the twenty-second pedigerous segment;
  and a few genera such as _Rhysida, Edentistoma_, possess a pair upon
  the 7th segment. Eyes, when present, are always four in number on each
  side. The newly hatched young has the full complement of appendages.

  This order is divided into four families:--_Scolopendridae_
  (_Scolopendra_, _Rhysida_), _Cryptopidae_ (_Cryptops_, _Theatops_),
  _Scolopocryptopidae_ (_Scolopocryptops_, _Otocryptops_) and
  _Newportudae_ (_Newportia_). Apart from the frigid zones it is
  cosmopolitan in distribution, though only one genus (_Cryptops_)
  extends into north temperate latitudes. In the tropics and warmer
  countries of the southern hemisphere the genera and species are
  particularly abundant, and individuals reach the greatest dimensions,
  some specimens of the tropical American species _Scolopendra gigantea_
  exceeding 12 in. in length. They are strictly carnivorous, their diet
  consisting of any animal, vertebrate or invertebrate, small enough to
  be overcome. They live in damp obscure places, under logs of wood or
  stones, and are nocturnal, shunning, like the _Geophilidae_, exposure
  to light; and as in the _Geophilidae_, the females guard their eggs
  and young until the latter disperse to lead an independent life.

  _Order 3. Craterostigmomorpha_.--Chilopods with twenty-one tergal
  plates as in the typical genera of Scolopendromorpha, but with only
  fifteen pairs of legs as in the Lithobiomorpha. As in some members of
  the latter order there is a single ocellus on each side of the head,
  the penultimate and antepenultimate segments of the toxicognaths are
  complete on the postaxial side of the appendage, and spiracles are
  present upon the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing
  somites. In the size and shape of the head, of the toxicognaths, of
  the tergal plate of this somite, and of the first leg-bearing somite,
  great similarity to some genera of Geophilomorpha (e.g.
  _Mecistocephalus_) is presented; but in the structure of the posterior
  end of the body this order differs from all the other orders of
  Chilopoda. The skeletal elements of the last leg-bearing segment are
  welded together to form a subcylindrical tube, and the genital and
  anal somites are represented by a pair of chitinous valves capable of
  opening below for the escape of the genital and intestinal products.

  [Illustration: After Pocock. Q.J.M.S. vol. 45, pl. 23, 1902.

    FIG. 8.

    A, Anterior end of _Craterostigmus_ from above.

    a, Basal segments of antennae.

    c, Cephalic plate with eyes (o).

    t.tox, Tergal plate of somite bearing toxicognaths (tox).

    t.lg.1, Tergal plate of somite bearing legs of the first pair.

    B, Maxillae.

    C, Palpognath.

    D, Toxicognath.

    E, Last segment with genital capsule (g.c), and basal segments of
    legs of 14th and 15th pairs (lg. 14, lg. 15).]

  This order, containing the family _Craterostigmidae_, is based upon a
  remarkable genus and species _Craterostigmus tasmanianus_, of which
  only two specimens are known. These were collected under stones upon
  the summit of Mount Rumney in Tasmania. They are about 1½ in. in
  length; but nothing has been recorded of their habits. The chief
  morphological interest attaching to _Craterostigmus_ is that, apart
  from certain structural peculiarities of its own, it presents features
  previously believed to be found exclusively either in the
  Scolopendromorpha, or the Geophilomorpha, or the Lithobiomorpha; and
  it shows how the Lithobiomorpha may be derived from a
  Scolopendromorphous type most nearly resembling _Plutonium_ by the
  excalation of the third, sixth, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth and
  seventeenth leg-bearing somites.

  _Order 4. Lithobiomorpha._ Chilopoda with fifteen pairs of leg-bearing
  somites differentiated into larger and smaller, the 1st, 3rd, 5th,
  7th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th being large, the others small. Spiracles
  present upon all the larger with the exception sometimes of the 1st.
  The toxicognaths are relatively weaker than in the orders hitherto
  considered, and have their basal segments less firmly fused mesially.
  In correlation with their weaker muscularity the first leg-bearing
  segment is relatively small. The gonopods, present and usually jointed
  in both sexes, are especially well developed and forcipate in the
  female, and arise from a large ventral plate resulting from the fusion
  of their coxae with the sternum of the genital somite. The antennae
  are many-jointed, and there is a single ocellus or a cluster of ocelli
  on each side of the head. The coxae of the legs are large, and those
  of the last four or five pairs usually contain glands opening by large
  orifices. The newly-hatched young has only seven pairs of legs, the
  remaining pairs being successively added as growth proceeds.

  The genera of this order are divisible into three families, the
  _Lithobiidae_ (_Lithobius, Bothropolys_), _Henicopidae_ (_Henicops,
  Haasiella_), the _Cermatobiidae_ (_Cermatobius_). _Cermatobius_, based
  upon a single species, _martensii_, from the isl. of Adenara, is of
  peculiar interest, since in the absence of coxal pores, and the length
  and multi-articulation of the antennae and tarsal segments, it
  approaches more nearly to _Scutigera_ than does any other
  pleurostigmous Chilopod. It is also stated that the spiracles have
  assumed a more dorsal position, thus foreshadowing the completely
  dorsal situation they have taken up in the Notostigma. The
  _Henicopidae_, containing centipedes of small size, attains its
  maximum of development in the southern continents and islands, more
  particularly Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America.
  One genus (_Lamyctes_) however, occurs in Europe. The _Lithobiidae_,
  on the contrary, are almost exclusively northern in range, being
  particularly abundant and of large size individually in Europe,
  extra-tropical Asia, and North and Central America. In habits the
  _Lithobiidae_ closely resemble the _Scolopendridae_. They are,
  however, comparatively far more agile with their shorter, more compact
  bodies and stronger legs. They are mostly of small size, the largest
  species, _Lithobius fusciatus_, of south Europe measuring only 2 in.
  in length of body. The females do not guard their eggs, but coat them
  with soil and leave them to their fate.

SUBCLASS 2, NOTOSTIGMA.--Chilopods with a series of median dorsal
tracheal sacs furnished with tubes dipping into the pericardial blood
space, and opening each by an unpaired spiracle upon the 1st, 3rd, 5th,
8th, 10th, 12th and 14th leg-bearing somites. This characteristic is
accompanied by the complete disappearance of the tergum of the 7th,
either by fusion with that of the 8th or by excalation, and by the
evanescence of the terga of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 9th, 11th and 13th
pedigerous somites. The preantennal area of the head is not strongly
reflexed inferiorly, and the eyes are large and compound. The maxillae
are long and have a sensory organ, the palpognaths are long, spiny and
composed of five segments, like the primitive Chilopod leg, and the
toxicognaths have their basal segments disunited and independently
movable. Gonopods duplicated in the male.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A, _Scutigera rubrolineata_ (after Buffon). B,
Tergum and part of a second of the same enlarged to show the position of
the stigmata o, o; p, hinder margin of tergum.]

  This subclass contains the single order Scutigeromorpha and the family
  _Scutigeridae_. As in the Lithobiomorpha there are fifteen pairs of
  legs, the gonopods are well developed in both sexes and the young is
  hatched with only seven pairs of legs. The legs and antennae in the
  adult are extremely long and many jointed. In habits as well as in
  structure the _Scutigeridae_, of which _Scutigera_ is the best-known
  genus, differ greatly from other centipedes. Although they hide under
  stones and logs of wood like _Lithobius_, they are not lucifugous but
  diurnal, and may be seen chasing their foes in the blazing sun. They
  run with astonishing speed and have the power of dropping their legs
  when seized. South of about the 40th parallel of north latitude they
  are universally distributed in suitable localities. In most species
  the body only reaches a length of about 1 in.; but twice that size or
  more is reached by examples of the Indian species _Scutigera
  longicornis_.

  [Illustration: After Latzel, _Die Myr öst-ung. Mon._ vol. i.
  "Chilopoda," Vienna, 1880.

    FIG. 10.--Gnathites of _Scutigera_.

    I. Mandibles.
    II. Maxillae.
    III. Palpognaths.
    IV. Toxicognaths.]

  Some fossils of Carboniferous age have been described as Chilopoda by
  Scudder, who refers them to two families, _Gerascutigeridae_ and
  _Eoscolopendridae_. But until the specimens have been examined by
  zoologists the genera they are alleged to represent cannot be taken
  seriously into consideration. Remains of centipedes closely related to
  existing forms have been recorded from Oligocene beds.     (R. I. P.)




CENTLIVRE, SUSANNA (c. 1667-1723), English dramatic writer and actress,
was born about 1667, probably in Ireland, whither her father, a
Lincolnshire gentleman named Freeman, had been forced to flee at the
Restoration on account of his political sympathies. When sixteen she
married the nephew of Sir Stephen Fox, and on his death within a year
she married an officer named Carroll, who was killed in a duel. Left in
poverty, she began to support herself, writing for the stage, and some
of her early plays are signed S. Carroll. In 1706 she married Joseph
Centlivre, chief cook to Queen Anne, who survived her. Her first play
was a tragedy, _The Perjured Husband_ (1700), and she herself appeared
for the first time at Bath in her comedy _Love at a Venture_ (1706).
Among her most successful comedies are--_The Gamester_ (1705); _The Busy
Body_ (1709); _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_ (1718); _The Basset-table_
(1706); and _The Wonder! a Woman keeps a Secret_ (1714), in which, as
the jealous husband, Garrick found one of his best parts. Her plots,
verging on the farcical, were always ingenious and amusing, though
coarse after the fashion of the time, and the dialogue fluent. She never
seems to have acted in London, but she was a friend of Rowe, Farquhar
and Steele. Mrs Centlivre died on the 1st of December 1723. Her dramatic
works were published, with a biography, in 1761 (reprinted 1872).




CENTO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 18 m. S.E.
direct from the town of Ferrara; 50 ft. above sea-level; it is reached
by road (6 m. to the W.) from the station of S. Pietro in Casale, 15 m.
S.W. by W. of Ferrara, and also by a steam tramway (18 m. N.) from
Bologna to Pieve di Cento, on the opposite bank of the Reno. Pop. (1901)
4307 (town), 19,078 (commune). It is connected by a navigable canal with
Ferrara. It was the birthplace of the painter Giovanni Francesco
Barbieri (Guercino). The communal picture-gallery and several churches
contain works by him, but none of first-rate importance. A statue of him
stands in front of the 16th century Palazzo Governativo. The town was
surrounded by walls, the gates of which are preserved. The origin of the
name is uncertain.




CENTO (Gr. _[Greek: kentrôn]_, Lat. _cento_, patchwork), a composition
made up by collecting passages from various works. The Byzantine Greeks
manufactured several out of the poems of Homer, among which may be
mentioned the life of Christ by the famous empress Eudoxia, and a
version of the Biblical history of Eden and the Fall. The Romans of the
later empire and the monks of the middle ages were fond of constructing
poems out of the verse of Virgil. Such were the _Cento Nuptialis_ of
Ausonius, the sketch of Biblical history which was compiled in the 4th
century by Proba Falconia, wife of a Roman proconsul, and the hymns in
honour of St Quirinus taken from Virgil and Horace by Metellus, a monk
of Tegernsee, in the latter half of the 12th century. Specimens may be
found in the work of Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1504; Frankfort, 1541,
1544). In 1535 Laelius Capitulus produced from Virgil an attack upon the
dissolute lives of the monks; in 1536 there appeared at Venice a
_Petrarca Spirituale_; and in 1634 Alexander Ross (a Scotsman, and one
of the chaplains of Charles I.) published a _Virgilius Evangelizans, seu
Historia Domini nostri Jesu Christi Virgilianis verbis et versibus
descripta_.




CENTRAL AMERICA, that portion of the American continent which lies
between Mexico and Colombia, comprising the British crown colony of
British Honduras, and the six independent republics of Guatemala,
Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. These seven
divisions are described in separate articles. Central America is bounded
towards the N. by the Caribbean Sea, and towards the S. by the Pacific
Ocean, and extends between 7° 12' and 18° 3' N. and between 77° 12' and
92° 17' W. It has an area of about 208,500 sq. m., and stretches for
some 1300 m. from N.W. to S.E., in a succession of three serpentine
curves, reaching its greatest breadth, 450 m., between the Peninsula of
Nicoya and the north coast of Honduras, and diminishing to 35 m. in the
Isthmus of Panama. The eastern boundary of Central America was usually
regarded as identical with that of Costa Rica until 1903, when the
republic of Panama was formed out of the northern territories of
Colombia; and the more modern definition given above does not command
the universal assent of geographers, because it fails to include the
whole region up to the natural frontier on the north-west, i.e. the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. It has, however, the support of
political and historical considerations, as well as of common usage; and
it may therefore be regarded as adequate, although, in respect of
climate and natural products, it would be more accurate to define
Central America as lying between Tehuantepec and Darien.

  _Physical Features._--The _Cordilleras_, or mountain chains of Central
  America do not form a complete link between the western ranges in the
  north and south of the continent, for their continuity is interrupted
  by various depressions, of which the chief is the lacustrine basin of
  Nicaragua. With these exceptions, they traverse Central America from
  end to end, their main axis trending from north-west to south-east.
  They do not, as a rule, rise in sharply serrated ridges or series of
  volcanic crests, like the Andes, but the central Cordilleras are
  disposed in a succession of mountain masses, with many lesser chains
  radiating from them. The principal summits have an altitude of 12,000
  and even, in a few cases, of 13,000 ft., and the general character of
  the ranges is volcanic, many craters being still active. Large tracts
  of land remained imperfectly surveyed at the beginning of the 20th
  century, owing to the unhealthiness of the tropical climate, and the
  dense underwoods which impede exploration. In the northern part of
  Guatemala, on the Pacific coast of the same country, in British
  Honduras, along the Segovia river, on the Mosquito Coast, and in the
  basin of Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan river, there are broad
  stretches of comparatively flat country. The main line of watershed is
  everywhere nearer to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, except in
  southern Costa Rica and Panama, where it is almost equidistant from
  the two oceans. In consequence, the rivers of the Pacific seaboard are
  mostly short and swift,--mere mountain torrents, in many instances,
  until they reach the sands and swamps which border the sea. The rivers
  of the Atlantic littoral descend more gradually, and by longer
  channels. The largest of them is the Segovia, in Nicaragua and
  Honduras, which has a course of 450 m. Lake Nicaragua, the largest
  inland sheet of water, has an area exceeding 3500 sq. m. There are
  also several mountain lakes of exceptional interest and beauty, such
  as Atitlán and Amatitlán, in Guatemala, besides two great land-locked
  salt-water lakes--the Pearl Lagoon of the Mosquito Coast, and the
  Carataska Lagoon in Honduras.

  [Illustration: Geologic Map of Central America.]

  _Geology._--The neck of land which unites the continents of North and
  South America is not, geologically, the direct continuation of either,
  but constitutes a third element which is wedged, as it were, between
  the other two. The folds in the earth's crust which form the Andes and
  the Western ranges of North America, are not continued along the
  connecting isthmus, where, on the contrary, the strata are folded from
  west to east, obliquely across the trend of the continent. It should,
  however, be noticed that the Andes, as they approach the Caribbean
  sea, bend round towards the east; and it is probable that the folds of
  the North American Cordillera similarly bend eastward beneath the
  volcanic rocks of Mexico. The folds of Central America are tangential
  to the two arcs thus formed.

  By far the greater part of Central America and Mexico is covered by
  Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits, both sedimentary and volcanic; but
  the foundation on which they rest is exposed at intervals. From the
  Rio Grande to the southern declivity of the Mexican plateau the
  existence of ancient crystalline rocks at the surface is yet unproved,
  but they probably occur in the Sierra Madre del Pacifico. South of the
  plateau, in the state of Oaxaca, low mountain ridges composed of
  granites and gneisses, supposed to be of Archaean age, begin to
  appear. They strike from west to east, and mark the front of the
  series of east and west folds which stand _en échelon_ across the
  Central American region. Between the 15th and 17th parallels of
  latitude, in the state of Chiapas and in the republic of Guatemala,
  there is a second group of ridges composed of granites and schists
  with an eastward trend. In this case the evidence of age is clear, for
  the rocks are covered by a limestone which is proved to be
  Pre-Carboniferous. Similar rocks, supposed to be of Archaean or at
  least of early Palaeozoic age, occupy considerable areas in British
  Honduras, Honduras and northern Nicaragua, and occur also in Costa
  Rica and perhaps in Panama; and wherever the strike has been observed,
  it is approximately from west to east. The presence of Palaeozoic
  rocks has been proved in Guatemala and the adjacent state of Chiapas,
  where limestones have been found containing many unmistakable
  Carboniferous fossils, and below these is a considerable thickness of
  beds supposed to be Silurian. Nowhere else in the Central American
  region is there any palaeontological evidence of Palaeozoic rocks.

  The Mesozoic series begins with sands and red or yellow clays
  containing plant remains and possibly of Triassic age; but the
  occurrence of these deposits is limited to a few small isolated
  outcrops. Jurassic beds have been found in Mexico but not in Central
  America. The Cretaceous system, consisting of a lower series of clays,
  sandstones and conglomerates, followed conformably by an upper series
  of limestones, covers a considerable area in Chiapas, Guatemala and
  Honduras, and is found also in Costa Rica. The upper series contains
  hippurites. The greater part of the eastern half of the Mexican
  plateau is also formed of Cretaceous beds.

  The Tertiary system may be conveniently divided into two divisions.
  The lower, of Eocene and Oligocene age, consists generally of sand and
  clays which were evidently laid down near a shore line. The upper
  division also, including the Pliocene and Pleistocene (which have not
  yet been clearly distinguished from each other), is usually of shallow
  water origin; but in the northern part of Yucatan it includes beds of
  chalky limestone, like those of the Antilles, which may have been
  deposited in a deeper sea.

  It is probable that folding took place at more than one geological
  epoch, and the whole series of beds up to the Oligocene is involved in
  the folds. The Pliocene, on the other hand, is usually undisturbed,
  and the final effort must, therefore, have occurred during the Miocene
  period, which appears to have been a period of great earth movement
  throughout the Caribbean region. From the southern extremity of the
  Mexican plateau to the Colombian border, the strike of the folds--of
  the Mesozoic and early Tertiary deposits, as well as of the older
  rocks--is in general from east to west; but there is one considerable
  exception. On both sides of the deep depression which crosses Honduras
  from Puerto Cortez to the Gulf of Fonseca, the strike is commonly from
  north to south. The depression is probably a "Graben" or trough formed
  by faulting.

  The great volcanoes of Mexico and Central America stand upon the
  Pacific side of the continent, and it is only where the land contracts
  to a narrow neck that their products spread over to the Caribbean
  shore. The extent of the volcanic deposits is very great, and over a
  wide area they entirely conceal the original structural features of
  the country. The eruptions began towards the close of the Cretaceous
  period and continue to the present day. The rocks are lavas and ashes,
  chiefly of andesitic or basaltic composition, but rhyolites and
  trachytes also occur, and phonolite has been met with in one or two
  places.

  According to R.T. Hill, there is but little geological evidence of any
  Tertiary or later connexion between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific,
  excepting, perhaps, a shallow opening during the Eocene period. It
  should, however, be stated that all authorities are not agreed upon
  this point, and K. Sapper found marls and sandstones which he believes
  to belong to the Upper Tertiary, lying horizontally at a height of
  about 7500 ft. in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Unfortunately the
  fossils obtained from these beds were lost.

  _Climate_.--The climate of Central America is subject to the most
  marked local differences of heat and cold, owing partly to the
  proximity of two oceans, partly to the variations of altitude which
  render such territories as the swamps of the coast, or the lowlands of
  British Honduras and northern Guatemala, totally unlike the alpine
  regions of Salvador and Costa Rica. The whole area may, however, be
  roughly divided into a tropical zone (_tierra caliente_), from
  sea-level to about 1500 ft.; a temperate zone (_tierra templada_),
  from 1500 to 5000 ft.; and a cold zone (_tierra fria_), above 5000 ft.
  These figures are, of course, only approximately correct; and it often
  happens that, at the same elevation, the heat is greater on the
  Pacific than on the Atlantic versant. The rainy season on the Pacific
  slope varies in duration from four to six months, between April and
  December. It lengthens as the altitude increases. On the coast, it
  corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west monsoon, the
  tempestuous _Cordonazo de San Francisco_, or "Flagellation of St
  Francis," as it is called in Mexico, and it is often interrupted by an
  interval of two or three weeks of fine weather, known as the
  _Veranillo de San Juan_, or "Little summer of St John." In the rainy
  season, the morning has usually a clear sky; about two or three
  o'clock in the afternoon the clouds begin to gather in great cumulus
  masses; suddenly the lightning flashes out and the rain crashes down;
  and by evening the sky is clear and starry. North winds are most usual
  during the dry season. On the Atlantic coast the trade-winds may bring
  rain in any month, and, owing to the moist atmosphere, the heat is
  more oppressive. The rainfall may vary in successive years from less
  than 50 in. to nearly 200 in., owing to the occurrence of
  cloud-bursts. Frosts are not rare above 7000 ft., but snow seldom
  falls.

  _Fauna_.--The fauna of Central America is more closely connected with
  the fauna of South than with that of North America. As the region is
  comparatively small, and its limits conventional, there are
  comparatively few species that it can claim as peculiarly its own. It
  is almost entirely free from the presence of animals dangerous to man.
  Of felines it possesses the jaguar (_Felis onza_), popularly called
  the tiger; the cuguar (_Felis concolor_), popularly called the lion;
  the tigrillo (_Felis tigrina_), which is sometimes kept tame; and
  other species. Several species of monkeys (_Mycetes_ and _Ateles_) are
  numerous in the warm coast region. The Mexican deer (_Cervus
  mexicanus_) has a wide range both in the lowlands and highlands.
  Besides the tapir there are several varieties of wild pig, such as the
  marrano de monte (_Sus torquatus_) and the jabali or javali (_Sus
  labiatus javali_). The _Edentata_ are represented by a species of
  armadillo, the honey-bear (_Myrmecophaga tomandua_), and the
  _Myrmecophaga didactyla;_ and among the rodents may be mentioned,
  besides rats, hares and rabbits, the fruit-eating cotorra and
  tepes-cuinte (_Dasyprocta aguti_ and _Coelogenys paca_), and the
  troublesome _Geomys mexicana._ The manatee is common in all the larger
  streams. Much annoyance is caused to the agriculturist by the little
  marsupial called the tacuacine, or the _Didelphys carcinora,_ its
  allied species. The bats are so numerous that villages have sometimes
  had to be left to their undisputed occupancy. In the south-east of
  Costa Rica the inhabitants are at times compelled to withdraw, with
  all their live-stock, before the swarms of large migratory vampires
  which in a single night can bleed the strongest animal to death. Most
  of the domestic animals--the horse, ox, goat, sheep, pig, dog, rabbit,
  common fowl, peacock and pigeon--are of European origin, and are
  popularly grouped together as _animales de Castilla._ For the bird
  collector there is a rich harvest. The catalogue of the National
  Museum at Washington shows that Costa Rica alone possesses more than
  twice as many species of birds as the whole of Europe. Among birds of
  prey it is sufficient to mention _Corogyps atratus,_ the commonest of
  the vultures, which acts as a universal scavenger, the _Cathartes
  aura,_ the beautiful _Polyborus vulgaris,_ and the king of the
  vultures (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Neither the condor of the southern
  continent nor the great eagles of the northern are known. The parrot,
  macaw and toucan are found in all parts; the crow, blackbird, Mexican
  jay, ricebird, swallow, rainbird, wood-pecker, humming-bird and trogon
  are also widely distributed. A bird of the last-named genus, the
  quetzal, quijal or quesal (_Trogon resplendens_) is of special note,
  not only from the fact that its yellow tail-feathers. 2 or 3 ft. long,
  were formerly worn as insignia by the Indian princes, but because it
  has been adopted as the emblematical figure on the national arms of
  Guatemala. The gallinaceous order is well represented, and comprises
  several peculiar species, as the pavo de cacho, and the Peten turkey
  (_Meleagris ocellata_), which has a bronze sheen on its plumage; and
  aquatic birds, it is almost needless to add, are unusually numerous in
  a region so richly furnished with lagoons, rivers and lakes.

  Besides the alligator, which swarms in many rivers, the almost endless
  varieties of Central American reptiles include the harmless boba or
  chicken-snake, python and black snake; the venomous corali, taboba,
  culebra de sangre and rattlesnake; iguanas of great size, scorpions,
  edible lizards and other lizards said to be poisonous. In the rivers
  and lakes, as in both seas, fish of many kinds abound; turtles and
  tortoises are exported; and there are valuable pearl and oyster
  fisheries. Insect life is even richer and more varied. Of the
  _Coleoptera_, the Camelicorns, the Longicorns, the Curculionids, and
  the Chrysomelines are said to be best represented, and of the
  _Lepidoptera_ the prevalent genera are--_Ageronia, Papilio, Heliconia,
  Sphinx_ and _Bombyx_. There are five species of bees, and the European
  honey-bee, known as _aveja de Castilla_ or "bee of Castile," has been
  naturalized. Ants are common, and may sometimes be seen marching in a
  column 3 or 4 m. long. The mosquito, wood-tick, flea and locust are
  unfortunately no less plentiful in certain districts, but their
  distribution varies greatly, the mosquito being almost unknown in
  parts of Honduras. A curious species of butterfly is the _Timetes
  Chiron,_ which migrates in countless multitudes from the forests of
  Honduras to the Mosquito Coast, but is never known to return.

  _Flora_.--The flora of Central America ranges from the alpine to the
  tropical, with the transition from one climatic zone to another.
  Although its forest growths are, on the whole, inferior in size to
  those of corresponding latitudes in the eastern hemisphere, it is
  unsurpassed for beauty, luxuriance and variety. In the volcanic
  districts, the soil is extremely fertile, yielding, where cultivated
  and irrigated, magnificent crops of sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco,
  coffee, cocoa and maize. Indigo is produced in small quantities; sugar
  yields two or three crops, and maize as many as four, this cereal
  supplying a chief staple of food. Plantains, bananas, beans, tomatoes,
  yams, arrowroot, pine-apples, guavas, citrons and many other tropical
  fruits are also cultivated, while the extensive primeval forests
  abound in mahogany, cedars, rosewood, ironwood, rubber, gum copal,
  vanilla, sarsaparilla, logwood and many other dye-woods, medicinal
  plants, and valuable timbers. Conspicuous amongst the forest trees are
  the giant ceiba, or pyramidal bombax, and the splendid Coyal palm
  (_Cocos butyracea,_ L.), with feathery leaves 15 to 20 ft. long,
  golden flowers 3 ft. high, and a sap which when fermented produces the
  intoxicating _chicha_ or _vino de Coyol._ In Guatemala occurs the
  remarkable _Herrania purpurea,_ a "Chocolate tree," whose seeds yield
  a finer flavoured chocolate than the cocoa itself. The same country is
  famous for its magnificent orchids, huge arborescent thistles, and a
  remarkable plant called by the Spaniards _Flor de la Calentura_,
  "fever flower," from the heat which it is said to emit at the moment
  of fertilization. Salvador produces an abundance of medicinal plants,
  notably the so-called Peruvian balsam (_Myrospermum salvatorense_); in
  Honduras there are immense forests of conifers, resembling those of
  the Landes in France; in Nicaragua a characteristic tree is the cortes
  (_Tecoma sideroxylori_) yielding timber as hard as ebony, and
  noteworthy for the golden blossom with which it is entirely covered
  after the leaves have fallen.

_Inhabitants_--In 1905 the population of Central America numbered about
4,750,000, and this total tends to increase, despite the unhealthy
climate of many districts, the terribly high average of infant
mortality, and the slow progress of immigration. Some authorities
estimate it at 5,500,000. The vast majority of the inhabitants are of
mixed Indian and Spanish blood, but the Indian element predominates
everywhere except in Costa Rica, where the whites are exceptionally
numerous. The Indian races have not shown the same power to adapt
themselves to modern civilization as the Mexicans; in some regions there
are tribes remaining in a state of complete savagery although before the
Spanish conquest their ancestors attained a high level of culture (see
below under _Archaeology_). The density of population throughout Central
America is little more than 25 per sq. m.; and it is clear that several
large areas now thinly peopled once maintained a far greater number of
inhabitants. Such are parts of the Nicaraguan lake district, where the
flora consists in great measure of plants that were formerly cultivated
by the Indians. The depopulation of these areas was effected partly by
tribal wars, partly by the harsh rule of the Spaniards. Apart from the
German agricultural settlements in Guatemala and elsewhere, the foreign
population is chiefly confined to the seaports and other centres of
commerce, Great Britain, Germany and the United States being largely
represented among the wealthier classes of residents; while the foreign
labourers are mostly Italians or negroes, with a few Chinese on the
Pacific coast.

_History_.--Central America was discovered by Columbus in August 1502;
and part of the territory which is now Costa Rica was conquered by the
Spaniards under Pedro Arias de Avila after 1513. Between 1522 and 1525,
the authority of Avila was superseded, and his work of conquest
completed by Hernando Cortes, who had already subjugated Mexico. Panama
formed part of a distinct Spanish government, "New Granada"; British
Honduras was colonized, though not formally annexed, in the 18th
century; and over the Mosquito Coast the British government exercised a
nominal protectorate after 1665. Otherwise the rest of Central America
remained a Spanish dependency bearing the general name of "Guatemala,"
until 1821. It ranked as a captaincy-general under the rule of a
military governor, and was organized in five departments, corresponding
in area with the modern republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador,
Nicaragua and Costa Rica. For three centuries it was administered by
Spanish officials, who almost invariably devoted their whole energy to
enriching themselves and the home authorities. The old Indian
civilization was swept away; the native races were enslaved, maltreated
and, for a time, demoralized. But their history offers no parallel to
that of the West Indian Caribs, who failed to survive, and were replaced
by hordes of African slaves. In Central America the Indians not only
survived, thus leaving no room for any large negro population, but
quickly acquired the language, religion and habits of their masters,
with whom they intermarried. By the close of the 18th century, the
majority had attained something like uniformity of life and thought.
Racial distinctions had been obscured by intermarriage; even the term
_Ladino_, or "Latin," came to mean an educated man, whether of Spanish
or Indian blood. Nowhere, except in Mexico, has a mixed or coloured race
more completely absorbed the civilization of its white rulers; but so
gradual and silent was the process that it passed almost unnoticed. Its
result, the successful revolt of the Spanish colonies--colonies mainly
peopled by Indians or half-castes--was no more a conflict of rival races
or civilizations than the rebellion of the British colonies in North
America.

"New Granada" attained its independence in 1819; and in 1821 "Guatemala"
declared itself free. That the subsequent history of the Central
American republics has been largely a record of civil war,
maladministration and financial dishonesty, is perhaps due in part to
racial inferiority. In part, however, it may be explained by the absence
of any tradition of good government; perhaps also by the brevity and
artificiality of the evolution which converted a debased
slave-population into the citizens of modern democratic states. The five
divisions of "Guatemala" were temporarily incorporated in the Mexican
empire during 1822, but regained their autonomy (as Guatemala, Honduras,
Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica) on the declaration of a Mexican
republic, and in July 1823 combined to form the Republic of the United
States of Central America. The Liberal or Federalist party, which was
supreme in Honduras, found itself opposed by the Conservatives,
including the clergy and former Spanish officials, who were very
influential in Guatemala. A bitter and protracted struggle ensued. In
1837-1839 a Conservative rising, under Rafael Carrera, president of
Guatemala, resulted in the overthrow of the Liberals, under General
Francisco Morazan of Honduras; and in 1842, after a vain attempt to
restore the Federal republic, Morazan was captured and shot. A fresh
union of the republics (except Costa Rica) was concluded in 1842, and
dissolved in 1845. The year 1850 was signalized by the conclusion, on
the 19th of April, of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (q.v.) between Great
Britain and the United States, which was designed to facilitate the
construction of an interoceanic canal. The history of this project is
given in detail under PANAMA CANAL. One important result of the treaty
was the abandonment, in 1860, of the British protectorate over the
Mosquito Coast. This event had been preceded by a decade of political
disturbances. In 1850 Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua had combined to
restore federal unity; but their allied armies were defeated by the
Guatemalans under Carrera. In 1856 the American adventurer, William
Walker, endeavoured to usurp the government of Nicaragua; in 1860 he
invaded Honduras and was captured and shot. His object was to assist the
slave-holders of the United States by adding new slave-states to the
Union. A further attempt to restore federal unity failed in 1885, and
its promoter, Justo Rufino Barrios, president of Guatemala, lost his
life. In 1895 the Greater Republic of Central America was formed by the
union of Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras; and a constitution was framed
providing for the admission of Guatemala and Costa Rica; in December
1898 it was dissolved, as unsatisfactory to Salvador. On the 4th of
November 1903 Panama, which had since 1863 formed part of Colombia,
declared itself an autonomous republic. Its independence was immediately
recognized by the United States, and shortly afterwards by the European
powers. The United States also forbade the landing of any Colombian
force on the territories of Panama, and thus guaranteed the security of
the new state.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general description of Central America, and
  especially of its physical features, the following monographs by K.
  Sapper are of prime importance:--_In den Vulcangebieten Mittelamerikas
  und Westindiens_ (Stuttgart, 1905); _Mittelamerikanische Reisen und
  Studien aus den Jahren 1888 bis 1900_ (Brunswick, 1902), and _Das
  nordliche Mittelamerika nebst einem Ausflug nach dem Hochland von
  Anahuac_ (Brunswick, 1897); these all contain many useful
  illustrations and maps. See also _Central America and the West
  Indies_, by A.H. Keane, edited by Sir C. Markham (London, 1901, 2
  vols., with maps and illustrations); _Central and South America_, by
  H.W. Bates (London, 1882); _The Spanish American Republics_, by T.
  Child (London, 1892); and _Expedition nach Zentral und Sudamerika_, by
  P. Preuss (Berlin, 1901). For geology, see "The Geological History of
  the Isthmus of Panama and Portions of Costa Rica," by R.T. Hill, in
  _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard_, vol. xxviii., No. 5 (1898); and the
  following by K. Sapper:--"Grundzüge der physikalischen Geographic von
  Guatemala," in _Petermann's Mitt._ Ergänzungsheft, No. 113 (1894),
  "Über Gebirgsbau und Boden des nördlichen Mittelamerika," ibid., No.
  127 (1899), and "Über Gebirgsbau und Boden des südlichen
  Mittelamerika," _ibid_., No. 151 (1905). _The States of Central
  America_, by E.G. Squier (New York, 1858), is still valuable, as are
  others of the numerous essays, pamphlets, &c., on Central American
  affairs left by this author; see the bibliography of his writings
  published in New York in 1876. The _Bulletins of the Bureau of
  American Republics_ (Washington, from 1893) give ample information on
  commerce and industry. See also _History of Central America_, by H.
  Bancroft (San Francisco, 1881-1887. 3 vols.).


ARCHAEOLOGY OF CENTRAL AMERICA

Discoveries and investigations carried on during the 19th century have
thrown much light on the splendid past of Central America. The still
extant ruins of great buildings, unlike anything which is known in the
old world, testify to the high culture attained in pre-Columbian days by
several native peoples differing greatly from one another in speech and
racial affinities. As a science the archaeology of Central America has
scarcely yet emerged from its infancy. Entire branches are still wholly
uninvestigated. Amongst the numerous problems which await solution must
still be reckoned the decipherment of the inscriptions, which hitherto
has not progressed beyond the discovery of calendar systems and the
relative datings involved in such systems.

For a complete survey of this ancient civilization, so far as it has
been investigated, it is necessary to include with Central America,
properly so called, a considerable portion of the Mexican territories
south and east of the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The peoples inhabiting
Yucatan, Campeche, Guatemala, Chiapas and Oaxaca present at the first
view striking ethnical differences. On a linguistic basis, however, they
may be united into several large groups. Thus, Yucatan and the greater
part of Guatamala are inhabited by the Mayas, with whom may be included
the still savage Lacantun or Lacandones. Related to these linguistically
are the Tzendals in Chiapas and the Quiches and Cackchiquels in
Guatemala, as well as the less important tribes of the Mam, Pokoman,
Pokonchi, Tzotzil, Tzutuhil and Ixil. Between these there are patches of
country in which dialects of the Mexican are spoken. In Oaxaca there is
an extraordinary mixture of languages, some of which, like that of the
Huave of Tehuantepec, are of quite unknown affinities; the bulk of the
population, however, is composed of Mixtecs and Zapotecs with which the
Mixe and Zoque on the east are connected. Mexican dialects also occur in
isolated parts of Oaxaca.

_Mayan Culture._--The civilization of the Mayas may well have been
reared upon one more ancient, but the life of that culture of which the
ruins are now visible certainly lasted no more than 500 years. The date
of its extinction is unknown, but in certain places, notably Mayapan and
Chichenitza, the highest development seems to be synchronous with the
appearance of foreign, viz. Mexican or Nahua elements (see below). This
quite distinctive local character suggests that the cities in question
played a certain preponderating role, a hypothesis with which the scanty
documentary evidence is in agreement. On the other hand the Mayan
culture evinces an evident tendency to assimilate heterogeneous
elements, obliterating racial distinctions and imposing its own dominant
character over a wide area. Oaxaca, the country of the Mixtecs and
Zapotecs, became, as was natural from its geographical position midway
between Yucatan and Mexico, the meeting-ground where two archaeological
traditions which are sharply contrasted in their original homes united.


  Architecture

Central American architecture is characterized by a fine feeling for
construction, and the execution is at once bold and aesthetically
effective. Amongst the various ruins, some of which represent the
remains of entire cities, while others are no more than groups of
buildings or single buildings, certain types persistently recur. The
commonest of such types are pyramids and galleries. The pyramids are
occasionally built of brick, but most usually of hewn stone with a
covering of finely-carved slabs. Staircases lead up to the top from one
or more sides. Some pyramids are built in steps. Usually the platform on
the top of a pyramid is occupied by buildings, the typical distribution
of which is into two parts, viz. vestibule and sanctuary. In connexion
with the pyramid there are various subsidiary structures, such as
altars, pillars, and sacrificial stones, to meet the requirements of
ritual and worship, besides habitations for officials and
"tennis-courts" for the famous ball-game like that played by the
Mexicans. The tennis-courts always run north and south, and all the
buildings, almost without exception, have a definite orientation to
particular points of the compass. Frequently the pyramids constitute
one of the four sides of a quadrangular enclosure, within which are
contained other pyramids, altars or other buildings of various
dimensions.

The normal type of gallery is an oblong building, of which the front
facing inwards to the enclosure is pierced by doors. These divide it
into a series of rooms, behind which again there may be a second series.
Occasionally the rooms are distributed round a central apartment, but
this is ordinarily done only when a second storey has to be placed above
them. The gallery-buildings may rise to as much as three storeys, the
height, size and shape of the rooms being determined by the exigencies
of vaulting. The principle of the true arch is unknown, so that the
vaults are often of the corbelled kind, the slabs of the side-walls
being made to overlap in succession until there remains only so narrow a
space as may be spanned by a single flat stone. At Mitla, where the
material used in the construction of the buildings was timber instead of
stone, the larger rooms were furnished with stone pillars on which the
beams could rest. The same principle recurs in certain ruins at
Chichenitza. The tops and sides of the doors are often decorated with
carved reliefs and hieroglyphs, and the entrances are sometimes
supported by plain or carved columns and pilasters, of which style the
serpent columns of Chichenitza afford the most striking example. On its
external front one of these galleries may have a cornice and
half-pillars. Above this is a plain surface of wall, then a rich frieze
which generally exhibits the most elaborate ornamentation in the whole
building. The subjects are geometrical designs in mosaic, serpents'
heads and human masks. The corners of the wall terminate in
three-quarter pillars, above which the angles of the frieze frequently
show grotesque heads with noses exaggerated into trunks. The roof of the
gallery is flat and occasionally gabled.

_Principal Sites._--Such are the general characteristics of Central
American buildings, but it must be understood that almost every site
exhibits peculiarities of its own, and the number of the ruined
settlements even as at present known is very large. The most
considerable are enumerated below.

_Yucatan_.--Of the very numerous ruins which are distributed over
Yucatan and the islands of the east coast the majority still await
exploration. A few words of special notice may be devoted to one or two
sites in the centre of the peninsula which have already become famous.
At Uxmal the buildings consist of five considerable groups, viz.--the
Casa del Adivino, which is a step-pyramid 240 ft. long by 160 ft. wide
and 80 ft. high, crowned by a temple 75 ft. long by 12 ft. wide; the
Casa de Monjas, a striking erection of four oblong buildings on an
extensive terrace; the Casa de Tortugas, Casa del Gobernador, and Casa
de Palomas, the last of which is a group of six galleries surrounding a
court. At Izamal there is a very imposing group of ruins, as yet quite
insufficiently explored. At Chichenitza, a city of first-rate
importance, situated 22 m. west of Valladolid, the ruins consist of
eight principal groups, the chief of which are as follows. The Casa de
Monjas, a three-storeyed building, attributable to several distinct
periods; the Caracol, a round structure with dome in imitation of a
snail-shell, showing evident traces of Mexican influence; El Castillo, a
large temple standing on a base 200 ft. long and 75 ft. high, approached
by staircases on all four sides, and furnished with serpent-pillars of a
kind unknown anywhere else except at Uxmal and Tula near Mexico; an
unnamed temple-pyramid, which is remarkable for a group of caryatid
figures; a tennis-court; and finally the Tiger Temple, which contains
marvellous coloured reliefs representing figures of warriors and
place-hieroglyphs, all executed in a distinctively Mexican style. Yet
another evidence of Mexican influence at Chichenitza is to be noted in
five figures of the so-called Chac-mol type, that is to say, horizontal
figures in which the arms are extended to the navel which is indicated
by a cup-like depression. This Chac-mol type is characteristic of such
sites as Tlascala and Cempoallan.

Other important sites in Yucatan are Chacmaltun, with fine
wall-paintings; Tantah, with remarkable pillared facades; the ruins of
Labna, Chunhuhub, and the caves of Loltun; and Xlabpak de Santa Rosa,
where there is a three-storeyed temple palace. Two sculptured reliefs
are of great interest; they represent a person holding a staff on which
is a figure of the god Ah-bolon-tzacab.

_Guatemala_.--The Guatemalan ruins are distributed over a wide area. The
most numerous and extensive are on the Usumacinta river. The most
important sites in that district are Piedras Negras, and Yaxchilan or
Menche Tinamit, where there are temples covered with sculptured reliefs
and hieroglyphic inscriptions, and stelae and slabs carved with human
figures placed in niches. In the Peten district, Tikal is famous for its
splendid sculptures representing Kukulkan and other divinities. Near the
modern city of Guatemala are the vast ruins of Guatemala-Mixco.
Chacujál, which Cortes visited on his expedition of 1524-1525 is very
possibly to be identified with the modern Pueblo Viejo on the river
Tinaja. Chaculá and Quen-Santo between the headwaters of the Rio de
Chiapas and the Rio Lacantun are two sites of a strongly marked local
character. Series of three pyramids are peculiar to these two
settlements, as also are pyramids with human figures on their platforms.
Stelae discovered at Quen Santo have a calendar character, which proves
that Mayan science had penetrated into what was probably the home of an
old Lacantun culture.

Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, on the Pacific slope of the Cordilleras, is a
very peculiar site. The ruins are those of a settlement which had
already been deserted before Alvarado's expedition of 1522. The
sculptures of gods, goddesses and other figures, executed on enormous
blocks of stone, show a distinctively Mexican character, with which,
however, various Mayan features are blended. They may perhaps be
attributed to some offshoot of the Nahua stock, probably the Pipil
Indians, which developed on lines of its own in this remote corner.

Near the frontier of Honduras are the remarkable ruins of Quirigua,
which rival Copan in importance and have suffered less from the ravages
of the climate. The ruins of temples and palaces contain gigantic stone
stelae of very fine workmanship, on which are sculptured human and
animal figures representing hieroglyphs of the calendar dates.

_Honduras_.--Copan, one of the most important seats of Mayan
civilization, lies close to the borders of Guatemala. The ruins comprise
great buildings, temples, pyramids, &c. and contain sculptures of the
highest interest. Especially noteworthy are altars in the form of a
turtle and stelae covered with hieroglyphs. The hieroglyphs are of the
kind usually found in such ruins, the meaning of which is so far clear
that it is known that the commencement of an inscription records certain
dates in the complicated calendar system of the Mayas. A collation of
these dates demonstrates that the most ancient on record are separated
from the most recent by an interval of only a few centuries. From this
it may be concluded that the Mayan civilization, whether or not it was
preceded by anything older, flourished for only a comparatively short
period, the beginning of which cannot be placed many centuries before
A.D. 1000.

According to Squier (_Honduras_, London, 1870, p. 75) the other
principal ruins of Honduras are to be found in plains of the department
of Comayagua, near Yarumela, near Lajamini, and in the ruined town of
Cururu. They are "large, pyramidal, terraced structures, often faced
with stones, conical mounds of earth and walls of stone." Further ruins,
such as those of Calamulla, Jamalteca, Maniana, Guasistagua, Chapuluca
and Chapulistagua, are found in the department of Comayagua in the side
valleys and adjoining tablelands. The most interesting and most
extensive are the ruins of Tenampua (Pueblo Viejo), about 20 m.
south-east of Comayagua. Here ramparts, defence works, terraced stone
mounds and numerous large pyramids are to be found. Squier found further
ruins in the west of Honduras, which have also been described in part by
Stephens, and were probably first mentioned in 1576 by Diego Garcia de
Palacio (_Carta dirigida al Rei de España_, published by Squier, New
York, 1860).

[Illustration: (Map of Central America)]

At Rio Ulloa are remains which testify to the existence of a large
population in past days. Possibly they may be identified with a site
of the name of Naco mentioned by Las Casas and by Bernal Diaz (_Histoire
véridique de la conquête de la Nouvelle Espagne_, translated by D.
Fourdanet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1877, ch. 178, p. 690).

_Chiapas_ (Mexico).--The principal site is Palenque, the ruins of which
were amongst the earliest of all to attract attention. The style of
architecture, with the gigantic vaults and singular comb-shaped gables,
distinguishes Palenque from Copan and Quirigua, which it surpasses also
in the unequalled magnificence of its sculptures. Five out of the
remarkably uniform series of buildings may be specially mentioned. They
are the Great Palace, a complex structure of galleries and courts
commanded by a three-storeyed tower, the Temples of the Cross, which are
galleries constructed on terraces and containing the well-known reliefs,
the Temple of Inscriptions, the Sun Temple and the Temple of the Relief.
The sculptured figures of Palenque are familiar from many reproductions.
The most characteristic groups represent a deity standing between
worshippers who hold a staff surmounted by the water-god
Ah-bolon-tzacab, the "god of the nine medicines." The inscriptions on
the famous Cross and in the Sun Temple contain calendar-datings which
are remarkable as showing a particular combination of numbers and
hieroglyphs, which does not occur elsewhere.

A whole series of sites is included within the geographical limits of
Chiapas, which from the archaeologist's standpoint must be considered as
belonging properly to Guatemala. The country has been quite
insufficiently explored.

_Oaxaca_ (Mexico).--The bulk of the population of the province of Oaxaca
is composed of a distinct racial group, best represented by the
Zapotecs, who have been for an unknown length of time the intermediaries
between the Nahua civilization of Mexico on the west and the Mayan on
the east. The influence of the two separate currents may be detected in
the bastard calendar system no less than in the still undeciphered
inscriptions. The principal ruins are those of Mitla, the burial city of
the priests and kings of the ancient Zapotecs, which bear a quite
distinct character, though presenting certain analogies with the
Mexican. One of the chief structures is a step-pyramid, rising in three
steps to a height of 130 ft., another is a pyramid of brick. Besides
these there are courts, surrounded by palaces which represented
necropolises, the dwellings of the priests, of the chief priest, and of
the king (with an audience-hall). The wall paintings of the "palaces"
are especially admirable, and it is to be noted that the deities
represented in them are those of the Mexican pantheon.

Monte Alban is interesting for the definitely Zapotec character of its
sculptures. Quiengola near Tehuantepec is a site with extensive ruins
including a fine tennis court.

_British Honduras_.--The antiquities of British Honduras have been but
little investigated. In the scanty literature relating to them a few
accounts of ruined places are to be found. In style these buildings
closely resemble those of the neighbouring Yucatan. The ruins in the
colony New Boston, mentioned by Froebel (_Central America_, p. 167), are
of this kind. F. de P. Castells (see _American Antiquarian_, Chicago,
1904, vol. xxvi. pp. 32-37) describes the ruins, in the north of the
colony, of "Ixim chech," supposed to be the Indian form of the English
name "Indian Church." They are on the road to the Lake of Yaxha (green
water), where further ruins are to be found. Thomas Gann gives detailed
accounts of numerous mounds also in the northern part of British
Honduras (see _19th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_,
Washington, 1900, part i. pp. 661-692, with plates). The most
interesting ruins are those which have been discovered in Santa Rita, at
the mouth of the New River, near the town of Corosal. Here wonderful
wall paintings in stucco came to light, which unfortunately Gann could
only save in part. The remainder were destroyed by Indians. It should be
remarked that a number of the mounds in Santa Rita were erected over
ruins of buildings which must therefore be of older date than the
mounds.

_Salvador_.--Pedro de Alvarado in his expedition of 1524 calls this
whole district _Cuscatan_ (Mex. _Cozcatlan_), that is, "Land of precious
stones, of treasures, of abundance." A further description of the land
is given by Palacio (l.c.) in 1576. Although there are numerous relics
of Mayan civilization buried in the earth; few ruins are to be seen on
the surface. Karl Sapper has described three large ruins: Cuzcatlan near
the capital, Tehuacan near S. Vicente, and Zacualpa on the Lake of Güija
in the extreme north-west of the country. The ruins show a distinct
affinity in style to those of the Mayan buildings in Guatemala, but they
are less fine and artistically perfect. Probably the central and western
districts of San Salvador were originally peopled by the same race of
Mayas, and these tracts of country were later settled by the
Mexican-speaking Pipiles.

A characteristic feature of the extensive ruins of Zacualpa is that the
pyramids and ramparts have perpendicular steps which are higher than
they are broad, and this peculiarity may be attributed to the influence
of the Maya tribes, who are related to the Mams of Guatemala.

_Decipherment of the Mayan Hieroglyphs._--The key to the decipherment,
so far as this has progressed at present, was furnished by the _Historia
de las Cosas de Yucatan_, a work written by Diego de Landa, the first
bishop of the country. This professed to give, with much other more or
less doubtful information, the full account of a calendar system
analogous to that of the Mexicans, which was said to have been used by
the Mayas (see MEXICO). The signs for each of the 20 days and for the 18
weeks of 20 days are figured by Landa. The first step was to compare
these with the hieroglyphic characters contained in the few Mayan
picture manuscripts (Codex Troano, Cortesianus, Peresianus, Dresden
Codex) which have survived the destructive fanaticism of the Spanish
missionaries. Förstemann's acute analysis detected that the bars and
dots which occur along the margin and in the body of the pictorial
scenes represented numerals, dots standing for each integer up to five,
while for five a bar was used. Next, it was found that the order in
which these numeral-signs are placed is regular, and that there are
never more than five in a group. It was established that the first sign
in such a group is that for the numeral 1 (_Kin_), the next that for 20
(_Uinal_), the third for 18×20 (_Tun_), the fourth for 18×20×20
(_Katun_), and the fifth for 18×20×20×20, that is to say, a cycle.

Had the available material for study been confined to the manuscripts,
little more progress would have been made beyond establishing subsidiary
details in the actual calendar. But when a similar analysis was applied
to the numerous monuments discovered and figured by Maudslay and others,
some important results of a general bearing were obtained. It was found
that many of the hieroglyphs of various forms upon the stones were also
of numeral value, and, what was of great importance, that they all
referred back to a single starting-point. This starting-point or zero is
no doubt the mythological date at which, according to Mayan cosmology,
the world was created. It is placed at nine or ten cycles before the
time when Copan and Quirigua were erected and the picture manuscripts
made. And it is by reference to it in the inscriptions that such
students as Seler, Goodman and others have been enabled, as already
stated, to obtain a record of the relative chronology of the most famous
monuments, to confine the period of their erection within the space of a
few centuries, and approximately to fix even their absolute antiquity.
Though much yet remains to be done, these are substantial results which
have already been won from the study of the hieroglyphs.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Antiquités mexicaines_ of Dupaix (Paris, 1834),
  the _Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d'Yucatan_
  of F. de Waldeck (Paris, 1838), and the _Monuments anciens du Mexique_
  of Brasseur de Bourbourg and Waldeck (Paris, 1866) are quite out of
  date and superseded. Stephen's _Incidents of Travel in Central
  America, Chiapas and Yucatan_ (New York, 1841 and 1867), and B.M.
  Norman's _Rambles in Yucatan_ (New York, 1843), are still of value,
  the first-mentioned especially for the drawings by Catherwood. Among
  the earlier writers may also be mentioned Charnay, _Les Anciennes
  Villes du Nouveau Monde_ (Paris, 1885) and _Cités et ruines
  américaines_ (Paris, 1863), the latter written in collaboration with
  Viollet-le-Duc. Those, however, who are not primarily bibliophiles
  will be content to study the following:--Maudslay (in Godman and
  Salvin's _Biologia Centrali-Americana_, sect. _Archaeology_, London,
  1889, &c.), a pioneer work containing the admirably presented results
  of scientific exploration. Maler, in _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_,
  vol. ii. 1, 2 (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1901 and 1903); Holmes,
  _Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Mexicans_ (Field Columbian
  Museum, Chicago, 1895); E. Seler, _Die alten Ansiedelungen von
  Chacula_ (Berlin, 1901), _Wandmalereien von Mitla_ (Berlin, 1895),
  _Ges. Abhandlungen_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1902) and vol. ii. (1904),
  _Fuhrer von Mitla_ (Berlin, 1906). E. Förstemann has contributed many
  valuable essays to _Globus_ and the _Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_
  (Berlin); especially important are his commentaries to the _Dresden
  Codex_ (Dresden, 1901), to the _Codex Tro-Cortesianus Madrilensis_
  (Danzig, 1902), and to the _Codex Peresianus_ (Danzig, 1903). See also
  "The Archaic Maya Inscriptions," by F.T. Goodman (in _Biologia
  Centrali-Americana_, section _Archaeology_, viii., 1897), and _Report
  of an Archaeological Tour in Mexico in 1881_, by A.F. Bandelier
  (Boston, 1884). Valuable bibliographies have been made by Bandelier
  (_Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and Central America_,
  Worcester, U.S.A., 1881) and by K. Häbler ("Die Maya Literatur und der
  Maya Apparat zu Dresden," in the _Zentralblatt fur Bibliothekwesen_,
  xii., 1895). The Mayan picture MSS. have been published in facsimile
  as follows:--the _Dresden Codex_ by Förstemann (Leipzig, 1880, and
  Dresden, 1892), and the _Codex Tro_ by Brasseur de
  Bourbourg--_Manuscrit Troano, étude sur le système graphique et la
  langue des Mayas_ (Paris, 1869-1870), the _Codex Cortesianus_ by Léon
  de Rosny (Paris, 1883) and by F. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado and F.L.
  de Ayala y del Hierro (Madrid, 1893), the _Codex Peresianus_ by Duruy
  and Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) and by L. de Rosny (Paris,
  1887). The following relate especially to the ruins in Salvador:--_La
  Universidad_, by D. Gonzalez, vol. ii. ser. 3, No. 6, p. 283 (San
  Salvador, 1892-1893); _Le Salvador pré-Colombien, études
  archéologiques_, by F. de Montcasus de Ballore (Paris, 1891), 25
  plates; Karl Sapper in _Arch. fur Ethnologie_, 9, p. 3 ff. (1896).
       (W. L.*)




CENTRAL FALLS, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the
Blackstone river, about 5 m. N. of Providence. Pop. (1900) 18,167;
(1905, state census) 19,446, of whom 8792 were foreign-born, 4164 being
French-Canadian, 1587 being English, and 1292 being Irish; (1910)
22,754. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The
Blackstone furnishes good water-power, and the chief industry of the
city is the manufacture of cotton goods; other important industries are
the refining of copper and the manufacture of woollens, silks and
hair-cloth. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$5,090,984, being 12.9% more than in 1900. A settlement was established
here about 1763 and was first a part of Smithfield, and then, after
1871, of Lincoln. About 1780 a chocolate mill was erected, and from then
until 1827 the settlement was known as Chocolateville. It was
incorporated as the Central Falls Fire District of Smithfield in 1847,
and in 1895 was chartered as a city.




CENTRALIA, a city of Marion county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the S. part of
the state, about 62 m. E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4763; (1900) 6721
(571 foreign-born); (1910) 9680. The city is served by the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, the Illinois Central, the Illinois Southern, and
the Southern railways; the first two have repair shops here. Centralia
is situated in the central part of southern Illinois, popularly known as
"Egypt." Among its manufactures are window glass, envelopes, cigars,
concrete blocks and flour. In and near the city coal is mined, and
apples, strawberries and other fruits are raised, and the city is a
shipping point for coal and fruit. Centralia was first settled in 1853,
and was first chartered as a city in 1859.




CENTRAL INDIA, a collection of native states in India forming a separate
agency, which must not be confounded with the Central Provinces. The
Central India agency was formed in 1854, when Sir R. Hamilton was
appointed agent to the governor-general. It lies between 21° 24' and 26°
52' N. and between 74° 0' and 83° 0' E., and may be said to consist of
two large detached tracts of country which, with Jhansi as a pivot,
spread outwards east and west into the peninsula, reaching northward to
within some 30 m. of Agra, and southward to the valley of the Nerbudda
and the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. The total area is 78,772 sq. m. It
is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the United Provinces, on the W. and
S.W. by Rajputana, some native states of the Bombay presidency, and
Khandesh. The Central Provinces and the Bengal district of Chota Nagpur
enclose it on the S. and E., while the Jhansi district of the United
Provinces separates the two tracts.

Central India may be divided into three great natural divisions: the
highlands of the Malwa plateau, with a mean elevation of some 1500 ft.
above sea-level; the low-lying country some 600 ft. above sea-level,
comprising the greater part of the eastern section of the agency; and
the hilly tracts, which lie mostly to the south. The Malwa plateau
consists of great undulating plains, separated by flat-topped hills,
whose sides are boldly terraced, with here and there a scarp rising
above the general level; it is covered with long grass, stunted trees
and scrub, which owing to the presence of deciduous plants is of a
uniform straw colour, except in the rains. The foundation of this
plateau is a bed of sandstone and shales belonging to the Vindhyan
series. This bed, which stretches east and west from Sasseram to
Neemuch, and north and south from Agra to Hoshangabad, comprises the
whole of the agency except the northern part of Bundelkhand. On the
plateau itself the sandstone is generally overlaid by the Deccan trap, a
blackish-coloured basaltic rock of volcanic origin, the high level
tableland having been formed by a succession of lava flows, the valleys
of Central India being merely "denudation hollows" carved out by the
action of rain and rivers. It is apparently the northern limit of what
was once a vast basaltic plain stretching from Goona to Belgaum, "one of
the most gigantic outpourings of volcanic matter in the world." The
sandstone bed on which it rests is visible at a point just north of
Goona, and in a small area round Bhilsa and Bhopal, as it is in those
places freed from the layer of trap. The low-lying land includes roughly
that part of the agency which lies to the east of the plateau and
comprises the greater part of the political divisions of Bundelkhand and
Baghelkhand and the country round Gwalior. The formation save in north
Bundelkhand is sandstone of the Vindhyan series, free as a rule from
"trap." In the north of Bundelkhand the prevailing rock is gneiss and
quartz. The quartz takes the shape of long serrated ridges, which are in
many places a characteristic feature of the landscape. Trap appears here
and there in intrusive dykes. The hilly tracts lie chiefly to the south
of the agency, where the Vindhya, Satpura and Kaimur ranges are met
with. The country is rough forest and jungle land little used for
cultivation. The greater part of Central India is covered with the
well-known "black cotton soil," produced by the disintegration of the
trap rock. It is a very rich loamy earth, possessing great fertility and
an unusual power of retaining moisture, which makes artificial
irrigation little needed. Opium and millet are the principal crops grown
upon it. The ordinary "red soil" covers a large part of northern
Bundelkhand, and as it requires much irrigation, tanks are a special
feature in this country. Ethnologically as well as climatically the
differences between the plateau and the eastern part of the agency are
distinct and the languages markedly so. The plateau is inhabited by
pure-blooded Rajput races, whose ancestry can be traced back for
centuries, with all their numerous offshoots. The inhabitants of the
low-lying country are also Rajputs, but their descent is mixed and as a
rule the families of the plateau will have no marriage connexion with
them. The races of the hilly tracts are semi-civilized tribes, who often
flee at the mere sight of a white man, and have as yet been but little
affected by the Hindu religion of their Rajput rulers. Of the climate of
the plateau, Abul Fazl, the author of the _Ain-i-Akbari_, says: "The
climate is so temperate that in the winter there is no occasion for warm
clothing, nor is it necessary in summer to cool the water with
saltpetre. But in the four rainy months the night here is cold enough to
render a quilt necessary." The rains of the south-east monsoon reach
Central India as a rule about the 12th of July, and last until the end
of September.

_Administrative Divisions._--The Central India agency is divided for
administrative purposes into eight units, two classed as residencies and
six as agencies. These are the residencies of Gwalior and Indore, and
the agencies of Baghelkhand, Bhopal, Bhopawar, Bundelkhand, Indore and
Malwa. But these divisions are purely an artificial grouping for the
purposes of the British government, the original native divisions
consisting of 16 states and 98 minor states and estates. The 15 large
states are Gwalior, Indore, Rewa, Bhopal, Dhar, Barwani, Datia, Orchha,
Charkhari, Chhattarpur, Panna, Dewas (senior branch), Dewas (junior
branch), Jaora and Ratlam. At the close of the Pindari War in 1818 the
whole country that is now under the Central India agency was in great
confusion and disorder, having suffered heavily from the extortions of
the Mahratta armies and from predatory bands. It had been the policy of
the great Mahratta chiefs, Holkar and Sindhia, to trample down into
complete subjection all the petty Rajput princes, whose lands they
seized and from whom they levied heavy contributions of money. Many of
these minor chiefs had been expelled from their possessions, had taken
refuge in the hills and forest, and retaliated upon the Mahratta
usurpers by wasting the lands which they had lost, until the Mahrattas
compounded for peace by payment of blackmail. In this state of affairs
all parties agreed to accept the interposition of the British government
for the restoration of order, and under Lord Hastings the work of
pacification was effected. The policy pursued was to declare the
permanency of the rights existing at the time of the British
interposition, conditionally upon the maintenance of order; to adjust
and guarantee the relations of subordinate and tributary chiefs to their
superiors so as to prevent all further disputes or encroachments; and to
settle the claims of the ousted landholders, who had resorted to pillage
or blackmail, by fixing grants of land to be made to them, or settling
the money allowances to be paid to them. The general result was to place
all the privileges, rights and possessions of these inferior chiefs
under the guarantee or protection of the British government, to whom all
disputes between the superior and inferior states must be referred, and
whose decision is final upon all questions of succession to hereditary
rights or rulership. The states have no general ethnological affinity,
such as exists in Rajputana. Their territories are in many cases neither
compact nor continuous, consisting of a number of villages here and
there, with a nucleus of more or less importance round the chief town.
Their relations to the government of India and to each other present
many variations. Ten of them are under direct treaty with the government
of India; others are held under _sanads_ and deeds of fealty and
obedience; while a third class, known as the mediatized states, are held
under agreements mediated by the British government between them and
their superior chiefs.

_Population._--The total population of the Central India agency in 1901
was 8,628,781, showing a decrease during the decade of 16.4%.
Considerable losses were caused by the famines of 1897-1898 and
1899-1900, which were severely felt, especially in Bhopal and Malwa. The
greater part of the population of Central India is of the Hindu
religion, but a few Mahommedan groups still exist, either traces of the
days when the Mogul emperors extended their sway from the Punjab to the
Deccan, or else the descendants of those northern adventurers who hired
out their services to the great Mahratta generals. Of the first Bhopal
is the only example, while Jaora is the only notable instance of the
other. Roughly there are four great sections of the population: the
Mahratta section, who belong to the ruling circles; the Rajputs, who are
also hereditary noblemen; the trading classes, consisting chiefly of
Marwaris and Gujaratis; and lastly, the jungle tribes of Dravidian
stock. The Mahrattas are foreigners, and, though rulers of the greater
part of Central India, have no true connexion with the soil and are
little met with outside cities, the vicinity of courts, and
administrative centres. The Rajputs with all their endless ramifications
form a large portion of the population. Originally invaders, they have
so long held a stake in the soil that they have become almost part of
the indigenous population. The Marwaris hold practically all the trade
of Central India, with the exception of the Bora class of Mahommedans.
They are either Vaishnavite Hindus or else Jains. Their advent into
Central India dates, except in the case of one or two families, from the
time of the Mahratta invasion only. The Jain portion of this community
is very wealthy. The last section, that of the jungle tribes, is mostly
of Dravidian or mixed Aryo-Dravidian origin, these tribes being the
modern representatives of the former rulers and inhabitants of this
country.

The British agent to the governor-general resides at Indore, and there
are British cantonments at Mhow, Neemuch and Nowgong. The whole country
is fairly provided with railways, largely at the expense of Sindhia.




CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR, a province of British India, which was
formed in October 1903 by the amalgamation of the Central Provinces and
the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The total area of the provinces is
113,281 sq. m., and the population on that area in 1901 was 10,847,325.
As is shown by its name the province is situated in the centre of the
Indian peninsula, comprising a large proportion of the broad belt of
hill and plateau country which separates the plains of Hindustan from
the Deccan. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Central India
states, and along a small strip of the Saugor district by the United
Provinces; on the W. by Bhopal, Indore and the Khandesh district of
Bombay; on the S. by Hyderabad and the large _zamindari_ estates of the
Madras presidency; and on the E. by these latter estates and the
tributary states of Bengal. In October 1905 most of Sambalpur and five
Oriya-speaking hill-states were transferred from the Central Provinces
to Bengal, while the Hindi-speaking states of Chota Nagpur were
transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces. The province,
therefore, now consists of the five British divisions of Jubbulpore,
Nerbudda, Nagpur, Chhattisgarh and Berar, which are divided into the
twenty-two districts of Saugor, Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla, Seoni,
Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara, Wardha, Nagpur,
Chanda, Bhandara, Balaghat, Raipur, Bilaspur, Amraoti, Akola, Ellichpur,
Buldana and Wun; and the fifteen tributary states of Makrai, Bastar,
Kanker, Nandgaon, Kairagarh, Chhuikhadan, Kawardha, Sakti, Raigarh,
Sarangarh, Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur and Jashpur.


    Central Provinces.

  The Central Provinces are divided into two parts by the Satpura range
  of hills (q.v.), which runs south of the Nerbudda river from east to
  west; so that, speaking generally, it consists of districts north of
  the Satpuras, districts on the Satpura plateau, and districts south of
  the Satpuras. North of the Satpuras is the rich valley of the
  Nerbudda, which may be said to begin towards the north of the
  Jubbulpore district and to extend westward through the district of
  Narsinghpur as far as the western limit of Hoshangabad, a distance of
  nearly 300 m. The elevation of the valley above the sea varies from
  1400 ft. at Jubbulpore to 1120 at Hoshangabad. In breadth it is about
  30 m., extending between the Satpuras and the southern scarp of the
  Vindhyas. This great plain, 10,613 sq. m. in extent, contains for the
  most part land of extreme fertility. The continuation of the valley
  west of Hoshangabad forms the northern portion of the district of
  Nimar, the farther limit of which touches the Khandesh district of the
  Bombay presidency. Towards the river, though rich in parts, this tract
  of country is generally wild and desolate, but nearer the base of the
  hill range there is a large natural basin of fertile land which is
  highly cultivated. South of the Satpuras lies the great plain of
  Chhattisgarh at a mean elevation above the sea of 1000 ft.; it has an
  area of 23,000 sq. m., and forms the upper basin of the Mahanadi.
  Farther to the west and again divided off by hills is the great plain
  of Nagpur, extending over 24,000 sq. m. Its general surface inclines
  towards the south from 1000 ft. above the sea at Nagpur to 750 ft. at
  Chanda. To the south the province is shut in by the wide mountainous
  tract which stretches from the Bay of Bengal through Bastar to the
  Godavari, and west of that river is continued onward to the rocky
  ridges and plateaus of Khandesh by a succession of ranges that enclose
  the plain of Berar along its southern border.


    Berar.

  Berar consists mainly of the valley lying between the Satpura range of
  mountains in the north and the Ajanta range in the south. The
  Gawilgarh hills, a range belonging to the Satpura mountains, form the
  northern border. On the east the frontier is marked by the Wardha
  river down to its confluence with the Penganga, and on the south by
  the Penganga for about two-thirds of the frontier's length. The tract
  is half surrounded on the east, north and north-west by the Central
  Provinces, with which it is amalgamated. In addition to the Melghat
  mountain tract which walls it in on the north, Berar is divided into
  two sections, the Payanghat or lowland country, bounded on the north
  by the Gawilgarh hills, and on the south by the outer scarps of the
  Ajanta range, and the Balaghat or upland country above the Ajanta
  ridge, sloping down southwards beyond the ghats or passes which lead
  up to it. The Payanghat is a wide valley running up eastward between
  this ridge and the Gawilgarh hills, varying in breadth from 40 to 50
  m., and broader towards the end than at its mouth. It contains all the
  best land in Berar; it is full of deep, rich, black alluvial soil, of
  almost inexhaustible fertility, and it undulates sufficiently to
  maintain a natural system of drainage, but there is nothing
  picturesque about this broad strip of champaign country. The upland
  tract, on the contrary, is diversified with low-lying plains, high
  plateaus, fertile bottoms and rocky wastes, and is rendered
  picturesque by rivers and groves.

  _Natural Features_.--The provinces may be divided into two tracts of
  upland and three of plain, consisting of the Vindhya and Satpura
  plateaus, and the Berar, Nagpur and Chhattisgarh plains. To the north
  the districts of Saugor and Damoh form the southern boundary of the
  Vindhyan escarpment. In this region the sandstone rocks are generally
  overlaid with heavy black soil formed from the decaying trap, which is
  principally devoted to the cultivation of the spring crops, wheat and
  grain, while rice and hill millets are sown in the lighter and more
  sandy soils. Next, the long and narrow valley of the Nerbudda from
  Jubbulpore to Hoshangabad is formed of deep alluvial deposits of
  extreme richness and excellently suited to the growth of wheat. To the
  south of the Nerbudda the Satpura range stretches across the province,
  containing the greater part of five districts, its crystalline and
  sandstone rocks rising in places through the superficial stratum of
  trap, and with large areas of shallow stony land still covered to a
  great extent with forest interspersed by black-soil valleys of great
  fertility. In the latter are grown wheat and other spring crops, while
  the lighter kinds of rice and the hill millets are all that the poorer
  land can bear. To the south of the Satpuras and extending along its
  base from west to east lie successively the Berar, Nagpur and
  Chhattisgarh plains. The surface soil of Berar is to a great extent a
  rich black vegetable mould; and where this surface soil does not
  exist, there are muram and trap with a shallow upper crust of inferior
  light soil. The Nagpur country, drained by the Wardha and Wainganga
  rivers, contains towards the west the shallow black soil in which
  autumn crops like cotton and the large millet, _juar_, which do not
  require excessive moisture, can be successfully cultivated. The
  eastern part of the Nagpur country and the Chhattisgarh plain,
  comprising the Mahanadi basin, form the great rice tract of the
  province, its heavy rainfall and hard yellowish soil rendering it
  excellently adapted for the growth of this crop.

  _Climate_.---As regards climate the districts of the Central Provinces
  are generally divided into hot and cool ones. In the latter division
  are comprised the two Vindhyan districts of Saugor and Damoh,
  Jubbulpore at the head of the Nerbudda valley, and the four Satpura
  districts of Mandla, Seoni, Betul and Chhindwara, which enjoy, owing
  to their greater elevation, a distinctly lower average temperature
  than the rest of the province. The ordinary variation is from 3 to 4
  degrees, the mean maximum reading in the shade in a cooler district
  being about 105° as against 108° in the hotter ones for the month of
  May, and 79° as against 83° for the month of December. In the cold
  weather the temperature in Nagpur and the other hot districts is about
  the same as in Calcutta and substantially higher than that of northern
  India. The climate of Berar differs very little from that of the
  Deccan generally, except that in the Payanghat valley the hot weather
  may be exceptionally severe. The rainfall of the province is
  considerably heavier than in northern India, and the result of this is
  a cooler and more pleasant atmosphere during the monsoon season. The
  average rainfall, before it was affected by the abnormal seasons which
  followed 1892, was 51 in., varying from 33 in. in Nimar to 65 in
  Balaghat. In the autumn months malarial fever is prevalent in all
  thickly forested tracts and also in the rice country; but on the whole
  the province is considered to be healthy, and as the rains break
  fairly regularly in June and produce an immediate fall in the
  temperature, severe heat is only experienced for a period of from two
  to three months.

  _Agriculture_.--Broadly speaking, the northern districts of the
  province produce principally cold weather crops, such as wheat and
  grain, and the eastern ones principally rice. At the beginning of the
  decade 1891-1901 wheat was the staple product of the Vindhyan and
  Nerbudda valley districts, and was also grown extensively in all the
  Satpura districts except Nimar and in Wardha and Nagpur. Cotton and
  juar were produced principally in Nimar, Nagpur, Wardha and the
  southern portion of Chhindwara, and the latter also in Chanda. In the
  Satpura districts the inferior soil was and is principally devoted to
  hill millets. Rice is an important crop in Damoh, Jubbulpore, Mandla,
  Seoni and Chanda, and is the chief staple of Bhandara, Balaghat, and
  the two eastern districts of Raipur and Bilaspur. The staple crops of
  Berar are cotton and juar. The succession of bad seasons which marked
  the end of the decade affected the distribution of the principal
  crops, but with the advent of more prosperous seasons things tend to
  return to their old level.

  _Industries_.--The only important industries are connected with cotton
  and coal. In 1904 the total number of factories was 391, almost
  entirely cotton presses and ginning factories, which received an
  immense impetus from the rise in cotton prices. In 1896 a brewery was
  established at Jubbulpore. Two coal-mines are worked in the Central
  Provinces, at Warora and Mopani, to each of which there is a branch
  line of railway. In 1903-1904 there was a total yield of 160,000 tons,
  valued at about £45,000. In connexion with the Warora colliery there
  is a fire-clay business. The Mopani colliery, which dates back to
  1860, is worked by a joint-stock company.

  _Trade_.--The trade of the Central Provinces is conducted mainly by
  rail with Bombay and with Calcutta. The chief imports are cotton piece
  goods, cotton twist, salt, sugar, provisions, railway materials, raw
  cotton, metals, coal, tobacco, spices and kerosene oil. The chief
  exports are raw cotton, rice, wheat, oil-seeds, hides and lac. The
  exports of wheat are liable to extreme fluctuations, especially during
  famine periods.

  _Railways_.--Until recently, the only railway in the Central Provinces
  was the Great Indian Peninsula, with two branches, one terminating at
  Nagpur, the other at Jubbulpore, whence it was continued by the East
  Indian system to Allahabad. The Bengal-Nagpur line has now opened up
  the eastern portion of the country, bringing it into direct connexion
  with Calcutta; and a new branch of the Indian Midland, from Saugor
  through Damoh, has been partly constructed as a famine work. Large
  portions, however, in the hilly centre and in the south-east, are
  still remote from railways.

  _Administration_.--The administration of the province is conducted by
  a chief commissioner on behalf of the governor-general of India in
  council, assisted by members of the Indian civil service, provincial
  civil service, subordinate civil service, district and assistant
  superintendents of police, and officers specially recruited for
  various departments. The form of the administration of Berar was in
  1903 entirely reorganized. Under the original settlement concluded by
  the treaties of 1853 and 1860 the revenues of the province were
  assigned primarily for the maintenance of the Hyderabad contingent,
  such surplus as accrued from year to year being made over to the
  nizam, while the province itself was administered in trust by the
  government of India through the resident at Hyderabad. In November
  1902 a fresh settlement was arranged and Berar was leased in
  perpetuity to the British government in return for an annual rental of
  25 lakhs. It remained under the administration of the resident until
  the 1st of October 1903, from which date it was amalgamated with the
  Central Provinces for administrative purposes. As the immediate result
  of this change the offices of heads of departments in Berar, except
  the judicial commissionership and the conservatorship of forests, were
  amalgamated with the corresponding appointments in the Central
  Provinces, and Berar is now treated as one of the divisions of that
  province for purposes of revenue administration, with a divisional
  commissioner as its immediate head.

  _Population_.--The population of the Central Provinces and Berar as
  now defined according to the census of 1901 was 10,847,325, and is of
  very diverse ethical construction, having been recruited by
  immigration from the countries surrounding it on all sides. There are
  six main divisions of the people: the Dravidian tribes, who formerly
  held the country; Hindi-speaking immigrants from the north and
  north-west into Saugor, Damoh, the Nerbudda valley and the open
  country of Mandla and Seoni; Rajasthani-speaking immigrants from
  Central India into Nimar, Betul and parts of Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur
  and Chhindwara; Marathi-speaking immigrants from Bombay into Berar,
  the Mahratta districts and the southern tahsil of Betul; the Telugu
  castes in the Sironcha and Chanda tahsil of Chanda and the south of
  Bastar; and the Hindu immigrants into Chhattisgarh, who are supposed
  to have arrived many centuries ago when the Haihaya dynasty of
  Ratanpur rose into power.

  _Language_.--Owing to the diversity of race, the diversity of language
  is equally great. Thirty languages and a hundred and six dialects are
  found in the Central Provinces alone, and twenty-eight languages and
  sixty-eight dialects in Berar. The chief of these languages are
  Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi, Oriya, Telugu and
  Dravidian dialects. Of these last the chief dialects are Gondi, Oraon
  or Kurukh, Kandhi and Kanarese, of which Gondi is by far the most
  important. There are also the Munda languages, of which the chief are
  Korku, Kharia and Munda or Kol. The chief languages of Berar are
  Marathi, Urdu, Gondi, Banjari, Hindi, Marwari, Telugu, Korku and
  Gujarati.

_History_.--The authentic history of the greater part of the country
embraced in the Central Provinces does not begin till the 16th century
A.D. By the people of northern India the country was known as Gondwana,
after the savage tribes of Gonds by whom it was inhabited. The Mussulman
invaders of the Deccan passed it by, not caring to enter its mountain
fastnesses and impenetrable forests; though occasional inscriptions show
that parts of it had fallen from time to time under the dominion of one
or other of the great kingdoms of the north, e.g. of Asoka, of the
Guptas of Maghada, or of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vidarbha (Berar);
and inscriptions and numerous discoveries of coins prove that, during
the middle ages, the open spaces were occupied by a series of Rajput
dynasties. Of these the most important was that of the Haihayas of
Ratanpur, a family which, settled from time immemorial in the Nerbudda
valley, had towards the close of the 10th century succeeded the Pandava
dynasty of Maha Kosala (Chhattisgarh) and ruled, though from the 16th
century onwards over greatly diminished territories, until its overthrow
by the Mahrattas in 1745. The second ruler of this dynasty, Ratnaraja,
was the founder of Ratanpur.

The inscriptional records cease abruptly in the 12th century, and no
more is known of the country until the rise of the Gond dynasties from
the 14th to the 16th centuries. The first of these is mentioned in 1398,
when Narsingh Rai, raja of Kherla, is said by Ferishta to have ruled all
the hills of Gondwana. He was finally overthrown and killed by Hoshang
Shah, king of Malwa. The 16th century saw the establishment of a
powerful Gond kingdom by Sangram Sah, who succeeded in 1480 as the 47th
of the petty Gond rajas of Garha-Mandla, and extended his dominions so
as to include Saugor and Damoh on the Vindhyan plateau, Jubbulpore and
Narsinghpur in the Nerbudda valley, and Seoni on the Satpura highlands.
Sangram Sah died in 1530; and the break up of his dominion began with
the enforced cession to the Mogul emperor by Chandra Sah (1563-1575) of
Saugor and Damoh and of that portion of his territories which afterwards
formed the state of Bhopal.

About 200 years after Sangram Sah's time, Bakht Buland, the Gond
chieftain of a principality seated at Deogarh in Chhindwara, having
visited Delhi, set about introducing the civilization he had there
admired. He founded the city of Nagpur, which his successor made his
capital. The Deogarh kingdom, at its widest extent, embraced the modern
districts of Betul, Chhindwara, Nagpur, with parts of Seoni, Bhandara
and Balaghat. In the south of the province Chanda was the seat of
another Gond dynasty, which first came into prominence in the 16th
century. The three Gond principalities of Garha-Mandla, Deogarh and
Chanda were nominally subject to the Mogul emperors. In addition to the
acquisitions made in the north at the expense of Garha-Mandla, the
Moguls, after the annexation of Berar, established governors at Paunar
in Wardha and Kherla in Betul. Having thus hemmed in the Gond states,
however, they made no efforts to assert any effective sovereignty over
them; the Gond rajas for their part were content with practical
independence within their own dominions. Under their peaceful rule their
territories flourished, until the weakening of the Mogul empire and the
rise of the predatory Bundela and Mahratta powers, with the organized
forces of which their semi-barbarous feudal levies were unable to cope,
brought misfortune upon them.

In the 17th century Chhatarsal, the Bundela chieftain, deprived the
Mandla principality of part of the Vindhyan plateau and the Nerbudda
valley. In 1733 the peshwa of Poona invaded Bundelkhand; and in 1735 the
Mahrattas had established their power in Saugor. In 1742 the peshwa
advanced to Mandla and exacted the payment of _chauth_ (tributary
blackmail), and from this time until 1781, when the successors of
Sangram Sah were finally overthrown, Garha-Mandla remained practically a
Mahratta dependency. Meanwhile the other independent principalities of
Gondwana had in turn succumbed. In 1743 Raghoji Bhonsla of Berar
established himself at Nagpur, and by 1751 had conquered the territories
of Deogarh, Chanda and Chhattisgarh. In 1741 Ratanpur had surrendered to
the Mahratta leader Bhaskar Pant without a blow, and the ancient Rajput
dynasty came to an end. In Chanda and Deogarh the Gond rajas were
suffered by Raghoji Bhonsla and his successor to carry on a shadowy
existence for a while, in order to give them an excuse for avoiding the
claims of the peshwa as their overlord; though actually decisions in
important matters were sought at Poona. Raghoji died in 1755, and in
1769 his son and successor, Janoji, was forced to acknowledge the
peshwa's effective supremacy. The Nagpur state, however, continued to
grow. In 1785 Mudhoji (d. 1788), Janoji's successor, bought from the
Poona court the cession of Mandla and the upper Nerbudda valley, and
between 1796 and 1798 this was followed by the acquisition of
Hoshangabad and the larger part of Saugor and Damoh by Raghoji II. (d.
1816). Under this latter raja the Nagpur state covered practically the
whole of the present Central Provinces and Berar, as well as Orissa and
some of the Chota Nagpur states.

In 1803 Raghoji joined Sindhia against the British; the result was the
defeat of the allies at Assaye and Argaon, and the treaty of Deogaon, by
which Raghoji had to cede Cuttack, Sambalpur and part of Berar. Up to
this time the rule of the Bhonsla rajas, rough warriors of peasant
extraction, had been on the whole beneficent; but, soured by his defeat,
Raghoji now set to work to recover some of his losses by a ruthless
exploitation of the peasantry, and until the effective intervention of
the British in 1818 the country was subjected to every kind of
oppression. After Raghoji II.'s death in 1816 his imbecile son Parsaji
was deposed and murdered by Mudhoji, known as Appa Sahib. In spite of a
treaty signed with the British in this year, Mudhoji in 1817 joined the
peshwa, but was defeated at Sitabaldi and forced to cede the rest of
Berar to the nizam, and parts of Saugor and Damoh, with Mandla, Betul,
Seoni and the Nerbudda valley, to the British. After a temporary
restoration to the throne he was deposed, and Raghoji III., a grandchild
of Raghoji II., was placed on the throne. During his minority, which
lasted till 1840, the country was well administered by a British
resident. In 1853, on the death of Raghoji III. without heirs, Nagpur
lapsed to the British paramount power. Until the formation of the
Central Provinces in 1861, Nagpur province, which consists of the
present Nagpur division, Chhindwara and Chhatisgarh, was administered by
a commissioner under the central government.

The territories in the north ceded in 1817 by the peshwa (parts of
Saugor and Damoh) and in 1818 by Appa Sahib were in 1820 formed into the
Saugor and Nerbudda Territories under an agent to the governor-general,
and in 1835 were included in the newly formed North-West Provinces. In
1842, in consequence of a rising, they were again placed under the
jurisdiction of an agent to the governor-general. Restored to the
North-West Provinces in 1853, they were finally joined with the Nagpur
province to constitute the new Central Provinces in 1861. On the 1st of
October 1903 Berar also was placed under the administration of the
commissioner of the Central Provinces (for history see BERAR). In 1905
the greater part of Sambalpur district, with the feudatory states of
Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi, were transferred to
Bengal, while the feudatory states of Chang Bhakar, Korea, Surguja,
Udaipur and Jashpur were transferred from Bengal to the Central
Provinces.

During the decade 1891-1901 the Central Provinces suffered from famine
more severely than any other part of India. The complete failure of the
rain in the autumn of 1896 caused scarcity to develop suddenly into
famine, which lasted until the end of 1897. The total number of persons
in receipt of relief reached its maximum of nearly 700,000 in May 1897.
The expenditure on relief alone was about a million sterling; and the
total cost of the famine, including loss of revenue, amounted to nearly
twice that amount. During 1897 the death-rate for the whole province
rose to sixty-nine per thousand, or double the average, while the
birth-rate fell to twenty-seven per thousand. The Central Provinces were
stricken by another famine, yet more severe and widespread, caused by
the complete failure of the rains in 1899. The maximum of persons
relieved for the whole province was 1,971,000 in June 1900. In addition,
about 68,000 persons were in receipt of relief in the native states.
During the three years 1899-1902 the total expenditure on famine relief
amounted to about four millions sterling. Berar also suffered from the
famines of 1897 and 1900.

  See _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), x. 99, for list
  of authorities.




CENTUMVIRI (_centum_, hundred; _vir_, man), an ancient court of civil
jurisdiction at Rome, probably instituted by Servius Tullius.[1] Its
antiquity is attested by the symbol and formula used in its procedure,
the lance (_hasta_) as the sign of true ownership, the oath or wager
(_sacramentum_), the ancient formula for recovery of property or
assertion of liberty. It is probably alluded to in Livy's account of the
Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C. (Livy iii. 55, _Consules ... fecerunt
sanciendo ut qui tribunis plebis, aedilibus, judicibus, decemviris
nocuisset, ejus caput Jovi sacrum esset_). If the _judices_ here
mentioned are the _centumviri_, it is clear that they formed a tribunal
which represented the interests of the _plebs_. This is in accordance
with Cicero's account (_de Orat._ i. 38. 173) of the sphere of their
jurisdiction. He says this was mainly concerned with the property of
which account was taken at the census; it was therefore in their power
to make or unmake a citizen. They also decided questions concerning
debt. Hence the _plebs_ had an interest in securing their decisions
against undue influence. They were never regarded as magistrates, but
merely as _judices_, and as such would be appointed for a fixed term of
service by the magistrate, probably by the _praetor urbanus_. But in
Cicero's time they were elected by the _Comitia Tributa_. They then
numbered 105. Their original number is uncertain. It was probably
increased by Augustus and in Pliny's time had reached 180. The office
was probably open in quite early times to both patricians and plebeians.
The term is also applied in the inscriptions of Veii to the municipal
senates and Cures, which numbered 100 members.

  AUTHORITIES.--Tigerström, _De Judicibus apud Romanos_ (Berlin, 1826);
  Greenidge, _Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time_, pp. 40 ff., 58 ff., 182
  ff., 264 (Oxford, 1901); Bethmann-Hollweg, _Der romische
  Civilprozess_, ii. 53 ff. (Bonn, 1864); Pauly-Wissowa,
  _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 1935 ff. (Wlassak).     (A. M. Cl.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Mommsen (_Staatsrecht_, i³. 275, n. 4, ii³. 231, n. 1, 590 f.)
    believed that the _Centumviri_ were instituted about 150 B.C.




CENTURION (Lat. _centurio_), in the ancient Roman army, an officer in
command of a _centuria_, originally a body of a hundred infantry, later
the sixtieth part of the normal legion. There were therefore in the
legion sixty centurions, who, though theoretically subordinate to the
six military tribunes, were the actual working officers of the legion.
For the most part the centurions were promoted from the ranks: they were
arranged in a complicated order of seniority; the senior centurion of
the legion (_primus pilus_) was an officer of very high importance.
Besides commanding the centuries of the legion, centurions were
"seconded" for various kinds of special service, e.g. for staff
employment, the command of auxiliaries. See further ROMAN ARMY.




CENTURIPE (formerly CENTORBI, anc. [Greek: Kentoripa] or _Centuripae_),
a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, situated 2380 ft. above
sea-level in a commanding situation, 7 m. N. of the railway station of
Catenanuova-Centuripe, which is 28 m. W. from Catania. Pop. (1901)
11,311. Thucydides mentions it as a city of the Sicels. It became an
ally of the Athenians at the time of their expedition against Syracuse,
and maintained its independence almost uninterruptedly (though it fell
under the power of Agathocles) until the First Punic War. Cicero
describes it, perhaps with some exaggeration, as being far the largest
and richest city of Sicily, and as having a population of 10,000,
engaged in the cultivation of an extensive territory. It was granted
Latin rights before the rest of Sicily. It appears to have suffered much
in the war against Sextus Pompeius, and not to have regained its former
prosperity under the empire. Frederick II. entirely destroyed it in
1233, but it was soon rebuilt. Considerable remains of the ancient city
walls and of buildings, mostly of the Roman period, still exist, and
numerous antiquities, including some fine Hellenistic _terra-cottas_,
have been discovered in casual excavations.

  See F. Ansaldi, _I Monumenti dell' antica Centuripi_ (Catania, 1851);
  P. Orsi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche_
  (Rome, 1904), v. 177.     (T. As.)




CENTURY (from Lat. _centuria_, a division of a hundred men), the name
for a unit in the Roman army, originally amounting to one hundred men,
and for one of the divisions into which the Roman people was separated
for voting purposes (see COMITIA). The word is applied to any group of
one hundred, and more particularly to a period of a hundred years, and
to the successive periods of a hundred years, dating before or after the
birth of Christ. The "Century-plant" is a name given to the Agave
(q.v.), or American aloe, from the supposition that it flowered once
only in every hundred years.




CEOS (Gr. [Greek: Keôs], mod. _Zea_ or _Tzia_), an island in the Aegean
Sea, belonging to the group of the Cyclades and the eparchy of Syra, 14
m. off the coast of Attica. Its greatest length is about 15 m. and its
breadth about 8 m. It rises gradually towards the centre, where it
culminates in Mount Elias, 1864 ft. high. Among its natural productions
are lemons, citrons, olives, wine and honey; it also exports a
considerable quantity of valonia. There were formerly four towns of some
importance in the island:--Iulis, about 3 m. from the north-west shore;
Coressia, the harbour of Iulis, with a temple of Apollo Smintheus in the
neighbourhood; Carthaea, in the south-east, with a temple of Apollo;
and Poieëssa, in the south-west. Of these Iulis is represented by the
town of Zea, and Carthaea by the village of 'S tais Polais; traces of
the other two can still be made out. Iulis was the birthplace of the
lyric poets Simonides and Bacchylides, the philosophers Prodicus and
Ariston, and the physician Erasistratus; the excellence of its laws was
so generally recognized that the title of Cean Laws passed into a
proverb. One of them forbade a citizen to protract his life beyond sixty
years. The people of Ceos fought on the Greek side at Artemisium and
Salamis; they joined the Delian League and also the later Athenian
alliance in 377 B.C. They revolted in 363-362, but were reduced again,
and the Athenians established a monopoly of the ruddle, or red earth,
which was one of the most valuable products of the island. In A.D. 1207
it was divided between four Italian adventurers; after forming part of
the duchy of Naxos in 1537, it passed under Turkish rule in 1566. Silver
coins of Carthaea and Coressia have been found dating from the 6th
century B.C. (see NUMISMATICS: _Greek_, "Cyclades and Sporades"). The
present population of the island is about 4000, of which the capital has
about 2000.

  See Pridik, _De Cei Insulae rebus_ (1892).     (E. Gr.)




CEPHALIC INDEX, the term in use by anthropologists to express the
percentage of breadth to length in any skull. The principle employed by
Retzius is to take the longer diameter of a skull, the antero-posterior
diameter, as 100; if the shorter or transverse diameter falls below 80
the skull may be classed as long (dolichocephalic), while if it exceeds
80 the skull is broad (brachycephalic) (see CRANIOMETRY).




CEPHALONIA (Ital. _Cefalonia_, ancient and modern official Greek
_Cephallenia_, [Greek: Kephallênia]), an island belonging to the kingdom
of Greece, and the largest of those known as the Ionian Islands,
situated on the west side of the mainland, almost directly opposite the
Gulf of Corinth. The name was traditionally derived from Cephalus, the
Attic hero who was regarded as having colonized the island. The
tradition, which is repeated by Aristotle, is probably due solely to the
similarity of the names (see J.G. Frazer, _Pausanias_, i. 37, 6 note).
Pop. (1907) 71,235. Its extreme length is 31 m., and its breadth varies
from about 20 m. in the southern portion to 3 m. or less in the
projecting part, which runs parallel with the island of Ithaca, at a
distance of about 4 m. across the strait of Guiscardo or Viscaro. The
whole island, with its area of 348 English sq. m., is covered with rocky
hills of varying elevation, the main range running from north-west to
south-east. The ancient Mount Aenos, now Elato, Monte Negro, or the
Black Mountain (5315 ft.), frequently retains the snow for several
months. It is not only the loftiest part of the sierra, but also the
highest land in the whole Ionian group. The name "Black" was given from
the darkness of the pine woods which still constitute the most striking
feature in Cephalonian scenery, although their extent has been greatly
curtailed by fire. The summit is called Megálo Sorós. The island is ill
supplied with fresh water; there are few permanent streams except the
Rakli, and springs are apt to fail in dry summers. In the western part
of the island a gulf runs up from the south, a distance of about 7 m.;
on its east side stands the chief town Argostoli, with about 10,000
inhabitants, and on its west side the rival city of Lixouri, with 6000.
About a mile west of the town are the curious sea mills; a stream of sea
water running down a chasm in the shore is made to turn the wheels.
About 5 m. from Argostoli is the castle of St George, a building of
Venetian origin, and the strongest fortification in the island. On an
eminence east-south-east of Argostoli are the ruins of the ancient
Cranii, and Lixouri is close to or upon those of Pale; while on the
other side of the island are the remains of Samos on the bay of the same
name, of Proni or Pronni, farther south above the vale of Rakli and its
blossoming oleanders, and of an unknown city near the village of Scala.
The ruins of this city include Roman baths, a brick-built temple,
rock-cut tombs, and tessellated pavements; and Cranii, Proni and Samos
are remarkable for stretches of Cyclopean and Hellenic walls, partly of
the most irregular construction, and partly preserving almost unimpaired
the results of the most perfect skill. The inhabitants of Cephalonia
have all along been extremely active; and no slight amount of toil has
been expended in the construction of terraces on the steep sides of the
hills. Owing to the thinness of the population, however, but a small
proportion of the soil is under cultivation, and the quantity of grain
grown in the island is comparatively meagre. The staple is the currant,
in the production of which the island surpasses Zante. The fruit is
smaller than that of the Morea, and has a peculiar flavour; it finds a
market mainly in Holland, Belgium and Germany. The grape vine also is
grown, and the manufacture of wine is a rising industry. The olive crop
is of considerable importance, and the culture of cotton in the low
grounds has been successfully attempted. Manufactures are few and
undeveloped, but lace from the aloe fibre, Turkey carpets and
basket-work are produced by the villagers, and boats are built at both
the principal towns. Of all the seven Ionian islands Cephalonia and
Zante are most purely Greek, and the inhabitants display great mental
activity.

In the Homeric poems Cephalonia is generally supposed to be mentioned
under the name of Same, and its inhabitants, among the subjects of
Ulysses, to be designated Cephallenes (see, however, under ITHACA). In
the Persian War they took but little part; in the Peloponnesian they
sided with the Athenians. The town of Pale was vainly besieged by Philip
of Macedon in 218 B.C., because it had supported the Aetolian cause. In
189 B.C. all the cities surrendered to the Romans, but Same afterwards
revolted, and was only reduced after a siege of four months. The island
was presented by Hadrian to Athens, but it appears again at a later date
as "free and autonomous." After the division of the Roman empire, it
continued attached to Byzantium till 1082, when it was captured by
Robert Guiscard, who died, however, before he could repress the revolt
of 1085. In 1204 it was assigned to Gaius, prince of Tarentum, who
accepted the protection of Venice in 1215; and after 1225 it was held
along with Santa Maura and Zante by a succession of five counts of the
Tocco family at Naples. Formally made over to Venice in 1350 by the
prince of Tarentum, it was afterwards captured by the Turks in 1479; but
the Hispanico-Venetian fleet under Benedetto Pessaro and Gonsalvo of
Cordova effected their expulsion in 1500, and the island continued in
Venetian possession till the fall of the republic. For some time it was
administered for the French government, but in 1809 it was taken by the
British under Cuthbert, Lord Collingwood. Till 1813 it was in the hands
of Major de Bosset, a Swiss in the British service, who displayed an
industry and energy in the repression of injustice and development of
civilization only outdone by the despotic vigour of Sir Charles Napier,
who held the same office for the nine years from 1818 to 1827. During
the British protectorate the island made undoubted advances in material
prosperity, but was several times the scene of political disturbances.
It retained longer than the sister islands traces of feudal influence
exerted by the landed proprietors, but has been gradually becoming more
democratic. Under the Venetians it was divided into eight districts, and
an elaborate system of police was in force; since its annexation to
Greece it has been broken up into twenty demarchies, each with its
separate jurisdiction and revenues, and the police system has been
abolished.

  AUTHORITIES.--A special treatise on the antiquities of Cephalonia was
  written by Petrus Maurocenus. See Holland's _Travels_ (1815); Ansted's
  _Ionian Islands_ (1863); Viscount Kirkwall's _Four Years in Ionian
  Islands_ (1864); Wiebel's _Die Insel Kephalonia_; parliamentary
  papers. Riemann, _Recherches archéologiques sur les Iles Ioniennes_
  (Paris, 1879-1880); Partsch, _Kephallenia und Ithaka_ (1890); see also
  CORFU; IONIAN ISLANDS.     (E. Gr.)




CEPHALOPODA, the fifth of the classes into which the zoological phylum
Mollusca is divided (see MOLLUSCA). The Cephalopoda are mainly
characterized by the concrescence of the foot and head. The foot grows
forward on each side so as to surround the mouth, the two upgrowths
meeting on the dorsal side of the head--whence the name Cephalopoda. The
perioral portion of the foot is drawn out into paired arm-like
processes; these may be beset with sheathed tentacles or with suckers or
hooks, or both. The epipodia are expanded into a pair of muscular lobes
right and left, which are bent round towards one another so that their
free margins meet and constitute a short tube--the siphon or funnel. The
hind-foot is either very small or absent. A distinctive feature of the
Cephalopoda is their bilateral symmetry and the absence of anything like
the torsion of the visceral mass seen in the Anisopleurous Gastropoda.

  The anus, although it may be a little displaced from the median line,
  is approximately median and posterior. The mantle-skirt is deeply
  produced posteriorly, forming a large sub-pallial chamber around the
  anus. By the side of the anus are placed the single or paired
  apertures of the nephridia, the genital apertures (paired only in
  _Nautilus_, in female Octopoda, female _Ommatostrephes_ and male
  _Eledone_), and the paired ctenidia. The visceral hump or dome is
  elevated, and may be very much elongated in a direction almost at
  right angles to the primary horizontal axis of the foot.

  A shell is frequently, but not invariably, secreted on the visceral
  hump and mantle-skirt. The shell is usually light in substance or
  lightened by air-chambers in correlation with the free-swimming habits
  of the Cephalopoda. It may be external or internal, that is, enclosed
  in folds of the mantle. Very numerous minute pigmented sacs, capable
  of expansion and contraction, and known as chromatophores, are usually
  present in the integument. The sexes are separate.

  The ctenidia are well developed as paired gill-plumes, serving as the
  efficient branchial organs (figs. 4, 24),

  The vascular system is very highly developed; the heart consists of a
  pair of auricles and a ventricle (figs. 12, 28). Branchial hearts are
  formed on the afferent vessels of the branchiae. It is not known to
  what extent the minute subdivision of the arteries extends, or whether
  there is a true capillary system.

  The pericardium is extended so as to form a very large sac, passing
  among the viscera dorsalwards and sometimes containing the ovary or
  testis--the viscero-pericardial sac--which opens to the exterior
  either directly or through the renal organs. It has no connexion with
  the vascular system. The renal organs are always paired sacs, the
  walls of which invest the branchial afferent vessels (figs. 28, 29).
  They open each by a pore into the viscero-pericardial sac, except in
  _Nautilus_. The anal aperture is median and raised on a papilla. Jaws
  (fig. 6, e) and a radula (fig. 9) are well developed. The jaws have
  the form of powerful beaks, either horny or calcified (_Nautilus_),
  and are capable of inflicting severe wounds.

  Cerebral, pleural and pedal ganglia are present, but the connectives
  are shortened and the ganglia concentrated and fused in the cephalic
  region. Large special ganglia (optic, stellate and supra-buccal) are
  developed. Sense-organs are highly developed; the eye exhibits a very
  special elaboration of structure in the Dibranchiata, and a remarkable
  archaic form in the nautilus. Otocysts are present in all. The typical
  osphradium is not present, except in _Nautilus_, but other organs are
  present in the cephalic region, to which an olfactory function is
  ascribed both in _Nautilus_ and in the other Cephalopoda.

  Hermaphroditism is unknown in Cephalopoda; male and female individuals
  always being differentiated. The genital aperture and duct is
  sometimes single, when it is the left; sometimes the typical pair is
  developed right and left of the anus. The males of nearly all
  Cephalopoda have been shown to be characterized by a peculiar
  modification of the arm-like processes or lobes of the fore-foot,
  connected with the copulative function. The term hectocotylization is
  applied to this modification (see figs. 6, 24). Elaborate
  spermatophores or sperm-ropes are formed by all Cephalopoda, and very
  usually the female possesses special capsule-forming and nidamental
  glands for providing envelopes to the eggs (fig. 4, g.n.). The egg is
  large, and the development is much modified by the presence of an
  excessive amount of food-material diffused in the protoplasm of the
  egg-cell. Trochosphere and veliger stages of development are
  consequently not recognizable.

The Cephalopoda are divisible into two orders, Tetrabranchiata and
Dibranchiata, the names of which (due to Sir R. Owen) describe the
number of gill-plumes present; but in fact there are several characters,
of as great importance as those derived from the gills, by which the
members of these two orders are separated from one another.

ORDER 1. TETRABRANCHIATA (= Schizosiphona, Tentaculifera).

_Characters_.--The inrolled lateral margins of the epipodia are not
fused, but form a siphon by apposition (fig. 4). The circumoral lobes of
the fore-foot carry numerous retractile tentacles, not suckers (fig. 6).
There are two pairs of ctenidial gills (hence Tetrabranchiata), and two
pairs of renal organs, consequently four renal apertures (fig. 4). The
viscero-pericardial chamber opens by two independent apertures to the
exterior, and not into the renal sacs. There are two oviducts (right and
left) in the female, and two sperm-ducts in the male, the left duct in
both sexes being rudimentary. A large external shell, either coiled or
straight, is present, and is not enclosed by reflections of the
mantle-skirt. The shell consists of a series of chambers, the
last-formed of which is occupied by the body of the animal, the hinder
ones (successively deserted) containing gas (fig. 1). The pair of
cephalic eyes are hollow chambers (fig. 14. A), opening to the exterior
by minute orifices (pin-hole camera), and devoid of refractive
structures. A pair of osphradia are present at the base of the gills
(fig. 4, _olf_). Salivary glands are wanting. An ink-sac is _not_
present. Branchial hearts are _not_ developed on the branchial afferent
vessels.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Lateral view of the female Pearly Nautilus,
contracted by spirit and lying in its shell, the right half of which is
cut away (from Gegenbaur, after Owen).

  a, Visceral hump.

  b, Portion of the free edge of the mantle-skirt reflected on to the
  shell,--the edge of the mantle-skirt can be traced downwards and
  forwards around the base of the mid-foot or siphon i.

  l, l, Superficial origin of the retractor muscle of the mid-foot
  (siphon), more or less firmly attached to the shell, of which a small
  piece (s) is seen between the letters l, l.

  s, (farther back) points to the siphuncular pedicle, which is broken
  off short and not continued, as in the perfect state, through the
  whole length of the siphuncle of the shell, also marked s and s'.

  o, points to the right eye.

  t, is placed near the extremities of the contracted tentacles of the
  outer or annular lobe of the fore-foot--the jointed tentacles are seen
  protruding a little from their long cylindrical sheaths.

  v, The dorsal "hood" formed by an enlargement in this region of the
  annular lobe of the fore-foot (m in figs. 2, 3).

  V, A swelling of the mantle-skirt, indicating the position on its
  inner face of the nidamental gland (see fig. 4, g.n.).]

_Visceral Hump and Shell._--The visceral hump of _Nautilus_ (if we
exclude from consideration the fine siphuncular pedicle which it trails,
as it were, behind it) is very little, if at all, affected by the coiled
form of the shell which it carries, since the animal always slips
forward in the shell as it grows, and inhabits a chamber which is
practically cylindrical (fig. 1). Were the deserted chambers thrown off
instead of being accumulated behind the inhabited chamber as a coiled
series of air-chambers, we should have a more correct indication in the
shell of the extent and form of the animal's body. Amongst Gastropods it
is not very unusual to find the animal slipping forward in its shell as
growth advances and leaving an unoccupied chamber in the apex of the
shell. This may indeed become shut off from the occupied cavity by a
transverse septum, and a series of such septa may be formed, but in no
Gastropod are these apical chambers known to contain a gas during the
life of the animal in whose shell they occur. A further peculiarity of
the nautilus shell and of that of the allied extinct _Ammonites_,
_Scaphites_, _Orthoceras_, &c., and of the living _Spirula_, is that the
series of deserted air-chambers is traversed by a cord-like pedicle
extending from the centro-dorsal area of the visceral hump to the
smallest and first-formed chamber of the series. No structure comparable
to this siphuncular pedicle is known in any other Mollusca. The
siphuncle does not communicate with the coelomic cavity; it is a simple
vascular process of the mantle, whose cavity consists of a venous sinus,
and whose wall contains a ramification of the pallial artery. There
appears to be no doubt that the deserted chambers of the nautilus shell
contain in the healthy living animal a gas which serves to lessen the
specific gravity of the whole organism. This gas is said to be of the
same composition as the atmosphere, with a larger proportion of
nitrogen. With regard to its origin we have only conjectures. Each
septum shutting off an air-containing chamber is formed during a period
of quiescence, probably after the reproductive act, when the visceral
mass of the nautilus may be slightly shrunk, and gas is secreted from
the dorsal integument so as to fill up the space previously occupied by
the animal. A certain stage is reached in the growth of the animal when
no new chambers are formed. The whole process of the loosening of the
animal in its chamber and of its slipping forward when a new septum is
formed, as well as the mode in which the air-chambers may be used as a
hydrostatic apparatus, and the relation to this use, if any, of the
siphuncular pedicle, is involved in obscurity, and is the subject of
much ingenious speculation. In connexion with the secretion of gas by
the animal, besides the parallel cases ranging from the protozoon
_Arcella_ to the physoclistic fishes, from the hydroid _Siphonophora_ to
the insect-larva _Corethra_, we have the identical phenomenon observed
in the closely allied _Sepia_ when recently hatched. Here, in the pores
of the internal rudimentary shell, gas is observable, which has
necessarily been liberated by the tissues which secrete the shell, and
not derived from any external source (Huxley).

The coiled shell of _Nautilus_, and of the majority of extinct
Tetrabranchiata, is peculiar in its relation to the body of the animal,
inasmuch as the curvature of the coil proceeding from the centro-dorsal
area is towards the head or forwards, instead of away from the head and
backwards as in other discoid coiled shells such as _Planorbis_; the
coil is in fact absolutely reversed in the two cases. Such a shell is
said to be exogastric. But in some extinct forms, e.g. _Phragmoceras_,
_Cyrtoceras_, _Ptenoceras_, the shell is coiled towards the ventral
side, when it is termed endogastric. Amongst the extinct allies of the
nautilus (Tetrabranchiata) we find shells of a variety of shapes, open
coils such as _Scaphites_, leading on to perfectly cylindrical shells
with chamber succeeding chamber in a straight line (_Orthoceras_),
whence again we may pass to the corkscrew spires formed by the shell of
_Turrilites_. In some extinct genera, e.g. _Gomphoceras_, among the
Nautiloidea the aperture of the shell is contracted and the edge of the
aperture is lobed. In these cases the animal was probably able only to
protrude its appendages and not its whole head. The ventral part of the
aperture corresponding to the funnel is separated from the dorsal part
by a constriction. Hence it is possible to distinguish the ventral and
dorsal sides of the shell and to decide whether it was exogastric or
endogastric. The direction of the coil of the shell cannot be determined
by the position of the siphuncle, which traverses the septa centrally,
ventrally or dorsally. Contracted shell apertures occur also in
Ammonitoidea, the condition reaching an extreme in _Morphoceras_, where
the original aperture is subdivided by the ingrowth of the sides, so
that only five small separate apertures remain. Of these the central
probably corresponded to the mouth, two lateral to the eyes, and the
remaining two to the pedal appendages.

  _Head, Foot, Mantle-skirt and Sub-pallial Chamber._--In the pearly
  nautilus the ovoid visceral hump is completely encircled by the free
  flap of integument known as mantle-skirt (figs. 2, 3, d, e). In the
  antero-dorsal region this flap is enlarged so as to be reflected a
  little over the coil of the shell which rests on it. In the
  postero-ventral region the flap is deepest, forming an extensive
  sub-pallial chamber, at the entrance of which e is placed in fig. 3. A
  view of the interior of the sub-pallial chamber, as seen when the
  mantle-skirt is retroverted and the observer faces in the direction
  indicated by the reference line passing from e in fig. 3, is given in
  fig. 4. With this should be compared the similar view of the
  sub-pallial chamber of the Dibranchiate _Sepia_. It should be noted as
  a difference between _Nautilus_ and the Dibranchiates that in the
  former the nidamental gland (in the female) lies on that surface of
  the pallial chamber formed by the dependent mantle-flap (fig. 4, g.n.;
  fig. 1, V), whilst in the latter it lies on the surface formed by the
  body-wall; in fact in the former the base of the fold forming the
  mantle-skirt comprises in its area a part of what is unreflected
  visceral hump in the latter.

  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Spirit specimen of female Pearly Nautilus,
  removed from its shell, and seen from the antero-dorsal aspect (drawn
  from nature by A.G. Bourne).

    m, The dorsal "hood" formed by the enlargement of the outer or
    annular lobe of the fore-foot, and corresponding to the sheaths of
    two tentacles (g, g in fig. 6).

    n, Tentacular sheaths of lateral portion of the annular lobe.

    u, The left eye.

    b, The nuchal plate, continuous at its right and left posterior
    angles with the root of the mid-foot, and corresponding to the
    nuchal cartilage of Sepia.

    c, Visceral hump.

    d, The free margin of the mantle-skirt, the middle letter d points
    to that portion of the mantle-skirt which is reflected over a part
    of the shell as seen in fig. 1, b; the cup-like fossa to which b and
    d point in the present figure is occupied by the coil of the shell.

    g.a. points to the lateral continuation of the nuchal plate b to
    join the root of the mid-foot or siphon.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lateral view of the same specimen as that
  drawn in fig. 2. Letters as in that figure with the following
  additions--

    e, points to the concave margin of the mantle-skirt leading into the
    sub-pallial chamber.

    g, The mid-foot or siphon.

    k, The superficial origin of its retractor muscles closely applied
    to the shell and serving to hold the animal in its place.

    l, The siphuncular pedicle of the visceral hump broken off short.

    v, v, The superior and inferior ophthalmic tentacles.]

  The apertures of the two pairs of renal sacs, of the
  viscero-pericardial sac, of the genital ducts, and of the anus, are
  shown in position on the body-wall of the pallial chamber of
  _Nautilus_ in figs. 4, 5. There are nine apertures in all, one median
  (the anus) and four paired. Besides these apertures we notice _two_
  pairs of gill-plumes which are undoubtedly typical ctenidia, and a
  short papilla (the osphradium) between each anterior and posterior
  gill-plume (see figs. 4, 5, and explanation). As compared with this in
  a Dibranchiate, we find (fig. 25) only four apertures, viz. the median
  anus with adjacent orifice of the ink-sac, the single pair of renal
  apertures, and one asymmetrical genital aperture (on the left side)
  except in female Octopoda and a few others, where the genital ducts
  and their apertures are paired. No viscero-pericardial pores are
  present on the surface of the pallial chamber, since in the
  Dibranchiata the viscero-pericardial sac opens by a pore into each
  nephridium instead of directly to the surface. A single pair of
  ctenidia (gill-plumes) is present instead of the two pairs in
  _Nautilus_. The existence of two pairs of ctenidia and of two pairs of
  renal sacs in _Nautilus_, placed one behind the other, is highly
  remarkable. The interest of this arrangement is in relation to the
  general morphology of the Mollusca, for it is impossible to view this
  repetition of organs in a linear series as anything else than an
  instance of metameric segmentation, comparable to the segmentation of
  the ringed worms and Arthropods. The only other example which we have
  of this metamerism in the Mollusca is presented by the Chitons. There
  we find not two pairs of ctenidia merely, but sixteen pairs (in some
  species more) accompanied by a similar metamerism of the dorsal
  integument, which carries eight shells. In _Chiton_ the renal organs
  are not affected by the metamerism as they are in _Nautilus_. It is
  impossible on the present occasion to discuss in the way which their
  importance demands the significance of these two instances among
  Mollusca of incomplete or partial metamerism; but it would be wrong to
  pass them by without insisting upon the great importance which the
  occurrence of these isolated instances of metameric segmentation in a
  group of otherwise unsegmented organisms possesses, and the light
  which they may be made to throw upon the nature of metameric
  segmentation in general.

  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a
  female Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely
  reflected so as to show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber
  (drawn from nature by A.G. Bourne).

    a, Muscular band passing from the mid-foot to the integument.

    b, The valve on the surface of the funnel, partially concealed by
    the inrolled lateral margin of the latter.

    c, The mantle-skirt retroverted.

    an, The median anus.

    x, Post-anal papilla of unknown significance.

    g.n., Nidamental gland.

    r.ov, Aperture of the right oviduct.

    l.ov, Aperture of the rudimentary left oviduct (pyriform sac of
    Owen).

    neph.a, Aperture of the left anterior renal sac.

    neph.p, Aperture of the left posterior renal sac.

    viscper, Left aperture of the viscero-pericardial sac.

    olf, The left osphradium placed near the base of the anterior
    gill-plume.

    The four gill-plumes (ctenidia) are not lettered.]

  The foot and head of _Nautilus_ are in the adult inextricably grown
  together, the eye being the only part belonging primarily to the head
  which projects from the all-embracing foot. The fore-foot or front
  portion of the foot has the form of a number of lobes carrying
  tentacles and completely surrounding the mouth (figs. 2, 3). The
  epipodia incline towards each other posteriorly so as to form an
  incomplete siphon (fig. 4), a condition which is completed and
  rendered permanent in the tubular funnel of Dibranchiata. The
  epipodial nature of the funnel is well seen in young embryos, in which
  this organ is situated laterally and posteriorly between the mantle
  and the foot.

  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a male
  Pearly Nautilus, the mantle-skirt (c) being completely reflected so as
  to show the inner wall of the sub-pallial chamber, and the four
  ctenidia and the foot cut short (drawn from nature by A.G. Bourne).
  pe, Penis, being the enlarged termination of the right spermatic duct;
  l.sp, aperture of the rudimentary left spermatic duct (pyriform sac
  of Owen). Other letters as in fig. 4.]

  The lobes of the fore-foot of _Nautilus_ and of the other Cephalopoda
  require further description. It has been doubted whether these lobes
  were rightly referred (by T.H. Huxley) to the fore-foot, and it has
  been maintained by some zoologists (H. Grenadier, H. von Jhering)
  that they are truly processes of the head. It appears to be impossible
  to doubt that the lobes in question are the fore-portion of the foot,
  when their development is examined (see fig. 35), further, when the
  fact is considered that they are innervated by the pedal ganglion. The
  fore-foot of _Nautilus_ completely surrounds the buccal cone (fig. 6,
  e), so as to present an appearance with its expanded tentacles similar
  to that of the disk of a sea-anemone (_Actinia_). A.G. Bourne, of
  University College, prepared from actual specimens the drawings of
  this part in the male and female _Nautilus_ reproduced in fig. 6, and
  restored the parts to their natural form when expanded. The drawings
  show very strikingly the difference between male and female. In the
  females (lower figure), we observe in the centre of the disk the
  buccal cone e carrying the beak-like pair of jaws which project from
  the finely papillate buccal membrane. Three tentaculiferous lobes of
  the fore-foot are in immediate contact with this buccal cone; they are
  the right and left (c, c) inner lobes, and the inferior inner lobe
  (d)--called inferior because it really lies ventralwards of the mouth.
  This inner inferior lobe is clearly a double one, representing a right
  and left inner inferior lobe fused into one. A lamellated organ on its
  surface, known as Owen's organ, probably olfactory in function (n),
  marks the separation of the constituent halves of this double lobe.
  Each half carries a group of fourteen tentacles. The right and the
  left inner lobes (c, c) each carry twelve tentacles. External to these
  three lobes the muscular substance of the mouth-embracing foot is
  raised into a wide ring, which becomes especially thick and large in
  the dorsal region where it is notably modified in form, offering a
  concavity into which the coil of the shell is received, and furnishing
  a protective roof to the retracted mass of tentacles. This part of the
  external annular lobe of the fore-foot is called the "hood" (figs. 2,
  3, m). The median antero-posterior line traversing this hood exactly
  corresponds to the line of concrescence of the two halves of the
  fore-foot, which primitively grew forward one on each side of the
  head, and finally fused together along this line in front of the
  mouth. The tentacles carried by the great annular lobe are nineteen on
  each side, thirty-eight in all. They are called "digital," and are
  somewhat larger than the "labial" tentacles carried on the three inner
  lobes. The dorsalmost pair of tentacles (marked g in fig. 6) are the
  only ones which actually belong to that part of the disk which forms
  the great dorsal hood m. The hood is, in fact, to a large extent
  formed by the enlarged sheaths of these two tentacles. All the
  tentacles of the circumoral disk are set in remarkable tubular
  sheaths, into which they can be drawn. The sheaths of some of those
  belonging to the external or annular lobe are seen in fig. 3, marked
  n. The sheaths are muscular as well as the tentacles, and are simply
  tubes from the base of which the solid tentacle grows. The functional
  significance of this sheathing arrangement is as obscure as its
  morphological origin. With reference to the latter, it appears highly
  probable that the tubular sheath represents the cup of a sucker such
  as is found on the fore-foot of the Dibranchiata. In any case, it
  seems to the writer impossible to doubt that each tentacle, and its
  sheath on a lobe of the circumoral disk of Nautilus, corresponds to a
  sucker on such a lobe of a Dibranchiate. W. Keferstein follows Sir R.
  Owen in strongly opposing this identification, and in regarding such
  tentacle as the equivalent of a whole lobe or arm of a Decapod or
  Octopod Dibranch. The details of these structures, especially in the
  facts concerning the hectocotylus and spadix, afford the most
  conclusive reasons for dissenting from Owen's view. On the ventral
  side an extensive part of the internal surface of the muscular ring is
  laminated, forming the so-called "organ of Valenciennes," peculiar to
  the female and serving for the attachment of the spermatophores. We
  have so far enumerated in the female nautilus ninety tentacles. Four
  more remain which have a very peculiar position, and almost lead to
  the suggestion that the eye itself is a modified tentacle. These
  remaining tentacles are placed one above (before) and one below
  (behind) each eye, and bring up the total to ninety-four (fig. 3 v,
  v).

  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Male (upper) and female (lower) specimens of
  _Nautilus pompilius_ as seen in the expanded condition, the observer
  looking down on to the buccal cone e; one-third the natural size
  linear. The drawings have been made from actual specimens by A.G.
  Bourne, B. Sc., University College, London.

    a, The shell.

    b, The _outer_ ring-like expansion (annular lobe) of the circumoral
    muscular mass of the fore-foot, carrying nineteen tentacles on each
    side--posteriorly this is enlarged to form the "hood" (marked v in
    fig. 1 and m in figs. 2 and 3). giving off the pair of tentacles
    marked g in the present figure.

    c, The right and left inner lobes of the fore-foot, each carrying
    twelve tentacles in the female, in the male subdivided into p, the
    "spadix" or hectocotylus on the left side, and q, the "anti-spadix,"
    a group of four tentacles on the right side--it is thus seen that
    the subdivided right and left inner lobes of the male correspond to
    the undivided right and left inner lobes of the female.

    d, The inner inferior lobe of the fore-foot, a bilateral structure
    in the female carrying two groups, each of fourteen tentacles,
    separated from one another by a lamellated organ n, supposed to be
    olfactory in function--in the male the inner inferior lobe of the
    fore-foot is very much reduced, and has the form of a paired group
    of lamellae (d in the upper figure).

    e, The buccal cone, rising from the centre of the three inner lobes,
    and fringing the protruded calcareous beaks or jaws with a series of
    minute papillae.

    f, The tentacles of the outer circumoral lobe or annular lobe of the
    fore-foot projecting from their sheaths.

    g, The two most posterior tentacles of this series belonging to that
    part of the annular lobe which forms the hood (m in figs. 2 and 3).

    i, Superior ophthalmic tentacle.

    k, Inferior ophthalmic tentacle.

    l, Eye.

    m, Paired laminated organ on each side of the base of the inner
    inferior lobe (d) of the female.

    n, Olfactory lamellae upon the inner inferior lobe (in the female).

    o, The siphon (mid-foot).

    p, The spadix (in the male), the hectocotylized portion of the left
    inner lobe of the fore-foot representing four modified tentacles,
    eight being left unmodified.

    q, The anti-spadix (in the male), being four of the twelve tentacles
    of the right inner lobe of the fore-foot isolated from the remaining
    eight, and representing on the right side the differentiated spadix
    of the left side. The four tentacles of the anti-spadix are set,
    three on one base and one on a separate base.]

  In the adult male nautilus we find the following important differences
  in the tentaculiferous disk as compared with the female (see upper
  drawing in fig. 6). The inner inferior lobe is rudimentary, and
  carries no tentacles. It is represented by three groups of lamellae
  (d), which are not fully exposed in the drawing. The right and left
  inner lobes are subdivided each into two portions. The right shows a
  larger portion carrying eight tentacles, and smaller detached groups
  (q) of four tentacles, of which three have their sheaths united whilst
  one stands alone. These four tentacles may be called the
  "anti-spadix." The left inner lobe shows a similar larger portion
  carrying eight tentacles, and a curious conical body behind it
  corresponding to the anti-spadix. This is the "spadix." It carries no
  tentacles, but is terminated by imbricated lamellae. These lamellae
  appear to represent the four tentacles of the anti-spadix of the right
  internal lobe, and are generally regarded as corresponding to that
  modification of the sucker-bearing arms of male Dibranchiate
  Siphonopods to which the name "hectocotylus" is applied. The spadix is
  in fact the hectocotylized portion of the fore-foot of the male
  nautilus. The hectocotylized arm or lobe of male Dibranchiata is
  connected with the process of copulation, and in the male nautilus the
  spadix has probably a similar significance, though it is not possible
  to suggest how it acts in this relation. It is important to observe
  that the modification of the fore-foot in the male as compared with
  the female nautilus is not confined to the existence of the spadix.
  The anti-spadix and the reduction of the inner inferior lobe are also
  male peculiarities. The external annular lobe in the male does not
  differ from that of the female; it carries nineteen tentacles on each
  side. The four ophthalmic tentacles are also present. Thus in the male
  nautilus we find altogether sixty-two tentacles, the thirty-two
  additional tentacles of the female being represented by lamelliform
  structures.

  _Musculature, Fins and, Cartilaginous Skeleton._--Without entering
  into a detailed account of the musculature of _Nautilus_, we may point
  out that the great muscular masses of the fore-foot and of the
  mid-foot (siphon) are ultimately traceable to a large transverse mass
  of muscular tissue, the ends of which are visible through the
  integument on the right and left surfaces of the body dorsal of the
  free flap of the mantle-skirt (fig. 1, l, l, and fig. 3, k). These
  muscular areae have a certain adhesion to the shell, and serve both to
  hold the animal in its shell and as the fixed supports for the various
  movements of the tentaculiferous lobes and the siphon. They are to be
  identified with the ring-like area of adhesion by which the
  foot-muscle of the limpet is attached to the shell of that animal. In
  the Dibranchs a similar origin of the muscular masses of the fore-foot
  and mid-foot from the sides of the shell--modified, as this is, in
  position and relations--can be traced.

  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Minute structure of the cartilage of _Loligo_
  (from Gegenbaur, after Furbringer)

    a, Simple cells.

    b, Dividing cells.

    c, Canaliculi.

    d, An empty cartilage capsule with its pores.

    e, Canaliculi in section.]

  In _Nautilus_ there are no fin-like expansions of the integument,
  whereas such occur in the Decapod Dibranchs along the sides of the
  visceral hump (figs. 15, 16). As an exception among Octopoda lateral
  fins occur in _Pinnoctopus_ (fig. 38, A), and in _Cirrhoteuthis_ (fig.
  38, D).

  In _Nautilus_ there is a curious plate-like expansion of integument in
  the mid-dorsal region just behind the hood, lying between that
  structure and the portion of mantle-skirt which is reflected over the
  shell. This is shown in fig. 2, b. If we trace out the margin of this
  plate we find that it becomes continuous on each side with the sides
  of the funnel. In _Sepia_ and other Decapods (not in Octopods) a
  closely similar plate exists in an exactly corresponding position (see
  b in figs. 10, 26). In _Sepia_ a cartilaginous development occurs here
  immediately below the integument forming the so-called "nuchal plate,"
  drawn in fig. 8, D. The morphological significance of this nuchal
  lamella, as seen both in _Nautilus_ and in _Sepia_, is not obvious.
  Cartilage having the structure shown in fig. 7 occurs in various
  regions of the body of Cephalopoda. In all Glossophorous Mollusca the
  lingual apparatus is supported by internal skeletal pieces, having the
  character of cartilage; but in the Cephalopoda such cartilage has a
  wider range.

  In _Nautilus_ a large H-shaped piece of cartilage is found, forming
  the axis of the funnel (fig. 8, A, B). Its hinder part extends up into
  the head and supports the peri-oesophageal nerve-mass (a), whilst its
  two anterior rami extend into the tongue-like siphon. In _Sepia_, and
  Dibranchs generally, the cartilage takes a different form, as shown in
  fig. 8, C. The processes of this cartilage cannot be identified in any
  way with those of the capito-pedal cartilage of _Nautilus_. The lower
  larger portion of this cartilage in _Sepia_ is called the cephalic
  cartilage, and forms a complete ring round the oesophagus; it
  completely invests also the ganglionic nerve-collar, so that all the
  nerves from the latter have to pass through foramina in the cartilage.
  The outer angles of this cartilage spread out on each side so as to
  form a cup-like receptacle for the eyes. The two processes springing
  right and left from this large cartilage in the median line (fig. 8,
  C) are the "pre-orbital cartilages"; in front of these, again, there
  is seen a piece like an inverted T, which forms a support to the base
  of the "arms" of the fore-foot, and is the "basi-brachial" cartilage.
  The Decapod Dibranchs have, further, the "nuchal cartilage" already
  mentioned, and in _Sepia_, a thin plate-like "sub-ostracal" or
  (so-called) dorsal cartilage, the anterior end of which rests on and
  fits into the concave nuchal cartilage. In Octopoda there is no nuchal
  cartilage, but two band-like "dorsal cartilages." In Decapods there
  are also two cartilaginous sockets on the sides of the
  funnel--"siphon-hinge cartilages"--into which fleshy knobs of the
  mantle-skirt are loosely fitted. In _Sepia_, along the whole base-line
  of each lateral fin of the mantle (fig. 15), is a "basi-pterygial
  cartilage." It is worthy of remark that we have, thus developed, in
  Dibranch Cephalopods a more complete internal cartilaginous skeleton
  than is to be found in some of the lower vertebrates. There are other
  instances of cartilaginous endo-skeleton in groups other than the
  Vertebrata. Thus in some capito-branchiate Chaetopods cartilage forms
  a skeletal support for the gill-plumes, whilst in the Arachnids
  (_Mygale_, _Scorpio_) and in _Limulus_ a large internal cartilaginous
  plate--the ento-sternite--is developed as a support for a large series
  of muscles.

  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Cartilaginous skeleton of Cephalopoda (after
  Keferstein.)

    A, Capito-pedal cartilage of _Nautilus pompilius._

    a points to the ridge which supports the pedal portion of the
    nerve-centre.

    B, Lateral view of the same--the large anterior processes are sunk
    in the muscular substance of the siphon.

    C, Cephalic cartilages of _Sepia officinalis_.

    D, Nuchal cartilage of _Sepia officinalis_.]

  _Alimentary Tract._--The buccal cone of _Nautilus_ is terminated by a
  villous margin (buccal membrane), surrounding the pair of beak-like
  jaws, of which the ventral projects over the dorsal. These are very
  strong and dense in _Nautilus_, being calcified. Fossilized beaks of
  Tetrabranchiata are known under the name of rhyncholites. In Dibranchs
  the beaks are horny, but similar in shape to those of _Nautilus_. They
  resemble in general those of a parrot, the lower beak being the larger
  and overlapping the upper or dorsal beak. The lingual ribbon and
  odontophoral apparatus have the structure which is typical for
  Glossophorous Mollusca. In fig. 9, A is represented a single row of
  teeth from the lingual ribbon of _Nautilus_, and in fig. 9, B, C, of
  other Cephalopoda.

  In _Nautilus_ a long and wide crop or dilated oesophagus (fig. 10, cr)
  passes from the muscular buccal mass, and at the apex of the visceral
  hump passes into a highly muscular stomach, resembling the gizzard of
  a bird (fig 10, gizz). A nearly straight intestine passes from the
  muscular stomach to the anus, near which it develops a small caecum.
  In other Cephalopods the oesophagus is usually narrower and the
  muscular stomach more capacious, whilst a very important feature in
  the alimentary tract is formed by the caecum. In all but _Nautilus_
  the caecum lies near the stomach, and may be very capacious--much
  larger than the stomach in _Loligo vulgaris_--or elongated into a
  spiral coil. The simple U-shaped flexure of the alimentary tract, as
  seen in fig. 10, is the only important one which it exhibits in the
  Cephalopoda. The acini of the large liver of _Nautilus_ are compacted
  into a solid reddish-brown mass by a firm membrane, as also is the
  case in the Dibranchiata. The liver has four paired lobes in
  _Nautilus_, which open by two bile-ducts into the alimentary canal at
  the commencement of the intestine. The bile-ducts unite before
  entering the intestine. In Dibranchiata the two large lobes of the
  liver are placed antero-dorsally (beneath the shell in Decapoda), and
  the bile-ducts open into the caecum. Upon the bile-ducts in
  Dibranchiata are developed yellowish glandular diverticula, which are
  known as "pancreas," though neither physiologically nor
  morphologically is there any ground for considering either the
  so-called liver or the so-called pancreas as strictly equivalent to
  the glands so denominated in the Vertebrata. In _Nautilus_ the
  equivalents of the pancreatic diverticula of the Dibranchs can be
  traced upon the relatively shorter bile-ducts.

  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Lingual dentition of Cephalopoda. A, A single
  row of lingual teeth of _Nautilus pompilius_ (after Keferstein). B,
  Two rows of lingual teeth of _Sepia officinalis_ (after Troschel). C,
  Lingual teeth of _Eledone cirrhosa_ (after Loven).]

  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Diagram representing a vertical approximately
  median antero-posterior section of _Nautilus pompilius_ (from a
  drawing by A.G. Bourne). The parts which are quite black are the cut
  muscular surfaces of the foot and buccal mass.

    a, The shell.

    b, The nuchal plate, identical with the nuchal cartilage of _Sepia_
    (see fig. 2, b).

    c, The integument covering the visceral hump.

    d, The mantle flap or skirt in the dorsal region where it rests
    against the coil of the shell.

    e, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt resting on the lip of the
    shell represented by the dotted line.

    f, The pallial chamber with two of the four gills.

    g, The vertically cut median portion of the mid-foot (siphon).

    h, The capito-pedal cartilage (see fig. 8).

    i, The valve of the siphon.

    l, The siphuncular pedicle (cut short).

    m, The hood or dorsal enlargement of the annular lobe of the
    fore-foot.

    n, Tentacles of the annular lobe.

    p, Tentacles of inner inferior lobe.

    q, Buccal membrane.

    r, Upper jaw or beak.

    s, Lower jaw or beak.

    t, Lingual ribbon.

    x, The viscero-pericardial sac.

    n.c, Nerve-collar.

    oe, Oesophagus.

    cr, Crop.

    gizz, Gizzard.

    int, Intestine.

    an, Anus.

    nept, Aperture of a nephridial sac.

    r.e, Renal glandular masses on the walls of the afferent branchial
    veins (see fig. 11).

    a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel.

    e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel.

    vt, Ventricle of the heart.]

  Posterior salivary glands are not developed in _Nautilus_, but on each
  side in the wall of the buccal mass is a gland corresponding to the
  anterior salivary gland of the Dibranchiata. No ink-sac is present in
  _Nautilus_.

  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagram to show the relations of the four
  nephridial sacs, the viscero-pericardial sac, and the heart and large
  vessels in _Nautilus_ (drawn by A.G. Bourne).

    neph, neph, on the right side point to the two nephridia of that
    side (the two of the opposite side are not lettered)--each is seen
    to have an independent aperture.

    x is the viscero-pericardial sac, the dotted line indicating its
    backward extension.

    visc. per. apert, marks an arrow introduced into the right aperture
    of the viscero-pericardial sac.

    r.e, r.e, point to the glandular enlarged walls of the afferent
    branchial vessels--two small glandular bodies of the kind are seen
    to project into each nephridial sac, whilst a larger body of the
    same kind depends from each of the four branchial afferent vessels
    into the viscero-pericardial sac.

    v.c, Vena-cava.

    vent, Ventricle of the heart.

    ao, Cephalic aorta (the small abdominal aorta not drawn).

    a.b.v, Branchial vessel.

    e.v.b, Efferent branchial vessel.]

  _Coelom, Blood-vascular System and Excretory Organs._--_Nautilus_ and
  the other Cephalopoda conform to the general Molluscan characters in
  regard to these organs. Whilst the general visceral cavity forms a
  lacunar blood-system or series of narrow spaces, connected with the
  trunks of a well-developed vascular system, that part of the original
  coelom surrounding the heart and known as the Molluscan pericardium is
  shut off from this general blood-lymph system, and communicates,
  directly in _Nautilus_, in the rest through the renal sacs, with the
  exterior. In the Cephalopoda this specialized pericardial cavity is
  particularly large, and has been recognized as distinct from the
  blood-carrying spaces, even by anatomists who have not considered the
  pericardial space of other Mollusca to be thus isolated. The enlarged
  pericardium, which may even take the form of a pair of sacs, has been
  variously named, but is best known as the viscero-pericardial sac or
  chamber. In _Nautilus_ this sac occupies the whole of the
  postero-dorsal surface and a part of the antero-dorsal (see fig. 10,
  x), investing the genital and other viscera which lie below it, and
  having the ventricle of the heart suspended in it. Certain membranes
  forming incomplete septa, and a curious muscular band--the
  pallio-cardiac band--traverse the sac. The four branchial afferent
  veins, which in traversing the walls of the four renal sacs give off,
  as it were, glandular diverticula into those sacs, also give off at
  the same points four much larger glandular masses, which hang freely
  into the viscero-pericardial chamber (fig. 11, r.e). In _Nautilus_ the
  viscero-pericardial sac opens to the exterior directly by a pair of
  apertures, one placed close to the right and one close to the left
  posterior renal aperture (fig. 5, visc.per). This direct opening of
  the pericardial sac to the exterior is an exception to what occurs in
  all other Mollusca. In all other Molluscs the pericardial sac opens
  into the renal organs, and through them or the one renal organ to the
  exterior. In _Nautilus_ there is no opening from the
  viscero-pericardial sac into the renal sacs. Therefore the external
  pore of the viscero-pericardial sac may possibly be regarded as a
  shifting of the reno-pericardial orifice from the actual wall of the
  renal sac to a position alongside of its orifice. Parallel cases of
  such shifting are seen in the varying position of the orifice of the
  ink-bag in Dibranchiata, and in the orifice of the genital ducts of
  Mollusca, which in some few cases (e.g. _Spondylus_) open into the
  renal organs, whilst in other cases they open close by the side of the
  renal organs on the surface of the body. The viscero-pericardial sac
  of the Dibranchs is very large also, and extends into the dorsal
  region. It varies in shape--that is to say, in the extensions of its
  area right and left between the various viscera--in different genera,
  but in the Decapods is largest. In an extension of this chamber is
  placed the ovary of _Sepia_, whilst the ventricle of the heart and the
  branchial hearts and their appendages also lie in it. It is probable
  that water is drawn into this chamber through the renal sacs, since
  sand and other foreign matters are found in it. In all it opens into
  the pair of renal sacs by an orifice on the wall of each, not far from
  the external orifice (fig. 29, y, y'). There does not seem any room
  for doubting that each orifice corresponds to the reno-pericardial
  orifice which we have seen in the Gastropoda, and shall find again in
  the Lamellibranchia.

  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram to show the relations of the heart in
  the Mollusca. (From Gegenbaur.)

    A, Part of the dorsal vascular trunk and transverse trunks of a
    worm.

    B, Ventricle and auricles of _Nautilus_.

    C, Of a Lamellibranch, of _Chiton_, or of _Loligo_.

    D, Of _Octopus_.

    E, Of a Gastropod.

    a, Auricle.

    v, Ventricle.

    ac, Arteria=cephalica=(aorta).

    ai, Arteria abdominalis. The arrows show the direction of the
    blood-current.]

  The circulatory organs, blood-vessels and blood of _Nautilus_ do not
  differ greatly from those of Gastropoda. The ventricle of the heart is
  a four-cornered body, receiving a dilated branchial efferent vessel
  (auricle) at each corner (fig. 11). It gives off a cephalic aorta
  anteriorly, and a smaller abdominal aorta posteriorly. The diagram,
  fig. 12, serves to show how this simple form of heart is related to
  the dorsal vessel of a worm or of an Arthropod, and how by a simple
  flexure of the ventricle (D) and a subsequent suppression of one
  auricle, following on the suppression of one branchia, one may obtain
  the form of heart characteristic of the anisopleurous Gastropoda
  (excepting the Aspidobranchia). The flexed condition of the heart is
  seen in _Octopus_, and is to some extent approached by _Nautilus_, the
  median vessels not presenting that perfect parallelism which is shown
  in the figure (B). The most remarkable feature presented by the heart
  of _Nautilus_ is the possession of four instead of two auricles, a
  feature which is simply related to the metamerism of the branchiae. By
  the left side of the heart of _Nautilus_, attached to it by a
  membrane, and hanging loosely in the viscero-pericardial chamber, is
  the pyriform sac of Owen. This has been shown to be the rudimentary
  left oviduct or sperm-duct, as the case may be (E.R. Lankester and
  A.G. Bourne), the functional right ovi-sac and its duct being attached
  by a membrane to the opposite side of the heart.

  The cephalic and abdominal aortae of _Nautilus_ appear, after running
  to the anterior and posterior extremes of the animal respectively, to
  open into sinus-like spaces surrounding the viscera, muscular masses,
  &c. These spaces are not large, but confined and shallow. Capillaries
  are stated to occur in the integument. In the Dibranchs the arterial
  system is very much more complete; it appears in some cases to end in
  irregular lacunae or sinuses, in other cases in true capillaries which
  lead on into veins. An investigation of these capillaries in the light
  of modern histological knowledge is much needed. From the sinuses and
  capillaries the veins take origin, collecting into a large median
  trunk (the vena cava), which in the Dibranchs as well as in _Nautilus_
  has a ventral (postero-ventral) position, and runs parallel to the
  long axis of the animal. In _Nautilus_ this vena cava gives off at the
  level of the gills four branchial afferent veins (fig. 11, v.c.),
  which pass into the four gills without dilating. In the Dibranchs at a
  similar position the vena cava gives off a right and a left branchial
  afferent vein, each of which, traversing the wall of the corresponding
  renal sac and receiving additional factors, dilates at the base of the
  corresponding branchial plume, forming there a pulsating sac--the
  branchial heart. Attached to each branchial heart is a curious
  glandular body, which may possibly be related to the larger masses
  (fig. 11, r.e) which depend into the viscero-pericardial cavity from
  the branchial afferent veins of _Nautilus_. From the dilated branchial
  heart the branchial afferent vessel proceeds, running up the adpallial
  face of the gill-plume. From each gill-plume the blood passes by the
  branchial efferent vessels to the heart, the two auricles being formed
  by the dilatation of these vessels.

  The blood contains the usual amoeboid corpuscles, and a diffused
  colouring matter--the haemocyanin of Fredericque--which has been found
  also in the blood of _Helix_, and in that of the Arthropods _Homarus_
  and _Limulus_. It is colourless in the oxidized, blue in the
  deoxidized state, and contains copper as a chemical constituent.

  The renal sacs and renal glandular tissue are closely connected with
  the branchial advehent vessels in _Nautilus_ and in the other
  Cephalopoda. The arrangement is such as to render the typical
  relations and form of a renal tube difficult to trace. In accordance
  with the metamerism of _Nautilus_ already noticed, there are two pairs
  of renal organs. Each assumes the form of a sac opening by a pore to
  the exterior. As is usual in renal tubes a glandular and a
  non-glandular portion are distinguished in each sac; these portions,
  however, are not successive parts of a tube, as happens in other
  cases, but they are localized areae of the wall of the sac. The
  glandular renal tissue is, in fact, confined to a tract extending
  along that part of the sac's wall which immediately invests the great
  branchial afferent vein. The vein in this region gives off directly
  from its wall a complete herbage of little venules, which branch and
  anastomose with one another, and are clothed by the glandular
  epithelium of the renal sac. The secretion is accumulated in the sac
  and passed by its aperture to the exterior. Probably the nitrogenous
  excretory product is very rapidly discharged; in _Nautilus_ a
  pink-coloured powder is found accumulated in the renal sacs,
  consisting of calcium phosphate. The presence of this phosphatic
  calculus by no means proves that such was the sole excretion of the
  renal glandular tissue. In _Nautilus_ a glandular growth like that
  rising from the wall of the branchial vessel into its corresponding
  renal sac, but larger in size, depends from each branchial afferent
  vessel into the viscero-pericardial sac and forms the pericardial
  gland--probably identical with the "appendage" of the branchial hearts
  of Dibranchs.

  The chief difference, other than that of number, between the renal
  organs of the Dibranchs and those of _Nautilus_, is the absence of the
  accessory growths depending into the viscero-pericardial space just
  mentioned, and, of more importance, the presence in the former of a
  pore leading from the renal sac into the viscero-pericardial sac (y,
  y' in fig. 29). The external orifices of the renal organs are also
  more prominent in Dibranchs than in _Nautilus_, being raised on
  papillae (np in fig. 29; r in fig. 25). In _Sepia_ the two renal sacs
  give off each a diverticulum dorsalwards, which unites with its fellow
  and forms a great median renal chamber, lying between the ventral
  portions of the renal organs and the viscero-pericardial chamber. In
  _Loligo_ the fusion of the two renal organs to form one sac is still
  more obvious, since the ventral portions are united. In _Octopus_ the
  renal sacs are quite separate.

  _Gonads and Genital Ducts._--In _Nautilus_it has been shown by E. Ray
  Lankester and A.G. Bourne that the genital ducts of both sexes are
  paired right and left, the left duct being rudimentary and forming the
  "pyriform appendage," described by Sir R. Owen as adhering by
  membranous attachment to the ventricle of the heart, and shown by W.
  Keferstein to communicate by a pore with the exterior. The ovary
  (female gonad) or the testis (male gonad) lies in _Nautilus_, as in
  the Dibranchs, in a distinct cavity walled off from the other viscera,
  near the centro-dorsal region. This chamber is formed by the coelomic
  or peritoneal wall; the space enclosed is originally part of the
  coelom, and in _Sepia_ and _Loligo_ is, in the adult, part of the
  viscero-pericardial chamber. In _Octopus_ it is this genital chamber
  which communicates by a right and a left canal with the renal sac, and
  is the only representative of pericardium. The ovary or testis is
  itself a growth from the inner wall of this chamber, which it only
  partly fills. In _Nautilus_ the right genital duct, which is
  functional, is a simple continuation to the pore on the postero-dorsal
  surface of the membranous walls of the capsule in which lies the ovary
  or the testis, as the case may be. The gonad itself appears to
  represent a single median or bilateral organ.

  The ovary forms a large projection into the genital coelom, and the
  coelomic epithelium is deeply invaginated into the mass of the gonad,
  so as to constitute an ovarian cavity communicating with the coelom by
  a narrow aperture. The ova originate in the epithelium, migrate below
  it and then, as they enlarge, project into the ovarian cavity, pushing
  the epithelium before them. Each ovum is surrounded by a follicular
  epithelium which is nourished by numerous blood-vessels, and which
  penetrates into the surface of the ovum in numerous folds. When
  mature, the ovum is contained in a membrane or chorion with a
  micropyle, and escapes by dehiscence of the follicle into the genital
  coelom and duct. In its passage to the exterior the ovum passes a
  glandular structure on the wall of the genital capsule, which probably
  secretes the gelatinous substance enclosing the eggs. In addition to
  this internal gland there are other accessory glands, which are not
  related to the genital duct or sac but are differentiations of the
  wall of the pallial cavity, and occur on the inner wall of the pallium
  in _Nautilus_, on the somatic wall in Dibranchiata. In _Nautilus_ they
  form a continuous mass. These produce the external envelopes of the
  eggs.

  In the male the testis is a specialized portion of the wall of the
  genital coelom, and has a structure comparable to that of the ovary.
  The spermatozoa pass through an orifice from the cavity of the testis
  to the genital capsule, and thence to the spermiduct. The spermiduct
  is provided with a glandular pouch, and opens into a terminal
  reservoir known as Needham's sac or the spermatophore sac. The
  function of this pouch is to form the spermatophore, which is an
  elastic tube formed of structureless secretion and invaginated into
  itself. The deeper part contains the spermatozoa, the external part is
  called the connective, and is usually much contracted and spirally
  coiled. When the spermatophore is expelled into the water the
  connective is extended and evaginated, and the sac containing the
  sperms bursts. In _Nautilus_ the spermatophore when uncoiled is a
  little over 30 mm. in length. These spermatophores are somewhat
  similar to those formed in certain pulmonate Gastropods.

  The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In _Nautilus_ they are
  laid separately, each being about 4 cm. long and contained in two
  thick shells, the outer of which is partly open.

  [Illustration: Fig 13.--Nervous system of _Nautilus pompilius_ (from
  Genebaur, after Owen).

    t, t, Ganglion-like enlargements on nerves passing from the pedal
    ganglion to the inner series of tentacles.

    t', Nerves to the tentacles of the outer or annular lobe.

    b, Pedal ganglion-pair

    a, Cerebral ganglion-pair.

    c, Pleuro-visceral ganglionic band (fused pleural and visceral
    ganglion-pairs).

    d, Genital ganglion placed on the course of the large visceral
    nerve, just before it gives off its branchial and its osphradial
    branches.

    m, Nerves from the pleural ganglion to the mantle-skirt.]

  _Nervous System._--_Nautilus_, like the other Cephalopoda, exhibits a
  great concentration of the typical Molluscan ganglia, as shown in fig.
  13. The ganglia take on a band-like form, and are but little
  differentiated from their commissures and connectives--an archaic
  condition reminding us of _Chiton_. The special optic outgrowth of the
  cerebral ganglion, the optical ganglion (fig. 13, o), is
  characteristic. The cerebral ganglion-pair (a) lying above the
  oesophagus is connected with two suboesophageal ganglion-pairs, of
  band-like form. The anterior of these is the pedal _b, b_, and
  supplies the circumoral lobes and tentacles, and the funnel, a fact
  which proves the pedal origin of these organs. The hinder band is the
  visceral and pleural pair fused; from its pleural portion nerves pass
  to the mantle, from its visceral portion nerves to the branchiae and
  genital ganglion (fig. 13, d), and in immediate connexion with the
  latter is a nerve to the osphradium or olfactory papilla. A labial
  commissure arises by a double root from the cerebral ganglia and gives
  off a stomatogastric commissure, which passes under the pharynx
  immediately behind the radula and bears a buccal ganglion on either
  side.

  _Special Sense-Organs._--_Nautilus_ possesses a pair of osphradial
  papillae (fig. 4, olf) corresponding in position and innervation to
  Spengel's organ placed at the base of the ctenidia (branchiae) in all
  classes of Mollusca. This organ has not been detected in other
  Cephalopoda. _Nautilus_ possesses other olfactory organs in the region
  of the head. Just below the eye is a small triangular process (not
  seen in our figures), having the structure of a shortened and
  highly-modified tentacle and sheath. By A. Valenciennes, who is
  followed by W. Keferstein, this is regarded as an olfactory organ. The
  large nerve which runs to this organ originates from the point of
  juncture of the pedal with the optic ganglion. The lamelliform organ
  upon the inner inferior tentacular lobe of _Nautilus_ is possibly also
  olfactory in function. In Dibranchs behind the eye is a pit or open
  canal supplied by a nerve corresponding in origin to the olfactory
  nerve of _Nautilus_ above mentioned. Possibly the sense of taste
  resides in certain processes within the mouth of _Nautilus_ and other
  Cephalopoda.

  The otocysts of _Nautilus_ were discovered by J.D. Macdonald. Each
  lies at the side of the head, ventral to the eye, resting on the
  capito-pedal cartilage, and supported by the large auditory nerve
  which apparently arises from the pedal ganglion but originates in the
  cerebral. It has the form of a small sac, 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, and
  contains whetstone-shaped crystals, such as are known to form the
  otoliths of other Mollusca.

  The eye of _Nautilus_ is among the most interesting structures of that
  remarkable animal. No other animal which has the same bulk and general
  elaboration of organization has so simple an eye as that of
  _Nautilus_. When looked at from the surface no metallic lustre, no
  transparent coverings, are presented by it. It is simply a slightly
  projecting hemispherical box like a kettle-drum, half an inch in
  diameter, its surface looking like that of the surrounding integument,
  whilst in the middle of the drum-membrane is a minute hole (fig. 3,
  u). Sir R. Owen very naturally thought that some membrane had covered
  this hole in life, and had been ruptured in the specimen studied by
  him. It, however, appears from the researches of V. Hensen that the
  hole is a normal aperture leading into the globe of the eye, which is
  accordingly filled by sea-water during life. There is no dioptric
  apparatus in _Nautilus_, and in place of refracting lens and cornea we
  have actually here an arrangement for forming an image on the
  principle of "the pin-hole camera." There is no other eye known in the
  whole animal kingdom which is so constructed. The wall of the
  eye-globe is tough, and the cavity is lined solely by the naked
  retina, which is bathed by sea-water on one surface and receives the
  fibres of the optic nerve on the other (see fig. 14, A). As in other
  Cephalopods (e.g. fig. 33, Ri, Re, p), the retina consists of two
  layers of cells, separated by a layer of dark pigment. The most
  interesting consideration connected with this eye of _Nautilus_ is
  found when the further facts are noted--(1) that the elaborate
  lens-bearing eyes of Dibranchiata pass through a stage of development
  in which they have the same structure as the eye of
  _Nautilus_--namely, are open sacs (fig. 34); and (2) that amongst
  other Mollusca examples of cephalic eyes can be found which in the
  adult condition are, like the eye of _Nautilus_ and the developing eye
  of Dibranchs, simple pits of the integument, the cells of which are
  surrounded by pigment and connected with the filaments of an optic
  nerve. Such is the structure of the eye of the limpet (_Patella_), and
  in such a simple eye we obtain the clearest demonstration of the fact
  that the retina of the Molluscan cephalic eye, like that of the
  Arthropod cephalic eye and unlike that of the vertebrate myelonic eye,
  is essentially a modified area of the general epiderm, and that the
  sensitiveness of its cells to the action of light and their relation
  to nerve-filaments is only a specialization and intensifying of a
  property common to the whole epiderm of the surface of the body. What,
  however, strikes us as especially remarkable is that the simple form
  of a pit, which in _Patella_ serves to accumulate a secretion which
  acts as a refractive body, should in _Nautilus_ be glorified and
  raised to the dignity of an efficient optical apparatus. In all other
  Mollusca, starting as we may suppose from the follicular or pit-like
  condition, the eye has proceeded to acquire the form of a _closed_
  sac, the cavity of the closed vesicle being then filled partially or
  completely by a refractive body (lens) secreted by its walls (fig. 14,
  B). This is the condition attained in most Gastropoda. It presents a
  striking contrast to the simple Arthropod eye, where, in consequence
  of the existence of a dense exterior cuticle, the eye does not form a
  vesicle, and the lens is always part of that cuticle.

  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Diagrams of Sections of the Eyes of Mollusca.

    A, _Nautilus_ (and _Patella_).

    B, Gastropod (_Limax_ or _Helix_).

    C, Dibranchiate Cephalopod (Oigopsid).

    Pal, Eyelid (outermost fold).

    Co, Cornea (second fold).

    Ir, Iris (third fold).

    Int 1,2,3,4, Different parts of the integument.

    l, Deep portion of the lens.

    l^1, Outer portion of the lens

    Co.ep, Ciliary body.

    R, Retina.

    N.op, Optic nerve.

    G.op, Optic ganglion.

    x, Inner layer of the retina.

    N.S., Nervous stratum of the retina. (From Balfour, after
    Grenacher.)]

  The development of _Nautilus_ is still entirely unknown. Dr Arthur
  Willey, during his sojourn in the East Indies, made special efforts to
  obtain fertilized eggs, both by offering rewards to the native
  fishermen and collectors and by keeping the living adults in
  captivity, but without success.

  _Phylogeny and Classification._--As _Nautilus_ is the only living
  genus of the Tetrabranchiata, our knowledge of all the rest is based
  upon the study of their fossil shells. A vast number of species of
  shell similar in structure to that of _Nautilus_ are known, chiefly
  from Primary and Secondary formations. These are divided into two
  sub-orders by differences in the form and structure of the initial
  chamber. In the Nautiloidea this chamber has the form of an obtuse
  cone, on the apex of which is a slit-like mark or cicatrix, elongated
  dorso-ventrally and placed opposite to the blind end of the siphuncle,
  which indents the front wall of the initial chamber but does not enter
  its cavity. In the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the initial chamber
  is inflated, and is spheroidal, oval or pyriform in shape, with no
  cicatrix, and separated from the first air-chamber by a constriction.
  The siphuncle also commences with a dilatation which deeply indents
  the front wall of the initial chamber, called the protoconch, but does
  not penetrate into its cavity. Munier-Chalmas has shown that the
  cavity of the protoconch is traversed by a tubular organ, the
  "prosiphon," which does not communicate with the true siphuncle, the
  place of which it is supposed to take in the early life of the animal.
  It is generally held, as suggested by Alpheus Hyatt, that the initial
  chamber of the Nautiloidea corresponds not to the protoconch of the
  Ammonoids, but to the second chamber of the latter, and that there
  existed in the young Nautiloids a true initial chamber, a protoconch
  which was either uncalcified or deciduous. The shell of the living
  nautilus does not decide this question, as its early stages are
  unknown, and there is a little vacuity in the centre of the spirally
  coiled shell which may have been originally occupied by the true
  protoconch.

  The septa in the Nautiloidea are generally concave towards the
  aperture of the shell, their curvature therefore directed backwards
  (fig. 1); in the Ammonoidea, on the other hand, the convexity is
  usually towards the aperture, the curvature therefore directed
  forwards. The lines along which the edges of the septa are united to
  the shell are known as "sutures," and these in the Nautiloidea are
  simply curved or slightly lobed, whereas in the Ammonoidea they are
  folded in various degrees of complexity; the projections of the suture
  towards the mouth of the shell are called saddles, those in the
  opposite direction lobes. The siphuncle in the _Nautilus_ pierces the
  centres of the septa, and in fossil Nautiloids it is usually central
  or sub-central. In a few cases it is marginal, and in that case may be
  external, i.e. ventral, or internal, i.e. dorsal. In Ammonoids the
  siphuncle is always marginal, and usually external. Its walls in the
  living _Nautilus_ are strengthened by the deposit of calcareous
  granules, and in some fossil forms the wall is completely calcified.
  But this proper calcified wall is quite distinct from calcareous tubes
  surrounding the siphuncle, which are developed from the septa. In the
  pearly nautilus each septum is prolonged backwards at the point where
  it is pierced by the siphuncle, forming a shelly tube somewhat like
  the neck of a bottle. In many fossil forms these septal necks are
  continued from the septum from which they arise to the next, so that
  the siphuncle is enclosed in a complete secondary calcareous tube. In
  the majority of Nautiloids the septal necks are directed backwards,
  and they are said to be retrosiphonate. In the majority of the
  Ammonoids the septal necks are continued forwards from the septa to
  which they belong, and such forms are termed prosiphonate.

  The Tetrabranchiata were most abundant in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
  periods. The Nautiloidea are the most ancient, appearing first in the
  Upper Cambrian, the genera being most numerous in the Palaeozoic
  period, and comparatively few surviving into the Secondary. On the
  other hand, the Ammonoidea are scarce in Palaeozoic formations, being
  represented in deposits earlier than the Carboniferous only by
  comparatively simple types, such as _Clymenia_ and _Goniatites_. In
  the Secondary period Ammonoids were very abundant, both in genera and
  species and in individuals, and with few local exceptions none are
  known to have survived even to the commencement of the Tertiary. In
  the widest sense the genus _Nautilus_ has existed since the Ordovician
  (Silurian) period, but the oldest types are not properly to be placed
  in the same genus as the existing form. Even with this qualification
  the genus is very ancient, shells very similar to those of the living
  _Nautilus_ being found in the Upper Cretaceous.

  It has been maintained by some zoologists that the Ammonoidea were
  Dibranchiate, though it would not follow from this that the shell was,
  therefore, internal. They are, however, generally classed with the
  Tetrabranchiata, and the absence of all evidence of the possession of
  an ink-sac is in favour of this view. There can be little doubt that
  they gave rise to the Dibranchiata.

  About 2500 fossil species are included in the Nautiloidea, but only a
  few species of the genus _Nautilus_ survive. Some of the fossil forms
  are very large, the shell reaching a length of 2 metres, or 6 ft. 6
  in. Of the Ammonoidea more than 5000 species have been described, and
  some of the coiled forms are 70 cm., or nearly 2 ft. 6 in. in
  diameter.

  Associated with various forms of Ammonoids there have been found
  peculiar horny or calcified plates, sometimes contained within the
  body-chamber of the shell, sometimes wholly detached. The most typical
  form of these structures has been named _aptychus._ It consists of two
  bilaterally symmetrical halves, of somewhat semicircular shape, and
  attached to one another by their straight inner margins, like a pair
  of doors. In some cases the aptychus is thin and horny, but more often
  it is thick and calcified, in which case the principal layer has a
  peculiar cellular structure. The surface may be smooth or sculptured,
  and one side is usually marked by concentric lines of growth. Another
  type is similar, except that the two halves are united in the middle
  line; bodies of this character are called _synaptychus_; they occur in
  the body-chamber of species of _Scaphites_. Another form called
  _anaptychus_ consists of a thin horny undivided plate which is
  concentrically striated. This is associated with species of
  _Ammonites_ and _Goniatites_.

  Many theories have been proposed in explanation of these structures.
  According to Sir Richard Owen, the aptychus is an operculum developed
  in a part of the body corresponding to the hood of _Nautilus_. E. Ray
  Lankester suggested that the double plate was borne on the surface of
  the nidamental gland, with the form and sculpturing of which in
  _Nautilus_ it closely agrees. On this view the aptychus would occur
  only in females. The most recent view is that these structures could
  not have been opercula because of their constant position inside the
  body-chamber, and that they were not external secretions at all, but a
  calcified internal cartilage situated at the base of the funnel.

  _Classification of Tetrabranchiata._--Cephalopoda in which the mantle
  is entirely enclosed by a multilocular siphunculated shell, which may
  or may not be coiled. Only the last compartment of the shell occupied
  by the body of the animal. Numerous pedal tentacles around the mouth,
  which are retractile within sheaths. Halves of the funnel not united.
  Two pairs of ctenidia, and two pairs of renal tubes without
  reno-pericardial apertures. Pericardium opens directly to exterior.
  Cephalic cartilage wholly ventral. Optic vesicles with apertures,
  without crystalline lens.

  _Sub-order 1. Nautiloidea_.--Initial chamber not inflated, with
  dorso-ventral cicatrix at extremity.

    Fam. 1. _Orthoceratidae_. Shell straight or slightly curved, with a
    simple aperture, large terminal chamber and cylindrical siphuncle.
    _Orthoceras_, Silurian to Trias. _Baltoceras_, Silurian.

    Fam. 2. _Actinoceratidae_. Shell straight or slightly curved, with
    wide siphuncle contracted at level of septa. _Actinoceras_, Silurian
    to Carboniferous. _Discosorus_, Silurian. _Huronia_, Silurian.
    _Loxoceras_, Silurian to Carboniferous.

    Fam. 3. _Endoceratidae_. Shell straight, with wide margina
    siphuncle, necks produced into tubes fitting into one another.
    _Endoceras_, Silurian.

    Fam. 4. _Gomphoceratidae_. Shell globular, straight or arcuate,
    aperture contracted. _Gomphoceras_, Silurian. _Phragmoceras_,
    Silurian.

    Fam. 5. _Ascoceratidae_. Shell straight, ampulliform, summit
    truncate, terminal chamber extending nearly whole length of shell
    ventrally. _Ascoceras_, Silurian. _Glossoceras_, Silurian.

    Fam. 6. _Poterioceratidae_. Shell straight or curved, fusiform,
    aperture simple, siphuncle contracted at septa. _Poterioceras_,
    Silurian to Carboniferous. _Streptoceras_, Silurian.

    Fam. 7. _Cyrtoceratidae_. Shell slightly curved, aperture simple,
    siphuncle wide, septa approximated. _Cyrtoceras_, Devonian.

    Fam. 8. _Lituitidae_. Shell coiled in one plane with the terminal
    part uncoiled, aperture contracted. _Lituites_, Silurian.
    _Ophidioceras_, Silurian.

    Fam. 9. _Trochoceratidae_. Shell helicoidally coiled, dextral or
    sinistral, the last whorl generally uncoiled. _Trochoceras_,
    Devonian. _Adelphoceras_, Devonian.

    Fam. 10. _Nautilidae_. Shell coiled in one plane, aperture wide and
    simple, siphuncle central. _Nautilus_, recent. _Trocholites_,
    Silurian. _Gyroceras_, Silurian to Carboniferous. _Hercoceras_,
    Silurian. _Ptenoceras_, Devonian. _Discites_, Carboniferous.

    Fam. 11. _Bactritidae_. Shell straight, conical, siphuncle narrow
    and marginal, necks long, infundibuliform, sutures undulating.
    _Bactrites_, Silurian and Devonian.

  _Sub-order 2. Ammonitoidea_,--Initial chamber spheroidal; siphuncle
  narrow and simple; septa convex towards aperture; sutures complex.

  _Tribe 1. Retrosiphonata_.--Siphuncular necks projecting behind the
  septa as in Nautiloidea. Sutures form simple undulations. Occur
  exclusively in Palaeozoic strata from Devonian upwards.

    Fam. 1. _Goniatitidae_. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures and
    ventral siphuncle. _Goniatites_, Devonian and Carboniferous.
    _Anarcestes_, Devonian.

    Fam. 2. _Clymeniidae_. Shell nautiloid, with simple sutures,
    siphuncle dorsal, that is, internal. _Clymenia_, Upper Devonian.

  _Tribe 2. Prosiphonata._--Siphuncular necks projecting in front of the
  septa. Sutures form deeply indented lobes and saddles.

    Fam. 1. _Arcestidae_. Globular and smooth or nearly smooth, with
    reduced umbilicus, terminal chamber very deep, an aptychus present.
    _Popanoceras_, Permian. _Cyclolobus_, Permian, _Arcestes_, Trias.
    _Lobites_, Trias.

    Fam. 2. _Tropitidae_. Shells globular, but having radiating and
    tuberculated costae. _Thalassoceras_, Permian. _Tropites_, Trias.
    _Sibirites_, Trias.

    Fam. 3. _Ceratitidae_. Shells coiled, with a large umbilicus,
    terminal chamber short, sutures with simple saddles. _Trachyceras_,
    Upper Trias. _Ceratites_, Trias. _Dinarites_, Trias.

  Some genera with helicoidal shells are related to these coiled forms,
  viz. _Cochloceras_, Trias; also some straight forms, e.g.
  _Rhab-doccras_, Trias.

    Fam. 4. _Pinacoceratidae_. Shell compressed, smooth, terminal
    chamber short, sutures very complicated, convex. _Pinacoceras_,
    Trias.

    Fam. 5. _Phylloceratidae_. Shell coiled, the whorls overlapping each
    other, sutures formed of numerous lobes and saddles. _Phytloceras_,
    Jurassic.

    Fam. 6. _Lytoceratidae_. Shell discoid, whorls loosely united or
    uncoiled, sutures deeply indented, but with only three saddles and
    lobes. _Lytoceras_, Jurassic and Cretaceous. _Macroscaphites_,
    Cretaceous. _Reunites_, Cretaceous. _Ptychoeeras_, Cretaceous.
    _Turrilites_, Cretaceous. _Baculites_, Cretaceous.

    Fam. 7. _Ammonitidae_. Shell coiled, with narrow whorls which do not
    embrace one another, aperture simple, a horny anaptychus present.
    _Ammonites_, Jurassic. _Arietites_, Jurassic. _Aegoceras_, Lias.

    Fam. 8. _Harpoceratidae_. Shell discord and flattened, with a
    carinated border, aperture provided with lateral projections, a
    calcareous aptychus, formed of two pieces. _Harpoceras_, Jurassic.
    _Oppelia_, Jurassic. _Lissoceras_, Jurassic and Cretaceous.

    Fam. 9. _Amaltheidae_. Shell flattened, with a prominent carina
    continued anteriorly into a rostrum. _Amaltheus_, Lias.
    _Cardioceras_, Jurassic. _Schloenbachia_, Cretaceous.

    Fam. 10. _Stephanoceratidae_. Shell not carinated, but with
    radiating costae, which are often bifurcated, aperture often with
    lateral projections which contract it, aptychus formed of two
    pieces. _Stephanoceras, Morphoceras, Pensphinctes, Peltoceras_,
    Jurassic. _Hoplites_, Cretaceous. _Acanthoceras_, Cretaceous.
    _Cosmoceras_, Jurassic. Various more or less uncoiled forms are
    related to this family, viz. _Scaphites, Crioceras_, Cretaceous.

ORDER 2. DIBRANCHIATA (= Holosiphona, Acetabulifera)

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--_Sepia officinalis_, L., about ½ natural size,
as seen when dead, the long prehensile arms being withdrawn from the
pouches at the side of the head, in which they are carried during life
when not actually in use. a. Neck; b, lateral fin of the mantle-sac; c,
the eight shorter arms of the fore-foot; d, the two long prehensile
arms; e, the eyes.]

_Characters_.--Cephalopoda in which the inflected margins of the
epipodia are fused so as to form a complete tubular siphon (fig. 24, i).
The circumoral lobes of the fore-foot carry suckers disposed upon them
in rows, _not_ tentacles (see figs. 15, 24). There is a single pair of
typical ctenidia (fig. 25) acting as gills (hence Dibranchiata), and a
single pair of renal organs, opening by apertures right and left of the
median anus (fig. 25, r) and by similar internal pores into the
pericardial chamber, which consequently does not open directly to the
surface as in _Nautilus_. The oviducts are sometimes paired right and
left (Octopoda, Oigopsida), sometimes that of one side only is developed
(Myopsida). The sperm-duct is always single except, according to W.
Keferstein, in _Eledone moschata._

A plate-like shell is developed in a closed sac formed by the mantle
(figs 20, 21), except in the Octopoda, which have none, and in _Spirula_
(fig. 17, D) and the extinct _Belemnitidae_, &c., which have a small
chambered shell resembling that of _Nautilus_ with or without the
addition of plate-like and cylindrical accessory developments (fig. 17,
A, C, fig. 19).

The pair of cephalic eyes are highly-developed vesicles with a
refractive lens (fig. 33), cornea and lid-folds,--the vesicle being in
the embryo, an open sac like that of _Nautilus_ (fig. 34). Osphradia are
not present, but cephalic olfactory organs are recognized. One or two
pairs of large salivary glands with long ducts are present. An ink-sac
formed as a diverticulum of the rectum and opening near the anus is
present in all Dibranchiata (fig. 25, t), and has been detected even in
the fossil _Belemnitidae._ Branchial hearts are developed on the two
branchial afferent blood-vessels (fig. 28, _vc'_, _vi_).

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Decapodous Cephalopods.

  A, _Cheiroteuthis Veranyi_, d'Orb. (from the Mediterranean).

  B, _Thysanoteuthis rhombus_, Troschel (from Messina).

  C, _Loligopsis cyclura_, Fér. and d'Orb. (from the Atlantic Ocean).]

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Internal Shells of Cephalopoda.

  A, _Conoteutliis dupiniana_, d'Orb. (from the Neocomian of France).

  B, Shell _Sepia orbigniana_. Fér. (Mediterranean).

  C, Shell of _Spirulirostra Bellardii_, d'Orb. (from the Miocene of
  Turin). The specimen is cut so as to show in section the chambered
  shell and the laminated "guard" deposited upon its surface.

  D, Shell of _Splrula laevis_, Gray (New Zealand).]

In the Dibranchiata the shell shows various stages of degeneration,
culminating in its complete disappearance in _Octopus_. As in other
Mollusca, there is a tendency in Cephalopods for the mantle to extend
over the outside of the shell from its edges, and when these secondary
mantle-folds entirely cover the shell and meet or fuse together the
shell is surrounded by the mantle both externally and internally, and is
said to be internal, though it remains always a cuticular structure
external to the epidermis. This procebs is generally accompanied by a
reduction of the size of the shell in comparison with that of the body,
so that the relations of the two are gradually reversed, the body
outgrows its house and instead of the mantle being enclosed by the
shell, the shell is enclosed by the mantle. The earliest stage of this
process is shown in the recent _Spirula,_ though it is perhaps not
impossible that in some of the later fossil Ammonoids the shell was
becoming more and more internal. The shell of _Spirula_ (fig. 18) is
coiled somewhat like that of _Nautilus_, but the coils are not in
contact, the direction of the coil is endogastric or ventral instead of
exogastric, and the shell is very much smaller than the body. Like that
of _Nautilus_ it is divided by septa and traversed by a siphuncle. The
relation of the animal to the terminal chamber is as in _Nautilus,_ but
the body extends far beyond the aperture, and folds of the mantle grow
up over the shell and cover it everywhere except part of the dorsal and
ventral surfaces.

[Illustration: After Chun, from Lankester's _Treatise an Zoology_

  FIG. 18.--_Spirula._

    A, Dorsal aspect.

    B, Ventral aspect.

    a, Arms.

    e, Eyes.

    fi, Fins.

    fu, Funnel.

    pa, Mantle.

    po, Posterior fossa.

    sh, Shell.

    te, Tentacular arms.

    td, Terminal pallial disk]

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Digram of shell Belemnite (after Phillips). r.
Horny pen or "proostracum": A, conical cavity or "alveolus," in which
the chambered "phragmacone" (p) is contained: g, "guard," or "rostrum."]

The next modification in the enclosed shell is the addition to it of
secondary deposits of calcareous matter, by the inner surface of the
shell-sac. Successive layers are deposited on the posterior part of the
original shell, whether coiled or straight, and these layers form a
conical mass, which may attain great thickness. A somewhat coiled shell
with such a deposit is seen in _Spirulirostra_ (fig. 17, C) of the
Miocene. In the next stage of modification secondary secretion forms a
long and broad projection of the dorsal lip of the aperture; this is
well developed in the belemnites (fig. 19). Thus in these modified
shells three parts are to be distinguished: the original septate shell,
which has been called the phragmacone; the posterior conical deposit,
called the rostrum or guard; and the anterior somewhat flat projection,
called the proostracum. In the living Dibranchiata other than _Spirula_
the phragmacone and rostrum have become very rudimentary. The shell of
_Sepia_ (fig. 20) consists almost entirely of the proostracum, the
little ventral hollow posteriorly representing the phragmacone, and the
posterior pointed projection, the rostrum. In the _Oigopsida_ the shell
is represented by a proostracum which is no longer calcified by forms a
chitinous plume or gladuius, and a similar rudiment occurs in
_Loliginidac_ (fig. 21) and _Sepiolidae_. Lastly, in the Octopoda the
shell is represented only by small chitinous rudiments to which the
retractor muscles of the head and funnel are attached; these are paired
in _Octopus_, unpaired in other cases as in _Cirrhoteuthis_.

[Illustration: FIG. 20. FIG. 21. FIG. 20.--The calcareous internal shell
of _Sepia officinalis, _the so-called cuttle-bone, a, Lateral expansion;
b, anterior cancellated region; c, laminated region, the laminae
enclosing air.]

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--The horny internal shell or gladius or pen of
_Lohgo_.]

The early appearance of the sac of the mantle in which the shell is
enclosed has led to an erroneous identification of this sac with the
primitive shell-sac or shell-gland of the Molluscan embryo. The first
appearance of the shell-sac in Dibranchiata is shown in figs. 35, 36.
Its formation as an open upgrowth of the centro-dorsal area, and the
fact that it appears and disappears without closing in _Argonauta_ and
_Octopus_, was demonstrated by E. Ray Lankester.

[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The Argonaut in life. (After Lacaze-Duthiers)
Tr. Float: Br.a, anterior arms: Br p, posterior arms: V, the expanded
portion of them, once called the sails; B, the beak; C, the shell; En,
the Funnel.]

In _Argonauta_ (the paper nautilus) the female only possesses a shell,
in which the body is contained; but this is not homologous with the
true shell in other cases; it is a structure _sui generis_ secreted by
the expanded arms of the dorsal pair which are closely applied to it on
either side (fig. 22).

  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Head and circumoral processes of the
  fore-foot of _Onychoteuthis_ (from Owen).

    a, Neck.

    b, Eye.

    c, The eight short arms.

    d, Long prehensile arms, the clavate extremities of which are
    provided with suckers at e, and with a double row of hooks beyond at
    f. The temporary conjunction of the arms by means of the suckers
    enables them to act in combination.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Male of _Ocythoe catenulata_, Steenstrup
  (_Octopus carena_, Ver.), showing the hectocotylized arm. (From
  Gegenbaur.)

    t^1, t^2, t^3, t^4, The first, second, third and fourth arms or
    processes of the fore-foot.

    h, The third arm of the right side hectocotylized.

    x, The apical sac of the hectocotylized arm.

    y, The filament which issues from the sac when development is
    complete.

    i, The siphon.]

  _Head, Foot, Mantle and Mantle-cavity._--If we now compare the
  fore-foot of the Dibranchiata with that of _Nautilus_, we find in the
  first place a more simple arrangement of its lobes, which are either
  four or five pairs of tapering processes (called "arms"), arranged in
  a series around the buccal cone, and a substitution of suckers for
  tentacles on the surface of these lobes (figs. 15 and 24). The most
  dorsally placed pair of arms, corresponding to the two sides of the
  hood of _Nautilus_, are in reality the most anterior, and are termed
  the first pair. In the Octopoda there are four pairs of these arms
  (fig. 38), in the Decapoda five pairs, of which the fourth is greatly
  elongated (figs. 15, 16). In _Sepia_, _Sepiola_ and _Rossia_, each of
  these long arms is withdrawn into a pouch beside the head, and is only
  ejected for the purpose of prehension. In _Loligo_ they are completely
  retractile, very slightly so in the majority of the Oigopsida, and in
  _Rhynchoteuthis_ they are united to form a beak-like appendage. A
  gradual reduction of the tentacular arms can be seen in the Decapoda,
  leading to their total absence in Octopoda; thus in _Leachia_,
  _Chaunoteuthis_ and others these arms are reduced to mere stumps. In
  some _Cheiroteuthidae_ and _Cranchiidae_ the ordinary or sessile arms,
  especially the dorsal pairs, are reduced. In the Octopoda they are not
  unfrequently connected by a web, and form an efficient swimming-bell,
  e.g. in _Cirrhoteuthidae_ and _Amphuretidae_. The suckers are placed
  on the adoral surface of the arms, and may be in one, two or four
  rows, and very numerous. In place of suckers in some genera, e.g.
  _Veranya_, we find on certain arms or parts of the arms horny hooks;
  in other cases a hook rises from the centre of each sucker. The hooks
  on the long arms of _Onychoteuthis_ are drawn in fig. 23. In various
  species of _Cheiroteuthis_ the suckers on the tentacular arms are very
  feeble, but the bottom of the cup is covered by a number of
  anastomosed epithelial filaments which are used as a fishing-net. The
  fore-foot, with its apparatus of suckers and hooks, is in the
  Dibranchiata essentially a prehensile apparatus, though the whole
  series of arms in the Octopoda serve as swimming organs, and in many
  (e.g. the common octopus or poulp) the sucker-bearing surface is used
  as a crawling organ.

  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--View of the postero-ventral surface of a male
  _Sepia_, obtained by cutting longitudinally the firm mantle-skirt and
  drawing the divided halves apart. This figure is strictly comparable
  with fig. 4. (From Gegenbaur.)

    C, The head.

    J, The mid-foot or siphon, which has been cut open so as to display
    the valve i.

    R, The glandular tissue of the left nephridium or renal-sac, which
    has been cut open (see fig. 29).

    P, P, The lateral fins of the mantle-skirt.

    Br, The single pair of branchiae (ctenidia).

    a, The anus--immediately below it is the opening of the ink-bag.

    c, Cartilaginous socket in the siphon to receive c', the
    cartilaginous knob of the mantle-skirt--the two constituting the
    "pallial hinge apparatus" characteristic of Decapoda, not found in
    Octopoda.

    g, The azygos genital papilla and aperture.

    'i, Valve of the siphon (possibly the rudimentary hind-foot)

    m, Muscular band connected with the fore-foot and mid-foot (siphon)
    and identical with the muscular mass k in fig. 3.

    r, Renal papillae, carrying the apertures of the nephridia.

    v.br, Branchial efferent blood-vessel.

    v br', Bulbous enlargements of the branchial blood-vessels (see figs
    28, 29).

    t, Ink-bag]

  In the males of the Dibranchiata one of the arms is more or less
  modified in connexion with the reproductive function, and is called
  the "hectocotylized arm." This name is derived from the condition
  assumed by the arm in those cases in which its modification is carried
  out to the greatest extent. These cases are those of the Octopods
  _Argonauta argo_ and _Ocythoe catenulata_ (fig. 24). In the males of
  these the third arm (on the left side in _Argonauta_, on the right
  side in _Ocythoe_) is found before the breeding season to be
  represented by a globular sac of integument. This sac bursts, and from
  it issues an arm larger than its neighbours, having a small sac at its
  extremity in _Ocythoe_ (fig. 24. x), from which subsequently a long
  filament issues. Before copulation the male charges this arm with the
  spermatophores or packets of spermatozoa removed from its generative
  orifice beneath the mantle-skirt, and during coitus the arm becomes
  detached and is left adhering to the female by means of its suckers. A
  new arm is formed at the cicatrix before the next breeding season. The
  female, being much larger than the male, swims away with the detached
  arm lodged beneath her mantle-skirt. There, in a way which is not
  understood, the fertilization of the eggs is effected. Specimens of
  the female _Ocythoë_ with the detached arm adherent were examined by
  Cuvier, who mistook the arm for a parasitic worm and gave to it the
  name _Hectocotylus_. Accordingly, the correspondingly modified arms of
  other Cephalopoda are said to be hectocotylized. J.J.S. Steenstrup has
  determined the hectocotylized condition of one or other of the arms in
  a number of male Dibranchs as follows:--in all, excepting _Argonauta_
  and _Ocythoe_ and _Tremoctopus_, the modification of the arm is
  slight, consisting in a small enlargement of part or the whole of the
  arm, and the obliteration of some of its suckers; in _Octopus_ and
  _Eledone_ the third right arm is hectocotylized; in _Rossia_ and
  _Sepiola_ the fourth left arm is hectocotylized along its whole
  length, and the fourth right arm also in the middle only; in _Sepia_
  the fourth left arm is modified at its base only; in _Sepioteuthis_,
  the same at its apex; in _Loligo_, the same also at its apex; in
  _Loliolus_, the same along its whole length; in _Ommatostrephes_,
  _Onychoteuthis_ and _Loligopsis_ no hectocotylized arm has hitherto
  been observed. Thus, speaking generally, it is one or both of the
  fourth pair of short arms which are modified in the Decapoda, of the
  third pair in the Octopoda. In the pallial cavity are situated one
  pair of gills in the Dibranchiata (fig. 25), attached dorsally along
  the whole of their afferent borders. On each side of the branchia is a
  series of lamellae, least in number in the Octopoda. Each lamella is
  transversely folded, and the folds are in turn folded, so that the
  respiratory surface is increased. On the somatic wall of the pallial
  cavity, between and ventral to the gills, are the following apertures:
  the anus and opening of the ink-sac, close together in the median
  line; a pair of apertures of the renal sacs, on either side of the
  median line; external to the renal orifice, on the left side, the
  genital aperture in _Cirrhoteuthidae_ and Myopsida. In other Octopoda,
  and in nearly all the Oigopsida among the Decapoda, the genital ducts
  are paired in the female, but only the left is developed in the male.
  The funnel forms a complete tube in the Dibranchiata, and in the
  majority of the Decapoda, as in _Nautilus_, it is provided with an
  internal valve projecting from its somatic surface, which allows water
  to pass outwards but prevents it passing inwards. The mantle performs
  rhythmical respiratory movements of expansion and contraction, the
  water entering between funnel and mantle and passing out through the
  funnel. In Decapoda the edge of the mantle bears internally on each
  side a cartilaginous projection which fits into a corresponding
  depression on the external surface of the funnel; this is called the
  "resisting apparatus," and serves to make the union of mantle and
  funnel firmer during expiration. More powerful expiratory movements
  are used for sudden retrograde locomotion through the water.

  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagram representing a vertical approximately
  median antero-posterior section of _Sepia officinalis_ (from a drawing
  by A.G. Bourne). The lettering corresponds with that of fig. 10, with
  which this drawing is intended to be compared.

    a, Shell (here enclosed by a growth of the mantle).

    b, The nuchal plate (here a cartilage).

    c, (The reference line should be continued through the black area
    representing the shell to the outline below it), the integument
    covering the visceral hump.

    d, The reflected portion of the mantle-skirt forming the sac which
    encloses the shell.

    e, The inferior margin of the mantle-skirt (mouth of the pallial
    chamber).

    f, The pallial chamber.

    g, The vertically cut median portion of the siphon.

    i, The valve of the siphon.

    m, The two upper lobes of the fore-foot.

    n, The long prehensile arms of the same.

    o, The fifth or lowermost lobe of the fore-foot.

    p, The third lobe of the fore-foot.

    q, The buccal membrane.

    v, The upper beak or jaw. s, The lower beak or jaw.

    t, The lingual ribbon.

    x, The viscero-pericardial sac.

    n.c, The nerve-collar.

    cr, The crop.

    gizz, The gizzard.

    an, The anus.

    c.t, The left ctenidium or gill-plume.

    vent, Ventricle of the heart.

    a.b.v, Afferent branchial vessel.

    e.b.v, Efferent branchial vessel.

    re, Renal glandular mass.

    n.n.a, Left nephridial aperture.

    visc.per.apert, Viscero-pericardial aperture (see fig. 29).

    br.b, Branchial heart.

    app, Appendage of the same.

    i.s, Ink-bag.]

  _Luminous Organs._--In certain Oigopsida living in deep water, e.g.
  _Histioteuthis, Calliteuthis, Histiopsis, Pterygioteuthis_, the
  surface of the skin bears photogenous organs directed towards the oral
  extremity. Anatomically these consist of a deeper photogenous layer
  and a more superficial refracting layer. In some cases, e.g.
  _Pterygioteuthis_, they occur even within the mantle-cavity.

  _Fins._--In the majority of the Decapoda and in the _Cirrhoteuthidae_,
  the mantle is produced into lateral symmetrical expansions which have
  the function of fins. They originate at the aboral extremity where
  they remain in _Spirula_ (fig. 18). In most other Oigopsida they are
  terminal, but more dorsal than ventral, e.g. _Loligopsis_ (fig. 16),
  and there may be two on each side, as in _Grimalditeuthis_. In other
  cases they extend laterally along a greater length of the body, as in
  _Sepia_ (fig. 15). In _Ctenopteryx_ they have a superficial
  resemblance to the fins of fishes, consisting of a thin membrane
  supported by a series of muscular rods.

  _Chromatophores._--These are characteristic of the Dibranchiata,
  apparently absent in _Nautilus_. They are originally single cells of
  ectodermic origin which sink below the epidermis and become connected
  with radiating muscular fibres. The cells are single but multinuclear.
  Different cells contain pigments of different colours, yellow, brown,
  red or blue. Each cell in life is in constant tremulous movement;
  under the influence of nervous excitement the cells are suddenly
  expanded or contracted, producing blushes of colour and pallor. By
  reflex action of which the afferent stimulus acts upon the eyes as in
  fishes, the chromatophores assume a condition which approximates the
  colour of the animal to that of surrounding objects. In the Decapoda
  there are also reflecting elements which produce iridescent hues.

  _Aquiferous Cavities._--In addition to the pockets into which the
  tentacular arms of Decapoda are retracted, there are in several
  Dibranchiata cavities in the integument which open to the exterior by
  special pores but have no communication with the vascular system or
  other internal cavities of the body. In _Ocythoe_ there are such pores
  on the back of the head and at the base of the funnel; buccal pouches
  on the ventral side of the mouth, internal to the arms, occur in some
  genera, one in _Loligo_, two in _Sepia_. In some species of _Sepia_
  there are pouches in the mantle.

  _Alimentary Tube._--The principal differences from _Nautilus_ are the
  following:--the mandibles are similar in shape, but are chitinous, not
  calcified. In the radula there are three teeth on each side of the
  median tooth in each row, except in _Gonatus_, in which there are only
  two lateral teeth, and the _Cirrhoteuthidae_, in which the radula has
  entirely disappeared. In front of the radula is the so-called tongue,
  a fleshy projection corresponding to the sub-radular organ of other
  Mollusca.

  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Alimentary canal of _Loligo sagittata_ (from
  Gegenbaur). The buccal mass is omitted.

    oe, Oesophagus.

    v, The stomach opened longitudinally.

    x, Probe passed through the pylorus.

    c, Commencement of the caecum.

    e, Its spiral portion.

    i, Intestine.

    a, Ink-bag.

    b, Its opening into the rectum.]

  In most of the Dibranchiata there are two pairs of salivary glands. In
  the Decapoda the ducts of the posterior pair unite into a median duct
  which opens on the surface of the sub-radular organ. The anterior pair
  is but slightly developed except in the Oigopsida. In the Octopoda
  there are also two pairs, but the posterior pair, except in
  _Cirrhoteuthis_ where they are absent, are large and displaced
  backwards, being situated near the oesophageal proventriculus.
  Connected with the intestine immediately beyond the pylorus is a
  thin-walled caecum, spherical in _Rossia_ and _Leachia_, elongated in
  _Loligo_, but usually coiled into a spiral (fig. 27). The hepatic
  ducts open into the caecum. The liver is developed as a paired gland,
  more or less fused into one in the adult, but the ducts are always
  paired. The ducts are covered by a number of glandular follicles
  forming what is called the pancreas.

  The ink-sac, absent in _Nautilus_, is a rectal caecum developed from
  its dorsal wall. It is present in all Dibranchiata except _Octopus
  arcticus, O. piscatorum_ and _Cirrhoteuthis_. It consists of a deeper
  part or gland proper and a reservoir. It extends to the posterior
  extremity of the body in _Sepia_, but in _Octopoda_ is usually
  embedded in the surface of the liver. The pigment of the secretion is
  melanin, and its function is to produce a dense opacity in the water,
  which conceals the animal.

  _Vascular System_ (fig. 28).--The ventricle lies in the pericardial
  cavity, except in Octopoda where this cavity is much reduced. The
  auricles, one pair, are contractile expansions of the efferent
  branchial vessels. The heart gives off an anterior or cephalic and a
  posterior or abdominal aorta. The vascular system is almost perfect,
  arteries and veins being united by capillaries. The principal vein is
  a vena cava passing backwards ventrally from the cephalic region and
  dividing into two afferent branchial veins, each of which receives a
  pallial and an abdominal vein. Each of these afferent branchial
  vessels is enclosed in the cavity of a renal organ and is covered
  externally by the glandular tissue which forms the excretory part of
  the "kidney" (fig. 29). Each afferent vessel is expanded into a
  contractile branchial heart, which is provided with a glandular
  appendage. The latter corresponds to the glandular masses which are
  attached to the afferent branchial veins in _Nautilus_, and to the
  pericardial glands of other Molluscs.

  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Circulatory and excretory organs of _Sepia_
  (from Gegenbaur, after John Hunter).

    br, Branchiae (ctenidia).

    c, Ventricle of the heart.

    a, Anterior artery (aorta).

    a', Posterior artery.

    v, The right and left auricles (enlargements of the efferent
    branchial veins).

    v', Efferent branchial vein on the free face of the gill-plume.

    v.c, Vena cava.

    vi, vc', Afferent branchial vessels (branches of the vena cava, see
    fig. 29).

    vc", Abdominal veins.

    x, Branchial hearts and appendages.

    re, e, Glandular substance of the nephridia developed on the wall of
    the great veins on their way to the gills. The arrows indicate the
    direction of the blood-current.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram of the nephridial sacs, and the veins
  which run through them, in _Sepia officinalis_ (after Vigelius). The
  nephridial sacs are supposed to have their upper walls removed.

    v.c, Vena cava.

    r.d.v.c, Right descending branch of the same.

    r.s.v.c, Left descending branch of the same.

    v.b.a, Vein from the ink-bag.

    v.m, Mesenteric vein.

    v.g, Genital vein.

    v.a.d, Right abdominal vein.

    v.a.s, Left abdominal vein.

    v.p.d, Right pallial vein.

    v.p.s, Left pallial vein.

    c.b, Branchial heart.

    x, Appendage of the same.

    c.v, Capsule of the branchial heart.

    np, External aperture of the right nephridial sac.

    y, Reno-pericardial orifice placing the left renal sac or nephridium
    in communication with the viscero-pericardial sac, the course of
    which below the nephridial sac is indicated by dotted lines.

    y', The similar orifice of the right side.

    a.r, Glandular renal outgrowths.

    w.k, Viscero-pericardial sac (dotted outline).]

  _Coelom._--The coelom forms a large sac with a constriction between
  the anterior or pericardial division and the posterior or genital
  division, and it is produced into lateral diverticula which contain
  the branchial hearts; but in the Octopoda the pericardial division is
  suppressed and the genital division communicates by long ducts with
  sacs containing the appendages of the branchial hearts. The renal sacs
  communicate with the pericardium by pores near the external renal
  apertures; in the Octopoda the reno-pericardial openings are in the
  capsules of the branchial hearts. The genital ducts pass from the
  genital coelom to the exterior. They are paired in female Oigopsida
  and Octopoda except _Cirrhoteuthidae_, but only the left persists in
  the males of all Dibranchiata, and in the female Myopsida.

  [Illustration: FIGS. 30, 31.--Nerve-centres of _Octopus_. Figure 30
  gives a view from the dorsal aspect, figure 31 one from the ventral
  aspect.

    buc, The buccal mass.

    ped, Pedal ganglion.

    opt, Optic ganglion.

    cer, Cerebral ganglion.

    pl, Pleural ganglion.

    visc, Visceral ganglion.

    oes, Oesophagus.

    f, Foramen in the nerve-mass formed by pedal, pleural and visceral
    ganglion-pairs, traversed by a blood-vessel.]

  In the oviduct is a glandular enlargement, and in addition to this the
  females are provided with the so-called nidamental glands which are
  developed on the somatic wall of the pallial cavity, one on each side
  of the rectum, except in certain Oigopsida (_Enoploteuthis, Cranchia,
  Leachia_) and in the Octopoda, in which these organs are absent. The
  latter fact is related to the habit of the majority of the Octopoda of
  guarding or "incubating" their eggs, which have little protective
  covering. In the other cases the eggs are surrounded by a tough
  gelatinous elastic material secreted by the nidamental glands.

  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Lateral view of the nervous centres and
  nerves of the right side of _Octopus vulgaris_ (from a drawing by A.G.
  Bourne).

    bg, Buccal ganglion.

    cer, Cerebral ganglion.

    ped, Pedal ganglion.

    pl, Pleural, and visc., visceral region of the pleuro-visceral
    ganglion.

    gang. stell, The right stellate ganglion of the mantle connected by
    a nerve to the pleural portion.

    n.visc, The right visceral nerve.

    n.olf, Its (probably) olfactory branches.

    n.br, Its branchial branches.]

  The vas deferens is at first narrow and convoluted, then dilates into
  a vesicula seminalis at the end of which is a glandular diverticulum
  called the prostate. By the vesicula and the prostate the
  spermatophores are formed. These have a structure similar to those of
  _Nautilus_, and in the Octopoda may be as much as 50 mm. in length.
  Beyond the prostate the duct opens into a large terminal reservoir
  which has been called Needham's sac, and in which the spermatophores
  are stored.

  _Nervous System and Sense-Organs._--The figures (30, 31, 32)
  representing the nerve-centres of _Octopus_ serve to exhibit the
  disposition of these parts in the Dibranchiata. The ganglia are more
  distinctly swollen than in _Nautilus_. In _Octopus_ an infra-buccal
  ganglion-pair are present, corresponding to the buccal ganglion-pair
  of Gastropoda. In Decapoda a supra-buccal ganglion-pair connected with
  these are also developed. Instead of the numerous radiating pallial
  nerves of _Nautilus_, we have in the Dibranchiata on each side (right
  and left) a large pleural nerve passing from the pleural portion of
  the pleuro-visceral ganglion to the mantle, where it enlarges to form
  the stellate ganglion. From each stellate ganglion nerves radiate to
  supply the powerful muscles of the mantle-skirt. The two stellate
  ganglia are connected, except in _Sepiola_, by a transverse
  supra-oesophageal commissure, which represents the pallial cords
  united by a commissure above the intestine in Amphineura. The nerves
  from the visceral portion of the pleuro-visceral ganglion have the
  same course as in _Nautilus_, but no osphradial papilla is present. An
  enteric nervous system is richly developed in the Dibranchiata,
  connected with the somatic nervous centres through the buccal ganglia,
  as in the Arthropoda through the stomato-gastric ganglia, and
  anastomozing with deep branches of the visceral nerves of the
  viscero-pleural ganglion-pair. It has been especially described by A.
  Hancock in _Ommatostrephes_. Upon the stomach it forms a single large
  and readily detected gastric ganglion.

  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Horizontal section of the eye of _Sepia_
  (Myopsid). (From Gegenbaur, after Hensen.)

    KK, Cephalic cartilages (see fig. 8).

    C, Cornea (closed).

    L, Lens.

    ci, Ciliary body.

    Ri, Internal layer of the retina.

    Re, External layer of the retina.

    p, Pigment between these.

    o, Optic nerve.

    go, Optic ganglion.

    k and k', Capsular cartilage.

    ik, Cartilage of the iris.

    w, White body.

    ae, Argentine integument.]

  In the Dibranchiate division of the Cephalopoda the greatest
  elaboration of the dioptric apparatus of the eye is attained, so that
  we have in this class the extremes of the two lines of development of
  the Molluscan eye, those two lines being the punctigerous and the
  lentigerous. The structure of the Dibranchiate's eye is shown in
  section in fig. 14, C, and in fig. 33, and its development in figs. 34
  and 37. The open sac which forms the retina of the young Dibranchiate
  closes up, and constitutes the posterior chamber of the eye, or
  primitive optic vesicle (fig. 37, A, poc). The lens forms as a
  structureless growth, secreted by both the internal and external
  surfaces of the front wall of the optic vesicle (fig. 37, B, l). The
  integument around the primitive optic vesicle which has sunk below the
  surface now rises up and forms firstly nearest the axis of the eye the
  iridian folds (if in B, fig. 37; ik in fig. 33; Ir in fig. 14), and
  then secondly an outer circular fold grows up like a wall and
  completely closes over the iridian folds and the axis of the primitive
  vesicle (fig. 33, C). This covering is transparent, and is the cornea.
  In the oceanic Decapoda the cornea does not completely close, but
  leaves a central aperture traversed by the optic axis. These forms are
  termed Oigopsidae by C. d'Orbigny, whilst the Decapoda with closed
  cornea are termed Myopsidae. In the Octopoda the cornea is closed, and
  there is yet another fold thrown over the eye. The skin surrounding
  the cornea presents a free circular margin, and can be drawn over the
  surface of the cornea by a sphincter muscle. It thus acts as an
  adjustable diaphragm, exactly similar in movement to the iris of
  Vertebrates. _Sepia_ and allied Decapods have a horizontal lower
  eyelid, that is to say, only one-half of the sphincter-like fold of
  integument is movable. The statocysts are situated ventrally between
  the pedal and visceral ganglia, and are entirely enclosed in the
  cranial cartilage. The cavity of each is continued into a small blind
  process which is the remnant of the embryonic connexion of the vesicle
  with the external surface. The sensory epithelium is at the anterior
  end of the vesicle forming a macula acustica, and in the cavity is a
  single otolith, partly calcareous and partly organic except in
  _Eledone_, in which it is entirely organic. The nerve arises from the
  cerebral ganglion on each side and passes through the pedal ganglion.

  There is no branchial osphradium in the Dibranchiata corresponding to
  that of _Nautilus_, but the olfactory organ or rhinophore near the eye
  is present. In _Sepia_ and the majority of the Dibranchiata it is a
  simple pit, in some of the Oigopsida it is a projection which may be
  stalked.

  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Diagrams of sections showing the early stage
  of development of the eye of _Loligo_ when it is, like the permanent
  eye of _Nautilus_ and of _Patella_, an open sac. (From Lankester.)

    A, First appearance of the eye as a ring-like upgrowth.

    B, Ingrowth of the ring-like wall so as to form a sac, the primitive
    optic vesicle of _Loligo_.]

  _Reproduction and Development._--The modification of one or a pair of
  the arms in the male for purposes of copulation has already been
  described. In many genera the sexes differ from one another in other
  characters also. As a rule the males are more slender or smaller than
  the females. The maximum degree of sexual dimorphism occurs in
  _Argonauta_ among the Octopods; in this genus the female may be
  fifteen times as large as the male, and the peculiar modification of
  the dorsal arms for the secretion of the shell occurs in the female
  only, no shell being formed in the male. In most cases the females are
  much more numerous than the males, but the opposite relation appears
  to exist in those Octopoda in which the hectocotylus is autotomous,
  for as many as four hectocotyli have been found in the pallial cavity
  of a single female. When the hectocotylus is not detached it is
  usually inserted into the pallial cavity of the female so as to
  deposit the spermatophores in or near the aperture of the oviduct, but
  in _Sepia_ and _Loligo_ they are merely deposited on the ventral lobes
  of the buccal membrane.

  The eggs are laid shortly after copulation. In the Octopoda and in
  _Sepia_, _Sepiola_ and _Rossia_, each egg has a separate envelope
  continued into a long stalk by which it is attached with several
  others in a cluster. In _Argonauta_ the eggs are carried by the female
  in the cavity of the shell. In _Loligo_ the eggs are very numerous,
  and are enclosed in cylindrical transparent gelatinous strings united
  at one end into a cluster.

  The Cephalopoda appear to be the only Invertebrates in which the egg
  is mesoblastic and telolecithal like that of Vertebrata. This is the
  result of the large quantity of the yolk, and the position the latter
  assumes in relation to the blastoderm. In all other Mollusca the
  segmentation is complete though in some cases very unequal. In the egg
  of _Loligo_, which has been chiefly studied (fig. 35), the
  protoplasmic pole is at the narrower end of the egg, and segmentation
  is restricted to this end, forming a layer of ectoderm cells. From one
  part of the periphery of the ectoderm proliferation of cells takes
  place and gives rise to a layer of scattered nuclei over the whole
  surface of the yolk. The region of proliferation marks the anal side
  of the ectoderm, and the layer of nuclei forms the perivitelline
  membrane. This process must be regarded as equivalent to the first
  stage of invagination, the yolk being surrounded by hypoblast cells or
  their nuclei. Later on the same anal edge of the ectoderm forms
  another cellular layer, the endoderm proper, which forms a continuous
  sheet below the ectoderm.

  The mesoderm also originates at the anal side of the ectoderm and
  extends in two bands right and left between ectoderm and endoderm.
  After the mesoderm is thus established, a little vesicle lying upon
  and open to the yolk is formed from the endoderm, and this vesicle
  ultimately gives rise to the stomach, the two lobes of the liver and
  the intestine. The buccal mass and oesophagus arise from a stomodaeal
  invagination, and the anus is formed later from a short proctodaeal
  invagination.

  The external changes of form are as follows:--The mantle is the middle
  of the embryonic area, and in its centre is the shell-gland, which,
  however, behaves in a different way from that seen in other Molluscs.
  Its borders grow inwards and approach each other to form the
  shell-sac. E. Ray Lankester showed that in _Argonauta_ and other
  Octopods the shell-sac disappears before it is closed up, but in other
  forms except _Spirula_ it closes completely and the shell develops
  within it. The lateral and posterior borders of the embryo form the
  foot, and these borders grow out into ten or eight lobes which become
  the arms, and which at first, as seen in fig. 35 (8), are entirely
  posterior to the mouth. Development actually shows the anterior arms
  gradually growing round the mouth and uniting in front of it. Between
  the mantle and the foot are two ridges which form the funnel, and
  their position shows them to be the epipodia. The otocysts and eyes
  are formed as invaginations of ectoderm, the former behind the eyes,
  at the sides of the funnel. All the nerve-centres, cerebral, visceral,
  pedal and optic, are formed as proliferations of the ectoderm. At the
  sides of the optic ganglia a pair of ectodermic invaginations are
  formed, which in the adult become the white bodies of the eyes,
  surrounding the optic ganglion. These are vestiges of lateral cerebral
  lobes which degenerate in the course of development.

  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Development of _Loligo_.

    1. View of the cleavage of the egg during the first formation of
    embryonic cells.

    2. Lateral view of the egg at a little later stage. a, Limit to
    which the layer of cleavage-cells has spread over the egg; b,
    portion of the egg (shaded) as yet uncovered by cleavage-cells; ap,
    the auto-plasts; kp, cleavage-pole where first cells were formed.

    3. Later stage, the limit (a) now extended so as to leave but little
    of the egg-surface (b) unenclosed. The eyes (d), mouth (e) and
    mantle-sac (u) have appeared.

    4. Later stage, anterior surface, the embryo is becoming nipped off
    from the yolk-sac (g).

    5. View of an embryo similar to (3) from the cleavage-pole or
    centro-dorsal area.

    6. Later stage, posterior surface.

    7. Section in a median dorso-ventral and antero-posterior plane of
    an embryo of the same age as (4).

    8. View of the anterior face of an older embryo.

    9. View of the posterior face of an embryo of the same age as (8).

    Letters in (3) to (9):--a, lateral fins of the mantle; b,
    mantle-skirt; c, supra-ocular invagination to form the "white body";
    d, the eye; e, the mouth; f^1, f^2, f^3, f^4, f^5, the five paired
    processes of the fore-foot; g, rhythmically contractile area of the
    yolk-sac, which is itself a hernia-like protrusion of the median
    portion of the fore-foot; h, dotted line showing internal area
    occupied by yolk (food-material of the egg); k, first rudiment of
    the epipodia (paired ridges which unite to form the siphon or
    funnel); l, sac of the radula or lingual ribbon; m, stomach; n,
    rudiments of the gills (paired ctenidia); o, the otocysts--a pair of
    invaginations of the surface of the epipodia; p, the optic ganglion;
    q, the distal portion of the ridges which form the siphon, k being
    the basal portion of the same structure; r, the vesicle-like
    rudiment of the intestine formed independently of the parts
    connected with the mouth, s, k, m, and without invagination; s,
    rudiment of the salivary glands; t in (7), the shell-sac at an
    earlier stage open (see fig. 36), now closed up; u, the open
    shell-sac formed by an uprising ring-like growth of the
    centro-dorsal area; w in (5), the mantle-skirt commencing to be
    raised up around the area of the shell-sac. In (7) mes points to the
    middle cell-layer of the embryo, ep to the outer layer, and h to the
    deep layer of fusiform cells which separates everywhere the embryo
    from the yolk or food-material lying within it.]

  The coelomic cavity appears as a symmetrical pair of spaces in the
  mesoderm, right and left of the intestine, and from it grow out the
  genital ducts and the renal organs. The gonad develops from the wall
  of the coelom.

  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Section through aboral end of embryo of
  _Loligo_ showing shell-sac still open. ep, ectoderm; m, mesoderm;
  m', endoderm; shs, shell-sac; y, yolk.]

  _Phylogeny and Classification._--The order is divided into two
  sub-orders, Decapoda and Octopoda, by the presence or absence of the
  tentacular arms. The Decapoda are more adapted for swimming than the
  Octopoda, the body being usually provided with fins. In the former
  also there is generally an internal shell of considerable size, often
  calcined, while in the Octopoda only the merest vestiges of a shell
  remain. There can be no doubt that the Octopoda were derived from the
  Decapoda, although from the absence of skeletal structures fossil
  remains of Octopods are almost entirely unknown. _Palaeoctopus_,
  however, occurs in the Cretaceous, while shells of _Argonauta_ do not
  appear before the Pliocene. The Decapoda are abundantly represented in
  the Secondary formations by the _Belemnitidae_, whose shell (fig. 19)
  consists of a straight conical phragmacone covered posteriorly by a
  very thick rostrum, and produced anteriorly into a thin long
  proöstracum which is only occasionally preserved. In certain cases
  remains of the arms provided with hooks, and of the ink-sac, have been
  recognized. The _Belemnitidae_ appear first in the Upper Trias, attain
  their maximum development in the Jurassic rocks, and are not continued
  into the Tertiary period, though represented in the Eocene by a few
  allied forms.

  There is no difficulty in deriving the typical existing Decapoda from
  _Belemnitidae_, and many of the extinct forms may have been directly
  ancestral. Chitinous "pens" like that of _Loligo_, however, begin to
  appear in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, so that in this case as
  in many others the parent form and the modified form existed
  contemporaneously, and the latter alone has survived. The oldest
  shells of the _Sepia_ type are from the Eocene, and it is perhaps
  possible that the _Sepiidae_ arose separately from the Belemnites.

  It is a curious fact that no fossil specimens of the genus _Spirula_
  have been found, but this may be due to the fact that it occurs only
  in deep water. At any rate there is no evidence that the shell of
  _Spirula_ has lost a rostrum and a proöstracum; its characters must be
  regarded as primitive, not secondary. In the characters of the
  protoconch and of the commencement of the siphuncle, the shell of
  _Spirula_ agrees with that of the Ammonoids, and in both its position
  is ventral, although in most Ammonoids the shell being exogastric the
  ventral side is the convex or external, while in _Spirula_ the shell
  is endogastric and the siphuncle internal. The fact that the shell is
  not completely enclosed by the mantle is also a primitive character.

  With regard to the general morphology of the Cephalopoda, it is
  difficult to reconcile the existence of two pairs of renal tubes as
  well as a pair of genital ducts in _Nautilus_ with the view that the
  original Mollusc was unsegmented and had only one pair of
  coelomoducts. Considering the great specialization, however, and high
  degree of organization of the Cephalopods, it is evident that the
  earliest Nautiloid whose remains are known to us must have had a long
  evolutionary history behind it, and such metamerism as exists may have
  been developed in the course of its own history. In the other
  direction the evidence seems to prove that the Dibranchiata with only
  two renal ducts have been derived from the Tetrabranchiata.

  SUBORDER 1. DECAPODA.--Four pairs of ordinary non-retractile arms
  which are shorter than the body, and one pair of tentacular arms,
  situated between the third and fourth normal arms on each side and
  retractile within special pouches. Suckers pedunculated and provided
  with horny rings, on the tentacular arms confined usually to the
  distal extremities. Usually a well-developed internal shell, and
  lateral fins on the edges of the body. Heart in a coelomic cavity;
  nidamentary glands usually present.

  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Right and left sections through embryos of
  _Loligo_. (After Lankester.)

    A, Same stage as fig. 35 (4).

    B, Same stage as fig. 35 (8); only the left side of the sections is
    drawn, and the food-material which occupies the space internal to
    the membrane ym is omitted.

    al, Rectum.

    is, Ink-sac.

    ep, Outer cell-layer.

    mes, Middle cell-layer.

    ym, Deep cell-layer of fusiform cells (yolk-membrane).

    ng, Optic nerve-ganglion.

    ot, Otocyst.

    wb, The "white body" of the adult ocular capsule forming as an
    invagination of the outer cell-layer.

    mtf, Mantle-skirt.

    g, Gill.

    ps, Pen-sac or shell-sac, now closed.

    dg, Dorsal groove.

    poc. Primitive optic vesicle, now closed (see fig. 34).

    l, Lens.

    r, Retina.

    soc, Second or anterior optic chamber still open.

    if, Iridean folds.

    C, The primitive invagination to form one of the otocysts, as seen
    in fig. 35 (5) and (6).]

  Tribe 1. _Oigopsida_.--A wide aperture in the cornea. Two oviducts in
  the female. In fossil genera and _Spirula_, shell has a multilocular
  phragmacone with a siphuncle; initial chamber globular and larger than
  the second chamber. The most ancient forms characterized by the small
  size of the rostrum and proöstracum, and large size of the
  phragmacone. In the living genera, except _Spirula_, the shell is a
  chitinous gladius.

    Fam. 1. _Belemnoteuthidae_. Extinct; shell with well-developed
    phragmacone, and rostrum merely a calcareous envelope; siphuncular
    necks directed backwards as in Nautiloidea; ten equal arms provided
    with hooks. _Phragmoteuthis_, Trias. _Belemnoteuthis_, Jurassic and
    Cretaceous. _Acanthoteuthis_, Jurassic.

    Fam. 2. _Aulacoceratidae_. Extinct; phragmacone with widely
    separated septa; rostrum well developed and claviform.
    _Aulacoceras_, Trias. _Atractites_, Trias and Jurassic.
    _Xiphoteuthis_, Lias.

    Fam. 3. _Belemnitidae_. Extinct; phragmacone short with ventral
    siphuncle, prolonged dorsally into long proöstracum; rostrum large
    and cylindrical. _Belemnites_, 350 species from Jurassic and
    Cretaceous. _Diploconus_, Upper Jurassic.

    Fam. 4. _Belopteridae_. Extinct; rostrum and phragmacone well
    developed, phragmacone often curved; initial chamber small.
    _Beloptera_, Eocene. _Bayanoteuthis_, Eocene. _Spirulirostra_,
    Miocene.

    Fam. 5. _Spirulidae_. Dorsal and ventral sides of posterior
    extremity of shell uncovered by mantle; no rostrum or proöstracum;
    shell calcareous, coiled endogastrically and sipnunculated; fins
    posterior. _Spirula_, three living species known, abyssal.

    Fam. 6. _Ommatostrephidae_. Shell internal and chitinous, ending
    aborally in a little narrow cone; tentacular arms short and thick;
    suckers with denticulate rings. _Ommatostrephes_, fins aboral,
    simple and rhomboidal, British. _Ctenopteryx_, fins pectinate, as
    long as the body; _Bathyteuthis_, fins terminal, rudimentary;
    tentacular arms, filiform; abyssal. _Rhynchoteuthis_, tentacular
    arms united to form a beak-shaped appendage. _Symplectoteuthis.
    Tracheloteuthis. Doridicus. Architeuthis_; this is the largest of
    Cephalopoda, reaching 60 ft. in length including arms.

    Fam. 7. _Thysanoteuthidae_. Arms enlarged, bearing two rows of
    suckers and filaments; fins triangular, extending whole length of
    body. _Thysanoteuthis_, Mediterranean.

    Fam. 8. _Onychoteuthidae_. Fins terminal; tentacular arms long;
    suckers with hooks. _Onychoteuthis_, hook-bearing suckers on
    tentacular arms only. _Enoploteuthis_, hook-bearing suckers on all
    the arms. _Veranya_, body very short, tentacular arms atrophied in
    the adult, Mediterranean. _Chaunoteuthis_, body elongated,
    tentacular arms atrophied. _Pterygioteuthis. Ancistroteuthis.
    Abralia. Teleoteuthis. Lepidoteuthis._

    Fam. 9. _Gonatidae_. Body elongated; fins terminal; radula with only
    two lateral teeth. _Gonatus_.

    Fam. 10. _Cheiroteuthidae_. Tentacular arms long, not retractile;
    resisting apparatus well developed. _Cheiroteuthis_, suckers along
    the whole length of the tentacular arms. _Doratopsis_, body very
    long and slender with aboral spine, dorsal arms very short.
    _Histioteuthis_, six dorsal arms united by membrane, photogenous
    organs present. _Histiopsis_, membrane of dorsal arms only half-way
    up the arms, photogenous organs present. _Calliteuthis_, no brachial
    membrane, photogenous organs present. _Grimalditeuthis_, two fins on
    each bide, no tentacular arms.

    Fam. 11. _Cranchiidae_. Eight normal arms, very short; eyes
    prominent; fins small and terminal. _Cranchia_, body short,
    purse-shaped, normal arms short, fins entirely aboral. _Loligopsis_,
    body elongated, conical, tentacular arms slender. _Leachia_,
    tentacular arms absent, funnel without a valve. _Taonius_, body
    elongated, normal arms, rather short, eyes pedunculated.

  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Octopodous Cephalopods.

    A, _Pinnoctopus cordiformis_, Quoy and Gain (from New Zealand).

    B, _Tremoctopus violaceus_, Ver. (from the Mediterranean).

    C, _Cranchia scabra_, Owen (from the Atlantic Ocean; one of the
    Decapoda).

    D, _Cirrhoteuthis Mulleri_, Esch. (from the Greenland coast).]

  Tribe 2. _Myopsida_.--No aperture in the cornea. Left oviduct only
  developed in female. Internal shell without a distinct phragmacone,
  calcified or simply chitinous.

    Fam. 1. _Sepiidae_. Body wide and flat; fins narrow, extending the
    whole length of the body; shell calcareous and laminated.
    _Belosepia_, a rudiment of rostrum and phragmacone present in shell,
    Eocene. _Sepia_, shell with a rostrum, British. _Sepiella_, shell
    without a rostrum.

    Fam. 2. _Sepiolidae_. Body short, rounded at the aboral end; fins
    rounded, inserted in middle of body-length; shell chitinous, small
    or absent. _Sepiola_, head united to mantle dorsally, British.
    _Rossia_, head not united to mantle, British. _Stoloteuthis_ and
    _Inioteuthis_, without shell. _Heteroteuthis. Euprymna._

    Fam. 3. _Idiosepiidae_. Body elongated, with rudimentary terminal
    fins; internal shell almost lost. _Idiosepius_, 1.5 cm. long, Indian
    Ocean.

    Fam. 4. _Sepiadariidae_. Body short; mantle united to head dorsally;
    no shell. _Sepiadarium_, Pacific Ocean. _Sepioloidea_, Australian.

    Fam. 5. _Loliginidae_. Body elongated and conical; fins extending
    forward beyond the middle of body-length; shell chitinous, well
    developed. _Loligo_, fins triangular, aboral, British.
    _Sepioteuthis_, fins rounded, extending along whole of body-length.
    _Loliolus. Loliguncula._ The following fossil genera, known only by
    their gladius and ink-sac, have been placed near
    _Loligo_:--_Teuthopsis, Beloteuthis_ and _Geoteuthis_, Lias;
    _Phylloteuthis_, Cretaceous; _Plesioteuthis_, Jurassic and
    Cretaceous.

  SUBORDER 2. OCTOPODA.--Only four pairs of arms, all similar and longer
  than the body. Body short and rounded aborally. Suckers sessile. Heart
  not contained in coelom. No nidamentary glands.

  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Palaeoctopus Newboldi_, the oldest Octopod
  known. From the Cretaceous rocks of Lebanon. (After H. Woodward.)]

  Tribe I. _Leioglossa_.--No radula. Arms united by a complete membrane.
  Fins on sides of body.

    Fam. _Cirrhoteuthidae_. Tentacular filaments on either side of the
    suckers. _Cirrhoteuthis_, pallial sac prominent, fins large,
    pelagic. _Opisthoteuthis_, body flattened, with small fins,
    deep-sea. _Vampyroteuthis_, four fins. _Palaeoctopus_, fossil,
    Cretaceous.

  Tribe 2. _Trachyglossa._--Radula present. No fins.

    Fam. 1. _Amphitretidae_. Arms united by membrane; funnel attached to
    mantle, dividing the pallial aperture into two. _Amphitretus_,
    pelagic.

    Fam. 2. _Alloposidae_. All arms united by membrane; mantle joined
    to head by dorsal band and two lateral commissures. _Alloposus_,
    pelagic.

    Fam. 3. _Octopodidae_. Arms long and equal, without membrane;
    hectocotylus not autotomous. No cephalic aquiferous pores.
    _Octopus_, two rows of suckers on each arm, British. _Eledone_,
    single row of suckers on each arm. _Scaeurgus. Pinnoctopus.
    Cistopus. Japetella._

    Fam. 4. _Philonexidae_. Hectocotylus autotomous; arms unequal in
    size; aquiferous pores on head and funnel. _Tremoctopus_, two dorsal
    pairs of arms united by membrane. _Ocythoë_, without interbrachial
    membrane.

    Fam. 5. _Argonautidae_. Hectocotylus autotomous; no interbrachial
    membrane; extremities of dorsal arms in female expanded and
    secreting a shell; males very small, without shell. _Argonauta_.

  LITERATURE.--Use has been freely made above of the article by E. Ray
  Lankester, on _Mollusca_, in the 9th edition of this Encyclopedia. For
  the chief modern works, see Bashford Dean, "Notes on Living Nautilus,"
  _Amer. Nat._ xxxv., 1901; Arthur Willey, "Contribution to the Natural
  History of the Pearly Nautilus," A. Willey's _Zoological Results_, pt.
  vi. (1902); Foord, _Cat. Fossil Cephalopoda in British Museum_;
  Alpheus Hyatt, "Fossil Cephalopods of the Museum of Comp. Zoology,"
  _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._ (Cambridge, U.S., 1868); Jalta, "I Cefalopodi
  viventi nel golfo di Napoli," _Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel_,
  xxiii. (1896); Joubin, "Céphalopodes de l'atlantique nord," "Céph. de
  la Princesse Alice," _Camp. sci. Albert I^er de Monaco_, ix. (1895),
  xxii. (1900); Paul Pelseneer, "Mollusca," in the _Treatise on
  Zoology_, edited by E. Ray Lankester.     (J. T. C.)




CEPHEUS, in Greek mythology, the father of Andromeda (q.v.); in
astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by
Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). Ptolemy
catalogued 13 stars in this constellation, Tycho n, and Hevelius 51. The
most interesting star in it is [delta] _Cephei_, a remarkable double
star, the brighter component of which is a short period variable (5.37
days), with a range in magnitude of 3.7 to 4.9; it is also a
spectroscopic binary.




CEPHISODOTUS, the name of the father and of the son of Praxiteles, both
sculptors like himself. The former must have flourished about 400 B.C. A
noted work of his was Peace bearing the infant Wealth, of which a copy
exists at Munich. Peace is a Madonna-like figure of a somewhat
conservative type; the child Wealth is less successful. Cephisodotus
also made, like his son, a figure of Hermes carrying the child Dionysus,
unless indeed ancient critics have made two works of one. He made
certain statues for the city of Megalopolis, founded in 370 B.C. Of the
work of the younger Cephisodotus, his grandson, we have no remains; he
was a prolific sculptor of the latter part of the 4th century B.C.,
especially noted for portraits, of Menander, of the orator Lycurgus, and
others (see J. Overbeck, _Antike Schriftquellen_, p. 255).




CERAM (_Sirang_), an island of the Dutch East Indies, in the Molucca
group, lying about 3° S., and between 127° 45' and 131° E. Its length is
a little over 200 m., its greatest breadth about 50 m., and its area,
including neighbouring islets, 6621 sq. m. It consists of two parts,
Great Ceram and Little Ceram or Huvamohel, united by the isthmus of
Taruno; and, for administrative purposes, is assigned to the residency
of Amboyna, being divided into Kairatu or West Ceram, Wahai and Amahai,
the northern and the southern parts of Middle Ceram, and Waru or Eastern
Ceram. No central chain of mountains stretches west and east through the
island, but near the north coast hills, rising 2300 to 2600 ft., slope
steeply to the shore. Near the south coast, west of the Bay of
Elpaputeh, a complex mass of mountains forms a colossal pyramid, with
peaks rising to nearly 5000 ft. The isthmus connecting the two parts of
the island is very narrow, and has a height of only 460 to 490 ft. The
chief rivers flow north and south into bays, but are navigable only for
a few miles during the rainy season. The rainfall is very heavy,
amounting to 121 in. (mean annual) on the south coast. On the north
coast the bays of Savai and Waru are accessible for small vessels. The
geological structure, consisting chiefly of eruptive rocks and
crystalline limestone, is similar to that of northern Amboyna. In the
eastern section the prevailing rock is crystalline chalk, similar to
that of Buru. Several hot springs occur, and earthquakes are not
infrequent. About 4000 persons perished in the earthquake of 1899. A
large part of the interior is covered with dense forests, and except
along the coast the population is scanty. For the naturalist Ceram is
without much interest, lacking characteristic species or abundance of
specimens. The Bandanese pay occasional visits to shoot bears and deer;
there are numbers of wild goats and cattle; and among birds are
mentioned cassowaries, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and the swallows
that furnish edible nests. A large number of fish are to be found in the
various rivers; and as early as 1860 no fewer than 213 species were
described. The most valuable timber tree is the iron-wood. Rice, maize,
cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane and a variety of fruits are grown; and some
tobacco is exported to Europe; but by far the most important production
is the sago palm, which grows abundantly in the swampy districts,
especially of Eastern Ceram, and furnishes a vast supply of food, not
only to Ceram itself, but to other islands to the east. The Dutch have
established cocoa and coffee plantations at various points. The
coast-villages are inhabited by a mixed Malay population, Buginese,
Macassars, Balinese and other races of the archipelago. The interior is
occupied by the aborigines, a people of Papuan stock. They are savages
and head-hunters. The introduction of Christianity was hampered by the
baneful influence of a secret society called the Kakian Union, to which
pagans, Mahommedans and Christians indiscriminately attached themselves;
and it has several times cost the Dutch authorities considerable efforts
to frustrate their machinations (see _Tijdschrift van Ned. Ind._, fifth
year). The total population is estimated at 100,000, including 12,000
Christians and 16,000 Mahommedans. The chief settlements are Savai at
the north and Elpaputeh at the south end of the isthmus of Taruno. There
was a Dutch fort at Kambello, on the west side of Little Ceram, as early
as 1646.




CERAMICS, or KERAMICS ([Greek: keramos], earthenware), a general term
for the study of the art of pottery. It is adopted for this purpose both
in French (_céramique_) and in German (_Keramik_), and thus has its
convenience in English as representing an international form of
description for a study which owes much to the art experts of all
nations, though "ceramic" and "ceramics" do not appear in English as
technical terms till the middle of the 19th century.

The word "pottery" (Fr. _poterie_) in its widest sense includes all
objects fashioned from clay and then hardened by fire, though there is a
growing tendency to restrict the word to the commoner articles of this
great class and to apply the word "porcelain" to all the finer
varieties. This tendency is to be deprecated, as it is founded on a
misconception; the word "porcelain" should only be applied to certain
well-marked varieties of pottery. The very existence of pottery is
dependent on two important natural properties of that great and
widespread group of rocky or earthy substances known as clays, viz. the
property of plasticity (the power of being readily kneaded or moulded
while moist), and the property of being converted when fired into one of
the most indestructible of ordinary things.

The clays form such an important group of mineral substances that the
reader must refer to the article CLAY for an account of their
occurrence, composition and properties. In this article we shall only
deal with the various clays as they have affected the problems of the
potter throughout the ages. The clays found on or close to the earth's
surface are so varied in composition and properties that we may see in
them one of the vital factors that has determined the nature of the
pottery of different countries and different peoples. They vary in
plasticity, and in the hardness, colour and texture of the fired
product, through an astonishingly wide range. To-day the fine, plastic,
white-burning clays of the south of England are carried all over Europe
and America for the fabrication of modern wares, but that is a state of
affairs which has only been attained in recent times. Even down to the
18th century, the potters of every country could only use on an
extensive scale the clays of their own immediate district, and the
influence of this controlling factor on the pottery of bygone centuries
has never yet received the attention it deserves.[1]

_General Evolution of Pottery._--The primitive races of mankind, whether
of remote ages or of to-day, took perforce such clay as they found on
the surface of the ground, or by some river-bed, and with the
rudimentary preparation of spreading it out on a stone slab if necessary
and picking out any rocky fragments of appreciable size, then beating it
with the hands, with stones or boards, or treading it with the feet to
render it fairly uniform in consistency, proceeded to fashion it into
such shapes as need or fancy dictated. Fired in an open fire, or in the
most rudimentary form of potter's kiln, such pottery may be buff, drab,
brown or red--and these from imperfect firing become smoked, grey or
black. How many generations of men, of any race, handed on their
painfully acquired bits of knowledge before this earliest stage was
passed, we can never know; but here and there, where the circumstances
were favourable or the race was quick of observation, we can trace in
the work of prehistoric man in many countries a gradually advancing
skill based on increased technical knowledge. For ages tools and methods
remained of the simplest--the fingers for shaping or building up
vessels, a piece of mat or basket-work for giving initial support to a
more ambitious vase,--until some original genius of the tribe finds that
by starting to build up his pot on the flattened side of a boulder he
can turn his support so as to bring every part in succession under his
hand, and lo! the potter's wheel is invented--not brought down from
heaven by one of the gods to a favoured race, as the myths of all the
older civilizations or barbarisms, Egyptian, Chaldean, Greek, Scythian,
and Chinese have fabled, but born from the brain and hand of man
struggling to fulfil his allotted task.

Formerly every writer on the history of pottery seemed to imagine that
the very rudest pottery must have been the invention of Egyptian,
Chinese or some other distinct race from which the knowledge radiated to
all the other races of the prehistoric world. No conception could be
more erroneous. Since the middle of the 19th century research has
established beyond doubt that wherever clay was found men became potters
of a sort, just as they became hunters, carpenters, smiths, &c., by
sheer force of need and slowly-gathered tradition. The not yet exploded
view that Egypt or Assyria was the special cradle of this art, and that
the pottery of the Greeks and Romans directly descended from such a
parent stock, cannot survive in view of the incontestable evidence that
pottery was made by the prehistoric peoples of what we now call Greece,
Italy, Spain and other countries, long before they were aware that any
other peoples lived on the earth than themselves.

For centuries this simple hand-made pottery was hardened by drying in
the sun, so that it would serve for the storage of dried grain, &c., but
the increasing use of fire would soon bring out the amazing fact that a
baked clay vessel became as hard as stone. Then, too, came the knowledge
that even in one district all the clays did not fire to the same colour,
and colour decoration arose, in a rude daubing or smearing of some clay
or earth (a ruddle or bole perhaps), which was found to give a bright
red or buff colour on vessels shaped in a duller-coloured clay--most
precious of all were little deposits of white clay which kept their
purity unsullied through the fire,--and by these primitive means the
races of the dawn made their wares. On this substructure all the pottery
of the last four thousand years has been built, for behind all Egyptian,
Greek or Chinese pottery we find the same primitive foundations.

We now reach the beginnings of recorded history, and as the great
nations of the past emerge from the shadows they each develop the
potter's art in an individual way. The Egyptians evolve schemes of
glowing colour--brilliant glazes fired on objects, shaped in sand held
together with a little clay, or actually carved from rocks or stones;
the Greeks produce their marvels of plastic form, and then, excited by
their growing skill in metal work, turn the plastic clay into imitations
of metal forms. These nations are overthrown, and the Romans spread some
knowledge--only a tincture, it must be confessed--over all the lands
they hold in fee; and from the Euphrates to the Atlantic, from Egypt to
the Wall of Hadrian, they set alight potters' fires that have never
since been extinguished. The Roman empire falls, and over Europe its
pottery is forgotten along with its greater achievements; yet still
pottery-making goes on in a very simple way, to be slowly revived and
modified once more by the communities of monks, who, in later centuries,
replace the Roman legions as the great civilizing influence in Europe.
Meantime Egypt and the nearer East continued, in a debased form, the
splendours of their glorious past, and glazed and painted pottery was
still made by traditional methods. What part the Byzantine civilization
and the Persians played during this obscure time, we are only just
beginning to realize; but we now know that many interesting kinds of
decorated pottery were made at Old Cairo, at Alexandria, at Damascus, in
Syria, Anatolia and elsewhere (on which the later Moslem potters founded
their glorious works), at a time when all over Europe crocks of simple
red or drab clay, covered only with green and yellow lead-glazes, were
the sole evidence of the potter's skill. What the Arab conquests
destroyed, and what their breath quickened into life, we can only guess;
but the fact is indisputable that with the Mahommedan conquests there
came a time when the potter's art of the Occident reached its highest
expression, and when methods and knowledge hitherto confined to Egypt,
Syria and Persia were spread from Spain and the south of France to
India--even, it may be, into China.

Meantime, in the farther East, the Chinese--the greatest race of potters
the world has ever seen--were quietly gathering strength, until from
their glazed, hard-fired pottery there emerged the marvellous, white
translucent porcelain, one of the wonders of the medieval world.

With the dawn of the 15th century of our era, the state of affairs was
practically this:--In European countries proper we find rudely fashioned
and decorated wares in which we can trace the slow development of a
native craft from the superposition of Roman methods on the primitive
work of the peoples. The vessels were mostly intended for use and not
for show; were clumsily fashioned of any local clay, and if glazed at
all then only with coarse lead-glazes, coloured yellow or green; in no
case above the level of workmanship of the travelling brick- or
tile-maker. The finest expression of this native style is to be found in
the Gothic tile pavements of France, Germany and England, where all the
colours are due to the clays and there is no approach to painting. In
the Moslem countries--including the greater part of Spain and Sicily,
Egypt and the nearer East, probably even to the very centre of
Asia--pottery was being made either of whitish clay and sand, or of a
light reddish clay coated with a white facing of fine clay or of
tin-enamel, on which splendid decorative patterns in vivid pigments or
brilliant iridescent lustres were painted.

As early as the 12th century of our era this superior artistic pottery
of the Moslem nations had already attracted the notice of Europeans as
an article of luxury for the wealthy; and we may well believe the
traditional accounts that Saracen potters were brought into Italy,
France and Burgundy to introduce the practice of their art, while
Italian potters certainly penetrated into the workshops of eastern Spain
and elsewhere, and gathered new ideas. In Italy certainly, and in the
south of France probably, efforts were continuously in progress to
improve the native wares by coating the vessels with a white "slip" and
drawing on them rude, painted patterns in green, yellow and purplish
black. The increasing intercourse with Spain, in war and peace, also
introduced the use of tin-enamel after the fashion of the famous
Hispano-Moresque wares, and by the end of the 14th century a knowledge
of tin-enamel was widespread in Italy and paved the way to the glorious
painted majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. From Italy and Spain,
France and Holland, Germany, and finally, though much later, England
learnt this art, and the tin-enamelled pottery of middle and northern
Europe, so largely made during the 17th and 18th centuries, was the
direct offshoot of this movement of the Italian Renaissance.[2]

During the 15th and 16th centuries Chinese porcelain also began to find
its way into Europe, and by the whiteness of its substance and its
marvellous translucence excited the attention of the Italian majolists
and alchemists. The first European imitation of this famous oriental
porcelain of which we have indubitable record was made at Florence
(1575-1585) by alchemists or potters working under the patronage, and,
it is said, with the active collaboration of Francesco de' Medici. This
Florentine porcelain was the first of those distinctively European
wares, made in avowed imitation of the Chinese, which form a connecting
link between pottery and glass, for they may be considered either as
pottery rendered translucent or as glass rendered opaque by shaping and
firing a mixture containing a large percentage of glass with a very
little clay. After the cessation of the Florentine experiments we know
of no European porcelain for nearly a century, though the importation of
Chinese porcelain had largely increased owing to the activity of the
various "India" companies. The next European porcelain, made like the
Florentine of glass and clay, was that of Rouen (1673) and St Cloud
(1696); and during the 18th century artificial glassy porcelain was made
in France and England largely, and in other countries experimentally.
German experimenters worked in another direction, and the first
porcelain made in Europe from materials similar to the Chinese was
produced at Meissen by Böttger (1710-1712). During the 18th century not
only was there a very large trade in imported Chinese and Japanese
porcelain, but there was a great development of porcelain manufacture in
Europe; and in every country factories were established, generally under
royal or princely patronage, for the manufacture of artificial porcelain
like the French, or genuine porcelain like the German. The English made
a departure in the introduction of a porcelain distinct from either,
through adding calcined ox-bones to the other ingredients; and this
English bone-porcelain--a well-marked species--is now largely made in
America, France, Germany and Sweden as well as in England.

By the end of the 18th century the risks and losses attendant on the
manufacture of the French glassy porcelain had caused its abandonment,
and a porcelain made from natural materials like the Chinese has since
been generally made on the continent of Europe.

The older tin-enamelled wares--derived from the Hispano-Moresque and the
Italian majolica--so largely made in France, Holland, Germany and
elsewhere during the 17th and 18th centuries, met with a fate analogous
to that of the French porcelain. Tin-enamelled earthenware is always a
brittle substance, soon damaged in regular use; so that, when, in the
middle of the 18th century, the English potter first appeared as a
serious competitor with a fine white earthenware of superior durability
and precision of manufacture, the old painted faience gradually
disappeared between the upper millstone of European porcelain and the
nether millstone of English earthenware.

The 19th century witnessed a great and steady growth in the output of
porcelain and pottery of all kinds in Europe and the United States.
Mechanical methods were largely called in to supplement or replace what
had hitherto remained almost pure handicraft. The English methods of
preparing and mixing the materials of the body and glaze, and the
English device of replacing painted decoration by machine printing, to a
large extent carried the day, with a great gain to the mechanical
aspects of the work and in many cases with an entire extinction of its
artistic spirit. Even the hand-work that still remained was largely
affected by the growing dominance of machinery; and the painting,
gilding and decoration of pottery and porcelain, in the first half of
the 19th century, became everywhere mechanical and hackneyed. During the
latter half of the 19th century another influence was fortunately at
work. Side by side with the increasing mechanical perfection of the
great bulk of modern pottery there grew up a school of innovators and
experimentalists, who revived many of the older decorative methods that
had fallen into oblivion and produced fresh and original work, in
certain directions even beyond, the achievements of the past. The 20th
century opened with a wider outlook among the potters of Europe and
America. In every country men were striving once again to bring back to
their world-old craft something of artistic taste and skill.

  _Technical Methods._--All primitive pottery, whether of ancient or of
  modern times, has been made by the simplest methods. The clay, dug
  from the earth's surface, was or is prepared by beating and kneading
  with the hands, feet or simple mallets of stone or wood; stones and
  hard particles were picked out; and the mass, well tempered with
  water, was used without any addition. From this clay, vessels were
  shaped by scooping out or cutting a solid lump or ball, by building up
  piece by piece and smoothing down one layer upon another or by
  squeezing cakes of clay on to some natural object or prepared mould or
  form. The potter's wheel, though very ancient, was a comparatively
  late invention, arrived at independently by many races of men. In its
  simplest form it was a heavy disk pivoted on a central point to be set
  going by the hand, as the workman squatted on the ground; and it may
  be seen to-day in India, Ceylon, China or Japan, in all its primitive
  simplicity (see fig. 1). This form of potter's wheel was the only one
  known until about the Christian era, and then, in Egypt apparently,
  the improvement was introduced of lengthening the spindle which
  carries the throwing-wheel and mounting on it near the base a much
  larger disk which the potter could rotate with his foot, and so have
  both hands free for the manipulation of the clay (fig. 2). No further
  advance seems to have been made before the 17th century, when the
  wheel was spun by means of a cord working over a pulley; and though a
  steam-driven wheel was introduced in the middle of the 19th century,
  this form remains the best for the production of fine pottery.

  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Potter moulding a vessel on the wheel (from a
  painting in a tomb at Thebes about 1800 B.C.). Compare the wheel on
  the left in fig. 5.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Potter's wheel of the time of the Ptolemies,
  moved by the foot (from a wall-relief at Philae). Compare fig. 5, the
  wheel on the right.]

  A prevalent misconception with regard to the potter's wheel needs
  correction. For anything beyond very simple shapes it is impossible to
  carry the work to completion on the wheel at one operation as is
  generally imagined. All that the potter can do while the clay is soft
  enough to "throw" on the wheel is to get a rough shape of even
  thickness. This operation completed, the piece is removed from the
  wheel and set aside to dry. When it is about leather-hard, it may be
  re-centred carefully on the wheel (the old practice), or placed in a
  horizontal lathe (since 16th century) and turned down to the exact
  shape and polished to an even, smooth surface. The Greek vase-makers
  were already adepts in what is often reckoned a modern, detestable
  practice. Many Greek vases have obviously been "thrown" in separate
  sections, and when these had contracted and hardened sufficiently they
  were luted together with slip, and the final vase-shape was smoothed
  and turned down on the wheel, and even polished to as fine a degree of
  mechanical finish as the modern potter ever attains. So too with the
  Chinese; many of their forms have been made in two or three portions,
  subsequently joined together and finished on the outside as one piece.
  Indeed it is remarkable how the Greeks and Chinese had discovered for
  themselves many devices of this kind which are generally held up to
  opprobrium as the debased methods of a mechanical age. Always it
  should be borne in mind that the shaping of pottery by "pressing"
  cakes of clay into moulds is much older than the potter's wheel, and
  has always been the method of making shapes other than those in the
  round. The modern method of "casting" pottery by pouring slip, a fluid
  mixture of clay and water, into absorbent moulds seems to have
  originated in England about the middle of the 18th century; and this
  too is a genuine potter's method which does not merit the disapproval
  with which it has been generally regarded by writers on the potter's
  art.

  In all ages the work of the "thrower" or "presser" has been largely
  supplemented by the modeller, who alters the shape, and applies to it
  handles, spouts or modelled accessories at will.

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Early Greek pottery-kiln, about 700-600 B.C.
  (from a painted votive tablet found at Corinth, now in the Louvre).
  The section shows the probable construction of the kiln.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Roman kiln found at Castor. The low arch is
  for the insertion of the fuel; the pots rested on the perforated
  floor, made of clay slabs; the top of the kiln is missing,--it was
  probably a dome.]

  _Firing._--The firing of pottery has become in modern times such a
  specialized branch of the manufacture that the student can only be
  referred here to the technological works mentioned in the bibliography
  at the end of this article. It is, however, necessary that we should
  briefly describe the earlier forms of potters' kilns used by the
  nations whose pottery counts among the treasures of the collector and
  the antiquary. Here again we now know that the primitive types of kiln
  used by the potters of ancient Egypt or Greece have not vanished from
  the earth; it is only in the civilized countries of the modern world
  that they have been replaced by improved and perfected devices. The
  potters of the North-West Provinces of India use to-day a kiln
  practically identical with that depicted in severest silhouette on the
  rock-tombs of Thebes; and the skilful Japanese remain content with a
  kiln very similar to the one shown in fig. 3. This Greek type of kiln
  was improved and enlarged by the Romans, and its use seems to have
  been introduced wherever pottery was made under their sway, for
  remains of Roman kilns have been found in many countries (see fig. 4).
  With the end of Roman dominance we have ample evidence that their
  technical methods fell into disuse, and the northern European potter
  of the period from the 6th to the 12th century had to build up his
  methods afresh, and improved kilns were invented. The general type of
  medieval potter's kiln is illustrated for us in the manuscript of an
  Italian potter of the 16th century, now in the library of the Victoria
  and Albert Museum[3] (fig. 5). Kilns of a different type, horizontal
  reverberatory kilns, were used for making the hard-fired pottery of
  Europe (Rhenish stoneware, &c.), as well as for Chinese porcelain and
  the earliest German porcelains. With the organization of pottery as a
  factory industry in the 18th century, improved kilns were introduced,
  and the type of kiln now so largely used in civilized countries is
  practically a vertical reverberatory furnace of circular section, from
  10 to 22 ft. in diameter and of similar height, capable, therefore, of
  containing at one firing a quantity of pottery that would have formed
  the output of a medieval potter for a year. Every device that can be
  thought of for the better utilization of heat and its even
  distribution throughout the kiln or oven has been experimented with;
  and, though the results have been most successful from the point of
  view of the potter, even the most recent coal-fired ovens remain very
  wasteful types of apparatus, the amount of available heat being
  relatively small to the fuel consumption. Gas-fired kilns and ovens
  are now being used or experimented with in every country, and their
  perfection, which cannot be far distant, will improve the most vital
  of the potter's processes both in certainty and economy.

  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Two forms of Italian potter's wheels, about
  1540.]

  _Glazes._--We are never likely to known when glaze (i.e. a coating of
  fired glass) was first applied to pottery, though the present state of
  knowledge would incline us to the opinion that the earliest glazed
  objects we possess are those of ancient Egypt,[4] but the practice may
  have been originated independently wherever a knowledge of the
  elements of glass-making had spread, as all the early glazes were of
  the alkaline type, which must first be fused into a glass before they
  can be applied to pottery.

  Many primitive races seem to have burnished their pottery after it was
  fired, in order to get a glossy surface; and in other cases the
  surface was rendered shining and waterproof by coating it with waxy or
  resinous substances which were often coloured. It is possible that the
  black varnish of Greek vases was obtained by such a method, and though
  that point is not settled, we have many types of primitive pottery,
  both modern and ancient, which are coated in this way. Such a coating
  is only a substitute for glaze in the work of peoples who do not know
  or have not mastered the technical secrets of true glazes. We can only
  consider as glazes those definite superficial layers of molten
  material which have been fired on the clay substance. Glazes are as
  varied as the various kinds of pottery, and it must never be forgotten
  that each kind of pottery is at its best with its appropriate glaze.
  The earliest known glazes (Egyptian and Assyrian) were silicates of
  soda and lime containing very little alumina and no lead. Such glazes
  are very uncertain in use, and can only be applied to pottery
  unusually rich in silica (i.e. deficient in clay). Consequently these
  alkaline glazes cannot be used on ordinary clay wares, and when they
  have been used successfully, the clay has always been coated with a
  surface layer of highly siliceous substance (e.g. the so-called
  Persian, Rhodian, Syrian and Egyptian pottery of the early middle
  ages). The fact that glazes containing lead-oxide would adhere to
  ordinary pottery when alkaline glazes would not was discovered at a
  very early period; for lead glazes were extensively used in Egypt and
  the nearer East in Ptolemaic times, and it is significant that, though
  the Romans made singularly little use of glazes of any kind, the
  pottery that succeeded theirs, either in western Europe or in the
  Byzantine empire, was generally covered with glazes rich in lead.
  Throughout Europe, and over the greater part of the world, leaded
  glazes have been continuously used and improved for all ordinary
  pottery, and it is only with certain special hard-fired types of ware
  that they have yet been successfully replaced. Chinese porcelain and
  all the European porcelains made by analogous methods are fired at so
  high a temperature that a glaze by felspar softened by lime and silica
  is found most suitable for them, and the hard-fired stonewares, rich
  in silica, are often glazed with a salt glaze, or a melted earth rich
  in oxide of iron.

  Every kind of potter's clay (the mixture of clay, sand, flint, &c.,
  from which the potter shapes his wares) has its own type of glaze, and
  from the earliest time down to our own what the potter could produce
  in form or glaze or colour has been largely decided for him by the
  clay material at his command. With any good plastic clay which cannot
  be fired at the highest temperature, lead glazes have always proved
  the most practicable. A similar clay, to which large quantities of
  sand are added, may be glazed by the vapours of common salt; and
  mixtures rich in felspar, like Chinese or European porcelain, can be
  glazed by melting felspathic materials upon them. Naturally those
  species of pottery which are the hardest fired are the most
  durable--the glazes of hard porcelain are more unchangeable than lead
  glazes, and these in their turn than alkaline glazes.

  The most important types of glaze are (1) alkaline glazes (e.g.
  Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, &c.), the oldest and most uncertain; (2)
  lead glazes, the most widespread in use and the best for all ordinary
  purposes; (3) felspathic glazes, the glazes of hard-fired porcelains,
  generally unsuited to any other material; (4) salt glaze, produced by
  vapours of common salt, the special glaze of stonewares. Many
  intermediate glazes have been devised to meet special needs, but these
  remain the only important groups. Fuller details on this important
  subject must be sought in the technical works.

  _Colours._--The primitive potters of ancient and modern times have all
  striven to decorate their wares with colour. The simplest, and
  therefore the earliest, colour decoration was carried out in natural
  earths and clays. The clays are so varied in composition that they
  fire to every shade of colour from white to grey, cream, buff, red,
  brown, or even to a bronze which is almost black. One clay daubed or
  painted upon another formed the primitive palette of the potter,
  especially before the invention of glaze. When glaze was used these
  natural clays were changed in tint, and native earths, other than
  clays, containing iron, manganese and cobalt, were gradually
  discovered and used. It is also surprising to note that some of the
  very earliest glazes were coloured glasses containing copper or iron
  (the green, turquoise and yellow glazes of the ancient Egyptians and
  Assyrians). Marvellous work was wrought in these few materials, but
  the era of the finest pottery-colour dawns with the Persian, Syrian
  and Egyptian work that preceded the Crusades. By this time the art of
  glazing pottery with a clear soda-lime glaze had been thoroughly
  learnt. Vases, tiles, &c., shaped in good plastic clay, were covered
  with a white, highly siliceous coating fit to receive glazes of this
  type, and giving the best possible ground for the painted colours then
  known. With this rudimentary technique the potters of the countries
  south and east of the Mediterranean produced, between the 9th and 16th
  centuries of our era, a type of pottery that remains ideal from the
  point of view of colour: for, with nothing more than the greens given
  by oxide of copper and iron, the turquoise of pure copper, the deep
  yet vivid blue of cobalt, the beautiful uncertain purple of manganese,
  and in certain districts the rich red of Armenian bole, they achieved
  colour schemes that have never been surpassed in their brilliant yet
  harmonious richness.

  When the coating of white siliceous clay was replaced by an opaque
  tin-enamel as in Spain, Italy, France, Holland, &c., a necessary
  change in the colour schemes resulted. At first only the copper-greens
  and cobalt-blues could be used on such a ground; the fine manganese
  purple turned to brown or black and the rich iron-reds to filthy
  shades of yellow. We cannot wonder that the Spanish-Arab potters paid
  more attention to their lustre decoration, for that was the natural
  thing to do. How strong and fine a palette could be evolved for use on
  a tin-enamel ground was shown by the Italian majolists of the 15th and
  16th centuries; and when the later developments of tin-enamelled
  pottery took place in France, Holland, Germany, &c., their colour
  schemes are only echoes of Italian majolica crossed with Chinese
  porcelain. Delft, Nevers, Moustiers and Rouen may each charm us with
  its individuality; Nuremberg and other south German towns may show us
  that they too had mastered the use of tin-enamel; yet our minds always
  go back to the colour schemes of Italian majolica and of the Persian
  and Syrian pottery that lie behind and beyond them.

  The colours already spoken of were either clay colours or what are
  known as "under glaze" colours, because they were painted on the
  pottery before the glaze was fired.

  The earliest glazes of the Egyptians appear not to have been white,
  but were coloured throughout their substance, and this use of coloured
  glazes as apart from painted colour was developed along with the
  painted decoration by the later Egyptian, Syrian and Persian potters.
  Green, yellow and brown glazes were almost the only artistic
  productions of the medieval European potters' kilns, and their use
  everywhere preceded the introduction of painted pottery. The most
  extensive application of coloured glazes was, however, that made by
  the Chinese, who developed this type of colour decoration before they
  used painted patterns in underglaze colour. The earliest Chinese
  porcelains, and the hard-fired stonewares out of which their porcelain
  arose, were decorated in this way, and the beauty of many of the early
  Sung coloured glazes has never been surpassed.

  With the exceedingly refractory felspathic glazes of Chinese porcelain
  very few underglaze colours could be used; and the prevalence of blue
  and white among the early specimens of Chinese porcelains is due to
  the fact that cobalt was almost the only substance known to the
  potters of the Ming dynasty which would endure the high temperature
  needed to melt their glazes. Consequently the Chinese were driven to
  invent the method of painting in coloured fusible glasses on the
  already fired glaze. They adopted for this purpose the coloured
  enamels used on metal; hence the common term "enamel decoration,"
  which is so generally applied to painting in those colours which are
  attached to the already fired glaze by refiring at a lower
  temperature. With the introduction of this many-coloured Chinese
  porcelain into Europe the same practice was eagerly followed by our
  European potters, and a new palette of colours and fresh styles of
  decoration soon arose amongst us. Painting in on-glaze colours, being
  executed on the fired glaze, resembles glass painting, and it
  generally offers a striking contrast both in technique and
  colour-quality to the painting executed in colours under the glaze. In
  the former the work can be highly finished and the most mechanical
  execution is possible, but the colours are neither so rich nor so
  brilliant as under-glaze colours, nor have they the same softness as
  is given by the slight spread of the under-glaze colour when the glaze
  is melted over it.

  It must be pointed out that the colour possibilities in any method of
  pottery decoration are largely dependent on the temperature at which
  the colour needs to be fired. The clay colours are naturally more
  limited in range than the under-glaze colours, and these in their turn
  than the on-glaze colours.

  When, about the middle of the 18th century, European pottery took on
  its modern form, of earthenware made after the English fashion, and
  porcelain like the French and German, the lead or felspathic glazes
  used brought about another revolution in the potter's palette. The
  growing ideal of mechanical perfection discounted the freedom of the
  earlier brushwork, and printed patterns, or painting that might almost
  have been printed, removed the mind still farther from the richness of
  painted faience or majolica. It is useless to look for the glorious
  colour of Persian faience, Italian majolica, or Chinese porcelain, in
  modern wares produced by manufacturing processes where mechanical
  perfection is demanded to a degree undreamt of before the 19th
  century. The finest modern pottery colour is only to be sought in the
  work of those enthusiasts and experimenters who are striving to
  produce work as rich and free as the best of past times.

  _Metals_.--The noble metals, such as gold, platinum and silver, have,
  since the early years of the 18th century, been largely used as
  adjuncts to pottery decoration, especially on the fine white
  earthen-wares and porcelains of the last two centuries. At first the
  gold was applied with a kind of japanner's size and was not fired to
  the glaze, but for the last 150 years or so the metals have generally
  been fired to the surface of the glaze like enamel colours, by mixing
  the metal with a small proportion of flux or fusible ground glass.
  There can scarcely be a doubt that the ancient lustres of Persia,
  Syria and Spain were believed to be a form of gilding, though their
  decorative effect was much more beautiful than gilding has ever been.
  The early Chinese and Japanese gilding appears, like the European, to
  have been "sized" or water-gilt, not fired; and it seems probable that
  the use of "fired" gold was taught to the Oriental by the European in
  the 18th century. To-day "liquid" gold is exported to China and Japan
  from Europe for the use of the potter.


PRIMITIVE POTTERY

We can group together that great and widely-spread class of vessels made
by the primitive races of mankind, whether before the dawn of
civilization or at the present day, for it is interesting to note that
many modern races still make pottery by the same rude method as the
Neolithic races of Europe and Asia, and with striking similarity of
result. In fact, the knowledge of the methods and practices of the
primitive potters of our own time furnishes the best possible guide to
the methods of fabrication and ornamentation of the ancient specimens
that are dug up from barrows, grave mounds, and tumuli. It is only
natural that the materials and methods of such pottery are always of the
simplest. The clay is used with very little preparation, and it is no
unusual thing to find bits of stone, gravel, &c., embedded in the paste
of such wares, though at a later stage of development they would have
been removed. It must be remarked, however, that no race of potters
practised the art for long without discovering that their vessels were
not so liable to crack in drying, or lose their shape in firing, if fine
sand or pounded "potsherds" were mixed with the clay; and when we are
dealing with the work of races that have passed beyond the Stone Age and
have learned the use of metals we find this custom universal.

There are three methods of shaping which seem to be common to almost
every primitive race:--

  1. The scooping out of a vessel from a ball of clay.

  2. The building up of a form, often on a piece of basket-work or
  matting, gradually raising the walls higher by applying and smoothing
  down successive layers of clay.

  3. Coiling; in which the clay is rolled out into thin ropes, and these
  are coiled round and round upon each other and smoothed down with the
  hands and with simple tools of bone, wood or metal.

The use of the potter's wheel is unknown, while it is remarkable how
beautifully true and finely-fashioned much primitive pottery is. The
primitive red and black vases discovered by Flinders Petrie in Egypt,
and the somewhat similar vessels of prehistoric date from Spain, are
remarkable instances of this. Some primitive races leave their pottery
without decoration, especially when they have a fine red-burning clay to
work in, but, generally speaking, primitive pottery of every race and
time is elaborately decorated, but only with the simplest patterns. Such
decorations consist of lines, dots or lunette-shaped depressions
arranged in crosses, chevrons, zigzags or all-over repeated pattern. All
this ornament is scratched or impressed into the clay before it is
fired. Simplest of all is, perhaps, the pattern which has so obviously
been produced by pressing a twisted thong round the neck or bowl of a
vase; though the thong may have been used in the first instance merely
to serve as a support while the vessel was dried. At a later stage the
ornament is generally obtained by scratching with a tool, by pressing
the end of a hollow stick into the clay to form rows of circles, by
using a stick cut at the end into the shape of a half-moon, or other
equally simple decorative device. In certain tropical countries this
rudimentary pottery becomes hard enough for a certain amount of use when
merely dried in the sun, but in all northern and temperate countries it
must have been fired, probably in the most imperfect way, in an open
fire or in such a kiln as could be formed by sinking a hole into the
ground and erecting round it a screen of stones. How imperfect the
firing was is shown by the ashen-grey colour due to smoke. In those
countries where the ware has been more perfectly fired the pieces
naturally become buff, drab, brown or red.

The primitive vessels that have been found in the grave-mounds of
England and the northern countries generally have received a number of
fanciful names for which there is very little warrant except in the case
of the cinerary urns. These are generally the largest vessels of this
class, and as they were used to contain burnt bones there seems
sufficient warrant for the supposition that they were made for this and
for no other purpose.

Our knowledge of primitive pottery has been greatly improved during
recent years by the labours of a number of American students connected
with the United States Geological Survey, who have carefully recorded
the present-day practices of those native tribes who make and use
pottery in various parts of North America and Mexico; while, in the same
way, Peruvian, Brazilian and other South American pottery has been as
closely investigated by European observers. It should be noted that no
primitive pottery reveals any trace of a knowledge of glaze, though much
of it has been highly polished after firing, and in some cases a varnish
has been applied which may perhaps be regarded as the earliest kind of
"glazing" ever applied to pottery vessels.

  LITERATURE.--On primitive pottery the following works may be specially
  mentioned. W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_ (1877); Boyd-Dawkins,
  _Early Man in Britain_ (1880); Mortimer, _Forty Years' Researches in
  British and Saxon Burial-mounds of East Yorkshire_ (1905); Abercromby,
  "The Oldest Bronze-age Ceramic Type in Britain," _J. Anth. Inst._ vol.
  xxxii. (1902), 373; _Guide to Antiquities of the Bronze Age_ (British
  Museum, 1904); Koenen, _Gefässkunde der vorrömischen, römischen und
  fränkischen Zeit in den Rheinländern_ (1895); Wosinsky, _Der
  inkrustierte Keramik der Stein- und Bronze-zeit_ (1904); Walters,
  _History of Ancient Pottery_ (Greek and Roman) (1905); Holmes,
  _Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States_ (Bureau of
  Ethnology, Washington, 1899); also Holmes and Cushing in _Report_ of
  Bureau of Ethnology for 1882; Wiener, _Pérou et Bolivie_ (1880); Von
  der Steinen, _Natur-Völkerei Central Brasiliens_ (1894); Hartman,
  _Archaeological Researches in Costa Rica_ (1905); Strebel, on "Mexican
  Pottery" in _Publications_ of Museum für Völkerkunde (Berlin, vol. 6,
  1899); Werner, _British Central Africa_ (1907); Füllborn, _Deutsche
  Ost-Afrika_, vol. ix. (1907); Macluer, "Kabyle Pottery," _Journ. Anth.
  Inst._ vol. xxxii. p. 245, and "Upper Egypt," _ibid_. xxxv. p. 20;
  Myres, "Early Pottery Fabrics of Asia Minor," _Journ. Anth. Inst._
  xxxiii. p. 367; Turveren Museum, _Notes analytiques sur les
  collections ethnographiques du Congo_, tome ii. (1907); Cupart,
  _Debuts de l'art de l'ancienne Égypte_ (1903).     (W. B.*)


EGYPT AND WESTERN ASIA

_Egyptian Pottery_.--Egypt affords us the most striking instance of the
development of the potter's art. As in other countries pottery was made
even in Neolithic times, for the Nile mud forms a fine plastic clay and
sand is of course abundant. With these materials various kinds of
pottery, often extremely well made and of good form, have been
continuously produced for common domestic requirements, but such pottery
was never glazed.

The wonderful glazes of the Egyptians were applied to a special
preparation which can hardly be called pottery at all, it contained so
little clay. Yet as early as the 1st Dynasty the Egyptians had learnt to
shape little objects in this tender material and cover them with their
wonderful turquoise glazes. We have therefore to study the development
of two independent things: (1) the ordinary pottery of common clay left
without glaze; (2) the brilliant glazed faience which appears to be
special to Egypt, though it may have been the groundwork for the
technique of the slip-faced painted and glazed pottery of the nearer
East.

We probably do not possess any specimens of the most primitive Neolithic
pottery; the oldest type known to us, the black and red ware of Ballas
and Nagada (1), dates from the later Neolithic age, when copper was just
beginning to be used. This ware is very hard and compact and the face is
highly burnished. The red colour was produced by a wash of fine red
clay; the black is an oxide of iron obtained by limiting the access of
air in the process of baking, which was done, Professor Petrie suggests,
by placing the pot's mouth down in the kiln, and leaving the ashes over
the part which was to be burnt black. Both red and black colour go right
through in every case. All-red and all-black vases are occasionally
found, the red with geometrical decorations in white colour, and the
black with incised decoration. The forms are usually very simple, but at
the same time graceful, and the grace of form is more remarkable when it
is remembered that none of this early pottery was made on the wheel.
Pottery of almost similar technique was found in Crete in 1905 during
the American excavations at Vasiliki near Hierapetra. The general
appearance of the Cretan pottery is much the same as that of the
Egyptian, and the duller red and black decoration (which here has a
spotted or mottled appearance) was probably obtained in the same way,
the black spots being due to the action of separate fragments of the
baking material. This discovery is important in view of the probable
early connexion of the Cretan and Egyptian culture-centres.

A very similar red and black ware, usually of thinner and harder make,
and often with a brighter surface, was introduced into Egypt at a later
date (XIIth Dynasty), probably by Nubian tribes who were descended from
relatives of the Neolithic Egyptians. From their characteristic graves
these people are called the Pan-Grave people, and their pottery is known
by the same name.

Perhaps rather later in date than the early red and black wares, but by
no means certainly so, the second characteristic type of primeval
Egyptian pottery is a ware of buff colour with surface decorations in
red. These decorations are varied in character, including ships, birds
and human figures; wavy lines and geometrical designs commonly occur.
The whole _facies_ of this ware seems very un-Egyptian, and it has been
compared with the decorated "Kabyle pottery" of modern times. To call
the people who made this ware "Libyans" on the strength of this
resemblance of their pottery to that of the modern Kabyles, six thousand
years later, seems, however, rash. The prehistoric Egyptians were not
Kabyles or Libyans, but Nilotes, and the peculiar decoration of their
pottery, which seems so strangely barbaric, is in reality merely the
most ancient handiwork of the Egyptian painter, and marks the first
stage in the development of pictorial art on the banks of the Nile (2).
Other types of pottery (3), in colour chiefly buff or brown, were also
in use at this period; the most noticeable form is a cylindrical vase
with a wavy or rope band round it just below the lip, which developed
out of a necked vase with a wavy handle on either side. This cylindrical
type outlived the red and black and the red and buff decorated styles
(which are purely Neolithic and predynastic) and continued in use in the
early dynastic period, well into the Copper age. The other unglazed
pottery of the first three dynasties is not very remarkable for beauty
of form or colour, and is indeed of the roughest description (4), but
under the IVth Dynasty we find beautiful wheel-made bowls, vases and
vase-stands of a fine red polished ware (4). This fine ware continued in
use at least as late as the XVIIIth Dynasty, though the forms of course
differed from age to age. Under the XIIth Dynasty, and during the Middle
Kingdom generally, either this or a coarser unpolished red ware was in
use. The forms of this period are very characteristic (5); the vases are
usually footless, and have a peculiar globular or drop-like shape--some
small ones seem almost spherical. At this period the foreign "Pan-Grave"
black and red pottery was also in use (see above).

The art of making a pottery consisting of a siliceous sandy body coated
with a vitreous copper glaze seems to have been known unexpectedly
early, possibly even as early as the period immediately preceding the
Ist Dynasty (4000 B.C.). Under the XIIth Dynasty pottery made of this
characteristic Egyptian faience seems to have come into general use, and
it continued in use down to the days of the Romans, and is the ancestor
of the glazed wares of the Arabs and their modern successors (6). The
oldest Egyptian glazed ware is found usually in the shape of beads,
plaques, &c.--rarely in the form of pottery vessels. The colour is
usually a light blue, which may turn either white or green; but beads of
the grey-black manganese colour are found, and on the light blue vases
of King Aha (who is probably one of the historical originals of the
legendary "Mena" or Menes) in the British Museum (No. 38,010) we have
the king's name traced in the manganese glaze on (or rather in) the
blue-white glaze of the vase itself, for the second glaze is inlaid.
This style of decoration in manganese black or purple on copper-blue
continued till the end of the "New Empire" shortly before the XXVIth
(Saite) Dynasty. It was not usual actually to inlay the decoration
before the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. The light blue glaze was used
well into the time of the XIIth Dynasty (British Museum, No. 36,346),
but was then displaced by a new tint, a brilliant turquoise blue, on
which the black decoration shows up in sharper contrast than before.
This blue, and a somewhat duller, greyer or greener tint was used at the
time for small figures, beads and vases, as well as for the glaze of
scarabs, which, however, were usually of stone-schist or steatite --not
faience. The characteristically Egyptian technique of glazed stone
begins about this period, and not only steatite or schist was employed
(on account of its softness), but a remarkably brilliant effect was
obtained by glazing hard shining white quartzite with the wonderfully
delicate XIIth Dynasty blue. A fragment of a statuette plinth of this
beautiful material was obtained during the excavation of the XIth
Dynasty temple at Deir el-Bahri in 1904 (British Museum, No. 40,948).
Vessels of diorite and other hard stones are also found coated with the
blue glaze. A good specimen of the finest XIIth Dynasty blue-glazed
faience is the small vase of King Senwosri I. (2400 B.C.) in the Cairo
Museum (No. 3666) (6). The blue-glazed hippopotami of this period, with
the reeds and water-plants in purplish black upon their bodies to
indicate their habitat, are well known. Fine specimens of these are in
the collection of the Rev. Wm. MacGregor at Tamworth (8).

The blue glaze of the XIIth Dynasty deepened in colour under the XIIIth,
to which the fine blue bowls with designs (in the manganese black) of
fish and lotus plants belong (8) (British Museum, Nos. 4790, &c.). The
finest specimens of XVIIIth Dynasty blue ware have come from Deir
el-Bahri, in the neighbourhood of which place there may have been a
factory for the manufacture of votive bowls, cups, beads, &c., of this
fine faience, for dedication by pilgrims in the temple of Hathor (good
collection in British Museum). Towards the end of this dynasty
polychrome glazes came into fashion; white, light and dark blue, violet,
purple, red, bright yellow, apple-green and other tints were used, not
only for smaller objects of faience, such as rings, scarabs, kohl-pots,
&c., but also for vases, e.g. No. 3965 of the Cairo Museum (Amenophis
III. wine-bottle), the ground colour of which is white with a decoration
of flower wreaths in blue, yellow and red, with an inscription in
delicate blue (6). This polychrome faience was also now used for the
_ushabti_ figures which were placed in the tombs; hitherto they had been
made exclusively of stone or wood, never of glazed stone or pottery;
henceforward they were made exclusively of faience, but the polychrome
glazes (e.g. British Museum, Nos. 34,180, 34,185) were soon abandoned,
and the plain blue and black of the ordinary vases was adopted. The
_ushabtis_ of King Seti I. (British Museum, No. 22,818, &c.) (9) are
fine specimens of this type. Under the XXth Dynasty the blue paled and
became weak in quality, but the priest-king family of the XXIst used for
their _ushabtis_ a most brilliant blue glaze, an extraordinary colour
which at once distinguishes the faience of this period from that of all
others (9). The same brilliant glaze was used for vases of various kinds
as well. The polychrome ware had developed into a style of inlaying with
glazed faience, which we see at Tel el-Amarna under the XVIIIth Dynasty
(1400 B.C.) (10), and at Tel el-Yah[=u]d[=i]ya under the XXth (1200
B.C.), used for wall decoration. After this time polychrome ceramic
decoration seems to have died out in Egypt, but was retained in Asia
(see below).

The technical skill of the New Empire potters is shown by such a
remarkable object as the gigantic _Uas_-sceptre of blue glazed faience,
now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (12, 8). This is the largest known
piece of Egyptian glazed faience; really large vases of faience are not
found. Faience vases were very commonly built up or carved out of a ball
of the dried material, perhaps held together by some mucilaginous
substance --it seems impossible that such a substance could ever have
been fashioned on the wheel. Sometimes even small vases were made of
separately moulded pieces united by a glassy material (6). Under the
XXIInd Dynasty small glazed vases with figures of deities or animals in
relief became common; these were made in moulds (6). In the matter of
form the faience pottery of the New Empire follows the lead of the new
earthenware types. Forms had altered considerably from those of the
XIIth Dynasty. In place of the simple flowing lines of that period, we
now find egg-shaped bodies with cylindrical necks, with or without
handles, great _amphorae_ with almost pointed bases, sometimes with the
handles perched upon the shoulders of the vase; flat-tipped, squat jugs;
little handleless vases somewhat resembling the modern _kulla_, "_mit
mehrfach eingezogenem Bauch_" (V.B.), and the common flat flask-like
type known as the "pilgrim bottle" (6, 13, 14, 15).

Owing to the extended foreign relations of Egypt at this time, imported
vases from Greece and Asia, including Mycenaean _Bugelkannen_ and
Cypriote black "base ring" jugs, have been found in the tombs and
deposits of this age (14). Imitations of foreign forms, especially the
_Bugelkannen_, are found[5] chiefly in faience (British Museum, 22,731,
is an imitation of a Minoan jug from Crete). The faience forms of the
XVIIIth and XXIInd Dynasties include also the _kulla_ shape, the pilgrim
bottle, miniature _amphorae_, &c. (see fig. 6), and miscellaneous forms
not found in common pottery, imitating metal and stone vases, e.g. the
blue-green ribbed pots of the XXIInd Dynasty, imitating bronze
originals, and the _alabastron_ of the XVIIIth; these last go back to
the XIIth Dynasty. Very pretty cups in the shape of lotus flowers (see
fig. 7) are to be seen in most museums; they are of the XIXth Dynasty,
and mostly came from Tuna (6, 8).

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Egyptian pottery made of fine blue paste.]

The continuance of the old red polished ware of the IVth Dynasty during
the Middle Kingdom to the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty has already been
mentioned. Characteristic of the latter period of this ware are long
jugs with attenuated body and single handle, which, because they have
been found with Mycenaean objects in Cyprus, have been considered to be
of foreign, probably of Syrian origin. They may, however, be Egyptian.
Vases of the same ware in the shape of men and animals are not uncommon
(17). Another ware of this period has a highly polished yellow face,
sometimes becoming ruddy, and passing off into a pinkish red; in this
ware the pilgrim bottles are common. An unpolished, brittle, and thin
yellow ware was also used largely for wine-vases. The rougher, commoner
red and brown ware at this period became decorated with designs, chiefly
of lily wreaths, &c., in paint of various colours (13). This new
development hid the ugly colour of the common pottery and was a cheaply
obtained imitation of the expensive, polychrome glazed ware of the
period (see fig. 8). This painted pottery continued in use until about
the time of the XXIInd Dynasty. From this time onwards, till the
Ptolemaic period, the commonest pottery was a red ware, usually covered
with a white slip. Under the XXVIth Dynasty a finer homogeneous white
ware occurs, usually for vases with a rude representation of the face of
the god Bes on their bodies.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Egyptian blue-glazed pottery.]

The XXVIth Dynasty marks a new period of development in the history of
Egyptian faience. The old deep blue colour had gradually deteriorated
into an ugly green (British Museum, No. 8962), which was replaced by the
Saite potters with a new light blue of very delicate tint, imitated, in
accordance with the archaistic spirit of the time, from the old light
blue of the earliest Dynasties. The glaze itself is very thin and
"sugary" in texture. The old decoration of the blue with designs and
inscriptions in manganese-black is abandoned; on the _ushabtis_ the
inscriptions are now incised. Side by side with this light blue glaze
was used an unglazed faience, a sort of composition paste with the
colour going right through.[6] It has more variety of colour than the
glazed faience, light green and a dark indigo blue being found as well
as the Saite light blue. Sometimes it is of a very soft, almost chalky
consistency. It was used for vases, but more generally for small figures
and scarabs (6). The commonest vase-form of this period is the pilgrim
bottle, now made with the neck in the form of a lily flower, and with
inscriptions on the sides wishing good luck in the New Year to the
possessor. These flasks appear to have been common New Year's gifts.

[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Egyptian pottery with painted ornament and sham
marbling.]

Under the Sebennyte kings of the XXXth Dynasty a further new development
of glaze began, of a more radical character than ever before. The colour
deepened, and the glaze itself became much more glassy, and was thickly
laid on. The new glaze was partly translucent, and differed very greatly
from the old opaque glaze. It first appeared on _ushabtis_ at the end of
the Saite period. A curious effect was obtained by glazing the
head-dress, the inscription &c., of the _ushabtis_ in dark blue, and
then covering the whole with translucent light blue glaze. This method
was regularly used during the succeeding Ptolemaic and Roman periods,
when the new style of glaze came into general use. A yellowish green
effect was obtained by glazing parts of the body of the vases in yellow
and covering this with the translucent blue glaze. This method was used
to touch up the salient portions of the designs in relief, imitated
from foreign originals, a style which now became usual on vases. The
usual decoration is mixed Egyptian and classical, the latter generally
predominating. A large range of colours was employed; purple, dark blue,
blue-green, grass-green, and yellow glazes all being found. The glaze is
very thickly laid on, and is often "crazed" (6, 8). A remarkable
instance of this Romano-Egyptian faience is the head of the god Bes in
the British Museum (No. 35,028). A hard, light blue, opaque glaze like
that of the XXVIth Dynasty is occasionally, but rarely, met with in the
case of vases (British Museum, Nos. 37,407, 37,408).

We know something of the common wares in use during this period from the
study of the _ostraka_, fragments of pottery on which dated
tax-receipts, notes, and so forth were written. From the _ostraka_ we
see that during the Ptolemaic period the commonest pottery was made of
red ware covered with white slip, which has already been mentioned. At
the beginning of the Roman period we find at Elephantine a peculiar
light pink ware with a brownish pink face, and elsewhere a smooth dark
brown ware. About the 3rd century A.D. horizontally ribbed or fluted
pots, usually of a coarse brown ware, came into general use. These were
often large-sized _amphorae_, with very attenuated necks and long
handles (see fig. 9). During the Byzantine (Coptic) period most of the
pottery in use was ribbed, and usually pitched inside to hold water, as
the ware was loose in texture and porous.

During the Coptic period, a lighter ware was also in use, decorated with
designs of various kinds in white, brown or red paint on the dull red or
buff body. In Nubia a peculiar development of this ware is
characteristic of the later period (Brit. Mus. No. 30,712).

A polished red ware of Roman origin (imitation Arretine or "Samian") was
commonly used as well.

The heavily glazed blue faience continued in use until replaced in the
early Arab period by the well-known yellow and brown lead-glazed
pottery, of which fragments are found in the mounds of Fostat (Old
Cairo).

[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Egyptian pottery under the Ptolemies, showing
Greek influence in the shapes.]

_Western Asia.--Palestine_. The most ancient Palestinian pottery is the
rough "Amorite" ware from Lachish (Tel el-Hesi) which sometimes has wavy
handles like the prehistoric Egyptian (18). Later we find actual
Mycenaean pottery in Philistia (19), an interesting testimony to the
truth of the legend which brings the Philistines from Crete; the fourth
and fifth cities of Lachish (1200-1000 B.C.) show us the first ordinary
Phoenician or Israelite pottery--buff or red lamps and bowls, the latter
with the handles sometimes painted in bistre, and vases showing strong
Egyptian influence; while pottery from Cyprus and elsewhere is found as
in Egypt.

The only remarkable later development of Palestinian pottery is the
Phoenician imitation of Egyptian faience of the Saite period, of which
the characteristics are well known. Some of this may actually have been
made in Egypt.

The course of the potter's art in Mesopotamia and Persia appears to have
run on lines of development parallel with the art in Egypt, for the
country between the Tigris and the Euphrates is rich in good clays, and,
wherever the invention of glass arose, its application to pottery
decoration was certainly developed at an early period in Egypt and in
Mesopotamia.

  Two characteristic uses of clay wares must, however, be pointed out,
  though they have nothing to do with vase-making.

  1. The Babylonian and Assyrian use of clay shaped into tablets,
  cylinders and prisms, to produce an imperishable record of the
  literature of the time. The cylinders and prisms were thrown on the
  potter's wheel and are consequently hollow; the circular form was then
  sliced down, and the surface was impressed with cuneiform
  inscriptions, the prism, tablet or cylinder being subsequently dried
  and fired.

  2. The architectural use of glazed bricks and slabs. While the
  Egyptians remained content for the most part with the application of
  their brilliant alkaline glazes to small and delicately-finished
  objects, the Babylonians and Assyrians developed an architecture
  decorated with glazed and coloured brickwork. The bricks were of very
  open texture, and the ornamental pattern or figure subjects were
  obtained by a strong outline in dark-coloured clay which formed a kind
  of _cloison_ or boundary, the shallow cells between being filled in
  with coloured clays--yellow, red or white--or with coloured glazes of
  turquoise, green or blue, yellow and purplish brown. These glazes are
  obviously like the Egyptian, but they are more coarsely prepared and
  are always full of bubbles and consequently more or less opaque. Yet
  the severe simplicity of the method, the splendid colour effect,
  strong yet sumptuous, entitles these productions to a very high rank
  among all the world's work in clay and glaze. The "Frieze of the
  Archers" now in the Louvre may be mentioned as one of the finest
  productions of its kind, and the Louvre and British Museum possess the
  finest collections of this early architectural use of glazed and
  coloured clay. (See also MURAL DECORATION )

Coming to ordinary pottery we find that in early times well-formed vases
made of good clay, unglazed and unpainted, were made. Small figures of
deities made of the same clay are often found. It is practically the
same terra-cotta as that of the inscribed tablets. None of the forms are
particularly distinctive (see fig. 10). The excavations of the French in
Persia have brought to light at Moussian in Susiana an extremely
interesting painted ware, which belongs to a very early period. The
decoration is usually geometrical. The technique seems to be analogous
to the Mycenaean-Greek (_Firnismalerei_), and the whole effect is very
like that of the Greek, Late Mycenaean or Dipylon pottery. The ware is
buff in colour and fine in texture, with a polished surface. The
decoration is sometimes in polychrome, but usually in the grey-brown
iron-glaze (?) alone. This pottery degenerates later and finally
disappears (20).

[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Assyrian biscuit pottery.]

During the Sargonide period in Assyria (7th century B.C.) we find a
polychrome faience (colours usually white and brown) obviously of
Egyptian origin. It was used, not for vases, but architectonically for
friezes, ornamental bosses, &c. Its origin may be found in Egypt under
the XVIIIth Dynasty, when Egyptian influence extended to the Tigris, and
Babylonia had regular diplomatic relations with Egypt In Asia this
polychrome decoration in glazes continued to be used long after it had
ceased to be made in the country of its origin; the enamelled brick
decoration of Persepolis is the descendant of the glazed inlay
decorations of Tel el-Amarna, Tel el-Yahudiya and Kuyunjik. In the
Sargonide period blue glazed vases occur (see fig. 11) which are
probably of Egyptian origin or are Phoenician imitations of Egyptian
faience.

[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Assyrian glazed and enamelled pottery.]

Characteristic of the Parthian period is a coarse green glazed pottery
of which the slipper-shaped coffins, of the time were made (British
Museum, Nos. 1645-1647) (21). This glaze possibly contains a small
amount of lead; in appearance it is not unlike the contemporary
translucent blue glaze of Egypt. The Egyptian glaze certainly spread
into western Asia, and we find the last specimens of it in the tiles
from the destroyed city of Rhagae in Persia, which may be as late as the
13th century A.D. The lead glazes, unknown in Egypt till the late Roman
period, may be of Asiatic origin, though this important point is by no
means clear.

  REFERENCES.--(1) Petrie-Quibell, _Ballas and Nagada_ (date erroneous);
  (2) Jacques de Morgan, _L' Âge de la pierre et des métaux_; (3)
  Petrie, _Diospolis Parva_, frontispiece (also for "sequence-dates" of
  pottery); (4) Garstang, _Mahâsna and Bêt Khallâf_, pls. xxix.--xxxii.;
  (5) Petrie, _Illahûn_, pl. xii. (corr. by V. Bissing in (14)); (6) V.
  Bissing, _Catalogue générale du musée de Caire, _"Die
  Fayencegefässe"; (7) Petrie, _Abydos_, ii., frontispiece; (8) Henry
  Wallis, _Egyptian Ceramic Art_ (Macgregor Collection); (9) _Guide to
  Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, British Museum_, p. 252 ff.; (10)
  Petrie, _Tel-el-Amarna_; (11) _Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian
  Rooms_, p. 261; (12) Petrie, _Nagâda_, pl. xxviii.; (13) Petrie,
  _Illahûn_, pls. xx., xxi.; (14) V. Bissing, _Strena Helbigiana_, p. 20
  ff.; (15) Garstang, _El Arábah_, pls. xviii.-xxi., xxviii., xxix.;
  (16) Hall, _Oldest Civilization of Greece_, p. 143 ff. ibid. figs. 29,
  30, 69; (17) _Guide to Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms_, pl. viii.;
  (18) Petrie, _Tell-el-Hesy_, pl. v.; (19) Welch, _Ann. Brit. Sch.
  Ath_. vi.; (20) de Morgan, _Délégation en Perse_, viii. (1905); (21)
  _Brit. Mus.: Guide to Babylonian and Assyrian Room_.     (H. R. H.)


GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN

GREEK. _Study of Greek Vases_.--It is not so many years since an account
of Greek pottery would naturally have followed chronologically the
history of Egyptian pottery with little overlapping; but recent
discoveries have reversed all such ideas, and, while up to the end of
the 19th century the earliest remains to be traced on Greek soil could
be assigned at the furthest to the period 2500-2000 B.C., it is now
possible not only to show that at that period technical processes were
highly developed, but even to trace a continuous development of Greek
pottery from the Neolithic age. This result has been mainly brought
about by Dr Arthur Evans's researches at Cnossus in Crete, but traces of
similar phenomena are not wanting in other parts of Greece. Whether the
race which produced this pottery can strictly be called Greek may be
open to question, but at all events the ware is the independent product
of a people inhabiting in prehistoric times the region afterwards known
as Greece; its connexion with the pottery of the historic period can now
be clearly traced, and in its advanced technical character and the
genuinely artistic appearance of its decoration even this early ware
proclaims itself as inspired by a similar genius.

The study of Greek vases has thus received an additional impetus from
the light that it throws on the early civilization of the country, and
its value for the student of ethnology. But it has always appealed
strongly to the archaeologist and in some degree also to the artist or
connoisseur, to the former from its importance as a contribution to the
history of Greek art, mythology and antiquities, to the latter from its
beauty of form and decoration. Attention was first redirected to the
painted vases at the end of the 17th century, though for a long time
they served as little more than an adjunct to the cabinet of the amateur
or a pleasing souvenir for the traveller; but even during the 18th
century it dawned on the minds of students that they were of more than
merely artistic importance, and attention was devoted to the elucidation
of their subjects, and attempts made to arrive at a chronological
classification. Two facts must, however, be borne in mind: firstly, that
down to the middle of the 19th century the great majority of painted
vases had been found only in Italy; secondly, that these vases were
mostly of the later and more florid styles, which, if artistically
advanced, are now known to represent a decadent phase of Greek art.

From the former cause arose the notion that these vases were the product
not of Greek but of Etruscan artists, and so the term "Etruscan vase"
arose and passed into the languages of Europe, surviving even at this
day in popular speech in spite of a century of refutation. Meanwhile,
the study of the subjects depicted on the vases passed through the
successive stages of allegorical, historical and mystical
interpretation, until a century and more of painstaking study led to the
more rational principles of modern archaeologists.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Jug from Cyprus of Oriental style, 10 in.
high.]

  _Sites and Discoveries_.--The sites on which Greek vases have been
  found cover the whole area of the Mediterranean and beyond, from the
  Crimea to Spain, and from Marseilles to Egypt. By far the great
  majority, at all events of the finer specimens, have been extracted
  from the tombs of Vulci and other sites in Etruria; those of the later
  period or decadence have been found in large numbers on various sites
  in southern Italy, such as Capua, Curnae and Nola in Campania, Anzi in
  Lucania, and Ruvo in Apulia. In the western Mediterranean, Sicily has
  also been a fruitful field for this pottery, early varieties being
  found at Syracuse, later ones at Gela, Girgenti and elsewhere. Painted
  vases have also come to light in Sardinia and in North Africa,
  especially in the Cyrenaica, where the finds mostly belong to the 4th
  century B.C. In Greece proper the most prolific site has been Athens,
  where the finds extend from the Dipylon vases of the 8th century B.C.
  down to the decadent productions of the 4th century; one group, that
  of the white funeral _lekythoi_, is almost peculiar to Athens. Next to
  this city, Corinth has been most productive, especially in pottery of
  the archaic period and of local manufacture. Large quantities of
  pottery of all periods have been yielded by Thebes, Tanagra and other
  sites in Boeotia, and remains of the "Mycenaean" period at Mycenae,
  Argos and elsewhere. But on the whole painted pottery is rare in other
  parts of the mainland. Among the western islands of the archipelago,
  Aegina and Euboea have proved fruitful in vases of all periods; Thera,
  Melos and others of the Cyclades are remarkable for pottery of the
  prehistoric period with rudely painted designs; and above all Crete is
  now famous for the wondrous series of painted and ornamented pottery
  of pre-Mycenacan date, which can be traced back even to the Neolithic
  period, and the discovery of which has entirely revolutionized the
  preconceived theories on the appearance of painted pottery in Greece.
  This has been found in the recent excavations at Cnossus, Palaeokastro
  and elsewhere. In Asia Minor there have been some important finds on
  the mainland, but only along the coast; some of the islands, more
  especially Samos and Rhodes, have been more fruitful in this respect.
  At Kertch and elsewhere in the Crimea, large numbers of fine but
  somewhat florid vases of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. have come to
  light. Cyprus has long been known as a rich field for pottery of all
  periods, from the Mycenaean onwards, the later varieties being marked
  by strong local quasi-oriental characteristics, with little
  development from the more primitive types (figs. 12 and 13). The
  principal sites are Salamis, Amathus, Marion (Poli) and Curium.
  Lastly, in the Egyptian delta two sites, Naucratis and Daphnae, have
  yielded results of considerable importance for the history of early
  Greek vase-painting.

  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Pottery from Cyprus with geometrical
  ornament.]

  The great majority of these vases have been found in tombs; but some
  important discoveries have been made on the sites of temples and
  sanctuaries, as on the Acropolis of Athens, or at Naucratis. In such
  cases the vases are seldom complete, having been broken up and cast
  away into rubbish-heaps, where the fragments have remained
  undisturbed. The tombs vary greatly in form, those of Greece being
  usually small rock-graves or shafts, those of Italy often fine and
  elaborate chambers with architectural details, and the manner in which
  the vases are found in these tombs varies greatly. Plain unornamented
  pottery is almost universal, and may be considered to have formed the
  "tomb-furniture" proper--the painted vases being as in daily life
  merely ornamental adjuncts.

  _Shapes and Uses of Greek Vases_.--The enormous number of painted
  vases now collected in museums is in itself sufficient evidence of the
  important part they must have played in the daily life, of the Greeks,
  and the care which was bestowed on their decoration shows the high
  estimation in which they were held. It is, however, remarkable that,
  with the exception of general allusions to pottery and its use in
  daily life, there are singularly few passages in classical literature
  which throw light on the purposes for which these vases were used.
  Where any are described at full length there is always evidence that
  metal vases are intended. Athenaeus and the lexicographers have indeed
  put on record a long list of names of shapes, but it is only in a few
  cases that we can be certain what forms they describe, or whether any
  of the typical forms of existing vases can be identified with the
  literary descriptions.

  We have then two questions to consider in this section: firstly, the
  uses to which painted vases were put by the Greeks; secondly, the
  classical names of the various forms of plain and painted pottery
  which have come down to us.

  As we have seen, the majority of painted vases have been discovered in
  tombs, which at first sight seems to suggest that they were made
  principally for sepulchral purposes; but that they also had their uses
  in daily life as much as plain pottery or earthenware cannot be
  doubted. They stand, in fact, in the same relation to the commoner
  wares of their day as china or porcelain does with us, being largely
  ornamental only, but used by wealthy people or on special occasions
  for the purposes of daily life, as for instance at banquets or in
  religious ceremonies.

  Vases were used as measures, as in the case of a small one-handled cup
  in the British Museum (see fig. 15), found at Cerigo (_Cythera_) and
  inscribed with the word [Greek: hêmikotylion] or "half-kotyle,"
  equivalent to about one-fourth of a pint. Another vase found at Athens
  is supposed to represent the official [Greek: choinix] or quart,
  having a capacity of 0.96 litre; it is inscribed [Greek: dêmosion] or
  "official measure," and bears the official stamp of the state.
  Conversely many names of vases, such as the _amphora_ or the _kotyle_,
  were adopted to indicate measures of capacity for liquid or dry
  commodities. Earthenware vessels were used for storing both liquids
  and food, for the preparation of foods and liquids, and for the
  various uses of the table and the toilet. That the painted ware was
  used at banquets or on great occasions we learn from scenes depicted
  on the vases themselves, in which vases painted with subjects appear
  in use. In connexion with athletics, they were given as prizes, as in
  the case of the Panathenaic _amphorae_, a class of vases given for
  victories in the games held at Athens at the Panathenaic festivals,
  where, however, they do not represent prizes so much as marks of
  honour corresponding to modern racing cups. Vases were also used as
  toys for children, as is proved by the discovery of many diminutive
  specimens, chiefly jugs, in the tombs of children at Athens, on which
  are depicted children playing at various games. They also served a
  purely decorative use as domestic ornaments, being placed on columns
  or shelves; or, in the case of flat cups and plaques, suspended on the
  wall. Many of the later Greek and Italian painted vases are very
  carelessly decorated on the one side, which was obviously not intended
  to be seen.

  We come now to the use of vases for religious purposes, dedicatory,
  sacrificial or funerary. Of all these uses, especially the last, there
  is ample evidence. That vases were often placed in temples or shrines
  as votive offerings is clear from the frequent mention in literature
  of the dedication of metal vases, and it can hardly be doubted that
  painted pottery served the same purpose for those who could only
  afford the humbler material. Of late years much light has been thrown
  upon this subject by excavations, notably on the Acropolis of Athens,
  at Corinth, and at Naucratis in the Egyptian delta, where numerous
  fragments have been found bearing inscriptions which attest their use
  for such purposes. It was a well-known Greek custom to clear out the
  temples from time to time and form rubbish-heaps (_favissae_) of the
  disused vases and statuettes, which were broken in pieces as useless,
  but it is to this very fact that we owe their preservation. At
  Naucratis many of the fragments bear incised inscriptions, such as
  [Greek: Apollônos eimi], "I am Apollo's" (possibly a memorandum of the
  priest's, to mark consecrated property), or [Greek: ho deina anethêke
  tê Aphroditê], "So-and-so dedicated me to Aphrodite." Fig. 14 gives
  another example with a dedication to Apollo. At Penteskouphia, near
  Corinth, a large series of painted tablets ([Greek: pinakes]), dating
  from 600 to 550 B.C., with representations of Poseidon and dedicatory
  inscriptions to that deity, were found in 1879. Votive offerings in
  this latter form were common at all periods, and tablets painted with
  figures and hung on trees or walls are often depicted on the vases,
  usually in connexion with scenes representing sacrifices or offerings.

  There is no doubt that vases (though not necessarily painted ones)
  must have played a considerable part in the religious ceremonies of
  the Greeks. We read of them in connexion with the Athenian festival of
  the Anthesteria, and that of the gardens of Adonis. They were also
  used in sacrifices, as shown on an early black-figured cup in the
  British Museum and on a vase at Naples with a sacrifice to Dionysus.
  In scenes of libation the use of the jug and bowl (_phiale_) is
  invariable.

  But their most important use, and that to which their preservation is
  mainly due, was in connexion with funeral ceremonies. They were not
  only employed at the burial, but were placed both outside the tombs
  to receive offerings, and inside them either to hold the ashes of the
  dead or as "tomb-furniture," in accordance with Greek religious
  beliefs in regard to the future life. Several classes of vases are
  marked out by their subjects as exclusively devoted to this purpose,
  such as the large jars found in the Dipylon cemetery at Athens, which
  were placed outside the tombs, the white Athenian _lekythoi_ of the
  5th and 4th centuries B.C., and the large _krateres_ and other vases
  of the 4th century B.C. found in the tombs of Apulia and other parts
  of southern Italy. Their use as cinerary urns was perhaps more
  restricted, at all events as regards the painted vases, though the
  custom is well known and is referred to in literature from Homer
  downwards. In "Mycenaean" times coffers ([Greek: larnakes]) of clay
  were used for this purpose, especially in Crete, where fine painted
  examples have been found; but of Greek pottery of the best periods
  there are but isolated instances.

  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Part of vase from Naucratis with dedication
  to Apollo.]

  The diagrams in fig. 15 show the principal shapes characteristic of
  Greek pottery in all but the earliest periods, when the variety of
  form was as yet too great to permit of more than the vaguest
  nomenclature; each form has its conventional name appended. These
  shapes may be classified under the following heads: (1) Vases in which
  food or liquids were preserved; (2) vases in which liquids were mixed
  or food cooked; (3) those by means of which liquids were poured out or
  food distributed; (4) drinking-cups; (5) other vases for the use of
  the table or toilet. Thus we have the _pithos_ and _amphora_ for
  storing wine, the _krater_ for mixing it, the _psykter_ for cooling
  it, the _kyathos_ for ladling it out, and the _oinochoe_ or _prochoos_
  for pouring it out; the _hydria_ was used for fetching water from the
  well. The names and forms of drinking-cups are innumerable, the
  principal being the _kylix_, _kotyle_, _kantharos_, _rhyton_
  (drinking-horn) and _phiale_ (libation bowl). The _pyxis_ was used by
  women at their toilet, and the _lekythos_, _alabastron_ and _askos_
  for oil and unguents.

  _Technical Processes_.--Though the Greeks succeeded in making pottery
  of a very high order from the point of view of form and decoration,
  the technical processes remained throughout of the most
  elementary--for glaze was not used at all, the colour was of the
  simplest, and the temperature at which the ware was fired was not high
  enough to introduce any serious difficulties. As we should expect, it
  is possible to trace a gradual improvement in the technical processes
  in the direction of greater precision and refinement, for no
  vase-painter of the best period could have achieved his decorative
  triumphs on wares so coarse in substance and so rough in finish as
  those that satisfied his predecessors. As in every other case
  technical and artistic refinement went hand in hand. In the earliest
  times the clay was used with very little preparation; at all events
  before the introduction of the potter's wheel the finish is not to be
  compared with that of the early races in Egypt. As the practice
  developed no doubt, specially good clays were found in certain
  districts, and these became centres of manufacture or the clays were
  carried to other established centres. The primitive wares usually
  exhibit the natural buff, yellow, grey or brownish colours of other
  elementary pottery, and the surface is somewhat rough and possesses no
  gloss. Thenceforward it becomes appreciably warmer in tone as it
  becomes finer in texture, until it reaches its perfection in the
  glowing orange, inclining to red, of the best Attic vases of the 5th
  century B.C. In the vases of the later Italian centres the colour
  again reverts to a paler hue.

  The clay for the potter was doubtless prepared by a system of
  sedimentation, so as to get rid of all coarse particles. It was mixed
  with water and decanted into a series of vats so that ultimately fine
  clay of two or three grades was obtained. Both red and whitish clays
  were used, and the best potters gradually discovered that mixtures of
  different clays gave the best results. The clay for the Athenian vases
  was obtained from Cape Kolias in Attica; and as it did not burn to a
  very warm tone, ruddle or red ochre (_rubrica_) was added to it to
  produce the lovely deep orange glow that distinguishes the best vases.
  Corinth, Cnidus, Samos and other places were also famous for their
  clays, and at the first named tablets have been found bearing
  representations of the digging of clay for pottery.

  [FIG. 15.--Shapes of Greek Vases.]

  The improved manipulation of the clays, and the increasing knowledge
  that the colour of a clay could be modified by admixture of other
  substances such as ruddle and ochre, really paved the way for what is
  known as the glaze of the Greek painted vases. This delicate gloss, so
  thin as to defy analysis, has been commonly called glaze, but it
  cannot be a glaze in the sense of a separate coating of finely-ground
  glass superimposed upon the clay. In all probability, as the Greek
  potter used finer and finer clays and so was enabled to perfect his
  shapes, he found that after a vase had been "thrown" he could get a
  closer texture on it by dipping it in a slip of still finer clay
  material and then smoothing it down and polishing it on the wheel when
  sufficiently dry. But the mixtures he would use for such a purpose--of
  very siliceous clay and ochre--would, when they were burnt in the
  Greek kiln, not only fire to a beautifully bright colour, but also to
  a glossy surface, especially where the flames had freely played about
  them; and it is more in accordance with our knowledge to believe that
  the exquisitely thin gloss of the finest Greek red vases was produced
  in this way, for it seems impossible that it can have been a coating
  of any special glaze.

  In any case we may state broadly that the body of Greek vases is
  always fine in grain, fired hard enough to give forth a dull metallic
  sound when it is struck, but seldom fired above a temperature of about
  900° C., which a modern potter would consider very low. When broken
  the inside is generally found to be duller in colour, and is often
  yellow or grey, even where the external surface is red. The material
  is exceedingly porous, and allows water to ooze through it (another
  proof that it was not glazed). Numerous analyses of the material of
  Greek vases have been published, but they tell us nothing of the
  secrets of the Greek potter. The results of a great number of these
  analyses may be summed up as follows: silica, 52-60 parts; alumina,
  13-19 parts; lime, 5-10 parts; magnesia, 1-3 parts; oxide of iron,
  12-19 parts. Analyses of a thousand ordinary simple red burning clays
  would give a similar result. It is to the glory of the Greek potter
  that with such ordinary materials, by the exercise of selection,
  patience and skill, he achieved the fine artistic results we see. He
  did as much as can be done with natural clay materials, but the glory
  of painted colour and glaze, like the later Persian or Chinese, was
  not for him.

  _Manufacture of Vases_.--The earliest Greek pottery is, like all
  primitive pottery, hand-made. The introduction of the potter's wheel
  into Greece was the subject of various ancient traditions, but we now
  know that it can be easily traced by a study of the primitive pottery
  of Crete, Cyprus or Troy. In Cyprus, for instance, the Bronze age
  tombs of 2500-1500 B.C. contain only hand-made pottery, but in the
  next period (1500-1000 B.C.) we find hand-made and coarse vases side
  by side with a more developed kind of painted pottery--the
  "Mycenaean"--obviously made on the wheel. It seems probable,
  therefore, that the wheel was introduced into Greece about 1500 B.C.;
  it was certainly known to Homer, as a familiar allusion shows (_Il._
  xviii. 600). It was still a low circular table turned with the hand,
  not the foot; representations of its use are seen on several vases of
  the archaic period (fig. 16), and they further prove that the vase was
  replaced on the wheel for the subsequent processes of painting,
  polishing and adding separately modelled parts, as well as for the
  original shaping or "throwing."

  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Votive tablet from Corinth; a potter applying
  painted bands while the vessel revolves on the wheel.]

  The method of shaping the vase on the wheel, which is the same as that
  still in use, need not be described in detail; the feet, necks, mouths
  and handles were modelled separately or shaped in moulds, and attached
  while the clay was moist, as is also indicated on a vase. Large and
  coarse vases, such as wine casks ([Greek: pithoi]), were always
  modelled by hand on a kind of hooped mould ([Greek: kannabos]).

  Parts of vases were modelled by hand at all periods by way of
  decoration. Even in the geometrical period we find horses modelled in
  the round on the covers of vases and later on handles enriched with
  moulded figures of serpents twining round them. Such embellishments
  are frequently, if not always, deliberate imitations of metal forms,
  but the plastic principle is one which obtained in Greek pottery from
  the very first, as for instance in the primitive pottery of Troy, in
  which the vases are often modelled in human or animal forms; and the
  same principle is involved in the common practice of speaking of the
  "neck," "shoulder" or "foot" of a vessel. In the best period the
  practice of adding moulded ornaments or of modelling vases in natural
  forms took a subsidiary place, but examples occur from time to time,
  as in the beautiful _rhyta_ or drinking-horns of the red-figure period
  (Plate II., fig. 58), or in smaller details such as are seen in
  handles enriched with heads in relief, a favourite practice of the
  potter Nicosthenes. In the 4th-century vases of southern Italy the
  handles are often much ornamented in this fashion, as in the large
  _krateres_, where they are adorned with masks in relief.

  The system of moulding whole vases or ornamenting them with designs in
  relief taken from moulds really belongs to the decadence of the art,
  when imitations of metal were superseding the painted pottery. Even
  then it is rare to find whole vases produced from a mould, except in
  the case of those in the form of human figures or animals (Plate II.,
  figs. 57 and 58), which almost come under the heading of terra-cotta
  figures, except for the fact that they are usually painted in the
  manner of the vases. But in southern Italy the tendency to imitate
  metal led to the popularity of ornaments made separately from moulds
  and attached or let in to vases otherwise plain. Vases of this period,
  with reeded bodies, must also have been made from moulds, as were a
  series of _phialae_ or libation-bowls associated with Cales in
  Campania (Plate II., fig. 56), which are known to be direct imitations
  of metal.

  All or nearly all of these vases are covered with a plain black glaze
  or varnish, and painted decoration is rare except in the case of those
  moulded in special forms or of a certain class made in Apulia with
  opaque colouring laid on the varnish. Some of these plain black vases
  of the 4th century are ornamented with _stamped_ patterns made with a
  metal punch impressed in the moist clay. This decoration is confined
  to simple patterns.

  After the vases had been made on the wheel they were dried in the sun
  and lightly baked, after which they were ready for varnishing and
  painting; it is also probable that the gloss was brought out by a
  process of polishing, the surface of the clay being smoothed with a
  piece of wood or hard leather. On a vase in Berlin a boy is seen
  applying a tool of some kind to an unfinished cup, probably for this
  purpose; the cup, being shown in red on the vase, has evidently not
  been varnished. Many vases are varnished black all over the exterior
  (whether decorated with designs or not) with the exception of the foot
  and lip.

  The process of baking was regarded as one of the most critical in the
  potter's art. It was not indeed universal, as we read of sun-dried
  vessels for utilitarian purposes, but all the vases that have come
  down to us have been baked. The amount of heat required was regulated
  by the character of the ware, but was not very high. Many examples
  exist of discoloured vases which have been subjected to too much or
  too little heat, the varnish having acquired a greenish or reddish
  hue. Or again the red gloss is sometimes turned to an ashen-grey
  colour, the black remaining unimpaired. Other accidents were liable to
  occur in the baking, such as cracking under too great heat, or the
  damaging of the shape by vases knocking against one another and so
  being dented in or crushed. The form of the oven was of the simplest
  (fig. 17). No furnaces have been found in Greece, and only one or two
  in Italy, but we have a variety of evidence from vase-paintings. They
  were fed by fires from beneath, and the vases were inserted with a
  long shovel. They were heated with charcoal or wood fuel, and there
  are representations of men poking or raking the fires with
  long-handled implements. One vase-painting gives a bird's-eye view, in
  horizontal section, of the interior of an oven full of jugs of various
  forms. Others have more complete presentations of potteries, with men
  engaged in the different processes of vase manufacture, modelling,
  painting or supplying the kilns with newly-made wares.

  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Model of Kiln found in Essex.]

  _The Painting of Vases_.--We may distinguish three principal classes
  of painted pottery, of Which two admit of subdivision.

  1. Primitive Greek vases with simple painted ornaments, chiefly
   linear and geometrical, laid directly on the clay with the brush.
   The colour employed is usually a yellowish or brownish red passing
   into black.  The execution varies, but is often extremely coarse.

  2. Greek vases painted with figures.  These may be subdivided as
   follows:--

    (a) Vases with figures in shining black on a red glossy ground.

    (b) Vases with figures left in the glossy red on a ground of shining
    black.

  3. Vases with polychrome decoration.

    (a) Vases of various dates with designs in outline or washes in
    various colours on white ground (these range from the 6th to the 4th
    century B.C.).

    (b) Vases of various dates with designs in opaque colour laid over a
    ground of shining black (ranging from the primitive period to the
    3rd century B.C.).

  Of these the second group is by far the largest and most important,
  including the majority of the finest specimens of Greek
  vase-painting, and the following account will deal mainly with the
  technical processes by which the most successful results were
  obtained. In both the classes (a) and (b) the colouring is almost
  confined to a contrasting of the glossy red ground and shining black.

  This black varnish (?) is particularly deep and lustrous, but varies
  under different circumstances according to differences of locality, of
  manufacture or accidents of production. It is seen in its greatest
  perfection in the "Nolan" _amphorae_ of the earlier red-figure period,
  at its worst in the Etruscan and Italian imitations of Greek vases.
  The gradations of quality may be partly due to the action of heat,
  i.e. stoving at a higher or lower temperature. It also varies in
  thickness. At present no certainty has been attained as to its
  composition--Brongniart's oft-quoted analysis cannot be accepted --nor
  has any acid been found to have an effect upon it, though the chemical
  action of the earth sometimes causes it to disappear.

  The method of its use forms the chief distinction between the
  black-figured and red-figured vases, but there is a class of the
  former which approaches near in treatment to the latter, the whole
  vase being covered with black except a framed panel which is left red
  to receive the figures. It is obvious that the transition to merely
  leaving the figures red is but a slight one. But in all black-figured
  vases the main principle is that the figures are painted in black
  silhouette on the red ground, the outlines being first roughly
  indicated by a pointed instrument making a faint line. The surface
  within these outlines being filled in with black, details of anatomy,
  dress, &c., were brought out by incising inner lines with a pointed
  tool. After a second baking or perhaps stoving had taken place, the
  designs were further enriched by the application of opaque purple and
  white pigments, which follow certain conventional principles in their
  respective use. After a third baking at a lower heat still to fix
  these colours the vase was complete.

  In the red-figured vases the shining black is used as a background.
  But before it is applied the outlines of the figures are indicated not
  by incised lines, but by drawing a thick line of black round their
  contours. Recent researches have attempted to show that the instrument
  with which this was achieved may have been a feather brush or pen, by
  which the lines were drawn separately, not concurrently. The other
  tools used for painting would be an ordinary metal or reed pen and a
  camel's-hair brush, or at any rate something analogous. Thus the
  outlines of the figures were clearly marked, and the process is one of
  drawing rather than painting, but it was in draughtsmanship that the
  best vase-painters excelled. The next stage was to mark the inner
  details by very fine black lines or by masses of black for surfaces
  such as the hair; white and purple were also employed, but more
  sparingly than on the earlier vases. The main processes always remain
  the same down to the termination of vase-painting, though the tendency
  to polychromy, which came in about the end of the 5th century B.C.,
  effected some modifications. The blacking of the whole exterior
  surface--a purely mechanical process--took place after the figures had
  been completed and protected from accidents by the thick black border
  of which we have spoken.

  A fragment of an unfinished vase preserved in the Sèvres Museum gives
  a very clear idea of the process just described, the figures being
  completed, but the back ground not yet applied (fig. 18). There is
  also another vase in existence which gives the interior of a
  vase-painter's studio, in which three artists are at work with their
  brushes, their paint-pots by their side.

  [Illustration: (From a photo supplied by the Director of the Sèvres
  Museum)

  FIG. 18.--Fragment of unfinished red-figured vase]

  In the class of vases (3 (a)), with polychrome figures on a white
  ground, the essential feature is the white slip or _engobe_ with which
  the naturally pale clay is covered. In the archaic vases of the 7th
  and 6th centuries B.C., especially in the Ionian centres, as at
  Rhodes, Naucratis and Cyrene, this slip is frequently employed, but
  with this, difference, that the figures are painted in the ordinary
  black-figure method, the only additional colour being purple laid on
  the black. We first find polychrome decoration, whether in wash or
  outline, in a small class of fragments from Naucratis, of the 6th
  century B.C., which technically are of a very advanced character. The
  colours used either for outline or wash include purple, brown, yellow,
  crimson and rose-colour, but some, if not all, of these colours were
  not fired.

  In the 5th century this practice was revived at Athens, chiefly in the
  class of _lekythoi_ or oil-flasks devoted exclusively to sepulchral
  uses. Here the vases, after leaving the wheel and being fitted with
  handles, &c., were covered with a coating of white clay. A second
  coating of black was applied to the parts not required for decoration,
  and the white was then finely polished, acquiring a dull gloss, and
  finally fired at a low temperature. The decoration was achieved as
  follows: a preliminary sketch was made with fine grey lines, ignoring
  draperies, &c., and not always followed when the colours were laid on.
  This was done when the first lines were dry, the colour being applied
  with a fine brush in monochrome--black, yellow or red--following the
  lines of the sketch. For the drapery and other details polychrome
  washes were employed, laid on with a large brush. All varieties of red
  from rose to brown are found, also violet, yellow, blue, black and
  green. Hair is treated either in outline or by means of washes.

  Finally, we have to deal with the class of vases (3 (b)) in which
  opaque pigments are laid over the surface of the shining black with
  which the whole vase is coated. This method is met with at three
  distinct periods in the history of vase-painting, separated by long
  distances of time.

  We first find it in the earlier Cretan or Kamares ware, where it seems
  to have been introduced not long after the close of the Neolithic
  period, about 2500 B.C., and where it holds its own for about a
  thousand years against the contrasted method of "dark on light"
  painting, till it was finally ousted by the latter at the height of
  "Mycenaean" civilization in Crete. The colouring is very varied,
  orange, brown, pink and white being the principal tints employed.

  The process appears again at the end of the 5th century in a small
  class of Attic vases, which have been regarded as a sort of transition
  between the black-figured and red-figured. White and orange-red are
  here employed, sometimes with accessory details in purple and black
  and incised lines, so that the technique is virtually black-figured,
  though the appearance of the vases is often red-figured. Lastly, it
  appears in southern Italy as a final effort of vase-painting to
  flicker into life again about the end of the 3rd century. Some of
  these vases were made in Campania, where the method resembles that of
  the Attic class just described, others in Apulia, probably at Gnathia.
  The latter have feeble conventional decoration in purple and white
  with details in yellow, confined to one side of the vases, and are
  also distinguished by the use of ornaments in relief. They were also
  occasionally made in Greece proper.

  Remarkably few colours were used by the Greek vase painters,
  especially in the best periods. The deep purple used for accessory
  details was produced from iron oxide, but the red used for lines on
  the white _lekythoi_ is an ochre ([Greek: miltos], _rubrica_). The
  white also used for accessories is an earth or clay; in the slip
  coating of the white ground vases it assumes the consistency of
  pipe-clay. Yellow, where used for details on the later vases, is an
  ochre, and blue and green are produced from artificial compounds
  containing copper. A number of the colours, such as blue, rose and
  green, used by the polychrome painters, are obviously artificial
  pigments which have not been fired. When gilding was employed it was
  laid on over a raised ground of clay finely modelled with a small tool
  or brush, and was attached by varnish, not by fire.

  _Potters and Inscriptions_.--The potters who made these vases were
  mostly--at least at Athens in the 6th and 5th centuries, B.C.--[Greek:
  metoikoi], or resident aliens, as their names in many cases imply. We
  have an Amasis (an Egyptian name), a Brygus (a Scythian), a Lydus and
  a Scythes. The dialect of many of the inscriptions on Attic vases
  seems to show foreign influence, though in other cases peculiarities
  may be merely due to the use of a vernacular. They formed a gild or
  fraternity, and in each pottery there was probably more or less
  division of labour, the more simple processes being the work of
  slaves. This seems to be implied in the vase-paintings representing
  the interior of potteries. Others again "specialized" in different
  shapes, and were known as [Greek: chutroplathoi], [Greek:
  lêkuthopoioi], and so on.

  Over a hundred names of artists are known, found on some five hundred
  vases. They go back to about 700 B.C., the earliest names being found
  on Corinthian and Boeotian vases; but the majority of the signatures
  are found on Attic black- and red-figured wares. Some, such as
  Andocides, made vases in which the two methods are combined. The best
  known is Nicosthenes, whose signature occurs eighty times. The
  ordinary forms of signature are four--(1) [Greek: ho deina epoiêsen];
  (2) [Greek: ho deina hegrapsen ]; (3) [Greek: ho deina hegrapse kahi
  epoiêsen]; (4) A [Greek: hegrapse]. B [Greek: epoiêsen]. Where [Greek:
  epoiêse] alone occurs (as in a signature of Euxitheus), it probably
  refers to the master of the pottery who designed the vase and
  superintended its production; in other cases the share of the actual
  artist is clearly indicated. Some artists, such as Duris and Makron,
  sign [Greek: hegrapse] alone; in all cases, the form of signature
  affords us a useful guide to their style.

  Space forbids the discussion of other inscriptions found on vases,
  which include those descriptive of subjects or persons, ejaculations
  uttered by the figures, convivial exclamations, or the [Greek: kalos]
  names discussed below; all these are painted on the designs
  themselves. There is also another class of _graffiti_ inscriptions,
  which includes those incised by the owners with their names and
  memoranda scratched under the foot, probably made by the potter or his
  workmen relating to the number of vases in a batch or "set" and their
  price.

  _Vitreous and Lead-glazed Wares_.--In Greek tombs a class of pottery
  is often found which approximates, more in appearance to porcelain,
  but, though often spoken of by that name, it is not porcelain at all,
  but is analogous to the Egyptian glazed faience, of which it is in
  point of fact an imitation. It is distinguished by the white gritty
  material of which it is made, largely composed of sand, and forming
  what is sometimes known as "frit" from its semi-vitreous consistency.
  The surface is covered with a glaze, usually of a pale blue or cream
  colour, but other colours such as a manganese-purple or brown are
  sometimes found. Some of the earliest examples of this ware have been
  found in Mycenaean tombs at Enkomi in Cyprus, in the form of vases
  moulded in the shape of human or animal heads. These exhibit a
  remarkably advanced skill in modelling, and are more like Greek work
  of the 6th century B.C. Apart from the technique they have nothing in
  common with the Egyptian importations so often found in Mycenaean
  tombs.

  In a subsequent period (8th-7th century B.C.) Egyptian objects in
  faience became a common import into Greek cities, such as those of
  Rhodes, and to a less degree in Sardinia and southern Italy, through
  the commercial medium of the Phoenicians. Flasks of faience occur in
  the Polledrara tomb at Vulci (610-600 B.C.) and similar vases with a
  pale green glaze at Tharros in Sardinia in tombs of the same date. In
  Rhodes, small flasks and jars are found ornamented with friezes of men
  and animals in relief, or imitating in colour and design the glass
  vessels of the Phoenicians. It also seems probable that the Greeks of
  Rhodes and other centres attempted the imitation of this ware (see
  fig. 19), for we find faience _aryballi_ or globular oil-flasks
  modelled in the form of helmeted heads or animals, which are purely
  Greek in style.

  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Enamelled pottery from tombs in Rhodes, made
  under Egyptian influence.]

  In the Hellenistic period the fashion was revived at Alexandria, and
  under the Ptolemies large jugs of blue-enamelled faience with figures
  in relief and bearing the names of reigning sovereigns were made and
  exported to the Cyrenaica and to southern Italy. Two of these are in
  the British Museum (Egyptian department). The same collection includes
  a very beautiful glazed vase in the form of Eros riding on a duck,
  found in a tomb at Tanagra, but undoubtedly of Alexandrine make, and a
  head of a Ptolemaic queen, with a surface of bright blue glaze.

  Subsequently in the 1st century B.C., this so-called porcelain ware
  was replaced by a variety of ware characterized by a brilliantly
  coloured glaze coating, in which the presence of lead is often
  indicated. This ware was principally made at three centres; at Tarsus
  in Asia Minor, at Alexandria and at Lezoux in central Gaul. But it was
  probably also made in western Asia Minor and in Italy. It is not
  confined to vases, being also employed for lamps and small figures;
  the vases are usually of small size, in shapes imitated from metal
  (Plate II., fig. 59). The colour of the glaze varies from a deep green
  to bright yellow, and the inside of a vessel is often of a different
  tint from the exterior. Many of these vases are decorated with figures
  or designs in relief, others are quite plain. The colours of these
  glazes are of course due to the addition of oxide of copper and oxide
  of iron to a lead glaze, and they are strictly analogous to the green
  and yellow glazes of medieval Europe.[7]

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF GREEK VASE-PAINTING.--It has been indicated in the
section dealing with technical processes that Greek vases may be
classified under four headings according to the character of the
decoration, and this classification may with a slight modification be
adopted as a chronological one, the history of the art falling under
four main heads, under which it will be convenient to describe its
development from the earliest specimens of painted pottery down to the
period when it was finally replaced by other methods of decoration.

  These four classes and their main characteristics may be summarized as
  follows:--

  I. _Vases of the Primitive Period_ from about 2500 or 2000 to 600
  B.C., including both the Cretan-Mycenaean epoch and the early ages of
  historical Greece. In the former the pottery is either decorated in
  polychrome on a shining black ground or conversely in shining black on
  a buff ground; in the latter, the decoration is in brown or black
  (usually dull, not shiny) on an unglazed ground varying from white to
  pale red. In the former again the decoration is marked by its
  naturalistic treatment of plant and animal forms; in the latter the
  ornaments are chiefly linear, floral or figures of animals; human
  figures and mythological scenes being very rare.

  II. _Black-figured Vases_ from about 600-500 B.C.; figures painted in
  shining black on a glossy ground varying from cream colour to bright
  orange red, with engraved lines and white and purple for details;
  subjects mainly from mythology and legend.

  III. _Red-figured Vases_, from 520 to 400 B.C.; figures drawn in
  outline on red clay and the background wholly filled in with shining
  black, inner details indicated by painted lines or dashes of purple
  and white, scenes from daily life or mythology. With these are
  included the vases with polychrome figures on white ground. In these,
  which are exclusively made at Athens, the perfection of vase-painting
  is reached between 480 and 450 B.C.

  IV. _Vases of the Decadence_, from 400 to 200 B.C.; mostly from
  southern Italy, technique as in Class III., but the drawing is free
  and often careless, and the general effect gaudy; subjects funereal,
  theatrical and fanciful. At the end of this period vases are largely
  replaced by plain shining black pottery modelled in various forms, or
  with decorations in relief, all these being imitations of the metal
  vases which began to take the place of painted wares in the estimation
  of the Hellenistic world.

I. _Vases of the Primitive Period_.--It has been noted in the
introductory section that it is possible to trace the development of
pottery in Greece as far back as the Neolithic period, owing chiefly to
the light recently thrown on the subject by the excavations in Crete.
These have yielded large quantities of painted pottery of high technical
merit, usually with decoration in polychrome or white on a dark ground,
in what is known as the Kamares ware, covering the period 2500-1500 B.C.
(fig. 20). This was gradually superseded by painting in dark shining
pigments on a light glossy ground during the later Minoan period
(1500-1000 B.C.), forming what is known as the "Mycenaean" style. The
subjects, though chiefly confined to floral ornaments or aquatic plants
and creatures, are marvellously naturalistic yet decorative in their
treatment, often rivalling in this respect the pottery of the Far East.
In the latter part of this period this class of pottery was spread all
over the Mediterranean, and large quantities have been found in Greece,
especially at Mycenae, in Rhodes and other Greek islands, and in Cyprus,
where a series of vases with animals, monsters, and even human figures
shows what is probably the latest development of the pure Minoan or
Mycenaean style.

[Illustration: From _Annual of the British School at Athens_.

FIG. 20.--Minoan or "Kamares" ware, from Crete.]

[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Primitive black pottery from the Troad.]

Outside Crete the earliest Greek pottery has been found in Cyprus and at
Troy, with simple incised or painted patterns on a black polished
ground, the vases being all hand-made, and often treated in a plastic
fashion with rude modelling of human or animal forms (figs. 21, 22);
these cover the period 2500-2000 B.C. Early painted pottery, parallel
with the Kamares ware, has been found in Thera and in the important
cemeteries of Phylakopi in Melos. But until the general spread of
Mycenaean civilization and art in the latter half of the second
millennium there is no site except Crete where a continuous and
successful development can be studied.

[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Primitive red pottery from the Troad.]

About the time which is represented in Greek tradition by the Dorian
invasion (1100 B.C.) the then decadent Mycenaean civilization was
replaced by a new one much more backward in development, making pottery
of a far simpler and more conventional type, the decoration being
largely confined to geometrical patterns to the exclusion of motives
derived from plant forms. This is usually known as the geometrical
style, and the pottery covers the period from about 1000 to 700 B.C. It
is found all over the mainland and islands of Greece, and exhibits a
certain development towards a more advanced stage. The patterns include
the chevron, the triangle, the key or maeander, and the circle, in
various combinations, painted in dull black on a brown ground. In most
places the art advanced no further, but in Boeotia, and still more at
Athens, we can trace the gradual growth of decorative skill, first in
the introduction of animals, and then in the appearance of the human
figure. In the Athenian cemetery outside the Dipylon gate a series of
colossal vases has come to light, on which are painted such subjects as
sea-fights and funeral processions. The human figures are exceedingly
rude and conventional, painted almost entirely in silhouette, but there
is a distinct striving after artistic effect in the composition and
arrangement. In Boeotia the vases do not advance beyond the animal
stage, and many exhibit a tendency to decadence in their carelessness,
as contrasted with the painstaking helplessness of the Athenian artists.

[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Vase with bands of animals, Oriental in style,
(British Museum.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Ionic amphora, with contest between Heracles
and Hera, and bands of birds and animals; black, with incised lines.]

In Ionia and the islands of the Aegean such as Rhodes, the art of
vase-painting from the first carried on the Mycenaean tradition, and was
distinguished by its naturalism and originality, and by the bold and
diverse effects produced by variety of colour or novelty of subject. The
ornamentation is at first elementary, consisting of friezes of animals,
especially lions, deer and goats (figs. 23 and 24). These figures stand
out sharply in black against the creamy buff ground which is
characteristic of nearly all Ionic pottery, and details are brought out
by means of engraved lines, patches of purplish iron pigment, or by
drawing parts of the figures, especially the heads, in outline on the
clay ground. Another feature is the general use of small ornaments such
as rosettes and crosses in great variety of form to cover the
background and avoid the vacant spaces which the Greek artist abhorred.
The system of decoration has been thought to owe much to Assyrian
textile fabrics.

One of the best though most advanced examples of early Ionic pottery is
a _pinax_ or plate from Rhodes in the British Museum, on which is
represented the combat of Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus
(fig. 25); their names are inscribed over the figures, and this is
almost the earliest known instance of a mythological subject, the date
of the painting being not later than 600 B.C. To a slightly later date
belongs another remarkable group of cups with figures on a white ground,
probably made at Cyrene in North Africa. Of these the most famous has a
painting in the interior, of Arcesilaus II., king of Cyrene from 580 to
550 B.C., weighing goods for export in a ship. Others have mythological
subjects, such as Zeus, Atlas and Prometheus, Cadmus and Pelops.

But these vases, though still retaining the older technique, really
belong to the second class, that of black-figured vases, and they belong
to a time when in all Ionian centres this method was being superseded by
the new technique which Corinth had introduced and Athens perfected, to
the consideration of which we must return.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Early inscribed pinax from Rhodes, with contest
of Menelaus and Hector over the body of Euphorbus.]

For some 150 years Corinth almost monopolized the industry of pottery on
the west of the Aegean. Large numbers of examples have been found in or
near the city itself, many bearing inscriptions in the peculiar local
alphabet. They show a continuous progress from the simplest
ornamentation to fully-developed black-figured wares. In the earliest
(Plate I. fig. 52) oriental influence is very marked, the surface being
so covered with the figures and patterns that the background disappears
and the designs are at times almost unintelligible. The general effect
is thus that of a rich oriental tapestry, and the subjects are largely
chosen from the fantastic and monstrous creations of Assyrian art, such
as the sphinx and gryphon. The vases are mostly small, the ground varies
from cream to yellow, and the figures are painted in black and purple.

Both in Ionia and at Corinth during the early part of the 6th century
the same tendencies are seen to be at work, tending to a unification of
styles under the growing influence of Athens. In Ionia (see above)
figure subjects become more common, and the technique approaches
gradually nearer to the black-figure method. Similarly at Corinth the
ground ornaments diminish and disappear, the friezes of animals are
restricted to the borders of the designs, and human figures are
introduced, first singly, then in friezes or groups, and finally engaged
in some definite action such as combats or hunting scenes. In the last
stages Greek myths and legends are freely employed. A new development,
traditionally associated with the painter Eumarus of Athens, was the
distinguishing of female figures by the use of white for flesh tints. A
somewhat similar development was in progress at Athens, though
represented by comparatively few vases. Here the adoption of Corinthian
and Ionian technical improvements evolved by the middle of the 6th
century the fully developed black-figure style which by degrees
supplanted or assimilated all other schools.

II. _Black-figured Vases_.--At the head of this new development stands
the famous Francois vase at Florence, found at Chiusi in 1844 (Plate I.
fig. 53). Its shape is that of a _krater_ or mixing-bowl, and it bears
the signatures of its maker and decorator in the form "Ergotimos made
me, Klitias painted me." It might be described as a Greek mythology in
miniature, with its numerous subjects and groups of figures all from
legendary sources such as the stories of Peleus, Theseus and Meleager,
or the return of Hephaestus to heaven. All the figures have their names
inscribed.

The general technique of the black-figured vases has already been
described. It may be noted as a chronological guide that the use of
purple for details is much commoner in the earlier vases, white in the
later, but towards the end of the century when the new fashion of red
figures was gaining ground, both colours were almost entirely dropped.
The drawing of the figures is, as might be expected, somewhat stiff and
conventional, though it advanced considerably in freedom before the
style went out of fashion. Many vases, otherwise carefully and
delicately executed, are marred by an excess of mannerism and
affectation, as in the works of the artists Amasis and Exekias (Plate I.
fig. 54). The treatment of drapery is a good indication of date, ranging
from flat masses of colour to oblique flowing lines of angular falling
folds.

The shapes most commonly employed by the Athenian potters of this period
are the _amphora, hydria, kylix, oinochoe_ and _lekythos,_ the
first-named being the most popular. A special class of _amphorae_ is
formed by the Panathenaic vases, which were given as prizes in the
Athenian games, and were adorned with a figure of the patron goddess
Athena on one side and a representation of the contest in which they
were won on the other (fig. 26). They usually bear the inscription
[Greek: tôn Athênêthen athlôn eimiruv] "I am (a prize) from the games at
Athens." Some of these can be dated by the names of Athenian archons
which they bear, as late as the 4th century, the old method of painting
in black figures with a stiff conventional pose for the goddess being
retained for religious reasons.

FIG. 26.--Panathenaic amphora.

The chief interest of the black-figured vases is really derived from
their subjects, which range over every conceivable field, the proportion
of myth and legend to scenes from daily life being much greater than in
the succeeding period. They include groups of Olympian and other
deities, and the various scenes in which they take part, such as the
battle of the gods and giants, or the birth of Athena (treated in a very
conventional manner, as on a fine _amphora_ in the British Museum);
Dionysus and his attendant satyrs and maenads, the labours and exploits
of Heracles and other heroes, subjects taken from the tale of Troy and
other less familiar legends; and scenes from daily life, battle scenes,
athletics, the chase and so on. The same classification of course holds
good for the later periods of vase-painting, with some exceptions. The
proportion of genre-scenes subsequently becomes greater, and some myths
disappear, others rise into prominence, new deities such as Eros
(Love), and Nik[=e] (Victory) appear for the first time, and, generally
speaking, the later subjects are characterized by a sentimentality or
tendency to emotion which is entirely foreign to the conventional
stereotyped compositions of the 6th century artist.

A remarkable feature of the subjects on black-figured vases is that a
stereotyped form of composition is invariably adopted at least for the
principal figures, but minor variations are generally to be found, as,
for instance, in the number of bystanders; and it is almost an
impossibility to find any two vase-paintings which are exact duplicates.
The form of the composition, was partly determined by the field
available for the design; when this took the form of a long frieze the
space was filled up with a series of spectators or the repetition of
typical groups, but when the design is on a framed panel or confined by
ornamental borders the method of treatment is adapted from that of a
sculptured metope, and the figures limited to two or three. In many
cases it is difficult to decide, in the absence of inscriptions, whether
or no a scene has mythological signification; the mythological types are
over and over again adopted for scenes of ordinary life, even to the
divine attributes or poses of certain figures.

[Illustration: Vase by Andocides. Black figures on obverse.

Vase by Andocides. Red figures on reverse.

FIG. 27.]

Among the artists of the period who have left their names on the vases,
besides those already mentioned, the most conspicuous is Nicosthenes, a
potter of some originality, from whose hand we have over seventy
examples, a few being in the red-figure method. He is supposed to have
introduced at Athens a revival of the Ionic fashion of painting on a
cream-coloured ground instead of on red, of which some very effective
examples have been preserved. He was always a potter rather than a
painter, and most of his vases are remarkable for their
forms--introducing plastic imitations of metal vases--rather than for
their painted decoration. Most of the artists of this period, as in the
succeeding one, have left their signatures on cups (_kylikes_), but this
form did not receive so much attention from the painter as at a later
period, and many of these examples bear only inscriptions and no painted
decoration.

III. _Red-figured Vases._--The sudden reversal of technical method
involved in the change from black figures on a red ground to red figures
on black is not at first sight easy of explanation. Some artists, like
Nicosthenes and Andocides, used both methods, sometimes on the same
vase, and there is no doubt that the two went on for some years
concurrently. As, however, no intermediate stage is possible, there is
no question of development or transition. The new style was in fact a
bold and ingenious innovation. It may possibly have been suggested by a
small class of vases in which the figures are painted in the
black-figure _method_, but have the converse appearance, that is to say
they are painted in a thick red pigment on a ground of shining black. It
may therefore have occurred to the artist that he could obtain the same
effect merely by leaving the figures unpainted on the red clay and
surrounding them with the black. The change, must, however, be closely
associated with the career of the artist Andocides, who not only
produced vases in each method, but also several in which the two are
combined (fig. 27). In two or three cases the subject is actually the
same on each side, almost every detail being repeated, except that the
colouring is reversed.

The date at which the change took place was formerly placed well on in
the 5th century, on account of the great advance in drawing which most
of the red-figured vases show, as compared with the black. They were
thus regarded as contemporary with the painter Polygnotus, if not with
Pheidias. But the excavations on the Acropolis of Athens yielded so many
fragments in the advanced red-figured style which must be earlier than
480 B.C., that it has become necessary to find an earlier date for its
appearance. This is now usually placed at about 520 B.C., overlapping
with the preceding period.

The red-figure period is usually subdivided into four, marking the chief
stages of development, and known respectively as the "severe," "strong,"
"fine," and "late fine" periods. Their principal characteristics and
representative painters may be briefly enumerated.

In the _severe_ period there is no marked advance on the black-figured
vases as regards style. The figures are still more or less stiff and
conventional, and some vases even show signs of an analogous decadence.
The real development is partly technical, partly in the introduction of
new subjects. Although the change of style probably had its actual
origin in the _amphora_, as treated by Andocides, the new developments
are best seen in the _kylix_, a form of vase which now sprang into
popularity and called forth the chief efforts of the principal artists.
Its curved surface gave ample scope for skilful effects of drawing and
decorative arrangement, and the earlier painters devoted all their
attention to perfecting it as a work of decorative art. For other
shapes, such as the _hydria_, and _lekythos_, the old method was for a
time preferred.

The most typical artist of the period was Epictetus, and other famous
cup-painters were Pamphaeus, Cachrylion and Phintias. The earliest cups
are decorated in a quite simple fashion like those of the black-figure
period, often with a single figure each side between two large
"symbolical" eyes, and a single figure in a circle in the interior. To
the latter the artist at first devoted his chief efforts, though even
here his scope was at first limited. But although he had not yet
attained to skill in composition, he did discover that the circular
space was well adapted for exhibiting his newly-acquired abilities as a
draughtsman and for disposing figures in ingeniously conceived
attitudes. In all cases the object was to fill the space as far as
possible, a characteristic of all the best Greek art. By degrees more
attention was paid to the designs on the exterior, and the single
figures were replaced by groups, but regular compositions in the form of
friezes telling some story were not introduced until quite the end of
this period. Epictetus was throughout his career a thoroughly "archaic"
artist, but a considerable advance was made by Cachrylion, who stands
on the verge of the succeeding stage.

The _strong_ period centres round the name of Euphronius, the author of
a really great artistic movement. His capacity for inventing new
subjects or new poses--or otherwise overcoming technical and artistic
difficulties--marks a great advance on all previous achievements, and he
seems to represent the stage of development traditionally associated
with the painter Cimon of Cleonae, the inventor of foreshortening and
other novelties. Thus figures were no longer represented exclusively in
profile, as in the black-figured vases which had made no advance beyond
the conventions of Egyptian art. Ten vases signed by him are in
existence (though it is not certain that all were actually painted by
him), most of them having mythological subjects (fig. 28).

[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Cup by Euphronius.]

Of his contemporaries, Duris, Hieron and Brygus take foremost rank, all
three being, like Euphronius, essentially cup-painters, though they use
other forms at times. For decorative effect and beauty of composition
their vases have never been surpassed. As an example we may quote a
_kotyle_ or beaker in the British Museum signed by Hieron, with a group
of Eleusinian deities. The larger vases of this period are more rarely
signed, but many of them rival the cups in execution, though the
subjects are characterized by greater simplicity and largeness of style.

[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Hydria by Meidias in the style of Polygnotus.]

In _the fine_ style (460-440 B.C.) breadth of effect and dignity are
aimed at, and although cup-painting had passed its zenith, and signed
specimens become rarer, yet, considering the red-figured vases as a
whole, this period exhibits the perfection of technique and drawing. In
many of the larger vases the scenes are of a pictorial character,
landscape being introduced, with figures ranged at different levels, and
herein we may see a reflection of the style of the painter Polygnotus.
One of the finest cups in this style is in the Berlin Museum, it is
signed by the artists Erginus and Aristophanes, and the subject is the
battle of the gods and giants. To the end of the period belongs a
beautiful _hydria_ in the British Museum by the painter Meidias with
subjects from Greek legend in two friezes (fig. 29). Generally speaking,
there is a reaction in favour of mythological subjects.

In the _late fine_ style, which begins about 440 B.C., the pictorial
effect is preserved, but with perfected skill in drawing the
compositions deteriorate greatly in merit, and become at once
over-refined and careless. The figures are crowded together without
meaning or interest. The fashion also arose of enhancing the designs by
means of accessory colours--almost unknown in the previous stages--such
as white laid on in masses, blue and green, and even with gilding.
Athletic and mythological subjects yield place to scenes from the life
of women and children or meaningless groups of figures (fig. 30).

A good example of this style is an _amphora_ from Rhodes with the
subject of Peleus wooing Thetis, in which polychrome colouring and
gilding are introduced. There are also many imposing and elaborate
specimens found (and perhaps made) in the colonies of the Crimea and the
Cyrenaica; in particular one signed by Xenophantus with the Persian king
hunting, and another representing the contest of Athena and Poseidon for
the soil of Attica, both from the Crimea.

Contemporary with the red-figure method is one in which the figures are
painted on a white slip or _engobe_ resembling pipe-clay, with which the
whole surface was covered; the figures are drawn in outline in red or
black, and partly filled in with washes of colour, chiefly red, purplish
red, or brown, but sometimes also with blue or green. This style seems
to have been popular about the middle of the 5th century B.C. and was
employed for the funeral _lekythoi_ which came into fashion at Athens
about that time. These vases, which form a class by themselves, were
made specially for funeral ceremonies and were painted with subjects
relating to the tomb, such as the laying-out of the corpse on the bier,
the ferrying of the dead over the Styx by Charon, or (most frequently)
mourners bringing offerings to the tomb (fig. 31). They continued to be
made well on into the 4th century, but the later examples are very
degenerate and careless.

Of other forms, especially the _kylix_ and the _pyxis_ (toilet-box),
some exceedingly beautiful specimens have come down to us, which show a
delicacy of drawing and firmness of touch never surpassed, although the
lines were probably only drawn with a brush. The technique of these
vases may reflect the methods of the painter Polygnotus and his
contemporaries, who used a limited number of colours on a white ground.
Among them no finer specimen exists than the cup in the British Museum
with Aphrodite riding on a goose; the design is entirely in brown
outlines, and the drawing, if slightly archaic, full of grace and
refinement.

[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Painting from a small toilet-box or pyxis,
showing painted vases used to decorate a lady's room. On the left is a
gilt pyxis with a tall lid, and an oenochoe on a low table; on the right
two tall vases (lebes) on a plinth. All except the pyxis are decorated
with painted figures, and contain flowers.]

In the subjects on red-figured vases we do not find the same variety of
choice as on the black-figured, but on the other hand there is
infinitely greater freedom of treatment. The stereotyped form of
composition is almost entirely discarded, and each painter forms his own
conception of his subject. The class of slim _amphorae_, known as
"Nolan" from the place where they were mostly found, are distinguished
by having the design limited to one or at most two figures on each side,
often on a large scale; these vases are also famous for the marvellous
brilliance of their shining black (fig. 32).

Towards the middle of the 5th century the patriotism of the Athenian
artist finds expression in the growing importance which he attaches to
local legends, especially those of Theseus, the typical Attic hero. He
seems to have been regarded as the typical Athenian athlete or
_ephebus_, and his contests as analogous to episodes of the gymnasium.
Hence the grouping on some vases of scenes from his labours are like so
many groups of athletes (fig. 33), and hence, too, a general tendency of
the red-figured vases, especially the cups, to become a sort of
glorification of the Attic _ephebus_, the representations of whom in all
sorts of occupations are out of all proportion to other subjects.

[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Funeral lekythos showing vases placed inside
tomb.]

We find evidence of this, too, in another form. Many vases, especially
the cups of the "severe" and "strong" periods, bear names of persons
inscribed on the designs with the word [Greek: kalos], "fair" or
"noble," attached; sometimes merely, "the boy is fair." The exact
meaning of this practice has been much discussed, but evidence seems to
show that the persons celebrated must have been quite young at the time,
and were probably youths famous for their beauty or athletic prowess.
Some of the names are those of historical characters, such as
Hipparchus, Miltiades or Alcibiades, and, though they cannot always be
identified with these celebrated personages, enough evidence has been
obtained to be of great value for the chronology of the vases, Further,
the practice of the vase-painter of adopting his own particular
favourite name or set of names has enabled us to increase our knowledge
of the characteristics of individual artists by identifying unsigned
vases with the work of particular schools.

IV. _Vases of the Decadence_.--For all practical purposes the red-figure
style at Athens came to an end with the fall of the city in 404 B.C.
Painted vases did not then altogether cease to be made, as the
Panathenaic prize vases and the funeral _lekythoi_ testify, but at the
same time a rapid decadence set in. The whole tendency of the 4th
century B.C. in Greece was one of decentralization, and the art of
vase-painting was no exception, for we find that there must have been a
general migration of craftsmen from Athens, not only to the Crimea and
to North Africa, but also to southern Italy, which now becomes the chief
centre of vase production. Here there were many rich and flourishing
Greek colonies or Grecianized towns, such as Tarentum, Paestum and
Capua, ready to welcome the new art as an addition to their many
luxuries. In the character of the vases of this period we see their
tendencies reflected, especially in their splendid or showy aspect; the
only aim being size and gaudy colouring.

The general method of painting remains that of the Athenian red-figure
vases, but with entire loss of simplicity or refinement, either in the
ornamentation, the choice of colours, or the drawing of the figures.
Large masses of white are invariably employed, especially for the flesh
of women or of Eros, the universally present god of Love, and for
architectural details. Yellow is introduced for details of hair or
features, and in attempts at shading, nor is a dull iron-purple
uncommon. The reverses of the vases, when they have subjects, are devoid
of all accessory colouring, and the figures are drawn with the greatest
carelessness, as if not intended to be seen. There is throughout a
lavish use of ornamental patterns such as palmettes, wreaths of leaves,
or ornaments strewn over the field (a reversion to an old practice).

[Illustration: FIG. 32.--"Nolan" amphora by Euxitheus (c. 450 B.C.),
figure of Briseis; the other side has Achilles.]

The drawing, having now become entirely free, errs in the opposite
extreme; the forms are soft and the male figures often effeminate. The
fanciful and richly-embroidered draperies of the figures and the
frequent architectural settings seem to indicate that theatrical
representations exercised much influence on the vase-painters. The great
painters of the 4th century may also have contributed their share of
inspiration, but rather perhaps in the subjects chosen than in regard to
style; though the effect of many scenes on the larger vases is decidedly
pictorial, they are chiefly remarkable for their emotional and dramatic
themes.

The influence of the stage is twofold, for tragedy as well as comedy
plays its part. Many subjects are taken directly, others indirectly,
from the plays of Euripides, such as the _Medea_, _Hecuba_ (Plate II.
fig. 60), or _Hercules Furens_, and the arrangement of the scenes is
essentially theatrical. The influence of comedy is seen in subjects
derived from the _phlyakes_, a kind of farce or burlesque popular in
southern Italy, and here again the setting is adapted from the stage,
some vases having parodies of myths, others comic scenes of daily life.

Many vases of this period, especially those of large size, were
expressly designed for funeral purposes. Some of these bear
representations of the underworld, with groups of figures undergoing
punishment. On others shrines or tombs are depicted--sometimes
containing effigies of the deceased, at which the relatives make
offerings--as on the Athenian _lekythoi_. But by far the greater portion
of the subjects are taken from daily life, many of these being of a
purely fanciful and meaningless character like the designs on Sèvres or
Meissen china; the commonest type is that of a young man and a woman
exchanging presents, the presence of Eros implying that they are scenes
of courtship.

The vases of this period are usually grouped in three or four different
types, corresponding to the ancient districts of Lucania, Campania and
Apulia, each with its special features of technique, drawing and
subjects. In Lucanian vases the drawing is bold and restrained, more
akin to that of the Attic vases; in Campania a fondness for polychromy
is combined with careless execution. In Apulia a tendency to
magnificence exemplified in the great funeral and theatrical vases is
followed by a period of decadence characterized by small vases of
fantastic form with purely decorative subjects. Besides these we have
the school of Paestum, represented by two artists who have left their
names on their vases, Assteas and Python. A well-known example of the
work of the former is a _krater_ in Madrid with Heracles destroying his
children, a theatrical and quasi-grotesque composition, and there is a
fine example of Python's work in a _krater_ in the British Museum, with
Alkmena, the mother of Heracles, placed on the funeral pyre by her
husband Amphitryon, and rain-nymphs quenching the flames (Plate I. fig.
55).

[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Cup with exploits of Theseus.]

About the end of the 3rd century B.C. the manufacture of painted vases
would seem to have been rapidly dying out in Italy, as had long been the
case elsewhere, and their place is taken by unpainted vases modelled in
the form of animals and human figures, or ornamented with stamped and
moulded reliefs. These in their turn gave way to the Arretine and
so-called "Samian" red wares of the Roman period. In all these wares we
see a tendency to the imitation of metal vases, which, with the growth
of luxury in the Hellenistic age, had entirely replaced painted pottery
both for use and ornament; the pottery of the period is reduced to a
subordinate and utilitarian position, merely supplying the demands of
those in the humbler spheres of life.

  _Collections_.--The majority of the painted vases now in existence are
  to be found in the various public museums and collections of Europe,
  of which the largest and most important are the British Museum, the
  Louvre and the Berlin Museum. Next to these come the collections at
  Athens, Naples, Munich, Vienna, Rome and St Petersburg; isolated
  specimens of importance are to be found in other museums, as at
  Florence, Madrid or the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. Most of the
  great private collections of the two preceding centuries have now been
  dispersed. In recent years the Boston Museum has raised America to a
  level with Europe in this respect; and the Metropolitan Museum at New
  York contains a vast collection of Cypriote pottery.

  LITERATURE.--Important original articles are to be found in various
  archaeological journals such as _American Journal of Archaeology_
  (1885, &c); _Annual of the British School at Athens_ (1894, &c.);
  _Athenische Mitteilungen_ (1876, &c.); _Bulletin de correspondance
  hellénique_ (1877, &c.); _Comptes rendus de la commission impériale
  archéologique_ (St Petersburg, 1859-1888); _Gazette archéologique_
  (Paris, 1875-1889); _Jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen
  archäologischen Instituts, Berlin_ (1886, &c.); _Journal of Hellenic
  Studies_ (1880, &c.); _Monumenti antichi_ (Milan, 1890, &c.);
  _Monuments grecs_ (Paris, 1872-1898); _Monuments Piot_ (Paris, 1894,
  &c.); _Revue archéologique_ (Paris, 1844, &c.). The older works have
  been recently superseded by important publications embodying the
  latest views such as Hartwig, _Die griechischen Meisterschalen des
  strengen rotfigurigen Stils_ (1893); Louvre, _Catalogue des vases
  antiques de terre cuite_, by E. Pottier (1896, &c.); S. Reinach,
  _Répertoire des vases peints_ (Paris, 1899-1900); H. B. Walters,
  _History of Ancient Pottery_ (Greek, Etruscan and Roman), 1905, with
  an excellent bibliographical list; also art. "Hischylos" in _J.H.S._
  xxix. (1909) p. 103.

ETRUSCAN POTTERY--Parallel with the development of the art of pottery in
Greece runs the course of the art in Etruria, though with far inferior
results; in its later stages it is actually no more than a feeble
imitation of the Greek. The period of time which we must consider
extends from the Bronze age (1000 B.C. or earlier) down to the 3rd
century B.C., when Etruscan civilization was merged into Roman.

The earliest civilization traced in Italy is not, strictly speaking,
Etruscan, but may perhaps be more accurately styled "Umbrian." It is
usually referred to as the "Terramare" period from the remains
discovered in that district in the basin of the Po. These people were
lake-dwellers, barely removed from the Neolithic stage of culture, and
their pottery was of the rudest kind, hand-made and roughly baked. Cups
and pots have been found sometimes with simple decoration in the form of
knobs or bosses, and many have a crescent-shaped handle serving as a
support for the thumb.

The next period, the earliest which can be spoken of as "Etruscan," is
known as the "Villanova" period, from a site of that name near Bologna,
or as the period of pit-tombs (_a pozzo_), from the form of the graves
in which the pottery has been found (see VILLANOVA). It begins with the
9th century B.C. and lasts for about two hundred years. The pit-tombs
usually contain large cinerary urns or _ossuaria_ (containing the ashes
of the dead), fashioned by hand from a badly-levigated volcanic clay
known as _impasto Italico_. These vessels were irregularly baked in an
open fire, and the colour of the surface varies from red-brown to
greyish black. They appear to have been covered with a polished slip,
intended to give the vases a metallic appearance. The shape of the urns
is peculiar, but uniform; they have a small handle at the widest part
and a cover in the form of an inverted bowl with handle (Plate III. fig.
63). Their ornamentation consists of incised or stamped geometrical
ornaments formed in the moist clay in bands round the neck and body;
more rarely patterns painted in white are found. Common pottery is also
found showing little advance on that of the Terramare period except in
variety of decoration. The technique and ornament are the same as in the
case of the urns. They correspond in development, though not in date, to
the early pottery of Troy and Cyprus, as well as to the primitive
pottery of other races, but one marked difference is the general
fondness of the Italian potter for vases with handles.

Sometimes the cinerary urns take the form of huts (_tuguria_), though
these are more often found in the neighbourhood of Rome. One of the best
examples is in the British Museum; it still contains ashes which were
inserted through a little door secured by a cord passing through rings.
The ornamentation suggests the rude carpentry of a primitive hut, the
cover or roof being vaulted with raised ridges to represent the beams.
The surface is polished, and other specimens are occasionally painted
with patterns in white.

In the next stage a change is seen in the form of the tombs, the pit
being replaced by a trench; this is accordingly known as the
"trench-tomb" or _a fossa_ period, and extends from the 8th century B.C.
to the beginning of the 6th. Importations of Greek pottery now first
make their appearance. The character of the local pottery actually
remains for some time the same as that of the preceding period, but it
improves in technique. By degrees an improvement in the forms is also
noted, and new varieties of ornamentation are introduced; there is,
however, no evidence that the wheel was used.

Two entirely new classes of pottery are found at Cervetri (Caere)
belonging to the 7th century. One consists of large jars ([Greek:
pithoi]) of red ware, the lower part being moulded in ribs, while the
upper has bands of design stamped round it in groups or friezes. These
designs were either produced from single stamps or rolled out from
cylinders like those used in Babylonia. The subjects are usually
quasi-oriental in character, and it is not certain that this ware was
made in Etruria, especially as similar vases have been found in Rhodes
and Sicily; either it was imported, or it was a local imitation of Greek
models.

The other class is similar as regards the shapes and the nature of the
clay, but is distinguished by having painted subjects in white outlines
on a red glossy ground. The clay, a kind of _impasto Italico_, was first
hardened by baking, and then a mixture of wax, resin and iron oxide was
applied and polished; on this the pigments, a mixture of chalk and
earth, were laid. The subjects are from Greek mythology or are at least
Greek in character, but the technique is purely Etruscan, and the
drawing is crude and un-Greek in the extreme.

The fourth period shows a close continuity with the third; but the
difference is defined firstly by the appearance of a new type of tomb in
the form of a chamber (_a camera_), secondly, by the all-pervading
influence of oriental art, and to a less extent of that of the Greeks.
The period extends from about 650 to 550 B.C., and is further marked by
the general introduction of the wheel into Etruria and by the appearance
of inscriptions in an alphabet derived from western Greece. In the
earlier tombs the typical local pottery is of hand-made _impasto
Italico_ resembling that of the previous periods; in the later we find
what is known as _bucchero_ ware--the national pottery of Etruria--which
is made on the wheel and baked in a furnace, and shows a marked tendency
to imitate metal.

To this period also belongs the famous Polledrara tomb or Grotto d'lside
at Vulci, the contents of which are now in the British Museum and
include some remarkable specimens of pottery. It dates from about
620-610 B.C. The most remarkable of the vases is a _hydria_, of
reddish-brown clay covered with a lustrous black slip on which have been
painted designs in red, blue and a yellowish white. The colours have
unfortunately now almost disappeared, and it is doubtful if they had
been fired. The principal subject is from the story of Theseus and
Ariadne. This tomb also contained a large wheel-made _pithos_ of red
_impasto_ ware with designs painted in polychrome. In the
Regulini-Galassi tomb at Cervetri (about 650 B.C.) large cauldrons of
red glossy ware were found, with gryphons' heads projecting all round,
to which chains were attached. A similar cauldron from Falerii on a high
open-work stand is now in the British Museum.

We now come to the _bucchero_ ware, which is characteristic of the later
portion of this period, though the earliest examples go back to the end
of the 7th century. Its main feature is the black paste of which it is
composed, covered with a more or less shining black slip. Modern
experiments seem to indicate that the clay was smoked or fumigated in a
closed chamber after baking, becoming thereby blackened throughout, and
the surface was then polished with wax and resin. Analyses of the ware
have proved that it contains carbon and that it had been lightly fired.
The oldest _bucchero_ vases are small and hand-made, sometimes with
incised geometrical patterns engraved with a sharp tool like metal-work.
Oriental influence then appears in a series of chalice-shaped cups found
at Cervetri with friezes of animals. From about 560 B.C. onwards the
vases are all wheel-made, with ornaments in relief either stamped from a
cylinder or composed of separate medallions attached to the vase. The
subjects range from animals or monsters to winged deities or suppliants
making offerings (fig. 34); in other cases we find meaningless groups of
figures or plant forms. These types are found chiefly in southern
Etruria, but at Chiusi (_Clusium_) a more elaborate variety found favour
from about 500 to 300 B.C. The shapes are very varied and the ornament
covers the vase from top to bottom, the covers of the vases being also
frequently modelled in various forms. The figures are stamped from
moulds, incised designs being added to fill up the spaces. The range of
subjects is much widened, including scenes from Greek mythology and
oriental types combining Egyptian and Assyrian motives, which must have
been introduced by the Phoenicians.

[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Etruscan oinochoe, of black bucchero ware, with
figures in relief. (British Museum.)]

Thus the technique of the _bucchero_ wares is purely native, but the
decoration is entirely dependent on foreign types whether Greek or
oriental, and throughout the whole series the tendency to imitate
metal-work is to be observed in every detail, both in the forms and in
the methods of decoration. Some are mere counterparts of existing work
in bronze.

The last variety of peculiarly Etruscan pottery which calls for notice
is the Canopic jar, so called from its resemblance to the [Greek:
kanôpoi] in which the Egyptians placed the bowels of their mummies. They
are rude representations of the human figure, the head forming the
cover, and in the tombs were placed on round chairs of wood, bronze or
terra-cotta. An example of such a jar on a bronze-plated chair may be
seen in the Etruscan Room of the British Museum (Plate III. fig. 65).
Their origin has been traced to the funeral masks found in the earliest
Etruscan tombs. From these a gradual transition may be observed from the
mask (1) placed on the corpse, (2) on the cinerary urn, (3) the head
modelled in the round and combined with the vase, and (4) at last the
complete human figure. The earliest of these jars are found in the
"pit-tombs" of the 8th century B.C., and the latest and most developed
types belong to the 5th century B.C.

The skill shown by the Etruscans in metal-work and gem-engraving never
extended to their pottery, which is always purely imitative, especially
when they attempted painted vases after the Greek fashion. The kinds
already described are all more or less plastic in character and
imitative of metal, except in the case of the Cervetri and Polledrara
finds, which have little in common with anything Greek, and exhibit a
quite undeveloped art. But towards the end of the 6th century B.C., when
Greek vases were coming into the country in large numbers, attempts were
made to imitate the black-figure style, especially of a particular
class of Ionian vases. Imitations of these are to be found in most
museums and may be readily recognized as Etruscan from peculiarities of
style, drawing and subject, as well as their inferior technique (fig.
35).

[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Etruscan Amphora imitating Greek style; parting
scene of Alcestis and Admetus, with Etruscan inscriptions.]

At a later date (4th-3rd century B.C.) they began to copy red-figured
vases with similarly unsuccessful results. With the exception of a small
class of a somewhat ambitious character made at Falerii (Civita
Castellana), of which there is a good example in the British Museum with
the subject of the infant Heracles strangling the serpents, they are all
marked by their inferior material and finish and their bizarre
decoration. The style is often repulsive and disagreeable, as well as
ineffective, and the grim Etruscan deities, such as Charun, are
generally introduced. Some of these vases have painted inscriptions in
the Etruscan alphabet. The latest specimens positively degenerate into
barbarism.

Painted vases of native manufacture are also found in the extreme south
of Italy and have been attributed to the indigenous races of the
Peucetians and Messapians; their decoration is partly geometrical,
partly in conventional plant forms, and is the result of natural
development rather than of imitation of Greek types. Some of the shapes
are characteristic, especially a large four-handled _krater_. They cover
the period 600-450 B.C., after which they were ousted by the
Graeco-Italian productions we have already described.

ROMAN POTTERY.--Roman vases are far inferior to Greek; the shapes are
less artistic, and the decoration, though sometimes not without merits
of its own, owes most of its success to the imitation or adaptation of
motives learnt from earlier Grecian, Egyptian or Syrian potters. They
required only the skill of the potter for their completion, and, being
made by processes largely mechanical, they are altogether on a lower
scale of artistic production.

It has been noted that during a certain period--namely, the 3rd and 2nd
centuries B.C.--ceramic art had reached the same stage of evolution all
round the Mediterranean, painted pottery had been ousted by metal-work,
and such vases as continued to be made were practically imitations of
metal both in Greece and Italy. These latter we must regard as
representing ordinary household pottery, or as supplying to those who
could not afford to adorn their houses and temples with costly works in
metal, a humble but fairly efficient substitute. There is a terra-cotta
bowl of the 2nd century B.C. in the British Museum which is an exact
replica of a chased silver bowl with reliefs in the same collection, and
may serve as an illustration of this condition of things (Plate II. fig.
56).

These imitations of metal were largely made in southern Italy, a
district which enjoyed close artistic relations with Etruria, and we
have already seen that the same principle had long been in vogue among
the Etruscans. Hence it is not surprising that an important centre of
pottery manufacture should have sprung up in Etruria, in the and century
B.C., which for many years set the fashion to the whole Roman world. But
before discussing such products it may be as well to say something on
the technical character, shapes and uses of Roman pottery in general.

  _Technical Processes_.--Roman pottery regarded in its purely technical
  aspect is in some ways better known to us than the Greek, chiefly
  owing to extensive discoveries of kilns and potters' apparatus in
  western Europe. It may be classified under two heads, of which only
  the second will concern us for the most part as yielding by far the
  greater amount of material and interest: (1) the plain, dull
  earthenware used for domestic purposes, and (2) the fine, red shining
  wares, usually known to archaeologists as _terra sigillata_, clay
  suited to receive stamps (_sigilla_) or impressions.

  For both classes all kinds of clay were used, varying somewhat in
  different regions, and ranging in colour when fired from black to
  grey, drab, yellow, brown and red. The clays varied greatly in
  quality; most of the pottery made in southern Gaul was fashioned from
  the ferruginous red clay of the Allier district, but at
  St-Remy-en-Rollat and in that neighbourhood a white clay was used. In
  Italy we find a carefully levigated red clay in use, great care being
  devoted to its preparation and admixture. But apart from decoration
  and style there is a great similarity in the general appearance of the
  Italian and provincial pottery made under Roman influence, and it is
  often very difficult to decide whether the vases were manufactured
  where they had been found or were imported from some famous centre of
  manufacture. The secret of the glossy red surface seems to have been
  common property and found its way from Italy to Gaul, Spain and
  Germany, and perhaps even to Britain.

  The manner in which this glossy red surface was produced has been a
  much-disputed question, some, as for instance Artis, the excavator of
  the Castor potteries in Northamptonshire, claiming that it was a
  natural result obtained in the baking, after polishing of the surface,
  by means of specially contrived kilns. But it is now generally agreed
  that it was artificial. It is true that the Roman lamps and many of
  the commoner wares have a gloss produced by polishing only, varying in
  colour and brightness with the proportion of iron oxide in the clay
  and the degree of heat at which the pieces were fired. But the surface
  finish of the finer or _terra sigillata_ wares is something quite
  distinct, and reaches a high and wonderfully uniform perfection.

  It is possible that the technical secret of the potters of the Roman
  world was only a development from the practice of the Greeks, but it
  does seem as if the finer Roman wares were coated with a brilliant
  glossy coating so thin as to defy analysis, yet so persistent as to
  leave no doubt of its existence as a definite glossy coat. Repeated
  attempts have been made to determine its nature by analysis, but
  chemists ought to have known better, for the coating is so thin that
  it is impossible to remove it without detaching much more body than
  glaze. Examination shows it to be much more than a surface polish or
  than the gloss of the finest Greek vases, and we shall have to wait
  for a final determination of its nature until some one who is at once
  a chemist and a potter can reconstruct it synthetically. Whatever its
  nature and method of production, it is certain that the glaze itself
  was a transparent film which heightened the natural red colour of the
  clay, until in the finest specimens it has something of the quality of
  red coral.

  In the manufacture of vases the Romans used the same processes as the
  Greeks. They were all made on the wheel, except those of abnormal
  size, such as the large casks (_dolia_), which were built up on a
  frame. Specimens of potters' wheels have been found at Arezzo and
  Nancy, made of terra-cotta, with a pierced centre for the pivot, and
  bearing small cylinders of lead round the circumference to give a
  purchase for the hand and to aid the momentum of the wheel. For the
  ornamental vases with reliefs an additional process was necessary, and
  the decoration was in nearly all cases produced from moulds. The
  process in this case was a threefold one: first the stamps had to be
  made bearing the designs; these were then pressed upon the inside of a
  clay mould which had been previously made on the wheel to the size and
  shape required; finally, the clay was impressed in the mould and the
  vase was thus produced, decoration and all. Handles being of rare
  occurrence in Roman pottery, the vases were thus practically complete,
  requiring only the addition of rim and foot. The stamps were made in
  various materials, and had a handle at the back (Plate III. fig. 64).
  The moulds were of lighter clay than the vases, and were lightly fired
  when completed, so as to absorb the moisture from the pressed-in clay.
  Large numbers of these moulds are in existence (Plate III. fig. 61),
  and the British Museum possesses a fine series from Arezzo. Those
  discovered in various parts of Gaul have afforded valuable evidence as
  to the sites of the various pottery centres, as their presence
  obviously denoted a place of manufacture, and the value of this
  evidence is increased when they bear potters' names.

  Remains of kilns for baking Roman pottery[8] are very numerous in
  western Europe, especially in Gaul, where the best examples are at
  Lezoux near Clermont, at Châtelet in Haute-Marne, and near Agen in
  Lot-el-Gäronne. In Germany good remains have come to light at
  Heiligenberg in Baden, al Heddernheim near Frankfort, Rheinzabern near
  Carlsruhe, and Westerndorf in Bavaria. In England the best kilns are
  those discovered by Artis in 1821-1827 at Castor in Northamptonshire
  (see fig. 4).

  _Shapes_.--As is the case with Greek vases, a long list of names of
  shapes may be collected from Latin literature, and the same
  difficulties as to identification arise in the majority of cases. They
  may, however, be classified in the same manner; as vases for storing
  liquids, for mixing or pouring wine, for use at the table, and so on.
  In addition Varro and other writers have preserved a number of archaic
  and obscure names chiefly applied to the vases used in sacrifices.

  The principal vases for storing liquid or solid food were:--The
  _dolium_, a large cask or barrel of earthenware; the _amphora_, a jar
  holding about six gallons; and the _cadus_, a jar about half as large
  as the _amphora_. The _dolium_ had no foot, and was usually buried in
  the earth; it was also used for purposes of burial. The _amphora_
  corresponds to the Greek wine-jar of that name, and had, like its
  prototype, a pointed base. Many examples were found at Pompeii stamped
  with the names of consuls (cf. Hor. _Od._ in. 21. I), or with painted
  inscriptions relating to their contents. The _cadus_ is mentioned by
  Horace and Martial.

  Of smaller vases for holding liquids, such as jugs, bottles and
  flasks, the principal were the _urceus_, answering to the Greek
  [Greek: oinochoê], the _ampulla_, a kind of flask with globular body,
  and the _lagena_, a narrow-necked flask or bottle. Of drinking-cups
  the Romans had almost as large a variety as the Greeks, and the great
  majority of the ornamented vases preserved to the present day were
  devoted to this purpose. The generic name for a cup was _poculum_, but
  the Romans borrowed many of the Greek names, such as _cantharus_ and
  _scyphus_. The _calix_ appears to have answered in popularity, though
  not in form, to the Greek _kylix_, and is probably the name by which
  the ornamented bowls were usually known. The names for a dish are
  _lanx_, _patina_ and _catinum_. Another common form is the _olla_
  (Greek [Greek: chutra]), 	which served many purposes, being used for a
  cooking-pot, for a jar in which money was kept, or for a cinerary urn.
  The form of vase identified with this name has a spherical or
  elliptical body with short neck and wide mouth. Of sacrificial vases
  the principal was the _patera_ or libation-bowl, corresponding to the
  Greek [Greek: phialê].

_Arretine Ware_.--The Latin writers, and in particular Pliny, mention
numerous places in Italy, Asia Minor and elsewhere, which were famous
for the production of pottery in Roman times. Pliny mentions with
special commendation the "Samian Ware," the reputation of which, he
says, was maintained by Arretium (Arezzo). Samian pottery is also
alluded to by other writers, and hence the term was adopted in modern
times as descriptive of the typical Roman red wares with reliefs,
whether found in Italy, Germany, Gaul or Britain. But it was only
accepted with diffidence as a convenient name, and as early as 1840
discoveries at Arezzo made it possible to distinguish the vases found
there as a local product, now known as "Arretine" ware. The name
"Samian" has, however, adhered to the provincial wares and at the
present day is often used even by archaeologists. But recent researches
have shown that nearly all the provincial wares can be traced to Gaulish
or German potteries, and, since it is implied by Pliny that "Samian"
pottery is older than "Arretine," the name may now be fairly rejected
altogether, as we have rejected the name "Etruscan" for Greek pottery.
The Romans probably used it as a generic term, just as we speak of
"china," and the real Samian ware is to be seen in the later Greek
pottery, with reliefs, of the 3rd century B.C.

There were, as Pliny and other writers imply, many pottery centres in
Italy, at Rhegium, Cumae, Mutina and elsewhere, as well as at Saguntum
in Spain, but all were surpassed in excellence by Arretium. In more
modern times its pottery came under notice even in the middle ages, and
discoveries were made in the time of Leo X (about 1500) and again in the
18th century. The Arretine ware may be regarded as _the_ Roman pottery
_par excellence_, and its popularity extended from about 150 B.C. down
to the end of the 1st century of the Empire, reaching its height in the
1st century B.C., after which it rapidly degenerated, and its place was
taken by the wares of the provinces. Its general characteristics may be
summed up as follows:--(1) The fine local red clay, carefully levigated
and baked very hard to a rich coral red or a colour like sealing-wax;
(2) the fine red glaze, which has already been discussed; (3) the great
variety of forms employed, showing the marked influence of metal-work;
(4) the almost invariable presence of stamps with potters' names. The
majority of the specimens have been found at Arezzo itself, but there
was a branch of the industry at Puteoli, producing pottery almost equal
in merit, and it was also exported to central and eastern Europe and
Spain.

The earliest examples are of black glossy ware, but the red appears to
have been introduced by 100 B.C., when the first potters' stamps appear.
These are usually quadrangular in form, though other shapes are found,
and are impressed in the midst of the design on the ornamented vases, or
on plain wares on the bottom of the interior. The number of potters'
names is very large, though some appear to have been more prolific than
others, and to have employed a large number of slaves, whose names
appear with their masters' on the stamps. The best known is Marcus
Perennius, whose wares take highest rank for their artistic merit, the
designs being copied from good Greek models. He employed seventeen
slaves, of whom the best known is Tigranes, the stamps usually appearing
as M·PEREN and TIGRAN. The slave-name of Bargates is found on one of his
finest vases, in the Boston Museum, the subject being the fall of
Phaethon. We may suppose that the stamps for the figures were designed
by the masters, but that the vases were actually moulded by the slaves.
Other important artists are Calidius Strigo, who had twenty slaves; P.
Cornelius, who had no less than forty; Aulus Titius, who signs himself
A·TITI·FIGVL·ARRET; the Annii and the Tetii; and L. Rasinius Pisanus, a
degenerate potter of the Flavian period, who imitated Gaulish wares.

The forms of the vases are all, without exception, borrowed from metal
shapes and are of marked simplicity (see fig. 37, Nos. 1, 8, 9, 11).
They are mostly of small size and devoid of handles, but a notable
exception is a bell-shaped _krater_ or mixing-bowl, of which there is a
very fine example in the British Museum, found at Capua and decorated
with the four seasons (Plate III. fig. 62). For the decoration and
subjects the potters undoubtedly drew their inspiration from the
"new-Attic" reliefs of the Hellenistic period, of which the _krater_
just cited is an example. So, too, are such subjects as the dancing
maenads or priestesses with wicker head-dresses, or the Dionysiac scenes
which are found, for instance, on the vases of Perennius. Others again
are distinguished by a free use of conventional ornament, figures when
they occur being merely decorative. There is throughout a remarkable
variety both in the ornamentation and in the methods of composition.

_Provincial Wares_.--The Arretine ware, as has been noted, steadily
degenerated during the 1st century of the Empire, and the manufacture of
ornamental pottery appears to have entirely died out in Italy by the
time of Trajan. Its place was taken by the pottery of the provinces,
especially by that of Gaul, where the transference of artistic
traditions led to the rise of new industrial centres in the country
bordering on the Rhone and the Rhine.

As to the general characteristics of the provincial wares, that is, of
the ornamented wares or _terra sigillata_, the clay is fine and
close-grained, harder than the Arretine, and when broken shows a light
red fracture; the surface is smooth and lustrous, of a brighter yet
darker red colour (i.e. less like coral) than that of Arretine ware, but
the tone varies with the degree of heat used. The most important feature
is the fine glaze with which it is coated, similar in composition to
that of the Arretine; it is exceedingly thin and transparent, and laid
equally over the whole surface, only slightly brightening the color of
the clay. The ornament is invariably coarser than that of Arretine ware,
by which, however, it is indirectly inspired.

The vases are usually of small dimensions, consisting of various types
of bowls, cups and dishes, of which two or three forms are preferred
almost to the exclusion of the rest, and they frequently bear the stamp
of the potter impressed on the inside or outside. Although this ware is
found all over the Roman world, by far the greater portion comes from
Gaul, Germany or Britain, and evidence points to two--and only
two--districts as the principal centres of manufacture: the valleys of
the Loire and the Rhine and their immediate neighbourhood. In the 1st
century A.D. Gaulish pottery was largely exported into Italy, and
isolated finds of it occur in Spain and other parts.

The recent researches of Dr Dragendorff and M. Déchelette have shown
that a chronological sequence of the pottery may be clearly traced, both
in the shapes employed and in the method of decoration; and, further,
that it is possible--at least as regards Gaul--to associate certain
potters' names and certain types of figures, though found in many
places, with two centres in particular, Graufesenque near Rodez
(department of Aveyron) in the district occupied by the Ruteni, and
Lezoux near Clermont (department of Puy-de-Dôme) in the country of the
Arverni. The periods during which these potteries flourished are
consecutive, or rather overlapping, but not contemporaneous, the former
being practically coincident with the 1st century A.D., the latter with
the 2nd and 3rd down to about A.D. 260, when the manufacture of _terra
sigillata_ practically came to an end in Gaul.

[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Bowl of Gaulish ware, with moulded patterns in
slight relief.]

There were also certain smaller potteries, some of which mark a
transition between the Italian and provincial wares, in the north of
Italy and on the Rhine and upper Loire, e.g. St Remy-en-Rollat, and
others of later date, as at Banassac and Montans in the latter district,
but none of these produced pottery of special merit or importance. The
early Rhenish wares are, strictly speaking, of a semi-Celtic or Teutonic
character, while the later German _terra sigillata_, for which the
principal centres were Rheinzabern near Carlsruhe and Westerndorf in
Bavaria, are of similar character but inferior to the 2nd-century
pottery of Lezoux. A mould from Rheinzabern is illustrated, Plate IV.
fig. 66.

[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Shapes used in Roman Pottery. 1-11, Arretine;
18-65, Gaulish and German.]

The ornamented vases produced in these potteries are, as we have said,
almost confined to two or three varieties, which follow one another
chronologically. A shape favoured at first is the _krater_, which has
been mentioned as one of the characteristic Arretine forms; but this
enjoyed but a short term of popularity. Early in the 1st century we find
a typical form of bowl in use, which, following the numeration of Dr
Dragendorff's treatise, is usually spoken of as No. 29. This is
characterized by its moulded rim engraved with finely incised hatchings,
and by the division of the body by a moulding into two separate friezes
for the designs (fig. 36). Its ornament is at first purely decorative,
consisting of scrolls and wreaths, then small animals and birds are
introduced, and finally figure subjects arranged in rectangular panels
or circular medallions. About the middle of the century a second variety
of bowl (known as No. 30; see fig. 37) was introduced; this is
cylindrical in form, and, being found both at Graufesenque and Lezoux,
may be regarded as transitional in character. In the latter half of this
century a new form arises (No. 37; fig. 37), a more or less
hemispherical bowl which holds the field exclusively on all sites down
to the termination of the potteries. In this form and in No. 30 a new
system of decoration is introduced, the upper edge being left quite
plain. The panels and medallions at first prevail, but are then
succeeded by arcading or inverted semicircles enclosing figures, and
finally after the end of the 1st century (and on form 37 only) we find
the whole surface covered with a single composition of figures
unconfined by borders or frames of any kind, but in a continuous frieze;
this is known as the "free" style (Plate IV. fig. 69).

As regards the figure subjects, it may be generally laid down that the
conceptions are good, but the execution poor. Many are obvious
imitations of well-known types or works of art, and the absence of
Gaulish subjects is remarkable. They include representations of gods and
heroes, warriors and gladiators, hunters and animals, the two latter
classes being pre-eminently popular.

The potters' names at Graufesenque are nearly all of a common Roman
type, such as Bassus, Primus, Vitalis; those at Lezoux are Gaulish in
form, such as Advocisus, Butrio, Illixo or Laxtrucisa. This seems to
imply that Roman influence was still strong in the earlier centre which
drew its inspiration more directly from Arretium. But even the purely
Roman names are sometimes converted into Gaulish forms, as _Masclus_ for
Masculus, or _Tornos_ for Turnus. The stamps are quadrangular in form,
depressed in the surface of the vase with the letters in relief; on the
plain wares they are usually in the centre of the interior, but on the
ornamented vases are impressed on the exterior among the figures. The
usual formula is OF (for _officina_) or M (for _manu_) with the name in
the genitive, or F, FE or FEC for _fecit_ with the nominative.

Besides the ordinary _terra sigillata_ with figures produced in moulds
we find other methods of decoration employed. In the south of France,
about Arles and Orange, vases were made with medallions separately
moulded and attached round the body; these have a great variety of
subjects, both mythological and gladiatorial or theatrical, or even
portraits of emperors. There is a remarkable specimen in the British
Museum with a scene from the tragedy of the _Cycnus_, on which Heracles
and Ares are represented, with seated deities in the background (Plate
IV. fig. 67). The date of these reliefs is the 3rd century after Christ.

Of the same date is a somewhat similar ware made at Lezoux. Here each
figure is attached separately to the vase, and the background is filled
in with foliage produced by the method known as _en barbotine_
(slip-painting), of which we shall speak presently. The effect of these
vases, which are mostly large jars or _ollae_ (Plate IV. fig. 70), is
often very decorative, and there is a fine specimen in the British
Museum from Felixstowe, on which the modelling is really admirable.
Other good examples have been found in various parts of Britain.

[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Jar of Castor ware, with reliefs of a stag
pursued by a hound, executed in semi-fluid slip. 6 in. high.]

The "slip-decoration" process is practically unknown in Italy, but it is
found early in the 1st century of our era in Germany, and appears to
have originated in the Rhine district. It is not confined to the red
ware, but in the early German examples is applied on a dull grey or
black background. On the continent its use is almost limited to simple
decorative patterns of scrolls or foliage, but in Britain it was largely
adopted, as in the well-known Castor ware made on the site of that name
(_Durobrivae_) in Northamptonshire. Many of the vases found or made here
have gladiatorial combats, hunting-scenes, or chariots executed by this
method (fig. 38). The decoration was applied in the form of a thick
viscous slip, usually of the same colour as the clay, but reduced to
this consistency with water, and was laid on by means of a narrow tube
or run from the edge of a spatula. The Castor ware appears to date from
the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.

Painted wares are at all times rare, but were occasionally produced in
Gaul, Germany and Britain. A notable class of such ware seems to have
been produced in the Rhine district, represented by small jars covered
with a glossy black coating, on which are painted in thick white slip
inscriptions of a convivial character, such as BIBE, REPLE, DA VINUM, or
VIVAS (Plate IV. fig. 68). A very effective ware, obviously imitating
cut glass, by means of sharply incised patterns, was made at Lezoux in
both the red and black varieties.

  LITERATURE.--Dragendorff in _Bonner Jahrbücher_, xcvi. 37 ff.;
  Déchelette, _Vases céramiques de la Gaule romaine_ (1904); Walters,
  _Ancient Pottery_, ii. chaps, xxi.-xxiii.; _British Museum Catalogue
  of Roman Pottery_ (1908).     (H. B. Wa.)


PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH POTTERY[9]

Formerly, in all general accounts of the potter's art, it was the custom
to pass over the period between the fall of the Roman empire and the
appearance of the beautiful Persian and Syrian pottery of the early
middle ages, as if the intervening centuries had produced nothing worthy
of note. Even yet the successive steps by which this beautiful art arose
are largely matters of inference and deduction, but it must be borne in
mind that while the Greeks and Romans made singularly little use of
glaze and painted colour, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of Syria and
Mesopotamia had long been noted for their skill in this direction. In
discussing the pottery of these peoples we have already pointed out at
what a very early period they had developed the production of rich and
beautiful coloured glazes--the Egyptians as a jewel-like decoration of
small pieces made in a very sandy paste, or actually carved from stone,
and the Assyrians, on a bolder scale, in their glazed and coloured
brickwork. Though the Egyptian and Syrian empires were overthrown, the
peoples of these countries remained; and, as we are now aware, carried
on their traditional craft, though in a less splendid way. There is
abundant evidence that pottery was made in the Egypt of Roman times and
later with rich turquoise blue and yellow glazes, though the potters had
learned to produce this glaze on a material containing more clay and
less sand than that used in earlier days. We know also that they had
learned that the addition of lead oxide to a glaze enabled such glaze to
be applied on vessels formed from clay which was sufficiently plastic to
be shaped on the wheel. This knowledge was not confined to Egypt, but
appears to have been spread over Syria and parts of Asia Minor; and
throughout the Byzantine empire many forms of pottery were made which
were clearly the starting-points of much of the fine pottery produced in
Europe in later times. We find, for instance, side by side, a
manufacture of bowls, dishes and vases of very simple shape, yet made of
two distinct materials: (1) a whitish sandy body on which turquoise
blue, green or even white glaze, consisting mainly of silicates of soda
and lime, was used either without ornament or with simple painted
patterns in black or cobalt blue under the glaze; (2) similar vessels
made of a lightish red clay, also rather sandy and porous, coated with a
white slip (pipeclay or impure kaolin) covered with a yellowish lead
glaze. These vessels were decorated in a variety of ways: (1)
_Graffiati_; patterns cut or scratched through the coating of white slip
while it was still soft, down to the red ground, so that when the vessel
was glazed it displayed a pattern in dark upon a light ground. (2)
Yellow and red ochre and copper scales were rudely "dabbed" over the
white slip surface, so that when the vessel was glazed it presented a
marbled or mottled appearance with touches of red, yellow, brown or
green, on a yellowish-white ground. (See the section on _Egyptian
pottery_ above.) (3) Oxides of copper or iron were added to the lead
glaze, and the resulting green or yellow glazes were applied to plain
vases or to vessels decorated with moulded reliefs. In all these methods
we see the continuation of old tradition in simpler forms, but we shall
also see that these, in their turn, became the starting-point of much of
the medieval pottery of Europe, particularly of Italy and the other
southern countries.

In the same way, a little farther east, the Persians of Sassanian times
seem to have preserved some of the traditions of the potters of Assyria,
just as they inherited their skill; and the Assyrian device of raising
strong brown outlines round a design to control the flow of coloured
glazes, which is exemplified in the Frieze of Archers in the Louvre, was
carried on by them, for it appears unchanged in the tiles of the Mosque
of Mahommed I. built at Brusa in the 15th century. The intercourse
between the Persian and Byzantine empires at this time must have led to
a general diffusion of technical knowledge among the pottery centres of
the various countries round the eastern end of the Mediterranean, though
our knowledge is too fragmentary to furnish sufficient data for any
definite placing of the progress made. Our information is mainly derived
from the examination of the rubbish mounds at Fostat, or Old Cairo, in
Egypt, by Dr Fouquet, and by eager inquirers like Henry Wallis. Fostat
was built in A.D. 640 by Amr and destroyed in the 12th century;
partially rebuilt, it was given over to pillage in 1252 by a Mameluke
sultan, and all that remains is the Old Cairo of to-day, the rest of the
site being covered with accumulated rubbish heaps. In the same way
Rhagae or Rai, one of the ancient capitals of Persia, the site of which
lies a few miles east of Teheran, was destroyed about 1220 by Jenghiz
Khan. Like Fostat it was partially rebuilt, but was destroyed again in
the following century, so that its existence practically ceased in the
14th century. Rhagae was once an important centre of the ceramic
industry, but this was transferred to the neighbouring town of Veramin,
in the 13th century. Excavations have also been made on the site of
Rakka, near Aleppo, in Syria, and from all these sources, and a few
others of minor importance, much interesting light has been thrown on
the development of the potter's art in these countries during the period
between the 4th and 12th centuries. Yet, until systematic excavations
have been made in Persia, Anatolia, Syria and the Delta, on the same
scale as those which have proved so valuable in Greece, Crete, Cyprus
and the valley of the Nile, we cannot hope to possess sound
chronological data of the developments of the arts in these countries.
Meantime the exact share which should be allotted to each district for
its discoveries will remain ground of contention for scholars of
conflicting schools, though there can be little doubt that Egypt and the
southern part of Syria played a more important part than has generally
been supposed in the development of the potter's art at this period.

_Persian Pottery_.--The most important pottery of the nearer East,
whether considered on its own merits or from the influence it has
exercised on the pottery of later times, is that so highly valued by
collectors under the distinctive name of Persian; though much that
passes under that name may not have been made in Persia. From the 10th
to the 16th centuries the craftsmen of Persia were perfect masters of
decorative design and colour; and, as potters, they possessed a sense of
the forms proper to clay, such as none of the great races of antiquity
ever exhibited. The shapes of Greek pottery speak more strongly of metal
than of clay, but the best Persian work exhibits a feeling for the
material that has rarely been equalled. The shapes are not only true
clay-shapes but they are designed so as best to exhibit the qualities of
the glaze and colour with which they were to be decorated. Certainly
from the 12th to the 16th centuries the pottery of the Persians must
rank among the greatest achievements of the potter's art. The ware was
shaped from various mixtures such as we have already spoken of--but
whether its body was a mixture of white clay with a large proportion of
sand, or some inferior clay that burnt to a yellowish or red tint, and
was surfaced with a fine white coating of siliceous slip, or with a
mixture of soda-glass, clay and oxide of tin, which made it whiter
still--the one aim was to produce a white pottery. On this white
ground--with a coarsish absorbent surface--beautiful patterns, in
conventional floral or animal forms, were deftly painted in
cobalt-blues, manganese-purples, copper-greens and turquoise, with
mixtures for intermediate tints; while a strong brownish-black outline
colour was compounded by mixing the oxides of iron and manganese, to be
turned into a fine, still black by the addition of a trace of cobalt and
later of oxide of chromium. Over this freely painted colour, often used
in broad flat masses, a singularly limpid alkaline glaze, generally of
considerable thickness, was fired until it just fused; and the resultant
effect is of the most rich and brilliant colour relieved on a ground of
slightly toned white. Judging from fragments which have been found at
Rai, and which can scarcely therefore be later than the 13th century, we
find the characteristic Persian style of ornament already developed;
dumpy little figures kneeling, standing or riding on grass between
cypress trees, or animals and birds similarly disposed, with
conventional borders and bands of Cufic inscriptions. Another well-known
type of pattern consists of highly conventionalized floral ornament
which often runs to a beautiful tracery of "arabesque" lines. The
drawing is generally finely outlined with brown or black (a survival of
the ancient Assyrian practice), and in the earliest pieces the flat
washes of colour are laid in only in cobalt-blue, turquoise or green
from copper, and shades of purple and brown from manganese. From the
16th century onwards Chinese influence is strongly felt both in the
designs and in the colour schemes, particularly in the wares painted
with patterns in blue only (fig. 39), which sometimes carry the
imitation of Chinese porcelain so far as to bear forged Chinese marks.
Finally, Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) is said to have brought a number of
Chinese artificers, among them many potters, to Ispahan, and we find
that Chinese porcelain was largely painted at King-tê-Chên, with blue
decorations in the Persian taste, so that we cannot be surprised at the
growth of a hybrid Perso-Chinese style of decoration. From this period,
however, Persian pottery deteriorated both in its technical and artistic
aspects. Crudely moulded figures in fairly high relief, coloured with
an opaque yellow and green as well as with transparent blue and
turquoise, began to make their appearance, especially on the famous
Persian tiles; and in the 18th century the brown and black outlines of
the drawing (a most valuable decorative resource) vanish, and we get
brighter and more glittering, yet poorer colours, including a rose-red
enamel fired over the glaze, evidently imitated from the Chinese
_famille-rose_ porcelains of the 18th century.

The finest work appears to have been produced from the 11th to the 14th
centuries; yet so imperfect is our knowledge of what is truly Persian,
Syrian or Egyptian, that we are forced to accept many conventional names
that have perhaps little but custom to recommend them. There is, for
instance, an important class of pottery known, until recently, only from
a few remarkably handsome vases, and once called "Siculo-Arab" because
these few examples had been mostly found in Sicily. This ware is
characterized by its fine quality and its distinguished
ornament--leaf-shaped panels with arabesques; interlacing patterns;
striped and dotted bands; friezes of animals or birds amidst flowers and
foliage, inscriptions, &c.; all strongly and firmly drawn in black or
brown outlines and washed in with a very pure cobalt-blue or with
turquoise. In spite of the resemblance of these pieces to the oldest
Persian wares, we know that bowls, dishes, vases and spoilt pieces of
the same kind have been dug up on the site of Rakka near Aleppo; similar
ware has been found at Fostat, together with evidences of local
manufacture, and occasional pieces have been brought from Persia; so
that probably this distinguished ware was made at Rakka in Syria between
the 9th and the 13th centuries, and was afterwards made by Syrian
potters both in Persia and Egypt.

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Persian Plate painted in blues only. (Victoria
and Albert Museum.)]

_Other Persian Wares_.--We have already spoken of the prevalent use of
coloured glazes in all the countries of the nearer East--from Egypt to
Persia--from remote times, either as the sole colour decoration or in
conjunction with modelled or painted ornament. The fragments from Rai
and Fostat include rich turquoise glazes (derived from the ancient
Egyptian), deep and light-green glazes containing lead and copper,
imitations of ancient Chinese céladon-green, a brownish-purple glaze, a
coffee-brown glaze and a deep cobalt-blue glaze.[10] All these may be
found either on plain vases, or on vessels with modelled ornament; or
covering delicate floral or arabesque patterns painted in white slip or
incised in the paste. Sometimes, even at this early period, there are
traces of applied gold-leaf attached, but not fired, to the glaze.

At a very early period, too, we find those beautiful bowls, dishes and
vases decorated with geometrical or arabesque patterns in a singularly
still underglaze black, and covered with the blue turquoise or green
copper glazes. This characteristic and beautiful ware is common to
Persia, Syria and Egypt in Saracen times, and it was soon prized in
Europe, as is shown by the famous fragment found by the late Mr Drury
Fortnum built into the outer walls of S. Cecilia in Pisa, where it was
apparently placed in the 12th century.[11]

At a later date a shining black glaze made its appearance, and in the
13th century pale and lapis-lazuli blues, while there is a comparatively
modern sage-green glaze found only on pieces bearing patterns modelled
in low relief.

_Persian Porcelain_.--This beautiful and somewhat mysterious ware--often
called "Gombroon" ware--apparently made its appearance in the 13th
century, though the bulk of the known examples are not earlier than the
17th or 18th century. The ware is quite translucent and is of soft and
delicate texture. Unlike Chinese porcelain, it was made from a mixture
of pipe-clay and glass, and was glazed with a soft lead glaze; so that a
fragment of it would melt to an opaque glass in an ordinary porcelain
oven. It is principally met with in the form of dishes, bowls (often
mounted on feet) and saucers. The pieces are generally very thin and are
either perfectly plain or bear flutings or simple wavy patterns incised
in the paste. Most characteristic and beautiful is the decoration by
means of delicate perforations either straight or lozenge-shaped. In the
finest pieces the perforations are filled with glaze, and then they form
a decoration analogous to the well-known "rice-grain" decoration of the
Chinese. Occasional pieces are found decorated with colour, either a
delicate green, producing an effect like pale bright céladon, or the
well-known Persian blue ground; and this is sometimes decorated with
lustre patterns. Nowhere can this rare and delicately beautiful ware be
so well studied as in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

_Lustred Ware_.--The decoration of pottery with iridescent metallic
films is one of the most astonishing and beautiful inventions ever made
by the potter. Hitherto we have seen only coloured clays, coloured
glazes, or colours fired under the glaze, but we are now brought face to
face with a colour effect produced by refiring the finished glazed
pieces, at a lower temperature, with pigments painted upon the glaze
(fig. 40; see also Plate V. 13th-century Persian lustre). How such a
practice originated is probably an idle speculation, but it may have
come through repeated attempts to decorate pottery with gold. If gold
was painted under the glazes of these ancient vases, it would probably
vanish and leave no trace; but gold, alloyed with much silver, applied
over the finished glaze and refired, in the attempt to make it adhere,
may have given the first films of iridescent colour. We know certainly
that before the 13th century the elements of the process had been
mastered, and that the potters of the nearer East had learnt that by
mixing some compound of silver (doubtless the sulphide) with clay, and
painting the mixture on the finished vase, which was refired in such a
way that the pieces were only raised to a dull red heat and were then
exposed to the vapours of the wood-fuel, glowing lustrous patterns were
left on the ware that looked like metal--but metal shot over with all
the hues of the rainbow, golden, rosy, purple and green. Numerous
fragments of this lustred pottery had been disinterred from the site at
Rhagae, and it was therefore assumed that the beautiful process was of
Persian origin, particularly as most of the examples then known bore
designs of distinctly Persian style. We are now inclined to think that
the process really arose in Egypt or in Syria, and was carried eastward
to Persia, just as it was afterwards carried westward to Spain. In
support of this view there is the written record of the Persian
traveller Nasiri Khosrau, who visited Old Cairo in the 11th century
(1035-1042). He was apparently familiar with the pottery of his own
country, and notes all the novel forms that he found in the bazaars of
Old Cairo, which was both a great trading emporium for the traffic of
East and West, and a pottery centre of note. He mentions, specially,
certain translucent bowls of earthenware decorated with colours
resembling a stuff called "bougalemoun," "the tints changing according
to the position which one gives to the vase." Such a description could
only apply to "lustred" pottery, and it would seem as if this process
must have been known in Egypt or Syria before it was practised in Persia
(see Plate V., 13th-century Syro-Persian). In any case the secret was
soon carried to Persia, for we have ample evidence that it was practised
at Rhagae in the next century.

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Persian Ewer, white ground, with pattern in
brown copper lustre; the upper part has a blue ground. The mounting is
gilt bronze, Italian 16th-century work. (British Museum.)]

The earliest dated example of Persian lustred ware is a star-shaped tile
of the year A.D. 1217 (A.H. 614), decorated with spotted hares,
heraldically confronted, in a ground of lustre relieved by dots and
curls, and surrounded by an inscribed border. A vase in the Godman
collection bears the date A.D. 1231 (A.H. 629), and some of the
well-known "star and cross" tiles from Veramin belong to the year A.D.
1262. The early Persian lustre is chiefly known to us through the tiles
with which the walls of mosques and public buildings were decorated; the
more ephemeral vases, bowls and dishes have survived in smaller numbers
and very rarely in perfect condition. Common motives of decoration were
animals and birds (sometimes showing Chinese influence), the hare and
the deer being favourites; roughly drawn sack-like figures of men and
women, mounted or on foot (probably heroes of Persian legend),
conventional foliage and arabesques. The designs are usually reserved in
a lustred ground, which is relieved by small scrolls, curls and dots
etched in the lustre (as though the glazed piece had been covered all
over with the lustre mixture and the ornament scratched out of this when
it was dry), and showing beneath the ivory-white tin-enamel with which
the early wares are generally coated. The lustre itself when viewed
directly may look like some golden or deep chocolate-brown colour, but
as the piece is turned to catch a side-light this deep colour is seen to
bear a thin iridescent film, which glows with golden, green, purple or
ruby-red metallic _reflets_. On the earliest examples the decoration is
often entirely in lustre, but later, lustre is often used to eke out a
pattern painted with masses of pale cobalt-blue or turquoise under the
glaze. Similar tiles with rather more elaborate ornament bear
14th-century dates, and another variety has parts of the decoration,
more particularly the large letters of the inscriptions, raised in low
relief and heightened with blue. Yet another class, belonging to the
14th century, has a fine dark-blue alkaline glaze, with designs in low
relief, picked out with scrolls and arabesques in white enamel or bold
floral sprays in leaf-gold. Lustre is frequently found applied to the
rich cobalt-blue ground, and there are still existing a few magnificent
vases which show the artistic possibilities of this scheme of
decoration. It should be noted that when the pieces are in the round,
the pattern is usually painted in lustre and not reserved in a lustre
ground as on the flat tiles. In the later examples the tin-enamel was
replaced entirely by white slip, and the lustre decoration continued in
use until the end of the reign of Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629). To the last
period belong many charming bowls, narghilis, cups and dishes in a brown
lustre, with ruby _reflets_, on a white or a deep blue ground; this ware
is pure white in substance and generally translucent, and the pieces are
occasionally signed (see _Persian porcelain_ above).

[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Lamp from the Mosque of Omar.]

_Damascus Ware_.--This time-honoured name (for "Damas Ware" was often
mentioned in medieval inventories, and appears to have included many
varieties of oriental pottery which were highly prized in Italy, France
and England in the middle ages)[12] forms rather a puzzle nowadays for
the archaeologist, for many diverse wares have been included under this
title, some of which were not made at Damascus. Yet Damascus is one of
the oldest cities in the world, and has seen unnumbered dynasties come
and go around its desert-fringed oasis. An important centre of caravan
traffic, a nexus of palpitating life from east and west, north and
south, we cannot wonder if it developed a special pottery of its own,
tinged with something of a cosmopolitan spirit. Formerly the Damascus
wares were treated as a variety of the Persian pottery we have just
described, but the best examples of the class now known under this name
exhibit a mingling of various influences such as we might expect, and
have well-marked affinities both with the Persian wares and those
brilliant productions now commonly recognized as Syrian and Turkish,
while even far-off echoes of Chinese decorative mannerisms are not
wanting. The characteristic Damascus ware of the collector is marked by
its quality; the ground is of very clear white, the colours are pure and
brilliant, and the vessels, whether dishes or vases, are soundly made.
The decoration, which is purely floral or conventional, recalls the more
formal Persian style, but the colours recall those of the Turkish
pottery with one remarkable substitution. The piled-up red-clay pigment
of the latter is absent, but where it would inevitably occur in the
design of a Turkish piece its place is taken by a purple made from
manganese, which is often thin and rather washy in quality. Fine
examples of this famous ware are to be seen in the British Museum and in
the Louvre; its characteristic style of pattern is well shown in the
16th-century Damascus piece reproduced in Plate V. Another splendid
example is the lamp from the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, also in the
British Museum (fig. 41); and this has generally been classed with the
Damascus wares, though its colouring and its technique belong rather to
Lower Syria or to Egypt. This magnificent piece bears a dated
inscription, "In the year 956 in the month _Jemazi-l-oola_. The painter
is the poor and humble Mustafa." This is reckoned as June A.D. 1549. It
may be remarked that our difficulties of identification are increased by
the fact that, under Arab rule, Syrian and Persian potters were at work
in Damascus, in Old Cairo and elsewhere. Among the Fostat fragments
classified by Dr Fouquet are many bearing the signatures of Syrian
workmen. In the 15th and 16th centuries, too, imitations of Chinese
blue-and-white porcelain became common throughout the nearer East, and
quantities of fragments have been found at Fostat, Ephesus and
elsewhere.

[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Rhodian Jug.]

_Turkish Pottery_.--This beautiful and striking ware, formerly called
Persian, and till lately Rhodian because Rhodes was a known centre of
manufacture, seems to have been fabricated in all the countries overrun
by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th century, so that the name "Turkish," in
spite of some opposition, is now generally applied to it. (See fig. 42;
and the 16th-century Rhodian or Turkish pieces, Plate V.) It has a fine
white body of the usual sandy texture, covered, as a rule, with a wash
of pure white slip; it is painted in strong brilliant colours, chiefly
blue, turquoise, green, and a peculiar red pigment which is heaped up in
palpable relief--the whole of the ornament being outlined with black or
dark green. The ware was glazed with an alkaline glaze of great depth,
so that the colours soften and sometimes run, producing one of the most
brilliant and attractive of all the oriental wares. In certain districts
the white ground was not used, but over it a slip of the red colour
(Armenian bole), varying in strength from bright red to pale salmon, was
laid over the piece, reserving the pattern only in the white slip, which
consequently lies lower than the red ground. Other examples are known
where the ground has been covered with lavender, blue, sage, apple and
turquoise greens, chocolate or coffee-brown, and the sumptuous effect of
the whole was often increased by the application of gold-leaf over the
fired glaze. The decorative motives are distinguished from those of the
Persian wares by a breadth and boldness which are in keeping with the
brilliant, and not always harmonious, colouring. They include, it is
true, the Persian arabesque, the floral scroll with feathery leaf, the
thistle-bloom and the cypress tree, but the naturalistic treatment which
permits immediate recognition of the favourite Turkish flowers such as
the tulip, hyacinth, carnation, fritillary, cornflower and lily (some of
which were imported into Europe by the Turks), is as original and
distinctive as the arrangement of the different elements of the design
is artistic and charming. Other styles of design include formal patterns
and diapers, rarely human and animal figures, and occasionally armorial
devices and ships. Tiles of this ware were extensively used for lining
the walls of public buildings, replacing the carpets and textile
hangings which their designs so freely imitated. Of domestic articles,
dishes are the most numerous, though vases, ewers, sprinklers, jugs,
tankard-shaped flower-holders, covered bowls and mosque lamps are also
plentiful. The tiles are found in all parts of the Turkish empire,
though they were probably made at certain centres, such as Nicaea (which
gave its name to the ware in the 16th century and no doubt supplied many
of the mosques in Constantinople), Kutaia, Demitoka, Lindus and other
centres in Rhodes and Damascus. Individual wares cannot be
distinguished, except in some measure those of Damascus and Kutaia. A
small jug in the Godman Collection has an Armenian inscription stating
that it was made by "Abraham of Kutaia" in the 16th century. A few fine
bowls and vases, painted in a beautiful blue with Persian arabesques and
rosette scrolls, recalling Chinese porcelains of the Ming dynasty, but
of very characteristic appearance, are also attributed to this place;
and later, in the 18th and up to the end of the 19th century, an
inferior ware was largely manufactured here. This late ware usually
takes the form of small objects--plates, cups, jugs, egg-shaped
ornaments, &c.--with a thin, well-potted, white body and slight patterns
of radiating leaves, scale diapers, &c., in blue, black and yellow.
Turkish pottery was at its best in the 16th and the early part of the
17th century, and though good tile work of later date exists, the
general pottery deteriorated before the 18th century. An inferior ware
of poor colour is still produced in Turkey, Persia and Syria, and some
attempt has been made of late to revive the old lustre decoration, but
the results are not likely to be mistaken for those of old times.

  _Collections_.--The Victoria and Albert Museum contains the finest
  collection of the medieval pottery of the nearer East--the British
  Museum collection, though much smaller, has some magnificent examples.
  The Cluny Museum in Paris has a never-to-be-forgotten collection of
  Turkish pottery, especially plates and dishes. The museums of the
  Louvre and of Sèvres have also many beautiful examples. Berlin,
  Frankfort and other German towns have collections, but much smaller in
  extent. Private collectors in England and France own many fine
  specimens, and mention may be made particularly of those owned by Mr
  Ducane Godman and Mr George Salting.

  LITERATURE.--Fortnum, _Majolica_ (1896) (also in South Kensington
  Museum Handbook); Falke, _Majolica_ (Berlin, 1896); Fouquet,
  _Contributions a l'étude de la céramique orientale_ (Cairo, 1900);
  Karabacek, "Zur muslimischen Keramik," in _Monatsschrift fur den
  Orient_ (1884); Lane-Poole, _Art of the Saracens in Egypt_ (1886);
  Migeon, _Manuel de l'art musulman_, vol. ii. (1907); Sarre, _Persische
  Keramik_; and _Jahrbuch der koniglichen preussichen Kunstsammlung_
  (1905), part ii.; H. Wallis, _The Godman Collection_ (1) _Lustred
  Vases_ (London, 1891); (2) _The Tenth Century Lustred Wall-tiles_
  (1894); _Notes on some Early Persian Lustre Vases_ (1885); _Egyptian
  Ceramic Art_ (1898).     (R. L. H.; W. B.*)


HISPANO-MORESQUE POTTERY

With the doings of the Moslem potters of the countries round the eastern
Mediterranean fresh in our minds, it is interesting to follow the
westward trend of the Moslem conquests, and see how in their wake there
also sprung up in Spain a ware of high distinction and beauty. The
Iberian peninsula had been the scene of pottery-making from prehistoric
times--a red unglazed ware was made before the dawn of civilization as
finely finished as that found in the Nile valley by Flinders Petrie (see
EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_), and the Romans had one of their great
provincial pottery centres at Saguntum; but it was only when a great
part of Spain lay under Mussulman rule that artistic and distinctive
pottery was produced. What is by no means clear is how it came to pass
that when the traditional methods, learnt by the Arabs in Egypt and
Syria, were carried westward they should have undergone such a radical
change. Oxide of tin, the opacifying and whitening material in glazes
_par excellence_, was certainly known and used in the East from at least
the 6th century B.C.; the ancient wares are coated with a covering of
white tin-enamel to hide the buff or reddish-coloured clay, and it was
similarly used elsewhere; but its use was sporadic and not general in
those countries, where we find instead a consistent development of the
pottery made with a white slip-coating and a clear alkaline glaze.
Perhaps it was that at this period tin was almost as costly as gold, and
it was only when potters with an oriental training brought their skill
to Spain, where tin abounded, that the relative cheapness of the
material led them to employ it, so far as is known, exclusively. (There
is a wide distinction between the tin-enamelled and the slip-faced
wares, glazed with an alkaline glaze. In the latter, the more oriental
type, the slip-coating is of fine white clay and sand, and this is
finished with a transparent alkaline glaze containing little or no lead:
in the former there is no need of a coating of slip, for the addition
of oxide of tin to a glaze rich in lead gives a dense coating of white
enamel, opaque enough to disguise the color of the clay beneath.) Such
colours as were used for painted patterns were painted over this enamel
coating before it was fired, so that they became perfectly incorporated
with it, and then this ground furnished a splendid medium for the
development of those thin iridescent metallic films that we call
"lustres." The knowledge of this lustre process had been brought from
the East also, where it was used on another ground, and with the growing
use of lustre pigments containing copper as well as silver--until the
red, strongly metallic copper lustre almost ousted the quieter silver
lustres--we get the simple technique of one of the most distinctive
kinds of pottery known.

[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Hispano-Moorish Plate, painted in blue and
copper lustre.]

Briefly, the wares were "thrown" upon the wheel or "pressed" on modelled
forms--handles, ribs and dots of clay, or strongly incised patterns were
often added by hand--and they were then fired a first time. A coating of
the tin-enamel (rich in lead as well as tin) was applied, and on this
coating designs were painted in cobalt and manganese; sometimes these
colours were only used as masses to break up the background. Then the
second firing took place and the piece came from the firing all shining
and white, except where the blue or brownish purple had been painted
(see fig. 43). The lustre pigments, a mixture of sulphide of copper or
sulphide of silver, or both with red ochre or other earth, was then
painted over the glazed surface with vinegar as a medium. The repainted
piece was fired a third time to a dull red heat, and smoked with the
smoke from the wood used in firing, and when cold the loosely adherent
ochre and metallic ash left were washed off, leaving the iridescent
films in all their beauty.

The technical practices of the Spanish potters and the composition of
the lustre pigments are given in Cocks's account of the processes
followed at Muel (Aragon) in 1585. The Manises receipt of 1785
gives:--copper 3 oz., red ochre 12 oz., silver 1 peseta piece, sulphur 3
oz., vinegar 1 qt. and the ashes scraped off the pots after lustring 36
oz.[13] Interesting documents have recently been published concerning
the works executed by the "Saracen," John of Valencia, at Poitiers in
1384, and it is certain, from the list of materials supplied to him,
that he made there tiles that were enamelled and lustred.

The earliest record of lustred pottery in Spain is the geographer
Edrisi's mention of the manufacture of "golden ware" then carried on at
Calatayud in Aragon in 1154. Ibn Sa'id (1214-1286) speaks of the glass
and the golden pottery made at Murcia (city), Almeria and Malaga. From
the 4th century the notices which have come down to us divide themselves
into two main groups relating to the industry (a) at Malaga; (b) at
various localities, but especially Manises in Valencia.

_Malaga_--Malaga was situated within the Moorish kingdom of Granada,
which formed, from 1235 until the late 15th century, the last remnant of
Moorish dominion in Spain. Here under the art-loving Nasride dynasty,
Mussulman arts and learning flourished to an unprecedented degree. In
1337 Ahmed ben-Yahya al-Omarí enumerates, among the craft productions of
Malaga, its golden pottery, the like of which he declares is not to be
met with elsewhere. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta mentions (1350)
the Malagan golden pottery, as does Ibn al-Hatib (1313-1374) of Granada,
in his description of Malaga. The principal monument of the period is
the royal palace of Granada, begun in 1273, and finished during the 14th
century, from which period most of its ornamentation dates. Two vases
were discovered there, of which the existing one, known as the "Alhambra
vase," is admittedly the most imposing product of Hispano-Moresque
ceramic art extant. Its amphora-shaped body (4 ft. 5 in. high) is
encircled by a band of Arabic inscription, above which are depicted
gazelles reserved in cream and golden lustre upon a blue field; the rest
of the body and the prominent handles are covered with compartments of
arabesques and inscriptions in the same colours; and panels on the neck,
divided by mouldings and decorated with strap-work and arabesques. Vases
similar in shape and technique, with ornament of Cufic characters and
arabesques in horizontal rows, are to be found in the museums at St
Petersburg, Palermo and Stockholm. As to the exact date of these,
experts are not agreed. Though presenting all the characteristics of the
14th-century Hispano-Moresque ornament, it seems probable that they were
produced at the same period as the large lustred wall-tile formerly in
the Fortuny (now in the Osma) collection, an inscription upon which is
by some held to refer to Yusuf III. of Granada (1409-1418), not to Yusuf
I. (1333-1354). Another remarkable example is a dish (Sarre collection,
Berlin), which, it is claimed, bears upon its back, in Arabic, the word
Malaga; it is ornamented with eight segmental compartments filled
alternately with strap-work designs and arabesques in lustre. Malaga was
reconquered by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487, and after this its
industry probably decayed, as it is not mentioned by Lucio Marineo in
1539 among the localities where ceramics then flourished.

_Valencia._--The emirate of Valencia was reconquered by Aragon in 1238.
The history of its lustred ware is known from 1383, when Eximenes (whose
evidence has been erroneously held to date from 1499) mentions the
golden ware (_Obra dorada_) of Manises. Valencian pottery of this kind
was an offshoot of the Malagan industry, as in documents lately
published (ranging from 1405 to 1517) it is repeatedly designated Malaga
ware (_Obra de Malaga_). Its decorative qualities became famous
throughout the whole of Europe and North Africa. The ware was chiefly
manufactured at Manises by the Moorish retainers of the Buyl or Boil
family, lords of Manises, who levied dues upon the output of the kilns,
and occasionally arranged for its sale. It is distinguished as regards
its ornamentation from the pottery of Malaga by the adoption of a more
natural rendering of plant form motives and by the use of armory. The
ware consists of drug pots, deep dishes, large and small plates,
aquamaniles, vases, &c. Some dozen varieties of ornament were employed
during the 15th and early 16th centuries, including mock arabic
inscriptions, various flower or foliage patterns taken from the vine,
bryony, &c., and gadroons. The centres of dishes frequently bear the
arms of a king or queen of Aragon, of the Buyls of Manises, or other
Valencian or Italian families for whom they were made. Great dexterity
is shown in the execution of minute and complicated schemes of ornament
and in the richness of the colour schemes; golden lustre of various
hues, with blue and manganese, form the simple combinations, but the
ruby, violet or opalescent lustre combine to produce with the colours a
wonderful decorative effect. From 1500 the use of blue and manganese was
gradually discontinued and the ornament quickly became nondescript, but
the brilliancy of the lustre pigment nevertheless obtained a wide
popularity for the ware, as is attested by Marineo (1539), Viciana
(1564) and Escolano (1610). After the expulsion of the Moriscoes (1609)
the industry was carried on by those who had escaped deportation or by
Spaniards who had learnt the craft; generally speaking their productions
can be summed up in the word "decadence." In the course of the 15th
century the manufacture of lustred pottery was carried on at various
other small towns near Valencia; in 1484 it was produced at Mislata,
Paterna and Gesarte. It is known to have flourished at Calatayud in
1507, and at Muel, also in Aragon, in 1589. In the Valencia district
much pottery for ordinary use, ornamented with blue on white, was also
produced.

_Majorca._--Scaliger, in 1557, states that Chinese porcelain was
imitated in the Balearic Isles, and that the Italians called these
imitations "majolica," changing the letter in the name of the islands
(then called Majorica) where they originated. The truth would appear to
be that Valencian wares, being exported in Balearic vessels that called
at Majorca on the voyage to Italy, acquired a reputed Mallorcan origin.
There is extant a potter's petition praying for permission to establish
himself in Majorca (1560), in which he states that "Manises ware," &c.,
had to be imported, as it was not made there.

  _Collections._--In England, the Victoria and Albert and the British
  Museums have fine collections of this ware. At Paris the Cluny Museum
  collection, and the Louvre; the museum at Sevres contains many fine
  typical pieces. Another good collection is that of the archaeological
  museum at Madrid. The Berlin and the Hamburg museums, the Metropolitan
  Art Museum at New York and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts also contain
  good specimens. The private collections of England, France and Italy
  are rich in these wares, among the finest being those of Mr F.D.
  Godman (Horsham), and of Don G.J. de Osma (Madrid).

  LITERATURE.--A. Van de Put, _Hispano-Moresque Ware of the 15th
  Century_ (1904); F. Sarre, "Die spanisch-maurischen Lusterfayencen des
  Mittelalters," &c. (in _Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen_,
  xxiv. (1903); G.J. de Osma, "Apuntes sobre cerámica morisca: textos y
  documentos valencianos," No. 1, 1906, and "Los Letreros ornamentales
  en la ceramica morisca del siglo xv." (in the review _Cultura
  Española_, No. ii, 1906; J. Font y Gumá, _Rajolas valencianas y
  catalanas_ (1905); J. Tramoyeres Blasco, "Cerámica valenciana del
  siglo xvii." (in the _Almanaque, para 1908, del periodico Las
  Provincias de Valencia_; J. Gestoso y Pérez, Historia de los barros
  vidriados sevillanos (1904); also J.C. Davillier, _Histoire des
  faiences hispano-moresques à reflets metalliques_ (1861).
       (A. v. de P.)


MEDIEVAL AND LATER ITALIAN POTTERY[14]

Little is known of the potter's art in Italy after the fall of the Roman
empire till the 13th century. The traditions of the Roman potters appear
to have been gradually lost, leaving behind only sufficient skill to
make rude crocks for domestic use and to coat them, if required, with a
crude yellowish lead glaze sometimes stained to a vivid green with
copper oxide. Applied ornament of roughly modelled clay and scratched
designs were the chief embellishments of such wares, which were of the
same class as the medieval pottery of Great Britain and the north of
Europe. In the 12th and 13th centuries, however, contact with Asia
Minor, Syria, Egypt and Spain, where ceramic skill had been highly
developed in fresh directions, as we have seen, introduced into Italy as
well as the rest of Europe those superior wares characterized by a white
surface decorated with bright colours under a brilliant transparent
glaze, and glorified by metallic lustres. The Italian potters did not
long remain unaffected by these influences, but though Persian, Syrian
and Egyptian pottery must have been fairly plentiful in the households
of the wealthy, it was the distinctively Hispano-Moresque wares from
which the potters of Italy drew the inspiration for a new ware of their
own. The technique of a siliceous slip-coating with colour painted on
that and covered with a transparent alkaline glaze, was only sparingly
used, and then not very successfully; it is only the introduction of the
tin-enamel that was turned to fruitful account and led to the production
of the magnificent Italian majolica of the 15th and 16th centuries. In
the same way the practice of lustre decoration might have been learnt
from the Orient, but its late appearance on Italian wares (16th century)
and its evident relationship to the lustres of Spain, rather than to the
earlier lustres of Egypt, Syria and Persia, are further evidence that
though oriental decorative motives gave the Italians certain early types
of design, it is the Hispano-Moresque potters from whom the Italians
learnt the art they were afterwards to develop so splendidly in a new
direction.[15]

All the Italian pottery above the level of common crocks may be
conveniently grouped into four classes.

[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Italian Graffiato Plate, 16th century. (South
Kensington Museum.)]

1. The native wares, made of coarse and often dark-red clay, coated with
a white clay slip (a kind of pipe-clay) and covered with a crude lead
glaze, either yellow or green. The idea of rendering this ware
ornamental, and fitting it for more than vulgar use, led to a great
development of the _graffiato_ process; where, while the vessel, with
its white clay coating was firm yet soft enough, patterns were scratched
or engraved through the white slip to the red body beneath. This
decorative method has been already mentioned several times, for it was
practised during the early middle ages in all the countries from India
to Italy, and the Byzantine potters were adepts in its use. Nor has its
practice ever ceased in Italy, for through all the times when painted
majolica was the ware of the wealthy, this earlier and humbler pottery
was used by those who could not afford the former; and the
gaily-coloured later wares of this kind have a fine decorative quality
of their own. From the depth beneath the present soil at which fragments
of this ware have been disinterred, it is obvious that the method was
widely practised in early times, and no simpler glazed wares are known
except those covered all over with green, yellow or brown glazes. Early
examples have been found all over northern Italy--in Faenza, Florence,
Pisa, &c., and particularly in Padua, where it seems to have been
extensively made. Pavia was another centre of its manufacture, even to
the end of the 17th century, and Citta di Castello must have been noted
for it in the 16th century, for Piccolpasso describes this ware as "alla
Castellana" (see fig. 44). Apparently in the latter half of the 15th
century a sudden advance takes place in the colouring of this
_graffiato_ ware. Instead of the simple glazes, of uniform colour, of
the earlier productions, underglaze colours--green, purple, blue and a
brown of the tint of burnt sienna which passes into a glossy black where
it is thick--were applied in bold splashes under the straw-coloured
glaze, producing a rich and decorative effect by very simple means. As
fine examples of this kind we may mention the dish with the mandoline
players, and one with cupids disporting themselves in a tree, in the
Victoria and Albert Museum; the tazza, supported by three modelled
lions, in the Louvre; and the dish, with figures of the Virgin and two
saints, in the museum at Padua. The ware has often been called, quite
erroneously, _mezza-majolica_. It had nothing to do with majolica, being
the natural development of a much older process; and its manufacture was
carried on all through the period of majolica manufacture and has never
ceased.

2. _Mezza-Majolica_--This name is accurately applied to certain Italian
wares that made their appearance in the 12th century or even earlier,
when rude patterns--a clumsy star, a rude crossing of strokes or some
equally elementary work--are found painted on a thin white ground
covering a drab body. The pieces, generally pitchers of ungainly forms,
are uncouth in the extreme; the body has been shaped in local clay and
then thinly coated by dipping it into a white slip, which seems at first
to have been of white clay only, though oxide of tin and lead were added
to it even in the 12th century. The colours used for the rude painting
were oxide of copper and oxide of manganese, and the final glaze, which
is generally thin and often imperfectly fused, seems to have been based
on the alkaline glazes of the nearer East. The specimens so assiduously
recovered by Professor Aragnani, some of which, or similar wares, are to
be found in the Louvre, the British and the Victoria and Albert museums,
are typical of the rude work out of which, by a fuller knowledge of
Spanish methods, the painted majolica grew.

3. _Majolica_--For the last three centuries the word majolica has been
used to signify an Italian ware with a fine but comparatively soft buff
body, coated with an opaque tin-enamel of varying degrees of whiteness
and purity, on which a painted decoration was laid and fired. In the
later pictorial wares, a fine coating of transparent alkaline glaze was
fired over the painting to soften the colours--really to varnish them.
The word itself appears to have been derived from the name of the island
Majorca, and was originally applied by the Italians to the lustred wares
of Spain which were largely imported into Italy, probably arriving in
ships that called at or hailed from Majorca, as we do not believe that
the ware was actually made in that island. That the secret of the
tin-glaze, which is the essential feature of Italian majolica, was known
in Italy in the 13th century is practically proved; and there is both
literary and archaeological proof of its use there in the 14th. Mention
of it is made in the _Margarita Preciosa_ published at Pola by Pierre Le
Bon in 1336, and the well-known jug, bearing the arms of Astorgio I.,
discovered under the Manfredi palace at Faenza, must have been made
shortly after 1393. Its development marched side by side with that of
the mezza-majolica, until it practically superseded the latter for
painted wares in the 15th century; but the earliest examples have little
more than an archaeological interest, and it was only after the last
decade of the _quattrocento_ or the first of the _cinquecento_ that it
blossomed into an artistic creation. In its prime the production of
majolica was confined to a very small part of Italy. Bologna on the
north, Perugia to the south, Siena on the west, and the Adriatic to the
east, roughly enclose the district in which lie Faenza, Forli, Rimini,
Pesaro, Cafaggiolo, Urbino, Castel Durante, Gubbio, Perugia and Siena.
Towards the middle of the 16th century Venice on the one hand, and in
the 17th and 18th centuries the Ligurian factories at Genoa, Albissola
and Savona, made majolica of the later decadent styles, while, at the
end of the 17th and in the early part of the 18th centuries, the
southern town of Castelli, near Naples, produced a ware which closes the
period of artistic majolica.

[Illustration: PLATE I

  FIG. 52.--CORINTHIAN JAR.

  FIG. 53.--FRANÇOIS VASE. (From Furtwängler and Reichhold, <i>Griechische
  Vasenmalerei</i>, by permission of F. Bruckmann.)

  FIG. 54.--BLACK-FIGURED AMPHORA BY EXEKIAS.

  FIG. 55.--VASE FROM SOUTHERN ITALY. Signed by Python.]

[Illustration: PLATE II

  FIG. 56.--BOWL MADE AT CALES IN IMITATION OF METAL. (2ND CENT. B.C.)

  FIG. 57.--VASE OF 5TH CENT. B.C., MODELLED IN FORM OF HEAD.

  FIG. 58.--VASE OF 6TH CENT. B.C., IN FORM OF HELMETED HEAD.

  FIG. 59.--FLASK OF VITREOUS GLAZED WARE. (ROMAN PERIOD.)

  FIG. 60.--AMPHORA OF APULIAN STYLE, WITH SCENE FROM EURIPIDES'
  "HECUBA."]

[Illustration: PLATE III

  FIG. 61.--MOULD FOR ARRETINE BOWL.

  FIG. 62.--JAR OF ARRETINE WARE FROM CAPUA.

  FIG. 63.--EARLY ETRUSCAN JAR. (VILLANOVA PERIOD.)

  FIG. 64.--STAMP FOR ORNAMENTING ARRETINE VASE.

  FIG. 65.--ETRUSCAN "CANOPIC" JAR PLACED IN BRONZE CHAIR.]

[Illustration: PLATE IV

  FIG. 66.--MOULD FOR BOWL OF GERMAN WARE. (2ND CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)

  FIG. 67.--MEDALLION FROM VASE MADE IN S. FRANCE, WITH SCENE FROM
  TRAGEDY. (3RD CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)

  FIG. 68.--JAR OF RHENISH WARE WITH INSCRIPTION. (3RD CENT. AFTER
  CHRIST.)

  FIG. 69.--BOWL OF GAULISH (LEZOUX) WARE WITH FIGURES IN "FREE" STYLE.
  (2ND CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)

  FIG. 70.--JAR OF LATER LEZOUX WARE. (3RD CENT. AFTER CHRIST.)]

4. _Lustred Majolica_--This brilliant species of Italian pottery (to
which alone Piccolpasso applied the name majolica) seems to have been
mainly produced at Deruta and Gubbio, though experiments were made at
Cafaggiolo and probably at Faenza and Siena. Considering how much the
Italian majolist owed to the Spanish-Moorish potter, it is remarkable
that this beautiful method of decoration should have made so tardy an
appearance, for the earliest specimens do not appear to be much earlier
than the end of the 15th century, and the process was apparently
abandoned by the middle of the 16th. The lustre wares of Deruta,
probably the earliest made in Italy, have strongly-marked affinities
with their Spanish prototypes; the earlier examples are hardly to be
distinguished from Spanish wares, and to the last the ware remained
technically like the earlier ware, though with perfectly Italian
decorative treatment. Yet the best examples of Deruta silver lustre have
a quality of tone that has never been surpassed; a colour resembling a
wash of very transparent umber bearing a delicate nacreous film of the
most tender iridescence. The Gubbio lustre is best known to us through
the works of Maestro Giorgio, whose distinctive lustre is a magnificent
ruby-red unlike any other. In all probability the lustre process was so
quickly abandoned on the fine painted majolica, because the increasing
efforts to make a "picture" were discounted by so uncertain a process.
When one of the later majolica painters had spent weeks on the
decoration of some vase or dish, with an elaborate composition of
carefully drawn figures, it was not likely that he would care to expose
it to any risks that could be avoided. The risks of the lustre process
were inordinately great--Piccolpasso says, "Frequently only six pieces
were good out of a hundred"--so that its use was relegated only to
inferior wares, and then the process was relinquished and forgotten
until its rediscovery in the second half of the 19th century.

The history of the development of these noble wares is by no means
clear, nor is it always certain what part was played by each town in the
successive inventions of technical methods, decoration and colouring, so
that it is better, in such a general sketch as this, to treat the
subject in its broadest features only. In the earlier painted wares the
only colours used were manganese-purple and a transparent copper-green
as on the mezza-majolica, but early in the 15th century cobalt-blue was
added to the palette, and, later on, the strong yellow antimoniate of
lead, mixed with iron. The decorations at this period were largely
influenced by the wares imported from Persia, Syria, Egypt and Spain,
specimens of which were so prized as to be used for the decoration of
church fronts and the façades of public buildings. The lustre of the
Saracenic wares was not yet understood, but its place was taken first by
manganese and afterwards by yellow. The designs were chiefly
conventional flower-patterns in the Persian or Moorish style,
arabesques, and floral scrolls, the ground being filled at times with
those tiny spirals, scrolls and dots to which the Eastern potters were
so partial. Figures, human and animal, were introduced either among the
formal ornament or only sundered from it by panels, of which the
outlines often followed the contours of the central design (see the
early 15th-century Faenza piece, Plate VI.). The figures were, in fact,
drawn to conform to the outline of the vessel, and not the vessel made
to display the figure-subject as in the majolica of the succeeding
century. The earliest dated example of this period is the pavement laid
down in the Caracciolo chapel in the church of San Giovanni a Carbonara,
in Naples, about 1440. Specimens of these tiles may be seen in the
British Museum, and from their style it has been suggested that they
were made by some Spanish potters brought over to Naples by Queen
Joanna, who was of the royal house of Aragon. To this period also have
been referred the large ovoid jars made to contain drugs or confections,
and decorated with bold scrolls of formal oak leaves enclosing spirited
figures of men or animals, or heraldic devices. These are characterized
by a rich blue colour generally piled up in palpable relief and
sometimes verging on black; the outlines are usually in manganese, and
transparent green is used for details and occasionally even as a ground
colour. This ware has been definitely assigned to Florence on what seem
very inadequate grounds, and it is better to speak of it simply as
Tuscan. Then, essentially Italian ornament began to assert itself, and
it redounds to the credit of the Italian majolist that he soon freed
himself from repeating the styles of the wares from which he obtained
his methods, and produced a distinctive type of ornament of his own. He
revelled in patterns with bold floral scrolls, or those based on
peacocks' feathers (see fig. 45), and then he advanced to concentric
bands of painted ornament, borrowed from classic art yet breathing the
true spirit of the Renaissance; while cable borders, chequer and scale
patterns, bands of stiff radiating leaves, festoons of fruit and
flowers, zigzags and pyramidal scrolls occupied nearly the whole surface
or framed an armorial or emblematic central subject. Figure-subjects
occur with increasing frequency as the century advanced; Madonnas and
other sacred subjects, portraits, and, occasionally, groups of figures
after the early Italian masters, or scenes borrowed from the first
illustrated editions of the classics, gradually encroach on the
conventional borders and occupy more and more of the surface of the
piece. The provenance of these 15th-century pieces still remains
uncertain--Faenza, Forli, Florence, Siena and other places offering
rival claims,--but there is no doubt that from the earliest times Faenza
was the most fertile centre of their manufacture, and almost all the
motives of the _quattrocento_ wares are found on fragments discovered
there or on examples that can be traced to Faventine factories.

[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Early Faenza plate, with peacock-feather
design, in blues, yellow and orange-red. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]

[Illustration: Early Faenza Potter's mark.

Late Faenza Potter's mark.]

It is customary to treat the enamelled terra-cottas of Luca della
Robbia, the great Florentine sculptor (1399-1482), and his followers,
Andrea and Giovanni della Robbia and other members of the family, as
belonging rather to the domain of sculpture than of pottery, and this is
right, for there is nothing certainly known of the work of this great
sculptor which connects it with painted majolica. The old theory that
Luca invented the tin-glaze is long since exploded; what he did was to
use coloured glazes made with a basis of tin-enamel on his boldly
modelled terra-cottas--a very different thing,--and it is by no means
certain that he was the first to do even that. The Victoria and Albert
Museum is extraordinarily rich in della Robbia ware of every kind; and
one may see there these beautifully modelled figures in high relief
covered with pure white tin-enamel, set in a background of slatey blue
or rich manganese purple and framed in wreaths of flowers and fruit
which are coloured with blue, green, purple and sometimes yellow. There
are altar vases too, of classic shape with low relief ornament, covered
with the same peculiar blue glaze; these are sometimes furnished with
modelled fruit and flowers; and finally there is the rare set of
roundels painted on the flat with figure-subjects typifying the months;
but the attribution of these remains doubtful, and their method is not
that of painted majolica.

A remarkable development took place at the beginning of the 16th
century, and in the forty succeeding years the highest perfection of
manipulative skill, both in potting and painting, was attained.
Artistically regarded, the elaborate and detailed methods of painting
then adopted are too much allied to fresco-painting to be considered as
fit treatment for enamelled clay; but this view was certainly not
accepted at the time, nor is it subscribed to by many modern collectors;
yet, regarded as decorated pottery, the 15th-century majolica, simpler
and more conventional in design and treatment, is eminently preferable.
The ruling families of northern Italy, who now took the industry under
their personal patronage, clearly inclined to the opposite view and
spared no expense to provide subjects for their pot-painters. During
the first two decades the influence of Faenza was paramount, and though
the encroachments of purely pictorial motives are clearly indicated on
the wares, room was still found for ornamental patterns. The broad rims
of the dishes were covered with beautiful arabesque designs, frequently
including grotesque figures, masks, dolphins and cherubs (see the Faenza
Casa Pirota piece, 1525, Plate VI.). Sometimes reserved in the white on
a dark blue ground and shaded with light blue and yellow, sometimes
traced in dark blue on a paler grey-blue glaze (called _berettino_) or
painted in darker tints on a ground of orange or full yellow, the
Faventine arabesques form a conspicuous feature of the early wares of
this century. Honeysuckle patterns and interlaced lines drawn in pure
white on a toned tin-enamel (white on white or _sopra-bianco_
decoration) commonly appear on the sides of the deep wells of the
dishes, while in the centre is a single figure, a coat of arms, or a
small figure-subject. A similar treatment, without the _sopra-bianco_,
was accorded to the fruit-dishes, shallow bowls on low feet, &c., with
moulded gadroons or scalloped sides, which are generally attributed to
Faenza or Castel Durante. The workshops of Siena were also noted for
delicately painted grotesques and arabesques, with a rich
brownish-yellow or deep black ground. At Gubbio, too, the "grotesque"
decoration was practised with marked success. Other developments of this
style are the "_a candelieri_" designs, in which grotesques were
symmetrically arranged round some central subject, such as a candelabrum
or vase, and "_a trofei_" in which trophies of arms, musical
instruments, and other objects were symmetrically disposed, or arranged
in studied disarray throughout the design; these patterns are generally
associated with the wares of Castel Durante and Deruta. Lovers' gifts,
dishes in which the whole space is occupied by a portrait bust of a girl
or man, with the name and a complimentary adjective inscribed on a
ribbon in the background, were common to Faenza, Castel Durante and many
other factories. Elaborate figure-subjects also were attempted early in
the century at Faenza and with no little success, as may be seen from a
dish in the British Museum, which is entirely occupied by the scene of
the death of the Virgin, after a print by Martin Schöngauer, delicately
painted in shades of blue, and dated about 1500.

In the early Faventine school the outlines of the figures are almost
always traced in blue, even when they are laid on the grey-blue
_berettino_ ground, and blue was the prevailing colour of the shading
and details. In the third decade of the century the style affected at
Urbino superseded that of Faenza. The majolica painter's palette was now
complete; in addition to the primitive blue, manganese-purple,
transparent green and yellow, we find black, white, orange, greens of
varying shades, brown, and a great number of intermediate tints obtained
by mixing the standard colours. All the colours of the majolica of the
best periods were painted on the tin-enamel before the final glazing,
and were capable of standing the full heat of the fire. Such a thing as
painting in enamels on the finished ware and refiring them at a lower
heat was unknown before the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th
century. A true red colour seems to have been beyond the power of most
of the Italian majolists, and was only attained at Faenza, and with less
complete success at Cafaggiolo; the famous red of the Turkish pottery
behaves very indifferently on tin-enamel.

[Illustration: Urbino Potter's mark.]

In the Urbino style, which now became general, the ware was given over
entirely to pictorial subjects, scenes from history or romance,
scriptural and mythological, copied from the compositions of the Italian
painters and usually set in a background of Italian landscape.
Guidobaldo II., duke of Urbino, spared no pains to develop this phase of
the art; the cartoons of Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio and others,
were placed at the disposal of the pot-painters, as well as the
paintings of Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, Battista Franco, Rosso Rossi,
Perugino, Parmeggiano and many more, and these, together with
engravings by Agostino Venetiano, Marco Dente, Enea Vico and others,
were copied, with more or less fidelity, on the majolica. Some of the
painters, as, for instance, Xanto Avelli, were eclectic in their tastes
and made up their subjects by taking a figure here or there from various
pictures. Thus of three figures on a plate in the British Museum,
painted with the Dream of Astyages, one is borrowed from Raphael and
another from Mantegna. These "_istoriati_" wares reached their zenith at
Urbino between the years 1530 and 1560, when the workshops of the
Fontana family were in full activity; but their popularity was very
general, and skilful painters at many other towns produced specimens
that it is hard to distinguish from those of Urbino. Baldasara Manara
was a prolific painter in this style at Faenza; Pesaro and Castel
Durante were little behind Urbino in the skill of their artists, the
Lanfranchi family in the former town having a well-deserved reputation,
while the founders of the Fontana factories learnt their art in the
latter; and a few pieces of considerable merit bear the name of Rimini
as their place of origin.

There will always remain a large number of specimens of majolica which
cannot be assigned with certainty to any particular factory, partly
because the same style of painting was in vogue at many places at the
same time, and partly because of the itinerant propensities of many of
the painters, whose signed works prove that they moved from place to
place to practise their art. There are, however, a few prominent artists
whose touch is sufficiently well known from the examples that bear their
signatures to enable us to classify a considerable proportion of the
finest pieces. First of these is Niccola Pellipario, the founder of the
Fontana family, who moved from Castel Durante to Urbino in 1519, and
worked at the latter place in the factory of his son, Guido Fontana.
There is little doubt that he was the painter of the famous service in
the Correr Museum at Venice, which marks the transition from the style
of Faenza to that of Urbino, and his free figure-drawing, the oval faces
with strongly marked classical features, the peculiarly drawn knees, the
careful landscapes and the characteristic balls of cloud are easily
recognized in quite a number of pieces in the British Museum (see the
Gonzago Este piece, Plate VI.). His pupil, who frequently signed his
name in full, Xanto Avelli da Rovigo, was one of the foremost Urbino
painters, and his work is characterized by bold colouring and fine
figure-drawing, with a marked fondness for yellowish flesh tints. But
Niccola's grandson, Orazio Fontana (see example, Plate VI.), was perhaps
the most celebrated exponent of the pure Urbino style, and his free
drawing and soft harmonious colouring, in which a brilliant blue is
usually conspicuous, are unequalled by any other majolica painter of the
period.

[Illustration: Venetian Majolica Potter's mark.]

Certain characteristic wares of Faenza have already been noted. Those
with the grey-blue (_berettino_) glaze were principally made at the
factory called Casa Pirota, though inferior imitations were also
produced at Padua, and a blue glaze of paler tint was largely used at
Venice. Dolphins are a frequent motive in the arabesque ornaments of the
same Faventine workshop, and many of the wares are marked with a circle
divided by a cross and containing a dot in one of the quarters. A
capital P crossed with a line or paraph is another Faventine mark, and a
somewhat similar monogram, with an S added to the upper part, is found
in the wares of Cafaggiolo. It has already been stated that a red colour
is peculiar to Faenza and in an inferior and browner tint to Cafaggiolo;
it was used, according to Piccolpasso, at the factory of Vergiliotto in
the former place. At Cafaggiolo, the factory of the Medici family, many
fine pieces were painted, mostly in the Faventine style; a deep blue,
heavily applied and showing the marks of the brush, was freely used in
backgrounds, and delicate running leaf scrolls in paler blue and
reminiscent of Persian style often appear on the Cafaggiolo wares (see
example, Plate VI). Not a little can be learnt from the ornament on the
reverse sides of the dishes and plates; those of Faenza and Siena are
richly decorated with scale patterns and concentric bands; those of
Cafaggiolo and Venice are either left blank or have one or two rings of
yellow. A few pre-eminently beautiful dishes, with central figure
subjects of miniature-like finish in delicate landscapes with poplar
trees in a peculiar mannered style, are probably the work of M.
Benedetto of Siena. Borders of arabesques with black or deep orange
ground belong to the same factory and were perhaps decorated by the same
hand. The dishes covered, except for a few small medallions, with
interlaced oak branches ("_a cerquate_" decoration), are no doubt the
productions of Castel Durante; and a certain class of large dishes with
figure subjects in blue on a toned blue glaze, and sometimes with formal
ornaments in relief, are of undisputed Venetian origin.

[Illustration: Later Cafaggiolo Potter's mark.]

Another phase of majolica decoration began about the middle of the 16th
century and synchronized with the decline of the pictorial style. The
figure subjects were relegated to central panels or entirely replaced by
small medallions, and the rest of the surface covered with fantastic
figures among floral scrolls, inspired by Raphael's grotesques painted
on the walls of the Loggie in the Vatican. The prevailing tone of this
ornament was yellow or orange, and the tin-enamel ground, which is
always more or less impure in colour on Italian pottery, was washed over
with a pure milk-white, known as _bianco di Ferrara_ or _bianco
allatato_, said to have been invented by Alphonso I., duke of Ferrara,
who took an active interest in his private factory founded at Ferrara,
and managed by potters from Faenza and Urbino.

The new style flourished at Urbino, Pesaro and Ferrara; at the
first-named particularly in the workshops of the Patanazzi family, and
lasted far into the 17th century. But the majolica was now in full
decline, partly through the falling off of princely patronage, and
partly, perhaps, owing to a reaction in favour of Chinese porcelain,
which was becoming more plentiful and better known in Europe. The
manufacture, however, never entirely ceased, and revivals of the old
style were attempted at the end of the 17th century by Ferdinando Maria
Campori of Siena, who copied Raphael's and Michelangelo's compositions,
and by the families of Gentile and Grue at Naples and Castelli. The
majolica of Castelli is distinguished by the lightness of the ware, good
technique, and harmonious but pale and rather weak colouring; it
continued into the 18th century. A coarse and inferior ware was made at
Padua and Monte Lupo; and the factories of Faenza were still active,
producing, among other kinds, a pure white ware with moulded scallops
and gadroons. The industry continued to flourish in Venice and the
north. Black ware with gilt decoration was a Venetian product of the
17th century, and at Savona and Genoa blue painted ware in imitation of
Chinese blue and white porcelain made its appearance. In the 18th
century a new departure was made in the introduction of enamel painting
over the glaze, a method borrowed from porcelain; but this process was
common to all the faience factories of Europe at the time, and though it
was widely practised in Italy no special distinction was attained in any
particular factory. In our own days imitations of the 16th century wares
continue to be made in the factories of Ginori, Cantigalli and others,
not excepting the lustred majolica of Gubbio and Deruta; but, compared
with the old pieces, the modern copies are heavy to handle, stiff in
drawing, suspiciously wanting in the quality of the colours and the
purity of the final glaze which distinguish the work of the best period.

[Illustration: Turin Potter's mark.

Savona Potter's marks.]

[Illustration: FIG. 46--Early majolica plate, in blue and yellow lustre
only, made at Pesaro or Deruta, c. 1500. The motto on the scroll may be
Englished as follows: "He who steers well his ship will enter the
harbour." (Louvre.)]

_Lustred Wares._--The lustred wares of Deruta have marked
characteristics, and, though differing in actual treatment from the
Hispano-Moresque, their appearance is eloquent in favour of such a
derivation. The most characteristic examples are large dishes and
plateaux, thickly made and with the enamel on the upper face only, the
back having a lead glaze. They are often decorated (see fig. 46) with a
single figure or bust in the centre (with or without an inscribed
ribbon), which is usually set against a dark blue background which
covers only half the field, while in the other half is a formal flower,
and in the borders are radiating panels with palmettes alternating with
scale pattern, or some other formal design. The whole style is archaic,
the designs being heavily outlined in blue and washed over with a
greenish yellow lustre, with beautiful opalescent _reflets_ recalling
mother of pearl. The lustre varies from this _madreperla_ tint to a
brassy metallic yellow, and parts of the ornament are sometimes modelled
in low relief. In spite of its archaic appearance, the Deruta lustred
wares are scarcely older than the 16th century, and the style was
continued as late as the second half of that century. Deruta pottery was
not always lustred, and some of the pieces signed by the painter El
Frate, who flourished between 1541 and 1554, are without the lustre
pigment, though showing the heavy blue outlines of the lustred wares.
The lustred majolica of Gubbio owes its celebrity almost entirely to the
work of one man, Maestro Giorgio Andreoli, who came thither from Pavia,
with his brothers Salimbene and Giovanni, and obtained citizenship in
1498. His earliest efforts were in the direction of sculpture, and some
of his reliefs in the style of della Robbia are still in existence;
indeed the earliest dated piece of lustred majolica attributed to him is
a plaque of 1501, with the figure of St Sebastian in relief, in the
Victoria and Albert Museum. It is not known whence he learnt the secret
of the beautiful transparent ruby lustre peculiar to Gubbio. A red or
rosy lustre is found in both Persian and Hispano-Moresque wares, and no
doubt the process was learnt from some Moslem potter and developed by
Giorgio to unusual perfection. Golden, yellow, brown and opalescent
lustres were also freely used at Gubbio, the ruby being only sparingly
applied. Finished painted pieces were sent from other factories to
receive the addition of lustre at Gubbio, but these can almost always be
distinguished from the true Gubbio wares, in which the lustre is an
integral part of the decoration. Apart from the lustred enrichment, the
majolica of Gubbio has few distinctive qualities, for its styles were
various and almost all borrowed (see fig 47). The archaic taste of
Deruta, the arabesques and grotesques of Faenza and Castel Durante, and
in a lesser degree the "_istoriato_" style of Urbino, reigned in turn.
Perhaps the most characteristic paintings of Maestro Giorgio are the
central medallions of cups and deep dishes enclosing a single figure of
a child or a cupid in _grisaille_. Giorgio's larger figure compositions,
if indeed his signature in lustre may be taken to imply that he painted
the designs as well as lustred them, show great inequality, some rising
to a very high standard--as the dish with "the Three Graces" in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, and the "Bath of Nymphs" in the Wallace
collection--while in others the figure drawing is quite inferior. The
arabesques and grotesques on the Gubbio wares are usually of great
merit. There are a few known pieces of unlustred Gubbio wares with
figure subjects, painted chiefly in blue and in the style of the early
Faventine artists. After 1517, when we may assume that the lustre
process was thoroughly mastered, the Gubbio wares were usually signed
with the initials or full name of Maestro Giorgio, and a few rapidly
executed scrolls in lustre completed the decorations of the reverse of
the plates and dishes. The master's latest signed work is dated 1541,
and he died in 1552. It is probable that his brother Salimbene assisted
him, and Piccolpasso names his son Vincentio as possessor of the lustre
secret. Possibly the latter was the painter who signed his wares with
the initial N, but this conjecture rests solely on the ingenious, but
unsupported notion that N is a monogram of the first three letters of
the name Vincentio. Other initials, M, D, R, also occur on Gubbio
plates, and the latest dated example of the ware is signed by one
"Mastro Prestino" in 1557, but it has little to recommend it save that
it is enriched with the Gubbio lustres, which after this time entirely
disappear.

[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Gubbio plate, with portrait in ruby lustre and
blue outline. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]

[Illustration: Gubbio Potters' marks.]

  The old majolica shapes are briefly as follows:--among the earliest
  are small bowls (_scodette_), often with flattened sides; jugs
  (_boccali_) with large lip-spouts, and mouths pinched into trefoil
  form; large dishes with gradually shelving sides (_bacili_), or with
  flat broad rims and deep centres; akin to these are the plateaux with
  a raised flat disk in the centre; small dishes with broad flat rims
  and deep though narrow central walls (_tondini_), suitable for handing
  a wine-glass or sweetmeats; flat trencher-shaped plates (_piatti_ or
  _taglieri_); saucer-shaped dishes on low feet and sometimes with
  moulded sides (_tazze_ or _fruttieri_) suitable for holding fruit.
  Among the vase forms ovoid shapes with short necks and a pair of flat
  handles are common in the Tuscan wares of the 15th century; the jars
  for confectionery, drugs, or syrups were often of the cylindrical form
  with graceful concave sides known as the "_albarello_," in shape of
  Eastern origin, and in name perhaps derived from the Persian _el
  barani_ (a vase for drugs, &c.); other vase forms with spouts and
  handles were used for the same purpose; ornamental vases after
  classical designs (_vasi a bronzi antichi_); and in the best Urbino
  period a great variety of fanciful forms--ewers, vases, cisterns,
  shells, salt-cellars, ink-pots, &c., with applied masks and serpentine
  handles, were made in the exuberant taste of the time. A complex piece
  of furniture for the bedside of ladies in childbirth (_vaso
  puerperale_) consisted of a bowl with a foot surmounted by a flat
  trencher on which fitted an inverted drinking-bowl (_ongaresca_); and
  above this again a salt-cellar with cover. Many of these shapes were
  suited to daily use, but the richly decorated majolica was designed to
  adorn the walls, the _credenze_, table-centres and cabinets of the
  rich. This alone could have been the destination of the large dishes
  (_piatti di pompa_) with rim pieces for suspension, and the smaller
  dishes (_coppe amatorii_) with portraits of young men and girls and
  lovers' symbols; and it is inconceivable that the costly lustred wares
  of Gubbio or the fine _madreperla_ dishes of Deruta were designed for
  anything but decorative use. The ware was in fact an article produced
  for the wealthy in the century of Italy's glory, and under no other
  conditions could such magnificent and expensive pieces have been made.

  _Technical Methods._--This is a convenient place to give an account of
  the methods used by the early medieval potters--(1) because they
  represent what had been learnt from Roman times to the 16th century,
  and indeed to the introduction of modern methods, (2) because, besides
  all that a potter could derive from an examination of the wares, we
  have ample written accounts of the methods and processes followed by
  the Italian majolist. Mr Solon has recently published an epitome of
  the account given in Biringuccio's _La Pyrotechnica_ (Venice, 1540),
  and there is the memorable MS. of Piccolpasso, a potter of Castel
  Durante, now in the library of the Victoria and Albert Museum, which,
  besides giving an account of the processes, contains illustrations of
  kilns, mills, decorative motives, &c.[16]

  1. The potter's clay was prepared from mixtures of various kinds
  prepared by (a) beating and picking out coarse particles, (b) mixing
  with water, (c) passing through a sieve, (d) drying again into plastic
  clay ready for the working potter. The essential point about the
  potter's clay of the best tin-enamelled wares, whether Spanish,
  Italian, French or Dutch, is that the clays are those known
  geologically as "marls," which contain a large percentage of carbonate
  of lime. Such clays always fire to a pinky red or buff colour, and
  give a ware that is strong and yet light in substance, and on no other
  kind of clay does the tin-enamel display its full perfection (see
  Deck's _La Faience_). The analyses of certain tin-enamelled wares are
  useful as showing the essential constitution of the best pottery
  bodies for such purposes.

    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+
    |                |  Delia  | Majolica. | Delft. |  French  |
    |                | Robbia. |           |        | Faience. |
    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+
    | Silica         |  49.65  |   48.00   | 49.07  |  48.65   |
    | Alumina        |  15.50  |   17.59   | 16.19  |  17.05   |
    | Lime           |  22.40  |   20.12   | 18.01  |  19.43   |
    | Magnesia       |   0.17  |    1.17   |  0.82  |   0.27   |
    | Oxide of iron  |   3.70  |    3.75   |  2.82  |   4.33   |
    | Carbonic Acid, |         |           |        |          |
    |   water, &c.   |   8.58  |    9.46   | 13.09  |  10.27   |
    +----------------+---------+-----------+--------+----------+

  2. _Shaping._--The vessels were either "thrown" on the potter's wheel
  (which had remained practically unaltered from Egyptian times), or
  they were formed by "pressing" thin cakes of clay into moulds, made of
  a composition of plaster (_gesso_), bone-ash and marble dust. In the
  latter way all shapes that were not circular were made, as well as
  those with heavy bosses or gadroons imitated from embossed metal
  forms. It is interesting, though not surprising, to note that for the
  fine later wares, the roughly thrown vases, when sufficiently dry,
  were recentred on the wheel or were placed in a joiner's lathe and
  smoothed to a clean and accurate surface. The Greek potters did the
  same, and this practice must always be followed where fine painting or
  gilding is afterwards to be applied. In the later florid vases of the
  Urbino style the piece was built up of thrown parts and moulded parts
  (handles, masks, spouts, &c.), luted together with slip when they were
  dry enough to be safely handled, and then retouched by the modeller or
  vase-maker, a method followed to this day for elaborate pieces of
  pottery or porcelain.

  [Illustration: PLATE V.

    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.

    Syro-Persian: 13th century.

    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.

    Rhodian or Turkish: 16th century.

    Damascus: 16th century.

    Persian, lustre and underglaze colour: 13th century.]

  3. _The Glaze._--The white enamel which formed at first both the glaze
  and the ground for painting upon--_bianco_, as it was called--was
  prepared in a complicated way. A clear potash glass (_marzacotto_) was
  made by melting together clean siliceous sand (_rena_) and the potash
  salt left as the lees of wine (_feccia_). This corresponds to the
  alkaline glaze of the Egyptians with the substitution of potash for
  soda. Such a glaze alone would have been useless to the Italian
  potter, and accordingly the _bianco_ was made by melting together
  thirty parts of _marzacotto_ and twelve parts of lead and tin ashes.
  The white enamel as used was therefore a mixed silicate of lead and
  potash rendered opaque with oxide of tin.

  4. Pigments (_colori_) were compounded from metallic oxides or earths;
  the yellow, from antimoniate of lead, which was mixed with oxide of
  iron to give orange; the green, from oxide of copper (the turquoise
  tint given to the Egyptian and Syrian glazes by oxide of copper is
  impossible with a glaze of lead and tin); and the greens were made by
  mixing oxide of copper with oxide of antimony or oxide of iron; blue,
  from oxide of cobalt, used in the form of a blue glass (_smalto_, or
  _zaffara_); brownish-purple, from manganese; black, from mixtures of
  the other colours; and the rare red, or reddish brown, of Faenza and
  Cafaggiolo was probably the same Armenian bole that was used so
  magnificently by the makers of the Turkish pottery, but on the white
  enamel ground this colour was most treacherous and uncertain. It must
  be remembered that many of these colours owe their tint to the lead
  used in their composition, or to the grounds containing oxides of lead
  and tin on which they were painted. Piccolpasso describes the
  preparation and composition of the various colours used in his day.

  5. _Coperta_, or transparent glaze. In the later majolica a thin
  coating of soft rich glaze was applied over the fired painting to give
  a smooth bright surface. This _coperta_ was a soft lead glass
  consisting of silica (sand), 20 parts; oxide of lead, 17 parts;
  potash, 12 parts; and common salt, 8 parts; fused together and then
  finely ground in water.

  6. _Methods of Glazing and Decorating._--In the mezza-majolica and the
  early majolica it is probable that the clay vessel was dipped in the
  white bath to give it an envelope (_invetriatura_) before it was fired
  at all; but it must soon have become apparent that it was much better
  to fire first the shaped vessel until it was about as hard and brittle
  as a clay tobacco-pipe, and then coat it with the white enamel, by
  dipping it into a bath or pouring the fluid material upon it. This was
  the practice described by Piccolpasso. A coating of white enamel, the
  thickness of glove leather, having been obtained, the piece was
  carefully taken by the painter, who first etched in the outline on the
  absorbent powdery ground, and then shaded the figures, landscapes,
  &c., in blue or in a mixture of blue and yellow, adding the other
  colours as gradated washes. The vase was then fired a second time to a
  heat greater than the first, so that the enamel was melted on the
  vessel and the colours sunk into the enamel at one and the same
  operation. This method of painting on the unbaked enamel demanded a
  bold direct treatment--for alteration or retouching was
  impossible--and much of the vigour of the earlier designs is due to
  this fact. As the ware became more refined in its treatment it was
  felt that this method did not yield a sufficiently brilliant surface,
  and so the painted and fired piece was coated with a film of _coperta_
  and fired again at a slightly lower temperature to make it smoother
  and more glossy. Still pursued by the idea of rivalling the triumphs
  of pictorial art, the majolist carried his methods a step farther. The
  white enamel coating was fired before painting, giving a glossy
  surface on which the painter could draw or wipe out, and so could
  execute outlining, tinting, or shading of the utmost delicacy. A film
  of _coperta_ was then washed over the painting, and the piece was
  fired a third time in the cooler parts of the kiln. In some instances
  it is not easy even for an experienced potter to decide which method
  has been pursued, owing to the softening of the colours. Generally we
  should expect that the later and more pictorial pieces had been
  painted on a ground of fired white enamel, and we may be absolutely
  certain when delicate white patterns have been "picked out" in a
  coloured ground.

  Where lustre decoration has been added to a piece of majolica it
  indicates, as elsewhere, the use of a special process, and a final
  firing at a lower heat. The lustre pigments were the same as those
  used on the earlier lustred wares, and these were painted over an
  otherwise finished piece. To obtain the lustre effect these were
  placed in a special kiln, so contrived that when the pots were just
  visibly red the smoke of the burning fuel (rosemary or gorse) was
  allowed to play upon them long enough to drive the metallic films
  (silver or copper) into the already-fired glaze.[17]

  _Collections._--The Victoria and Albert Museum contains perhaps the
  most widely representative collection in the world, especially as at
  the present time the pieces of the Salting and Pierpont Morgan
  collections are on exhibition there. The British Museum collection is
  valuable, being rich in "signed" pieces of the first quality. The
  Wallace collection and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford (Fortnum
  collection, &c.) are also valuable and contain some remarkable
  examples. The Cluny Museum, the Louvre and the museum at Sèvres have
  fine collections; while noteworthy pieces are to be found in the
  Ceramic Museum at Limoges. In Germany the museum at Brunswick contains
  one of the largest collections known, but many inferior and doubtful
  examples. Berlin, Munich, Vienna and St Petersburg have noteworthy
  collections. In Italy, the Bargello at Florence and the museums of
  Venice, Milan, Turin, Faenza, Pesaro, Urbino, Rome and Naples all have
  collections, whilst interesting examples of local manufactures are to
  be found in many of the smaller Italian towns. The American museums,
  especially those in New York, Boston and Philadelphia, have some fine
  examples.

  LITERATURE.--F. Argnani, _La Ceramiche et maioliche faentine_ (Faenza,
  1889 and 1903); D. Bonghi, _Intorno alle Majoliche di Castelli_
  (Naples, 1856); Professor Douglas, "Siena," in the _Nineteenth
  Century_, September 1900; Hensel, _Essai sur la majolique_ (Paris,
  1836); G.I. Montanari, _Majoliche dipinte nella collezione del N.S.C.
  Domenico Mazza_ (Pesaro, 1836); L. Frati, _Di un insigna raccolta di
  majoliche_ (Bologna, 1844); also _Di un pavimento in majolica_
  (Bologna, 1853); J.C. Robinson, _Italian Sculpture of the Middle Ages_
  (London, 1862); E. Darcel, _Musée du Louvre: Notice des faïences
  peintes_; Drury E. Fortnum, _Contribution to the History of Pottery_
  (London, 1868); Delange, _Recueil de faïences italiennes du XV^e au
  XVII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1869); M. Meurer, _Italienische Maiolika
  Fliesen_ (Berlin); E. Molinier, _Les Majoliques italiennes en Italie_
  (Paris, 1883), also _La Céramique italienne au XV^e siècle_ (Paris,
  1888); C. Piccolpasso, _I tre libri dell' arte del Vasajo_, Castel
  Durante 1548 (original MS.) and translations by C. Popelyn, Paris,
  1841 and 1860, also Italian editions of Rome and Milan; V. Lazari,
  _Notizia della raccolta Correr_ (Venice, 1859); Drury E. Fortnum, _A
  Descriptive Catalogue of the Majolica in the South Kensington Museum_
  (London, 1873); Beckwith, _Majolica and Faience_ (New York, 1877); G.
  Corona, _La Ceramica_ (Milan, 1878); G. Vanzolini, _Istoria delle
  fabbriche di majoliche metaurensi_ (Pesaro, 1879); A. Genolini,
  _Majoliche italiane_ (Milan, 1881); Mely, _La Céramique italienne_
  (Paris, 1884); J.E. Jacobsthal, _Süd-italienische Fliesen_ (Berlin,
  1886); Bertolotti, _Figulini, fonditori, e scultori_ (Milan, 1890); H.
  Wallis, _Italian Ceramic Art_ (1897), _The Oriental Influence on the
  Ceramic Art of the Italian Renaissance_ (1900), _The Art of the
  Precursors_ (1901), _The Majolica Pavements of the Fifteenth Century_
  (1902), _Oak-leaf Jars: A Fifteenth Century Italian Ware_ (1903), _The
  Albarello_ (1904), also _Seventeen Plates by Nicola Fontana_ (1905),
  and _Italian Ceramic Art: Figure Designs_ (1905); Tesorone, _L'Antico
  Pavimento delle Logge di Raffaello in Vaticano_ (Naples, 1891);
  Columba, _Il "Quos Ego" di Raffaello_ (Palermo, 1895); Drury E.
  Fortnum, _Majolica_ (London, 1896); also _Fortnum Collection in the
  Oxford Museum_ (London, 1896); O. von Falke, _Majolika_ (Berlin,
  1896); also _Sammlung R. Zschille: Katalog der italienischen
  Majoliken_ (Leipzig, 1899); Antaldi Santinelli, _Museo di Pesaro_
  (Pesaro, 1897); De Mauri, _L'Amatore di Majolica_ (Milan, 1898); E.
  Hannover, _De Spanske-Mauriske, og de forste Italienske Fayence_
  (Copenhagen, 1906).     (R. L. H.; W. B.*)


FRENCH POTTERY FROM THE 15TH TO THE 19TH CENTURY

The pottery of medieval France needs little attention here, for it was,
in the main, similar to that which was made generally in Europe--rudely
shaped vessels of ordinary clay often decorated with modelled ornament
and glazed with yellow or brown lead glaze, or, if coated with white
slip, decorated with bright green glazes, and towards the end of the
15th century with greyish blue. The later specimens of this simple
ware--pronouncedly Gothic in feeling--were often extremely decorative.
Avignon, Beauvais and Savigny are the best-known centres of this truly
national manufacture, and, as we might expect in French work, the
reliefs are often sharp and well designed. Evidence accumulates that
from time to time the princes and great nobles imported Spanish or
Italian workmen to make special tiles for the decoration of their
palaces or chapels. The duke of Burgundy brought Jehan de Moustiers and
Jehan-le-Voleur, "_ouvriers en quarrieaux peints et jolis_," in 1391, to
paint tiles for his palaces at Hesdin and Arras in the north, and we
have already referred to the tile-work in the Spanish fashion made at
Poitiers by John of Valencia, the "Saracen," in 1384 for Duke Jean de
Berry.[18] Other instances might be multiplied but that this foreign
work left little or no traces on contemporary French pottery. Even at a
later date, when Francis I. brought Girolamo della Robbia from Italy to
decorate his "Petit Château de Madrid" in 1529, or when Masseot
Abaquesne, about 1542, manufactured at Rouen the painted tile pavements
for the château of Ecouen, the cathedral of Langres, and other places,
nothing came of the imported methods; the works were executed and left
no traces on the general pottery of the country. During the 16th
century, however, two remarkable kinds of pottery were made in France of
distinctive quality, and both eminently French--the Henri-Deux ware and
the pottery of Bernard Palissy and his imitators.

_Henri-Deux_, _Oiron_ or _St Porchaire_ ware, for all these names have
in turn been applied to the enigmatic and wonderful pottery, specimens
of which are now valued at more than their weight in gold, was once
believed to have been made by the librarian Bernard, and his assistant
Charpentier, for their patroness Helène de Hangest about 1529 at her
château at Oiron, near Thouars.[19] A few years ago this theory was
discarded in favour of one which assigned them to some unknown potter of
St Porchaire in the same region;[20] but even of this theory there is
insufficient proof, and we are left in doubt both as to the maker and
the place of origin. All we know is that the ware dates from the reign
of Henry II., and that it was probably made somewhere near Oiron, as
most of the specimens have been found in that district. The work is _sui
generis_, for it had no direct ancestry, neither did it leave any mark
on contemporary French pottery. Sixty-five pieces of the ware (see fig.
48) are known to be in museums and private collections; the Louvre and
the Victoria and Albert Museum have the best collections of their kinds,
but the Rothschilds still hold the greater number of examples. The ware
is fashioned in a simple whitish pipeclay, and ornamented with
interlacing strap-work patterns, typical of the period, inlaid in
yellow, buff or dark-brown clay. The forms are generally graceful, but
some examples are over-elaborate and overloaded with modelled ornament.
The pieces were designed to serve as candlesticks, salt-cellars, tazzas,
ewers, holy-water pots and dishes. After the vessels had been "thrown"
and "turned" to a perfect shape, metal tools, such as were used by the
bookbinders and casemakers of that day, were pressed into the clay, so
as to form sunk cells of ornamental tooling. These cells were carefully
filled with finely-prepared slips of other clays, that would burn
yellow, buff or dark-brown; and when the whole was dry the piece was
carefully smoothed again, and moulded reliefs were attached, or touches
of colour were applied. After being fired the ware was glazed,
apparently with the ordinary lead glaze of the time carefully prepared
and fired again. At a later period the ornament was not inlaid in this
elaborate manner, but was simply painted, as indeed it might all have
been so far as decorative effect is concerned.

[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Tazza of Oiron pottery. (Louvre)]

[Illustration: Oiron Potter's mark.]

_Palissy Ware._--Bernard Palissy was a genius of original talent, but,
at the hands of his literary admirers, he has gained a legendary rank as
one of the great potters of the world which his pottery does not
warrant. He is supposed to have spent sixteen years in the search for
the white enamel which was being used all the time in Italy and
Spain--probably he was searching for the mystery of Chinese
porcelain--and when he settled down to make the "Palissy ware," he did
nothing more than carry to perfection the methods of the village
pot-makers of his own district. On a hard-fired red clay he disposed
groups of moulded plants, shells, fish and reptiles, painted them with
crude green, brown and yellow colours, and glazed the whole with a
well-prepared lead glaze. His style soon had numerous imitators, like A.
Cléricy and B. de Blémont, who executed works quite as good as those of
their master; but their works also vanished and left no permanent
impression on the general trend of French pottery.

Meantime Italian, and, it may be, Spanish potters strayed over the
French border and attempted to introduce the manufacture of their
tin-enamelled wares; for we know of the works of Gambin and Tardessir of
Faenza, established at Lyons about 1556; of Sigalon at Nîmes in 1548; of
Jehan Ferro at Nantes about 1580, and other sporadic efforts. The needed
impetus came, however, when the Mantuan duke, Louis de Gonzague, became
duke of Nevers in 1565; and we find Italian majolists, working under
princely patronage, planting their decadent art in the centre of France.
The first efforts met with little success until, with the appearance of
the Conrades from Savona, who were domiciled in Nevers in 1602, we get
the genuine ware of Nevers. Naturally the first productions, whether of
the Conrades or their predecessors, were in the style of the debased
majolica of Savona, but the body and glaze of the ware is harder, the
colours are not so rich, and the execution is less spirited. The first
departure from Italian traditions is seen in the ware of the so-called
"Persian style" of Nevers--probably adopted from contemporary work in
Limoges enamels on metal--where conventional and fanciful designs of
flowers and foliage, birds, animals or figures were thickly raised in
white enamel on a ground of bright, intense cobalt-blue glaze. After the
middle of the 17th century the Italian style of design appears to have
been entirely replaced by pseudo-oriental patterns painted in blue or in
polychrome, but really imitated from the "Delft" copies of Chinese and
Japanese porcelain. When Rouen and Moustiers became famous for their
distinctive wares Nevers copied their designs also, and on a gradually
descending scale the manufacture continued to the end of the 18th
century, when France was flooded with the rude _Faiences patriotiques_
from this centre.

[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Dish of Rouen enamelled pottery, painted in
blues and deep red.]

The genuine French tin-enamelled ware, freed from the traces of Italian
influence, first developed itself at Rouen under the famous Poterats in
the later part of the 17th century. A new scheme of ornamentation was
gradually evolved in the daintily-designed scalloped and radiating
patterns adapted from oriental fabrics, lace and needlework, and from
the ornamental devices of contemporary printers. These designs, having
been skilfully drawn on the pieces, were filled in with bright blue,
strong yellow, light green, or a bright bricky-red in palpable relief,
applied as flat washes or in fine lines; and the result was a gay and
sparkling ware much superior in decorative value to the later Italian
majolicas (see fig. 49). So successful was this Rouen ware that rival
factories were quickly started at Saint Cloud, Sinceny, Quimper, Lille,
and other places in the north. Saint Cloud and Lille made fine pottery
of this class at the end of the 17th and in the early 18th century. It
was imitated at Nevers, the potters' marks shown being those of J.
Bourdu and H. Borne. In the south of France, Pierre Clérissy established
the industry at Moustiers in 1686, and, though the early Moustiers ware
bears a strong resemblance to the debased Italian majolica of the time,
the Moustiers painters soon left that behind, and on a glaze of
inimitable whiteness and softness they deftly pencilled blue patterns
based on the engravings of designs after Berain, Marot and Toro. At a
later date Olerys, who had been to Alcora to introduce the French
faience into Spain, returned to Moustiers and introduced a pale
polychrome style very inferior to that of Rouen. These pieces are
covered with patterns outlined in blue and filled in with yellow, pale
green and light purple. Olerys is also said to have introduced the
grotesque style of Moustiers, founded on the caricatures of Callot.
Other factories were started from Moustiers, such as those at Apt, Ardus
and Montauban, and even at Narbonne, Bordeaux and Clermont-Ferrand; just
as the northern factories had sprung from Rouen.

[Illustration: Nevers Potters' marks.]

We have already seen at Nevers the introduction of patterns in the
Chinese style, and the same course was increasingly followed at all the
French factories during the 18th century. At Strassburg a fresh impetus
was given in this direction when, about 1721, Charles Hannong introduced
the practice of painting his white tin-enamelled ware with the on-glaze
colours used by the porcelain painters. This process enabled the French
potter to produce many colours unobtainable by his older process, and
moreover helped him to make his wares look more like the coveted
porcelain, then becoming the rage all over Europe. This new departure
marks the end of the best period of French faience, but so successfully
did it meet the demands of the time that it gradually displaced the old
method of decoration where the colours were painted on the raw glaze and
fired along with it. Factories sprang up for the manufacture of this new
ware in the first half of the 18th century at Niederviller, Lunéville
and Sceaux, and it was quickly adopted by the older factories at Rouen,
Sinceny, Marseilles, &c. With its general adoption the old French
faience, developed from the Italian stock, departed, to make way for a
tin-enamelled imitation of _famille-rose_ porcelain. But this last style
was not of long life. The wealthy classes were no longer patrons of
pottery but of porcelain, and when, after 1786, the newly perfected
English earthenware was thrown upon the French market, the French
faience-makers had to give up their works, or adopt the manufacture of
this neater and, for domestic purposes, more suitable form of pottery.
This change, together with the disturbances of revolutionary times,
brought artistic pottery in France to a standstill, and we shall treat
of its revival during the last forty or fifty years in a subsequent
section.

  _Collections._--The Victoria and Albert Museum and the British Museum
  contain typical examples; but not such collections as are to be seen
  in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, the museum at Sèvres, or the French
  provincial museums at Rouen, Limoges, Marseilles, Lille, St Omer, &c.

  LITERATURE.--Deck, _La Faience_ (Paris, 1887); Gasnault and Garnier,
  _French Pottery_ (Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks, 1884); Le
  Breton, _Le Musée céramique de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1883); Milet, (?)
  _Historique de la faience et de la porcelaine de Rouen_ (Rouen, 1898);
  Pottier, _Histoire de la faience de Rouen_ (Amiens, 1870); L'Abbé H.
  Requin, _Histoire de la faience artistique de Moustiers_, tome I^er
  (Paris, 1903); M.L. Solon, _The Old French Faience_ (London,
  1903)--the best survey of the whole subject, with a very full
  bibliography. The various volumes of the _Gazette des beaux-arts_
  contain many valuable original articles.     (W. B.*)


GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN POTTERY

In northern Europe until the time of the Renaissance the making of tiles
is the only branch of the potter's craft of artistic rank. The pavement
tiles of Germany of the Gothic period, examples of which have been
found in the valley of the Rhine from Constance to Cologne, often bear
designs of foliage or grotesque animals full of character and spirit.
Their decoration is effected either by impression with a stamp of wood
or clay, or by "pressing" the tile in a mould to produce a design in
relief. The surface is sometimes protected by a lead glaze--green, brown
or yellow--but is generally left unglazed.

Glazed tiles with relief ornament were also made as early as the 14th
century for the construction of stoves, such as have continued in use in
Germany to the present day. About 1500 a development took place in the
combination of glazes of different colours on a single tile. In the
middle of the 16th century Renaissance ornament appears in place of
Gothic canopies and tracery, and blue and white enamels begin to be used
in combination with lead glazes of other colours. Figures in the costume
of the period, or shields of arms, in round-arched niches are a
favourite motive alike in the stove tiles and in the wares of similar
technique known as _Hafnergefässe_, which have been wrongly attributed
to Hirsvogel of Nuremberg. These were made not only in that city but
also in Silesia and at Salzburg, Steyr, and elsewhere in Upper Austria;
their manufacture continued into the 18th century.

Imitations of Italian majolica with polychrome painting on a white
enamelled ground were first made in southern Germany about 1525, and it
is with these wares that the name of Hirsvogel should really be
associated. The same style survived for more than a century and a half
in the stoves and pottery made by the Pfau family at Winterthur in
Switzerland, from the end of the 16th century onwards. An interesting
development is exhibited by certain rare productions, of Silesian
origin, dating from about 1550, with decorations in coloured enamels
which are prevented from flowing together by a strong outline incised in
the clay.

_Stoneware_.--The most important feature of the history of German
pottery is the development of stoneware along the valley of the Rhine.
This ware is of a highly refractory white or grey body of intense
hardness, glazed by the introduction of salt into the kiln when the
highest temperature was reached. It was exported in large quantities
through the markets of Cologne and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to England,
France and other parts of northern Europe. The frequent occurrence in
its decoration of the arms of foreign cities and princes shows that the
German potters were alive to the requirements of foreign customers.

The oldest centre of this manufacture seems to have been at Siegburg
near Coblenz, where the white stoneware peculiar to the neighbourhood,
made from local clay, must have been made and exported in considerable
quantities at least as early as the 15th century; plain beer-jugs of
that date with cylindrical neck and slightly swelling body have been
unearthed in London and the eastern counties of England. In the 16th
century an artistic development took place, and the potters were formed
into an exclusive gild under stringent regulations. The manufacture
lasted till the sack of the town by the Swedes in 1632, subsequent
attempts to re-establish it being unsuccessful. This ware, of a creamy
white colour, generally thinly glazed and only rarely coloured by
staining with cobalt blue, is decorated by impression with small stamps
or by the application of reliefs pressed from separate moulds. The
motives include sacred and classical figure subjects, portraits of
contemporary sovereigns, and armorial bearings, with accessory foliage
in which a survival of Gothic feeling is often perceptible.
Characteristic forms are the high tankard (_Schnelle_) and the ewer with
long spout (_Schnabelkrug_), but the fancy of the potter also found
expression in various quaint or extravagant forms.

At Raeren in the duchy of Limburg this industry attained importance
about 1550, and was continued for over seventy years; 1539 is the
earliest date known to occur on this ware. The pieces were of two kinds,
brown-glazed and grey; the latter usually decorated with blue. The
favourite form is a baluster-shaped jug with heraldic designs or a
frieze of figures round the middle. The subjects are from Scripture
history or contemporary peasant life as interpreted by Hans Sebald Beham
and the German and French "Little Masters." Examples are known bearing
dates and names or initials of mould-cutters, among them Ian Emens and
Baldem Mennicken; but it must not always be inferred that a piece is as
old as the date introduced in its decoration, for the same set of moulds
might be used for many years.

Another important centre in the 16th century was at Frechen near
Cologne. Round-bellied jugs known as _Bartmänner_, from the bearded mask
applied in front of the neck, covered with a brown glaze, which in later
examples is often coagulated into thick spots, were first made here
towards the end of the 15th century, and continued to be the staple
product well into the 17th. The jugs of this type, known as Greybeards
or Bellarmines, which were exported in profusion to England, Scandinavia
and the Low Countries, were mostly made here. At Cologne itself there
were also factories, probably before the 16th century, the later
productions of which resemble those of Frechen.

During the 17th and 18th centuries the busiest stoneware centre was the
district surrounding Höhr-Grenzhausen in Nassau known as the
Kannebäckerländchen, where artistic ware was being made before 1600.
Soon after that date manganese purple was first used in the decoration
in addition to cobalt blue, and henceforward colour in combination with
impressed and incised ornament tended more and more to supersede
decoration in relief. Figure subjects gave place to rosettes, foliage on
wavy stems, and geometrical patterns. Vessels of large size and
fantastic shape appear beside the standard forms of the earlier
factories. In the 18th century the forms of beer-vessels became
stereotyped in the globular jug with cylindrical neck and the
cylindrical tankard, while tea and coffee pots, inkstands and other
vessels, hitherto unknown, began to be made. A stoneware manufacture
dating back to the middle ages existed at Creussen in Bavaria. The
productions of this district during the 17th and 18th centuries consist
of tankards of squat shape, jugs and jars, of a dark red body, covered
with a lustrous dark brown glaze, frequently painted after the first
firing in brilliant enamel colours with figures of the Apostles, the
electors of the Empire, or other oft-repeated motives. Imitations of the
wares of Raeren and Grenzhausen were made at Bouffioulx near Charleroi;
other minor centres of the manufacture were at Meckenheim near Cologne
and Bunzlau in Silesia.

As in England, so in Holland (by Ary de Milde and certain Delft potters)
and in Germany, attempts were made with some success, early in the 18th
century, to imitate the Chinese red stoneware, known as _boccaros_. The
early efforts of Böttger, the discoverer of the secret of true
porcelain, at Meissen, belong to this category. His red ware is of such
hardness that it was cut and polished on the lapidary's wheel. For some
time after the manufacture of red ware at Meissen had ceased, a glazed
brown ware of less hard body with gilt or silver decoration was made at
Bayreuth. The products of other minor factories of this class cannot now
be identified.

Mention may be made of the lead-glazed peasant pottery, such as the
bowls produced at Marburg with quaint symbolical devices modelled in
relief and applied. Slip-covered wares with _graffiato_ decoration,
apparently of indigenous growth and not inspired by foreign examples,
were made well on into the 19th century near Crefeld and elsewhere in
Germany, at Langnau in Switzerland, and by German emigrants in
Pennsylvania. In Holland a peculiar green-glazed ware was made in the
18th century with pierced geometrical decoration recalling the Dutch
carved woodwork of the period.

_Delft._--One of the most remarkable phenomena in the history of pottery
is the appearance about 1600, in a highly developed state, of the
manufacture of a tin-enamelled earthenware at Delft. It was introduced
in that town by Herman Pietersz of Haarlem, but whence he learned his
art is unknown. The faience-makers (_plateelbackers_) were one of the
eight crafts of Delft which formed the Gild of St Luke founded in 1611.
About 1650 a great development took place, and till the latter years of
the 18th century, when its faience was ousted by the more serviceable
wares of the English potteries, Delft remained the most important centre
of ceramic industry in northern Europe. The ware is of fine
buff-coloured clay, dipped after the first firing in a white tin-enamel,
which formed the ground for painted decoration; after painting, this was
covered with a transparent lead glaze and fired a second time, so that
in its technique it belongs to the same class as the painted Italian
majolica and the old French faience. At its best it is rightly ranked
among the greatest achievements of the potter's art.

Characteristic of the first period are dishes and plaques in blue
monochrome with somewhat overcrowded scenes of popular life in the style
of the engravings of Goltzius. Imitations of the oriental porcelain
imported by the Dutch East India Company were introduced about 1650 by
Aelbregt de Keizer and continued for some time among the finest
productions. At the same time the earlier tradition was developed in the
finely painted landscapes and portraits of Abraham de Kooge and
Frederick van Frytom. Other potters of the best period were Lambartus
van Eenhorn and Louwys Fictoor, makers of the large reeded vases with
Chinese floral designs in polychrome, Augestyn Reygens, Adriaen
Pynacker, and Lucas van Dale; to the last are attributed the pieces with
yellow decoration on an olive-green enamel ground. The rare examples
with polychrome decoration on a black ground in imitation of Chinese
lacquer are the work of Fictoor and Pynacker. With the 18th century came
a largely increased demand and a consequent deterioration in artistic
quality. The rise of the German porcelain factories had its effect in
the introduction of overglaze painting fired in a muffle kiln, typified
by the work of the Dextras, father and son. This innovation, by which
the Delft potters attempted to compete with European porcelain,
contributed to the ruin of their art by eliminating the skilled touch
required for painting on the unfired enamel. The ware frequently, but
not invariably, bears a mark derived from the sign of the factory (the
rose, the peacock, the three bells, &c.), or the name or initials of its
proprietor.

A small faience factory was started by Jan van Kerkhoff about 1755 at
Arnhem; its productions were of good quality, chiefly in the rococo
style, marked with a cock.

The exportation of the Delft ware to Germany occasioned the rise of
numerous factories in that country for making faience in imitation of
the Dutch. Among these may be named Hanau (founded about 1670),
Frankfort and Cassel. Others, such as Kiel and Stralsund, drew their
inspiration from the productions of Marseilles and Strassburg (q.v.). At
Nuremberg a factory was founded in 1712, which was but little affected
by extraneous influences; among its characteristic productions are
dishes with sunk decoration in the form of a star, and jugs with long
necks and pear-shaped bodies, often spirally fluted. Similar wares were
made at Bayreuth. The Dutch and French styles were carried by German
potters into Scandinavia; factories were established at Copenhagen in
1722, at Rörstrand and Marieberg near Stockholm in 1728 and 1758, and at
Herrebøe in Norway about 1759.

At the close of the 18th century the influence of imported English
earthenware was strongly felt. In Holland workshops were established for
painting the English cream-coloured ware with subjects suited to the
Dutch taste; and in Germany cream-coloured wares and _steingut_ in
imitation of Wedgwood's productions were manufactured at Cassel, Proskau
and elsewhere. The "Delft" ware of Holland during the 17th century was a
beautiful decorative ware, in which the Dutch painters caught
successfully the spirit, and often the very colour value, of Chinese
blue and white porcelain. Its fame spread over the whole of Europe, and
its styles were readily imitated by the potters of all other countries
who made a similar ware. Even the polychrome Delft, though not nearly so
beautiful as the "blue and white," is strongly decorative, and one sees
in the polychrome faience of northern France and of Germany more than a
trace of its influence. When this ware was supplanted by English
earthenware it was a clear instance of a ware that was technically
superior displacing a more artistic product.

[Illustration: PLATE VI.

  Calaggiolo: 16th century.

  Faenza. Casa Pirota, 1525.

  Urbino. Decorated by Orario Fontana.

  Urbino. 1525 (?). A plate of the famous Gonzaga Este service.

  Faenza: early 15th century.]

  _Collections._--For German wares the German museums are naturally
  best. The museums at Munich and Nuremberg contain splendid collections
  of the tin-enamelled and peasant wares of South Germany. Cologne has a
  wonderful collection of the Rhenish stoneware, and Berlin and Hamburg
  have good general collections. Copenhagen and Stockholm are especially
  good for Scandinavian wares, and Zürich for Swiss. There are also good
  collections of German stoneware in the Victoria and Albert and the
  British museums, and in the Cluny Museum, the Louvre, and the museum
  at Sèvres; but there are no notable collections of the German
  tin-enamelled wares out of Germany. The wares of Delft may be best
  studied in the museums at the Hague and Amsterdam. There is an
  interesting collection at the factory of Thooft and Labouchère in
  Delft. The principal museums in England, France and Germany all have
  fair to good collections of this renowned ware.

  LITERATURE.--For tiles and peasant pottery, see Forrer, _Geschichte
  der europäischen Fliesen-Keramik_ (Strassburg, 1900; chapters on the
  Netherlands and Germany); Walcher von Molthein, _Bunte Hafnerkeramik
  der Renaissance in Österreich ob der Enns und Salzburg_ (Vienna,
  1906); Hafner, _Das Hafnerhandwerk und die alten Öfen in Winterthur_
  (Winterthur, 1876-1877); Barber, _Tulip-ware of the Pennsylvania
  German Potters_ (Philadelphia, 1903). For stoneware, see Solon, _The
  Ancient Art Stoneware of the Low Countries and Germany_ (London,
  1892); Van Bastelaer, _Les Grès wallons_ (Mons, 1885). For Böttger's
  red ware, see Berling, _Das Meissner Porzellan_ (Leipzig, 1900), chap.
  iii. For Dutch faience, see Havard, _Histoire de la faïence de Delft_
  (Paris, 1878), and article by same author on "La Faïence d'Arnhem" in
  _Gazette des beaux-arts_, 2nd series, vol. xx. (1879). For German
  faience, see von Falke, _Majolika_ (Berlin, 1896), and articles by
  Stieda, "Deutsche Fayencefabriken des 18. Jahrhunderts," in
  _Keramische Monatshefte_, vols. ii. and iii. For Scandinavian pottery,
  see Nyrop, _Danske Fajence og Porcellainsmaerker_ (Copenhagen, 1881);
  Stråle, _Rörstrand et Marieberg_ (Stockholm, 1872); Grosch,
  _Herrebøe-Fayencer_ (Christiania, 1901). Excellent accounts of most
  branches of the subjects are given by Brinckmann, _Das hamburgische
  Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe_ (Hamburg, 1894).     (B. Ra.)


LATER WARES OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

We shall only deal at length here with those important kinds of pottery
that have exerted real influence on the historical development of the
art. Offshoots from the main stem that have developed little or no
individuality can only be briefly mentioned. When the characteristic
Spanish-Moorish lustre wares ceased to be desired by the wealthy they
rapidly sank into insignificance, though as a decorative peasant pottery
their manufacture never really ceased and has been revived again in our
day. The course of pottery importation was changed and the now
fashionable Italian majolica was brought into Spain in the 16th and 17th
centuries, as Hispano-Moresque wares had followed the opposite course
two centuries earlier. Besides the influence which these imported wares
had on the Spanish potters, a number of wandering Italian majolists
found their way into Spain, so that we find the use of painted colour,
particularly blue, yellow, orange, green and purple, making its
appearance at various centres, around Valencia, at Triana near Seville,
&c., but the most important manufacture was at Talavera in the centre of
the peninsula. The best of this ware recalls the late Italian majolica
of Savona, and the influence of Chinese porcelain designs, probably
filtered through to the Spanish potters by the then popular enamelled
Delft wares, is very apparent. The potteries of Talavera are mentioned
as early as 1560, and they continued at work, with varying fortunes,
down to the end of the 18th century. Many and varied wares were
produced, including tiles as well as pottery; the most common pottery
pieces are dishes, bowls, vases, _tinajas_, holy-water vessels,
drug-pots, and hanging flower vases, together with moulded and painted
snails, owls, dogs, oranges, almonds, walnuts, and every kind of fruit.
Apart from the poorer colour the baroque style of ornament also rendered
the ware much inferior to that of Italy or of France. The popular
Talavera wares were imitated elsewhere in Spain, and a number of
factories existed at Toledo in the 17th century, but their wares are
very inferior. In the 18th century, besides debased imitations of this
ware, some coarse but striking pottery was made at Puente del Arzobispo
near Toledo.

An interesting offshoot from the Talavera potteries is to be found in
the tin-enamelled wares made at Puebla, Mexico, from the early 17th
century. It is said that Spanish potters were settled at this place by
the Dominicans soon after 1600; and the making of a debased form of
Spanish majolica continued there for nearly two centuries. See Barber's
"Tin-Enamelled Pottery," _Bulletin of the Philadelphia Museum_, 1907.
During the 18th century determined efforts were made by King Charles
III. and by the famous Count Aranda to improve the Spanish pottery
wares, as well as to introduce the manufacture of porcelain. The efforts
of the king led to the foundation of the porcelain works at Buen Retiro
near Madrid, which will be mentioned later, and considerable success
also attended the revival of strong copper lustre, like that of the late
Hispano-Moresque wares; but the finest tin-enamelled wares were those
made at Alcora in the important factory founded by Count Aranda in 1726,
which continued in operation down to the French wars. For his purposes
the count brought from Moustiers, then one of the famous French pottery
centres (see above), Joseph Olerys, a well-known pot-painter. He went to
Alcora as chief draughtsman and designer, having charge of a number of
Spanish potters and painters. Olerys introduced the Moustiers style of
decoration, and the glaze and body of the Alcora wares of the best
period recall the fine quality of Moustiers faience. It is only fair to
add that Olerys in his turn learnt the use of various delicate yellow
and green colours from the Spaniards, and when he returned to France in
1737, having acquitted himself most honourably, he introduced this new
style of delicate polychrome decoration at Moustiers. The mixture of
motives and ideas that animated the duke and his potters may be seen by
the following list of wares produced about 1750. Vases of different
shapes; small teapots; teapots and covers, Chinese fashion; teapots and
covers, Dutch fashion; cruets, Chinese style; entrée dishes;
salt-cellars, Chinese style; _escudillas_ (bowls) of Constantinople;
_barquillos_ (sauce-bowls), Chinese style; cups, plates, and saucers of
different kinds with good painted borders in imitation of lace-work, and
finally fruit-stands, salad-bowls and dishes, trays and refrigerators.
Later in the century the manufacture of porcelain was introduced here,
as well as white earthenware made in imitation of the productions of
Wedgwood, and the tin-enamelled wares flickered out in Spain as they did
elsewhere.

The manufacture of a kind of debased majolica was also practised in
Portugal from the 16th century down to our own times; but the ware never
attained to any distinction and is little known outside that country.
The best-known specimens were made at Rato, near Lisbon, where a factory
was founded in 1767 under the patronage of the court.

Mention must be made of the unglazed native pottery of Spain and
Portugal, for wine-jars, water-jars and bottles, cooking pots, and other
domestic utensils are still made in these countries for ordinary
domestic use, in traditional forms and by methods of the most primitive
kind. Many of these vessels, especially the _tinajas_ (wine-jars) and
water-coolers, are based on ancient, classical or Arab forms, and in
every country market-place it is still common to see groups of vessels,
in unglazed pottery of fine shape and finish, exposed for sale--a very
different state of things from what obtains in France, Germany, and
particularly in England, where the primitive methods of the peasant are
being imitated by those who ought to know better. From the 16th to the
18th century a special kind of unglazed pottery vessels known as
_buccaros_ was extensively made both in Spain and Portugal. The body of
the ware is unglazed, whitish, black or red, according to the special
kind of clay. The curious point about this ware is that, if we may
believe contemporary documents, the vessels were delicately scented,
like a ware imported from Mexico; and the soft vessels are said to have
been eaten--a custom common enough in certain parts of Central and
Southern America. (See M.L. Solon, _The Noble Buccaros_, 1896.)
     (W. B.*)


ENGLISH POTTERY FROM THE 16TH TO THE 18TH CENTURY[21]

[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Saxon cinerary urns; the stamped patterns are
shown]

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Common forms of medieval pottery; the upper
part of the slender jug is covered with a green vitreous lead glaze; the
other is unglazed with stripes of red ochre.]

The course of pottery manufacture in England followed, generally rather
in the rear, that of France, Germany and other northern countries.
Before the coming of the Romans much pottery of the late Stone age and
the Bronze age was made in Britain. The Romans introduced their more
advanced technique, and, besides importing Italian and Gaulish pottery,
they founded numerous centres of pottery manufacture, as at Upchurch,
Castor, Uriconium, &c. With the departure of the Roman legions their
simple, yet comparatively advanced, pottery vanished, and Saxon and
early Norman times have left us little but wares resembling those of the
Germanic and Frankish productions (fig. 50). The early middle ages
passed without much improvement, and, though rare specimens--like the
ewer in the form of a mounted knight in Salisbury Museum--proved that
glazed wares were made in this country, the general run of our medieval
pottery vessels never soared above the skill of the travelling brick or
tile maker.[22] The monastic tile-makers, with their strong, Gothic tile
pavements, produced artistic work of a very high order; but the patrons
of the common potter remained content with his rudely made and simply
glazed pitchers, flagons, dishes and mugs (see fig. 51). Even in the
16th century the excellence of English pewter probably acted as a
barrier to the introduction of finer pottery, and it was only the
importation of foreign wares--Italian, German, Dutch and French--that
stirred up our native clay-workers to the possibilities of their art. In
early Tudor times there was some importation of Italian majolica as well
as of the Hispano-Moresque pieces, and the religious wars as well as the
constant intercourse with the Low Countries brought over to the eastern
counties not only the stonewares of the Rhineland and the "Delft" wares
of Holland, but also emigrant potters from those countries who tried to
practise their native crafts amongst us. The Civil War appears to have
been unable to check this new spirit, for we have the evidence of dated
examples to show that various immigrants went on quietly practising
their trade along the Thames side, in what were then the outskirts of
London, and probably in the eastern counties and Kent as well. It seems
probable that the earliest influence was an Italian one, but before this
was firmly domiciled it was supplanted by that of the Dutch and Germans.
The first wares of an improved kind that were made in England are so
closely related to the German stonewares and the "Delft" wares that it
is often difficult to determine whether actual specimens are of English
or foreign origin. The first, and in some senses the greatest, of
English potters was John Dwight, an educated man, who had held the
office of secretary to three successive bishops of Chester, and who
obtained a patent in 1671 for the manufacture of certain improved kinds
of pottery. We have no knowledge where Dwight acquired his skill in the
potter's art, for when he obtained his patent he was residing at Wigan
(Lancashire), far removed from the districts where foreign potters had
settled. About 1672-1673 Dwight set up a factory at Fulham, where he
resided till his death in 1703. He was always an eager experimenter, and
from his diaries it seems certain that he was searching after the, then,
mysterious Chinese porcelain. We have no grounds for believing that he
ever attained success in this search, for his known productions may be
grouped into two main classes: (1) Hard-fired red stoneware--mostly
small vessels, teapots, mugs, &c., in imitation of the Chinese
buccaros.[23] (2) Whitish, grey, or drab salt-glazed stoneware made in
imitation of, and often not to be distinguished from, the wares of the
Rhineland. But Dwight produced a considerable number of modelled
portrait-busts, statuettes, &c., all in stoneware of various tints,
which entitle him to a place in the very first rank of potters. The
portrait-bust of Prince Rupert (British Museum), the statuettes of
Meleager (British Museum), of Jupiter (Liverpool), &c., are worthy of a
sculptor of the Italian Renaissance, while the recumbent effigy of Lydia
Dwight (Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the most beautiful works
ever executed by an English potter.

Meantime the manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery, in the style of
"Delft," was prosecuted with increasing industry in London on the south
side of the river, and particularly at Lambeth. By the end of the 17th
century the same imitation "Delft" wares were made at Bristol and
Liverpool, continuing until, in the closing years of the 18th century,
tin-enamelled earthenware was abandoned in favour of the perfected
English cream-colour. There is a strong family likeness in all this
English "Delft," whether made at Lambeth, Bristol or Liverpool. The body
of the ware is harder and denser than in the tin-enamelled wares of the
continent, and is not so suitable for its special purpose, as it is
generally deficient in lime. The decoration is usually painted in cobalt
blue of good tone, though inferior in softness and richness of tint to
that of the best Delft pieces; polychrome painting was not so common,
and it differs from that of the Dutchmen in the greater prevalence of a
pale yellow colour and the general absence of any good red like that
found on the polychrome wares of Delft, Rouen, Sic.

German stoneware also received a well-merited share of attention long
before the time of Dwight, and it is often impossible to distinguish the
grey and brown ale-jugs, greybeards, &c., presumably of English
manufacture in the 17th and early 18th centuries, from their German
prototypes. Fulham remained an important centre of this manufacture, and
a fine brown stoneware was largely made at Nottingham as early as 1700;
in each case the manufacture continues in neighbouring districts to this
day.

The development of a native English pottery took place in North
Staffordshire. A growing community of peasant potters, who manufactured
some strongly decorative English wares by very simple means, was
established here from the middle of the 17th century. Rudely fashioned
dishes, jugs, bottles, &c., were shaped in the local red-burning brick
clays, and, while the pieces were still soft, simple but effective
decorative patterns were drawn upon them in diluted white clay (slip),
trailed on through a quill or from a narrow-spouted vessel. This ancient
and world-wide process (for it was used by the Ptolemaic Egyptian, the
Roman and the Byzantine potters) has furnished the peasant potters of
every European country with characteristic wares, but nowhere was it
used with greater skill than in England. The English slip-decorated
wares are often spoken of as "Toft ware," because Thomas Toft, living in
what is now Hanley (Staffordshire) boldly signed and dated many of his
pieces (1670, &c.); but similar wares were made at Wrotham in Kent, in
Derbyshire, Wales and elsewhere. The repute of the Staffordshire
district must have spread by the time of the Revolution, for soon after
1690 John Philip Elers, a Dutchman of good family, settled there and
began to make a superior pottery to any previously made in the district.
Elers is generally described as a great inventor who brought all kinds
of knowledge into the district, but the only wares he is known to have
made were singularly like those of Dwight, and, quite recently, records
of a lawsuit in which Dwight charged Elers and some other Staffordshire
potters with suborning his workmen and infringing his patents have been
brought to light. It is certain that, from the time of Elers, the
Staffordshire potters made great advances in the fabrication of their
wares, and during the 18th century they evolved two distinctively
English kinds of pottery, (1) the white and drab salt-glaze, (2) English
earthenware.

_Staffordshire Salt-glaze._--It is uncertain when and how the
Staffordshire potters learnt that a highly siliceous pottery could be
glazed by throwing common salt into the kiln at the height of the
firing, for the practice had originated in the Rhineland more than a
century before. Many writers have maintained that the practice was
introduced by Elers, but this is uncertain. Early in the 18th century a
fine, white, thin, salt-glazed ware was made in Staffordshire, in many
quaint and fanciful forms largely influenced by Chinese porcelain--still
an object of wonder and mystery. Teapots, coffee-pots, tea-caddies,
plates, dishes, bowls, candlesticks, mugs and bottles were made in great
variety, and at its best the ware is a dainty and elegant one, so that a
brisk trade was developed in the district, and, for the first time, a
distinctively English pottery was exported to the continent and to the
American colonies.

_English Earthenware._--The manufacture of tin-enamelled pottery
scarcely obtained a foothold in Staffordshire, but the invention of the
white salt-glazed ware paved the way for one of the greatest revolutions
in the potter's art that the world has ever seen. This was nothing less
than the abandonment of the ordinary red or buff clays with a coating of
white slip or of tin-enamel, and the substitution of a ware white
throughout its substance, prepared by mixing selected white-burning
clays and finely-ground flint (silica).[24] The change has generally
been associated with Wedgwood, most famous of English potters, but he
really only perfected, along with his contemporaries, the Warburtons,
Turners and others, the work of half a century's experiment and
discovery. The ware compared most favourably, from the point of view of
serviceableness, neatness and mechanical finish, with all that had gone
before it, and as the tin-enamelled wares had almost everywhere in
Europe sunk to the position of domestic crockery--for the Chinese,
German, French and English porcelains had displaced it with the
wealthy--this better-fashioned and more durable English ware gave it its
final death-blow. English earthenware in its various forms was to be met
with all over Europe, from London to Moscow, and from Cadiz to
Stockholm; and, aided by emigrant English potters, the continental
nations soon began a similar manufacture for themselves. Everywhere this
great change was encouraged by the growing fondness for mechanical
perfection, and it is not without a sigh that a lover of pottery can
witness the gradual disappearance of the painted tin-enamelled
wares--degenerate survivals though they were of Italian majolica, French
faience and Dutch "Delft"--before the unconquerable advance of another
form of pottery which in its inception was based on technical rather
than artistic qualities, especially as nearly a century passed before
the new material was turned to artistic account.

By general consent the name of Josiah Wedgwood has been pre-eminently
associated with this great change, and with good reason, for though he
had many contemporaries who equalled or even excelled him in certain
kinds of pottery, no other potter ever approached him in the range of
his products and the varied applications to which he turned the exercise
of his remarkable talents.[25] True, he soon abandoned the simple
Staffordshire wares, coloured with mottled glazes or clay-slips, to
which the names of Astbury or Whieldon are commonly attached, but the
varied productions of his factory united the best work of a district
fruitful in new kinds of pottery, with something especial to Wedgwood
himself. Thus he adopted and improved the green and yellow glazes which
had come down from medieval times (see the cauliflower ware piece, Plate
X.), and gave a new direction to their use in his green-glazed dessert
services, candlesticks, &c. He carried on the manufacture of hard-fired
red-clay teapots, mugs, coffee-pots, cream-jugs, &c., introduced by
Elers; and, along with his fellow-potters, he invented drab, grey, brown
and other colours in similarly hard-fired unglazed bodies. He neither
invented nor alone perfected the Staffordshire cream-coloured
earthenware, but he made it so well that his "Queen's ware" was the best
of its class. He undoubtedly invented the Jasper ware, in which on
grounds of unglazed blue, green, black, &c., white figures and
ornamental motives, adapted from the antique by Flaxman, Webber and
other sculptors, were applied; and he even attempted to reproduce the
painted vases of the Greek decadence in dry colours painted over a hard
black body.

Wedgwood's "Jasper ware," his most original production (see Plate X.),
differed both in nature and composition from all the species of pottery
that had preceded it. In an attempt to obtain the qualities of the
finest porcelain biscuit, Wedgwood discovered, after years of
experiment, that by mixing together a plastic white clay and "cawk" or
barytes he could obtain a "body" which might be "thrown" on the wheel or
"pressed" in moulds, and which, while it fired to a white and
sub-translucent pottery, was capable of being coloured, by the usual
metallic oxides, to various shades of blue, green, yellow, lilac and
black. The ware resembled "biscuit" porcelain in that it needed no glaze
to render it impervious to water, and it thus marked the culmination of
those "dry" or unglazed wares that had been so largely made in China,
Japan and Europe, where the quality resides in the fired clay material
without any adventitious aid from a glaze. The general practice was to
make the body of the vessel of a coloured material and to ornament this
with applied figures or ornamental reliefs, in "white" of the same kind,
"pressed" from intaglio moulds and then applied by wetting the surface
and squeezing--leaving the fire to unite the vessel and its applied
ornament into one piece. Sometimes the ornament was in a coloured clay
applied on a white body, and we get in the same way black on red, buff
on red or black, and red or black on buff and drab bodies. The variety
of bodies produced by Wedgwood and his followers in this way is
exceedingly great, and is only to be equalled by the diversity of their
application, for the pieces made include plaques, vases, plates, dishes,
jardinières, bulb-pots, teapots, cups and saucers, inkstands,
scent-bottles, buttons, buckles, and, in a word, every kind of thing
that could be made in clay. Many of the applied designs, whether of
figures or ornament, were very beautiful in a way, being copied or
adapted from Greek and Roman gems, vases, &c. At their best they are
marvellous for the precision and delicacy of their execution, and it is
impossible to imagine that anything better could have been done in this
style. So perfectly did they represent the taste of their period that
attempts were made at Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin and Buen Retiro to produce
something of the same kind in porcelain; but none of these can be
compared with the works of Wedgwood, or his great contemporary Turner
(see Plate X.), in beauty of colour or perfection of workmanship.

It is obvious nowadays that much of this work was inspired by mistaken
motives; that it was founded on an imperfect view of ancient art; and
that it was marred by its mechanical ideals; but it must be remembered
that it was in perfect harmony with the spirit of the times, and that
while it emphasizes for us the pseudo-classic taste of the late 18th
century, it marks an advance in the technical skill of the potter, which
is simply astounding. The co-ordination of labour, which had gone
further with the Greek and the Italian potter than is generally
supposed, was now brought to a climax. Mechanical appliances were
introduced for the performance of many portions of the potter's work
that had hitherto been indifferently performed by rude and exhausting
manual toil; and while the application of mechanism was pushed too
far--so that in the first half of the 19th century we find the most
inartistic pottery the world has ever seen--we must regard this even
more as a cyclic movement of human feeling than as the work of any
individual, or group of men. The late 18th century marks the period when
pottery was no longer produced, as Italian majolica, the Henri-Deux
ware, the Palissy wares, the best faience of Nevers, Rouen, Moustiers,
Delft or Nuremberg had been, for the noble or the wealthy, but when it
was largely in demand by the poorer classes, anxious in their turn to
have a useful ware which should imitate the more costly porcelain used
by the great. France, Germany, Sweden, Russia, and later the United
States, all followed in the wake of the English potters, and the
printing-press was applied in all countries to produce elaborate
engraved patterns in blue, brown, green, &c., in order to get an
effective-looking ware in harmony with the spirit of the times, and at
the same time cheaper in price than the simple painted patterns of the
vanquished tin-enamel.

  _Collections._--The British and the Victoria and Albert Museums
  naturally contain the most representative collections of English
  pottery. The museums at Liverpool, Bristol, Burslem, Hanley and
  Nottingham, also have good collections, while Birmingham, Manchester
  and Stoke-upon-Trent may be mentioned. The Guildhall Museum, London,
  is rich in early wares found or made in London and its vicinity.
  Continental collections of English pottery are meagre in the extreme
  and badly described, even in the ceramic museums at Sèvres and
  Limoges. The collection at Dresden is interesting, as it was purchased
  from the collection made by Enoch Wood, a Staffordshire potter. In
  America, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Metropolitan Museum of
  New York, and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at Philadelphia,
  contain interesting examples of wares exported to America in the late
  18th and early 19th centuries.

  LITERATURE.--The earliest compilations, such as Jewitt's _Ceramic Art
  in Great Britain_ (1878), and _Life of Josiah Wedgwood_ (1865);
  Chaffers, _Marks and Monograms_ (1863; 9th edition revised, 1900);
  Meteyard's _Life of Wedgwood_ (1865-1866), and Shaw's _History of the
  Staffordshire Potteries_ (1829; reissued London, 1900), must always be
  of interest as original sources of information; but the later works,
  such as Church, _English Earthenware_ (1884; new edition, 1906);
  _Josiah Wedgwood_ (1894, reissue 1903 and 1907); Solon, _Art of the
  Old English Potter_ (1883; 2nd ed., 1885); Hobson, _Catalogue of
  English Pottery in the British Museum_ (1903); Burton, _English
  Earthenware and Stoneware_ (1904), are the best authorities.
       (W. B.*)


CHINESE POTTERY AND PORCELAIN[26]

In China, as in every other country where pottery-making has been
practised for centuries, we find a natural progression from primitive
pottery akin in shape, decoration and manufacture to the pottery of
other primitive races the world over. We find too the early use of
bricks, tiles, &c., as in Egypt and Assyria; and then the usual
succession of domestic utensils, funeral vases, and vessels for
religious ceremonials. There is nothing to show that the potter's wheel
made its appearance in China earlier than elsewhere, and the Chinese
potters have used the simple methods of carving and "pressing" from
moulds which preceded the use of the potter's wheel, even more than
other nations. In books of the Chow dynasty (1122-249 B.C.) the
difference between the processes of "throwing" and of "pressing" from
moulds is clearly described,[27] and it is instructive to note that many
early as well as late forms of Chinese pottery are remarkably like their
works in bronze. In the same way there is no definite date to which we
can refer the introduction of glazed pottery. The earliest specimens of
glazed ware known are referred by the Chinese to the times of the Han
dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), a date much later than that of the
earliest glazed wares of Egypt and Assyria. Remembering the intercourse
between China and the West, at times historically remote, it is not
impossible that the idea of coating a vessel of clay with a glaze was
carried into China from Chaldaea or Assyria. In any case the Chinese
developed the potter's art on their own lines, for we have ample
evidence that from very early times they fired their pottery to a much
higher temperature than was common in the west of Asia, and so
discovered types of glaze and of pottery that remained for centuries a
mystery elsewhere. The glazed wares of the Han dynasty already mentioned
are quite unlike any contemporary pottery produced in Syria, Egypt or
Europe, for the body of the ware is so hard that it can scarcely be
scratched by a knife, and the dark-greenish glaze has become iridescent
by age as though it contained oxide of lead. The easily-fired friable
wares of Assyria, Egypt and Greece seem to have had no attraction for
the Chinese, and the glazes on their hard-fired wares were naturally
different from those already described. The Chinese appear to have been
the first potters in the world to discover that at a sufficiently high
temperature pottery can be glazed with powdered felspathic rock mixed
with lime. At first these glazes were used on any ordinary refractory
clay which might burn red, drab or buff; but in this technique lay the
germ of Chinese porcelain, the most advanced form of pottery the world
has yet seen. It is necessary to consider the pottery that preceded
porcelain, for not only was it the matrix out of which porcelain grew,
but in certain districts of China, where the necessary materials for
porcelain are not found, similar wares have been manufactured without
intermission to the present time. Naturally, in progress of time, the
technique of this pottery has been greatly improved, both by
developments in the preparation and mixture of the clays, the shaping
and modelling of the wares, the introduction of coloured enamels or
glazes, and the like. Dr Bushell, who is our great authority on the
Chinese arts and handicrafts, rightly seizes on two outstanding types of
Chinese pottery other than porcelain which have exercised considerable
influence on the doings of European potters.

  1: _Yi-Hsing-Yao_.[28]--This is the pottery, generally of unglazed
  fawn, red or brown stoneware, made at Yi-hsing-hsien in the province
  of Kiang-su. Articles of every kind are made in these fine-coloured
  clays, but the general forms are dainty and skilfully finished pieces,
  such as small teapots, cups, saucers, dishes, trays, water-bottles and
  wine cups. This ware was largely manufactured under the Ming dynasty
  (A.D. 1368-1643) and later.[29] It was imported into Europe by the
  Portuguese, who applied to it the name _boccaro_, formerly given only
  to a scented terra-cotta brought from Mexico and Peru.[30] This
  pottery and Chinese porcelain were wide asunder as the poles in nature
  as well as origin, but the potters of northern Europe regarded every
  kind of pottery coming from the Far East as a species of porcelain,
  and the manufacture of red teapots, mugs, bowls, cups, &c., in
  imitation of the Yi-Hsing-Yao was widespread during the late 17th and
  early 18th centuries under the name of red porcelain. Dwight, Elers
  and Böttger are notable names in this connexion.

  2. _Kuang-Yao_.--The name given by the Chinese to the pottery made in
  the province of Kwang-tung. There are several centres of manufacture
  in this extensive province, but for the purposes of this article it is
  sufficient to state that the best-known of these wares are dense,
  hard-fired and glazed stonewares, which are always dark-coloured grey,
  red, brown or blackish. They are usually glazed with thick, variegated
  or opalescent glazes, grey, blue, green, yellow or red, but flecked,
  veined and streaked with other tints. The wares are so like the
  productions of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1279) that modern pieces are
  often confounded with the more precious productions of that epoch. One
  of the first lessons to be learnt by the student of Chinese pottery is
  that, with great reverence for their own antiquities, the Chinese of
  every period have endeavoured to reproduce the famous wares of their
  ancestors, and often with such skill as to deceive the most expert.
  Even when the manufacture of porcelain was at its highest in
  King-tê-chên, the potters in other parts of China carried on the
  production of glazed or unglazed pottery in coloured clays, and,
  further, the directors of the imperial factory from time to time
  strove to reproduce the most archaic wares that could be found in the
  Empire.

[Illustration: PLATE VII

  Chinese. Sang de Boeuf.

  Chinese. Flambé.

  Chinese. Turquoise glaze "crackled."

  Purple Soufflé.

  Coral red.

  Peach blow. Pigeon's blood.

  Lemon yellow.

  Apple green.]

_Porcelain._--By this word we distinguish broadly all those pieces of
pottery in which the body of the ware is vitrified and translucent, and
also, broadly speaking, in which the material is white throughout,
unless minute quantities of metallic oxides have been definitely added
to colour it. It is impossible to draw any hard and fast line between
porcelain and stoneware, for both may be thoroughly vitrified and
translucent in thin pieces--but generally the stonewares are drab, red
or brown in the colour of the fired clay, and they seldom exhibit the
precious quality of translucence. If the body of a piece of pottery is
not even vitrified, however hard it may be, it is terra-cotta or
earthenware. The Chinese, accustomed from a very early period to fire
their pottery to a high temperature, produced vitrified stonewares
before any other nation. Moreover, they glazed these stonewares with
fusible mineral substances, and from that stage the natural refinements
of methods must necessarily have produced porcelain. In regions where
beds of primary clay were found, the body of the ware would burn whiter
than elsewhere, and a mixture of limestone or marble with the felspathic
rock would give a glaze of greater purity and brilliance and one that
was more readily fusible and Would spread better over the whole piece.
How many centuries were needed before a ware white enough and
translucent enough to be now classed as porcelain was produced we cannot
know; but the process was certainly one of gradual evolution. Some
Chinese writers in their zeal for ancient things have ascribed to remote
periods the production of wares of this class. Where authentic specimens
are not to be found it is necessary to proceed with caution, and
literary evidence alone cannot be deemed sufficient to settle such a
difficult point. The balance of opinion at the present time is that
something worthy of the name of porcelain was made during the Tang
dynasty (A.D. 618-907), but we have no pieces earlier than the Sung
dynasty (A.D. 960-1259), and the majority of these are perhaps more
fitly described as stoneware than as porcelain.

Under the Sung dynasty China enjoyed great material prosperity, and all
the arts were cultivated assiduously. Pottery of distinguished merit was
made in many districts, and much of it has been classified as porcelain
because the body is whitish and vitrified, though it is much inferior in
finish and in translucence to the perfect white porcelain of later
times. It is necessary to realize, too, that we have no record of any
pottery with painted decoration until perhaps the very end of the 13th
century; such ornament as was used consists entirely of designs incised
or modelled in the clay. But the principal decoration is to be found in
the varied coloured glazes with which the wares, whether stoneware or
porcelain, were covered. The glaze is never clear and white as at later
times; it is generally uneven, imperfectly fused and presents all the
marks of an imperfect technique. The nearest approach to white is found
in an opalescent grey which shades off to greenish and bluish tints. The
glazes of this period which are most highly valued are the _céladons_, a
family of cool bluish or yellowish greens of indescribable depth and
softness. Besides the _céladons_ which are the most uniform in tints of
the Sung glazes, we get many shades of palish lavender, brownish yellow
and brownish black, but these are all subtly or boldly mottled,
splashed, clouded or veined with strange tones of red, blue, purple,
opalescent grey and black. The most famous of these now very rare Sung
wares were the stonewares of Chunchow, remarkable for their rich and
varied glazes, the black variegated glazed wares of Fu-kien province,
"hare's fur cups" and "partridge cups" of collectors, and the four
principal wares that may be called porcelain, viz.--the _Ju-Yao_, made
at Ju-chow in Honan; the _Kuan-Yao_ (Kuan = "official" or "imperial"),
made first at Pien-chow and afterwards at Hang-chow; the _Ko-Yao_, made
at Liu-t'ien; and the _Ting-Yao_, made at Tung-chow in Chih-li.

This was the period when Chinese porcelain became known beyond its
native country, for the first mention of porcelain outside China appears
in the writings of a Mahommedan traveller, Sulaiman, who visited China
in the 9th century and wrote: "They have in China a very fine clay with
which they make vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen
through them";[31] and its first appearance in the west is always given
as A.D. 1171 (or 1188), when Saladin sent a present of forty pieces to
the sultan of Damascus. From this time onwards an export trade was
developed, particularly in the _céladon_ wares of Lung-chüan, a city in
the south-west of the province of Chehkiang. This famous ware, the
"green porcelain" of the Chinese, probably made as an imitation of jade,
exists mostly in the form of thick heavy dishes, bowls and jars, bearing
incised or fluted patterns, and coated with a remarkable thick green
glaze of indescribable softness of tone. Though the body of the ware is
white when it is broken through, any parts not covered by the glaze have
a reddish-brown colour due to the unrefined paste, and when the ware was
reproduced in later times this reddish-brown tint had to be imitated
artificially. The ware was highly prized both in China and Japan, in the
islands of the East Indies, and in all Mahommedan countries. In Persia
it was largely used, and specimens of it have been recovered during the
last century from the east coast of Africa and as far west as Morocco.
"Archbishop Warham's cup" at New College, Oxford, which is the first
specimen of Chinese porcelain to reach England that we can now produce,
is a _céladon_ bowl with a silver-gilt mount of the time of Henry
VIII.[32]

The Sung dynasty was overthrown by the Tatars under Kublai Khan
(grandson of Jenghiz Khan), and the power remained in Tatar hands until
1368, when the great native dynasty of the Mings was established. During
this period (Yuan dynasty), roughly a century, one can say little of
ceramic progress, for the wares of the period are singularly like those
of Sung times. But two important changes took place which had a marked
influence on the subsequent development of Chinese porcelain--(1) the
concentration of the industry at King-tê-chên, which was consummated in
the early years of the Ming dynasty; (2) the introduction of painted
decoration under a white transparent glaze, the idea of which (and
perhaps the necessary cobalt mineral) was brought from Persia.

King-tê-chên was already a pottery centre when its factories were
rebuilt in 1369 by Hung-Wu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who made it
the imperial factory, so that the best porcelain workers were attracted
thither, and in the other old centres the industry was abandoned or some
earlier manufacture was continued, as in the southern province of
Kiang-su. In the province of Fu-kien a distinct kind of porcelain
manufacture has also continued. We have already mentioned the black
glazed cups, "hare's fur," &c., made in this province in Sung times,
and, while King-tê-chên was to be the scene of the developments of the
coloured and painted porcelains, Te-hwa in Fu-kien perfected the
manufacture of the famous and beautiful white porcelain in bowls,
dishes, cups and statuettes, best known under its French title of _blanc
de Chine_.

The earliest painted Chinese porcelains, which are referred to the
beginning of the Ming period, though some of them may be older, speak
strongly of ideas imported from the west of Asia. The pieces are massive
both in form and substance, and the ornament, consisting of figures
mounted or on foot, animals, bands of diaper or foliage, or pendant
necklaces, is strongly silhouetted by a raised outline recalling the
decorative methods of the Assyrian brickwork. The technical methods also
recall the methods of western Asia, for the ware was fired before it was
glazed, and then yellow, turquoise, green or purple glazes, similar in
nature to the glazes of Egypt, Syria and Persia, and quite unlike the
Chinese Sung glazes, were filled into the outlined spaces and melted at
a lower temperature. The Grandidier collection in the Louvre, the
Franks collection at the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum,
as well as all the great private collections of Chinese porcelain,
contain samples of this primitive and archaic-looking ware.

The great stream of porcelain decoration was, however, to take an
entirely different direction. The Persian pottery with its brilliant
painted decorations in blue, green and purple on a pure white ground,
exercised its natural fascination over men as keen in colour-sense as
the Chinese potters. With the concentration of the industry at
King-tê-chên, and the rapid improvement in technical skill and knowledge
that followed, the production of a fine porcelain with a transparent
white glaze was perfected. Of all the colours used by the Persian
pot-painter the only one that would endure the fierce fire of the
Chinese porcelain was the blue obtained by using the ores of cobalt, and
with this colour, and a wonderful blood-red obtained from copper, the
foundation of Chinese painted porcelain was laid. It would be idle to
try and fix any specific date for this important development, which took
more than a generation to perfect, but it is reasonably accurate to say
that the blue and white painted porcelains were unknown in the 13th
century and were fully developed at the beginning of the 15th century.
Chinese collectors prize most highly the blue and white of the reign of
Suen-tê (A.D. 1426-1435), of Chêng-hwa (1465-1487), and next of Yung-lo
(1403-1424). It is interesting to note that the colour used during these
reigns is spoken of as "Mahommedan" blue, so that it was evidently
brought from some country to the west. This 15th-century blue and white
porcelain is admittedly the finest of its class, and though the Chinese
never abandon an old method and have continued to make blue and white
porcelain, often of very good quality, the later wares, fine as they may
be, rarely equal these.

The under-glaze red, an invention of the Chinese, has already been
mentioned, and this most difficult of all ceramic colours was largely
used during the same period. At first it appears as a general ground
colour for the outside of bowls and cups, then vessels were made in
special forms (persimmon fruit, &c.) to display its qualities, finally
it was used either alone or in conjunction with blue in painted designs
under a white glaze of exceptional quality. A Chinese connoisseur of the
15th century describes one of his pieces as being decorated with "three
red fishes on a white ground, pure as driven snow; the fish boldly
outlined and red as fresh blood, all with colour so brilliant as to
dazzle the eye."

Other characteristic wares which made their appearance in Ming times are
the marvellous "eggshell" porcelains, called by the Chinese "bodyless"
from their extreme thinness. As early as the reign of Yung-lo
(1403-1424) these delicate wares were in high repute, and their
manufacture has been continued ever since with varying skill and
success. In spite of their extreme thinness the specimens have designs
of dragons in the midst of clouds and waves, inscriptions, &c., engraved
in the paste before firing. In the fine white specimens the design is so
delicate that it is barely visible until the vessel is filled with
liquid or held to the light. Others were covered with a coloured glaze
which serves to accentuate the design, and the most prized of these are
the yellow pieces made during the reign of Hung-Chi (1488-1505) and
Chêng-tê (1506-1521).

Another wonderful variety of Chinese porcelains which made its
appearance at this period is the well-known perforated ware, commonly
spoken of, from the shape of the perforations, as "grain of rice"
porcelain, though the Chinese have exhibited consummate skill in the
manufacture of perforated pieces of all kinds. Sometimes the
perforations are left clear, but in the rice-grain pattern the incisions
are generally filled up with the melted glaze so that they become like
so many windows in the walls of the piece. We have already seen that the
Persian potters used a similar method of decoration in the 16th century,
but we are unable to say at present whether the device originated in
China or in Persia. Its use in both countries is only an additional
proof of the intercourse between eastern and western Asia.

It is only toward the end of the 16th century that we find the first
examples of porcelain decorated with colours fired over the glaze. It
seems probable that the practice grew out of the use of enamels on
metal, which had spread from Byzantium to China, and which the Chinese
developed with remarkable skill. It is important to remember that the
very nature of the glaze of Chinese porcelain, necessitating such a high
temperature to melt it, severely restricted the under-glaze palette to
cobalt-blue and the glorious but uncertain copper-red. To obtain the
rich polychromatic schemes of the potters of the West some other means
must be found, and so the device was adopted of taking a finished piece
of blue and white and decorating it further by very fusible colours
painted over the fired glaze and then attached to it by refiring at a
lower temperature equal only to that used by the enameller on metals. At
first the on-glaze or enamel colours were applied as thin washes, as in
the Ming (_San ts' ai_) three-colour decoration of green, purple, and
yellow. Then we get the Ming (_Wan-li Wu ts' ai_) five-colour scheme, in
which the same three colours are combined with an over-glaze red and all
are painted over a skeleton pattern in under-glaze blue. This
development, as its name implies, only took place in the reign of Wan-li
(1573-1620).

At this time King-tê-chên must have produced a very large quantity of
porcelain. The requirements of the court were enormous, for in 1583 one
of the supervising censors, remonstrating with the emperor, declared
that one year's demands comprised over 96,000 pieces; and Dr Bushell
writes: "The colossal production of the reign of Wan-li is shown by the
abundance of porcelain of this time to be found in Pekin at the present
day, where a garden of any pretensions must have a large collection of
bowls or cisterns for goldfish, and street-hawkers may be seen with
sweetmeats upheld by dishes a yard in diameter, or ladling syrup out of
large bowls, and there is hardly a butcher's shop without a cracked
Wan-li jar standing on the counter to hold scraps of meat."

Such profuse orders may be accountable for the fact that the wares of
this reign are inferior both in material and workmanship to the wares of
the preceding and also of later periods, but the influence of the
growing export trade doubtless told in the same direction. For several
centuries the native Chinese porcelain had been exported to all the
neighbouring countries, and through Persia and Cairo to the West. No
long time elapsed before the Chinese adopted forms, colours and
decorations for these export wares, not in accordance with Chinese
usage, but presumably more suited to the tastes of the foreigner. Hence
the Persian and Syrian style of the painted blue decoration of the 15th
and 16th century wares found in other Asiatic countries. Now, for the
first time, there came a direct European demand, and cargoes of ware
were brought to Europe by the Portuguese and afterwards by the Dutch,
which were increasingly decorated in fashions foreign to Chinese taste.
The production of these export wares slowly modified the taste of the
Chinese themselves and paved the way for the new styles of the late 17th
and early 18th centuries.

The political troubles which marked the downfall of the Ming dynasty
definitely separated the first great period of Chinese porcelain from
its second and culminating period. The works at King-tê-chên were
destroyed more than once in the 17th century, but in spite of these
difficulties the potters must have remained, for the reigns of K'ang-hi
(1662-1722), Yung-chêng (1722-1735), and K'ien-lung (1736-1795) covered
a century and a half, within which the high-water mark of artistic
production was reached and passed. It is only possible here to sketch in
broadest outline the course of this Renaissance, which has formed the
subject of many learned works.

It is characteristic of the Chinese mind that during this period, when a
spirit of eager experiment was abroad, the productions of their ancient
kilns should receive no less attention than the new methods of
decoration in on-glaze colours, while at the same time many of the
discoveries of the later Ming days were carried on to perfection. The
first remarkable productions of the reign of K'ang-hi, the famous green
and blood-red _Lang-yao_ glazes, were made in the attempt to produce
glazes like those of old times. With the more carefully prepared body
and glaze the results are strikingly different and, as we think,
superior, for it is difficult to believe that any example of the
"sacrificial" red of the reign of Suen-tê can have been as glorious as
the red _Lang-Yao_, the crown of all that group of glazes known from
their general colour as _sang de boeuf_ (see example, Plate VII.). In
the same way the traditional blue and white of the Ming period was
continued with the greatest skill, and, if the blue pigment be not so
pure as that of the 15th century, the decorative effect of the blue and
white of the reign of K'ang-hi (see example, Plate VIII.) has never been
equalled in Europe. The subjects of the blue and white pieces of this
period are very varied, including religious, ceremonial, battle and
hunting subjects, homely scenes such as ladies and children amusing
themselves in gardens, or animals, birds, dragons and other fabulous
monsters disporting themselves in clouds or waves. The so-called
"hawthorn ginger jars" form a class by themselves in the opinion of
modern collectors (see the plum-blossom jar, Plate VIII.), a specimen
being sold at the Louis Huth sale (1906) for £5900. The fertility of the
painters was remarkable, and a collection of the blue and white of this
reign offers a fine feast of ceramic colour from the harmonious relation
between the tones of the white and the blue, especially when it is seen
_en masse_, as in the famous Dresden collection.[33]

The practice of painting the ground of a piece in blue so that the
pattern was reserved in white (even artfully heightened by the use of
slip) dates from Ming times, but the grounds of powder-blue appear to
have originated at this time. The cobalt-pigment was not applied by a
brush, but was blown on through a tube, one end of which was covered
with fine muslin, in a rain of minute drops. This ground was either
carried over the whole piece so as to give the effect of a vibrating
blue glaze--in which case it was generally covered with conventional
designs pencilled in ground-up gold-leaf over the glaze--or panels were
reserved in white on which floral designs were afterwards painted in
on-glaze colours.

In the same way the decoration in underglaze red was revived or
re-introduced, and probably the finest pieces of this ware, as of so
many others in our great European collections, date only from the
beginning of the 18th century. Eggshell wares and pierced or reticulated
pieces were made to great perfection, and the coloured glazes in light
green, turquoise, purple and black (see Plate VII.) reached their
height. The early glazes of this type appeared in Sung times (see
above), but on the finely prepared K'ang-hi wares much more striking and
brilliant colour effects were obtained. As in old times, for the
production of some of these glazes a departure was made from the general
Chinese methods. The vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state,
and then soft alkaline glazes coloured with copper or manganese were
fired over them at a much lower temperature so as to give the
"peacock-blue," "kingfisher-green" and "aubergine-purple" glazes. Many
varieties of single-coloured glazes were made by covering a white glazed
piece with on-glaze colour, and in this way new shades of coloured
glaze, such as the coral-reds (Plate VII.), were obtained. The various
brown or bronze-coloured grounds, so well known in the so-called
"Batavian" porcelain, were obtained by coating the piece with a slip of
some ochreous clay under the usual white glaze. Even these methods do
not exhaust the fertile resources of the potters of this period, for
they carried on concurrently the style of decoration in overglaze
colours, first in the schemes characterized by the predominance of a
vivid green enamel (_famille verte_; see Plate VIII.), and finally, in
the 18th century, in the schemes in which rose, pink and purple colours
predominate (_famille rose_; see Plate VIII.). It is probable that these
latter colours, which owe their tint to gold, were introduced into China
from Europe, but the Chinese employed them whole-heartedly, until in
fact they largely ousted all the earlier types of colour decoration.

During the reign of Yung-Chêng (1723-1735) the diverse styles seem to
have been finally struggling for mastery. Yung-Cheng was an ardent
collector of ancient Chinese porcelains, and he sent to King-tê-chên
specimens of the most ancient wares, whether of pottery or porcelain, to
be reproduced, while at the same time he and his court patronized the
wares in foreign styles and colours (Japanese and European.)

The struggle continued practically to the end of the 18th century, but
in spite of certain brilliant inventions, such as the "iron-rust" and
"tea-dust" glazes of the reign of K'ien-lung in harmony with old Chinese
effects, what we must regard as the inferior decorative style triumphed,
and we see the gradual disappearance of the ancient methods in favour of
(1) wares of a beautiful white body decorated only with on-glaze
colours, principally those of the _famille rose_, and (2) a very large
production of inferior wares, made in European shapes and decorated with
on-glaze painting and gilding to suit the European taste of the 18th
century.

This "armorial" china, so much of which was once foolishly ascribed to
Lowestoft, has little to commend it. The material is seldom of the best
quality, and the Chinese rendering of European arms and crests, or stiff
copies of European engravings surrounded by quasi-oriental borders of
diaper, &c., does nothing to recommend it. A great deal of this ware,
though manufactured at King-tê-chên, was decorated at Canton, and the
school of pottery decorators founded there by reason of this export
trade also produced a certain number of pieces in pure Chinese taste,
especially some of the ruby-backed plates and dishes and the small cups
and saucers decorated with deftly-painted designs of cocks, peonies, &c.

It must be pointed out that the great change implied in the replacement
of patterns painted in blue under the glaze by those painted in colours
over the glaze profoundly influenced the style of painting. In the
earlier wares the treatment is bold and vigorous as becomes true pottery
colour, and the softening of the colour by the melting glaze adds to the
artistic charm of the result. Painting on a fired glaze is like painting
on glass--fine lines, delicate drawing, and skilful stippling or
cross-hatching are just as natural in this method as they are impossible
or uncertain in the other. Naturalism of rendering takes the place of
conventional decorative treatment, and elaborate minuteness of finish
supplants the broad freedom of direct brushwork. During the 18th century
the same leaven was at work on the porcelains of China and of Europe,
the East influenced the West, and the West in its turn bore down the
East. If Chinese porcelain remained superior to its European
counterfeits, it was because the Chinaman was still the better potter
and had a longer tradition of decorative art behind him.

There is little to be said of Chinese porcelain during the 19th century.
The European demand was practically killed by the growth of porcelain
works at home, and the imperial patronage, so great a factor in the
production of artistic wares, was fitful and uncertain. Tao-Kwang
(1821-1850) gave some attention to porcelain, and the pieces made for
him and marked "_Shen-te-t'ang_" are valued by collectors. The so-called
Peking bowls of his reign (made of course at King-tê-chên) are also of
repute. But the political difficulties of China left little leisure for
the cultivation of the arts; the successive wars with France and England
served only to scatter the splendid wares of the past (see the Musée
Chinoise at Fontainebleau), and during the reign of the next emperor
Hien-fêng (1851-1861) the T'aipings overran the province of Kiang-si and
destroyed King-tê-chên and its factories. Since then the town has been
rebuilt and is once again producing Chinese porcelain. Tempted doubtless
by the high prices now paid in Europe and America for examples of the
Chinese porcelains of the 18th century, modern copies of the
single-coloured, _sang de boeuf_, _flambé_ and other glazes are being
made, while the highly prized "hawthorn" jars and black-ground vases are
receiving the same undesirable attention.

  _Materials and, Manufacture of Chinese Porcelain._--For many centuries
  after its first appearance Chinese porcelain differed from every other
  known species of pottery both in its material and its manufacture.
  While the pottery of all other countries was generally made of
  coloured clays mixed only with sand or broken "shards" and fired at a
  comparatively low temperature, Chinese porcelain was compounded from
  the purest white clays, sand and fusible rock; it was glazed with
  fusible rock, and it was so hard fired that the entire mass became
  vitrified and translucent. The germ of the manufacture lay in the
  discovery of large masses of primary clay (kaolin) mixed with
  finely-ground felspathic rock (petuntse), both of which were carefully
  washed, levigated and purified. The body of Chinese porcelain varied
  from time to time within wide limits, but, broadly speaking, it always
  consists of purified kaolin, petuntse and quartz (sand), mixed in
  various proportions, sometimes with additional ingredients, according
  to the quality of ware desired. For the glaze the purest and cleanest
  portions of the felspathic rock (petuntse) were selected and mixed
  with lime--all being ground to fine powder. The lime causes the glaze
  to melt at a lower temperature than would be necessary for petuntse
  alone. The lime also gives the Chinese glazes their luscious softness
  of aspect and the faint greenish or bluish tone, while it enabled them
  to receive the later decorations in piled-up enamels, impossible on
  the harder European porcelain glazes of the 18th century. The
  finely-prepared glaze was applied to the clay vessels, before they had
  been fired, either by dipping, by painting, or by insufflation; and
  then glaze and body were fired together at a very high temperature.
  For certain glazes--turquoise, purple, &c.--which were not of the
  felspathic type, the vessels were first fired to the "biscuit" state,
  and the glazes were then applied and fired at a much lower
  temperature--the usual practice of the potters of other countries.
  When painted wares in blue and red were first introduced, the
  necessary pigments were painted on the pieces before firing, the glaze
  was applied over them, and then all was finished at one and the same
  firing. With the later enamel colours the piece was first fired as
  above described, and the fusible colours were then painted on the
  glaze, which was of course like glass. A second firing at a lower
  temperature fused these on-glaze colours to the ware. For information
  on Chinese materials and methods the reader is referred to the letters
  of Père d'Entrecolles in the collection of Jesuit letters known as
  _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_. The English reader will find
  reliable translations of the essential parts in Bushell's _Oriental
  Ceramic Art_, Dillon's _Porcelain_, and Burton's _History of
  Porcelain_. Later information will be found in Brongniart's _Traité
  des arts céramiques_, especially in the 3rd edition, 1877; and in an
  article by G. Vogt, _Bulletin de la Société d'encouragement pour
  l'industrie nationale_, April 1900, pp. 530-612.

  _Collections._--The Franks collection in the British Museum; the
  Victoria and Albert Museum, where the famous collection of Mr George
  Salting has for years been displayed, together with the collections
  belonging to the museum. Paris, the Grandidier collection at the
  Louvre; the collection at the Musée Guimet; the Sèvres Museum.
  Fontainebleau, the Musée Chinoise. Dresden, the Porcelain
  Collection--the oldest in Europe. Boston, the Museum of Fine Arts. New
  York, the Metropolitan Museum containing the Garland and other
  collections. Washington, the Hippisley collection; as well as
  magnificent private collections, at the head of which is that of the
  late W.T. Walters of Baltimore.

  LITERATURE.--The older European works on Chinese porcelain have been
  superseded by the later books. The following list contains the best
  recent books:--S.W. Bushell, _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (New York, 1897;
  text separately 1899); _Chinese Porcelain before the present Dynasty_
  (Pekin, 1886); _Chinese Art_, vol. ii., Victoria and Albert Museum
  Handbooks (1906); Brongniart, _Traité des arts céramiques_ (3rd
  edition, with valuable supplements by Salvétat, 1877); Dillon,
  _Porcelain_ (1900); Sir A.W. Franks, _Catalogue of Oriental Pottery
  and Porcelain_ (1878); Grandidier, _La Céramique chinoise_ (1894);
  Griggs, _Examples of Armorial China_ (1887); Hippisley, _Ceramic Arts
  in China_ (Smithsonian Institute, Washington, 1890); Hirth, _Ancient
  Chinese Porcelain_ (Leipzig, 1888); Julien, _Histoire et fabrication
  de la porcelaine chinoise_ (Paris, 1856); Meyer, _Lung-chuan Yao, oder
  alter Seladon Porzellan_ (Berlin, 1889); Monkhouse, _History of
  Chinese Porcelain_ (1901); O. du Sartel, _La Porcelaine de Chine_
  (Paris, 1881); Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); Bushell and Laffan, _The
  Garland Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of New York_ (1907).
       (W. B.*)


EUROPEAN PORCELAIN TO THE END OF THE 18TH CENTURY

Europe can claim no share in the discovery of porcelain, the white and
translucent pottery _par excellence_, for when the first specimens of
Chinese porcelain were brought to Europe, perhaps as early as the 11th
or 12th century, they excited the greatest wonder and admiration. Cairo
was at this time the great mart for the exchange of the products of East
and West, and from this centre porcelains were sent into Europe. Nasir i
Khosrau, the Persian traveller, who visited Old Cairo in A.D. 1035-1042,
was evidently acquainted with Chinese porcelain, and he also speaks of a
translucent ware made at Fostat (Old Cairo) which may well have been the
progenitor of the glassy porcelains of Persia, as well as of those made
in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries. In A.D. 1171 the famous
Saladin sent from Cairo a present of forty pieces of Chinese porcelain
to the sultan of Babylon; and from that time onwards we have frequent
records of pieces of this exotic pottery finding their way into the
treasuries of European princes. With the renewed attention paid to the
potter's art in Europe after the 14th century, it was but natural that
efforts should be made to imitate a material so mysterious and
beautiful. But knowledge of Chinese materials and methods was _nil_, and
for a further two centuries all that Europe manufactured in the shape of
translucent pottery was the artificial porcelain made with glass, which
can only be looked upon as a substitute for true porcelain. In Italy
during the 16th century, and in France during the century from 1670 to
1770 roughly, this artificial porcelain was made and developed. At
Meissen in Saxony the famous Böttger made a true porcelain from
materials analogous to the Chinese about 1710-1712, and this manufacture
was pursued in Germany, Austria and elsewhere in Europe (even in France,
the home of the artificial glassy porcelain, after 1770), so that by the
end of the 18th century, when Chinese porcelain had reached and passed
its zenith, the manufacture of a similar material was well established
in Europe, and the glassy porcelains had been generally abandoned. The
only country which offered any departure from this general rule was
England. The earliest English porcelains were derived from the French,
and, like them, owed their translucence to the use of glass. Efforts
were made at Plymouth and at Bristol (1758-1781) to introduce the
manufacture of porcelain, like the Chinese and its German counterparts,
but these failed and the English potters finally invented a third kind
of porcelain, in which calcined ox-bones were added to the clay and
ground rock to give a white translucent porcelain capable of receiving
any form of decoration. This distinctively English porcelain, perfected
about 1800, is not only the principal kind made in England in our own
times, but its manufacture has been adopted, to some extent in France,
Germany and Sweden, as well as in the United States.

It is impossible to describe these various efforts of European potters
without a certain amount of overlapping, for during the 18th century all
the three kinds of European porcelain were struggling for supremacy. It
is advisable, therefore, to keep clearly in mind which kind of porcelain
is in question, for many problems of manufacture and decoration are
absolutely determined by the nature of the materials.

If we could trust to documentary evidence alone, the earliest European
porcelains were made at Venice in 1470, and again in 1519; while we also
read of its manufacture at Ferrara in 1561.[34] Unfortunately,
documentary evidence alone is not conclusive, and the first European
porcelain, known from actual specimens as well as by documentary
evidence, was that made at Florence in the laboratory of Francesco de'
Medici, between 1575 and 1585. Specimens of this rare porcelain are to
be found only in great museums and private collections, where they rank
among our chief ceramic treasures. They show clearly that the Florentine
potters never fully mastered their difficult material, for the ware is
always imperfect and compares indifferently in whiteness and
translucence with fine porcelain, while the glaze is neither smoothly
melted nor free from defects. Obviously the effect of Chinese blue and
white porcelain was aimed at, the decorations, reminiscent of the style
of the Persian pot-painters, being executed in cobalt blue alone. These
rare and interesting pieces bear distinctive marks; for at their period
the use of painters' marks or monograms had become fairly general on
artistic pottery in Europe. One of the best known marks is the "palle"
or balls of the arms of the Medici family, bearing the letters "F M M E
D II." for "Franciscus Medici Magnus Etruriae Dux II."; while other
pieces have a rude representation of the Great Dome of Florence and the
letter "F."

[Illustration: Florentine Potter's mark.]

[Illustration: PLATE VIII.

  Chinese. K'ang-hsi period.

  Chinese. Black ground. K'ang-hsi period.

  Chinese (_Famille Verte_). K'ang-hsi period.

  Chinese (_Famille Rose_). Ch'ien-lung period.

  Chinese. Plum-blossom jar. K'ang-hsi period.]

Fortunately, too, besides the few specimens of Florentine porcelain that
have survived to our day a manuscript has been found in the
Magliabechian Library at Florence which states that the paste was
composed of 24 parts of sand, 16 of a glass (powdered rock crystal 10
and soda 8), and 12 parts white earth of Faenza. To 12 parts of this
mixture 3 parts of the kaolinic clay of Vicenza were to be added, and
the pieces glazed with a lead glaze, or sometimes with the tin-enamel of
the Italian faience maker. We are in the presence, therefore, of a
material unlike Chinese porcelain in every respect, the Florentine
porcelain being the first of a long line of European porcelains the
artistic qualities of which were obtained by mixing a large quantity of
glass with a small quantity of clay, so that they may almost be regarded
as a species of glazed and painted glass. The technical methods used in
their manufacture and decoration, however, were those of the potter and
not of the glass maker.

With the death of Francesco de' Medici in 1587 it seems probable that
this wonderful innovation came to an untimely end, and we hear no more
of porcelain in Italy for more than a century. During this century
(1587-1687) there can be no doubt that efforts were made all over Europe
to discover the secret of porcelain manufacture; but the first reliable
date we can point to is 1673, when Louis Poterat, a faience maker of
Rouen, obtained a privilege from the French king for the manufacture of
porcelain in that town. The Rouen porcelain in turn ceased with the
death of Poterat in 1696. Authentic specimens are extant in the shape of
salt-cellars, mustard pots and some few vases, the latter of
considerable size. The pieces are usually decorated in blue with
patterns in the Rouen style and were evidently painted by an expert
faience painter. In composition, the porcelain of Rouen, like that of
Florence, was of the artificial or glassy type, and shortly afterwards a
similar ware made its appearance at the faience works of St Cloud near
Paris, and at various works in the city of Paris. Well-known pieces,
bearing the marks here shown, formerly supposed to be the earliest
specimens of French porcelain and the work of Poterat at Rouen, are
probably experimental pieces made in Paris after the date of Poterat's
discovery, as they differ in important particulars from his ware.

[Illustration: Paris Potters' marks.]

[Illustration: St Cloud Potters' marks.]

Once firmly established in France, this manufacture, under the patronage
of the French court or of some great French noble, rapidly assumed a
position of importance. The works at St Cloud received letters-patent
from Louis XIV. in 1696, and the manufacture was continued there down to
1773. The appearance of the St Cloud porcelain is very characteristic,
for though the paste has a yellowish tinge it is of fine quality with a
clear and brilliant glaze. The first efforts appear to have consisted in
frank imitations of the much-prized Oriental wares, and white pieces
decorated only with branches of flowering plum in relief, or pieces
modelled with imbricated or scale pattern or with delicate flutings,
were made. The earliest colour decoration was naturally in under-glaze
blue, and while quasi-oriental designs were largely used, the commonest
feature is the prevalence of painted borders like those used on the
faience of Rouen and St Cloud. At a later date decoration in over-glaze
colours and gilding was also employed, and though the ware never reached
to such a pitch of excellence as that of the Royal Manufactory at
Sèvres, the St Cloud porcelain is one of the most distinctive French
porcelains of the 18th century.

_German Porcelains._--While the glassy porcelains of France were being
developed at St Cloud, success of a more permanent order was reached in
Germany. Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony (1670-1733), had formed
an extensive collection of Chinese and Japanese porcelains, still to be
seen in the Dresden Museum, and he had established experimental pottery
works, bringing skilled potters from Holland and elsewhere. His chief
investigators appear to have been Tschirnhaus and Böttger, both
alchemists, and it was the glory of the latter to be the first European
to produce a porcelain like the Chinese, both in the nature of its
materials, and in the appearance of its paste and glaze. It may be
surmised that Böttger was guided toward this momentous discovery by
information brought from China, though such an idea is always stoutly
denied by German authorities, who, with pardonable pride, claim that
Böttger at the age of twenty-four succeeded where all other European
experimenters had failed. He was certainly working at the problems
offered by the exotic wares of China, for his first production was an
extremely hard redstone-ware--often erroneously called "Böttger's red
porcelain"--resembling the Chinese "boccaros" or red teapots of the
Yi-hsing potteries. He had been anticipated in this direction by Dwight
of Fulham, but the red pottery of Böttger was so intensely fired that it
became dense enough to be cut and polished by the lapidary as if it were
a piece of jasper or carnelian. It was first offered for sale at the
Leipzig fair of 1710, and for many years it enjoyed great popularity, as
well as the undesirable honour of wide imitation. At the same time
(1710) Böttger exhibited a few crude specimens of greyish-white
porcelain. Imperfect pieces were on sale in 1713, and by 1716 its
manufacture was definitely established, though the pieces were still far
from perfect. Böttger died in 1719, having had the rare fortune, in his
short and eventful life, to establish in Europe the manufacture of true
porcelain.

The life of Böttger reads like a page of romance, and the story of the
subsequent development of porcelain manufacture throughout the German
empire is hardly less romantic. When the importance of Böttger's
discovery was recognized, he and his workmen were removed from Dresden
to the Albrechtsburg, a fortress situated at Meissen some 16 m. away, so
that the manufacture could be conducted with the greatest secrecy. All
concerned were practically state prisoners, and this extreme rigour
doubtless defeated the end in view, for workmen escaped from time to
time, and professing, more or less truthfully, a knowledge of the
manufacture, found patrons among the German princes all eager to gain
reputation as experimenters in the new art of porcelain. Some of these
wandering "Arcanists," like Ringler and Hunger, and the men who learnt
from them, travelled all over the empire, and the following list of
dates will show how porcelain factories sprang up from the parent
factory at Meissen:--

  Meissen        1710    |    St Petersburg  1744
  Vienna         1718    |    Berlin         1750
  Ansbach        1718    |    Nymphenburg    1758
  Bayreuth       1720    |    Ludwigsburg    1758

_Meissen._--Although the factory which was founded at Meissen as a
result of Böttger's discovery remained on its old site until 1863, the
porcelain made there has been commonly known as Dresden porcelain;
probably because Dresden was the seat of the Saxon court, and the
enterprise was conducted at the expense of the electors of Saxony. So
jealously were the secrets of this factory guarded that when Napoleon,
the master of Europe, sent Brongniart to investigate the methods in use
at Meissen in 1812, the elector of Saxony had to release Steinauer, the
director, from his oath of secrecy before he would explain the
processes. Meissen porcelain, therefore, affords us the best example by
which we may follow the changes of fashion and taste that governed the
styles of porcelain decoration in Europe during the 18th century. The
early Meissen porcelain was made from the kaolin found at Aue, near
Schneeberg, and while there is no mention of any other material, we may
be sure that clay and felspathic rock, analogous to the Chinese _kaolin_
and _petuntse_, were obtained from the same quarries, and were used
together. Until after the death of Böttger in 1719 it cannot be said
that the venture was more than a _succès d'estime_. The specimens
preserved in the Dresden Museum show that the pieces were generally
thick in substance and clumsy in shape, being often made from the moulds
that had been designed for Böttger's red-stoneware. Naturally enough
these early examples were inspired by Chinese models, both in shape and
decoration. As at St Cloud, white pieces with modelled decoration were
common. Unlike the contemporary French glassy porcelains, the
decorations in under-glaze blue were very imperfect, the blue colour
being much run and blistered; and when attempts were made at decoration
in enamel colours (i.e. colours fired on the finished glaze) the result
was unsatisfactory, as, owing to the refractory nature of the hard
felspathic material, these colours frequently scaled off. The later
success of the Meissen factory must be attributed to Herold or Höroldt
(who joined the staff in 1720 as a colour maker and painter), and to
Kandler, a sculptor, who came to the works in 1731. In the hands of
these two men the forms and decorations, still largely based on Chinese
and Japanese models, assumed a definitely European style, while the
composition of the body and the glaze, and the application of colours
and gold, were brought to perfection. Herold was appointed director of
the works a few years after 1720, and retained that post until 1765,
while Kandler was chief modeller from 1731 to 1775. The years from 1730
(when the work definitely emerged from its experimental stage) to 1775
(when Kandler died) mark the most distinctive period of the Meissen
porcelain. In the estimation of collectors also the Meissen porcelain of
this period is the most valuable, and genuine examples of _Alt-Meissen_
command high prices in the sale rooms, especially in Germany. This
appreciation was quite as apparent in the 18th century, for by 1740
Meissen porcelain had won the greatest renown in Europe, and was
actually exported by way of Constantinople over the Mahommedan countries
of the Nearer East. It is frequently described by contemporary writers
as being far superior to the porcelain of China, and so great was its
vogue between 1740 and 1750 that as many as 700 workmen--a large number
for those days--were employed, and the industry brought large profits as
well as great reputation to the Saxon court. Each year saw some fresh
departure from the original inspiration of the work, some fresh
innovation of European style in design. After 1730 the rude
reproductions of Chinese forms and decorations in white or blue and
white were replaced by imitations of the Imari porcelains, especially
those decorated in the style of Kakiemon. Here Meissen was running a
race with Chantilly in setting the fashion for the dainty decorations in
red and green and gold which spread in time to all the porcelain
factories of Europe. Gradually European _motifs_ became predominant. The
simple oriental forms were replaced by distinctively European shapes
with architectural mouldings, handles and feet. Instead of the dainty
Japanese patterns, we perceive the gradual introduction of "Rococo"
scroll-work (as interpreted by the Germans) to form a framework or
border for miniature-like paintings of landscapes, ruins,
figure-subjects, hunting scenes, &c., executed in the limited palette of
on-glaze colours then available. Further evidence of the departure from
oriental influence is to be found in the numerous "armorial" services
produced between 1730 and 1740; and at the same period we find the first
appearance of a style of decoration that has persisted to our own times,
as a means of passing off pieces with small flaws in body or glaze, by
hiding them among sprays of naturalistic flowers, with an occasional fly
or some other winged creature thrown with seeming artlessness over the
surface of the piece. This idea, though it seems to have been first used
at Meissen, was so useful to the potter that it became general, and a
device originally adopted to cover faults of manufacture was elevated
into a distinct style of decoration by later European factories (e.g.
Strassburg, Niederviller, &c.).

The talents of Kandler were applied in ambitious but unsatisfactory
attempts to produce life-sized figures of the twelve apostles, an
equestrian statue of Augustus the Strong of heroic proportions, and many
models of animals intended for the decoration of the Japanese palace at
Dresden. Many of these latter are to be seen in the Dresden Museum, and
create an unfavourable impression of the taste of their period. The fame
of Kandler is better perpetuated (see example, Plate IX.) by the little
statuettes and groups of figures and animals that flowed in a steady
stream from his facile hand; for though these figures have prettiness
rather than grace, and _flair_ rather than style, they are instinct with
the spirit of the middle 18th century, and were eagerly imitated or
boldly copied at every factory in Europe. Only in the _biscuit_
porcelain figures of Sèvres, and in some few of the portrait figures of
Derby, do we find anything artistically superior. These Meissen
statuettes look their best when they are simply in white; many are
grotesque and ugly, and the colour decorations are usually in very poor
taste, the harsh, shining colours contrasting unpleasantly with the
pronounced white of the porcelain.

Mention must be made of the use of modelled flowers at Meissen.
Originating in the simple application of modelled branches of prunus,
&c. in imitation of the white porcelains of Fu-kien, the method
developed until we get not only the characteristic "May-flower"
decoration (see example, Plate IX.), but also independent sprays and
bouquets modelled in porcelain and coloured with the utmost mechanical
precision. It is not quite clear whether this production of porcelain
flowers was first perfected at Meissen or at Vincennes,[35] but it was
largely practised at both places.

Toward the end of this period, vases, candelabra, mirror-frames and
clock cases were modelled in the most _outré_ rococo forms with applied
scrolls, shells and flowers. These pieces had their modelled details
picked out in gold and colours, while the success of the French styles
of decoration is still further shown by the copies of Watteau figures
and groups on the more important vases, dishes and plates. Frederick the
Great made sad havoc with the prosperity of Meissen during the Seven
Years' War. He looted the factory both in 1759 and 1761, and is said on
the latter occasion to have carried away to Berlin both models, working
moulds and many workmen. This misfortune marks the end of the most
distinctive Meissen porcelain, for after this time Sèvres became the
most important porcelain factory in Europe, and the later productions of
Meissen were, for the most part, German versions of the styles initiated
at the French royal factory. From 1764 to 1774 Dietrich, a painter, was
at the head of affairs, while a Frenchman named Acier succeeded Kandler.
They introduced the neo-classical style, which was spreading like a
blight all over Europe, and this departure was perfected under the
directorship of Count Marcolini (1774-1814), when Meissen, fallen from
its high estate, was content to follow the lead of Sèvres.

After the Marcolini period there is nothing to be said of Meissen. The
old productions of the factory had become valuable, and the custom of
reproducing them, marks included, was adopted. Such a practice was not
likely to lead to further progress, and, though the factory was removed
from its old site in the Albrechtsburg in 1863, it cannot be said to
have added anything to the progress of European porcelain during the
19th century.

[Illustration: "Dresden" Potter's mark.]

  During the initiatory period the "Dresden" pieces bore the monogram
  "A.R." interlaced (Augustus Rex), and between 1712 and 1716 pieces
  intended for sale and not for the use of the court were marked with
  the sign of Aesculapius (a snake twining round a staff). From about
  1720 two crossed swords, painted in blue under the glaze, with or
  without accompanying stars, crosses, &c., formed the general mark, but
  the mark has been so often used on other porcelains that, in itself,
  it is of slight value as a means of identification.

_Vienna._--The first mention of the manufacture of porcelain in Vienna
occurs in 1718, when a Dutchman, Claude du Paquier, was granted a
patent. He had secured two runaways from Meissen, Stölzel and Hunger,
yet little progress was made until after 1744, when the factory was
bought by the empress Maria Theresa. At first the traditional styles of
Meissen were continued, but the characteristic Viennese porcelain was
produced after 1785. In this ware figure-painting, rich ground colours
and elaborate gilding are associated in an unmistakeable manner.
Leithner, who was chemist and colour maker at this period, succeeded in
producing a more extensive and brilliant palette of colours than was in
use at any other European porcelain factory in the last quarter of the
18th century; and the gilding was rich and elaborate. Apart from its
technical merits the ware has nothing to recommend it, for the styles of
decoration showed pronounced neo-classical influence, and lacked the
saving merits of the French work in the same style. The works was closed
in 1864, on account of the heavy expenses, and collectors should be
reminded that many spurious imitations, the product of small Viennese
factories, are to be found on the market.

[Illustration: Wegeli's mark.]

_Berlin._--The first Berlin porcelain was made by W. Casper Wegeli,
aided by workmen from other German factories, as early as 1750. This
business was unsuccessful and came to an end in 1757, but its
productions are highly prized on account of their rarity. Success only
came when Frederick the Great brought workmen, moulds and materials from
Meissen in 1761, and, becoming proprietor of the works in 1763, founded
the Royal Berlin Porcelain Manufactory. Though Meissen workmen and
methods had been imported, and the Meissen style governed the earliest
productions, Frederick's well-known _penchant_ for French art was
doubtless responsible for the fact that the rococo style of decoration
was more determinedly followed here than elsewhere in Germany. The
colour schemes of this ware are unusually simple, pieces being seldom
decorated in more than three colours, while a rose-coloured enamel, a
favourite colour with the great Frederick, is quite characteristic. The
Royal Berlin Factory passed under a cloud in the troubled condition of
the Prussian monarchy during the early years of the 19th century, and
down to 1870 it was content to follow in the wake of Sèvres like most of
the other European factories. Since about the year 1880, however, it has
developed into the most scientific of European porcelain works, and it
was here that Seger manufactured his special porcelain, made to
reproduce the qualities of the finest Japanese wares. In spite of this
scientific success it must be remarked that the late Berlin porcelain is
artistically disappointing, being too exuberant for our taste and
recalling anything rather than porcelain in its treatment.

  _Minor German Factories._--It is unnecessary to describe the
  productions of all the German porcelain works of the 18th century, for
  not only is there a strong family likeness, but all the works aimed at
  producing pieces comparable with those of Meissen, Vienna or Berlin.
  In every case the industry was established under the patronage or at
  the direct charge of princes or great nobles, anxious to emulate the
  success of the elector of Saxony or the king of Prussia, and generally
  the enterprise came to an end with the death of a patron or from his
  unwillingness to sustain the continued drains upon his purse.

  The factory at Höchst was started about 1720 by wanderers from
  Meissen, but it was only carried to a successful issue through the
  patronage of the archbishop-elector of Mainz after 1746. The general
  style of Höchst is a palpable imitation of the contemporary wares of
  Meissen, but this factory was noted for its excellent figures and
  groups, especially those modelled by Melchior (1770-1780). He
  modelled, at Höchst, more than three hundred figures, as well as many
  portrait medallions. The works came to an untimely end during the
  French invasion of 1794.

  Frankenthal had a porcelain factory (founded by the Hannongs of
  Strassburg) in 1756, and patronized by Karl Theodor, elector palatine
  from 1762 to 1795, when the French invasion put an end to its
  activities. Melchior, the sculptor, came here from Höchst after 1780,
  and elaborate pieces in the current styles of Sèvres and Dresden were
  made.

  Nymphenburg, near Munich, had a factory which was made a royal factory
  in 1758 by Max Joseph III. of Bavaria. The ware was of fine quality,
  but without special distinction. Melchior came on here about 1800,
  remaining till his death in 1825; his Nymphenburg figures are as
  highly esteemed as those he modelled at Höchst and Frankenthal. In the
  early years of the 19th century elaborate painting became the rule
  here, as at the other royal factories, and copies were made on
  porcelain of some of the famous paintings in the Munich galleries. The
  works is still in existence, in the hands of a private company, who
  unfortunately sell many reproductions of the 18th-century wares.

  Ludwigsburg, some 9 m. from Stuttgart, had a porcelain factory from
  1758 to 1824, liberally subsidized by the dukes of Württemberg.
  Highly-finished painting was the rule at this factory, and because the
  ware bore a crown as one of its marks, it has rather foolishly been
  called "Kronenberg" porcelain.

  Fürstenberg was the factory patronized by the dukes of Brunswick.
  Experiments were made as early as 1746, but little ware was produced
  before 1770. Fürstenberg set itself to imitate all the best-known
  styles of the day, and its only distinctive productions are its
  "biscuit" statuettes and medallions. The factory remained in operation
  until 1888, but as the moulds were then sold by auction, imitations of
  the old pieces are now common.

  Other 18th-century German factories were those of Fulda, Bayreuth,
  Cassel, Ansbach, Kloster-Veilsdorf, Wallendorf and Limbach.

  Mention must also be made of the work of certain famous decorators,
  like Bottengruber and Preussler, who decorated both German and
  oriental pieces; while Busch, the canon of Hildesheim, produced
  effects like fine engraving by etching the glaze with a diamond and
  rubbing black colour into the lines.

While France and Germany were each developing their own particular type
of porcelain, it was only natural that the kings and princes of other
countries should strive to emulate them in the manufacture of this still
rare and highly esteemed form of pottery. Naturally, perhaps, the
countries to the north and east seem to have been influenced most by
German methods, whilst those to the south and west followed the French
example.

  _Holland._--The earliest Dutch factories were started as early as
  1704, first at Weesp near Amsterdam, and afterwards at Oude
  Loosdrecht. The mark of this factory occurs as M: O.L., or M.o.L.
  After 1782 the works was removed to Nieuwe Amstel, but the "Amstel"
  porcelain came to an end with the French invasion. The ware resembled
  the German both in material and decoration. The best porcelain made in
  Holland was produced at a factory at the Hague, founded some time
  after 1775. There is a choice collection of this ware in the Gemeente
  Museum at the Hague. No porcelain appears to have been made in Holland
  after about 1810 until 1890 or later.

  _Denmark._--It has been stated that porcelain of the German type was
  made in Copenhagen as early as 1731, but there is no definite record
  of the production of true porcelain until about 1772, when potters,
  modellers and painters from some of the German works founded the
  enterprise which was taken over by King Christian VII. in 1779 and
  converted into a royal factory. Fostered by the king's patronage, fine
  porcelain of pronouncedly German style was largely made down to the
  end of the 18th century. The collection in the castle of Rosenburg
  contains many examples of the work of this period. In the early years
  of the 19th century the Empire style of decoration was adopted, and
  the artistic influence of Sèvres became paramount. Large sums of money
  were continually required from the crown to maintain the establishment
  until, in 1867, it was sold into private hands to get rid of an
  encumbrance. The subsequent new-birth of the existing royal Copenhagen
  porcelain works must be noted in the next section.

  _Sweden._--The history of Swedish porcelain in the 18th century is
  connected with the factories at Rörstrand and Marieberg, both in the
  environs of Stockholm. Tentative experiments were made at both these
  places before 1760, but these came to an end by the close of the 18th
  century, though the Rörstrand works was reopened some fifty years ago
  and will be subsequently referred to. The Swedish porcelains were of
  two kinds, one a true felspathic porcelain like the German, and the
  other a glassy porcelain resembling that made at Mennecy in France. It
  is interesting to note that the decorative styles in both cases are
  distinctly French in character.

  _Russia._--Peter the Great is said to have projected a porcelain
  factory at the suggestion of his ally Augustus the Third of Saxony,
  but the scheme was not carried into execution until the days of the
  empress Elizabeth. Catherine II. subsidized the work in prodigal
  fashion, but although she brought over French artists, the Russian
  porcelain more closely resembles its German than its French prototype.
  In the early years of the 19th century the imperial Russian factory
  followed the example of Sèvres in producing costly dinner services and
  extravagant vases of large dimensions.

  Small independent factories were started in the neighbourhood of
  Moscow: one by an Englishman named Gardner about 1780, and another by
  A. Popoff. Besides producing ordinary table ware these Moscow
  factories sent forth a considerable number of statuettes, the most
  interesting being those representing Russian peasant types.

  _Hungary._--The one Hungarian porcelain factory of note is that at
  Herend, which was founded about 1830 by Moritz Fischer. At this
  factory copies of oriental porcelain were made that have deceived many
  collectors, though the pieces are usually impressed with the word
  "Herend" in the paste.

  _Switzerland._--Little porcelain has been produced in Switzerland, and
  considering the geographical position of the country it seems natural
  that porcelain of the German type should have been made at Zurich and
  of the French type at Nyon on the lake of Geneva, but these
  productions are of no particular importance.

_French Porcelains._--The beginnings of French porcelain at Rouen and St
Cloud have already been mentioned, as they preceded Böttger's discovery
of true porcelain; but as nothing was known in France of the methods and
materials used by the German porcelain makers, the artificial or glassy
porcelain held sway in France through the greater part of the 18th
century. The next important factory after St Cloud was that founded at
Chantilly about 1725 under the patronage of the Prince de Condé, an
enthusiastic collector of Chinese and Japanese porcelains. One
distinctive feature of the Chantilly porcelain is its imitation of the
Japanese Imari wares of the 17th century, especially those bearing
delicate patterns in the Kakiemon style. This imitation was not confined
to the decoration alone, but great efforts were made to reproduce the
delicious tender whiteness of the original ware, by covering the body of
the soft porcelain with a coating of the tin-enamel used by the French
faience makers. Similar imitation of the Kakiemon style of decoration
became the rage all over Europe, and was largely followed at Meissen and
in England as well as in France; but no European imitations equalled
those of the famous Chantilly ware.

[Illustration: Lille and Chantilly Potters' marks.]

Other porcelain factories were started at Mennecy-Villeroy and at Lille,
but the most important French factory was that founded at Vincennes
about 1740, not only because of the many beautiful pieces produced
there, but also because the works was taken under the direct patronage
of the king in 1753 and was transferred to Sèvres in 1756, becoming
ultimately the most important porcelain factory in Europe.

  Fortunately we have documentary information of the exact composition
  of the artificial porcelain (_pâte tendre_) of Sèvres, and a brief
  account of its manufacture will serve to explain how all the glassy
  porcelains of Europe were made. The potter commenced by preparing a
  glass or frit, melting together pure sand, alum, sea-salt, gypsum,
  soda and nitre. The clear portions of this frit were powdered and
  washed with boiling water, and the working clay was compounded by
  adding to such powdered frit a small quantity of chalky clay or marl
  and sometimes pure chalk as well. This mixture was ground in water
  until the fluid was as fine as cream, and it was then boiled to a
  thick paste which was so little plastic in itself that black soap or
  parchment size was added to it to give it enough plasticity for the
  workman to be able to shape it. Vases and other pieces were made from
  this paste by pressing cakes of it in plaster moulds of considerable
  thickness. After pressing, the pieces were dried and were then either
  turned on a lathe or rubbed down with sand-paper to reduce them to
  sufficient thinness; while handles, spouts or other ornaments in
  relief were applied with a lute of slip, as is customary with every
  other species of pottery. The fragile objects were then fired into
  what is known as the "biscuit" condition; the most difficult part of
  the whole process. During this firing the pieces frequently went out
  of shape because of the excessive shrinkage of the material and its
  tendency to soften as it approached the melting point of the frit.
  Consequently an elaborate system of "propping" the pieces had to be
  resorted to, and even then a very large proportion became deformed.
  When the porcelain was drawn from the oven after the first firing, the
  supports were removed and the pieces were rubbed with sand to clean
  the surface, and were then coated with glaze by sprinkling with a
  brush; the glaze being a fusible glass very rich in lead. The glaze
  coat was melted by refiring the piece at a lower temperature; and it
  was frequently necessary to repeat this process several times in order
  to get a perfectly even and brilliant result. The difficulties of such
  a process were enormous, and it was only by the financial support of
  wealthy patrons, or of the state, that such a method of manufacture
  was ever carried on for any length of time. At its best the material
  is an exceedingly beautiful one, lending itself especially to
  decoration in on-glaze colours, and the pieces produced at Vincennes
  and at Sèvres, between 1745 and 1770 or thereabouts, form a distinct
  class by themselves. Skilful chemists like Hellot and Macquer were
  employed to direct the operations, and many beautiful ground colours,
  such as the famous _gros-bleu, bleu de roi, rose Pompadour_, pea-green
  and apple-green were invented.

_Sèvres Porcelains._--The forms of the Sèvres porcelain are exceedingly
varied. Many of the older shapes were designed by Duplessis, the king's
silversmith, and, as is perhaps natural, are more proper to metal than
to pottery; but the French glassy porcelain is such an artificial
material in every respect that such a point should not be strained too
far. Owing to the want of plasticity in the paste the pieces were always
made in moulds of plaster of Paris, while in many cases they were
moulded in separate parts and these united together with metal screws or
mounted in bands of chased ormolu. Table services made for actual use
were usually painted on a plain white ground with the full palette of
on-glaze colours (or enamels) and much rich gilding. The decorative
pieces such as vases, candelabra, jardinières, &c., were decorated in a
much more sumptuous fashion by covering the greater part of the piece
with a ground of one of the rich enamel colours previously mentioned,
reserving only panels in white on which delicate miniature-like
decorations of the most varied kind were subsequently painted and fired
(see fig. 52; and examples of Sèvres, Plate IX.). Such collections as
the Wallace at Hertford House, or the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, show at once the variety and perfection to which the work
attained.

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Sèvres vase, _pâte tendre_; green body and gilt
imitation mounting. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]

This Sèvres porcelain is entirely devoid of the broad decorative
treatment and rich full colour of any of the great kinds of fine pottery
or porcelain. Artistically considered, it has no place beside the
triumphs of the Chinese or Persian potters, or of the Italian majolists.
Its shapes are too formal, and are not sufficiently imbued with a sense
of the qualities of the material. The ground colours defy every natural
tendency of pottery colour for they are even, flawless and mechanical,
with none of the palpitating richness that comes so naturally from the
potter's processes. The paintings, whether of flowers, birds or
figure-subjects, are extraordinarily skilful regarded as miniatures, but
as examples of pottery decoration they cannot be compared to the swift,
apparently careless, brushwork of the great masters of earlier times. So
pronounced was the demand of the period for smooth even finish that such
ground colours as _gros-bleu_ and _bleu de roi_, where the colour
naturally came varied and uneven, were subsequently decorated with small
diapers or lines of gold in the form of _[oe]il de perdrix_ or
_vermicelle_, so as to produce a more regular and even effect. The most
elaborate and costly of all the varieties of old Sèvres is what is known
as "jewelled Sèvres," which is richly sown with imitation jewels, such
as turquoises, pearls and rubies, closely resembling the real stones.
These imitation jewels were in every case set in beautifully chased
mountings of gold, and in the museum at Sevres are to be found examples
of the punches and other tools used in making these mounts. On account
of the enormous expense involved in the production of such costly
triumphs of skill, examples of jewelled Sèvres are rare even in the best
collections, but the English student is fortunate in the fact that the
Wallace collection contains a considerable number of them.

[Illustration: Sèvres Potters' marks, 1753 and 1772.]

Many reasons--the prestige attaching to a Royal Manufactory, the
knowledge that the porcelain was produced regardless of cost, the
mechanical perfection of its colours, gilding and decoration, as well as
the fact that the glassy porcelain was abandoned as too costly and risky
after about 1780--have all conspired to raise the prices which modern
collectors are prepared to pay for fine examples of _vieux Sèvres_. It
is doubtful whether even the prices paid for paintings by old masters
have advanced so rapidly as those paid for Sèvres porcelain of the best
period. In the 'seventies of the 19th century it was deemed worthy of
remark that a sum of £10,000 should have been paid at public auction for
three old Sèvres vases; thirty years later one such piece would probably
fetch the same price. It should be added that the extravagant prices now
paid for Sèvres porcelain, which is much more a triumph of technical
than of artistic skill, have led to an extensive system of "faking" and
even forging specimens which are purchased at high prices by amateurs.

Beautiful as the old Sèvres porcelain was, those who were responsible
for its manufacture could not fail to recognize that the porcelain made
at Meissen and other German factories was both harder and whiter in
substance, more truly resembling the oriental porcelain in every
respect. It was also known that these German porcelains were not so
difficult, and therefore so costly to manufacture as the French, and all
these causes combined to make the directorate of Sèvres unremitting in
their efforts to discover in France natural materials analogous to those
used by the German and Chinese potters. Père d'Entrecolles, the famous
Jesuit missionary, had forwarded to France long before an account of the
methods used by the Chinese, as well as samples of the materials they
employed; and after many years' research Millot and Macquer discovered
the precious materials at St Yrieix near Limoges (see Auscher, _History
of French Porcelain_, pp. 77-81). The first experimental pieces of this
French porcelain, similar in material to the German and Chinese, appear
to have been made about 1769; but it was some years after this before
the manufacture of the new product was firmly established, and then to
the end of the 18th century more and more of the hard porcelain and less
of the glassy porcelain was made at Sèvres. Speaking broadly, we might
say that after 1780 comparatively little of the original French
porcelain was made in France; and from that time to this practically all
French porcelain has been of the same type as the German porcelain, viz.
made with china clay and felspathic rock. This technical change in the
nature of the materials had a profound influence on the artistic
qualities of French porcelain, and the change was doubtless accentuated
by the neo-classical rage which followed on the discovery of Herculaneum
and Pompeii. The influence of antique vase shapes and of modern
renderings of Greek motives in design spread over Europe like a plague,
and whether in France, Germany or England the last quarter of the 18th
and the first quarter of the 19th century mark a definite period in
pottery design and decoration. The introduction of hard-paste porcelain
rendered the manufacture of large vases and other pieces possible; and
after 1780 we find the manufactory at Sèvres engaged in the production
of enormous vases 5 or 6 ft. in height, a manufacture which has been
continued there to this day. About the same time, too, we find the first
production of large plaques or slabs of porcelain on which copies of
well-known pictures were painted in enamel colours. The earliest of
these slabs were in soft-paste porcelain, but in this material it was
only possible to make them of quite modest dimensions; with the
introduction of hard-paste porcelain very large slabs were manufactured,
and a series of these are to be seen in the museum at Sèvres.

The most artistic of all the productions of Sèvres are undoubtedly the
"biscuit" figures and groups. These were modelled with great skill by
many of the best French sculptors of the day, such as Pajou, Pigalle,
Clodion, La Rue, Caffieri, Falconet, Boizot, Julien, Le Riche, &c. The
best of these Sèvres "biscuits" have a real artistic value which places
them in a class quite apart from the German porcelain figures made at
Meissen, Frankenthal and Höchst.

  _Paris_.--Although during the reign of Louis XV. many privileges and
  prerogatives had been given to the Sèvres manufactory, such as the
  exclusive right to gild or paint in colours on porcelain, the
  breakdown of the monarchical régime, which was rapidly accelerated
  after the accession of Louis XVI., led to the establishment in Paris
  and its environs of a number, of factories for the production of
  hard-paste porcelains more or less in open rivalry with the royal
  manufactory of Sèvres. In order that the royal edicts might be more
  easily evaded, most of these factories were placed under the patronage
  of one of the French princes of the blood or even of Queen Marie
  Antoinette. There is little need to dwell on the doings of these
  Parisian factories, but the productions of the best of them, such as
  those of Clignancourt (patronized by Monsieur, the king's eldest
  brother); Rue Thiroux (patronized by Queen Marie Antoinette); Rue de
  Bondy (patronized by the duc d'Angoulême), compare not unfavourably
  with those of Sèvres itself.

  It is impossible to do more than mention the other important French
  factories at Mennecy, Sceaux, Bourg-la-Reine, Strassburg,
  Niederviller, Marseilles, Limoges and Caen. In the disastrous years
  of the French revolution (between 1789 and 1800), such of these
  factories as had survived came to an untimely end, even the royal
  factory at Sèvres passing through a kind of lingering death between
  1792 and 1801, and it was not until Napoleon decided to revive the
  glories of Sèvres that modern French porcelain really came into being.

Just as the manufacture of German porcelain spread into Holland,
Denmark, Sweden, Russia, &c., we find the manufacture of a glassy
porcelain analogous to the early French arising in Belgium, Italy, Spain
and England. The materials and methods were so like those used in France
that it would be ridiculous to claim for them an independent origin,
even were we unable to prove by documentary evidence that workmen
trained in the French factories had migrated into those countries.

  _Italy_.--In Italy we have the factories at Le Nove near Bassano
  (1762-1825); Doccia near Florence (founded in 1735 by the marchese
  Carlo Ginori, and still carried on by the same family); and
  Capo-di-Monte near Naples (1736-1820); with minor factories like those
  at Vinovo, Treviso, and the Volpato factory at Rome. The most
  important of these were the factories at Doccia and Capo-di-Monte. The
  porcelain made at Doccia was famous for its soft translucent texture,
  so that it lent itself beautifully to the production of white glazed
  porcelain figures resembling in quality the white pieces of Fu-kien.

  [Illustration: Capo-di-Monte Potters' marks; 1736, 1759, 1780.]

  The factory at Capo-di-Monte was under the direct patronage of Charles
  III., king of Naples. The earliest and best of its productions are in
  pure white, probably made in imitation of Chinese white pieces, though
  modelled in the form of natural shells supported by corals and
  seaweed. Figure-modelling was also largely practised, and besides
  groups of statuettes and figures in conjunction with vases, we have
  the typical Capo-di-Monte examples in which vases, cups, saucers,
  plates, &c., are covered with groups of figures modelled in high
  relief on a minute scale. This trivial style of work is greatly
  admired because of the minuteness of its execution. At a later period
  the works was removed to Portici and ultimately to Naples, but after
  about 1770 the classic style was adopted for the shapes and
  decorations. The factory came to an end as late as 1820.

  [Illustration: Buen Retiro Potters' marks.]

  _Spain_.--Charles III. of Naples ascended the throne of Spain in 1759
  and took with him to Madrid many of the workmen from the Capo-di-Monte
  factory, as well as the best moulds and models. He established a new
  china factory in the gardens of Buen Retiro, a palace outside Madrid.
  As long as Charles III. lived immense sums were lavished on this
  factory, and the ware was not allowed to be sold, but was either used
  for the decoration of the royal palaces or for presentation to other
  European sovereigns. Enormous vases were made, following the example
  of Sèvres, and these were often filled with bouquets of flowers
  modelled in porcelain. The most famous productions of this factory,
  however, were the plaques and slabs of porcelain used for lining the
  walls of certain rooms in the royal palaces. Two of these rooms still
  remain, and are frightful examples of the Spanish _rococo_ style. The
  factory was entirely destroyed in 1812 during the French war, and
  since that date no porcelain of any importance has been made in Spain.

_English Porcelains of the 18th century._--There can be no doubt that
whatever experimental work may have been conducted by our early English
potters, such as the famous John Dwight of Fulham, nothing like an
established manufacture of porcelain existed in this country prior to
about 1740-1745. There are records of many tentative experiments before
this date, but no real history. Between 1745 and 1755 important
porcelain works were established at Chelsea, Bow, Worcester and Derby,
and when we examine the productions of these factories it is impossible
to avoid the conclusion that the processes had been imported from
France. The early English porcelains, like all the French porcelains of
that date, were composed of artificial or glassy mixtures.

We may take the early productions of Bow and Chelsea as typical of the
earliest English porcelain of which there is any definite record. The
material was a mixture of pipe-clay, sand from Alum Bay in the Isle of
Wight, and glass, while the glaze was a fusible English flint-glass rich
in lead. It is obvious, therefore, that we are dealing with substances
very similar to those used in the glassy French porcelain (see above),
and such mixtures were very difficult of fabrication, being subject to
great loss in the process of firing. In the other European countries
the manufacture of porcelain was almost invariably carried on at the
expense of some royal or princely patron; in England, however, the
manufacture was not subsidized in this way, and it is probably for this
reason that at a very early date we find the English porcelain-makers
experimenting with other materials than glass and clay in order to make
their processes more certain. In a patent taken out in 1749 by Thomas
Frye of the Bow works we find mention of the use of bone-ash--the
material that was to make English porcelain a distinct species by
itself. From 1750 onwards there can be little doubt that, though a large
proportion of glass was still used in the composition of the English
porcelains, bone-ash was more and more introduced into the paste in
order to obtain a more refractory material; yet it was not until about
1800 that Josiah Spode of Stoke-upon-Trent abandoned entirely the use of
glass and composed his porcelain of china clay, bone-ash and felspathic
rock for the body, glazing it with a rich lead glaze, and so laid the
foundation of distinctively English porcelain. The material has many
merits both from the useful and artistic points of view; it is much more
easily fabricated than the old glassy porcelains, it endures better for
ordinary table use than any other kind of porcelain, and it permits the
fullest range of decoration.

Before entering upon a detailed notice of the important English
factories of the 18th century, something should be said of the various
influences that were at work in determining what the porcelain-maker
should do, both in the way of shape and decoration. The eyes of all men
were, of course, turned first to the porcelain brought from the far
East; and in the early efforts of the English factories, as of those of
France and Germany, we notice a predominance of white pieces or of
pieces decorated with paintings in under-glaze blue alone, obviously
inspired by the current importations from China. Bow and Chelsea
produced large quantities of ware of this class, and in the early days
of the Worcester factory little else was made there than white, or blue
and white pieces closely simulating the Chinese. Another oriental
influence was to be found in the Imari patterns of Japan, particularly
those in the style of Kakiemon. It has been noted that Meissen,
Chantilly and other continental factories had already created a vogue
for these reproductions of Japanese decorations, and in our own country
Bow, Chelsea and Worcester followed suit. The later Imari patterns,
heavily decorated with blue and red and gold for the use of "the
foreigner," furnished another popular style for Worcester and Derby, and
the vogue of these English "Japan" patterns, in the last quarter of the
18th century and the first half of the 19th century, was so great that
they represent a large proportion of the output of our English porcelain
works during that period. The productions of the German and French
factories also exerted a profound influence on English potters; so that
throughout the 18th century English porcelains largely consisted of
imitations of the foreign wares brought into the country by the wealthy.

We can only point to one method of porcelain decoration which
undoubtedly arose in England. This is the method of transfer-printing,
whereby patterns printed on paper from engraved copper plates are
transferred to porcelain or pottery and subsequently fired, either under
or on the glaze. At the best these printed patterns are in no way
superior to the stencilled work of modern oriental porcelain, while, at
the worst, European and American printed patterns have been perhaps the
most inappropriate decoration ever applied to porcelain in the world. It
has been generally urged on behalf of transfer-printing that it enables
elaborate effects to be produced at a small cost and so brings decorated
pottery within the reach of the humblest. The truer view is, that the
simplest brushwork patterns, or even no pattern at all, would be
preferable to the tawdry results that the cheapest forms of
transfer-printing have rendered possible.

_Chelsea._--Between 1750 and 1770 the Chelsea factory was the most
important of all the English porcelain works, and fine specimens of this
period command high prices in the saleroom to-day. We know little of the
origin of this important factory, though it is believed to have been in
existence from some time after 1740 to 1784, when it was finally
demolished and some of the workmen and part of the plant were removed
to the then important works at Derby. The first manager was one Charles
Gouyn, who was followed by a Mr Sprimont before 1750. Sprimont retained
possession of the works until 1769, and died in 1771. It was during his
management, from 1750 to 1770, that the finest and most characteristic
pieces of Chelsea porcelain were made.

Although the styles in vogue at Chelsea are extremely varied, little was
produced there that was really English in character. The earliest pieces
appear to have been either in pure white or in white decorated with
paintings in under-glaze blue. The goat-and-bee cream jugs, crawfish
salt cellars, the shell and rockwork salt cellars, jugs, sauce boats,
small cups and saucers of this type are fairly plentiful. Then came the
decorations, mainly in red and gold, of the Kakiemon style, followed by
reproductions of the brocade patterns of Imari porcelain. Afterwards we
find the appearance of table wares modelled in imitation of leaves,
animals, fruits, birds and fishes, apparently adopted from current
French and German practice.

In another direction the influence of Meissen was also shown by the
production of statuettes (see in Chelsea figure, Plate X.), and of the
small modelled trinkets, scent-bottles and toys of which there is such a
fine collection in the British Museum. In the latter days of the factory
(say after 1758) we find Chelsea following in the wake of Sèvres in the
production of large and elaborate rococo vases, with pierced necks and
covers, scroll-work bases and interlacing handles such as are to be seen
in the Jones Bequest in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Pieces of this
elaborate kind are overlaid with rich grounds of Mazarine blue,
turquoise, pea-green, or the famous Chelsea claret-colour, while white
panels are reserved framed with gilt scrolls and painted in enamel
colours with flowers, birds or figure-subjects in absolute rivalry with
the pieces manufactured at Sèvres.

The Chelsea works appears to have come to an end through the ill-health
of Sprimont, and it was sold in 1769-1770 to Duesbury, the proprietor of
the Derby works. He carried on the establishment from 1770 to 1784, but
in this period a great change is noticeable in the product of the
factory. The "rococo" forms and decorations of the true Chelsea
porcelain were replaced by works in the neo-classical style already
rendered popular by the success of Josiah Wedgwood, and the
Derby-Chelsea porcelain is quite a distinct production from the early
works of Chelsea. The most distinctive mark of the Chelsea porcelain is
an anchor--either embossed in the paste or painted in gold or colour.
Often the anchors occur in pairs, and it is frequently associated with
other marks such as a dagger or a cross. Some of the Derby-Chelsea
pieces are marked with a conjoined D and an anchor.

[Illustration: Chelsea Potters' marks.]

_Bow._--The date of the establishment of the factory at
Stratford-le-Bow, in what is now the East End of London, is quite
uncertain, but in 1744 Edward Heylyn and Thomas Frye, who were connected
with this factory, took out a patent for the manufacture of porcelain.
The materials mentioned in this patent are not such as would produce
porcelain at all, and it appears likely that the specification was made
purposely defective. In 1748 a further patent was applied for in which
we get the first mention of bone-ash, so that from the technical point
of view the wares made at the Bow factory are of the utmost importance
as indicating the experimental beginnings of our English porcelain in
which bone-ash plays such an important part. In 1750 the works at Bow
belonged to Messrs Weatherby & Crowther, and was then known as "New
Canton," and as 300 workpeople were employed, the operations must have
been conducted on a large scale; but ultimately, from causes that can
only be surmised, the partnership was dissolved and the business failed,
so that in 1775 the works was bought for a very small sum by the William
Duesbury already mentioned, who transferred part of the plant and moulds
to his more prosperous works at Derby. It would appear from what we know
of the factory and its productions that the business was conducted on
simpler lines than at the Chelsea works. We have, for instance, no
elaborate vases in imitation of Sèvres, and no important groups of
figures which might challenge rivalry with Meissen. We find, as is
common with all the early porcelain factories of Europe, first the
production of white pieces with modelled reliefs, or of pieces painted
with under-glaze blue in imitation of Chinese porcelain. Then followed
the well-known "Quail," or "Partridge," and "Wheat-sheaf" patterns in
red and green and gold in imitation of the Japanese patterns; and the
manufacture of table ware decorated with these simple yet bright and
pleasant devices seems to have formed the greater part of the work at
the factory. Many figures and statuettes were also produced at Bow, but
they are fewer in number and less cleverly made and decorated than the
contemporary productions of the Chelsea factory. We may surmise that
there was considerable rivalry between these two works situated on the
outskirts of the metropolis, for we find the "anchor" mark, which is the
best recognized mark of Chelsea porcelain, often occurring on specimens
that from internal evidence or from the piece itself we should rather
attribute to Bow. The Bow marks are not very certain, but some of the
likeliest are here given.

[Illustration: Bow Potters' marks.]

_Worcester._--The third of the early English factories, and ultimately
the most important of all, was that founded at Worcester in 1751 by Dr
Wall, a man of unusual attainments, and a number of his friends. How Dr
Wall came to learn the secret of porcelain making is absolutely unknown,
but even assuming that he acquired some information from wandering
workmen it is certain that the Worcester porcelain was soon developed on
original lines. The nature of the paste and the glaze of the early
Worcester productions, as well as the sobriety of their decorations,
stamp this factory as the first where Englishmen really developed a
native porcelain. Between 1751 and 1770, the first period of Worcester
porcelain, the prevalent influence was that of Chinese blue-and-white,
and the pieces of that period are rightly esteemed by collectors for
their artistic quality. Probably nowhere in Europe, certainly nowhere in
England, was oriental blue-and-white more carefully studied, and a
collection of this blue-and-white Worcester is most satisfactory from
the aesthetic point of view. The productions at this time were tea and
coffee services, bowls, dishes, mugs and plates. The cups were usually
made without handles in imitation of the oriental practice, but large,
two-handled covered cups for caudle, broth and chocolate were also made
during the early period. Many of these larger cups bore an embossed
pattern resembling a pine-cone, possibly imitated from a shape produced
at St Cloud; while openwork dishes, plates and fruit baskets were also
made in imitation of a popular Meissen fashion.

The method of decorating porcelain with transfer prints was introduced
at Worcester as early as 1756, when Robert Hancock, an engraver, came
from York House, Battersea, where the process was first employed for the
decoration of the Battersea enamels. The early Worcester prints
comprised portraits of celebrities of the time (the Frederick the Great
mug), or adaptations of the works of great artists such as Gainsborough
and Watteau, or copies of current engravings or sporting prints. The
first printing was done in black or purple, and transferred on to the
fired glaze, and it was not until about 1770 that the process of
printing in blue under the glaze was perfected. It is interesting to
note that for many years this process of transfer printing was developed
side by side with the older method of porcelain painting, and until the
end of the 18th century the processes appear to have been used at
Worcester quite independently. The closing of the Chelsea factory in
1770 led to the migration of some of the Chelsea painters to Worcester,
and from about that date a considerable amount of Worcester porcelain
was decorated on the glaze with enamel colours and gilding after the
styles that had been rendered popular at Chelsea and Bow. It is only
fair to remark, however, that the Worcester patterns are always
distinguished by a certain English character both in the style and the
workmanship (see example, Plate X.). The first and most artistic period
of Worcester porcelain came to an end before 1783, when, after the death
of Dr Wall, the works passed under the control of Thomas Flight and his
two sons, who had been jewellers. The Flight influence was soon
noticeable from the fact that the new shapes were more and more based on
those of Sèvres and Meissen, while the decoration became more mechanical
and precise as befitted the work of jewellers rather than potters. King
George III. and Queen Charlotte visited the works in 1788 and bestowed
upon the firm the privilege of styling themselves "China Manufacturers
to Their Majesties," since when the works has always been known as the
Worcester Royal Porcelain Works. In 1793 Martin Barr was taken into
partnership; the "Flight & Barr" period, so well known to collectors,
lasted until 1807.

[Illustration: Early Worcester Potters' marks.]

Another Worcester porcelain works was in existence after 1784, viz. the
Chamberlain factory, which was working in rivalry with the original
establishment; but its productions are of no particular artistic merit,
and in 1840 the two firms became amalgamated, and so gave rise to the
present Worcester Royal Porcelain Co. The most noteworthy feature of the
productions of both the Worcester works at the end of the 18th century
were the "Armorial" services made for various royal and noble families,
and those adaptations of Imari patterns known as "Old Japan."

_Derby._--Experiments in the manufacture of porcelain appear to have
been made at Derby as early as 1750 by a French refugee, Andrew Planché;
but the business, which was afterwards to attain such a great
development, was only founded in 1756 with William Duesbury as its
manager. Duesbury was originally a decorator of china figures in London,
and his career proves that he was a man of great industry and energy,
for within twenty-five years he not only built up a large business at
Derby, but he absorbed the decadent works at Bow and Chelsea, so that in
the last quarter of the 18th century Derby was the most important china
manufactory in England. As is so often the case, a commercial success
like this implied the absence of any distinct artistic impulse. The
porcelain produced at Derby is for the most part only an echo of the
successes of Meissen, Sèvres, or the earlier English factories. It is
only fair to remark that a very deep and rich under-glaze blue was
attained at the Derby works, and that this was associated with very
mechanical painting of birds and flowers and with gilding of exceptional
quality. At this factory, too, the old Japan patterns were imitated with
exceptional vigour, until "Crown-Derby Japan" became a standard trade
name for this clobbered oriental style.

[Illustration: Derby Potters' marks.]

Mention has already been made of the "biscuit" porcelain figures made at
Derby, which are superior in style to anything else made in-Europe in
the 18th century except the "biscuit" porcelains of Sèvres. The Derby
"biscuits" of the best type range from 1790 to 1810, and the finest
specimens have a "waxy" surface, though there is little or no sheen and
every detail remains as crisp as when the figure left the hand of its
maker. The most famous of these figures are the portrait medallions and
statuettes of British generals and admirals which were modelled by an
artist named Stephan. Spengler, a Swiss, modelled numerous groups
adapted from the drawings of Angelica Kaufmann, while a workman named
Coffee seems to have modelled only rustic figures and animals.

_Plymouth and Bristol._--The porcelain factories at Plymouth and
Bristol are mainly noteworthy because they were the only English
factories in which a true porcelain strictly analogous to the Chinese
was ever manufactured. William Cookworthy, a Quaker druggist of
Plymouth, was greatly interested in attempting to discover in Cornwall
and Devonshire minerals similar to those which were described in the
letters of Père d'Entrecolles as forming the basis of Chinese porcelain.
After many years of travel and research he ascertained the nature of the
Cornish stone and Cornish clay, and in 1768 he founded a works at
Plymouth for the production of a porcelain similar to the Chinese from
these native materials. Readers interested in this abortive enterprise,
from which such great results were afterwards to come, can only be
referred to the general histories of English porcelain, for the factory
was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was shortly afterwards transferred to
Richard Champion, a Bristol merchant, who had already been dabbling in
the fashionable pursuit of porcelain making. Champion's Bristol factory
lasted from 1773 to 1781, when the business had to be sold to a number
of Staffordshire potters owing to the serious losses it had entailed.
The Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was always a true
felspathic porcelain resembling the Chinese, but made from the china
clay and china stone of Cornwall. It is, therefore, harder and whiter
than the other English porcelains, and its cold, harsh, glittering glaze
marks it off at once from the wares of Bow, Chelsea, Worcester or Derby.

The Bristol porcelain resembled that of Meissen quite as much in its
style of decoration as in the nature of its materials. One can point to
nothing distinctly English about it, and if specimens now command very
high prices in the salerooms it is on account of their rarity rather
than of any intrinsic quality or beauty that they possess.

Table ware of various kinds formed the greater part of the production of
the Bristol works, but a considerable number of figures are known, in
many cases obviously copied from those of Meissen, and a few large
hexagonal vases similar in style to specimens produced at Chelsea and at
Worcester. The most distinctive pieces made at the Bristol factory are
certain small plaques or slabs in "biscuit" porcelain, usually bearing
in the centre a portrait medallion or armorial bearings surrounded by a
wreath of skilfully modelled flowers. Good examples of these choice
productions are to be seen in the British Museum.

[Illustration: Plymouth, Bristol, Champion and Swansea marks.]

The Plymouth factory is supposed to have adopted as its general mark the
alchemical symbol for tin. This mark was also used to a limited extent
at the Bristol factory, though the general Bristol mark was a cross or a
copy of the crossed swords of Meissen. The Staffordshire potters who
bought the rights of the Bristol porcelain factory from Champion
established a works at Shelton, near Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire,
under the name of New Hall Porcelain Co., but they never manufactured
anything of artistic account.

  _Minor English Factories._--A number of other porcelain factories were
  founded in England in the latter half of the 18th century, but none of
  these produced ware of any particular merit. The porcelain made at
  Longton Hall by William Littler (1752-1758), always clumsy and ugly in
  form, is interesting for a splendid blue colour characteristic of the
  factory. This small venture was ultimately absorbed by William
  Duesbury.

  The colony of potters established in Liverpool also made a certain
  amount of porcelain, as well as "Delft" and other earthenwares, and
  the Liverpool Museum contains some good examples of their productions.

  A little factory at work at Lowestoft in the last quarter of the 18th
  century has attracted much more attention than it deserves, because
  certain writers foolishly attributed to it large quantities of
  "Armorial" porcelain which had, undoubtedly, been made in China.
  Recent excavations have established the fact that this factory was
  only of minor importance, and was mainly occupied in producing cheap
  wares in rivalry with, and even in imitation of, those of the more
  important English factories.

  Towards the end of the 18th century the manufacture of English
  porcelain spread into the Staffordshire potteries, and the firms of
  Spode, Davenport and Minton became the most important English
  factories of the early 18th century. For notices of the minor English
  factories of the late 18th century and early 19th century, such as
  Caughley, Coalport, Swansea and Nantgarw, the student is referred to
  the special works dealing with the history of English porcelain.

  _Collections._--The British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum
  contain the best general collections of English porcelain. The museums
  at Bristol and Liverpool contain examples of the local wares; while
  the museum at the Worcester Royal Porcelain works has an admirable
  collection of the wares of that factory. Many noteworthy private
  collections are in existence, of which we may mention those of Mr
  Dyson Perrins, Mr Cockshutt and Mr Trapnell.

  LITERATURE.--Alex. Brongniart, _Traitié des arts céramiques_ (1844);
  Jacquemart, _Histoire de la céramique_ (Eng. ed. 1873); Jännicke,
  _Grundriss der Keramik_ (1879); Dr Brinkmann, _Handbook of European
  Porcelains in the Hamburg Museum_; Marryat, _History of Pottery and
  Porcelain_ (1857); Jewitt, _Ceramic Art of Great Britain_ (1878);
  Auscher, _A History and Description of French Porcelain_ (1905);
  Burton, _A History and Description of English Porcelain_ (1902);
  Dillon, _Porcelain_ (1904); Solon, _Old English Porcelain_ (1903);
  Burton, _Porcelain_ (1906); R. Almstrom, _Lervarorna och deras
  Tillverkning_ (1903).     (W. B.*)


POTTERY AND PORCELAIN DURING THE 19TH CENTURY

The development of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain in Europe
and America throughout the 19th century need not be treated in such
detail as the history of its growth up to that period, for modern means
of communication and the general diffusion of knowledge have tended to
destroy the individual character which was so marked a feature of the
pottery of different countries in previous centuries. The 19th century
was distinctly the century of machinery, and, for the most part, it
witnessed the displacement by mechanical processes of those methods of
handicraft which made the older pottery individual and interesting even
in its simplest forms. Collectors are prepared to pay very large sums
for choice examples of the potter's art of bygone centuries, but it is
doubtful if much of the pottery of the 19th century will ever be
collected for its intrinsic merits, though it may be preserved as an
illustration of the spirit of the age.

In preceding sections of this article the development of the brightly
painted tin-enamelled wares and the gaily decorated porcelains of
various European countries have been traced down to the end of the 18th
century, because that date marks, quite distinctly, the period when the
old handicraft of the potter was for various reasons displaced by
organized manufacture. The disturbed economic condition of Europe in the
last quarter of the 18th century and the Napoleonic Wars of the early
19th century proved disastrous to most of the pottery and porcelain
works where artistic wares were made, and the disturbance of traditional
methods was completed by the superior mechanical perfection and
cheapness of the English earthenware introduced by Wedgwood and his
contemporaries. The English pottery was neater, more perfectly finished
and more durable than the painted tin-enamelled pottery of the
continent. It vied in finish with the expensive continental porcelains,
and for nearly half a century it carried all before it, not only in
England, but throughout the world. An intelligent observer, M. Faujas de
Saint Fond, writing in the beginning of the 19th century, remarks of
English pottery that "Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the
advantage which it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine
glaze impenetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and
the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active and
so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburg, from
Amsterdam to the farthest parts of Sweden, and from Dunkirk to the
extremity of the south of France one is served at every inn upon English
ware. Spain, Portugal and Italy are supplied with it; and vessels are
loaded with it for the East Indies, the West Indies, and the continent
of America."[36] It was calculated that at this time three-fourths of
the pottery manufactured in England was sent abroad. Such a state of
things was not likely to continue, and in most of the European
countries, after the settlement of 1815, such of the older factories as
had survived, or new factories specially created for the purpose,
adopted English methods of manufacture. In many cases experienced
Staffordshire potters were procured to direct these works, and so far as
ordinary domestic pottery was concerned, the first half of the 19th
century witnessed the establishment in every country of Europe and in
the United States of America of pottery works managed by Englishmen,
where earthenwares were made after the English fashion. We shall refer
presently to the survival or revival of the older styles of pottery and
porcelain, but the English influence was undoubtedly paramount, with one
or two notable exceptions, down to 1850, or even later. England itself
witnessed a notable development of its pottery manufacture, which became
more and more aggregated in that district of North Staffordshire
designated emphatically "The Potteries," where, in spite of later
developments, from two-thirds to three-quarters of all the pottery and
porcelain made in the British Isles is still produced. This
concentration of the industry in England has resulted in a race of
pottery workers not to be matched elsewhere in the world, and while it
was the supply of cheap coal and coarse clay which first gave
Staffordshire its pre-eminence, that pre-eminence is now retained as
much by the traditional skill of the workmen of the district as by the
enterprise of its manufacturers.

[Illustration: PLATE IX.

  Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1757, painted by Falot and Morin.

  Meissen. May-flower vase mounted in ormolu. Pâte-dure.

  Meissen. Crinoline figure (Kandler), Pâte-dure.

  Sèvres. Pâte-tendre, c. 1756.]

While we must admire, from the economic point of view, the methods of
manufacture which have placed England in the first rank as a
pottery-producing country, inasmuch as they have brought within the
reach of the humblest domestic utensils of high finish and great
durability, it is impossible to say much for the taste or art associated
with them. Neatness, serviceableness and durability, English domestic
wares undoubtedly possess in a degree unknown to any earlier type of
pottery, but the general use of transfer-printing as the principal
method of decoration, and the absence of any distinctive style of
ornament, must cause them to take a low rank in comparison with the
wares of past centuries, when mechanical perfection was impossible and
rich colour and truly decorative painting were the chief distinctions of
the pottery of every country. The London International Exhibition of
1851 is generally supposed to indicate the low-water mark of art as
applied to industry; it should rather be regarded as marking the period
when many of the old handicrafts had been extinguished by the use of
mechanical appliances and the growth of the factory system, and when the
delight of men in these current developments was so great that they were
regarded as triumphs in themselves, when they were only "means to an
end."

Since that period the development of pottery and porcelain has followed
two main directions: (1) an attempt on the part of manufacturers to
produce the most artistic results possible with modern processes and
methods, and (2) the interesting and valuable efforts of those
individual potters in every country with whom art was the first
consideration and commercial production was disregarded.

Though the English pottery factories were of such paramount importance
in the first half of the 19th century, it must be remembered that some
of the oldest factories in Europe were still alive and active. The royal
factories in Sèvres, Meissen, Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg and
elsewhere, surviving the wreck of the Napoleonic Wars, continued at the
expense of their respective states, to produce porcelains which were the
legitimate development of their work during the 18th century.

_Meissen and Berlin._--At Meissen, efforts were made to improve the
technical process in use, but, unfortunately, the old Meissen wares had
already become valuable, and they were reproduced, marks included, until
all initiative was destroyed, and the factory continued to live, mainly,
on its old reputation.

At Berlin, the financial troubles of the Prussian monarchy throughout
the early years of the 19th century were severely felt, so that a
cheaper class of porcelain was manufactured. The only innovations that
can be ascribed to the factory during this period, though highly
esteemed at the time, form striking examples of the artistic decadence
of the period. Such was the lace-work decoration made by dipping lace in
porcelain slip so that on firing the thread burned away, leaving a
porcelain facsimile; another was the production of slabs of porcelain
modelled in such a way that on viewing the piece by transmitted light it
appeared like a picture painted _en grisaille_.

From the artistic point of view there is little to be said for the
majority of productions of the Berlin factory, but nowhere in the world
has greater attention been paid to the technical and scientific problems
of porcelain manufacture, and this establishment has rendered the
greatest service in the development of the important chemical and
electrical industries of Germany by the splendid appliances it has
invented for scientific use.

Since 1870 the works, removed to Charlottenburg, have been conducted
with very great enterprise. It was here that Seger perfected his soft
porcelain based on the glazes and bodies of the best Japanese
porcelains, and here also he developed the manufacture of copper-red
glazes in imitation of the old _sang-de-boeuf_ and _flambé_, glazes of
the Chinese, at the same time establishing some of the scientific
principles underlying their production. At Berlin, too, all the modern
methods of decoration, whether in coloured glazes, raised enamels, _pâte
sur pâte_, the elaborate paintings of flowers, birds or figures, or the
use of crystalline glazes, have been followed with great success; but
the factory has never yet given any special impetus or new direction to
the decorative side of porcelain.

_Vienna._--Few European factories were so little affected by the general
trend of affairs as the royal factory at Vienna. We have already
referred to the elaborate paintings and rich gilding which became the
distinguishing feature of its wares towards the end of the 18th century,
and this style, once perfected, seems to have been continued with little
change. It has been stated by a renowned German authority, that the
Viennese porcelain was at its best between 1785 and 1815. During this
period the plan of painting copies of pictures on porcelain was
developed to its utmost, and this, in combination with the richest
gilding, marks the apotheosis of Viennese porcelain. The factory came to
an end in 1864, but collectors should be warned that a flood of cheap
porcelains, decorated in modern Viennese workshops, and therefore styled
"Viennese porcelain," has during the last twenty years overwhelmed the
English and American markets.

_Sèvres._--The important part played by the Royal French manufactory at
Sèvres has already been sketched. During the troublous years of the
French Revolution the works practically came to a standstill, and under
the Directory it was a question whether this manufactory, along with
certain other state establishments in France, should be closed.
Napoleon, however, decided that for the glory of France and as a means
of encouraging its porcelain industry, seriously threatened by the
English potters, the establishment at Sèvres should be conducted as a
national factory. By a splendid coincidence Alexander Brongniart, a man
of great natural ability, and a noted scientist, was appointed director,
and retained that post under the successive governments of France until
his death in 1847. In the hands of Brongniart the establishment at
Sèvres became at once a school of research and a centre of practical
accomplishment--the influence of which was felt throughout Europe. Its
products were obviously inspired by the demands of successive French
monarchs and their courts. It ministered to the grandiose ideas of
Napoleon, who demanded pieces that were to speak of his victories, and
after every campaign a fresh table service or new suite of vases was
produced to commemorate the emperor's successes. The most striking piece
of this kind was the vase made to commemorate the marriage of Napoleon
and Marie Louise in 1810. It was designed by Isabey and was modelled
with figures in bas-relief. The principal group contains not less than
115 such figures, while the subsidiary group, representing the
acclaiming populace, contains between 2000 and 3000 figures. This vase
was three years in making, and is said to have cost something like
£1250. Unfortunately this was not a solitary example of the productions
of Sèvres, for under every successive government of the 19th century the
factory has been called to produce enormous vases which are to be found
in the rooms or corridors of every palace and museum in France, and
while these pieces represent wonderful technical skill, both in their
manufacture and the decorations with which they are covered, very few of
them possess either spontaneity or charm. They are correct, frigid,
cold, and compare most unfavourably from the artistic point of view
with the masterpieces of oriental pottery.

Everything was carried out on the grand scale, and once again the
influence of Sèvres became paramount in Europe, and its styles of
painting and decoration were eagerly followed from 1830 to 1870 by all
those European potters who were attempting to make anything beyond
useful domestic wares. As an instance of its aims in the period between
1830 and 1850, large sums were spent in the production of great slabs of
porcelain many feet in area; on which were painted copies of some of the
famous portraits and other pictorial masterpieces in the galleries of
the Louvre. A number of these are preserved in the museum at Sèvres, and
must always excite admiration and even wonder at their technical
accomplishment.

The most noticeable invention of Sèvres in the middle part of the 19th
century was the _pâte sur pâte_ decoration in which porcelain clays of
various colours are used as the artist's medium. The idea appears to
have been adopted from an old Chinese vase by Robert, the chief painter,
and at the London International Exhibition of 1862 some small cups
decorated in this method, by Gely, were first shown. The most successful
work in this style was, however, that produced by M. Solon, who worked
at Sèvres until 1870. In that year he came to England and was employed
at Minton's, where for about thirty-five years he continued this method
of work, one of the few artistic and beautiful styles of pottery
decoration of the 19th century. As practised by M. Solon the _pâte sur
pâte_ decoration took the form of paintings of figure subjects or dainty
ornamental designs in white slip on a coloured porcelain ground of
green, blue, dark-grey or black. On such grounds a thin wash of the slip
gives a translucent film, so that by washing on or building up
successive layers of slip, sharpening the drawing with modelling tools,
or softening or rounding the figure with a wet brush, the most delicate
gradations of tint can be obtained, from the brilliant white of the slip
to the full depth of the ground. This method was rapidly adopted by all
the principal European factories, though nowhere was it carried to such
perfection as at Sèvres and at Minton's. M. Taxile Doat has executed
many extraordinary pieces in this style of decoration at Sèvres, and in
the British Museum there is a large vase of his, presented by the French
government at the beginning of the present century. One great feature of
French porcelain manufacture during the 19th century was the development
of the industry at Limoges and the neighbouring district of central
France. Limoges was a small centre of porcelain production in the period
between 1780 and 1850, but after the latter date it rapidly developed
into a pottery centre second only in importance to that of the Potteries
district in England. We can do no more than mention this fact, because,
for the most part, the activities of Limoges have been devoted to the
production of pottery commercially, rather than pottery as an art.

The Franco-German War proved a disaster for Sèvres, and all work came to
a standstill for a time. The existing manufactory, which was almost
completed before the outbreak of the war, was opened by Marshal MacMahon
in 1876, but for many years the work was continued under great
discouragement. Between 1879 and 1889 attention was paid to the study
and imitation of old Chinese methods, and this resulted in the
reproduction of many of those Chinese glazes which had hitherto been the
despair of European potters.

At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 the display made by Sèvres was perhaps
the most notable feature of the magnificent collection of ceramics
gathered there. The collection included many varieties of porcelain,
both hard and soft paste, decorated in all the current styles of the
period; under-glaze painting, on-glaze painting, flambé glazes and
crystalline glazes, but most beautiful of all were the magnificent
groups of "biscuit" figures designed as table garnitures by some of the
best French sculptors of the time.

_English Progress._--The demand for elaborate specimens of painted
porcelain was at its height throughout Europe between 1851 and 1880, and
this demand was undoubtedly fostered by the series of international
exhibitions held during that period, when every European pottery works
of note produced large and costly specimens of porcelain or earthenware,
smothered with painting and gilding. Every famous manufactory produced
something beyond the ordinary, but undoubtedly the first of European
factories during this period was that of Messrs Minton at
Stoke-upon-Trent. M. Leon Arnoux, a descendant of the Arnoux's of Apt,
an old family of French potters, was at this time the technical and
artistic director of Messrs Minton's works, and he was the only pottery
director during the 19th century who could in any sense be compared with
M. Brongniart of Sèvres. M. Arnoux combined in a remarkable degree
artistic with technical skill, and under his management the works of
Messrs Minton became the greatest centre of ceramic art in Europe.
Skilful modellers, like Jeannest, Carriere-Belleuse, and Protat, and
pottery painters such as A. Boullemier, Moussill, E. Lessore and L.
Solon were engaged at this factory and produced many of the most
characteristic European decorations of the middle of the 19th century.

To this period, too, we must refer another English invention, that of a
special porcelain known as "Parian." This in its finest expression was a
"biscuit" porcelain used for the production of statuettes and groups
rivalling the finest 18th century "biscuit" figures of Sèvres and Derby.
It seems probable that this Parian was first made at the works of
Copeland and Garratt, at Stoke-upon-Trent; but it was immediately
adopted at Minton's, Wedgwood's, and at Worcester; and each of these
firms used it in a distinctive way. Glazed Parian was also manufactured
at the Belleek Porcelain Works in Ireland (the only Irish porcelain
works of any note), and later its manufacture was developed by the
Worcester Royal Porcelain Company, Moore Brothers of Longton, and other
English manufacturers until it became an important branch of the English
porcelain made in the period under review.

_Japanese Influence._--At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 the great
collection of the applied arts of Japan took Europe by storm, and there
was an immediate outbreak of adaptations of Japanese art in Europe once
more; not as in the 18th century, when the old Japanese patterns were
copied or frankly imitated, but a European-Japanese style arose, based
on the methods and ideas of the great Japanese painters and draughtsmen,
the workers in metal, in iron, in lacquer and in silk. In England the
Worcester Royal Porcelain Company produced a series of elaborate and
skilful pieces inspired from this source, which for perfect and minute
execution must be ranked before all other European works of their kind.

The most admirable result of this revived interest in Japanese art was,
however, developed at the Royal Copenhagen works, the productions of
which are not only famous all over the world, but have set a new style
in porcelain decoration which is being followed at most of the
continental factories. By the use of the pure Swedish felspar and quartz
and the finest china clays from Germany or Cornwall a material of
excellent quality is prepared, and on this naturalistic paintings of
birds, fishes, animals and water or northern landscapes and figure
subjects are painted in delicate under-glaze blues, greys and greens.
The Royal Copenhagen works has also produced a profusion of skilfully
modelled animals, birds and fishes, either in pure white, or delicately
tinted after nature, with the same under-glaze colours.

Not only have Berlin, Sèvres and other European factories adopted the
modern Copenhagen style of decoration, but the Japanese are now
imitating these skilful productions which were originally inspired by
their own early work.

_Stonewares._--Mention must be made of the revival of the manufacture of
artistic stonewares by Doultons of Lambeth, and Villeroy and Boch, the
great German potters. Doultons, besides reviving the older forms of
English stoneware, made some entirely new departures, and their pieces
with designs etched in the clay are admirable examples of the right use
of a refractory material. Villeroy and Boch reproduced the old Rhenish
stonewares, and many interesting new departures in addition, but mostly
in German forms that have not commended the wares to other nations.

[Illustration: PLATE X.

  Chelsea porcelain; 1745-1770 Figure after Watteau.

  Worcester Porcelain; c. 1760-1770.

  Whieldon and Wedgwood, cauliflower ware; c. 1750-1760.

  Wedgwood's jasper; c. 1780.

  Turner's jasper; c. 1780.]

_Artistic Results._--While the great potteries of Europe have been
employed in improving their methods of manufacture and in consolidating
their knowledge on the technical and scientific side, so that they are
able to produce pottery more perfect in shape, with a higher degree of
finish and greater certainty of result than was ever known before, it
cannot be said that the artistic results have been commensurate with the
labour expended. Fortunately, however, the success of these important
industrial concerns in stereotyping modern production has incited a
considerable number of clever men, either potters or artists, to become
artist-potters and producers of individual wares, often recalling the
works of the great schools of bygone centuries. This movement, which
to-day has its exponents in every European country as well as in the
United States of America, originated in France between 1840 and 1850,
when the formation of the earliest ceramic museums and the new-born
interest in the old French faience led to various attempts at
pottery-making by the old methods of handwork and rule of thumb.
Avisseau of Tours (1845), Pull of Paris (1855), and Barbizet (1859)
began to make pieces in the style of Palissy, and Ulysse of Blois (1863)
revived painted faience in imitation of that of Nevers. Slowly a demand
for painted pottery was created among collectors and amateurs, and in
France and other countries artists began to dabble in the painting of
pottery. In some cases the artist retained his freedom, painting pieces
obtained from some pottery manufacturer, which he sold on his own
account after they had been decorated and fired; or he became attached
to a particular factory and his productions were sold by the potter; or
the artist became an amateur potter, and either worked alone or
encouraged other artists to co-operate with him.

It is impossible to do more than mention a few of the prominent men in
each class, whose works were not only esteemed in their own day, but are
also likely to be regarded always as among the distinguished productions
of the 19th century. Emile Lessore and Chapelet were both painters who
were attracted by the technique of the potter. For some time they bought
specimens of pottery from a small manufacturer named Laurin at
Bourg-la-Reine, and after a time they definitely forsook pictorial art
for that of the potter. Lessore painted in underglaze colours in a
delicate sketchy style figure-subjects, mostly adapted from old
engravings. He worked for a short time at Sèvres, and then, like so many
other French pottery artists of this period, he came to Minton's in
England, and finally entered into an engagement with the old firm of
Josiah Wedgwood & Sons which continued almost to his death (1860-1876).
On their fine cream-coloured earthenware he sketched many thousands of
fanciful designs which had a great vogue in the 'seventies and 'eighties
of the last century. Chapelet pursued a very different course. His first
innovation was a method known as "Barbotine" or slip-painting, in which
coloured clays were used "impasto," often in considerable thickness, so
that after the work had been fired and glazed it bore some resemblance
to an oil painting. For a few years this style of decoration became the
rage all over Europe, but it fell into contempt almost as rapidly as it
had found favour, and is now only used for the decoration of common
wares. Ultimately, Chapelet gave up painting and applied himself to the
discovery of technical novelties. He was apparently the first European
potter to produce flambé glazes after the manner of the Chinese, and a
fine collection of these productions of his is preserved in the museum
at Sèvres.

The greatest of all the French innovators was, however, Théodore Deck,
who had been trained as a working potter and was led to forsake the
management of an ordinary tile and pottery business in Paris to
experiment on his own account. He started a little workshop in the
Boulevard Montparnasse in Paris and rapidly gathered round him a number
of young painters all eager to experiment in the magnificent colours
which Deck with his passionate love of Persian and other oriental
pottery could place at their disposal. Within a few years this venture
was so successful that Deck was known all over the civilized world as a
great potter, and his original creations, painted by men like Ranvier,
Collin, Ehrmann, Anker and other artists, were readily purchased by the
lovers of ceramic art in every country. The crown of his career came in
1887, when he was appointed director of the National Manufactory at
Sèvres, for he was the only practical potter who had ever occupied that
position; but he died in 1890 before he had been able to impress his
personality on the work of Sèvres.

The same movement that was active in France found its exponents in other
countries as well. In Italy and the south of France the last quarter of
the 19th century witnessed a revival of Italian majolica and of lustre
decoration. Prominent in this direction were the productions of
Cantegalli of Florence and of the Massiers of Golfe-Juan near Cannes;
while in England William de Morgan created an artistic sensation by his
tiles and vases decorated with lustres, or with painted colours
recalling those of the Persian and Syrian potters of the middle ages.
This departure in England was, however, followed up by many
manufacturers who were keenly alive to the possibilities of pottery
colour, and Mr Bernard Moore, of Longton, Maw & Company of Jackfield,
and Minton's of Stoke-upon-Trent, produced much excellent work, in tiles
and vases inspired from the same oriental sources.

Meantime, in America there had been growing up a manufacture of pottery
after the approved methods, in Trenton, New Jersey; East Liverpool,
Zanesville and Cincinnati (Ohio). To all these centres English workmen
had been attracted, and earthenware after the current English styles was
manufactured; but, as was the case in Europe, individual efforts were
made to produce artistic pottery. The first and best known of these
artistic departures was that of the Rookwood Pottery at Cincinnati, and
again it was an amateur, Mrs Bellamy Storer, who founded an enterprise
which has since produced some very original work. From 1880 to 1889 the
work was mainly carried on at the expense of this lady, but since that
date the enterprise has been self-supporting, and the Rookwood pottery
has become known throughout the world.

The latter half of the 19th century also witnessed the development of
new branches of pottery manufacture for sanitary purposes--and it is not
too much to say that much of the improved sanitation of modern dwellings
and towns has been rendered possible by the special appliances invented
by potters for these purposes. In this direction the English potters
undoubtedly led the way, and not only have their methods been imitated
abroad, but English manufacturers have also established large works in
Germany, France and the United States of America. Varieties, too, of
hard-fired pottery, comprising earthenwares, stonewares and porcelains,
have been invented for use in the chemical and electrical industries.
But these belong to the great modern branch of pottery manufacture, not
to pottery art. In the same way, the revived attention paid to the
various forms of pottery for the interior and exterior of buildings
belongs rather to the question of mural decoration than of pottery.

At the beginning of the 20th century we find England and Germany the
leading pottery manufacturing countries; Germany excelling in the amount
of its output, and England in the fineness and finish of its
productions. France, in addition to the National Manufactory at Sèvres,
as much as ever divorced from commerce, has its porcelain industry at
Limoges and large manufactories of tiles and earthenware in many
departments; while there are also a number of artist potters like
Lachenal, Dalpayrat, Delaherche and Taxile Doat who make purely artistic
pottery in hard-fired stonewares (_grès_) and porcelain, while the
production of decorative stonewares for building purposes has been
developed by such firms as Bigot, Boulanger and E. Müller. A great
development has also taken place in the production of decorative pottery
and tiles in Holland. The famous Delft works, besides producing
quantities of painted blue and white earthenware (made in the English
and not in the old Dutch fashion), has been experimenting largely in the
development of crystalline and opalescent glazes and in lustres, while
the Rozenburg factory at the Hague and a factory at Puramerende, near
Amsterdam, have made some distinctive but rather bizarre painted pottery
and porcelain. The success of the Royal Copenhagen factory has already
been mentioned, and this success led to the foundation of Bing &
Gröndhal of Copenhagen, who largely follow the styles of decoration
initiated at the Royal works. In Sweden there are two important
factories at Rörstrand and Gustafsberg. Under the accomplished director
of the Rörstrand factory, Mr Robert Almström, a great variety of
products have been successfully manufactured, including hard-paste
porcelain, English bone china, earthenware, majolica and stoves. Italy,
Spain and Belgium have also important modern pottery works.

In the United States of America there are large establishments for the
manufacture of earthenware, bone china and tiles, all after the English
fashion, while in addition there are a number of experimental kilns at
work producing artistic pottery. The Rookwood factory has already been
mentioned, but the wares produced at the Grueby factory and by Mrs
Robineau and T. Brouwer are also worthy of note. (See "Report on
American Art Pottery," pp. 922-935 of _Special Reports of the U.S.
Census Office, Manufactures_, pt. iii., 1905.)

  _Technical Pottery Works._--It is only possible to give a selection of
  the best of the modern standard works dealing with the technical side
  of pottery production. Brongniart, _Traité des arts céramiques_ (3rd
  ed., Paris, 1877), with notes and additions by Salvétat; E. Bourry,
  _Traité des industries céramiques_ (Paris, 1897); Théodore Deck, _La
  Faïence_ (Paris, 1887); A. Granger, _La Céramique industrielle_
  (Paris, 1905); E.S. Auscher, _La Céramique cuisant à haute
  température_ (Paris, 1899); _Technologie de la Céramique_ (Paris,
  1901); _Les Industries céramiques_ (Paris, 1901); Seger, _Gesammelte
  Schriften_ (Berlin, 1896; Eng. trans., Eastern, Pa., U.S.A., 1902);
  Langenbeck, _The Chemistry of Pottery_ (Easton, Pa., U.S.A., 1895);
  William Burton, _Porcelain_ (London, 1906).     (W. B.*)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The archaeologist is frequently puzzled as to the place of origin
    of some example of ancient pottery--was it made in the district where
    it was found, or had it been imported from some other centre? When we
    possess a sufficient body of analytical data obtained by the use of
    one general chemical method, an analysis of a fragment will
    frequently enable such a question to be answered, where now all is
    doubt and speculation. But the analytical results published hitherto
    are often not worth the paper they are printed on for such a purpose,
    the older methods of silicate analysis being only approximate.

  [2] It must always be borne in mind that, side by side with the
    production of artistic wares in all countries, the traditional craft
    of the village pot-maker continued, and has probably been less
    interfered with than is generally imagined, except in the British
    Isles. Any country market-place in Spain, Italy, Greece, France,
    Germany, or Holland is provided to-day with a simple peasant pottery
    little removed in its forms, its decorations, or its technical skill
    from the country work of the middle ages. In England the cheapness of
    machine-made pottery has largely destroyed such village industries.

  [3] _I tre libri dell' Arte del Vasajo_, by Cipriano Piccolpasso of
    Castel Durante, A.D. 1548.

  [4] The earliest glazed objects found in Egyptian tombs (once
    dignified by the name of Egyptian porcelain) are hardly to be called
    pottery at all, though we have no other name for them. The material
    is largely sand held together by a little clay and glass.

  [5] Foreign pottery had been imported into Egypt at least as early as
    the XIIth Dynasty, e.g. the Cretan polychrome ware of the Middle
    Minoan period (Kamares style) found at Medinet Ghuraib ("Kahun") and
    the Cypriote (?) "punctuated" black ware from the same site, and from
    Khata'anah (17). The date between the XIIth and XIIIth Dynasties is
    certain (14), but the Middle Kingdom Egyptians do not seem to have
    imitated these earlier foreign forms. British Museum, No. 17,046, is,
    however, probably an instance of an Egyptian idea imitated by the
    foreign potter (17).

  [6] Some of these figures appear to have been made with a mixture of
    sand, clay and coloured glass which produced a real glassy
    porcelain--the earliest porcelain of which we have any record.

  [7] On this subject see in particular Mazard, _De la connaissance par
    les anciens des glaçures plombifères_, a scientific and valuable
    monograph (1879); also Rayet and Collignon, _Hist. de la céramique
    grecque_, p. 365 (or _B.M. Cat. of Roman Pottery_, Introduction).

  [8] For a full description and lists of such kilns see Walters,
    _Ancient Pottery_, ii. 443-454.

  [9] See examples in colour on Plate V.

  [10] A peculiarity of the Persian and allied blue glazes, of many
    shades, is that they appear to have been produced not by dissolving
    the colouring matter in the glaze, but by coating the white ground of
    the ware with a thin wash of some cobaltiferous substance--probably
    an earth containing varying proportions of cobalt, manganese and
    iron--and then melting a thick alkaline glaze over it.

  [11] See Drury Fortnum, _Archaeologia_, vol. xlii.

  [12] Specimens of Turkish and other Eastern wares exist with
    elaborate English silver mounts of the time of Elizabeth, and these
    were doubtless included under the name of "Damas Wares."

  [13] See Riaño, _Spanish Arts_, Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook,
    pp. 149-151; and _Sobre la manera de fabricar la antigua loza dorado
    de Manises_ (1878).

  [14] See examples in colour, Plate VI.

  [15] There is ample documentary evidence to prove how largely the
    lustred pottery of Spain was imported into Italy from the 12th
    century onwards; and it is important to note in this connexion that
    almost all the fine examples of Hispano-Moresque in our modern
    collections have been obtained from the palaces of ancient Italian
    families.

  [16] Piccolpasso, _I tre libri dell' arte del Vasajo_, dated 1548. It
    has been several times translated both into modern Italian and
    French. The English reader will find an excellent abstract of this
    interesting MS. in the volumes on _Majolica_ by Drury E. Fortnum.

  [17] For a full account of the lustre process see Franchet, _Comptes
    rendus_ for December 1905, and W. Burton, _Society of Arts Journal_,
    2846, vol. lv., 1907.

  [18] See Magne, _Le Palais de Justice de Poitiers_ (Paris, 1904);
    also Solon in _Burlington Magazine_ (November 1907).

  [19] See B. Fillon, _Les Faiences d'Oiron_ (1862).

  [20] See E. Bonaffe, _Les Faiences de Saint-Porchaire_ (1898).

  [21] See examples in colour, Plate X.

  [22] An excellent summary of the remains of English medieval pottery
   will be found in Hobson's "Medieval Pottery found in England,"
   _Archaeological Journal_, vol. lix.

  [23] Böttger at Meissen made a similar ware as his prelude to the
   discovery of white porcelain, but this was after Dwight's death.

  [24] For a discussion of the stages through which this was achieved
    the reader is referred to special works, such as Prof. A.H. Church's
    _English Earthenware_, and W. Burton's _English Earthenware and
    Stoneware_.

  [25] It is amusing or annoying to find in European museums the wares
    of Wedgwood, Turner, Adams and one of the Leeds potteries, all lumped
    together as "Wedgwood," and yet one can hardly wonder at it,
    remembering how much has been written of Wedgwood and how little of
    the other English potters of the 18th century.

  [26] See examples in colour, Plates VII. and VIII.

  [27] S.W. Bushell, _Chinese Art_ (Victoria and Albert Museum
    Handbooks, ii. 5-6).

  [28] _Yao_ is the Chinese term equivalent of the English "pottery" or
    "ware."

  [29] See Brinkley, _Japan and China_, ix. 353-365.

  [30] Solon, _The Noble Buccaros_ (Stoke-upon-Trent, 1896).

  [31] M. Reinand, _Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les
    Persans dans l'Inde el à la Chine dans le IX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1845).

  [32] The suggestion has been made that the _céladon_ wares found in
    Western countries were made by Moslem potters and not by the Chinese,
    but this theory is not generally accepted. On this point consult
    Karabacek, "Zur muslimischen Keramik" in _Österreichische
    Monatsschrift für den Orient_, vol. x., 1884; A.B. Meyer, "Über die
    Herkunft gewisser Seladon-Porzellane" under "Über die Marta banis,"
    ibid. vol. xi., 1885; Hirth, _Ancient Porcelain_ (1888), and Bushell,
    _Oriental Ceramic Art_ (1899).

  [33] It is of interest to note that the "Delft" of Holland, also a
    product of the 17th and early 18th centuries, makes the nearest
    approach in quality to the blue and white porcelain of the Chinese.

  [34] See Drake, Sir W., _Venetian Ceramics_; and Davillier, Baron
    Ch., _Les Origines de la porcelaine en Europe_.

  [35] A perfect _tour de force_ in this inartistic style of work,
    preserved in the Dresden Museum and formerly attributed to Meissen,
    has been shown to be the work of Vincennes. See _Gaz. des
    beaux-arts_, September 1904.

  [36] _Travels in England and Scotland_ (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 97.








*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "CELTES, KONRAD" TO "CERAMICS" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_34018.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Anjar" to "Apollo"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Anjar" to "Apollo"

Author: Various

Release date: October 2, 2010 [eBook #34018]
                Most recently updated: January 7, 2021

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "ANJAR" TO "APOLLO" ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net









Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


            VOLUME II, SLICE II

              Anjar to Apollo




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  ANJAR                          ANTIGONUS GONATAS
  ANJOU                          ANTIGONUS OF CARYSTUS
  ANKERITE                       ANTIGUA
  ANKLAM                         ANTILEGOMENA
  ANKLE                          ANTILIA
  ANKOBER                        ANTILLES
  ANKYLOSIS                      ANTILOCHUS
  ANKYLOSTOMIASIS                ANTIMACASSAR
  ANNA, BALDASARRE               ANTIMACHUS
  ANNA (Indian penny)            ANTI-MASONIC PARTY
  ANNA AMALIA                    ANTIMONY
  ANNABERG                       ANTINOMIANS
  ANNABERGITE                    ANTINOMY
  ANNA COMNENA                   ANTINOUS
  ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA               ANTIOCH
  ANNALISTS                      ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA
  ANNALS                         ANTIOCHUS
  ANNAM                          ANTIOCHUS OF ASCALON
  ANNAN                          ANTIOCHUS OF SYRACUSE
  ANNA PERENNA                   ANTIOPE
  ANNAPOLIS (Maryland, U.S.A.)   ANTIOQUIA
  ANNAPOLIS (Nova Scotia)        ANTIPAROS
  ANN ARBOR                      ANTIPATER
  ANNATES                        ANTIPHANES
  ANNE (queen of Great Britain)  ANTIPHILUS
  ANNE (empress of Russia)       ANTIPHON
  ANNE OF BRITTANY               ANTIPHONY
  ANNE OF CLEVES                 ANTIPODES
  ANNE OF DENMARK                ANTIPYRINE
  ANNE OF FRANCE                 ANTIQUARY
  ANNEALING AND TEMPERING        ANTIQUE
  ANNECY                         ANTI-SEMITISM
  ANNELIDA                       ANTISEPTICS
  ANNET, PETER                   ANTISTHENES
  ANNEXATION                     ANTISTROPHE
  ANNICERIS                      ANTITHESIS
  ANNING, MARY                   ANTITYPE
  ANNISTON                       ANTIUM
  ANNO, SAINT                    ANTIVARI
  ANNOBON                        ANT-LION
  ANNONA                         ANTOFAGASTA
  ANNONAY                        ANTOINE, ANDRE
  ANNOY                          ANTONELLI, GIACOMO
  ANNUITY                        ANTONELLO DA MESSINA
  ANNULAR, ANNULATE              ANTONINI ITINERARIUM
  ANNUNCIATION                   ANTONINUS, SAINT
  ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D'          ANTONINUS LIBERALIS
  ANOA                           ANTONINUS PIUS
  ANODYNE                        ANTONIO
  ANOINTING                      ANTONIO, NICOLAS
  ANOMALY                        ANTONIO DE LEBRIJA
  ANORTHITE                      ANTONIUS
  ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE         ANTONOMASIA
  ANQUETIL, DUPERRON, ABRAHAM    ANTRAIGUES, EMMANUEL HENRI LOUIS
  ANSA                           ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL
  ANSBACH                        ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL
  ANSDELL, RICHARD               ANTRIM (county of Ireland)
  ANSELM (archbishop)            ANTRIM (town of Ireland)
  ANSELM (French theologian)     ANTRUSTION
  ANSELME                        ANTWERP (province of Belgium)
  ANSON, GEORGE ANSON            ANTWERP (city of Belgium)
  ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL     ANU
  ANSONIA                        ANUBIS
  ANSTED, DAVID THOMAS           ANURADHAPURA
  ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER            ANVIL
  ANSTRUTHER                     ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D'
  ANSWER                         ANWARI
  ANT                            ANWEILER
  ANTAE                          ANZENGRUBER, LUDWIG
  ANTAEUS                        ANZIN
  ANTALCIDAS                     AONIA
  ANTANANARIVO                   AORIST
  'ANTARA IBN SHADDAD            AOSTA
  ANTARCTIC                      APACHE
  ANTEATER                       APALACHEE
  ANTE-CHAPEL                    APALACHICOLA
  ANTE-CHOIR                     APAMEA
  ANTE-FIXAE                     APARRI
  ANTELOPE                       APATITE
  ANTEMNAE                       APATURIA
  ANTENOR (Athenian sculptor)    APE
  ANTENOR (Trojan elder)         APELDOORN
  ANTEQUERA                      APELLA
  ANTEROS                        APELLES
  ANTHELION                      APELLICON
  ANTHEM                         APENNINES
  ANTHEMION                      APENRADE
  ANTHEMIUS                      APERTURE
  ANTHESTERIA                    APEX
  ANTHIM THE IBERIAN             APHANITE
  ANTHOLOGY                      APHASIA
  ANTHON, CHARLES                APHELION
  ANTHONY, SAINT                 APHEMIA
  ANTHONY OF PADUA, SAINT        APHIDES
  ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL        APHORISM
  ANTHOZOA                       APHRAATES
  ANTHRACENE                     APHRODITE
  ANTHRACITE                     APHTHONIUS
  ANTHRACOTHERIUM                APHTHONIUS, AELIUS FESTUS
  ANTHRAQUINONE                  APICIUS
  ANTHRAX                        APICULTURE
  ANTHROPOID APES                APION
  ANTHROPOLOGY                   APIS
  ANTHROPOMETRY                  APLITE
  ANTHROPOMORPHISM               APNOEA
  ANTI                           APOCALYPSE
  ANTIBES                        APOCALYPSE, KNIGHTS OF THE
  ANTICHRIST                     APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
  ANTICLIMAX                     APOCATASTASIS
  ANTICOSTI                      APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
  ANTICYCLONE                    APODICTIC
  ANTICYRA                       APOLDA
  ANTIETAM                       APOLLINARIS
  ANTI-FEDERALISTS               APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS
  ANTIGO                         APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, CAIUS SOLLIUS
  ANTIGONE                       APOLLO
  ANTIGONUS CYCLOPS




ANJAR, a fortified town of India, and the capital of a district of the
same name in the native state of Cutch, in the presidency of Bombay. The
country is dry and sandy, and entirely depends on well irrigation for
its water supply. The town is situated nearly 10 miles from the Gulf of
Cutch. It suffered severely from an earthquake in 1819, which destroyed
a large number of houses, and occasioned the loss of several lives. In
1901 the population was 18,014. The town and district of Anjar were both
ceded to the British in 1816, but in 1822 they were again transferred to
the Cutch government in consideration of an annual money payment.
Subsequently it was discovered that this obligation pressed heavily upon
the resources of the native state, and in 1832 the pecuniary equivalent
for Anjar, both prospectively and inclusive of the arrears which had
accrued to that date, was wholly remitted by the British government.




ANJOU, the old name of a French territory, the political origin of which
is traced to the ancient Gallic state of the _Andes_, on the lines of
which was organized, after the conquest by Julius Caesar, the Roman
_civitas_ of the _Andecavi_. This was afterwards preserved as an
administrative district under the Franks with the name first of _pagus_,
then of _comitatus_, or countship of Anjou. This countship, the extent
of which seems to have been practically identical with that of the
ecclesiastical diocese of Angers, occupied the greater part of what is
now the department of Maine-et-Loire, further embracing, to the north,
Craon, Bazouges (Chateau-Gontier), Le Lude, and to the east,
Chateau-la-Valliere and Bourgueil, while to the south, on the other
hand, it included neither the present town of Montreuil-Bellay, nor
Vihiers, Cholet, Beaupreau, nor the whole district lying to the west of
the Ironne and Thouet, on the left bank of the Loire, which formed the
territory of the Mauges. It was bounded on the north by the countship of
Maine, on the east by that of Touraine, on the south by that of Poitiers
and by the Mauges, on the west by the countship of Nantes.

From the outset of the reign of Charles the Bald, the integrity of Anjou
was seriously menaced by a two-fold danger: from Brittany and from
Normandy. Lambert, a former count of Nantes, after devastating Anjou in
concert with Nominoe, duke of Brittany, had by the end of the year 851
succeeded in occupying all the western part as far as the Mayenne. The
principality, which he thus carved out for himself, was occupied, on his
death, by Erispoe, duke of Brittany; by him it was handed down to his
successors, in whose hands it remained till the beginning of the 10th
century. All this time the Normans had not ceased ravaging the country;
a brave man was needed to defend it, and finally towards 861, Charles
the Bald entrusted it to Robert the Strong (q.v.), but he unfortunately
met with his death in 866 in a battle against the Normans at Brissarthe.
Hugh the Abbot succeeded him in the countship of Anjou as in most of his
other duties, and on his death (886) it passed to Odo (q.v.), the eldest
son of Robert the Strong, who, on his accession to the throne of France
(888), probably handed it over to his brother Robert. In any case,
during the last years of the 9th century, in Anjou as elsewhere the
power was delegated to a viscount, Fulk the Red (mentioned under this
title after 898), son of a certain Ingelgerius.

In the second quarter of the 10th century Fulk the Red had already
usurped the title of count, which his descendants kept for three
centuries. He was succeeded first by his son Fulk II. the Good (941 or
942-c. 960), and then by the son of the latter, Geoffrey I.
_Grisegonelle_ (Greytunic) (c. 960-21st of July 987), who inaugurated a
policy of expansion, having as its objects the extension of the
boundaries of the ancient countship and the reconquest of those parts of
it which had been annexed by the neighbouring states; for, though
western Anjou had been recovered from the dukes of Brittany since the
beginning of the 10th century, in the east all the district of Saumur
had already by that time fallen into the hands of the counts of Blois
and Tours. Geoffrey Greytunic succeeded in making the count of Nantes
his vassal, and in obtaining from the duke of Aquitaine the concession
in fief of the district of Loudun. Moreover, in the wars of king
Lothaire against the Normans and against the emperor Otto II. he
distinguished himself by feats of arms which the epic poets were quick
to celebrate. His son Fulk III. Nerra (q.v.) (21st of July 987-21st of
June 1040) found himself confronted on his accession with a coalition of
Odo I., count of Blois, and Conan I., count of Rennes. The latter having
seized upon Nantes, of which the counts of Anjou held themselves to be
suzerains, Fulk Nerra came and laid siege to it, routing Conan's army at
Conquereuil (27th of June 992) and re-establishing Nantes under his own
suzerainty. Then turning his attention to the count of Blois, he
proceeded to establish a fortress at Langeais, a few miles from Tours,
from which, thanks to the intervention of the king Hugh Capet, Odo
failed to oust him. On the death of Odo I., Fulk seized Tours (996); but
King Robert the Pious turned against him and took the town again (997).
In 1016 a fresh struggle arose between Fulk and Odo II., the new count
of Blois. Odo II. was utterly defeated at Pontlevoy (6th of July 1016),
and a few years later, while Odo was besieging Montboyau, Fulk surprised
and took Saumur (1026). Finally, the victory gained by Geoffrey Martel
(q.v.) (21st of June 1040-14th of November 1060), the son and successor
of Fulk, over Theobald III., count of Blois, at Nouy (21st of August
1044), assured to the Angevins the possession of the countship of
Touraine. At the same time, continuing in this quarter also the work of
his father (who in 1025 took prisoner Herbert Wake-Dog and only set him
free on condition of his doing him homage), Geoffrey succeeded in
reducing the countship of Maine to complete dependence on himself.
During his father's life-time he had been beaten by Gervais, bishop of
Le Mans (1038), but now (1047 or 1048) succeeded in taking the latter
prisoner, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Leo IX. at the council
of Reims (October 1049). In spite, however, of the concerted attacks of
William the Bastard (the Conqueror), duke of Normandy, and Henry I.,
king of France, he was able in 1051 to force Maine to recognize his
authority, though failing to revenge himself on William.

On the death of Geoffrey Martel (14th of November 1060) there was a
dispute as to the succession. Geoffrey Martel, having no children, had
bequeathed the countship to his eldest nephew, Geoffrey III. the
Bearded, son of Geoffrey, count of Gatinais, and of Ermengarde, daughter
of Fulk Nerra. But Fulk le Rechin (the Cross-looking), brother of
Geoffrey the Bearded, who had at first been contented with an appanage
consisting of Saintonge and the _chatellenie_ of Vihiers, having allowed
Saintonge to be taken in 1062 by the duke of Aquitaine, took advantage
of the general discontent aroused in the countship by the unskilful
policy of Geoffrey to make himself master of Saumur (25th of February
1067) and Angers (4th of April), and cast Geoffrey into prison at Sable.
Compelled by the papal authority to release him after a short interval
and to restore the countship to him, he soon renewed the struggle, beat
Geoffrey near Brissac and shut him up in the castle of Chinon (1068). In
order, however, to obtain his recognition as count, Fulk IV. Rechin
(1068-14th of April 1109) had to carry on a long struggle with his
barons, to cede Gatinais to King Philip I., and to do homage to the
count of Blois for Touraine. On the other hand, he was successful on the
whole in pursuing the policy of Geoffrey Martel in Maine: after
destroying La Fleche, by the peace of Blanchelande (1081), he received
the homage of Robert "Courteheuse" ("Curthose"), son of William the
Conqueror, for Maine. Later, he upheld Elias, lord of La Fleche, against
William Rufus, king of England, and on the recognition of Elias as count
of Maine in 1100, obtained for Fulk the Young, his son by Bertrade de
Montfort, the hand of Eremburge, Elias's daughter and sole heiress.

Fulk V. the Young (14th of April 1109-1129) succeeded to the countship
of Maine on the death of Elias (11th of July 1110); but this increase of
Angevin territory came into such direct collision with the interests of
Henry I., king of England, who was also duke of Normandy, that a
struggle between the two powers became inevitable. In 1112 it broke out,
and Fulk, being unable to prevent Henry I. from taking Alencon and
making Robert, lord of Belleme, prisoner, was forced, at the treaty of
Pierre Pecoulee, near Alencon (23rd of February 1113), to do homage to
Henry for Maine. In revenge for this, while Louis VI. was overrunning
the Vexin in 1118, he routed Henry's army at Alencon (November), and in
May 1119 Henry demanded a peace, which was sealed in June by the
marriage of his eldest son, William the Aetheling, with Matilda, Fulk's
daughter. William the Aetheling having perished in the wreck of the
"White Ship" (25th of November 1120), Fulk, on his return from a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land (1120-1121), married his second daughter
Sibyl, at the instigation of Louis VI., to William Clito, son of Robert
Courteheuse, and a claimant to the duchy of Normandy, giving her Maine
for a dowry (1122 or 1123). Henry I. managed to have the marriage
annulled, on the plea of kinship between the parties (1123 or 1124). But
in 1127 a new alliance was made, and on the 22nd of May at Rouen, Henry
I. betrothed his daughter Matilda, widow of the emperor Henry V., to
Geoffrey the Handsome, son of Fulk, the marriage being celebrated at Le
Mans on the 2nd of June 1129. Shortly after, on the invitation of
Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, Fulk departed to the Holy Land for good,
married Melisinda, Baldwin's daughter and heiress, and succeeded to the
throne of Jerusalem (14th of September 1131). His eldest son, Geoffrey
IV. the Handsome or "Plantagenet," succeeded him as count of Anjou
(1129-7th of September 1151). From the first he tried to profit by his
marriage, and after the death of Henry I. (1st of December 1135), laid
the foundation of the conquest of Normandy by a series of campaigns:
about the end of 1135 or the beginning of 1136 he entered that country
and rejoined his wife, the countess Matilda, who had received the
submission of Argentan, Domfront and Exmes. Having been abruptly
recalled into Anjou by a revolt of his barons, he returned to the charge
in September 1136 with a strong army, including in its ranks William,
duke of Aquitaine, Geoffrey, count of Vendome, and William Talvas, count
of Ponthieu, but after a few successes was wounded in the foot at the
siege of Le Sap (October 1) and had to fall back. In May 1137 began a
fresh campaign in which he devastated the district of Hiemois (round
Exmes) and burnt Bazoches. In June 1138, with the aid of Robert of
Gloucester, Geoffrey obtained the submission of Bayeux and Caen; in
October he devastated the neighbourhood of Falaise; finally, in March
1141, on hearing of his wife's success in England, he again entered
Normandy, when he made a triumphal procession through the country. Town
after town surrendered: in 1141, Verneuil, Nonancourt, Lisieux, Falaise;
in 1142, Mortain, Saint-Hilaire, Pontorson; in 1143, Avranches,
Saint-Lo, Cerences, Coutances, Cherbourg; in the beginning of 1144 he
entered Rouen, and on the 19th of January received the ducal crown in
its cathedral. Finally, in 1149, after crushing a last attempt at
revolt, he handed over the duchy to his son Henry "Curtmantel," who
received the investiture at the hands of the king of France.

All the while that Fulk the Young and Geoffrey the Handsome were
carrying on the work of extending the countship of Anjou, they did not
neglect to strengthen their authority at home, to which the unruliness
of the barons was a menace. As regards Fulk the Young we know only a few
isolated facts and dates: about 1109 Doue and L'Ile Bouchard were taken;
in 1112 Brissac was besieged, and about the same time Eschivard of
Preuilly subdued; in 1114 there was a general war against the barons who
were in revolt, and in 1118 a fresh rising, which was put down after the
siege of Montbazon: in 1123 the lord of Doue revolted, and in 1124
Montreuil-Bellay was taken after a siege of nine weeks. Geoffrey the
Handsome, with his indefatigable energy, was eminently fitted to
suppress the coalitions of his vassals, the most formidable of which was
formed in 1129. Among those who revolted were Guy of Laval, Giraud of
Montreuil-Bellay, the viscount of Thouars, the lords of Mirebeau,
Amboise, Partbenay and Sable. Geoffrey succeeded in beating them one
after another, razed the keep of Thouars and occupied Mirebeau. Another
rising was crushed in 1134 by the destruction of Cand and the taking of
L'Ile Bouchard. In 1136, while the count was in Normandy, Robert of
Sable put himself at the head of the movement, to which Geoffrey
responded by destroying Briollay and occupying La Suze, and Robert of
Sable himself was forced to beg humbly for pardon through the
intercession of the bishop of Angers. In 1139 Geoffrey took Mirebeau,
and in 1142 Champtoceaux, but in 1145 a new revolt broke out, this time
under the leadership of Elias, the count's own brother, who, again with
the assistance of Robert of Sable, laid claim to the countship of Maine.
Geoffrey took Elias prisoner, forced Robert of Sable to beat a retreat,
and reduced the other barons to reason. In 1147 he destroyed Doue and
Blaison. Finally in 1150 he was checked by the revolt of Giraud, lord of
Montreuil-Bellay: for a year he besieged the place till it had to
surrender: he then took Giraud prisoner and only released him on the
mediation of the king of France.

Thus, on the death of Geoffrey the Handsome (7th of September 1151), his
son Henry found himself heir to a great empire, strong and consolidated,
to which his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine (May 1152) further added
Aquitaine.

At length on the death of King Stephen, Henry was recognised as king of
England (19th of December 1154). But then his brother Geoffrey, who had
received as appanage the three fortresses of Chinon, Loudun and
Mirebeau, tried to seize upon Anjou, on the pretext that, by the will of
their father, Geoffrey the Handsome, all the paternal inheritance ought
to descend to him, if Henry succeeded in obtaining possession of the
maternal inheritance. On hearing of this, Henry, although he had sworn
to observe this will, had himself released from his oath by the pope,
and hurriedly marched against his brother, from whom in the beginning of
1156 he succeeded in taking Chinon and Mirebeau; and in July he forced
Geoffrey to give up even his three fortresses in return for an annual
pension. Henceforward Henry succeeded in keeping the countship of Anjou
all his life; for though he granted it in 1168 to his son Henry "of the
Short Mantle," when the latter became old enough to govern it, he
absolutely refused to allow him to enjoy his power. After Henry II.'s
death in 1189 the countship, together with the rest of his dominions,
passed to his son Richard I. of England, but on the death of the latter
in 1199, Arthur of Brittany (born in 1187) laid claim to the
inheritance, which ought, according to him, to have fallen to his father
Geoffrey, fourth son of Henry II., in accordance with the custom by
which "the son of the eldest brother should succeed to his father's
patrimony." He therefore set himself up in rivalry with John Lackland,
youngest son of Henry II., and supported by Philip Augustus of France,
and aided by William des Roches, seneschal of Anjou, he managed to enter
Angers (18th of April 1199) and there have himself recognized as count
of the three countships of Anjou, Maine and Touraine, for which he did
homage to the king of France. King John soon regained the upper hand,
for Philip Augustus having deserted Arthur by the treaty of Le Goulet
(22nd of May 1200), John made his way into Anjou; and on the 18th of
June 1200 was recognized as count at Angers. In 1202 he refused to do
homage to Philip Augustus, who, in consequence, confiscated all his
continental possessions, including Anjou, which was allotted by the king
of France to Arthur. The defeat of the latter, who was taken prisoner at
Mirebeau on the ist of August 1202, seemed to ensure John's success, but
he was abandoned by William des Roches, who in 1203 assisted Philip
Augustus in subduing the whole of Anjou. A last effort on the part of
John to possess himself of it, in 1214, led to the taking of Angers
(17th of June), but broke down lamentably at the battle of La
Roche-aux-Moines (2nd of July), and the countship was attached to the
crown of France.

Shortly afterwards it was separated from it again, when in August 1246
King Louis IX. gave it as an appanage to his son Charles, count of
Provence, soon to become king of Naples and Sicily (see NAPLES). Charles
I. of Anjou, engrossed with his other dominions, gave little thought to
Anjou, nor did his son Charles II. the Lame, who succeeded him on the
7th of January 1285. On the 16th of August 1290, the latter married his
daughter Margaret to Charles of Valois, son of Philip III. the Bold,
giving her Anjou and Maine for dowry, in exchange for the kingdoms of
Aragon and Valentia and the countship of Barcelona given up by Charles.
Charles of Valois at once entered into possession of the countship of
Anjou, to which Philip IV. the Fair, in September 1297, attached a
peerage of France. On the 16th of December 1325, Charles died, leaving
Anjou to his eldest son Philip of Valois, on whose recognition as king
of France (Philip VI.) on the 1st of April 1328, the countship of Anjou
was again united to the crown. On the 17th of February 1332, Philip VI.
bestowed it on his son John the Good, who, when he became king in turn
(22nd of August 1350), gave the countship to his second son Louis I.,
raising it to a duchy in the peerage of France by letters patent of the
25th of October 1360. Louis I., who became in time count of Provence and
king of Naples (see Louis I., king of Naples,) died in 1384, and was
succeeded by his son Louis II., who devoted most of his energies to his
kingdom of Naples, and left the administration of Anjou almost entirely
in the hands of his wife, Yolande of Aragon. On his death (29th of April
1417) she took upon herself the guardianship of their young son Louis
III., and in her capacity of regent defended the duchy against the
English. Louis III., who also succeeded his father as king of Naples,
died on the 15th of November 1434, leaving no children. The duchy of
Anjou then passed to his cousin Rene, second son of Louis II. and
Yolande of Aragon, and king of Naples and Sicily (see NAPLES).

Unlike his predecessors, who had rarely stayed long in Anjou, Rene from
1443 onwards paid long visits to it, and his court at Angers became one
of the most brilliant in the kingdom of France. But after the sudden
death of his son John in December 1470, Rene, for reasons which are not
altogether clear, decided to move his residence to Provence and leave
Anjou for good. After making an inventory of all his possessions, he
left the duchy in October 1471, taking with him the most valuable of his
treasures. On the 22nd of July 1474 he drew up a will by which he
divided the succession between his grandson Rene II. of Lorraine and his
nephew Charles II., count of Maine. On hearing this, King Louis XI., who
was the son of one of King Rene's sisters, seeing that his expectations
were thus completely frustrated, seized the duchy of Anjou. He did not
keep it very long, but became reconciled to Rene in 1476 and restored it
to him, on condition, probably, that Rene should bequeath it to him.
However that may be, on the death of the latter (10th of July 1480) he
again added Anjou to the royal domain.

Later, King Francis I. again gave the duchy as an appanage to his
mother, Louise of Savoy, by letters patent of the 4th of February 1515.
On her death, in September 1531, the duchy returned into the king's
possession. In 1552 it was given as an appanage by Henry II. to his son
Henry of Valois, who, on becoming king in 1574, with the title of Henry
III., conceded it to his brother Francis, duke of Alencon, at the treaty
of Beaulieu near Loches (6th of May 1576). Francis died on the 10th of
June 1584, and the vacant appanage definitively became part of the royal
domain.

At first Anjou was included in the _gouvernement_ (or military command)
of Orleanais, but in the 17th century was made into a separate one.
Saumur, however, and the Saumurois, for which King Henry IV. had in 1589
created an independent military governor-generalship in favour of
Duplessis-Mornay, continued till the Revolution to form a separate
_gouvernement_, which included, besides Anjou, portions of Poitou and
Mirebalais. Attached to the _generalite_ (administrative circumscription)
of Tours, Anjou on the eve of the Revolution comprised five _elections_
(judicial districts):--Angers, Beauge, Saumur, Chateau-Gontier,
Montreuil-Bellay and part of the _elections_ of La Fleche and Richelieu.
Financially it formed part of the so-called _pays de grande gabelle_ (see
GABELLE), and comprised sixteen special tribunals, or _greniers a sel_
(salt warehouses):--Angers, Beauge, Beaufort, Bourgueil, Cande,
Chateau-Gontier, Cholet, Craon, La Fleche, Saint-Florent-le-Vieil,
Ingrandes, Le Lude, Pouance, Saint-Remy-la-Varenne, Richelieu, Saumur.
From the point of view of purely judicial administration, Anjou was
subject to the parlement of Paris; Angers was the seat of a presidial
court, of which the jurisdiction comprised the _senechaussees_ of Angers,
Saumur, Beauge, Beaufort and the duchy of Richelieu; there were besides
presidial courts at Chateau-Gontier and La Fleche. When the Constituent
Assembly, on the 26th of February 1790, decreed the division of France
into departments, Anjou and the Saumurois, with the exception of certain
territories, formed the department of Maine-et-Loire, as at present
constituted.

  AUTHORITIES.--(1) _Principal Sources_: The history of Anjou may be
  told partly with the aid of the chroniclers of the neighbouring
  provinces, especially those of Normandy (William of Poitiers, William
  of Jumieges, Ordericus Vitalis) and of Maine (especially _Actus
  pontificum Cenomannis in urbe degentium_). For the 10th, 11th and 12th
  centuries especially, there are some important texts dealing entirely
  with Anjou. The most important is the chronicle called _Gesta consulum
  Andegavorum_, of which only a poor edition exists (_Chroniques des
  comtes d'Anjou_, published by Marchegay and Salmon, with an
  introduction by E. Mabille, Paris, 1856-1871, collection of the
  _Societe de l'histoire de France_). See also with reference to this
  text Louis Halphen, _Etude sur les chroniques des comtes d'Anjou et
  des seigneurs d'Amboise_ (Paris, 1906). The above may be supplemented
  by some valuable annals published by Louis Halphen, _Recueil d'annales
  angevines et vendomoises_ (Paris, 1903), (in the series _Collection de
  textes pour servir a l'etude et a l'enseignement de l'histoire_). For
  further details see Auguste Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de
  France_ (Paris, 1902), ii. 1276-1310, and the book of Louis Halphen
  mentioned below.

  (2) _Works_: The _Art de verifier les dates_ contains a history of
  Anjou which is very much out of date, but has not been treated
  elsewhere as a whole. The 11th century only has been treated in detail
  by Louis Halphen, in _Le Comte d'Anjou au XI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1906),
  which has a preface with bibliography and an introduction dealing with
  the history of Anjou in the 10th century. For the 10th, 11th and 12th
  centuries, a good summary will be found in Kate Norgate, _England
  under the Angevin Kings_ (2 vols., London, 1887). On Rene of Anjou,
  there is a book by A. Lecoy de la Marche, _Le Roi Rene_ (2 vols.,
  Paris, 1875). Lastly, the work of Celestin Port, _Dictionnaire
  historique, geographique et biographique de Maine-et-Loire_ (3 vols.,
  Paris and Angers, 1874-1878), and its small volume of _Preliminaires_
  (including a summary of the history of Anjou), contain, in addition to
  the biographies of the chief counts of Anjou, a mass of information
  concerning everything connected with Angevin history.     (L. H.*)




ANKERITE, a member of the mineral group of rhombohedral carbonates. In
composition it is closely related to dolomite, but differs from this in
having magnesia replaced by varying amounts of ferrous and manganous
oxides, the general formula being Ca(Mg, Fe, Mn)(CO3)2. Normal ankerite
is Ca2MgFe(CO3)4. The crystallographic and physical characters resemble
those of dolomite and chalybite. The angle between the perfect
rhombohedral cleavages is 73 deg. 48', the hardness 3-1/2 to 4, and the
specific gravity 2.9 to 3.1; but these will vary slightly with the
chemical composition. The colour is white, grey or reddish.

Ankerite occurs with chalybite in deposits of iron-ore. It is one of the
minerals of the dolomite-chalybite series, to which the terms
brown-spar, pearl-spar and bitter-spar are loosely applied. It was first
recognized as a distinct species by W. von Haidinger in 1825, and named
by him after M.J. Anker of Styria.     (L. J. S.)




ANKLAM, or ANCLAM, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, on the Peene, 5 m. from its mouth in the Kleines Haff, and 53
m. N.W. of Stettin, by the railway to Stralsund. Pop. (1900) 14,602. The
fortifications of Anklam were dismantled in 1762 and have not since been
restored, although the old walls are still standing; formerly, however,
it was a town of considerable military importance, which suffered
severely during the Thirty Years' and the Seven Years' Wars; and this
fact, together with the repeated ravages of fire and of the plague, has
made its history more eventful than is usually the case with towns of
the same size. It does not possess any remarkable buildings, although it
contains several, private as well as public, that are of a quaint and
picturesque style of architecture. The church of St Mary (12th century)
has a modern tower, 335 ft. high. The industries consist of
iron-foundries and factories for sugar and soap; and there is a military
school. The Peene is navigable up to the town, which has a considerable
trade in its own manufactures, as well as in the produce of the
surrounding country, while some shipbuilding is carried on in wharves on
the river.

Anklam, formerly Tanglim, was originally a Slav fortress; it obtained
civic rights in 1244 and joined the Hanseatic league. In 1648 it passed
to Sweden, but in 1676 was retaken by Frederick William I. of
Brandenburg, and after being plundered by the Russians in 1713 was ceded
to Prussia by the peace of Stockholm in 1720.




ANKLE, or ANCLE (a word common, in various forms, to Teutonic languages,
probably connected in origin with the Lat. _angulus_, or Gr. [Greek:
ankulos], bent), the joint which connects the foot with the leg (see
JOINTS).




ANKOBER, a town in, and at one time capital of, the kingdom of Shoa,
Abyssinia, 90 m. N.E. of Adis Ababa, in 9 deg. 34' N., 39 deg. 54' E.,
on a mountain about 8500 ft. above the sea. Ankober was made (c. 1890)
by Menelek II. the place of detention of political prisoners. Pop. about
2000.




ANKYLOSIS, or ANCHYLOSIS (from Gr. [Greek: ankulos], bent, crooked), a
stiffness of a joint, the result of injury or disease. The rigidity may
be complete or partial and may be due to inflammation of the tendinous
or muscular structures outside the joint or of the tissues of the joint
itself. When the structures outside the joint are affected, the term
"false" ankylosis has been used in contradistinction to "true"
ankylosis, in which the disease is within the joint. When inflammation
has caused the joint-ends of the bones to be fused together the
ankylosis is termed _osseous_ or complete. Excision of a completely
ankylosed shoulder or elbow may restore free mobility and usefulness to
the limb. "Ankylosis" is also used as an anatomical term, bones being
said to ankylose (or anchylose) when, from being originally distinct,
they coalesce, or become so joined together that no motion can take
place between them.




ANKYLOSTOMIASIS, or ANCHYLOSTOMIASIS (also called helminthiasis,
"miners' anaemia," and in Germany _Wurmkrankheit_), a disease to which
in recent years much attention has been paid, from its prevalence in the
mining industry in England, France, Germany, Belgium, North Queensland
and elsewhere. This disease (apparently known in Egypt even in very
ancient times) caused a great mortality among the negroes in the West
Indies towards the end of the 18th century; and through descriptions
sent from Brazil and various other tropical and sub-tropical regions, it
was subsequently identified, chiefly through the labours of Bilharz and
Griesinger in Egypt (1854), as being due to the presence in the
intestine of nematoid worms (_Ankylostoma duodenalis_) from one-third to
half an inch long. The symptoms, as first observed among the negroes,
were pain in the stomach, capricious appetite, pica (or dirt-eating),
obstinate constipation followed by diarrhoea, palpitations, small and
unsteady pulse, coldness of the skin, pallor of the skin and mucous
membranes, diminution of the secretions, loss of strength and, in cases
running a fatal course, dysentery, haemorrhages and dropsies. The
parasites, which cling to the intestinal mucous membrane, draw their
nourishment from the blood-vessels of their host, and as they are found
in hundreds in the body after death, the disorders of digestion, the
increasing anaemia and the consequent dropsies and other cachectic
symptoms are easily explained. The disease was first known in Europe
among the Italian workmen employed on the St Gotthard tunnel. In 1896,
though previously unreported in Germany, 107 cases were registered
there, and the number rose to 295 in 1900, and 1030 in 1901. In England
an outbreak at the Dolcoath mine, Cornwall, in 1902, led to an
investigation for the home office by Dr Haldane F.R.S. (see especially
the Parliamentary Paper, numbered Cd. 1843), and since then discussions
and inquiries have been frequent. A committee of the British Association
in 1904 issued a valuable report on the subject. After the
Spanish-American War American physicians had also given it their
attention, with valuable results; see Stiles (_Hygienic Laboratory
Bulletin_, No. 10, Washington, 1903). The American parasite described by
Stiles, and called _Uncinaria americana_ (whence the name Uncinariasis
for this disease) differs slightly from the Ankylostoma. The parasites
thrive in an environment of dirt, and the main lines of precaution are
those dictated by sanitary science. Malefern, santonine, thymol and
other anthelmintic remedies are prescribed.




ANNA, BALDASARRE, a painter who flourished during part of the 16th and
17th centuries. He was born at Venice, probably about 1560, and is said
to have been of Flemish descent. The date of his death is uncertain, but
he seems to have been alive in 1639. For a number of years he studied
under Leonardo Corona, and on the death of that painter completed
several works left unfinished by him. His own activity seems to have
been confined to the production of pieces for several of the churches
and a few private houses in Venice, and the old guide-books and
descriptions of the city notice a considerable number of paintings by
him. Scarcely any of these, however, have survived.




ANNA (Hindustani _ana_), an Indian penny, the sixteenth part of a rupee.
The term belongs to the Mahommedan monetary system (see RUPEE). There is
no coin of one anna, but there are half-annas of copper and two-anna
pieces of silver. The term anna is frequently used to express a
fraction. Thus an Anglo-Indian speaks of two annas of dark blood (an
octoroon), a four-anna (quarter) crop, an eight-anna (half) gallop.




ANNA AMALIA (1739-1807), duchess of Saxe-Weimar, daughter of Charles I.,
duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was born at Wolfenbuttel on the 24th of
October 1739, and married Ernest, duke of Saxe-Weimar, 1756. Her husband
died in 1758, leaving her regent for their infant son, Charles Augustus.
During the protracted minority she administered the affairs of the duchy
with the greatest prudence, strengthening its resources and improving
its position in spite of the troubles of the Seven Years' War. She was a
patroness of art and literature, and attracted to Weimar many of the
most eminent men in Germany. Wieland was appointed tutor to her son; and
the names of Herder, Goethe and Schiller shed an undying lustre on her
court. In 1775 she retired into private life, her son having attained
his majority. In 1788 she set out on a lengthened tour through Italy,
accompanied by Goethe. She died on the 10th of April 1807. A memorial of
the duchess is included in Goethe's works under the title _Zum Andenken
der Furstin Anna-Amalia._

  See F. Bornhak, _Anna Amalia Herzogin von Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach_
  (Berlin. 1892).




ANNABERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, in the
Erzgebirge, 1894 ft. above the sea, 6 m. from the Bohemian frontier,
18-1/2 m. S. by E. from Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1905) 16,811. It has
three Evangelical churches, among them that of St Anne, built 1499-1525,
a Roman Catholic church, several public monuments, among them those of
Luther, of the famous arithmetician Adam Riese, and of Barbara Uttmann.
Annaberg, together with the neighbouring suburb, Buchholz, is the chief
seat of the braid and lace-making industry in Germany, introduced here
by Barbara Uttmann in 1561, and further developed by Belgian refugees,
who, driven from their country by the duke of Alva, settled here in
1590. The mining industry, for which the town was formerly also famous
and which embraced tin, silver and cobalt, has now ceased. Annaberg has
technical schools for lace-making, commerce and agriculture, in addition
to high grade public schools for boys and girls.




ANNABERGITE, a mineral consisting of a hydrous nickel arsenate,
Ni3(AsO4)2 + 8H2O, crystallizing in the monoclinic system and
isomorphous with vivianite and erythrite. Crystals are minute and
capillary and rarely met with, the mineral occurring usually as soft
earthy masses and encrustations. A fine apple-green colour is its
characteristic feature. It was long known (since 1758) under the name
nickel-ochre; the name annabergite was proposed by H.J. Brooke and W.H.
Miller in 1852, from Annaberg in Saxony, one of the localities of the
mineral. It occurs with ores of nickel, of which it is a product of
alteration. A variety, from Creetown in Kirkcudbrightshire, in which a
portion of the nickel is replaced by calcium, has been called
dudgeonite, after P. Dudgeon, who found it.     (L. J. S.)




ANNA COMNENA, daughter of the emperor Alexius I. Comnenus, the first
woman historian, was born on the 1st of December 1083. She was her
father's favourite and was carefully trained in the study of poetry,
science and Greek philosophy. But, though learned and studious, she was
intriguing and ambitious, and ready to go to any lengths to gratify her
longing for power. Having married an accomplished young nobleman,
Nicephorus Bryennius, she united with the empress Irene in a vain
attempt to prevail upon her father during his last illness to disinherit
his son and give the crown to her husband. Still undeterred, she entered
into a conspiracy to depose her brother after his accession; and when
her husband refused to join in the enterprise, she exclaimed that
"nature had mistaken their sexes, for he ought to have been the woman."
The plot being discovered, Anna forfeited her property and fortune,
though, by the clemency of her brother, she escaped with her life.
Shortly afterwards, she retired into a convent and employed her leisure
in writing the _Alexiad_--a history, in Greek, of her father's life and
reign (1081-1118), supplementing the historical work of her husband. It
is rather a family panegyric than a scientific history, in which the
affection of the daughter and the vanity of the author stand out
prominently. Trifling acts of her father are described at length in
exaggerated terms, while little notice is taken of important
constitutional matters. A determined opponent of the Latin church and an
enthusiastic admirer of the Byzantine empire, Anna Comnena regards the
Crusades as a danger both political and religious. Her models are
Thucydides, Polybius and Xenophon, and her style exhibits the striving
after Atticism characteristic of the period, with the result that the
language is highly artificial. Her chronology especially is defective.

  Editions in Bonn _Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz._, by J. Schopen and A.
  Reifferscheid (1839-1878), with Du Cange's valuable commentary; and
  Teubner series, by A. Reifferscheid (1884). See also C. Krumbacher,
  _Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_ (2nd ed. 1897); C. Neumann,
  _Griechische Geschichtschreiber im 12 Jahrhunderte_ (1888); E. Oster,
  _Anna Komnena_ (Rastatt, 1868-1871); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch.
  48; Finlay, _Hist, of Greece_, iii. pp. 53, 128 (1877); P. Adam,
  _Princesses byzantines_ (1893); Sir Walter Scott, _Count Robert of
  Paris_; L. du Sommerard, _Anne Comnene ... Agnes de France_ (1907); C.
  Diehl, _Figures byzantines_ (1906).




ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA, sometimes called ANNA CARLOVNA (1718-1746), regent of
Russia for a few months during the minority of her son Ivan, was the
daughter of Catherine, sister of the empress Anne, and Charles Leopold,
duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. In 1739 she married Anton Ulrich (d.
1775), son of Ferdinand Albert, duke of Brunswick, and their son Ivan
was adopted in 1740 by the empress and proclaimed heir to the Russian
throne. A few days after this proclamation the empress died, leaving
directions regarding the succession, and appointing her favourite Ernest
Biren, duke of Courland, as regent. Biren, however, had made himself an
object of detestation to the Russian people, and Anna had little
difficulty in overthrowing his power. She then assumed the regency, and
took the title of grand-duchess, but she knew little of the character of
the people with whom she had to deal, was utterly ignorant of the
approved Russian mode of government, and speedily quarrelled with her
principal supporters. In December 1741, Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the
Great, who, from her habits, was a favourite with the soldiers, excited
the guards to revolt, overcame the slight opposition that was offered,
and was proclaimed empress. Ivan was thrown into prison, where he soon
afterwards perished. Anna and her husband were banished to a small
island in the river Dvina, where on the 18th of March 1746 she died in
childbed.




ANNALISTS (from Lat. _annus_, year; hence _annales_, sc. _libri_, annual
records), the name given to a class of writers on Roman history, the
period of whose literary activity lasted from the time of the Second
Punic War to that of Sulla. They wrote the history of Rome from the
earliest times (in most cases) down to their own days, the events of
which were treated in much greater detail. For the earlier period their
authorities were state and family records--above all, the _annales
maximi_ (or _annales pontificum_), the official chronicle of Rome, in
which the notable occurrences of each year from the foundation of the
city were set down by the pontifex maximus. Although these annals were
no doubt destroyed at the time of the burning of Rome by the Gauls, they
were restored as far as possible and continued until the pontificate of
P. Mucius Scaevola, by whom they were finally published in eighty books.
Two generations of these annalists have been distinguished--an older and
a younger. The older, which extends to 150 B.C., set forth, in bald,
unattractive language, without any pretensions to style, but with a
certain amount of trustworthiness, the most important events of each
successive year. Cicero (_De Oratore_, ii. 12. 53), comparing these
writers with the old Ionic logographers, says that they paid no
attention to ornament, and considered the only merits of a writer to be
intelligibility and conciseness. Their annals were a mere compilation of
facts. The younger generation, in view of the requirements and criticism
of a reading public, cultivated the art of composition and rhetorical
embellishment. As a general rule the annalists wrote in a spirit of
uncritical patriotism, which led them to minimize or gloss over such
disasters as the conquest of Rome by Porsena and the compulsory payment
of ransom to the Gauls, and to flatter the people by exaggerated
accounts of Roman prowess, dressed up in fanciful language. At first
they wrote in Greek, partly because a national style was not yet formed,
and partly because Greek was the fashionable language amongst the
educated, although Latin versions were probably published as well. The
first of the annalists, the father of Roman history, as he has been
called, was Q. FABIUS PICTOR (see FABIUS PICTOR); contemporary with him
was L. CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, who flourished during the Hannibalic war.[1]
Like Fabius Pictor, he wrote in Greek. He was taken prisoner by Hannibal
(Livy xxi. 38), who is said to have given him details of the crossing of
the Alps. His work embraced the history of Rome from its foundation down
to his own days. With M. PORCIUS CATO (q.v.) historical composition in
Latin began, and a livelier interest was awakened in the history of
Rome. Among the principal writers of this class who succeeded Cato, the
following may be mentioned. L. CASSIUS HEMINA (about 146), in the fourth
book of his Annals, wrote on the Second Punic War. His researches went
back to very early times; Pliny (_Nat. Hist_. xiii. 13 [27]) calls him
_vetustissimus auctor annalium_. L. CALPUFNIUS Piso, surnamed _Frugi_
(see under PISO), wrote seven books of annals, relating the history of
the city from its foundation down to his own times. Livy regards him as
a less trustworthy authority than Fabius Pictor, and Niebuhr considers
him the first to introduce systematic forgeries into Roman history. Q.
CLAUDIUS QUADRIGARIUS (about 80 B.C.) wrote a history, in at least
twenty-three books, which began with the conquest of Rome by the Gauls
and went down to the death of Sulla or perhaps later. He was freely used
by Livy in part of his work (from the sixth book onwards). A long
fragment is preserved in Aulus Gellius (ix. 13), giving an account of
the single combat between Manlius Torquatus and the Gaul. His language
was antiquated and his style dry, but his work was considered important.
VALERIUS ANTIAS, a younger contemporary of Quadrigarius, wrote the
history of Rome from the earliest times, in a voluminous work consisting
of seventy-five books. He is notorious for his wilful exaggeration, both
in narrative and numerical statements. For instance, he asserts the
number of the Sabine virgins to have been exactly 527; again, in a
certain year when no Greek or Latin writers mention any important
campaign, Antias speaks of a big battle with enormous casualties.
Nevertheless, Livy at first made use of him as one of his chief
authorities, until he became convinced of his untrustworthiness. C.
LICINIUS MACER (died 66), who has been called the last of the annalists,
wrote a voluminous work, which, although he paid great attention to the
study of his authorities, was too rhetorical, and exaggerated the
achievements of his own family. Having been convicted of extortion, he
committed suicide (Cicero, _De Legibus_, i. 2, _Brutus_, 67; Plutarch,
_Cicero_, 9).

The writers mentioned dealt with Roman history as a whole; some of the
annalists, however, confined themselves to shorter periods. Thus, L.
CAELIUS ANTIPATER (about 120) limited himself to the Second Punic War.
His work was overloaded with rhetorical embellishment, which he was the
first to introduce into Roman history. He was regarded as the most
careful writer on the war with Hannibal, and one who did not allow
himself to be blinded by partiality in considering the evidence of other
writers (Cicero, _De Oratore_, ii. 12). Livy made great use of him in
his third decade. SEMPRONIUS ASELLIO (about 100 B.C.), military tribune
of Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numantia, composed _Rerum Gestanim
Libri_ in at least fourteen books. As he himself took part in the events
he describes, his work was a kind of memoirs. He was the first of his
class who endeavoured to trace the causes of events, instead of
contenting himself with a bare statement of facts. L. CORNELIUS SISENNA
(119-67), legate of Pompey in the war against the pirates, lost his life
in an expedition against Crete. He wrote twenty-three books on the
period between the Social War and the dictatorship of Sulla. His work
was commended by Sallust (_Jugurtha_, 95), who, however, blames him for
not speaking out sufficiently. Cicero remarks upon his fondness for
archaisms (_Brutus_, 74. 259). Sisenna also translated the tales of
Aristides of Miletus, and is supposed by some to have written a
ccmmentary on Plautus. The autobiography of Sulla may also be mentioned.

  See C.W. Nitzsch, _Die romische Annalistik_ (1873); H. Peter, _Zur
  Kritik der Quellen der dlteren romischen Geschichte_ (1879); L.O.
  Brocker, _Moderne Quellenforscher und antike Geschichtschreiber_
  (1882); fragments in H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Reliquiae_
  (1870, 1906), and _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta_ (1883); also
  articles ROME, _History_ (ancient) _ad fin_., section "Authorities,'"
  and LIVY, where the use made of the annalists by the historian is
  discussed; Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencydopadie_, art. "Annales"; the
  histories of Roman Literature by M. Schanz and Teuffel-Schwabe;
  Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. ii. ch. 9, bk. iii. ch. 14,
  bk. iv. ch. 13, bk. v. ch. 12; C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das
  Studium der alien Geschichte_ (1895); H. Peter, bibliography of the
  subject in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, cxxvi. (1906).     (J. H. F.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] He is not to be confused with L. Cincius, the author of various
    political and antiquarian treatises (_de Fastis, de Comitiis, de
    Priscis Verbis_), who lived in the Augustan age, to which period
    Mommsen, considering them a later fabrication, refers the Greek
    annals of L. Cincius Alimentus.




ANNALS (_Annales_, from _annus_, a year), a concise historical record in
which events are arranged chronologically, year by year. The chief
sources of information in regard to the annals of ancient Rome are two
passages in Cicero (_De Oratore_, ii. 12. 52) and in Servius (_ad Aen_.
i. 373) which have been the subject of much discussion. Cicero states
that from the earliest period down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius
Scaevola (c. 131 B.C.), it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record
on a white tablet (_album_), which was exhibited in an open place at his
house, so that the people might read it, first, the name of the consuls
and other magistrates, and then the noteworthy events that had occurred
during the year (_per singulos dies_, as Servius says). These records
were called in Cicero's time the _Annales Maximi_. After the pontificate
of Publius, the practice of compiling annals was carried on by various
unofficial writers, of whom Cicero names Cato, Pictor and Piso. The
_Annales_ have been generally regarded as the same with the _Commentarii
Pontificum_ cited by Livy, but there seems reason to believe that the
two were distinct, the _Commentarii_ being fuller and more
circumstantial. The nature of the distinction between annals and history
is a subject that has received more attention from critics than its
intrinsic importance deserves. The basis of discussion is furnished
chiefly by the above-quoted passage from Cicero, and by the common
division of the work of Tacitus into _Annales_ and _Hlstoriae_. Aulus
Gellius, in the _Nodes Alticae_ (v. 18), quotes the grammarian Verrius
Flaccus, to the effect that history, according to its etymology ([Greek:
istorein], _inspicere_, to inquire in person), is a record of events
that have come under the author's own observation, while annals are a
record of the events of earlier times arranged according to years. This
view of the distinction seems to be borne out by the division of the
work of Tacitus into the _Historiae_, relating the events of his own
time, and the _Annales_, containing the history of earlier periods. It
is more than questionable, however, whether Tacitus himself divided his
work under these titles. The probability is, either that he called the
whole _Annales_, or that he used neither designation. (See TACITUS,
CORNELIUS.)

In the middle ages, when the order of the liturgical feasts was partly
determined by the date of Easter, the custom was early established in
the Western Church of drawing up tables to indicate that date for a
certain number of years or even centuries. These Paschal tables were
thin books in which each annual date was separated from the next by a
more or less considerable blank space. In these spaces certain monks
briefly noted the important events of the year. It was at the end of the
7th century and among the Anglo-Saxons that the compiling of these
Annals was first begun. Introduced by missionaries on the continent,
they were re-copied, augmented and continued, especially in the kingdom
of Austrasia. In the 9th century, during the great movement termed the
Carolingian Renaissance, these Annals became the usual form of
contemporary history; it suffices to mention the _Annales Einhardi_, the
_Annales Laureshamenses_ (or "of Lorsch"), and the _Annales S. Bertini_,
officially compiled in order to preserve the memory of the more
interesting acts of Charlemagne, his ancestors and his successors.
Arrived at this stage of development, the Annals now began to lose their
primitive character, and henceforward became more and more
indistinguishable from the Chronicles.

In modern literature the title annals has been given to a large number
of standard works which adhere more or less strictly to the order of
years. The best known are the _Annales Ecclesiastici_, written by
Cardinal Baronius as a rejoinder to and refutation of the _Historia
eccesiastica_ or "Centuries" of the Protestant theologians of Magdeburg
(12 vols., published at Rome from 1788 to 1793; Baronius's work stops at
the year 1197). In the 19th century the annalistic form was once more
employed, either to preserve year by year the memory of passing events
(_Annual Register_, _Annuaire de la Revue des deux mondes_, &c.) or in
writing the history of obscure medieval periods (_Jahrbucher der
deutschen Geschichte_, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reiches_, Richter's
_Reichsannalen_, &c.).     (C. B.*)




ANNAM, or ANAM, a country of south-eastern Asia, now forming a French
protectorate, part of the peninsula of Indo-China. (See INDO-CHINA,
FRENCH). It is bounded N. by Tongking, E. and S.E. by the China Sea,
S.W. by Cochin-China, and W. by Cambodia and Laos. It comprises a
sinuous strip of territory measuring between 750 and 800 m. in length,
with an approximate area of 52,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at
about 6,124,000.

The country consists chiefly of a range of plateaus and wooded
mountains, running north and south and declining on the coast to a
narrow band of plain varying between 12 and 50 m. in breadth. The
mountains are cut transversely by short narrow valleys, through which
run rivers, most of which are dry in summer and torrential in winter.
The Song-Ma and the Song-Ca in the north, and the Song-Ba, Don-Nai and
Se-Bang-Khan in the south, are alone of any size. The chief harbour is
that afforded by the bay of Tourane at the centre of the coast-line.
South of this point the coast curves outwards and is broken by
peninsulas and indentations; to the north it is concave and bordered in
many places by dunes and lagoons.

_Climate._--In Annam the rainy season begins during September and lasts
for three or four months, corresponding with the north-east monsoon and
also with a period of typhoons. During the rains the temperature varies
from 59 degrees or even lower to 75 degrees F. June, July and August are
the hottest months, the thermometer often reaching 85 degrees or 90
degrees, though the heat of the day is to some degree compensated by the
freshness of the nights. The south-west monsoon which brings rain in
Cochin-China coincides with the dry season in Annam, the reason probably
being that the mountains and lofty plateaus separating the two countries
retain the precipitation.

_Ethnography_.--The Annamese, or, to use the native term, the
_Giao-chi_, are the predominant people not only in Annam but in the
lowland and cultivated parts of Tongking and in Cochin-China and
southern Cambodia. According to their own annals and traditions they
once inhabited southern China, a theory which is confirmed by many of
their habits and physical characteristics; the race has, however, been
modified by crossings with the Chams and other of the previous
inhabitants of Indo-China.

The Annamese is the worst-built and ugliest of all the Indo-Chinese who
belong to the Mongolian race. He is scarcely of middle height and is
shorter and less vigorous than his neighbours. His complexion is tawny,
darker than that of the Chinese, but clearer than that of the Cambodian;
his hair is black, coarse and long; his skin is thick; his forehead low;
his skull slightly depressed at the top, but well developed at the
sides. His face is flat, with highly protruding cheek-bones, and is
lozenge-shaped or eurygnathous to a degree that is nowhere exceeded. His
nose is not only the flattest, but also the smallest among the
Indo-Chinese; his eyes are rarely oblique; his mouth is large and his
lips thick; his teeth are blackened and his gums destroyed by the
constant use of the betel-nut, the areca-nut and lime. His neck is
short, his shoulders slope greatly, his body is thick-set and wanting in
suppleness. Another peculiarity is a separation of the big toe from the
rest, greater than is found in any other people, and sufficiently
general and well marked to serve as an ethnographic test. The Annamese
of Cochin-China are weaker and smaller than those of Tongking, probably
as a result of living amid marshy rice-fields. The Annamese of both
sexes wear wide trousers, a long, usually black tunic with narrow
sleeves and a dark-coloured turban, or in the case of the lower classes,
a wide straw hat; they either go bare-foot or wear sandals or Chinese
boots. The typical Annamese dwelling is open to the gaze of the
passer-by during the day; at night a sort of partition of bamboo is let
down. The roof is supported on wooden pillars and walls are provided
only at the sides. The house consists principally of one large room
opening on the front verandah and containing the altar of the family's
ancestors, a table in the centre and couches placed against the wall.
The chief elements of the native diet are rice, fish and poultry;
vegetables and pork are also eaten. The family is the base of the social
system in Annam and is ruled by its head, who is also priest and judge.
Polygamy is permitted but rarely practised, and the wife enjoys a
position of some freedom.

Though fond of ease the Annamese are more industrious than the
neighbouring peoples. Theatrical and musical entertainments are popular
among them. They show much outward respect for superiors and parents,
but they are insincere and incapable of deep emotion. They cherish great
love of their native soil and native village and cannot remain long from
home. A proneness to gambling and opium-smoking, and a tinge of vanity
and deceitfulness, are their less estimable traits. On the whole they
are mild and easy-going and even apathetic, but the facility with which
they learn is remarkable. Like their neighbours the Cambodians and the
Chinese, the Annamese have a great respect for the dead, and ancestor
worship constitutes the national religion. The learned hold the doctrine
of Confucius, and Buddhism, alloyed with much popular superstition, has
some influence. Like the Chinese the Annamese bury their dead.

Among the savage tribes of the interior there is scarcely any idea of
God and their superstitious practices can scarcely be considered as the
expression of a definite religious idea. Roman Catholics number about
420,000. In the midst of the Annamese live Cambodians and immigrant
Chinese, the latter associated together according to the districts from
which they come and carrying on nearly all the commerce of the country.
In the forests and mountains dwell tribes of savages, chiefly of
Indonesian origin, classed by the Annamese under the name _Mois_ or
"savages." Some of these tribes show traces of Malay ancestry. Of
greater historical interest are the Chams, who are to be found for the
most part in southern Annam and in Cambodia, and who, judging from the
numerous remains found there, appear to have been the masters of the
coast region of Cochin-China and Annam till they succumbed before the
pressure of the Khmers of Cambodia and the Annamese. They are taller,
more muscular, and more supple than the Annamese. Their language is
derived from Malay, and while some of the Chams are Mussulmans, the
dominant religion is Brahmanism, and more especially the worship of
Siva. Their women have a high reputation for virtue, which, combined
with the general bright and honest character of the whole people,
differentiates them from the surrounding nations.

Evidently derived from the Chinese, of which it appears to be a very
ancient dialect, the Annamese language is composed of monosyllables, of
slightly varied articulation, expressing different ideas according to
the tone in which they are pronounced. It is quite impossible to connect
with our musical system the utterance of the sounds of which the Chinese
and Annamese languages are composed. What is understood by a "tone" in
this language is distinguished in reality, not by the number of sonorous
vibrations which belong to it, but rather by a use of the vocal
apparatus special to each. Thus, the sense will to a native be
completely changed according as the sound is the result of an aspiration
or of a simple utterance of the voice. Thence the difficulty of
substituting our phonetic alphabet for the ideographic characters of the
Chinese, as well as for the ideophonetic writing partly borrowed by the
Annamese from the letters of the celestial empire. To the Jesuit
missionaries is due the introduction of an ingenious though very
complicated system, which has caused remarkable progress to be made in
the employment of phonetic characters. By means of six accents, one bar
and a crotchet it is possible to note with sufficient precision the
indications of tone without which the Annamese words have no sense for
the natives.

_Agriculture and other Industries._--The cultivation of rice, which is
grown mainly in the small deltas along the coast and in some districts
gives two crops annually, and fishing, together with fish-salting and
the preparation of nuoc-mam, a sauce made from decaying fish, constitute
the chief industries of Annam.

Silk spinning and weaving are carried on on antiquated lines, and
silkworms are reared in a desultory fashion. Besides rice, the products
of the country include tea, tobacco, cotton, cinnamon, precious woods
and rubber; coffee, pepper, sugar-canes and jute are cultivated to a
minor extent. The exports (total value in 1905 L237,010) comprise tea,
raw silk and small quantities of cotton, rice and sugar-cane. The
imports (L284,824 in 1905) include rice, iron goods, flour, wine, opium
and cotton goods. There are coal-mines at Nong-Son, near Tourane, and
gold, silver, lead, iron and other metals occur in the mountains. Trade,
which is in the hands of the Chinese, is for the most part carried on by
sea, the chief ports being Tourane and Qui-Nhon, which are open to
European commerce.

_Administration._--Annam is ruled in theory by its emperor, assisted by
the "_comat_" or secret council, composed of the heads of the six
ministerial departments of the interior, finance, war, ritual, justice
and public works, who are nominated by himself. The resident superior,
stationed at Hue, is the representative of France and the virtual ruler
of the country. He presides over a council (_Conseil de Protectorat_)
composed of the chiefs of the French services in Annam, together with
two members of the "_comat_"; this body deliberates on questions of
taxation affecting the budget of Annam and on local public works. A
native governor (_tong-doc_ or _tuan-phu_), assisted by a native staff,
administers each of the provinces into which the country is divided, and
native officials of lower rank govern the areas into which these
provinces are subdivided. The governors take their orders from the
imperial government, but they are under the eye of French residents.
Native officials are appointed by the court, but the resident superior
has power to annul an appointment. The mandarinate or official class is
recruited from all ranks of the people by competitive examination. In
the province of Tourane, a French tribunal alone exercises jurisdiction,
but it administers native law where natives are concerned. Outside this
territory the native tribunals survive. The Annamese village is
self-governing. It has its council of notables, forming a sort of
oligarchy which, through the medium of a mayor and two subordinates,
directs the interior affairs of the community--policing, recruiting, the
assignment and collection of taxes, &c.--and has judicial power in less
important suits and crimes. More serious cases come within the purview
of the _an-sat_, a judicial auxiliary of the governor. An assembly of
notables from villages grouped together in a canton chooses a cantonal
representative, who is the mouthpiece of the people and the intermediary
between the government and its subjects. The direct taxes, which go to
the local budget of Annam, consist primarily of a poll-tax levied on all
males over eighteen and below sixty years of age, and of a land-tax
levied according to the quality and the produce of the holding.

The following table summarizes the local budget of Annam for the years
1899 and 1904:--

  +------+-----------------------------------+----------------+
  |  --  |            _Receipts._            | _Expenditure._ |
  +------+-----------------------------------+----------------+
  | 1899 | L203,082 (direct taxes, L171,160) |    L175,117    |
  | 1904 | L247,435 (  "      "    L219,841) |    L232,480    |
  +------+-----------------------------------+----------------+

In 1904 the sum allocated to the expenses of the court, the royal family
and the native administration, the members of which are paid by the
crown, was L85,000, the chief remaining heads of expenditure being the
government house and residencies (L39,709), the native guard (L32,609)
and public works (L24,898).

Education is available to every person in the community. The primary
school, in which the pupils learn only Chinese writing and the precepts
of Confucius, stands at the base of this system. Next above this is the
school of the district capital, where a half-yearly examination takes
place, by means of which are selected those eligible for the course of
higher education given at the capital of the province in a school under
the direction of a _doc-hoc_, or inspector of studies. Finally a great
triennial competition decides the elections. The candidate whose work is
notified as _tres bien_ is admitted to the examinations at Hue, which
qualify for the title of doctor and the holding of administrative
offices. The education of a mandarin includes local history, cognizance
of the administrative rites, customs, laws and prescriptions of the
country, the ethics of Confucius, the rules of good breeding, the
ceremonial of official and social life, and the practical acquirements
necessary to the conduct of public or private business. Annamese
learning goes no farther. It includes no scientific idea, no knowledge
of the natural sciences, and neglects even the most rudimentary
instruction conveyed in a European education. The complications of
Chinese writing greatly hamper education. The Annamese mandarin must be
acquainted with Chinese, since he writes in Chinese characters. But the
character being ideographic, the words which express them are dissimilar
in the two languages, and official text is read in Chinese by a Chinese,
in Annamese by an Annamese.

The chief towns of Annam are Hue (pop. about 42,000), seat both of the
French and native governments, Tourane (pop. about 4000), Phan-Thiet
(pop. about 20,000) in the extreme south, Qui-Nhon, and Fai-Fo, a
commercial centre to the south of Tourane. A road following the coast
from Cochin-China to Tongking, and known as the "Mandarin road," passes
through or near the chief towns of the provinces and forms the chief
artery of communication in the country apart from the railways (see
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH).

_History._--The ancient tribe of the Giao-chi, who dwelt on the confines
of S. China, and in what is now Tongking and northern Annam, are
regarded by the Annamese as their ancestors, and tradition ascribes to
their first rulers descent from the Chinese imperial family. These
sovereigns were succeeded by another dynasty, under which, at the end of
the 3rd century B.C., the Chinese invaded the country, and eventually
established there a supremacy destined to last, with little
intermission, till the 10th century A.D. In 968 Dinh-Bo-Lanh succeeded
in ousting the Chinese and founded an independent dynasty of Dinh. Till
this period the greater part of Annam had been occupied by the Chams, a
nation of Hindu civilization, which has left many monuments to testify
to its greatness, but the encroachment of the Annamese during the next
six centuries at last left to it only a small territory in the south of
the country. Three lines of sovereigns followed that of Dinh, under the
last of which, about 1407, Annam again fell under the Chinese yoke. In
1428 an Annamese general Le-Loi succeeded in freeing the country once
more, and founded a dynasty which lasted till the end of the 18th
century. During the greater part of this period, however, the titular
sovereigns were mere puppets, the reality of power being in the hands of
the family of Trinh in Tongking and that of Nguyen in southern Annam,
which in 1568 became a separate principality under the name of
Cochin-China. Towards the end of the 18th century a rebellion overthrew
the Nguyen, but one of its members, Gia-long, by the aid of a French
force, in 1801 acquired sway over the whole of Annam, Tongking and
Cochin-China. This force was procured for him by Pigneau de Behaine,
bishop of Adran, who saw in the political condition of Annam a means of
establishing French influence in Indo-China and counterbalancing the
English power in India. Before this, in 1787, Gia-long had concluded a
treaty with Louis XVI., whereby in return for a promise of aid he ceded
Tourane and Pulo-Condore to the French. That treaty marks the beginning
of French influence in Indo-China.

  See also Legrand de la Liraye, _Notes historiques sur la nation
  annamite_ (Paris, 1866?); C. Gosselin, _L'Empire d'Annam_ (Paris,
  1904); E. Sombsthay, _Cours de legislation et d'administration
  annamites_ (Paris, 1898).




ANNAN, a royal, municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland,
on the Annan, nearly 2 m. from its mouth, 15 m. from Dumfries by the
Glasgow & South-Western railway. It has a station also on the Caledonian
railway company's branch line from Kirtlebridge to Brayton (Cumberland),
which crosses the Solway Firth at Seafield by a viaduct, 1-1/3 m. long,
constructed of iron pillars girded together by poles, driven through the
sand and gravel into the underlying bed of sandstone. Annan is a
well-built town, red sandstone being the material mainly used. Among its
public buildings is the excellent academy of which Thomas Carlyle was a
pupil. The river Annan is crossed by a stone bridge of three arches
dating from 1824, and by a railway bridge. The Harbour Trust,
constituted in 1897, improved the shipping accommodation, and vessels of
300 tons approach close to the town. The principal industries include
cotton and rope manufactures, bacon-curing, distilling, tanning,
shipbuilding, sandstone quarrying, nursery-gardening and salmon-fishing.
Large marine engineering works are in the vicinity. Annan is a burgh of
considerable antiquity. Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood, and
the Bruces, lords of Annandale, the Baliols, and the Douglases were more
or less closely associated with it. During the period of the Border
lawlessness the inhabitants suffered repeatedly at the hands of
moss-troopers and through the feuds of rival families, in addition to
the losses caused by the English and Scots wars. Edward Irving was a
native of the town. With Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Lochmaben and
Sanquhar, Annan unites in sending one meniber to parliament. Annan Hill
commands a beautiful prospect. Population (1901) 5805.




ANNA PERENNA, an old Roman deity of the circle or "ring" of the year, as
the name (_per annum_) clearly indicates. Her festival fell on the full
moon of the first month (March 15), and was held at the grove of the
goddess at the first milestone on the Via Flaminia. It was much
frequented by the city _plebs_, and Ovid describes vividly the revelry
and licentiousness of the occasion (_Fasti_. iii. 523 foll.). From
Macrobius we learn (_Sat_. i. 12. 6) that sacrifice was made to her "ut
annare perannareque commode liccat," i.e. that the circle of the year
may be completed happily. This is all we know for certain about the
goddess and her cult; but the name naturally suggested myth-making, and
Anna became a figure in stories which may be read in Ovid (_l.c._) and
in Silius Italicus (8.50 foll.). The coarse myth told by Ovid, in which
Anna plays a trick on Mars when in love with Minerva, is probably an old
Italian folk-tale, poetically applied to the persons of these deities
when they became partially anthropomorphized under Greek influence.
     (W. W. F.*)




ANNAPOLIS, a city and seaport of Maryland, U.S.A., the capital of the
state, the county seat of Anne Arundel county, and the seat of the
United States Naval Academy; situated on the Severn river about 2 m.
from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay, 26 m. S. by E. from Baltimore and
about the same distance E. by N. from Washington. Pop. (1890) 7604;
(1900) 8525, of whom 3002 were negroes; (1910 census) 8609. Annapolis is
served by the Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis (electric) and the
Maryland Electric railways, and by the Baltimore & Annapolis steamship
line. On an elevation near the centre of the city stands the state house
(the corner stone of which was laid in 1772), with its lofty white dome
(200 ft.) and pillared portico. Close by are the state treasury
building, erected late in the 17th century for the House of Delegates;
Saint Anne's Protestant Episcopal church, in later colonial days a state
church, a statue of Roger B. Taney (by W.H. Rinehart), and a statue of
Baron Johann de Kalb. There are a number of residences of 18th century
architecture, and the names of several of the streets--such as King
George's, Prince George's, Hanover, and Duke of Gloucester--recall the
colonial days. The United States Naval Academy was founded here in 1845.
Annapolis is the seat of Saint John's College, a non-sectarian
institution supported in part by the state; it was opened in 1789 as the
successor of King William's School, which was founded by an act of the
Maryland legislature in 1696 and was opened in 1701. Its principal
building, McDowell Hall, was originally intended for a governor's
mansion; although L4000 current money was appropriated for its erection
in 1742, it was not completed until after the War of Independence. In
1907 the college became the school of arts and sciences of the
university of Maryland.

Annapolis, at first called Providence, was settled in 1649 by Puritan
exiles from Virginia. Later it bore in succession the names of Town at
Proctor's, Town at the Severn, Anne Arundel Town, and finally in 1694,
Annapolis, in honour of Princess Anne, who at the time was heir to the
throne of Great Britain. In 1694 also, soon after the overthrow of the
Catholic government of the lord proprietor, it was made the seat of the
new government as well as a port of entry, and it has since remained the
capital of Maryland; but it was not until 1708 that it was incorporated
as a city. From the middle of the 18th century until the War of
Independence, Annapolis was noted for its wealthy and cultivated
society. The _Maryland Gazette_, which became an important weekly
journal, was founded by Jonas Green in 1745; in 1769 a theatre was
opened; during this period also the commerce was considerable, but
declined rapidly after Baltimore, in 1780, was made a port of entry, and
now oyster-packing is the city's only important industry. Congress was
in session in the state house here from the 26th of November 1783 to the
3rd of June 1784, and it was here on the 23rd of December 1783 that
General Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the
Continental Army. In 1786 a convention, to which delegates from all the
states of the Union were invited, was called to meet in Annapolis to
consider measures for the better regulation of commerce (see ALEXANDRIA,
Va.); but delegates came from only five states (New York, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, New Jersey, and Delaware), and the convention--known afterward
as the "Annapolis Convention,"--without proceeding to the business for
which it had met, passed a resolution calling for another convention to
meet at Philadelphia in the following year to amend the articles of
confederation; by this Philadelphia convention the present Constitution
of the United States was framed.

  See D. Ridgely, _Annals of Annapolis from 1649 until the War of 1812_
  (Baltimore, 1841); S.A. Shafer, "Annapolis, Ye Ancient City," in L.P.
  Powell's _Historic Towns of the Southern States_ (New York, 1900); and
  W. Eddis, _Letters from America_ (London, 1792).




ANNAPOLIS, a town of Nova Scotia, capital of Annapolis county and up to
1750 of the entire peninsula of Nova Scotia; situated on an arm of the
Bay of Fundy, at the mouth of the Annapolis river, 95 m. W. of Halifax;
and the terminus of the Windsor & Annapolis railway. Pop. (1901) 1019.
It is one of the oldest settlements in North America, having been
founded in 1604 by the French, who called it Port Royal. It was captured
by the British in 1710, and ceded to them by the treaty of Utrecht in
1713, when the name was changed in honour of Queen Anne. It possesses a
good harbour, and the beauty of the surrounding country makes it a
favourite summer resort. The town is surrounded by apple orchards and in
May miles of blossoming trees make a beautiful sight. The fruit, which
is excellent in quality, is the principal export of the region.




ANN ARBOR, a city and the county-seat of Washtenaw county, Michigan,
U.S.A., on the Huron river, about 38 m. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 9431;
(1900) 14,509, of whom 2329 were foreign-born; (1910) 14,817. It is
served by the Michigan Central and the Ann Arbor railways, and by an
electric line running from Detroit to Jackson and connecting with
various other lines. Ann Arbor is best known as the seat of the
university of Michigan, opened in 1837. The city has many attractive
residences, and the residential districts, especially in the east and
south-east parts of the city, command picturesque views of the Huron
valley. Ann Arbor is situated in a productive agricultural and
fruit-growing region. The river provides good water-power, and among the
manufactures are agricultural implements, carriages, furniture
(including sectional book-cases), pianos and organs, pottery and flour.
In 1824 Ann Arbor was settled, laid out as a town, chosen for the
county-seat, and named in honour of Mrs Ann Allen and Mrs Ann Rumsey,
the wives of two of the founders. It was incorporated as a village in
1833, and was first chartered as a city in 1851.




ANNATES (Lat. _annatae_, from _annus_, "year"), also known as
"first-fruits" (Lat. _primitiae_). in the strictest sense of the word,
the whole of the first year's profits of a spiritual benefice which, in
all countries of the Roman obedience, were formerly paid into the papal
treasury. This custom was only of gradual growth. The _jus deportuum,
annalia_ or _annatae_, was originally the right of the bishop to claim
the first year's profits of the living from a newly inducted incumbent,
of which the first mention is found under Pope Honorius (d. 1227), but
which had its origin in a custom, dating from the 6th century, by which
those ordained to ecclesiastical offices paid a fee or tax to the
ordaining bishop. The earliest records show the _annata_ to have been,
sometimes a privilege conceded to the bishop for a term of years,
sometimes a right based on immemorial precedent. In course of time the
popes, under stress of financial crises, claimed the privilege for
themselves, though at first only temporarily. Thus, in 1305, Clement V.
claimed the first-fruits of all vacant benefices in England, and in 1319
John XXII. those of all Christendom vacated within the next two years.
In those cases the rights of the bishops were frankly usurped by the
Holy See, now regarded as the ultimate source of the episcopal
jurisdiction; the more usual custom was for the pope to claim the
first-fruits only of those benefices of which he had reserved the
patronage to himself. It was from these claims that the papal annates,
in the strict sense, in course of time developed.

These annates may be divided broadly into three classes, though the
chief features are common to all: (1) the _servitia communia_ or
_servitia Camerae Papae_, i.e. the payment into the papal treasury by
every abbot and bishop, on his induction, of one year's revenue of his
new benefice. The _servitia communia_ are traceable to the _oblatio_
paid to the pope when consecrating bishops as metropolitan or patriarch.
When, in the middle of the 13th century, the consecration of bishops
became established as the sole right of the pope, the oblations of all
bishops of the West were received by him and, by the close of the 14th
century, these became fixed at one year's revenue.[1] A small additional
payment, as a kind of notarial fee was added (_servitia minuta_). (2)
The _jus deportuum, fructus medii temporis_, or _annalia_, i.e. the
annates due to the bishop, but in the case of "reserved" benefices paid
by him to the Holy See. (3) The _quindennia, i.e._ annates payable,
under a bull of Paul II. (1469), by benefices attached to a corporation,
every fifteen years and not at every presentation.

The system of annates was at no time worked with absolute uniformity and
completeness throughout the various parts of the church owning obedience
to the Holy See, and it was never willingly submitted to by the clergy.
Disagreements and disputes were continual, and the easy expedient of
rewarding the officials of the Curia and increasing the papal revenue by
"reserving" more and more benefices was met by repeated protests, such
as that of the bishops and barons of England (the chief sufferers),
headed by Robert Grosseteste of Lincoln, at the council of Lyons in
1245.[2] The subject, indeed, frequently became one of national
interest, on account of the alarming amount of specie which was thus
drained away, and hence numerous enactments exist in regard to it by the
various national governments. In England the collection and payment of
annates to the pope was prohibited in 1531 by statute. At that time the
sum amounted to about 3000 pounds a year. In 1534 the annates were,
along with the supremacy over the church in England, bestowed on the
crown; but in February 1704 they were appropriated by Queen Anne to the
assistance of the poorer clergy, and thus form what has since been known
as "Queen Anne's Bounty" (q.v.). The amount to be paid was originally
regulated by a valuation made under the direction of Pope Innocent IV.
by Walter, bishop of Norwich, in 1254, later by one instituted under
commission from Nicholas III. in 1292, which in turn was superseded in
1535 by the valuation, made by commissioners appointed by Henry VIII.,
known as the _King's Books_, which was confirmed on the accession of
Elizabeth and is still that by which the clergy are rated. In France, in
spite of royal edicts--like those of Charles VI., Charles VII., Louis
XI, and Henry II.--and even denunciations of the Sorbonne, at least the
custom of paying the _servitia communia_ held its ground till the famous
decree of the 4th of August during the Revolution of 1789. In Germany it
was decided by the concordat of Constance, in 1418, that bishoprics and
abbacies should pay the _servitia_ according to the valuation of the
Roman chancery in two half-yearly instalments. Those reserved benefices
only were to pay the _annalia_ which were rated above twenty-four gold
florins; and as none were so rated, whatever their annual value may have
been, the annalia fell into disuse. A similar convenient fiction also
led to their practical abrogation in France, Spain and Belgium. The
council of Basel (1431-1443) wished to abolish the _servitia_, but the
concordat of Vienna (1448) confirmed the Constance decision, which, in
spite of the efforts of the congress of Ems (1786) to alter it, still
remains nominally in force. As a matter of fact, however, the revolution
caused by the secularization of the ecclesiastical states in 1803
practically put an end to the system, and the _servitia_ have either
been commuted _via gratiae_ to a moderate fixed sum under particular
concordats, or are the subject of separate negotiation with each bishop
on his appointment. In Prussia, where the bishops receive salaries as
state officials, the payment is made by the government.

In Scotland _annat_ or _ann_ is half a year's stipend allowed by the Act
1672, c. 13, to the executors of a minister of the Church of Scotland
above what was due to him at the time of his death. This is neither
assignable by the clergyman during his life, nor can it be seized by his
creditors.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] For cases see du Cange, _Glossarium_, s. _Servitium Camerae
    Papae_; J.C.L. Gieseler, _Eccles. Hist._, vol. iii. div. iii., notes
    to p. 181, &c. (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853).

  [2] Durandus (Guillaume Durand), in his _de modo generalis concilii
    celebrandi_, represents contemporary clerical hostile opinion and
    attacks the corruptions of the officials of the Curia.




ANNE (1665-1714), queen of Great Britain and Ireland, second daughter of
James, duke of York, afterwards James II., and of Anne Hyde, daughter of
the ist earl of Clarendon, was born on the 6th of February 1665. She
suffered as a child from an affection of the eyes, and was sent to
France for medical treatment, residing with her grandmother, Henrietta
Maria, and on the latter's death with her aunt, the duchess of Orleans,
and returning to England in 1670. She was brought up, together with her
sister Mary, by the direction of Charles II., as a strict Protestant,
and as a child she made the friendship of Sarah Jennings (afterwards
duchess of Marlborough), thus beginning life under the two influences
which were to prove the most powerful in her future career. In 1678 she
accompanied Mary of Modena to Holland, and in 1679 joined her parents
abroad and afterwards in Scotland. On the 28th of July 1683 she married
Prince George of Denmark, brother of King Christian V., an unpopular
union because of the French proclivities of the bridegroom's country,
but one of great domestic happiness, the prince and princess being
conformable in temper and both preferring retirement and quiet to life
in the great world. Sarah Churchill became Anne's lady of the
bedchamber, and, by the latter's desire to mark their mutual intimacy
and affection, all deference due to her rank was abandoned and the two
ladies called each other Mrs Morley and Mrs Freeman.

On the 6th of February 1685 James became king of England. In 1687 a
project of settling the crown on the princess, to the exclusion of Mary,
on the condition of Anne's embracing Roman Catholicism, was rendered
futile by her pronounced attachment to the Church of England, and beyond
sending her books and papers James appears to have made no attempt to
coerce his daughter into a change of faith,[1] and to have treated her
with kindness, while the birth of his son on the 20th of June 1688 made
the religion of his daughters a matter of less political importance.
Anne was not present on the occasion, having gone to Bath, and this gave
rise to a belief that the child was spurious; but it is most probable
that James's desire to exclude all Protestants from affairs of state was
the real cause. "I shall never now be satisfied," Anne wrote to Mary,
"whether the child be true or false. It may be it is our brother, but
God only knows ... one cannot help having a thousand fears and
melancholy thoughts, but whatever changes may happen you shall ever find
me firm to my religion and faithfully yours."[2] In later years,
however, she had no doubt that the Old Pretender was her brother. During
the events immediately preceding the Revolution Anne kept in seclusion.
Her ultimate conduct was probably influenced by the Churchills; and
though forbidden by James, to pay Mary a projected visit in the spring
of 1688, she corresponded with her, and was no doubt aware of William's
plans. Her position was now a very critical and painful one. She refused
to show any sympathy with the king after William had landed in November,
and wrote, with the advice of the Churchills, to the prince, declaring
her approval of his action.[3] Churchill abandoned the king on the 24th,
Prince George on the 25th, and when James returned to London on the 26th
he found that Anne and her lady-in-waiting had during the previous night
followed their husbands' examples. Escaping from Whitehall by a back
staircase they put themselves under the care of the bishop of London,
spent one night in his house, and subsequently arrived on the 1st of
December at Nottingham, where the princess first made herself known and
appointed a council. Thence she passed through Leicester, Coventry and
Warwick, finally entering Oxford, where she met Prince George, in
triumph, escorted by a large company. Like Mary, she was reproached for
showing no concern at the news of the king's flight, but her
justification was that "she never loved to do anything that looked like
an affected constraint." She returned to London on the 19th of December,
when she was at once visited by William. Subsequently the Declaration of
Rights settled the succession of the crown upon her after William and
Mary and their children.

Meanwhile Anne had suffered a series of maternal disappointments.
Between 1684 and 1688 she had miscarried four times and given birth to
two children who died infants. On the 24th of July 1689, however, the
birth, of a son, William, created duke of Gloucester, who survived his
infancy, gave hopes that heirs to the throne under the Bill of Rights
might be forthcoming. But Anne's happiness was soon troubled by quarrels
with the king and queen. According to the duchess of Marlborough the two
sisters, who had lived hitherto while apart on extremely affectionate
terms, found no enjoyment in each other's society. Mary talked too much
for Anne's comfort, and Anne too little for Mary's satisfaction. But
money appears to have been the first and real cause of ill-feeling. The
granting away by William of the private estate of James, amounting to
22,000 pounds a year, to which Anne had some claim, was made a
grievance, and a factious motion brought forward in the House to
increase her civil list pension of 30,000 pounds, which she enjoyed in
addition to 20,000 pounds under her marriage settlement, greatly
displeased William and Mary, who regarded it as a plot to make Anne
independent and the chief of a separate interest in the state, while
their resentment was increased by the refusal of Anne to restrain the
action of her friends, and by its success. The Marlboroughs had been
active in the affair and had benefited by it, the countess (as she then
was) receiving a pension of 1000 pounds, and their conduct was noticed
at court. The promised Garter was withheld from Marlborough, and the
incensed "Mrs Morley" in her letters to "Mrs Freeman" styled the king
"Caliban" or the "Dutch Monster." At the close of 1691 Anne had declared
her approval of the naval expedition in favour of her father, and
expressed grief at its failure.[4] According to the doubtful _Life of
James_, she wrote to him on the 1st of December a "most penitential and
dutiful" letter, and henceforward kept up with him a "fair
correspondence."[5] The same year the breach between the royal sisters
was made final by the dismissal of Marlborough, justly suspected of
Jacobite intrigues, from all his appointments. Anne took the part of her
favourites with great zeal against the court, though in all probability
unaware of Marlborough's treason; and on the dismissal of the countess
from her household by the king and queen she refused to part with her,
and retired with Lady Marlborough to the duke of Somerset's residence at
Sion House. Anne was now in disgrace. She was deprived of her guard of
honour, and Prince George, on entering Kensington Palace, received no
salute, though the drums beat loudly on his departure.[6] Instructions
were given that the court expected no one to pay his respects, and no
attention in the provinces was to be shown to their rank. In May,
Marlborough was arrested on a charge of high treason which subsequently
broke down, and Anne persisted in regarding his disgrace as a personal
injury to herself. In August 1693, however, the two sisters were
temporarily reconciled, and on the occasion of Mary's last illness and
death Anne showed an affectionate consideration.

The death of Mary weakened William's position and made it necessary to
cultivate good relations with the princess. She was now treated with
every honour and civility, and finally established with her own court at
St James's Palace. At the same time William kept her in the background
and refrained from appointing her regent during his absence. In March
1695 Marlborough was allowed to kiss the king's hands, and subsequently
was made the duke of Gloucester's governor and restored to his
employments. In return Anne gave her support to William's government,
though about this time, in 1696--according to James, in consequence of
the near prospect of the throne--she wrote to her father asking for his
leave to wear the crown at William's death, and promising its
restoration at a convenient opportunity.[7] The unfounded rumour that
William contemplated settling the succession after his death on James's
son, provided he were educated a Protestant in England, may possibly
have alarmed her.[8] Meanwhile, since the birth of the duke of
Gloucester, the princess had experienced six more miscarriages, and had
given birth to two children who only survived a few hours, and the last
maternal hope flickered out on the death of the young prince on the 29th
of July 1700. Henceforth Anne signs herself in her letters to Lady
Marlborough as "your poor unfortunate" as well as "faithful Morley." In
default of her own issue, Anne's personal choice would probably have
inclined at this time to her own family at St Germains, but the
necessity of maintaining the Protestant succession caused the enactment
of the Act of Settlement in 1701, and the substitution of the Hanoverian
branch. She wore mourning for her father in 1701, and before his death
James is said to have written to his daughter asking for her protection
for his family; but the recognition of his son by Louis XIV. as king of
England effectually prevented any good offices to which her feelings
might have inclined her.

On the 8th of March 1702 Anne became, by King William's death, queen of
Great Britain, being crowned on the 23rd of April. Her reign was
destined to be one of the most brilliant in the annals of England.
Splendid military triumphs crushed the hereditary national foe. The Act
of Union with Scotland constituted one of the strongest foundations of
the future empire. Art and literature found a fresh renascence.

In her first speech to parliament, like George III. afterwards, Anne
declared her "heart to be entirely English," words which were resented
by some as a reflection on the late king. A ministry, mostly Tory, with
Godolphin at its head, was established. She obtained a grant of 700,000
pounds a year, and hastened to bestow a pension of 100,000 pounds on her
husband, whom she created generalissimo of her forces and lord high
admiral, while Marlborough obtained the Garter, with the
captain-generalship and other prizes, including a dukedom, and the
duchess was made mistress of the robes with the control of the privy
purse. The queen showed from the first a strong interest in church
matters, and declared her intention to keep church appointments in her
own hands. She detested equally Roman Catholics and dissenters, showed a
strong leaning towards the high-church party, and gave zealous support
to the bill forbidding occasional conformity. In 1704 she announced to
the Commons her intention of granting to the church the crown revenues,
amounting to about 16,000 pounds or 17,000 pounds a year, from tenths
and first-fruits (paid originally by the clergy to the pope, but
appropriated by the crown in 1534), for the increase of poor livings;
her gift, under the name of "Queen Anne's Bounty," still remaining as a
testimony of her piety. This devotion to the church, the strongest of
all motives in Anne's conduct, dictated her hesitating attitude towards
the two great parties in the state. The Tories had for this reason her
personal preference, while the Whigs, who included her powerful
favourites the Marlboroughs, identified their interests with the war and
its glorious successes, the queen slowly and unwillingly, but
inevitably, gravitating towards the latter.

In December, the archduke Charles visited Anne at Windsor and was
welcomed as the king of Spain. In 1704 Anne acquiesced in the
resignation of Lord Nottingham, the leader of the high Tory party. In
the same year the great victory of Blenheim further consolidated the
power of the Whigs and increased the influence of Marlborough, upon whom
Anne now conferred the manor of Woodstock. Nevertheless, she declared in
November to the duchess that whenever things leaned towards the Whigs,
"I shall think the church is beginning to be in danger." Next year she
supported the election of the Whig speaker, John Smith, but long
resisted the influence and claims of the _Junto_, as the Whig leaders,
Somers, Halifax, Orford, Wharton and Sunderland, were named. In October
she was obliged to appoint Cowper, a Whig, lord chancellor, with all the
ecclesiastical patronage belonging to the office. Marlborough's
successive victories, and especially the factious conduct of the Tories,
who in November 1705 moved in parliament that the electress Sophia
should be invited to England, drove Anne farther to the side of the
Whigs. But she opposed for some time the inclusion in the government of
Sunderland, whom she especially disliked, only consenting at
Marlborough's intercession in December 1706, when various other offices
and rewards were bestowed upon Whigs, and Nottingham with other Tories
was removed from the council. She yielded, after a struggle, also to the
appointment of Whigs to bishoprics, the most mortifying submission of
all. In 1708 she was forced to dismiss Harley, who, with the aid of Mrs
Masham, had been intriguing against the government and projecting the
creation of a third party. Abigail Hill, Mrs Masham, a cousin of the
duchess of Marlborough, had been introduced by the latter as a poor
relation into Anne's service, while still princess of Denmark. The queen
found relief in the quiet and respectful demeanour of her attendant, and
gradually came to prefer her society to that of the termagant and
tempestuous duchess. Abigail, however, soon ventured to talk "business,"
and in the summer of 1707 the duchess discovered to her indignation that
her protegee had already undermined her influence with the queen and had
become the medium of Harley's intrigue. The strength of the Whigs at
this time and the necessities of the war caused the retirement of
Harley, but he remained Anne's secret adviser and supporter against the
faction, urging upon her "the dangers to the crown as well as to the
church and monarchy itself from their counsels and actions,"[9] while
the duchess never regained her former influence. The inclusion in the
cabinet of Somers, whom she especially disliked as the hostile critic of
Prince George's admiralty administration, was the subject of another
prolonged struggle, ending again in the queen's submission after a
futile appeal to Marlborough in October 1708, to which she brought
herself only to avoid a motion from the Whigs for the removal of the
prince, then actually on his deathbed. His death on the 28th of October
was felt deeply by the queen, and opened the way for the inclusion of
more Whigs. But no reconciliation with the duchess took place, and in
1709 a further dispute led to an angry correspondence, the queen finally
informing the duchess of the termination of their friendship, and the
latter drawing up a long narrative of her services, which she forwarded
to Anne together with suitable passages on the subject of friendship and
charity transcribed from the Prayer Book, the _Whole Duty of Man_ and
from Jeremy Taylor.[10] Next year Anne's desire to give a regiment to
Hill, Mrs Masham's brother, led to another ineffectual attempt in
retaliation to displace the new favourite, and the queen showed her
antagonism to the Whig administration on the occasion of the prosecution
of Sacheverell. She was present at his trial and was publicly acclaimed
by the mob as his supporter, while the Tory divine was consoled
immediately on the expiration of his sentence with the living of St
Andrew's, Holborn. Subsequently the duchess, in a final interview which
she had forced upon the queen, found her tears and reproaches
unavailing. In her anger she had told the queen she wished for no
answer, and she was now met by a stony and exasperating silence, broken
only by the words constantly repeated, "You desired no answer and you
shall have none."

The fall of the Whigs, now no longer necessary on account of the
successful issue of the war, to accomplish which Harley had long been
preparing and intriguing, followed; and their attempt to prolong
hostilities from party motives failed. A friend of Harley, the duke of
Shrewsbury, was first appointed to office, and subsequently the great
body of the Whigs were displaced by Tories, Harley being made chancellor
of the exchequer and Henry St John secretary of state. The queen was
rejoiced at being freed from what she called a long captivity, and the
new parliament was returned with a Tory majority. On the 17th of January
1711, in spite of Marlborough's efforts to ward off the blow, the
duchess was compelled to give up her key of office. The queen was now
able once more to indulge in her favourite patronage of the church, and
by her influence an act was passed in 1712 for building fifty new
churches in London. Later, in 1714, she approved of the Schism Bill. She
gave strong support to Harley, now earl of Oxford and lord treasurer, in
the intrigues and negotiations for peace. Owing to the alliance between
the Tory Lord Nottingham and the Whigs, on the condition of the support
by the latter of the bill against occasional conformity passed in
December 1711, the defeated Whigs maintained a majority in the Lords,
who declared against any peace which left Spain to the Bourbons. To
break down this opposition Marlborough was dismissed on the 31st from
all his employments, while the House of Lords was "swamped" by Anne's
creation of twelve peers,[11] including Mrs Masham's husband. The
queen's conduct was generally approved, for the nation was now violently
adverse to the Whigs and war party; and the peace of Utrecht was finally
signed on the 31st of March 1713, and proclaimed on the 5th of May in
London.

As the queen's reign drew to its close, rumours were rife on the great
subject of the succession to the throne. Various Jacobite appointments
excited suspicion. Both Oxford and Bolingbroke were in communication
with the Pretender's party, and on the 27th of July Oxford, who had
gradually lost influence and quarrelled with Bolingbroke, resigned,
leaving the supreme power in the hands of the latter. Anne herself had a
natural feeling for her brother, and had shown great solicitude
concerning his treatment when a price had been set on his head at the
time of the Scottish expedition in 1708. On the 3rd of March 1714 James
wrote to Anne, Oxford and Bolingbroke, urging the necessity of taking
steps to secure his succession, and promising, on the condition of his
recognition, to make no further attempts against the queen's government;
and in April a report was circulated in Holland that Anne had secretly
determined to associate James with her in the government. The wish
expressed by the Whigs, that a member of the electoral family should be
invited to England, had already aroused the queen's indignation in 1708;
and now, in 1714, a writ of summons for the electoral prince as duke of
Cambridge having been obtained, Anne forbade the Hanoverian envoy, Baron
Schutz, her presence, and declared all who supported the project her
enemies; while to a memorial on the same subject from the electress
Sophia and her grandson in May, Anne replied in an angry letter, which
is said to have caused the death of the electress on the 5th of June,
requesting them not to trouble the peace of her realm or diminish her
authority.

These demonstrations, however, were the outcome not of any returning
partiality for her own family, but of her intense dislike, in which she
resembled Queen Elizabeth, of any "successor," "it being a thing I
cannot bear to have any successor here though but for a week"; and in
spite of some appearances to the contrary, it is certain that religion
and political wisdom kept Anne firm to the Protestant succession.[12]
She had maintained a friendly correspondence with the court of Hanover
since 1705, and in 1706 had bestowed the Garter on the electoral prince
and created him duke of Cambridge; while the Regency Act provided for
the declaration of the legal heir to the crown by the council
immediately on the queen's death, and a further enactment naturalized
the electress and her issue. In 1708, on the occasion of the Scottish
expedition, notwithstanding her solicitude for his safety, she had
styled James in her speech closing the session of parliament as "a
popish pretender bred up in the principles of the most arbitrary
government." The duchess of Marlborough stated in 1713 that all the time
she had known "that thing" (as she now called the queen), "she had never
heard her speak a favourable word of him."[13] No answer appears to have
been sent to James's letter in 1714; on the contrary, a proclamation was
issued (June 23) for his apprehension in case of his arrival in England.
On the 27th of April Anne gave a solemn assurance of her fidelity to the
Hanoverian succession to Sir William Dawes, archbishop of York; in June
she sent Lord Clarendon to Hanover to satisfy the elector.

The sudden illness and death of the queen now frustrated any schemes
which Bolingbroke, or others might have been contemplating. On the 27th,
the day of Oxford's resignation, the discussions concerning his
successor detained the council sitting in the queen's presence till two
o'clock in the morning, and on retiring Anne was instantly seized with
fatal illness. Her adherence to William in 1688 had been a principal
cause of the success of the Revolution, and now the final act of her
life was to secure the Revolution settlement and the Protestant
succession. During a last moment of returning consciousness, and by the
advice of the whole council, who had been joined on their own initiative
by the Whig dukes Argyll and Somerset, she placed the lord treasurer's
staff in the hands of the Whig duke of Shrewsbury, and measures were
immediately taken for assuring the succession of the elector. Her death
took place on the 1st of August, and the security felt by the public,
and perhaps the sense of perils escaped by the termination of the
queen's life, were shown by a considerable rise in the national stocks.
She was buried on the south side of Henry VII.'s chapel in Westminster
Abbey, in the same tomb as her husband and children. The elector of
Hanover, George Louis, son of the electress Sophia (daughter of
Elizabeth, daughter of James I.), peacefully succeeded to the throne as
George I. (q.v.).

According to her physician Arbuthnot, Anne's life was shortened by the
"scene of contention among her servants. I believe sleep was never more
welcome to a weary traveller than death was to her." By character and
temperament unfitted to stand alone, her life had been unhappy and
tragical from its isolation. Separated in early years from her parents
and sister, her one great friendship had proved only baneful and
ensnaring. Marriage had only brought a mournful series of infant
funerals. Constant ill-health and suffering had darkened her career. The
claims of family attachment, of religion, of duty, of patriotism and of
interest, had dragged her in opposite directions, and her whole life had
been a prey to jealousies and factions which closed around her at her
accession to the throne, and surged to their height when she lay on her
deathbed. The modern theory of the relations between the sovereign and
the parties, by which the former identifies himself with the faction for
the time in power while maintaining his detachment from all, had not
then been invented; and Anne, like her Hanoverian successors, maintained
the struggle, though without success, to rule independently finding
support in Harley. During the first year of her reign she made known
that she was "resolved not to follow the example of her predecessor in
making use of a few of her subjects to oppress the rest. She will be
queen of all her subjects, and would have all the parties and
distinctions of former reigns ended and buried in hers."[14] Her motive
for getting rid of the Whigs was not any real dislike of their
administration, but the wish to escape from the domination of the
party,[15] and on the advent to power of the Tories she carefully left
some Whigs in their employments, with the aim of breaking up the party
system and acting upon what was called "a moderate scheme." She attended
debates in the Lords and endeavoured to influence votes. Her struggles
to free herself from the influence of factions only involved her deeper;
she was always under the domination of some person or some party, and
she could not rise above them and show herself the leader of the nation
like Elizabeth.

Anne was a women of small ability, of dull mind, and of that kind of
obstinacy which accompanies weakness of character. According to the
duchess she had "a certain knack of sticking to what had been dictated
to her to a degree often very disagreeable, and without the least sign
of understanding or judgment."[16] "I desire you would not have so ill
an opinion of me," Anne writes to Oxford, "as to think when I have
determined anything in my mind I will alter it."[17] Burnet considered
that "she laid down the splendour of a court too much," which was "as it
were abandoned." She dined alone after her husband's death, but it was
reported by no means abstemiously, the royal family being characterized
in the lines:--

  "King William thinks all.
   Queen Mary talks all,
   Prince George drinks all,
   And Princess Anne eats all."[18]

She took no interest in the art, the drama or the literature of her day.
But she possessed the homely virtues; she was deeply religious, attached
to the Church of England and concerned for the efficiency of the
ministry. One of the first acts of her reign was a proclamation against
vice, and Lord Chesterfield regretted the strict morality of her court.
Instances abound of her kindness and consideration for others. Her
moderation towards the Jacobites in Scotland, after the Pretender's
expedition in 1708, was much praised by Saint Simon. She showed great
forbearance and generosity towards the duchess of Marlborough in the
face of unexampled provocation, and her character was unduly disparaged
by the latter, who with her violent and coarse nature could not
understand the queen's self-restraint in sorrow, and describes her as
"very hard" and as "not apt to cry." According to her small ability she
served the state well, and was zealous and conscientious in the
fulfilment of public duties, in which may be included touching for the
king's evil, which she revived. Marlborough testifies to her energy in
finding money for the war. She surrendered 10,000 pounds a year for
public purposes, and in 1706 she presented 30,000 pounds to the officers
and soldiers who had lost their horses. Her contemporaries almost
unanimously record her excellence and womanly virtues; and by Dean
Swift, no mild critic, she is invariably spoken of with respect, and
named in his will as of "ever glorious, immortal and truly pious memory,
the real nursing-mother of her kingdoms." She deserves her appellation
of "Good Queen Anne," and notwithstanding her failings must be included
among the chief authors and upholders of the great Revolution
settlement. Her person was described by Spanheim, the Prussian
ambassador, as handsome though inclining to stoutness, with black hair,
blue eyes and good features, and of grave aspect.

Anne's husband, Prince George (1653-1708), was the second son of
Frederick III., king of Denmark. Before marrying Anne he had been a
candidate for the throne of Poland. He was created earl of Kendal and
duke of Cumberland in 1689. Some censure, which was directed against the
prince in his capacity as lord high admiral, was terminated by his
death. In religion George remained a Lutheran, and in general his
qualities tended to make him a good husband rather than a soldier or a
statesman.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (Dr A.W. Ward); A.
  Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of England_ (1852), somewhat
  uncritical; an excellent account written by Spanheim for the king of
  Prussia, printed in the _Eng. Hist. Rev._ ii. 757; histories of
  Stanhope, Lecky, Ranke, Macaulay, Boyes, Burnet, Wyon, and Somerville;
  F.E. Morris, _The Age of Anne_ (London, 1877); _Correspondence and
  Diary of Lord Clarendon_ (1828); _Hatton Correspondence_ (Camden Soc.,
  1878); Evelyn's _Diary_; Sir J. Dalrymple's _Memoirs_ (1790); N.
  Luttrell's _Brief Hist. Relation_ (1857); _Wentworth Papers_ (1883);
  W. Coxe, _Mem. of the Duke of Marlborough_ (1847); Conduct of the
  Dowager Duchess of Marlborough (1742); Ralph, _The other Side of the
  Question_ (1742); _Private Correspondence of Sarah Duchess of
  Marlborough_ (1838); A. T, Thomson, _Mem. of the Duchess and the Court
  of Queen Anne_ (1839); J.S. Clarke's _Life of James II._ (1816); J.
  Macpherson's _Original Papers_ (1775); Swift's _Some Considerations
  upon the Consequences from the Death of the Queen, An Inquiry into the
  Behaviour of the Queen's last Ministry, Hist. of the Four Last Years
  of Queen Anne_, and _Journals and Letters; The Lockhart Papers_
  (1817), i.; F. Salomon, _Geschichte des letzten Ministeriums Konigin
  Annas_ (1894); _Marchmont Papers_, iii. (1831); W. Sichel _Life of
  Bolingbroke_ (1901-1902); _Mem. of Thomas Earl of Ailesbury_
  (Roxburghe Club, 1890); _Eng. Hist. Rev._ i. 470, 756, viii. 740;
  _Royal Hut. Soc. Trans._ N.S. xiv. 69; _Col. of State Papers;
  Treasury; Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS. of Duke of Portland_,
  including _the Harley Papers, Duke of Buccleugh at Montagu House, Lord
  Kenyan, Marq. of Bath at Longleat; Various Collections_, ii. 146,
  _Duke Of Rutland at Belvoir, 7th Rep. app._, and _H.M. the King_
  (_Stuart Papers_, i.); _Stowe MSS._ in Brit. Museum; Sir J.
  Mackintosh's Transcripts, _Add. MSS._ in Brit. Museum, 34, 487-526;
  _Edinburgh Rev._, October 1835, p. 1; _Notes and Queries_, vii. ser.
  iii. 178, viii. ser. i. 72, xii. 368, ix, ser. iv. 282, xi, 254; C.
  Hodgson, _An Account of the Augmentation of Small Livings by the
  Bounty of Queen Anne_ (1845); _Observations of the Governors of Queen
  Anne's Bounty_ (1867); _Somers Tracts_, xii. xiii. (1814-1815); H.
  Paul, _Queen Anne_ (London, 1907).     (P. C. Y.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] See also _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Duke of Rutland at Belvoir_,
    ii. 109.

  [2] Dalrymple's _Memoirs_, ii. 175.

  [3] Dalrymple's _Memoirs_, ii. 249.

  [4] Lord Ailesbury's _Memoirs_, 293.

  [5] Macpherson i. 241; Clarke's _Life of James II_., ii. 476. The
    letter, which is only printed in fragments, is not in Anne's style,
    and if genuine was probably dictated by the Churchills.

  [6] Luttrell ii. 366, 376.

  [7] Macpherson i. 257; Clarke's _James II_., ii. 559. See also
    Shrewsbury's anonymous correbpondent in _Hist. MSS. Comm. Ser.; MSS.
    Duke of Buccleugh at Montagu House_, ii. 169.

  [8] Macaulay iv. 799 _note_

  [9] Swift's _Mem. on the Change of the Ministry._

  [10] _Conduct of the Duchess of Marlborough_, p. 225.

  [11] For their names see Hume and Smollett's _Hist_. (Hughes, 1854)
    viil. 110.

  [12] See also _Hist. MSS. Comm. Ser._ Rep. vii. App. 246b.

  [13] _Ibid. Portland MSS_. v. 338.

  [14] Sir J. Leveson-Gower to Lord Rutland, _Hist. MSS. Comm., Duke of
    Rutland's MSS_. ii. 173.

  [15] See Bolingbroke's _Letter to Sir W. Wyndham_.

  [16] _Private Correspondence_, ii. 120.

  [17] _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Bath at Longleat_, i. 237.

  [18] _Notes and Queries_, xi. 254.




ANNE (1693-1740), empress of Russia, second daughter of Tsar Ivan V.,
Peter the Great's imbecile brother, and Praskovia Saltuikova. Her
girlhood was passed at Ismailovo near Moscow, with her mother, an
ignorant, bigoted tsaritsa of the old school, who neglected and even
hated her daughters. Peter acted as a second father to the Ivanovs, as
Praskovia and her family were called. In 1710 he married Anne to
Frederick William, duke of Courland, who died of surfeit on his journey
home from St Petersburg. The reluctant young widow was ordered to
proceed on her way to Mittau to take over the government of Courland,
with the Russian resident, Count Peter Bestuzhev, as her adviser. He was
subsequently her lover, till supplanted by Biren (q.v.). Anne's
residence at Mittau was embittered by the utter inadequacy of her
revenue, which she keenly felt. It was therefore with joy that she at
once accepted the Russian crown, as the next heir, after the death of
Peter II. (January 30, 1730), when it was offered to her by the members
of the supreme privy council, even going so far as to subscribe
previously nine articles which would have reduced her from an absolute
to a very limited monarch. On the 26th of February she made her public
entry into Moscow under strict surveillance. On the 8th of March a _coup
d'etat_, engineered by a party of her personal friends, overthrew the
supreme privy council and she was hailed as autocrat. Her government, on
the whole, was prudent, beneficial and even glorious; but it was
undoubtedly severe and became at last universally unpopular. This was
due in the main to the outrageous insolence of her all-powerful
favourite Biren, who hated the Russian nobility and trampled upon them
mercilessly. Fortunately, Biren was sufficiently prudent not to meddle
with foreign affairs or with the army, and these departments in the able
hands of two other foreigners, who thoroughly identified themselves with
Russia, Andrei Osterman (q.v.) and Burkhardt Munnich (q.v.) did great
things in the reign of Anne. The chief political events of the period
were the War of the Polish Succession and the second[1] Crimean War. The
former was caused by the reappearance of Stanislaus Leszczynski as a
candidate for the Polish throne after the death of Augustus II.
(February 1, 1733). The interests of Russia would not permit her to
recognize a candidate dependent directly on France and indirectly upon
Sweden and Turkey, all three powers being at that time opposed to
Russia's "system." She accordingly united with Austria to support the
candidature of the late king's son, Augustus of Saxony. So far as Russia
was concerned, the War of the Polish Succession was quickly over. Much
more important was the Crimean War of 1736-39. This war marks the
beginning of that systematic struggle on the part of Russia to recover
her natural and legitimate southern boundaries. It lasted four years
and a half, and cost her a hundred thousand men and millions of roubles;
and though invariably successful, she had to be content with the
acquisition of a single city (Azov) with a small district at the mouth
of the Don. Yet more had been gained than was immediately apparent. In
the first place, this was the only war hitherto waged by Russia against
Turkey which had not ended in crushing disaster. Munnich had at least
dissipated the illusion of Ottoman invincibility, and taught the Russian
soldier that 100,000 janissaries and spahis were no match, in a fair
field, for half that number of grenadiers and hussars. In the second
place the Tatar hordes had been well nigh exterminated. In the third
place Russia's signal and unexpected successes in the Steppe had
immensely increased her prestige on the continent. "This court begins to
have a great deal to say in the affairs of Europe," remarked the English
minister, Sir Claudius Rondeau, a year later.

The last days of Anne were absorbed by the endeavour to strengthen the
position of the heir to the throne, the baby cesarevich Ivan, afterwards
Ivan VI., the son of the empress's niece, Anna Leopoldovna, against the
superior claims of her cousin the cesarevna Elizabeth. The empress
herself died three months later (28th of October 1740). Her last act was
to appoint Biren regent during the infancy of her great-nephew.

Anne was a grim, sullen woman, frankly sensual, but as well-meaning as
ignorance and vindictiveness would allow her to be. But she had much
natural good sense, was a true friend and, in her more cheerful moments,
an amiable companion. Lady Rondeau's portrait of the empress shows her
to the best advantage. She is described as a large woman, towering above
all the cavaliers of her court, but very well shaped for her size, easy
and graceful in her person, of a majestic bearing, but with an awfulness
in her countenance which revolted those who disliked her.

  See R. Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897);
  _Letters from a lady who resided some years in Russia (i.e._ Lady
  Rondeau) (London, 1775); Christoph Hermann Manstein, _Memoires sur la
  Russie_ (Amsterdam, 1771; English edition, London, 1856); Gerhard
  Anton von Haiem, _Lebensschreibung des Feldm. B.C. Grafen von Munnich_
  (Oldenburg, 1803); Claudius Rondeau, _Diplomatic Despatches from
  Russia, 1728-1739_ (St Petersburg, 1889-1892).     (R. N. B.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Vasily Golitsuin's expedition under the regency of Sophia was the
    first Crimean War (1687-89).




ANNE OF BRITTANY (1477-1514), daughter of Francis II., duke of Brittany,
and Marguerite de Foix. She was scarcely twelve years old when she
succeeded her father as duchess on the 9th of September 1488. Charles
VIII. aimed at establishing his authority over her; Alain d'Albret
wished to marry her; Jean de Rohan claimed the duchy; and her guardian,
the marshal de Rieux, was soon in open revolt against his sovereign. In
1489 the French army invaded Brittany. In order to protect her
independence, Anne concluded an alliance with Maximilian of Austria, and
soon married him by proxy (December 1489). But Maximilian was incapable
of defending her, and in 1491 the young duchess found herself compelled
to treat with Charles VIII. and to marry him. The two sovereigns made a
reciprocal arrangement as to their rights and pretensions to the crown
of Brittany, but in the event of Charles predeceasing her, Anne
undertook to marry the heir to the throne. Nevertheless, in 1492, after
the conspiracy of Jean de Rohan, who had endeavoured to hand over the
duchy to the king of England, Charles VIII. confirmed the privileges of
Brittany, and in particular guaranteed to the Bretons the right of
paying only those taxes to which the assembly of estates consented,
After the death of Charles VIII. in 1498, without any children, Anne
exercised the sovereignty in Brittany, and in January 1499 she married
Louis XII., who had just repudiated Joan of France. The marriage
contract was ostensibly directed in favour of the independence of
Brittany, for it declared that Brittany should revert to the second son
or to the eldest daughter of the two sovereigns, and, failing issue, to
the natural heirs of the duchess. Until her death Anne occupied herself
personally with the administration of the duchy. In 1504 she caused the
treaty of Blois to be concluded, which assured the hand of her daughter,
Claude of France, to Charles of Austria (the future emperor, Charles
V.), and promised him the possession of Brittany, Burgundy and the
county of Blois. But this unpopular treaty was broken, and the queen had
to consent to the betrothal of Claude to Francis of Angouleme, who in
1515 became king of France as Francis I. Thus the definitive reunion of
Brittany and France was prepared.

  See A. de la Borderie, _Choix de documents inedits sur le regne de la
  duchesse Anne en Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1866 and 1902)--extracts from the
  _Memoires de la Societe Archeologique du departement
  d'Ille-et-Vilaine_, vols. iv. and vi. (1866 and 1868); Leroux de
  Lincy, _Vie de la reine Anne de Bretagne_ (1860-1861); A. Dupuy, _La
  Reunion de la Bretagne a la France_ (1880); A. de la Borderie, _La
  Bretagne aux derniers siecles du may en age_ (1893), and _La Bretagne
  aux temps modernes_ (1894).     (H. Se.)




ANNE OF CLEVES (1515-1557), fourth wife of Henry VIII., king of England,
daughter of John, duke of Cleves, and Mary, only daughter of William,
duke of Juliers, was born on the 22nd of September 1515. Her father was
the leader of the German Protestants, and the princess, after the death
of Jane Seymour, was regarded by Cromwell as a suitable wife for Henry
VIII. She had been brought up in a narrow retirement, could speak no
language but her own, had no looks, no accomplishments and no dowry, her
only recommendations being her proficiency in needlework, and her meek
and gentle temper. Nevertheless her picture, painted by Holbein by the
king's command (now in the Louvre, a modern copy at Windsor), pleased
Henry and the marriage was arranged, the treaty being signed on the 24th
of September 1539. The princess landed at Deal on the 27th of December;
Henry met her at Rochester on the 1st of January 1540, and was so much
abashed at her appearance as to forget to present the gift he had
brought for her, but nevertheless controlled himself sufficiently to
treat her with courtesy. The next day he expressed openly his
dissatisfaction at her looks; "she was no better than a Flanders mare."
The attempt to prove a pre-contract with the son of the duke of Lorraine
broke down, and Henry was forced to resign himself to the sacrifice. On
the wedding morning, however, the 6th of January 1540, he declared that
no earthly thing would have induced him to marry her but the fear of
driving the duke of Cleves into the arms of the emperor. Shortly
afterwards Henry had reason to regret the policy which had identified
him so closely with the German Protestantism, and denied reconciliation
with the emperor. Cromwell's fall was the result, and the chief obstacle
to the repudiation of his wife being thus removed, Henry declared the
marriage had not been and could not be consummated; and did not scruple
to cast doubts on his wife's honour. On the 9th of July the marriage was
declared null and void by convocation, and an act of parliament to the
same effect was passed immediately. Henry soon afterwards married
Catherine Howard. On first hearing of the king's intentions, Anne
swooned away, but on recovering, while declaring her case a very hard
and sorrowful one from the great love which she bore to the king,
acquiesced quietly in the arrangements made for her by Henry, by which
she received lands to the value of L4000 a year, renounced the title of
queen for that of the king's sister, and undertook not to leave the
kingdom. In a letter to her brother, drawn up by Gardiner by the king's
direction, she acknowledged the unreality of the marriage and the king's
kindness and generosity. Anne spent the rest of her life happily in
England at Richmond or Bletchingley, occasionally visiting the court,
and being described as joyous as ever, and wearing new dresses every
day! An attempt to procure her reinstalment on the disgrace of Catherine
Howard failed, and there was no foundation for the report that she had
given birth to a child of which Henry was the reputed father. She was
present at the marriage of Henry with Catherine Parr and at the
coronation of Mary. She died on the 28th of July 1557 at Chelsea, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey.

  See _Lives of the Queens of England_, by A. Strickland, iii. (1851);
  _The Wives of Henry VIII_., by M. Hume (1905); _Henry VIII_., by A.F.
  Pollard (1905); _Four Original Documents relating to the Marriage of
  Henry VIII. to Anne of Cleves_, ed. by E. and G. Goldsmid (1886); for
  the pseudo Anne of Cleves see _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, i.
  467.     (P. C. Y.)




ANNE OF DENMARK (1574-1619), queen of James I. of England and VI. of
Scotland, daughter of King Frederick II. of Denmark and Norway and of
Sophia, daughter of Ulric III., duke of Mecklenburg, was born on the
12th of December 1574. On the 20th of August 1589, in spite of Queen
Elizabeth's opposition, she was married by proxy to King James, without
dower, the alliance, however, settling definitely the Scottish claims to
the Orkney and Shetland Islands. Her voyage to Scotland was interrupted
by a violent storm--for the raising of which several Danish and Scottish
witches were burned or executed--which drove her on the coast of Norway,
whither the impatient James came to meet her, the marriage taking place
at Opslo (now Christiania) on the 23rd of November. The royal couple,
after visiting Denmark, arrived in Scotland in May 1590. The position of
queen consort to a Scottish king was a difficult and perilous one, and
Anne was attacked in connexion with various scandals and deeds of
violence, her share in which, however, is supported by no evidence. The
birth of an heir to the throne (Prince Henry) in 1504 strengthened her
position and influence; but the young prince, much to her indignation,
was immediately withdrawn from her care and entrusted to the keeping of
the earl and countess of Mar at Stirling Castle; in 1595 James gave a
written command, forbidding them in case of his death to give up the
prince to the queen till he reached the age of eighteen. The king's
intention was, no doubt, to secure himself and the prince against the
unruly nobles, though the queen's Roman Catholic tendencies were
probably another reason for his decision. Brought up a Lutheran, and
fond of pleasure, she had shown no liking for Scottish Calvinism, and
soon incurred rebukes on account of her religion, "vanity," absence from
church, "night waking and balling." She had become secretly inclined to
Roman Catholicism, and attended mass with the king's connivance. On the
death of Queen Elizabeth, on the 24th of March 1603, James preceded her
to London. Anne took advantage of his absence to demand possession of
the prince, 'and, on the "flat refusal" of the countess of Mar, fell
into a passion, the violence of which occasioned a miscarriage and
endangered her life. In June she followed the king to England (after
distributing all her effects in Edinburgh among her ladies) with the
prince and the coffin containing the body of her dead infant, and
reached Windsor on the 2nd of July, where amidst other forms of good
fortune she entered into the possession of Queen Elizabeth's 6000
dresses.

On the 24th of July Anne was crowned with the king, when her refusal to
take the sacrament according to the Anglican use created some sensation.
She communicated on one occasion subsequently and attended Anglican
service occasionally; but she received consecrated objects from Pope
Clement VIII., continued to hear mass, and, according to Galluzzi,
supported the schemes for the conversion of the prince of Wales and of
England, and for the prince's marriage with a Roman Catholic princess,
which collapsed on his death in 1612. She was claimed as a convert by
the Jesuits.[1] Nevertheless on her deathbed, when she was attended by
the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London, she used
expressions which were construed as a declaration of Protestantism.
Notwithstanding religious differences she lived in great harmony and
affection with the king, latterly, however, residing mostly apart. She
helped to raise Buckingham to power in the place of Somerset, maintained
friendly relations with him, and approved of his guidance and control of
the king. In spite of her birth and family she was at first favourably
inclined to Spain, disapproved of her daughter Elizabeth's marriage with
the elector palatine, and supported the Spanish marriages for her sons,
but subsequently veered round towards France. She used all her influence
in favour of the unfortunate Raleigh, answering his petition to her for
protection with a personal letter of appeal to Buckingham to save his
life. "She carrieth no sway in state matters," however, it was said of
her in 1605, "and, _praeter rem uxoriam_, hath no great reach in other
affairs." "She does not mix herself up in affairs, though the king tells
her anything she chooses to ask, and loves and esteems her."[2] Her
interest in state matters was only occasional, and secondary to the
pre-occupations of court festivities, masks, progresses, dresses,
jewels, which she much enjoyed; the court being, says Wilson--whose
severity cannot entirely suppress his admiration--"a continued
maskarado, where she and her ladies, like so many nymphs or Nereides,
appeared ... to the ravishment of the beholders," and "made the night
more glorious than the day." Occasionally she even joined in the king's
sports, though here her only recorded exploit was her accidental
shooting of James's "most principal and special hound," Jewel. Her
extravagant expenditure, returned by Salisbury in 1605 at more than
L50,000 and by Chamberlain at her death at more than L84,000, was
unfavourably contrasted with the economy of Queen Elizabeth; in spite of
large allowances and grants of estates which included Oatlands,
Greenwich House and Nonsuch, it greatly exceeded her income, her debts
in 1616 being reckoned at nearly L10,000, while her jewelry and her
plate were valued at her death at nearly half a million. Anne died after
a long illness on the 2nd of March 1619, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey. She was generally regretted. The severe Wilson, while rebuking
her gaieties, allows that she was "a good woman," and that her character
would stand the most prying investigation. She was intelligent and
tactful, a faithful wife, a devoted mother and a staunch friend. Besides
several children who died in infancy she had Henry, prince of Wales, who
died in 1612, Charles, afterwards King Charles I., and Elizabeth,
electress palatine and queen of Bohemia.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Dr A.W. Ward's article in the _Dict, of Nat.
  Biography_, with authorities; _Lives of the Queens of England_, by A.
  Strickland (1844), vii.; "Life and Reign of King James I.," by A.
  Wilson, in _History of England_ (1706); _Istoria del Granducato di
  Toscana_, by R. Galluzzi (1781), lib. vi. cap. ii.; _Cal. of State
  Papers--Domestic and Venetian_; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS, of
  Marq. of Salisbury_, iii. 420, 438, 454, ix. 54; _Harleian MSS._ 5176,
  art. 22, 293, art. 106. Also see bibliography to the article on JAMES
  I.     (P. C. Y.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Fasti S. J._, by P. Joannis Drews (pub. 1723), p. 160.

  [2] _Cal. of St. Pap.--Venetian_, x. 513.




ANNE OF FRANCE (1460-1522), dame de Beaujeu, was the eldest daughter of
Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy. Louis XI. betrothed her at first to
Nicholas of Anjou, and afterwards offered her hand successively to
Charles the Bold, to the duke of Brittany, and even to his own brother,
Charles of France. Finally she married Pierre de Beaujeu, a younger
brother of the duke of Bourbon. Before his death Louis XI. entrusted to
Pierre de Beaujeu and Anne the entire charge of his son, Charles VIII.,
a lad of thirteen; and from 1483 to 1492 the Beaujeus exercised a
virtual regency. Anne was a true daughter of Louis XI. Energetic,
obstinate, cunning and unscrupulous, she inherited, too, her father's
avarice and rapacity. Although they made some concessions, the Beaujeus
succeeded in maintaining the results of the previous reign, and in
triumphing over the feudal intrigues and coalitions, as was seen from
the meeting of the estates general in 1484, and the results of the "Mad
War" (1485) and the war with Brittany (1488); and in spite of the
efforts of Maximilian of Austria they concluded the marriage of Charles
VIII. and Anne, duchess of Brittany (1491). But a short time afterwards
the king disengaged himself completely from their tutelage, to the great
detriment of the kingdom. In 1488 Pierre de Beaujeu had succeeded to the
Bourbonnais, the last great fief of France. He died in 1503, but Anne
survived him twenty years. From her establishments at Moulins and
Chantelle in the Bourbonnais she continued henceforth vigorously to
defend the Bourbon cause against the royal family. Anne's only daughter,
Suzanne, had married in 1505 her cousin, Charles of Bourbon, count of
Montpensier, the future constable; and the question of the succession of
Suzanne, who died in 1521, was the determining factor of the treason of
the constable de Bourbon (1523). Anne had died some months before, on
the 14th of November 1522.

  See P. Pelicier, _Essai sur le gouvernement de la Dame de Beaujeu_
  (Chartres, 1882).     (J. I.)




ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING. Annealing (from the prefix _an_, and
the old English _aelan_, to burn or bake; the meaning has probably also
been modified from the French _nieler_, to enamel black on gold or
silver, from the med. Lat. _nigellare_, to make black; cf. _niello_) is
a process of treating a metal or alloy by heat with the object of
imparting to it a certain condition of ductility, extensibility, or a
certain grade of softness or hardness, with all that is involved in and
follows from those conditions. The effect may be mechanical only, or a
chemical change may take place also. Sometimes the causes are obvious,
in other cases they are more or less obscure. But of the actual facts,
and the immense importance of this operation as well as of the related
ones of tempering and hardening in shop processes, there is no question.

When the treatment is of a mechanical character only, there can be no
reasonable doubt that the common belief is correct, namely, that the
metallic crystals or fibres undergo a molecular rearrangement of some
kind. When it is of a chemical character, the process is one of
cementation, due to the occlusion of gases in the molecules of the
metals.

Numerous examples of annealing due to molecular rearrangement might be
selected from the extensive range of workshop operations. The following
are a few only:--when a boiler-maker bends the edges of a plate of steel
or iron by hammer blows (flanging), he does so in successive stages
(heats), at each of which the plate has to be reheated, with inevitable
cooling down during the time work is being done upon it. The result is
that the plate becomes brittle over the parts which have been subjected
to this treatment; and this brittleness is not uniformly distributed,
but is localized, and is a source of weakness, inducing a liability to
crack. If, however, the plate when finished is raised to a full red
heat, and allowed to cool down away from access of cool air, as in a
furnace, or underneath wood ashes, it resumes its old ductility. The
plate has been annealed, and is as safe as it was before it was flanged.
Again, when a sheet of thin metal is forced to assume a shape very
widely different from its original plane aspect, as by hammering, or by
drawing out in a press--a cartridge case being a familiar example--it is
necessary to anneal it several times during the progress of the
operation. Without such annealing it would never arrive at the final
stage desired, but would become torn asunder by the extension of its
metallic fibres. Cutting tools are made of steel having sufficient
carbon to afford capacity for hardening. Before the process is
performed, the condition in which the carbon is present renders the
steel so hard and tough as to render the preliminary turning or shaping
necessary in many cases (e.g. in milling cutters) a tedious operation.
To lessen this labour, the steel is first annealed. In this case it is
brought to a low red heat, and allowed to cool away from the air. It can
then be machined with comparative ease and be subsequently hardened or
tempered. When a metallic structure has endured long service a state of
fatigue results. Annealing is, where practicable, resorted to in order
to restore the original strength. A familiar illustration is that of
chains which are specially liable to succumb to constant overstrain if
continued for only a year or two. This is so well known that the
practice is regularly adopted of annealing the chains at regular
intervals. They are put into a clear hot furnace and raised to a low red
heat, continued for a few hours, and then allowed to cool down in the
furnace after the withdrawal of the source of heat. Before the annealing
the fracture of a link would be more crystalline than afterwards.

In these examples, and others of which these are typical, two conditions
are essential, one being the grade of temperature, the other the
cooling. The temperature must never be so high as to cause the metal to
become overheated, with risk of burning, nor so low as to prevent the
penetration of the substance with a good volume of heat. It must also be
continued for sufficient time. More than this cannot be said. Each
particular piece of work requires its own treatment and period, and
nothing but experience of similar work will help the craftsman. The
cooling must always be gradual, such as that which results from removing
the source of heat, as by drawing a furnace fire, or covering with
non-conducting substances.

The chemical kind of annealing is specifically that employed in the
manufacture of malleable cast iron. In this process, castings are made
of white iron,--a brittle quality which has its carbon wholly in the
combined state. These castings, when subjected to heat for a period of
ten days or a fortnight, in closed boxes, in the presence of substances
containing oxygen, become highly ductile. This change is due to the
absorption of the carbon by the oxygen in the cementing material, a
comparatively pure soft iron being left behind. The result is that the
originally hard, brittle castings after this treatment may be cut with a
knife, and be bent double and twisted into spirals without fracturing.

The distinction between _hardening_ and _tempering_ is one of degree
only, and both are of an opposite character to annealing. Hardening, in
the shop sense, signifies the making of a piece of steel about as hard
as it can be made--"glass hard"--while tempering indicates some stage in
an infinite range between the fully hardened and the annealed or
softened condition. As a matter of convenience only, hardening is
usually a stage in the work of tempering. It is easier to harden first,
and "let down" to the temper required, than to secure the exact heat for
tempering by raising the material to it. This is partly due to the long
established practice of estimating temperature by colour tints; but this
is being rapidly invaded by new methods in which the temper heat is
obtained in furnaces provided with pyrometers, by means of which exact
heat regulation is readily secured, and in which the heating up is done
gradually. Such furnaces are used for hardening balls for bearings,
cams, small toothed wheels and similar work, as well as for tempering
springs, milling cutters and other kinds of cutting tools. But for the
cutting tools having single edges, as used in engineers' shops, the
colour test is still generally retained.

In the practice of hardening and tempering tools by colour, experience
is the only safe guide. Colour tints vary with degrees of light; steels
of different brands require different treatment in regard to temperature
and quenching; and steels even of identical chemical composition do not
always behave alike when tempered. Every fresh brand of steel has,
therefore, to be treated at first in a tentative and experimental
fashion in order to secure the best possible results. The larger the
masses of steel, and the greater the disparity in dimensions of adjacent
parts, the greater is the risk of cracking and distortion. Excessive
length and the presence of keen angles increase the difficulties of
hardening. The following points have to be observed in the work of
hardening and tempering.

A grade of steel must be selected of suitable quality for the purpose
for which it has to be used. There are a number of such grades, ranging
from about 1-1/2 to 1/2% content of carbon, and each having its special
utility. Overheating must be avoided, as that burns the steel and
injures or ruins it. A safe rule is never to heat any grade of steel to
a temperature higher than that at which experience proves it will take
the temper required. Heating must be regular and thorough throughout,
and must therefore be slowly done when dealing with thick masses.
Contact with sulphurous fuel must be avoided. Baths of molten alloys of
lead and tin are used when very exact temperatures are required, and
when articles have thick and thin parts adjacent. But the gas furnaces
have the same advantages in a more handy form. Quenching is done in
water, oil, or in various hardening mixtures, and sometimes in solids.
Rain water is the principal hardening agent, but various saline
compounds are often added to intensify its action. Water that has been
long in use is preferred to fresh. Water is generally used cold, but in
many cases it is warmed to about 80 deg. F., as for milling cutters and
taps, warmed water being less liable to crack the cutters than cold. Oil
is preferred to water for small springs, for guns and for many cutters.
Mercury hardens most intensely, because it does not evaporate, and so
does lead or wax for the same reason; water evaporates, and in the
spheroidal state, as steam, leaves contact with the steel. This is the
reason why long and large objects are moved vertically about in the
water during quenching, to bring them into contact with fresh cold
water.

There is a good deal of mystery affected by many of the hardeners, who
are very particular about the composition of their baths, various oils
and salts being used in an infinity of combinations. Many of these are
the result of long and successful experience, some are of the nature of
"fads." A change of bath may involve injury to the steel. The most
difficult articles to harden are springs, milling cutters, taps,
reamers. It would be easy to give scores of hardening compositions.

Hardening is performed the more efficiently the more rapidly the
quenching is done. In the case of thick objects, however, especially
milling cutters, there is risk of cracking, due to the difference of
temperature on the outside and in the central body of metal. Rapid
hardening is impracticable in such objects. This is the cause of the
distortion of long taps and reamers, and of their cracking, and explains
why their teeth are often protected with soft soap and other substances.

The presence of the body of heat in a tool is taken advantage of in the
work of tempering. The tool, say a chisel, is dipped, a length of 2 in.
or more being thus hardened and blackened. It is then removed, and a
small area rubbed rapidly with a bit of grindstone, observations being
made of the changing tints which gradually appear as the heat is
communicated from the hot shank to the cooled end. The heat becomes
equalized, and at the same time the approximate temperature for
quenching for temper is estimated by the appearance of a certain tint;
at that instant the article is plunged and allowed to remain until quite
cold. For every different class of tool a different tint is required.

"Blazing off" is a particular method of hardening applied to small
springs. The springs are heated and plunged in oils, fats, or tallow,
which is burned off previous to cooling in air, or in the ashes of the
forge, or in oil, or water usually. They are hardened, reheated and
tempered, and the tempering by blazing off is repeated for heavy
springs. The practice varies almost infinitely with dimensions, quality
of steel, and purpose to which the springs have to be applied.

The range of temper for most cutting tools lies between a pale straw or
yellow, and a light purple or plum colour. The corresponding range of
temperatures is about 430 deg. F. to 530 deg. F., respectively. "Spring
temper" is higher, from dark purple to blue, or 550 deg. F. to 630 deg.
F. In many fine tools the range of temperature possible between good and
poor results lies within from 5 deg. to 10 deg. F.

There is another kind of hardening which is of a superficial character
only--"case hardening." It is employed in cases where toughness has to
be combined with durability of surface. It is a cementation process,
practised on wrought iron and mild steel, and applied to the link
motions of engines, to many pins and studs, eyes of levers, &c. The
articles are hermetically luted in an iron box, packed with nitrogenous
and saline substances such as potash, bone dust, leather cuttings, and
salt. The box is placed in a furnace, and allowed to remain for periods
of from twelve to thirty-six hours, during which period the surface of
the metal, to a depth of 1/32 to 1/16 in., is penetrated by the
cementing materials, and converted into steel. The work is then thrown
into water and quenched.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Automatic Oil Muffle Furnace.]

A muffle furnace, employed for annealing, hardening and tempering is
shown in fig. 1; the heat being obtained by means of petroleum, which is
contained in the tank A, and is kept under pressure by pumping at
intervals with the wooden handle, so that when the valve B is opened the
oil is vaporized by passing through a heating coil at the furnace
entrance, and when ignited burns fiercely as a gas flame. This passes
into the furnace through the two holes, C, C, and plays under and up
around the muffle D, standing on a fireclay slab. The doorway is closed
by two fireclay blocks at E. A temperature of over 2000 deg. F. can be
obtained in furnaces of this class, and the heat is of course under
perfect control.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Reverbatory Furnace.]

A reverberatory type of gas furnace, shown in fig. 2, differs from the
oil furnace in having the flames brought down through the roof, by pipes
A, A, A, playing on work laid on the fireclay slab B, thence passing
under this and out through the elbow-pipe C. The hinged doors, D, give a
full opening to the interior of the furnace. It will be noticed in both
these furnaces (by Messrs Fletcher, Russell & Co., Ltd.) that the iron
casing is a mere shell, enclosing very thick firebrick linings, to
retain the heat effectively. (J. G. H.)




ANNECY, the chief town of the department of Haute Savoie in France. Pop.
(1906) 10,763. It is situated at a height of 1470 ft., at the northern
end of the lake of Annecy, and is 25 m. by rail N.E. of Aix les Bains.
The surrounding country presents many scenes of beauty. The town itself
is a pleasant residence, and contains a 16th century cathedral church,
an 18th century bishop's palace, a 14th-16th century castle (formerly
the residence of the counts of the Genevois), and the reconstructed
convent of the Visitation, wherein now reposes the body of St Francois
de Sales (born at the castle of Sales, close by, in 1567; died at Lyons
in 1622), who held the see from 1602 to 1622. There is also a public
library, with 20,000 volumes, and various scientific collections, and a
public garden, with a statue of the chemist Berthollet (1748-1822), who
was born not far off. The bishop's see of Geneva was transferred hither
in 1535, after the Reformation, but suppressed in 1801, though revived
in 1822. There are factories of linen and cotton goods, and of felt
hats, paper mills, and a celebrated bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux.
This last-named place existed in Roman times. Annecy itself was in the
10th century the capital of the counts of the Genevois, from whom it
passed in 1401 to the counts of Savoy, and became French in 1860 on the
annexation of Savoy.

The LAKE OF ANNECY is about 9 m. in length by 2 m. in breadth, its
surface being 1465 ft. above the level of the sea. It discharges its
waters, by means of the Thioux canal, into the Fier, a tributary of the
Rhone.     (W. A. B. C.)




ANNELIDA, a name derived from J.B.P. Lamarck's term _Annelides_, now
used to denote a major phylum or division of coelomate invertebrate
animals. Annelids are segmented worms, and differ from the Arthropoda
(q.v.), which they closely resemble in many respects, by the possession
of a portion of the coelom traversed by the alimentary canal. In the
latter respect, and in the fact that they frequently develop by a
metamorphosis, they approach the Mollusca (q.v.), but they differ from
that group notably in the occurrence of metameric segmentation affecting
many of the systems of organs. The body-wall is highly muscular and,
except in a few probably specialized cases, possesses chitinous spines,
the setae, which are secreted by the ectoderm and are embedded in pits
of the skin. They possess a modified anterior end, frequently with
special sense organs, forming a head, a segmented nervous system,
consisting of a pair of anterior, dorsally-placed ganglia, a ring
surrounding the alimentary canal, and a double ventral ganglionated
chain, a definite vascular system, an excretory system consisting of
nephridia, and paired generative organs formed from the coelomic
epithelium. They are divided as follows: (1) Haplodrili (q.v.) or
Archiannelida; (2) Chaetopoda (q.v.); (3) Myzostomida (q.v.), probably
degenerate Polychaeta; (4) Hirudinea (see CHAETOPODA and LEECH); (5)
Echiuroidea (q.v.).     (P. C. M.)




ANNET, PETER (1693-1769), English deist, is said to have been born at
Liverpool. A schoolmaster by profession, he became prominent owing to
his attacks on orthodox theologians, and his membership of a
semi-theological debating society, the Robin Hood Society, which met at
the "Robin Hood and Little John" in Butcher Row. To him has been
attributed a work called _A History of the Man after God's own Heart_
(1761), intended to show that George II. was insulted by a current
comparison with David. The book is said to have inspired Voltaire's
_Saul_. It is also attributed to one John Noorthouck (Noorthook). In
1763 he was condemned for blasphemous libel in his paper called the
_Free Enquirer_ (nine numbers only). After his release he kept a small
school in Lambeth, one of his pupils being James Stephen (1758-1832),
who became master in Chancery. Annet died on the 18th of January 1769.
He stands between the earlier philosophic deists and the later
propagandists of Paine's school, and "seems to have been the first
freethought lecturer" (J.M. Robertson); his essays (_A Collection of the
Tracts of a certain Free Enquirer_, 1739-1745) are forcible but lack
refinement. He invented a system of shorthand (2nd ed., with a copy of
verses by Joseph Priestley).




ANNEXATION (Lat. _ad_, to, and _nexus_, joining), in international law,
the act by which a state adds territory to its dominions; the term is
also used generally as a synonym for acquisition. The assumption of a
protectorate over another state, or of a sphere of influence, is not
strictly annexation, the latter implying the complete displacement in
the annexed territory of the government or state by which it was
previously ruled. Annexation may be the consequence of a voluntary
cession from one state to another, or of conversion from a protectorate
or sphere of influence, or of mere occupation in uncivilized regions, or
of conquest. The cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany by France,
although brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of
international law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of the 17th of
December 1885, between the French republic and the queen of Madagascar,
a French protectorate was established over this island. In 1896 this
protectorate was converted by France into an annexation, and Madagascar
then became "French territory." The formal annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria (Oct. 5, 1908) was an unauthorized
conversion of an "occupation" authorized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878),
which had, however, for years operated as a _de facto_ annexation. A
recent case of conquest was that effected by the South African War of
1899-1902, in which the Transvaal republic and the Orange Free State
were extinguished, first _de facto_ by occupation of the whole of their
territory, and then _de jure_ by terms of surrender entered into by the
Boer generals acting as a government.

By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state takes
over the whole succession with the rights and obligations attaching to
the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying conditions contained
in the treaty of cession. These, however, are binding only as between
the parties to them. In the case of the annexation of the territories of
the Transvaal republic and Orange Free State, a rather complicated
situation arose out of the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding
states closed their own existence and left no recourse to third parties
against the previous ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having
no means owing to the _de facto_ British occupation, of raising money by
taxation, the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain
securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the South
African Railway Company, to neutral purchasers. The British government
repudiated these sales as having been made by a government which the
British government had already displaced. The question of at what point,
in a war of conquest, the state succession becomes operative is one of
great delicacy. As early as the 6th of January 1900, the high
commissioner at Cape Town issued a proclamation giving notice that H.M.
government would "not recognize as valid or effectual" any conveyance,
transfer or transmission of any property made by the government of the
Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to the 10th of
October 1899, the date of the commencement of the war. A proclamation
forbidding transactions with a state which might still be capable of
maintaining its independence could obviously bind only those subject to
the authority of the state issuing it. Like paper blockades (see
BLOCKADE) and fictitious occupations of territory, such premature
proclamations are viewed by international jurists as not being _jure
gentium_. The proclamation was succeeded, on the 9th of March 1900, by
another of the high commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice,
but confining it to "lands, railways, mines or mining rights." And on
the 1st of September 1900 Lord Roberts proclaimed at Pretoria the
annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the British
dominions. That the war continued for nearly two years after this
proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexation was. The
difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the South African Railway
shares held by the Transvaal government was satisfactorily terminated by
the purchase by the British government of the total capital of the
company from the different groups of shareholders (see on this case, Sir
Thomas Barclay, _Law Quarterly Review_, July 1905; and Professor
Westlake, in the same _Review_, October 1905).

In a judgment of the judicial committee of the privy council in 1899
(_Coote_ v. _Sprigg_, A.C. 572), Lord Chancellor Halsbury made an
important distinction as regards the obligations of state succession.
The case in question was a claim of title against the crown, represented
by the government of Cape Colony. It was made by persons holding a
concession of certain rights in eastern Pondoland from a native chief.
Before the grantees had taken up their grant by acts of possession,
Pondoland was annexed to Cape Colony. The colonial government refused to
recognize the grant on different grounds, the chief of them being that
the concession conferred no legal rights before the annexation and
therefore could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in
itself. The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on
the allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state
and that "no municipal court had authority to enforce such an
obligation" as the duty of the new government to respect existing
titles. "It is no answer," said Lord Halsbury, "to say that by the
ordinary principles of international law private property is respected
by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes the duties and
legal obligations of the former sovereign with respect to such private
property within the ceded territory. All that can be meant by such a
proposition is that according to the well-understood rules of
international law a change of sovereignty by cession ought not to affect
private property, but no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce
such an obligation. And if there is either an express or a
well-understood bargain between the ceding potentate and the government
to which the cession is made that private property shall be respected,
that is only a bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against
sovereign in the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure." In an
editorial note on this case the _Law Quarterly Review_ of Jan. 1900 (p.
1), dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that "no
municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation," the
writer observes that "we can read this only as meant to lay down that,
on the annexation of territory even by peaceable cession, there is a
total abeyance of justice until the will of the annexing power is
expressly made known; and that, although the will of that power is
commonly to respect existing private rights, there is no rule or
presumption to that effect of which any court must or indeed can take
notice." So construed the doctrine is not only contrary to international
law, but according to so authoritative an exponent of the common law as
Sir F. Pollock, there is no warrant for it in English common law.

An interesting point of American constitutional law has arisen out of
the cession of the Philippines to the United States, through the fact
that the federal constitution does not lend itself to the exercise by
the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are vested in the
British parliament. The sole authority for the powers of the federal
congress is a written constitution with defined powers. Anything done in
excess of those powers is null and void. The Supreme Court of the United
States, on the other hand, has declared that, by the constitution, a
government is ordained and established "for the United States of
America" and not for countries outside their limits (_Ross's Case_, 140
U.S. 453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed
territories as that vested in the British crown in council is enjoyed by
the president of the United States (_Field_ v. _Clark_, 143 U.S. 649,
692). Every detail connected with the administration of the territories
acquired from Spain under the treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) has
given rise to minute discussion.

  See Carman F. Randolph, _Law and Policy of Annexation_ (New York and
  London, 1901); Charles Henry Butler, _Treaty-making Power of the
  United States_ (New York, 1902), vol. i. p. 79 et seq.     (T. Ba.)




ANNICERIS, a Greek philosopher of the Cyrenaic school. There is no
certain information as to his date, but from the statement that he was a
disciple of Paraebates it seems likely that he was a contemporary of
Alexander the Great. A follower of Aristippus, he denied that pleasure
is the general end of human life. To each separate action there is a
particular end, namely the pleasure which actually results from it.
Secondly, pleasure is not merely the negation of pain, inasmuch as death
ends all pain and yet cannot be regarded as pleasure. There is, however,
an absolute pleasure in certain virtues such as belong to the love of
country, parents and friends. In these relations a man will have
pleasure, even though it may result in painful and even fatal
consequences. Friendship is not merely for the satisfaction of our
needs, but is in itself a source of pleasure. He maintains further, in
opposition to most of the Cyrenaic school, that wisdom or prudence alone
is an insufficient guarantee against error. The wise man is he who has
acquired a habit of wise action; human wisdom is liable to lapses at any
moment. Diogenes Laertius says that Anniceris ransomed Plato from
Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, for twenty minas. If we are right in
placing Anniceris in the latter half of the 4th century, it is clear
that the reference here is to an earlier Anniceris, who, according to
Aelian, was a celebrated charioteer.




ANNING, MARY (1799-1847), English fossil-collector, the daughter of
Richard Anning, a cabinet-maker, was born at Lyme Regis in May 1799. Her
father was one of the earliest collectors and dealers in fossils,
obtained chiefly from the Lower Lias in that famous locality. When but a
child in 1811 she discovered the first specimen of _Ichthyosaurus_ which
was brought into scientific notice; in 1821 she found remains of a new
saurian, the _Plesiosaurus_ and in 1828 she procured, for the first time
in England, remains of a pterodactyl (_Dimorphodon_). She died on the
9th of March 1847.




ANNISTON, a city and the county seat of Calhoun county, Alabama, U.S.A.,
in the north-eastern part of the state, about 63 m. E. by N. of
Birmingham. Pop. (1890) 9998; (1900), 9695, of whom 3669 were of negro
descent; (1910 census) 12,794. Anniston is served by the Southern, the
Seaboard Air Line, and the Louisville & Nashville railways. The city is
situated on the slope of Blue Mountain, a chain of the Blue Ridge, and
is a health resort. It is the seat of the Noble Institute (for girls),
established in 1886 by Samuel Noble (1834-1888), a wealthy iron-founder,
and of the Alabama Presbyterian College for Men (1905). There are vast
quantities of iron ore in the vicinity of the city, the Coosa
coal-fields being only 25 m. distant. Anniston is an important
manufacturing city, the principal industries being the manufacture of
iron, steel and cotton. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued
at $2,525,455. An iron furnace was established on the site of Anniston
during the Civil War, but it was destroyed by the federal troops in
1865; and in 1872 it was rebuilt on a much larger scale. The city was
founded in 1872 as a private enterprise, by the Woodstock Iron Company,
organized by Samuel Noble and Gen. Daniel Tyler (1799-1882); but it was
not opened for general settlement until twelve years later. It was
chartered as a city in 1879.




ANNO, or HANNO, SAINT (c. 1010-1075), archbishop of Cologne, belonged to
a Swabian family, and was educated at Bamberg. He became confessor to
the emperor Henry III., who appointed him archbishop of Cologne in 1056.
He took a prominent part in the government of Germany during the
minority of King Henry IV., and was the leader of the party which in
1062 seized the person of Henry, and deprived his mother, the empress
Agnes, of power. For a short time Anno exercised the chief authority in
the kingdom, but he was soon obliged to share this with Adalbert,
archbishop of Bremen, retaining for himself the supervision of Henry's
education and the title of _magister_. The office of chancellor of the
kingdom of Italy was at this period regarded as an appanage of the
archbishopric of Cologne, and this was probably the reason why Anno had
a considerable share in settling the papal dispute in 1064. He declared
Alexander II. to be the rightful pope at a synod held at Mantua in May
1064, and took other steps to secure his recognition. Returning to
Germany, he found the chief power in the hands of Adalbert, and as he
was disliked by the young king, he left the court but returned and
regained some of his former influence when Adalbert fell from power in
1066. He succeeded in putting down a rising against his authority in
Cologne in 1074, and it was reported he had allied himself with William
the Conqueror, king of England, against the emperor. Having cleared
himself of this charge, Anno took no further part in public business,
and died at Cologne on the 4th of December 1075. He was buried in the
monastery of Siegburg and was canonized in 1183 by Pope Lucius III. He
was a founder of monasteries and a builder of churches, advocated
clerical celibacy and was a strict disciplinarian. He was a man of great
energy and ability, whose action in recognizing Alexander II. was of the
utmost consequence for Henry IV. and for Germany.

  There is a _Vita Annonis_, written about 1100, by a monk of Siegburg,
  but this is of slight value. It appears in the _Monumenta Germaniae
  historica: Scriptores_, Bd. xi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). There
  is an "Epistola ad monachos Malmundarienses" by Anno in the _Neues
  Archiv der Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde_, Bd. xiv.
  (Hanover, 1876 seq.). See also the _Annolied_, or _Incerti poetae
  Teutonici rhythmus de S. Annone_, written about 1180, and edited by J.
  Kehrein (Frankfort, 1865); Th. Lindner, _Anno II. der Heilige,
  Erzbischof von Koln_ (Leipzig, 1869).




ANNOBON, or ANNO BOM, an island in the Gulf of Guinea, in 1 deg. 24' S.
and 5 deg. 35' E., belonging to Spain. It is 110 m. S.W. of St Thomas.
Its length is about 4 m., its breadth 2, and its area 6-3/4 sq. m.
Rising in some parts nearly 3000 ft. above the sea, it presents a
succession of beautiful valleys and steep mountains, covered with rich
woods and luxuriant vegetation. The inhabitants, some 3000 in number,
are negroes and profess belief in the Roman Catholic faith. The chief
town and residence of the governor is called St Antony (San Antonio de
Praia). The roadstead is tolerably safe, and passing vessels take
advantage of it in order to obtain water and fresh provisions, of which
Annobon contains an abundant supply. The island was discovered by the
Portuguese on the 1st of January 1473, from which circumstance it
received its name (= New Year). Annobon, together with Fernando Po, was
ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in 1778. The islanders revolted against
their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading, it is averred,
to an arrangement by which the island was administered by a body of five
natives, each of whom held the office of governor during the period that
elapsed till ten ships touched at the island. In the latter part of the
19th century the authority of Spain was re-established.




ANNONA (from Lat. _annus_, year), in Roman mythology, the
personification of the produce of the year. She is represented in works
of art, often together with Ceres, with a _cornucopia_ (horn of plenty)
in her arm, and a ship's prow in the background, indicating the
transport of grain over the sea. She frequently occurs on coins of the
empire, standing between a _modius_ (corn-measure) and the prow of a
galley, with ears of corn in one hand and a _cornucopia_ in the other;
sometimes she holds a rudder or an anchor. The Latin word itself has
various meanings: (1) the produce of the year's harvest; (2) all means
of subsistence, especially grain stored in the public granaries for
provisioning the city; (3) the market-price of commodities, especially
corn; (4) a direct tax in kind, levied in republican times in several
provinces, chiefly employed in imperial times for distribution amongst
officials and the support of the soldiery.

In order to ensure a supply of corn sufficient to enable it to be sold
at a very low price, it was procured in large quantities from Umbria,
Etruria and Sicily. Almost down to the times of the empire, the care of
the corn-supply formed part of the aedile's duties, although in 440 B.C.
(if the statement in Livy iv. 12, 13 is correct, which is doubtful) the
senate appointed a special officer, called _praefectus annonae_, with
greatly extended powers. As a consequence of the second Punic War, Roman
agriculture was at a standstill; accordingly, recourse was had to Sicily
and Sardinia (the first two Roman provinces) in order to keep up the
supply of corn; a tax of one-tenth was imposed on it, and its export to
any country except Italy forbidden. The price at which the corn was sold
was always moderate; the corn law of Gracchus (123 B.C.) made it
absurdly low, and Clodius (58 B.C.) bestowed it gratuitously. The number
of the recipients of this free gift grew so enormously, that both Caesar
and Augustus were obliged to reduce it. From the time of Augustus to the
end of the empire the number of those who were entitled to receive a
monthly allowance of corn on presenting a ticket was 200,000. In the 3rd
century, bread formed the dole. A _praefectus annonae_ was appointed by
Augustus to superintend the corn-supply; he was assisted by a large
staff in Rome and the provinces, and had jurisdiction in all matters
connected with the corn-market. The office lasted till the latest times
of the empire.




ANNONAY, a town of south-eastern France, in the north of the department
of Ardeche, 50 m. S. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906)
15,403. Annonay is built on the hill overlooking the meeting of the deep
gorges of the Deome and the Cance, the waters of which supply power to
the factories of the town. By means of a dam across the Ternay, an
affluent of the Deome, to the north-west of the town, a reservoir is
provided, in which an additional supply of water, for both industrial
and domestic purposes, is stored. At Annonay there is an obelisk in
honour of the brothers Montgolfier, inventors of the balloon, who were
natives of the place. A tribunal of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of France, and chambers of
commerce and of arts and manufactures are among the public institutions.
Annonay is the principal industrial centre of its department, the chief
manufactures being those of leather, especially for gloves, paper, silk
and silk goods, and flour. Chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes,
chocolate and candles are also produced.




ANNOY (like the French _ennui_, a word traced by etymologists to a Lat.
phrase, _in odio esse_, to be "in hatred" or hateful of someone), to vex
or affect with irritation. In the sense of "nuisance," the noun
"annoyance," apart from its obvious meaning, is found in the English
"Jury of Annoyance" appointed by an act of 1754 to report upon
obstructions in the highways.




ANNUITY (from Lat. _annus_, a year), a periodical payment, made
annually, or at more frequent intervals, either for a fixed term of
years, or during the continuance of a given life, or a combination of
lives. In technical language an annuity is said to be payable for an
assigned _status_, this being a general word chosen in preference to
such words as "time," "term" or "period," because it may include more
readily either a term of years certain, or a life or combination of
lives. The magnitude of the annuity is the sum to be paid (and received)
in the course of each year. Thus, if L100 is to be received each year by
a person, he is said to have "an annuity of L100." If the payments are
made half-yearly, it is sometimes said that he has "a half-yearly
annuity of L100"; but to avoid ambiguity, it is more commonly said he
has an annuity of L100, payable by half-yearly instalments. The former
expression, if clearly understood, is preferable on account of its
brevity. So we may have quarterly, monthly, weekly, daily annuities,
when the annuity is payable by quarterly, monthly, weekly or daily
instalments. An annuity is considered as accruing during each instant of
the status for which it is enjoyed, although it is only payable at fixed
intervals. If the enjoyment of an annuity is postponed until after the
lapse of a certain number of years, the annuity is said to be deferred.
If an annuity, instead of being payable at the end of each year,
half-year, &c., is payable in advance, it is called an annuity-due.

If an annuity is payable for a term of years independent of any
contingency, it is called an _annuity certain_; if it is to continue for
ever, it is called a _perpetuity_; and if in the latter case it is not
to commence until after a term of years, it is called a _deferred
perpetuity_. An annuity depending on the continuance of an assigned life
or lives, is sometimes called a life annuity; but more commonly the
simple term "annuity" is understood to mean a life annuity, unless the
contrary is stated. A life annuity, to cease in any event after a
certain term of years, is called a _temporary annuity_. The holder of an
annuity is called an annuitant, and the person on whose life the annuity
depends is called the nominee.

If not otherwise stated, it is always understood that an annuity is
payable yearly, and that the annual payment (or rent, as it is sometimes
called) is L1. It is, however, customary to consider the annual payment
to be, not L1, but simply 1, the reader supplying whatever monetary unit
he pleases, whether pound, dollar, franc, Thaler, &c.

The annuity is the totality of the payments to be made (and received),
and is so understood by all writers on the subject; but some have also
used the word to denote an individual payment (or rent), speaking, for
instance, of the first or second year's annuity,--a practice which is
calculated to introduce confusion and should therefore be carefully
avoided.

Instances of perpetuities are the dividends upon the public stocks in
England, France and some other countries. Thus, although it is usual to
speak of L100 consols, the reality is the yearly dividend which the
government pays by quarterly instalments. The practice of the French in
this, as in many other matters, is more logical. In speaking of their
public funds (_rentes_) they do not mention the ideal capital sum, but
speak of the annuity or annual payment that is received by the public
creditor. Other instances of perpetuities are the incomes derived from
the debenture stocks of railway companies, also the feu-duties commonly
payable on house property in Scotland. The number of years' purchase
which the perpetual annuities granted by a government or a railway
company realize in the open market, forms a very simple test of the
credit of the various governments or railways.

_Terminable Annuities_ are employed in the system of British public
finance as a means of reducing the National Debt (q.v.). This result is
attained by substituting for a perpetual annual charge (or one lasting
until the capital which it represents can be paid off _en bloc_), an
annual charge of a larger amount, but lasting for a short term. The
latter is so calculated as to pay off, during its existence, the capital
which it replaces, with interest at an assumed or agreed rate, and under
specified conditions. The practical effect of the substitution of a
terminable annuity for an obligation of longer currency is to bind the
present generation of citizens to increase its own obligations in the
present and near future in order to diminish those of its successors.
This end might be attained in other ways; for instance, by setting aside
out of revenue a fixed annual sum for the purchase and cancellation of
debt (Pitt's method, in intention), or by fixing the annual debt charge
at a figure sufficient to provide a margin for reduction of the
principal of the debt beyond the amount required for interest (Sir
Stafford Northcote's method), or by providing an annual surplus of
revenue over expenditure (the "Old Sinking Fund"), available for the
same purpose. All these methods have been tried in the course of British
financial history, and the second and third of them are still employed;
but on the whole the method of terminable annuities has been the one
preferred by chancellors of the exchequer and by parliament.

Terminable annuities, as employed by the British government, fall under
two heads:--(a) Those issued to, or held by private persons; (b) those
held by government departments or by funds under government control. The
important difference between these two classes is that an annuity under
(a), once created, cannot be modified except with the holder's consent,
i.e. is practically unalterable without a breach of public faith;
whereas an annuity under (b) can, if necessary, be altered by
interdepartmental arrangement under the authority of parliament. Thus
annuities of class (a) fulfil most perfectly the object of the system as
explained above; while those of class (b) have the advantage that in
times of emergency their operation can be suspended without any
inconvenience or breach of faith, with the result that the resources of
government can on such occasions be materially increased, apart from any
additional taxation. For this purpose it is only necessary to retain as
a charge on the income of the year a sum equal to the (smaller)
perpetual charge which was originally replaced by the (larger)
terminable charge, whereupon the difference between the two amounts is
temporarily released, while ultimately the increased charge is extended
for a period equal to that for which it is suspended. Annuities of class
(a) were first instituted in 1808, but are at present mainly regulated
by an act of 1829. They may be granted either for a specified life, or
two lives, or for an arbitrary term of years; and the consideration for
them may take the form either of cash or of government stock, the latter
being cancelled when the annuity is set up. Annuities (b) held by
government departments date from 1863. They have been created in
exchange for permanent debt surrendered for cancellation, the principal
operations having been effected in 1863, 1867, 1870, 1874, 1883 and
1899. Annuities of this class do not affect the public at all, except of
course in their effect on the market for government securities. They are
merely financial operations between the government, in its capacity as
the banker of savings banks and other funds, and itself, in the capacity
of custodian of the national finances. Savings bank depositors are not
concerned with the manner in which government invests their money, their
rights being confined to the receipt of interest and the repayment of
deposits upon specified conditions. The case is, however, different as
regards forty millions of consols (included in the above figures),
belonging to suitors in chancery, which were cancelled and replaced by a
terminable annuity in 1883. As the liability to the suitors in that case
was for a specified amount of stock, special arrangements were made to
ensure the ultimate replacement of the precise amount of stock
cancelled.

_Annuity Calculations._--The mathematical theory of life annuities is
based upon a knowledge of the rate of mortality among mankind in
general, or among the particular class of persons on whose lives the
annuities depend. It involves a mathematical treatment too complicated
to be dealt with fully in this place, and in practice it has been
reduced to the form of tables, which vary in different places, but which
are easily accessible. The history of the subject may, however, be
sketched. Abraham Demoivre, in his _Annuities on Lives_, propounded a
very simple law of mortality which is to the effect that, out of 86
children born alive, 1 will die every year until the last dies between
the ages of 85 and 86. This law agreed sufficiently well at the middle
ages of life with the mortality deduced from the best observations of
his time; but, as observations became more exact, the approximation was
found to be not sufficiently close. This was particularly the case when
it was desired to obtain the value of joint life, contingent or other
complicated benefits. Therefore Demoivre's law is entirely devoid of
practical utility. No simple formula has yet been discovered that will
represent the rate of mortality with sufficient accuracy.

The rate of mortality at each age is, therefore, in practice usually
determined by a series of figures deduced from observation; and the
value of an annuity at any age is found from these numbers by means of a
series of arithmetical calculations. The mortality table here given is
an example of modern use.

The first writer who is known to have attempted to obtain, on correct
mathematical principles, the value of a life annuity, was Jan De Witt,
grand pensionary of Holland and West Friesland. Our knowledge of his
writings on the subject is derived from two papers contributed by
Frederick Hendriks to the _Assurance Magazine_, vol. ii. p. 222, and
vol. in. p. 93. The former of these contains a translation of De Witt's
report upon the value of life annuities, which was prepared in
consequence of the resolution passed by the states-general, on the 25th
of April 1671, to negotiate funds by life annuities, and which was
distributed to the members on the 30th of July 1671. The latter contains
the translation of a number of letters addressed by De Witt to
Burgomaster Johan Hudde, bearing dates from September 1670 to October
1671. The existence of De Witt's report was well known among his
contemporaries, and Hendriks collected a number of extracts from various
authors referring to it; but the report is not contained in any
collection of his works extant, and had been entirely lost for 180
years, until Hendriks discovered it among the state archives of Holland
in company with the letters to Hudde. It is a document of extreme
interest, and (notwithstanding some inaccuracies in the reasoning) of
very great merit, more especially considering that it was the very first
document on the subject that was ever written.


TABLE OF MORTALITY--HM, HEALTHY LIVES--MALE.

_Number Living and Dying at each Age, out of 10,000 entering at Age 10._

  +------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+
  | Age. | Living. | Dying. | Age. | Living. | Dying. |
  +------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+
  |  10  | 10,000  |   79   |  54  |   6791  |   129  |
  |  11  |  9,921  |    0   |  55  |   6662  |   153  |
  |  12  |  9,921  |   40   |  56  |   6509  |   150  |
  |  13  |  9,881  |   35   |  57  |   6359  |   152  |
  |  14  |  9,846  |   40   |  58  |   6207  |   156  |
  |  15  |  9,806  |   22   |  59  |   6051  |   153  |
  |  16  |  9,784  |    0   |  60  |   5898  |   184  |
  |  17  |  9,784  |   41   |  61  |   5714  |   186  |
  |  18  |  9,743  |   59   |  62  |   5528  |   191  |
  |  19  |  9,684  |   68   |  63  |   5337  |   200  |
  |  20  |  9,616  |   56   |  64  |   5137  |   206  |
  |  21  |  9,560  |   67   |  65  |   4931  |   215  |
  |  22  |  9,493  |   59   |  66  |   4716  |   220  |
  |  23  |  9,434  |   73   |  67  |   4496  |   220  |
  |  24  |  9,361  |   64   |  68  |   4276  |   237  |
  |  25  |  9,297  |   48   |  69  |   4039  |   246  |
  |  26  |  9,249  |   64   |  70  |   3793  |   213  |
  |  27  |  9,185  |   60   |  71  |   3580  |   222  |
  |  28  |  9,125  |   71   |  72  |   3358  |   268  |
  |  29  |  9,054  |   67   |  73  |   3090  |   243  |
  |  30  |  8,987  |   74   |  74  |   2847  |   300  |
  |  31  |  8,913  |   65   |  75  |   2547  |   241  |
  |  32  |  8,848  |   74   |  76  |   2306  |   245  |
  |  33  |  8,774  |   73   |  77  |   2061  |   224  |
  |  34  |  8,701  |   76   |  78  |   1837  |   226  |
  |  35  |  8,625  |   71   |  79  |   1611  |   219  |
  |  36  |  8,554  |   75   |  80  |   1392  |   196  |
  |  37  |  8,479  |   81   |  81  |   1196  |   191  |
  |  38  |  8,398  |   87   |  82  |   1005  |   173  |
  |  39  |  8,311  |   88   |  83  |    832  |   172  |
  |  40  |  8,223  |   81   |  84  |    660  |   119  |
  |  41  |  8,142  |   85   |  85  |    541  |   117  |
  |  42  |  8,057  |   87   |  86  |    424  |    92  |
  |  43  |  7,970  |   84   |  87  |    332  |    72  |
  |  44  |  7,886  |   93   |  88  |    260  |    74  |
  |  45  |  7,793  |   97   |  89  |    186  |    36  |
  |  46  |  7,696  |   96   |  90  |    150  |    34  |
  |  47  |  7,600  |  107   |  91  |    116  |    36  |
  |  48  |  7,493  |  106   |  92  |     80  |    36  |
  |  49  |  7,387  |  113   |  93  |     44  |    29  |
  |  50  |  7,274  |  120   |  94  |     15  |     0  |
  |  51  |  7,154  |  124   |  95  |     15  |     5  |
  |  52  |  7,030  |  120   |  96  |     10  |    10  |
  |  53  |  6,910  |  119   |      |         |        |
  +------+---------+--------+------+---------+--------+

It appears that it had long been the practice in Holland for life
annuities to be granted to nominees of any age, in the constant
proportion of double the rate of interest allowed on stock; that is to
say, if the towns were borrowing money at 6%, they would be willing to
grant a life annuity at 12%, and so on. De Witt states that "annuities
have been sold, even in the present century, first at six years'
purchase, then at seven and eight; and that the majority of all life
annuities now current at the country's expense were obtained at nine
years' purchase"; but that the price had been increased in the course of
a few years from eleven years' purchase to twelve, and from twelve to
fourteen. He also states that the rate of interest had been
successively reduced from 6-1/4 to 5%, and then to 4%. The principal
object of his report is to prove that, taking interest at 4%, a life
annuity was worth at least sixteen years' purchase; and, in fact, that
an annuitant purchasing an annuity for the life of a young and healthy
nominee at sixteen years' purchase, made an excellent bargain. It may be
mentioned that he argues that it is more to the advantage, both of the
country and of the private investor, that the public loans should be
raised by way of grant of life annuities rather than perpetual
annuities. It appears conclusively from De Witt's correspondence with
Hudde, that the rate of mortality assumed as the basis of his
calculations was deduced from careful examination of the mortality that
had actually prevailed among the nominees on whose lives annuities had
been granted in former years. De Witt appears to have come to the
conclusion that the probability of death is the same in any half-year
from the age of 3 to 53 inclusive; that in the next ten years, from 53
to 63, the probability is greater in the ratio of 3 to 2; that in the
next ten years, from 63 to 73, it is greater in the ratio of 2 to 1; and
in the next seven years, from 73 to 80, it is greater in the ratio of 3
to 1; and he places the limit of human life at 80. If a mortality table
of the usual form is deduced from these suppositions, out of 212 persons
alive at the age of 3, 2 will die every year up to 53, 3 in each of the
ten years from 53 to 63, 4 in each of the next ten years from 63 to 73,
and 6 in each of the next seven years from 73 to 80, when all will be
dead.

De Witt calculates the value of an annuity in the following way. Assume
that annuities on 10,000 lives each ten years of age, which satisfy the
Hm mortality table, have been purchased. Of these nominees 79 will die
before attaining the age of 11, and no annuity payment will be made in
respect of them; none will die between the ages of 11 and 12, so that
annuities will be paid for one year on 9921 lives; 40 attain the age of
12 and die before 13, so that two payments will be made with respect to
these lives. Reasoning in this way we see that the annuities on 35 of
the nominees will be payable for three years; on 40 for four years, and
so on. Proceeding thus to the end of the table, 15 nominees attain the
age of 95, 5 of whom die before the age of 96, so that 85 payments will
be paid in respect of these 5 lives. Of the survivors all die before
attaining the age of 97, so that the annuities on these lives will be
payable for 86 years. Having previously calculated a table of the values
of annuities certain for every number of years up to 86, the value of
all the annuities on the 10,000 nominees will be found by taking 40
times the value of an annuity for 2 years, 35 times the value of an
annuity for 3 years, and so on--the last term being the value of 10
annuities for 86 years--and adding them together; and the value of an
annuity on one of the nominees will then be found by dividing by 10,000.
Before leaving the subject of De Witt, we may mention that we find in
the correspondence a distinct suggestion of the law of mortality that
bears the name of Demoivre. In De Witt's letter, dated the 27th of
October 1671 (_Ass. Mag_. vol. iii. p. 107), he speaks of a "provisional
hypothesis" suggested by Hudde, that out of 80 young lives (who, from
the context, may be taken as of the age 6) about 1 dies annually. In
strictness, therefore, the law in question might be more correctly
termed Hudde's than Demoivre's.

De Witt's report being thus of the nature of an unpublished state paper,
although it contributed to its author's reputation, did not contribute
to advance the exact knowledge of the subject; and the author to whom
the credit must be given of first showing how to calculate the value of
an annuity on correct principles is Edmund Halley. He gave the first
approximately correct mortality table (deduced from the records of the
numbers of deaths and baptisms in the city of Breslau), and showed how
it might be employed to calculate the value of an annuity on the life of
a nominee of any age (see _Phil. Trans_. 1693; _Ass. Mag_. vol. xviii.).

Previously to Halley's time, and apparently for many years subsequently,
all dealings with life annuities were based upon mere conjectural
estimates. The earliest known reference to any estimate of the value of
life annuities rose out of the requirements of the Falcidian law, which
(40 B.C.) was adopted in the Roman empire, and which declared that a
testator should not give more than three-fourths of his property in
legacies, so that at least one-fourth must go to his legal
representatives. It is easy to see how it would occasionally become
necessary, while this law was in force, to value life annuities charged
upon a testator's estate. Aemilius Macer (A.D. 230) states that the
method which had been in common use at that time was as follows:--From
the earliest age until 30 take 30 years' purchase, and for each age
after 30 deduct 1 year. It is obvious that no consideration of compound
interest can have entered into this estimate; and it is easy to see that
it is equivalent to assuming that all persons who attain the age of 30
will certainly live to the age of 60, and then certainly die. Compared
with this estimate, that which was propounded by the praetorian prefect
Ulpian was a great improvement. His table is as follows:--

  +-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+
  |     Age.    |   Years'  |    Age.    |  Years'   |
  |             | Purchase. |            | Purchase  |
  +-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+
  | Birth to 20 |    30     |  45 to 46  |     14    |
  |     20 " 25 |    28     |  46  " 47  |     13    |
  |     25 " 30 |    25     |  47  " 48  |     12    |
  |     30 " 35 |    22     |  48  " 49  |     11    |
  |     35 " 40 |    20     |  49  " 50  |     10    |
  |     40 " 41 |    19     |  50  " 55  |      9    |
  |     41 " 42 |    18     |  55  " 60  |      7    |
  |     42 " 43 |    17     |    60 and  |           |
  |     43 " 44 |    16     |    upwards |      5    |
  |     44 " 45 |    15     |            |           |
  +-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+

Here also we have no reason to suppose that the element of interest was
taken into consideration; and the assumption, that between the ages of
40 and 50 each addition of a year to the nominee's age diminishes the
value of the annuity by one year's purchase, is equivalent to assuming
that there is no probability of the nominee dying between the ages of 40
and 50. Considered, however, simply as a table of the average duration
of life, the values are fairly accurate. At all events, no more correct
estimate appears to have been arrived at until the close of the 17th
century.

  The mathematics of annuities has been very fully treated in Demoivre's
  _Treatise on Annuities_ (1725); Simpson's _Doctrine of Annuities and
  Reversions_ (1742); P. Gray, _Tables and Formulae_; Baily's _Doctrine
  of Life Annuities_; there are also innumerable compilations of
  _Valuation Tables_ and _Interest Tables_, by means of which the value
  of an annuity at any age and any rate of interest may be found. See
  also the article INTEREST, and especially that on INSURANCE.

_Commutation tables_, aptly so named in 1840 by Augustus De Morgan (see
his paper "On the Calculation of Single Life Contingencies," _Assurance
Magazine_, xii. 328), show the proportion in which a benefit due at one
age ought to be changed, so as to retain the same value and be due at
another age. The earliest known specimen of a commutation table is
contained in William Dale's _Introduction to the Study of the Doctrine
of Annuities_, published in 1772. A full account of this work is given
by F. Hendriks in the second number of the _Assurance Magazine_, pp.
15-17. William Morgan's _Treatise on Assurances_, 1779, also contains a
commutation table. Morgan gives the table as furnishing a convenient
means of checking the correctness of the values of annuities found by
the ordinary process. It may be assumed that he was aware that the table
might be used for the direct calculation of annuities; but he appears to
have been ignorant of its other uses.

The first author who fully developed the powers of the table was John
Nicholas Tetens, a native of Schleswig, who in 1785, while professor of
philosophy and mathematics at Kiel, published in the German language an
_Introduction to the Calculation of Life Annuities and Assurances_. This
work appears to have been quite unknown in England until F. Hendriks
gave, in the first number of the _Assurance Magazine_, pp. 1-20 (Sept.
1850), an account of it, with a translation of the passages describing
the construction and use of the commutation table, and a sketch of the
author's life and writings, to which we refer the reader who desires
fuller information. It may be mentioned here that Tetens also gave only
a specimen table, apparently not imagining that persons using his work
would find it extremely useful to have a series of commutation tables,
calculated and printed ready for use.

The use of the commutation table was independently developed in
England-apparently between the years 1788 and 1811--by George Barrett,
of Petworth, Sussex, who was the son of a yeoman farmer, and was himself
a village schoolmaster, and afterwards farm steward or bailiff. It has
been usual to consider Barrett as the originator in England of the
method of calculating the values of annuities by means of a commutation
table, and this method is accordingly sometimes called Barrett's method.
(It is also called the commutation method and the columnar method.)
Barrett's method of calculating annuities was explained by him to
Francis Baily in the year 1811, and was first made known to the world in
a paper written by the latter and read before the Royal Society in 1812.

By what has been universally considered an unfortunate error of
judgment, this paper was not recommended by the council of the Royal
Society to be printed, but it was given by Baily as an appendix to the
second issue (in 1813) of his work on life annuities and assurances.
Barrett had calculated extensive tables, and with Baily's aid attempted
to get them published by subscription, but without success; and the only
printed tables calculated according to his manner, besides the specimen
tables given by Baily, are the tables contained in Babbage's
_Comparative View of the various Institutions for the Assurance of
Lives_, 1826.

In the year 1825 Griffith Davies published his _Tables of Life
Contingencies_, a work which contains, among others, two tables, which
are confessedly derived from Baily's explanation of Barrett's tables.

  Those who desire to pursue the subject further can refer to the
  appendix to Baily's _Life Annuities and Assurances_, De Morgan's paper
  "On the Calculation of Single Life Contingencies," _Assurance
  Magazine_, xii. 348-349; Gray's _Tables and Formulae_ chap. viii.; the
  preface to Davies's _Treatise on Annuities_; also Hendriks's papers in
  the _Assurance Magazine_, No. 1, p. 1, and No. 2, p. 12; and in
  particular De Morgan's "Account of a Correspondence between Mr George
  Barrett and Mr Francis Baily," in the _Assurance Magazine_, vol. iv.
  p. 185.

  The principal commutation tables published in England are contained in
  the following works:--David Jones, _Value of Annuities and
  Reversionary Payments_, issued in parts by the Useful Knowledge
  Society, completed in 1843; Jenkin Jones, _New Rate of Mortality_,
  1843; G. Davies, _Treatise on Annuities_, 1825 (issued 1855); David
  Chisholm, _Commutation Tables_, 1858; Nelson's _Contributions to Vital
  Statistics_, 1857; Jardine Henry, _Government Life Annuity Commutation
  Tables_, 1866 and 1873; _Institute of Actuaries Life Tables_, 1872;
  R.P. Hardy, _Valuation Tables_, 1873; and Dr William Farr's
  contributions to the sixth (1844), twelfth (1849), and twentieth
  (1857) _Reports_ of the Registrar General in England (English Tables,
  I. 2), and to the _English Life Table_, 1864.

  The theory of annuities may be further studied in the discussions in
  the English _Journal of the Institute of Actuaries_. The institute was
  founded in the year 1848, the first sessional meeting being held in
  January 1849. Its establishment has contributed in various ways to
  promote the study of the theory of life contingencies. Among these may
  be specified the following:--Before it was formed, students of the
  subject worked for the most part alone, and without any concert; and
  when any person had made an improvement in the theory, it had little
  chance of becoming publicly known unless he wrote a formal treatise on
  the whole subject. But the formation of the institute led to much
  greater interchange of opinion among actuaries, and afforded them a
  ready means of making known to their professional associates any
  improvements, real or supposed, that they thought they had made.
  Again, the discussions which follow the reading of papers before the
  institute have often served, first, to bring out into bold relief
  differences of opinion that were previously unsuspected, and
  afterwards to soften down those differences,--to correct extreme
  opinions in every direction, and to bring about a greater agreement of
  opinion on many important subjects. In no way, probably, have the
  objects of the institute been so effectually advanced as by the
  publication of its _Journal_. The first number of this work, which was
  originally called the _Assurance Magazine_, appeared in September
  1850, and it has been continued quarterly down to the present time. It
  was originated by the public spirit of two well-known actuaries (Mr
  Charles Jellicoe and Mr Samuel Brown), and was adopted as the organ of
  the Institute of Actuaries in the year 1852, and called the _Assurance
  Magazine and Journal of the Institute of Actuaries_, Mr Jellicoe
  continuing to be the editor,--a post he held until the year 1867, when
  he was succeeded by Mr T.B. Sprague (who contributed to the 9th
  edition of this Encyclopaedia an elaborate article on "Annuities," on
  which the above account is based). The name was again changed in 1866,
  the words "Assurance Magazine" being dropped; but in the following
  year it was considered desirable to resume these, for the purpose of
  showing the continuity of the publication, and it is now called the
  _Journal of the Institute of Actuaries and Assurance Magazine_. This
  work contains not only the papers read before the institute (to which
  have been appended of late years short abstracts of the discussions on
  them), and many original papers which were unsuitable for reading,
  together with correspondence, but also reprints of many papers
  published elsewhere, which from various causes had become difficult of
  access to the ordinary reader, among which may be specified various
  papers which originally appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_,
  the _Philosophical Magazine_, the _Mechanics' Magazine_, and the
  _Companion to the Almanac_; also translations of various papers from
  the French, German, and Danish. Among the useful objects which the
  continuous publication of the _Journal_ of the institute has served,
  we may specify in particular two:--that any supposed improvement in
  the theory was effectually submitted to the criticisms of the whole
  actuarial profession, and its real value speedily discovered; and that
  any real improvement, whether great or small, being placed on record,
  successive writers have been able, one after the other, to take it up
  and develop it, each commencing where the previous one had left off.




ANNULAR, ANNULATE, &c. (Lat. _annulus_, a ring), ringed. "Annulate" is
used in botany and zoology in connexion with certain plants, worms, &c.
(see ANNELIDA), either marked with rings or composed of ring-like
segments. The word "annulated" is also used in, heraldry and
architecture. An annulated cross is one with the points ending in an
"annulet" (an heraldic ring, supposed to be taken from a coat of mail),
while the annulet in architecture is a small fillet round a column,
which encircles the lower part of the Doric capital immediately above
the neck or trachelium. The word "annulus" (for "ring") is itself used
technically in geometry, astronomy, &c., and the adjective "annular"
corresponds. An _annular space_ is that between an inner and outer ring.
The _annular finger_ is the ring finger. An _annular eclipse_ is an
eclipse of the sun in which the visible part of the latter completely
encircles the dark body of the moon; for this to happen, the centres of
the sun and moon, and the point on the earth where the observer is
situated, must be collinear. Certain nebulae having the form of a ring
are also called "annular."




ANNUNCIATION, the announcement made by the angel Gabriel to the Virgin
Mary of the incarnation of Christ (Luke i, 26-38). The Feast of the
Annunciation in the Christian Church is celebrated on the 25th of March.
The first authentic allusions to it are in a canon, of the council of
Toledo (656), and another of the council of Constantinople "in Trullo"
(692), forbidding the celebration of all festivals in Lent, excepting
the Lord's day and the Feast of the Annunciation. An earlier origin has
been claimed for it on the ground that it is mentioned in sermons of
Athanasius and of Gregory Thaumaturgus, but both of these documents are
now admitted to be spurious. A synod held at Worcester, England (1240),
forbade all servile work on this feast day. See further LADY DAY.




ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D' (1863-   ), Italian novelist and poet, of
Dalmatian extraction, was born at Pescara (Abruzzi) in 1863. The first
years of his youth were spent in the freedom of the open fields; at
sixteen he was sent to school in Tuscany. While still at school he
published a small volume of verses called _Primo Vere_ (1879), in which,
side by side with some almost brutal imitations of Lorenzo Stecchetti,
the then fashionable poet of _Postuma_, were some translations from the
Latin, distinguished by such agile grace that Giuseppe Chiarini on
reading them brought the unknown youth before the public in an
enthusiastic article. The young poet then went to Rome, where he was
received as one of their own by the _Cronaca Bizantina_ group (see
CARDUCCI). Here he published _Canto Nuovo_ (1882), _Terra Vergine_
(1882), _L' Intermezzo di Rime_ (1883), _Il Libro delle Vergini_ (1884),
and the greater part of the short stories that were afterwards collected
under the general title of _San Pantaleone_ (1886). In _Canto Nuovo_ we
have admirable poems full of pulsating youth and the promise of power,
some descriptive of the sea and some of the Abruzzi landscape,
commented on and completed in prose by _Terra Vergine_, the latter a
collection of short stories dealing in radiant language with the peasant
life of the author's native province. With the _Intermezzo di Rime_ we
have the beginning of d'Annunzio's second and characteristic manner. His
conception of style was new, and he chose to express all the most subtle
vibrations of voluptuous life. Both style and contents began to startle
his critics; some who had greeted him as an _enfant prodige_--Chiarini
amongst others--rejected him as a perverter of public morals, whilst
others hailed him as one bringing a current of fresh air and the impulse
of a new vitality into the somewhat prim, lifeless work hitherto
produced.

Meanwhile the Review of Angelo Sommaruga perished in the midst of
scandal, and his group of young authors found itself dispersed. Some
entered the teaching career and were lost to literature, others threw
themselves into journalism. Gabriele d'Annunzio took this latter course,
and joined the staff of the _Tribuna_. For this paper, under the
pseudonym of "Duca Minimo," he did some of his most brilliant work, and
the articles he wrote during that period of originality and exuberance
would well repay being collected. To this period of greater maturity and
deeper culture belongs _Il Libro d' Isotta_ (1886), a love poem, in
which for the first time he drew inspiration adapted to modern
sentiments and passions from the rich colours of the Renaissance. _Il
Libro d' Isotta_ is interesting also, because in it we find most of the
germs of his future work, just as in _Intermezzo melico_ and in certain
ballads and sonnets we find descriptions and emotions which later went
to form the aesthetic contents of _Il Piacere_, _Il Trionfo della
Morte_, and _Elegie Romane_ (1892).

D' Annunzio's first novel _Il Piacere_ (1889)--translated into English
as _The Child of Pleasure_--was followed in 1891 by _L' Innocente_ (_The
Intruder_), and in 1892 by _Giovanni Episcopo_. These three novels
created a profound impression. _L' Innocente_, admirably translated into
French by Georges Herelle, brought its author the notice and applause of
foreign critics. His next work, _Il Trionfo della Morte_ (_The Triumph
of Death_) (1894), was followed at a short distance by _La Vergini della
Roccio_ (1896) and _Il Fuoco_ (1900), which in its descriptions of
Venice is perhaps the most ardent glorification of a city existing in
any language.

D' Annunzio's poetic work of this period, in most respects his finest,
is represented by _Il Poema Paradisiaco_ (1893), the _Odi Navali_
(1893), a superb attempt at civic poetry, and _Laudi_ (1900).

A later phase of d' Annunzio's work is his dramatic production,
represented by _Il Sogno di un mattino di primavera_ (1897), a lyrical
fantasia in one act; his _Cilia Morta_ (1898), written for Sarah
Bernhardt, which is certainly among the most daring and original of
modern tragedies, and the only one which by its unity, persistent
purpose, and sense of fate seems to continue in a measure the traditions
of the Greek theatre. In 1898 he wrote his _Sogno di un Pomeriggio d'
Autunno_ and _La Gioconda_; in the succeeding year _La Gloria_, an
attempt at contemporary political tragedy which met with no success,
probably through the audacity of the personal and political allusions in
some of its scenes; and then _Francesca da Rimini_ (1901), a perfect
reconstruction of medieval atmosphere and emotion, magnificent in style,
and declared by one of the most authoritative Italian critics--Edoardo
Boutet--to be the first real although not perfect tragedy which has ever
been given to the Italian theatre.

The work of d' Annunzio, although by many of the younger generation
injudiciously and extravagantly admired, is almost the most important
literary work given to Italy since the days when the great classics
welded her varying dialects into a fixed language. The psychological
inspiration of his novels has come to him from many sources--French,
Russian, Scandinavian, German--and in much of his earlier work there is
little fundamental originality. His creative power is intense and
searching, but narrow and personal; his heroes and heroines are little
more than one same type monotonously facing a different problem at a
different phase of life. But the faultlessness of his style and the
wealth of his language have been approached by none of his
contemporaries, whom his genius has somewhat paralysed. In his later
work, when he begins drawing his inspiration from the traditions of
bygone Italy in her glorious centuries, a current of real life seems to
run through the veins of his personages. And the lasting merit of
d'Annunzio, his real value to the literature of his country, consists
precisely in that he opened up the closed mine of its former life as a
source of inspiration for the present and of hope for the future, and
created a language, neither pompous nor vulgar, drawn from every source
and district suited to the requirements of modern thought, yet
absolutely classical, borrowed from none, and, independently of the
thought it may be used to express, a thing of intrinsic beauty. As his
sight became clearer and his purpose strengthened, as exaggerations,
affectations, and moods dropped away from his conceptions, his work
became more and more typical Latin work, upheld by the ideal of an
Italian Renaissance.




ANOA, the native name of the small wild buffalo of Celebes, _Bos_
(_Bubalus_) _depressicornis_, which stands but little over a yard at the
shoulder, and is the most diminutive of all wild cattle. It is nearly
allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the
direction of the hair on the back. The horns are peculiar for their
upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the
same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes
present below the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and
back; and the absence or presence of these white markings may be
indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The
nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct buffaloes, of
which the remains are found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. In
habits the animal appears to resemble the Indian buffalo.




ANODYNE (from Gr. [Greek: an-], privative, and [Greek: odune], pain), a
cause which relieves pain. The term is commonly applied to medicines
which lessen the sensibility of the brain or nervous system, such as
morphia, &c.




ANOINTING, or greasing with oil, fat, or melted butter, a process
employed ritually in all religions and among all races, civilized or
savage, partly as a mode of ridding persons and things of dangerous
influences and diseases, especially of the demons (Persian _drug_, Greek
[Greek: keres], Armenian _dev_) which are or cause those diseases; and
partly as a means of introducing into things and persons a sacramental
or divine influence, a holy emanation, spirit or power. The riddance of
an evil influence is often synonymous with the introduction of the good
principle, and therefore it is best to consider first the use of
anointing in consecrations.

The Australian natives believed that the virtues of one killed could be
transferred to survivors if the latter rubbed themselves with his
caul-fat. So the Arabs of East Africa anoint themselves with lion's fat
in order to gain courage and inspire the animals with awe of themselves.
Such rites are often associated with the actual eating of the victim
whose virtues are coveted. Human fat is a powerful charm all over the
world; for, as R. Smith points out, after the blood the fat was
peculiarly the vehicle and seat of life. This is why fat of a victim was
smeared on a sacred stone, not only in acts of homage paid to it, but in
the actual consecration thereof. In such cases the influence of the god,
communicated to the victim, passed with the unguent into the stone. But
the divinity could by anointing be transferred into men no less than
into stones; and from immemorial antiquity, among the Jews as among
other races, kings were anointed or greased, doubtless with the fat of
the victims which, like the blood, was too holy to be eaten by the
common votaries.

Butter made from the milk of the cow, the most sacred of animals, is
used for anointing in the Hindu religion. A newly-built house is smeared
with it, so are demoniacs, care being taken to smear the latter
downwards from head to foot.

In the Christian religion, especially where animal sacrifices, together
with the cult of totem or holy animals, have been given up, it is usual
to hallow the oil used in ritual anointings with special prayers and
exorcisms; oil from the lamps lit before the altar has a peculiar virtue
of its own, perhaps because it can be burned to give light, and
disappears to heaven in doing so. In any case oil has ever been regarded
as the aptest symbol and vehicle of the holy and illuminating spirit.
For this reason the catechumens are anointed with holy oil both before
and after baptism; the one act (of eastern origin) assists the expulsion
of the evil spirits, the other (of western origin), taken in conjunction
with imposition of hands, conveys the spirit and retains it in the
person of the baptized. In the postbaptismal anointing the oil was
applied to the organs of sense, to the head, heart, and midriff. Such
ritual use of oil as a [Greek: sfragis] or seal may have been suggested
in old religions by the practice of keeping wine fresh in jars and
amphorae by pouring on a top layer of oil; for the spoiling of wine was
attributed to the action of demons of corruption, against whom many
ancient formulae of aversion or exorcism still exist.

The holy oil, chrism, or [Greek: muron], as the Easterns call it, was
prepared and consecrated on Maundy Thursday, and in the Gelasian
sacramentary the formula used runs thus: "Send forth, O Lord, we beseech
thee, thy Holy Spirit the Paraclete from heaven into this fatness of
oil, which thou hast deigned to bring forth out of the green wood for
the refreshing of mind and body; and through thy holy benediction may it
be for all who anoint with it, taste it, touch it, a safeguard of mind
and body, of soul and spirit, for the expulsion of all pains, of every
infirmity, of every sickness of mind and body. For with the same thou
hast anointed priests, kings, and prophets and martyrs with this thy
chrism, perfected by thee, O Lord, blessed, abiding within our bowels in
the name of our Lord Jesus Christ."

In various churches the dead are anointed with holy oil, to guard them
against the vampires or ghouls which ever threaten to take possession of
dead bodies and live in them. In the Armenian church, as formerly in
many Greek churches, a cross is not holy until the Spirit has been
formally led into it by means of prayer and anointing with holy oil. A
new church is anointed at its four corners, and also the altar round
which it is built; similarly tombs, church gongs, and all other
instruments and utensils dedicated to cultual uses. In churches of the
Greek rite a little of the old year's chrism is left in the jar to
communicate its sanctity to that of the new.     (F. C. C.)




ANOMALY (from Gr. [Greek: anomalia], unevenness, derived from [Greek:
an-], privative, and [Greek: homalos], even), a deviation from the
common rule. In astronomy the word denotes the angular distance of a
body from the pericentre of the orbit in which it is moving. Let AB be
the major axis of the orbit, B the pericentre, F the focus or centre of
motion, P the position of the body. The anomaly is then the angle BFP
which the radius vector makes with the major axis. This is the actual or
_true anomaly_. _Mean anomaly_ is the anomaly which the body would have
if it moved from the pericentre around F with a uniform angular motion
such that its revolution would be completed in its actual time (see
ORBIT). _Eccentric anomaly_ is defined thus:--Draw the circumscribing
circle of the elliptic orbit around the centre C of the orbit. Drop the
perpendicular RPQ through P, the position of the planet, upon the major
axis. Join CR; the angle CRQ is then the eccentric anomaly.

[Illustration]

In the ancient astronomy the anomaly was taken as the angular distance
of the planet from the point of the farthest recession from the earth.

_Kepler's Problem_, namely, that of finding the co-ordinates of a planet
at a given time, which is equivalent--given the mean anomaly--to that of
determining the true anomaly, was solved approximately by Kepler, and
more completely by Wallis, Newton and others.

The anomalistic revolution of a planet or other heavenly body is the
revolution between two consecutive passages through the pericentre.
Starting from the pericentre, it is completed on the return to the
pericentre. If the pericentre is fixed, this is an actual revolution;
but if it moves the anomalistic revolution is greater or less than a
complete circumference.

An _Anomalistic year_ is the time (365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, 48
seconds) in which the earth (and similarly for any other planet) passes
from perihelion to perihelion, or from any given value of the anomaly to
the same again. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes it is longer
than a tropical or sidereal year by 25 minutes and 2.3 seconds. An
_Anomalistic month_ is the time in which the moon passes from perigee to
perigee, &c.

  For the mathematics of Kepler's problem see E.W. Brown, _Lunar Theory_
  (Cambridge 1896), or the work of Watson or of Bauschinger on
  Theoretical Astronomy.




ANORTHITE, an important mineral of the felspar group, being one of the
end members of the plagioclase (q.v.) series. It is a calcium and
aluminium silicate, CaAl2Si2O3, and crystallizes in the anorthic system.
Like all the felspars, it possesses two cleavages, one perfect and the
other less so, here inclined to one another at an angle of 85 deg. 50'.
The colour is white, greyish or reddish, and the crystals are
transparent to translucent. The hardness is 6-6-1/2, and the specific
gravity 2.75.

[Illustration: Anorthite]

Anorthite is an essential constituent of many basic igneous rocks, such
as gabbro and basalt, also of some meteoric stones. The best developed
crystals are those which accompany mica, augite, sanidine, &c., in the
ejected blocks of metamorphosed limestone from Monte Somma, the ancient
portion of Mount Vesuvius; these are perfectly colourless and
transparent, and are bounded by numerous brilliant faces. Distinctly
developed crystals are also met with in the basalts of Japan, but are
usually rare at other localities.

The name anorthite was given to the Vesuvian mineral by G. Rose in 1823,
on account of its anorthic crystallization. The species had, however,
been earlier described by the comte de Bournon under the name indianite,
this name being applied to a greyish or reddish granular mineral forming
the matrix of corundum from the Carnatic in India. Several unimportant
varieties have been distinguished.     (L. J. S.)




ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE (1723-1808), French historian, was born in Paris,
on the 21st of February 1723. He entered the congregation of
Sainte-Genevieve, where he took holy orders and became professor of
theology and literature. Later, he became director of the seminary at
Reims, where he wrote his _Histoire civile et politique de Reims_ (3
vols., 1756-1757), perhaps his best work. He was then director of the
college of Senlis, where he composed his _Esprit de la Ligue ou histoire
politique des troubles de la Fronde pendant le XVI^e et le XVII^e
siecles_ (1767). During the Reign of Terror he was imprisoned at St
Lazare; there he began his _Precis de l'histoire universelle_,
afterwards published in nine volumes. On the establishment of the
national institute he was elected a member of the second group (moral
and political sciences), and was soon afterwards employed in the office
of the ministry of foreign affairs, profiting by his experience to write
his _Motifs des guerres et des traites de paix sous Louis XIV., Louis
XV, et Louis XVI._ He is said to have been asked by Napoleon to write
his _Histoire de France_ (14 vols., 1805), a mediocre compilation at
second or third hand, with the assistance of de Mezeray and of Paul
Francois Velly (1709-1759). This work, nevertheless, passed through
numerous editions, and by it his name is remembered. He died on the 6th
of September 1808.




ANQUETIL, DUPERRON, ABRAHAM HYACINTHE (1731-1805), French orientalist,
brother of Louis Pierre Anquetil, the historian, was born in Paris on
the 7th of December 1731. He was educated for the priesthood in Paris
and Utrecht, but his taste for Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, and other
languages of the East developed into a passion, and he discontinued his
theological course to devote himself entirely to them. His diligent
attendance at the Royal Library attracted the attention of the keeper of
the manuscripts, the Abbe Sallier, whose influence procured for him a
small salary as student of the oriental languages. He had lighted on
some fragments of the _Vendidad Sade_, and formed the project of a
voyage to India to discover the works of Zoroaster. With this end in
view he enlisted as a private soldier, on the 2nd of November 1754, in
the Indian expedition which was about to start from the port of
L'Orient. His friends procured his discharge, and he was granted a free
passage, a seat at the captain's table, and a salary, the amount of
which was to be fixed by the governor of the French settlement in India.
After a passage of six months, Anquetil landed, on the 10th of August
1755, at Pondicherry. Here he remained a short time to master modern
Persian, and then hastened to Chandernagore to acquire Sanskrit. Just
then war was declared between France and England; Chandernagore was
taken, and Anquetil returned to Pondicherry by land. He found one of his
brothers at Pondicherry, and embarked with him for Surat; but, with a
view of exploring the country, he landed at Mahe and proceeded on foot.
At Surat he succeeded, by perseverance and address in his intercourse
with the native priests, in acquiring a sufficient knowledge of the Zend
and Pahlavi languages to translate the liturgy called the _Vendidad
Sade_ and some other works. Thence he proposed going to Benares, to
study the language, antiquities, and sacred laws of the Hindus; but the
capture of Pondicherry obliged him to quit India. Returning to Europe in
an English vessel, he spent some time in London and Oxford, and then set
out for France. He arrived in Paris on the 14th of March 1762 in
possession of one hundred and eighty oriental manuscripts, besides other
curiosities. The Abbe Barthelemy procured for him a pension, with the
appointment of interpreter of oriental languages at the Royal Library.
In 1763 he was elected an associate of the Academy of Inscriptions, and
began to arrange for the publication of the materials he had collected
during his eastern travels. In 1771 he published his _Zend-Avesta_ (3
vols.), containing collections from the sacred writings of the
fire-worshippers, a life of Zoroaster, and fragments of works ascribed
to him. In 1778 he published at Amsterdam his _Legislation orientate_,
in which he endeavoured to prove that the nature of oriental despotism
had been greatly misrepresented. His _Recherches historiques et
geographiques sur l'Inde_ appeared in 1786, and formed part of
Thieffenthaler's _Geography of India_. The Revolution seems to have
greatly affected him. During that period he abandoned society, and lived
in voluntary poverty on a few pence a day. In 1798 he published _L'Inde
en rapport avec l'Europe_ (Hamburg, 2 vols.), which contained much
invective against the English, and numerous misrepresentations. In
1802-1804 he published a Latin translation (2 vols.) from the Persian of
the _Oupnek'hat_ or _Upanishada_. It is a curious mixture of Latin,
Greek, Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit. He died in Paris on the 17th of
January 1805.

  See _Biographie universelle_; Sir William Jones, _Works_ (vol. x.,
  1807); and the _Miscellanies_ of the Philobiblon Society (vol. iii.,
  1856-1857). For a list of his scattered writings see Querard, _La
  France litteraire_.




ANSA (from Lat. _ansa_, a handle), in astronomy, one of the apparent
ends of the rings of Saturn as seen in perspective from the earth:
so-called because, in the earlier telescopes, they looked like handles
projecting from the planet. In anatomy the word is applied to nervous
structures which resemble loops. In archaeology it is used for the
engraved and ornamented handle of a vase, which has often survived when
the vase itself, being less durable, has disappeared.




ANSBACH, or ANSPACH, originally _Onolzbach_, a town of Germany, in the
kingdom of Bavaria, on the Rezat, 27 m. by rail S.W. of Nuremberg, and
90 m. N. of Munich. Pop. (1900) 17,555. It contains a palace, once the
residence of the margraves of Anspach, with fine gardens, several
churches, the finest of which are those dedicated to St John, containing
the vault of the former margraves, and St Gumbert; a gymnasium; a
picture gallery; a municipal museum and a special technical school.
Ansbach possesses monuments to the poets August, Count von
Platen-Hallermund, and Johann Peter Uz, who were born here, and to
Kaspar Hauser, who died here. The chief manufactures are machinery,
toys, woollen, cotton, and half-silk stuffs, embroideries, earthenware,
tobacco, cutlery and playing cards. There is considerable trade in
grain, wool and flax. In 1791 the last margrave of Anspach sold his
principality to Frederick William II., king of Prussia; it was
transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria in 1806, an act which was confirmed
by the congress of Vienna in 1815.




ANSDELL, RICHARD (1815-1885), English painter, was born in Liverpool,
and first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1840. He was a painter of
genre, chiefly animal and sporting pictures, and he became very popular,
being elected A.R.A. in 1861 and R.A. in 1870. His "Stag at Bay" (1846),
"The Combat" (1847), and "Battle of the Standard" (1848), represent his
best work, in which he showed himself a notable follower of Landseer.




ANSELM (c. 1033-1109), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Aosta in
Piedmont. His family was accounted noble, and was possessed of
considerable property. Gundulph, his father, was by birth a Lombard, and
seems to have been a man of harsh and violent temper; his mother,
Ermenberga, was a prudent and virtuous woman, from whose careful
religious training the young Anselm derived much benefit. At the age of
fifteen he desired to enter a convent, but he could not obtain his
father's consent. Disappointment brought on an illness, on his recovery
from which he seems for a time to have given up his studies, and to have
plunged into the gay life of the world. During this time his mother
died, and his father's harshness became unbearable. He left home, and
with only one attendant crossed the Alps, and wandered through Burgundy
and France. Attracted by the fame of his countryman, Lanfranc, then
prior of Bec, he entered Normandy, and, after spending some time at
Avranches, settled at the monastery of Bec. There, at the age of
twenty-seven, he became a monk; three years later, when Lanfranc was
promoted to the abbacy of Caen, he was elected prior. This office he
held for fifteen years, and then, in 1078, on the death of Herlwin, the
warrior monk who had founded the monastery, he was made abbot. Under his
rule Bec became the first seat of learning in Europe, a result due not
more to his intellectual powers than to the great moral influence of his
noble character and kindly discipline. It was during these quiet years
at Bec that Anselm wrote his first philosophical and religious works,
the dialogues on Truth and Freewill, and the two celebrated treatises,
the _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_.

Meanwhile the convent had been growing in wealth, as well as in
reputation, and had acquired considerable property in England, which it
became the duty of Anselm occasionally to visit. By his mildness of
temper and unswerving rectitude, he so endeared himself to the English
that he was looked upon and desired as the natural successor to
Lanfranc, then archbishop of Canterbury. But on the death of that great
man, the ruling sovereign, William Rufus, seized the possessions and
revenues of the see, and made no new appointment. About four years
after, in 1092, on the invitation of Hugh, earl of Chester, Anselm with
some reluctance, for he feared to be made archbishop, crossed to
England. He was detained by business for nearly four months, and when
about to return, was refused permission by the king. In the following
year William fell ill, and thought his death was at hand. Eager to make
atonement for his sin with regard to the archbishopric, he nominated
Anselm to the vacant see, and after a great struggle compelled him to
accept the pastoral staff of office. After obtaining dispensation from
his duties in Normandy, Anselm was consecrated in 1093. He demanded of
the king, as the conditions of his retaining office, that he should give
up all the possessions of the see, accept his spiritual counsel, and
acknowledge Urban as pope in opposition to the anti-pope, Clement. He
only obtained a partial consent to the first of these, and the last
involved him in a serious difficulty with the king. It was a rule of the
church that the consecration of metropolitans could not be completed
without their receiving the _pallium_ from the hands of the pope.
Anselm, accordingly, insisted that he must proceed to Rome to receive
the pall. But William would not permit this; he had not acknowledged
Urban, and he maintained his right to prevent any pope being
acknowledged by an English subject without his permission. A great
council of churchmen and nobles, held to settle the matter, advised
Anselm to submit to the king, but failed to overcome his mild and
patient firmness. The matter was postponed, and William meanwhile
privately sent messengers to Rome, who acknowledged Urban and prevailed
on him to send a legate to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. A
partial reconciliation was then effected, and the matter of the pall was
compromised. It was not given by the king, but was laid on the altar at
Canterbury, whence Anselm took it.

Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king, and
Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel of his spiritual
father. With great difficulty he obtained a reluctant permission to
leave, and in October 1097 he set out for Rome. William immediately
seized on the revenues of the see, and retained them to his death.
Anselm was received with high honour by Urban, and at a great council
held at Bari, he was put forward to defend the doctrine of the
procession of the Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek
Church. But Urban was too politic to embroil himself with the king of
England, and Anselm found that he could obtain no substantial result. He
withdrew from Rome, and spent some time at the little village of
Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the atonement, _Cur Deus
homo_, and then retired to Lyons.

In 1100 William was killed, and Henry, his successor, at once recalled
Anselm. But Henry demanded that he should again receive from him in
person investiture in his office of archbishop, thus making the dignity
entirely dependent on the royal authority. Now, the papal rule in the
matter was plain; all homage and lay investiture were strictly
prohibited. Anselm represented this to the king; but Henry would not
relinquish a privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that
the matter should be laid before the Holy See. The answer of the pope
reaffirmed the law as to investiture. A second embassy was sent, with a
similar result. Henry, however, remained firm, and at last, in 1103,
Anselm and an envoy from the king set out for Rome. The pope, Paschal,
reaffirmed strongly the rule of investiture, and passed sentence of
excommunication against all who had infringed the law, except Henry.
Practically this left matters as they were, and Anselm, who had received
a message forbidding him to return to England unless on the king's
terms, withdrew to Lyons, where he waited to see if Paschal would not
take stronger measures. At last, in 1105, he resolved himself to
excommunicate Henry. His intention was made known to the king through
his sister, and it seriously alarmed him, for it was a critical period
in his affairs. A meeting was arranged, and a reconciliation between
them effected. In 1106 Anselm crossed to England, with power from the
pope to remove the sentence of excommunication from the illegally
invested churchmen. In 1107 the long dispute as to investiture was
finally ended by the king resigning his formal rights. The remaining two
years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric. He
died on the 21st of April 1109. He was canonized in 1494 by Alexander
VI.

Anselm may, with some justice, be considered the first scholastic
philosopher and theologian. His only great predecessor, Scotus Erigena,
had more of the speculative and mystical element than is consistent with
a schoolman; but in Anselm are found that recognition of the relation of
reason to revealed truth, and that attempt to elaborate a rational
system of faith, which form the special characteristics of scholastic
thought. His constant endeavour is to render the contents of the
Christian consciousness clear to reason, and to develop the intelligible
truths interwoven with the Christian belief. The necessary preliminary
for this is the possession of the Christian consciousness. "He who does
not believe will not experience; and he who has not experienced will not
understand." That faith must precede knowledge is reiterated by him.
_"Negue enim quaero intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam. Nam
et hoc credo, quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam."_ ("Nor do I seek to
understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand. For
this too I believe, that unless I first believe, I shall not
understand.") But after the faith is held fast, the attempt must be made
to demonstrate by reason the truth of what we believe. It is wrong not
to do so. _"Negligentiae mihi esse videtur, si, postquam confirmati
sumus in fide, non studemus quod credimus, intelligere."_ ("I hold it to
be a failure in duty if after we have become steadfast in the faith we
do not strive to understand what we believe.") To such an extent does he
carry this demand for rational explanation that, at times, it seems as
if he claimed for unassisted intelligence the power of penetrating even
to the mysteries of the Christian faith. On the whole, however, the
qualified statement is his real view; merely rational proofs are always,
he affirms, to be tested by Scripture. (_Cur Deus homo_, i. 2 and 38;
_De Fide Trin_. 2.)

The groundwork of his theory of knowledge is contained in the tract _De
Veritate_, in which, from the consideration of truth as in knowledge, in
willing, and in things, he rises to the affirmation of an absolute
truth, in which all other truth participates. This absolute truth is God
himself, who is therefore the ultimate ground or principle both of
things and of thought. The notion of God comes thus into the foreground
of the system; before all things it is necessary that it should be made
clear to reason, that it should be demonstrated to have real existence.
This demonstration is the substance of the _Monologion_ and
_Proslogion_. In the first of these the proof rests on the ordinary
grounds of realism, and coincides to some extent with the earlier theory
of Augustine, though it is carried out with singular boldness and
fulness. Things, he says, are called good in a variety of ways and
degrees; this would be impossible if there were not some absolute
standard, some good in itself, in which all relative goods participate.
Similarly with such predicates as great, just; they involve a certain
greatness and justice. The very existence of things is impossible
without some one Being, by whom they are. This absolute Being, this
goodness, justice, greatness, is God. Anselm was not thoroughly
satisfied with this reasoning; it started from _a posteriori grounds_,
and contained several converging lines of proof. He desired to have some
one short demonstration. Such a demonstration he presented in the
_Proslogion_; it is his celebrated ontological proof. God is that being
than whom none greater can be conceived. Now, if that than which nothing
greater can be conceived existed only in the intellect, it would not be
the absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence in reality. It
follows, then, that the being than whom nothing greater can be
conceived, i.e. God, necessarily has real existence. This reasoning, in
which Anselm partially anticipated the Cartesian philosophers, has
rarely seemed satisfactory. It was opposed at the time by the monk
Gaunilo, in his _Liber pro Insipiente_, on the ground that we cannot
pass from idea to reality. The same criticism is made by several of the
later schoolmen, among others by Aquinas, and is in substance what Kant
advances against all ontological proof. Anselm replied to the objections
of Gaunilo in his _Liber Apologeticus_. The existence of God being thus
held proved, he proceeds to state the rational grounds of the Christian
doctrines of creation and of the Trinity. With reference to this last,
he says we cannot know God from himself, but only after the analogy of
his creatures; and the special analogy used is the self-consciousness of
man, its peculiar double nature, with the necessary elements, memory and
intelligence, representing the relation of the Father to the Son. The
mutual love of these two, proceeding from the relation they hold to one
another, symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines
of man, original sin, free will, are developed, partly in the
_Monologion_, partly in other mixed treatises. Finally, in his greatest
work, _Cur Deus homo_, he undertakes to make plain, even to infidels,
the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the atonement. The
theory rests on three positions: that satisfaction is necessary on
account of God's honour and justice; that such satisfaction can be given
only by the peculiar personality of the God-man; that such satisfaction
is really given by the voluntary death of this infinitely valuable
person. The demonstration is, in brief, this. All the actions of men are
due to the furtherance of God's glory; if, then, there be sin, i.e. if
God's honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfaction. But
the justice of God demands satisfaction; and as an insult to infinite
honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must be infinite, i.e. it
must outweigh all that is not God. Such a penalty can only be paid by
God himself, and, as a penalty for man, must be paid under the form of
man. Satisfaction is only possible through the God-man. Now this
God-man, as sinless, is exempt from the punishment of sin; His passion
is therefore voluntary, not given as due. The merit of it is therefore
infinite; God's justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to
man. This theory has exercised immense influence on the form of church
doctrine. It is certainly an advance on the older patristic theory, in
so far as it substitutes for a contest between God and Satan, a contest
between the goodness and justice of God; but it puts the whole relation
on a merely legal footing, gives it no ethical bearing, and neglects
altogether the consciousness of the individual to be redeemed. In this
respect it contrasts unfavourably with the later theory of Abelard.

Anselm's speculations did not receive, in the middle ages, the respect
and attention justly their due. This was probably due to their
unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts or dialogues on
detached questions, not elaborate treatises like the great works of
Albert, Aquinas, and Erigena. They have, however, a freshness and
philosophical vigour, which more than makes up for their want of system,
and which raises them far above the level of most scholastic writings.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main sources for the history of St Anselm and his
  times are Eadmer's _Vita Anselmi_ and his _Historia Novorum_, edited
  by M. Rule in _Rolls Series_ (London, 1884); the best modern work is
  by Pere Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_ (Paris, 1890), and _Saint
  Anselme professeur_ (Paris, 1890). Other appreciations are by A.
  Mohler, _Anselm Erzbischof von Canterbury_ (Regensburg, 1839; Eng.
  trans. by H. Rymer, London, 1842); F.R. Hasse, _Anselm von Canterbury_
  (2 vols., Leipzig, 1842-1853); C. de Remusat, _S. Anseime de
  Cantorbery_ (Paris, 1853, new ed. 1868); R.W. Church, _St Anselm_,
  first published in _Sunday Library_ (London, 1870; often reprinted);
  Martin Rule, _Life and Times of St Anselm_ (London, 1883).

  _Works_: The best edition of St Anselm's complete works is that of
  Dom Gerberon (Paris, 1675); reprinted with many notes in 1712;
  incorporated by J. Migne in his _Patrologia Latina_, tomi
  clviii.-clix. (Paris. 1853-1854). Migne's reprint contains many
  errors. The _Cur Deus homo_ may be best studied in the editions
  published by D. Nutt (London, 1885) and by Griffith (1898). The
  _Mariale_, or poems in honour of the Blessed Virgin, has been
  carefully edited by P. Ragey (Tournai, 1885); the _Monologion_ and
  _Proslogion_, by C.E. Ubaghs (Louvain, 1854; Eng. trans. by S.N.
  Deane, Chicago, 1903); the _Meditationes_, many of which are wrongly
  attributed to Anselm, have been frequently reprinted, and were
  included in Methuen's _Library of Devotion_ (London, 1903).

  The best criticism of Anselm's philosophical works is by J.M. Rigg
  (London, 1896), and Domet de Verges (_Grands Philosophes_ series,
  Paris, 1901). For a complete bibliography, see A. Vacant's
  _Dictionnaire de theologie_.




ANSELM, of Laon (d. 1117), French theologian, was born of very humble
parents at Laon before the middle of the 11th century. He is said to
have studied under St Anselm at Bec. About 1076 he taught with great
success at Paris, where, as the associate of William of Champeaux, he
upheld the realistic side of the scholastic controversy. Later he
removed to his native place, where his school for theology and exegetics
rapidly became the most famous in Europe. He died in 1117. His greatest
work, an interlinear gloss on the Scriptures, was one of the great
authorities of the middle ages. It has been frequently reprinted. Other
commentaries apparently by him have been ascribed to various writers,
principally to the great Anselm. A list of them, with notice of Anselm's
life, is contained in the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, x.
170-189.

  The works are collected in Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, tome 162; some
  unpublished _Sententiae_ were edited by G. Lefevre (Milan, 1894), on
  which see Haureau in the _Journal des savants_ for 1895.




ANSELME (Father Anselme of the Virgin Mary) (1625-1694), French
genealogist, was born in Paris in 1625. As a layman his name was Pierre
Guibours. He entered the order of the barefooted Augustinians on the
31st of March 1644, and it was in their monastery (called the Couvent
des Petits Peres, near the church of Notre-Dame des Victoires) that he
died, on the 17th of January 1694. He devoted his entire life to
genealogical studies. In 1663 he published _Le Palais de l'honneur_,
which besides giving the genealogy of the houses of Lorraine and Savoy,
is a complete treatise on heraldry, and in 1664 _Le Palais de la
gloire_, dealing with the genealogy of various illustrious French and
European families. These books made friends for him, the most intimate
among whom, Honore Caille, seigneur du Fourny (1630-1713), persuaded him
to publish his _Histoire genealogique de la maison royale de France, et
des grands officiers de la couronne_ (1674, 2 vols. 4); after Father
Anselme's death, Honore Caille collected his papers, and brought out a
new edition of this highly important work in 1712. The task was taken up
and continued by two other friars of the Couvent des Petits Peres,
Father Ange de Sainte-Rosalie (Francois Raffard, 1655-1726), and Father
Simplicien (Paul Lucas, 1683-1759), who published the first and second
volumes of the third edition in 1726. This edition consists of nine
volumes folio; it is a genealogical and chronological history of the
royal house of France, of the peers, of the great officers of the crown
and of the king's household, and of the ancient barons of the kingdom.
The notes were generally compiled from original documents, references to
which are usually given, so that they remain useful to the present day.
The work of Father Anselme, his collaborators and successors, is even
more important for the history of France than is Dugdale's _Baronage of
England_ for the history of England.     (C. B.*)




ANSON, GEORGE ANSON, BARON (1697-1762), British admiral, was born on the
23rd of April 1697. He was the son of William Anson of Shugborough in
Staffordshire, and his wife Isabella Carrier, who was the sister-in-law
of Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, a relationship which proved very useful
to the future admiral. George Anson entered the navy in February 1712,
and by rapid steps became lieutenant in 1716, commander in 1722, and
post-captain in 1724. In this rank he served twice on the North American
station as captain of the "Scarborough" and the "Squirrel" from 1724 to
1730 and from 1733 to 1735. In 1737 he was appointed to the "Centurion,"
60, on the eve of war with Spain, and when hostilities had begun he was
chosen to command as commodore the squadron which was sent to attack her
possessions in South America in 1740. The original scheme was ambitious,
and was not carried out. Anson's squadron, which sailed later than had
been intended, and was very ill-fitted, consisted of six ships, which
were reduced by successive disasters to his flagship the "Centurion."
The lateness of the season forced him to round Cape Horn in very stormy
weather, and the navigating instruments of the time did not allow of
exact observation. Two of his vessels failed to round the Horn, another,
the "Wager," was wrecked in the Golfo de Panas on the coast of Chile. By
the time Anson reached the island of Juan Fernandez in June 1741, his
six ships had been reduced to three, while the strength of his crews had
fallen from 961 to 335. In the absence of any effective Spanish force on
the coast he was able to harass the enemy, and to capture the town of
Paita on the 13th-15th of November 1741. The steady diminution of his
crew by sickness, and the worn-out state of his remaining consorts,
compelled him at last to collect all the survivors in the "Centurion."
He rested at the island of Tinian, and then made his way to Macao in
November 1742. After considerable difficulties with the Chinese, he
sailed again with his one remaining vessel to cruise for one of the
richly laden galleons which conducted the trade between Mexico and the
Philippines. The indomitable perseverance he had shown during one of the
most arduous voyages in the history of sea adventure was rewarded by the
capture of an immensely rich prize, the "Nuestra Senora de Covadonga,"
which was met off Cape Espiritu Santo on the 20th of June 1743. Anson
took his prize back to Macao, sold her cargo to the Chinese, keeping the
specie, and sailed for England, which he reached by the Cape of Good
Hope on the 15th of June 1744. The prize-money earned by the capture of
the galleon had made him a rich man for life, and under the influence of
irritation caused by the refusal of the admiralty to confirm a
captain's commission he had given to one of his officers, Anson refused
the rank of rear-admiral, and was prepared to leave the service. His
fame would stand nearly as high as it does if he had done so, but he
would be a far less important figure in the history of the navy. By the
world at large he is known as the commander of the voyage of
circumnavigation, in which success was won by indomitable perseverance,
unshaken firmness, and infinite resource. But he was also the severe and
capable administrator who during years of hard work at the admiralty did
more than any other to raise the navy from the state of corruption and
indiscipline into which it had fallen during the first half of the
eighteenth century. Great anger had been caused in the country by the
condition of the fleet as revealed in the first part of the war with
France and Spain, between 1739 and 1747. The need for reform was
strongly felt, and the politicians of the day were conscious that it
would not be safe to neglect the popular demand for it. In 1745 the duke
of Bedford, the new first lord, invited Anson to join the admiralty with
the rank of rear-admiral of the white. As subordinate under the duke, or
Lord Sandwich, and as first lord himself, Anson was at the admiralty
with one short break from 1745 till his death in 1762. His chiefs in the
earlier years left him to take the initiative in all measures of reform,
and supported him in their own interest. After 1751 he was himself first
lord, except for a short time in 1756 and 1757. At his suggestion, or
with his advice, the naval administration was thoroughly overhauled. The
dockyards were brought into far better order, and though corruption was
not banished, it was much reduced. The navy board was compelled to
render accounts, a duty it had long neglected. A system of regulating
promotion to flag rank, which has been in the main followed ever since,
was introduced. The Navy Discipline Act was revised in 1749, and
remained unaltered till 1865. Courts martial were put on a sound
footing. Inspections of the fleet and the dockyards were established,
and the corps of Marines was created in 1755. The progressive
improvement which raised the navy to the high state of efficiency it
attained in later years dates from Anson's presence at the admiralty. In
1747 he, without ceasing to be a member of the board, commanded the
Channel fleet which on the 3rd of May scattered a large French convoy
bound to the East, and West Indies, in an action off Cape Finisterre.
Several men-of-war and armed French Indiamen were taken, but the
overwhelming superiority of Anson's fleet (fourteen men-of-war, to six
men-of-war and four Indiamen) in the number and weight of ships deprives
the action of any strong claim to be considered remarkable. In society
Anson seems to have been cold and taciturn. The sneers of Horace
Walpole, and the savage attack of Smollett in _The Adventures of an
Atom_, are animated by personal or political spite. Yet they would not
have accused him of defects from which he was notoriously free. In
political life he may sometimes have given too ready assent to the
wishes of powerful politicians. He married the daughter of Lord
Chancellor Hardwicke on the 27th of April 1748. There were no children
of the marriage. His title of Baron Anson of Soberton was given him in
1747, but became extinct on his death. The title of Viscount Anson was,
however, created in 1806 in favour of his great-nephew, the grandson of
his sister Janetta and Mr Sambrook Adams, whose father had assumed the
name and arms of Anson. The earldom of Lichfield was conferred on the
family in the next generation. A fine portrait of the admiral by
Reynolds is in the possession of the earl of Lichfield, and there are
copies in the National Portrait Gallery and at Greenwich. Anson's
promotions in flag rank were: rear-admiral in 1745, vice-admiral in
1746, and admiral in 1748. In 1749 he became vice-admiral of Great
Britain, and in 1761 admiral of the fleet. He died on the 6th of June
1762.

  A life of Lord Anson, inaccurate in some details but valuable and
  interesting, was published by Sir John Barrow in 1839. The standard
  account of his voyage round the world is that by his chaplain Richard
  Walter, 1748, often reprinted. A share in the work has been claimed on
  dubious grounds for Benjamin Robins, the mathematician. Another and
  much inferior account was published in 1745 by Pascoe Thomas, the
  schoolmaster of the "Centurion."     (D. H.)




ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL, BART. (1843-   ), English jurist, was born
on the 14th of November 1843, at Walberton, Sussex, son of the second
baronet. Educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, he took a first
class in the final classical schools in 1866, and was elected to a
fellowship of All Souls in the following year. In 1869 he was called to
the bar, and went the home circuit until 1873, when he succeeded to the
baronetcy. In 1874 he became Vinerian reader in English law at Oxford, a
post which he held until he became, in 1881, warden of All Souls
College. He identified himself both with local and university interests;
he became an alderman of the city of Oxford in 1892, chairman of quarter
sessions for the county in 1894, was vice-chancellor of the university
in 1898-1899, and chancellor of the diocese of Oxford in 1899. In that
year he was returned, without opposition, as M.P. for the university in
the Liberal Unionist interest, and consequently resigned the
vice-chancellorship. In parliament he preserved an active interest in
education, being a member of the newly created consultative committee of
the Board of Education in 1900, and in 1902 he became parliamentary
secretary. He took an active part in the foundation of a school of law
at Oxford, and his volumes on _The Principles of the English Law of
Contract_, (1884, 11th ed. 1906), and on _The Law and Custom of the
Constitution_ in two parts, "The Parliament" and "The Crown" (1886-1892.
3rd ed. 1907, pt. i. vol. ii.), are standard works.




ANSONIA, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., coextensive
with the township of the same name, on the Naugatuck river, immediately
N. of Derby and about 12 m. N.W. of New Haven. It is served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by interurban electric lines
running N., S. and E. Pop. (1900) 12,681, of whom 4296 were foreign
born; (1910 census) 13,152. Land area about 5.4 sq. m. The city has
extensive manufactures of heavy machinery, electric supplies, brass and
copper products and silk goods. In 1905 the capital invested in
manufacturing was $7,625,864, and the value of the products was
$19,132,455. Ansonia, Derby and Shelton form one of the most important
industrial communities in the state. The city, settled in 1840 and named
in honour of the merchant and philanthropist, Anson Green Phelps
(1781-1853), was originally a part of the township of Derby; it was
chartered as a borough in 1864 and as a city in 1893, when the township
of Ansonia, which had been incorporated in 1889, and the city were
consolidated.




ANSTED, DAVID THOMAS (1814-1880), English geologist, was born in London
on the 5th of February 1814. He was educated at Jesus College,
Cambridge, and after taking his degree of M.A. in 1839 was elected to a
fellowship of the college. Inspired by the teachings of Adam Sedgwick,
his attention was given to geology, and in 1840 he was elected professor
of geology in King's College, London, a post which he held until 1853.
Meanwhile he became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1844, and from that
date until 1847 he was vice-secretary of the Geological Society and
edited its Quarterly Journal. The practical side of geology now came to
occupy his chief attention, and he visited various parts of Europe and
the British Islands as a consulting geologist and mining engineer. He
was also in 1868 and for many years examiner in physical geography to
the science and art department. He died at Melton near Woodbridge, on
the 13th of May 1880.

  PUBLICATIONS.--_Geology, Introductory, Descriptive and Practical_ (2
  vols., 1844); _The Ionian Islands_ (1863); _The Applications of
  Geology to the Arts and Manufactures_ (1865); _Physical Geography_
  (1867); _Water and Water Supply_ (Surface Water) (1878); and _The
  Channel Islands_ (with R.G. Latham) (1862).




ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), English poet, was the son of the rector
of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, where he was born on the 31st of October
1724. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where he
distinguished himself for his Latin verses. He became a fellow of his
college (1745); but the degree of M.A. was withheld from him, owing to
the offence caused by a speech made by him beginning: "Doctores sine
doctrina, magistri artium sine artibus, et baccalaurei baculo potius
quam lauro digni." In 1754 he succeeded to the family estates and left
Cambridge; and two years later he married the daughter of Felix Calvert
of Albury Hall, Herts. For some time Anstey published nothing of any
note, though he cultivated letters as well as his estates. Some visits
to Bath, however, where later, in 1770, he made his permanent home,
resulted in 1766 in his famous rhymed letters, _The New Bath Guide_ or
_Memoirs of the B ... r ... d_ [_Blunderhead_] _Family_..., which had
immediate success, and was enthusiastically praised for its original
kind of humour by Walpole and Gray. The _Election Ball, in Poetical
Letters from Mr Inkle at Bath to his Wife at Gloucester_ (1776)
sustained the reputation won by the Guide. Anstey's other productions in
verse and prose are now forgotten. He died on the 3rd of August 1805.
His _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1808 (2 vols.) by the author's
son John (d. 1819), himself author of _The Pleader's Guide_ (1796), in
the same vein with the _New Bath Guide_.




ANSTRUTHER (locally pronounced _Anster_), a seaport of Fifeshire,
Scotland. It comprises the royal and police burghs of Anstruther Easter
(pop. 1190), Anstruther Wester (501) and Kilrenny (2542), and lies 9 m.
S.S.E. of St Andrews, having a station on the North British railway
company's branch line from Thornton Junction to St Andrews. The chief
industries include coast and deep-sea fisheries, shipbuilding, tanning,
the making of cod-liver oil and fish-curing. The harbour was completed
in 1877 at a cost of L80,000. The two Anstruthers are divided only by a
small stream called Dreel Burn. James Melville (1556-1614), nephew of
the more celebrated reformer, Andrew Melville, who was minister of
Kilrenny, has given in his _Diary_ a graphic account of the arrival at
Anstruther of a weatherbound ship of the Armada, and the tradition of
the intermixture of Spanish and Fifeshire blood still prevails in the
district. Anstruther fair supplied William Tennant (1784-1848), who was
born and buried in the town, with the subject of his poem of "Anster
Fair." Sir James Lumsden, a soldier of fortune under Gustavus Adolphus,
who distinguished himself in the Thirty Years' War, was born in the
parish of Kilrenny about 1598. David Martin (1737-1798), the painter and
engraver; Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847), the great divine; and John
Goodsir (1814-1867), the anatomist, were natives of Anstruther. Little
more than a mile to the west lies the royal and police burgh of
Pittenweem (Gaelic, "the hollow of the cave"), a quaint old fishing town
(pop. 1863), with the remains of a priory. About 2 m. still farther
westwards is the fishing town of St Monans or Abercromby (pop. 1898),
with a fine old Gothic church, picturesquely perched on the rocky shore.
These fisher towns on the eastern and south-eastern coasts of Fifeshire
furnish artists with endless subjects. Archibald Constable (1774-1827),
Sir Walter Scott's publisher, was born in the parish of Carnbee, about 3
m. to the north of Pittenweem. The two Anstruthers, Kilrenny and
Pittenweem unite with St Andrews, Cupar and Crail, in sending one member
to parliament.




ANSWER (derived from _and_, against, and the same root as _swear_),
originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something,
and thus generally any counter-statement or defence, a reply to a
question or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. In English
law, the "answer" in pleadings was, previous to the Judicature Acts
1873-1875, the statement of defence, especially as regards the facts and
not the law. Its place is now taken by a "statement of defence."
"Answer" is the term still applied in divorce proceedings to the reply
of the respondent (see PLEADING). The famous Latin _Responsa Prudentum_
("answers of the learned") were the accumulated views of many successive
generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually
became authoritative. In music an "answer" is the technical name in
counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a theme
proposed by another.




ANT (O. Eng. _aemete_, from Teutonic a, privative, and _maitan_, cut or
bite off, i.e. "the biter off"; _aemete_ in Middle English became
differentiated in dialect use to _amete_, then _amte_, and so _ant_, and
also to _emete_, whence the synonym "emmet," now only used provincially,
"ant" being the general literary form). The fact that the name of the
ant has come down in English from a thousand years ago shows that this
class of insects impressed the old inhabitants of England as they
impressed the Hebrews and Greeks. The social instincts and industrious
habits of ants have always made them favourite objects of study, and a
vast amount of literature has accumulated on the subject of their
structure and their modes of life.

_Characters._--An ant is easily recognized both by the casual observer
and by the student of insects. Ants form a distinct and natural family
(_Formicidae_) of the great order _Hymenoptera_, to which bees, wasps
and sawflies also belong. The insects of this order have mandibles
adapted for biting, and two pairs of membranous wings are usually
present; the first abdominal segment (propodeum) becomes closely
associated with the fore-body (thorax), of which it appears to form a
part. In all ants the second (apparently the first) abdominal segment is
very markedly constricted at its front and hind edges, so that it forms
a "node" at the base of the hind-body (fig. 1), and in many ants the
third abdominal segment is similarly "nodular" in form (fig. 3, _b,
c._). It is this peculiar "waist" that catches the eye of the observer,
and makes the insects so easy of recognition. Another conspicuous and
well-known feature of ants is the wingless condition of the "workers,"
as the specialized females, with undeveloped ovaries, which form the
largest proportion of the population of ant-communities, are called.
Such "workers" are essential to the formation of a social community of
Hymenoptera, and their wingless condition among the ants shows that
their specialization has been carried further in this family than among
the wasps and bees. Further, while among wasps and bees we find some
solitary and some social genera, the ants as a family are social, though
some aberrant species are dependent on the workers of other ants. It is
interesting and suggestive that in a few families of digging Hymenoptera
(such as the _Mutillidae_), allied to the ants, the females are
wingless. The perfect female or "queen" ants (figs. 1, 1, 3, a) often
cast their wings (fig. 3, b) after the nuptial flight; in a few species
the females, and in still fewer the males, never develop wings. (For the
so-called "white ants," which belong to an order far removed from the
_Hymenoptera_, see TERMITE.)

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Wood Ant (_Formica rufa_). 1, Queen; 2, male; 3,
worker.]

_Structure._--The head of an ant carries a pair of elbowed feelers, each
consisting of a minute basal and an elongate second segment, forming the
stalk or "scape," while from eight to eleven short segments make up the
terminal "flagellum." These segments are abundantly supplied with
elongate tooth-like projections connected with nerve-endings probably
olfactory in function. The brain is well developed and its
"mushroom-bodies" are exceptionally large. The mandibles, which are
frequently used for carrying various objects, are situated well to the
outside of the maxillae, so that they can be opened and shut without
interfering with the latter. The peculiar form and arrangement of the
anterior abdominal segments have already been described. The fourth
abdominal segment is often very large, and forms the greater part of the
hind-body; this segment is markedly constricted at its basal (forward)
end, where it is embraced by the small third segment. In many of those
ants whose third abdominal segment forms a second "node," the basal
dorsal region of the fourth segment is traversed by a large number of
very fine transverse striations; over these the sharp hinder edge of the
third segment can be scraped to and fro, and the result is a
stridulating organ which gives rise to a note of very high pitch. For
the appreciation of the sounds made by these stridulators, the ants are
furnished with delicate organs of hearing (chordotonal organs) in the
head, in the three thoracic and two of the abdominal segments and in the
shins of the legs.

The hinder abdominal segments and the stings of the queens and workers
resemble those of other stinging Hymenoptera. But there are several
subfamilies of ants whose females have the lancets of the sting useless
for piercing, although the poison-glands are functional, their secretion
being ejected by the insect, when occasion may arise, from the greatly
enlarged reservoir, the reduced sting acting as a squirt.

_Nests._--The nests of different kinds of ants are constructed in very
different situations; many species (_Lasius_, for example) make
underground nests; galleries and chambers being hollowed out in the
soil, and opening by small holes on the surface, or protected above by a
large stone. The wood ant (_Formica rufa_, fig. 1) piles up a heap of
leaves, twigs and other vegetable refuse, so arranged as to form an
orderly series of galleries, though the structure appears at first sight
a chaotic heap. Species of _Camponotus_ and many other ants tunnel in
wood. In tropical countries ants sometimes make their nests in the
hollow thorns of trees or on leaves; species with this habit are
believed to make a return to the tree for the shelter that it affords by
protecting it from the ravages of other insects, including their own
leaf-cutting relations.

_Early Stages._--The larvae of ants (fig. 3, e) are legless and helpless
maggots with very small heads (fig. 3, f), into whose mouths the
requisite food has to be forced by the assiduous "nurse" workers. The
maggots are tended by these nurses with the greatest care, and carried
to those parts of the nest most favourable for their health and growth.
When fully grown, the maggot spins an oval silken cocoon within which it
pupates (fig. 3, g). These cocoons, which may often be seen carried
between the mandibles of the workers, are the "ants' eggs" prized as
food for fish and pheasants. The workers of a Ceylonese ant (_Oecophylla
smaragdina_) are stated by D. Sharp to hold the maggots between their
mandibles and induce them to spin together the leaves of trees from
which they form their shelters, as the adult ants have no silk-producing
organs.

_Origin of Societies._--Ant-colonies are founded either by a single
female or by several in association. The foundress of the nest lays eggs
and at first feeds and rears the larvae, the earliest of which develop
into workers. C. Janet observed that in a nest of _Lasius alienus_,
established by a single female, the first workers emerged from their
cocoons on the 102nd day. These workers then take on themselves the
labour of the colony, some collecting food, which they transfer to their
comrades within the nest whose duty is to tend and feed the larvae. The
foundress-queen is now waited on by the workers, who supply her with
food and spare her all cares of work, so that henceforth she may devote
her whole energies to egg-laying. The population of the colony increases
fast, and a well-grown nest contains several "queens" and males, besides
a large number of workers. One of the most interesting features of
ant-societies is the dimorphism or polymorphism that may often be seen
among the workers, the same species being represented by two or more
forms. Thus the British "wood ant" (_Formica rufa_) has a smaller and a
larger race of workers ("minor" and "major" forms), while in _Ponera_ we
find a blind race of workers and another race provided with eyes, and in
_Atta_, _Eciton_ and other genera, four or five forms of workers are
produced, the largest of which, with huge heads and elongate trenchant
mandibles, are known as the "soldier" caste. The development of such
diversely-formed insects as the offspring of the unmodified females
which show none of their peculiarities raises many points of difficulty
for students in heredity. It is thought that the differences are, in
part at least, due to differences in the nature of the food supplied to
larvae, which are apparently all alike. But the ovaries of worker ants
are in some cases sufficiently developed for the production of eggs,
which may give rise parthenogenetically to male, queen or worker
offspring.

_Food._--Different kinds of ants vary greatly in the substances which
they use for food. Honey forms the staple nourishment of many ants, some
of the workers seeking nectar from flowers, working it up into honey
within their stomachs and regurgitating it so as to feed their comrades
within the nest, who, in their turn, pass it on to the grubs. A curious
specialization of certain workers in connexion with the transference of
honey has been demonstrated by H.C. McCook in the American genus
_Myrmecocystus_, and by later observers in Australian and African
species of _Plagiolepis_ and allied genera. The workers in question
remain within the nest, suspended by their feet, and serve as living
honey-pots for the colony, becoming so distended by the supplies of
honey poured into their mouths by their foraging comrades that their
abdomens become sub-globular, the pale intersegmental membrane being
tightly stretched between the widely-separated dark sclerites. The
"nurse" workers in the nest can then draw their supplies from these
"honey-pots." Very many ants live by preying upon various insects, such
as the British "red ants" with well-developed stings (_Myrmica rubra_),
and the notorious "driver ants" of Africa and America, the old-world
species of which belong to _Dorylus_ and allied genera, and the
new-world species to _Eciton_ (fig. 2, _2, 3_). In these ants the
difference between the large, heavy, winged males and females, and the
small, long-legged, active workers, is so great, that various forms of
the same species have been often referred to distinct genera; in
_Eciton_, for example, the female has a single petiolate abdominal
segment, the worker two. The workers of these ants range over the
country in large armies, killing and carrying off all the insects and
spiders that they find and sometimes attacking vertebrates. They have
been known to enter human dwellings, removing all the verminous insects
contained therein. These driver ants shelter in temporary nests made in
hollow trees or similar situations, where the insects may be seen,
according to T. Belt, "clustered together in a dense mass like a great
swarm of bees hanging from the roof."

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Leaf-cutting and Foraging Ants. 1. _Atta
cephalus_; 2. _Eciton drepanophora_; 3. _Eciton erratica_.]

The harvesting habits of certain ants have long been known, the
subterranean store-houses of Mediterranean species of _Aphaenogaster_
having been described by J.T. Moggridge and A. Forel, and the complex
industries of the Texan _Pogonomyrmex barbatus_ by H.C. McCook and W.M.
Wheeler. The colonies of _Aphaenogaster_ occupy nests extending over an
area of fifty to a hundred square yards several feet below the surface
of the ground. Into these underground chambers the ants carry seeds of
grasses and other plants of which they accumulate large stores. The
species of _Pogonomyrmex_ strip the husks from the seeds and carry them
out of the nest, making a refuse heap near the entrance. The seeds are
harvested from various grasses, especially from _Aristida oligantha_, a
species known as "ant rice," which often grows in quantity close to the
site selected for the nest, but the statement that the ants deliberately
sow this grass is an error, due, according to Wheeler, to the sprouting
of germinating seeds which the ants have turned out of their
store-chambers.

Perhaps no ants have such remarkable habits as those of the genus
_Atta_,--the leaf-cutting ants of tropical America (fig. 2, 1). There
are several forms of worker in these species, some with enormous heads,
which remain in the underground nests, while their smaller comrades
scour the country in search of suitable trees, which they ascend, biting
off small circular pieces from the leaves, and carrying them off to the
nests. Their labour often results in the complete defoliation of the
tree. The tracks along which the ants carry the leaves to their nests
are often in part subterranean. H.C. McCook describes an almost straight
tunnel, nearly 450 ft. long, made by _Atta fervens_.

Within the nest, the leaves are cut into very minute fragments and
gathered into small spherical heaps forming a spongy mass,
which--according to the researches of A. Moller--serves as the
substratum for a special fungus (_Rozites gongylophora_), the staple
food of the ants. The insects cultivate their fungus, weeding out mould
and bacterial growths, and causing the appearance, on the surface of
their "mushroom garden," of numerous small white bodies formed by
swollen ends of the fungus hyphae. When the fungus is grown elsewhere
than in the ants' nest it produces gonidia instead of the white masses
on which the ants feed, hence it seems that these masses are indeed
produced as the result of some unknown cultural process. Other genera of
South American ants--_Apterostigma_ and _Cyphomyrmex_--make similar
fungal cultivations, but they use wood, grain or dung as the substratum
instead of leaf fragments. Each kind of ant is so addicted to its own
particular fungal food that it refuses disdainfully, even when hungry,
the produce of an alien nest.

_Guests of Ants._--Many ants feed largely and some almost entirely on the
saccharine secretions of other insects, the best known of which are the
Aphides (plant-lice or "green-fly"). This consideration leads us to one
of the most remarkable and fascinating features of ant-communities--the
presence in the nests of insects and other small arthropods, which are
tended and cared for by the ants as their "guests," rendering to the ants
in return the sweet food which they desire. The relation between ants and
aphids has often been compared to that between men and milch cattle. Sir
J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) states that the common British yellow ants
(_Lasius flavus_) collect flocks of root-feeding aphids in their
underground nests, protect them, build earthen shelters over them, and
take the greatest care of their eggs. Other ants, such as the British
black garden species (_L. niger_), go after the aphids that frequent the
shoots of plants. Many species of aphid migrate from one plant to another
at certain stages in their life-cycle when their numbers have very
largely increased, and F.M. Webster has observed ants, foreseeing this
emigration, to carry aphids from apple trees to grasses. It has been
shown by M. Busgen that the sweet secretion (honey-dew) of the aphids is
not derived, as generally believed, from the paired cornicles on the
fifth abdominal segment, but from the intestine, whence it exudes in
drops and is swallowed by the ants.

Besides the aphids, other insects, such as scale insects (_Coccidae_),
caterpillars of blue butterflies (_Lycaenidae_), and numerous beetles,
furnish the ants with nutrient secretions. The number of species of
beetles that inhabit ants' nests is almost incredibly large, and most of
these are never found elsewhere, being blind, helpless and dependent on
the ants' care for protection and food; these beetles belong for the
most part to the families _Pselaphidae, Paussidae_ and _Staphylinidae_.
Spring-tails and bristle-tails (order _Aptera_) of several species also
frequent ants' nests. While some of these "guest" insects produce
secretions that furnish the ants with food, some seem to be useless
inmates of the nest, obtaining food from the ants and giving nothing in
return. Others again play the part of thieves in the ant society; C.
Janet observed a small bristle-tail (_Lepismima_) to lurk beneath the
heads of two Lasius workers, while one passed food to the other, in
order to steal the drop of nourishment and to make off with it. The same
naturalist describes the association with Lasius of small mites
(_Antennophorus_) which are carried about by the worker ants, one of
which may have a mite beneath her mouth, and another on either side of
her abdomen. On patting their carrier or some passing ant, the mites are
supplied with food, no service being rendered by them in return for the
ants' care. Perhaps the ants derive from these seemingly useless guests
the same satisfaction as we obtain by keeping pet animals. Recent
advance in our knowledge of the guests and associates of ants is due
principally to E. Wasmann, who has compiled a list of nearly 1500
species of insects, arachnids and crustaceans, inhabiting ants' nests.
The warmth, shelter and abundant food in the nests, due both to the
fresh supplies brought in by the ants and to the large amount of waste
matter that accumulates, must prove strongly attractive to the various
"guests." Some of the inmates of ants' nests are here for the purpose of
preying upon the ants or their larvae, so that we find all kinds of
relations between the owners of the nests and their companions, from
mutual benefit to active hostility.

Among these associations or guests other species of ants are not
wanting. For example, a minute species (_Solenopsis fugax_) lives in a
compound nest with various species of _Formica_, forming narrow
galleries which open into the larger galleries of its host. The
_Solenopsis_ can make its way into the territory of the _Formica_ to
steal the larvae which serve it as food, but the _Formica_ is too large
to pursue the thief when it returns to its own galleries.

_Slaves._--Several species of ants are found in association with another
species which stands to them in the relation of slave to master.
_Formica sanguinea_ is a well-known European slave-making ant that
inhabits England; its workers raid the nests of _F. fusca_ and other
species, and carry off to their own nests pupae from which workers are
developed that live contentedly as slaves of their captors. _F.
sanguinea_ can live either with or without slaves, but another European
ant (_Polyergus rufescens_) is so dependent on its slaves--various
species of _Formica_--that its workers are themselves unable to feed the
larvae. The remarkable genus _Anergates_ has no workers, and its
wingless males and females are served by communities of _Tetramorium
cespitum_ (fig. 3).

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Ant, _Tetramorium cespitum_ (Linn.), a, Female;
b, female after loss of wings; c, male; d, worker; e, larva; g, pupa; f,
head of larva more highly magnified. After Marlatt, _Bull_. 4 (n.s.)
_Div. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agriculture_]

_Senses and Intelligence of Ants._--That ants possess highly developed
senses and the power of communicating with one another has long been
known to students of their habits; the researches of P. Huber and Sir J.
Lubbock (Lord Avebury) on these subjects are familiar to all
naturalists. The insects are guided by light, being very sensitive to
ultra-violet rays, and also by scent and hearing. Recent experiments by
A.M. Fielde show that an ant follows her own old track by a scent
exercised by the tenth segment of the feeler, recognizes other inmates
of her nest by a sense of smell resident in the eleventh segment, is
guided to the eggs, maggots and pupae, which she has to tend, by
sensation through the eighth and ninth segments, and appreciates the
general smell of the nest itself by means of organs in the twelfth
segment. Lubbock's experiments of inducing ants to seek objects that had
been removed show that they are guided by scent rather than by sight,
and that any disturbance of their surroundings often causes great
uncertainty in their actions. Ants invite one another to work, or ask
for food from one another, by means of pats with the feelers; and they
respond to the solicitations of their guest--beetles or mites, who ask
for food by patting the ants with their feet. In all probability the
actions of ants are for the most part instinctive or reflex, and some
observers, such as A. Bethe, deny them all claim to psychical qualities.
But it seems impossible to doubt that in many cases ants behave in a
manner that must be considered intelligent, that they can learn by
experience and that they possess memory. Lubbock goes so far as to
conclude the account of his experiments with the remark that "It is
difficult altogether to deny them the gift of reason ... their mental
powers differ from those of men, not so much in kind as in degree."
Wasmann considers that ants are neither miniature human beings nor mere
reflex automata, and most students of their habits will probably accept
this intermediate position as the most satisfactory. C.L. Morgan sums up
a discussion on Lubbock's experiments in which the ants failed to
utilize particles of earth for bridge-making, with the suggestive remark
that "What these valuable experiments seem to show is that the ant,
probably the most intelligent of all insects, has no claim to be
regarded as a rational being." Nevertheless, ants can teach "rational
beings" many valuable lessons.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature on ants is so vast that it is only
  possible to refer the reader to a few of the most important works on
  the family. Pierre Huber's _Traite des moeurs des fourmis indigenes_
  (Geneve, 1810) is the most famous of the older memoirs. H.W. Bates, _A
  Naturalist on the Amazons_; T. Belt, _A Naturalist in Nicaragua_; H.C.
  McCook, _Agricultural Ant of Texas_ (Philadelphia, 1880); and A.
  Moller's paper in _Botan. Mitt, aus den Tropen_, (1893), contain
  classical observations on American species. Sir J. Lubbock's (Lord
  Avebury) _Ants, Bees and Wasps_ (London 1882), dealing with British
  and European species, has been followed by numerous important papers
  by A. Forel and C. Emery in various Swiss and German periodicals, and
  especially by C. Janet in his _Etudes sur les fourmis, les guepes et
  les abeilles_ (Paris, &c., 1893-1904). Forel (_Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg._
  xlvii., 1893, _Journ. Bomnay N.H. Soc._ 1900-1903, and _Biologia Cent.
  Americana_) and Emery (_Zool. Jahrb. Syst._ viii., 1896) have written
  on the classification of the _Formicidae_. Among recent American
  writers on habit may be mentioned W.M. Wheeler (_American Naturalist_,
  1900-1902) and A.M. Fielde (_Proc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia_, 1901); E.
  Wasmann (_Kritisches Verzeichniss der myrmecophilen und termitophilen
  Arthropoden_, Berlin, 1894, and _3^me Congres Intern. Zool._ 1895) is
  the great authority on ant-guests and associates. D. Sharp's general
  account of ants in the _Cambridge Nat. Hist_. (vol. vi., 1898) is
  excellent. For discussions on intelligence see A. Bethe, _Journ. f. d.
  ges. Physiol._ lxx. (1898); Wasmann, _Die psychischen Fahigkeiten der
  Ameisen_ (Stuttgart, 1899); C. Ll. Morgan, _Animal Behaviour_ (London,
  1900.)     (G. H. C.)




ANTAE (a Lat. plural word, possibly from _ante_, before), an
architectural term given to slightly projecting pilaster strips which
terminate the winged walls of the naos of a Greek temple. They owe their
origin to the vertical posts of timber employed in the primitive palaces
or temples of Greece, as at Tiryns and in the Heraeum at Olympia, to
carry the roof timbers, as no reliance could be placed on the walls
built with unburnt brick or in rubble masonry with clay mortar. When
between these winged walls there are columns to carry the architrave, so
as to form a porch, the latter is said to be in-antis. (See TEMPLE.)




ANTAEUS, in Greek mythology, a giant of Libya, the son of Poseidon and
Gaea. He compelled all strangers passing through the country to wrestle
with him, and as, when thrown, he derived fresh strength from each
successive contact with his mother earth, he proved invincible. With the
skulls of those whom he had slain he built a temple to his father.
Heracles, in combat with him, discovered the source of his strength, and
lifting him up from the earth crushed him to death (Apollodorus ii. 5;
Hyginus, _Fab_. 31). The struggle between Antaeus and Heracles is a
favourite subject in ancient sculpture.




ANTALCIDAS, Spartan soldier and diplomatist. In 393 (or 392 B.C.) he was
sent to Tiribazus, satrap of Sardis, to undermine the friendly relations
then existing between Athens and Persia by offering to recognize Persian
claims to the whole of Asia Minor. The Athenians sent an embassy under
Conon to counteract his efforts. Tiribazus, who was favourable to
Sparta, threw Conon into prison, but Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) disapproved
and recalled his satrap. In 388 Antalcidas, then commander of the
Spartan fleet, accompanied Tiribazus to the Persian court, and secured
the active assistance of Persia against Athens. The success of his naval
operations in the neighbourhood of the Hellespont was such that Athens
was glad to accept terms of peace (the "Peace of Antalcidas"), by which
(1) the whole of Asia Minor, with the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus,
was recognized as subject to Persia, (2) all other Greek cities--so far
as they were not under Persian rule--were to be independent, except
Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros, which were to belong, as formerly, to the
Athenians. The terms were announced to the Greek envoys at Sardis in the
winter 387-386, and were finally accepted by Sparta in 386. Antalcidas
continued in favour with Artaxerxes, until the annihilation of Spartan
supremacy at Leuctra diminished his influence. A final mission to
Persia, probably in 367, was a failure, and Antalcidas, deeply chagrined
and fearful of the consequences, is said to have starved himself to
death. (See SPARTA.)




ANTANANARIVO, i.e. "town of a thousand" (Fr. spelling _Tananarive_), the
capital of Madagascar, situated centrally as regards the length of the
island, but only about 90 m. distant from the eastern coast, in 18 deg.
55' S., 47 deg. 30' E. It is 135 m. W.S.W. of Tamatave, the principal
seaport of the island, with which it is connected by railway, and for
about 60 m. along the coast lagoons, a service of small steamers. The
city occupies a commanding position, being chiefly built on the summit
and slopes of a long and narrow rocky ridge, which extends north and
south for about 2-1/2 m., dividing to the north in a Y-shape, and rising
at its highest point to 690 ft. above the extensive rice plain to the
west, which is itself 4060 ft. above sea-level. For long only the
principal village of the Hova chiefs, Antananarivo advanced in
importance as those chiefs made themselves sovereigns of the greater
part of Madagascar, until it became a town of some 80,000 inhabitants.
Until 1869 all buildings within the city proper were of wood or rush,
but even then it possessed several timber palaces of considerable size,
the largest being 120 ft. high. These crown the summit of the central
portion of the ridge; and the largest palace, with its lofty roof and
towers, is the most conspicuous object from every point of view. Since
the introduction of stone and brick, the whole city has been rebuilt and
now contains numerous structures of some architectural pretension, the
royal palaces, the houses formerly belonging to the prime minister and
nobles, the French residency, the Anglican and Roman Catholic
cathedrals, several stone churches, as well as others of brick,
colleges, schools, hospitals, courts of justice and other government
buildings, and hundreds of good dwelling-houses. Since the French
conquest in 1895 good roads have been constructed throughout the city,
broad flights of steps connect places too steep for the formation of
carriage roads, and the central space, called Andohalo, has become a
handsome _place_, with walks and terraces, flower-beds and trees. A
small park has been laid out near the residency, and the planting of
trees and the formation of gardens in various parts of the city give it
a bright and attractive appearance. Water is obtained from springs at
the foot of the hill, but it is proposed to bring an abundant supply
from the river Ikopa, which skirts the capital to the south and west.
The population, including that of the suburbs, is 69,000 (1907). The
city is guarded by two forts built on hills to the east and south-west
respectively. Including an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral,
there are about fifty churches in the city and its suburbs, as well as a
Mahommedan mosque.     (J. Si.*)




'ANTARA IBN SHADDAD, Arabian poet and warrior of the 6th century, was
famous both for his poetry and his adventurous life. His chief poem is
contained in the _Mo'allakat_. The account of his life forms the basis
of a long and extravagant romance. His father Shaddad was a soldier, his
mother Zabuba a negro slave. Neglected at first, he soon claimed
attention and respect for himself, and by his remarkable personal
qualities and courage in battle he gained his freedom and the
acknowledgment of his father. He took part in the great war between the
related tribes of Abs and Dhubyan, which began over a contest of horses
and was named after them the war of Dahis and Ghabra. He died in a
fight against the tribe of Tai. His poems, which are chiefly concerned
with fighting or with his love for Abla, are published in W. Ahlwardt's
_The Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets_ (London, 1870); they have
also been published separately at Beirut (1888). As regards their
genuineness, cf. W. Ahlwardt's _Bemerkungen uber die Aechtheit der alten
arabichen Gedichte_ (Greifswald, 1872), pp. 50 ff. _The Romance of
'Antar_ (Sirat 'Antar ibn Shaddad) is a work which was long handed down
by oral tradition only, has grown to immense proportions and has been
published in 32 vols. at Cairo, 1307 (A.D. 1889), and in 10 vols. at
Beirut, 1871. It was partly translated by Terrick Hamilton under the
title _'Antar, a Bedoueen Romance_ (4 vols., London, 1820).

  For an account of the poet and his works see H. Thorbeckes, _Antarah,
  ein vorislamischer Dichter_ (Leipzig, 1867), and cf. the _Book of
  Songs_ (see ABULFARAJ), vol. vii. pp. 148-153.     (G. W. T.)




ANTARCTIC (Gr. [Greek: anti], opposite, and [Greek: arktos], the Bear,
the northern constellation of _Ursa Major_), the epithet applied to the
region (including both the ocean and the lands) round the South Pole.
The Antarctic circle is drawn at 66 deg. 30' S., but polar conditions of
climate, &c., extend considerably north of the area thus enclosed. (See
POLAR REGIONS.)




ANTEATER, a term applied to several mammals, but (zoologically at any
rate) specially indicating the tropical American anteaters of the family
_Myrmecophagidae_ (see EDENTATA). The typical and largest representative
of the group is the great anteater or ant-bear (_Myrmecophaga jubata_),
an animal measuring 4 ft. in length without the tail, and 2 ft. in
height at the shoulder. Its prevailing colour is grey, with a broad
black band, bordered with white, commencing on the chest, and passing
obliquely over the shoulder, diminishing gradually in breadth as it
approaches the loins, where it ends in a point. It is extensively
distributed in the tropical parts of South and Central America,
frequenting low swampy savannas, along the banks of rivers, and the
depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere abundant. Its food consists
mainly of termites, to obtain which it opens their nests with its
powerful sharp anterior claws, and as the insects swarm to the damaged
part of their dwelling, it draws them into its mouth by means of its
long, flexible, rapidly moving tongue covered with glutinous saliva. The
great anteater is terrestrial in habits, not burrowing underground like
armadillos. Though generally an inoffensive animal, when attacked it can
defend itself vigorously and effectively with its sabre-like anterior
claws. The female produces a single young at a birth. The tamandua
anteaters, as typified by _Tamandua_ (or _Uroleptes_) _tetradactyla_,
are much smaller than the great anteater, and differ essentially from it
in their habits, being mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval
forests of South and Central America. The usual colour is
yellowish-white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the
whole of the side of the body.

The little or two-toed anteater (_Cyclopes_ or _Cycloturus didactylus_)
is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central America, and about
the size of a rat, of a general yellowish colour, and exclusively
arboreal in its habits. The name scaly anteater is applied to the
pangolin (q.v.); the banded anteater (_Myrmecobius fasciatus_) is a
marsupial, and the spiny anteater (_Echidna_) is one of the monotremes
(see MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA).




ANTE-CHAPEL, the term given to that portion of a chapel which lies on
the western side of the choir screen. In some of the colleges at Oxford
and Cambridge the ante-chapel is carried north and south across the west
end of the chapel, constituting a western transept or narthex. This
model, based on Merton College chapel (13th century), of which only
chancel and transept were built though a nave was projected, was
followed at Wadham, New and Magdalen Colleges, Oxford, in the new chapel
of St John's College, Cambridge, and in Eton College. In Jesus College,
Cambridge, the transept and a short nave constitute the ante-chapel; in
Clare College an octagonal vestibule serves the same purpose; and in
Christ's, Trinity and King's Colleges, Cambridge, the ante-chapel is a
portion of the main chapel, divided off from the chancel by the choir
screen.




ANTE-CHOIR, the term given to the space enclosed in a church between the
outer gate or railing of the rood screen and the door of the screen;
sometimes there is only one rail, gate or door, but in Westminster Abbey
it is equal in depth to one bay of the nave. The ante-choir is also
called the "fore choir."




ANTE-FIXAE (from Lat. _antefigere_, to fasten before), the vertical
blocks which terminate the covering tiles of the roof of a Greek temple;
as spaced they take the place of the cymatium and form a cresting along
the sides of the temple. The face of the ante-fixae was richly carved
with the anthemion (q.v.) ornament.




ANTELOPE, a zoological name which, so far as can be determined, appears
to trace its origin, through the Latin, to _Pantholops_, the old Coptic,
and _Antholops_, the late Greek name of the fabled unicorn. Its adoption
by the languages of Europe cannot apparently be traced farther back than
the 4th century of our era, at which date it was employed to designate
an imaginary animal living on the banks of the Euphrates. By the earlier
English naturalists, and afterwards by Buffon, it was, however, applied
to the Indian blackbuck, which is thus entitled to rank as _the_
antelope. It follows that the subfamily typified by this species, in
which are included the gazelles, is the one to which alone the term
antelopes should be applied if it were employed in a restricted and
definable sense.

Although most people have a general vague idea of what constitutes an
"antelope," yet the group of animals thus designated is one that does
not admit of accurate limitations or definition. Some, for instance, may
consider that the chamois and the so-called white goat of the Rocky
Mountains are entitled to be included in the group; but this is not the
view held by the authors of the _Book of Antelopes_ referred to below;
and, as a matter of fact, the term is only a vague designation for a
number of more or less distinct groups of hollow-horned ruminants which
do not come under the designation of cattle, sheep or goats; and in
reality there ought to be a distinct English group-name for each
subfamily into which "antelopes" are subdivided.

The great majority of antelopes, exclusive of the doubtful chamois group
(which, however, will be included in the present article), are African,
although the gazelles are to a considerable extent an Asiatic group.
They include ruminants varying in size from a hare to an ox; and
comprise about 150 species, although this number is subject to
considerable variation according to personal views as to the limitations
of species and races. No true antelopes are American, the prongbuck
(_Antilocapra_), which is commonly called "antelope" in the United
States, representing a distinct group; while, as already mentioned, the
Rocky Mountain or white goat stands on the borderland between antelopes
and goats.

The first group, or _Tragelaphinae_, is represented by the African
elands (_Taurotragus_), bongo (_Boocercus_), kudus (_Strepsiceros_) and
bushbucks or harnessed antelopes (_Tragelaphus_), and the Indian nilgai
(_Boselaphus_). Except in the bongo and elands, horns are present only
in the males, and these are angulated and generally spirally twisted,
and without rings. The muzzle is naked, small glands are present on the
face below the eyes, and the tail is comparatively long. The colours are
often brilliant; white spots and stripes being prevalent. The harnessed
antelopes, or bushbucks, are closely allied to the kudus, from which
they chiefly differ by the spiral formed by the horns generally having
fewer turns. They include some of the most brilliantly coloured of all
antelopes; the ornamentation taking the form of vertical white lines and
rows of spots. Usually the sexes differ in colour. Whereas most of the
species have hoofs of normal shape, in some, such as the nakong, or
situtunga (_Tragelaphus spekei_), these are greatly elongated, in order
to be suited for walking in soft mud, and these have accordingly been
separated as _Limnotragus_. The last-named species spends most of its
time in water, where it may be observed not infrequently among the reeds
with all but its head and horns submerged. The true or smaller
bushbucks, represented by the widely spread _Tragelaphus scriptus_, with
several local races (fig. 1) are sometimes separated as _Sylvicapra_,
leaving the genus _Tragelaphus_ to be represented by the larger _T.
angasi_ and its relatives. The genus _Strepsiceros_ is represented by
the true or great kudu (_S. capensis_ or _S. strepsiceros_), fig. 2,
ranging from the Cape to Somaliland, and the smaller _S. imberbis_ of
North-East Africa, which has no throat-fringe. The large and brightly
coloured bongo (_Boocercus euryceros_) of the equatorial
forest-districts serves in some respects to connect the bushbucks with
the elands, having horns in both sexes, and a tufted tail, but a
brilliant orange coat with vertical white stripes. Still larger are the
elands, of which the typical _Taurotragus oryx_ of the Cape is uniformly
sandy-coloured, although stripes appear in the more northern _T. o.
livingstonei_, while the black-necked eland (_T. derbianus_) of
Senegambia and the Bahr-el-Ghazal district is a larger and more
brilliantly coloured animal. The small horns and bluish-grey colour of
the adult bulls serve to distinguish the Indian nilgai (q.v.),
_Boselaphus tragocamdus_, from the other members of the subfamily.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Female Bushbuck (_Tragelaphus scriptus_).]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Male Kudu (_Strepsicero capensis_).]

The second group, which is mainly African, but also represented in
Syria, is that of the _Hippotraginae_, typified by the sable antelope
(_Hippotragus niger_) and roan antelope (_H. equinus_), but also
including the oryxes (_Oryx_) and addax. These are for the most part
large antelopes, with long cylindrical horns, which are present in both
sexes, hairy muzzles, no face-glands, long tufted tails and tall thick
molars of the ox-type. In _Hippotragus_ the stout and thickly ringed
horns rise vertically from a ridge above the eyes at an obtuse angle to
the plane of the lower part of the face, and then sweep backwards in a
bold curve; while there are tufts of long white hairs near the eyes. The
sable antelope is a southern species in which both sexes are black or
blackish when adult, while the lighter-coloured and larger roan antelope
has a much wider distribution. The South African blauwbok (_H.
leucophaeus_) is extinct. In the addax (_Addax nasomaculatus_), which is
a distinct species common to North Africa and Syria, the ringed horns
form an open spiral ascending in the plane of the face, and there is
long, shaggy, dark hair on the fore-quarters in winter. The various
species of oryx differ from _Hippotragus_ by the absence of the white
eye-tufts, and by the horns sloping backwards in the plane of the face.
In the South African gemsbuck (_Oryx gazella_), fig. 3, the East African
beisa or true oryx (_O. beisa_), and the white Arabian (_O. beatrix_)
the horns are straight, but in the North African white oryx or algazel
(_O. leucoryx_ or _O. algazal_) they are scimitar-shaped, the colour of
this species being white and pale chestnut (see ADDAX, ORYX, and SABLE
ANTELOPE).

The third subfamily is the _Antilopinae_, the members of which have a
much wider geographical range than either of the foregoing groups. The
subfamily is characterized by the narrow crowns of the molars, which are
similar to those of sheep, and the hairy muzzle. Generally there are
face-glands below the eyes; and the tail is moderate or short. Pits are
present in the forehead of the skull, and the horns are ringed for part
of their length, with a compressed base, their form being often lyrate,
but sometimes spiral. Lateral hoofs are generally present.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Gemsbuck, or Cape Oryx (_Oryx gazella_).]

Gazelles (_Gazella_), which form by far the largest genus of the
subfamily, are inhabitants of open and frequently more or less desert
districts. They are mostly of a sandy colour, with dark and light
markings on the face, and often a dark band on the flanks. The horns are
more or less lyrate, and generally developed in both sexes; there are
frequently brushes of hair on the knees. Gazelles may be divided into
groups. The one to which the North African _G. dorcas_ belongs is
characterized by the presence of lyrate or sub-lyrate horns in both
sexes, and by the white of the buttocks not extending on to the
haunches. Nearly allied is the group including the Indian _G. bennetti_
and the Arabian _G. arabica_, in which the horns have a somewhat
S-shaped curvature in profile. In the group represented by the African
_G. granti_, _G. thomsoni_, _G. mohr_, &c., the white of the buttocks
often sends a prolongation on to the flanks, the horns are long and the
size is large. Lastly, the Central Asian _G. gutturosa_, _G.
subgutturosa_ and _G. picticaudata_ form a group in which the females
are hornless and the face-markings inconspicuous or wanting.

The South African springbuck (_Antidorcas euchore_) is nearly related to
the gazelles, from which it is distinguished by the presence on the
middle line of the loins of an evertible pouch, lined with long white
hairs capable of erection. It has also one premolar tooth less in the
lower jaw. Formerly these beautiful antelopes existed in countless
numbers on the plains of South Africa, and were in the habit of
migrating in droves which completely filled entire valleys. Now they are
comparatively rare.

The dibatag or Clarke's gazelle (_Ammodorcas clarkei_), of Somaliland,
forms a kind of connecting link between the true gazelles and the
gerenuk, this being especially shown in the skull. The face has the
ordinary gazelle-markings; but the rather short horns--which are wanting
in the female--have a peculiar upward and forward curvature, unlike that
obtaining in the gazelles and somewhat resembling that of the reedbuck.
The neck is longer and more slender than in ordinary gazelles, and the
tail is likewise relatively long. Although local, these animals are
fairly common in the interior of Somaliland, where they are known by the
name of dibatag. In running, the head and neck are thrown backwards,
while the tail is turned forwards over the back.

The East African gerenuk (q.v.), or Waller's gazelle (_Lithocranius
walleri_), of which two races have been named, is a very remarkable
ruminant, distinguished not only by its exceedingly elongated neck and
limbs, but also by the peculiar hooked form of the very massive horns of
the bucks, the dense structure and straight profile of the skull, and
the extreme slenderness of the lower jaw.

A still more aberrant gazelle is a small North-East African species
known as the beira (_Dorcatragus melanotis_), with very short horns,
large hoofs and a general appearance recalling that of some of the
members of the subfamily _Neotraginae_, although in other respects
gazelle-like. The blackbuck (_Antilope cervicapra_ or _A. bezoartica_)
of India, a species taking its name from the deep black coat assumed by
the adult bucks, and easily recognized by the graceful, spirally twisted
horns ornamenting the heads of that sex, is now the sole representative
of the genus _Antilope_, formerly taken to embrace the whole of the true
antelopes. Large face-glands are characteristic of the species, which
inhabits the open plains of India in large herds. They leap high in the
air, like the springbuck, when on the move.

With the palla (q.v.), or impala (_Aepyceros melampus_), we reach an
exclusively African genus, characterized by the lyrate horns of the
bucks, the absence of lateral hoofs, and the presence of a pair of
glands with black tufts of hair on the hind-feet.

The sheep-like saiga (q.v.), _Saiga tatarica_, of the Kirghiz steppes
stands apart from all other antelopes by its curiously puffed and
trunk-like nose, which can be wrinkled up when the animal is feeding and
has the nostrils opening downwards. More or less nearly related to the
saiga is the chiru (q.v.), _Pantholops hodgsoni_ of Tibet, characterized
by the long upright black horns of the bucks, and the less convex nose,
in which the nostrils open anteriorly instead of downwards.

The _Neotraginae_ (or _Nanotraginae_) form an exclusively African group
of small-sized antelopes divided into several, for the most part nearly
related, genera. Almost the only characters they possess in common are
the short and spike-like horns of the bucks, which are ringed at the
base, with smooth tips, and the large size of the face-gland, which
opens by a circular aperture. _Neotragus_ is represented by the pigmy
royal antelope (_N. pygmaeus_) of Guinea; _Hylarnus_ includes one
species from Cameroon and a second from the Semliki forest; while
_Nesotragus_ comprises the East African suni antelopes, _N. moschatus_
and _N. livingstonianus_. All three might, however, well be included in
_Neotragus_. The royal antelope is the smallest of the Bovidae.

The steinbok (_Rhaphiceros campestris_) and the _grysbok_ (_R.
melanotis_) are the best-known representatives of a group characterized
by the vertical direction of the horns and the small gland-pit in the
skull; lateral hoofs being absent in the first-named and present in the
second. A bare gland-patch behind the ear serves to distinguish the
oribis or ourebis, as typified by _Oribia montana_ of the Cape; lateral
hoofs being present and the face-pit large.

From all the preceding the tiny dik-diks (_Madoqua_) of North-East
Africa differ by their hairy noses, expanded in some species into short
trunks; while the widely spread klipspringer (q.v.), _Oreotragus
saltator_, with its several local races, is unfailingly distinguishable
by its rounded blunt hoofs and thick, brittle, golden-flecked hair.

In some respects connecting the last group with the _Cervicaprinae_ is
the rhebok, or vaal-rhebok (_Pelea capreolus_), a grey antelope of the
size of a roebuck, with small upright horns in the bucks recalling those
of the last group, and small lateral hoofs, but no face-glands. In size
and several structural features it approximates to the more typical
_Cervicaprinae_, as represented by the reedbuck (_Cervicapra_), and the
waterbucks and kobs (_Cobus_ or _Kobus_), all of which are likewise
African. These are medium-sized or large antelopes with naked muzzles,
narrow sheep-like upper molars, fairly long tails, rudimentary or no
face-glands, and pits in the frontal bones of the skull. Reedbuck
(q.v.), or rietbok (_Cervicapra_), are foxy-red antelopes ranging in
size from a fallow-deer to a roe, with thick bushy tails, forwardly
curving black horns, and a bare patch of glandular skin behind each ear.
They keep to open country near water. The waterbuck (q.v.), _Cobus_, on
the other hand, actually seek refuge from pursuit in the water. They
have heavily fringed necks, tufted tails, long lyrate horns in the bucks
(fig. 4) but no glandular ear-patches. The true waterbuck (_C.
ellipsiprymnus_), and the defassa or sing-sing (_C. defassa_), are the
two largest species, equal in size to red deer, and grey or reddish in
colour. Of the smaller forms or kobs, _C. maria_ and _C. leucotis_ of
the swamps of the White Nile are characterized by the black coats of the
adult bucks; the West African _C. cob_, and its East African
representative _C. thomasi_, are wholly red antelopes of the size of
roedeer; the lichi or lechwe (_C. lichi_) is characterized by its long
horns, black fore-legs and superior size; while the puku (_C. vardoni_),
which is also a swamp-loving species from South-Central Africa, differs
from the three preceding species by the fore-legs being uniformly foxy.

[Ilustration: FIG. 4.--Waterbuck (_Cobus ellipsiprymnus_).]

The duikers, or duikerboks (_Cephalophus_), of Africa, which range in
size from a large hare to a fallow-deer, typify the subfamily
_Cephalophinae_, characterized by the spike-like horns of the bucks, the
elongated aperture of the face-glands, the naked muzzle, the relatively
short tail, and the square-crowned upper molars; lateral hoofs being
present. In the duikers themselves the single pair of horns is set in
the midst of a tuft of long hairs, and the face-gland opens in a long
naked line on the side of the face above the muzzle. The group is
represented in India by the chousingha or four-horned antelope
(_Tetraceros quadricornis_), generally distinguished by the feature from
which it takes its name (see DUIKER).

The last section of the true antelopes is the _Bubalinae_, represented
by the hartebeest (q.v.), _Bubalis_, blesbok and sassaby (_Damaliscus_),
and the gnu (q.v.) or wildebeest (_Connochaetes_, also called
_Catoblepas_), all being African with the exception of one or two
hartebeests which range into Syria. All these are large and generally
more or less uniformly coloured antelopes with horns in both sexes, long
and more or less hairy tails, high withers, small face-glands, naked
muzzles, tall, narrow upper molars, and the absence of pits in the
frontal bones. The long face, high crest for the horns, which are
ringed, lyrate and more or less strongly angulated, and the moderately
long tail, are the distinctive features of the hartebeests. They are
large red antelopes (fig. 5), often with black markings on the face and
limbs. In _Damaliscus_, which includes, among many other species, the
blesbok and bontebok (_D. albifrons_ and _D. pygargus_) and the sassaby
or bastard hartebeest (_D. lunatus_), the face is shorter, and the horns
straighter and set on a less elevated crest. The colour, too, of these
antelopes tends in many cases to purple, with white markings. From the
hartebeest the gnus (fig. 6) differ by their smooth and outwardly or
downwardly directed horns, broad bristly muzzles, heavy manes and long
horse-like tails. There are two chief types, the white-tailed gnu or
black wildebeest (_Connochaetes gnu_) of South Africa, now nearly
extinct (fig. 6), and the brindled gnu, or blue wildebeest (_C.
taurinus_), which, with some local variation, has a large range in South
and East Africa.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Cape Hartebeest (_Bubalis cama_).]

[Illustration: FIG. 6.--White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest
(_Connochaetes gnu_).]

In concluding this survey of living antelopes, reference may be made to
the subfamily _Rupicaprinae_ (typified by the European chamois), the
members of which, as already stated, are in some respects intermediate
between antelopes and goats. They are all small or medium-sized mountain
ruminants, for the most part European and Asiatic, but with one North
American representative. They are heavily built ruminants, with horns of
nearly equal size in both sexes, short tapering tails, large hoofs,
narrow goat-like upper molars, and usually small face-glands. The horns
are generally rather small, upright, ringed at the base, and more or
less curved backwards, but in the takin they are gnu-like. The group is
represented by the European chamois or gemse (_Rupicapra tragus_ or _R.
rupicapra_), broadly distinguished by its well-known hook-like horns,
and the Asiatic gorals (_Urotragus_) and serows (_Nemorhaedus_), which
are represented by numerous species ranging from Tibet, the Himalaya,
and China, to the Malay Peninsula and islands, being in the two latter
areas the sole representatives of both antelopes and goats. In the
structure of its horns the North American white Rocky Mountain goat
(_Oreamnus_) is very like a serow, from which it differs by its
extremely short cannon-bones. In the latter respect this ruminant
resembles the takin (_Budorcas_) of Tibet, which, as already mentioned,
has horns recalling those of the white-tailed gnu. Possibly the Arctic
musk-ox (_Ovibos_) may be connected with the takin by means of certain
extinct ruminants, such as the North American Pleistocene
_Euceratherium_ and the European Pliocene _Criotherium_ (see CHAMOIS,
GORAL, SEROW, ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT and TAKIN).

_Extinct Antelopes._--Only a few lines can be devoted to extinct
antelopes, the earliest of which apparently date from the European
Miocene. An antelope from the Lower Pliocene of Northern India known as
_Bubalis_, or _Damaliscus, palaeindicus_ indicates the occurrence of the
hartebeest group in that country. _Cobus_ also occurs in the same
formation, as does likewise _Hippotragus_. _Palaeoryx_ from the
corresponding horizon in Greece and Samos is to some extent intermediate
between _Hippotragus_ and _Oryx_. Gazelles are common in the Miocene and
Pliocene of both Europe and Asia. Elands and kudus appear to have been
represented in India during the Pliocene; the European _Palaeoreas_ of
the same age seems to be intermediate between the two, while
_Protragelaphus_ is evidently another European representative of the
group. _Helicophora_ is another spiral-horned European Pliocene
antelope, but of somewhat doubtful affinity; the same being the case
with the large _Criotherium_ of the Samos Pliocene, in which the short
horns are curiously twisted. As already stated, there is a possibility
of this latter ruminant being allied both to the takin and the musk-ox.
_Palaeotragus_ and _Tragoceros_, of the Lower Pliocene of Greece, at one
time regarded as antelopes, are now known to be ancestors of the okapi.

  For antelopes in general, see P.L. Sclater and O. Thomas, _The Book of
  Antelopes_ (4 vols., London, 1894-1900).     (R. L.*)




ANTEMNAE (Lat. _ante amnem_, sc. _Anienem_; Varro, _Ling. Lat_. v. 28),
an ancient village of Latium, situated on the W. of the Via Salaria, 2
m. N. of Rome, where the Anio falls into the Tiber. It is said to have
been conquered by Romulus after the rape of the Sabine women, and to
have assisted the Tarquins. Certainly it soon lost its independence, and
in Strabo's time was a mere village. The site is one of great strength,
and is now occupied by a fort, in the construction of which traces of
the outer walls and of huts, and several wells and a cistern, all
belonging to the primitive village, were discovered, and also the
remains of a villa of the end of the Republic.

  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii. 14.




ANTENOR, an Athenian sculptor, of the latter part of the 6th century
B.C. He was the author of the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius and
Aristogeiton, set up by the Athenians on the expulsion of the
Peisistratidae, and carried away to Persia by Xerxes. A basis with the
signature of Antenor, son of Eumares, has been shown to belong to one of
the dedicated female figures of archaic style which have been found on
the Acropolis of Athens.

  See GREEK ART; and E.A. Gardner's _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_, i. p.
  182.




ANTENOR, in Greek legend, one of the wisest of the Trojan elders and
counsellors. He advised his fellow-townsmen to send Helen back to her
husband, and showed himself not unfriendly to the Greeks and an advocate
of peace. In the later story, according to Dares and Dictys, he was said
to have treacherously opened the gates of Troy to the enemy; in return
for which, at the general sack of the city, his house, distinguished by
a panther's skin at the door, was spared by the victors. Afterwards,
according to various versions of the legend, he either rebuilt a city
on the site of Troy, or settled at Cyrene, or became the founder of
Patavium.

  Homer, _Iliad_, iii. 148, vii. 347; Horace, _Epp_. i. 2. 9; Livy i. 1;
  Pindar, _Pythia_, v. 83; Virgil, _Aen_. i. 242.




ANTEQUERA (the ancient _Anticaria_), a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Malaga; on the Bobadilla-Granada railway. Pop. (1900)
31,609. Antequera overlooks the fertile valley bounded on the S. by the
Sierra de los Torcales, and on the N. by the river Guadalhorce. It
occupies a commanding position, while the remains of its walls, and of a
fine Moorish castle on a rock that overhangs the town, show how
admirably its natural defences were supplemented by art. Besides several
interesting churches and palaces, it contains a fine arch, erected in
1595 in honour of Philip II., and partly constructed of inscribed Roman
masonry. In the eastern suburbs there is one of the largest grave-mounds
in Spain, said to be of prehistoric date, and with subterranean chambers
excavated to a depth of 65 ft. The Pena de los Enamorados, or "Lovers'
Peak," is a conspicuous crag which owes its name to the romantic legend
adapted by Robert Southey (1774-1843) in his _Laila and Manuel_. Woollen
fabrics are manufactured, and the sugar industry established in 1890
employs several thousand hands; but the majority of the inhabitants are
occupied by the trade in grain, fruit, wine and oil. Marble is quarried;
and at El Torcal, 6 m. south, there is a very curious labyrinth of red
marble rocks. Antequera was captured from the Moors in 1410, and became
until 1492 one of the most important outposts of the Christian power in
Spain.

  See C. Fernandez, _Historia de Antequera, desde su fondacion_ (Malaga,
  1842).




ANTEROS, pope for some weeks at the end of the year 235. He died on the
3rd of January 236. His original epitaph was discovered in the
Catacombs.




ANTHELION (late Gr. [Greek: anthelios], opposite the sun), the luminous
ring or halo sometimes seen in Alpine or polar regions surrounding the
shadow of the head of an observer cast upon a bank of cloud or mist. The
halo diminishes in brightness from the centre outwards, and is probably
due to the diffraction of light. Under favourable conditions four
concentric rings may be seen round the shadow of the observer's head,
the outermost, which seldom appears, having an angular radius of 40 deg.




ANTHEM, derived from the Gr. [Greek: antiphona], through the Saxon
_antefn_, a word which originally had the same meaning as antiphony
(q.v.). It is now, however, generally restricted to a form of church
music, particularly in the service of the Church of England, in which it
is appointed by the rubrics to follow the third collect at both morning
and evening prayer, "in choirs and places where they sing." It is just
as usual in this place to have an ordinary hymn as an anthem, which is a
more elaborate composition than the congregational hymns. Several
anthems are included in the English coronation service. The words are
selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy, and the
music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn
tunes. Anthems may be written for solo voices only, for the full choir,
or for both, and according to this distinction are called respectively
_Verse, Full_, and _Full with Verse_. Though the anthem of the Church of
England is analogous to the _motet_ of the Roman Catholic and Lutheran
Churches, both being written for a trained choir and not for the
congregation, it is as a musical form essentially English in its origin
and development. The English school of musicians has from the first
devoted its chief attention to this form, and scarcely a composer of any
note can be named who has not written several good anthems. Tallis, Tye,
Byrd, and Farrant in the 16th century; Orlando Gibbons, Blow, and
Purcell in the 17th, and Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin
Cooke, and Samuel Arnold in the 18th were famous composers of anthems,
and in more recent times the names are too numerous to mention.




ANTHEMION (from the Gr. [Greek: anthemion], a flower), the conventional
design of flower or leaf forms which was largely employed by the Greeks
to decorate (1) the fronts of ante-fixae, (2) the upper portion of the
stele or vertical tombstones, (3) the necking of the Ionic columns of
the Erechtheum and its continuation as a decorative frieze on the walls
of the same, and (4) the cymatium of a cornice. Though generally known
as the honeysuckle ornament, from its resemblance to that flower, its
origin will be found in the flower of the acanthus plant.




ANTHEMIUS, Greek mathematician and architect, who produced, under the
patronage of Justinian (A.D. 532), the original and daring plans for the
church of St Sophia in Constantinople, which strikingly displayed at
once his knowledge and his ignorance. He was one of five brothers--the
sons of Stephanus, a physician of Tralles--who were all more or less
eminent in their respective departments. Dioscorus followed his father's
profession in his native place; Alexander became at Rome one of the most
celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply versed in Roman
jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was one of the distinguished grammarians
of the great Eastern capital. It is related of Anthemius that, having a
quarrel with his next-door neighbour Zeno, he annoyed him in two ways.
First, he made a number of leathern tubes the ends of which he contrived
to fix among the joists and flooring of a fine upper-room in which Zeno
entertained his friends, and then subjected it to a miniature earthquake
by sending steam through the tubes. Secondly, he simulated thunder and
lightning, the latter by flashing in Zeno's eyes an intolerable light
from a slightly hollowed mirror. Certain it is that he wrote a treatise
on burning-glasses. A fragment of this was published under the title
[Greek: Peri paradoxon maechonaematon] by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also
appeared in 1786 in the forty-second volume of the _Hist. de l'Acad. des
Inscr_.; A. Westermann gave a revised edition of it in his [Greek:
Paradoxographoi] (_Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci_), 1839. In the
course of constructions for surfaces to reflect to one and the same
point (1) all rays in whatever direction passing through another point,
(2) a set of parallel rays, Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse
not found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a focus
by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given the focus and a
double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to obtain any number of
points on a parabola--the first instance on record of the practical use
of the directrix.

  On Anthemius generally, see Procopius, _De Aedific_. i. 1; Agathias,
  _Hist_. v. 6-9; _Gibbon's Decline and Fall_, cap. xl.     (T. L. H.)




ANTHESTERIA, one of the four Athenian festivals in honour of Dionysus,
held annually for three days (11th-13th) in the month of Anthesterion
(February-March). The object of the festival was to celebrate the
maturing of the wine stored at the previous vintage, and the beginning
of spring. On the first day, called _Pithoigia_ (opening of the casks),
libations were offered from the newly opened casks to the god of wine,
all the household, including servants and slaves, joining in the
festivities. The rooms and the drinking vessels in them were adorned
with spring flowers, as were also the children over three years of age.
The second day, named _Choes_ (feast of beakers), was a time of
merrymaking. The people dressed themselves gaily, some in the disguise
of the mythical personages in the suite of Dionysus, and paid a round of
visits to their acquaintances. Drinking clubs met to drink off matches,
the winner being he who drained his cup most rapidly. Others poured
libations on the tombs of deceased relatives. On the part of the state
this day was the occasion of a peculiarly solemn and secret ceremony in
one of the sanctuaries of Dionysus in the Lenaeum, which for the rest of
the year was closed. The basilissa (or basilinna), wife of the archon
basileus for the time, went through a ceremony of marriage to the wine
god, in which she was assisted by fourteen Athenian matrons, called
_geraerae_, chosen by the basileus and sworn to secrecy. The days on
which the Pithoigia and Choes were celebrated were both regarded as
[Greek: apophrades] (_nefasti_) and [Greek: miarai] ("defiled"),
necessitating expiatory libations; on them the souls of the dead came up
from the underworld and walked abroad; people chewed leaves of
whitethorn and besmeared their doors with tar to protect themselves from
evil. But at least in private circles the festive character of the
ceremonies predominated. The third day was named _Chytri_ (feast of
pots, from [Greek: chytros], a pot), a festival of the dead. Cooked
pulse was offered to Hermes, in his capacity of a god of the lower
world, and to the souls of the dead. Although no performances were
allowed at the theatre, a sort of rehearsal took place, at which the
players for the ensuing dramatic festival were selected.

The name Anthesteria, according to the account of it given above, is
usually connected with [Greek: anthos] ("flower," or the "bloom" of the
grape), but A.W. Verrall (_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xx., 1900, p.
115) explains it as a feast of "revocation" (from [Greek:
anathessasthai], to "pray back" or "up"), at which the ghosts of the
dead were recalled to the land of the living (_cp._ the Roman _mundus
patet_). J.E. Harrison (_ibid_. 100, 109, and _Prolegomena_), regarding
the Anthesteria as primarily a festival of all souls, the object of
which was the expulsion of ancestral ghosts by means of placation,
explains [Greek: pithoigia] as the feast of the opening of the graves
([Greek: pithos] meaning a large urn used for burial purposes), [Greek:
choes] as the day of libations, and [Greek: chutroi] as the day of the
grave-holes (not "pots," which is [Greek: chutrai]), in point of time
really anterior to the [Greek: pithoigia]. E. Rohde and M.P. Nilsson,
however, take the [Greek: chutroi] to mean "water vessels," and connect
the ceremony with the Hydrophoria, a libation festival to propitiate the
dead who had perished in the flood of Deucalion.

  See F. Hiller von Gartringen in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_
  (s.v.); J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
  antiquites_ (s.v. "Dionysia"); and F.A. Voigt in Roscher's _Lexikon
  der Mythologie_ (s.v. "Dionysos"); J.E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the
  Study of Greek Religion_ (1903); M.P. Nilsson, _Studia de Dionysiis
  Atticis_ (1900) and _Griechische Feste_ (1906); G.F. Schomann,
  _Griechische Alterthumer_, ii. (ed. J.H. Lipsius, 1902), p. 516; A.
  Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); E. Rohde, _Psyche_ (4th ed.,
  1907), p. 237.




ANTHIM THE IBERIAN, a notable figure in the ecclesiastical history of
Rumania. A Georgian by birth, he came to Rumania early in the second
half of the 17th century, as a simple monk. He became bishop of Ramnicu
in 1705, and in 1708 archbishop of Walachia. Taking a leading part in
the political movements of the time, he came into conflict with the
newly appointed Greek hospodars, and was exiled to Rumelia. But on his
crossing the Danube in 1716 he was thrown into the water and drowned, as
it is alleged, at the instigation of the prince of Walachia. He was a
man of great talents and spoke and wrote many Oriental and European
languages. Though a foreigner, he soon acquired a thorough knowledge of
Rumanian, and was instrumental in helping to introduce that language
into the church as its official language. He was a master printer and an
artist of the first order. He cut the wood blocks for the books which he
printed in Tirgovishtea, Ramnicu, Snagov and Bucharest. He was also the
first to introduce Oriental founts of type into Rumania, and he printed
there the first Arabic missal for the Christians of the East (Ramnicu,
1702). He also trained Georgians in the art of printing, and cut the
type with which under his pupil Mihail Ishtvanovitch they printed the
first Georgian Gospels (Tiflis, 1709). A man of great oratorical power,
Anthim delivered a series of sermons (Didahii), and some of his pastoral
letters are models of style and of language as well as of exact and
beautiful printing. He also completed a whole _corpus_ of lectionaries,
missals, gospels, &c.

  See M. Gaster, _Chrestomathie roumaine_ (1881), and "Gesch. d.
  rumanischen Litteratur," in Grober, _Grundriss d. rom. Philologie_,
  vol. ii. (1899); and E. Picot, _Notice sur Anthim d'Ivir_ (Paris,
  1886).     (M. G.)




ANTHOLOGY. The term "anthology," literally denoting a garland or
collection of flowers, is figuratively applied to any selection of
literary beauties, and especially to that great body of fugitive poetry,
comprehending about 4500 pieces, by upwards of 300 writers, which is
commonly known as the _Greek Anthology_.

_Literary History of the Greek Anthology._--The art of occasional poetry
had been cultivated in Greece from an early period,--less, however, as
the vehicle of personal feeling, than as the recognized commemoration of
remarkable individuals or events, on sepulchral monuments and votive
offerings: Such compositions were termed epigrams, i.e. inscriptions.
The modern use of the word is a departure from the original sense, which
simply indicated that the composition was intended to be engraved or
inscribed. Such a composition must necessarily be brief, and the
restraints attendant upon its publication concurred with the simplicity
of Greek taste in prescribing conciseness of expression, pregnancy of
meaning, purity of diction and singleness of thought, as the
indispensable conditions of excellence in the epigrammatic style. The
term was soon extended to any piece by which these conditions were
fulfilled. The transition from the monumental to the purely literary
character of the epigram was favoured by the exhaustion of more lofty
forms of poetry, the general increase, from the general diffusion of
culture, of accomplished writers and tasteful readers, but, above all,
by the changed political circumstances of the times, which induced many
who would otherwise have engaged in public affairs to addict themselves
to literary pursuits. These causes came into full operation during the
Alexandrian era, in which we find every description of epigrammatic
composition perfectly developed. About 60 B.C., the sophist and poet,
Meleager of Gadara, undertook to combine the choicest effusions of his
predecessors into a single body of fugitive poetry. Collections of
monumental inscriptions, or of poems on particular subjects, had
previously been formed by Polemon Periegetes and others; but Meleager
first gave the principle a comprehensive application. His selection,
compiled from forty-six of his predecessors, and including numerous
contributions of his own, was entitled _The Garland_ ([Greek:
Stephanos]); and in an introductory poem each poet is compared to some
flower, fancifully deemed appropriate to his genius. The arrangement of
his collection was alphabetical, according to the initial letter of each
epigram.

In the age of the emperor Tiberius (or Trajan, according to others) the
work of Meleager was continued by another epigrammatist, Philippus of
Thessalonica, who first employed the term anthology. His collection,
which included the compositions of thirteen writers subsequent to
Meleager, was also arranged alphabetically, and contained an
introductory poem. It was of inferior quality to Meleager's. Somewhat
later, under Hadrian, another supplement was formed by the sophist
Diogenianus of Heracleia (2nd century A.D.), and Strato of Sardis
compiled his elegant but tainted [Greek: Mousa Paidike] (Musa Puerilis)
from his productions and those of earlier writers. No further collection
from various sources is recorded until the time of Justinian, when
epigrammatic writing, especially of an amatory character, experienced a
great revival at the hands of Agathias of Myrina, the historian, Paulus
Silentiarius, and their circle. Their ingenious but mannered productions
were collected by Agathias into a new anthology, entitled _The Circle_
([Greek: Kyklos]); it was the first to be divided into books, and
arranged with reference to the subjects of the pieces.

These and other collections made during the middle ages are now lost.
The partial incorporation of them into a single body, classified
according to the contents in 15 books, was the work of a certain
Constantinus Cephalas, whose name alone is preserved in the single MS.
of his compilation extant, but who probably lived during the temporary
revival of letters under Constantine Porphyrogenitus, at the beginning
of the 10th century. He appears to have merely made excerpts from the
existing anthologies, with the addition of selections from Lucillius,
Palladas, and other epigrammatists, whose compositions had been
published separately. His arrangement, to which we shall have to recur,
is founded on a principle of classification, and nearly corresponds to
that adopted by Agathias. His principle of selection is unknown; it is
only certain that while he omitted much that he should have retained, he
has preserved much that would otherwise have perished. The extent of our
obligations may be ascertained by a comparison between his anthology and
that of the next editor, the monk Maximus Planudes (A.D. 1320), who has
not merely grievously mutilated the anthology of Cephalas by omissions,
but has disfigured it by interpolating verses of his own. We are,
however, indebted to him for the preservation of the epigrams on works
of art, which seem to have been accidentally omitted from our only
transcript of Cephalas.

  The Planudean (in seven books) was the only recension of the anthology
  known at the revival of classical literature, and was first published
  at Florence, by Janus Lascaris, in 1494. It long continued to be the
  only accessible collection, for although the Palatine MS., the sole
  extant copy of the anthology of Cephalas, was discovered in the
  Palatine library at Heidelberg, and copied by Saumaise (Salmasius) in
  1606, it was not published until 1776, when it was included in
  Brunck's _Analecta Veterum Poetarum Graecorum_. The MS. itself had
  frequently changed its quarters. In 1623, having been taken in the
  sack of Heidelberg in the Thirty Years' War, it was sent with the rest
  of the Palatine Library to Rome as a present from Maximilian I. of
  Bavaria to Gregory XV., who had it divided into two parts, the first
  of which was by far the larger; thence it was taken to Paris in 1797.
  In 1816 it went back to Heidelberg, but in an incomplete state, the
  second part remaining at Paris. It is now represented at Heidelberg by
  a photographic facsimile. Brunck's edition was superseded by the
  standard one of Friedrich Jacobs (1794-1814, 13 vols.), the text of
  which was reprinted in a more convenient form in 1813-1817, and
  occupies three pocket volumes in the Tauchnitz series of the classics.
  The best edition for general purposes is perhaps that of Dubner in
  Didot's _Bibliotheca_ (1864-1872), which contains the Palatine
  Anthology, the epigrams of the Planudean Anthology not comprised in
  the former, an appendix of pieces derived from other sources, copious
  notes selected from all quarters, a literal Latin prose translation by
  Boissonade, Bothe, and Lapaume and the metrical Latin versions of Hugo
  Grotius. A third volume, edited by E. Cougny, was published in 1890.
  The best edition of the Planudean Anthology is the splendid one by van
  Bosch and van Lennep (1795-1822). There is also a complete edition of
  the text by Stadlmuller in the Teubner series.

_Arrangement._--The Palatine MS., the archetype of the present text, was
transcribed by different persons at different times, and the actual
arrangement of the collection does not correspond with that signalized
in the index. It is as follows: Book 1. Christian epigrams; 2.
Christodorus's description of certain statues; 3. Inscriptions in the
temple at Cyzicus; 4. The prefaces of Meleager, Philippus, and Agathias
to their respective collections; 5. Amatory epigrams; 6. Votive
inscriptions; 7. Epitaphs; 8. The epigrams of Gregory of Nazianzus; 9.
Rhetorical and illustrative epigrams; 10. Ethical pieces; 11. Humorous
and convivial; 12. Strata's Musa Puerilis; 13. Metrical curiosities; 14.
Puzzles, enigmas, oracles; 15. Miscellanies. The epigrams on works of
art, as already stated, are missing from the _Codex Palatinus_, and must
be sought in an appendix of epigrams only occurring in the Planudean
Anthology. The epigrams hitherto recovered from ancient monuments and
similar sources form appendices in the second and third volumes of
Dubner's edition.

_Style and Value._--One of the principal claims of the Anthology to
attention is derived from its continuity, its existence as a living and
growing body of poetry throughout all the vicissitudes of Greek
civilization. More ambitious descriptions of composition speedily ran
their course, and having attained their complete development became
extinct or at best lingered only in feeble or conventional imitations.
The humbler strains of the epigrammatic muse, on the other hand,
remained ever fresh and animated, ever in intimate union with the spirit
of the generation that gave them birth. To peruse the entire collection,
accordingly, is as it were to assist at the disinterment of an ancient
city, where generation has succeeded generation on the same site, and
each stratum of soil enshrines the vestiges of a distinct epoch, but
where all epochs, nevertheless, combine to constitute an organic whole,
and the transition from one to the other is hardly perceptible. Four
stages may be indicated:--1. The Hellenic proper, of which Simonides of
Ceos (c. 556-469 B.C.), the author of most of the sepulchral
inscriptions on those who fell in the Persian wars, is the
characteristic representative. This is characterized by a simple dignity
of phrase, which to a modern taste almost verges upon baldness, by a
crystalline transparency of diction, and by an absolute fidelity to the
original conception of the epigram. Nearly all the pieces of this era
are actual _bona fide_ inscriptions or addresses to real personages,
whether living or deceased; narratives, literary exercises, and sports
of fancy are exceedingly rare. 2. The epigram received a great
development in its second or Alexandrian era, when its range was so
extended as to include anecdote, satire, and amorous longing; when
epitaphs and votive inscriptions were composed on imaginary persons and
things, and men of taste successfully attempted the same subjects in
mutual emulation, or sat down to compose verses as displays of their
ingenuity. The result was a great gain in richness of style and general
interest, counterbalanced by a falling off in purity of diction and
sincerity of treatment. The modification--a perfectly legitimate one,
the resources of the old style being exhausted--had its real source in
the transformation of political life, but may be said to commence with
and to find its best representative in the playful and elegant Leonidas
of Tarentum, a contemporary of Pyrrhus, and to close with Antipater of
Sidon, about 140 B.C. (or later). It should be noticed, however, that
Callimachus, one of the most distinguished of the Alexandrian poets,
affects the sternest simplicity in his epigrams, and copies the
austerity of Simonides with as much success as an imitator can expect.
3. By a slight additional modification in the same direction, the
Alexandrian passes into what, for the sake of preserving the parallelism
with eras of Greek prose literature, we may call the Roman style,
although the peculiarities of its principal representative are decidedly
Oriental. Meleager of Gadara was a Syrian; his taste was less severe,
and his temperament more fervent than those of his Greek predecessors;
his pieces are usually erotic, and their glowing imagery sometimes
reminds us of the Song of Solomon. The luxuriance of his fancy
occasionally betrays him into far-fetched conceits, and the lavishness
of his epithets is only redeemed by their exquisite felicity. Yet his
effusions are manifestly the offspring of genuine feeling, and his
epitaph on himself indicates a great advance on the exclusiveness of
antique Greek patriotism, and is perhaps the first clear enunciation of
the spirit of universal humanity characteristic of the later Stoic
philosophy. His gaiety and licentiousness are imitated and exaggerated
by his somewhat later contemporary, the Epicurean Philodemus, perhaps
the liveliest of all the epigrammatists; his fancy reappears with
diminished brilliancy in Philodemus's contemporary, Zonas, in
Crinagoras, who wrote under Augustus, and in Marcus Argentarius, of
uncertain date; his peculiar gorgeousness of colouring remains entirely
his own. At a later period of the empire another _genre_, hitherto
comparatively in abeyance, was developed, the satirical. Lucillius, who
flourished under Nero, and Lucian, more renowned in other fields of
literature, display a remarkable talent for shrewd, caustic epigram,
frequently embodying moral reflexions of great cogency, often lashing
vice and folly with signal effect, but not seldom indulging in mere
trivialities, or deformed by scoffs at personal blemishes. This style of
composition is not properly Greek, but Roman; it answers to the modern
definition of epigram, and has hence attained a celebrity in excess of
its deserts. It is remarkable, however, as an almost solitary example of
direct Latin influence on Greek literature. The same style obtains with
Palladas, an Alexandrian grammarian of the 4th century, the last of the
strictly classical epigrammatists, and the first to be guilty of
downright bad taste. His better pieces, however, are characterized by an
austere ethical impressiveness, and his literary position is very
interesting as that of an indignant but despairing opponent of
Christianity. 4. The fourth or Byzantine style of epigrammatic
composition was cultivated by the _beaux-esprits_ of the court of
Justinian. To a great extent this is merely imitative, but the
circumstances of the period operated so as to produce a species of
originality. The peculiarly ornate and _recherche_ diction of Agathias
and his compeers is not a merit in itself, but, applied for the first
time, it has the effect of revivifying an old form, and many of their
new locutions are actual enrichments of the language. The writers,
moreover, were men of genuine poetical feeling, ingenious in invention,
and capable of expressing emotion with energy and liveliness; the
colouring of their pieces is sometimes highly dramatic.

It would be hard to exaggerate the substantial value of the Anthology,
whether as a storehouse of facts bearing on antique manners, customs and
ideas, or as one among the influences which have contributed to mould
the literature of the modern world. The multitudinous votive
inscriptions, serious and sportive, connote the phases of Greek
religious sentiment, from pious awe to irreverent familiarity and
sarcastic scepticism; the moral tone of the nation at various periods is
mirrored with corresponding fidelity; the sepulchral inscriptions admit
us into the inmost sanctuary of family affection, and reveal a depth
and tenderness of feeling beyond the province of the historian to
depict, which we should not have surmised even from the dramatists; the
general tendency of the collection is to display antiquity on its most
human side, and to mitigate those contrasts with the modern world which
more ambitious modes of composition force into relief. The constant
reference to the details of private life renders the Anthology an
inexhaustible treasury for the student of archaeology; art, industry and
costume receive their fullest illustration from its pages. Its influence
on European literatures will be appreciated in proportion to the
inquirer's knowledge of each. The further his researches extend, the
greater will be his astonishment at the extent to which the Anthology
has been laid under contribution for thoughts which have become
household words in all cultivated languages, and at the beneficial
effect of the imitation of its brevity, simplicity, and absolute verbal
accuracy upon the undisciplined luxuriance of modern genius.

  _Translations, Imitations, &c._--The best versions of the Anthology
  ever made are the Latin renderings of select epigrams by Hugo Grotius.
  They have not been printed separately, but will be found in Bosch and
  Lennep's edition of the Planudean _Anthology_, in the Didot edition,
  and in Dr Wellesley's _Anthologia Polyglotta_. The number of more or
  less professed imitations in modern languages is infinite, that of
  actual translations less considerable. French and Italian, indeed, are
  ill adapted to this purpose, from their incapacity of approximating to
  the form of the original, and their poets have usually contented
  themselves with paraphrases or imitations, often exceedingly
  felicitous. F.D. Deheque's French prose translation, however (1863),
  is most excellent and valuable. The German language alone admits of
  the preservation of the original metre--a circumstance advantageous to
  the German translators, Herder and Jacobs, who have not, however,
  compensated the loss inevitably consequent upon a change of idiom by
  any added beauties of their own. Though unfitted to reproduce the
  precise form, the English language, from its superior terseness, is
  better adapted to preserve the spirit of the original than the German;
  and the comparative ill success of many English translators must be
  chiefly attributed to the extremely low standard of fidelity and
  brevity observed by them. Bland, Merivale, and their associates
  (1806-1813), are often intolerably diffuse and feeble, from want, not
  of ability, but of taking pains. Archdeacon Wrangham's too rare
  versions are much more spirited; and John Sterling's translations of
  the inscriptions of Simonides deserve high praise. Professor Wilson
  (_Blackwood's Magazine_, 1833-1835) collected and commented upon the
  labours of these and other translators, with his accustomed critical
  insight and exuberant geniality, but damaged his essay by burdening it
  with the indifferent attempts of William Hay. In 1849 Dr Wellesley,
  principal of New Inn Hall, Oxford, published his _Anthologia
  Polyglotta_, a most valuable collection of the best translations and
  imitations in all languages, with the original text. In this appeared
  some admirable versions by Goldwin Smith and Dean Merivale, which,
  with the other English renderings extant at the time, will be found
  accompanying the literal prose translation of the _Public School
  Selections_, executed by the Rev. George Burges for Bohn's Classical
  Library (1854). This is a useful volume, but the editor's notes are
  worthless. In 1864 Major R.G. Macgregor published an almost complete
  translation of the Anthology, a work whose stupendous industry and
  fidelity almost redeem the general mediocrity of the execution.
  _Idylls and Epigrams_, by R. Garnett (1869, reprinted 1892 in the
  Cameo series), includes about 140 translations or imitations, with
  some original compositions in the same style. Recent translations
  (selections) are: J.W. Mackail, _Select Epigrams from the Greek
  Anthology_ (with text, introduction, notes, and prose translation),
  1890, revised 1906, a most charming volume; Graham R. Tomson (Mrs
  Marriott Watson), _Selections from the Greek Anthology_ (1889); W.H.D.
  Rouse, _Echo of Greek Song_ (1899); L.C. Perry, _From the Garden of
  Hellas_ (New York, 1891); W.R. Paton, _Love Epigrams_ (1898). An
  agreeable little volume on the Anthology, by Lord Neaves, is one of
  Collins's series of _Ancient Classics for Modern Readers_. The earl of
  Cromer, with all the cares of Egyptian administration upon him, found
  time to translate and publish an elegant volume of selections (1903).
  Two critical contributions to the subject should be noticed, the Rev.
  James Davies's essay on Epigrams in the _Quarterly Review_ (vol.
  cxvii.), especially valuable for its lucid illustration of the
  distinction between Greek and Latin epigram; and the brilliant
  disquisition in J.A. Symonds's _Studies of the Greek Poets_ (1873; 3rd
  ed., 1893).

_Latin Anthology._--The _Latin Anthology_ is the appellation bestowed
upon a collection of fugitive Latin verse, from the age of Ennius to
about A.D. 1000, formed by Peter Burmann the Younger. Nothing
corresponding to the Greek anthology is known to have existed among the
Romans, though professional epigrammatists like Martial published their
volumes on their own account, and detached sayings were excerpted from
authors like Ennius and Publius Syrus, while the _Priapeia_ were
probably but one among many collections on special subjects. The first
general collection of scattered pieces made by a modern scholar was
Scaliger's _Catalecta veterum Poetarum_ (1573), succeeded by the more
ample one of Pithoeus, _Epigrammata et Poemata e Codicibus et Lapidibus
collecta_ (1590). Numerous additions, principally from inscriptions,
continued to be made, and in 1759-1773 Burmann digested the whole into
his _Anthologia veterum Latinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum_. This,
occasionally reprinted, was the standard edition until 1869, when
Alexander Riese commenced a new and more critical recension, from which
many pieces improperly inserted by Burmann are rejected, and his
classified arrangement is discarded for one according to the sources
whence the poems have been derived. The first volume contains those
found in MSS., in the order of the importance of these documents; those
furnished by inscriptions following. The first volume (in two parts)
appeared in 1869-1870, a second edition of the first part in 1894, and
the second volume, _Carmina Epigraphica_ (in two parts), in 1895-1897,
edited by F. Bucheler. An _Anthologiae Latinae Supplementa_, in the same
series, followed. Having been formed by scholars actuated by no
aesthetic principles of selection, but solely intent on preserving
everything they could find, the Latin anthology is much more
heterogeneous than the Greek, and unspeakably inferior. The really
beautiful poems of Petronius and Apuleius are more properly inserted in
the collected editions of their writings, and more than half the
remainder consists of the frigid conceits of pedantic professional
exercises of grammarians of a very late period of the empire, relieved
by an occasional gem, such as the apostrophe of the dying Hadrian to his
spirit, or the epithalamium of Gallienus. The collection is also, for
the most part, too recent in date, and too exclusively literary in
character, to add much to our knowledge of classical antiquity. The
epitaphs are interesting, but the genuineness of many of them is very
questionable.     (R. G.)




ANTHON, CHARLES (1797-1867), American classical scholar, was born in New
York city on the 19th of November 1797. After graduating with honours at
Columbia College in 1815, he began the study of law, and in 1819 was
admitted to the bar, but never practised. In 1820 he was appointed
assistant professor of Greek and Latin in his old college, full
professor ten years later, and at the same time headmaster of the
grammar school attached to the college, which post he held until 1864.
He died at New York on the 29th of July 1867. He produced for use in
colleges and schools a large number of classical works, which enjoyed
great popularity, although his editions of classical authors were by no
means in favour with schoolmasters, owing to the large amount of
assistance, especially translations, contained in the notes.




ANTHONY, SAINT, the first Christian monk, was born in Egypt about 250.
At the age of twenty he began to practise an ascetical life in the
neighbourhood of his native place, and after fifteen years of this life
he withdrew into solitude to a mountain by the Nile, called Pispir, now
Der el Memun, opposite Arsinoe in the Fayum. Here he lived strictly
enclosed in an old fort for twenty years. At last in the early years of
the 4th century he emerged from his retreat and set himself to organize
the monastic life of the crowds of monks who had followed him and taken
up their abode in the caves around him. After a time, again in pursuit
of more complete solitude, he withdrew to the mountain by the Red Sea,
where now stands the monastery that bears his name (Der Mar Antonios).
Here he died about the middle of the 4th century. His _Life_ states that
on two occasions he went to Alexandria, to strengthen the Christians in
the Diocletian persecution and to preach against Arianism. Anthony is
recognized as the first Christian monk and the first organizer and
father of Christian monachism (see MONASTICISM). Certain letters and
sermons are attributed to him, but their authenticity is more than
doubtful. The monastic rule which bears his name was not written by him,
but was compiled out of these writings and out of discourses and
utterances put into his mouth in the _Life_ and the _Apophthegmata
Patrum_. According to this rule live a number of Coptic Syrian and
Armenian monks to this day. The chief source of information about St
Anthony is the _Life_, attributed to St Athanasius. This attribution, as
also the historical character of the book, and even the very existence
of St Anthony, were questioned and denied by the sceptical criticism of
thirty years ago; but such doubts are no longer entertained by critical
scholars.

  The Greek _Vita_ is among the works of St Athanasius; the almost
  contemporary Latin translation is among Rosweyd's _Vitae Patrum_
  (Migne, _Patrol. Lat_. lxxiii.); an English translation is in the
  Athanasius volume of the "Nicene and Post-Nicene Library." Accounts of
  St Anthony are given by Card. Newman, _Church of the Fathers_
  (Historical Sketches) and Alban Butler, _Lives of the Saints_ (Jan.
  17). Discussions of the historical and critical questions raised will
  be found in E.C. Butler's _Lausiac History of Palladius_ (1898, 1904),
  Part I. pp. 197, 215-228; Part II. pp. ix.-xii.     (E. C. B.)




ANTHONY OF PADUA, SAINT (1195-1231), the most celebrated of the
followers of Saint Francis of Assisi, was born at Lisbon on the 15th of
August 1195. In his fifteenth year he entered the Augustinian order, and
subsequently joined the Franciscans in 1220. He wished to devote himself
to missionary labours in North Africa, but the ship in which he sailed
was cast by a storm on the coast of Sicily, whence he made his way to
Italy. He taught theology at Bologna, Toulouse, Montpellier and Padua,
and won a great reputation as a preacher throughout Italy. He was the
leader of the rigorous party in the Franciscan order against the
mitigations introduced by the general Elias. His death took place at the
convent of Ara Coeli, near Padua, on the 13th of June 1231. He was
canonized by Gregory IX. in the following year, and his festival is kept
on the 13th of June. He is regarded as the patron saint of Padua and of
Portugal, and is appealed to by devout clients for finding lost objects.
The meagre accounts of his life which we possess have been supplemented
by numerous popular legends, which represent him as a continuous worker
of miracles, and describe his marvellous eloquence by pictures of fishes
leaping out of the water to hear him. There are many confraternities
established in his honour throughout Christendom, and the number of
"pious" biographies devoted to him would fill many volumes.

  The most trustworthy modern works are by A. Lepitre, _St Antoine de
  Padoue_ (Paris, 1902, in _Les Saints_ series: good bibliography; Eng.
  trans. by Edith Guest, London, 1902), and by Leopold de Cherance, _St
  Antoine de Padoue_ (Paris, 1895; Eng. trans., London, 1896). His
  works, consisting of sermons and a mystical commentary on the Bible,
  were published in an appendix to those of St Francis, in the _Annales
  Minorum_ of Luke Wadding (Antwerp, 1623), and are also reproduced by
  Horoy, _Medii aevi bibliotheca patristica_ (1880, vi. pp. 555 et
  sqq.); see art. "Antonius von Padua" in Herzog-Hauck,
  _Realencyklopadie_.




ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL (1820-1906), American reformer, was born at
Adams, Massachusetts, on the 15th of February 1820, the daughter of
Quakers. Soon after her birth, her family moved to the state of New
York, and after 1845 she lived in Rochester. She received her early
education in a school maintained by her father for his own and
neighbours' children, and from the time she was seventeen until she was
thirty-two she taught in various schools. In the decade preceding the
outbreak of the Civil War she took a prominent part in the anti-slavery
and temperance movements in New York, organizing in 1852 the first
woman's state temperance society in America, and in 1856 becoming the
agent for New York state of the American Anti-slavery Society. After
1854 she devoted herself almost exclusively to the agitation for woman's
rights, and became recognized as one of the ablest and most zealous
advocates, both as a public speaker and as a writer, of the complete
legal equality of the two sexes. From 1868 to 1870 she was the
proprietor of a weekly paper, _The Revolution_, published in New York,
edited by Mrs Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and having for its motto, "The
true republic--men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights
and nothing less." She was vice-president-at-large of the National
Woman's Suffrage Association from the date of its organization in 1869
until 1892, when she became president. For casting a vote in the
presidential election of 1872, as, she asserted, the Fourteenth
Amendment to the Federal Constitution entitled her to do, she was
arrested and fined $100, but she never paid the fine. In collaboration
with Mrs Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Mrs Matilda Joslyn Gage, and Mrs Ida
Husted Harper, she published _The History of Woman Suffrage_ (4 vols.,
New York, 1884-1887). She died at Rochester, New York, on the 13th of
March 1906.

  See Mrs Ida Husted Harper's _Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony_ (3
  vols., Indianapolis, 1898-1908).




ANTHOZOA (i.e. "flower-animals"), the zoological name for a class of
marine polyps forming "coral" (q.v.). Although corals have been familiar
objects since the days of antiquity, and the variety known as the
precious red coral has been for a long time an article of commerce in
the Mediterranean, it was only in the 18th century that their true
nature and structure came to be understood. By the ancients and the
earlier naturalists of the Christian era they were regarded either as
petrifactions or as plants, and many supposed that they occupied a
position midway between minerals and plants. The discovery of the animal
nature of red coral is due to J.A. de Peyssonel, a native of Marseilles,
who obtained living specimens from the coral fishers on the coast of
Barbary and kept them alive in aquaria. He was thus able to see that the
so-called "flowers of coral" were in fact nothing else than minute
polyps resembling sea-anemones. His discovery, made in 1727, was
rejected by the Academy of Sciences of France, but eventually found
acceptance at the hands of the Royal Society of London, and was
published by that body in 1751. The structure and classification of
polyps, however, were at that time very imperfectly understood, and it
was fully a century before the true anatomical characters and systematic
position of corals were placed on a secure basis.

The hard calcareous substance to which the name coral is applied is the
supporting skeleton of certain members of the _Anthozoa_, one of the
classes of the phylum Coelentera. The most familiar Anthozoan is the
common sea-anemone, _Actinia equina_, L., and it will serve, although it
does not form a skeleton or _corallum_, as a good example of the
structure of a typical Anthozoan polyp or zooid. The individual animal
or zooid of _Actinia equina_ has the form of a column fixed by one
extremity, called the _base_, to a rock or other object, and bearing at
the opposite extremity a crown of _tentacles_. The tentacles surround an
area known as the _peristome_, in the middle of which there is an
elongated mouth-opening surrounded by tumid lips. The mouth does not
open directly into the general cavity of the body, as is the case in a
hydrozoan polyp, but into a short tube called the _stomodaeum_, which in
its turn opens below into the general body-cavity or _coelenteron_. In
Actinia and its allies, and most generally, though not invariably, in
Anthozoa, the stomodaeum is not circular, but is compressed from side to
side so as to be oval or slit-like in transverse section. At each end of
the oval there is a groove lined by specially long vibratile cilia.
These grooves are known as the _sulcus_ and _sulculus_, and will be more
particularly described hereafter. The elongation of the mouth and
stomodaeum confer a bilateral symmetry on the body of the zooid, which
is extended to other organs of the body. In Actinia, as in all Anthozoan
zooids, the coelenteron is not a simple cavity, as in a Hydroid, but is
divided by a number of radial folds or curtains of soft tissue into a
corresponding number of radial chambers. These radial folds are known as
_mesenteries_, and their position and relations may be understood by
reference to figs. 1 and 2. Each mesentery is attached by its upper
margin to the peristome, by its outer margin to the body-wall, and by
its lower margin to the basal disk. A certain number of mesenteries,
known as complete mesenteries, are attached by the upper parts of their
internal margins to the stomodaeum, but below this level their edges
hang in the coelenteron. Other mesenteries, called incomplete, are not
attached to the stomodaeum, and their internal margins are free from the
peristome to the basal disk. The lower part of the free edge of every
mesentery, whether complete or incomplete, is thrown into numerous
puckers or folds, and is furnished with a glandular thickening known as
a _mesenterial filament_. The reproductive organs or gonads are borne
on the mesenteries, the germinal cells being derived from the inner
layer or endoderm.

[Illustration: FIG. 1. Diagrammatic longitudinal section of an Anthozoan
zooid,

  m, Mesentery.             s, Stoma.
  t, Tentacles.             lm, Longitudinal muscle.
  st, Stomodaeum.           d, Diagonal Muscle.
  sc, Sulcus.               go, Gonads.
  r, Rotteken's muscle.]

In common with all Coelenterate animals, the walls of the columnar body
and also the tentacles and peristome of Actinia are composed of three
layers of tissue. The external layer, or ectoderm, is made up of cells,
and contains also muscular and nervous elements. The preponderating
elements of the ectodermic layer are elongated columnar cells, each
containing a nucleus, and bearing cilia at their free extremities.
Packed in among these are _gland cells, sense cells_, and _cnidoblasts_.
The last-named are specially numerous on the tentacles and on some other
regions of the body, and produce the well-known "thread cells," or
_nematocysts_, so characteristic of the Coelentera. The inner layer or
endoderm is also a cellular layer, and is chiefly made up of columnar
cells, each bearing a cilium at its free extremity and terminating
internally in a long muscular fibre. Such cells, made up of epithelial
and muscular components, are known as epithelio-muscular or
myo-epithelial cells. In Actinians the epithelio-muscular cells of the
endoderm are crowded with yellow spherical bodies, which are unicellular
plants or Algae, living symbiotically in the tissues of the zooid. The
endoderm contains in addition gland cells and nervous elements. The
middle layer or mesogloea is not originally a cellular layer, but a
gelatinoid structureless substance, secreted by the two cellular layers.
In the course of development, however, cells from the ectoderm and
endoderm may migrate into it. In _Actinia equina_ the mesogloea consists
of fine fibres imbedded in a homogeneous matrix, and between the fibres
are minute branched or spindle-shaped cells. For further details of the
structure of Actinians, the reader should consult the work of O. and R.
Hertwig.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Portion of epithelium from the tentacle of an
Actinian, showing three supporting cells and one sense cell (sc); 2, a
cnidoblast with enclosed nematocyst from the same specimen; 3 and 4 two
forms of gland cell from the stomodaeum; 5a, 5b, epithelio-muscular
cells from the tentacle in different states of contraction; 5c, an
epithelio-muscular cell from the endoderm, containing a symbiotic
zooxanthella; 6, a ganglion cell from the ectoderm of the peristome.
(After O. and R. Hertwig.)]

The Anthozoa are divisible into two sub-classes, sharply marked off from
one another by definite anatomical characters. These are the ALCYONARIA
and the ZOANTHARIA. To the first-named belong the precious red coral and
its allies, the sea-fans or Gorgoniae, to the second belong the white or
Madreporarian corals.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--An expanded Alcyonarian zooid, showing the mouth
surrounded by eight pinnate tentacles. st, Stomodaeum in the the centre
of the transparent body; m, mesenteries; asm, asulcar mesenteries; B,
spicules, enlarged.]

  Alcyonaria.--In this sub-class the zooid has very constant anatomical
  characters, differing in some important respects from the Actinian
  zooid, which has been taken as a type. There is only one ciliated
  groove, the sulcus, in the stomodaeum. There are always eight
  tentacles, which are hollow and fringed on their sides, with hollow
  projections or pinnae; and always eight mesenteries, all of which are
  complete, i.e. inserted on the stomodaeum. The mesenteries are
  provided with well-developed longitudinal retractor muscles, supported
  on longitudinal folds or plaits of the mesogloea, so that in
  cross-section they have a branched appearance. These _muscle-banners_,
  as they are called, have a highly characteristic arrangement; they are
  all situated on those faces of the mesenteries which look towards the
  sulcus. (fig. 4). Each mesentery has a filament; but two of them,
  namely, the pair farthest from the sulcus, are longer than the rest,
  and have a different form of filament. It has been shown that these
  asulcar filaments are derived from the ectoderm, the remainder from
  the endoderm. The only exceptions to this structure are found in the
  arrested or modified zooids, which occur in many of the colonial
  Alcyonaria. In these the tentacles are stunted or suppressed and the
  mesenteries are ill-developed, but the sulcus is unusually large and
  has long cilia. Such modified zooids are called siphonozooids, their
  function being to drive currents of fluid through the canal-systems of
  the colonies to which they belong. With very few exceptions a
  calcareous skeleton is present in all Alcyonaria; it usually consists
  of spicules of carbonate of lime, each spicule being formed within an
  ectodermic cell (fig. 3, B). Most commonly the spicule-forming cells
  pass out of the ectoderm and are imbedded in the mesogloea, where they
  may remain separate from one another or may be fused together to form
  a strong mass. In addition to the spicular skeleton an organic horny
  skeleton is frequently present, either in the form of a horny external
  investment (_Cornularia_), or an internal axis (_Gorgonia_), or it may
  form a matrix in which spicules are imbedded (_Keroeides, Meistodes_).

  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Transverse section of an Alcyonarian zooid mm,
  Mesenteries; mb, muscle banners; sc, sulcus; st, stomodaeum.]

  Nearly all the Alcyonaria are colonial. Four solitary species have
  been described, viz. _Haimea funebris_ and _H. hyalina, Hartea
  elegans_, and _Monoxenia Darwinii_; but it is doubtful whether these
  are not the young forms of colonies. For the present the solitary
  forms may be placed in a grade, _Protal-cyonacea_, and the colonial
  forms may be grouped in another grade, _Synalcyonacea_. Every
  Alcyonarian colony is developed by budding from a single parent zooid.
  The buds are not direct outgrowths of the body-wall, but are formed on
  the courses of hollow out growths of the base or body-wall, called
  _solenia_. These form a more or less complicated canal system, lined
  by endoderm, and communicating with the cavities of the zooids. The
  most simple form of budding is found in the genus _Cornularia_, in
  which the mother zooid gives off from its base one or more simple
  radiciform outgrowths. Each outgrowth contains a single tube or
  solenium, and at a longer or shorter distance from the mother zooid a
  daughter zooid is formed as a bud. This gives off new outgrowths, and
  these, branching and anastomosing with one another, may form a
  network, adhering to stones, corals, or other objects, from which
  zooids arise at intervals. In _Clavularia_ and its allies each
  outgrowth contains several solenia, and the outgrowths may take the
  form of flat expansions, composed of a number of solenial tubes felted
  together to form a lamellar surface of attachment. Such outgrowths are
  called _stolons_, and a stolon may be simple, i.e. contain only one
  solenium, as in _Cornularia_, or may be complex and built up of many
  solenia, as in _Clavularia_. Further complications arise when the
  lower walls of the mother zooid become thickened and interpenetrated
  with solenia, from which buds are developed, so that lobose, tufted,
  or branched colonies are formed. The chief orders of the Synalcyonacea
  are founded upon the different architectural features of colonies
  produced by different modes of budding. We recognize six orders--the
  STOLONIFERA, ALCYONACEA, PSEUDAXONIA, AXIFERA, STELECHOTOKEA, and
  CORNOTHECALIA.

  [Illustration: FIG. 5.

  A. Skeleton of a young colony of _Tubipora purpurea_. st, Stolon; p,
  platform.

  B. Diagrammatic longitudinal section of a corallite, showing two
  platforms, p and cup-shaped tabulae, t. (After S.J. Hickson.)]

  In the order STOLONIRERA the zooids spring at intervals from branching
  or lamellar stolons, and are usually free from one another, except at
  their bases, but in some cases horizontal solenia arising at various
  heights from the body-wall may place the more distal portions of the
  zooids in communication with one another. In the genus _Tubipora_
  these horizontal solenia unite to form a series of horizontal
  platforms (fig. 5). The order comprises the families _Cornulamdae,
  Syringopordae, Tubipondae_, and _Favositidae_. In the first-named, the
  zooids are united only by their bases and the skeleton consists of
  loose spicules. In the _Tubipondae_ the spicules of the proximal part
  of the body-wall are fused together to form a firm tube, the
  corallite, into which the distal part of the zooid can be retracted.
  The corallites are connected at intervals by horizontal platforms
  containing solenia, and at the level of each platform the cavity of
  the corallite is divided by a transverse calcareous partition, either
  flat or cup-shaped, called a _tabula_. Formerly all corals in which
  tabulae are present were classed together as Tabulata, but Tubipora is
  an undoubted Alcyonarian with a lamellar stolon, and the structure of
  the fossil genus Syringopora, which has vertical corallites united by
  horizontal solenia, clearly shows its affinity to Tubipora. The
  Favositidae, a fossil family from the Silurian and Devonian, have a
  massive corallum composed of numerous polygonal corallites closely
  packed together. The cavities of adjacent corallites communicate by
  means of numerous perforations, which appear to represent solenia, and
  numerous transverse tabulae are also present. In _Favosites
  hemisphaerica_ a number of radial spines, projecting into the cavity
  of the corallite, give it the appearance of a madreporarian coral.

  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Portion of a colony of _Coralinum rubrum_,
  showing expanded and contracted zooids. In the lower part of the
  figure the cortex has been cut away to show the _axis_, ax, and the
  longitudinal canals, lc, surrounding it.]

  In the order ALCYONACEA the colony consists of bunches of elongate
  cylindrical zooids, whose proximal portions are united by solenia and
  compacted, by fusion of their own walls and those of the solenia, into
  a fleshy mass called the coenenchyma. Thus the coenenchyma forms a
  stem, sometimes branched, from the surface of which the free portions
  of the zooids project. The skeleton of the Alcyonacea consists of
  separate calcareous spicules, which are often, especially in the
  Nephthyidae, so abundant and so closely interlocked as to form a
  tolerably firm and hard armour. The order comprises the families
  _Xeniidae, Alcyonidae_ and _Nephthyidae_. _Alcyonium digitatum_, a
  pink digitate form popularly known as "dead men's fingers," is common
  in 10-20 fathoms of water off the English coasts.

  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--The sea-fan (_Gorgonia cavolinii_).]

  In the order PSEUDAXONIA the colonies are upright and branched,
  consisting of a number of short zooids whose proximal ends are
  imbedded in a coenenchyma containing numerous ramifying solenia and
  spicules. The coenenchyma is further differentiated into a medullary
  portion and a cortex. The latter contains the proximal moieties of the
  zooids and numerous but separate spicules. The medullary portion is
  densely crowded with spicules of different shape from those in the
  cortex, and in some forms the spicules are cemented together to form a
  hard supporting axis. There are four families of Pseudaxonia--the
  _Briareidae, Sclerogorgidae, Melitodidae_, and _Corallidae_. In the
  first-named the medulla is penetrated by solenia and forms an
  indistinct axis; in the remainder the medulla is devoid of solenia,
  and in the _Melitodidae_ and _Corallidae_ it forms a dense axis, which
  in the _Melitodidae_ consists of alternate calcareous and horny
  joints. The precious red coral of commerce, _Corallium rubrum_ (fig.
  6), a member of the family _Corallidae_, is found at depths varying
  from 15 to 120 fathoms the Mediterranean Sea, chiefly on the African
  coast. It owes its commercial value to the beauty of its hard red
  calcareous axis which in life is covered by a cortex in which the
  proximal moieties of the zooids are imbedded. _Corallium rubrum_ has
  been the subject of a beautifully-illustrated memoir by de
  Lacaze-Duthiers, which should be consulted for details of anatomy.

  The AXIFERA comprise those corals that have a horny or calcified axis,
  which in position corresponds to the axis of the Pscudaxonia, but,
  unlike it, is never formed of fused spicules; the most familiar
  example is the pink sea-fan, _Gorgonia cavolinii_, which is found in
  abundance in 10-25 fathoms of water off the English coasts (fig. 7).
  In this order the axis is formed as an ingrowth of the ectoderm of the
  base of the mother zooid of the colony, the cavity of the ingrowth
  being filled by a horny substance secreted by the ectoderm. In
  _Gorgonia_ the axis remains horny throughout life, but in many forms
  it is further strengthened by a deposit of calcareous matter In the
  family _Isidinae_ the axis consists of alternate segments of horny and
  calcareous substance, the latter being amorphous. The order contains
  six families--the _Dasygorgidae, Isidae, Primnoidae, Muriceidae,
  Plexauridae_, and _Gorgoniaae_.

  [Illustration: FIG. 8.

  A. Colony of _Pennatula phosphorea_ from the metarachidial aspect. p,
  The peduncle.

  B. Section of the rachis bearing a single pinna, a, Axis; b,
  metarachidial; c, prorachidial; d, pararachidial stem canals.]

  In the order STELECHOTOKEA the colony consists of a stem formed by a
  greatly-elongated mother zooid, and the daughter zooids are borne as
  lateral buds on the stem. In the section _Asiphonacea_ the colonies
  are upright and branched, springing from membranous or ramifying
  stolons. They resemble and are closely allied to certain families of
  the Cornulariidae, differing from them only in mode of budding and in
  the dispostion of the daughter zooids round a central, much-elongated
  mother zooid. The section contains two families, the _Telestidae_ and
  the _Coelogorgidae_. The second section comprises the _Pennatulacea_
  or sea-pens, which are remarkable from the fact that the colony is not
  fixed by the base to a rock or other object, but is imbedded in sand
  or mud by the proximal portion of the stem known as the peduncle. In
  the typical genus, Pennatula (fig. 8), the colony looks like a feather
  having a stem divisible into an upper moiety or rachis, bearing
  lateral central leaflets (pinnae), and a lower peduncle, which is
  sterile and imbedded in sand or mud. The stem represents a greatly
  enlarged and elongated mother zooid. It is divided longitudinally by a
  partition separating a so-called "ventral" or prorachidial canal from
  a so-called "dorsal" or metarachidial canal. A rod-like supporting
  axis of peculiar texture is developed in the longitudinal partition,
  and a longitudinal canal is hollowed out on either side of the axis in
  the substance of the longitudinal partition, so that there are four
  stem-canals in all. The prorachidial and metarachidial aspects of the
  rachis are sterile, but the sides or pararachides bear numerous
  daughter zooids of two kinds--(1) fully-formed autozooids, (2) small
  stunted siphonozooids. The pinnae are formed by the elongated
  autozooids, whose proximal portions are fused together to form a
  leaf-like expansion, from the upper edge of which the distal
  extremities of the zooids project. The siphonozooids are very numerous
  and lie between the bases at the pinnae on the pararachides; they
  extend also on the prorachidial and metarachidial surfaces. The
  calcareous skeleton of the Pennatulacea consists of scattered
  spicules, but in one species, _Protocaulon molle_, spicules are
  absent. Although of great interest the Pennatulacea do not form an
  enduring skeleton or "coral," and need not be considered in detail in
  this place.

  [Illustration: FIG. 9.

  A, Portion of the surface of a colony of _Heliopora coerulea_
  magnified, showing two calices and the surrounding coenenchymal tubes.

  B, Single zooid with the adjacent soft tissues as seen after removal
  of the skeleton by decalcification. Z1, the distal, and Z2, the
  proximal or intracalicular portion of the zooid; ec, ectoderm; ct,
  coenenchymal tubes; sp, superficial network of solenia.]

  The order COENOTHECALIA is represented by a single living species,
  _Heliopora coerulea_, which differs from all recent Alcyonaria in the
  fact that its skeleton is not composed of spicules, but is formed as a
  secretion from a layer of cells called calicoblasts, which originate
  from the ectoderm. The corallum of Heliopora is of a blue colour, and
  has the form of broad, upright, lobed, or digitate masses flattened
  from side to side. The surfaces are pitted all over with perforations
  of two kinds, viz. larger star-shaped cavities, called _calices_, in
  which the zooids are lodged, and very numerous smaller round or
  polygonal apertures, which in life contain as many short unbranched
  tubes, known as the _coenenchymal tubes_ (fig. 9, A). The walls of the
  calices and coenenchymal tubes are formed of flat plates of calcite,
  which are so disposed that the walls of one tube enter into the
  composition of the walls of adjacent tubes, and the walls of the
  calices are formed by the walls of adjacent coenenchymal tubes. Thus
  the architecture of the Helioporid colony differs entirely from such
  forms as Tubipora or Favosites, in which each corallite has its own
  distinct and proper wall. The cavities both of the calices and
  coenenchymal tubes of Heliopora are closed below by horizontal
  partitions or _tabulae_, hence the genus was formerly included in the
  group Tabulata, and was supposed to belong to the madreporarian
  corals, both because of its lamellar skeleton, which resembles that of
  a Madrepore, and because each calicle has from twelve to fifteen
  radial partitions or septa projecting into its cavity. The structure
  of the zooid of Heliopora, however, is that of a typical Alcyonarian,
  and the septa have only a resemblance to, but no real homology with,
  the similarly named structures in madreporarian corals. _Heliopora
  coerulea_ is found between tide-marks on the shore platforms of coral
  islands. The order was more abundantly represented in Palaeozoic times
  by the _Heliolitidae_ from the Upper and Lower Silurian and the
  Devonian, and by the _Thecidae_ from the Wenlock limestone. In
  _Heliolites porosus_ the colonies had the form of spheroidal masses;
  the calices were furnished with twelve pseudosepta, and the
  coenenchymal tubes were more or less regularly hexagonal.

  [Illustration with caption: FIG. 10.

  A, _Edwardsia claparedii_ (after A. Andres). Cap, capitulum; sc,
  scapus; ph, physa.

  B, Transverse section of the same, showing the arrangement of the
  mesenteries, s, Sulcus; sl, sulculus.

  C, Transverse section of _Halcampa_. d, d, Directive mesenteries; st,
  stomodaeum.]

  Zoantharia.--In this sub-class the arrangement of the mesenteries is
  subject to a great deal of variation, but all the types hitherto
  observed may be referred to a common plan, illustrated by the living
  genus _Edwardsia_ (fig. 10, A, B). This is a small solitary
  Zoantharian which lives embedded in sand. Its body is divisible into
  three portions, an upper _capitulum_ bearing the mouth and tentacles,
  a median _scapus_ covered by a friable cuticle, and a terminal physa
  which is rounded. Both capitulum and physa can be retracted within the
  scapus. There are from sixteen to thirty-two simple tentacles, but
  only eight mesenteries, all of which are complete. The stomodaeum is
  compressed laterally, and is furnished with two longitudinal grooves,
  a sulcus and a sulculus. The arrangement of the muscle-banners on the
  mesenteries is characteristic. On six of the mesenteries the
  muscle-banners have the same position as in the Alcyonaria, namely, on
  the sulcar faces; but in the two remaining mesenteries, namely, those
  which are attached on either side of the sulcus, the muscle-banners
  are on the opposite or sulcular faces. It is not known whether all the
  eight mesenteries of _Edwardsia_ are developed simultaneously or not,
  but in the youngest form which has been studied all the eight
  mesenteries were present, but only two of them, namely the
  sulco-laterals, bore mesenterial filaments, and so it is presumed that
  they are the first pair to be developed. In the common sea-anemone,
  _Actinia equina_ (which has already been quoted as a type of Anthozoan
  structure), the mesenteries are numerous and are arranged in cycles.
  The mesenteries of the first cycle are complete (i.e. are attached to
  the stomodaeum), are twelve in number, and arranged in couples,
  distinguishable by the position of the muscle-banners. In the four
  couples of mesenteries which are attached to the sides of the
  elongated stomodaeum the muscle-banners of each couple are turned
  towards one another, but in the sulcar and sulcular couples, known as
  the directive mesenteries, the muscle-banners are on the outer faces
  of the mesenteries, and so are turned away from one another (see fig.
  10, C). The space enclosed between two mesenteries of the same couple
  is called an _entocoele_; the space enclosed between two mesenteries
  of adjacent couples is called an _exocoele_. The second cycle of
  mesenteries consists of six couples, each formed in an exocoele of the
  primary cycle, and in each couple the muscle-banners are _vis-a-vis_.
  The third cycle comprises twelve couples, each formed in an exocoele
  between the primary and secondary couples and so on, it being a
  general rule (subject, however, to exceptions) that new mesenterial
  couples are always formed in the exocoeles, and not in the entocoeles.

  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--A, Diagram showing the sequence of
  mesenterial development in an Actinian. B, Diagrammatic transverse
  section of _Gonactinia prolifera_.]

  While the mesenterial couples belonging to the second and each
  successive cycle are formed simultaneously, those of the first cycle
  are formed in successive pairs, each member of a pair being placed on
  opposite sides of the stomodaeum. Hence the arrangement in six couples
  is a secondary and not a primary feature. In most Actinians the
  mesenteries appear in the following order:--At the time when the
  stomodaeum is formed, a single pair of mesenteries, marked I, I in the
  diagram (fig. 11, A), makes its appearance, dividing the coelenteric
  cavity into a smaller sulcar and a large sulcular chamber. The
  muscle-banners of this pair are placed on the sulcar faces of the
  mesenteries. Next, a pair of mesenteries, marked II, II in the
  diagram, is developed in the sulcular chamber, its muscle-banners
  facing the same way as those of I, I. The third pair is formed in the
  sulcar chamber, in close connexion with the sulcus, and in this case
  the muscle-banners are on the _sulcular_ faces. The fourth pair,
  having its muscle-banners on the sulcar faces, is developed at the
  opposite extremity of the stomodaeum in close connexion with the
  sulculus. There are now eight mesenteries present, having exactly the
  same arrangement as in Edwardsia. A pause in the development follows,
  during which no new mesenteries are formed, and then the six-rayed
  symmetry characteristic of a normal Actinian zooid is completed by the
  formation of the mesenteries V, V in the lateral chambers, and VI, VI
  in the sulco-lateral chambers, their muscle-banners being so disposed
  that they form couples respectively with II, II and I, I. In _Actinia
  equina_ the Edwardsia stage is arrived at somewhat differently. The
  mesenteries second in order of formation form the sulcular directives,
  those fourth in order of formation form with the fifth the
  sulculo-lateral couples of the adult.

  [Illustration: FIG. 12.

  A, Zoanthid colony, showing the expanded zooids.

  B, Diagram showing the arrangement of mesenteries in a young Zoanthid.

  C, Diagram showing the arrangement of mesenteries in an adult
  Zoanthid. 1, 2, 3, 4, Edwardsian mesenteries.]

  As far as the anatomy of the zooid is concerned, the majority of the
  stony or madreporarian corals agree exactly with the soft-bodied
  Actinians, such as _Actinia equina_, both in the number and
  arrangement of the adult mesenteries and in the order of development
  of the first cycle. The few exceptions will be dealt with later, but
  it may be stated here that even in these the first cycle of six
  couples of mesenteries is always formed, and in all the cases which
  have been examined the course of development described above is
  followed. There are, however, several groups of Zoantharia in which
  the mesenterial arrangement of the adult differs widely from that just
  described. But it is possible to refer all these cases with more or
  less certainty to the Edwardsian type.

  The order ZOANTHIDEA comprises a number of soft-bodied Zoantharians
  generally encrusted with sand. Externally they resemble ordinary
  sea-anemones, but there is only one ciliated groove, the sulcus, in
  the stomodaeum, and the mesenteries are arranged on a peculiar
  pattern. The first twelve mesenteries are disposed in couples, and do
  not differ from those of Actinia except in size. The mesenterial pairs
  I, II and III are attached to the stomodaeum, and are called
  macromesenteries (fig. 12, B), but IV, V and VI are much shorter, and
  are called micromesenteries. The subsequent development is peculiar to
  the group. New mesenteries are formed only in the sulco-lateral
  exocoeles. They are formed in couples, each couple consisting of a
  macromesentery and a micromesentery, disposed so that the former is
  nearest to the sulcar directives. The derivation of the Zoanthidea
  from an Edwardsia form is sufficiently obvious.

  The order CERIANTHIDEA comprises a few soft-bodied Zoantharians with
  rounded aboral extremities pierced by pores. They have two circlets of
  tentacles, a labial and a marginal, and there is only one ciliated
  groove in the stomodaeum, which appears to be the sulculus. The
  mesenteries are numerous, and the longitudinal muscles, though
  distinguishable, are so feebly developed that there are no
  muscle-banners. The larval forms of the type genus _Cerianthus_ float
  freely in the sea, and were once considered to belong to a separate
  genus, _Arachnactis_. In this larva four pairs of mesenteries having
  the typical Edwardsian arrangement are developed, but the fifth and
  sixth pairs, instead of forming couples with the first and second,
  arise in the sulcar chamber, the fifth pair inside the fourth, and the
  sixth pair inside the fifth. New mesenteries are continually added in
  the sulcar chamber, the seventh pair within the sixth, the eighth pair
  within the seventh, and so on (fig. 13). In the Cerianthidea, as in
  the Zoanthidea, much as the adult arrangement of mesenteries differs
  from that of Actinia, the derivation from an Edwardsia stock is
  obvious.

  [Illustration: FIG. 13.

  A, _Cerianthus solitarius_ (after A. Andres).

  B, Transverse section of the stomodaeum, showing the sulculus, sl, and
  the arrangement of the mesenteries.

  C, Oral aspect of _Arachnactis brachiolata_, the larva of
  _Cerianthus_, with seven tentacles.

  D, Transverse section of an older larva. The numerals indicate the
  order of development of the mesenteries.]

  The order ANTIPATHIDEA is a well-defined group whose affinities are
  more obscure. The type form, _Antipathes dichotoma_ (fig. 14), forms
  arborescent colonies consisting of numerous zooids arranged in a
  single series along one surface of a branched horny axis. Each zooid
  has six tentacles; the stomodaeum is elongate, but the sulcus and
  sulculus are very feebly represented. There are ten mesenteries in
  which the musculature is so little developed as to be almost
  indistinguishable. The sulcar and sulcular pairs of mesenteries are
  short, the sulco-lateral and sulculo-lateral pairs are a little
  longer, but the two transverse are very large and are the only
  mesenteries which bear gonads. As the development of the Antipathidea
  is unknown, it is impossible to say what is the sequence of the
  mesenterial development, but in _Leiopathes glaberrima_, a genus with
  twelve mesenteries, there are distinct indications of an Edwardsia
  stage.

  [Illustration: FIG. 14.

  A, Portion of a colony of _Antipathes dichotoma_.

  B, Single zooid and axis of the same magnified. m, Mouth; mf
  mesenterial filament; ax, axis.

  C, Transverse section through the oral cone of _Antipathella minor_,
  st, Stomodaeum; ov, ovary.]

  There are, in addition to these groups, several genera of Actinians
  whose mesenterial arrangement differs from the normal type. Of these
  perhaps the most interesting is _Gonactinia prolifera_ (fig. 11, B),
  with eight macromesenteries arranged on the Edwardsian plan. Two pairs
  of micromesenteries form couples with the first and second Edwardsian
  pairs, and in addition there is a couple of micromesenteries in each
  of the sulculo-lateral exocoeles. Only the first and second pairs of
  Edwardsian macromesenteries are fertile, i.e. bear gonads.

  The remaining forms, the ACTINIIDEA, are divisible into the
  Malacactiniae, or soft-bodied sea-anemones, which have already been
  described sufficiently in the course of this article, and the
  Scleractiniae (= Madreporaria) or true corals.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Corallum of _Caryophyllia_; semi-diagrammatic.
th, Theca; c, costae; sp, septa; p, palus; col, columella.]

All recent corals, as has already been said, conform so closely to the
anatomy of normal Actinians that they cannot be classified apart from
them, except that they are distinguished by the possession of a
calcareous skeleton. This skeleton is largely composed of a number of
radiating plates or _septa_, and it differs both in origin and structure
from the calcareous skeleton of all Alcyonaria except Heliopora. It is
formed, not from fused spicules, but as a secretion of a special layer
of cells derived from the basal ectoderm, and known as _calicoblasts_.
The skeleton or corallum of a typical solitary coral--the common
Devonshire cup-coral _Caryophyllia smithii_ (fig. 15) is a good
example--exhibits the followings parts:--(1) The _basal plate_, between
the zooid and the surface of attachment. (2) The _septa_, radial plates
of calcite reaching from the periphery nearly or quite to the centre of
the coral-cup or calicle. (3) The _theca_ or wall, which in many corals
is not an independent structure, but is formed by the conjoined
thickened peripheral ends of the septa. (4) The _columella_, a structure
which occupies the centre of the calicle, and may arise from the basal
plate, when it is called essential, or may be formed by union of
trabecular offsets of the septa, when it is called unessential. (5) The
_costae_, longitudinal ribs or rows of spines on the outer surface of
the theca. True costae always correspond to the septa, and are in fact
the peripheral edges of the latter. (6) _Epitheca_, an offset of the
basal plate which surrounds the base of the theca in a ring-like manner,
and in some corals may take the place of a true theca. (7) _Pali_,
spinous or blade-like upgrowths from the bottom of the calicle, which
project between the inner edges of certain septa and the columella. In
addition to these parts the following structures may exist in
corals:--_Dissepiments_ are oblique calcareous partitions, stretching
from septum to septum, and closing the interseptal chambers below. The
whole system of dissepiments in any given calicle is often called
_endotheca_. _Synapticulae_ are calcareous bars uniting adjacent septa.
_Tabulae_ are stout horizontal partitions traversing the centre of the
calicle and dividing it into as many superimposed chambers. The septa in
recent corals always bear a definite relation to the mesenteries, being
found either in every entocoele or in every entocoele and exocoele.
Hence in corals in which there is only a single cycle of mesenteries the
septa are correspondingly few in number; where several cycles of
mesenteries are present the septa are correspondingly numerous. In some
cases--e.g. in some species of _Madrepora_--only two septa are fully
developed, the remainder being very feebly represented.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Tangential section of a larva of _Astroides
calicularis_ which has fixed itself on a piece of cork. ec, Ectoderm;
en, endoderm; mg, mesogloea; m, m, mesenteries; s, septum; b, basal
plate formed of ellipsoids of carbonate of lime secreted by the basal
ectoderm; ep, epitheca. (After von Koch.)]

Though the corallum appears to live within the zooid, it is
morphologically external to it, as is best shown by its developmental
history. The larvae of corals are free swimming ciliated forms known as
planulae, and they do not acquire a corallum until they fix themselves.
A ring-shaped plate of calcite, secreted by the ectoderm, is then
formed, lying between the embryo and the surface of attachment. As the
mesenteries are formed, the endoderm of the basal disk lying above the
basal plate is raised up in the form of radiating folds. There may be
six of these folds, one in each entocoele of the primary cycle of
mesenteries, or there may be twelve, one in each exocoele and entocoele.
The ectoderm beneath each fold becomes detached from the surface of the
basal plate, and both it and the mesogloea are folded conformably with
the endoderm. The cells forming the limbs of the ectodermic folds
secrete nodules of calcite, and these, fusing together, give rise to six
(or twelve) vertical radial plates or septa. As growth proceeds new
septa are formed simultaneously with the new couples of secondary
mesenteries. In some corals, in which all the septa are entocoelic, each
new system is embraced by a mesenteric couple; in others, in which the
septa are both entocoelic and exocoelic, three septa are formed in every
chamber between two primary mesenterial couples, one in the entocoele of
the newly formed mesenterial couple of the secondary cycle, and one in
each exocoele between a primary and a secondary couple. These latter are
in turn embraced by the couples of the tertiary cycle of mesenteries,
and new septa are formed in the exocoeles on either side of them, and so
forth.

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Transverse section through a zooid of
_Cladocora_. The corallum shaded with dots, the mesogloea represented by
a thick line. Thirty-two septa are present, six in the entocoeles of the
primary cycle of mesenteries, I; six in the entocoeles of the secondary
cycle of mesenteries, II; four in the entocoeles of the tertiary cycle
of mesenteries, III, only four pairs of the latter being developed; and
sixteen in the entocoeles between the mesenterial pairs. D, D, Directive
mesenteries; st, stomodaeum. (After Duerden.)]

It is evident from an inspection of figs. 16 and 17 that every septum
is covered by a fold of endoderm, mesogloea, and ectoderm, and is in
fact pushed into the cavity of the zooid from without. The zooid then
is, as it were, moulded upon the corallum. When fully extended, the
upper part of the zooid projects for some distance out of the calicle,
and its wall is reflected for some distance over the lip of the latter,
forming a fold of soft tissue extending to a greater or less distance
over the theca, and containing in most cases a cavity continuous over
the lip of the calicle with the coelenteron. This fold of tissue is
known as the _edge-zone_ In some corals the septa are solid imperforate
plates of calcite, and their peripheral ends are either firmly welded
together, or are united by interstitial pieces so as to form imperforate
theca. In others the peripheral ends of the septa are united only by
bars or trabeculae, so that the theca is perforate, and in many such
perforate corals the septa themselves are pierced by numerous
perforations. In the former, which have been called aporose corals, the
only communication between the cavity of the edge-zone and the general
cavity of the zooid is by way of the lip of the calicle; in the latter,
or perforate corals, the theca is permeated by numerous branching and
anastomosing canals lined by endoderm, which place the cavity of the
edge-zone in communication with the general cavity of the zooid.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.

A, Schematic longitudinal section through a zooid and bud of _Stylophora
digitata_. In A, B, and C the thick black lines represent the soft
tissues; the corallum is dotted. s, Stomodaeum; c, c, coenosarc; col,
columella, T tabulae.

B, Similar section through a single zooid and bud of _Astroides
calicularis_.

C, Similar section through three corallites of _Lophohelia prolifera_.
ez, Edge-zone.

D, Diagram illustrating the process of budding by unequal division.

E, Section through a dividing calicle of _Mussa_, showing the union of
two septa in the plane of division and the origin of new septa at right
angles to them.

(C original; the rest after von Koch.)]

A large number of corals, both aporose and perforate, are colonial. The
colonies are produced by either budding or division. In the former case
the young daughter zooid, with its corallum, arises wholly outside the
cavity of the parent zooid, and the component parts of the young
corallum, septa, theca, columella, &c., are formed anew in every
individual produced. In division a vertical constriction divides a zooid
into two equal or unequal parts, and the several parts of the two corals
thus produced are severally derived from the corresponding parts of the
dividing corallum. In colonial corals a bud is always formed from the
edge-zone, and this bud develops into a new zooid with its corallum. The
cavity of the bud in an aporose coral (fig. 18, A, C) does not
communicate directly with that of the parent form, but through the
medium of the edge-zone. As growth proceeds, and parent and bud become
separated farther from one another, the edge-zone forms a sheet of soft
tissue, bridging over the space between the two, and resting upon
projecting spines of the corallum. This sheet of tissue is called the
_coenosarc_. Its lower surface is clothed with a layer of calicoblasts
which continue to secrete carbonate of lime, giving rise to a secondary
deposit which more or less fills up the spaces between the individual
coralla, and is distinguished as _coenenchyme_. This coenenchyme may be
scanty, or may be so abundant that the individual corallites produced by
budding seem to be immersed in it. Budding takes place in an analogous
manner in perforate corals (fig. 18, B), but the presence of the canal
system in the perforate theca leads to a modification of the process.
Buds arise from the edge-zone which already communicate with the cavity
of the zooid by the canals. As the buds develop the canal system becomes
much extended, and calcareous tissue is deposited between the network of
canals, the confluent edge-zones of mother zooid and bud forming a
coenosarc. As the process continues a number of calicles are formed,
imbedded in a spongy tissue in which the canals ramify, and it is
impossible to say where the theca of one corallite ends and that of
another begins. In the formation of colonies by division a constriction
at right angles to the long axis of the mouth involves first the mouth,
then the peristome, and finally the calyx itself, so that the previously
single corallite becomes divided into two (fig. 18, E). After division
the corallites continue to grow upwards, and their zooids may remain
united by a bridge of soft tissue or coenosarc. But in some cases, as
they grow farther apart, this continuity is broken, each corallite has
its own edge-zone, and internal continuity is also broken by the
formation of dissepiments within each calicle, all organic connexion
between the two zooids being eventually lost. Massive meandrine corals
are produced by continual repetition of a process of incomplete
division, involving the mouth and to some extent the peristome: the
calyx, however, does not divide, but elongates to form a characteristic
meandrine channel containing several zooid mouths.

Corals have been divided into _Aporosa_ and _Perforata_, according as
the theca and septa are compact and solid, or are perforated by pores
containing canals lined by endoderm. The division is in many respects
convenient for descriptive purposes, but recent researches show that it
does not accurately represent the relationships of the different
families. Various attempts have been made to classify corals according
to the arrangement of the septa, the characters of the theca, the
microscopic structure of the corallum, and the anatomy of the soft
parts. The last-named method has proved little more than that there is a
remarkable similarity between the zooids of all recent corals, the
differences which have been brought to light being for the most part
secondary and valueless for classificatory purposes. On the other hand,
the study of the anatomy and development of the zooids has thrown much
light upon the manner in which the corallum is formed, and it is now
possible to infer the structure of the soft parts from a microscopical
examination of the septa, theca, &c., with the result that unexpected
relationships have been shown to exist between corals previously
supposed to stand far apart. This has been particularly the case with
the group of Palaeozoic corals formerly classed together as _Rugosa_. In
many of these so-called rugose forms the septa have a characteristic
arrangement, differing from that of recent corals chiefly in the fact
that they show a tetrameral instead of a hexameral symmetry. Thus in the
family _Stauridae_ there are four chief septa whose inner ends unite in
the middle of the calicle to form a false columella, and in the
_Zaphrentidae_ there are many instances of an arrangement, such as that
depicted in fig. 19, which represents the septal arrangement of
_Streptelasma corniculum_ from the lower Silurian. In this coral the
calicle is divided into quadrants by four principal septa, the _main
septum, counter septum_, and two _alar septa_. The remaining septa are
so disposed that in the quadrants abutting on the chief septum they
converge towards that septum, whilst in the other quadrants they
converge towards the alar septa. The secondary septa show a regular
gradation in size, and, assuming that the smallest were the most
recently formed, it will be noticed that in the chief quadrants the
youngest septa lie nearest to the main septum; in the other quadrants
the youngest septa lie nearest to the alar septa. This arrangement,
however, is by no means characteristic even of the Zaphrentidae, and in
the family _Cyathophyllidae_ most of the genera exhibit a radial
symmetry in which no trace of the bilateral arrangement described above
is recognizable, and indeed in the genus _Cyathophyllum_ itself a radial
arrangement is the rule. The connexion between the Cyathophyllidae and
modern Astraeidae is shown by _Moseleya latistellata_, a living
reef-building coral from Torres Strait. The general structure of this
coral leaves no doubt that it is closely allied to the Astraeidae, but
in the young calicles a tetrameral symmetry is indicated by the presence
of four large septa placed at right angles to one another. Again, in the
family _Amphiastraeidae_ there is commonly a single septum much larger
than the rest, and it has been shown that in the young calicles, e.g. of
_Thecidiosmilia_, two septa, corresponding to the main- and
counter-septa of Streptelasma, are first formed, then two alar septa,
and afterwards the remaining septa, the latter taking on a generally
radial arrangement, though the original bilaterality is marked by the
preponderance of the main septum. As the microscopic character of the
corallum of these extinct forms agrees with that of recent corals, it
may be assumed that the anatomy of the soft parts also was similar, and
the tetrameral arrangement, when present, may obviously be referred to a
stage when only the first two pairs of Edwardsian mesenteries were
present and septa were formed in the intervals between them.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Diagram of the arrangement of the septa in a
Zaphrentid coral. m, Main septum; c, counter septum; t, t, alar septa.]

Space forbids a discussion of the proposals to classify corals after the
minute structure of their coralla, but it will suffice to say that it
has been shown that the septa of all corals are built up of a number of
curved bars called trabeculae, each of which is composed of a number of
nodes. In many secondary corals (_Cyclolites, Thamnastraea_) the
trabeculae are so far separate that the individual bars are easily
recognizable, and each looks something like a bamboo owing to the
thickening of the two ends of each node. The trabeculae are united
together by these thickened internodes, and the result is a fenestrated
septum, which in older septa may become solid and aporose by continual
deposit of calcite in the fenestrae. Each node of a trabecula may be
simple, i.e. have only one centre of calcification, or may be compound.
The septa of modern perforate corals are shown to have a structure
nearly identical with that of the secondary forms, but the trabeculae
and their nodes are only apparent on microscopical examination. The
aporose corals, too, have a practically identical structure, their
compactness being due to the union of the trabeculae throughout their
entire lengths instead of at intervals, as in the Perforata. Further,
the trabeculae may be evenly spaced throughout the septum, or may be
grouped together, and this feature is probably of value in estimating
the affinities of corals. (For an account of coral formations see
CORAL-REEFS.)

In the present state of our knowledge the Zoantharia in which a primary
cycle of six couples of mesenteries is (or may be inferred to be)
completed by the addition of two pairs to the eight Edwardsian
mesenteries, and succeeding cycles are formed in the exocoeles of the
pre-existing mesenterial cycles, may be classed in an order ACTINIIDEA,
and this may be divided into the suborders _Malacactiniae_, comprising
the soft-bodied Actinians, such as _Actinia, Sagartia, Bunodes_, &c.,
and the _Scleractiniae_, comprising the corals. The Scleractiniae may
best be divided into groups of families which appear to be most closely
related to one another, but it should not be forgotten that there is
great reason to believe that many if not most of the extinct corals must
have differed from modern Actiniidea in mesenterial characters, and may
have only possessed Edwardsian mesenteries, or even have possessed only
four mesenteries, in this respect showing close affinities to the
Stauromedusae. Moreover, there are some modern corals in which the
secondary cycle of mesenteries departs from the Actinian plan. For
example, J.E. Duerden has shown that in _Porites_ the ordinary zooids
possess only six couples of mesenteries arranged on the Actinian plan.
But some zooids grow to a larger size and develop a number of additional
mesenteries, which arise either in the sulcar or the sulcular entocoele,
much in the same manner as in Cerianthus. Bearing this in mind, the
following arrangement may be taken to represent the most recent
knowledge of coral structure:--


    GROUP A.

  Family I. ZAPHRENTIDAE.--Solitary Palaeozoic corals with an epithecal
  wall. Septa numerous, arranged pinnately with regard to four principal
  septa. Tabulae present. One or more pits or fossulae present in the
  calicle. Typical genera--_Zaphrentis_, Raf. _Amplexus_, M. Edw. and H.
  _Streptelasma_, Hall. _Omphyma_, Raf.

  Family 2. TURBINOLIDAE.--Solitary, rarely colonial corals, with
  radially arranged septa and without tabulae. Typical
  genera--_Flabellum_, Lesson. _Turbinolia_, M. Edw. and H.
  _Caryophyllia_, Lamarck. _Sphenotrochus_, Moseley, &c.

  Family 3. AMPHIASTRAEIDAE.--Mainly colonial, rarely solitary corals,
  with radial septa, but bilateral arrangement indicated by persistence
  of a main septum. Typical genera--_Amphiastraea_, Etallon.
  _Thecidiosmilia_.

  Family 4. STYLINIDAE.--Colonial corals allied to the Amphiastraeidae,
  but with radially symmetrical septa arranged in cycles. Typical
  genera--_Stylina_, Lamarck (Jurassic). _Convexastraea_, D'Orb.
  (Jurassic). _Isastraea_, M. Edw. and H.(Jurassic). Ogilvie refers the
  modern genus _Galaxea_ to this family.


    GROUP B.

  Family 5. OCULINIDAE.--Branching or massive aporose corals, the
  calices projecting above the level of a compact coenenchyme formed
  from the coenosarc which covers the exterior of the corallum. Typical
  genera--_Lophohelia_, M. Edw. and H. _Oculina_, M. Edw. and H.

  Family 6. POCILLOPORIDAE.--Colonial branching aporose corals, with
  small calices sunk in the coenenchyme. Tabulae present, and two larger
  septa, an axial and abaxial, are always present, with traces of ten
  smaller septa. Typical genera--_Pocillopora_, Lamarck. _Seriatopora_,
  Lamarck.

  Family 7. MADREPORIDAE.--Colonial branching or palmate perforate
  corals, with abundant trabecular coenenchyme. Theca porous; septa
  compact and reduced in number. Typical genera--_Madrepora_, Linn.
  _Turbinaria_, Oken. _Montipora_, Quoy and G.

  Family 8. PORITIDAE.--Incrusting or massive colonial perforate corals;
  calices usually in contact by their edges, sometimes disjunct and
  immersed in coenenchyme. Theca and septa perforate. Typical
  genera--_Porites_, M. Edw. and H. _Goniopora_, Quoy and G.
  _Rhodaraea_, M. Edw. and H.


    GROUP C.

  Family 9. CYATHOPHYLLIDAE.--Solitary and colonial aporose corals.
  Tabulae and vesicular endotheca present. Septa numerous, generally
  radial, seldom pinnate. Typical genera--_Cyathophyllum_, Goldfuss
  (Devonian and Carboniferous). _Moseleya_, Quelch (recent).

  Family 10. ASTRAEIDAE.--Aporpse, mainly colonial corals, massive,
  branching, or maeandroid. Septa radial; dissepiments present; an
  epitheca surrounds the base of massive or maeandroid forms, but only
  surrounds individual corallites in simple or branching forms. Typical
  genera--_Goniastraea_, M. Edw. and H. _Heliastraea_, M. Edw. and H.
  _Maeandrina_, Lam. _Coeloria_, M. Edw. and H. _Favia_, Oken.

  Family 11. FUNGIDAE.--Solitary and colonial corals, with numerous
  radial septa united by synapticulae. Typical genera--_Lophoseris_, M.
  Edw. and H. _Thamnastraea_, Le Sauvage. _Leptophyllia_, Reuss
  (Jurassic and Cretaceous). _Fungia_, Dana. _Siderastraea_, Blainv.


    GROUP D.

  Family 12. EUPSAMMIDAE.--Solitary or colonial perforate corals,
  branching, massive, or encrusting. Septa radial; the primary septa
  usually compact, the remainder perforate. Theca perforate. Synapticula
  present in some genera. Typical genera--_Stephanophyllia_, Michelin.
  _Eupsammia_, M. Edw. and H. _Astroides_, Blainv. _Rhodopsammia_, M.
  Edw. and H. _Dendrophyllia_, M. Edw. and H.


    GROUP E.

  Family 13. CYSTIPHYLLIDAE.--Solitary corals with rudimentary septa,
  and the calicle filled with vesicular endotheca.
  Genera--_Cystiphyllum_, Lonsdale (Silurian and Devonian).
  _Goniophyllum_, M. Edw. and H. (In this Silurian genus the calyx is
  provided with a movable operculum, consisting of four paired
  triangular pieces, the bases of each being attached to the sides of
  the calyx, and their apices meeting in the middle when the operculum
  is closed). _Calcecla_, Lam. (In this Devonian genus there is a single
  semicircular operculum furnished with a stout median septum and
  numerous feebly developed secondary septa. The calyx is triangular in
  section, pointed below, and the operculum is attached to it by
  hinge-like teeth.)

  AUTHORITIES.--The following list contains only the names of the more
  important and more general works on the structure and classification
  of corals and on coral reefs. For a fuller bibliography the works
  marked with an asterisk should be consulted: * A. Andres, _Fauna und
  Flora des Golfes von Neapel_, ix. (1884); H.M. Bernard, "Catalogue of
  Madreporarian Corals" in Brit. Museum, ii. (1896), iii. (1897); * G.C.
  Bourne, "Anthozoa," in E. Ray Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol.
  ii. (London, 1900); G. Brook, "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_,
  xxxii. (1899) (_Antipatharia_); "Cat. Madrep. Corals," Brit. Museum,
  i. (1893); D.C. Danielssen, "Report Norwegian North Atlantic Exploring
  Expedition," _Zoology_, xix. (1890); J.E. Duerden, "Some Results on
  the Morphology and Development of Recent and Fossil Corals," _Rep.
  Brit. Association_, 1903, pp. 684-685; "The Morphology of the
  Madreporaria," _Biol. Bullet_, vii. pp. 79-104; P.M. Duncan, _Journ.
  Linnean Soc._ xviii. (1885); P.H. Gosse, _Actinologia britannica_
  (London, 1860); O. and R. Hertwig, _Die Actinien_ (Jena, 1879); R.
  Hertwig, "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_, vi. (1882) and xxvi.
  (1888); * C.B. Klunzinger, _Die Korallthiere des Rothen Meeres_
  (Berlin, 1877); * G. von Koch, _Fauna und Flora des Golfes van
  Neapel_, xv. (1887); _Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel_, ii. (1882) and xii.
  (1897); _Palaeontographica_, xxix. (1883); (also many papers in the
  _Morphol. Jahrbuch_ from 1878 to 1898); F. Koby, "Polypiers
  jurassiques de la Suisse," _Mem. Soc. Palaeont. Suisse_, vii.-xvi.
  (1880-1889); A. von Kolliker, "Die Pennatuliden," _Abh. d. Senck.
  Naturf. Gesell_. vii.; * "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_, i.
  _Pennatulidae_ (1880); Koren and Danielssen, _Norske Nordhaus Exped.,
  Alcyonida_ (1887); H. de Lacaze-Duthiers, _Hist. nat. du corail_
  (Paris, 1864); H. Milne-Edwards and J. Haime, _Hist. nat. des
  coralliaires_ (Paris, 1857); H.N. Moseley, "_Challenger_ Reports,"
  _Zoology_, ii. (1881); H.A. Nicholson, _Palaeozoic Tabulate Corals_
  (Edinburgh, 1879); M.M. Ogilvie, _Phil. Transactions_, clxxxvii.
  (1896); E. Pratz, _Palaeontographica_, xxix. (1882); J.J. Quelch,
  "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_, xvi. (1886); * P.S. Wright and Th.
  Studer, "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_, xxxi. (1889).
       (G. C. B.)




ANTHRACENE (from the Greek [Greek: anthrax], coal), C14H10, a
hydrocarbon obtained from the fraction of the coal-tar distillate
boiling between 270 deg. and 400 deg. C. This high boiling fraction is
allowed to stand for some days, when it partially solidifies. It is then
separated in a centrifugal machine, the low melting-point impurities are
removed by means of hot water, and the residue is finally hot-pressed.
The crude anthracene cake is purified by treatment with the higher
pyridine bases, the operation being carried out in large steam-jacketed
boilers. The whole mass dissolves on heating, and the anthracene
crystallizes out on cooling. The crystallized anthracene is then removed
by a centrifugal separator and the process of solution in the pyridine
bases is repeated. Finally the anthracene is purified by sublimation.

Many synthetical processes for the preparation of anthracene and its
derivatives are known. It is formed by the condensation of acetylene
tetrabromide with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride:--

        Br.CH.Br                     /CH\
  C6H6 +   |    + C6H6 = 4HBr + C6H4< |  >C6H4,
        Br.CH.Br                     \CH/

and similarly from methylene dibromide and benzene, and also when benzyl
chloride is heated with aluminium chloride to 200 deg. C. By condensing
ortho-brombenzyl bromide with sodium, C.L. Jackson and J.F. White
(_Ber_., 1879, 12, p. 1965) obtained dihydro-anthracene

       /CH2Br           Br\                     /CH2\
  C6H4<       + 4Na +      >C6H4 = 4NaBr + C6H4<     >C6H4.
       \Br           BrCH2/                     \CH2/

Anthracene has also been obtained by heating ortho-tolylphenyl ketone
with zinc dust

       /CH8                 /CH \
  C6H4<        = H2O + C6H4<  |  >C6H4.
       \COC6H5              \CH /

Anthracene crystallizes in colourless monoclinic tables which show a
fine blue fluorescence. It melts at 213 deg. C. and boils at 351 deg. C.
It is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether, but
readily soluble in hot benzene. It unites with picric acid to form a
picrate, C14H10.C6H2(NO2)3.OH, which crystallizes in needles, melting at
138 deg. C. On exposure to sunlight a solution of anthracene in benzene
or xylene deposits para-anthracene (C14H10)2, which melts at 244 deg. C.
and passes back into the ordinary form. Chlorine and bromine form both
addition and substitution products with anthracene; the addition
product, anthracene dichloride, C14H10Cl2, being formed when chlorine is
passed into a cold solution of anthracene in carbon bisulphide. On
treatment with potash, it forms the substitution product,
monochlor-anthracene, C14H9Cl. Nitro-anthracenes are not as yet known.
The mono-oxyanthracenes (anthrols), C14H9OH or

       /CH\
  C6H4<  | >C6H3OH
       \CH/

([alpha]) and ([beta]) resemble the phenols, whilst

       /C(OH)\
  C6H4<  |    >C6H4
       \CH   /

([gamma]) (anthranol) is a reduction product of anthraquinone.
[beta]-anthrol and anthranol give the corresponding amino compounds
(anthramines) when heated with ammonia.

Numerous sulphonic acids of anthracene are known, a monosulphonic acid
being obtained with dilute sulphuric acid, whilst concentrated sulphuric
acid produces mixtures of the anthracene disulphonic acids. By the
action of sodium amalgam on an alcoholic solution of anthracene, an
anthracene dihydride, C14H12, is obtained, whilst by the use of stronger
reducing agents, such as hydriodic acid and amorphous phosphorus,
hydrides of composition C14H16 and C14H24 are produced.

Methyl and phenyl anthracenes are known; phenyl anthranol (phthalidin)
being somewhat closely related to the phenolphthaleins (q.v.). Oxidizing
agents convert anthracene into anthraquinone (q.v.); the production of
this substance by oxidizing anthracene in glacial acetic acid solution,
with chromic acid, is the usual method employed for the estimation of
anthracene.




ANTHRACITE (Gr. [Greek: anthrax], coal), a term applied to those
varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon
vapours when heated below their point of ignition; or, in other words,
which burn with a smokeless and nearly non-luminous flame. Other terms
having the same meaning are, "stone coal" (not to be confounded with the
German _Steinkohle_) or "blind coal" in Scotland, and "Kilkenny coal" in
Ireland. The imperfect anthracite of north Devon, which however is only
used as a pigment, is known as _culm_, the same term being used in
geological classification to distinguish the strata in which it is
found, and similar strata in the Rhenish hill countries which are known
as the Culm Measures. In America, culm is used as an equivalent for
waste or slack in anthracite mining.

Physically, anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by its
greater hardness, higher density, 1.3-1.4, and lustre, the latter being
often semi-metallic with a somewhat brownish reflection. It is also free
from included soft or fibrous notches and does not soil the fingers when
rubbed. Structurally it shows some alteration by the development of
secondary divisional planes and fissures so that the original
stratification lines are not always easily seen. The thermal
conductivity is also higher, a lump of anthracite feeling perceptibly
colder when held in the warm hand than a similar lump of bituminous coal
at the same temperature. The chemical composition of some typical
anthracites is given in the article COAL.

Anthracite may be considered to be a transition stage between ordinary
bituminous coal and graphite, produced by the more or less complete
elimination of the volatile constituents of the former; and it is found
most abundantly in areas that have been subjected to considerable
earth-movements, such as the flanks of great mountain ranges. The
largest and most important anthracite region, that of the north-eastern
portion of the Pennsylvania coal-field, is a good example of this; the
highly contorted strata of the Appalachian region produce anthracite
exclusively, while in the western portion of the same basin on the Ohio
and its tributaries, where the strata are undisturbed, free-burning and
coking coals, rich in volatile matter, prevail. In the same way the
anthracite region of South Wales is confined to the contorted portion
west of Swansea and Llanelly, the central and eastern portions
producing steam, coking and house coals.

Anthracites of newer, tertiary or cretaceous age, are found in the
Crow's Nest part of the Rocky Mountains in Canada, and at various points
in the Andes in Peru.

The principal use of anthracite is as a smokeless fuel. In the eastern
United States, it is largely employed as domestic fuel, usually in close
stoves or furnaces, as well as for steam purposes, since, unlike that
from South Wales, it does not decrepitate when heated, or at least not
to the same extent. For proper use, however, it is necessary that the
fuel should be supplied in pieces as nearly uniform in size as possible,
a condition that has led to the development of the breaker which is so
characteristic a feature in American anthracite mining (see COAL). The
large coal as raised from the mine is passed through breakers with
toothed rolls to reduce the lumps to smaller pieces, which are separated
into different sizes by a system of graduated sieves, placed in
descending order. Each size can be perfectly well burnt alone on an
appropriate grate, if kept free from larger or smaller admixtures. The
common American classification is as follows:--

Lump, steamboat, egg and stove coals, the latter in two or three sizes,
all three being above 1-1/2 in. size on round-hole screens.

  Chestnut      below 1-1/2 inch   above 7/8 inch.
  Pea             "   7/8  "         "   9/16  "
  Buckwheat       "   9/16 "         "   3/8   "
  Rice            "   3/8  "         "   3/16  "
  Barley          "   3/16 "         "   3/32  "

From the pea size downwards the principal use is for steam purposes. In
South Wales a less elaborate classification is adopted; but great care
is exercised in hand-picking and cleaning the coal from included
particles of pyrites in the higher qualities known as best malting
coals, which are used for kiln-drying malt and hops.

Formerly, anthracite was largely used, both in America and South Wales,
as blast-furnace fuel for iron smelting, but for this purpose it has
been largely superseded by coke in the former country and entirely in
the latter. An important application has, however, been developed in the
extended use of internal combustion motors driven by the so-called
"mixed," "poor," "semi-water" or "Dowson gas" produced by the
gasification of anthracite with air and a small proportion of steam.
This is probably the most economical method of obtaining power known;
with an engine as small as 15 horse-power the expenditure of fuel is at
the rate of only 1 lb per horse-power hour, and with larger engines it
is proportionately less. Large quantities of anthracite for power
purposes are now exported from South Wales to France, Switzerland and
parts of Germany. (H. B.)




ANTHRACOTHERIUM ("coal-animal," so called from the fact of the remains
first described having been obtained from the Tertiary lignite-beds of
Europe), a genus of extinct artiodactyle ungulate mammals, characterized
by having 44 teeth, with five semi-crescentic cusps on the crowns of the
upper molars. In many respects, especially the form of the lower jaw,
_Anthracotherium_, which is of Oligocene and Miocene age in Europe, and
typifies the family _Anthracotheriidae_, is allied to the hippopotamus,
of which it is probably an ancestral form. The European _A. magnum_ was
as large as the last-mentioned animal, but there were several smaller
species and the genus also occurs in Egypt, India and North America.
(See ARTIODACTYLA.)




ANTHRAQUINONE, C14H8O2, an important derivative of anthracene, first
prepared in 1834 by A. Laurent. It is prepared commercially from
anthracene by stirring a sludge of anthracene and water in horizontal
cylinders with a mixture of sodium bichromate and caustic soda. This
suspension is then run through a conical mill in order to remove all
grit, the cones of the mill fitting so tightly that water cannot pass
through unless the mill is running; the speed of the mill when working
is about 3000 revolutions per minute. After this treatment, the mixture
is run into lead-lined vats and treated with sulphuric acid, steam is
blown through the mixture in order to bring it to the boil, and the
anthracene is rapidly oxidized to anthraquinone. When the oxidation is
complete, the anthraquinone is separated in a filter press, washed and
heated to 120 deg. C. with commercial oil of vitriol, using about 2-1/2
parts of vitriol to 1 of anthraquinone. It is then removed to lead-lined
tanks and again washed with water and dried; the product obtained
contains about 95% of anthraquinone. It may be purified by sublimation.
Various synthetic processes have been used for the preparation of
anthraquinone. A. Behr and W.A. v. Dorp (_Ber._, 1874, 7, p. 578)
obtained orthobenzoyl benzoic acid by heating phthalic anhydride with
benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. This compound on heating
with phosphoric anhydride loses water and yields anthraquinone,

       /CO\   C6H6     /CO.C6H6         /CO\
  C6H4<    >O ->  C6H4<         -> C6H4<    >C6H4.
       \CO/            \COOH            \CO/

It may be prepared in a similar manner by heating phthalyl chloride with
benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. Dioxy- and
tetraoxy-anthraquinones are obtained when meta-oxy- and
dimeta-dioxy-benzoic acids are heated with concentrated sulphuric acid.

Anthraquinone crystallizes in yellow needles or prisms, which melt at
277 deg. C. It is soluble in hot benzene, sublimes easily, and is very
stable towards oxidizing agents. On the other hand, it is readily
attacked by reducing agents. With zinc dust in presence of caustic soda
it yields the secondary alcohol oxan-thranol, C6H4 : CO.CHOH : C6H4,
with tin and hydrochloric acid, the phenolic compound anthranol, C6H4 :
CO.C(OH) : C6H4; and with hydriodic acid at 150 deg. C. or on
distillation with zinc dust, the hydrocarbon anthracene, C14H10. When
fused with caustic potash, it gives benzoic acid. It behaves more as a
ketone than as a quinone, since with hydroxylamine it yields an oxime,
and on reduction with zinc dust and caustic soda it yields a secondary
alcohol, whilst it cannot be reduced by means of sulphurous acid.
Various sulphonic acids of anthraquinone are known, as well as
oxy-derivatives, for the preparation and properties of which see
ALIZARIN.




ANTHRAX (the Greek for "coal," or "carbuncle," so called by the ancients
because they regarded it as burning like coal; cf. the French equivalent
_charbon_; also known as _fievre charbonneuse, Milzbrand_, splenic
fever, and malignant pustule), an acute, specific, infectious, virulent
disease, caused by the _Bacillus anthracis_, in animals, chiefly cattle,
sheep and horses, and frequently occurring in workers in the wool or
hair, as well as in those handling the hides or carcases, of beasts
which have been affected.

_Animals._--As affecting wild as well as domesticated animals and man,
anthrax has been widely diffused in one or more of its forms, over the
surface of the globe. It at times decimates the reindeer herds in
Lapland and the Polar regions, and is only too well known in the tropics
and in temperate latitudes. It has been observed and described in
Russia, Siberia, Central Asia, China, Cochin-China, Egypt, West Indies,
Peru, Paraguay, Brazil, Mexico, and other parts of North and South
America, in Australia, and on different parts of the African continent,
while for other European countries the writings which have been
published with regard to its nature, its peculiar characteristics, and
the injury it inflicts are innumerable. Countries in which are extensive
marshes, or the subsoil of which is tenacious or impermeable, are
usually those most frequently and seriously visited. Thus there have
been regions notorious for its prevalence, such as the marshes of
Sologne, Dombes and Bresse in France; certain parts of Germany, Hungary
and Poland; in Spain the half-submerged valleys and the maritime coasts
of Catalonia, as well as the Romagna and other marshy districts of
Italy; while it is epizootic, and even panzootic, in the swampy regions
of Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, and especially of Siberia, where it is
known as the _Sibirskaja jaswa_ (Siberian boil-plague). The records of
anthrax go back to a very ancient date. It is supposed to be the murrain
of Exodus. Classical writers allude to anthrax as if it were the only
cattle disease worthy of mention (see Virgil, _Georg._ iii.). It figures
largely in the history of the early and middle ages as a devastating
pestilence attacking animals, and through them mankind; the oldest
Anglo-Saxon manuscripts contain many fantastic recipes, leechdoms,
charms and incantations for the prevention or cure of the "blacan
blezene" (black blain) and the relief of the "elfshot" creatures. In the
18th and 19th centuries it sometimes spread like an epizootic over the
whole of Europe, from Siberia to France. It was in this malady that
disease-producing germs (_bacteria_) were first discovered, in 1840, by
Pollender of Wipperfurth, and, independently, by veterinary surgeon
Brauell of Dorpat, and their real character afterwards verified by C.J.
Davaine (1812-1882) of Alfort in 1863; and it was in their experiments
with this disease that Toussaint, Pasteur and J.B. Chauveau first showed
how to make the morbific poison its own antidote. (See VIVISECTION.)

The symptoms vary with the species of animal, the mode of infection, and
the seat of the primary lesion, internal or external. In all its forms
anthrax is an inoculable disease, transmission being surely and promptly
effected by this means, and it may be conveyed to nearly all animals by
inoculation of a wound of the skin or through the digestive organs.
Cattle, sheep and horses nearly always owe their infection to spores or
bacilli ingested with their food or water, and pigs usually contract the
disease by eating the flesh of animals dead of anthrax.

Internal anthrax, of cattle and sheep, exhibits no premonitory symptoms
that can be relied on. Generally the first indication of an outbreak is
the sudden death of one or more of the herd or flock. Animals which do
not die at once may be noticed to stagger and tremble; the breathing
becomes hurried and the pulse very rapid, while the heart beats
violently; the internal temperature of the body is high, 104 deg. to 106
deg. F.; blood oozes from the nose, mouth and anus, the visible mucous
membranes are dusky or almost black. The animal becomes weak and
listless, the temperature falls and death supervenes in a few hours,
being immediately preceded by delirium, convulsions or coma. While death
is usually rapid or sudden when the malady is general, constituting what
is designated splenic apoplexy, internal anthrax in cattle is not
invariably fatal. In some cases the animal rallies from a first attack
and gradually recovers.

In the external or localized form, marked by the formation of carbuncles
before general infection takes place, death may not occur for several
days. The carbuncles may appear in any part of the body, being preceded
or accompanied by fever. They are developed in the subcutaneous
connective tissue where this is loose and plentiful, in the interstices
of the muscles, lymphatic glands, in the mucous membranes of the mouth
and tongue (glossanthrax of cattle), pharynx and larynx (_anthrax
angina_ of horses and pigs), and the rectum. They begin as small
circumscribed swellings which are warm, slightly painful and oedematous.
In from two to eight hours they attain a considerable size, are cold,
painless and gangrenous, and when they are incised a quantity of a
blood-stained gelatinous exudate escapes. When the swellings have
attained certain proportions symptoms of general infection appear, and,
running their course with great rapidity, cause death in a few hours.
Anthrax of the horse usually begins as an affection of the throat or
bowel. In the former there is rapid obstructive oedema of the mucous
membrane of the pharynx and larynx with swelling of the throat and neck,
fever, salivation, difficulty in swallowing, noisy breathing, frothy
discharge from the nose and threatening suffocation. General invasion
soon ensues, and the horse may die in from four to sixteen hours. The
intestinal form is marked by high temperature, great prostration, small
thready pulse, tumultuous action of the heart, laboured breathing and
symptoms of abdominal pain with straining and diarrhoea. When moved the
horse staggers and trembles. Profuse sweating, a falling temperature and
cyanotic mucous membranes indicate the approach of a fatal termination.

In splenic fever or splenic apoplexy, the most marked alterations
observed after death are--the effects of rapid decomposition, evidenced
by the foul odour, disengagement of gas beneath the skin and in the
tissues and cavities of the body, yellow or yellowish-red gelatinous
exudation into and between the muscles, effusion of citron or
rust-coloured fluid in various cavities, extravasations of blood and
local congestions throughout the body, the blood in the vessels
generally being very dark and tar-like. The most notable feature,
however, in the majority of cases is the enormous enlargement of the
spleen, which is engorged with blood to such an extent that it often
ruptures, while its tissue is changed into a violet or black fluid mass.

The bacillus of anthrax, under certain conditions, retains its vitality
for a long time, and rapidly grows when it finds a suitable field in
which to develop, its mode of multiplication being by scission and the
formation of spores, and depending, to a great extent at least, on the
presence of oxygen. The morbid action of the bacillus is indeed said to
be due to its affinity for oxygen; by depriving the red corpuscles of
the blood of that most essential gas, it renders the vital fluid unfit
to sustain life. Albert Hoffa and others assert that the fatal lesions
are produced by the poisonous action of the toxins formed by the bacilli
and not by the blocking up of the minute blood-vessels, or the
abstraction of oxygen from the blood by the bacilli.

It was by the cultivation of this micro-organism, or attenuation of the
virus, that Pasteur was enabled to produce a prophylactic remedy for
anthrax. His discovery was first made with regard to the cholera of
fowls, a most destructive disorder which annually carries off great
numbers of poultry. Pasteur produced his inoculation material by the
cultivation of the bacilli at a temperature of 42 deg. C. in oxygen. Two
vaccines are required. The first or weak vaccine is obtained by
incubating a bouillon culture for twenty-four days at 42 deg. C., and
the second or less attenuated vaccine by incubating a bouillon culture,
at the same temperature, for twelve days. Pasteur's method of protective
inoculation comprises two inoculations with an interval of twelve days
between them. Immunity, established in about fifteen days after the
injection of the second vaccine, lasts from nine months to a year.

Toussaint had, previous to Pasteur, attenuated the virus of anthrax by
the action of heat; and Chauveau subsequently corroborated by numerous
experiments the value of Toussaint's method, demonstrating that,
according to the degree of heat to which the virus is subjected, so is
its inocuousness when transferred to a healthy creature. In outbreaks of
anthrax on farms where many animals are exposed to infection immediate
temporary protection can be conferred by the injection of anthrax serum.

_Human Beings._--For many years cases of sudden death had been observed
to occur from time to time among healthy men engaged in woollen
manufactories, particularly in the work of sorting or combing wool. In
some instances death appeared to be due to the direct inoculation of
some poisonous material into the body, for a form of malignant pustule
was observed upon the skin; but, on the other hand, in not a few cases
without any external manifestation, symptoms of blood-poisoning, often
proving rapidly fatal, suggested the probability of other channels for
the introduction of the disease. In 1880 the occurrence of several such
cases among woolsorters at Bradford, reported by Dr J.H. Bell of that
town, led to an official inquiry in England by the Local Government
Board, and an elaborate investigation into the pathology of what was
then called "woolsorters' disease" was at the same time conducted at the
Brown Institution, London, by Professor W.S. Greenfield. Among the
results of this inquiry it was ascertained: (1) that the disease
appeared to be identical with that occurring among sheep and cattle; (2)
that in the blood and tissues of the body was found in abundance, as in
the disease in animals, the _Bacillus anthracis_, and (3) that the
skins, hair, wool, &c., of animals dying of anthrax retain this
infecting organism, which, under certain conditions, finds ready access
to the bodies of the workers.

Two well-marked forms of this disease in man are recognized, "external
anthrax" and "internal anthrax." In external anthrax the infecting agent
is accidentally inoculated into some portion of skin, the seat of a
slight abrasion, often the hand, arm or face. A minute swelling soon
appears at the part, and develops into a vesicle containing serum or
bloody matter, and varying in size, but seldom larger than a shilling.
This vesicle speedily bursts and leaves an ulcerated or sloughing
surface, round about which are numerous smaller vesicles which undergo
similar changes, and the whole affected part becomes hard and tender,
while the surrounding surface participates in the inflammatory action,
and the neighbouring lymphatic glands are also inflamed. This condition,
termed "malignant pustule," is frequently accompanied with severe
constitutional disturbance, in the form of fever, delirium,
perspirations, together with great prostration and a tendency to death
from septicaemia, although on the other hand recovery is not uncommon.
It was repeatedly found that the matter taken from the vesicle during
the progress of the disease, as well as the blood in the body after
death, contained the _Bacillus anthracis_, and when inoculated into
small animals produced rapid death, with all the symptoms and
post-mortem appearances characteristic of che disease as known to affect
them.

In internal anthrax there is no visible local manifestation of the
disease, and the spores or bacilli appear to gain access to the system
from the air charged with them, as in rooms where the contaminated wool
or hair is unpacked, or again during the process of sorting. The
symptoms usually observed are those of rapid physical prostration, with
a small pulse, somewhat lowered temperature (rarely fever), and
quickened breathing. Examination of the chest reveals inflammation of
the lungs and pleura. In some cases death takes place by collapse in
less than one day, while in others the fatal issue is postponed for
three or four days, and is preceded by symptoms of blood-poisoning,
including rigors, perspirations, extreme exhaustion, &c. In some cases
of internal anthrax the symptoms are more intestinal than pulmonary, and
consist in severe exhausting diarrhoea, with vomiting and rapid sinking.
Recovery from the internal variety, although not unknown, is more rare
than from the external, and its most striking phenomena are its sudden
onset in the midst of apparent health, the rapid development of physical
prostration, and its tendency to a fatal termination despite treatment.
The post-mortem appearances in internal anthrax are such as are usually
observed in septicaemia, but in addition evidence of extensive
inflammation of the lungs, pleura and bronchial glands has in most cases
been met with. The blood and other fluids and the diseased tissues are
found loaded with the _Bacillus anthracis_.

Treatment in this disease appears to be of but little avail, except as
regards the external form, where the malignant pustule may be excised or
dealt with early by strong caustics to destroy the affected textures.
For the relief of the general constitutional symptoms, quinine,
stimulants and strong nourishment appear to be the only available means.
An anti-anthrax serum has also been tried. As preventive measures in
woollen manufactories, the disinfection of suspicious material, or the
wetting of it before handling, is recommended as lessening the risk to
the workers.     (J. Mac.)




ANTHROPOID APES, or MANLIKE APES, the name given to the family of the
Simiidae, because, of all the ape-world, they most closely resemble man.
This family includes four kinds, the gibbons of S.E. Asia, the orangs of
Borneo and Sumatra, the gorillas of W. Equatorial Africa, and the
chimpanzees of W. and Central Equatorial Africa. Each of these apes
resembles man most in some one physical characteristic: the gibbons in
the formation of the teeth, the orangs in the brain-structure, the
gorillas in size, and the chimpanzees in the sigmoid flexure of the
spine. In general structure they all closely resemble human beings, as
in the absence of tails; in their semi-erect position (resting on
finger-tips or knuckles); in the shape of vertebral column, sternum and
pelvis; in the adaptation of the arms for turning the palm uppermost at
will; in the possession of a long vermiform appendix to the short caecum
of the intestine; in the size of the cerebral hemispheres and the
complexity of their convolutions. They differ in certain respects, as in
the proportion of the limbs, in the bony development of the eyebrow
ridges, and in the opposable great toe, which fits the foot to be a
climbing and grasping organ.

Man differs from them in the absence of a hairy coat; in the development
of a large lobule to the external ear; in his fully erect attitude; in
his flattened foot with the non-opposable great toe; in the straight
limb-bones; in the wider pelvis; in the marked sigmoid flexure of his
spine; in the perfection of the muscular movements of the arm; in the
delicacy of hand; in the smallness of the canine teeth and other dental
peculiarities; in the development of a chin; and in the small size of
his jaws compared to the relatively great size of the cranium. Together
with man and the baboons, the anthropoid apes form the group known to
science as Catarhini, those, that is, possessing a narrow nasal septum,
and are thus easily distinguishable from the flat-nosed monkeys or
Platyrhini. The anthropoid apes are arboreal and confined to the Old
World. They are of special interest from the important place assigned to
them in the arguments of Darwin and the Evolutionists. It is generally
admitted now that no fundamental anatomical difference can be proved to
exist between these higher apes and man, but it is equally agreed that
none probably of the Simiidae is in the direct line of human ancestry.
There is a great gap to be bridged between the highest anthropoid and
the lowest man, and much importance has been attached to the discovery
of an extinct primate, Pithecanthropus (q.v.), which has been regarded
as the "missing link."

  See Huxley's _Man's Place in Nature_ (1863); Robt. Hartmann's
  _Anthropoid Apes_ (1883; London, 1885); A.H. Keane's _Ethnology_
  (1896); Darwin's _Descent of Man_ (1871; pop. ed., 1901); Haeckel's
  _Anthropogeny_ (Leipzig, 1874, 1903; Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., 1883);
  W.H. Flower and Rich. Lydekker, _Mammals Living and Extinct_ (London,
  1891).




ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: anthropos] man, and [Greek: logos], theory or
science), the science which, in its strictest sense, has as its object
the study of man as a unit in the animal kingdom. It is distinguished
from ethnology, which is devoted to the study of man as a _racial_ unit,
and from ethnography, which deals with the _distribution_ of the races
formed by the aggregation of such units. To anthropology, however, in
its more general sense as the natural history of man, ethnology and
ethnography may both be considered to belong, being related as parts to
a whole.

Various other sciences, in conformity with the above definition, must be
regarded as subsidiary to anthropology, which yet hold their own
independent places in the field of knowledge. Thus anatomy and
physiology display the structure and functions of the human body, while
psychology investigates the operations of the human mind. Philology
deals with the general principles of language, as well as with the
relations between the languages of particular races and nations. Ethics
or moral science treats of man's duty or rules of conduct toward his
fellow-men. Sociology and the science of culture are concerned with the
origin and development of arts and sciences, opinions, beliefs, customs,
laws and institutions generally among mankind within historic time;
while beyond the historical limit the study is continued by inferences
from relics of early ages and remote districts, to interpret which is
the task of prehistoric archaeology and geology.

I. _Man's Place in Nature._--In 1843 Dr J.C. Prichard, who perhaps of
all others merits the title of founder of modern anthropology, wrote in
his _Natural History of Man_:--

  "The organized world presents no contrasts and resemblances more
  remarkable than those which we discover on comparing mankind with the
  inferior tribes. That creatures should exist so nearly approaching to
  each other in all the particulars of their physical structure, and yet
  differing so immeasurably in their endowments and capabilities, would
  be a fact hard to believe, if it were not manifest to our observation.
  The differences are everywhere striking: the resemblances are less
  obvious in the fulness of their extent, and they are never
  contemplated without wonder by those who, in the study of anatomy and
  physiology, are first made aware how near is man in his physical
  constitution to the brutes. In all the principles of his internal
  structure, in the composition and functions of his parts, man is but
  an animal. The lord of the earth, who contemplates the eternal order
  of the universe, and aspires to communion with its invisible Maker, is
  a being composed of the same materials, and framed on the same
  principles, as the creatures which he has tamed to be the servile
  instruments of his will, or slays for his daily food. The points of
  resemblance are innumerable; they extend to the most recondite
  arrangements of that mechanism which maintains instrumentally the
  physical life of the body, which brings forward its early development
  and admits, after a given period, its decay, and by means of which is
  prepared a succession of similar beings destined to perpetuate the
  race."

The acknowledgment of man's structural similarity with the
anthropomorphous species nearest approaching him, viz.: the higher or
anthropoid apes, had long before Prichard's day been made by Linnaeus,
who in his _Systema Naturae_ (1735) grouped them together as the highest
order of Mammalia, to which he gave the name of Primates. The
_Amoenitates Academicae_ (vol. vi., Leiden, 1764), published under the
auspices of Linnaeus, contains a remarkable picture which illustrates a
discourse by his disciple Hoppius, and is here reproduced (see Plate,
fig. 1). In this picture, which shows the crudeness of the zoological
notions current in the 18th century as to both men and apes, there are
set in a row four figures: (a) a recognizable orang-utan, sitting and
holding a staff; (b) a chimpanzee, absurdly humanized as to head, hands,
and feet; (c) a hairy woman, with a tail a foot long; (d) another woman,
more completely coated with hair. The great Swedish naturalist was
possibly justified in treating the two latter creatures as quasi-human,
for they seem to be grotesque exaggerations of such tailed and hairy
human beings as really, though rarely, occur, and are apt to be
exhibited as monstrosities (see Bastian and Hartmann, _Zeitschrift fur
Ethnologie_, Index, "Geschwanzte Menschen"; Gould and Pile, _Anomalies
and Curiosities of Medicine_, 1897). To Linnaeus, however, they
represented normal anthropomorpha or man-like creatures, vouched for by
visitors to remote parts of the world. This opinion of the Swedish
naturalist seems to have been little noticed in Great Britain till it
was taken up by the learned but credulous Scottish judge, Lord Monboddo
(see his _Origin and Progress of Language_, 1774, &c.; _Antient
Metaphysics_, 1778). He had not heard of the tailed men till he met with
them in the work of Linnaeus, with whom he entered into correspondence,
with the result that he enlarged his range of mankind with races of
sub-human type. One was founded on the description by the Swedish sailor
Niklas Koping of the ferocious men with long tails inhabiting the
Nicobar Islands. Another comprised the orang-utans of Sumatra, who were
said to take men captive and set them to work as slaves. One of these
apes, it was related, served as a sailor on board a Jamaica ship, and
used to wait on the captain. These are stories which seem to carry their
own explanation. When the Nicobar Islands were taken over by the British
government two centuries later, the native warriors were still wearing
their peculiar loin-cloth hanging behind in a most tail-like manner
(E.H. Man, _Journal Anthropological Institute_, vol. xv. p. 442). As for
the story of the orang-utan cabin boy, this may even be verbally true,
it being borne in mind that in the Malay languages the term
_orang-utan_, "man of the forest," was originally used for inland forest
natives and other rude men, rather than for the _miyas_ apes to which it
has come to be generally applied by Europeans. The speculations as to
primitive man connected with these stories diverted the British public,
headed by Dr Johnson, who said that Monboddo was "as jealous of his tail
as a squirrel." Linnaeus's primarily zoological classification of man
did not, however, suit the philosophical opinion of the time, which
responded more readily to the systems represented by Buffon, and later
by Cuvier, in which the human mind and soul formed an impassable wall of
partition between him and other mammalia, so that the definition of
man's position in the animal world was treated as not belonging to
zoology, but to metaphysics and theology. It has to be borne in mind
that Linnaeus, plainly as he recognized the likeness of the higher
simian and the human types, does not seem to have entertained the
thought of accounting for this similarity by common descent. It
satisfied his mind to consider it as belonging to the system of nature,
as indeed remained the case with a greater anatomist of the following
century, Richard Owen. The present drawing, which under the authority of
Linnaeus shows an anthropomorphic series from which the normal type of
man, the _Homo sapiens_, is conspicuously absent, brings zoological
similarity into view without suggesting kinship to account for it. There
are few ideas more ingrained in ancient and low civilization than that
of relationship by descent between the lower animals and man. Savage and
barbaric religions recognize it, and the mythology of the world has
hardly a more universal theme. But in educated Europe such ideas had
long been superseded by the influence of theology and philosophy, with
which they seemed too incompatible. In the 19th century, however,
Lamarck's theory of the development of new species by habit and
circumstance led through Wallace and Darwin to the doctrines of the
hereditary transmission of acquired characters, the survival of the
fittest, and natural selection. Thenceforward it was impossible to
exclude a theory of descent of man from ancestral beings whom zoological
similarity connects also, though by lines of descent not at all clearly
defined, with ancestors of the anthropomorphic apes. In one form or
another such a theory of human descent has in our time become part of an
accepted framework of zoology, if not as a demonstrable truth, at any
rate as a working hypothesis which has no effective rival.

The new development from Linnaeus's zoological scheme which has thus
ensued appears in Huxley's diagram of simian and human skeletons (fig.
2, (a) gibbon; (b) orang; (c) chimpanzee; (d) gorilla; (e) man).
Evidently suggested by the Linnean picture, this is brought up to the
modern level of zoology, and continued on to man, forming an
introduction to his zoological history hardly to be surpassed. Some of
the main points it illustrates may be briefly stated here, the reader
being referred for further information to Huxley's _Essays_. In tracing
the osteological characters of apes and man through this series, the
general system of the skeletons, and the close correspondence in number
and arrangement of vertebrae and ribs, as well as in the teeth, go far
towards justifying the opinion of hereditary connexion. At the same
time, the comparison brings into view differences in human structure
adapted to man's pre-eminent mode of life, though hardly to be accounted
its chief causes. It may be seen how the arrangement of limbs suited for
going on all-fours belongs rather to the apes than to man, and walking
on the soles of the feet rather to man than the apes. The two modes of
progression overlap in human life, but the child's tendency when
learning is to rest on the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands,
unlike the apes, which support themselves on the sides of the feet and
the bent knuckles of the hands. With regard to climbing, the long
stretch of arm and the grasp with both hands and feet contribute to the
arboreal life of the apes, contrasting with what seem the mere remains
of the climbing habit to be found even among forest savages. On the
whole, man's locomotive limbs are not so much specialized to particular
purposes, as generalized into adaptation to many ends. As to the
mechanical conditions of the human body, the upright posture has always
been recognized as the chief. To it contributes the balance of the skull
on the cervical vertebrae, while the human form of the pelvis provides
the necessary support to the intestines in the standing attitude. The
marked curvature of the vertebral column, by breaking the shock to the
neck and head in running and leaping, likewise favours the erect
position. The lowest coccygeal vertebrae of man remain as a rudimentary
tail. While it is evident that high importance must be attached to the
adaptation of the human body to the life of diversified intelligence and
occupation he has to lead, this must not be treated as though it were
the principal element of the superiority of man, whose comparison with
all lower genera of mammals must be mainly directed to the intellectual
organ, the brain. Comparison of the brains of vertebrate animals (see
BRAIN) brings into view the immense difference between the small, smooth
brain of a fish or bird and the large and convoluted organ in man. In
man, both size and complexity contribute to the increased area of the
cortex or outer layer of the brain, which has been fully ascertained to
be the seat of the mysterious processes by which sensation furnishes the
groundwork of thought. Schafer (_Textbook of Physiology_, vol. ii. p.
697) thus defines it: "The cerebral cortex is the seat of the
intellectual functions, of intelligent sensation or consciousness, of
ideation, of volition, and of memory."

The relations between man and ape are most readily stated in comparison
with the gorilla, as on the whole the most anthropomorphous ape. In the
general proportions of the body and limbs there is a marked difference
between the gorilla and man. The gorilla's brain-case is smaller, its
trunk larger, its lower limbs shorter, its upper limbs longer in
proportion than those of man. The differences between a gorilla's skull
and a man's are truly immense. In the gorilla, the face, formed largely
by the massive jaw-bones, predominates over the brain-case or cranium;
in the man these proportions are reversed. In man the occipital foramen,
through which passes the spinal cord, is placed just behind the centre
of the base of the skull, which is thus evenly balanced in the erect
posture, whereas the gorilla, which goes habitually on all fours, and
whose skull is inclined forward, in accordance with this posture has the
foramen farther back. In man the surface of the skull is comparatively
smooth, and the brow-ridges project but little, while in the gorilla
these ridges overhang the cavernous orbits like penthouse roofs. The
absolute capacity of the cranium of the gorilla is far less than that of
man; the smallest adult human cranium hardly measuring less than 63 cub.
in., while the largest gorilla cranium measured had a content of only
34-1/2 cub. in. The largest proportional size of the facial bones, and
the great projection of the jaws, confer on the gorilla's skull its
small facial angle and brutal character, while its teeth differ from
man's in relative size and number of fangs. Comparing the lengths of the
extremities, it is seen that the gorilla's arm is of enormous length, in
fact about one-sixth longer than the spine, whereas a man's arm is
one-fifth shorter than the spine; both hand and foot are proportionally
much longer in the gorilla than in man; the leg does not so much differ.
The vertebral column of the gorilla differs from that of man in its
curvature and other characters, as also does the conformation of its
narrow pelvis. The hand of the gorilla corresponds essentially as to
bones and muscles with that of man, but is clumsier and heavier; its
thumb is "opposable" like a human thumb, that is, it can easily meet
with its extremity the extremities of the other fingers, thus possessing
a character which does much to make the human hand so admirable an
instrument; but the gorilla's thumb is proportionately shorter than
man's. The foot of the higher apes, though often spoken of as a hand, is
anatomically not such, but a prehensile foot. It has been argued by Sir
Richard Owen and others that the position of the great toe converts the
foot of the higher apes into a hand, an extremely important distinction
from man; but against this Professor T.H. Huxley maintained that it has
the characteristic structure of a foot with a very movable great toe.
The external unlikeness of the apes to man depends much on their
hairiness, but this and some other characteristics have no great
zoological value. No doubt the difference between man and the apes
depends, of all things, on the relative size and organization of the
brain. While similar as to their general arrangement to the human brain,
those of the higher apes, such as the chimpanzee, are much less complex
in their convolutions, as well as much less in both absolute and
relative weight--the weight of a gorilla's brain hardly exceeding 20
oz., and a man's brain hardly weighing less thin 32 oz., although the
gorilla is considerably the larger animal of the two.

These anatomical distinctions are undoubtedly of great moment, and it is
an interesting question whether they suffice to place man in a
zoological order by himself. It is plain that some eminent zoologists,
regarding man as absolutely differing as to mind and spirit from any
other animal, have had their discrimination of mere bodily differences
unconsciously sharpened, and have been led to give differences, such as
in the brain or even the foot of the apes and man, somewhat more
importance than if they had merely distinguished two species of apes.
Many naturalists hold the opinion that the anatomical differences which
separate the gorilla or chimpanzee from man are in some respects less
than those which separate these man-like apes from apes lower in the
scale. Yet all authorities class both the higher and lower apes in the
same order. This is Huxley's argument, some prominent points of which
are the following: As regards the proportion of limbs, the hylobates or
gibbon is as much longer in the arms than the gorilla as the gorilla is
than the man, while on the other hand, it is as much longer in the legs
than the man as the man is than the gorilla. As to the vertebral column
and pelvis, the lower apes differ from the gorilla as much as, or more
than, it differs from man. As to the capacity of the cranium, men differ
from one another so extremely that the largest known human skull holds
nearly twice the measure of the smallest, a larger proportion than that
in which man surpasses the gorilla; while, with proper allowance for
difference of size of the various species, it appears that some of the
lower apes fall nearly as much below the higher apes. The projection of
the muzzle, which gives the character of brutality to the gorilla as
distinguished from the man, is yet further exaggerated in the lemurs, as
is also the backward position of the occipital foramen. In characters of
such importance as the structure of the hand and foot, the lower apes
diverge extremely from the gorilla; thus the thumb ceases to be
opposable in the American monkeys, and in the marmosets is directed
forwards, and armed with a curved claw like the other digits, the great
toe in these latter being insignificant in proportion. The same argument
can be extended to other points of anatomical structure, and, what is of
more consequence, it appears true of the brain. A series of the apes,
arranged from lower to higher orders, shows gradations from a brain
little higher that that of a rat, to a brain like a small and imperfect
imitation of a man's; and the greatest structural break in the series
lies not between man and the man-like apes, but between the apes and
monkeys on one side, and the lemurs on the other. On these grounds
Huxley, restoring in principle the Linnean classification, desired to
include man in the order of _Primates_. This order he divided into seven
families: first, the _Anthropini_, consisting of man only; second, the
_Catarhini_ or Old World apes; third, the _Platyrhini_, all New World
apes, except the marmosets; fourth, the _Arclopithecini_, or marmosets;
fifth, the _Lemurini_, or lemurs; sixth and seventh, the _Cheiromyini_
and _Galeopithecini_.

It is in assigning to man his place in nature on psychological grounds
that the greater difficulty arises. Huxley acknowledged an immeasurable
and practically infinite divergence, ending in the present enormous
psychological gulf between ape and man. It is difficult to account for
this intellectual chasm as due to some minor structural difference. The
opinion is deeply rooted in modern as in ancient thought, that only a
distinctively human element of the highest import can account for the
severance between man and the highest animal below him. Differences in
the mechanical organs, such as the perfection of the human hand as an
instrument, or the adaptability of the human voice to the expression of
human thought, are indeed of great value. But they have not of
themselves such value, that to endow an ape with the hand and vocal
organs of a man would be likely to raise it through any large part of
the interval that now separates it from humanity. Much more is to be
said for the view that man's larger and more highly organized brain
accounts for those mental powers in which he so absolutely surpasses the
brutes.

The distinction does not seem to lie principally in the range and
delicacy of direct sensation, as may be judged from such well-known
facts as man's inferiority to the eagle in sight, or to the dog in
scent. At the same time, it seems that the human sensory organs may have
in various respects acuteness beyond those of other creatures. But,
beyond a doubt, man possesses, and in some way possesses by virtue of
his superior brain, a power of co-ordinating the impressions of his
senses, which enables him to understand the world he lives in, and by
understanding to use, resist, and even in a measure rule it. No human
art shows the nature of this human attribute more clearly than does
language. Man shares with the mammalia and birds the direct expression
of the feelings by emotional tones and interjectional cries; the
parrot's power of articulate utterance almost equals his own; and, by
association of ideas in some measure, some of the lower animals have
even learnt to recognize words he utters. But, to use words in
themselves unmeaning, as symbols by which to conduct and convey the
complex intellectual processes in which mental conceptions are
suggested, compared, combined, and even analysed, and new ones
created--this is a faculty which is scarcely to be traced in any lower
animal. The view that this, with other mental processes, is a function
of the brain, is remarkably corroborated by modern investigation of the
disease of aphasia, where the power of thinking remains, but the power
is lost of recalling the word corresponding to the thought, and this
mental defect is found to accompany a diseased state of a particular
locality of the brain (see APHASIA). This may stand among the most
perfect of the many evidences that, in Professor Bain's words, "the
brain is the principal, though not the sole organ of mind." As the
brains of the vertebrate animals form an ascending scale, more and more
approaching man's in their arrangement, the fact here finds its
explanation, that lower animals perform mental processes corresponding
in their nature to our own, though of generally less power and
complexity. The full evidence of this correspondence will be found in
such works as Brehm's _Thierleben_; and some of the salient points are
set forth by Charles Darwin, in the chapter on "Mental Powers," in his
_Descent of Man_. Such are the similar effects of terror on man and the
lower animals, causing the muscled to tremble, the heart to palpitate,
the sphincters to be relaxed, and the hair to stand on end. The
phenomena of memory, as to both persons and places, is strong in
animals, as is manifest by their recognition of their masters, and their
returning at once to habits of which, though disused for many years,
their brain has not lost the stored-up impressions. Such facts as that
dogs "hunt in dreams," make it likely that their minds are not only
sensible to actual events, present and past, but can, like our minds,
combine revived sensations into ideal scenes in which they are
actors,--that is to say, they have the faculty of imagination. As for
the reasoning powers in animals, the accounts of monkeys learning by
experience to break eggs carefully, and pick off bits of shell, so as
not to lose the contents, or of the way in which rats or martens after a
while can no longer be caught by the same kind of trap, with innumerable
similar facts, show in the plainest way that the reason of animals goes
so far as to form by new experience a new hypothesis of cause and effect
which will henceforth guide their actions. The employment of mechanical
instruments, of which instances of monkeys using sticks and stones
furnish the only rudimentary traces among the lower animals, is one of
the often-quoted distinctive powers of man. With this comes the whole
vast and ever-widening range of inventive and adaptive art, where the
uniform hereditary instinct of the cell-forming bee and the
nest-building bird is supplanted by multiform processes and
constructions, often at first rude and clumsy in comparison to those of
the lower instinct, but carried on by the faculty of improvement and new
invention into ever higher stages. "From the moment," writes A.R.
Wallace (_Natural Selection_), "when the first skin was used as a
covering, when the first rude spear was formed to assist in the chase,
when fire was first used to cook his food, when the first seed was sown
or shoot planted, a grand revolution was effected in nature, a
revolution which in all the previous ages of the earth's history had had
no parallel; for a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily
subject to change with the changing universe,--a being who was in some
degree superior to nature, inasmuch as he knew how to control and
regulate her action, and could keep himself in harmony with her, not by
a change in body, but by an advance of mind."

As to the lower instincts tending directly to self-preservation, it is
acknowledged on all hands that man has them in a less developed state
than other animals; in fact, the natural defencelessness of the human
being, and the long-continued care and teaching of the young by the
elders, are among the commonest themes of moral discourse. Parental
tenderness and care for the young are strongly marked among the lower
animals, though so inferior in scope and duration to the human
qualities; and the same may be said of the mutual forbearance and
defence which bind together in a rudimentary social bond the families
and herds of animals. Philosophy seeking knowledge for its own sake;
morality, manifested in the sense of truth, right, and virtue; and
religion, the belief in and communion with superhuman powers ruling and
pervading the universe, are human characters, of which it is instructive
to trace, if possible, the earliest symptoms in the lower animals, but
which can there show at most only faint and rudimentary signs of their
wondrous development in mankind. That the tracing of physical and even
intellectual continuity between the lower animals and our own race, does
not necessarily lead the anthropologist to lower the rank of man in the
scale of nature, may be shown by citing A.R. Wallace. Man, he considers,
is to be placed "apart, as not only the head and culminating point of
the grand series of organic nature, but as in some degree a new and
distinct order of being."

To regard the intellectual functions of the brain and nervous system as
alone to be considered in the psychological comparison of man with the
lower animals, is a view satisfactory to those thinkers who hold
materialistic views. According to this school, man is a machine, no
doubt the most complex and wonderfully adapted of all known machines,
but still neither more nor less than an instrument whose energy is
provided by force from without, and which, when set in action, performs
the various operations for which its structure fits it, namely, to live,
move, feel, and think. This view, however, always has been strongly
opposed by those who accept on theological grounds a spiritualistic
doctrine, or what is, perhaps, more usual, a theory which combines
spiritualism and materialism in the doctrine of a composite nature in
man, animal as to the body and in some measure as to the mind, spiritual
as to the soul. It may be useful, as an illustration of one opinion on
this subject, to continue here the citation of Dr Prichard's comparison
between man and the lower animals:--

  "If it be inquired in what the still more remarkable difference
  consists, it is by no means easy to reply. By some it will be said
  that man, while similar in the organization of his body to the lower
  tribes, is distinguished from them by the possession of an immaterial
  soul, a principle capable of conscious feeling, of intellect and
  thought. To many persons it will appear paradoxical to ascribe the
  endowment of a soul to the inferior tribes in the creation, yet it is
  difficult to discover a valid argument that limits the possession of
  an immaterial principle to man. The phenomena of feeling, of desire
  and aversion, of love and hatred, of fear and revenge, and the
  perception of external relations manifested in the life of brutes,
  imply, not only through the analogy which they display to the human
  faculties, but likewise from all that we can learn or conjecture of
  their particular nature, the superadded existence of a principle
  distinct from the mere mechanism of material bodies. That such a
  principle must exist in all beings capable of sensation, or of
  anything analogous to human passions and feelings, will hardly be
  denied by those who perceive the force of arguments which
  metaphysically demonstrate the immaterial nature of the mind. There
  may be no rational grounds for the ancient dogma that the souls of the
  lower animals were imperishable, like the soul of man: this is,
  however, a problem which we are not called upon to discuss; and we may
  venture to conjecture that there may be immaterial essences of divers
  kinds, and endowed with various attributes and capabilities. But the
  real nature of these unseen principles eludes our research: they are
  only known to us by their external manifestations. These
  manifestations are the various powers and capabilities, or rather the
  habitudes of action, which characterize the different orders of being,
  diversified according to their several destinations."

Dr Prichard here puts forward distinctly the time-honoured doctrine
which refers the mental faculties to the operation of the soul. The view
maintained by a distinguished comparative anatomist, Professor St George
Mivart, in his _Genesis of Species_, ch. xii., may fairly follow. "Man,
according to the old scholastic definition, is 'a rational animal'
(_animal rationale_), and his animality is distinct in nature from his
rationality, though inseparably joined, during life, in one common
personality. Man's animal body must have had a different source from
that of the spiritual soul which informs it, owing to the distinctness
of the two orders to which those two existences severally belong." The
two extracts just given, however, significant in themselves, fail to
render an account of the view of the human constitution which would
probably, among the theological and scholastic leaders of public
opinion, count the largest weight of adherence. According to this view,
not only life but thought are functions of the animal system, in which
man excels all other animals as to height of organization: but beyond
this, man embodies an immaterial and immortal spiritual principle which
no lower creature possesses, and which makes the resemblance of the apes
to him but a mocking simulance. To pronounce any absolute decision on
these conflicting doctrines is foreign to our present purpose, which is
to show that all of them count among their adherents men of high rank in
science.

II. _Origin of Man._--Opinion as to the genesis of man is divided
between the theories of creation and evolution. In both schools, the
ancient doctrine of the contemporaneous appearance on earth of all
species of animals having been abandoned under the positive evidence of
geology, it is admitted that the animal kingdom, past and present,
includes a vast series of successive forms, whose appearances and
disappearances have taken place at intervals during an immense lapse of
ages. The line of inquiry has thus been directed to ascertaining what
formative relation subsists among these species and genera, the last
link of the argument reaching to the relation between man and the lower
creatures preceding him in time. On both the theories here concerned it
would be admitted, in the words of Agassiz (_Principles of Zoology_, pp.
205-206), that "there is a manifest progress in the succession of beings
on the surface of the earth. This progress consists in an increasing
similarity of the living fauna, and, among the vertebrates especially,
in their increasing resemblance to man." Agassiz continues, however, in
terms characteristic of the creationist school: "But this connexion is
not the consequence of a direct lineage between the faunas of different
ages. There is nothing like parental descent connecting them. The fishes
of the Palaeozoic age are in no respect the ancestors of the reptiles of
the Secondary age, nor does man descend from the mammals which preceded
him in the Tertiary age. The link by which they are connected is of a
higher and immaterial nature; and their connexion is to be sought in the
view of the Creator himself, whose aim in forming the earth, in allowing
it to undergo the successive changes which geology has pointed out, and
in creating successively all the different types of animals which have
passed away, was to introduce man upon the surface of our globe. Man is
the end towards which all the animal creation has tended from the first
appearance of the first Palaeozoic fishes." The evolutionist, on the
contrary (see EVOLUTION), maintains that different successive species of
animals are in fact connected by parental descent, having become
modified in the course of successive generations. The result of Charles
Darwin's application of this theory to man may be given in his own words
(_Descent of Man_, part i. ch. 6):--

  "The Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys agree in a multitude of
  characters, as is shown by their unquestionably belonging to one and
  the same order. The many characters which they possess in common can
  hardly have been independently acquired by so many distinct species;
  so that these characters must have been inherited. But an ancient form
  which possessed many characters common to the Catarhine and Platyrhine
  monkeys, and others in an intermediate condition, and some few perhaps
  distinct from those now present in either group, would undoubtedly
  have been ranked, if seen by a naturalist, as an ape or a monkey. And
  as man under a genealogical point of view belongs to the Catarhine or
  Old World stock, we must conclude, however much the conclusion may
  revolt our pride, that our early progenitors would have been properly
  thus designated. But we must not fall into the error of supposing that
  the early progenitor of the whole Simian stock, including man, was
  identical with, or even closely resembled, any existing ape or
  monkey."

The problem of the origin of man cannot be properly discussed apart from
the full problem of the origin of species. The homologies between man
and other animals which both schools try to account for; the explanation
of the intervals, with apparent want of intermediate forms, which seem
to the creationists so absolute a separation between species; the
evidence of useless "rudimentary organs," such as in man the external
shell of the ear, and the muscle which enables some individuals to
twitch their ears, which rudimentary parts the evolutionists claim to be
only explicable as relics of an earlier specific condition,--these,
which are the main points of the argument on the origin of man, belong
to general biology. The philosophical principles which underlie the two
theories stand for the most part in strong contrast, the theory of
evolution tending toward the supposition of ordinary causes, such as
"natural selection," producing modifications in species, whether by
gradual accumulation or more sudden leaps, while the theory of creation
has recourse to acts of supernatural intervention (see the duke of
Argyll, _Reign of Law_, ch. v.). St George Mivart (_Genesis of Species_)
propounded a theory of a natural evolution of man as to his body,
combined with a supernatural creation as to his soul; but this attempt
to meet the difficulties on both sides seems to have satisfied neither.

The wide acceptance of the Darwinian theory, as applied to the descent
of man, has naturally roused anticipation that geological research,
which provides evidence of the animal life of incalculably greater
antiquity, would furnish fossil remains of some comparatively recent
being intermediate between the anthropomorphic and the anthropic types.
This expectation has hardly been fulfilled, but of late years the notion
of a variety of the human race, geologically ancient, differing from any
known in historic times, and with characters approaching the simian, has
been supported by further discoveries. To bring this to the reader's
notice, top and side views of three skulls, as placed together in the
human development series in the Oxford University Museum, are
represented in the plate, for the purpose of showing the great size of
the orbital ridges, which the reader may contrast with his own by a
touch with his fingers on his forehead. The first (fig. 3) is the famous
Neanderthal skull from near Dusseldorf, described by Schaafhausen in
Muller's _Archiv_, 1858; Huxley in Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_, p. 86, and
in _Man's Place in Nature_. The second (fig. 4) is the skull from the
cavern of Spy in Belgium (de Puydt and Lohest, _Compte rendu du Congres
de Namur_, 1886). The foreheads of these two skulls have an ape-like
form, obvious on comparison with the simian skulls of the gorilla and
other apes, and visible even in the small-scale figures in the Plate,
fig. 2. Among modern tribes of mankind the forehead of the Australian
aborigines makes the nearest approach to this type, as was pointed out
by Huxley. This brief description will serve to show the importance of a
later discovery. At Trinil, in Java, in an equatorial region where, if
anywhere, a being intermediate between the higher apes and man would
seem likely to be found, Dr Eugene Dubois in 1891-1892 excavated from a
bed, considered by him to be of Sivalik formation (Pliocene), a
thighbone which competent anatomists decide to be human, and a
remarkably depressed calvaria or skull-cap (fig. 5), bearing a certain
resemblance in its proportions to the corresponding part of the simian
skull. These remains were referred by their discoverer to an animal
intermediate between man and ape, to which he gave the name of
_Pithecanthropus erectus_ (q.v.), but the interesting discussions on the
subject have shown divergence of opinion among anatomists. At any rate,
classing the Trinil skull as human, it may be described as tending
towards the simian type more than any other known.

III. _Races of Mankind._--The classification of mankind into a number of
permanent varieties or races, rests on grounds which are within limits
not only obvious but definite. Whether from a popular or a scientific
point of view, it would be admitted that a Negro, a Chinese, and an
Australian belong to three such permanent varieties of men, all plainly
distinguishable from one another and from any European. Moreover, such a
division takes for granted the idea which is involved in the word race,
that each of these varieties is due to special ancestry, each race thus
representing an ancient breed or stock, however these breeds or stocks
may have had their origin. The anthropological classification of mankind
is thus zoological in its nature, like that of the varieties or species
of any other animal group, and the characters on which it is based are
in great measure physical, though intellectual and traditional
peculiarities, such as moral habit and language, furnish important aid.
Among the best-marked race-characters are the colour of the skin, eyes
and hair; and the structure and arrangement of the latter. Stature is by
no means a general criterion of race, and it would not, for instance, be
difficult to choose groups of Englishmen, Kaffirs, and North American
Indians, whose mean height should hardly differ. Yet in many cases it is
a valuable means of distinction, as between the tall Patagonians and the
stunted Fuegians, and even as a help in minuter problems, such as
separating the Teutonic and Celtic ancestry in the population of
England (see Beddoe, "Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles," in
_Mem. Anthrop. Soc. London_, vol. iii.) Proportions of the limbs,
compared in length with the trunk, have been claimed as constituting
peculiarities of African and American races; and other anatomical
points, such as the conformation of the pelvis, have speciality. But
inferences of this class have hardly attained to sufficient certainty
and generality to be set down in the form of rules. The conformation of
the skull is second only to the colour of the skin as a criterion for
the distinction of race; and the position of the jaws is recognized as
important, races being described as prognathous when the jaws project
far, as in the Australian or Negro, in contradistinction to the
orthognathous type, which is that of the ordinary well-shaped European
skull. On this distinction in great measure depends the celebrated
"facial angle," measured by Camper as a test of low and high races; but
this angle is objectionable as resulting partly from the development of
the forehead and partly from the position of the jaws. The capacity of
the cranium is estimated in cubic measure by filling it with sand, &c.,
with the general result that the civilized white man is found to have a
larger brain than the barbarian or savage. Classification of races on
cranial measurements has long been attempted by eminent anatomists, and
in certain cases great reliance may be placed on such measurements. Thus
the skulls of an Australian and a Negro would be generally distinguished
by their narrowness and the projection of the jaw from that of any
Englishman; but the Australian skull would usually differ perceptibly
from the Negroid in its upright sides and strong orbital ridges. The
relation of height to breadth may also furnish a valuable test; but it
is acknowledged by all experienced craniologists, that the shape of the
skull may vary so much within the same tribe, and even the same family,
that it must be used with extreme caution, and if possible only in
conjunction with other criteria of race. The general contour of the
face, in part dependent on the form of the skull, varies much in
different races, among whom it is loosely defined as oval,
lozenge-shaped, pentagonal, &c. Of particular features, some of the most
marked contrasts to European types are seen in the oblique Chinese eyes,
the broad-set Kamchadale cheeks, the pointed Arab chin, the snub Kirghiz
nose, the fleshy protuberant Negro lips, and the broad Kalmuck ear.
Taken altogether, the features have a typical character which popular
observation seizes with some degree of correctness, as in the
recognition of the Jewish countenance in a European city.

Were the race-characters constant in degree or even in kind, the
classification of races would be easy; but this is not so. Every
division of mankind presents in every character wide deviations from a
standard. Thus the Negro race, well marked as it may seem at the first
glance, proves on closer examination to include several shades of
complexion and features, in some districts varying far from the accepted
Negro type; while the examination of a series of native American tribes
shows that, notwithstanding their asserted uniformity of type, they
differ in stature, colour, features and proportions of skull. (See
Prichard, _Nat. Hist. of Man_; Waitz, _Anthropology_, part i. sec. 5.)
Detailed anthropological research, indeed, more and more justifies
Blumenbach's words, that "innumerable varieties of mankind run into one
another by insensible degrees." This state of things, due partly to
mixture and crossing of races, and partly to independent variation of
types, makes the attempt to arrange the whole human species within
exactly bounded divisions an apparently hopeless task. It does not
follow, however, that the attempt to distinguish special races should be
given up, for there at least exist several definable types, each of
which so far prevails in a certain population as to be taken as its
standard. L.A.J. Quetelet's plan of defining such types will probably
meet with general acceptance as the scientific method proper to this
branch of anthropology. It consists in the determination of the standard
or typical "mean man" (_homme moyen_) of a population, with reference to
any particular quality, such as stature, weight, complexion, &c. In the
case of stature, this would be done by measuring a sufficient number of
men, and counting how many of them belong to each height on the scale.
If it be thus ascertained, as it might be in an English district, that
the 5 ft. 7 in. men form the most numerous group, while the 5 ft. 6 in.
and 5 ft. 8 in. men are less in number, and the 5 ft. 5 in. and 5 ft. 9
in. still fewer, and so on until the extremely small number of extremely
short or tall individuals of 5 ft. or 7 ft. is reached, it will thus be
ascertained that the stature of the mean or typical man is to be taken
as 5 ft. 7 in. The method is thus that of selecting as the standard the
most numerous group, on both sides of which the groups decrease in
number as they vary in type. Such classification may show the existence
of two or more types, in a community, as, for instance, the population
of a Californian settlement made up of Whites and Chinese might show two
predominant groups (one of 5 ft. 8 in., the other of 5 ft. 4 in.)
corresponding to these two racial types. It need hardly be said that
this method of determining the mean type of a race, as being that of its
really existing and most numerous class, is altogether superior to the
mere calculation of an average, which may actually be represented by
comparatively few individuals, and those the exceptional ones. For
instance, the average stature of the mixed European and Chinese
population just referred to might be 5 ft. 6 in.--a worthless and indeed
misleading result. (For particulars of Quetelet's method, see his
_Physique sociale_ (1869), and _Anthropometrie_ (1871).)

Classifications of man have been numerous, and though, regarded as
systems, most of them are unsatisfactory, yet they have been of great
value in systematizing knowledge, and are all more or less based on
indisputable distinctions. J.F. Blumenbach's division, though published
as long ago as 1781, has had the greatest influence. He reckons five
races, viz. Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, Malay. The
ill-chosen name of Caucasian, invented by Blumenbach in allusion to a
South Caucasian skull of specially typical proportions, and applied by
him to the so-called white races, is still current; it brings into one
race peoples such as the Arabs and Swedes, although these are scarcely
less different than the Americans and Malays, who are set down as two
distinct races. Again, two of the best-marked varieties of mankind are
the Australians and the Bushmen, neither of whom, however, seems to have
a natural place in Blumenbach's series. The yet simpler classification
by Cuvier into Caucasian, Mongol and Negro corresponds in some measure
with a division by mere complexion into white, yellow and black races;
but neither this threefold division, nor the ancient classification into
Semitic, Hamitic and Japhetic nations can be regarded as separating the
human types either justly or sufficiently (see Prichard, _Natural
History of Man_, sec. 15; Waitz, _Anthropology_, vol. i. part i. sec.
5). Schemes which set up a larger number of distinct races, such as the
eleven of Pickering, the fifteen of Bory de St Vincent and the sixteen
of Desmoulins, have the advantage of finding niches for most
well-defined human varieties; but no modern naturalist would be likely
to adopt any one of these as it stands. In criticism of Pickering's
system, it is sufficient to point out that he divides the white nations
into two races, entitled the Arab and the Abyssinian (Pickering, _Races
of Man_, ch. i.). Agassiz, Nott, Crawfurd and others who have assumed a
much larger number of races or species of man, are not considered to
have satisfactorily defined a corresponding number of distinguishable
types. On the whole, Huxley's division probably approaches more nearly
than any other to such a tentative classification as may be accepted in
definition of the principal varieties of mankind, regarded from a
zoological point of view, though anthropologists may be disposed to
erect into separate races several of his widely-differing sub-races. He
distinguishes four principal types of mankind, the Australioid, Negroid,
Mongoloid and Xanthochroic ("fair whites"), adding a fifth variety, the
Melanochroic ("dark whites").

In determining whether the races of mankind are to be classed as
varieties of one species, it is important to decide whether every two
races can unite to produce fertile offspring. It is settled by
experience that the most numerous and well-known crossed races, such as
the Mulattos, descended from Europeans and Negroes--the Mestizos, from
Europeans and American indigenes--the Zambos, from these American
indigenes and Negroes, &c., are permanently fertile. They practically
constitute sub-races, with a general blending of the characters of the
two parents, and only differing from fully-established races in more or
less tendency to revert to one or other of the original types. It has
been argued, on the other hand, that not all such mixed breeds are
permanent, and especially that the cross between Europeans and
Australian indigenes is almost sterile; but this assertion, when
examined with the care demanded by its bearing on the general question
of hybridity, has distinctly broken down. On the whole, the general
evidence favours the opinion that any two races may combine to produce a
new sub-race, which again may combine with any other variety. Thus, if
the existence of a small number of distinct races of mankind be taken as
a starting-point, it is obvious that their crossing would produce an
indefinite number of secondary varieties, such as the population of the
world actually presents. The working out in detail of the problem, how
far the differences among complex nations, such as those of Europe, may
have been brought about by hybridity, is still, however, a task of
almost hopeless intricacy. Among the boldest attempts to account for
distinctly-marked populations as resulting from the intermixture of two
races, are Huxley's view that the Hottentots are hybrid between the
Bushmen and the Negroes, and his more important suggestion, that the
Melanochroic peoples of southern Europe are of mixed Xanthochroic and
Australioid stock.

The problem of ascertaining how the small number of races, distinct
enough to be called primary, can have assumed their different types, has
been for years the most disputed field of anthropology, the
battle-ground of the rival schools of monogenists and polygenists. The
one has claimed all mankind to be descended from one original stock, and
generally from a single pair; the other has contended for the several
primary races being separate species of independent origin. The great
problem of the monogenist theory is to explain by what course of
variation the so different races of man have arisen from a single stock.
In ancient times little difficulty was felt in this, authorities such as
Aristotle and Vitruvius seeing in climate and circumstance the natural
cause of racial differences, the Ethiopian having been blackened by the
tropical sun, &c. Later and closer observations, however, have shown
such influences to be, at any rate, far slighter in amount and slower in
operation than was once supposed. A. de Quatrefages brings forward
(_Unite de l'espece humaine_) his strongest arguments for the
variability of races under change of climate, &c. (_action du milieu_),
instancing the asserted alteration in complexion, constitution and
character of Negroes in America, and Englishmen in America and
Australia. But although the reality of some such modification is not
disputed, especially as to stature and constitution, its amount is not
enough to upset the counter-proposition of the remarkable permanence of
type displayed by races, ages after they have been transported to
climates extremely different from that of their former home. Moreover,
physically different peoples, such as the Bushmen and Negroes in Africa,
show no signs of approximation under the influence of the same climate;
while, on the other hand, the coast tribes of Tierra del Fuego and
forest tribes of tropical Brazil continue to resemble one another, in
spite of extreme differences of climate and food. Darwin is moderate in
his estimation of the changes produced on races of man by climate and
mode of life within the range of history (_Descent of Man_, part i. ch.
4 and 7). The slightness and slowness of variation in human races having
become known, a great difficulty of the monogenist theory was seen to
lie in the apparent shortness of the Biblical chronology. Inasmuch as
several well-marked races of mankind, such as the Egyptian, Phoenician,
Ethiopian, &c., were much the same three or four thousand years ago as
now, their variation from a single stock in the course of any like
period could hardly be accounted for without a miracle. This difficulty
the polygenist theory escaped, and in consequence it gained ground.
Modern views have however tended to restore, though under a new aspect,
the doctrine of a single human stock. The fact that man has existed
during a vast period of time makes it more easy to assume the
continuance of very slow natural variation as having differentiated even
the white man and the Negro among the descendants of a common
progenitor. On the other hand it does not follow necessarily from a
theory of evolution of species that mankind must have descended from a
single stock, for the hypothesis of development admits of the argument,
that several simian species may have culminated in several races of man.
The general tendency of the development theory, however, is against
constituting separate species where the differences are moderate enough
to be accounted for as due to variation from a single type. Darwin's
summing-up of the evidence as to unity of type throughout the races of
mankind is as distinctly a monogenist argument as those of Blumenbach,
Prichard or Quatrefages--

  "Although the existing races of man differ in many respects, as in
  colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, &c., yet, if
  their whole organization be taken into consideration, they are found
  to resemble each other closely in a multitude of points. Many of these
  points are of so unimportant, or of so singular a nature, that it is
  extremely improbable that they should have been independently acquired
  by aboriginally distinct species or races. The same remark holds good
  with equal or greater force with respect to the numerous points of
  mental similarity between the most distinct races of man.... Now, when
  naturalists observe a close agreement in numerous small details of
  habits, tastes and dispositions between two or more domestic races, or
  between nearly allied natural forms, they use this fact as an argument
  that all are descended from a common progenitor who was thus endowed;
  and, consequently, that all should be classed under the same species.
  The same argument may be applied with much force to the races of
  man."--(Darwin, _Descent of Man_, part i. ch. 7.)

The main difficulty of the monogenist school has ever been to explain
how races which have remained comparatively fixed in type during the
long period of history, such as the white man and the Negro, should, in
even a far longer period, have passed by variation from a common
original. To meet this A.R. Wallace suggests that the remotely ancient
representatives of the human species, being as yet animals too low in
mind to have developed those arts of maintenance and social ordinances
by which man holds his own against influences from climate and
circumstance, were in their then wild state much more plastic than now
to external nature; so that "natural selection" and other causes met
with but feeble resistance in forming the permanent varieties or races
of man, whose complexion and structure still remained fixed in their
descendants (see Wallace, _Contributions to the Theory of Natural
Selection_, p. 319). On the whole, it may be asserted that the doctrine
of the unity of mankind stands on a firmer basis than in previous ages.
It would be premature to judge how far the problem of the origin of
races may be capable of exact solution; but the experience gained since
1871 countenances Darwin's prophecy that before long the dispute between
the monogenists and the polygenists would die a silent and unobserved
death.

IV. _Antiquity of Man._--Until the 10th century man's first appearance
on earth was treated on a historical basis as matter of record. It is
true that the schemes drawn up by chronologists differed widely, as was
natural, considering the variety and inconsistency of their documentary
data. On the whole, the scheme of Archbishop Usher, who computed that
the earth and man were created in 4004 B.C., was the most popular (see
CHRONOLOGY). It is no longer necessary, however, to discuss these
chronologies. Geology has made it manifest that our earth must have been
the seat of vegetable and animal life for an immense period of time;
while the first appearance of man, though comparatively recent, is
positively so remote, that an estimate between twenty and a hundred
thousand years may fairly be taken as a minimum. This geological claim
for a vast antiquity of the human race is supported by the similar
claims of prehistoric archaeology and the science of culture, the
evidence of all three departments of inquiry being intimately connected,
and in perfect harmony.

Human bones and objects of human manufacture have been found in such
geological relation to the remains of fossil species of elephant,
rhinoceros, hyena, bear, &c., as to lead to the distinct inference that
man already existed at a remote period in localities where these
mammalia are now and have long been extinct. The not quite conclusive
researches of Tournal and Christol in limestone caverns of the south of
France date back to 1828. About the same time P.C. Schmerling of Liege
was exploring the ossiferous caverns of the valley of the Meuse, and
satisfied himself that the men whose bones he found beneath the
stalagmite floors, together with bones cut and flints shaped by human
workmanship, had inhabited this Belgian district at the same time with
the cave-bear and several other extinct animals whose bones were
imbedded with them (_Recherches sur les ossements fossiles decouverts
dans les cavernes de la province de Liege_ (Liege, 1833-1834)). This
evidence, however, met with little acceptance among scientific men. Nor,
at first, was more credit given to the discovery by M. Boucher de
Perthes, about 1841, of rude flint hatchets in a sand-bed containing
remains of mammoth and rhinoceros at Menchecourt near Abbeville, which
first find was followed by others in the same district (see Boucher de
Perthes, _De l'Industrie primitive, ou les arts a leur origine_ (1846);
_Antiquites celtiques et antediluviennes_ (Paris, 1847), &c.). Between
1850 and 1860 French and English geologists were induced to examine into
the facts, and found irresistible the evidence that man existed and used
rude implements of chipped flint during the Quaternary or Drift period.
Further investigations were then made, and overlooked results of older
ones reviewed. In describing Kent's Cavern (q.v.) near Torquay, R.A.C.
Godwin-Austen had maintained, as early as 1840 (_Proc. Geo. Soc.
London_, vol. iii. p. 286), that the human bones and worked flints had
been deposited indiscriminately together with the remains of fossil
elephant, rhinoceros, &c. Certain caves and rock-shelters in the
province of Dordogne, in central France, were examined by a French and
an English archaeologist, Edouard Lartet and Henry Christy, the remains
discovered showing the former prevalence of the reindeer in this region,
at that time inhabited by savages, whose bone and stone implements
indicate a habit of life similar to that of the Eskimos. Moreover, the
co-existence of man with a fauna now extinct or confined to other
districts was brought to yet clearer demonstration by the discovery in
these caves of certain drawings and carvings of the animals done by the
ancient inhabitants themselves, such as a group of reindeer on a piece
of reindeer horn, and a sketch of a mammoth, showing the elephant's long
hair, on a piece of a mammoth's tusk from La Madeleine (Lartet and
Christy, _Reliquiae Aquitanicae_, ed. by T.R. Jones (London, 1865),
&c.).

This and other evidence (which is considered in more detail in the
article ARCHAEOLOGY) is now generally accepted by geologists as carrying
back the existence of man into the period of the post-glacial drift, in
what is now called the Quaternary period, an antiquity at least of tens
of thousands of years. Again, certain inferences have been tentatively
made from the depth of mud, earth, peat, &c., which has accumulated
above relics of human art imbedded in ancient times. Among these is the
argument from the numerous borings made in the alluvium of the Nile
valley to a depth of 60 ft., where down to the lowest level fragments of
burnt brick and pottery were always found, showing that people advanced
enough in the arts to bake brick and pottery have inhabited the valley
during the long period required for the Nile inundations to deposit 60
ft. of mud, at a rate probably not averaging more than a few inches in a
century. Another argument is that of Professor von Morlot, based on a
railway section through a conical accumulation of gravel and alluvium,
which the torrent of the Tiniere has gradually built up where it enters
the Lake of Geneva near Villeneuve. Here three layers of vegetable soil
appear, proved by the objects imbedded in them to have been the
successive surface soils in two prehistoric periods and in the Roman
period, but now lying 4, 10 and 19 ft. underground. On this it is
computed that if 4 ft. of soil were formed in the 1500 years since the
Roman period, we must go 5000 years farther back for the date of the
earliest human inhabitants. Calculations of this kind, loose as they
are, deserve attention.

The interval between the Quaternary or Drift period and the period of
historical antiquity is to some extent bridged over by relics of various
intermediate civilizations, e.g. the Lake-dwellings (q.v.) of
Switzerland, mostly of the lower grades, and in some cases reaching back
to remote dates. And further evidence of man's antiquity is afforded by
the kitchen-middens or shell-heaps (q.v.), especially those in Denmark.
Danish peat-mosses again show the existence of man at a time when the
Scotch fir was abundant; at a later period the firs were succeeded by
oaks, which have again been almost superseded by beeches, a succession
of changes which indicate a considerable lapse of time.

Lastly, chronicles and documentary records, taken in connexion with
archaeological relics of the historical period, carry back into distant
ages the starting-point of actual history, behind which lies the
evidently vast period only known by inferences from the relations of
languages and the stages of development of civilization. The most recent
work of Egyptologists proves a systematic civilization to have existed
in the valley of the Nile at least 6000 to 7000 years ago (see
CHRONOLOGY).

It was formerly held that the early state of society was one of
comparatively high culture, and thus there was no hesitation in
assigning the origin of man to a time but little beyond the range of
historical records and monuments. But the researches of anthropologists
in recent years have proved that the civilization of man has been
gradually developed from an original stone-age culture, such as
characterizes modern savage life. To the 6000 years to which ancient
civilization dates back must be added a vast period during which the
knowledge, arts and institutions of such a civilization as that of
ancient Egypt attained the high level evidenced by the earliest records.
The evidence of comparative philology supports the necessity for an
enormous time allowance. Thus, Hebrew and Arabic are closely related
languages, neither of them the original of the other, but both sprung
from some parent language more ancient than either. When, therefore, the
Hebrew records have carried back to the most ancient admissible date the
existence of the Hebrew language, this date must have been long preceded
by that of the extinct parent language of the whole Semitic family;
while this again was no doubt the descendant of languages slowly shaping
themselves through ages into this peculiar type. Yet more striking is
the evidence of the Indo-European (formerly called Aryan) family of
languages. The Hindus, Medes, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts
and Slavs make their appearance at more or less remote dates as nations
separate in language as in history. Nevertheless, it is now acknowledged
that at some far remoter time, before these nations were divided from
the parent stock, and distributed over Asia and Europe, a single
barbaric people stood as physical and political representative of the
nascent Aryan race, speaking a now extinct Aryan language, from which,
by a series of modifications not to be estimated as possible within many
thousands of years, there arose languages which have been mutually
unintelligible since the dawn of history, and between which it was only
possible for an age of advanced philology to trace the fundamental
relationship.

From the combination of these considerations, it will be seen that the
farthest date to which documentary or other records extend is now
generally regarded by anthropologists as but the earliest distinctly
visible point of the historic period, beyond which stretches back a vast
indefinite series of prehistoric ages.

V. _Language._--In examining how the science of language bears on the
general problems of anthropology, it is not necessary to discuss at
length the critical questions which arise, the principal of which are
considered elsewhere (see LANGUAGE). Philology is especially appealed to
by anthropologists as contributing to the following lines of argument. A
primary mental similarity of all branches of the human race is evidenced
by their common faculty of speech, while at the same time secondary
diversities of race-character and history are marked by difference of
grammatical structure and of vocabularies. The existence of groups or
families of allied languages, each group being evidently descended from
a single language, affords one of the principal aids in classifying
nations and races. The adoption by one language of words originally
belonging to another, proving as it does the fact of intercourse between
two races, and even to some extent indicating the results of such
intercourse, affords a valuable clue through obscure regions of the
history of civilization.

Communication by gesture-signs, between persons unable to converse in
vocal language, is an effective system of expression common to all
mankind. Thus, the signs used to ask a deaf and dumb child about his
meals and lessons, or to communicate with a savage met in the desert
about game or enemies, belong to codes of gesture-signals identical in
principle, and to a great extent independent both of nationality and
education; there is even a natural syntax, or order of succession, in
such gesture-signs. To these gestures let there be added the use of the
interjectional cries, such as _oh! ugh! hey!_ and imitative sounds to
represent the cat's _mew_, the _click_ of a trigger, the _clap_ or
_thud_ of a blow, &c. The total result of this combination of gesture
and significant sound will be a general system of expression, imperfect
but serviceable, and naturally intelligible to all mankind without
distinction of race. Nor is such a system of communication only
theoretically conceivable; it is, and always has been, in practical
operation between people ignorant of one another's language, and as such
is largely used in the intercourse of savage tribes. It is true that to
some extent these means of utterance are common to the lower animals,
the power of expressing emotion by cries and tones extending far down in
the scale of animal life, while rudimentary gesture-signs are made by
various mammals and birds. Still, the lower animals make no approach to
the human system of natural utterance by gesture-signs and
emotional-imitative sounds, while the practical identity of this human
system among races physically so unlike as the Englishman and the native
of the Australian bush indicates extreme closeness of mental similarity
throughout the human species.

When, however, the Englishman and the Australian speak each in his
native tongue, only such words as belong to the interjectional and
imitative classes will be naturally intelligible, and as it were
instinctive to both. Thus the savage, uttering the sound _waow!_ as an
explanation of surprise and warning, might be answered by the white man
with the not less evidently significant _sh!_ of silence, and the two
speakers would be on common ground when the native indicated by the name
_bwirri_ his cudgel, flung _whirring_ through the air at a flock of
birds, or when the native described as a _jakkal-yakkal_ the bird called
by the foreigner a _cockatoo_. With these, and other very limited
classes of natural words, however, resemblance in vocabulary practically
ceases. The Australian and English languages each consist mainly of a
series of words having no apparent connexion with the ideas they
signify, and differing utterly; of course, accidental coincidences and
borrowed words must be excluded from such comparisons. It would be easy
to enumerate other languages of the world, such as Basque, Turkish,
Hebrew, Malay, Mexican, all devoid of traceable resemblance to
Australian and English, and to one another. There is, moreover, extreme
difference in the grammatical structure both of words and sentences in
various languages. The question then arises, how far the employment of
different vocabularies, and that to a great extent on different
grammatical principles, is compatible with similarity of the speakers'
minds, or how far does diversity of speech indicate diversity of mental
nature? The obvious answer is, that the power of using words as signs to
express thoughts with which their sound does not directly connect them,
in fact as arbitrary symbols, is the highest grade of the special human
faculty in language, the presence of which binds together all races of
mankind in substantial mental unity. The measure of this unity is, that
any child of any race can be brought up to speak the language of any
other race.

Under the present standard of evidence in comparing languages and
tracing allied groups to a common origin, the crude speculations as to a
single primeval language of mankind, which formerly occupied so much
attention, are acknowledged to be worthless. Increased knowledge and
accuracy of method have as yet only left the way open to the most widely
divergent suppositions. For all that known dialects prove to the
contrary, on the one hand, there may have been one primitive language,
from which the descendant languages have varied so widely, that neither
their words nor their formation now indicate their unity in long past
ages, while, on the other hand, the primitive tongues of mankind may
have been numerous, and the extreme unlikeness of such languages as
Basque, Chinese, Peruvian, Hottentot and Sanskrit may arise from
absolute independence of origin.

The language spoken by any tribe or nation is not of itself absolute
evidence as to its race-affinities. This is clearly shown in extreme
cases. Thus the Jews in Europe have almost lost the use of Hebrew, but
speak as their vernacular the language of their adopted nation, whatever
it may be; even the Jewish-German dialect, though consisting so largely
of Hebrew words, is philologically German, as any sentence shows: "_Ich
hab noch hoiom lo geachelt_," "I have not yet eaten to-day." The mixture
of the Israelites in Europe by marriage with other nations is probably
much greater than is acknowledged by them; yet, on the whole, the race
has been preserved with extraordinary strictness, as its physical
characteristics sufficiently show. Language thus here fails
conspicuously as a test of race and even of national history. Not much
less conclusive is the case of the predominantly Negro populations of
the West India Islands, who, nevertheless, speak as their native tongues
dialects of English or French, in which the number of intermingled
native African words is very scanty: "_Dem hitti netti na ini watra
bikasi dem de fisiman_," "They cast a net into the water, because they
were fishermen." (Surinam Negro-Eng.) "_Bef pas ca jamain lasse poter
cones li_," "Le boeuf n'est jamais las de porter ses cornes." (Haitian
Negro-Fr.) If it be objected that the linguistic conditions of these two
races are more artificial than has been usual in the history of the
world, less extreme cases may be seen in countries where the ordinary
results of conquest-colonization have taken place. The Mestizos, who
form so large a fraction of the population of modern Mexico, numbering
several millions, afford a convenient test in this respect, inasmuch as
their intermediate complexion separates them from both their ancestral
races, the Spaniard, and the chocolate-brown indigenous Aztec or other
Mexican. The mother-tongue of this mixed race is Spanish, with an
infusion of Mexican words; and a large proportion cannot speak any
native dialect. In most or all nations of mankind, crossing or
intermarriage of races has thus taken place between the conquering
invader and the conquered native, so that the language spoken by the
nation may represent the results of conquest as much or more than of
ancestry. The supersession of the Celtic Cornish by English, and of the
Slavonic Old-Prussian by German, are but examples of a process which has
for untold ages been supplanting native dialects, whose very names have
mostly disappeared. On the other hand, the language of the warlike
invader or peaceful immigrant may yield, in a few generations, to the
tongue of the mass of the population, as the Northman's was replaced by
French, and modern German gives way to English in the United States.
Judging, then, by the extirpation and adoption of languages within the
range of history, it is obvious that to classify mankind into, races,
Aryan, Semitic, Turanian, Polynesian, Kaffir, &c., on the mere evidence
of language, is intrinsically unsound.

VI. _Development of Civilization._--The conditions of man at the lowest
and highest known levels of culture are separated by a vast interval;
but this interval is so nearly filled by known intermediate stages, that
the line of continuity between the lowest savagery and the highest
civilization is unbroken at any critical point.

An examination of the details of savage life shows not only that there
is an immeasurable difference between the rudest man and the highest
lower animal, but also that the least cultured savages have themselves
advanced far beyond the lowest intellectual and moral state at which
human tribes can be conceived as capable of existing, when placed under
favourable circumstances of warm climate, abundant food, and security
from too severe destructive influences. The Australian black-fellow or
the forest Indian of Brazil, who may be taken as examples of the lowest
modern savage, had, before contact with whites, attained to rudimentary
stages in many of the characteristic functions of civilized life. His
language, expressing thoughts by conventional articulate sounds, is the
same in essential principle as the most cultivated philosophic dialect,
only less exact and copious. His weapons, tools and other appliances
such as the hammer, hatchet, spear, knife, awl, thread, net, canoe, &c.,
are the evident rudimentary analogues of what still remains in use among
Europeans. His structures, such as the hut, fence, stockade, earthwork,
&c., may be poor and clumsy, but they are of the same nature as our own.
In the simple arts of broiling and roasting meat, the use of hides and
furs for covering, the plaiting of mats and baskets, the devices of
hunting, trapping and fishing, the pleasure taken in personal ornament,
the touches of artistic decoration on objects of daily use, the savage
differs in degree but not in kind from the civilized man. The domestic
and social affections, the kindly care of the young and the old, some
acknowledgment of marital and parental obligation, the duty of mutual
defence in the tribe, the authority of the elders, and general respect
to traditional custom as the regulator of life and duty, are more or
less well marked in every savage tribe which is not disorganized and
falling to pieces. Lastly, there is usually to be discerned amongst such
lower races a belief in unseen powers pervading the universe, this
belief shaping itself into an animistic or spiritualistic theology,
mostly resulting in some kind of worship. If, again, high savage or low
barbaric types be selected, as among the North American Indians,
Polynesians, and Kaffirs of South Africa, the same elements of culture
appear, but at a more advanced stage, namely, a more full and accurate
language, more knowledge of the laws of nature, more serviceable
implements, more perfect industrial processes, more definite and fixed
social order and frame of government, more systematic and philosophic
schemes of religion and a more elaborate and ceremonial worship. At
intervals new arts and ideas appear, such as agriculture and pasturage,
the manufacture of pottery, the use of metal implements and the device
of record and communication by picture writing. Along such stages of
improvement and invention the bridge is fairly made between savage and
barbaric culture; and this once attained to, the remainder of the series
of stages of civilization lies within the range of common knowledge.

The teaching of history, during the three to four thousand years of
which contemporary chronicles have been preserved, is that civilization
is gradually developed in the course of ages by enlargement and
increased precision of knowledge, invention and improvement of arts, and
the progression of social and political habits and institutions towards
general well-being. That processes of development similar to these were
in prehistoric times effective to raise culture from the savage to the
barbaric level, two considerations especially tend to prove. First,
there are numerous points in the culture even of rude races which are
not explicable otherwise than on the theory of development. Thus, though
difficult or superfluous arts may easily be lost, it is hard to imagine
the abandonment of contrivances of practical daily utility, where little
skill is required and materials are easily accessible. Had the
Australians or New Zealanders, for instance, ever possessed the potter's
art, they could hardly have forgotten it. The inference that these
tribes represent the stage of culture before the invention of pottery is
confirmed by the absence of buried fragments of pottery in the districts
they inhabit. The same races who were found making thread by the
laborious process of twisting with the hand, would hardly have disused,
if they had ever possessed, so simple a labour-saving device as the
spindle, which consists merely of a small stick weighted at one end; the
spindle may, accordingly, be regarded as an instrument invented
somewhere between the lowest and highest savage levels (Tylor, _Early
Hist. of Mankind_, p. 193). Again, many devices of civilization bear
unmistakable marks of derivation from a lower source; thus the ancient
Egyptian and Assyrian harps, which differ from ours in having no front
pillar, appear certainly to owe this remarkable defect to having grown
up through intermediate forms from the simple strung bow, the still used
type of the most primitive stringed instrument. In this way the history
of numeral words furnishes actual proof of that independent intellectual
progress among savage tribes which some writers have rashly denied. Such
words as _hand, hands, foot, man_, &c., are used as numerals signifying
5, 10, 15, 20, &c., among many savage and barbaric peoples; thus
Polynesian _lima_, i.e. "hand," means 5; Zulu _tatisitupa_, i.e. "taking
the thumb," means 6; Greenlandish _arfersanek-pingasut_, i.e. "on the
other foot three," means 18; Tamanac _tevin itoto_, i.e. "one man,"
means 20, &c., &c. The existence of such expressions demonstrates that
the people who use them had originally no spoken names for these
numbers, but once merely counted them by gesture on their fingers and
toes in low savage fashion, till they obtained higher numerals by the
inventive process of describing in words these counting-gestures.
Second, the process of "survival in culture" has caused the preservation
in each stage of society of phenomena, belonging to an earlier period,
but kept up by force of custom into the later, thus supplying evidence
of the modern condition being derived from the ancient. Thus the mitre
over an English bishop's coat-of-arms is a survival which indicates him
as the successor of bishops who actually wore mitres, while armorial
bearings themselves, and the whole craft of heraldry, are survivals
bearing record of a state of warfare and social order whence our present
state was by vast modification evolved. Evidence of this class, proving
the derivation of modern civilization, not only from ancient barbarism,
but beyond this, from primeval savagery, is immensely plentiful,
especially in rites and ceremonies, where the survival of ancient habits
is peculiarly favoured. Thus the modern Hindu, though using civilized
means for lighting his household fires, retains the savage "fire-drill"
for obtaining fire by friction of wood when what he considers pure or
sacred fire has to be produced for sacrificial purposes; while in Europe
into modern times the same primitive process has been kept up in
producing the sacred and magical "need-fire," which was lighted to
deliver cattle from a murrain. Again, the funeral offerings of food,
clothing, weapons, &c., to the dead are absolutely intelligible and
purposeful among savage races, who believe that the souls of the
departed are ethereal beings capable of consuming food, and of receiving
and using the souls or phantoms of any objects sacrificed for their use.
The primitive philosophy to which these conceptions belong has to a
great degree been discredited by modern science; yet the clear survivals
of such ancient and savage rites may still be seen in Europe, where the
Bretons leave the remains of the All Souls' supper on the table for the
ghosts of the dead kinsfolk to partake of, and Russian peasants set out
cakes for the ancestral manes on the ledge which supports the holy
pictures, and make dough ladders to assist the ghosts of the dead to
ascend out of their graves and start on their journey for the future
world; while other provision for the same spiritual journey is made when
the coin is still put in the hand of the corpse at an Irish wake. In
like manner magic still exists in the civilized world as a survival from
the savage and barbaric times to which it originally belongs, and in
which is found the natural source and proper home of utterly savage
practices still carried on by ignorant peasants in Great Britain, such
as taking omens from the cries of animals, or bewitching an enemy by
sticking full of pins and hanging up to shrivel in the smoke an image or
other object, that similar destruction may fall on the hated person
represented by the symbol (Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ch. i., iii.,
iv., xi., xii.; _Early Hist. of Man_, ch. vi.).

The comparative science of civilization thus not only generalizes the
data of history, but supplements its information by laying down the
lines of development along which the lowest prehistoric culture has
gradually risen to the highest modern level. Among the most clearly
marked of these lines is that which follows the succession of the Stone,
Bronze, and Iron Ages (see ARCHAEOLOGY). The Stone Age represents the
early condition of mankind in general, and has remained in savage
districts up to modern times, while the introduction of metals need not
at once supersede the use of the old stone hatchets and arrows, which
have often long continued in dwindling survival by the side of the new
bronze and even iron ones. The Bronze Age had its most important place
among ancient nations of Asia and Europe, and among them was only
succeeded after many centuries by the Iron Age; while in other
districts, such as Polynesia and Central and South Africa, and America
(except Mexico and Peru), the native tribes were moved directly from the
Stone to the Iron Age without passing through the Bronze Age at all.
Although the three divisions of savage, barbaric, and civilized man do
not correspond at all perfectly with the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages,
this classification of civilization has proved of extraordinary value in
arranging in their proper order of culture the nations of the Old World.

Another great line of progress has been followed by tribes passing from
the primitive state of the wild hunter, fisher and fruit-gatherer to
that of the settled tiller of the soil, for to this change of habit may
be plainly in great part traced the expansion of industrial arts and the
creation of higher social and political institutions. These, again, have
followed their proper lines along the course of time. Among such is the
immense legal development by which the primitive law of personal
vengeance passed gradually away, leaving but a few surviving relics in
the modern civilized world, and being replaced by the higher doctrine
that crime is an offence against society, to be repressed for the public
good. Another vast social change has been that from the patriarchal
condition, in which the unit is the family under the despotic rule of
its head, to the systems in which individuals make up a society whose
government is centralized in a chief or king. In the growth of
systematic civilization, the art of writing has had an influence so
intense, that of all tests to distinguish the barbaric from the
civilized state, none is so generally effective as this, whether they
have but the failing link with the past which mere memory furnishes, or
can have recourse to written records of past history and written
constitutions of present order. Lastly, still following the main lines
of human culture, the primitive germs of religious institutions have to
be traced in the childish faith and rude rites of savage life, and
thence followed in their expansion into the vast systems administered by
patriarchs and priests, henceforth taking under their charge the
precepts of morality, and enforcing them under divine sanction, while
also exercising in political life an authority beside or above the civil
law.

The state of culture reached by Quaternary man is evidenced by the stone
implements in the drift-gravels, and other relics of human art in the
cave deposits. His drawings on bone or tusk found in the caves show no
mean artistic power, as appears by the three specimens copied in the
Plate. That representing two deer (fig. 6) was found so early as 1852 in
the breccia of a limestone cave on the Charente, and its importance
recognized in a remarkable letter by Prosper Merimee, as at once
historically ancient and geologically modern (_Congres d'anthropologie
et d'archeologie prehistoriques_, Copenhagen (1869), p. 128). The other
two are the famous mammoth from the cave of La Madeleine, on which the
woolly mane and huge tusks of _Elephas primigenius_ are boldly drawn
(fig. 7); and the group of man and horses (fig. 8). There has been found
one other contemporary portrait of man, where a hunter is shown stalking
an aurochs.

That the men of the Quaternary period knew the savage art of producing
fire by friction, and roasted the flesh on which they mainly subsisted,
is proved by the fragments of charcoal found in the cave deposits, where
also occur bone awls and needles, which indicate the wearing of skin
clothing, like that of the modern Australians and Fuegians. Their bone
lance-heads and dart-points were comparable to those of northern and
southern savages. Particular attention has to be given to the stone
implements used by these earliest known of mankind. The division of
tribes in the stone implement stage into two classes, the Palaeolithic
or Old Stone Age, and the Neolithic or New Stone Age, according to their
proficiency in this most important art furnishes in some respects the
best means of determining their rank in general culture.

In order to put this argument clearly before the reader, a few selected
implements are figured in the Plate. The group in fig. 9 contains tools
and weapons of the Neolithic period such as are dug up on European soil;
they are evident relics of ancient populations who used them till
replaced by metal. The stone hatchets are symmetrically shaped and edged
by grinding, while the cutting flakes, scrapers, spear and arrow heads
are of high finish. Direct knowledge of the tribes who made them is
scanty, but implements so similar in make and design having been in use
in North and South America until modern times, it may be assumed for
purposes of classification that the Neolithic peoples of the New World
were at a similar barbarous level in industrial arts, social
organization, moral and religious ideas. Such comparison, though needing
caution and reserve, at once proved of great value to anthropology.
When, however, there came to light from the drift-gravels and limestone
caves of Europe the Palaeolithic implements, of which some types are
shown in the group (fig. 10), the difficult problem presented itself,
what degree of general culture these rude implements belonged to. On
mere inspection, their rudeness, their unsuitability for being hafted,
and the absence of shaping and edging by the grindstone, mark their
inferiority to the Neolithic implements. Their immensely greater
antiquity was proved by their geological position and their association
with a long extinct fauna, and they were not, like the Neoliths,
recognizable as corresponding closely to the implements used by modern
tribes. There was at first a tendency to consider the Palaeoliths as the
work of men ruder than savages, if, indeed, their makers were to be
accounted human at all. Since then, however, the problem has passed into
a more manageable state. Stone implements, more or less approaching the
European Palaeolithic type, were found in Africa from Egypt southwards,
where in such parts as Somaliland and Cape Colony they lie about on the
ground, as though they had been the rough tools and weapons of the rude
inhabitants of the land at no very distant period. The group in fig. 11
in the Plate shows the usual Somaliland types. These facts tended to
remove the mystery from Palaeolithic man, though too little is known of
the ruder ancient tribes of Africa to furnish a definition of the state
of culture which might have co-existed with the use of Palaeolithic
implements. Information to this purpose, however, can now be furnished
from a more outlying region. This is Tasmania, where as in the adjacent
continent of Australia, the survival of marsupial animals indicates long
isolation from the rest of the world. Here, till far on into the 19th
century, the Englishmen could watch the natives striking off flakes of
stone, trimming them to convenient shape for grasping them in the hand,
and edging them by taking off successive chips on one face only. The
group in fig. 12 shows ordinary Tasmanian forms, two of them being finer
tools for scraping and grooving. (For further details reference may be
made to H. Ling Roth, _The Tasmanians_, (2nd ed., 1899); R. Brough
Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_ (1878), vol. ii.; _Papers and
Proceedings of Royal Society of Tasmania_; and papers by the present
writer in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_.) The Tasmanians,
when they came in contact with the European explorers and settlers, were
not the broken outcasts they afterwards became. They were a savage
people, perhaps the lowest in culture of any known, but leading a
normal, self-supporting, and not unhappy life, which had probably
changed little during untold ages. The accounts, imperfect as they are,
which have been preserved of their arts, beliefs and habits, thus
present a picture of the arts, beliefs and habits of tribes whose place
in the Stone Age was a grade lower than that of Palaeolithic man of the
Quaternary period.

[Illustration: PLATE

FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3 FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9.
FIG 10. FIG. 11. FIG. 12.]

The Tasmanian stone implements, figured in the Plate, show their own use
when it is noticed that the rude chipping forms a good hand-grip above,
and an effective edge for chopping, sawing, and cutting below. But the
absence of the long-shaped implements, so characteristic of the
Neolithic and Palaeolithic series, and serviceable as picks, hatchets,
and chisels, shows remarkable limitation in the mind of these savages,
who made a broad, hand-grasped knife their tool of all work to cut, saw,
and chop with. Their weapons were the wooden club or waddy notched to
the grasp, and spears of sticks, often crooked but well balanced, with
points sharpened by tool or fire, and sometimes jagged. No spear thrower
or bow and arrow was known. The Tasmanian savages were crafty warriors
and kangaroo-hunters, and the women climbed the highest trees by
notching, in quest of opossums. Shell-fish and crabs were taken, and
seals knocked on the head with clubs, but neither fish-hook nor
fishing-net was known, and indeed swimming fish were taboo as food. Meat
and vegetable food, such as fern-root, was broiled over the fire, but
boiling in a vessel was unknown. The fire was produced by the ordinary
savage fire-drill. Ignorant of agriculture, with no dwellings but rough
huts or breakwinds of sticks and bark, without dogs or other domestic
animals, these savages, until the coming of civilized man, roamed after
food within their tribal bounds. Logs and clumsy floats of bark and
grass enabled them to cross water under favourable circumstances. They
had clothing of skins rudely stitched together with bark thread, and
they were decorated with simple necklaces of kangaroo teeth, shells and
berries. Among their simple arts, plaiting and basket-work was one in
which they approached the civilized level. The pictorial art of the
Tasmanians was poor and childish, quite below that of the Palaeolithic
men of Europe. The Tasmanians spoke a fairly copious agglutinating
language, well marked as to parts of speech, syntax and inflexion.
Numeration was at a low level, based on counting fingers on one hand
only, so that the word for man (_puggana_) stood also for the number 5.
The religion of the Tasmanians, when cleared from ideas apparently
learnt from the whites, was a simple form of animism based on the shadow
(_warrawa_) being the soul or spirit. The strongest belief of the
natives was in the power of the ghosts of the dead, so that they carried
the bones of relatives to secure themselves from harm, and they fancied
the forest swarming with malignant demons. They placed weapons near the
grave for the dead friend's soul to use, and drove out disease from the
sick by exorcising the ghost which was supposed to have caused it. Of
greater special spirits of Nature we find something vaguely mentioned.
The earliest recorders of the native social life set down such features
as their previous experience of rude civilized life had made them judges
of. They notice the self-denying affection of the mothers, and the hard
treatment of the wives by the husbands, polygamy and the shifting
marriage unions. But when we meet with a casual remark as to the
tendency of the Tasmanians to take wives from other tribes than their
own, it seems likely that they had some custom of exogamy which the
foreigners did not understand. Meagre as is the information preserved of
the arts, thoughts, and customs of these survivors from the lower Stone
Age, it is of value as furnishing even a temporary and tentative means
of working out the development of culture on a basis not of conjecture
but of fact.

_Conclusion._--To-day anthropology is grappling with the heavy task of
systematizing the vast stores of knowledge to which the key was found by
Boucher de Perthes, by Lartet, Christy and their successors. There have
been recently no discoveries to rival in novelty those which followed
the exploration of the bone-caves and drift-gravels, and which effected
an instant revolution in all accepted theories of man's antiquity,
substituting for a chronology of centuries a vague computation of
hundreds of thousands of years. The existence of man in remote
geological time cannot now be questioned, but, despite much effort made
in likely localities, no bones, with the exception of those of the
much-discussed _Pithecanthropus_, have been found which can be regarded
as definitely bridging the gulf between man and the lower creation. It
seems as if anthropology had in this direction reached the limits of its
discoveries. Far different are the prospects in other directions where
the work of co-ordinating the material and facts collected promises to
throw much light on the history of civilization. Anthropological
researches undertaken all over the globe have shown the necessity of
abandoning the old theory that a similarity of customs and
superstitions, of arts and crafts, justifies the assumption of a remote
relationship, if not an identity of origin, between races. It is now
certain that there has ever been an inherent tendency in man, allowing
for difference of climate and material surroundings, to develop culture
by the same stages and in the same way. American man, for example, need
not necessarily owe the minutest portion of his mental, religious,
social or industrial development to remote contact with Asia or Europe,
though he were proved to possess identical usages. An example in point
is that of pyramid-building. No ethnical relationship can ever have
existed between the Aztecs and the Egyptians; yet each race developed
the idea of the pyramid tomb through that psychological similarity which
is as much a characteristic of the species man as is his physique.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J.C. Prichard, _Natural History of Man_ (London, 1843);
  T.H. Huxley, _Man's Place in Nature_ (London, 1863); and "Geographical
  Distribution of Chief Modifications of Mankind," in _Journal
  Ethnological Society_ for 1870; E.B. Tylor, _Early History of Man_
  (London, 1865), _Primitive Culture_ (London, 1871), and _Anthropology_
  (London, 1881); A. de Quatrefages, _Histoire generale des races
  humaines_ (Paris, 1889), _Human Species_ (Eng. trans., 1879); Lord
  Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_ (1865, 6th ed. 1900) and _Origin of
  Civilization_ (1870, 6th ed. 1902), Theo. Waitz, _Anthropologie der
  Naturvolker_ (1859-1871), E.H. Haeckel, _Anthropogenie_ (Leipzig,
  1874-1891), Eng. trans., 1879; O. Peschel, _Volkerkunde_ (Leipzig,
  1874-1897); P. Topinard, _L'Anthropologie_ (Paris, 1876); _Elements
  d'anthropologie generale_ (Paris, 1885); D.G. Brinton, _Races and
  Peoples_ (1890); A.H. Keane, _Ethnology_ (1896), and _Man: Past and
  Present_ (1899); G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race_ (Eng. ed., 1889);
  F. Ratzel, _History of Mankind_ (Eng. trans., 1897); G. de Mortillet,
  _Le Prehistorique_ (Paris, 1882); A.C. Haddon, _Study of Man_ (1897);
  J. Deniker, _The Races of Man_ (London, 1900); W.Z. Ripley, _The Races
  of Europe_ (1900, with long bibliography); _The Journal of the
  Anthropological Institute of Great Britain_; _Revue d'anthropologie_
  (Paris); _Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie_ (Berlin). See also
  bibliographies under separate ethnological headings (AUSTRALIA,
  AFRICA, ARABS, AMERICA, &c.).     (E. B. T.)




ANTHROPOMETRY (Gr. [Greek: anthropos], man, and [Greek: metron],
measure), the name given by the French savant, Alphonse Bertillon (b.
1853), to a system of identification (q.v.) depending on the unchanging
character of certain measurements of parts of the human frame. He found
by patient inquiry that several physical features and the dimensions of
certain bones or bony structures in the body remain practically constant
during adult life. He concluded from this that when these measurements
were made and recorded systematically every single individual would be
found to be perfectly distinguishable from others. The system was soon
adapted to police methods, as the immense value of being able to fix a
person's identity was fully realized, both in preventing false
personation and in bringing home to any one charged with an offence his
responsibility for previous wrongdoing. "Bertillonage," as it was
called, became widely popular, and after its introduction into France in
1883, where it was soon credited with highly gratifying results, was
applied to the administration of justice in most civilized countries.
England followed tardily, and it was not until 1894 that an
investigation of the methods used and results obtained was made by a
special committee sent to Paris for the purpose. It reported favourably,
especially on the use of the measurements for primary classification,
but recommended also the adoption in part of a system of "finger prints"
as suggested by Francis Galton, and already practised in Bengal.

M. Bertillon selected the following five measurements as the basis of
his system: (1) head length; (2) head breadth; (3) length of middle
finger; (4) of left foot, and (5) of cubit or forearm from the elbow to
the extremity of the middle finger. Each principal heading was further
subdivided into three classes of "small," "medium" and "large," and as
an increased guarantee height, length of little finger, and the colour
of the eye were also recorded. From this great mass of details, soon
represented in Paris by the collection of some 100,000 cards, it was
possible, proceeding by exhaustion, to sift and sort down the cards till
a small bundle of half a dozen produced the combined facts of the
measurements of the individual last sought. The whole of the information
is easily contained in one cabinet of very ordinary dimensions, and most
ingeniously contrived so as to make the most of the space and facilitate
the search. The whole of the record is independent of names, and the
final identification is by means of the photograph which lies with the
individual's card of measurements.

Anthropometry, however, gradually fell into disfavour, and it has been
generally supplanted by the superior system of finger prints (q.v.).
Bertillonage exhibited certain defects which were first brought to light
in Bengal. The objections raised were (1) the costliness of the
instruments employed and their liability to get out of order; (2) the
need for specially instructed measurers, men of superior education; (3)
the errors that frequently crept in when carrying out the processes and
were all but irremediable. Measures inaccurately taken, or wrongly read
off, could seldom, if ever, be corrected, and these persistent errors
defeated all chance of successful search. The process was slow, as it
was necessary to repeat it three times so as to arrive at a mean result.
In Bengal measurements were already abandoned by 1897, when the finger
print system was adopted throughout British India. Three years later
England followed suit; and as the result of a fresh inquiry ordered by
the Home Office, finger prints were alone relied upon for
identification.

  AUTHORITIES.--Lombroso, _Antropometria di 400 delinquenti_ (1872);
  Roberts, _Manual of Anthropometry_ (1878); Ferri, _Studi comparati di
  antropometria_ (2 vols., 1881-1882); Lombroso, _Rughe anomale speciali
  ai criminali_ (1890); Bertillon, _Instructions signaletiques pour
  l'identification anthropometrique_ (1893); Livi, _Anthropometria_
  (Milan, 1900); Furst, _Indextabellen zum anthropometrischen Gebrauch_
  (Jena, 1902); _Report of Home Office Committee on the Best Means of
  Identifying Habitual Criminals_ (1893-1894).     (A. G.)




ANTHROPOMORPHISM (Gr. [Greek: anthropos], man, [Greek: morphae], form),
the attribution (a) of a human body, or (b) of human qualities
generally, to God or the gods. The word anthropomorphism is a modern
coinage (possibly from 18th century French). The _New English
Dictionary_ is misled by the 1866 reprint of Paul Bayne on Ephesians
when it quotes "anthropomorphist" as 17th century English. Seventeenth
century editions print "anthropomorphits," i.e. anthropomorphites, in
sense (a). The older abstract term is "anthropopathy," literally
"attributing human feelings," in sense (b).

Early religion, among its many objects of worship, includes beasts (see
ANIMAL-WORSHIP), considered, in the more refined theology of the later
Greeks and Romans, as metamorphoses of the great gods. Similarly we find
"therianthropic" forms--half animal, half human--in Egypt or
Assyria-Babylonia. In contrast with these, it is considered one of the
glories of the Olympian mythology of Greece that it believed in happy
manlike beings (though exempt from death, and using special rarefied
foods, &c.), and celebrated them in statues of the most exquisite art.
Israel shows us animal images, doubtless of a ruder sort, when Yahweh is
worshipped in the northern kingdom under the image of a steer. (Some
scholars think the title "mighty one of Jacob," Psalm cxxxii., 2, 5, _et
al_., [Hebrew: abir] as if from [Hebrew: avir] is really "steer"
[Hebrew: abir] "of Jacob.") But the higher religion of Israel inclined
to morality more than to art, and forbade image worship altogether. This
prepared the way for the conception of God as an immaterial Spirit. True
mythical anthropomorphisms occur in early parts of the Old Testament
(e.g. Genesis iii. 8, cf. vi. 2), though in the majority of Old
Testament passages such expressions are merely verbal (e.g. Isaiah lix.
1). In the Christian Church (and again in early Mahommedanism) simple
minds believed in the corporeal nature of God. Gibbon and other writers
quote from John Cassian the tale of the poor monk, who, being convinced
of his error, burst into tears, exclaiming, "You have taken away my God!
I have none now whom I can worship!" According to a fragment of Origen
(on Genesis i. 26), Melito of Sardis shared this belief. Many have
thought Melito's work, [Greek: peri ensomatou theou], must have been a
treatise on the Incarnation; but it is hard to think that Origen could
blunder so. Epiphanius tells of Audaeus of Mesopotamia and his
followers, Puritan sectaries in the 4th century, who were orthodox
except for this belief and for Quartodecimanism (see EASTER).
Tertullian, who is sometimes called an anthropomorphist, stood for the
Stoical doctrine, that all reality, even the divine, is in a sense
material.

The reaction against anthropomorphism begins in Greek philosophy with
the satirical spirit of Xenophanes (540 B.C.), who puts the case as
broadly as any. The "greatest God" resembles man "neither in form nor in
mind." In Judaism--unless we should refer to the prophets' polemic
against images--a reaction is due to the introduction of the codified
law. God seemed to grow more remote. The old sacred name Yahweh is never
pronounced; even "God" is avoided for allusive titles like "heaven" or
"place." Still, amid all this, the God of Judaism remains a personal,
almost a limited, being. In Philo we see Jewish scruples uniting with
others drawn from Greek philosophy. For, though the quarrel with popular
anthropomorphism was patched up, and the gods of the Pantheon were
described by Stoics and Epicureans as manlike in form, philosophy
nevertheless tended to highly abstract conceptions of supreme, or real,
deity. Philo followed out the line of this tradition in teaching that
God cannot be named. How much exactly he meant is disputed. The same
inheritance of Greek philosophy appears in the Christian fathers,
especially Origen. He names and condemns the "anthropomorphites," who
ascribe a human body to God (on Romans i., _sub fin_.; Rufinus' Latin
version). In Arabian philosophy the reaction sought to deny that God had
any attributes. And, under the influence of Mahommedan Aristotelianism,
the same paralysing speculation found entrance among the learned Jews of
Spain (see MAIMONIDES).

Till modern times the philosophical reaction was not carried out with
full vigour. Spinoza (_Ethics_, i. 15 and 17), representing here as
elsewhere both a Jewish inheritance and a philosophical, but advancing
further, sweeps away all community between God and man. So later J.G.
Fichte and Matthew Arnold ("a magnified and non-natural
man"),--strangely, in view of their strong belief in an objective moral
order. For the use of the _word_ "anthropomorphic," or kindred forms, in
this new spirit of condemnation for all conceptions of God as
manlike--sense (b) noted above--see J.J. Rousseau in _Emile_ iv. (cited
by Littre),--_Nous sommes pour la plupart de vrais anthropomorphites_.
Rousseau is here speaking of the language of Christian theology,--a
divine Spirit: divine Persons. At the present day this usage is
universal. What it means on the lips of pantheists is plain. But when
theists charge one another with "anthropomorphism," in order to rebuke
what they deem unduly manlike conceptions of God, they stand on slippery
ground. All theism implies the assertion of kinship between man,
especially in his moral being, and God. As a brilliant theologian, B.
Duhm, has said, physiomorphism is the enemy of Christian faith, not
anthropomorphism.

The latest extension of the word, proposed in the interests of
philosophy or psychology, uses it of the principle according to which
man is said to interpret all things (not God merely) through himself.
Common-sense intuitionalism would deny that man does this, attributing
to him immediate knowledge of reality. And idealism in all its forms
would say that man, interpreting through his reason, does rightly, and
reaches truth. Even here then the use of the word is not colourless. It
implies blame. It is the symptom of a philosophy which confines
knowledge within narrow limits, and which, when held by Christians (e.g.
Peter Browne, or H.L. Mansel), believes only in an "analogical"
knowledge of God.     (R. Ma.)




ANTI, or CAMPA, a tribe of South American Indians of Arawakan stock,
inhabiting the forests of the upper Ucayali basin, east of Cuzco, on the
eastern side of the Andes, south Peru. The Antis, who gave their name to
the eastern province of Antisuyu, have always been notorious for
ferocity and cannibalism. They are of fine physique and generally
good-looking. Their dress is a robe with holes for the head and arms.
Their long hair hangs down over the shoulders, and round their necks a
toucan beak or a bunch of feathers is worn as an ornament.




ANTIBES, a seaport town in the French department of the Alpes-Maritimes
(formerly in that of the Var, but transferred after the Alpes-Maritimes
department was formed in 1860 out of the county of Nice). Pop. (1906) of
the town, 5730; of the commune, 11,753. It is 12-1/2 m. by rail S.W. of
Nice, and is situated on the E. side of the Garoupe peninsula. It was
formerly fortified, but all the ramparts (save the Fort Carre, built by
Vauban) have now been demolished, and a new town is rising on their
site. There is a tolerable harbour, with a considerable fishing
industry. The principal exports are dried fruits, salt fish and oil.
Much perfume distilling is done here, as the surrounding country
produces an abundance of flowers. Antibes is the ancient Antipolis. It
is said to have been founded before the Christian era (perhaps about 340
B.C.) by colonists from Marseilles, and is mentioned by Strabo. It was
the seat of a bishopric from the 5th century to 1244, when the see was
transferred to Grasse.     (W. A. B. C.)




ANTICHRIST ([Greek: antichristos]). The earliest mention of the name
Antichrist, which was probably first coined in Christian eschatological
literature, is in the Epistles of St John (I. ii. 18, 22, iv. 3; II. 7),
and it has since come into universal use. The conception, paraphrased in
this word, of a mighty ruler who will appear at the end of time, and
whose essence will be enmity to God (Dan. xi. 36; cf. 2 Thess. ii. 4;
[Greek: o antikeimenos]), is older, and traceable to Jewish eschatology.
Its origin is to be sought in the first place in the prophecy of Daniel,
written at the beginning of the Maccabean period. The historical figure
who served as a model for the "Antichrist" was Antiochus IV. Epiphanes,
the persecutor of the Jews, and he has impressed indelible traits upon
the conception. Since then ever-recurring characteristics of this figure
(cf. especially Dan xi. 40, &c.) are, that he would appear as a mighty
ruler at the head of gigantic armies, that he would destroy three rulers
(the three horns, Dan. vii. 8, 24), persecute the saints (vii. 25), rule
for three and a half years (vii. 25, &c.), and subject the temple of God
to a horrible devastation ([Greek: bdelugma tes eremoseos]). When the
end of the world foretold by Daniel did not take place, but the book of
Daniel retained its validity as a sacred scripture which foretold future
things, the personality of the tyrant who was God's enemy disengaged
itself from that of Antiochus IV., and became merely a figure of
prophecy, which was applied now to one and now to another historical
phenomenon. Thus for the author of the _Psalms of Solomon_ (c. 60 B.C.),
Pompey, who destroyed the independent rule of the Maccabees and stormed
Jerusalem, was the Adversary of God (cf. ii. 26, &c.); so too the tyrant
whom the _Ascension of Moses_ (c. A.D. 30) expects at the end of all
things, possesses, besides the traits of Antiochus IV., those of Herod
the Great. A further influence on the development of the eschatological
imagination of the Jews was exercised by such a figure as that of the
emperor Caligula (A.D. 37-41), who is known to have given the order,
never carried out, to erect his statue in the temple of Jerusalem. In
the little Jewish Apocalypse, the existence of which is assumed by many
scholars, which in Mark xiii. and Matt. xxiv. is combined with the words
of Christ to form the great eschatological discourse, the prophecy of
the "abomination of desolation" (Mark xiii. 14 et seq.) may have
originated in this episode of Jewish history. Later Jewish and Christian
writers of Apocalypses saw in Nero the tyrant of the end of time. The
author of the Syriac _Apocalypse of Baruch_ (or his source), cap. 36-40,
speaks in quite general terms of the last ruler of the end of time. In 4
Ezra v. 6 also is found the allusion: _regnabit quem non sperant_.

The roots of this eschatological fancy are to be sought perhaps still
deeper in a purely mythological and speculative expectation of a battle
at the end of days between God and the devil, which has no reference
whatever to historical occurrences. This idea has its original source in
the apocalypses of Iran, for these are based upon the conflict between
Ahura-Mazda (Auramazda, Ormazd) and Angro-Mainyush (Ahriman) and its
consummation at the end of the world. This Iranian dualism is proved to
have penetrated into the late Jewish eschatology from the beginning of
the 1st century before Christ, and did so probably still earlier. Thus
the opposition between God and the devil already plays a part in the
Jewish groundwork of the _Testaments of the Patriarchs_, which was
perhaps composed at the end of the period of the Maccabees. In this the
name of the devil appears, besides the usual form ([Greek: satanas,
diabolos]), especially as Belial (Beliar, probably, from Ps. xviii. 4,
where the rivers of Belial are spoken of, originally a god of the
underworld), a name which also plays a part in the Antichrist tradition.
In the _Ascension of Moses_ we already hear, at the beginning of the
description of the latter time (x. 1): "And then will God's rule be made
manifest over all his creatures, then will the devil have an end" (cf.
Matt. xii. 28; Luke xi. 20; John xii. 31, xiv. 30, xvi. 11).[1] This
conception of the strife of God with the devil was further interwoven,
before its introduction into the Antichrist myth, with another idea of
different origin, namely, the myth derived from the Babylonian religion,
of the battle of the supreme God (Marduk) with the dragon of chaos
(Tiamat), originally a myth of the origin of things which, later
perhaps, was changed into an eschatological one, again under Iranian
influence.[2] Thus it comes that the devil, the opponent of God, appears
in the end often also in the form of a terrible dragon-monster; this
appears most clearly in Rev. xii. Now it is possible that the whole
conception of Antichrist has its final roots in this already complicated
myth, that the form of the mighty adversary of God is but the equivalent
in human form of the devil or of the dragon of chaos. In any case,
however, this myth has exercised a formative influence on the conception
of Antichrist. For only thus can we explain how his figure acquires
numerous superhuman and ghostly traits, which cannot be explained by any
particular historical phenomenon on which it may have been based. Thus
the figure of Antiochus IV. has already become superhuman, when in Dan.
viii. 10, it is said that the little horn "waxed great, even to the host
of heaven; and cast down some of the host and of the stars to the
ground." Similarly Pompey, in the second psalm of Solomon, is obviously
represented as the dragon of chaos, and his figure exalted into myth.
Without this assumption of a continual infusion of mythological
conceptions, we cannot understand the figure of Antichrist. Finally, it
must be mentioned that Antichrist receives, at least in the later
sources, the name originally proper to the devil himself.[3]

From the Jews, Christianity took over the idea. It is present quite
unaltered in certain passages, specifically traceable to Judaism, e.g.
(Rev. xi.). "The Beast that ascendeth out of the bottomless pit" and,
surrounded by a mighty host of nations, slays the "two witnesses" in
Jerusalem, is the entirely superhuman Jewish conception of Antichrist.
Even if the beast (ch. xiii.), which rises from the sea at the summons
of the devil, be interpreted as the Roman empire, and, specially, as any
particular Roman ruler, yet the original form of the malevolent tyrant
of the latter time is completely preserved.

A fundamental change of the whole idea from the specifically Christian
point of view, then, is signified by the conclusion of ch. ii. of the
Second Epistle to the Thessalonians.[4] There can, of course, be no
doubt as to the identity of the "man of sin, the son of perdition" here
described with the dominating figure of Jewish eschatology (cf. ii. 3
&c., [Greek: o anthropos tes anomias], i.e. Beliar (?), [Greek: o
antikeimenos]--the allusion that follows to Dan xi. 36). But Antichrist
here appears as a tempter, who works by signs and wonders (ii. 9) and
seeks to obtain divine honours; it is further signified that this "man
of sin" will obtain credence, more especially among the Jews, because
they have not accepted the truth. The conception, moreover, has become
almost more superhuman than ever (cf. ii. 4, "showing himself that he is
God"). The destruction of the Adversary is drawn from Isaiah xi. 4,
where it is said of the Messiah: "with the breath of his lips shall he
slay the wicked."[5] The idea that Antichrist was to establish himself
in the temple of Jerusalem (ii. 4) is very enigmatical, and has not yet
been explained. The "abomination of desolation" has naturally had its
influence upon it; possibly also the experience of the time of Caligula
(see above). Remarkable also is the allusion to a power which still
retards the revelation of Antichrist (2 Thess. ii. 6 &c., [Greek: to
katechon; o katechon]), an allusion which, in the tradition of the
Fathers of the church, came to be universally, and probably correctly,
referred to the Roman empire. In this then consists the significant turn
given by St Paul in the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians to the whole
conception, namely, in the substitution for the tyrant of the latter
time who should persecute the Jewish people, of a pseudo-Messianic
figure, who, establishing himself in the temple of God, should find
credence and a following precisely among the Jews. And while the
originally Jewish idea led straight to the conception, set forth in
Revelation, of the Roman empire or its ruler as Antichrist, here, on the
contrary, it is probably the Roman empire that is the power which still
retards the reign of Antichrist. With this, the expectation of such an
event at last separates itself from any connexion with historical fact,
and becomes purely ideal. In this process of transformation of the idea,
which has become of importance for the history of the world, is revealed
probably the genius of Paul, or at any rate, that of the young
Christianity which was breaking its ties with Judaism and establishing
itself in the world of the Roman empire.

This version of the figure of Antichrist, who may now really for the
first time be described by this name, appears to have been at once
widely accepted in Christendom. The idea that the Jews would believe in
Antichrist, as punishment for not having believed in the true Christ,
seems to be expressed by the author of the fourth gospel (v. 43). The
conception of Antichrist as a perverter of men, leads naturally to his
connexion with false doctrine (1 John ii. 18, 22; iv. 3; 2 John 7). The
_Teaching of the Apostles_ (xvi. 4) describes his form in the same way
as 2 Thessalonians ([Greek: kai tote phainaesetai o kosmoplanos os uios
theoy kai poiei saemeia kai terata]). In the late Christian Sibylline
fragment (iii. 63 &c.) also, "Beliar" appears above all as a worker of
wonders, this figure having possibly been influenced by that of Simon
Magus. Finally the author of the Apocalypse of St John also has made use
of the new conception of Antichrist as a wonder-worker and seducer, and
has set his figure beside that of the "first" Beast which was for him
the actual embodiment of Antichrist (xiii. II &c.). Since this second
Beast could not appear along with the first as a power demanding worship
and directly playing the part of Antichrist, he made out of him the
false prophet (xvi. 13, xix. 20, xx. 10) who seduces the inhabitants of
the earth to worship the first Beast, and probably interpreted this
figure as applying to the Roman provincial priesthood.[6]

But this version of the idea of Antichrist, hostile to the Jews and
better expressing the relation of Christianity to the Roman empire, was
prevented from obtaining an absolute ascendancy in Christian tradition
by the rise of the belief in the ultimate return of Nero, and by the
absorption of this outcome of pagan superstition into the
Jewish-Christian apocalyptic conceptions. It is known that soon after
the death of Nero rumours were current that he was not dead. This report
soon took the more concrete form that he had fled to the Parthians and
would return thence to take vengeance on Rome. This expectation led to
the appearance of several pretenders who posed as Nero; and as late as
A.D. 100 many still held the belief that Nero yet lived.[7] This idea of
Nero's return was in the first instance taken up by the Jewish
apocalyptic writers. While the Jewish author of the fourth Sibylline
book (c. A.D. 80) still only refers simply to the heathen belief, the
author of the (Jewish?) original of the 17th chapter of the Apocalypse
of St John expects the return of Nero with the Parthians to take
vengeance on Rome, because she had shed the blood of the Saints
(destruction of Jerusalem!). In the fifth Sibylline book, which, with
the exception of verses 1-51, was mainly composed by a Jewish writer at
the close of the first century, the return of Nero plays a great part.
Three times the author recurs to this theme, 137-154; 214-227; 361-385.
He sees in the coming again of Nero, whose figure he endows with
supernatural and daemonic characteristics, a judgment of God, in whose
hand the revivified Nero becomes a rod of chastisement. Later, the
figure of Nero _redivivus_ became, more especially in Christian thought,
entirely confused with that of Antichrist. The less it became possible,
as time went on, to believe that Nero yet lived and would return as a
living ruler, the greater was the tendency for his figure to develop
into one wholly infernal and daemonic. The relation to the Parthians is
also gradually lost sight of; and from being the adversary of Rome, Nero
becomes the adversary of God and of Christ. This is the version of the
expectation of Nero's second coming preserved in the form given to the
prophecy, under Domitian, by the collaborator in the Apocalypse of John
(xiii., xvii.). Nero is here the beast that returns from the bottomless
pit, "that was, and is not, and yet is"; the head "as it were wounded to
death" that lives again; the gruesome similitude of the Lamb that was
slain, and his adversary in the final struggle. The number of the Beast,
666, points certainly to Nero ([Hebrew: keisar neron] = 666, or [Hebrew:
keisar nero] = 616). In the little apocalypse of the _Ascensio Jesaiae_
(iii. 13b-iv. 18), which dates perhaps from the second, perhaps only
from the first, decade of the third century,[8] it is said that Beliar,
the king of this world, would descend from the firmament in the human
form of Nero. In the same way, in _Sibyll._ v. 28-34, Nero and
Antichrist are absolutely identical (mostly obscure reminiscences,
_Sib._ viii. 68 &c., 140 &c., 151 &c.). Then the Nero-legend gradually
fades away. But Victorinus of Pettau, who wrote during the persecution
under Diocletian, still knows the relation of the Apocalypse to the
legend of Nero; and Commodian, whose _Carmen Apologeticum_ was perhaps
not written until the beginning of the 4th century, knows two
Antichrist-figures, of which he still identifies the first with Nero
_redivivus_.

In proportion as the figure of Nero again ceased to dominate the
imagination of the faithful, the wholly unhistorical, unpolitical and
anti-Jewish conception of Antichrist, which based itself more especially
on 2 Thess. ii., gained the upper hand, having usually become associated
with the description of the universal conflagration of the world which
had also originated in the Iranian eschatology. On the strength of
exegetical combinations, and with the assistance of various traditions,
it was developed even in its details, which it thenceforth maintained
practically unchanged. In this form it is in great part present in the
eschatological portions of the _Adv. Haereses_ of Irenaeus, and in the
_de Antichristo_ and commentary on Daniel of Hippolytus. In times of
political excitement, during the following centuries, men appealed again
and again to the prophecy of Antichrist. Then the foreground scenery of
the prophecies was shifted; special prophecies, having reference to
contemporary events, are pushed to the front, but in the background
remains standing, with scarcely a change, the prophecy of Antichrist
that is bound up with no particular time. Thus at the beginning of the
_Testamentum Domini_, edited by Rahmani, there is an apocalypse,
possibly of the time of Decius, though it has been worked over (Harnack,
_Chronol. der altchrist. Litt._ ii. 514 &c.) In the third century, the
period of Aurelianus and Gallienus, with its wild warfare of Romans and
Persians, and of Roman pretenders one with another, seems especially to
have aroused the spirit of prophecy. To this period belongs the Jewish
apocalypse of Elijah (ed. Buttenwieser), of which the Antichrist is
possibly Odaenathus of Palmyra, while _Sibyll._ xiii., a Christian
writing of this period, glorifies this very prince. It is possible that
at this time also the Sibylline fragment (iii. 63 &c.) and the Christian
recension of the two first Sibylline books were written.[9] To this time
possibly belongs also a recension of the Coptic apocalypse of Elijah,
edited by Steindorff (_Texte und Untersuchungen_, N. F. ii. 3). To the
4th century belongs, according to Kamper (_Die deutsche Kaiseridee_,
1896, p. 18) and Sackur (_Texte und Forschungen_, 1898, p. 114 &c.), the
first nucleus of the "Tiburtine" Sibyl, very celebrated in the middle
ages, with its prophecy of the return of Constans, and its dream, which
later on exercised so much influence, that after ruling over the whole
world he would go to Jerusalem and lay down his crown upon Golgotha. To
the 4th century also perhaps belongs a series of apocalyptic pieces and
homilies which have been handed down under the name of Ephraem. At the
beginning of the Mahommedan period, then, we meet with the most
influential and the most curious of these prophetic books, the
_Pseudo-Methodius_,[10] which prophesied of the emperor who would awake
from his sleep and conquer Islam. From the _Pseudo-Methodius_ are
derived innumerable Byzantine prophecies (cf. especially Vassiliev,
_Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina_) which follow the fortunes of the Byzantine
emperors and their governments. A prophecy in verse, adorned with
pictures, which is ascribed to Leo VI. the Philosopher (Migne, _Patr.
Gracca_, cvii. p. 1121 &c.), tells of the downfall of the house of the
Comneni and sings of the emperor of the future who would one day awake
from death and go forth from the cave in which he had lain. Thus the
prophecy of the sleeping emperor of the future is very closely connected
with the Antichrist tradition. There is extant a Daniel prophecy which,
in the time of the Latin empire, foretells the restoration of the Greek
rule.[11] In the East, too, Antichrist prophecies were extraordinarily
flourishing during the period of the rise of Islam and of the Crusades.
To these belong the apocalypses in Arabic, Ethiopian and perhaps also in
Syrian, preserved in the so-called _Liber Clementis discipuli S. Petri_
(_Petri apostoli apocalypsis per Clementem_), the late Syrian apocalypse
of Ezra (Bousset, _Antichrist_, 45 &c.), the Coptic (14th) vision of
Daniel (in the appendix to Woide's edition of the _Codex Alexandrinus_;
Oxford, 1799), the Ethiopian _Wisdom of the Sibyl_, which is closely
related to the Tiburtine Sibyl (see Basset, _Apocryphes ethiopiennes_,
x.); in the last mentioned of these sources long series of Islamic
rulers are foretold before the final time of Antichrist. Jewish
apocalypse also awakes to fresh developments in the Mahommedan period,
and shows a close relationship with the Christian Antichrist literature.
One of the most interesting apocalypses is the Jewish _History of
Daniel_, handed down in Persian.[12]

This whole type of prophecy reached the West above all through the
_Pseudo-Methodius_, which was soon translated into Latin. Especially
influential, too, in this respect was the letter which the monk Adso in
954 wrote to Queen Gerberga, _De ortu et tempere Antichristi_. The old
Tiburtine Sibylla went through edition after edition, in each case being
altered so as to apply to the government of the monarch who happened to
be ruling at the time. Then in the West the period arrived in which
eschatology, and above all the expectation of the coming of Antichrist,
exercised a great influence on the world's history. This period, as is
well known, was inaugurated, at the end of the 12th century, by the
apocalyptic writings of the abbot Joachim of Floris. Soon the word
Antichrist re-echoed from all sides in the embittered controversies of
the West. The pope bestowed this title upon the emperor, the emperor
upon the pope, the Guelphs on the Ghibellines and the Ghibellines on the
Guelphs. In the contests between the rival powers and courts of the
period, the prophecy of Antichrist played a political part. It gave
motives to art, to lyrical, epic and dramatic poetry.[13] Among the
visionary Franciscans, enthusiastic adherents of Joachim's prophecies,
arose above all the conviction that the pope was Antichrist, or at least
his precursor. From the Franciscans, influenced by Abbot Joachim, the
lines of connexion are clearly traceable with Milic of Kremsier
(_Libellus de Antichristo_) and Matthias of Janow. For Wycliffe and his
adherent John Purvey (probably the author of the _Commentarius in
Apocalypsin ante centum annos editus_, edited in 1528 by Luther), as on
the other hand for Hus, the conviction that the papacy is essentially
Antichrist is absolute. Finally, if Luther advanced in his contest with
the papacy with greater and greater energy, he did so because he was
borne on by the conviction that the pope in Rome was Antichrist. And if
in the _Augustana_. the expression of this conviction was suppressed for
political reasons, in the Articles of Schmalkalden, drawn up by him,
Luther propounded it in the most uncompromising fashion. This sentence
was for him an _articulus stantis et cadentis ecclesiae_. To write the
history of the idea of Antichrist in the last centuries of the middle
ages, would be almost to write that of the middle ages themselves.

  AUTHORITIES.--See, for the progress of the idea in Jewish and New
  Testament times, the modern commentaries on Revelation and the 2nd
  Epistle to the Thessalonians; Bousset, _Antichrist_ (1895), and the
  article "Antichrist" in the _Encyclop. Biblica_; R.H. Charles,
  _Ascension of Isaiah_, Introduction, li.-lxxiii. For the history of
  the legend of Nero, see J. Geffcken, _Nachrichten der Gottinger
  Gesellschaft der Wisscnschaft_ (1899), p. 446 &c.; Th. Zahn,
  _Zeitschrift fur kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben_
  (1886), p. 337 &c.; Bousset, _Kritisch-exegetisches Kommentar zur
  Offenbarung Johannis_, cap. 17, and the article "Sibyllen" in
  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie fur Theologie und Kirche_ (3rd ed.),
  xviii. 265 &c.; Nordmeyer, _Der Tod Neros in der Legende_, a
  _Festschrift_ of the Gymnasium of Moos. For the later history of the
  legend, see Bousset, _Antichrist_, where will be found a more detailed
  discussion of nearly all the sources named; Bousset, "Beitrage zur
  Geschichte der Eschatologie," in _Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte_,
  xx. 2, and especially xx. 3, on the later Byzantine prophecies;
  Vassiliev, _Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina_, i. (Moscow, 1893), which gives
  the texts of a series of Byzantine prophecies; E. Sackur,
  _Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen_ (1898), containing (i)
  _Pseudo-Methodius_, Latin text, (2) _Epistola Adsonis_, (3) the
  _Tiburtine Sibylla_; V. Istrin, _The Apocalypse of Methodius of Patara
  and the Apocryphal Visions of Daniel in Byzantine and Slavo-Russian
  Literature_, Russian (Moscow, 1897); J. Kampers, _Die deutsche
  Kaiseridee in Prophetie und Sage_ (Munich, 1896), and "Alexander der
  Grosse und die Idee des Weltimperiums," in H. Grauert's _Studien und
  Darstellungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte_, vol. i. 2-3 (Freiburg,
  1901); E. Wadstein, _Die eschatologische Ideengruppe, Antichrist,
  Weltsabbat, Weltende und Welgericht_ (Leipzig, 1896), which contains
  excellent material for the history of the idea in the West during the
  middle ages; W. Meyer, "Ludus de Antichristo," in _Sitzberichl der
  Munchener Akad._ (Phil. hist. Klasse 1882, H. i.); Kropatschek, _Das
  Schriftprincip der lutherischen Kirche_, i. 247 &c. (Leipzig, 1904);
  H. Preuss, _Die Vorstellungen vom Antichrist im spateren Mittelalter,
  bei Luther u. i. d. Konfessionellen Polemik_ (Leipzig, 1906).
       (W. Bo.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] See further, Bousset, _Religion des Judentums_, ed. ii. pp. 289
    &c., 381 &c., 585 &c.

  [2] See Gunkel, _Schopfung und Chaos_ (1893).

  [3] It is, of course, uncertain whether this phenomenon already
    occurs in 2 Cor. vi. 15, since here Belial might still be Satan; cf.
    however, _Ascensio Jesaiae_ iv. 2 &c.; _Sibyll_. iii. 63 &c., ii. 167
    &c.

  [4] It is not necessary to decide whether the epistle is by St Paul
    or by a pupil of Paul, although the former seems to the present
    writer to be by far the more probable, in spite of the brilliant
    attack on the genuineness of the epistle by Wrede in _Texte und
    Ubersetzungen_, N.F. ix. 2.

  [5] Cf. 2 Thess. ii. 8; the Targum also, in its comment on the
   passage of Isaiah, applies "the wicked" to Antichrist.

  [6] See Bousset, _Kommentar zur Offenbarung Johannis_, on these
    passages.

  [7] _Ibid._ ch. xvii.: and Charles, _Ascension of Isaiah_, lvii. sq.

  [8] Harnack, _Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur_, i. 573

  [9] See Bousset, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop. fur Theologie und
    Kirsche_ (ed. 3), xviii. 273 &c.

  [10] Latin text by Sackur, cf. _op. cit._ 1 &c.; Greek text by V.
    Istrin.

  [11] See Bousset, _Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte_, xx. p. 289 &c.

  [12] Published in Merx, _Archiv zur Erforschung des Alten Testament_.

  [13] See especially the _Ludus de Antichristo_, ed. W. Meyer.




ANTICLIMAX (i.e. the opposite to "climax"), in rhetoric, an abrupt
declension (either deliberate or unintended) on the part of a speaker or
writer from the dignity of idea which he appeared to be aiming at; as in
the following well-known distich:--

  "The great Dalhousie, he, the god of war,
   _Lieutenant-colonel to the earl of Mar_."

An anticlimax can be intentionally employed only for a jocular or
satiric purpose. It frequently partakes of the nature of antithesis,
as--

  "Die and endow a _college_ or a _cat_."

It is often difficult to distinguish between "anticlimax" and "bathos";
but the former is more decidedly a relative term. A whole speech may
never rise above the level of bathos; but a climax of greater or less
elevation is the necessary antecedent of an anticlimax.




ANTICOSTI, an island of the province of Quebec, Canada, situated in the
Gulf of St Lawrence, between 49 deg. and 50 deg. N., and between 61 deg.
40' and 64 deg. 30' W., with a length of 135 m. and a breadth of 30 m.
Population 250, consisting chiefly of the keepers of the numerous
lighthouses erected by the Canadian government. The coast is dangerous,
and the only two harbours, Ellis Bay and Fox Bay, are very indifferent.
Anticosti was sighted by Jacques Cartier in 1534, and named Assomption.
In 1763 it was ceded by France to Britain, and in 1774 became part of
Canada. Wild animals, especially bears, are numerous, but prior to 1896
the fish and game had been almost exterminated by indiscriminate
slaughter. In that year Anticosti and the shore fisheries were leased to
M. Menier, the French chocolate manufacturer, who converted the island
into a game preserve, and attempted to develop its resources of lumber,
peat and minerals.

  See Logan, _Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress from its
  Commencement to 1863_ (Montreal, 1863-1865); E. Billings, _Geological
  Survey of Canada: Catalogue of the Silurian Fossils of Anticosti_
  (Montreal, 1866); J. Schmitt, _Anticosti_ (Paris, 1904).




ANTICYCLONE (i.e. opposite to a cyclone), an atmospheric system in which
there is a descending movement of the air and a relative increase in
barometric pressure over the part of the earth's surface affected by it.
At the surface the air tends to flow outwards in all directions from the
central area of high pressure, and is deflected on account of the
earth's rotation (see FERREL'S LAW) so as to give a spiral movement in
the direction of the hands of a watch face upwards in the northern
hemisphere, against that direction in the southern hemisphere. Since the
air in an anticyclone is descending, it becomes warmed and dried, and
therefore transmits radiation freely whether from the sun to the earth
or from the earth into space. Hence in winter anticyclonic weather is
characterized by clear air with periods of frost, causing fogs in towns
and low-lying damp areas, and in summer by still cloudless days with
gentle variable airs and fine weather.




ANTICYRA, the ancient name of three cities of Greece, (1) (Mod.
_Aspraspitia_), in Phocis, on the bay of Anticyra, in the Corinthian
gulf; some remains are still visible. It was a town of considerable
importance in ancient times; was destroyed by Philip of Macedon;
recovered its prosperity; and was captured by T. Quinctius Flamininus in
198 B.C. The city was famous for its black hellebore, a herb which was
regarded as a cure for insanity. This circumstance gave rise to a number
of proverbial expressions, like [Greek: Antikuras se dei] or "naviget
Anticyram," and to frequent allusions in the Greek and Latin writers.
Hellebore was likewise considered beneficial in cases of gout and
epilepsy. (2) In Thessaly, on the right bank of the river Spercheus,
near its mouth. (3) In Locris, on the north side of the entrance to the
Corinthian gulf, near Naupactus.




ANTIETAM, the name of a Maryland creek, near which, on the 16th-17th of
September 1862, was fought the battle of Antietam or Sharpsburg (see
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR), between the Federals under McClellan and the
Confederates commanded by Lee. General McClellan had captured the passes
of South Mountain farther east on the 14th, and his Army of the Potomac
marched to meet Lee's forces which, hitherto divided, had, by the 16th,
successfully concentrated between the Antietam and the Potomac. The
Confederate Army of Northern Virginia occupied a position which, in
relation to the surrounding country, may be compared to the string of a
bow in the act of being drawn, Lee's left wing forming the upper half of
the string, his right the lower, and the Potomac in his rear the bow
itself. The town of Sharpsburg represents the fingers of the archer
drawing the bow. The right wing of the position was covered by the
Antietam as it approaches the Potomac, the upper course of that stream
formed no part of the battlefield. Generals Longstreet and Jackson
commanded the right and left wings. The division of A.P. Hill was at
Harper's Ferry, but had received orders to rejoin Lee. McClellan's
troops appeared late on the 16th, and Hooker was immediately sent across
the upper Antietam. He had a sharp fight with Jackson's men, but night
soon put an end to the contest. Early on the 19th the corps of Sumner
and Mansfield followed Hooker across the upper stream whilst McClellan's
left wing (Burnside's corps) drew up opposite Lee's extreme right. The
Federal leader intended to hold back his centre whilst these two forces
were rolling up Lee's wings. The battle began with a furious assault on
the extreme right by Hooker's corps. After a very severe struggle he was
repulsed with the loss of a quarter of his men, Jackson's divisions
suffering even more severely and losing nearly all their generals and
colonels. It was only the arrival of Hood and D.H. Hill which enabled
Stonewall Jackson's corps to hold its ground, and had the other Federal
corps been at hand to support Hooker the result might have been very
different. Mansfield next attacked farther to the left and with better
fortune. Mansfield was killed, but his successor led the corps well, and
after heavy fighting Hood and D.H. Hill were driven back. Again want of
support checked the Federals and the fight became stationary, both sides
losing many men. Sumner now came into action, and overhaste involved him
in a catastrophe, his troops being attacked in front and flank and
driven back in great confusion with nearly half their number killed and
wounded; and their retreat involved the gallant remnants of Mansfield's
corps. Soon afterwards the Federal divisions of French and Richardson
attacked D.H. Hill, whose men were now exhausted by continuous fighting.
Here occurred the fighting in the "Bloody Lane," north of Sharpsburg
which French and Richardson eventually carried. Opposed as they were by
D.H. Hill, whose men had fought the battle of South Mountain and had
already been three times engaged _a fond_ on this day, proper support
must have enabled the Federals to crush Lee's centre, but Franklin and
Porter in reserve were not allowed by McClellan to move forward and the
opportunity passed. Burnside, on the southern wing, had received his
orders late, and acted on them still later. The battle was over on the
right before he fired a shot, and Lee had been able to use nearly all
his right wing troops to support Jackson. At last Burnside moved
forward, and, after a brilliant defence by the handful of men left to
oppose him, forced the Antietam and began to roll up Lee's right, only
to be attacked in rear himself by A.P. Hill's troops newly arrived from
Harper's Ferry. The repulse of Burnside ended the battle. Pressure was
brought to bear on McClellan to renew the fight, but he refused and Lee
retired across the Potomac unmolested. The Army of the Potomac had lost
11,832 men out of 46,000 engaged; the cavalry and two corps in reserve
had only lost 578. Lee's 31,200 men lost over 8000 of their number.

  See the bibliography appended to AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, and also General
  Palfrey's _Antietam and Fredericksburg_.




ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the name given in the political history of the United
States to those who, after the formation of the federal Constitution of
1787, opposed its ratification by the people of the several states. The
"party" (though it was never regularly organized as such) was composed of
states rights, particularistic, individualistic and radical democratic
elements; that is, of those persons who thought that a stronger
government threatened the sovereignty and prestige of the states, or the
special interests, individual or commercial, of localities, or the
liberties of individuals, or who fancied they saw in the government
proposed a new centralized, disguised "monarchic" power that would only
replace the cast-off despotism of Great Britain. In every state the
opposition to the Constitution was strong, and in two--North Carolina and
Rhode Island--it prevented ratification until the definite establishment
of the new government practically forced their adhesion. The
individualistic was the strongest element of opposition; the necessity,
or at least the desirability, of a bill of rights was almost universally
felt. Instead of accepting the Constitution upon the condition of
amendments,--in which way they might very likely have secured large
concessions,--the Anti-Federalists stood for unconditional rejection, and
public opinion, which went against them, proved that for all its
shortcomings the Constitution was regarded as preferable to the Articles
of Confederation. After the inauguration of the new government, the
composition of the Anti-Federalist party changed. The Federalist (q.v.)
party gradually showed broad-construction, nationalistic tendencies; the
Anti-Federalist party became a strict-construction party and advocated
popular rights against the asserted aristocratic, centralizing tendencies
of its opponent, and gradually was transformed into the
Democratic-Republican party, mustered and led by Thomas Jefferson, who,
however, had approved the ratification of the Constitution and was not,
therefore, an Anti-Federalist in the original sense of that term.

  See O.G. Libby, _Geographical Distribution of the Vote ... on the
  Federal Constitution, 1787-1788_ (University of Wisconsin, Bulletin,
  1894); S.B. Harding, _Contest over the Ratification of the Federal
  Constitution in ... Massachusetts_ (Harvard University Studies, New
  York, 1896); and authorities on political and constitutional history
  in the article UNITED STATES.




ANTIGO, a city and the county-seat of Langlade county, Wisconsin,
U.S.A., about 160 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 4424; (1900) 5145,
of whom 965 were foreign-born; (1905) 6663; (1910) 7196. It is served by
the Chicago & North Western railway. Antigo is the centre of a good
farming and lumbering district, and its manufactures consist principally
of lumber, chairs, furniture, sashes, doors and blinds, hubs and
spokes, and other wood products. The city has a Carnegie library. Antigo
was first settled in 1880, and was chartered as a city in 1885. Its name
is said to be part of an Indian word, _neequee-antigo-sebi_, meaning
"evergreen."




ANTIGONE, (1) in Greek legend, daughter of Oedipus and Iocaste
(Jocasta), or, according to the older story, of Euryganeia. When her
father, on discovering that Iocaste, the mother of his children, was
also his own mother, put his eyes out and resigned the throne of Thebes,
she accompanied him into exile at Colonus. After his death she returned
to Thebes, where Haemon, the son of Creon, king of Thebes, became
enamoured of her. When her brothers Eteocles and Polyneices had slain
each other in single combat, she buried Polyneices, although Creon had
forbidden it. As a punishment she was sentenced to be buried alive in a
vault, where she hanged herself, and Haemon killed himself in despair.
Her character and these incidents of her life presented an attractive
subject to the Greek tragic poets, especially Sophocles in the
_Antigone_ and _Oedipus at Colonus_, and Euripides, whose _Antigone_,
though now lost, is partly known from extracts incidentally preserved in
later writers, and from passages in his _Phoenissae_. In the order of
the events, at least, Sophocles departed from the original legend,
according to which the burial of Polyneices took place while Oedipus was
yet in Thebes, not after he had died at Colonus. Again, in regard to
Antigone's tragic end Sophocles differs from Euripides, according to
whom the calamity was averted by the intercession of Dionysus and was
followed by the marriage of Antigone and Haemon. In Hyginus's version of
the legend, founded apparently on a tragedy by some follower of
Euripides, Antigone, on being handed over by Creon to her lover Haemon
to be slain, was secretly carried off by him, and concealed in a
shepherd's hut, where she bore him a son Maeon. When the boy grew up, he
went to some funeral games at Thebes, and was recognized by the mark of
a dragon on his body. This led to the discovery that Antigone was still
alive. Heracles pleaded in vain with Creon for Haemon, who slew both
Antigone and himself, to escape his father's vengeance. On a painted
vase the scene of the intercession of Heracles is represented
(Heydermann, _Uber eine nacheuripideische Antigone_, 1868). Antigone
placing the body of Polyneices on the funeral pile occurs on a
sarcophagus in the villa Pamfili in Rome, and is mentioned in the
description of an ancient painting by Philostratus (_Imag._ ii. 29), who
states that the flames consuming the two brothers burnt apart,
indicating their unalterable hatred, even in death.

(2) A second Antigone was the daughter of Eurytion, king of Phthia, and
wife of Peleus. Her husband, having accidentally killed Eurytion in the
Calydonian boar hunt, fled and obtained expiation from Acastus, whose
wife made advances to Peleus. Finding that her affection was not
returned, she falsely accused Peleus of infidelity to his wife, who
thereupon hanged herself (Apollodorus, iii. 13).




ANTIGONUS CYCLOPS (or MONOPTHALMOS; so called from his having lost an
eye) (382-301 B.C.), Macedonian king, son of Philip, was one of the
generals of Alexander the Great. He was made governor of Greater Phrygia
in 333, and in the division of the provinces after Alexander's death
(323) Pamphylia and Lycia were added to his command. He incurred the
enmity of Perdiccas, the regent, by refusing to assist Eumenes (q.v.) to
obtain possession of the provinces allotted to him. In danger of his
life he escaped with his son Demetrius into Greece, where he obtained
the favour of Antipater, regent of Macedonia (321); and when, soon
after, on the death of Perdiccas, a new division took place, he was
entrusted with the command of the war against Eumenes, who had joined
Perdiccas against the coalition of Antipater, Antigonus, and the other
generals. Eumenes was completely defeated, and obliged to retire to Nora
in Cappadocia, and a new army that was marching to his relief was routed
by Antigonus. Polyperchon succeeding Antipater (d. 319) in the regency,
to the exclusion of Cassander, his son, Antigonus resolved to set
himself up as lord of all Asia, and in conjunction with Cassander and
Ptolemy of Egypt, refused to recognize Polyperchon. He entered into
negotiations with Eumenes; but Eumenes remained faithful to the royal
house. Effecting his escape from Nora, he raised an army, and formed a
coalition with the satraps of the eastern provinces. He was at last
delivered up to Antigonus through treachery in Persia and put to death
(316). Antigonus again claimed authority over the whole of Asia, seized
the treasures at Susa, and entered Babylonia, of which Seleucus was
governor. Seleucus fled to Ptolemy, and entered into a league with him
(315), together with Lysimachus and Cassander. After the war had been
carried on with varying success from 315 to 311, peace was concluded, by
which the government of Asia Minor and Syria was provisionally secured
to Antigonus. This agreement was soon violated on the pretext that
garrisons had been placed in some of the free Greek cities by Antigonus,
and Ptolemy and Cassander renewed hostilities against him. Demetrius
Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus, wrested part of Greece from
Cassander. At first Ptolemy had made a successful descent upon Asia
Minor and on several of the islands of the Archipelago; but he was at
length totally defeated by Demetrius in a naval engagement off Salamis,
in Cyprus (306). On this victory Antigonus assumed the title of king,
and bestowed the same upon his son, a declaration that he claimed to be
the heir of Alexander. Antigonus now prepared a large army, and a
formidable fleet, the command of which he gave to Demetrius, and
hastened to attack Ptolemy in his own dominions. His invasion of Egypt,
however, proved a failure; he was unable to penetrate the defences of
Ptolemy, and was obliged to retire. Demetrius now attempted the
reduction of Rhodes, which had refused to assist Antigonus against
Egypt; but, meeting with obstinate resistance, he was obliged to make a
treaty upon the best terms that he could (304). In 302, although
Demetrius was again winning success after success in Greece, Antigonus
was obliged to recall him to meet the confederacy that had been formed
between Cassander, Seleucus and Lysimachus. A decisive battle was fought
at Ipsus, in which Antigonus fell, in the eighty-first year of his age.

  Diodorus Siculus xviii., xx. 46-86; Plutarch, _Demetrius, Eumenes_;
  Nepos, _Eumenes_; Justin xv. 1-4. See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE; and Kohler,
  "Das Reich des Antigonos," in the _Sitzungsberichte d. Berl. Akad._,
  1898, p. 835 f.




ANTIGONUS GONATAS (c. 319-239 B.C.), Macedonian king, was the son of
Demetrius Poliorcetes, and grandson of Antigonus Cyclops. On the death
of his father (283), he assumed the title of king of Macedonia, but did
not obtain possession of the throne till 276, after it had been
successively in the hands of Pyrrhus, Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy
Ceraunus. Antigonus repelled the invasion of the Gauls, and continued in
undisputed possession of Macedonia till 274, when Pyrrhus returned from
Italy, and (in 273) made himself master of nearly all the country. On
the advance of Pyrrhus into Peloponnesus, he recovered his dominions. He
was again (between 263 and 255) driven out of his kingdom by Alexander,
the son of Pyrrhus, and again recovered it. The latter part of his reign
was comparatively peaceful, and he gained the affection of his subjects
by his honesty and his cultivation of the arts. He gathered round him
distinguished literary men--philosophers, poets, and historians. He died
in the eightieth year of his age, and the forty-fourth of his reign. His
surname was usually derived by later Greek writers from the name of his
supposed birthplace, Gonni (Gonnus) in Thessaly; some take it to be a
Macedonian word signifying an iron plate for protecting the knee;
neither conjecture is a happy one, and in our ignorance of the
Macedonian language it must remain unexplained.

  Plutarch, _Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Aratus_; Justin xxiv. 1; xxv. 1-3;
  Polybius ii. 43-45, ix. 29, 34. See Thirlwall, _History of Greece_,
  vol viii. (1847); Holm, _Griech. Gesch._ vol. iv. (1894); Niese,
  _Gesch. d. griech. u. maked. Staaten_, vols. i. and ii. (1893, 1899);
  Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ vol. iii. (1904); also
  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Antigonos von Karystos_ (1881).




ANTIGONUS OF CARYSTUS (in Euboea), Greek writer on various subjects,
flourished in the 3rd century B.C. After some time spent at Athens and
in travelling, he was summoned to the court of Attalus I. (241-197) of
Pergamum. His chief work was the _Lives of Philosophers_ drawn from
personal knowledge, of which considerable fragments are preserved in
Athenaeus and Diogenes Laertius. We still possess his _Collection of
Wonderful Tales_, chiefly extracted from the [Greek: Thaumasia
Akousmata] attributed to Aristotle and the [Greek: Thaumasia] of
Callimachus. It is doubtful whether he is identical with the sculptor
who, according to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 19), wrote books on his
art.

  Text in Keller, _Rerum Naturalium Scriptores Graeci Minores_, i.
  (1877); see Kopke, _De Antigono Carystio_ (1862);
  Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, "A. von Karystos," in _Philologische
  Untersuchungen_, iv. (.1881).




ANTIGUA, an island in the British West Indies, forming, with Barbuda and
Redonda, one of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward
Islands. It lies 50 m. E. of St Kitts, in 17 deg. 6' N. and 61 deg. 45'
W., and is 54 m. in circumference, with an area of 108 sq. m. The
surface is comparatively flat, and there is no central range of
mountains as in most other West Indian islands, but among the hills in
the south-west an elevation of 1328 ft. is attained. Owing to the
absence of rivers, the paucity of springs, and the almost complete
deforestation, Antigua is subject to frequent droughts, and although the
average rainfall is 45.6 in., the variations from year to year are
great. The dryness of the air proves very beneficial to persons
suffering from pulmonary complaints. The high rocky coast is much
indented by bays and arms of the sea, several of which form excellent
harbours, that of St John being safe and commodious, but inferior to
English Harbour, which, although little frequented, is capable of
receiving vessels of the largest size. The soil, especially in the
interior, is very fertile. Sugar and pineapples are the chief products
for export, but sweet potatoes, yams, maize and guinea corn are grown
for local consumption. Antigua is the residence of the governor of the
Leeward Islands, and the meeting place of the general legislative
council, but there is also a local legislative council of 16 members,
half official and half unofficial. Until 1898, when the Crown Colony
system was adopted, the legislative council was partly elected, partly
nominated. Elementary education is compulsory. Agricultural training is
given under government control, and the Cambridge local examinations and
those of the University of London are held annually. Antigua is the see
of a bishop of the Church of England, the members of which predominate
here, but Moravians and Wesleyans are numerous. There is a small
volunteer defence force. The island has direct steam communication with
Great Britain, the United States and Canada, and is also served by the
submarine cable. The three chief towns are St John, Falmouth and Parham.
St John (pop. about 10,000), the capital, situated on the north-west, is
an exceedingly picturesque town, built on an eminence overlooking one of
the most beautiful harbours in the West Indies. Although both Falmouth
and Parham have good harbours, most of the produce of the island finds
its way to St John for shipment. The trade is chiefly with the United
States, and the main exports are sugar, molasses, logwood, tamarinds,
turtles, and pineapples. The cultivation of cotton has been introduced
with success, and this also is exported. The dependent islands of
Barbuda and Redonda have an area of 62 sq. m. Pop. of Antigua (1901),
34,178; of the presidency, 35,073.

Antigua was discovered in 1493 by Columbus, who is said to have named it
after a church in Seville, called Santa Maria la Antigua. It remained,
however, uninhabited until 1632, when a body of English settlers took
possession of it, and in 1663 another settlement of the same nation was
effected under the direction of Lord Willoughby, to whom the entire
island was granted by Charles II. It was ravaged by the French in 1666,
but was soon after reconquered by the British and formally restored to
them by the treaty of Breda. Since then it has been a British
possession.




ANTILEGOMENA ([Greek: antilegomena], contradicted or disputed), an
epithet used by the early Christian writers to denote those books of the
New Testament which, although sometimes publicly read in the churches,
were not for a considerable time admitted to be genuine, or received
into the canon of Scripture. They were thus contrasted with the
_Homologoumena_, or universally acknowledged writings. Eusebius (_Hist.
Eccl._ iii. 25) applies the term _Antilegomena_ to the Epistle of James,
the Epistle of Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, the Acts of Paul, the
Shepherd of Hermas, the Teaching of the Apostles, the Apocalypse of
John, and the Gospel according to the Hebrews. In later usage it
describes those of the New Testament books which have obtained a
doubtful place in the Canon. These are the Epistles of James and Jude, 2
Peter, 2 and 3 John, the Apocalypse of John, and the Epistle to the
Hebrews.




ANTILIA or ANTILLIA, sometimes called the Island of the Seven Cities
(Portuguese _Isla das Sete Cidades_), a legendary island in the Atlantic
ocean. The origin of the name is quite uncertain. The oldest suggested
etymology (1455) fancifully connects it with the name of the Platonic
Atlantis, while later writers have endeavoured to derive it from the
Latin _anterior_ (i.e. the island that is reached "before" Cipango), or
from the _Jezirat al Tennyn_, "Dragon's Isle," of the Arabian
geographers. Antilia is marked in an anonymous map which is dated 1424
and preserved in the grand-ducal library at Weimar. It reappears in the
maps of the Genoese B. Beccario or Beccaria (1435), and of the Venetian
Andrea Bianco (1436), and again in 1455 and 1476. In most of these it is
accompanied by the smaller and equally legendary islands of Royllo, St
Atanagio, and Tanmar, the whole group being classified as _insulae de
novo repertae_, "newly discovered islands." The Florentine Paul
Toscanelli, in his letters to Columbus and the Portuguese court (1474),
takes Antilia as the principal landmark for measuring the distance
between Lisbon and the island of Cipango or Zipangu (Japan). One of the
chief early descriptions of Antilia is that inscribed on the globe which
the geographer Martin Behaim made at Nuremberg in 1492 (see MAP:
_History_). Behaim relates that in 734--a date which is probably a
misprint for 714--and after the Moors had conquered Spain and Portugal,
the island of Antilia or "Septe Cidade" was colonized by Christian
refugees under the archbishop of Oporto and six bishops. The inscription
adds that a Spanish vessel sighted the island in 1414. According to an
old Portuguese tradition each of the seven leaders founded and ruled a
city, and the whole island became a Utopian commonwealth, free from the
disorders of less favoured states. Later Portuguese tradition localized
Antilia in the island of St Michael's, the largest of the Azores. It is
impossible to estimate how far this legend commemorates some actual but
imperfectly recorded discovery, and how far it is a reminiscence of the
ancient idea of an elysium in the western seas which is embodied in the
legends of the Isles of the Blest or Fortunate Islands.




ANTILLES, a term of somewhat doubtful origin, now generally used,
especially by foreign writers, as synonymous with the expression "West
India Islands." Like "Brazil," it dates from a period anterior to the
discovery of the New World, "Antilia," as stated above, being one of
those mysterious lands, which figured on the medieval charts sometimes
as an archipelago, sometimes as continuous land of greater or lesser
extent, constantly fluctuating in mid-ocean between the Canaries and
East India. But it came at last to be identified with the land
discovered by Columbus. Later, when this was found to consist of a vast
archipelago enclosing the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, _Antilia_
assumed its present plural form, _Antilles_, which was collectively
applied to the whole of this archipelago.

A distinction is made between the Greater Antilles, including Cuba,
Jamaica, Haiti, and Porto Riro; and the Lesser Antilles, covering the
remainder of the islands.




ANTILOCHUS, in Greek legend, son of Nestor, king of Pylos. One of the
suitors of Helen, he accompanied his father to the Trojan War. He was
distinguished for his beauty, swiftness of foot, and skill as a
charioteer; though the youngest among the Greek princes, he commanded
the Pylians in the war, and performed many deeds of valour. He was a
favourite of the gods, and an intimate friend of Achilles, to whom he
was commissioned to announce the death of Patroclus. When his father was
attacked by Memnon, he saved his life at the sacrifice of his own
(Pindar, _Pyth._ vi. 28), thus fulfilling an oracle which had bidden him
"beware of an Ethiopian." His death was avenged by Achilles. According
to other accounts, he was slain by Hector (Hyginus, _Fab._ 113), or by
Paris in the temple of the Thymbraean Apollo together with Achilles
(Dares Phrygius 34). His ashes, with those of Achilles and Patroclus,
were deposited in a mound on the promontory of Sigeum, where the
inhabitants of Ilium offered sacrifice to the dead heroes (_Odyssey_,
xxiv. 72; Strabo xiii. p. 596). In the _Odyssey_ (xi. 468) the three
friends are represented as united in the underworld and walking together
in the fields of asphodel; according to Pausanias (iii. 19) they dwell
together in the island of Leuke.




ANTIMACASSAR, a separate covering for the back of a chair, or the head
or cushions of a sofa, to prevent soiling of the permanent fabric. The
name is attributable to the unguent for the hair commonly used in the
early 19th century,--Byron calls it "thine incomparable oil, Macassar."
The original antimacassar was almost invariably made of white
crochet-work, very stiff, hard, and uncomfortable, but in the third
quarter of the 19th century it became simpler and less inartistic, and
was made of soft coloured stuffs, usually worked with a simple pattern
in tinted wools or silk.




ANTIMACHUS, of Colophon or Claros, Greek poet and grammarian, flourished
about 400 B.C. Scarcely anything is known of his life. His poetical
efforts were not generally appreciated, although he received
encouragement from his younger contemporary Plato (Plutarch, _Lysander_,
18). His chief works were: a long-winded epic _Thebais_, an account of
the expedition of the Seven against Thebes and the war of the Epigoni;
and an elegiac poem _Lyde_, so called from the poet's mistress, for
whose death he endeavoured to find consolation by ransacking mythology
for stories of unhappy love affairs (Plutarch, _Consol. ad Apoll._ 9;
Athenaeus xiii. 597). Antimachus was the founder of "learned" epic
poetry, and the forerunner of the Alexandrian school, whose critics
allotted him the next place to Homer. He also prepared a critical
recension of the Homeric poems.

  Fragments, ed. Stoll (1845); Bergk, _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_ (1882);
  Kinkel, _Fragmenta epicorum Graecorum_ (1877).




ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, an American political organization which had its
rise after the mysterious disappearance, in 1826, of William Morgan (c.
1776-c. 1826), a Freemason of Batavia, New York, who had become
dissatisfied with his Order and had planned to publish its secrets. When
his purpose became known to the Masons, Morgan was subjected to frequent
annoyances, and finally in September 1826 he was seized and
surreptitiously conveyed to Fort Niagara, whence he disappeared. Though
his ultimate fate was never known, it was generally believed at the time
that he had been foully dealt with. The event created great excitement,
and led many to believe that Masonry and good citizenship were
incompatible. Opposition to Masonry was taken up by the churches as a
sort of religious crusade, and it also became a local political issue in
western New York, where early in 1827 the citizens in many mass meetings
resolved to support no Mason for public office. In New York at this time
the National Republicans, or "Adams men," were a very feeble
organization, and shrewd political leaders at once determined to utilize
the strong anti-Masonic feeling in creating a new and vigorous party to
oppose the rising Jacksonian Democracy. In this effort they were aided
by the fact that Jackson was a high Mason and frequently spoke in praise
of the Order. In the elections of 1828 the new party proved unexpectedly
strong, and after this year it practically superseded the National
Republican party in New York. In 1829 the hand of its leaders was shown,
when, in addition to its antagonism to the Masons, it became a champion
of internal improvements and of the protective tariff. From New York the
movement spread into other middle states and into New England, and
became especially strong in Pennsylvania and Vermont. A national
organization was planned as early as 1827, when the New York leaders
attempted, unsuccessfully, to persuade Henry Clay, though a Mason, to
renounce the Order and head the movement. In September 1831 the party at
a national convention in Baltimore nominated as its candidates for the
presidency and vice-presidency William Wirt of Maryland and Amos
Ellmaker (1787-1851) of Pennsylvania; and in the election of the
following year it secured the seven electoral votes of the state of
Vermont. This was the high tide of its prosperity; in New York in 1833
the organization was moribund, and its members gradually united with
other opponents of Jacksonian Democracy in forming the Whig party. In
other states, however, the party survived somewhat longer, but by 1836
most of its members had united with the Whigs. Its last act in national
politics was to nominate William Henry Harrison for president and John
Tyler for vice-president at a convention in Philadelphia in November
1838.

The growth of the anti-Masonic movement was due to the political and
social conditions of the time rather than to the Morgan episode, which
was merely the torch that ignited the train. Under the name of
"Anti-Masons" able leaders united those who were discontented with
existing political conditions, and the fact that William Wirt, their
choice for the presidency in 1832, was not only a Mason but even
defended the Order in a speech before the convention that nominated him,
indicates that simple opposition to Masonry soon became a minor factor
in holding together the various elements of which the party was
composed.

  See Charles McCarthy, _The Antimasonic Party: A Study of Political
  Anti-Masonry in the United States, 1827-1840_, in the Report of the
  American Historical Association for 1902 (Washington, 1903); the
  _Autobiography of Thurlow Weed_ (2 vols., Boston, 1884); A.G. Mackey
  and W.R. Singleton, _The History of Freemasonry_, vol. vi. (New York,
  1898); and J.D. Hammond, _History of Political Parties in the State of
  New York_ (2 vols., Albany, 1842).




ANTIMONY (symbol Sb, atomic weight 120.2), one of the metallic chemical
elements, included in the same natural family of the elements as
nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, and bismuth. Antimony, in the form of its
sulphide, has been known from very early times, more especially in
Eastern countries, reference to it being made in the Old Testament. The
Arabic name for the naturally occurring stibnite is "kohl"; Dioscorides
mentions it under the term [Greek: stimmi], Pliny as _stibium_; and
Geber as _antimonium_. By the German writers it is called _Speissglanz_.
Basil Valentine alludes to it in his _Triumphal Car of Antimony_ (circa
1600), and at a later date describes the preparation of the metal.

Native mineral antimony is occasionally found, and as such was first
recognized in 1748. It usually occurs as lamellar or glanular masses,
with a tin-white colour and metallic lustre, in limestone or in mineral
veins often in association with ores of silver. Distinct crystals are
rarely met with; these are rhombohedral and isomorphous with arsenic and
bismuth; they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane, c
(111), and are sometimes twinned on a rhombohedral plane, e (110).
Hardness 3-3-1/2 specific gravity 6.63-6.72. Sala in Sweden, Allemont in
Dauphine, and Sarawak in Borneo may be mentioned as some of the
localities for this mineral.

Antimony, however, occurs chiefly as the sulphide, stibnite; to a much
smaller extent it occurs in combination with other metallic sulphides in
the minerals wolfsbergite, boulangerite, bournonite, pyrargyrite, &c.
For the preparation of metallic antimony the crude stibnite is first
liquated, to free it from earthy and siliceous matter, and is then
roasted in order to convert it into oxide. After oxidation, the product
is reduced by heating with carbon, care being taken to prevent any loss
through volatilization, by covering the mass with a layer of some
protective substance such as potash, soda or glauber salt, which also
aids the refining. For rich ores the method of roasting the sulphide
with metallic iron is sometimes employed; carbon and salt or sodium
sulphate being used to slag the iron. Electrolytic methods, in which a
solution of antimony sulphide in sodium sulphide is used as the
electrolyte, have been proposed (see German Patent 67973, and also
Borcher's _Electro-Metallurgie_), but do not yet appear to have been
used on the large scale.

Antimony combines readily with many other metals to form alloys, some of
which find extensive application in the arts. Type-metal is an alloy of
lead with antimony and tin, to which occasionally a small quantity of
copper or zinc is added. The presence of the antimony in this alloy
gives to it hardness, and the property of expanding on solidification,
thus allowing a sharp cast of the letter to be taken. An alloy of tin
and antimony forms the basis of Britannia-metal, small quantities of
copper, lead, zinc or bismuth being added. It is a white metal of bluish
tint and is malleable and ductile. For the linings of brasses, various
white metals are used, these being alloys of copper, antimony and tin,
and occasionally lead.

Antimony is a silvery white, crystalline, brittle metal, and has a high
lustre. Its specific gravity varies from 6.7 to 6.86; it melts at 432
deg. C. (Dalton), and boils between 1090-1600 deg. C. (T. Carnelley), or
above 1300 deg. (V. Meyer). Its specific heat is 0.0523 (H. Kopp). The
vapour density of antimony at 1572 deg. C. is 10.74, and at 1640 deg. C.
9.78 (V. Meyer, _Berichte_, 1889, 22, p. 725), so that the antimony
molecule is less complex than the molecules of the elements phosphorus
and arsenic. An amorphous modification of antimony can be prepared by
heating the metal in a stream of nitrogen, when it condenses in the cool
part of the apparatus as a grey powder of specific gravity 6.22, melting
at 614 deg. C. and containing 98-99% of antimony (F. Herard, _Comptes
Rendus_, 1888, cvii. 420).

Another form of the metal, known as explosive antimony, was discovered
by G. Gore (_Phil. Trans._, 1858, p. 185; 1859, p. 797; 1862, p. 623),
on electrolysing a solution of antimony trichloride in hydrochloric
acid, using a positive pole of antimony and a negative pole of copper or
platinum wire. It has a specific gravity of 5.78 and always contains
some unaltered antimony trichloride (from 6 to 20%, G. Gore). It is very
unstable, a scratch causing it instantaneously to pass into the stable
form with explosive violence and the development of much heat. Similar
phenomena are exhibited in the electrolysis of solutions of antimony
tribromide and tri-iodide, the product obtained from the tribromide
having a specific gravity of 5.4, and containing 18-20% of antimony
tribromide, whilst that from the tri-iodide has a specific gravity of
5.2-5.8 and contains about 22% of hydriodic acid and antimony
tri-iodide.

The atomic weight of antimony has been determined by the analysis of the
chloride, bromide and iodide. J.P. Cooke (_Proc. Amer. Acad._, 1878,
xiii. i) and J. Bongartz (_Berichte_, 1883, 16, p. 1942) obtained the
value 120, whilst F. Pfeiffer (_Ann. Chim. et Phys._ ccix. 173) obtained
the value 121 from the electrolysis of the chloride.

Pure antimony is quite permanent in air at ordinary temperatures, but
when heated in air or oxygen it burns, forming the trioxide. It
decomposes steam at a red heat, and burns (especially when finely
powdered) in chlorine. Dilute hydrochloric acid is without action on it,
but on warming with the concentrated acid, antimony trichloride is
formed; it dissolves in warm concentrated sulphuric acid, the sulphate
Sb2(SO4)3 being formed. Nitric acid oxidizes antimony either to the
trioxide Sb4O6 or the pentoxide Sb2O5, the product obtained depending on
the temperature and concentration of the acid. It combines directly with
sulphur and phosphorus, and is readily oxidized when heated with
metallic oxides (such as litharge, mercuric oxide, manganese dioxide,
&c.). Antimony and its salts may be readily detected by the orange
precipitate of antimony sulphide which is produced when sulphuretted
hydrogen is passed through their acid solutions, and also by the Marsh
test (see ARSENIC); in this latter case the black stain produced is not
soluble in bleaching powder solution. Antimony compounds when heated on
charcoal with sodium carbonate in the reducing flame give brittle beads
of metallic antimony, and a white incrustation of the oxide. The
antimonious compounds are decomposed on addition of water, with
formation of basic salts.

Antimony may be estimated quantitatively by conversion into the
sulphide; the precipitate obtained is dried at 100 deg. C. and heated in
a current of carbon dioxide, or it may be converted into the tetroxide
by nitric acid.

Antimony, like phosphorus and arsenic, combines directly with hydrogen.
The compound formed, antimoniuretted hydrogen or stibine, SbH3, may also
be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on an alloy of antimony
and zinc, or by the action of nascent hydrogen on antimony compounds. As
prepared by these methods it contains a relatively large amount of
hydrogen, from which it can be freed by passing through a tube immersed
in liquid air, when it condenses to a white solid. It is a poisonous
colourless gas, with a characteristic offensive smell. In its general
behaviour it resembles arsine, burning with a violet flame and being
decomposed by heat into its constituent elements. When passed into
silver nitrate solution it gives a black precipitate of silver
antimonide, SbAg3. It is decomposed by the halogen elements and also by
sulphuretted hydrogen. All three hydrogen atoms are replaceable by
organic radicals and the resulting compounds combine with compounds of
the type RCl, RBr and RI to form stibonium compounds.

  There are three known oxides of antimony, the trioxide Sb4O6 which is
  capable of combining with both acids and bases to form salts, the
  tetroxide Sb2O4 and the pentoxide Sb2O5. Antimony trioxide occurs as
  the minerals valentinite and senarmontite, and can be artificially
  prepared by burning antimony in air; by heating the metal in steam to
  a bright red heat; by oxidizing melted antimony with litharge; by
  decomposing antimony trichloride with an aqueous solution of sodium
  carbonate, or by the action of dilute nitric acid on the metal. It is
  a white powder, almost insoluble in water, and when volatilized,
  condenses in two crystalline forms, either octahedral or prismatic. It
  is insoluble in sulphuric and nitric acids, but is readily soluble in
  hydrochloric and tartaric acids and in solutions of the caustic
  alkalies. On strongly heating in air it is converted into the
  tetroxide. The corresponding hydroxide, orthoantimonious acid,
  Sb(OH)3, can be obtained in a somewhat impure form by precipitating
  tartar emetic with dilute sulphuric acid; or better by decomposing
  antimonyl tartaric acid with sulphuric acid and drying the
  precipitated white powder at 100 deg. C. Antimony tetroxide is formed
  by strongly heating either the trioxide or pentoxide. It is a
  nonvolatile white powder, and has a specific gravity of 6.6952; it is
  insoluble in water and almost so in acids--concentrated hydrochloric
  acid dissolving a small quantity. It is decomposed by a hot solution
  of potassium bitartrate. Antimony pentoxide is obtained by repeatedly
  evaporating antimony with nitric acid and heating the resulting
  antimonic acid to a temperature not above 275 deg. C.; by heating
  antimony with red mercuric oxide until the mass becomes yellow (J.
  Berzelius); or by evaporating antimony trichloride to dryness with
  nitric acid. It is a pale yellow powder (of specific gravity 6.5),
  which on being heated strongly gives up oxygen and forms the
  tetroxide. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves slowly in
  hydrochloric acid. It possesses a feeble acid character, giving
  metantimoniates when heated with alkaline carbonates.

  Orthoantimonic acid, H3SbO4, is obtained by the decomposition of its
  potassium salt with nitric acid (A. Geuther); or by the addition of
  water to the pentachloride, the precipitate formed being dried over
  sulphuric acid (P. Conrad, _Chem. News_, 1879, xl. 198). It is a white
  powder almost insoluble in water and nitric acid, and when heated, is
  first converted into metantimonic acid, HSbO3, and then into the
  pentoxide Sb2O5. Pyroantimonic acid, H4Sb2O7 (the metantimonic acid of
  E. Fremy), is obtained by decomposing antimony pentachloride with hot
  water, and drying the precipitate so obtained at 100 deg. C. It is a
  white powder which is more soluble in water and acids than
  orthoantimonic acid. It forms two series of salts, of the types
  M2H2Sb2O7 and M4Sb2O7. Metantimonic acid, HSbO3, can be obtained by
  heating orthoantimonic acid to 175 deg. C., or by long fusion of
  antimony with antimony sulphide and nitre. The fused mass is extracted
  with water, nitric acid is added to the solution, and the precipitate
  obtained washed with water (J. Berzelius). It is a white powder almost
  insoluble in water. On standing with water for some time it is slowly
  converted into the ortho-acid.

  Compounds of antimony with all the halogen elements are known, one
  atom of the metal combining with three or five atoms of the halogen,
  except in the case of bromine, where only the tribromide is known. The
  majority of these halide compounds are decomposed by water, with the
  formation of basic salts. Antimony trichloride ("Butter of Antimony"),
  SbCl3, is obtained by burning the metal in chlorine; by distilling
  antimony with excess of mercuric chloride; and by fractional
  distillation of antimony tetroxide or trisulphide in hydrochloric acid
  solution. It is a colourless deliquescent solid of specific gravity
  3.06; it melts at 73.2 deg. C. (H. Kopp) to a colourless oil; and
  boils at 223 deg. (H. Capitaine). It is soluble in alcohol and in
  carbon bisulphide, and also in a small quantity of water; but with an
  excess of water it gives a precipitate of various oxychlorides, known
  as powder of algaroth (q.v.). These precipitated oxychlorides on
  continued boiling with water lose all their chlorine and ultimately
  give a residue of antimony trioxide. It combines with chlorides of the
  alkali metals to form double salts, and also with barium, calcium,
  strontium, and magnesium chlorides. Antimony pentachloride, SbCl5 is
  prepared by heating the trichloride in a current of chlorine. It is a
  nearly colourless fuming liquid of unpleasant smell, which can be
  solidified to a mass of crystals melting at -6 deg.C. It dissociates
  into the trichloride and chlorine when heated. It combines with water,
  forming the hydrates SbCl5.H2O and SbCl5.4H2O; it also combines with
  phosphorus oxychloride, hydrocyanic acid, and cyanogen chloride. In
  chloroform solution it combines with anhydrous oxalic acid to form a
  compound, Sb2Cl8(C2O4), which is to be considered as
  tetra-chlorstibonium oxalate

    COOSbCl4
    |
    COOSbCl4

  (R. Anschutz and Evans, _Annalen_, 1887, ccxxxix. 235). Antimonyl
  chloride, SbOCl, is produced by the decomposition of one part of the
  trichloride with four parts of water. Prepared in this way it contains
  a small quantity of the unaltered chloride, which can be removed by
  ether or carbon bisulphide. It is a white powder insoluble in water,
  alcohol and ether. On heating, it is converted into the oxychloride
  Sb4O5Cl2 (Sb2O3.SbOCl). Antimony oxychloride, SbOCl3, is formed by
  addition of the calculated quantity of water to ice-cooled antimony
  pentachloride, SbCl5 + H2O = SbOCl3 + 2HCl. It forms a yellowish
  crystalline precipitate which in moist air goes to a thick liquid.
  Compounds of composition, SbOCl3.2SbCl5 and SbO2Cl.2SbOCl3, have also
  been described (W.C. Williams, _Chem. News_. 1871, xxiv. 234).

  Antimony tribromide, SbBr3, and tri-iodide, SbI3, may be prepared by
  the action of antimony on solutions of bromine or iodine in carbon
  bisulphide. The tribromide is a colourless crystalline mass of
  specific gravity 4.148 (23 deg.), melting at 90 deg. to 94 deg. C. and
  boiling at 275.4 deg. C. (H. Kopp). The tri-iodide forms red-coloured
  crystals of specific gravity 4.848 (26 deg.), melting at 165 deg. to
  167 deg. C. and boiling at 401 deg. C. By the action of water they
  give oxybromides and oxyiodides SbOBr, Sb4O5Br2, SbOI. Antimony
  penta-iodide, SbI5, is formed by heating antimony with excess of
  iodine, in a sealed tube, to a temperature not above 130 deg.C. It
  forms a dark brown crystalline mass, melting at 78 deg. to 79 deg. C.,
  and is easily dissociated on heating. Antimony trifluoride, SbF3, is
  obtained by dissolving the trioxide in aqueous hydrofluoric acid or by
  distilling antimony with mercuric fluoride. By rapid evaporation of
  its solution it may be obtained in small prisms. The pentafluoride
  SbF5 results when metantimonic acid is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid,
  and the solution is evaporated. It forms an amorphous gummy mass,
  which is decomposed by heat. Oxyfluorides of composition SbOF and
  SbOF3 are known.

  Two sulphides of antimony are definitely known, the trisulphide Sb2S3
  and the pentasulphide Sb2S5; a third, the tetrasulphide Sb2S4, has
  also been described, but its existence is doubtful. Antimony
  trisulphide, Sb2S3, occurs as the mineral antimonite or stibnite, from
  which the commercial product is obtained by a process of liquation.
  The amorphous variety may be obtained from the crystalline form by
  dissolving it in caustic potash or soda or in solutions of alkaline
  sulphides, and precipitating the hot solution by dilute sulphuric
  acid. The precipitate is then washed with water and dried at 100 deg.
  C., by which treatment it is obtained in the anhydrous form. On
  precipitating antimony trichloride or tartar emetic in acid solution
  with sulphuretted hydrogen, an orange-red precipitate of the hydrated
  sulphide is obtained, which turns black on being heated to 200 deg. C
  The trisulphide heated in a current of hydrogen is reduced to the
  metallic state; it burns in air forming the tetroxide, and is soluble
  in concentrated hydrochloric acid, in solutions of the caustic
  alkalis, and in alkaline sulphides. By the union of antimony
  trisulphide with basic sulphides, livers of antimony are obtained.
  These substances are usually prepared by fusing their components
  together, and are dark powders which are less soluble in water the
  more antimony they contain. These thioantimonites are used in the
  vulcanizing of rubber and in the preparation of matches. Antimony
  pentasulphide, Sb2S5, is prepared by precipitating a solution of the
  pentachloride with sulphuretted hydrogen, by decomposing "Schlippe's
  salt" (q.v.) with an acid, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into
  water containing antimonic acid. It forms a fine dark orange powder,
  insoluble in water, but readily soluble in aqueous solutions of the
  caustic alkalis and alkaline carbonates. On heating in absence of air,
  it decomposes into the trisulphide and sulphur.

  An antimony phosphide and arsenide are known, as is also a
  thiophosphate, SbPS4, which is prepared by heating together antimony
  trichloride and phosphorus pentasulphide.

  Many organic compounds containing antimony are known. By distilling an
  alloy of antimony and sodium with mythyl iodide, mixed with sand,
  trimethyl stibine, Sb(CH3)3, is obtained; this combines with excess of
  methyl iodide to form tetramethyl stibonium iodide, Sb(CH3)4I. From
  this iodide the trimethyl stibine may be obtained by distillation with
  an alloy of potassium and antimony in a current of carbon dioxide. It
  is a colourless liquid, slightly soluble in water, and is
  spontaneously inflammable. The stibonium iodide on treatment with
  moist silver oxide gives the corresponding tetramethyl stibonium
  hydroxide, Sb(CH3)4OH, which forms deliquescent crystals, of alkaline
  reaction, and absorbs carbon dioxide readily. On distilling trimethyl
  stibine with zinc methyl, antimony tetra-methyl and penta-methyl are
  formed. Corresponding antimony compounds containing the ethyl group
  are known, as is also a tri-phenyl stibine, Sb(C6H5)3, which is
  prepared from antimony trichloride, sodium and monochlorbenzene. See
  Chung Yu Wang, _Antimony_ (1909).

_Antimony in Medicine._--So far back as Basil Valentine and Paracelsus,
antimonial preparations were in great vogue as medicinal agents, and
came to be so much abused that a prohibition was placed upon their
employment by the Paris parlement in 1566. Metallic antimony was
utilized to make goblets in which wine was allowed to stand so as to
acquire emetic properties, and "everlasting" pills of the metal,
supposed to act by contact merely, were administered and recovered for
future use after they had fulfilled their purpose. Antimony compounds
act as irritants both externally and internally. Tartar emetic (antimony
tartrate) when swallowed, acts directly on the wall of the stomach,
producing vomiting, and after absorption continues this effect by its
action on the medulla. It is a powerful cardiac depressant, diminishing
both the force and frequency of the heart's beat. It depresses
respiration, and in large doses lowers temperature. It depresses the
nervous system, especially the spinal cord. It is excreted by all the
secretions and excretions of the body. Thus as it passes out by the
bronchial mucous membrane it increases the amount of secretion and so
acts as an expectorant. On the skin its action is that of a diaphoretic,
and being also excreted by the bile it acts slightly as a cholagogue.
Summed up, its action is that of an irritant, and a cardiac and nervous
depressant. But on account of this depressant action it is to be avoided
for women and children and rarely used for men.

_Toxicology._--Antimony is one of the "protoplasmic" poisons, directly
lethal to all living matter. In acute poisoning by it the symptoms are
almost identical with those of arsenical poisoning, which is much
commoner (See ARSENIC). The post-mortem appearances are also very
similar, but the gastro-intestinal irritation is much less marked and
inflammation of the lungs is more commonly seen. If the patient is not
already vomiting freely the treatment is to use the stomach-pump, or
give sulphate of zinc (gr. 10-30) by the mouth or apomorphine (gr.
1/20-1/10) subcutaneously. Frequent doses of a teaspoonful of tannin
dissolved in water should be administered, together with strong tea and
coffee and mucilaginous fluids. Stimulants may be given subcutaneously,
and the patient should be placed in bed between warm blankets with
hot-water bottles. Chronic poisoning by antimony is very rare, but
resembles in essentials chronic poisoning by arsenic. In its
medico-legal aspects antimonial poisoning is of little and lessening
importance.




ANTINOMIANS (Gr. [Greek: anti], against, [Greek: nomos], law), a term
apparently coined by Luther to stigmatize Johannes Agricola (q.v.) and
his following, indicating an interpretation of the antithesis between
law and gospel, recurrent from the earliest times. Christians being
released, in important particulars, from conformity to the Old Testament
polity as a whole, a real difficulty attended the settlement of the
limits and the immediate authority of the remainder, known vaguely as
the moral law. Indications are not wanting that St Paul's doctrine of
justification by faith was, in his own day, mistaken or perverted in the
interests of immoral licence. Gnostic sects approached the question in
two ways. Marcionites, named by Clement of Alexandria _Antitactae_
(revolters against the Demiurge) held the Old Testament economy to be
throughout tainted by its source; but they are not accused of
licentiousness. Manichaeans, again, holding their spiritual being to be
unaffected by the action of matter, regarded carnal sins as being, at
worst, forms of bodily disease. Kindred to this latter view was the
position of sundry sects of English fanatics during the Commonwealth,
who denied that an elect person sinned, even when committing acts in
themselves gross and evil. Different from either of these was the
Antinomianism charged by Luther against Agricola. Its starting-point was
a dispute with Melanchthon in 1527 as to the relation between repentance
and faith. Melanchthon urged that repentance must precede faith, and
that knowledge of the moral law is needed to produce repentance.
Agricola gave the initial place to faith, maintaining that repentance is
the work, not of law, but of the gospel-given knowledge of the love of
God. The resulting Antinomian controversy (the only one within the
Lutheran body in Luther's lifetime) is not remarkable for the precision
or the moderation of the combatants on either side. Agricola was
apparently satisfied in conference with Luther and Melanchthon at
Torgau, December 1527. His eighteen _Positiones_ of 1537 revived the
controversy and made it acute. Random as are some of his statements, he
was consistent in two objects: (1) in the interest of solifidian
doctrine, to place the rejection of the Catholic doctrine of good works
on a sure ground; (2) in the interest of the New Testament, to find all
needful guidance for Christian duty in its principles, if not in its
precepts. From the latter part of the 17th century charges of
Antinomianism have frequently been directed against Calvinists, on the
ground of their disparagement of "deadly doing" and of "legal
preaching." The virulent controversy between Arminian and Calvinistic
Methodists produced as its ablest outcome Fletcher's _Checks to
Antinomianism_ (1771-1775).

  See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1896); Riess, in I.
  Goschler's _Dict. Encyclop. de la theol. cath._ (1858); J.H. Blunt
  _Dict. of Doct. and Hist. Theol._ (1872); J.C.L. Gieseler, _Ch. Hist._
  (New York ed. 1868, vol. iv.).




ANTINOMY (Gr. [Greek: anti], against, [Greek: nomos], law), literally,
the mutual incompatibility, real or apparent, of two laws. The term
acquired a special significance in the philosophy of Kant, who used it
to describe the contradictory results of applying to the universe of
pure thought the categories or criteria proper to the universe of
sensible perception (phenomena). These antinomies are four--two
mathematical, two dynamical--connected with (1) the limitation of the
universe in respect of space and time, (2) the theory that the whole
consists of indivisible atoms (whereas, in fact, none such exist), (3)
the problem of freedom in relation to universal causality, (4) the
existence of a universal being--about each of which pure reason
contradicts the empirical, as thesis and antithesis. Kant claimed to
solve these contradictions by saying, that in no case is the
contradiction real, however really it has been intended by the opposing
partisans, or must appear to the mind without critical enlightenment. It
is wrong, therefore, to impute to Kant, as is often done, the view that
human reason is, on ultimate subjects, at war with itself, in the sense
of being impelled by equally strong arguments towards alternatives
contradictory of each other. The difficulty arises from a confusion
between the spheres of phenomena and noumena. In fact no rational
cosmology is possible.

  See John Watson, _Selections from Kant_ (trans. Glasgow, 1897), pp.
  155 foll.; W. Windelband, _History of Philosophy_ (Eng. trans. 1893);
  H. Sidgwick, _Philos. of Kant_, lectures x. and xi. (Lond., 1905); F.
  Paulsen, _I. Kant_ (Eng. trans. 1902), pp. 216 foll.




ANTINOUS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis in Bithynia, was the
favourite of the emperor Hadrian, whom he accompanied on his journeys.
He committed suicide by drowning himself in the Nile (A.D. 130), either
in a fit of melancholy or in order to prolong his patron's life by his
voluntary sacrifice. After his death, Hadrian caused the most
extravagant respect to be paid to his memory. Not only were cities
called after him, medals struck with his effigy, and statues erected to
him in all parts of the empire, but he was raised to the rank of the
gods, temples were built for his worship in Bithynia, Mantineia in
Arcadia, and Athens, festivals celebrated in his honour and oracles
delivered in his name. The city of Antinoopolis was founded on the ruins
of Besa where he died (Dio Cassius lix. 11; Spartianus, _Hadrian_). A
number of statues, busts, gems and coins represented Antinous as the
ideal type of youthful beauty, often with the attributes of some special
god. We still possess a colossal bust in the Vatican, a bust in the
Louvre, a bas-relief from the Villa Albani, a statue in the Capitoline
museum, another in Berlin, another in the Lateran, and many more.

  See Levezow, _Uber den Antinous_ (1808); Dietrich, _Antinoos_ (1884);
  Laban, _Der Gemutsausdruck des Antinoos_ (1891); _Antinous, A Romance
  of Ancient Rome_, from the German of A. Hausrath, by M. Saftord (New
  York, 1882); Ebers, _Der Kaiser_ (1881).




ANTIOCH. There were sixteen cities known to have been founded under this
name by Hellenistic monarchs; and at least twelve others were renamed
Antioch. But by far the most famous and important in the list was
[Greek: Antiocheia e epi Daphnae] (mod. _Antakia_), situated on the left
bank of the Orontes, about 20 m. from the sea and its port, Seleucia of
Pieria (_Suedia_). Founded as a Greek city in 300 B.C. by Seleucus
Nicator, as soon as he had assured his grip upon western Asia by the
victory of Ipsus (301), it was destined to rival Alexandria in Egypt as
the chief city of the nearer East, and to be the cradle of gentile
Christianity. The geographical character of the district north and
north-east of the elbow of Orontes makes it the natural centre of Syria,
so long as that country is held by a western power; and only Asiatic,
and especially Arab, dynasties have neglected it for the oasis of
Damascus. The two easiest routes from the Mediterranean, lying through
the Orontes gorge and the Beilan Pass, converge in the plain of the
Antioch Lake (_Baluk Geut_ or _El Bahr_) and are met there by (1) the
road from the Amanic Gates (Baghche Pass) and western Commagene, which
descends the valley of the Kara Su, (2) the roads from eastern Commagene
and the Euphratean crossings at Samosata (Samsat) and Apamea Zeugma
(Birejik), which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the Kuwaik, and
(3) the road from the Euphratean ford at Thapsacus, which skirts the
fringe of the Syrian steppe. Travellers by all these roads must proceed
south by the single route of the Orontes valley. Alexander is said to
have camped on the site of Antioch, and dedicated an altar to Zeus
Bottiaeus, which lay in the north-west of the future city. But the first
western sovereign practically to recognize the importance of the
district was Antigonus, who began to build a city, Antigonia, on the
Kara Su a few miles north of the situation of Antioch; but, on his
defeat, he left it to serve as a quarry for his rival Seleucus. The
latter is said to have appealed to augury to determine the exact site of
his projected foundation; but less fantastic considerations went far to
settle it. To build south of the river, and on and under the last east
spur of Casius, was to have security against invasion from the north,
and command of the abundant waters of the mountain. One torrent, the
Onopniktes ("donkey-drowner"), flowed through the new city, and many
other streams came down a few miles west into the beautiful suburb of
Daphne. The site appears not to have been found wholly uninhabited. A
settlement, _Meroe_, boasting a shrine of Anait, called by the Greeks
the "Persian Artemis," had long been located there, and was ultimately
included in the eastern suburbs of the new city; and there seems to have
been a village on the spur (Mt. Silpius), of which we hear in late
authors under the name _Io_, or _Iopolis_. This name was always adduced
as evidence by Antiochenes (e.g. Libanius) anxious to affiliate
themselves to the Attic Ionians--an anxiety which is illustrated by the
Athenian types used on the city's coins. At any rate, Io may have been a
small early colony of trading Greeks (_Javan_). John Malalas mentions
also a village, Bottia, in the plain by the river.

The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the
"gridiron" plan of Alexandria by the architect, Xenarius. Libanius
describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p. 300.
17). The citadel was on Mt. Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low
ground to the north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets
intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid
out, probably on the east and by Antiochus I., which, from an expression
of Strabo, appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the
Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own. In the Orontes, north
of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II. Callinicus
began a third walled "city," which was finished by Antiochus III. A
fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164
B.C.); and thenceforth Antioch was known as _Tetrapolis_. From west to
east the whole was about 4 m. in diameter and little less from north to
south, this area including many large gardens. Of its population in the
Greek period we know nothing. In the 4th century A.D. it was about
200,000 according to Chrysostom, who probably did not reckon slaves.
About 4 m. west and beyond the suburb, Heraclea, lay the paradise of
Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great
temple to the Pythian Apollo, founded by Seleucus I. and enriched with a
cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary
of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The beauty and the
lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the western world; and
indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame. Its
amenities awoke both the enthusiasm and the scorn of many writers of
antiquity.

Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid empire
under Antiochus I., its counterpart in the east being Seleucia-on-Tigris;
but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240 B.C.),
which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Asia Minor, and led
indirectly to the rise of Pergamum. Thenceforward the Seleucids resided
at Antioch and treated it as their capital _par excellence_. We know
little of it in the Greek period, apart from Syria (q.v.), all our
information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great
Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still
remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably
situated on the island. It enjoyed a great reputation for letters and the
arts (Cicero _pro Archia_, 3); but the only names of distinction in these
pursuits during the Seleucid period, that have come down to us, are
Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The mass of
the population seems to have been only superficially Hellenic, and to
have spoken Aramaic in non-official life. The nicknames which they gave
to their later kings were Aramaic; and, except Apollo and Daphne, the
great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native,
such as the "Persian Artemis" of Meroe and Atargatis of Hierapolis
Bambyce. We may infer, from its epithet, "Golden," that the external
appearance of Antioch was magnificent; but the city needed constant
restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has
always been peculiarly liable. The first great earthquake is said by the
native chronicler John Malalas, who tells us most that we know of the
city, to have occurred in 148 B.C., and to have done immense damage. The
inhabitants were turbulent, fickle and notoriously dissolute. In the many
dissensions of the Seleucid house they took violent part, and frequently
rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147 B.C., and
Demetrius II. in 129. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his
capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house,
Antioch turned definitely against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes of
Armenia to occupy the city in 83, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII. in 65,
and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Its
wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64
B.C., but remained a _civitas libera_.

The Romans both felt and expressed boundless contempt for the hybrid
Antiochenes; but their emperors favoured the city from the first, seeing
in it a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than
Alexandria could ever be, thanks to the isolated position of Egypt. To a
certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Caesar visited it
in 47 B.C., and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter
Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at the instance of Octavian, whose
cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out.
Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius. Agrippa
and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their work.
Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with granite. A
circus, other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new
aqueducts to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the
work of Hadrian. The Roman client, King Herod, erected a long _stoa_ on
the east, and Agrippa encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of
this. Under the empire we chiefly hear of the earthquakes which shook
Antioch. One, in A.D. 37, caused the emperor Caligula to send two
senators to report on the condition of the city. Another followed in the
next reign; and in 115, during Trajan's sojourn in the place with his
army of Parthia, the whole site was convulsed, the landscape altered,
and the emperor himself forced to take shelter in the circus for several
days. He and his successor restored the city; but in 526, after minor
shocks, the calamity returned in a terrible form, and thousands of lives
were lost, largely those of Christians gathered to a great church
assembly. We hear also of especially terrific earthquakes on the 29th of
November 528 and the 31st of October 588.

At Antioch Germanicus died in A.D. 19, and his body was burnt in the
forum. Titus set up the Cherubim, captured from the Jewish temple, over
one of the gates. Commodus had Olympic games celebrated at Antioch, and
in A.D. 266 the town was suddenly raided by the Persians, who slew many
in the theatre. In 387 there was a great sedition caused by a new tax
levied by order of Theodosius, and the city was punished by the loss of
its metropolitan status. Zeno, who renamed it Theopolis, restored many
of its public buildings just before the great earthquake of 526, whose
destructive work was completed by the Persian Chosroes twelve years
later. Justinian made an effort to revive it, and Procopius describes
his repairing of the walls; but its glory was past.

The chief interest of Antioch under the empire lies in its relation to
Christianity. Evangelized perhaps by Peter, according to the tradition
upon which the Antiochene patriarchate still rests its claim for primacy
(cf. Acts xi.), and certainly by Barnabas and Saul, its converts were
the first to be called "Christians." They multiplied exceedingly, and by
the time of Theodosius were reckoned by Chrysostom at about 100,000
souls. Between 252 and 300 A.D. ten assemblies of the church were held
at Antioch and it became the residence of the patriarch of Asia. When
Julian visited the place in 362 the impudent population railed at him
for his favour to Jewish and pagan rites, and to revenge itself for the
closing of its great church of Constantine, burned down the temple of
Apollo in Daphne. The emperor's rough and severe habits and his rigid
administration prompted Antiochene lampoons, to which he replied in the
curious satiric _apologia_, still extant, which he called _Misopogon_.
His successor, Valens, who endowed Antioch with a new forum having a
statue of Valentinian on a central column, reopened the great church,
which stood till the sack of Chosroes in 538. Antioch gave its name to a
certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by literal
interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations
of Jesus. Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the leaders
of this school. The principal local saint was Simeon Stylites, who
performed his penance on a hill some 40 m. east. His body was brought to
the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor Leo. In A.D.
635, during the reign of Heraclius, Antioch passed into Saracen hands,
and decayed apace for more than 300 years; but in 969 it was recovered
for Byzantium by Michael Burza and Peter the Eunuch. In 1084 the Seljuk
Turks captured it but held it only fourteen years, yielding place to the
crusaders, who besieged it for nine months, enduring frightful
sufferings. Being at last betrayed, it was given to Bohemund, prince of
Tarentum, and it remained the capital of a Latin principality for nearly
two centuries. It fell at last to the Egyptian, Bibars, in 1268, after a
great destruction and slaughter, from which it never revived. Little
remains now of the ancient city, except colossal ruins of aqueducts and
part of the Roman walls, which are used as quarries for modern Antakia;
but no scientific examination of the site has been made. A statue in the
Vatican and a silver statuette in the British Museum perpetuate the type
of its great effigy of the civic Fortune of Antioch--a majestic seated
figure, with Orontes as a youth issuing from under her feet.

ANTAKIA, the modern town, is still of considerable importance. Pop.
about 25,000, including Ansarieh, Jews, and a large body of Christians
of several denominations about 8000 strong. Though superseded by Aleppo
(q.v.) as capital of N. Syria, it is still the centre of a large
district, growing in wealth and productiveness with the draining of its
central lake, undertaken by a French company. The principal cultures are
tobacco, maize and cotton, and the mulberry for silk production.
Liquorice also is collected and exported. In 1822 (as in 1872) Antakia
suffered by earthquake, and when Ibrahim Pasha made it his headquarters
in 1835, it had only some 5000 inhabitants. Its hopes, based on a
Euphrates valley railway, which was to have started from its port of
Suedia (Seleucia), were doomed to disappointment, and it has suffered
repeatedly from visitations of cholera; but it has nevertheless grown
rapidly and will resume much of its old importance when a railway is
made down the lower Orontes valley. It is a centre of American mission
enterprise, and has a British vice-consul.

  See C.O. Miiller, _Antiquitates Antiochenae_ (1839); A. Freund,
  _Beitrage zur antiochenischen ... Stadtchronik_ (1882); R. Forster, in
  _Jahrbuch_ of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii. (1897). Also authorities
  for SYRIA.     (D. G. H.)

SYNODS OF ANTIOCH. Beginning with three synods convened between 264 and
269 in the matter of Paul of Samosata, more than thirty councils were
held in Antioch in ancient times. Most of these dealt with phases of the
Arian and of the Christological controversies. The most celebrated took
place in the summer of 341 at the dedication of the golden Basilica, and
is therefore called _in encaeniis_ ([Greek: en egkainiois]), _in
dedicatione_. Nearly a hundred bishops were present, all from the
Orient, but the bishop of Rome was not represented. The emperor
Constantius attended in person. The council approved three creeds (Hahn,
SS 153-155). Whether or no the so-called "fourth formula" (Hahn, S 156)
is to be ascribed to a continuation of this synod or to a subsequent but
distinct assembly of the same year, its aim is like that of the first
three; while repudiating certain Arian formulas it avoids the Athanasian
shibboleth "homoousios." The somewhat colourless compromise doubtless
proceeded from the party of Eusebius of Nicomedia, and proved not
inacceptable to the more nearly orthodox members of the synod. The
twenty-five canons adopted regulate the so-called metropolitan
constitution of the church. Ecclesiastical power is vested chiefly in
the metropolitan (later called archbishop), and the semi-annual
provincial synod (cf. Nicaea, canon 5), which he summons and over which
he presides. Consequently the powers of country bishops (_chorepiscopi_)
are curtailed, and direct recourse to the emperor is forbidden. The
sentence of one judicatory is to be respected by other judicatories of
equal rank; re-trial may take place only before that authority to whom
appeal regularly lies (see canons 3, 4, 6). Without due invitation, a
bishop may not ordain, or in any other way interfere with affairs lying
outside his proper territory; nor may he appoint his own successor.
Penalties are set on the refusal to celebrate Easter in accordance with
the Nicene decree, as well as on leaving a church before the service of
the Eucharist is completed. The numerous objections made by eminent
scholars in past centuries to the ascription of these twenty-five canons
to the synod _in encaeniis_ have been elaborately stated and probably
refuted by Hefele. The canons formed part of the _Codex canonum_ used at
Chalcedon in 451 and passed over into the later collections of East and
West.

  The canons are printed in Greek by Mansi ii. 1307 ff., Bruns i. 80
  ff., Lauchert 43 ff., and translated by Hefele, _Councils_, ii. 67 ff.
  and by H.R. Percival in the _Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_, 2nd
  series, xiv. 108 ff. The four dogmatic formulas are given by G. Ludwig
  Hahn, _Bibliothek der Symbole_, 3rd edition (Breslau, 1897), 183 ff.;
  for translations compare the _Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_, 2nd
  series, iv. 461 ff., ii. 39 ff., ix. 12, ii. 44, and Hefele, ii. 76
  ff. For full titles see COUNCILS.     (W. W. R.*)




ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA, an ancient city, the remains of which, including
ruins of temples, a theatre and a fine aqueduct, were found by Arundell
in 1833 close to the modern Yalovach. It was situated on the lower
southern slopes of the Sultan Dagh, in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor,
on the right bank of a stream, the ancient Anthius, which flows into the
Hoiran Geul. It was probably founded on the site of a Phrygian
sanctuary, by Seleucus Nicator, before 280 B.C. and was made a free city
by the Romans in 189 B.C. It was a thoroughly Hellenized, Greek-speaking
city, in the midst of a Phrygian people, with a mixed population that
included many Jews. Before 6 B.C. Augustus made it a colony, with the
title Caesarea, and it became the centre of civil and military
administration in south Galatia, the romanization of which was
progressing rapidly in the time of Claudius, A.D. 41-54, when Paul
visited it (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 21, xvi. 6, xviii. 23). In 1097 the
crusaders found rest and shelter within its walls. The ruins are
interesting, and show that Antioch was a strongly fortified city of
Hellenic and Roman type.




ANTIOCHUS, the name of thirteen kings of the Seleucid dynasty in Nearer
Asia. The most famous are Antiochus III. the Great (223-187 B.C.) who
sheltered Hannibal and waged war with Rome, and his son Antiochus IV.
Epiphanes (176-164 B.C.) who tried to suppress Judaism by persecution
(see SELEUCID DYNASTY).

The name was subsequently borne by the kings of Commagene (69 B.C.-A.D.
72), whose house was affiliated to the Seleucid.

ANTIOCHUS I. of Commagene, who without sufficient reason has been
identified with the Seleucid Antiochus XIII. Asiaticus, made peace on
advantageous terms with Pompey in 64 B.C. Subsequently he fought on
Pompey's side in the Civil War, and later still repelled an attack on
Samosata by Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony.) He died before 31 B.C. and
was succeeded by one Mithradates I. This Mithradates was succeeded by an

ANTIOCHUS II., who was executed by Augustus in 29 B.C. After another
Mithradates we know of an ANTIOCHUS III., on whose death in A.D. 17
Commagene became a Roman province. In 38 his son ANTIOCHUS IV. EPIPHANES
was made king by Caligula, who deposed him almost immediately. Restored
by Claudius in 41, he reigned until 72 as an ally of Rome against
Parthia. In that year he was deposed on suspicion of treason and retired
to Rome. Several of his coins are extant.

  On all the above see "Antiochos" in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie
  der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i. part ii. (1894).




ANTIOCHUS OF ASCALON (1st century B.C.), Greek philosopher. His
philosophy consisted in an attempt to reconcile the doctrines of his
teachers Philo of Larissa and Mnesarchus the Stoic. Against the
scepticism of the former, he held that the intellect has in itself a
sufficient test of truth; against Mnesarchus, that happiness, though its
main factor is virtue, depends also on outward circumstances. This
electicism is known as the Fifth Academy (see ACADEMY, GREEK). His
writings are lost, and we are indebted for information to Cicero (_Acad.
Pr._ ii. 43), who studied under him at Athens, and Sextus Empiricus
(_Pyrrh. hyp._ i. 235). Antiochus lectured also in Rome and Alexandria.

  See R. Hoyer, _De Antiocho Ascalonita_ (Bonn, 1883).




ANTIOCHUS OF SYRACUSE, Greek historian, flourished about 420 B.C.
Nothing is known of his life, but his works, of which only fragments
remain, enjoyed a high reputation. He wrote a _History of Sicily_ from
the earliest times to 424, which was used by Thucydides, and the
_Colonizing of Italy_, frequently referred to by Strabo and Dionysius of
Halicarnassus.

  Muller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, i.; Wolfflin, _Antiochos
  von Syrakus_, 1872.




ANTIOPE. (1) In Greek legend, the mother of Amphion and Zethus, and,
according to Homer (_Od_. xi. 260), a daughter of the Boeotian river-god
Asopus. In later poems she is called the daughter of Nycteus or
Lycurgus. Her beauty attracted Zeus, who, assuming the form of a satyr,
took her by force (Apollodorus iii. 5). After this she was carried off
by Epopeus, king of Sicyon, who would not give her up till compelled by
her uncle Lycus. On the way home she gave birth, in the neighbourhood of
Eleutherae on Mount Cithaeron, to the twins Amphion and Zethus, of whom
Amphion was the son of the god, and Zethus the son of Epopeus. Both were
left to be brought up by herdsmen. At Thebes Antiope now suffered from
the persecution of Dirce, the wife of Lycus, but at last escaped towards
Eleutherae, and there found shelter, unknowingly, in the house where her
two sons were living as herdsmen. Here she was discovered by Dirce, who
ordered the two young men to tie her to the horns of a wild bull. They
were about to obey, when the old herdsman, who had brought them up,
revealed his secret, and they carried out the punishment on Dirce
instead (Hyginus, _Fab._ 8). For this, it is said, Dionysus, to whose
worship Dirce had been devoted, visited Antiope with madness, which
caused her to wander restlessly all over Greece till she was cured, and
married by Phocus of Tithorca, on Mount Parnassus, where both were
buried in one grave (Pausanias ix. 17, x. 32).

(2) A second Antiope, daughter of Ares, and sister of Hippolyte, queen
of the Amazons, was the wife of Theseus. There are various accounts of
the manner in which Theseus became possessed of her, and of her
subsequent fortunes. Either she gave herself up to him out of love, when
with Heracles he captured Themiscyra, the seat of the Amazons, or she
fell to his lot as a captive (Diodorus iv. 16). Or again, Theseus
himself invaded the dominion of the Amazons and carried her off, the
consequence of which was a counter-invasion of Attica by the Amazons.
After four months of war peace was made, and Antiope left with Theseus
as a peace-offering. According to another account, she had joined the
Amazons against him because he had been untrue to her in desiring to
marry Phaedra. She is said to have been killed by another Amazon,
Molpadia, a rival in her affection for Theseus. Elsewhere it was
believed that he had himself killed her, and fulfilled an oracle to that
effect (Hyginus, _Fab_. 241). By Theseus she had a son, the well-known
Hippolytus (Plutarch, _Theseus_).




ANTIOQUIA, an interior department of the republic of Colombia, lying S.
of Bolivar, W. of the Magdalena river, and E. of Cauca. Area, 22,870 sq.
m.; pop. (est. 1899) 464,887. The greater part of its territory lies
between the Magdalena and Cauca rivers and includes the northern end of
the Central Cordillera. The country is covered with valuable forests,
and its mineral wealth renders it one of the most important mining
regions of the republic. The capital, Medellin (est. pop. 53,000 in
1902), is a thriving mining centre, 4822 ft. above sea-level, and 125 m.
from Puerto Berrio on the Magdalena. Other important towns are Manizales
(18,000) in the extreme south, the commercial centre of a rich gold and
grazing region; Antioquia, the old capital, on the Cauca; and Puerto
Berrio on the Magdalena, from which a railway has been started to the
capital.




ANTIPAROS (anc. _Oliaros_), an island of the kingdom of Greece, in the
modern eparchy of Naxos, separated by a strait (about 1-1/2 m. wide at
the narrowest point) from the west coast of Pares. It is 7 m. long by 3
broad, and contains about 700 inhabitants, most of whom live in Kastro,
a village on the north coast, and are employed in agriculture and
fishing. Formerly piracy was common. The only remarkable feature in the
island is a stalactite cavern on the south coast, which is reached by a
narrow passage broken by two steep and dangerous descents which are
accomplished by the aid of rope-ladders. The grotto itself, which is
about 150 ft. by 100, and 50 ft. high (not all can be seen from any
part, and probably some portions are still unexplored), shows many
remarkable examples of stalactite formations and incrustations of
dazzling brilliance. It is not mentioned by ancient writers; the first
western traveller to visit it was the marquis de Nointel (ambassador of
Louis XIV. to the Porte) who descended it with a numerous suite and held
high mass there on Christmas day 1673. There is, however, in the
entrance of the cavern an inscription recording the names of visitors in
ancient times.

  See J.P. de Tournefort, _Relation d'un voyage au Levant_ (1717);
  English edition, 1718, vol. i. p. 146, and guide-books to Greece.




ANTIPATER (398?-319 B.C.), Macedonian general, and regent of Macedonia
during Alexander's Eastern expedition (334-323). He had previously (346)
been sent as ambassador by Philip to Athens and negotiated peace after
the battle of Chaeroneia (338). About 332 he set out against the
rebellious tribes of Thrace; but before this insurrection was quelled,
the Spartan king Agis had risen against Macedonia. Having settled
affairs in Thrace as well as he could, Antipater hastened to the south,
and in a battle near Megalopolis (331) gained a complete victory over
the insurgents (Diodorus xvii. 62). His regency was greatly troubled by
the ambition of Olympias, mother of Alexander, and he was nominally
superseded by Craterus. But, on the death of Alexander in 323, he was,
by the first partition of the empire, left in command of Macedonia, and
in the Lamian War, at the battle of Crannon (322), crushed the Greeks
who had attempted to re-assert their independence. Later in the same
year he and Craterus were engaged in a war against the Aetolians, when
the news arrived from Asia which induced Antipater to conclude peace
with them; for Antigonus reported that Perdiccas contemplated making
himself sole master of the empire. Antipater and Craterus accordingly
prepared for war against Perdiccas, and allied themselves with Ptolemy,
the governor of Egypt. Antipater crossed over into Asia in 321; and
while still in Syria, he received information that Perdiccas had been
murdered by his own soldiers. Craterus fell in battle against Eumenes
(Diodorus xviii. 25-39). Antipater, now sole regent, made several new
regulations, and having quelled a mutiny of his troops and commissioned
Antigonus to continue the war against Eumenes and the other partisans of
Perdiccas, returned to Macedonia, where he arrived in 320 (Justin xiii.
6). Soon after he was seized by an illness which terminated his active
career, 319. Passing over his son Cassander, he appointed the aged
Polyperchon regent, a measure which gave rise to much confusion and
ill-feeling (Diodorus xvii., xviii).




ANTIPHANES, the most important writer of the Middle Attic comedy with
the exception of Alexis, lived from about 408 to 334 B.C. He was
apparently a foreigner who settled in Athens, where he began to write
about 387. He was extremely prolific: more than 200 of the 365 (or 260)
comedies attributed to him are known to us from the titles and
considerable fragments preserved in Athenaeus. They chiefly deal with
matters connected with the table, but contain many striking sentiments.

  Fragments in Koch, _Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta_, ii. (1884); see
  also Clinton, _Philological Museum_, i. (1832); Meineke, _Historia
  Critica Comicorum Graecorum_ (1839).




ANTIPHILUS, a Greek painter, of the age of Alexander. He worked for
Philip of Macedon and Ptolemy I. of Egypt. Thus he was a contemporary of
Apelles, whose rival he is said to have been, but he seems to have
worked in quite another style. Quintilian speaks of his facility: the
descriptions of his works which have come down to us show that he
excelled in light and shade, in genre representations, and in
caricature.

  See Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Kunstler_, ii. p. 249.




ANTIPHON, of Rhamnus in Attica, the earliest of the "ten" Attic orators,
was born in 480 B.C. He took an active part in political affairs at
Athens, and, as a zealous supporter of the oligarchical party, was
largely responsible for the establishment of the Four Hundred in 411
(see THERAMENES); on the restoration of the democracy he was accused of
treason and condemned to death. Thucydides (viii. 68) expresses a very
high opinion of him. Antiphon may be regarded as the founder of
political oratory, but he never addressed the people himself except on
the occasion of his trial. Fragments of his speech then delivered in
defence of his policy (called [Greek: Peri metastaseos]) have been
edited by J. Nicole (1907) from an Egyptian papyrus. His chief business
was that of a professional speech-writer ([Greek: logographos]), for
those who felt incompetent to conduct their own cases--as all disputants
were obliged to do--without expert assistance. Fifteen of Antiphon's
speeches are extant: twelve are mere school exercises on fictitious
cases, divided into tetralogies, each consisting of two speeches for
prosecution and defence--accusation, defence, reply, counter-reply;
three refer to actual legal processes. All deal with cases of homicide
([Greek: phonikai dikai]). Antiphon is also said to have composed a
[Greek: Techne] or art of Rhetoric.

  Edition, with commentary, by Maetzner (1838); text by Blass (1881);
  Jebb, _Attic Orators_; Plutarch, _Vitae X. Oratorum_; Philostratus,
  _Vit. Sophistarum_, i. 15; van Cleef, _Index Antiphonteus_, Ithaca,
  N.Y. (1895); see also RHETORIC.




ANTIPHONY (Gr. [Greek: anti], and [Greek: phone], a voice), a species of
psalmody in which the choir or congregation, being divided into two
parts, sing alternately. The peculiar structure of the Hebrew psalms
renders it probable that the antiphonal method originated in the service
of the ancient Jewish Church. According to the historian Socrates, its
introduction into Christian worship was due to Ignatius (died 115 A.D.),
who in a vision had seen the angels singing in alternate choirs. In the
Latin Church it was not practised until more than two centuries later,
when it was introduced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, who compiled an
antiphonary, or collection of words suitable for antiphonal singing. The
antiphonary still in use in the Roman Catholic Church was compiled by
Gregory the Great (590 A.D.).




ANTIPODES (Gr. [Greek: anti], opposed to, and [Greek: podes], feet), a
term applied strictly to any two peoples or places on opposite sides of
the earth, so situated that a line drawn from the one to the other
passes through the centre of the globe and forms a true diameter. Any
two places having this relation--as London and, approximately, Antipodes
Island, near New Zealand--must be distant from each other by 180 deg. of
longitude, and the one must be as many degrees to the north of the
equator as the other is to the south, in other words, the latitudes are
numerically equal, but one is _north_ and the other _south_. Noon at the
one place is midnight at the other, the longest day corresponds to the
shortest, and mid-winter is contemporaneous with midsummer. In the
calculation of days and nights, midnight on the one side may be regarded
as corresponding to the noon either of the _previous_ or of the
_following_ day. If a voyager sail eastward, and thus anticipate the
sun, his dating will be twelve hours in advance, while the reckoning of
another who has been sailing westward will be as much in arrear. There
will thus be a difference of twenty-four hours between the two when they
meet. To avoid the confusion of dates which would thus arise, it is
necessary to determine a meridian at which dates should be brought into
agreement, i.e. a line the crossing of which would involve the changing
of the name of the day either forwards, when proceeding westwards, or
backwards, when proceeding eastwards. Mariners have generally adopted
the meridian 180 deg. from Greenwich, situated in the Pacific Ocean, as
a convenient line for co-ordinating dates. The so-called "International
Date Line," which is, however, practically only due to American
initiative, is designed to remove certain objections to the meridian of
180 deg. W., the most important of which is that groups of islands lying
about this meridian differ in date by a day although only a few miles
apart. Several forms have been suggested; these generally agree in
retaining the meridian of 180 deg. in the mid Pacific, with a bend in
the north in order to make the Aleutian Islands and Alaska of the same
time as America, and also in the south so as to bring certain of the
South Sea islands into line with Australia and New Zealand.




ANTIPYRINE (phenyldimethyl pyrazolone) (C11H12N2O), is prepared by the
condensation of phenylhydrazine with aceto-acetic ester, the resulting
phenyl methyl pyrazolone being heated with methyl iodide and methyl
alcohol to 100-110 deg. C.:

        CH3.C=N \               CH3.C-N.CH3
                 >N.C6H5   ->       || >N.C6H5
         CH2-CO /                HC-CO
  Phenyl methyl pyrazolone        Antipyrine

On the large scale phenylhydrazine is dissolved in dilute sulphuric
acid, the solution warmed to about 40 deg. C. and the aceto-acetic ester
added. When the reaction is complete the acid is neutralized with soda,
and the phenyl methyl pyrazolone extracted with ether and distilled _in
vacuo_. The portion distilling at about 200 deg. C. is then methylated
by means of methyl alcohol and methyl iodide at 100-110 deg. C., the
excess of methyl alcohol removed and the product obtained decolorized by
sulphuric acid. The residue is treated with a warm concentrated solution
of soda, and the oil which separates is removed by shaking with benzene.
The benzene layer on evaporation deposits the anti-pyrine as a
colourless crystalline solid which melts at 113 deg. C. and is soluble
in water. It is basic in character, and gives a red coloration on the
addition of ferric chloride. In medicine anti-pyrine ("phenazonum") has
been used as an analgesic and antipyretic. The dose is 5-20 grs., but on
account of its depressant action on the heart, and the toxic effects to
which it occasionally gives rise, it is now but little used. It is more
safely replaced by phenacetine.




ANTIQUARY, a person who devotes himself to the study of ancient learning
and "antiques," i.e. ancient objects of art or science. The London
Society of Antiquaries was formed in the 18th century to promote the
study of antiquities. As early as 1572 a society had been founded by
Bishop Matthew Parker, Sir Robert Cotton, William Camden and others for
the preservation of national antiquities. This body existed till 1604,
when it fell under suspicion of being political in its aims, and was
abolished by James I. Papers read at their meetings are preserved in the
Cottonian library and were printed by Thomas Hearne in 1720 under the
title _A Collection of Curious Discourses_, a second edition appearing
in 1771. In 1707 a number of English antiquaries began to hold regular
meetings for the discussion of their hobby and in 1717 the Society of
Antiquaries was formally reconstituted, finally receiving a charter from
George II. in 1751. In 1780 George III. granted the society apartments
in Somerset House, Strand. The society is governed by a council of
twenty and a president who is _ex officio_ a trustee of the British
Museum. The present headquarters of the society are at Burlington House,
Piccadilly.

The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780, and has the
management of a large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. In
Ireland a society was founded in 1849 called the Kilkenny Archaeological
Society, holding its meetings at Kilkenny. In 1869 its name was changed
to the Royal Historical and Archaeological Association of Ireland, and
in 1890 to the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, its office being
transferred to Dublin. In France _La Societe Nationale des Antiquaires
de France_ was formed in 1814 by the reconstruction of the _Academie
Celtique_, which had existed since 1805. The American Antiquarian
Society was founded in 1812, with its headquarters at Worcester, Mass.
It has a library of upwards of 100,000 volumes and its transactions have
been published bi-annually since 1849. In Germany the _Gesamtverein der
Deutschen Geschichtsund Altertumsvereine_ was founded in 1852. _La
Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord_ at Copenhagen is among the best
known of European antiquarian societies.




ANTIQUE (Lat. _antiquus_, old), a term conventionally restricted to the
remains of ancient art, such as sculptures, gems, medals, seals, &c. In
a limited sense it applies only to Greek and Roman art, and includes
neither the artistic remains of other ancient nations nor any product of
classical art of a later date than the fall of the western empire.




ANTI-SEMITISM. In the political struggles of the concluding quarter of
the 19th century an important part was played by a religious, political
and social agitation against the Jews, known as "Anti-Semitism." The
origins of this remarkable movement already threaten to become obscured
by legend. The Jews contend that anti-Semitism is a mere atavistic
revival of the Jew-hatred of the middle ages. The extreme section of the
anti-Semites, who have given the movement its quasi-scientific name,
declare that it is a racial struggle--an incident of the eternal
conflict between Europe and Asia--and that the anti-Semites are engaged
in an effort to prevent what is called the Aryan race from being
subjugated by a Semitic immigration, and to save Aryan ideals from being
modified by an alien and demoralizing oriental _Anschauung_. There is no
essential foundation for either of these contentions. Religious
prejudices reaching back to the dawn of history have been reawakened by
the anti-Semitic agitation, but they did not originate it, and they have
not entirely controlled it. The alleged racial divergence is, too, only
a linguistic hypothesis on the physical evidence of which
anthropologists are not agreed (Topinard, _Anthropologie_, p. 444;
Taylor, _Origins of Aryans_, cap. i.), and, even if it were proved, it
has existed in Europe for so many centuries, and so many ethnic
modifications have occurred on both sides, that it cannot be accepted as
a practical issue. It is true that the ethnographical histories of the
Jews and the nations of Europe have proceeded on widely diverging lines,
but these lines have more than once crossed each other and become
interlaced. Thus Aryan elements are at the beginning of both; European
morals have been ineradicably semitized by Christianity, and the Jews
have been Europeans for over a thousand years, during which their
character has been modified and in some respects transformed by the
ecclesiastical and civil polities of the nations among whom they have
made their permanent home. Anti-Semitism is then exclusively a question
of European politics, and its origin is to be found, not in the long
struggle between Europe and Asia, or between the Church and the
Synagogue, which filled so much of ancient and medieval history, but in
the social conditions resulting from the emancipation of the Jews in the
middle of the 19th century.

If the emancipated Jews were Europeans in virtue of the antiquity of
their western settlements, and of the character impressed upon them by
the circumstances of their European history, they none the less
presented the appearance of a strange people to their Gentile
fellow-countrymen. They had been secluded in their ghettos for
centuries, and had consequently acquired a physical and moral
physiognomy differentiating them in a measure from their former
oppressors. This peculiar physiognomy was, on its moral side, not
essentially Jewish or even Semitic. It was an advanced development of
the main attributes of civilized life, to which Christendom in its
transition from feudalism had as yet only imperfectly adapted itself.
The ghetto, which had been designed as a sort of quarantine to safeguard
Christendom against the Jewish heresy, had in fact proved a storage
chamber for a portion of the political and social forces which were
destined to sweep away the last traces of feudalism from central Europe.
In the ghetto, the pastoral Semite, who had been made a wanderer by the
destruction of his nationality, was steadily trained, through centuries,
to become an urban European, with all the parasitic activities of urban
economics, and all the democratic tendencies of occidental
industrialism. Excluded from the army, the land, the trade corporations
and the artisan gilds, this quondam oriental peasant was gradually
transformed into a commercial middleman and a practised dealer in money.
Oppressed by the Church, and persecuted by the State, his theocratic and
monarchical traditions lost their hold on his daily life, and he became
saturated with a passionate devotion to the ideals of democratic
politics. Finally, this former bucolic victim of Phoenician exploitation
had his wits preternaturally sharpened, partly by the stress of his
struggle for life, and partly by his being compelled in his urban
seclusion to seek for recreation in literary exercises, chiefly the
subtle dialectics of the Talmudists (Loeb, _Juif de l'histoire_;
Jellinek, _Der Judische Stamm_). Thus, the Jew who emerged from the
ghetto was no longer a Palestinian Semite, but an essentially modern
European, who differed from his Christian fellow-countrymen only in the
circumstances that his religion was of the older Semitic form, and that
his physical type had become sharply defined through a slightly more
rigid exclusiveness in the matter of marriages than that practised by
Protestants and Roman Catholics (Andree, _Volkskunde der Juden_, p. 58).

Unfortunately, these distinctive elements, though not very serious in
themselves, became strongly accentuated by concentration. Had it been
possible to distribute the emancipated Jews uniformly throughout
Christian society, as was the case with other emancipated religious
denominations, there would have been no revival of the Jewish question.
The Jews, however, through no fault of their own, belonged to only one
class in European society--the industrial _bourgeoisie_. Into that class
all their strength was thrown, and owing to their ghetto preparation,
they rapidly took a leading place in it, politically and socially. When
the mid-century revolutions made the _bourgeoisie_ the ruling power in
Europe, the semblance of a Hebrew domination presented itself. It was
the exaggeration of this apparent domination, not by the _bourgeoisie_
itself, but by its enemies among the vanquished reactionaries on the one
hand, and by the extreme Radicals on the other, which created modern
anti-Semitism as a political force.


  Germany.

The movement took its rise in Germany and Austria. Here the
concentration of the Jews in one class of the population was aggravated
by their excessive numbers. While in France the proportion to the total
population was, in the early'seventies, 0.14%, and in Italy, 0.12%, it
was 1.22% in Germany, and 3.85% in Austria-Hungary; Berlin had 4.36% of
Jews, and Vienna 6.62% (Andree, _Volkskunde_, pp. 287, 291, 294, 295).
The activity of the Jews consequently manifested itself in a far more
intense form in these countries than elsewhere. This was apparent even
before the emancipations of 1848. Towards the middle of the 18th
century, a limited number of wealthy Jews had been tolerated as
_Schutz-Juden_ outside the ghettos, and their sons, educated as Germans
under the influence of Moses Mendelssohn and his school (see JEWS),
supplied a majority of the leading spirits of the revolutionary
agitation. To this period belong the formidable names of Ludwig Borne
(1786-1837), Heinrich Heine (1799-1854), Edward Ganz (1798-1839),
Gabriel Riesser (1806-1863), Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864), Karl Marx
(1818-1883), Moses Hess (1812-1875), Ignatz Kuranda (1811-1884), and
Johann Jacobi (1805-1877). When the revolution was completed, and the
Jews entered in a body the national life of Germany and Austria, they
sustained this high average in all the intellectual branches of
middle-class activity. Here again, owing to the accidents of their
history, a further concentration became apparent. Their activity was
almost exclusively intellectual. The bulk of them flocked to the
financial and the distributive (as distinct from the productive) fields
of industry to which they had been confined in the ghettos. The
sharpened faculties of the younger generation at the same time carried
everything before them in the schools, with the result that they soon
crowded the professions, especially medicine, law and journalism
(Nossig, _Statistik des Jud. Stammes_, pp. 33-37; Jacobs, _Jew.
Statistics_, pp. 41-69). Thus the "Semitic domination," as it was
afterwards called, became every day more strongly accentuated. If it was
a long time in exciting resentment and jealousy, the reason was that it
was in no sense alien to the new conditions of the national life. The
competition was a fair one. The Jews might be more successful than their
Christian fellow-citizens, but it was in virtue of qualities which
complied with the national standards of conduct. They were as
law-abiding and patriotic as they were intelligent. Crime among them was
far below the average (Nossig, p. 31). Their complete assimilation of
the national spirit was brilliantly illustrated by the achievements in
German literature, art and science of such men as Heinrich Heine and
Berthold Auerbach (1812-1882), Felix Mendelssohn (-Bartholdy)
(1809-1847), and Jacob Meyerbeer (1794-1864), Karl Gustav Jacobi the
mathematician (1804-1851), Gabriel Gustav Valentin the physiologist
(1810-1883), and Moritz Lazarus (1824-1903) and Heymann Steinthal
(1823-1899) the national psychologists. In politics, too, Edward Lasker
(1829-1884) and Ludwig Bamberger (1823-1899) had shown how Jews could
put their country before party, when, at the turning-point of German
imperial history in 1866, they led the secession from the
_Fortschritts-Partei_ and founded the National Liberal party, which
enabled Prince Bismarck to accomplish German unity. Even their
financiers were not behind their Christian fellow-citizens in
patriotism. Prince Bismarck himself confessed that the money for
carrying on the 1866 campaign was obtained from the Jewish banker
Bleichroeder, in face of the refusal of the money-market to support the
war. Hence the voice of the old Jew-hatred--for in a weak way it was
still occasionally heard in obscurantist corners--was shamed into
silence, and it was only in the European twilight--in Russia and
Rumania--and in lands where medievalism still lingered, such as northern
Africa and Persia, that oppression and persecution continued to dog the
steps of the Jews.

The signal for the change came in 1873, and was given unconsciously by
one of the most distinguished Jews of his time, Edward Lasker, the
gifted lieutenant of Bennigsen in the leadership of the National Liberal
party. The unification of Germany in 1870, and the rapid payment of the
enormous French war indemnity, had given an unprecedented impulse to
industrial and financial activity throughout the empire. Money became
cheap and speculation universal. A company mania set in which was
favoured by the government, who granted railway and other concessions
with a prodigal hand. The inevitable result of this state of things was
first indicated by Jewish politicians and economists. On the 14th of
January 1873, Edward Lasker called the attention of the Prussian diet to
the dangers of the situation, while his colleague, Ludwig Bamberger, in
an able article in the _Preussischen Jahrbucher_, condemned the policy
which had permitted the milliards to glut the country instead of being
paid on a plan which would have facilitated their gradual digestion by
the economic machinery of the nation. Deeply impressed by the gravity of
the impending crisis, Lasker instituted a searching inquiry, with the
result that he discovered a series of grave company scandals in which
financial promoters and aristocratic directors were chiefly involved.
Undeterred by the fact that the leading spirit in these abuses, Bethel
Henry Strousberg (1823-1884), was a Jew, Lasker presented the results of
his inquiry to the diet on the 7th of February 1873, in a speech of
great power and full of sensational disclosures. The dramatic results of
this speech need not be dwelt upon here (for details see Blum, _Das
deutsche Reich zur Zelt Bismarcks_, pp. 153-181). It must suffice to say
that in the following May the great Vienna "Krach" occurred, and the
colossal bubble of speculation burst, bringing with it all the ruin
foretold by Lasker and Bamberger. From the position occupied by the Jews
in the commercial class, and especially in the financial section of that
class, it was inevitable that a considerable number of them should
figure in the scandals which followed. At this moment an obscure Hamburg
journalist, Wilhelm Marr, who as far back as 1862 had printed a
still-born tract against the Jews (_Judenspiegel_), published a
sensational pamphlet entitled _Der Sieg des Judenthums uber das
Germanthum_ ("The Victory of Judaism over Germanism"). The book fell
upon fruitful soil. It applied to the nascent controversy a theory of
nationality which, under the great sponsorship of Hegel, had seized on
the minds of the German youth, and to which the stirring events of 1870
had already given a deep practical significance. The state, according to
the Hegelians, should be rational, and the nation should be a unit
comprising individuals speaking the same language and of the same racial
origin. Heterogeneous elements might be absorbed, but if they could not
be reduced to the national type they should be eliminated. This was the
pseudo-scientific note of the new anti-Semitism, the theory which
differentiated it from the old religious Jew-hatred and sought to give
it a rational place in modern thought. Marr's pamphlet, which reviewed
the facts of the Jewish social concentration without noticing their
essentially transitional character, proved the pioneer of this teaching.
It was, however, in the passions of party politics that the new crusade
found its chief sources of vitality. The enemies of the _bourgeoisie_ at
once saw that the movement was calculated to discredit and weaken the
school of Manchester Liberalism, then in the ascendant. Agrarian
capitalism, which had been dethroned by industrial capitalism in 1848,
and had burnt its fingers in 1873, seized the opportunity of paying off
old scores. The clericals, smarting under the _Kutlturkampj_, which was
supported by the whole body of Jewish liberalism, joined eagerly in the
new cry. In 1876 another sensational pamphlet was published, Otto
Glogau's _Die Borsen und Grundergeschwindel in Berlin_ ("The Bourses and
the Company Swindles in Berlin"), dealing in detail with the Jewish
participation in the scandals first revealed by Lasker. The agitation
gradually swelled, its growth being helped by the sensitiveness and
_cacoethes scribendi_ of the Jews themselves, who contributed two
pamphlets and a much larger proportion of newspaper articles for every
one supplied by their opponents (Jacobs. _Bibliog. Jew. Question_, p.
xi.). Up to 1879, however, it was more of a literary than a political
agitation, and was generally regarded only as an ephemeral craze or a
passing spasm of popular passion.

Towards the end of 1879 it spread with sudden fury over the whole of
Germany. This outburst, at a moment when no new financial scandals or
other illustrations of Semitic demoralization and domination were before
the public, has never been fully explained. It is impossible to doubt,
however, that the secret springs of the new agitation were more or less
directly supplied by Prince Bismarck himself. Since 1877 the relations
between the chancellor and the National Liberals had gradually become
strained. The deficit in the budget had compelled the government to
think of new taxes, and in order to carry them through the Reichstag the
support of the National Liberals had been solicited. Until then the
National Liberals had faithfully supported the chancellor in nursing the
consolidation of the new empire, but the great dream of its leaders,
especially of Lasker and Bamberger, who had learnt their politics in
England, was to obtain a constitutional and economic _regime_ similar to
that of the British Isles. The organization of German unity was now
completed, and they regarded the new overtures of Prince Bismarck as an
opportunity for pressing their constitutional demands. These were
refused, the Reichstag was dissolved and Prince Bismarck boldly came
forward with a new fiscal policy, a combination of protection and state
socialism. Lasker and Bamberger thereupon led a powerful secession of
National Liberals into opposition, and the chancellor was compelled to
seek a new majority among the ultra-Conservatives and the Roman Catholic
Centre. This was the beginning of the famous "journey to Canossa."
Bismarck did not hide his mortification. He began to recognize in
anti-Semitism a means of "dishing" the Judaized liberals, and to his
creatures who assisted him in his press campaigns he dropped significant
hints in this sense (Busch, _Bismarck_, ii. 453-454, iii. 16). He even
spoke of a new _Kulturkampf_ against the Jews (_ibid_. ii. p. 484). How
these hints were acted upon has not been revealed, but it is
sufficiently instructive to notice that the final breach with the
National Liberals took place in July 1879, and that it was immediately
followed by a violent revival of the anti-Semitic agitation. Marr's
pamphlet was reprinted, and within a few months ran through nine further
editions. The historian Treitschke gave the sanction of his great name
to the movement. The Conservative and Ultramontane press rang with the
sins of the Jews. In October an anti-Semitic league was founded in
Berlin and Dresden (for statutes of the league see _Nineteenth Century_,
February 1881, p. 344).

The leadership of the agitation was now definitely assumed by a man who
combined with social influence, oratorical power and inexhaustible
energy, a definite scheme of social regeneration and an organization for
carrying it out. This man was Adolf Stocker (b. 1835), one of the court
preachers. He had embraced the doctrines of Christian socialism which
the Roman Catholics, under the guidance of Archbishop Ketteler, had
adopted from the teachings of the Jew Lassalle (Nitti, _Catholic
Socialism_, pp. 94-96, 122, 127), and he had formed a society called
"The Christian Social Working-man's Union." He was also a conspicuous
member of the Prussian diet, where he sat and voted with the
Conservatives. He found himself in strong sympathy with Prince
Bismarck's new economic policy, which, although also of Lassallian
origin (Kohut, _Ferdinand Lassalle_, pp. 144 et seq.), was claimed by
its author as being essentially Christian (Busch, p. 483). Under his
auspices the years 1880-1881 became a period of bitter and scandalous
conflict with the Jews. The Conservatives supported him, partly to
satisfy their old grudges against the Liberal _bourgeoisie_ and partly
because Christian Socialism, with its anti-Semitic appeal to ignorant
prejudice, was likely to weaken the hold of the Social Democrats on the
lower classes. The Lutheran clergy followed suit, in order to prevent
the Roman Catholics from obtaining a monopoly of Christian Socialism,
while the Ultramontanes readily adopted anti-Semitism, partly to
maintain their monopoly, and partly to avenge themselves on the Jewish
and Liberal supporters of the _Kulturkampf_. In this way a formidable
body of public opinion was recruited for the anti-Semites. Violent
debates took place in the Prussian diet. A petition to exclude the Jews
from the national schools and universities and to disable them from
holding public appointments was presented to Prince Bismarck. Jews were
boycotted and insulted. Duels between Jews and anti-Semites, many of
them fatal, became of daily occurrence. Even unruly demonstrations and
street riots were reported. Pamphlets attacking every phase and aspect
of Jewish life streamed by the hundred from the printing-press. On their
side the Jews did not want for friends, and it was owing to the strong
attitude adopted by the Liberals that the agitation failed to secure
legislative fruition. The crown prince (afterwards Emperor Frederick)
and crown princess boldly set themselves at the head of the party of
protest. The crown prince publicly declared that the agitation was "a
shame and a disgrace to Germany." A manifesto denouncing the movement as
a blot on German culture, a danger to German unity and a flagrant
injustice to the Jews themselves, was signed by a long list of
illustrious men, including Herr von Forckenbeck, Professors Mommsen,
Gneist, Droysen, Virchow, and Dr Werner Siemens (_Times_, November 18,
1880). During the Reichstag elections of 1881 the agitation played an
active part, but without much effect, although Stocker was elected. This
was due to the fact that the great Conservative parties, so far as
their political organizations were concerned, still remained chary of
publicly identifying themselves with a movement which, in its essence,
was of socialistic tendency. Hence the electoral returns of that year
supplied no sure guide to the strength of anti-Semitic opinion among the
German people.

The first severe blow suffered by the German anti-Semites was in 1881,
when, to the indignation of the whole civilized world, the barbarous
riots against the Jews in Russia and the revival of the medieval Blood
Accusation in Hungary (see _infra_) illustrated the liability of
unreasoning mobs to carry into violent practice the incendiary doctrines
of the new Jew-haters. From this blow anti-Semitism might have recovered
had it not been for the divisions and scandals in its own ranks, and the
artificial forms it subsequently assumed through factitious alliances
with political parties bent less on persecuting the Jews than on
profiting by the anti-Jewish agitation. The divisions showed themselves
at the first attempt to form a political party on an anti-Semitic basis.
Imperceptibly the agitators had grouped themselves into two classes,
economic and ethnological anti-Semites. The impracticable racial views
of Marr and Treitschke had not found favour with Stocker and the
Christian Socialists. They were disposed to leave the Jews in peace so
long as they behaved themselves properly, and although they carried on
their agitation against Jewish malpractices in a comprehensive form
which seemed superficially to identify them with the root-and-branch
anti-Semites, they were in reality not inclined to accept the racial
theory with its scheme of revived Jewish disabilities (Huret, _La
Question Sociale_--interview with Stocker). This feeling was
strengthened by a tendency on the part of an extreme wing of the racial
anti-Semites to extend their campaign against Judaism to its offspring,
Christianity. In 1879 Professor Sepp, arguing that Jesus was of no human
race, had proposed that Christianity should reject the Hebrew Scriptures
and seek a fresh historical basis in the cuneiform inscriptions. Later
Dr Eugen Dubring, in several brochures, notably _Die Judenfrage als
Frage des Rassencharakters_ (1881, 5th ed. Berlin, 1901), had attacked
Christianity as a manifestation of the Semitic spirit which was not
compatible with the theological and ethical conceptions of the
Scandinavian peoples. The philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche had also
adopted the same view, without noticing that it was a _reductio ad
absurdum_ of the whole agitation, in his _Menschliches,
Allzumenschliches_ (1878), _Jenseits von Gut und Bose_ (1886),
_Genealogie der Moral_ (1887). With these tendencies the Christian
Socialists could have no sympathy, and the consequence was that when in
March 1881 a political organization of anti-Semitism was attempted, two
rival bodies were created, the "Deutsche Volksverein," under the
Conservative auspices of Herr Liebermann von Sonnenberg (b. 1848) and
Herr Forster, and the "Sociale Reichsverein," led by the racial and
Radical anti-Semites, Ernst Henrici (b. 1854) and Otto Bockel (b. 1859).
In 1886, at an anti-Semitic congress held at Cassel a reunion was
effected under the name of the "Deutsche antisemitische Verein," but
this only lasted three years. In June 1889 the anti-Semitic Christian
Socialists under Stocker again seceded.

Meanwhile racial anti-Semitism with its wholesale radical proposals had
been making considerable progress among the ignorant lower classes. It
adapted itself better to popular passions and inherited prejudice than
the more academic conceptions of the Christian Socialists. The latter,
too, were largely Conservatives, and their points of contact with the
proletariat were at best artificial. Among the Hessian peasantry the
inflammatory appeals of Bockel secured many adherents. This paved the
way for a new anti-Semitic leader, Herrmann Ahlwardt (b. 1846), who,
towards the end of the 'eighties, eclipsed all the other anti-Semites by
the sensationalism and violence with which he prosecuted the campaign.
Ahlwardt was a person of evil notoriety. He was loaded with debt. In the
Manche decoration scandals it was proved that he had acted first as a
corrupt intermediary and afterwards as the betrayer of his confederates.
His anti-Semitism was adopted originally as a means of _chantage_, and
it was only when it failed to yield profit in this form that he came out
boldly as an agitator. The wildness, unscrupulousness, and
full-bloodedness of his propaganda enchanted the mob, and he bid fair to
become a powerful democratic leader. His pamphlets, full of scandalous
revelations of alleged malpractices of eminent Jews, were read with
avidity. No fewer than ten of them were written and published during
1892. Over and over again he was prosecuted for libel and convicted, but
this seemed only to strengthen his influence with his followers. The
Roman Catholic clergy and newspapers helped to inflame the popular
passions. The result was that anti-Jewish riots broke out. At Neustettin
the Jewish synagogue was burnt, and at Xanten the Blood Accusation was
revived, and a Jewish butcher was tried on the ancient charge of
murdering a Christian child for ritual purposes. The man was, of course,
acquitted, but the symptoms it revealed of reviving medievalism strongly
stirred the liberal and cultured mind of Germany. All protest, however,
seemed powerless, and the barbarian movement appeared destined to carry
everything before it.

German politics at this moment were in a very intricate state. Prince
Bismarck had retired, and Count Caprivi, with a programme of general
conciliation based on Liberal principles, was in power. Alarmed by the
non-renewal of the anti-Socialist law, and by the conclusion of
commercial treaties which made great concessions to German industry, the
landed gentry and the Conservative party became alienated from the new
chancellor. In January 1892 the split was completed by the withdrawal by
the government of the Primary Education bill, which had been designed to
place primary instruction on a religious basis. The Conservatives saw
their opportunity of posing as the party of Christianity against the
Liberals and Socialists, who had wrecked the bill, and they began to
look towards Ahlwardt as a possible ally. He had the advantages over
Stocker that he was not a Socialist, and that he was prepared to lead
his apparently large following to assist the agrarian movement and
weaken the Social Democrats. The intrigue gradually came to light.
Towards the end of the year Herr Liebknecht, the Social Democratic
leader, denounced the Conservatives to the Reichstag as being concerned
"in using the anti-Semitic movement as a bastard edition of Socialism
for the use of stupid people." (1st December). Two days later the charge
was confirmed. At a meeting of the party held on the 3rd of December the
following plank was added to the Conservative programme: "We combat the
oppressive and disintegrating Jewish influence on our national life; we
demand for our Christian people a Christian magistracy and Christian
teachers for Christian pupils; we repudiate the excesses of
anti-Semitism." In pursuance of the resolution Ahlwardt was returned to
the Reichstag at a by-election by the Conservative district of
Arnswalde-Friedeberg. The coalition was, however, not yet completed. The
intransigeant Conservatives, led by Baron von Hammerstein, the editor of
the _Kreuz-Zeitung_, justly felt that the concluding sentence of the
resolution of the 3rd of December repudiating "the excesses of
anti-Semitism" was calculated to hinder a full and loyal co-operation
between the two parties. Accordingly on the 9th of December another
meeting of the party was summoned. Twelve hundred members met at the
Tivoli Hall in Berlin, and with only seven dissentients solemnly
expunged the offending sentence from the resolution. The history of
political parties may be searched in vain for a parallel to this
discreditable transaction.

The capture of the Conservative party proved the high-water mark of
German anti-Semitism. From that moment the tide began to recede. All
that was best in German national life was scandalized by the cynical
tactics of the Conservatives. The emperor, strong Christian though he
was, was shocked at the idea of serving Christianity by a compact with
unscrupulous demagogues and ignorant fanatics. Prince Bismarck growled
out a stinging sarcasm from his retreat at Friedrichsruh. Even Stocker
raised his voice in protest against the "Ahlwardtismus" and
"Bockelianismus," and called upon his Conservative colleagues to
distinguish between "respectable and disreputable anti-Semitism." As for
the Liberals and Socialists, they filled the air with bitter laughter,
and declared from the housetops that the stupid party had at last been
overwhelmed by its own stupidity. The Conservatives began to suspect
that they had made a false step, and they were confirmed in this belief
by the conduct of their new ally in the Reichstag. His debut in
parliament was the signal for a succession of disgraceful scenes. His
whole campaign of calumny was transferred to the floor of the house, and
for some weeks the Reichstag discussed little else than his so-called
revelations. The Conservatives listened to his wild charges in
uncomfortable silence, and refused to support him. Stocker opposed him
in a violent speech. The Radicals and Socialists, taking an accurate
measure of the shallow vanity of the man, adopted the policy of giving
him "enough rope." Shortly after his election he was condemned to five
months' imprisonment for libel, and he would have been arrested but for
the interposition of the Socialist party, including five Jews, who
claimed for him the immunities of a member of parliament. When he moved
for a commission to inquire into his revelations, it was again the
Socialist party which supported him, with the result that all his
charges, without exception, were found to be absolutely baseless.
Ahlwardt was covered with ridicule, and when in May the Reichstag was
dissolved, he was marched off to prison to undergo the sentence for
libel from which his parliamentary privilege had up to that moment
protected him.

His hold on the anti-Semitic populace was, however, not diminished. On
the contrary, the action of the Conservatives at the Tivoli congress
could not be at once eradicated from the minds of the Conservative
voters, and when the electoral campaign began it was found impossible to
explain to them that the party leaders had changed their minds. The
result was that Ahlwardt, although in prison, was elected by two
constituencies. At Arnswalde-Friedeberg he was returned in the teeth of
the opposition of the official Conservatives, and at Neustettin he
defeated no less a person than his anti-Semitic opponent Stocker.
Fifteen other anti-Semites, all of the Ahlwardtian school, were elected.
This, however, represented little in the way of political influence; for
henceforth the party had to stand alone as one of the many minor
factions in the Reichstag, avoided by all the great parties, and too
weak to exercise any influence on the main course of affairs.

During the subsequent seven years it became more and more discredited.
The financial scandals connected with Forster's attempt to found a
Christian Socialist colony in Paraguay, the conviction of Baron von
Hammerstein, the anti-Semitic Conservative leader, for forgery and
swindling (1895-1896), and several minor scandals of the same unsavoury
character, covered the party with the very obloquy which it had
attempted to attach to the Jews. At the same time the Christian
Socialists who had remained with the Conservative party also suffered.
After the elections of 1893, Stocker was dismissed from his post of
court preacher, and publicly reprimanded for speaking familiarly of the
empress. Two years later the Christian Socialist, Pastor Neumann,
observing the tendency of the Conservatives to coalesce with the
moderate Liberals in antagonism to Social Democracy, declared against
the Conservative party. The following year the emperor publicly
condemned Christian Socialism and the "political pastors," and Stocker
was expelled from the Conservative party for refusing to modify the
socialistic propanganda of his organ, _Das Volk_. His fall was completed
by a quarrel with the Evangelical Social Union. He left the Union and
appealed to the Lutheran clergy to found a new church social
organization, but met with no response. Another blow to anti-Semitism
came from the Roman Catholics. They had become alarmed by the unbridled
violence of the Ahlwardtians, and when in 1894 Forster declared in an
address to the German anti-Semitic Union that anarchical outrages like
the murder of President Carnot were as much due to the "Anarchismus von
oben" as the "Anarchismus von unten," the Ultramontane _Germania_
publicly washed its hands of the Jew-baiters (1st of July 1894). Thus
gradually German anti-Semitism became stripped of every adventitious
alliance; and at the general election of 1898 it only managed to return
twelve members to the Reichstag, and in 1903 its party strength fell to
nine. A remarkable revival in its fortunes, however, took place between
1905 and 1907. Identifying itself with the extreme Chauvinists and
Anglophobes it profited by the anti-national errors of the Clericals and
Socialists, and won no fewer than twelve by-elections. At the general
election of 1907 its jingoism and aggressive Protestantism were rewarded
with twenty-five seats. It is clear, however, from the figures of the
second ballots that these successes owed far more to the tendencies of
the party in the field of general politics than to its anti-Semitism.
Indeed the specifically anti-Semitic movement has shown little activity
since 1893.

The causes of the decline of German anti-Semitism are not difficult to
determine. While it remained a theory of nationality and a fad of the
metaphysicians, it made considerable noise in the world, but without
exercising much practical influence. When it attempted to play an active
part in politics it became submerged by the ignorant and superstitious
voters, who could not understand its scientific justification, but who
were quite ready to declaim and riot against the Jew bogey. It thus
became a sort of Jacquerie which, being exploited by unscrupulous
demagogues, soon alienated all its respectable elements. Its moments of
real importance have been due not to inherent strength but to the uses
made of it by other political parties for their own purposes. These
coalitions are no longer of perilous significance so far as the Jews are
concerned, chiefly because, in face of the menace of democratic
socialism and its unholy alliance with the Roman Catholic Centrum, all
supporters of the present organization of society have found it
necessary to sink their differences. The new social struggle has
eclipsed the racial theory of nationality. The Social Democrat became
the enemy, and the new reaction counted on the support of the rich Jews
and the strongly individualist Jewish middle class to assist it in
preserving the existing social structure. Hence in Prince Billow's
"Bloc" (1908) anti-Semites figured side by side with Judeophil Radicals.


  Russia.

More serious have been the effects of German anti-Semitic teachings on
the political and social life of the countries adjacent to the
empire--Russia, Austria and France. In Russia these effects were first
seriously felt owing to the fury of autocratic reaction to which the
tragic death of the tsar Alexander II. gave rise. This, however, like
the Strousberg _Krach_ in Germany, was only the proximate cause of the
outbreak. There were other elements which had created a _milieu_
peculiarly favourable to the transplantation of the German craze. In the
first place the medieval anti-Semitism was still an integral part of the
polity of the empire. The Jews were cooped up in one huge ghetto in the
western provinces, "marked out to all their fellow-countrymen as aliens,
and a pariah caste set apart for special and degrading treatment"
(_Persecution of the Jews in Russia_, 1891, p.5). In the next place,
owing to the emancipation of the serfs which had half ruined the
landowners, while creating a free but moneyless peasantry, the Jews, who
could be neither nobles nor peasants, had found a vocation as
money-lenders and as middlemen between the grain producers, and the
grain consumers and exporters. There is no evidence that this function
was performed, as a rule, in an exorbitant or oppressive way. On the
contrary, the fall in the value of cereals on all the provincial
markets, after the riots of 1881, shows that the Jewish competition had
previously assured full prices to the farmers (Schwabacher,
_Denkschrift_, 1882, p. 27). Nevertheless, the Jewish activity or
"exploitation," as it was called, was resented, and the ill-feeling it
caused among landowners and farmers was shared by non-Jewish middlemen
and merchants who had thereby been compelled to be satisfied with small
profits. Still there was but little thought of seeking a remedy in an
organized anti-Jewish movement. On the contrary, the abnormal situation
aggravated by the disappointments and depression caused by the Turkish
war, had stimulated a widespread demand for constitutional changes which
would enable the people to adopt a state-machinery more exactly suited
to their needs. Among the peasantry this demand was promoted and
fomented by the Nihilists, and among the landowners it was largely
adopted as a means of checking what threatened to become a new Jacquerie
(Walcker, _Gegertwartige Lage Russlands_, 1873; _Innere Krisis
Russlands_, 1876). The tsar, Alexander II., strongly sympathized with
this movement, and on the advice of Count Loris-Melikov and the council
of ministers a rudimentary scheme of parliamentary government had been
drafted and actually signed when the emperor was assassinated. Meanwhile
a nationalist and reactionary agitation, originating like its German
analogue in the Hegelianism of a section of the lettered public, had
manifested itself in Moscow. After some early vicissitudes, it had been
organized, under the auspices of Alexis Kireiev, Chomyakov, Aksakov and
Kochelev, into the Slavophil party, with a Romanticist programme of
reforms based on the old traditions of the pre-Petrine epoch. This party
gave a great impetus to Slav nationalism. Its final possibilities were
sanguinarily illustrated by Muraviev's campaign in Poland in 1863, and
in the war against Turkey in 1877, which was exclusively its handiwork
(Statement by General Kireiev: Schutz, _Das heutige Russland_, p. 104).
After the assassination of Alexander II. the Slavophil teaching, as
expounded by Ignatiev and Pobedonostsev, became paramount in the
government, and the new tsar was persuaded to cancel the constitutional
project of his father. The more liberal views of a section of the
Slavophils under Aksakov, who had been in favour of representative
institutions on traditional lines, were displaced by the reactionary
system of Pobedonostsev, who took his stand on absolutism, orthodoxy and
the racial unity of the Russian people. This was the situation on the
eve of Easter 1881. The hardening nationalism above, the increasing
discontent below, the economic activity of the Hebrew heretics and
aliens, and the echoes of anti-Semitism from over the western border
were combining for an explosion.

A scuffle in a tavern at Elisabethgrad in Kherson sufficed to ignite
this combustible material. The scuffle grew into a riot, the tavern was
sacked, and the drunken mob, hounded on by agitators who declared that
the Jews were using Christian blood for the manufacture of their Easter
bread, attacked and looted the Jewish quarter. The outbreak spread
rapidly. On the 7th of May there was a similar riot at Smiela, near
Cherkasy, and the following day there was a violent outbreak at Kiev,
which left 2000 Jews homeless. Within a few weeks the whole of western
Russia, from the Black Sea to the Baltic, was smoking with the ruins of
Jewish homes. Scores of Jewish women were dishonoured, hundreds of men,
women and children were slaughtered, and tens of thousands were reduced
to beggary and left without a shelter. Murderous riots or incendiary
outrages took place in no fewer than 167 towns and villages, including
Warsaw, Odessa and Kiev. Europe had witnessed no such scenes of mob
savagery since the Black Death massacres in the 14th century. As the
facts gradually filtered through to the western capitals they caused a
thrill of horror everywhere. An indignation meeting held at the Mansion
House in London, under the presidency of the lord mayor, was the signal
for a long series of popular demonstrations condemning the persecutions,
held in most of the chief cities of England and the continent.

Except as stimulated by the Judeophobe revival in Germany the Russian
outbreak in its earlier forms does not belong specifically to modern
anti-Semitism. It was essentially a medieval uprising animated by the
religious fanaticism, gross superstition and predatory instincts of a
people still in the medieval stage of their development. This is proved
by the fact that, although the Russian peasant was supposed to be a
victim of unbearable Jewish "exploitation," he was not moved to riot
until he had been brutalized by drink and excited by the old fable of
the Blood Accusation. The modern anti-Semitic element came from above
and followed closely on the heels of the riots. It has been freely
charged against the Russian government that it promoted the riots in
1881 in order to distract popular attention from the Nihilist propaganda
and from the political disappointments involved in the cancellation of
the previous tsar's constitutional project (Lazare, _L'Antisemitisme_,
p. 211). This seems to be true of General Ignatiev, then minister of the
interior, and the secret police (Semenoff, _The Russian Government and
the Massacres_, pp. 17, 32, 241). It is certain that the local
authorities, both civil and military, favoured the outbreak, and took no
steps to suppress it, and that the feudal bureaucracy who had just
escaped a great danger were not sorry to see the discontented populace
venting their passions on the Jews. In the higher circles of the
government, however, other views prevailed. The tsar himself was at
first persuaded that the riots were the work of Nihilists, and he
publicly promised his protection to the Jews. On the other hand, his
ministers, ardent Slavophils, thought they recognized in the outbreak an
endorsement of the nationalist teaching of which they were the apostles,
and, while reprobating the acts of violence, came to the conclusion that
the most reasonable solution was to aggravate the legal disabilities of
the persecuted aliens and heretics. To this view the tsar was won over,
partly by the clamorous indignation of western Europe, which had wounded
his national _amour propre_ to the quick, and partly by the strongly
partisan report of a commission appointed to inquire, not into the
administrative complaisance which had allowed riot to run loose over the
western and southern provinces, but into the "exploitation" alleged
against the Jews, the reasons why "the former laws limiting the rights
of the Jews" had been mitigated, and how these laws could be altered so
as "to stop the pernicious conduct of the Jews" (Rescript of the 3rd of
September 1881). The result of this report was the drafting of a
"Temporary Order concerning the Jews" by the minister of the interior,
which received the assent of the tsar on the 3rd of May 1882. This
order, which was so little temporary that it has not yet been repealed,
had the effect of creating a number of fresh ghettos within the pale of
Jewish settlement. The Jews were cooped up within the towns, and their
rural interests were arbitrarily confiscated. The doubtful incidence of
the order gave rise to a number of judgments of the senate, by which all
its persecuting possibilities were brought out, with the result that the
activities of the Jews were completely paralysed, and they became a prey
to unparalleled cruelty. As the gruesome effect of this legislation
became known, a fresh outburst of horror and indignation swelled up from
western Europe. It proved powerless. Count Ignatiev was dismissed owing
to the protests of high-placed Russians, who were disgusted by the new
_Kulturkampf_, but his work remained, and, under the influence of
Pobedonostsev, the procurator of the Holy Synod, the policy of the "May
Laws," as they were significantly called, was applied to every aspect of
Jewish life with pitiless rigour. The temper of the tsar may be judged
by the fact that when an appeal for mercy from an illustrious personage
in England was conveyed to him at Fredensborg through the gracious
medium of the tsaritsa, he angrily exclaimed within the hearing of an
Englishman in the ante-room who was the bearer of the message, "Never
let me hear you mention the name of that people again!"

The Russian May Laws are the most conspicuous legislative monument
achieved by modern anti-Semitism. It is true that they re-enacted
regulations which resemble the oppressive statutes introduced into
Poland through the influence of the Jesuits in the 16th century
(Sternberg, _Gesch. d. Juden in Polen_, pp. 141 et seq.), but their
Orthodox authors were as little conscious of this irony of history as
they were of the Teutonic origins of the whole Slavophil movement. These
laws are an experimental application of the political principles
extracted by Marr and his German disciples from the metaphysics of
Hegel, and as such they afford a valuable means of testing the practical
operation of modern anti-Semitism. Their result was a widespread
commercial depression which was felt all over the empire. Even before
the May Laws were definitely promulgated the passport registers showed
that the anti-Semitic movement had driven 67,900 Jews across the
frontier, and it was estimated that they had taken with them 13,000,000
roubles, representing a minimum loss of 60,000,000 roubles to the annual
turnover of the country's trade. Towards the end of 1882 it was
calculated that the agitation had cost Russia as much as the whole
Turkish war of 1877. Trade was everywhere paralysed. The enormous
increase of bankruptcies, the transfer of investments to foreign funds,
the consequent fall in the value of the rouble and the prices of Russian
stocks, the suspension of farming operations owing to advances on
growing crops being no longer available, the rise in the prices of the
necessaries of life, and lastly, the appearance of famine, filled half
the empire with gloom. Banks closed their doors, and the great
provincial fairs proved failures. When it was proposed to expel the Jews
from Moscow there was a loud outcry all over the sacred city, and even
the Orthodox merchants, realizing that the measure would ruin their
flourishing trade with the south and west, petitioned against it. The
Moscow Exhibition proved a failure. Nevertheless the government
persisted with its harsh policy, and Jewish refugees streamed by tens of
thousands across the western frontier to seek an asylum in other lands.
In 1891 the alarm caused by this emigration led to further protests from
abroad. The citizens of London again assembled at Guildhall, and
addressed a petition to the tsar on behalf of his Hebrew subjects. It
was handed back to the lord mayor by the Russian ambassador, with a curt
intimation that the emperor declined to receive it. At the same time
orders were defiantly given that the May Laws should be strictly
enforced. Meanwhile the Russian minister of finance was at his wits'
ends for money. Negotiations for a large loan had been entered upon with
the house of Rothschild, and a preliminary contract had been signed,
when, at the instance of the London firm, M. Wyshnigradski, the finance
minister, was informed that unless the persecutions of the Jews were
stopped the great banking-house would be compelled to withdraw from the
operation. Deeply mortified by this attempt to deal with him _de
puissance a puissance_, the tsar peremptorily broke off the
negotiations, and ordered that overtures should be made to a non-Jewish
French syndicate. In this way anti-Semitism, which had already so
profoundly influenced the domestic politics of Europe, set its mark on
the international relations of the powers, for it was the urgent need of
the Russian treasury quite as much as the termination of Prince
Bismarck's secret treaty of mutual neutrality which brought about the
Franco-Russian alliance (Daudet, _Hist. Dipl. de l'Alliance
Franco-Russe_, pp. 259 et. seq.).

For nearly three years more the persecutions continued. Elated by the
success of his crusade against the Jews, Pobedonostsev extended his
persecuting policy to other non-Orthodox denominations. The legislation
against the Protestant Stundists became almost as unbearable as that
imposed on the Jews. In the report of the Holy Synod, presented to the
tsar towards the end of 1893, the procurator called for repressive
measures against Roman Catholics, Moslems and Buddhists, and denounced
the rationalist tendency of the whole system of secular education in the
empire (_Neue Freie Presse_, 31st January 1894). A year later, however,
the tsar died, and his successor, without repealing any of the
persecuting laws, let it gradually be understood that their rigorous
application might be mitigated. The country was tired and exhausted by
the persecution, and the tolerant hints which came from high quarters
were acted upon with significant alacrity.

A new era of conflict dawned with the great constitutional struggle
towards the end of the century. The conditions, however, were very
different from those which prevailed in the 'eighties. The May Laws had
avenged themselves with singular fitness. By confining the Jews to the
towns at the very moment that Count Witte's policy of protection was
creating an enormous industrial proletariat they placed at the disposal
of the disaffected masses an ally powerful in numbers and intelligence,
and especially in its bitter sense of wrong, its reckless despair and
its cosmopolitan outlook and connexions. As early as 1885 the Jewish
workmen assisted by Jewish university students led the way in the
formation of trades unions. They also became the _colporteurs_ of
western European socialism, and they played an important part in the
organization of the Russian Social Democratic Federation which their
"Arbeiter Bund" joined in 1898 with no fewer than 30,000 members. The
Jewish element in the new democratic movement excited the resentment of
the government, and under the minister of the interior, M. Sipiaguine,
the persecuting laws were once more rigorously enforced. The "Bund"
replied in 1901 by proclaiming itself frankly political and
revolutionary, and at once took a leading place in the revolutionary
movement. The reactionaries were not slow to profit by this
circumstance. With the support of M. Plehve, the new minister of the
interior, and the whole of the bureaucratic class they denounced the
revolution as a Jewish conspiracy, engineered for exclusively Jewish
purposes and designed to establish a Jewish domination over the Russian
people. The government and even the intimates of the tsar became
persuaded that only by the terrorization of the Jews could the
revolutionary movement be effectually dealt with. For this purpose a
so-called League of True Russians was formed. Under high patronage, and
with the assistance of the secret police and a large number of the local
authorities, it set itself to stir up the populace, chiefly the fanatics
and the hooligans, against the Jews. Incendiary proclamations were
prepared and printed in the ministry of the interior itself, and were
circulated by the provincial governors and the police (Prince Urussov's
speech in the Duma, June 8 (21), 1906). The result was another series of
massacres which began at Kishinev in 1903 and culminated in wholesale
butchery at Odessa and Bielostok in October 1905. An attempt was made to
picture and excuse these outbreaks as a national upheaval against the
Jew-made revolution but it failed. They only embittered the
revolutionists and "intellectuals" throughout the country, and won for
them a great deal of outspoken sympathy abroad. The artificiality of the
anti-Jewish outbreak was illustrated by the first Duma elections.
Thirteen Jews were elected and every constituency which had been the
scene of a _pogrom_ returned a liberal member. Unfortunately the Jews
benefited little by the new parliamentary constitution. The privileges
of voting for members of the Duma and of sitting in the new assembly
were granted them, but all their civil and religious disabilities were
maintained. Both the first and the second Duma proposed to emancipate
them, but they were dissolved before any action could be taken. By the
modification of the electoral law under which the third Duma was elected
the voting power of the Jews was diminished and further restrictions
were imposed upon them through official intimidation during the
elections. The result was that only two Jews were elected, while the
reactionary tendency of the new electorate virtually removed the
question of their emancipation from the field of practical politics.


  Rumania.

The only other country in Europe in which a legalized anti-Semitism
exists is Rumania. The conditions are very similar to those which obtain
in Russia, with the important difference that Rumania is a
constitutional country, and that the Jewish persecutions are the work of
the elected deputies of the nation. Like the _Bourgeois Gentilhomme_ who
wrote prose all his life without knowing it, the Rumanians practised the
nationalist doctrines of the Hegelian anti-Semites unconsciously long
before they were formulated in Germany. In the old days of Turkish
domination the lot of the Rumanian Jews was not conspicuously unhappy.
It was only when the nation began to be emancipated, and the struggle in
the East assumed the form of a crusade against Islam that the Jews were
persecuted. Rumanian politicians preached a nationalism limited
exclusively to indigenous Christians, and they were strongly supported
by all who felt the commercial competition of the Jews. Thus, although
the Jews had been settled in the land for many centuries, they were by
law declared aliens. This was done in defiance of the treaty of Paris of
1856 and the convention of 1858 which declared all Rumans to be equal
before the law. Under the influence of this distinction the Jews became
persecuted, and sanguinary riots were of frequent occurrence. The
realization of a Jewish question led to legislation imposing
disabilities on the Jews. In 1878 the congress of Berlin agreed to
recognize the independence of Rumania on condition that all religious
disabilities were removed. Rumania agreed to this condition, but
ultimately persuaded the powers to allow her to carry out the
emancipation of the Jews gradually. Persecutions, however, continued,
and in 1902 they led to a great exodus of Jews. The United States
addressed a strong remonstrance to the Rumanian government, but the
condition of the Jews was in no way improved. Their emancipation was in
1908 as far off as ever, and their disabilities heavier than those of
their brethren in Russia. For this state of things the example of the
anti-Semites in Germany, Russia, Austria and France was largely to
blame, since it had justified the intolerance of the Rumans. Owing,
also, to the fact that of late years Rumania had become a sort of
_annexe_ of the Triple Alliance, it was found impossible to induce the
signatories of the treaty of Berlin to take action to compel the state
to fulfil its obligations under that treaty.


  Austria-Hungary.

In Austria-Hungary the anti-Semitic impulses came almost simultaneously
from the North and East. Already in the 'seventies the doctrinaire
anti-Semitism of Berlin had found an echo in Budapest. Two members of
the diet, Victor Istoczy and Geza Onody, together with a publicist named
Georg Marczianyi, busied themselves in making known the doctrine of Marr
in Hungary. Marczianyi, who translated the German Judeophobe pamphlets
into Magyar, and the Magyar works of Onody into German, was the chief
medium between the northern and southern schools. In 1880 Istoczy tried
to establish a "Nichtjuden Bund" in Hungary, with statutes literally
translated from those of the German anti-Semitic league. The movement,
however, made no progress, owing to the stalwart Liberalism of the
predominant political parties, and of the national principles inherited
from the revolution of 1848. The large part played by the Jews in that
struggle, and the fruitful patriotism with which they had worked for the
political and economic progress of the country, had created, too, a
strong claim on the gratitude of the best elements in the nation.
Nevertheless, among the ultramontane clergy, the higher aristocracy, the
ill-paid minor officials, and the ignorant peasantry, the seeds of a
tacit anti-Semitism were latent. It was probably the aversion of the
nobility from anything in the nature of a demagogic agitation which for
a time prevented these seeds from germinating. The news of the uprising
in Russia and the appearance of Jewish refugees on the frontier, had the
effect of giving a certain prominence to the agitation of Istoczy and
Onody and of exciting the rural communities, but it did not succeed in
impressing the public with the pseudo-scientific doctrines of the new
anti-Semitism. It was not until the agitators resorted to the Blood
Accusation--that never-failing decoy of obscurantism and
superstition--that Hungary took a definite place in the anti-Semitic
movement. The outbreak was short and fortunately bloodless, but while it
lasted its scandals shocked the whole of Europe.

Dr August Rohling, professor of Hebrew at the university of Prague, a
Roman Catholic theologian of high position but dubious learning, had for
some years assisted the Hungarian anti-Semites with _rechauffes_ of
Eisenmenger's _Enidecktes Judenthum_ (Frankfurt a/M. 1700). In 1881 he
made a solemn deposition before the Supreme Court accusing the Jews of
being bound by their law to work the moral and physical ruin of
non-Jews. He followed this up with an offer to depose on oath that the
murder of Christians for ritual purposes was a doctrine secretly taught
among Jews. Professor Delitzsch and other eminent Hebraists, both
Christian and Jewish, exposed and denounced the ignorance and
malevolence of Rohling, but were unable to stem the mischief he was
causing. In April 1882 a Christian girl named Esther Sobymossi was
missed from the Hungarian village of Tisza Eszlar, where a small
community of Jews were settled. The rumour got abroad that she had been
kidnapped and murdered by the Jews, but it remained the burden of idle
gossip, and gave rise to neither judicial complaint nor public
disorders. At this moment the question of the Bosnian Pacification
credits was before the diet. The unpopularity of the task assumed by
Austria-Hungary, under the treaty of Berlin, which was calculated to
strengthen the disaffected Croat element in the empire, had reduced the
government majority to very small proportions, and all the reactionary
factions in the country were accordingly in arms. The government was
violently and unscrupulously attacked on all sides. On the 23rd of May
there was a debate in the diet when M. Onody, in an incendiary harangue,
told the story of the missing girl at Tisza Eszlar, and accused
ministers of criminal indulgence to races alien to the national spirit.
In the then excited state of the public mind on the Croat question, the
manoeuvre was adroitly conceived. The government fell into the trap, and
treated the story with lofty disdain. Thereupon the anti-Semites set to
work on the case, and M. Joseph Bary, the magistrate at Nyiregyhaza, and
a noted anti-Semite, was induced to go to Tisza Eszlar and institute an
inquiry. All the anti-liberal elements in the country now became banded
together in this effort to discredit the liberal government, and for the
first time the Hungarian anti-Semites found themselves at the head of a
powerful party. Fifteen Jews were arrested and thrown into prison. No
pains were spared in preparing the case for trial. Perjury and even
forgery were freely resorted to. The son of one of the accused, a boy of
fourteen, was taken into custody by the police, and by threats and
cajoleries prevailed upon to give evidence for the prosecution. He was
elaborately coached for the terrible _role_ he was to play. The trial
opened at Nyiregyhaza on the 19th of June, and lasted till the 3rd of
August. It was one of the most dramatic _causes celebres_ of the
century. Under the brilliant cross-examination of the advocates for the
defence the whole of the shocking conspiracy was gradually exposed. The
public prosecutor thereupon withdrew from the case, and the four
judges--the chief of whom held strong anti-Semitic opinions--unanimously
acquitted all the prisoners. The case proved the death-blow of Hungarian
anti-Semitism. Although another phase of the Jewish question, which will
be referred to presently, had still to occupy the public mind, the shame
brought on the nation by the Tisza Eszlar conspiracy effectually
prevented the anti-Semites from raising their voices with any effect
again.

Meanwhile a more formidable and complicated outburst was preparing in
Austria itself. Here the lines of the German agitation were closely
followed, but with far more dramatic results. It was exclusively
political--that is to say, it appealed to anti-Jewish prejudices for
party purposes while it sought to rehabilitate them on a
pseudo-scientific basis, racial and economic. At first it was confined
to sporadic pamphleteers. By their side there gradually grew up a school
of Christian Socialists, recruited from the ultra-Clericals, for the
study and application of the doctrines preached at Mainz by Archbishop
Ketteler. This constituted a complete Austrian analogue to the
Evangelical-Socialist movement started in Germany by Herr Stocker. For
some years the two movements remained distinct, but signs of
approximation were early visible. Thus one of the first complaints of
the anti-Semites was that the Jews were becoming masters of the soil.
This found an echo in the agrarian principles of the Christian
Socialists, as expounded by Rudolph Meyer, in which individualism in
landed property was admitted on the condition that the landowners were
"the families of the nation" and not "cosmopolitan financiers." A
further indication of anti-Semitism is found in a speech delivered in
1878 by Prince Alois von Liechtenstein (b. 1846), the most prominent
disciple of Rudolph Meyer, who denounced the national debt as a tribute
paid by the state to cosmopolitan rentiers (Nitti, _Catholic Socialism_,
pp. 200, 201, 211, 216). The growing disorder in parliament, due to the
bitter struggle between the German and Czech parties, served to bring
anti-Semitism into the field of practical politics. Since 1867 the
German Liberals had been in power. They had made enemies of the
Clericals by tampering with the concordat, and they had split up their
own party by the federalist policy adopted by Count Taaffe. The Radical
secessionists in their turn found it difficult to agree, and an
ultra-national German wing formed itself into a separate party under the
leadership of Ritter von Schonerer (b. 1842), a Radical nationalist of
the most violent type. In 1882 two anti-Semitic leagues had been founded
in Vienna, and to these the Radical nationalists now appealed for
support. The growing importance of the party led the premier, Count
Taaffe, to angle for the support of the Clericals by accepting a portion
of the Christian Socialist programme. The hostility this excited in the
liberal press, largely written by Jews, served to bring the feudal
Christian Socialists and Radical anti-Semites together. In 1891 these
strangely assorted factions became consolidated, and during the
elections of that year Prince Liechtenstein came forward as an
anti-Semitic candidate and the acknowledged leader of the party. The
elections resulted in the return of fifteen anti-Semites to the
Reichsrath, chiefly from Vienna.

Although Prince Liechtenstein and the bulk of the Christian Socialists
had joined the anti-Semites with the support of the Clerical organ, the
_Vaterland_, the Clerical party as a whole still held aloof from the
Jew-baiters. The events of 1892-1895 put an end to their hesitation. The
Hungarian government, in compliance with long-standing pledges to the
liberal party, introduced into the diet a series of ecclesiastical
reform bills providing for civil marriage, freedom of worship, and the
legal recognition of Judasim on an equality with other denominations.
These proposals, which synchronized with Ahlwardt's turbulent agitation
in Germany, gave a great impulse to anti-Semitism and served to drive
into its ranks a large number of Clericals. The agitation was taken in
hand by the Roman Catholic clergy, and the pulpits resounded with
denunciations of the Jews. One clergyman, Father Deckert, was prosecuted
for preaching the Blood Accusation and convicted (1894). Cardinal
Schlauch, bishop of Grosswardein, declared in the Hungarian House of
Magnates that the Liberals were in league with "cosmopolitans" for the
ruin of the country. In October 1894 the magnates adopted two of the
ecclesiastical bills with amendments, but threw out the Jewish bill by a
majority of six. The crown sided with the magnates, and the ministry
resigned, although it had a majority in the Lower House. An effort was
made to form a Clerical cabinet, but it failed. Baron Banffy was then
entrusted with the construction of a fresh Liberal ministry. The
announcement that he would persist with the ecclesiastical bills lashed
the Clericals and anti-Semites into a fury, and the agitation broke out
afresh. The pope addressed a letter to Count Zichy encouraging the
magnates to resist, and once more two of the bills were amended, and the
third rejected. The papal nuncio, Mgr. Agliardi, now thought proper to
pay a visit to Budapest, where he allowed himself to be interviewed on
the crisis. This interference in the domestic concerns of Hungary was
deeply resented by the Liberals, and Baron Banffy requested Count
Kalnoky, the imperial minister of foreign affairs, to protest against it
at the Vatican. Count Kalnoky refused and tendered his resignation to
the emperor. Clerical sympathies were predominant in Vienna, and the
emperor was induced for a moment to decline the count's resignation. It
soon became clear, however, that the Hungarians were resolved to see the
crisis out, and that in the end Vienna would be compelled to give way.
The emperor accordingly retraced his steps, Count Kalnoky's resignation
was accepted, the papal nuncio was recalled, a batch of new magnates
were created, and the Hungarian ecclesiastical bills passed.

Simultaneously with this crisis another startling phase of the
anti-Semitic drama was being enacted in Vienna itself. Encouraged by the
support of the Clericals the anti-Semites resolved to make an effort to
carry the Vienna municipal elections. So far the alliance of the
Clericals with the anti-Semites had been unofficial, but on the eve of
the elections (January 1895) the pope, influenced partly by the
Hungarian crisis and partly by an idea of Cardinal Rampolla that the
best antidote to democratic socialism would be a clerically controlled
fusion of the Christian Socialists and anti-Semites, sent his blessing
to Prince Liechtenstein and his followers. This action alarmed the
government and a considerable body of the higher episcopate, who felt
assured that any permanent encouragement given to the anti-Semites would
in the end strengthen the parties of sedition and disorder. Cardinal
Schonborn was despatched in haste to Rome to expostulate with the
pontiff, and his representations were strongly supported by the French
and Belgian bishops. The mischief was however, done, and although the
pope sent a verbal message to Prince Liechtenstein excluding the
anti-Semites from his blessing, the elections resulted in a great
triumph for the Jew-haters. The municipal council was immediately
dissolved by the government, and new elections were ordered, but these
only strengthened the position of the anti-Semites, who carried 92 seats
out of a total of 138. A cabinet crisis followed, and the premiership
was entrusted to the Statthalter of Galicia, Count Badeni, who assumed
office with a pledge of war to the knife against anti-Semitism. In
October the new municipal council elected as burgomaster of Vienna Dr
Karl Lueger (b. 1844), a vehement anti-Semite, who had displaced Prince
Liechtenstein as leader of the party. The emperor declined to sanction
the election, but the council repeated it in face of the imperial
displeasure. Once more a dissolution was ordered, and for three months
the city was governed by administrative commissioners. In February 1896
elections were again held, and the anti-Semites were returned with an
increased majority. The emperor then capitulated, and after a temporary
arrangement, by which for one year Dr Lueger acted as vice-burgomaster
and handed over the burgomastership to an inoffensive nominee, permitted
the municipal council to have its way. The growing anarchy in parliament
at this moment served still further to strengthen the anti-Semites, and
their conquest of Vienna was speedily followed by a not less striking
conquest of the Landtag of Lower Austria (November 1896).

Since then a reaction of sanity has slowly but surely asserted itself.
In 1908 the anti-Semites had governed Vienna twelve years, and, although
they had accomplished much mischief, the millennium of which they were
supposed to be the heralds had not dawned. On the contrary, the
commercial interests of the city had suffered and the rates had been
enormously increased (_Neue Freie Presse_, 29th March 1901), while the
predatory hopes which secured them office had only been realized on a
small and select scale. The spectacle of a Clerico-anti-Semitic tammany
in Vienna had strengthened the resistance of the better elements in the
country. Time had also shown that Christian Socialism is only a disguise
for high Toryism, and that the German Radicals who were originally
induced to join the anti-Semites had been victimized by the Clericals.
The fruits of this disillusion began to show themselves in the general
elections of 1900-1901, when the anti-Semites lost six seats in the
Reichsrath. The elections were followed (26th January 1901) by a papal
encyclical on Christian democracy, in which Christian Socialism was
declared to be a term unacceptable to the Church, and the faithful were
adjured to abstain from agitation of a demagogic and revolutionary
character, and "to respect the rights of others." Nevertheless, in 1907
the Christian Socialists trebled their representation in the Reichsrath.
This, however, was due more to their alliance with the German national
parties than to any large increase of anti-Semitism in the electorate.


  France.

The last country in Europe to make use of the teachings of German
anti-Semitism in its party politics was France. The fact that the
movement should have struck root in a republican country, where the
ideals of democratic freedom have been so passionately cultivated, has
been regarded as one of the paradoxes of our latter-day history. As a
matter of fact, it is more surprising that it was not adopted earlier.
All the social and political conditions which produced anti-Semitism in
Germany were present in France, but in an aggravated form due primarily
to the very republican _regime_ which at first sight seemed to be a
guarantee against it. In the monarchical states the dominance of the
_bourgeoisie_ was tempered in a measure by the power of the crown and
the political activity of the aristocracy, which carried with them a
very real restraining influence in the matter of political honour and
morality. In France these restraining influences were driven out of
public life by the republic. The nobility both of the _ancien regime_
and the empire stood aloof, and politics were abandoned for the most
part to professional adventurers, while the _bourgeoisie_ assumed the
form of an omnipotent plutocracy. This naturally attracted to France all
the financial adventurers in Europe, and in the train of the immigration
came not a few German Jews, alienated from their own country by the
agitation of Marr and Stocker. Thus the _bourgeoisie_ was not only more
powerful in France than in other countries, but the obnoxiousness of its
Jewish element was accentuated by a tinge of the national enemy. The
anti-clericalism of the _bourgeois_ republic and its unexampled series
of financial scandals, culminating in the Panama "Krach," thus sufficed
to give anti-Semitism a strong hold on the public mind.

Nevertheless, it was not until 1882 that the anti-Jewish movement was
seriously heard of in France. Paul Bontoux (b. 1820), who had formerly
been in the employ of the Rothschilds, but had been obliged to leave
the firm in consequence of his disastrous speculations, had joined the
Legitimist party, and had started the Union Generale with funds obtained
from his new allies. Bontoux promised to break up the alleged financial
monopoly of the Jews and Protestants and to found a new plutocracy in
its stead, which should be mainly Roman Catholic and aristocratic. The
bait was eagerly swallowed. For five years the Union Generale, with the
blessing of the pope, pursued an apparently prosperous career. Immense
schemes were undertaken, and the 123-fr. shares rose gradually to 3200
francs. The whole structure, however, rested on a basis of audacious
speculation, and in January 1882 the Union Generale failed, with
liabilities amounting to 312,000,000 francs. The cry was at once raised
that the collapse was due to the manoeuvres of the Jews, and a strong
anti-Semitic feeling manifested itself in clerical and aristocratic
circles. In 1886 violent expression was given to this feeling in a book
since become famous, _La France juive_, by Edouard Drumont (b. 1844).
The author illustrated the theories of German anti-Semitism with a
_chronique scandaleuse_ full of piquant personalities, in which the
corruption of French national life under Jewish influences was painted
in alarming colours. The book was read with avidity by the public, who
welcomed its explanations of the obviously growing debauchery. The
Wilson scandals and the suspension of the Panama Company in the
following year, while not bearing out Drumont's anti-Semitism, fully
justified his view of the prevailing corruption. Out of this condition
of things rose the Boulangist movement, which rallied all the
disaffected elements in the country, including Drumont's following of
anti-Semites. It was not, however, until the flight of General Boulanger
and the ruin of his party that anti-Semitism came forward as a political
movement.

The chief author of the rout of Boulangism was a Jewish politician and
journalist, Joseph Reinach (b. 1856), formerly private secretary to
Gambetta, and one of the ablest men in France. He was a Frenchman by
birth and education, but his father and uncles were Germans, who had
founded an important banking establishment in Paris. Hence he was held
to personify the alien Jewish domination in France, and the
ex-Boulangists turned against him and his co-religionists with fury. The
Boulangist agitation had for a second time involved the Legitimists in
heavy pecuniary losses, and under the leadership of the marquis de Mores
they now threw all their influence on the side of Drumont. An
anti-Semitic league was established, and with Royalist assistance
branches were organized all over the country. The Franco-Russian
alliance in 1891, when the persecutions of the Jews by Pobedonostsev
were attracting the attention of Europe, served to invest Drumont's
agitation with a fashionable and patriotic character. It was a sign of
the spiritual approximation of the two peoples. In 1892 Drumont founded
a daily anti-Semitic newspaper, _La Libre Parole_. With the organization
of this journal a regular campaign for the discovery of scandals was
instituted. At the same time a body of aristocratic swashbucklers, with
the marquis de Mores and the comte de Lamase at their head, set
themselves to terrorize the Jews and provoke them to duels. At a meeting
held at Neuilly in 1891, Jules Guerin, one of the marquis de Mores's
lieutenants, had demanded rhetorically _un cadavre de Juif_. He had not
long to wait. Anti-Semitism was most powerful in the army, which was the
only branch of the public service in which the reactionary classes were
fully represented. The republican law compelling the seminarists to
serve their term in the army had strengthened its Clerical and Royalist
elements, and the result was a movement against the Jewish officers, of
whom 500 held commissions. A series of articles in the _Libre Parole_
attacking these officers led to a number of ferocious duels, and these
culminated in 1892 in the death of an amiable and popular Jewish
officer, Captain Armand Mayer, of the Engineers, who fell, pierced
through the lungs by the marquis de Mores. This tragedy, rendered all
the more painful by the discovery that Captain Mayer had chivalrously
fought to shield a friend, aroused a great deal of popular indignation
against the anti-Semites, and for a moment it was believed that the
agitation had been killed with its victim.

Towards the end of 1892, the discovery of the widespread corruption
practised by the Panama Company gave a fresh impulse to anti-Semitism.
The revelations were in a large measure due to the industry of the
_Libre Parole_; and they were all the more welcome to the readers of
that journal since it was discovered that three Jews were implicated in
the scandals, one of whom, baron de Reinach, was uncle and father-in-law
to the hated destroyer of Boulangism. The escape of the other two, Dr
Cornelius Herz and M. Arton, and the difficulties experienced in
obtaining their extradition, deepened the popular conviction that the
authorities were implicated in the scandals, and kept the public eye for
a long time absorbed by the otherwise restricted Jewish aspects of the
scandals. In 1894 the military side of the agitation was revived by the
arrest of a prominent Jewish staff officer, Captain Alfred Dreyfus, on a
charge of treason. From the beginning the hand of the anti-Semite was
flagrant in the new sensation. The first hint of the arrest appeared in
the _Libre Parole_; and before the facts had been officially
communicated to the public that journal was busy with a campaign against
the war minister, based on the apprehension that, in conspiracy with the
_Juiverie_ and his republican colleagues, he might exert himself to
shield the traitor. Anti-Semitic feeling was now thoroughly aroused.
Panama had prepared the people to believe anything; and when it was
announced that a court-martial, sitting in secret, had convicted
Dreyfus, there was a howl of execration against the Jews from one end of
the country to the other, although the alleged crime of the convict and
the evidence by which it was supported were quite unknown. Dreyfus was
degraded and transported for life amid unparalleled scenes of public
excitement.

The Dreyfus Case registers the climax not only of French, but of
European anti-Semitism. It was the most ambitious and most unscrupulous
attempt yet made to prove the nationalist hypothesis of the
anti-Semites, and in its failure it afforded the most striking
illustration of the dangers of the whole movement by bringing France to
the verge of revolution. For a few months after the Dreyfus
court-martial there was a comparative lull; but the highly strung
condition of popular passion was illustrated by a violent debate on "The
Jewish Peril" in the Chamber of Deputies (25th April 1895), and by two
outrages with explosives at the Rothschild bank in Paris. Meanwhile the
family of Dreyfus, absolutely convinced of his innocence, were casting
about for the means of clearing his character and securing his
liberation. They were wealthy, and their activity unsettled the public
mind and aroused the apprehensions of the conspirators. Had the latter
known how to preserve silence, the mystery would perhaps have been yet
unsolved; but in their anxiety to allay all suspicions they made one
false step, which proved the beginning of their ruin. Through their
friends in the press they secured the publication of a facsimile of a
document known as the _Bordereau_--a list of documents supposed to be in
Dreyfus's handwriting and addressed apparently to the military attache
of a foreign power, which was alleged to constitute the chief evidence
against the convict. It was hoped by this publication to put an end to
the doubts of the so-called Dreyfusards. The result, however, was only
to give them a clue on which they worked with remarkable ingenuity. To
prove that the _Bordereau_ was not in Dreyfus's handwriting was not
difficult. Indeed, its authorship was recognized almost on the day of
publication; but the Dreyfusards held their hands in order to make
assurance doubly sure by further evidence. Meanwhile one of the officers
of the general staff, Colonel Picquart, had convinced himself by an
examination of the _dossier_ of the trial that a gross miscarriage of
justice had taken place. On mentioning his doubts to his superiors, who
were animated partly by anti-Semitic feeling and partly by reluctance to
confess to a mistake, he was ordered to the Tunisian hinterland on a
dangerous expedition. Before leaving Paris, however, he took the
precaution to confide his discovery to his legal adviser. Harassed by
their anxieties, the conspirators made further communications to the
newspapers; and the government, questioned and badgered in parliament,
added to the revelations. The new disclosures, so far from stopping the
Dreyfusards, proved to them, among other things, that the conviction had
been partially based on documents which had not been communicated to the
counsel for the defence, and hence that the judges had been tampered
with by the ministry of war behind the prisoner's back. So far, too, as
these documents related to correspondence with foreign military
attaches, it was soon ascertained that they were forgeries. In this way
a terrible indictment was gradually drawn up against the ministry of
war. The first step was taken towards the end of 1897 by a brother of
Captain Dreyfus, who, in a letter to the minister of war, denounced
Major Esterhazy as the real author of the _Bordereau_. The authorities,
supported by parliament, declined to reopen the Dreyfus Case, but they
ordered a court-martial on Esterhazy, which was held with closed doors
and resulted in his acquittal. It now became clear that nothing short of
an appeal to public opinion and a full exposure of all the iniquities
that had been perpetrated would secure justice at the hands of the
military chiefs. On behalf of Dreyfus, Emile Zola, the eminent novelist,
formulated the case against the general staff of the army in an open
letter to the president of the republic, which by its dramatic
accusations startled the whole world. The letter was denounced as wild
and fantastic even by those who were in favour of revision. Zola was
prosecuted for libel and convicted, and had to fly the country; but the
agitation he had started was taken in hand by others, notably M.
Clemenceau, M. Reinach and M. Yves Guyot. In August 1898 their efforts
found their first reward. A re-examination of the documents in the case
by M. Cavaignac, then minister of war, showed that one was undoubtedly
forged. Colonel Henry, of the intelligence department of the war office,
then confessed that he had fabricated the document, and, on being sent
to Mont Valerien under arrest, cut his throat.

In spite of this damaging discovery the war office still persisted in
believing Dreyfus guilty, and opposed a fresh inquiry. It was supported
by three successive ministers of war, and apparently an overwhelming
body of public opinion. By this time the question of the guilt or
innocence of Dreyfus had become an altogether subsidiary issue. As in
Germany and Austria, the anti-Semitic crusade had passed into the hands
of the political parties. On the one hand the Radicals and Socialists,
recognizing the anti-republican aims of the agitators and alarmed by the
clerical predominance in the army, had thrown in their lot with the
Dreyfusards; on the other the reactionaries, anxious to secure the
support of the army, took the opposite view, denounced their opponents
as _sans patrie_, and declared that they were conspiring to weaken and
degrade the army in the face of the national enemy. The controversy was,
consequently, no longer for or against Dreyfus, but for or against the
army, and behind it was a life-or-death struggle between the republic
and its enemies. The situation became alarming. Rumours of military
plots filled the air. Powerful leagues for working up public feeling
were formed and organized; attempts to discredit the republic and
intimidate the government were made. The president was insulted; there
were tumults in the streets, and an attempt was made by M. Deroulede to
induce the military to march on the Elysee and upset the republic. In
this critical situation France, to her eternal honour, found men with
sufficient courage to do the right. The Socialists, by rallying to the
Radicals against the reactionaries, secured a majority for the defence
of the republic in parliament. Brisson's cabinet transmitted to the
court of cassation an application for the revision of the case against
Dreyfus; and that tribunal, after an elaborate inquiry, which fully
justified Zola's famous letter, quashed and annulled the proceedings of
the court-martial, and remitted the accused to another court-martial, to
be held at Rennes. Throughout these proceedings the military party
fought tooth and nail to impede the course of justice; and although the
innocence of Dreyfus had been completely established, it concentrated
all its efforts to secure a fresh condemnation of the prisoner at
Rennes. Popular passion was at fever heat, and it manifested itself in
an attack on M. Labori, one of the counsel for the defence, who was shot
and wounded on the eve of his cross-examination of the witnesses for the
prosecution. To the amazement and indignation of the whole world outside
France, the Rennes court-martial again found the prisoner guilty; but
all reliance on the conscientiousness of the verdict was removed by a
rider, which found "extenuating circumstances," and by a reduction of
the punishment to ten years' imprisonment, to which was added a
recommendation to mercy. The verdict was evidently an attempt at a
compromise, and the government resolved to advise the president of the
republic to pardon Dreyfus. This lame conclusion did not satisfy the
accused; but his innocence had been so clearly proved, and on political
grounds there were such urgent reasons for desiring a termination of the
affair, that it was accepted without protest by the majority of moderate
men.

The rehabilitation of Dreyfus, however, did not pass without another
effort on the part of the reactionaries to turn the popular passions
excited by the case to their own advantage. After the failure of
Deroulede's attempt to overturn the republic, the various Royalist and
Boulangist leagues, with the assistance of the anti-Semites, organized
another plot. This was discovered by the government, and the leaders
were arrested. Jules Guerin, secretary of the anti-Semitic league, shut
himself up in the league offices in the rue Chabrol, Paris, which had
been fortified and garrisoned by a number of his friends, armed with
rifles. For more than a month these anti-Semites held the authorities at
bay, and some 5000 troops were employed in the siege. The conspirators
were all tried by the senate, sitting as a high court, and Guerin was
sentenced to ten years' imprisonment. The evidence showed that the
anti-Semitic organization had taken an active part in the
anti-republican plot (see the report of the Commission d'Instruction in
the _Petit Temps_, 1st November 1899).

The government now resolved to strike at the root of the mischief by
limiting the power of the religious orders, and with this view a drastic
Association bill was introduced into the chambers. This anti-clerical
move provoked the wildest passions of the reactionaries, but it found an
overwhelming support in the elections of 1902 and the bill became law.
The war thus definitely reopened soon led to a revival of the Dreyfus
controversy. The nationalists flooded the country with incendiary
defamations of "the government of national treason," and Dreyfus on his
part loudly demanded a fresh trial. It was clear that conciliation and
compromise were useless. Early in 1905 M. Jaures urged upon the chamber
that the demand of the Jewish officer should be granted if only to
tranquillize the country. The necessary _faits nouveaux_ were speedily
found by the minister of war, General Andre, and having been examined by
a special commission of revision were ordered to be transmitted to the
court of cassation for final adjudication. On the 12th of July 1906, the
court, all chambers united, gave its judgment. After a lengthy review of
the case it declared unanimously that the whole accusation against
Dreyfus had been disproved, and it quashed the judgment of the Rennes
court-martial _sans renvoi_. The explanation of the whole case is that
Esterhazy and Henry were the real culprits; that they had made a trade
of supplying the German government with military documents; and that
once the _Bordereau_ was discovered they availed themselves of the
anti-Jewish agitation to throw suspicion on Dreyfus.

Thus ended this famous case, to the relief of the whole country and with
the approval of the great majority of French citizens. Except a knot of
anti-Semitic monomaniacs all parties bowed loyally to the judgment of
the court of cassation. The government gave the fullest effect to the
judgment. Dreyfus and Picquart were restored to the active list of the
army with the ranks respectively of major and general of brigade.
Dreyfus was also created a knight of the Legion of Honour, and received
the decoration in public in the artillery pavilion of the military
school. Zola, to whose efforts the triumph of truth was chiefly due, had
not been spared to witness the final scene, but the chambers decided to
give his remains a last resting-place in the Pantheon. When three months
later M. Clemenceau formed his first cabinet he appointed General
Picquart minister of war. Nothing indeed was left undone to repair the
terrible series of wrongs which had grown out of the Dreyfus case.
Nevertheless its destructive work could not be wholly healed. For over
ten years it had been a nightmare to France, and it now modified the
whole course of French history. In the ruin of the French Church, which
owed its disestablishment very largely to the Dreyfus conspiracy, may be
read the most eloquent warning against the demoralizing madness of
anti-Semitism.

In sympathy with the agitation in France there has been a similar
movement in Algeria, where the European population have long resented
the admission of the native Jews to the rights of French citizenship.
The agitation has been marked by much violence, and most of the
anti-Semitic deputies in the French parliament, including M. Drumont,
have found constituencies in Algeria. As the local anti-Semites are
largely Spaniards and Levantine riff-raff, the agitation has not the
peculiar nationalist bias which characterizes continental anti-Semitism.
Before the energy of the authorities it has lately shown signs of
subsiding.


  Great Britain, &c.

While the main activity of anti-Semitism has manifested itself in
Germany, Russia, Rumania, Austria-Hungary and France, its vibratory
influences have been felt in other countries when conditions favourable
to its extension have presented themselves. In England more than one
attempt to acclimatize the doctrines of Marr and Treitschke has been
made. The circumstance that at the time of the rise of German
anti-Semitism a premier of Hebrew race, Lord Beaconsfield, was in power
first suggested the Jewish bogey to English political extremists. The
Eastern crisis of 1876-1878, which was regarded by the Liberal party as
primarily a struggle between Christianity, as represented by Russia, and
a degrading Semitism, as represented by Turkey, accentuated the
anti-Jewish feeling, owing to the anti-Russian attitude adopted by the
government. Violent expression to the ancient prejudices against the
Jews was given by Sir J.G. Tollemache Sinclair (_A Defence of Russia_,
1877). Mr T.P. O'Connor, in a life of Lord Beaconsfield (1878), pictured
him as the instrument of the Jewish people, "moulding the whole policy
of Christendom to Jewish aims." Professor Goldwin Smith, in several
articles in the _Nineteenth Century_ (1878, 1881 and 1882), sought to
synthetize the growing anti-Jewish feeling by adopting the nationalist
theories of the German anti-Semites. This movement did not fail to find
an equivocal response in the speeches of some of the leading Liberal
statesmen; but on the country generally it produced no effect. It was
revived when the persecutions in Russia threatened England with a great
influx of Polish Jews, whose mode of life was calculated to lower the
standard of living in the industries in which they were employed, and it
has left its trace in the anti-alien legislation of 1905. In 1883
Stocker visited London, but received a very unflattering reception.
Abortive attempts to acclimatize anti-Semitism have also been made in
Switzerland, Belgium, Greece and the United States.

Anti-Semitism made a great deal of history during the thirty years up to
1908, but has left no permanent mark of a constructive kind on the
social and political evolution of Europe. It is the fruit of a great
ethnographic and political error, and it has spent itself in political
intrigues of transparent dishonesty. Its racial doctrine is at best a
crude hypothesis: its nationalist theory has only served to throw into
striking relief the essentially economic bases of modern society, while
its political activity has revealed the vulgarity and ignorance which
constitute its main sources of strength. So far from injuring the Jews,
it has really given Jewish racial separatism a new lease of life. Its
extravagant accusations, as in the Tisza Eszlar and Dreyfus cases, have
resulted in the vindication of the Jewish character. Its agitation
generally, coinciding with the revival of interest in Jewish history,
has helped to transfer Jewish solidarity from a religious to a racial
basis. The bond of a common race, vitalized by a new pride in Hebrew
history and spurred on to resistance by the insults of the anti-Semites,
has given a new spirit and a new source of strength to Judaism at a
moment when the approximation of ethical systems and the revolt against
dogma were sapping its essentially religious foundations. In the whole
history of Judaism, perhaps, there have been no more numerous or
remarkable instances of reversions to the faith than in the period in
question. The reply of the Jews to anti-Semitism has taken two
interesting practical forms. In the first place there is the so-called
Zionist movement, which is a kind of Jewish nationalism and is vitiated
by the same errors that distinguish its anti-Semitic analogue (see
ZIONISM). In the second place, there is a movement represented by the
Maccabaeans' Society in London, which seeks to unite the Jewish people
in an effort to raise the Jewish character and to promote a higher
consciousness of the dignity of the race. It lays no stress on
orthodoxy, but welcomes all who strive to render Jewish conduct an
adequate reply to the theories of the anti-Semites. Both these movements
are elements of fresh vitality to Judaism, and they are probably
destined to produce important fruit in future years. A splendid spirit
of generosity has also been displayed by the Jewish community in
assisting and relieving the victims of the Jew-haters. Besides countless
funds raised by public subscription, Baron de Hirsch founded a colossal
scheme for transplanting persecuted Jews to new countries under new
conditions of life, and endowed it with no less a sum than L9,000,000
(see HIRSCH, MAURICE DE).

Though anti-Semitism has been unmasked and discredited, it is to be
feared that its history is not yet at an end. While there remain in
Russia and Rumania over six millions of Jews who are being
systematically degraded, and who periodically overflow the western
frontier, there must continue to be a Jewish question in Europe; and
while there are weak governments, and ignorant and superstitious
elements in the enfranchized classes of the countries affected, that
question will seek to play a part in politics.

  LITERATURE.--No impartial history of modern anti-Semitism has yet been
  written. The most comprehensive works on the subject, _Israel among
  the Nations_, by A. Leroy-Beaulieu (1895), and _L'Antisemitisme, son
  histoire et ses causes_, by Bernard Lazare (1894), are collections of
  studies rather than histories. M. Lazare's work will be found most
  useful by the student on account of its detached standpoint and its
  valuable bibliographical notes. A good list of works relating to
  Jewish ethnography will be found at the end of M. Isidor Loeb's
  valuable article, "Juifs," in the _Dictionnaire universel de
  geographie_ (1884). To these should be added, Adolf Jellinek, _Der
  Judische Stamm_ (1869); Chwolson, _Die semitischen Volker_ (1872);
  Nossig, _Materialien zur Statistik_ (1887); Jacobs, _Jewish
  Statistics_ (1891); and Andree, _Zur Volkskunde der Juden_ (1881). A
  bibliography of the Jewish question from 1875 to 1884 has been
  published by Mr Joseph Jacobs (1885). Useful additions and
  rectifications will be found in the _Jewish World_, 11th September
  1885. During the period since 1885 the anti-Semitic movement has
  produced an immense pamphlet literature. Some of these productions
  have already been referred to; others will be found in current
  bibliographies under the names of the personages mentioned, such as
  Stocker, Ahlwardt, &c. On the Russian persecutions, besides the works
  quoted by Jacobs, see the pamphlet issued by the Russo-Jewish
  Committee in 1890, and the annual reports of the Russo-Jewish Mansion
  House Fund; _Les Juifs de Russie_ (Paris, 1891); _Report of the
  Commissioners of Immigration upon the Causes which incite Immigration
  to the United States_ (Washington, 1892); _The New Exodus_, by Harold
  Frederic (1892); _Les Juifs russes_, by Leo Errera (Brussels, 1893).
  The most valuable collection of facts relating to the persecutions of
  1881-1882 are to be found in the _Feuilles Jaunes_ (52 nos.), compiled
  and circulated for the information of the European press by the
  Alliance Israelite of Paris. Complete collections are very scarce. For
  the struggle during the past decade the _Russische Correspondenz_ of
  Berlin should be consulted, together with its French and English
  editions. See also the publications of the _Bund_ (Geneva; Imprimerie
  Israelite); Semenoff, _The Russian Government and the Massacres_, and
  _Quarterly Review_, October 1906. On the Rumanian question, see
  Bluntschli, _Roumania and the Legal Status of the Jews_ (London,
  1879); _Wir Juden_ (Zurich, 1883); Schloss, _The Persecution of the
  Jews in Roumania_ (London, 1885); Schloss, _Notes of Information_
  (1886); Sincerus, _Juifs en Roumanie_ (London, 1901); Plotke, _Die
  rumanischen Juden unter dem Fursten u. Konig Karl_ (1901); Dehn,
  _Diplomatic u. Hochfinanz in der rumanischen Judenfrage_ (1901);
  Conybeare, "Roumania as a Persecuting Power," _Nat. Rev_., February
  1901. On Hungary and the Tisza Eszlar Case, see (besides the
  references in Jacobs) Nathan, _Der Prozess van Tisza Eszlar_ (Berlin,
  1892). On this case and the Blood Accusation generally, see Wright,
  "The Jews and the Malicious Charge of Human Sacrifice," _Nineteenth
  Century_, 1883. The origins of the Austrian agitation are dealt with
  by Nitti, _Catholic Socialism_ (1895). This work, though inclining to
  anti-Semitism, should be consulted for the Christian Socialist
  elements in the whole continental agitation. The most valuable source
  of information on the Austrian movement is the _Osterreichische
  Wochenschrift_, edited by Dr Bloch. See also pamphlets and speeches by
  the anti-Semitic leaders, Liechtenstein, Lueger, Schoenerer, &c. The
  case of the French anti-Semites is stated by E. Drumont in his _France
  juive_. and other works; the other side by Isidor Loeb, Bernard
  Lazare, Leonce Reynaud, &c. Of the Dreyfus Case there is an enormous
  literature: see especially the reports of the Zola and Picquart
  trials, the revision case before the Court of Cassation, the
  proceedings of the Rennes court-martial, and the final judgment of the
  Court of Cassation printed in full in the _Figaro_, July 15, 1906;
  also Reinach, _Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus_ (Paris, 1908, 6 vols.),
  and the valuable series of volumes by Captain Paul Marin, MM.
  Clemenceau, Lazare, Yves Guyot, Paschal Grousset, Urbain Gohier, de
  Haime, de Pressense, and the remarkable letters of Dreyfus (_Lettres
  d'un innocent_). An English history of the case was published by F.C.
  Conybeare (1898), whose articles and those of Sir Godfrey Lushington
  and L.J. Maxse in the _National Review_, 1897-1900, will be found
  invaluable by the student. On the Algerian question, see M. Wahl in
  the _Revue des etudes juives_; L. Forest, _Naturalisation des
  Israelites algeriens_; and E. Audinet in the _Revue generale de droit
  international publique_, 1897, No. 4. On the history of the
  anti-Semitic movement generally, see the annual reports of the
  Alliance Israelite of Paris and the Anglo-Jewish Association of
  London, also the annual summaries published at the end of the Jewish
  year by the _Jewish Chronicle_ of London. The connexion of the
  movement with general party politics must be followed in the
  newspapers. The present writer has worked with a collection of
  newspaper cuttings numbering several thousands and ranging over thirty
  years.     (L. W.)




ANTISEPTICS (Gr. [Greek: anti], against, and [Greek: saeptikos],
putrefactive), the name given to substances which are used for the
prevention of bacterial development in animal or vegetable matter. Some
are true germicides, capable of destroying the bacteria, whilst others
merely prevent or inhibit their growth. The antiseptic method of
treating wounds (see SURGERY) was introduced by Lord Lister, and was an
outcome of Pasteur's germ theory of putrefaction. For the growth of
bacteria there must be a certain food supply, moisture, in most cases
oxygen, and a certain minimum temperature (see BACTERIOLOGY). These
conditions have been specially studied and applied in connexion with the
preserving of food (see FOOD PRESERVATION) and in the ancient practice
of embalming the dead, which is the earliest illustration of the
systematic use of antiseptics (see EMBALMING). In early inquiries a
great point was made of the prevention of putrefaction, and work was
done in the way of finding how much of an agent must be added to a given
solution, in order that the bacteria accidentally present might not
develop. But for various reasons this was an inexact method, and to-day
an antiseptic is judged by its effects on pure cultures of definite
pathogenic microbes, and on their vegetative and spore forms. Their
standardization has been effected in many instances, and a water
solution of carbolic acid of a certain fixed strength is now taken as
the standard with which other antiseptics are compared. The more
important of those in use to-day are carbolic acid, the perchloride and
biniodide of mercury, iodoform, formalin, salicylic acid, &c. Carbolic
acid is germicidal in strong solution, inhibitory in weaker ones. The
so-called "pure" acid is applied to infected living tissues, especially
to tuberculous sinuses or wounds, after scraping them, in order to
destroy any part of the tuberculous material still remaining. A solution
of 1 in 20 is used to sterilize instruments before an operation, and
towels or lint to be used for the patient. Care must always be taken to
avoid absorption (see CARBOLIC ACID). The perchloride of mercury is
another very powerful antiseptic used in solutions of strength 1 in
2000, 1 in 1000 and 1 in 500. This or the biniodide of mercury is the
last antiseptic applied to the surgeon's and assistants' hands before an
operation begins. They are not, however, to be used in the disinfection
of instruments, nor where any large abraded surface would favour
absorption. Boracic acid receives no mention here; though it is
popularly known as an antiseptic, it is in reality only a soothing
fluid, and bacteria will flourish comfortably in contact with it. Of the
dry antiseptics iodoform is constantly used in septic or tuberculous
wounds, and it appears to have an inhibitory action on _Bacillus
tuberculosis_. Its power depends on the fact that it is slowly
decomposed by the tissues, and free iodine given off. Among the more
recently introduced antiseptics, chinosol, a yellow substance freely
soluble in water, and lysol, another coal-tar derivative, are much used.
But every antiseptic, however good, is more or less toxic and irritating
to a wounded surface. Hence it is that the "antiseptic" method has been
replaced in the surgery of to-day by the "aseptic" method (see SURGERY),
which relies on keeping free from the invasion of bacteria rather than
destroying them when present.




ANTISTHENES (c. 444-365 B.C.), the founder of the Cynic school of
philosophy, was born at Athens of a Thracian mother, a fact which may
account for the extreme boldness of his attack on conventional thought.
In his youth he studied rhetoric under Gorgias, perhaps also under
Hippias and Prodicus. Gomperz suggests that he was originally in good
circumstances, but was reduced to poverty. However this may be, he came
under the influence of Socrates, and became a devoted pupil. So eager
was he to hear the words of Socrates that he used to walk daily from
Peiraeus to Athens, and persuaded his friends to accompany him. Filled
with enthusiasm for the Socratic idea of virtue, he founded a school of
his own in the Cynosarges, the hall of the bastards ([Greek: nothoi]).
Thither he attracted the poorer classes by the simplicity of his life
and teaching. He wore a cloak and carried a staff and a wallet, and this
costume became the uniform of his followers. Diogenes Laertius says that
his works filled ten volumes, but of these fragments only remain. His
favourite style seems to have been the dialogue, wherein we see the
effect of his early rhetorical training. Aristotle speaks of him as
uneducated and simple-minded, and Plato describes him as struggling in
vain with the difficulties of dialectic. His work represents one great
aspect of Socratic philosophy, and should be compared with the Cyrenaic
and Megarian doctrines.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Charles Chappuis, _Antisthene_ (Paris, 1854); A.
  Muller, _De Antisthenis cynici vita et scriptis_ (Dresden, 1860); T.
  Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_ (Eng. trans., 1905), vol. ii. pp. 142 ff.,
  150 ff. For his philosophy see CYNICS, and for his pupils, Diogenes
  and Crates, see articles under these headings.




ANTISTROPHE, the portion of an ode which is sung by the chorus in its
returning movement from west to east, in response to the strophe, which
was sung from east to west. It is of the nature of a reply, and balances
the effect of the strophe. Thus, in Gray's ode called "The Progress of
Poesy," the strophe, which dwelt in triumphant accents on the beauty,
power and ecstasy of verse, is answered by the antistrophe, in a
depressed and melancholy key--

  "Man's feeble race what ills await,
   Labour, and Penury, the racks of Pain,
   Disease and Sorrow's weeping Train,
   And Death, sad refuge from the storms of Fate," &c.

When the sections of the chorus have ended their responses, they unite
and close in the epode, thus exemplifying the triple form in which the
ancient sacred hymns of Greece were composed, from the days of
Stesichorus onwards. As Milton says, "strophe, antistrophe and epode
were a kind of stanza framed only for the music then used with the
chorus that sang."




ANTITHESIS (the Greek for "setting opposite"), in rhetoric, the bringing
out of a contrast in the meaning by an obvious contrast in the
expression, as in the following:--"When there is need of silence, you
speak, and when there is need of speech, you are dumb; when present, you
wish to be absent, and when absent, you desire to be present; in peace
you are for war, and in war you long for peace; in council you descant
on bravery, and in the battle you tremble." Antithesis is sometimes
double or alternate, as in the appeal of Augustus:--"Listen, young men,
to an old man to whom old men were glad to listen when he was young."
The force of the antithesis is increased if the words on which the beat
of the contrast falls are alliterative, or otherwise similar in sound,
as--"The fairest but the falsest of her sex." There is nothing that
gives to expression greater point and vivacity than a judicious
employment of this figure; but, on the other hand, there is nothing more
tedious and trivial than a pseudo-antithetical style. Among English
writers who have made the most abundant use of antithesis are Pope,
Young, Johnson, and Gibbon; and especially Lyly in his _Euphues_. It is,
however, a much more common feature in French than in English; while in
German, with some striking exceptions, it is conspicuous by its absence.




ANTITYPE (Gr. [Greek: antitupos]), the correlative of "type," to which
it corresponds as the stamp to the die, or vice versa. In the sense of
copy or likeness the word occurs in the Greek New Testament (Heb. ix.
24; 1 Peter iii. 21), English "figure." By theological writers antitype
is employed to denote the reality of which a type is the prophetic
symbol. Thus, Christ is the antitype of many of the types of the Jewish
ritual. By the fathers of the Greek church (e.g. Gregory Nazianzen)
antitype is employed as a designation of the bread and wine in the
sacrament of the Lord's Supper.




ANTIUM (mod. _Anzio_), an ancient Volscian city on the coast of Latium,
about 33 m. S. of Rome. The legends as to its foundation, and the
accounts of its early relations with Rome, are untrustworthy; but Livy's
account of wars between Antium and Rome, early in the 4th century B.C.,
may perhaps be accepted. Antium is named with Ardea, Laurentum and
Circeii, as under Roman protection, in the treaty with Carthage in 348
B.C. In 341 it lost its independence after a rising with the rest of
Latium against Rome, and the beaks (_rostra_) of the six captured
Antiatine ships decorated and gave their name to the orators' tribunal
in the Roman Forum. At the end of the Republican period it became a
resort of wealthy Romans, and the Julian and Claudian emperors
frequently visited it; both Caligula and Nero were born there. The
latter founded a colony of veterans and built a new harbour, the
projecting moles of which are still extant. In the middle ages it was
deserted in favour of Nettuno: at the end of the 17th century Innocent
XII. and Clement XI. restored the harbour, not on the old site but to
the east of it, with the opening to the east, a mistake which leads to
its being frequently silted up; it has a depth of about 15 ft. Remains
of Roman villas are conspicuous all along the shore, both to the east
and to the north-west of the town. That of Nero cannot be certainly
identified, but is generally placed at the so-called Arco Muto, where
remains of a theatre (discovered in 1712 and covered up again) also
exist. Many works of art have been found. Of the famous temple of
Fortune (Horace, _Od_. i. 35) no remains are known. The sea is
encroaching slightly at Anzio, but some miles farther north-west the old
Roman coast-line now lies slightly inland (see TIBER). The Volscian city
stood on higher ground and somewhat away from the shore, though it
extended down to it. It was defended by a deep ditch, which can still be
traced, and by walls, a portion of which, on the eastern side,
constructed of rectangular blocks of tufa, was brought to light in 1897.
The modern place is a summer resort and has several villas, among them
the Villa Borghese.

  See A. Nibby, _Dintorni di Roma_, i. 181; _Notizie degli scavi,
  passim_.     (T. As.)




ANTIVARI (Montenegrin _Bar_, so called by the Venetians from its
position opposite Bari in Italy), a seaport of Montenegro which until
1878 belonged to Turkey. Pop. (1900) about 2500. The old town is built
inland, on a strip of country running between the Adriatic Sea and the
Sutorman range of mountains, overshadowed by the peak of Rumiya (5148
ft.). At a few hundred yards' distance it is invisible, hidden among
dense olive groves. Within, there is a ruinous walled village, and the
shell of an old Venetian fortress, surrounded by mosques and bazaars;
for Antivari is rather Turkish than Montenegrin. The fine bay of
Antivari, with Prstan, its port, is distant about one hour's drive
through barren and forbidding country, shut in by mountains. At the
northern horn of the bay stands Spizza, an Austrian military station.
Antivari contains the residence of its Roman Catholic archbishop, and,
in the centre of the shore, Topolitsa, the square undecorated palace of
the crown prince. Antivari is the name applied both to Prstan and the
old town. The Austrian Lloyd steamers call at times, and the "Puglia"
S.S. Company runs a regular service of steamers to and from Bari. As an
outlet for Montenegrin commerce, however, Antivari cannot compete with
the Austrian Cattaro, the harbour being somewhat difficult of access in
stormy weather. Fishing and olive-oil refining are the main industries.




ANT-LION, the name given to neuropterous insects of the family
_Myrmeleonidae_, with relatively short and apically clubbed antennae and
four large densely reticulated wings in which the apical veins enclose
regular oblong spaces. The perfect insects are for the most part
nocturnal and are believed to be carnivorous. The best-known species,
_Myrmeleon formicarius_, which may be found adult in the late summer,
occurs in many countries on the European continent, though like the rest
of this group it is not indigenous in England. Strictly speaking,
however, the term ant-lion applies to the larval form, which has been
known scientifically for over two hundred years, on account of its
peculiar and forbidding appearance and its skilful and unique manner of
entrapping prey by means of a pitfall. The abdomen is oval, sandy-grey
in hue and beset with warts and bristles; the prothorax forms a mobile
neck for the large square head, which carries a pair of long and
powerful toothed mandibles. It is in dry and sandy soil that the
ant-lion lays its trap. Having marked out the chosen site by a circular
groove, it starts to crawl backwards, using its abdomen as a plough to
shovel up the soil. By the aid of one front leg it places consecutive
heaps of loosened particles upon its head, then with a smart jerk throws
each little pile clear of the scene of operations. Proceeding thus it
gradually works its way from the circumference towards the centre. When
the latter is reached and the pit completed, the larva settles down at
the bottom, buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the
surface. Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand they afford an
insecure foothold to any small insect that inadvertently ventures over
the edge. Slipping to the bottom the prey is immediately seized by the
lurking ant-lion; or if it attempt to scramble again up the treacherous
walls of the pit, is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by
showers of loose sand which are jerked at it from below by the larva. By
means of similar head-jerks the skins of insects sucked dry of their
contents are thrown out of the pit, which is then kept clear of refuse.
A full-grown larva digs a pit about 2 in. deep and 3 in. wide at the
edge. The pupa stage of the ant-lion is quiescent. The larva makes a
globular case of sand stuck together with fine silk spun, it is said,
from a slender spinneret at the posterior end of the body. In this it
remains until the completion of the transformation into the sexually
mature insect, which then emerges from the case, leaving the pupal
integument behind. In certain species of _Myrmeleonidae_, such as
_Dendroleon pantheormis_, the larva, although resembling that of
_Myrmeleon_ structurally, makes no pitfall, but seizes passing prey from
any nook or crevice in which it shelters.

The exact meaning of the name ant-lion (Fr. _fourmilion_) is uncertain.
It has been thought that it refers to the fact that ants form a large
percentage of the prey of the insect, the suffix "lion" merely
suggesting destroyer or eater. Perhaps, however, the name may only
signify a large terrestrial biting apterous insect, surpassing the ant
in size and predatory habits.     (R. I. P.)




ANTOFAGASTA, a town and port of northern Chile and capital of the
Chilean province of the same name, situated about 768 m. N. of
Valparaiso in 23 deg. 38' 39" S. lat. and 70 deg. 24' 39" W. long. Pop.
(est. 1902) 16,084. Antofagasta is the seaport for a railway running to
Oruro, Bolivia, and is the only available outlet for the trade of the
south-western departments of that republic. The smelting works for the
neighbouring silver mines are located here, and a thriving trade with
the inland mining towns is carried on. The town was founded in 1870 as a
shipping port for the recently discovered silver mines of that vicinity,
and belonged to Bolivia until 1879, when it was occupied by a Chilean
military force.

The province of ANTOFAGASTA has an area of 46,611 sq. m. lying within
the desert of Atacama and between the provinces of Tarapaca and Atacama.
It is rich in saline and other mineral deposits, the important Caracoles
silver mines being about 90 m. north-east of the port of Antofagasta.
Like the other provinces of this region, Antofagasta produces for export
copper, silver, silver ores, lead, nitrate of soda, borax and salt.
Iron and manganese ores are also found. Besides Antofagasta the
principal towns are Taltal, Mejillones, Cobija (the old capital) and
Tocopilla. Up to 1879 the province belonged to Bolivia, and was known as
the department of Atacama, or the Litoral. It fell into the possession
of Chile in the war of 1879-82, and was definitely ceded to that
republic in 1885.




ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858-   ), French actor-manager, was born at Limoges,
and in his early years was in business. But he was an enthusiastic
amateur actor, and in 1887 he founded in Paris the Theatre Libre, in
order to realize his ideas as to the proper development of dramatic art.
For an account of his work, which had enormous influence on the French
stage, see DRAMA: _France_. In 1894 he gave up the direction of this
theatre, and became connected with the Gymnase, and later (1896) with
the Odeon.




ANTONELLI, GIACOMO (1806-1876), Italian cardinal, was born at Sonnino on
the 2nd of April 1806. He was educated for the priesthood, but, after
taking minor orders, gave up the idea of becoming a priest, and chose an
administrative career. Created secular prelate, he was sent as apostolic
delegate to Viterbo, where he early manifested his reactionary
tendencies in an attempt to stamp out Liberalism. Recalled to Rome in
1841, he entered the office of the papal secretary of state, but four
years later was appointed pontifical treasurer-general. Created cardinal
(11th June 1847), he was chosen by Pius IX. to preside over the council
of state entrusted with the drafting of the constitution. On the 10th of
March 1848 Antonelli became premier of the first constitutional ministry
of Pius IX., a capacity in which he displayed consummate duplicity. Upon
the fall of his cabinet Antonelli created for himself the governorship
of the sacred palaces in order to retain constant access to and
influence over the pope. After the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi
(15th November 1848) he arranged the flight of Pius IX. to Gaeta, where
he was appointed secretary of state. Notwithstanding promises to the
powers, he restored absolute government upon returning to Rome (12th
April 1850) and violated the conditions of the surrender by wholesale
imprisonment of Liberals. In 1855 he narrowly escaped assassination. As
ally of the Bourbons of Naples, from whom he had received an annual
subsidy, he attempted, after 1860, to facilitate their restoration by
fomenting brigandage on the Neapolitan frontier. To the overtures of
Ricasoli in 1861, Pius IX., at Antonelli's suggestion, replied with the
famous "_Non possumus_," but subsequently (1867) accepted, too late,
Ricasoli's proposal concerning ecclesiastical property. After the
September Convention (1864) Antonelli organized the Legion of Antibes to
replace French troops in Rome, and in 1867 secured French aid against
Garibaldi's invasion of papal territory. Upon the reoccupation of Rome
by the French after Mentana, Antonelli again ruled supreme, but upon the
entry of the Italians in 1870 was obliged to restrict his activity to
the management of foreign relations. He wrote, with papal approval, the
letter requesting the Italians to occupy the Leonine city, and obtained
from the Italians payment of the Peter's pence (5,000,000 lire)
remaining in the papal exchequer, as well as 50,000 scudi--the first and
only instalment of the Italian allowance (subsequently fixed by the Law
of Guarantees, March 21, 1871) ever accepted by the Holy See. At
Antonelli's death the Vatican finances were found to be in disorder,
with a deficit of 45,000,000 lire. His personal fortune, accumulated
during office, was considerable, and was bequeathed almost entirely to
members of his family. To the Church he left little and to the pope only
a trifling souvenir. From 1850 until his death he interfered little in
affairs of dogma and church discipline, although he addressed to the
powers circulars enclosing the Syllabus (1864) and the acts of the
Vatican Council (1870). His activity was devoted almost exclusively to
the struggle between the papacy and the Italian _Risorgimento_, the
history of which is comprehensible only when the influence exercised by
his unscrupulous, grasping and sinister personality is fully taken into
account. He died on the 6th of November 1876.




ANTONELLO DA MESSINA (c. 1430-1479), Italian painter, was probably born
at Messina about the beginning of the 15th century, and laboured at his
art for some time in his native country. Happening to see at Naples a
painting in oil by Jan Van Eyck, belonging to Alphonso of Aragon, he was
struck by the peculiarity and value of the new method, and set out for
the Netherlands to acquire a knowledge of the process from Van Eyck's
disciples. He spent some time there in the prosecution of his art;
returned with his secret to Messina about 1465; probably visited Milan;
removed to Venice in 1472, where he painted for the Council of Ten; and
died there in the middle of February 1479 (see Venturi's article in
Thieme-Becker, _Kunstlerlexikon_, 1907). His style is remarkable for its
union--not always successful--of Italian simplicity with Flemish love of
detail. His subjects are frequently single figures, upon the complete
representation of which he bestows his utmost skill. There are
extant--besides a number more or less dubious--twenty authentic
productions, consisting of renderings of "Ecce Homo," Madonnas, saints,
and half-length portraits, many of them painted on wood. The finest of
all is said to be the nameless picture of a man in the Berlin museum.
The National Gallery, London, has three works by him, including the "St
Jerome in his Study." Antonello exercised an important influence on
Italian painting, not only by the introduction of the Flemish invention,
but also by the transmission of Flemish tendencies.




ANTONINI ITINERARIUM, a valuable register, still extant, of the stations
and distances along the various roads of the Roman empire, seemingly
based on official documents, which were probably those of the survey
organized by Julius Caesar, and carried out under Augustus. Nothing is
known with certainty as to the date or author. It is considered probable
that the date of the original edition was the beginning of the 3rd
century, while that which we possess is to be assigned to the time of
Diocletian. If the author or promoter of the work is one of the
emperors, it is most likely to be Antoninus Caracalla.

  Editions by Wesseling, 1735, Parthey and Pindar, 1848. The portion
  relating to Britain was published under the title _Iter Britanniarum_,
  with commentary by T. Reynolds, 1799.




ANTONINUS, SAINT [ANTONIO PIEROZZI, also called DE FORCIGLIONI]
(1389-1459), archbishop of Florence, was born at that city on the 1st of
March 1389. He entered the Dominican order in his 16th year, and was
soon entrusted, in spite of his youth, with the government of various
houses of his order at Cortona, Rome, Naples and Florence, which he
laboured zealously to reform. He was consecrated archbishop of Florence
in 1446, and won the esteem and love of his people, especially by his
energy and resource in combating the effects of the plague and
earthquake in 1448 and 1453. He died on the 2nd of May 1459, and was
canonized by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. His feast is annually celebrated
on the 13th of May. Antoninus had a great reputation for theological
learning, and sat as papal theologian at the council of Florence (1439).
Of his various works, the list of which is given in Quetif-Echard, _De
Scriptoribus Ord. Praedicat_., i. 818, the best-known are his _Summa
theologica_ (Venice, 1477; Verona, 1740) and the _Summa confessionalis_
(Mondovi, 1472), invaluable to confessors.

  See Bolland, _Acta Sanctorum_, i., and U. Chevalier, _Rep. des. s.
  hist._ (1905), pp. 285-286.




ANTONINUS LIBERALIS, Greek grammarian, probably flourished about A.D.
150. He wrote a collection of forty-one tales of mythical metamorphoses
([Greek: Metamorphoseon Synagogein]), chiefly valuable as a source of
mythological knowledge.

  Westermann, _Mythographi Graeci_ (1843); Oder, _De Antonino Liberali_
  (1886).




ANTONINUS PIUS [TITUS AURELIUS FULVUS BOIONIUS ARRIUS ANTONINUS], (A.D.
86-161), Roman emperor A.D. 138-161, the son of Aurelius Fulvus, a Roman
consul whose family had originally belonged to Nemausus (Nimes), was born
near Lanuvium on the 19th of September 86. After the death of his father,
he was brought up under the care of Arrius Antoninus, his maternal
grandfather, a man of integrity and culture, and on terms of friendship
with the younger Pliny. Having filled with more than usual success the
offices of quaestor and praetor, he obtained the consulship in 120; he
was next chosen one of the four consulars for Italy, and greatly
increased his reputation by his conduct as proconsul of Asia. He acquired
much influence with the emperor Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and
successor on the 25th of February 138, after the death of his first
adopted son Aelius Verus, on condition that he himself adopted Marcus
Annius Verus, his wife's brother's son, and Lucius, son of Aelius Verus,
afterwards the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Aelius Verus
(colleague of Marcus Aurelius). A few months afterwards, on Hadrian's
death, he was enthusiastically welcomed to the throne by the Roman
people, who, for once, were not disappointed in their anticipation of a
happy reign. For Antoninus came to his new office with simple tastes,
kindly disposition, extensive experience, a well-trained intelligence and
the sincerest desire for the welfare of his subjects. Instead of
plundering to support his prodigality, he emptied his private treasury to
assist distressed provinces and cities, and everywhere exercised rigid
economy (hence the nickname [Greek: kuminopristaes], "cummin-splitter").
Instead of exaggerating into treason whatever was susceptible of
unfavourable interpretation, he turned the very conspiracies that were
formed against him into opportunities of signalizing his clemency.
Instead of stirring up persecution against the Christians, he extended to
them the strong hand of his protection throughout the empire. Rather than
give occasion to that oppression which he regarded as inseparable from an
emperor's progress through his dominions, he was content to spend all the
years of his reign in Rome, or its neighbourhood. Under his patronage the
science of jurisprudence was cultivated by men of high ability, and a
number of humane and equitable enactments were passed in his name. Of the
public transactions of this period we have but scant information, but, to
judge by what we possess, those twenty-two years were not remarkably
eventful. One of his first acts was to persuade the senate to grant
divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; this gained
him the title of Pius (dutiful in affection). He built temples, theatres,
and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and
salaries upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. His reign was
comparatively peaceful. Insurrections amongst the Moors, Jews, and
Brigantes in Britain were easily put down. The one military result which
is of interest to us now is the building in Britain of the wall of
Antoninus from the Forth to the Clyde. In his domestic relations
Antoninus was not so fortunate. His wife, Faustina, has almost become a
byword for her lack of womanly virtue; but she seems to have kept her
hold on his affections to the last. On her death he honoured her memory
by the foundation of a charity for orphan girls, who bore the name of
_Alimentariae Faustinianae_. He had by her two sons and two daughters;
but they all died before his elevation to the throne, except Annia
Faustina, who became the wife of Marcus Aurelius. Antoninus died of fever
at Lorium in Etruria, about 12 m. from Rome, on the 7th of March 161,
giving the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the
tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password--_aequanimitas_.

  The only account of his life handed down to us is that of Julius
  Capitolinus, one of the _Scriptores Historiae Augustae_. See
  Bossart-Mueller, _Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A._ (1868); Lacour-Gayet,
  _A. le Pieux et son Temps_ (1888); Bryant, _The Reign of Antonine_
  (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895); P.B. Watson, _Marcus Aurelius
  Antoninus_ (London, 1884), chap. ii.




ANTONIO, known as "THE PRIOR OF CRATO" (1531-1595), claimant of the
throne of Portugal, was the natural son of Louis (Luis), duke of Beja,
by Yolande (Violante) Gomez, a Jewess, who is said to have died a nun.
His father was a younger son of Emanuel, king of Portugal (1495-1521).
Antonio was educated at Coimbra, and was placed in the order of St John.
He was endowed with the wealthy priory of Crato. Little is known of his
life till 1578. In that year he accompanied King Sebastian (1557-1578)
in his invasion of Morocco, and was taken prisoner by the Moors at the
battle of Alcazar-Kebir, in which the king was slain. Antonio is said to
have secured his release on easy terms by a fiction. He was asked the
meaning of the cross of St John which he wore on his doublet, and
replied that it was the sign of a small benefice which he held from the
pope, and would lose if he were not back by the 1st of January. His
captor, believing him to be a poor man, allowed him to escape for a
small ransom. On his return to Portugal he found that his uncle, the
cardinal Henry, only surviving son of King John III. (1521-1557), had
been recognized as king. The cardinal was old, and was the last
legitimate male representative of the royal line (see PORTUGAL:
_History_). The succession was claimed by Philip II. of Spain. Antonio,
relying on the popular hostility to a Spanish ruler, presented himself
as a candidate. He had endeavoured to prove that his father and mother
had been married after his birth. There was, however, no evidence of the
marriage. Antonio's claim, which was inferior not only to that of Philip
II., but to that of the duchess of Braganza, was not supported by the
nobles or gentry. His partisans were drawn exclusively from the inferior
clergy, the peasants and workmen. The prior endeavoured to resist the
army which Philip II. marched into Portugal to enforce his pretensions,
but was easily routed by the duke of Alva, the Spanish commander, at
Alcantara, on the 25th of August 1580. At the close of the year, or in
the first days of 1581, he fled to France carrying with him the crown
jewels, which included many valuable diamonds. He was well received by
Catherine de' Medici, who had a claim of her own on the crown of
Portugal, and looked upon him as a convenient instrument to be used
against Philip II. By promising to cede the Portuguese colony of Brazil
to her, and by the sale of part of his jewels, Antonio secured means to
fit out a fleet manned by Portuguese exiles and French and English
adventurers. As the Spaniards had not yet occupied the Azores he sailed
to them, but was utterly defeated at sea by the marquis of Santa Cruz
off Saint Michael's on the 27th of July 1582. He now returned to France,
and lived for a time at Ruel near Paris. Peril from the assassins
employed by Philip II. to remove him drove Antonio from one refuge to
another, and he finally came to England. Elizabeth favoured him for much
the same reasons as Catherine de' Medici. In 1589, the year after the
Armada, he accompanied an English expedition under the command of Drake
and Norris to the coast of Spain and Portugal. The force consisted
partly of the queen's ships, and in part of privateers who went in
search of booty. Antonio, with all the credulity of an exile, believed
that his presence would provoke a general rising against Philip II., but
none took place, and the expedition was a costly failure. In 1590 the
pretender left England and returned to France, where he fell into
poverty. His remaining diamonds were disposed of by degrees. The last
and finest was acquired by M. de Sancy, from whom it was purchased by
Sully and included in the jewels of the crown. During his last days he
lived as a private gentleman on a small pension given him by Henry IV.,
and he died in Paris on the 26th of August 1595. He left two
illegitimate sons, and his descendants can be traced till 1687. In
addition to papers published to defend his claims Antonio was the author
of the _Panegyrus Alphonsi Lusitanorum Regis_ (Coimbra, 1550), and of a
cento of the Psalms, _Psalmi Confessionales_ (Paris 1592), which was
translated into English under the title of _The Royal Penitent_ by
Francis Chamberleyn (London, 1659), and into German as _Heilige
Betrachtungen_ (Marburg, 1677).

  AUTHORITIES.--Antonio is frequently mentioned in the French, English,
  and Spanish state papers of the time. A life of him, attributed to
  Gomes Vasconcellos de Figueredo, was published in a French translation
  by Mme de Sainctonge at Amsterdam (1696). A modern account of him, _Un
  pretendant portugais au XVI. siecle_, by E. Fournier (Paris, 1852), is
  based on authentic sources. See also _Dom Antonio Prior de
  Crato--notas de bibliographia_, by J. de Aranjo (Lisbon, 1897).
       (D. H.)




ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684), Spanish bibliographer, was born at Seville
on the 31st of July 1617. After taking his degree at Salamanca
(1636-1639), he returned to his native city, wrote his treatise _De
Exilio_ (which was not printed till 1659), and began his monumental
register of Spanish writers. The fame of his learning reached Philip
IV., who conferred the order of Santiago on him in 1645, and sent him as
general agent to Rome in 1654. Returning to Spain in 1679, Antonio died
at Madrid in the spring of 1684. His _Bibliotheca Hispana nova_, dealing
with the works of Spanish authors who flourished after 1500, appeared at
Rome in 1672; the _Bibliotheca Hispana vetus_, a literary history of
Spain from the time of Augustus to the end of the 15th century, was
revised by Manuel Marti, and published by Antonio's friend, Cardinal
Jose Saenz de Aguirre at Rome in 1696. A fine edition of both parts,
with additional matter found in Antonio's manuscripts, and with
supplementary notes by Francisco Perez Bayer, was issued at Madrid in
1787-1788. This great work, incomparably superior to any previous
bibliography, is still unsuperseded and indispensable.

  Of Antonio's miscellaneous writings the most important is the
  posthumous _Censura de historias fabulosas_ (Valencia, 1742), in which
  erudition is combined with critical insight. His _Bibliotheca Hispana
  rabinica_ has not been printed; the manuscript is in the national
  library at Madrid.




ANTONIO DE LEBRIJA [ANTONIUS NEBRISSENSIS], (1444-1522), Spanish
scholar, was born at Lebrija in the province of Andalusia. After
studying at Salamanca he resided for ten years in Italy, and completed
his education at Bologna University. On his return to Spain (1473), he
devoted himself to the advancement of classical learning amongst his
countrymen. After holding the professorship of poetry and grammar at
Salamanca, he was transferred to the university of Alcala de Henares,
where he lectured until his death in 1522, at the age of seventy-eight.
His services to the cause of classical literature in Spain have been
compared with those rendered by Valla, Erasmus and Budaeus to Italy,
Holland and France. He produced a large number of works on a variety of
subjects, including a Latin and Spanish dictionary, commentaries on
Sedulius and Persius, and a Compendium of Rhetoric, based on Aristotle,
Cicero and Quintilian. His most ambitious work was his chronicle
entitled _Rerum in Hispania Gestarum Decades_ (published in 1545 by his
son as an original work by his father), which twenty years later was
found to be merely a Latin translation of the Spanish chronicle of
Pulgar, which was published at Saragossa in 1567. De Lebrija also took
part in the production of the Complutense polyglot Bible published under
the patronage of Cardinal Jimenes.

  Antonio, _Bibliotheca Hispana Nova_, i. 132 (1888); Prescott, _History
  of Ferdinand and Isabella_, i. 410 (note); MacCrie, _The Reformation
  in Spain in the Sixteenth Century_ (1829).




ANTONIUS, the name of a large number of prominent citizens of ancient
Rome, of the gens Antonia. Antonius the triumvir claimed that his family
was descended from Anton, son of Heracles. Of the Antonii the following
are important.

1. MARCUS ANTONIUS (143-87 B.C.), one of the most distinguished Roman
orators of his time, was quaestor in 113, and praetor in 102 with
proconsular powers, the province of Cilicia being assigned to him. Here
he was so successful against the pirates that a naval triumph was
awarded him. He was consul in 99, censor 97, and held a command in the
Marsic War in 90. An adherent of Sulla, he was put to death by Marius
and Cinna when they obtained possession of Rome (87). Antonius's
reputation for eloquence rests on the authority of Cicero, none of his
orations being extant. He is one of the chief speakers in Cicero's _De
Oratore_.

  Velleius Paterculus ii. 22; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 72; Dio Cassius
  xlv. 47; Plutarch, _Marius_, 44; Cicero, _Orator_, 5, _Brutus_, 37;
  Quintilian, _Instit._ iii. 1, 19; O. Enderlein, _De M. Antonio
  oratore_ (Leipzig, 1882).

2. MARCUS ANTONIUS, nicknamed CRETICUS in derision, elder son of Marcus
Antonius, the "orator," and father of the triumvir. He was praetor in 74
B.C., and received an extraordinary command (similar to that bestowed
upon Pompey by the Gabinian law) to clear the sea of pirates, and
thereby assist the operations against Mithradates VI. He failed in the
task, and made himself unpopular by plundering the provinces (Sallust,
_Hist._ iii., fragments ed. B. Maurenbrecher, p. 108; Velleius
Paterculus ii. 31; Cicero, _In Verrem_, iii. 91). He attacked the
Cretans, who had made an alliance with the pirates, but was totally
defeated, most of his ships being sunk. Diodorus Siculus (xl. 1) states
that he only saved himself by a disgraceful treaty. He died soon
afterwards (72-71) in Crete. All authorities are agreed as to his
avarice and incompetence.

3. GAIUS ANTONIUS, nicknamed HYBRIDA from his half-savage disposition
(Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 213), second son of Marcus Antonius, the
"orator," and uncle of the triumvir. He was one of Sulla's lieutenants
in the Mithradatic War, and, after Sulla's return, remained in Greece to
plunder with a force of cavalry. In 76 he was tried for his
malpractices, but escaped punishment; six years later he was removed
from the senate by the censors, but soon afterwards reinstated. In spite
of his bad reputation, he was elected tribune in 71, praetor in 66, and
consul with Cicero in 63. He secretly supported Catiline, but Cicero won
him over by promising him the rich province of Macedonia. On the
outbreak of the Catilinarian conspiracy, Antonius was obliged to lead an
army into Etruria, but handed over the command on the day of battle to
Marcus Petreius on the ground of ill-health. He then went to Macedonia,
where he made himself so detested by his oppression and extortions that
he left the province, and was accused in Rome (59) both of having taken
part in the conspiracy and of extortion in his province. It was said
that Cicero had agreed with Antonius to share his plunder. Cicero's
defence of Antonius two years before in view of a proposal for his
recall, and also on the occasion of his trial, increased the suspicion.
In spite of Cicero's eloquence, Antonius was condemned, and went into
exile at Cephallenia. He seems to have been recalled by Caesar, since he
was present at a meeting of the senate in 44, and was censor in 42.

  Cicero, _In Cat._ iii. 6, _pro Flacco_, 38; Plutarch, _Cicero_, 12;
  Dio Cassius xxxvii. 39, 40; xxxviii. 10. On his trial see article in
  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_.

4. MARCUS ANTONIUS, commonly called MARK ANTONY, the Triumvir, grandson
of Antonius the "orator" and son of Antonius Creticus, related on his
mother's side to Julius Caesar, was born about 83 B.C. Under the
influence of his stepfather, Cornelius Lentulus Sura, he spent a
profligate youth. For a time he co-operated with P. Clodius Pulcher,
probably out of hostility to Cicero, who had caused Lentulus Sura to be
put to death as a Catilinarian; the connexion was severed by a
disagreement arising from his relations with Clodius's wife, Fulvia. In
58 he fled to Greece to escape his creditors. After a short time spent
in attendance on the philosophers at Athens, he was summoned by Aulus
Gabinius, governor of Syria, to take part in the campaigns against
Aristobulus in Palestine, and in support of Ptolemy Auletes in Egypt. In
54 he was with Caesar in Gaul. Raised by Caesar's influence to the
offices of quaestor, augur, and tribune of the plebs, he supported the
cause of his patron with great energy, and was expelled from the
senate-house when the Civil War broke out. Deputy-governor of Italy
during Caesar's absence in Spain (49), second in command in the decisive
battle of Pharsalus (48), and again deputy-governor of Italy while
Caesar was in Africa (47), Antony was second only to the dictator, and
seized the opportunity of indulging in the most extravagant excesses,
depicted by Cicero in the _Philippics_. In 46 he seems to have taken
offence because Caesar insisted on payment for the property of Pompey
which Antony professedly had purchased, but had in fact simply
appropriated. The estrangement was not of long continuance; for we find
Antony meeting the dictator at Narbo the following year, and rejecting
the suggestion of Trebonius that he should join in the conspiracy that
was already on foot. In 44 he was consul with Caesar, and seconded his
ambition by the famous offer of the crown at the festival of Lupercalia
(February 15). After the murder of Caesar on the 15th of March, Antony
conceived the idea of making himself sole ruler. At first he seemed
disposed to treat the conspirators leniently, but at the same time he so
roused the people against them by the publication of Caesar's will and
by his eloquent funeral oration, that they were obliged to leave the
city. He surrounded himself with a bodyguard of Caesar's veterans, and
forced the senate to transfer to him the province of Cisalpine Gaul,
which was then administered by Decimus Junius Brutus, one of the
conspirators. Brutus refused to surrender the province, and Antony set
out to attack him in October 44, But at this time Octavian, whom Caesar
had adopted as his son, arrived from Illyria, and claimed the
inheritance of his "father." Octavian obtained the support of the senate
and of Cicero; and the veteran troops of the dictator flocked to his
standard. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Octavian was
entrusted with the command of the war against him. Antony was defeated
at Mutina (43) where he was besieging Brutus. The consuls Aulus Hirtius
and C. Vibius Pansa, however, fell in the battle, and the senate became
suspicious of Octavian, who, irritated at the refusal of a triumph and
the appointment of Brutus to the command over his head, entered Rome at
the head of his troops, and forced the senate to bestow the consulship
upon him (August 19th). Meanwhile, Antony escaped to Cisalpine Gaul,
effected a junction with Lepidus and marched towards Rome with a large
force of infantry and cavalry. Octavian betrayed his party, and came to
terms with Antony and Lepidus. The three leaders met at Bononia and
adopted the title of _Triumviri reipublicae constituendae_ as joint
rulers. Gaul was to belong to Antony, Spain to Lepidus, and Africa,
Sardinia and Sicily to Octavian. The arrangement was to last for five
years. A reign of terror followed; proscriptions, confiscations, and
executions became general; some of the noblest citizens were put to
death, and Cicero fell a victim to Antony's revenge. In the following
year (42) Antony and Octavian proceeded against the conspirators Cassius
and Brutus, and by the two battles of Philippi annihilated the
senatorial and republican parties. Antony proceeded to Greece, and
thence to Asia Minor, to procure money for his veterans and complete the
subjugation of the eastern provinces. On his passage through Cilicia in
41 he fell a victim to the charms of Cleopatra, in whose company he
spent the winter at Alexandria. At length he was aroused by the Parthian
invasion of Syria and the report of an outbreak between Fulvia his wife
and Lucius his brother on the one hand and Octavian on the other. On
arriving in Italy he found that Octavian was already victorious; on the
death of Fulvia, a reconciliation was effected between the triumvirs,
and cemented by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister of his
colleague. A new division of the Roman world was made at Brundusium,
Lepidus receiving Africa, Octavian the west, and Antony the east.
Returning to his province Antony made several attempts to subdue the
Parthians, without any decided success. In 39 he visited Athens, where
he behaved in a most extravagant manner, assuming the attributes of the
god Dionysus. In 37 he crossed over to Italy, and renewed the
triumvirate for five years at a meeting with Octavian. Returning to
Syria, he resumed relations with Cleopatra. His treatment of Octavia,
her brother's desire to get rid of him, and the manner in which he
disposed of kingdoms and provinces in favour of Cleopatra alienated his
supporters. In 32 the senate deprived him of his powers and declared war
against Cleopatra. After two years spent in preparations, Antony was
defeated at the battle of Actium (2nd September 31). Once more he sought
refuge in the society of Cleopatra, who had escaped with sixty ships to
Egypt. He was pursued by his enemies and his troops abandoned him.
Thereupon he committed suicide in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had
already done so (30 B.C.). Antony had been married in succession to
Fadia, Antonia, Fulvia and Octavia, and left behind him a number of
children.

  See ROME, _History_, II. "The Republic" (_ad fin._); Caesar, _De Bella
  Gallico, De Bella Civili_; Plutarch, Lives of _Antony, Brutus, Cicero,
  Caesar_; Cicero, _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser) and _Philippics_;
  Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i.-v.; Dio Cassius xli.-liii. In addition to the
  standard histories, see V. Gardthausen, _Augustus und seine Zeit_
  (Leipzig, 1891-1904); W. Drumann, _Geschichte Roms_ (2nd ed. P.
  Groebe, 1899), i. pp. 46-384; article by Groebe in Pauly-Wissowa's
  _Realencyclopadie_; and a short but vivid sketch by de Quincey in his
  _Essay on the Caesars_.

5. LUCIUS ANTONIUS, youngest son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, and
brother of the triumvir. In 44, as tribune of the people, he brought
forward a law authorizing Caesar to nominate the chief magistrates
during his absence from Rome. After the murder of Caesar, he supported
his brother Marcus. He proposed an agrarian law in favour of the people
and Caesar's veterans, and took part in the operations at Mutina (43).
In 41 he was consul, and had a dispute with Octavian, which led to the
so-called Perusian War, in which he was supported by Fulvia (Mark
Antony's wife), who was anxious to recall her husband from Cleopatra's
court. Later, observing the bitter feelings that had been evoked by the
distribution of land among the veterans of Caesar, Antonius and Fulvia
changed their attitude, and stood forward as the defenders of those who
had suffered from its operation. Antonius marched on Rome, drove out
Lepidus, and promised the people that the triumvirate should be
abolished. On the approach of Octavian, he retired to Perusia in
Etruria, where he was besieged by three armies, and compelled to
surrender (winter of 41). His life was spared, and he was sent by
Octavian to Spain as governor. Nothing is known of the circumstances or
date of his death. Cicero, in his _Philippics_, actuated in great
measure by personal animosity, gives a highly unfavourable view of his
character.

  Appian, _Bellum Civile_, v. 14 ff.; Dio Cassius xlviii. 5-14.

6. GAIUS ANTONIUS, second son of Marcus Antonius Creticus, and brother
of the triumvir. In 49 he was legate of Caesar and, with P. Cornelius
Dolabella, was entrusted with the defence of Illyricum against the
Pompeians. Dolabella's fleet was destroyed; Antonius was shut up in the
island of Curicta and forced to surrender. In 44 he was city praetor,
his brothers Marcus and Lucius being consul and tribune respectively in
the same year. Gaius was appointed to the province of Macedonia, but on
his way thither fell into the hands of M. Junius Brutus on the coast of
Illyria. Brutus at first treated him generously, but ultimately put him
to death (42).

  Plutarch, _Brutus_, 28; Dio Cassius xlvii. 21-24. On the whole family,
  see the articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, i. pt. 2
  (1894).




ANTONOMASIA, in rhetoric, the Greek term for a substitution of any
epithet or phrase for a proper name; as "Pelides," or "the son of
Peleus," for Achilles; "the Stagirite" for Aristotle; "the author of
_Paradise Lost_" for Milton; "the little corporal" for Napoleon I.;
"Macedonia's madman" for Alexander the Great, &c. &c. The opposite
substitution of a proper name for some generic term is also sometimes
called antonomasia; as "a Cicero" for an orator.




ANTRAIGUES, EMMANUEL HENRI LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE LAUNAY, COMTE D' (c.
1755-1812), French publicist and political adventurer, was a nephew of
Francois Emmanuel de Saint-Priest (1735-1821), one of the last ministers
of Louis XVI. He was a cavalry captain, but, having little taste for the
army, left it and travelled extensively, especially in the East. On his
return to Paris, he sought the society of philosophers and artists,
visited Voltaire at Ferney for three months, but was more attracted by
J.J. Rousseau, with whom he became somewhat intimate. He published a
_Memoire sur les etats-generaux_, supported the Revolution
enthusiastically when it broke out, was elected deputy, and took the
oath to the constitution; but he suddenly changed his mind completely,
became a defender of the monarchy and emigrated in 1790. He was the
secret agent of the comte de Provence (Louis XVIII.) at different courts
of Europe, and at the same time received money from the courts he
visited. He published a number of pamphlets, _Des monstres ravagent
partout_, _Point d'accommodement_, &c. At Venice, where he was attache
to the Russian legation, he was arrested in 1797, but escaped to Russia.
Sent as Russian attache to Dresden, he published a violent pamphlet
against Napoleon I., and was expelled by the Saxon government. He then
went to London, and it was universally believed that he betrayed the
secret articles of the treaty of Tilsit to the British cabinet, but his
recent biographer, Pingaud, contests this. In 1812 he and his wife
Madame Saint-Huberty, an operatic singer, were assassinated by an
Italian servant whom they had dismissed. It has never been known whether
the murder was committed from private or political motives.

  See H. Vaschalde, _Notice bibliographique sur Louis Alexandre de
  Launay, comte d'Antraigues, sa vie et ses oeuvres_; Leonce Pingaud,
  _Un Agent secret sous la revolution et l'empire, le comte
  d'Antraigues_ (Paris, 1893); Edouard de Goncourt, _La Saint-Huberty et
  l'opera au XVIII^e siecle_.




ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1636), called "Arranach,"
having been brought up in the Scottish island of Arran by the Hamiltons,
was the 4th son of Sorley Boy MacDonnell (q.v.), and of Mary, daughter
of Conn O'Neill, 1st earl of Tyrone. He fought at first against the
English government, participating in his brother James's victory over
Sir John Chichester at Carrickfergus in November 1597, and joining in
O'Neill's rebellion in 1600. But on the 16th of December he signed
articles with Sir Arthur Chichester and was granted protection; in 1601
he became head of his house by his elder brother's death, his pardon
being confirmed to him; and in 1602 he submitted to Lord Mountjoy and
was knighted. On the accession of James I. in 1603 he obtained a grant
of the Route and the Glynns (Glens) districts, together with the island
of Rathlin, and remained faithful to the government in spite of the
unpopularity he thereby incurred among his kinsmen, who conspired to
depose him. In 1607 he successfully defended himself against the charge
of disloyalty on the occasion of the flight of the earls of Tyrone and
Tyrconnell, and rendered services to the government by settling and
civilizing his districts, being well received the following year by
James in London. In 1618 he was created Viscount Dunluce, and
subsequently he was appointed a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of
the county of Antrim. On the 12th of December 1620 he was created earl
of Antrim. In 1621 he was charged with harbouring Roman Catholic
priests, confessed his offence and was pardoned. He offered his
assistance in 1625 during the prospect of a Spanish invasion, but was
still regarded as a person that needed watching. His arbitrary conduct
in Ireland in 1627 was suggested as a fit subject for examination by the
Star Chamber, but his fidelity to the government was strictly maintained
to the last. In 1631 he was busy repairing Protestant churches, and in
1634 he attended the Irish parliament. He made an important agreement in
1635 for the purchase from James Campbell, Lord Cantire, of the lordship
of Cantire, or Kintyre, of which the MacDonnells had been dispossessed
in 1600 by Argyll; but his possession was successfully opposed by Lord
Lorne. He died on the 10th of December 1636. Antrim married Alice,
daughter of Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, by whom, besides six
daughters, he had Randal, 2nd earl and 1st marquess of Antrim (q.v.),
and Alexander, 3rd earl. Three other sons, Maurice, Francis and James,
were probably illegitimate. The earldom has continued in the family down
to the present day, the 11th earl (b. 1851) succeeding in 1869.

  See also _An Historical Account of the MacDonnells of Antrim_, by G.
  Hill (1873).




ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, 1ST MARQUESS of (1609-1683), son of the 1st
earl of Antrim, was born in 1609 and educated as a Roman Catholic. He
travelled abroad, and on his return in 1634 went to court, next year
marrying Katherine Manners, widow of the 1st duke of Buckingham, and
living on her fortune for some years in great splendour. In 1639, on the
outbreak of the Scottish war, he initiated a scheme of raising a force
in Ireland to attack Argyll in Scotland and recover Kintyre (or
Cantire), a district formerly possessed by his family; but the plan,
discouraged and ridiculed by Strafford, miscarried.[1] Soon afterwards
he returned to Ireland, and sought in 1641 to create a diversion,
together with Ormonde, for Charles I. against the parliament. He joined
in his schemes Lord Slane and Sir Phelim O'Neill, later leaders of the
rebellion, but on the outbreak of the rebellion in the autumn he
dissociated himself from his allies and retired to his castle at
Dunluce. His suspicious conduct, however, and his Roman Catholicism,
caused him to be regarded as an enemy by the English party. In May 1642
he was captured at Dunluce Castle by the parliamentary general Robert
Munro, and imprisoned at Carrickfergus. Escaping thence he joined the
queen at York; and subsequently, having proceeded to Ireland to
negotiate a cessation of hostilities, he was again captured with his
papers in May 1643 and confined at Carrickfergus, thence once more
escaping and making his way to Kilkenny, the headquarters of the Roman
Catholic confederation. He returned to Oxford in December with a scheme
for raising 10,000 Irish for service in England and 2000 to join
Montrose in Scotland, which through the influence of the duchess of
Buckingham secured the consent of the king. On the 26th of January 1644
Antrim was created a marquess. He returned to Kilkenny in February, took
the oath of association, and was made a member of the council and
lieutenant-general of the forces of the Catholic confederacy. The
confederacy, however, giving him no support in his projects, he threw up
his commission, and with Ormonde's help despatched about 1600 men in
June to Montrose's assistance in Scotland, subsequently returning to
Oxford and being sent by the king in 1645 with letters for the queen at
St Germains. He proceeded thence to Flanders and fitted out two frigates
with military stores, which he brought to the prince of Wales at
Falmouth. He visited Cork and afterwards in July 1646 joined his troops
in Scotland, with the hope of expelling Argyll from Kintyre; but he was
obliged to retire by order of the king, and returning to Ireland threw
himself into the intrigues between the various factions. In 1647 he was
appointed with two others by the confederacy to negotiate a treaty with
the prince of Wales in France, and though he anticipated his companions
by starting a week before them, he failed to secure the coveted
lord-lieutenancy, which was confirmed to Ormonde. He now ceased to
support the Roman Catholics or the king's cause; opposed the treaty
between Ormonde and the confederates; supported the project of union
between O'Neill and the parliament; and in 1649 entered into
communications with Cromwell, for whom he performed various services,
though there appears no authority to support Carte's story that Antrim
was the author of a forged agreement for the betrayal of the king's army
by Lord Inchiquin.[2] Subsequently he joined Ireton, and was present at
the siege of Carlow. He returned to England in December 1650, and in
lieu of his confiscated estate received a pension of L500 and later of
L800, together with lands in Mayo. At the Restoration Antrim was
excluded from the Act of Oblivion on account of his religion, and on
presenting himself at court was imprisoned in the Tower, subsequently
being called before the lords justices in Ireland. In 1663 he succeeded,
in spite of Ormonde's opposition, in securing a decree of innocence from
the commissioners of claims. This raised an outcry from the adventurers
who had been put in possession of his lands, and who procured a fresh
trial; but Antrim appealed to the king, and through the influence of the
queen mother obtained a pardon, his estates being restored to him by the
Irish, Act of Explanation in 1665.[3] Antrim died on the 3rd of February
1683. He is described by Clarendon as of handsome appearance but "of
excessive pride and vanity and of a marvellous weak and narrow
understanding." He married secondly Rose, daughter of Sir Henry O'Neill,
but had no children, being succeeded in the earldom by his brother
Alexander, 3rd earl of Antrim.

  See _Hibernia Anglicana_, by R. Cox (1689-1690) esp. app. xlix. vol.
  ii. 206; _History of the Irish Confederation_, by J.T. Gilbert
  (1882-1891); _Aphorismical Discovery_ (Irish Archaeological Society,
  1879-1880); _Thomason Tracts_ (Brit. Mus.), E 59 (18), 149 (12), 138
  (7), 153 (19), 61 (23); _Murder will out, or the King's Letter
  justifying the Marquess of Antrim_ (1689); _Hist. MSS. Comm.
  Series--MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde._     (P. C. Y.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Strafford's _Letters_, ii. 300.

  [2] _Life of Ormonde_, iii. 509; see also _Cal. of State Papers,
    Ireland, 1660-1662_, pp. 294, 217; _Cal. of Clarendon St. Pap._, ii.
    69, and Gardiner's _Commonwealth_, i. 153.

  [3] Hallam, _Const. Hist._, iii. 396 (ed. 1855).




ANTRIM, a county in the north-east corner of Ireland, in the province of
Ulster. It is bounded N. and E. by the narrow seas separating Ireland
from Scotland, the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea, S. by Belfast Lough and
the Lagan river dividing it from the county Down, W. by Lough Neagh,
dividing it from the counties Armagh and Tyrone, and by county
Londonderry, the boundary with which is the river Bann.

The area is 751,965 acres or about 1175 sq. m. A large portion of the
county is hilly, especially in the east, where the highest elevations
are attained, though these are nowhere great. The range runs north and
south, and, following this direction the highest points are Knocklayd
(1695 ft.), Slieveanorra (1676), Trostan (1817), Slemish (1457), and
Divis (1567). The inland slope is gradual, but on the northern shore the
range terminates in abrupt and almost perpendicular declivities, and
here, consequently, some of the finest coast scenery in the island is
found, widely differing, with its unbroken lines of cliffs, from the
indented coast-line of the west. The most remarkable cliffs are those
formed of perpendicular basaltic columns, extending for many miles, and
most strikingly displayed in Fair Head and the celebrated Giant's
Causeway. From the eastern coast the hills rise instantly but less
abruptly, and the indentations are wider and deeper. On both coasts
there are several frequented watering-places, of which may be mentioned
on the north Portrush (with well-known golf links), Port Ballintrae and
Ballycastle; on the east Cushendun, Cushendall and Milltown on Red Bay,
Carn Lough and Glenarm, Larne, and Whitehead on Belfast Lough. All are
somewhat exposed to the easterly winds prevalent in spring. The only
island of size is Rathlin, off Ballycastle, 6-1/2 m. in length by 1-1/2
in breadth, 7 m. from the coast, and of similar basaltic and limestone
formation to that of the mainland. It is partially arable, and supports
a small population. The so-called Island Magee is a peninsula separating
Larne Lough from the Irish Channel.

The valleys of the Bann and Lagan, with the intervening shores of Lough
Neagh, form the fertile lowlands. These two rivers, both rising in
county Down, are the only ones of importance. The latter flows to
Belfast Lough, the former drains Lough Neagh, which is fed by a number
of smaller streams, among them the Crumlin, whose waters have petrifying
powers. The fisheries of the Bann and of Lough Neagh (especially for
salmon) are of value both commercially and to sportsmen, the small town
of Toome, at the outflow of the river, being the centre. Immediately
below this point lies Lough Beg, the "Small Lake," about 15 ft. lower
than Lough Neagh, which it excels in the pleasant scenery of its banks.
The smaller streams are of great use in working machinery.

_Geology._--On entering the county at the south, a scarped barrier of
hills is seen beyond the Lagan valley, marking the edge of the basaltic
plateaus, and running almost continuously round the coast to Red Bay.
Below it, Triassic beds are exposed from Lisburn to Island Magee, giving
sections of red sands and marls. Above these, marine Rhaetic beds appear
at intervals, notably near Larne, where they are succeeded by Lower Lias
shales and limestones. At Portrush, the Lower Lias is seen on the shore,
crowded with ammonites, but silicified and metamorphosed by invading
dolerite. The next deposits, as the scarps are approached, are
greensands of "Selbornian" age, succeeded by Cenomanian, and locally by
Turonian, sands. The Senonian series is represented by the White
Limestone, a hardened chalk with flints, which is often glauconitic and
conglomeratic at the base. Denudation in earliest Eocene times has
produced flint gravels above the chalk, and an ancient stream deposit of
chalk pebbles occurs at Ballycastle. The volcanic fissures that allowed
of the upwelling of basalt are represented by numerous dykes, many
cutting the earlier lava-flows as well as all the beds below them. The
accumulations of lava gave rise to the plateaus which form almost the
whole interior of the county. In a quiet interval, the Lower Eocene
plant-beds of Glenarm and Ballypalady were formed in lakes, where
iron-ores also accumulated. Rhyolites were erupted locally near Tardree,
Ballymena and Glenarm. The later basalts are especially marked by
columnar jointing, which determines the famous structures of the Giant's
Causeway and the coast near Bengore Head. Volcanic necks may be
recognized at Carrick-a-rede, in the intrusive mass of dolerite at
Slemish, at Carnmoney near Belfast, and a few other points. Fair Head is
formed of intrusive dolerite, presenting a superb columnar seaward face.
Faulting, probably in Pliocene times, lowered the basaltic plateaus to
form the basin of Lough Neagh, leaving the eastern scarp at heights
ranging up to 1800 ft. The glens of Antrim are deep notches cut by
seaward-running streams through the basalt scarp, their floors being
formed of Triassic or older rocks. Unlike most Irish counties, Antrim
owes its principal features to rocks of Mesozoic and Cainozoic age. At
Cushendun, however, a coarse conglomerate is believed to be Devonian,
while Lower Carboniferous Sandstones, with several coal-seams, form a
small productive basin at Ballycastle. The dolerite of Fair Head sends
off sheets along the bedding-planes of these carboniferous strata.
"Dalradian" schists and gneisses, with some dark limestones, come out in
the north-east of the county, forming a moorland-region between
Cushendun and Ballycastle. The dome of Knocklayd, capped by an outlier
of chalk and basalt, consists mostly of this far more ancient series.
Glacial gravels are well seen near Antrim town, and as drumlins between
Ballymena and Ballycastle. The drift-phenomena connected with the flow
of ice from Scotland are of special interest. Recently elevated marine
clays, of post-glacial date, fringe the south-eastern coast, while
gravels with marine shells, side by side with flint implements chipped
by early man, have been lifted some 20 ft. above sea-level near Larne.

Rock-salt some 80 ft. thick is mined in the Trias near Carrickfergus.
The Keuper clays yield material for bricks. Bauxite, probably derived
from the decay of lavas, is found between Glenarm and Broughshane,
associated with brown and red pisolitic iron-ores; both these materials
are worked commercially. Bauxite occurs also near Ballintoy. The
Ballycastle coal is raised and sold locally.

_Industries._--The climate is very temperate. The soil varies greatly
according to the district, being in some cases a rich loam, in others a
chalky marl, and elsewhere showing a coating of peat. The proportion of
barren land to the total area is roughly as 1 to 9; and of tillage to
pasture as 2 to 3. Tillage is therefore, relatively to other counties,
well advanced, and oats and potatoes are largely, though decreasingly,
cultivated. Flax is a less important crop than formerly. The numbers of
cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are generally increasing. Dutch,
Ayrshire and other breeds are used to improve the breed of cattle by
crossing. Little natural wood remains in the county, but plantations
flourish on the great estates, and orchards have proved successful.

The linen manufacture is the most important industry. Cotton-spinning by
jennies was first introduced by Robert Joy and Thomas M'Cabe of Belfast
in 1777; and an estimate made twenty-three years later showed upwards of
27,000 hands employed in this industry within 10 m. of Belfast, which
remains the centre for it. Women are employed in the working of patterns
on muslin. There are several paper-mills at Bushmills in the north;
whisky-distilling is carried on; and there are valuable sea-fisheries
divided between the district of Ballycastle and Carrickfergus, while the
former is the headquarters of a salmon-fishery district. The workings at
the Ballycastle collieries are probably the oldest in Ireland. In 1770
the miners accidentally discovered a complete gallery, which has been
driven many hundred yards into the bed of coal, branching into
thirty-six chambers dressed quite square, and in a workman-like manner.
No tradition of the mine having been formerly worked remained in the
neighbourhood. The coal of some of the beds is bituminous, and of others
anthracite.

_Communications._--Except that the Great Northern railway line from
Belfast to the south and west runs for a short distance close to the
southern boundary of the county, with a branch from Lisburn to the town
of Antrim, the principal lines of communication are those of the
Northern Counties system, under the control of the Midland railway of
England. The chief routes are:--Belfast, Antrim, Ballymena (and thence
to Coleraine and Londonderry); a line diverging from this at White Abbey
to Carrickfergus and Larne, the port for Stranraer in Scotland; branches
from Ballymena to Larne and to Parkmore; and from Coleraine to Portrush.
The Ballycastle railway runs from Ballymoney to Ballycastle on the north
coast; and the Giant's Causeway and Portrush is an electric railway (the
first to be worked in the United Kingdom). The Lagan Canal connects
Lough Neagh with Belfast Lough.

_Population and Administration._--The population in 1891 was 208,010,
and in 1901, 196,090. The county is among those least seriously affected
by emigration. Of the total about 50% are Presbyterians, about 20% each
Protestant Episcopalians and Roman Catholics; Antrim being one of the
most decidedly Protestant counties in Ireland. Of the Presbyterians the
greater part are in connexion with the General Synod of Ulster, and the
other are Remonstrants, who separated from the Synod in 1829, or United
Presbyterians. The principal towns are Antrim (pop. 1826), Ballymena
(10,886), Ballymoney (2952), Carrickfergus (4208), Larne (6670), Lisburn
(11,461) and Portrush (1941). Belfast though constituting a separate
county ranks as the metropolis of the district. Ballyclare, Bushmills,
Crumlin, Portglenone and Randalstown are among the lesser towns. Belfast
and Larne are the chief ports. The county comprises 14 baronies and 79
civil parishes and parts of parishes. The constabulary force has its
headquarters at Ballymena. The assize town is Belfast, and quarter
sessions are held at Ballymena, Ballymoney, Belfast, Larne and Lisburn.
The county is divided between the Protestant dioceses of Derry and Down,
and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Down and Connor, and Dromore. It is
divided into north, mid, east and south parliamentary divisions, each
returning one member.

_History and Antiquities._--At what date the county of Antrim was formed
is not known, but it appears that a certain district bore this name
before the reign of Edward II. (early 14th century), and when the
shiring of Ulster was undertaken by Sir John Perrot in the 16th century,
Antrim and Down were already recognized divisions, in contradistinction
to the remainder of the province. The earliest known inhabitants were of
Celtic origin, and the names of the townlands or subdivisions, supposed
to have been made in the 13th century, are pure Celtic. Antrim was
exposed to the inroads of the Danes, and also of the northern Scots, who
ultimately effected permanent settlements. The antiquities of the county
consist of cairns, mounts or forts, remains of ecclesiastical and
military structures, and round towers. The principal cairns are: one on
Colin mountain, near Lisburn; one on Slieve True, near Carrickfergus;
and two on Colinward. The cromlechs most worthy of notice are: one near
Cairngrainey, to the north-east of the old road from Belfast to
Templepatrick; the large cromlech at Mount Druid, near Ballintoy; and
one at the northern extremity of Island Magee. The mounts, forts and
intrenchments are very numerous. There are three round towers: one at
Antrim, one at Armoy, and one on Ram Island in Lough Neagh, only that at
Antrim being perfect. There are some remains of the ecclesiastic
establishments at Bonamargy, where the earls of Antrim are buried,
Kells, Glenarm, Glynn, Muckamore and White Abbey. The noble castle of
Carrickfergus is the only one in perfect preservation. There are,
however, remains of other ancient castles, as Olderfleet, Cam's,
Shane's, Glenarm, Garron Tower, Redbay, &c., but the most interesting of
all is the castle of Dunluce, remarkable for its great extent and
romantic situation. Mount Slemish, about 8 m. east of Ballymena, is
notable as being the scene of St Patrick's early life. Island Magee had,
besides antiquarian remains, a notoriety as a home of witchcraft, and
was the scene of an act of reprisal for the much-disputed massacre of
Protestants about 1641, by the soldiery of Carrickfergus.




ANTRIM, a market-town in the west of the county Antrim, Ireland, in the
south parliamentary division, on the banks of the Six-Mile Water, half a
mile from Lough Neagh, in a beautiful and fertile valley. Pop. (1901)
1826. It is 21-3/4 m. north-west of Belfast by the Northern Counties
(Midland) railway, and is also the terminus of a branch of the Great
Northern railway from Lisburn. There is nothing in the town specially
worthy of notice, but the environs, including Shane's Castle and Antrim
Castle, possess features of considerable interest. About a mile from the
town is one of the most perfect of the round towers of Ireland, 93 ft.
high and 50 in circumference at the base. It stands in the grounds of
Steeple, a neighbouring seat, where is also the "Witches' Stone," a
prehistoric monument. A battle was fought near Antrim between the
English and Irish in the reign of Edward III.; and in 1642 a naval
engagement took place on Lough Neagh, for Viscount Massereene and
Ferrard (who founded Antrim Castle in 1662) had a right to maintain a
fighting fleet on the lough. On the 7th of June 1798 there was a smart
action in the town between the king's troops and a large body of rebels,
in which the latter were defeated, and Lord O'Neill mortally wounded.
Before the Union Antrim returned two members to parliament by virtue of
letters patent granted in 1666 by Charles II. There are manufactures of
paper, linen, and woollen cloth. The government is in the hands of town
commissioners.




ANTRUSTION, the name of the members of the bodyguard or military
household of the Merovingian kings. The word, of which the formation has
been variously explained, is derived from the O.H.Germ. _trost_,
comfort, aid, fidelity, trust, through the latinized form _trustis_. Our
information about the antrustions is derived from one of the _formulae_
of Marculfus (i. 18, ed. Zeumer, p. 55) and from various provisions of
the Salic law (see du Cange, _Glossarium, s._ "trustis"). Any one
desiring to enter the body of Antrustions had to present himself armed
at the royal palace, and there, with his hands in those of the king,
take a special oath or _trustis_ and _fidelitas_, in addition to the
oath of fidelity sworn by every subject at the king's accession. This
done, he was considered to be _in truste dominica_ and bound to the
discharge of all the services this involved. In return for these, the
antrustion enjoyed certain valuable advantages, as being specially
entitled to the royal assistance and protection; his _wergeld_ is three
times that of an ordinary Frank; the slayer of a Frank paid compensation
of 200 _solidi_, that of an antrustion had to find 600. The antrustion
was always of Frankish descent, and only in certain exceptional cases
were Gallo-Romans admitted into the king's bodyguard. These Gallo-Romans
then took the name of _convivae regis_, and the _wergeld_ of 300
_solidi_ was three times that of a _homo romanus_. The antrustions,
belonging as they did to one body, had strictly defined duties towards
one another; thus one antrustion was forbidden to bear witness against
another under penalty of 15 _solidi_ compensation.

The antrustions seem to have played an important part at the time of
Clovis. It was they, apparently, who formed the army which conquered the
land, an army composed chiefly of Franks, and of a few Gallo-Romans who
had taken the side of Clovis. After the conquest, the role of the
antrustions became less important. For each of their expeditions, the
kings raised an army of citizens in which the Gallo-Romans mingled more
and more with the Franks; they only kept one small permanent body which
acted as their bodyguard (_trustis dominica_), some members of which
were from time to time told off for other tasks, such as that of forming
garrisons in the frontier towns. The institution seems to have
disappeared during the anarchy with which the 8th century opened. It has
wrongly been held to be the origin of vassalage. Only the king had
antrustions; every lord could have vassals. The antrustions were a
military institution; vassalage was a social institution, the origins of
which are very complex.

  All historians of Merovingian institutions and law have treated of the
  antrustions, and each one has his different system. The principal
  authorities are:--Waitz, _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, 3rd ed.
  vol. ii. pp. 335 et seq.; Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_, vol.
  ii. p. 97 et seq.; Fustel de Coulanges, _La Monarchie franque_, p. 80
  et seq.; Maxirne Deloche, _La Trustis et Vantrustion royal sous les
  deux premieres races_ (Paris, 1873), collecting and discussing the
  principal texts; Guilhermoz, _Les Origines de la noblesse_ (Paris,
  1902), suggesting a system which is new in part.     (C. Pf.)




ANTWERP, the most northern of the nine provinces of Belgium. It is
conterminous with the Dutch frontier on the north. Malines, Lierre and
Turnhout are among the towns of the province. Its importance, however,
is derived from the fact that it contains the commercial metropolis of
Belgium. It is divided into three administrative districts
(_arrondissements_), viz. Antwerp, Malines and Turnhout. These are
subdivided into 25 cantons and 152 communes. The area is 707,932 acres
or 1106 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 888,980, showing an average of 804
inhabitants to the square mile.




ANTWERP (Fr. _Anvers_), capital of the above province, an important city
on the right bank of the Scheldt, Belgium's chief centre of commerce and
a strong fortified position.

Modern Antwerp is a finely laid out city with a succession of broad
avenues which mark the position of the first enceinte. There are long
streets and terraces of fine houses belonging to the merchants and
manufacturers of the city which amply testify to its prosperity, and
recall the 16th century distich that Antwerp was noted for its moneyed
men ("Antwerpia nummis"). Despite the ravages of war and internal
disturbances it still preserves some memorials of its early grandeur,
notably its fine cathedral. This church was begun in the 14th century,
but not finished till 1518. Its tower of over 400 ft. is a conspicuous
object to be seen from afar over the surrounding flat country. A second
tower which formed part of the original plan has never been erected. The
proportions of the interior are noble, and in the church are hung three
of the masterpieces of Rubens, viz. "The Descent from the Cross," "The
Elevation of the Cross," and "The Assumption." Another fine church in
Antwerp is that of St James, far more ornate than the cathedral, and
containing the tomb of Rubens, who devoted himself to its embellishment.
The Bourse or exchange, which claims to be the first distinguished by
the former name in Europe, is a fine new building finished in 1872, on
the site of the old Bourse erected in 1531 and destroyed by fire in
1858. Fire has destroyed several other old buildings in the city,
notably in 1891 the house of the Hansa League on the northern quays. A
curious museum is the Maison Plantin, the house of the great printer C.
Plantin (q.v.) and his successor Moretus, which stands exactly as it did
in the time of the latter. The new picture gallery close to the southern
quays is a fine building divided into ancient and modern sections. The
collection of old masters is very fine, containing many splendid
examples of Rubens, Van Dyck, Titian and the chief Dutch masters.
Antwerp, famous in the middle ages and at the present time for its
commercial enterprise, enjoyed in the 17th century a celebrity not less
distinct or glorious in art for its school of painting, which included
Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordaens, the two Teniers and many others.

_Commerce._--Since 1863, when Antwerp was opened to the trade of the
outer world by the purchase of the Dutch right to levy toll, its
position has completely changed, and no place in Europe has made greater
progress in this period than the ancient city on the Scheldt. The
following figures for the years 1904 and 1905 show that its trade is
still rapidly increasing:--

  +------+-------------------------+-------------------------+
  |      |         Exports.        |         Imports         |
  | Year.+-----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+
  |      |  Tonnage. |    Value.   |  Tonnage. |     Value.  |
  +------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+
  | 1904 | 6,578,558 | L71,349,678 | 8,427,894 | L79,539,100 |
  | 1905 | 7,153,655 | L80,032,355 | 9,061,781 | L91,194,517 |
  +------+-----------+-------------+-----------+-------------+

The growth of its commerce in recent times may be measured by a
comparison of the following figures. In 1888, 4272 ships entered the
port and 4302 sailed from it. In 1905, 6095 entered the port and 6065
sailed from it--an increase of nearly 50%. In 1888 the total tonnage was
7,800,000; in 1905 it had risen to 19,662,000. These figures explain how
and why Antwerp has outgrown its dock accommodation. The eight principal
basins or docks already existing in 1908 were (1) the Little or
Bonaparte dock; (2) the Great dock, also constructed in Napoleon's time;
(3) the Kattendijk, built in 1860 and enlarged in 1881; (4) the Wood
dock; (5) the Campine dock, used especially for minerals; (6) the Asia
dock, which is in direct communication with the Meuse by a canal as well
as with the Scheldt; (7) the Lefebvre dock; and (8) the America dock,
which was only opened in 1905. Two new docks, called "intercalary"
because they would fit into whatever scheme might be adopted for the
rectification of the course of the Scheldt, were still to be
constructed, leading out of the Lefebvre dock and covering 70 acres.
With the completion of the new maritime lock, ships drawing 30 ft. of
water would be able to enter these new docks and also the Lefebvre and
America docks. In connexion with the projected _grande coupure_ (that
is, a cutting through the neck of the loop in the river Scheldt
immediately below Antwerp), the importance of these four docks would be
greatly increased because they would then flank the new main channel of
the river. When the Belgian Chambers voted in February 1906 the sums
necessary for the improvement of the harbour of Antwerp no definite
scheme was sanctioned, the question being referred to a special mixed
commission. The improvements at Antwerp are not confined to the
construction of new docks. The quays flanking the Scheldt are 3-1/2 m.
in length. They are constructed of granite, and no expense has been
spared in equipping them with hydraulic cranes, warehouses, &c.

_Fortifications._--Besides being the chief commercial port of Belgium,
Antwerp is the greatest fortress of that country. Nothing, however,
remains of the former enceinte or even of the famous old citadel
defended by General Chasse in 1832, except the _Steen_, which has been
restored and contains a museum of arms and antiquities. After the
establishment of Belgian independence Antwerp was defended only by the
citadel and an enceinte of about 2-1/2 m. round the city. No change
occurred till 1859, when the system of Belgian defence was radically
altered by the dismantlement of seventeen of the twenty-two fortresses
constructed under Wellington's supervision in 1815-1818. At Antwerp the
old citadel and enceinte were removed. A new enceinte 8 m. in length was
constructed, and the villages of Berchem and Borgerhout, now parishes of
Antwerp, were absorbed within the city. This enceinte still exists, and
is a fine work of art. It is protected by a broad wet ditch (plans in
article FORTIFICATION), and in the caponiers are the magazines and store
chambers of the fortress. The enceinte is pierced by nineteen openings
or gateways, but of these seven are not used by the public. As soon as
the enceinte was finished eight detached forts from 2 to 2-1/2 m.
distant from the enceinte were constructed. They begin on the north near
Wyneghem and the zone of inundation, and terminate on the south at
Hoboken. In 1870 Fort Merxem and the redoubts of Berendrecht and
Oorderen were built for the defence of the area to be inundated north of
Antwerp. In 1878, in consequence of the increased range of artillery and
the more destructive power of explosives, it was recognized that the
fortifications of Antwerp were becoming useless and out of date. It was
therefore decided to change it from a fortress to a fortified position
by constructing an outer line of forts and batteries at a distance
varying from 6 to 9 m. from the enceinte. This second line was to
consist of fifteen forts, large and small. Up to 1898 only five had been
constructed, but in that and the two following years five more were
finished, leaving another five to complete the line. A mixed commission
selected the points at which they were to be placed. With the completion
of this work, which in 1908 was being rapidly pushed on, Antwerp might
be regarded as one of the best fortified positions in Europe, and so
long as its communications by sea are preserved intact it will be
practically impregnable.

Two subsidiary or minor problems remained over. (1) The much-discussed
removal of the existing enceinte in order to give Antwerp further
growing space. If it were removed there arose the further question,
should a new enceinte be made at the first line of outer forts, or
should an enceinte be dispensed with? An enceinte following the line of
those forts would be 30 m. in length. Then if the city grew up to this
extended enceinte the outer forts would be too near. To screen the city
from bombardment they would have to be carried 3 m. further out, and the
whole Belgian army would scarcely furnish an adequate garrison for this
extended position. A new enceinte, or more correctly a rampart of a less
permanent character, connecting the eight forts of the inner line and
extending from Wyneghem to a little south of Hoboken, was decided upon
in 1908. (2) The second problem was the position on the left bank of the
Scheldt. All the defences enumerated are on the right bank. On the left
bank the two old forts Isabelle and Marie alone defend the Scheldt. It
is assumed (probably rightly) that no enemy could get round to this side
in sufficient strength to deliver any attack that the existing forts
could not easily repel. The more interesting question connected with
the left bank is whether it does not provide, as Napoleon thought, the
most natural outlet for the expansion of Antwerp. Proposals to connect
the two banks by a tunnel under the Scheldt have been made from time to
time in a fitful manner, but nothing whatever had been done by 1908 to
realize what appears to be a natural and easy project.

_Population._--The following statistics show the growth of population in
and since the 19th century. In 1800 the population was computed not to
exceed 40,000. At the census of 1846 the total was 88,487; of 1851,
95,501; of 1880, 169,100; of 1900, 272,830; and of 1904, 291,949. To
these figures ought to be added the populations (1904) of Borgerhout
(43,391) and Berchem (26,383), as they are part of the city, which would
give Antwerp a total population of 361,723.

_History._--The suggested origin of the name Antwerp from _Hand-werpen_
(hand-throwing), because a mythical robber chief indulged in the
practice of cutting off his prisoners' hands and throwing them into the
Scheldt, appeared to Motley rather far-fetched, but it is less
reasonable to trace it, as he inclines to do, from _an t werf_ (on the
wharf), seeing that the form _Andhunerbo_ existed in the 6th century on
the separation of Austrasia and Neustria. Moreover, hand-cutting was not
an uncommon practice in Europe. It was perpetuated from a savage past in
the custom of cutting off the right hand of a man who died without heir,
and sending it as proof of _main-morte_ to the feudal lord. Moreover,
the two hands and a castle, which form the arms of Antwerp, will not be
dismissed as providing no proof by any one acquainted with the
scrupulous care that heralds displayed in the golden age of chivalry
before assigning or recognizing the armorial bearings of any claimant.

In the 4th century Antwerp is mentioned as one of the places in the
second Germany, and in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some
years best known as marquis of Antwerp. Antwerp was the headquarters of
Edward III. during his early negotiations with van Artevelde, and his
son Lionel, earl of Cambridge, was born there in 1338.

It was not, however, till after the closing of the Zwyn and the decay of
Bruges that Antwerp became of importance. At the end of the 15th century
the foreign trading gilds or houses were transferred from Bruges to
Antwerp, and the building assigned to the English nation is specifically
mentioned in 1510. In 1560, a year which marked the highest point of its
prosperity, six nations, viz. the Spaniards, the Danes and the Hansa
together, the Italians, the English, the Portuguese and the Germans,
were named at Antwerp, and over 1000 foreign merchants were resident in
the city. Guicciardini, the Venetian envoy, describes the activity of
the port, into which 500 ships sometimes passed in a day, and as
evidence of the extent of its land trade he mentioned that 2000 carts
entered the city each week. Venice had fallen from its first place in
European commerce, but still it was active and prosperous. Its envoy, in
explaining the importance of Antwerp, states that there was as much
business done there in a fortnight as in Venice throughout the year.

The religious troubles that marked the second half of the 16th century
broke out in Antwerp as in every other part of Belgium excepting Liege.
In 1576 the Spanish soldiery plundered the town during what was called
"the Spanish Fury," and 6000 citizens were massacred. Eight hundred
houses were burnt down, and over two millions sterling of damage was
wrought in the town on that occasion.

In 1585 a severe blow was struck at the prosperity of Antwerp when Parma
captured it after a long siege and sent all its Protestant citizens into
exile. The recognition of the independence of the United Provinces by
the treaty of Munster in 1648 carried with it the death-blow to
Antwerp's prosperity as a place of trade, for one of its clauses
stipulated that the Scheldt should be closed to navigation. This
impediment remained in force until 1863, although the provisions were
relaxed during French rule from 1795 to 1814, and also during the time
Belgium formed part of the kingdom of the Netherlands (1815 to 1830).
Antwerp had reached the lowest point of its fortunes in 1800, and its
population had sunk under 40,000, when Napoleon, realizing its
strategical importance, assigned two millions for the construction of
two docks and a mole.

One other incident in the chequered history of Antwerp deserves mention.
In 1830 the city was captured by the Belgian insurgents, but the citadel
continued to be held by a Dutch garrison under General Chasse. For a
time this officer subjected the town to a periodical bombardment which
inflicted much damage, and at the end of 1832 the citadel itself was
besieged by a French army. During this attack the town was further
injured. In December 1832, after a gallant defence, Chasse made an
honourable surrender.

  See J.L. Motley's _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; C. Scribanii,
  _Origines Antwerpiensium_; Gens, _Hist. de la ville d'Anvers_; Mertens
  and Torfs, _Geschiedenis van Antwerp_; Genard, _Anvers a travers les
  ages_; _Annuaire statisgue de la Belgigue_.     (D. C. B.)




ANU, a Babylonian deity, who, by virtue of being the first figure in a
triad consisting of Anu, Bel and Ea, came to be regarded as the father
and king of the gods. Anu is so prominently associated with the city of
Erech in southern Babylonia that there are good reasons for believing
this place to have been the original seat of the Anu cult. If this be
correct, then the goddess Nana (or Ishtar) of Erech was presumably
regarded as his consort. The name of the god signifies the "high one"
and he was probably a god of the atmospheric region above the
earth--perhaps a storm god like Adad (q.v.), or like Yahweh among the
ancient Hebrews. However this may be, already in the old-Babylonian
period, i.e. before Khammurabi, Anu was regarded as the god of the
heavens and his name became in fact synonymous with the heavens, so that
in some cases it is doubtful whether, under the term, the god or the
heavens is meant. It would seem from this that the grouping of the
divine powers recognized in the universe into a triad symbolizing the
three divisions, heavens, earth and the watery-deep, was a process of
thought which had taken place before the third millennium. To Anu was
assigned the control of the heavens, to Bel the earth, and to Ea the
waters. The doctrine once established remained an inherent part of the
Babylonian-Assyrian religion and led to the more or less complete
disassociation of the three gods constituting the triad from their
original local limitations. An intermediate step between Anu viewed as
the local deity of Erech (or some other centre), Bel as the god of
Nippur, and Ea as the god of Eridu is represented by the prominence
which each one of the centres associated with the three deities in
question must have acquired, and which led to each one absorbing the
qualities of other gods so as to give them a controlling position in an
organized pantheon. For Nippur we have the direct evidence that its
chief deity, En-lil or Bel, was once regarded as the head of an
extensive pantheon. The sanctity and, therefore, the importance of Eridu
remained a fixed tradition in the minds of the people to the latest
days, and analogy therefore justifies the conclusion that Anu was
likewise worshipped in a centre which had acquired great prominence. The
summing-up of divine powers manifested in the universe in a threefold
division represents an outcome of speculation in the schools attached to
the temples of Babylonia, but the selection of Anu, Bel and Ea for the
three representatives of the three spheres recognized, is due to the
importance which, for one reason or the other, the centres in which Anu,
Bel and Ea were worshipped had acquired in the popular mind. Each of the
three must have been regarded in his centre as the most important member
in a larger or smaller group, so that their union in a triad marks also
the combination of the three distinctive pantheons into a harmonious
whole.

In the astral theology of Babylonia and Assyria, Anu, Bel and Ea became
the three zones of the ecliptic, the northern, middle and southern zone
respectively. The purely theoretical character of Anu is thus still
further emphasized, and in the annals and votive inscriptions as well as
in the incantations and hymns, he is rarely introduced as an active
force to whom a personal appeal can be made. His name becomes little
more than a synonym for the heavens in general and even his title as
king or father of the gods has little of the personal element in it. A
consort Antum (or as some scholars prefer to read, Anatum) is assigned
to him, on the theory that every deity must have a female associate, but
Antum is a purely artificial product--a lifeless symbol playing even
less of a part in what may be called the active pantheon than Anu.

  For works of reference see BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION.
       (M. Ja.)




ANUBIS (in Egyptian _Anup_, written _Inpw_ in hieroglyphs), the name of
one of the most important of the Egyptian gods. There were two types of
canine divinities in Egypt, their leading representatives being
respectively Anubis and Ophois (Wp-w'-wt, "opener of the ways"): the
former type is symbolized by the recumbent animal [Hieroglyph], the
other by a similar animal (in a stiff standing attitude), carried as an
emblem on a standard [Hieroglyph] in war or in religious processions.
The former comprised two beneficent gods of the necropolis; the latter
also were beneficent, but warlike, divinities. They thus corresponded,
at any rate in some measure, respectively to the fiercer and milder
aspects of the dog-tribe. In late days the Greeks report that [Greek:
kunes] (dogs) were the sacred animals of Anubis while those of Ophois
were [Greek: lykoi] (wolves). The above figure [Hieroglyph] is coloured
black as befits a funerary and nocturnal animal: it is more attenuated
than even a greyhound, but it has the bushy tail of the fox or the
jackal. Probably these were the original genii of the necropolis, and in
fact the same lean animal figured _passant_ [Hieroglyph] is s'b "jackal"
or "fox." The domestic dog would be brought into the sacred circle
through the increased veneration for animals, and the more pronounced
view in later times of Anubis as servant, messenger and custodian of the
gods.

Anubis was the principal god in the capitals of the XVIIth and XVIIIth
nomes of Upper Egypt, and secondary god in the XIIIth and probably in
the XIIth nome; but his cult was universal. To begin with, he was the
god of the dead, of the cemetery, of all supplies for the dead, and
therefore of embalming when that became customary. In very early
inscriptions the funerary prayers in the tombs are addressed to him
almost exclusively, and he always took a leading place in them. In the
scene of the weighing of the soul before Osiris, dating from the New
kingdom onwards, Anubis attends to the balance while Thoth registers the
result. Anubis was believed to have been the embalmer of Osiris: the
mummy of Osiris, or of the deceased, on a bier, tended by this god, is a
very common subject on funerary tablets of the late periods. Anubis came
to be considered especially the attendant of the gods and conductor of
the dead, and hence was commonly identified with Hermes (cf. the name
Hermanubis); but the role of Hermes as the god of eloquence, inventor of
arts and recorder of the gods was taken by Thoth. In those days Anubis
was considered to be son of Osiris by Nephthys; earlier perhaps he was
son of Re, the sun-god. In the 2nd century A.D. his aid was "compelled"
by the magicians and necromancers to fetch the gods and entertain them
with food (especially in the ceremony of gazing into the bowl of oil),
and he is invoked by them sometimes as the "Good Ox-herd." The cult of
Anubis must at all times have been very popular in Egypt, and, belonging
to the Isis and Serapis cycle, was introduced into Greece and Rome.

  See Erman, _Egyptian Religion_; Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_; Meyer,
  in _Zeits. f. Aeg. Spr._ 41-97.     (F. Ll. G.)




ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city of Ceylon, famous for its ancient monuments.
It is situated in the North-central province. Anuradhapura became the
capital of Ceylon in the 5th century B.C., and attained its highest
magnificence about the commencement of the Christian era. In its prime
it ranked beside Nineveh and Babylon in its colossal proportions--its
four walls, each 16 m. long, enclosing an area of 256 sq. m.,--in the
number of its inhabitants, and the splendour of its shrines and public
edifices. It suffered much during the earlier Tamil invasions, and was
finally deserted as a royal residence in A.D. 769. It fell completely
into decay, and it is only of recent years that the jungle has been
cleared away, the ruins laid bare, and some measure of prosperity
brought back to the surrounding country by the restoration of hundreds
of village tanks. The ruins consist of three classes of buildings,
_dagobas_, monastic buildings, and _pokunas_. The _dagobas_ are
bell-shaped masses of masonry, varying from a few feet to over 1100 in
circumference. Some of them contain enough masonry to build a town for
twenty-five thousand inhabitants. Remains of the monastic buildings are
to be found in every direction in the shape of raised stone platforms,
foundations and stone pillars. The most famous is the Brazen Palace
erected by King Datagamana about 164 B.C. The _pokunas_ are
bathing-tanks or tanks for the supply of drinking-water, which are
scattered everywhere through the jungle. The city also contains a sacred
Bo-tree, which is said to date back to the year 245 B.C. The railway was
extended from Matale to Anuradhapura in 1905. Population: town, 3672;
province, 79,110.




ANVIL (from Anglo-Saxon _anfilt_ or _onfilti_, either that on which
something is "welded" or "folded," cf. German _falzen_, to fold, or
connected with other Teutonic forms of the word, cf. German _amboss_, in
which case the final syllable is from "beat," and the meaning is "that
on which something is beaten"), a mass of iron on which material is
supported while being shaped under the hammer (see FORGING). The common
blacksmith's anvil is made of wrought iron, often in America of cast
iron, with a smooth working face of hardened steel. It has at one end a
projecting conical _beak_ or _bick_ for use in hammering curved pieces
of metal; occasionally the other end is also provided with a bick, which
is then partly rectangular in section. There is also a square hole in
the face, into which tools, such as the anvil-cutter or chisel, can be
dropped, cutting edge uppermost. For power hammers the anvil proper is
supported on an anvil block which is of great massiveness, sometimes
weighing over 200 tons for a 12-ton hammer, and this again rests on a
strong foundation of timber and masonry or concrete. In anatomy the term
anvil is applied to one of the bones of the middle ear, the _incus_,
which is articulated with the _malleus_.




ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D' (1697-1782), perhaps the greatest
geographical author of the 18th century, was born at Paris on the 11th
of July 1697. His passion for geographical research displayed itself
from early years: at the age of twelve he was already amusing himself by
drawing maps for Latin authors. Later, his friendship with the
antiquarian, Abbe Longuerue, greatly aided his studies. His first
serious map, that of Ancient Greece, was published when he was fifteen,
and at the age of twenty-two he was appointed one of the king's
geographers, and began to attract the attention of the first
authorities. D'Anville's studies embraced everything of geographical
nature in the world's literature, as far as he could master it: for this
purpose he not only searched ancient and modern historians, travellers
and narrators of every description, but also poets, orators and
philosophers. One of his cherished objects was to reform geography by
putting an end to the blind copying of older maps, by testing the
commonly accepted positions of places through a rigorous examination of
all the descriptive authority, and by excluding from cartography every
name inadequately supported. Vast spaces, which had before been covered
with countries and cities, were thus suddenly reduced almost to a blank.

D'Anville was at first employed in the humbler task of illustrating by
maps the works of different travellers, such as Marchais, Charlevoix,
Labat and Duhalde. For the history of China by the last-named writer he
was employed to make an atlas, which was published separately at the
Hague in 1737. In 1735 and 1736 he brought out two treatises on the
figure of the earth; but these attempts to solve geometrical problems by
literary material were, to a great extent, refuted by Maupertuis'
measurements of a degree within the polar circle. D'Anville's historical
method was more successful in his 1743 map of Italy, which first
indicated numerous errors in the mapping of that country, and was
accompanied by a valuable memoir (a novelty in such work), showing in
full the sources of the design. A trigonometrical survey which Benedict
XIV. soon after had made in the papal states strikingly confirmed the
French geographer's results. In his later years d'Anville did yeoman
service for ancient and medieval geography, accomplishing something like
a revolution in the former; mapping afresh all the chief countries of
the pre-Christian civilizations (especially Egypt), and by his _Memoire
et abrege de geographie ancienne et generale_ and his _Etats formes en
Europe apres la chute de l'empire romain en occident_ (1771) rendering
his labours still more generally useful. In 1754, at the age of
fifty-seven, he became a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et
Belles Lettres, whose transactions he enriched with many papers. In 1775
he received the only place in the Academie des Sciences which is
allotted to geography; and in the same year he was appointed, without
solicitation, first geographer to the king. His last employment
consisted in arranging his collection of maps, plans and geographical
materials. It was the most extensive in Europe, and had been purchased
by the king, who, however, left him the use of it during his life. This
task performed, he sank into a total imbecility both of mind and body,
which continued for two years, till his death in January 1782.

  D'Anville's published memoirs and dissertations amounted to 78, and
  his maps to 211. A complete edition of his works was announced in 1806
  by de Manne in 6 vols. quarto, only two of which had appeared when the
  editor died in 1832. See Dacier's _Eloge de d'Anville_ (Paris, 1802).
  Besides the separate works noticed above, d'Anville's maps executed
  for Rollin's _Histoire ancienne_ and _Histoire romaine_, and his
  _Traite des mesures anciennes et modernes_ (1769), deserve special
  notice.




ANWARI [Auhad-uddin Ali Anwari], Persian poet, was born in Khorasan
early in the 12th century. He enjoyed the especial favour of the sultan
Sinjar, whom he attended in all his warlike expeditions. On one
occasion, when the sultan was besieging the fortress of Hazarasp, a
fierce poetical conflict was maintained between Anwari and his rival
Rashidi, who was within the beleaguered castle, by means of verses
fastened to arrows. Anwari died at Balkh towards the end of the 12th
century. The _Diwan_, or collection of his poems, consists of a series
of long poems, and a number of simpler lyrics. His longest piece, _The
Tears of Khorassan_, was translated into English verse by Captain
Kirkpatrick (see also PERSIA. _Literature_).




ANWEILER, or ANNWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate,
on the Queich, 8 m. west of Landau, and on the railway from that place
to Zweibrucken. Pop. 3700. It is romantically situated in the part of
the Haardt called the Pfalzer Schweiz (Palatinate Switzerland), and is
surrounded by high hills which yield a famous red sandstone. On the
Sonnenberg (1600 ft.) lie the ruins of the castle of Trifels, in which
Richard Coeur de Lion was imprisoned in 1193. The industries include
cloth-weaving, tanning, dyeing and saw mills. There is also a
considerable trade in wine.




ANZENGRUBER, LUDWIG (1839-1889), Austrian dramatist and novelist, was
born at Vienna on the 29th of November 1839. He was educated at the
_Realschule_ of his native town, and then entered a bookseller's shop;
from 1860 to 1867 he was an actor, without, however, displaying any
marked talent, although his stage experience later stood him in good
stead. In 1869 he became a clerk in the Viennese police department, but
having in the following year made a success with his anti-clerical
drama, _Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_, he gave up his appointment and
devoted himself entirely to literature. He died at Vienna on the both of
December 1889. Anzengruber was exceedingly fertile in ideas, and wrote a
great many plays. They are mostly of Austrian peasant life, and although
somewhat melancholy in tone are interspersed with bright and witty
scenes. Among the best known are _Der Meineidbauer_ (1871), _Die
Kreuzelschreiber_ (1872), _Der G'wissenswurm_ (1874), _Hand und Herz_
(1875), _Doppelselbstmord_ (1875), _Das vierte Gebot_ (1877), and _Der
Fleck auf der Ehr'_ (1889). Anzengruber also published a novel of
considerable merit, _Der Schandfleck_ (1876; remodelled 1884); and
various short stories and tales of village life collected under the
title _Wolken und Sunn'schein_ (1888).

  Anzengruber's collected works, with a biography, were published in 10
  vols. in 1890 (3rd ed. 1897); his correspondence has been edited by A.
  Bettelheim (1902). See A. Bettelheim, _L. Anzengruber_ (1890); L.
  Rosner, _Erinnerungen an L. Anzengruber_ (1890): H. Sittenberger,
  _Studien zur Dramaturgie der Gegenwart_ (1899); S. Friedmann, _L.
  Anzengruber_ (1902).




ANZIN, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on the
Scheldt, 1-1/2 m. N.W. of Valenciennes, of which it is a suburb. Pop.
(1906) 14,077. Anzin is the centre of important coal-mines of the
Valenciennes basin belonging to the Anzin Company, the formation of
which dates to 1717. The metallurgical industries of the place are
extensive, and include iron and copper founding and the manufacture of
steam-engines, machinery, chain-cables and a great variety of heavy iron
goods. There are also glass-works and breweries.




AONIA, a district of ancient Boeotia, containing the mountains Helicon
and Cithaeron, and thus sacred to the Muses, who are called by Pope the
"Aonian maids."




AORIST (from Gr. [Greek: aoristos], indefinite), the name given in Greek
grammar to certain past tenses of verbs (first aorist, second aorist).




AOSTA (anc. _Augusta Praetoria Salassorum_), a town and episcopal see of
Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Turin, 80 m. N.N.W. by rail of the
town of Turin, and 48 m. direct, situated 1910 ft. above sea-level, at
the confluence of the Buthier and the Dora Baltea, and at the junction
of the Great and Little St Bernard routes. Pop. (1901) 7875. The
cathedral, reconstructed in the 11th century (to which one of its
campanili and some architectural details belong), was much altered in
the 14th and 17th; it has a rich treasury including an ivory diptych of
406 with a representation of Honorius. The church of St Ours, founded in
425, and rebuilt in the 12th century, has good cloisters (1133); the
15th-century priory is picturesque. The castle of Bramafam (11th
century) is interesting. Cretinism is common in the district.

After the fall of the Roman empire the valley of Aosta fell into the
hands of the Burgundian kings; and after many changes of masters, it
came under the rule of Count Humbert I. of Savoy (Biancamano) in 1032.
The privilege of holding the assembly of the states-general was granted
to the inhabitants in 1189. An executive council was nominated from this
body in 1536, and continued to exist until 1802. After the restoration
of the rule of Savoy it was reconstituted and formally recognized by
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, at the birth of his grandson Prince
Amedeo, who was created duke of Aosta. Aosta was the birthplace of
Anselm. For ancient remains see AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM.




APACHE (apparently from the Zuni name, = "enemy," given to the Navaho
Indians), a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan stock. The
Apaches formerly ranged over south-eastern Arizona and south-western
Mexico. The chief divisions of the Apaches were the Arivaipa,
Chiricahua, Coyotero, Faraone Gileno, Llanero, Mescalero, Mimbreno,
Mogollon, Naisha, Tchikun and Tchishi. They were a powerful and warlike
tribe, constantly at enmity with the whites. The final surrender of the
tribe took place in 1886, when the Chiricahuas, the division involved,
were deported to Florida and Alabama, where they underwent military
imprisonment. The Apaches are now in reservations in Arizona, New Mexico
and Oklahoma, and number between 5000 and 6000.

  For details see _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge,
  (Washington, 1907); also INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.




APALACHEE (apparently a Choctaw name, = "people on the other side"), a
tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock. They have been
known since the 16th century, and formerly ranged the country around
Apalachee Bay, Florida. About 1600 the Spanish Franciscans founded a
successful mission among them, but early in the 18th century the tribe
suffered defeat at the hands of the British, the mission churches were
burnt, the priests killed, and the tribe practically annihilated, more
than one thousand of them being sold as slaves.

  See _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).




APALACHICOLA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Franklin
county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on Apalachicola
Bay and at the mouth of the Apalachicola river. Pop. (1890) 2727; (1900)
3077, of whom 1589 were of negro descent; (1905, state census) 3244. It
is served by the Apalachicola Northern railway (to Chattahoochee,
Florida), and by river steamers which afford connexion with railways at
Carrabelle about 25 m. distant, at Chatahoochee (or River Junction), and
at Columbus and Bainbridge, Georgia, and by ocean-going vessels with
American and foreign ports. The city has a monument (1900) to John
Gorrie (1803-1855), a physician who discovered the cold-air process of
refrigeration in 1849 (and patented an ice-machine in 1850), as the
result of experiments to lower the temperatures of fever patients. The
bay is well protected by St Vincent, Flag, Sand, and St George's
islands; and the shipping of lumber, naval stores and cotton, which
reach the city by way of the river, forms the principal industry. Before
the development of railways in the Gulf states, Apalachicola was one of
the principal centres of trade in the southern states, ranking third
among the Gulf ports in 1835. In 1907 the Federal government projected a
channel across the harbour bar 100 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep and a
channel 150 ft. wide and 18 ft. deep for Link Channel and the West Pass.
In 1907 the exports were valued at $317,838; the imports were
insignificant. The value of the total domestic and foreign commerce of
the port for the year ending on the 30th of June 1907 was estimated at
$1,240,000 (76,000 tons). The fishery products, including oysters,
tarpon, sturgeon, caviare and sponges, are also important.




APAMEA, the name of several towns in western Asia.

1. A treasure city and stud-depot of the Seleucid kings in the valley of
the Orontes. It was so named by Seleucus Nicator, after Apama, his wife.
Destroyed by Chosroes in the 7th century A.D.. it was partially rebuilt
and known as _Famia_ by the Arabs; and overthrown by an earthquake in
1152. It kept its importance down to the time of the Crusades. The
acropolis hill is now occupied by the ruins of Kalat el-Mudik.

  See R.F. Burton and T. Drake, _Unexplored Syria_; E. Sachau, _Reise in
  Syrien_, 1883.

2. A city in Phrygia, founded by Antiochus Soter (from whose mother,
Apama, it received its name), near, but on lower ground than, Celaenae.
It was situated where the Marsyas leaves the hills to join the Maeander,
and it became a seat of Seleucid power, and a centre of Graeco-Roman and
Graeco-Hebrew civilization and commerce. There Antiochus the Great
collected the army with which he met the Romans at Magnesia, and there
two years later the treaty between Rome and the Seleucid realm was
signed. After Antiochus' departure for the East, Apamea lapsed to the
Pergamenian kingdom and thence to Rome in 133, but it was resold to
Mithradates V., who held it till 120. After the Mithradatic wars it
became and remained a great centre for trade, largely carried on by
resident Italians and by Jews. In 84 Sulla made it the seat of a
_conventus_ of the Asian province, and it long claimed primacy among
Phrygian cities. Its decline dates from the local disorganization of the
empire in the 3rd century A.D.; and though a bishopric, it was not an
important military or commercial centre in Byzantine times. The Turks
took it first in 1070, and from the 13th century onwards it was always
in Moslem hands. For a long period it was one of the greatest cities of
Asia Minor, commanding the Maeander road; but when the trade routes were
diverted to Constantinople it rapidly declined, and its ruin was
completed by an earthquake. A Jewish tradition, possibly arising from a
name _Cibotus_ (ark), which the town bore, identified a neighbouring
mountain with Ararat. The famous "Noah" coins of the emperor Philip
commemorate this belief. The site is now partly occupied by _Dineir_
(q.v., sometimes locally known also as _Geiklar_, "the gazelles,"
perhaps from a tradition of the Persian hunting-park, seen by Xenophon
at Celaenae), which is connected with Smyrna by railway; there are
considerable remains, including a great number of important Graeco-Roman
inscriptions.

  See W.M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. ii.; G.
  Weber, _Dineir-Celenes_ (1892); D.G. Hogarth in _Journ, Hell. Studies_
  (1888); O. Hirschfeld in _Trans. Berlin Academy_ (1875).
       (D. G. H.)

3. A town on the left bank of the Euphrates, at the end of a bridge of
boats (_zeugma_); the Til-Barsip of the Assyrian inscriptions, now
Birejik (q.v.).

4. The earlier Myrlea of Bithynia, now Mudania (q.v.), the port of
Brusa. The name was given it by Prusias I., who rebuilt it.

5. A city mentioned by Stephanus and Pliny as situated near the Tigris,
the identification of which is still uncertain.

6. A Greek city in Parthia, near Rhagae.




APARRI, a town of the province of Cagayan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on
the Grande de Cagayan river near, its mouth, about 55 m. N. of
Tuguegarao, the capital. Pop. (1903) 18,252. The valley is one of the
largest tobacco-producing sections in the Philippines; and the town has
a considerable coastwise trade. Here, too, is a meteorological station.




APATITE, a widely distributed mineral, which, when found in large
masses, is of considerable economic value as a phosphate. As a mineral
species it was first recognized by A.G. Werner in 1786 and named by him
from the Greek [Greek: apatan], to deceive, because it had previously
been mistaken for other minerals, such as beryl, tourmaline, chrysolite,
amethyst, &c. Although long known to consist mainly of calcium
phosphate, it was not until 1827 that G. Rose found that fluorine or
chlorine is an essential constituent. Two chemical varieties of apatite
are to be distinguished, namely a fluor-apatite, (CaF)Ca4P3O12, and a
chlor-apatite, (CaCl)Ca4P3O12: the former, which is much the commoner,
contains 42.3% of phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) and 3.8% fluorine, and the
latter 4.10 P2O5 and 6.8% chlorine. Fluorine and chlorine replace each
other in indefinite proportions, and they may also be in part replaced
by hydroxyl, so that the general formula becomes [Ca (F, Cl, OH)]
Ca4P3O12, in which the univalent group Ca(F, Cl, OH) takes the place of
one hydrogen atom in orthophosphoric acid H3PO4. The formula is
sometimes written in the form 3Ca3(PO4)2 + CaF2. Mangan-apatite is a
variety in which calcium is largely replaced by manganese (up to 10%
MnO). Cerium, didymium, yttrium, &c., oxides may also sometimes be
present, in amounts up to 5%.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

Apatite frequently occurs as beautifully developed crystals, sometimes a
foot or more in length, belonging to that division of the hexagonal
system in which there is pyramidal hemi-hedrism. In this type of
symmetry, of which apatite is the best example, there is only one plane
of symmetry, which is perpendicular to the hexad axis. The arrangement
of the pyramidal faces n and u in fig. 2 show the hemihedral character
and absence of the full number of planes and axes of symmetry. Fig. 2
represents a highly modified crystal from St Gotthard; a more common
form is shown in fig. 1, which is bounded by the hexagonal prism m,
hexagonal bipyramid x and basal pinacoid c.

In its general appearance, apatite exhibits wide variations. Crystals
may be colourless and transparent or white and opaque, but are often
coloured, usually some shade of green or brown, occasionally violet,
sky-blue, yellow, &c. The lustre is vitreous, inclining to sub-resinous.
There is an imperfect cleavage parallel to the basal pinacoid, and the
fracture is conchoidal. Hardness 5, specific gravity 3.2.

Yellowish-green prismatic crystals from Jumilla in Murcia in Spain have
long been known under the name asparagus-stone. Lazurapatite is a
sky-blue variety found as crystals with lapis-lazuli in Siberia; and
moroxite is the name given to dull greenish-blue crystals from Norway
and Canada. Francolite, from Wheal Franco, near Tavistock in Devonshire,
and also from several Cornish mines, occurs as crystallized stalactitic
masses. In addition to these crystallized varieties, there are massive
varieties, fibrous, concretionary, stalactitic, or earthy in form, which
are included together under the name phosphorite (q.v.), and it is these
massive varieties, together with various rock-phosphates (phosphatic
nodules, coprolites, guano, &c.) which are of such great economic
importance: crystallized apatite is mined for phosphates only in Norway
and Canada.

With regard to its mode of occurrence, apatite is found under a variety
of conditions. In igneous rocks of all kinds it is invariably present in
small amounts as minute acicular crystals, and was one of the first
constituents of the rock to crystallize out from the magma. The
extensive deposits of chlor-apatite near Kragero and Bamle, near Brevik,
in southern Norway, are in connexion with gabbro, the felspar of which
has been altered, by emanations containing chlorine, to scapolite, and
titanium minerals have been developed. The apatite occurring in
connexion with granite and veins of tin-stone is, on the other hand, a
fluor-apatite, and, like the other fluorine-bearing minerals
characteristic of tin-veins, doubtless owes its origin to the emanations
of tin fluoride which gave rise to the tin-ore. Special mention may be
here made of the beautiful violet crystals of fluor-apatite which occur
in the veins of tin-ore in the Erzgebirge, and of the brilliant
bluish-green crystals encrusting cavities in the granite of Luxullian in
Cornwall. Another common mode of occurrence of apatite is in metamorphic
crystalline rocks, especially in crystalline limestones: in eastern
Canada extensive beds of apatite occur in the limestones associated with
the Laurentian gneisses. Still another mode of occurrence is presented
by beautifully developed and transparent crystals found with crystals of
felspar and quartz lining the crevices in the gneiss of the Alps.
Crystallized apatite is also occasionally found in metalliferous veins,
other than those of tin, and in beds of iron ore; whilst if the massive
varieties (phosphorite) be considered many other modes of occurrence
might be cited.     (L. J. S.)




APATURIA ([Greek: Apatouria]), an ancient Greek festival held annually
by all the Ionian towns except Ephesus and Colophon (Herodotus i. 147).
At Athens it took place in the month of Pyanepsion (October to
November), and lasted three days, on which occasion the various
phratries (i.e. clans) of Attica met to discuss their affairs. The name
is a slightly modified form of [Greek: apatoria = hamapatoria,
homopatoria], the festival of "common relationship." The ancient
etymology associated it with [Greek: apate] (deceit), a legend existing
that the festival originated in 1100 B.C. in commemoration of a single
combat between a certain Melanthus, representing King Thymoetes of
Attica, and King Xanthus of Boeotia, in which Melanthus successfully
threw his adversary off his guard by crying that a man in a black goat's
skin (identified with Dionysus) was helping him (Schol. Aristophanes,
_Acharnians_, 146). On the first day of the festival, called Dorpia or
Dorpeia, banquets were held towards evening at the meeting-place of the
phratries or in the private houses of members. On the second, Anarrhysis
(from [Greek: anarruein], to draw back the victim's head), a sacrifice
of oxen was offered at the public cost to Zeus Phratrius and Athena. On
the third day, Cureotis ([Greek: koureotis]), children born since the
last festival were presented by their fathers or guardians to the
assembled phratores, and, after an oath had been taken as to their
legitimacy and the sacrifice of a goat or a sheep, their names were
inscribed in the register. The name [Greek: koureotis] is derived either
from [Greek: kouros], that is, the day of the young, or less probably
from [Greek: keiro], because on this occasion young people cut their
hair and offered it to the gods. The victim was called [Greek: meion].
On this day also it was the custom for boys still at school to declaim
pieces of poetry, and to receive prizes (Plato, _Timaeus_, 21 B).
According to Hesychius these three days of the festival were followed by
a fourth, called [Greek: epibda], but this is merely a general term for
the day after any festival.




APE (Old Eng. _apa_; Dutch _aap_; Old Ger. _affo_; Welsh _epa_; Old
Bohemian _op_; a word of uncertain origin, possibly an imitation of the
animal's chatter), the generic English name, till the 16th century, for
animals of the monkey tribe, and still used specifically for the
tailless, manlike representatives of the order Primates (q.v.). The word
is now generally a synonym for "monkey," but the common verb for both
(as transferred figuratively to human beings) is "to ape," i.e. to
imitate.




APELDOORN, a town in the province of Gelderland, Holland, and a junction
station 26-1/2 m. by rail W. of Amersfoort. It is connected by canal
north and south with Zwolle and Zutphen respectively. Pop. (1900)
25,834. The neighbourhood of Apeldoorn is very picturesque and well
wooded. The Protestant church was restored after a fire in 1890. Close
by is the favourite country-seat of the royal family of Holland called
the Loo. It was originally a hunting-lodge of the dukes of Gelderland,
but in its present form dates chiefly from the time of the Stadtholder
William III., king of England. Apeldoorn possesses large paper-mills.




APELLA, the official title of the popular assembly at Sparta,
corresponding to the ecclesia in most other Greek states. Every full
citizen who had completed his thirtieth year was entitled to attend the
meetings, which, according to Lycurgus's ordinance, must be held at the
time of each full moon within the boundaries of Sparta. They had in all
probability taken place originally in the Agora, but were later
transferred to the neighbouring building known as the Skias (Paus. iii.
12. 10). The presiding officers were at first the kings, but in
historical times the ephors, and the voting was conducted by shouts; if
the president was doubtful as to the majority of voices, a division was
taken and the votes were counted. Lycurgus had ordained that the apella
must simply accept or reject the proposals submitted to it, and though
this regulation fell into neglect, it was practically restored by the
law of Theopompus and Polydorus which empowered the kings and elders to
set aside any "crooked" decision of the people (Plut. _Lycurg._ 6). In
later times, too, the actual debate was almost, if not wholly, confined
to the kings, elders, ephors and perhaps the other magistrates. The
apella voted on peace and war, treaties and foreign policy in general:
it decided which of the kings should conduct a campaign and settled
questions of disputed succession to the throne: it elected elders,
ephors and other magistrates, emancipated helots and perhaps voted on
legal proposals. There is a single reference (Xen. _Hell._ iii. 3. 8) to
a "small assembly" ([Greek: e mikra kaloumene ekklesia]) at Sparta, but
nothing is known as to its nature or competence. The term apella does
not occur in extant Spartan inscriptions, though two decrees of Gythium
belonging to the Roman period refer to the [Greek: megalai apellai] (Le
Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archeologique_, ii., Nos. 242a, 243).

  See G. Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens_
  (Eng, trans., 1895), pp. 49 ff.; _Studien zur altspartanischen
  Geschichte_ (Gottingen, 1872), pp. 131 ff.; G.F. Schomann,
  _Antiquities of Greece: The State_ (Eng. trans., 1880), pp. 234 ff.;
  _De ecdesiis Lacedaemoniorum_ (Griefswald, 1836) [= _Opusc. academ._
  i. pp. 87 ff.]; C.O. Muller, _History and Antiquities of the Doric
  Race_ (Eng. trans., 2nd ed. 1839), book iii. ch. 5, SS 8-10; G.
  Busolt, _Die griechischen Staats- und Rechtsaltertumer_, 1887 (in Iwan
  Muller's _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumsiuissenschaft_, iv. 1), S
  90; _Griechische Geschichte_ (2nd ed.), i. p. 552 ff.     (M. N. T.)




APELLES, probably the greatest painter of antiquity. He lived from the
time of Philip of Macedon till after the death of Alexander. He was of
Ionian origin, but after he had attained some celebrity he became a
student at the celebrated school of Sicyon, where he worked under
Pamphilus. He thus combined the Dorian thoroughness with the Ionic
grace. Attracted to the court of Philip, he painted him and the young
Alexander with such success that he became the recognized court painter
of Macedon, and his picture of Alexander holding a thunderbolt ranked
with the Alexander with the spear of the sculptor Lysippus. Other works
of Apelles had a great reputation in antiquity, such as the portraits of
the Macedonians Clitus, Archelaus and Antigonus, the procession of the
high priest of Artemis at Ephesus, Artemis amid a chorus of maidens, a
great allegorical picture representing Calumny, and the noted painting
representing Aphrodite rising out of the sea. Of none of these works
have we any copy, unless indeed we may consider a painting of Alexander
as Zeus in the house of the Vettii at Pompeii as a reminiscence of his
work; but some of the Italian artists of the Renaissance repeated the
subjects, in a vain hope of giving some notion of the composition of
them.

Few things are more hopeless than the attempt to realize the style of a
painter whose works have vanished. But a great wealth of stories, true
or invented, clung to Apelles in antiquity; and modern archaeologists
have naturally tried to discover what they indicate. We are told, for
example, that he attached great value to the drawing of outlines,
practising every day. The tale is well known of his visit to Protogenes,
and the rivalry of the two masters as to which could draw the finest and
steadiest line. The power of drawing such lines is conspicuous in the
decoration of red-figured vases of Athens. Apelles is said to have
treated his rival with generosity, for he increased the value of his
pictures by spreading a report that he meant to buy them and sell them
as his own. Apelles allowed the superiority of some of his
contemporaries in particular matters: according to Pliny he admired the
_dispositio_ of Melanthius, i.e. the way in which he spaced his figures,
and the _mensurae_ of Asclepiodorus, who must have been a great master
of symmetry and proportion. It was especially in that undefinable
quality "grace" that Apelles excelled. He probably used but a small
variety of colours, and avoided elaborate perspective: simplicity of
design, beauty of line and charm of expression were his chief merits.
When the naturalism of some of his works is praised--for example, the
hand of his Alexander is said to have stood out from the picture--we
must remember that this is the merit always ascribed by ignorant critics
to works which they admire. In fact the age of Alexander was one of
notable idealism, and probably Apelles succeeded in a marked degree in
imparting to his figures a beauty beyond nature.

Apelles was also noted for improvements which he introduced in
technique. He had a dark glaze, called by Pliny _atramentum_, which
served both to preserve his paintings and to soften their colour. There
can be little doubt that he was one of the most bold and progressive, of
artists.     (P. G.)




APELLICON, a wealthy native of Teos, afterwards an Athenian citizen, a
famous book collector. He not only spent large sums in the acquisition
of his library, but stole original documents from the archives of Athens
and other cities of Greece. Being detected, he fled in order to escape
punishment, but returned when Athenion (or Aristion), a bitter opponent
of the Romans, had made himself tyrant of the city with the aid of
Mithradates. Athenion sent him with some troops to Delos, to plunder the
treasures of the temple, but he showed little military capacity. He was
surprised by the Romans under the command of Orobius (or Orbius), and
only saved his life by flight. He died a little later, probably in 84
B.C.

Apellicon's chief pursuit was the collection of rare and important
books. He purchased from the family of Neleus of Skepsis in the Troad
manuscripts of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus (including their
libraries), which had been given to Neleus by Theophrastus himself,
whose pupil Neleus had been. They had been concealed in a cellar to
prevent their falling into the hands of the book-collecting princes of
Pergamum, and were in a very dilapidated condition. Apellicon filled in
the lacunae, and brought out a new, but faulty, edition. In 84 Sulla
removed Apellicon's library to Rome (Strabo xiii. p. 609; Plutarch,
_Sulla_, 26). Here the MSS. were handed over to the grammarian
Tyrannion, who took copies of them, on the basis of which the
peripatetic philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes prepared an edition of
Aristotle's works. Apellicon's library contained a remarkable old copy
of the _Iliad_. He is said to have published a biography of Aristotle,
in which the calumnies of other biographers were refuted.




APENNINES (Gr. [Greek: Apenninos], Lat. _Appenninus_--in both cases used
in the singular), a range of mountains traversing the entire peninsula
of Italy, and forming, as it were, the backbone of the country. The name
is probably derived from the Celtic _pen_, a mountain top: it originally
belonged to the northern portion of the chain, from the Maritime Alps to
Ancona; and Polybius is probably the first writer who applied it to the
whole chain, making, indeed, no distinction between the Apennines and
the Maritime Alps, and extending the former name as far as Marseilles.
Classical authors do not differentiate the various parts of the chain,
but use the name as a general name for the whole. The total length is
some 800 m. and the maximum width 70 to 80 m.

_Divisions._--Modern geographers divide the range into three parts,
northern, central and southern.

1. The northern Apennines are generally distinguished (though there is
no real solution of continuity) from the Maritime Alps at the Bocchetta
dell' Altare, some 5 m. W. of Savona on the high road to Turin.[1] They
again are divided into three parts--the Ligurian, Tuscan and Umbrian
Apennines. The Ligurian Apennines extend as far as the pass of La Cisa
in the upper valley of the Magra (anc. _Macra_) above Spezia; at first
they follow the curve of the Gulf of Genoa, and then run east-south-east
parallel to the coast. On the north and north-east lie the broad plains
of Piedmont and Lombardy, traversed by the Po, the chief tributaries of
which from the Ligurian Apennines are the Scrivia (_Olumbria_), Trebbia
(_Trebia_) and Taro (_Tarus_). The Tanaro (_Tanarus_), though largely
fed by tributaries from the Ligurian Apennines, itself rises in the
Maritime Alps, while the rivers on the south and south-west of the range
are short and unimportant. The south side of the range rises steeply
from the sea, leaving practically no coast strip: its slopes are
sheltered and therefore fertile and highly cultivated, and the coast
towns are favourite winter resorts (see RIVIERA). The highest point (the
Monte Bue) reaches 5915 ft. The range is crossed by several
railways--the line from Savona to Turin (with a branch at Ceva for
Acqui), that from Genoa to Ovada and Acqui, the main lines from Genoa to
Novi, the junction for Turin and Milan (both of which[2] pass under the
Monte dei Giovi, the ancient Mons loventius, by which the ancient Via
Postumia ran from Genua to Dertona), and that from Spezia to Parma under
the pass of La Cisa.[3] All these traverse the ridge by long
tunnels--that on the new line from Genoa to Honco is upwards of 5 m. in
length.

The Tuscan Apennines extend from the pass of La Cisa to the sources of
the Tiber. The main chain continues to run in an east-south-east
direction, but traverses the peninsula, the west coast meanwhile turning
almost due south. From the northern slopes many rivers and streams run
north and north-north-east into the Po, the Secchia (_Secia_) and Panaro
(_Scultenna_) being among the most important, while farther east most of
the rivers are tributaries of the Reno (anc. _Rhenus_). Other small
streams, e.g. the Ronco (_Bedesis_) and Montone (_Utis_), which flow
into the sea together east of Ravenna, were also tributaries of the Po;
and the Savio (_Sapis_) and the Rubicon seem to be the only streams from
this side of the Tuscan Apennines that ran directly into the sea in
Roman days. From the south-west side of the main range the Arno (q.v.)
and Serchio run into the Mediterranean. This section of the Apennines is
crossed by two railways, from Pistoia to Bologna and from Florence to
Faenza, and by several good high roads, of which the direct road from
Florence to Bologna over the Futa pass is of Roman origin; and certain
places in it are favourite summer resorts. The highest point of the
chain is Monte Cimone (7103 ft.). The so-called Alpi Apuane (the
_Apuani_ were an ancient people of Liguria), a detached chain south-west
of the valley of the Serchio, rise to a maximum height of 6100 ft. They
contain the famous marble quarries of Carrara. The greater part of
Tuscany, however, is taken up by lower hills, which form no part of the
Apennines, being divided from the main chain by the valleys of the Arno,
Chiana (_Clanis_) and Paglia (_Pallia_), Towards the west they are rich
in minerals and chemicals, which the Apennines proper do not produce.

The Umbrian Apennines extend from the sources of the Tiber to (or
perhaps rather beyond) the pass of Scheggia near Cagli, where the
ancient Via Flaminia crosses the range. The highest point is the Monte
Nerone (5010 ft.). The chief river is the Tiber itself: the others,
among which the Foglia (_Pisaurus_), Metauro (_Metaurus_) and Esino[4]
may be mentioned, run north-east into the Adriatic, which is some 30 m.
from the highest points of the chain. This portion of the range is
crossed near its southern termination by a railway from Foligno to
Ancona (which at Fabriano has a branch to Macerata and Porto Civitanova,
on the Adriatic coast railway), which may perhaps be conveniently
regarded as its boundary.[5] By some geographers, indeed, it is treated
as a part of the central Apennines.

2. The central Apennines are the most extensive portion of the chain,
and stretch as far as the valley of the Sangro (_Sangrus_). To the north
are the Monti Sibillini, the highest point of which is the Monte Vettore
(8128 ft.). Farther south three parallel chains may be traced, the
westernmost of which (the Monti Sabini) culminates to the south in the
Monte Viglio (7075 ft.), the central chain in the Monte Terminillo (7260
ft.), and farther south in the Monte Velino (8160 ft.), and the eastern
in the Gran Sasso d'Italia (9560 ft.), the highest summit of the
Apennines, and the Maiella group (Monte Amaro, 9170 ft.). Between the
western and central ranges are the plain of Rieti, the valley of the
Salto (_Himella_), and the Lago Fucino; while between the central and
eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and Sulmona. The chief rivers
on the west are the Nera (_Nar_), with its tributaries the Velino
(_Velinus_) and Salto, and the Anio, both of which fall into the Tiber.
On the east there is at first a succession of small rivers which flow
into the Adriatic, from which the highest points of the chain are some
25 m. distant, such as the Potenza (_Flosis_), Chienti (_Cluentus_),
Tenna (_Tinna_), Tronto (_Truentus_), Tordino (_Helvinus_), Vomano
(_Vomanus_), &c. The Pescara (_Aternus_), which receives the Aterno from
the north-west and the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and
so is the Sangro.

The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from Rome to
Castelammare Adriatico via Avezzano and Sulmona: the railway from Orte
to Terni (and thence to Foligno) follows the Nera valley; while from
Terni a line ascends to the plain of Rieti, and thence crosses the
central chain to Aquila, whence it follows the valley of the Aterno to
Sulmona. In ancient times the Via Salaria, Via Caecilia and Via
Valeria-Claudia all ran from Rome to the Adriatic coast. The volcanic
mountains of the province of Rome are separated from the Apennines by
the Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini, or Volscian mountains, by the
valleys of the Sacco and Liri.

3. In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro valley, the
three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may
be named the Matese, the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto
(6725 ft.). The chief rivers on the south-west are the Liri or
Garigliano (anc. _Liris_) with its tributary the Sacco (_Trerus_), the
Volturno (_Volturnus_), Sebeto (_Sabatus_), Sarno (_Sarnus_), on the
north the Trigno (_Trinius_), Biferno (_Tifernus_), and Fortore
(_Frento_). The promontory of Monte Gargano, on the east, is completely
isolated, and so are the volcanic groups near Naples. The district is
traversed from north-west to south-east by the railway from Sulmona to
Benevento and on to Avellino, and from south-west to north-east by the
railways from Caianello via Isernia to Campobasso and Termoli, from
Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from Nocera and Avellino to
Rocchetta S. Antonio, the junction for Foggia, Spinazzola (for Barletta,
Bari, and Taranto) and Potenza. Roman roads followed the same lines as
the railways: the Via Appia ran from Capua to Benevento, whence the
older road went to Venosa and Taranto and so to Brindisi, while the Via
Traiana ran nearly to Foggia and thence to Bari.

The valley of the Ofanto (_Aufidus_), which runs into the Adriatic close
to Barletta, marks the northern termination of the first range of the
Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata), which runs from east to west, while
south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and Basiento (on the
east)-which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via
Potenza to Metaponto--the second range begins to run due north and south
as far as the plain of Sibari (_Sybaris_). The highest point is the
Monte Pollino (7325 ft.). The chief rivers are the Sele
(_Silarus_)--joined by the Negro (_Tanager_) and Calore (_Calor_)--on
the west, and the Bradano (_Bradanus_), Basiento (_Casuentus_), Agri
(_Aciris_), Sinni (_Siris_) on the east, which flow into the gulf of
Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant
streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width
of the peninsula diminishes to some 40 m. The railway running south from
Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending the valley of the Negro, is planned to
extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia,
which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence
followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia, a branch of the Via Traiana,
ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum. At the narrowest point
the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile (_Sybaris_) and
Crati (_Crathis_) flow to the sea, occurs on the east coast, extending
halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease
and the granite mountains of Calabria (anc. _Bruttii_) begin. The first
group extends as far as the isthmus formed by the gulfs of S. Eufemia
and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest point reached is
6330 ft. (the Botte Donato). The forests which covered it in ancient
times supplied the Greeks and Sicilians with timber for shipbuilding.
The railway from S. Eufemia to Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses
the isthmus, and an ancient road may have run from Squillace to
Monteleone. The second group extends to the south end of the Italian
peninsula, culminating in the Aspromonte (6420 ft.) to the east of
Reggio di Calabria. In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant.

_Character_.--The Apennines are to some extent clothed with forests,
though these were probably more extensive in classical times (Pliny
mentions especially pine, oak and beech woods, _Hist. Nat_. xvi. 177);
they have indeed been greatly reduced in comparatively modern times by
indiscriminate timber-felling, and though serious attempts at
reafforestation have been made by the government, much remains to be
done. They also furnish considerable summer pastures, especially in the
Abruzzi: Pliny (_Hist. Nat_. xi. 240) praises the cheese of the
Apennines. In the forests wolves were frequent, and still are found, the
flocks being protected against them by large sheep-dogs; bears, however,
which were known in Roman times, have almost entirely disappeared. Nor
are the wild goats called _rotae_, spoken of by Varro (_R. R._ II. i.
5), which may have been either chamois or steinbock, to be found.
Brigandage appears to have been prevalent in Roman times in the remoter
parts of the Apennines, as it was until recently: an inscription found
near the Furlo pass was set up in A.D. 246 by an _evocatus Augusti_ (a
member of a picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of
twenty men from the Ravenna fleet (G. Henzen in _Romische Mitteilungen_,
1887, 14). Snow lies on the highest peaks of the Apennines for almost
the whole year. The range produces no minerals, but there are a
considerable number of good mineral springs, some of which are thermal
(such as Bagni di Lucca, Monte Catini, Monsummano, Porretta, Telese,
&c.), while others are cool (such as Nocera, Sangemini, Cinciano, &c.),
the water of which is both drunk on the spot and sold as table water
elsewhere.     (T. As.)

_Geology_.--The Apennines are the continuation of the Alpine chain, but
the individual zones of the Alps cannot be traced into the Apennines.
The zone of the Brianconnais (see ALPS) may be followed as far as the
Gulf of Genoa, but scarcely beyond, unless it is represented by the
Trias and older beds of the Apuan Alps. The inner zone of crystalline
and schistose rocks which forms the main chain of the Alps, is absent in
the Apennines except towards the southern end. The Apennines, indeed,
consist almost entirely of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds, like the outer
zones of the Alps. Remnants of a former inner zone of more ancient rocks
may be seen in the Apuan Alps, in the islands off the Tuscan coast; in
the Catena Metallifera, Cape Circeo and the island of Zannone, as well
as in the Calabrian peninsula. These remnants lie at a comparatively low
level, and excepting the Apuan Alps and the Calabrian peninsula they do
not now form any part of the Apennine chain. But that in Tertiary times
there was a high interior zone of crystalline rocks is indicated by the
character of the Eocene beds in the southern Apennines. These are formed
to a large extent of thick conglomerates which are full of pebbles and
boulders of granite and schist. Many of the boulders are of considerable
size and they are often still angular. There is now no crystalline
region from which they could reach their present position; and this and
other considerations have led the followers of E. Suess to conclude that
even in Tertiary times a large land mass consisting of ancient rocks
occupied the space which is now covered by the southern portion of the
Tyrrhenian Sea. This old land mass has been called Tyrrhenis, and
probably extended from Sicily into Latium and as far west as Sardinia.
On the Italian border of this land there was raised a mountain chain
with an inner crystalline zone and an outer zone of Mesozoic and
Tertiary beds. Subsequent faulting has caused the subsidence of the
greater part of Tyrrhenis, including nearly the whole of the inner zone
of the mountain chain, and has left only the outer zones standing as the
present Apennines.

Be this as it may, the Apennines, excepting in Calabria, are formed
chiefly of Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene beds. In
the south the deposits, from the Trias to the middle Eocene, consist
mainly of limestones, and were laid down, with a few slight
interruptions, upon a quietly subsiding sea-floor. In the later part of
the Eocene period began the folding which gave rise to the existing
chain. The sea grew shallow, the deposits became conglomeratic and
shaly, volcanic eruptions began, and the present folds of the Apennines
were initiated. The folding and consequent elevation went on until the
close of the Miocene period when a considerable subsidence took place
and the Pliocene sea overspread the lower portions of the range.
Subsequent elevation, without folding, has raised these Pliocene
deposits to a considerable height--in some cases over 3000 ft. and they
now lie almost undisturbed upon the older folded beds. This last
elevation led to the formation of numerous lakes which are now filled up
by Pleistocene deposits. Both volcanic eruptions and movements of
elevation and depression continue to the present day on the shores of
the Tyrrhenian Sea. In the northern Apennines the elevation of the sea
floor appears to have begun at an earlier period, for the Upper
Cretaceous of that part of the chain consists largely of sandstones and
conglomerates. In Calabria the chain consists chiefly of crystalline and
schistose rocks; it is the Mesozoic and Tertiary zone which has here
been sunk beneath the sea. Similar rocks are found beneath the Trias
farther north, in some of the valleys of Basilicata. Glaciers no longer
exist in the Apennines, but Post-Pliocene moraines have been observed in
Basilicata.

  REFERENCES.--G. de Lorenzo, "Studi di geologia nell' Appennino
  Meridionale," _Atti d. R. Accad. d. Sci, Fis. e Mat._, Napoli, ser. 2,
  vol. viii., no. 7 (1896); F. Sacco, "L' Appennino settentrionale,"
  _Boll. Soc. geol. Ital._ (1893-1899).     (P. La.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The ancient Via Aemilia, built in 109 B.C., led over this pass,
    but originally turned east to Dertona (mod. _Tortona_).

  [2] There are two separate lines from Sampierdarena to Ronco.

  [3] This pass was also traversed by a nameless Roman road.

  [4] This river (anc. Aesis) was the boundary of Italy proper in the
    3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.

  [5] The Monte Conero, to the south of Ancona, was originally an
    island of the Pliocene sea.




APENRADE, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of Schleswig,
beautifully situated on the Apenrade Fjord, an arm of the Little Belt,
38 m. N. of the town of Schleswig. Pop. (1900) 5952. It is connected by
a branch line with the main railway of Schleswig, and possesses a good
harbour, which affords shelter for a large carrying trade. Fishing,
shipbuilding and various small factories provide occupation for the
population. The town is a bathing resort, as is Elisenlund close by.




APERTURE (from Lat. _aperire_, to open), an opening. In optics, it is
that portion of the diameter of an object-glass or mirror through which
light can pass free from obstruction. It is equal to the actual diameter
of the cylinder of rays admitted by a telescope.




APEX, the Latin word (pl. _apices_) for the top, tip or peak of
anything. A diminutive "apiculus" is used in botany.




APHANITE, a name given (from the Gr. [Greek: aphanes], invisible) to
certain dark-coloured igneous rocks which are so fine-grained that their
component minerals are not detected by the unaided eye. They consist
essentially of plagioclase felspar, with hornblende or augite, and may
contain also biotite, quartz and a limited amount of orthoclase.
Although a few authorities still recognize the aphanites as a distinct
class, most systematic petrologists, at the present time, have discarded
it, and regard these rocks as merely structural facies of other species.
Those which contain hornblende are uniform, fine-grained diorites,
vogesites, &c., while when pyroxene predominates they are ascribed to
the dolerites, quartz-dolerites, &c. Hence, any rock which is compact,
crystalline and fine grained, is frequently said to be _aphanitic_,
without implying exactly to which of the principal rock groups it really
belongs.




APHASIA[1] (from Gr. [Greek: a], privative, and [Greek: phasis],
speech), a term which means literally inability to speak, and is used to
denote various defects in the comprehension and expression of both
spoken and written language which result from lesions of the brain.
Aphasic disorders may be classed in two groups:--first, receptive or
sensory aphasia, which comprises (a) inability to understand spoken
language (auditory aphasia), and (b) inability to read (visual aphasia,
or _alexia_); second, emissive or motor aphasia, under which category
are included (a) inability to speak (motor vocal aphasia, or _aphemia_),
and (b) inability to write (motor graphic aphasia, or _agraphia_). It
has been shown that each of these defects is produced by destruction of
a special region of the cortex of the brain. These regions, which are
termed the speech centres, are, in right-handed people, situated in the
left cerebral hemisphere; this is the reason why aphasia is so commonly
associated with paralysis of the right side of the body.

A study of the acquisition of the faculty of speech throws light upon
the education of the speech centres, and helps to elucidate their
physiological interaction and the phenomena of aphasia. The auditory
speech centre is the first to show signs of functional activity, for
within a few months of birth the child begins to _understand_ spoken
language. Some months later the motor vocal speech centre begins to
functionate. The memories of the auditory word images which are stored
up in the auditory speech centre play a most important part in the
process of learning to speak. The child born deaf grows up mute. The
visual speech centre comes into activity when the child is taught to
read. Again, when he learns to write and thus begins to educate his
graphic centre, he is constantly calling upon his visual speech centre
for the visual images of the words he wishes to produce. From these
remarks it will be seen that there is a very intimate association
between the auditory speech centre and the motor vocal speech centre,
also between the visual speech centre and the graphic centre.

_Auditory Aphasia._--The auditory speech centre is situated in the
posterior part of the first and second temporo-sphenoidal convolutions
on the left side of the brain. Destruction of this centre causes
"auditory aphasia." Hearing is unimpaired but spoken language is quite
unintelligible. The subject of auditory aphasia may be compared to an
individual who is listening to a foreign language of which he does not
understand a word. Word deafness, a term often used as synonymous with
auditory aphasia, is misleading and should be abandoned. Auditory
aphasia commonly interferes with vocal expression, for the majority of
people when they speak do so by recalling the auditory memories of words
stored up in the auditory speech centre. _Amnesia verbalis_ is employed
to designate failure to call up in the memory the images of words which
are needed for purposes of vocal expression or silent thought.

_Visual Aphasia or Alexia._--The visual speech centre, which is located
in the left angular gyrus, is connected with the two centres for vision
which are situated one in either occipital lobe. Destruction of the
visual speech centre produces visual aphasia or alexia. Word blindness,
sometimes used as the equivalent of visual aphasia, is, like word
deafness, a misleading term. The individual is not blind, he sees the
words and letters perfectly, but they appear to him as unintelligible
cyphers. When the visual speech centre is destroyed, the memories of the
visual images of words are obliterated and interference with writing, a
consequence of _amnesia verbalis_, results. On the other hand, when the
lesion is situated deeply in the occipital lobe, and does not implicate
the cortex, but merely cuts off the connexions of the angular gyrus with
both visual centres, agraphia is not produced, for the visual word
centre and its connexion with the graphic centre are still intact (pure,
or sub-cortical word blindness).

_Motor Vocal Aphasia or Aphemia._--The centre for motor vocal speech is
situated in the posterior part of the third left frontal convolution and
extends on to the foot of the left ascending frontal convolution
(Broca's convolution). Complete destruction of this region produces loss
of speech, although it often happens that a few words, such as "yes" and
"no," and, it may be, emotional exclamations such as "Oh! dear!" and the
like are retained. The utterance of unintelligible sounds is still
possible, however, and there is neither defective voice production
(_aphonia_) nor paralysis of the mechanism of articulation. The
individual can recall the auditory and visual images of the words which
he wishes to use, but his memory for the complicated, co-ordinated
movements which he acquired in the process of learning to speak, and
which are necessary for vocal expression, has been blotted out. In the
great majority of cases of motor vocal aphasia there is associated
agraphia, a circumstance which is perhaps to be accounted for by the
proximity of the graphic centre. When the lesion is situated below the
cortex of Broca's convolution but destroys the fibres which pass from it
towards the internal capsule, agraphia is not produced (sub-cortical or
pure motor vocal aphasia). Destruction of the auditory speech centre is,
as we have seen, commonly accompanied by more or less interference with
vocal speech, a consequence of _amnesia verbalis_.

_Agraphia._--Discussion still rages as to the presence of a special
writing centre. Those who favour the separate existence of a graphic
centre locate it in the second left frontal convolution. It may be that
the want of unanimity as to the graphic centre is to be explained by an
anatomical relationship so close between the graphic centre and that for
the fine movement of the hand that a lesion in this situation which
produces agraphia must at the same time cause a paralysis of the hand.
Destruction of the visual speech centre by obliterating the visual
memories of words (_amnesia verbalis_) produces agraphia. Further,
several instances are on record in which agraphia has followed
destruction of the commissure between the visual speech centre and the
graphic centre. As already mentioned, agraphia is very often associated
with motor vocal aphasia.

A number of aphasic defects are met with in addition to those already
mentioned. Thus _paraphasia_ is a condition in which the patient makes
use of words other than those he intends. He may mix up his words so
that his conversation is quite unintelligible. In the most pronounced
forms he gabbles away, employing unrecognizable sounds in place of words
(_jargon and gibberish aphasia_). _Paragraphia_ is a similar defect
which occurs in writing. Both paraphasia and paragraphia may be produced
by partial lesions of the sensory speech centres or of the commissures
which connect these with the motor centres. _Object blindness_ (syn.
mind-blindness) refers to an inability to recognize an object or its
uses by the aid of sight alone. The probable explanation would seem to
be that the ordinary centre for vision has been isolated from the other
sensory centres with which it is connected. Not uncommonly there is
associated visual aphasia. _Optic aphasia_ was introduced to designate a
somewhat similar state in which, although the uses of an object are
recognized, the patient cannot name it at sight, yet, if it is of such a
nature that it appeals directly to one of the other senses, he may at
once be able to name it. _Tactile aphasia_, is a rare defect in which
there exists an inability to recognize an object by touch alone although
the qualities which, under normal circumstances, suffice for its
detection can be accurately described. _Amusia_, or loss of the musical
faculty, may occur in association with or independent of aphasia. There
is reason for believing that special receptive and emissive centres
exist for the musical sense exactly analogous to those for speech.

The speech centres are all supplied by the left middle cerebral artery.
When this artery is blocked close to its origin by an _embolus_ or
_thrombus_, total aphasia results. It may be, however, that only one of
the smaller branches of the artery is obstructed, and, according to the
region of the brain to which this branch is distributed, one or more of
the speech centres may be destroyed. Occlusion of the left posterior
cerebral artery causes extensive softening of the occipital lobe and
produces pure word blindness. Further, a tumour, abscess, haemorrhage or
meningitis may be so situated as to damage or destroy the individual
speech centres or their connecting commissures. The amount of recovery
to be expected in any given case depends upon the nature, situation and
extent of the lesion, and upon the age of the patient. Even after
complete destruction of the speech centres, perfect recovery may take
place, for the centres in the right hemisphere of the brain are capable
of education. This is only possible in young individuals. In the great
majority of instances the nature of the lesion is such as to render
futile all treatment directed towards its removal. In suitable cases,
however, the education of the right side of the brain may be very
greatly assisted by an intelligent application of scientific methods.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Broca, _Bulletin de la Societe anatomique_ (1861);
  Wernicke, _Der Aphasische Symptomen-complex_ (Breslau, 1874);
  Kussmaul, _Ziemssen's Cyclopaedia_, vol. xiv. p. 759; Wyllie, _The
  Disorders of Speech_ (1895); Elder, _Aphasia and the Cerebral Speech
  Mechanism_ (1897); Collins, _The Faculty of Speech_ (1897); Bastian,
  _Aphasia and other Speech Defects_ (1898); Byrom Bramwell,
  "Will-making and Aphasia," _British Medical Journal_ (1897); "The
  Morison Lectures on Aphasia," _The Lancet_ (1906). See also the works
  of Charcot, Hughlings Jackson, Dejerine, Lichtheim, Pitres, Grasset,
  Ross, Broadbent, Mills, Bateman, Mirallie, Exner, Marie and others.
       (J. B. T.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] In 1906 Pierre Marie of Paris expressed views (_La Semaine
    medicale_, May 23 and October 17, and elsewhere) upon the question of
    aphasia which have given rise to much animated controversy, since
    they are in many respects at complete variance with the classical
    conception which has been represented in the present article. Marie
    holds that Broca's convolution plays no special role in the function
    of speech. He admits that a lesion in the region of the lenticular
    nucleus is followed by inability to speak, but this defect is, in his
    opinion, to be regarded as an anarthria. He further admits the
    production of sensory aphasia--the aphasia of Wernicke, as he prefers
    to call it after its discoverer--by lesions which destroy the angular
    and supramarginal gyri, and the upper two temporo-sphenoidal
    convolutions, but he regards the essential foundation of sensory
    aphasia as a diminution of intelligence. There are, in his opinion,
    no sensory images of language. Motor aphasia is, he believes, nothing
    more than a combination of sensory aphasia and anarthria. These
    conclusions have been vigorously attacked, more especially by
    Dejerine of Paris (_La Presse medicale_, July 1906 and elsewhere).




APHELION (from Gr. [Greek: apo], from, and [Greek: helios], sun), in
astronomy, that point of the orbit of a planet at which it is most
distant from the sun. Apogee, Apocentre, Aposaturnium, &c. are terms
applied to those points of the orbit of a body moving around a centre of
force--as the Earth, Saturn, &c.--at which it is farthest from the
central body.




APHEMIA (from Gr. [Greek: a], without, and [Greek: pheme], speech), in
pathology, the loss of the power of speech (see APHASIA).




APHIDES (pl. of Aphis), minute insects, also known as "plant-lice,"
"blight," and "green-fly," belonging to the homopterous division of the
order Hemiptera, with long antennae and legs, two-jointed, two-clawed
tarsi, and usually a pair of abdominal tubes through which a waxy
secretion is exuded. These tubes were formerly supposed to secrete the
sweet substance known as "honey-dew" so much sought after by ants; but
this is now known to come from the alimentary canal. Both winged and
wingless forms of both sexes occur, and the wings when present are
normal in number, that is to say two pairs. Apart from their importance
from the economic standpoint, Aphides are chiefly remarkable for the
phenomena connected with the propagation of the species. The following
brief summary of what takes place in the plant-louse of the rose (_Aphis
rosae_), may be regarded as typical of the family, though exceptions
occur in other species: Eggs produced in the autumn by fertilized
females remain on the plant through the winter and hatching in the
spring give rise to female individuals which may be winged or wingless.
From these females are born parthenogenetically, that is to say without
the intervention of males, and by a process that has been compared to
internal budding, large numbers of young resembling their parents in
every particular except size, which themselves reproduce their kind in
the same way. This process continues throughout the summer, generation
after generation being produced until the number of descendants from a
single individual of the spring-hatched brood may amount to very many
thousands. In the autumn winged males appear, union between the sexes
takes place and the females lay the fertilized eggs which are destined
to carry the species through the cold months of winter. If, however, the
food-plant is grown in a conservatory where protection against cold is
afforded, the aphides may go on reproducing agamogenetically without
cessation for many years together. Not the least interesting features
connected with this strange life-history are the facts that the young
may be born by the oviparous or viviparous methods and either
gamogenetically or agamogenetically, and may develop into winged forms
or remain wingless, and that the males only appear in any number at the
close of the season. Although the factors which determine these
phenomena are not clearly understood, it is believed that the appearance
of the males is connected with the increasing cold of autumn and the
growing scarcity of food, and that the birth of winged females is
similarly associated with decrease in the quantity or vitiation of the
quality of the nourishment imbibed. Sometimes the winged females migrate
from the plant they were born on to start fresh colonies on others often
of quite a different kind. Thus the apple blight (_Aphis mali_) after
producing many generations of apterous females on its typical food-plant
gives rise to winged forms which fly away and settle upon grass or
corn-stalks.

Closely related to the typical aphides is _Phylloxera vastatrix_, the
insect which causes enormous loss by attacking the leaves and roots of
vines. Its life-history is somewhat similar to that of _Aphis rosae_
summarized above. In the autumn a single fertile egg is laid by apterous
females in a crevice of the bark of the vine where it is protected
during the winter. From this egg in the spring emerges an apterous
female who makes a gall in the new leaf and lays therein a large number
of eggs. Some of the apterous young that are hatched from these form
fresh galls and continue to multiply in the leaves, others descend to
the root of the plant, becoming what are known as root-forms. These,
like the parent form of spring, reproduce parthenogenetically, giving
rise to generation after generation of egg-laying individuals. In the
course of the summer, from some of these eggs are hatched females which
acquire wings and lay eggs from which wingless males and females are
born. From the union of the sexes comes the fertile egg from which the
parent form of spring is hatched.

  See generally G.B. Buckton, _British Aphides_ (Ray Soc. 1876-1883);
  also ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY.     (R. I. P.)




APHORISM (from the Gr. [Greek: aphorizein], to define), literally a
distinction or a definition, a term used to describe a principle
expressed tersely in a few telling words or any general truth conveyed
in a short and pithy sentence, in such a way that when once heard it is
unlikely to pass from the memory. The name was first used in the
_Aphorisms_ of Hippocrates, a long series of propositions concerning the
symptoms and diagnosis of disease and the art of healing and medicine.
The term came to be applied later to other sententious statements of
physical science, and later still to statements of all kinds of
principles. Care must be taken not to confound _aphorisms_ with
_axioms_. Aphorisms came into being as the result of experience, whereas
axioms are self-evident truths, requiring no proof, and appertain to
pure reason. Aphorisms have been especially used in dealing with
subjects to which no methodical or scientific treatment was applied till
late, such as art, agriculture, medicine, jurisprudence and politics.
The _Aphorisms_ of Hippocrates form far the most celebrated as well as
the earliest collection of the kind, and it may be interesting to quote
a few examples. "Old men support abstinence well: people of a ripe age
less well: young folk badly, and children less well than all the rest,
particularly those of them who are very lively." "Those who are very fat
by nature are more exposed to die suddenly than those who are thin."
"Those who eject foaming blood, eject it from the lung." "When two
illnesses arrive at the same time, the stronger silences the weaker."
The first aphorism, perhaps the best known of all, which serves as a
kind of introduction to the book, runs as follows:--"Life is short, art
is long, opportunity fugitive, experimenting dangerous, reasoning
difficult: it is necessary not only to do oneself what is right, but
also to be seconded by the patient, by those who attend him, by external
circumstances." Another famous collection of aphorisms is that of the
school of Salerno in Latin verse, in which Joannes de Meditano, one of
the most celebrated doctors of the school of medicine of Salerno, has
summed up the precepts of this school. The book was dedicated to a king
of England. It is a disputed point as to which king, some authorities
dating the publication as at 1066, others assigning a later date. The
dedication gives the following excellent advice:--

  "Anglorum regi scribit schola tota Salernae.
   Si vis incolumem, si vis te reddere sanum,
   Curas tolle graves: irasci crede profanum:
   Parce mero: coenato parum; non sit tibi vanum
   Surgere post epulas: somnum fuge meridianum:
   Ne mictum retine, nec comprime fortiter anum:
   Haec bene si serves, tu longo tempore vives."

Another collection of aphorisms, also medical and also in Latin, is that
of the Dutchman Hermann Boerhaave, published at Leiden in the year 1709;
it gives a terse summary of the medical knowledge prevailing at the
time, and is of great interest to the student of the history of
medicine.




APHRAATES (a Greek form of the Persian name Aphrahat or Pharhadh), a
Syriac writer belonging to the middle of the 4th century A.D., who
composed a series of twenty-three expositions or homilies on points of
Christian doctrine and practice. The first ten were written in 337, the
following twelve in 344, and the last in 345.[1] The author was early
known as _hakkima pharsaya_ ("the Persian sage"), was a subject of Sapor
II., and was probably of heathen parentage and himself a convert from
heathenism. He seems at some time in his life to have assumed the name
of Jacob, and is so entitled in the colophon to a MS. of A.D. 512 which
contains twelve of his homilies. Hence he was already by Gennadius of
Marseilles (before 496) confused with Jacob, bishop of Nisibis; and the
ancient Armenian version of nineteen of the homilies has been published
under this latter name. But (1) Jacob of Nisibis, who attended the
council of Nicaea, died in 338; and (2) our author, being a Persian
subject, cannot have lived at Nisibis, which became Persian only by
Jovian's treaty of 363. That his name was Aphrahat or Pharhadh we learn
from comparatively late writers--Bar Bahlul (10th century), Elias of
Nisibis (11th), Bar-Hebraeus, and 'Abhd-isho'. George, bishop of the
Arabs, writing in A.D. 714 to a friend who had sent him a series of
questions about the "Persian sage," confesses ignorance of his name,
home and rank, but infers from his homilies that he was a monk, and of
high esteem among the clergy. The fact that in 344 he was selected to
draw up a circular letter from a council of bishops and other clergy to
the churches of Seleucia and Ctesiphon and elsewhere--included in our
collection as homily 14--is held by Dr W. Wright and others to prove
that he was a bishop. According to a marginal note in a 14th-century MS.
(B.M. Orient. 1017), he was "bishop of Mar Mattai," a famous monastery
near Mosul, but it is unlikely that this institution existed so early.
The homilies of Aphraates are intended to form, as Professor Burkitt has
shown, "a full and ordered exposition of the Christian faith." The
standpoint is that of the Syriac-speaking church, before it was touched
by the Arian controversy. Beginning with faith as the foundation, the
writer proceeds to build up the Structure of doctrine and duty. The
first ten homilies, which form one division completed in 337, are
without polemical reference; their subjects are faith, love, fasting,
prayer, wars (a somewhat mysterious setting forth of the conflict
between Rome and Persia under the imagery of Daniel), the sons of the
covenant (monks or ascetics), penitents, the resurrection, humility,
pastors. Those numbered 11-22, written in 344, are almost all directed
against the Jews; the subjects are circumcision, passover, the sabbath,
persuasion (the encyclical letter referred to above), distinction of
meats, the substitution of the Gentiles for the Jews, that Christ is the
Son of God, virginity and holiness, whether the Jews have been finally
rejected or are yet to be restored, provision for the poor, persecution,
death and the last times. The 23rd homily, on the "grape kernel" (Is.
lxv. 8), written in 344, forms an appendix on the Messianic fulfilment
of prophecy, together with a treatment of the chronology from Adam to
Christ. Aphraates impresses a reader favourably by his moral
earnestness, his guilelessness, his moderation in controversy, the
simplicity of his style and language, his saturation with the ideas and
words of Scripture. On the other hand, he is full of cumbrous
repetition, he lacks precision in argument and is prone to digression,
his quotations from Scripture are often inappropriate, and he is greatly
influenced by Jewish exegesis. He is particularly fond of arguments
about numbers. How wholly he and his surroundings were untouched by the
Arian conflict may be judged from the 17th homily--"that Christ is the
Son of God." He argues that, as the name "God" or "Son of God" was given
in the O.T. to men who were worthy, and as God does not withhold from
men a share in His attributes--such as sovereignty and fatherhood--it
was fitting that Christ who has wrought salvation for mankind should
obtain this highest name. From the frequency of his quotations,
Aphraates is a specially important witness to the form in which the
Gospels were read in the Syriac church in his day; Zahn and others have
shown that he--mainly at least--used the _Diatessaron_. Finally, he
bears important contemporary witness to the sufferings of the Christian
church in Persia under Sapor (Shapur) II. as well as the moral evils
which had infected the church, to the sympathy of Persian Christians
with the cause of the Roman empire, to the condition of early monastic
institutions, to the practice of the Syriac church in regard to Easter,
&c.

  Editions by W. Wright (London, 1869), and J. Parisot (with Latin
  translation, Paris, 1894); the ancient Armenian version of 19 homilies
  edited, translated into Latin, and annotated by Antonelli (Rome,
  1756). Besides translations of particular homilies by G. Bickell and
  E.W. Budge, the whole have been translated by G. Bert (Leipzig, 1888).
  Cf. also C.J.F. Sasse, _Proleg, in Aphr. Sapientis Persae sermones
  homileticos_ (Leipzig, 1879); J. Forget, _De Vita et Scriptis
  Aphraatis_ (Louvain, 1882); F.C. Burkitt, _Early Eastern Christianity_
  (London, 1904); J. Labourt, _Le Christianisme dans l'empire perse_
  (Paris, 1904); J. Zahn, _Forschungen_ I.; "Aphraates and the
  Diatessaron," vol. ii. pp. 180-186 of Burkitt's _Evangelion
  Da-Mepharreshe_ (Cambridge, 1904); articles on "Aphraates and
  Monasticism," by R.H. Connolly and Burkitt in _Journal of Theological
  Studies_ (1905) pp. 522-539; (1906) pp. 10-15.     (N. M.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Hom. 1-22 begin with the letters of the Syriac alphabet in
    succession. Their present order in the Syriac MSS. is therefore
    right. The ancient Armenian version, published by Antonelli in 1756,
    has only 19 of the homilies, and those in a somewhat different order.




APHRODITE,[1] the Greek goddess of love and beauty, counterpart of the
Roman Venus. Although her myth and cult were essentially Semitic, she
soon became Hellenized and was admitted to a place among the deities of
Olympus. Some mythologists hold that there already existed in the Greek
system an earlier goddess of love, of similar attributes, who was
absorbed by the Asiatic importation; and one writer (A. Enmann) goes so
far as to deny the oriental origin of Aphrodite altogether. It is
therefore necessary first to examine the nature and characteristics of
her Eastern prototype, and then to see how far they reappear in the
Greek Aphrodite.

Among the Semitic peoples (with the notable exception of the Hebrews) a
supreme female deity was worshipped under different names--the Assyrian
Ishtar, the Phoenician Ashtoreth (Astarte), the Syrian Atargatis
(Derketo), the Babylonian Belit (Mylitta), the Arabian Ilat (Al-ilat).
The article "Aphrodite" in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ is based
upon the theory that all these were originally moon-goddesses, on which
assumption all their functions are explained. This view, however, has
not met with general acceptance, on the ground that, in Semitic
mythology, the moon is always a male divinity; and that the full moon
and crescent, found as attributes of Astarte, are due to a
misinterpretation of the sun's disk and cow's horns of Isis, the result
of the dependence of Syrian religious art upon Egypt. On the other hand,
there is some evidence in ancient authorities (Herodian v. 6, 10;
Lucian, _De Dea Syria_, 4) that Astarte and the moon were considered
identical.

This oriental Aphrodite was worshipped as the bestower of all animal and
vegetable fruitfulness, and under this aspect especially as a goddess of
women. This worship was degraded by repulsive practices (e.g. religious
prostitution, self-mutilation), which subsequently made their way to
centres of Phoenician influence, such as Corinth and Mount Eryx in
Sicily. In this connexion may be mentioned the idea of a divinity, half
male, half female, uniting in itself the active and passive functions of
creation, a symbol of luxuriant growth and productivity. Such was the
bearded Aphrodite of Cyprus, called Aphrodites by Aristophanes according
to Macrobius, who mentions a statue of the androgynous divinity in his
_Saturnalia_ (iii. 8. 2; see also HERMAPHRODITUS). The moon, by its
connexion with menstruation, and as the cause of the fertilizing dew,
was regarded as exercising an influence over the entire animal and
vegetable creation.

The Eastern Aphrodite was closely related to the sea and the element of
moisture; in fact, some consider that she made her first appearance on
Greek soil rather as a marine divinity than as a nature goddess.
According to Syrian ideas, as a fish goddess, she represented the
fructifying power of water. At Ascalon there was a lake full of fish
near the temple of Atargatis-Derketo, into which she was said to have
been thrown together with her son Ichthys (fish) as a punishment for her
arrogance, and to have been devoured by fishes; according to another
version, ashamed of her amour with a beautiful youth, which resulted in
the birth of Semiramis, she attempted to drown herself, but was changed
into a fish with human face (see ATARGATIS). At Hierapolis (Bambyce)
there was a pool with an altar in the middle, sacred to the goddess,
where a festival was held, at which her images were carried into the
water. Her connexion with the sea is explained by the influence of the
moon on the tides, and the idea that the moon, like the sun and the
stars, came up from the ocean.

The oriental Aphrodite is connected with the lower world, and came to be
looked upon as one of its divinities. Thus, Ishtar descends to the
kingdom of Ilat the queen of the dead, to find the means of restoring
her favourite Tammuz (Adon, Adonis) to life. During her stay all animal
and vegetable productivity ceases, to begin again with her return to
earth--a clear indication of the conception of her as a goddess of
fertility. This legend, which strikingly resembles that of Persephone,
probably refers to the decay of vegetation in winter, and the
reawakening of nature in spring (cf. HYACINTHUS). The lunar theory
connects it with the disappearance of the moon at the time of change or
during an eclipse.

Another aspect of her character is that of a warlike goddess, armed with
spear or bow, sometimes wearing a mural crown, as sovereign lady and
protectress of the locality where she was worshipped. The spear and
arrows are identified with the beams of the sun and moon.

The attributes of the goddess were the ram, the he-goat, the dove,
certain fish, the cypress, myrtle and pomegranate, the animals being
symbolical of fertility, the plants remedies against sterility.

The worship of Aphrodite at an early date was introduced into Cyprus,
Cythera and Crete by Phoenician colonists, whence it spread over the
whole of Greece, and as far west as Italy and Sicily. In Crete she has
been identified with Ariadne, who, according to one version of her
story, was put ashore in Cyprus, where she died and was buried in a
grove called after the name of Ariadne-Aphrodite (L.R. Farnell, _Cults
of the Greek States_, ii. p. 663). Cyprus was regarded as her true home
by the Greeks, and Cythera was one of the oldest seats of her worship
(cf. her titles Cytherea, Cypris, Paphia, Amathusia, Idalia--the last
three from places in Cyprus). In both these islands there lingered a
definite tradition of a connexion with the cult of the oriental
Aphrodite Urania, an epithet which will be referred to later. The
oriental features of her worship as practised at Corinth are due to its
early commercial relations with Asia Minor; the fame of her temple
worship on Mount Eryx spread to Carthage, Rome and Latium.

In the _Iliad_, Aphrodite is the daughter of Zeus and Dione, a name by
which she herself is sometimes called. This has been supposed to point
to a confusion between Aphrodite and Hebe, the daughter of Zeus and
Hera, Dione being an Epirot name for the last-named goddess. In the
_Odyssey_, she is the wife of Hephaestus, her place being taken in the
_Iliad_ by Charis, the personification of grace and divine skill,
possibly supplanted by Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty. Her
amour with Ares, by whom she became the mother of Harmonia, the wife of
Cadmus, is famous (_Od._ viii. 266). From her relations with these
acknowledged Hellenic divinites it is argued that there once existed a
primitive Greek goddess of love. This view is examined in detail and
rejected by Farnell (_Cults_, ii. pp. 619-626).

It is admitted that few traces remain of direct relations of the Greek
goddess to the moon, although such possibly survive in the epithets
[Greek: pasiphes, asteria, ourania]. It is suggested that this is due to
the fact that, at the time of the adoption of the oriental goddess, the
Greeks already possessed lunar divinities in Hecate, Selene, Artemis.
But, although her connexion with the moon has practically disappeared,
in all other aspects a development from the Semitic divinity is clearly
manifest.

Aphrodite as the goddess of all fruitfulness in the animal and vegetable
world is especially prominent. In the Homeric hymn to Aphrodite she is
described as ruling over all living things on earth, in the air, and in
the water, even the gods being subject to her influence. She is the
goddess of gardens, especially worshipped in spring and near lowlands
and marshes, favourable to the growth of vegetation. As such in Crete
she is called Antheia ("the flower-goddess"), at Athens [Greek: en
kepois] ("in the gardens"), and [Greek: en kalamois] ("in the
reed-beds") or [Greek: en elei] ("in the marsh") at Samos. Her character
as a goddess of vegetation is clearly shown in the cult and ritual of
Adonis (q.v.; also Farnell, ii. p. 644) and Attis (q.v.). In the animal
world she is the goddess of sexual impulse; amongst men, of birth,
marriage, and family life. To this aspect may be referred the names
Genetyllis ("bringing about birth"), Arma ([Greek: aro], "to join,"
i.e., in marriage, cf. Harmonia), Nymphia ("bridal goddess"),
Kourotrophos ("rearer of boys"). Aphrodite Apaturus (see G.M. Hirst in
_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxiii., 1903) refers to her connexion
with the clan and the festival Apaturia, at which children were admitted
to the _phratria_. It is pointed out by Farnell that this cult of
Aphrodite, as the patroness of married life, is probably a native
development of the Greek religion, the oriental legends representing her
by no means as an upholder of the purer relations of man and woman. As
the goddess of the grosser form of love she inspires both men and women
with passion ([Greek: epistrophia], "turning them to" thoughts of love),
or the reverse ([Greek: apostrophia], "turning them away"). Upon her
male favourites (Paris, Theseus) she bestows the fatal gift of seductive
beauty, which generally leads to disastrous results in the case of the
woman (Helen, Ariadne). As [Greek: mechanitis] ("contriver") she acts as
an intermediary for bringing lovers together, a similar idea being
expressed in [Greek: preis] (of "success" in love, or=_creatrix_). The
two epithets [Greek: androphonos] ("man-slayer") and [Greek: sosandra]
("man-preserver") find an illustration in the pseudo-Plautine (in the
_Mercator_) address to Astarte, who is described as the life and death,
the saviour and destroyer of men and gods. It was natural that a
personality invested with such charms should be regarded as the ideal of
womanly beauty, but it is remarkable that the only probable instance in
which she appears as such is as Aphrodite [Greek: morpho] ("form") at
Sparta (O. Gruppe suggests the meaning "ghost," C. Tumpel the "dark
one," referring to Aphrodite's connexion with the lower world). The
function of Aphrodite as the patroness of courtesans represents the most
degraded form of her worship as the goddess of love, and is certainly of
Phoenician or Eastern origin. In Corinth there were more than a thousand
of these [Greek: ierodouloi] ("temple slaves"), and wealthy men made it
a point of honour to dedicate their most beautiful slaves to the service
of the goddess.

Like her oriental prototype, the Greek Aphrodite was closely connected
with the sea. Thus, in the Hesiodic account of her birth, she is
represented as sprung from the foam which gathered round the mutilated
member of Uranus, and her name has been explained by reference to this.
Further proof may be found in many of her titles--[Greek: anaduomene]
("rising from the sea"), [Greek: enploia] ("giver of prosperous
voyages"), [Greek: galenaia] ("goddess of fair weather"), [Greek:
kataskopia] ("she who keeps a look-out from the heights")--in the
attribute of the dolphin, and the veneration in which she was held by
seafarers. Aphrodite Aineias, the protectress of the Trojan hero, is
probably also another form of the maritime goddess of the East (see E.
Worner, article "Aineias" in Roscher's _Lexikon_, and Farnell, ii. p.
638), which originated in the Troad, where Aphrodite Aineias may have
been identical with the earth-goddess Cybele. The title [Greek:
ephippos] is connected with the legend of Aeneas, who is said to have
dedicated to his mother a statue that represented her on horseback.
Remembering the importance of the horse in the cult of the sea-god
Poseidon, it is natural to associate it with Aphrodite as the
sea-goddess, although it may be explained with reference to her
character as a goddess of vegetation, the horse being an embodiment of
the corn-spirit (see J.G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, ii., 1900, p.
281).

Like Ishtar, Aphrodite was connected with the lower world. Thus, at
Delphi there was an image of Aphrodite [Greek: epitumbia] ("Aphrodite of
the tomb"), to which the dead were summoned to receive libations; the
epithets [Greek: tumboruchos] ("grave-digger"), [Greek: muchia]
("goddess of the depths"), [Greek: melainis] ("the dark one"), the grave
of Ariadne-Aphrodite at Amathus, and the myth of Adonis, point in the
same direction.

The cult of the armed Aphrodite probably belongs to the earlier period
of her worship in Greece, and down to the latest period of Greek history
she retained this character in some of the Greek states. The cult is
found not only where oriental influence was strongest, but in places
remote from it, such as Sparta, where she was known by the name of Areia
("the warlike"), and there are numerous references in the _Anthology_ to
an Aphrodite armed with helmet and spear. It is possible that the
frequent association of Aphrodite with Ares is to be explained by an
armed Aphrodite early worshipped at Thebes, the most ancient seat of the
worship of Ares.

The most distinctively oriental title of the Greek Aphrodite is Urania,
the Semitic "queen of the heavens." It has been explained by reference
to the lunar character of the goddess, but more probably signifies "she
whose seat is in heaven," whence she exercises her sway over the whole
world--earth, sea, and air alike. Her cult was first established in
Cythera, probably in connexion with the purple trade, and at Athens it
is associated with the legendary Porphyrion, the purple king. At Thebes,
Harmonia (who has been identified with Aphrodite herself) dedicated
three statues, of Aphrodite Urania, Pandemos, and Apostrophia. A few
words must be added on the second of these titles. There is no doubt
that Pandemos was originally an extension of the idea of the goddess of
family and city life to include the whole people, the political
community. Hence the name was supposed to go back to the time of
Theseus, the reputed author of the reorganization of Attica and its
demes. Aphrodite Pandemos was held in equal regard with Urania; she was
called [Greek: semue] ("holy"), and was served by priestesses upon whom
strict chastity was enjoined. In time, however, the meaning of the term
underwent a change, probably due to the philosophers and moralists, by
whom a radical distinction was drawn between Aphrodite Urania and
Pandemos. According to Plato (_Symposium_, 180), there are two
Aphrodites, "the elder, having no mother, who is called the heavenly
Aphrodite--she is the daughter of Uranus; the younger, who is the
daughter of Zeus and Dione--her we call common." The same distinction is
found in Xenophon's _Symposium_ (viii. 9), although the author is
doubtful whether there are two goddesses, or whether Urania and Pandemos
are two names for the same goddess, just as Zeus, although one and the
same, has many titles; but in any case, he says, the ritual of Urania is
purer, more serious, than that of Pandemos. The same idea is expressed
in the statement (quoted by Athenaeus, 569d, from Nicander of Colophon)
that after Solon's time courtesans were put under the protection of
Aphrodite Pandemos. But there is no doubt that the cult of Aphrodite was
on the whole as pure as that of any other divinities, and although a
distinction may have existed in later times between the goddess of legal
marriage and the goddess of free love, these titles do not express the
idea. Aphrodite Urania was represented in Greek art on a swan, a
tortoise or a globe; Aphrodite Pandemos as riding on a goat, symbolical
of wantonness. (For the legend of Theseus and Aphrodite hepitagia, "on
the goat," see Farnell, _Cults_, ii. p. 633.)

To her oriental attributes the following may be added: the sparrow and
hare (productivity), the wry-neck (as a love-charm, of which Aphrodite
was considered the inventor), the swan and dolphin (as a marine
divinity), the tortoise (explained by Plutarch as a symbol of
domesticity, but connected by Gruppe with the marine deity), the rose,
the poppy, and the lime tree.

In ancient art Aphrodite was at first represented clothed, sometimes
seated, but more frequently standing; then naked, rising from the sea,
or after the bath. Finally, all idea of the divine vanished, and the
artists merely presented her as the type of a beautiful woman, with oval
face, full of grace and charm, languishing eyes, and laughing mouth,
which replaced the dignified severity and repose of the older forms. The
most famous of her statues in ancient times was that at Cnidus, the work
of Praxiteles, which was imitated on the coins of that town, and
subsequently reproduced in various copies, such as the Vatican and
Munich. Of existing statues the most famous is the Aphrodite of Melos
(Venus of Milo), now in the Louvre, which was found on the island in
1820 amongst the ruins of the theatre; the Capitoline Venus at Rome and
the Venus of Capua, represented as a goddess of victory (these two
exhibit a lofty conception of the goddess); the Medicean Venus at
Florence, found in the porticus of Octavia at Rome and (probably
wrongly) attributed to Cleomenes; the Venus stooping in the bath, in the
Vatican; and the Callipygos at Naples, a specimen of the most sensual
type.

  For the oriental Aphrodite, see E. Meyer, article "Astarte" in W.H.
  Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and Wolf Baudissin, articles
  "Astarte" and "Atargatis" in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie fur
  protestantische Theologie_; for the Greek, articles m Roscher's
  _Lexikon_ and Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_; L. Preller,
  _Griechische Mythologie_ (4th ed. by C. Robert); L.R. Farnell, _Cults
  of the Greek States_, ii. (1896); O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie
  und Religionsgeschichte_, ii. (1906); L. Dyer, _The Gods in Greece_
  (1891); A. Enmann, _Kypros und der Ursprung des Aphrodite-Kults_
  (1886). W.H. Engel, _Kypros_, ii. (1841), and J.B. Lajard, _Recherches
  sur le culte de Venus_ (1837), may still be consulted with advantage.
  For Aphrodite in art see J.J. Bernoulli, _Aphrodite_ (1873); W.J.
  Stillman, _Venus and Apollo in Painting and Sculpture_ (1897). In the
  article GREEK ART, figs. 71 (pl. v.) and 77 (pi. vi.) represent
  Aphrodite of Cridus and Melos respectively.     (J. H. F.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] No satisfactory etymology of the name has been given; although
    the first part is usually referred to [Greek: aphros] ("the sea
    foam"), it is equally probable that it is of Eastern origin. F.
    Homoll (_Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie_, cxxv., 1882) explains
    it as a corruption of Ashtoreth; for other derivations see O. Gruppe,
    _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. p. 1348, note 2.




APHTHONIUS, of Antioch, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the
second half of the 4th century A.D., or even later. Nothing is known of
his life, except that he was a friend of Libanius and of a certain
Eutropius, perhaps the author of the epitome of Roman history. We
possess by him [Greek: Progumnhasmata], a text-book on the elements of
rhetoric, with exercises for the use of the young before they entered
the regular rhetorical schools. They apparently formed an introduction
to the [Greek: Thechne] of Hermogenes. His style is pure and simple, and
ancient critics praise his "Atticism." The book maintained its
popularity as late as the 17th century, especially in Germany. A
collection of forty fables by Aphthonius, after the style of Aesop, is
also extant.

  Spengel, _Rhetores Graeci_, ii.; Finckh, _Aphthonii Progytnnasmata_
  (1865); Hoppichler, _De Theone, Hermogene, Aphthonioque
  Pro-gymnasmatum Scriptoribus_ (1884); edition of the fables by Furia
  (1810).




APHTHONIUS, AELIUS FESTUS, Latin grammarian, possibly of African origin,
lived in the 4th century A.D. He wrote a metrical handbook in four
books, which has been incorporated by Marius Victorinus in his system of
grammar.

  Keil, _Gratnmatici Latini_, vi.; Schultz, _Quibus Auctoribus Aelius
  Festus Aphthonius usus sit_ (1885).




APICIUS, the name of three celebrated Roman epicures. The second of
these, M. Gavius Apicius, who lived under Tiberius, is the most famous
(Seneca, Consol. ad Helviam, 10). He invented various cakes and sauces,
and is said to have written on cookery. The extant _De Re Coquinaria_
(ed. Schuch, 1874), a collection of receipts, ascribed to one Caelius
Apicius, is founded on Greek originals, and belongs to the 3rd century
A.D. It is probable that the real title was Caelii _Apicius_, Apicius
being the name of the work (cp. Taciti _Agricola_), and _De Re
Coquinaria_ a sub-title.




APICULTURE (from Lat. _apis_, a bee), bee-keeping (see BEE). So also
other compounds of _api_-. _Apiarium_ or apiary, a bee-house or hive, is
used figuratively by old writers for a place of industry, e.g. a
college.




APION, Greek grammarian and commentator on Homer, born at Oasis in
Libya, flourished in the first half of the 1st century A.D. He studied
at Alexandria, and headed a deputation sent to Caligula (in 38) by the
Alexandrians to complain of the Jews: his charges were answered by
Josephus in his _Contra Apionem_. He settled at Rome--it is uncertain
when--and taught rhetoric till the reign of Claudius. Apion was a man of
great industry and learning, but extremely vain. He wrote several works,
which are lost. The well-known story of Androclus and the lion,
preserved in Aulus Gellius, is from his [Greek: Aiguptiaka]; fragments
of his [Greek: Ilossy Omerikai] are printed in the _Etymologicum
Gudianum_, ed. Sturz, 1818.




APIS or HAPIS, the sacred bull of Memphis, in Egyptian _Hp, Hope, Hope_.
By Manetho his worship is said to have been instituted by Kaiechos of
the Second Dynasty. Hape is named on very early monuments, but little is
known of the divine animal before the New Kingdom. He was entitled "the
renewal of the life" of the Memphite god Ptah: but after death he became
Osorapis, i.e. the Osiris Apis, just as dead men were assimilated to
Osiris, the king of the underworld. This Osorapis was identified with
Serapis, and may well be really identical with him (see SERAPIS): and
Greek writers make the Apis an incarnation of Osiris, ignoring the
connexion with Ptah. Apis was the most important of all the sacred
animals in Egypt, and, like the others, its importance increased as time
went on. Greek and Roman authors have much to say about Apis, the marks
by which the black bull-calf was recognized, the manner of his
conception by a ray from heaven, his house at Memphis with court for
disporting himself, the mode of prognostication from his actions, the
mourning at his death, his costly burial and the rejoicings throughout
the country when a new Apis was found. Mariette's excavation of the
Serapeum at Memphis revealed the tombs of over sixty animals, ranging
from the time of Amenophis III. to that of Ptolemy Alexander. At first
each animal was buried in a separate tomb with a chapel built above it.
Khamuis, the priestly son of Rameses II. (c. 1300 B.C.), excavated a
great gallery to be lined with the tomb chambers; another similar
gallery was added by Psammetichus I. The careful statement of the ages
of the animals in the later instances, with the regnal dates for their
birth, enthronization and death have thrown much light on the chronology
from the XXIInd dynasty onwards. The name of the mother-cow and the
place of birth are often recorded. The sarcophagi are of immense size,
and the burial must have entailed enormous expense. It is therefore
remarkable that the priests contrived to bury one of the animals in the
fourth year of Cambyses.

  See Jablonski, _Pantheon_, ii.; Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_, ii.
  350; Mariette-Maspero, _Le Serapeum de Memphis_.     (F. Ll. G.)




APLITE, in petrology, the name given to intrusive rock in which quartz
and felspar are the dominant minerals. Aplites are usually very
fine-grained, white, grey or flesh-coloured, and their constituents are
visible only with the help of a magnifying lens. Dykes and threads of
aplite are very frequently to be observed traversing granitic bosses;
they occur also, though in less numbers, in syenites, diorites,
quartz-diabases and gabbros. Without doubt they have usually a genetic
affinity to the rocks they intersect. The aplites of granite areas, for
example, are the last part of the magma to crystallize, and correspond
in composition to the quartzo-felspathic aggregates which fill up the
interspaces between the early minerals in the main body of the rock.
They bear a considerable resemblance to the eutectic mixtures which are
formed on the cooling of solutions of mineral salts, and remain liquid
till the excess of either of the components has separated out, finally
solidifying _en masse_ when the proper proportions of the constituents
and a suitable temperature are reached. The essential components of the
aplites are quartz and alkali felspar (the latter usually orthoclase or
microperthite). Crystallization has been apparently rapid (as the rocks
are so fine-grained), and the ingredients have solidified almost at the
same time. Hence their crystals are rather imperfect and fit closely to
one another in a sort of fine mosaic of nearly equi-dimensional grains.
Porphyritic felspars occur occasionally and quartz more seldom; but the
relation of the aplites to quartz-porphyries, granophyres and felsites
is very close, as all these rocks have nearly the same chemical
composition. Yet the aplites associated with diorites and
quartz-diabases differ in minor respects from the common aplites, which
accompany granites. The accessory minerals of these rocks are
principally oligoclase, muscovite, apatite and zircon. Biotite and all
ferromagnesian minerals rarely appear in them, and never are in
considerable amount. Riebeckite-granites (paisanites) have close
affinities to aplites, shown especially in the prevalence of alkali
felspars. Tourmaline also occurs in some aplites. The rocks of this
group are very frequent in all areas where masses of granite are known.
They form dykes and irregular veins which may be only a few inches or
many feet in diameter. Less frequently aplite forms stocks or bosses, or
occupies the edges or irregular portions of the interior of outcrops of
granite. The syenite-aplites consist mainly of alkali felspar; the
diorite-aplites of plagioclase; there are nepheline-bearing aplites
which intersect some elaeolite-syenites. In all cases they bear the same
relation to the parent masses. By increase of quartz aplites pass
gradually, in a few localities, through highly quartzose modifications
(beresite, &c.) into quartz veins. (J. S. F.)




APNOEA (Gr. [Greek: apnoia], from [Greek: a-], privative, [Greek:
pneein], to breathe), a technical term for suspension of breathing.




APOCALYPSE (Gr. [Greek: apokalupsis], disclosure), a term applied to the
disclosure to certain privileged persons of something hidden from the
mass of men. The Greek root corresponds in the Septuagint to the Heb.
_galah_, to reveal. The last book of the New Testament bears in Greek
the title [Greek: Apokalypsis Ioannou], and is frequently referred to as
the Apocalypse of John, but in the English Bible it appears as the
Revelation of St John the Divine (see REVELATION). Earlier among the
hellenistic Jews the term was used of a number of writings which
depicted in a prophetic and parabolic way the end or future state of the
world (e.g. _Apocalypse of Baruch_), the whole class is now commonly
known as Apocalyptic Literature (q.v.).




APOCALYPSE, KNIGHTS OF THE, a secret society founded in Italy in 1693 to
defend the church against the expected Antichrist. Agostino Gabrino, the
son of a merchant of Brescia, was its founder. On Palm Sunday 1693, when
the choir of St Peter's was chanting _Quis est iste Rex Gloriae?_
Gabrino sword in hand, rushed to the altar crying _Ego sum Rex Gloriae._
Though Gabrino was treated as a madman, the society flourished, until a
member denounced it to the Inquisition, who arrested the knights. Though
chiefly mechanics they always carried swords even when at work, and wore
on their breasts a star with seven rays. Gabrino styled himself monarch
of the Holy Trinity. He was credited by his enemies with a desire to
introduce polygamy.




APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE. The Apocalyptic literature of Judaism and
Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the centuries
following the exile down to the close of the middle ages. In the present
survey we shall limit ourselves to the great formative periods in this
literature--in Judaism to 200 B.C. to A.D. 100, and in Christianity to
A.D. 50 to 350 or thereabouts.

The transition from prophecy to apocalyptic ([Greek: apokalyptein], to
reveal something hidden) was gradual and already accomplished within the
limits of the Old Testament. Beginning in the bosom of prophecy, and
steadily differentiating itself from it in its successive developments,
it never came to stand in absolute contrast to it. Apocalyptical
elements disclose themselves in the prophetical books of Ezekiel, Joel,
Zechariah, while in Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii. and xxxiii. we find
well-developed apocalypses; but it is not until we come to Daniel that
we have a fully matured and classical example of this class of
literature. The way, however, had in an especial degree been prepared
for the apocalyptic type of thought and literature by Ezekiel, for with
him the word of God had become identical with a written book (ii. 9-iii.
3) by the eating of which he learnt the will of God, just as primitive
man conceived that the eating of the tree in Paradise imparted spiritual
knowledge. When the divine word is thus conceived as a written message,
the sole office of the prophet is to communicate what is written. Thus
the human element is reduced to zero, and the conception of prophecy
becomes mechanical. And as the personal element disappears in the
conception of the prophetic calling, so it tends to disappear in the
prophetic view of history, and the future comes to be conceived not as
the organic result of the present under the divine guidance, but as
mechanically determined from the beginning in the counsels of God, and
arranged under artificial categories of time. This is essentially the
apocalyptic conception of history, and Ezekiel may be justly represented
as in certain essential aspects its founder in Israel.

We shall now consider (I.) Apocalyptic, its origin and general
characteristics; (II.) Old Testament Apocalyptic; (III.) New Testament
Apocalyptic.


I. APOCALYPTIC--ITS ORIGIN AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

i. _Sources of Apocalyptic._--The origin of Apocalyptic is to be sought
in (a) unfulfilled prophecy and in (b) traditional elements drawn from
various sources.

(a) The origin of Apocalyptic is to be sought in _unfulfilled prophecy_.
That certain prophecies relating to the coming kingdom of God had
clearly not been fulfilled was a matter of religious difficulty to the
returned exiles from Babylon. The judgments predicted by the pre-exilic
prophets had indeed been executed to the letter, but where were the
promised glories of the renewed kingdom and Israel's unquestioned
sovereignty over the nations of the earth? One such unfulfilled prophecy
Ezekiel takes up and reinterprets in such a way as to show that its
fulfilment is still to come. The prophets Jeremiah (iv.-vi.) and
Zephaniah had foretold the invasion of Judah by a mighty people from the
north. But as this northern foe had failed to appear Ezekiel re-edited
this prophecy in a new form as a final assault of Gog and his hosts on
Jerusalem, and thus established a permanent dogma in Jewish apocalyptic,
which in due course passed over into Christian.

But the non-fulfilment of prophecies relating to this or that individual
event or people served to popularize the methods of apocalyptic in a
very slight degree in comparison with the non-fulfilment of the greatest
of all prophecies--the advent of the Messianic kingdom. Thus, though
Jeremiah had promised that after seventy years (xxv. 11., xxix. 10)
Israel should be restored to their own land (xxiv. 5, 6), and then enjoy
the blessings of the Messianic kingdom under the Messianic king (xxiii.
5, 6), this period passed by and things remained as of old. Haggai and
Zechariah explained the delay by the failure of Judah to rebuild the
temple, and so generation after generation the hope of the kingdom
persisted, sustained most probably by ever-fresh reinterpretations of
ancient prophecy, till in the first half of the 2nd century the delay is
explained in the Books of Daniel and Enoch as due not to man's
shortcomings but to the counsels of God. The 70 years of Jeremiah are
interpreted by the angel in Daniel (ix. 25-27) as 70 weeks of years, of
which 69-1/2 have already expired, while the writer of Enoch (lxxxv.-xc.)
interprets the 70 years of Jeremiah as the 70 successive reigns of the
70 angelic patrons of the nations, which are to come to a close in his
own generation.

But the above periods came and passed by, and again the expectations of
the Jews were disappointed. Presently the Greek empire of the East was
overthrown by Rome, and in due course this new phenomenon, so full of
meaning for the Jews, called forth a new interpretation of Daniel. The
fourth and last empire which, according to Daniel vii. 10-25, was to be
Greek, was now declared to be Roman by the Apocalypse of Baruch
(xxxvi.-xl.) and 4 Ezra (x. 60-xii. 35). Once more such ideas as those
of "the day of Yahweh" and the "new heavens and a new earth" were
constantly re-edited with fresh nuances in conformity with their new
settings. Thus the inner development of Jewish apocalyptic was always
conditioned by the historical experiences of the nation.

(b) Another source of apocalyptic was _primitive mythological and
cosmological traditions_, in which the eye of the seer could see the
secrets of the future no less surely than those of the past. Thus the
six days of the world's creation, followed by a seventh of rest, were
regarded as at once a history of the past and a forecasting of the
future. As the world was made in six days its history would be
accomplished in six thousand years, since each day with God was as a
thousand years and a thousand years as one day; and as the six days of
creation were followed by one of rest, so the six thousand years of the
world's history would be followed by a rest of a thousand years (2 Enoch
xxxii. 2-xxxiii. 2). Of primitive mythological traditions we might
mention the primeval serpent, leviathan, behemoth, while to ideas native
to or familiar in apocalyptic belong those of the seven archangels, the
angelic patrons of the nations (Deut. xxxii. 8, in LXX.; Isaiah xxiv.
21; Dan. x. 13, 20, &c.), the mountain of God in the north (Isaiah xiv.
13; Ezek. i. 4, &c.), the garden of Eden.

ii. _Object and Contents of Apocalyptic._--The object of this literature
in general was to solve the difficulties connected with the
righteousness of God and the suffering condition of His righteous
servants on earth. The righteousness of God postulated according to the
law the temporal prosperity of the righteous and the _temporal_
prosperity of necessity; for as yet there was no promise of life or
recompense beyond the grave. But this connexion was not found to obtain
as a rule in life, and the difficulties arising from this conflict
between promise and experience centred round the lot of the righteous as
a community and the lot of the righteous man as an individual. Old
Testament prophecy had addressed itself to both these problems, though
it was hardly conscious of the claims of the latter. It concerned itself
essentially with the present, and with the future only as growing
organically out of the present. It taught the absolute need of personal
and national righteousness, and foretold the ultimate blessedness of the
righteous nation on the present earth. But its views were not systematic
and comprehensive in regard to the nations in general, while as regards
the individual it held that God's service here was its own and adequate
reward, and saw no need of postulating another world to set right the
evils of this. But later, with the growing claims of the individual and
the acknowledgment of these in the religious and intellectual life, both
problems, and especially the latter, pressed themselves irresistibly on
the notice of religious thinkers, and made it impossible for any
conception of the divine rule and righteousness to gain acceptance,
which did not render adequate satisfaction to the claims of both
problems. To render such satisfaction was the task undertaken by
apocalyptic, as well as to vindicate the righteousness of God alike in
respect of the individual and of the nation. To justify their contention
they sketched in outline the history of the world and mankind, the
origin of evil and its course, and the final consummation of all things.
Thus they presented in fact a theodicy, a rudimentary philosophy of
religion. The righteous as a nation should yet possess the earth, even
in this world the faithful community should attain its rights in an
eternal Messianic kingdom on earth, or else in temporary blessedness
here and eternal blessedness hereafter. So far as regards the righteous
community. It was, however, in regard to the destiny of the individual
that apocalyptic rendered its chief service. Though the individual might
perish amid the disorders of this world, he would not fail, apocalyptic
taught, to attain through resurrection the recompense that was his due
in the Messianic kingdom or in heaven itself. Apocalyptic thus forms the
indispensable preparation for the religion of the New Testament.

iii. _Form of Apocalyptic._--The form of apocalyptic is a literary form;
for we cannot suppose that the writers experienced the voluminous and
detailed visions we find in their books. On the other hand the reality
of the visions is to some extent guaranteed by the writer's intense
earnestness and by his manifest belief in the divine origin of his
message. But the difficulty of regarding the visions as actual
experiences, or as in any sense actual, is intensified, when full
account is taken of the artifices of the writer; for the major part of
his visions consists of what is to him really past history dressed up in
the guise of prediction. Moreover, the writer no doubt intended that his
reader should take the accuracy of the prediction (?) already
accomplished to be a guarantee for the accuracy of that which was still
unrealized. How, then, it may well be asked, can this be consistent with
reality of visionary experience? Are we not here obliged to assume that
the visions are a literary invention and nothing more?

However we may explain the inconsistency, we are precluded by the moral
earnestness of the writer from assuming the visions to be pure
inventions. But the inconsistency has in part been explained by Gunkel,
who has rightly emphasized that the writer did not freely invent his
materials but derived them in the main from tradition, as he held that
these mysterious traditions of his people were, if rightly expounded,
forecasts of the time to come. Furthermore, the visionary who is found
at most periods of great spiritual excitement was forced by the
prejudice of his time, which refused to acknowledge any inspiration in
the present, to ascribe his visionary experiences and reinterpretations
of the mysterious traditions of his people to some heroic figure of the
past. Moreover, there will always be a difficulty in determining what
belongs to his actual vision and what to the literary skill or free
invention of the author, seeing that the visionary must be dependent on
memory and past experience for the forms and much of the matter of the
actual vision.

iv. _Apocalyptic as distinguished from Prophecy._--We have already dwelt
on certain notable differences between apocalyptic and prophecy; but
there are certain others that call for attention.

(a) _In the Nature of its Message._--The message of the prophets was
primarily a preaching of repentance and righteousness if the nation
would escape judgment; the message of the apocalyptic writers was of
patience and trust for that deliverance and reward were sure to come.

(b) _By its dualistic Theology._--Prophecy believes that this world is
God's world and that in this world His goodness and truth will yet be
vindicated. Hence the prophet prophesies of a definite future arising
out of and organically connected with the present. The apocalyptic
writer on the other hand despairs of the present, and directs his hopes
absolutely to the future, to a new world standing in essential
opposition to the present. (_Non fecit Altissimus unum saeculum sed
duo_, 4 Ezra vii. 50.) Here we have essentially a dualistic principle,
which, though it can largely be accounted for by the interaction of
certain inner tendencies and outward sorrowful experience on the part of
Judaism, may ultimately be derived from Mazdean influences. This
principle, which shows itself clearly at first in the conception that
the various nations are under angelic rulers, who are in a greater or
less degree in rebellion against God, as in Daniel and Enoch, grows in
strength with each succeeding age, till at last Satan is conceived as
"the ruler of this world" (John xii. 31) or "the god of this age" (2
Cor. iv. 4). Under the guidance of such a principle the writer naturally
expected the world's culmination in evil to be the immediate precursor
of God's intervention on behalf of the righteous, and every fresh growth
in evil to be an additional sign that the time was at hand. The natural
concomitant in conduct of such a belief is an uncompromising asceticism.
He that would live to the next world must shun this. Visions are
vouchsafed only to those who to prayer have added fasting.

(c) _By pseudonymous Authorship._--We have already touched on this
characteristic of apocalyptic. The prophet stood in direct relations
with his people; his prophecy was first spoken and afterwards written.
The apocalyptic writer could obtain no hearing from his contemporaries,
who held that, though God spoke in the past, "there was no more any
prophet." This pessimism and want of faith limited and defined the form
in which religious enthusiasm should manifest itself, and prescribed as
a condition of successful effort the adoption of pseudonymous
authorship. The apocalyptic writer, therefore, professedly addressed his
book to future generations. Generally directions as to the hiding and
sealing of the book (Dan. xii. 4, 9; 1 Enoch i. 4; Ass. Mos. i. 16-18)
were given in the text in order to explain its publication so long after
the date of its professed period. Moreover, there was a sense in which
such books were not wholly pseudonymous. Their writers were students of
ancient prophecy and apocalyptical tradition, and, though they might
recast and reinterpret them, they could not regard them as their own
inventions. Each fresh apocalypse would in the eyes of its writer be in
some degree but a fresh edition of the traditions naturally attaching
themselves to great names in Israel's past, and thus the books named
respectively Enoch, Noah, Ezra would to some slight extent be not
pseudonymous.

(d) _By its comprehensive and deterministic Conception of
History._--Apocalyptic took an indefinitely wider view of the world's
history than prophecy. Thus, whereas prophecy had to deal with temporary
reverses at the hands of some heathen power, apocalyptic arose at a time
when Israel had been subject for generations to the sway of one or other
of the great world-powers. Hence to harmonize such difficulties with
belief in God's righteousness, it had to take account of the role of
such empires in the counsels of God, the rise, duration and downfall of
each in turn, till finally the lordship of the world passed into the
hands of Israel, or the final judgment arrived. These events belonged in
the main to the past, but the writer represented them as still in the
future, arranged under certain artificial categories of time definitely
determined from the beginning in the counsels of God and revealed by Him
to His servants the prophets. Determinism thus became a leading
characteristic of Jewish apocalyptic, and its conception of history
became severely mechanical.


II. OLD TESTAMENT APOCALYPTIC

i. Canonical:--

  Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii.; xxxiii.; xxxiv.-xxxv.
  (Jeremiah xxxiii. 14-26?)
  Ezekiel ii. 8; xxxviii.-xxxix.
  Joel iii. 9-17.
  Zech. xii--xiv.
  Daniel.

We cannot enter here into a discussion of the above passages and
books.[1] All are probably pseudepigraphic except the passages from
Ezekiel and Joel. Of the remaining passages and books Daniel belongs
unquestionably to the Maccabean period, and the rest possibly to the
same period. Isaiah xxxiii. was probably written about 163 B.C. (Duhm
and Marti); Zech. xii.-xiv. about 160 B.C., Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii. about
128 B.C., and xxxiv.-xxxv. sometime in the reign of John Hyrcanus.
Jeremiah xxxiii. 14-26 is assigned by Marti to Maccabean times, but this
is highly questionable.

ii. Extra-canonical:--

(a) _Palestinian_:--

    (200-100 B.C.)
  Book of Noah.
  1 Enoch vi.-xxxvi.; lxxii.-xc.
  Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs.

    (100 B.C. to 1 B.C.)
  1 Enoch i.-v.; xxxvii.-lxxi.; xci.-civ.
  Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs, i.e. T. Lev. x., xiv.-xvi., T. Jud.
    xxi. 6-xxiii, T. Zeb. ix., T. Dan. v. 6, 7.
  Psalms of Solomon.

    (A.D. 1-100 and later.)
  Assumption of Moses.
  Apocalypse of Baruch.
  4 Ezra.
  Greek Apocalypse of Baruch.
  Apocalypse of Zephaniah.
  Apocalypse of Abraham.
  Prayer of Joseph.
  Book of Eldad and Modad.
  Apocalypse of Elijah.

(b) _Hellenistic_:--

  2 Enoch.
  Oracles of Hystaspes.
  Testament of Job.
  Testaments of the III. Patriarchs.
  Sibylline Oracles (excluding Christian portions).

_Book of Noah._--Though this book has not come down to us independently,
it has in large measure been incorporated in the Ethiopic Book of Enoch,
and can in part be reconstructed from it. The Book of Noah is mentioned
in Jubilees x. 13, xxi. 10. Chapters lx., lxv.-lxix. 25 of the Ethiopic
Enoch are without question derived from it. Thus lx. 1 runs: "In the
year 500, in the seventh month ... in the life of Enoch." Here the
editor simply changed the name Noah in the context before him into
Enoch, for the statement is based on Gen. v. 32, and Enoch lived only
365 years. Chapters vi.-xi. are clearly from the same source; for they
make no reference to Enoch, but bring forward Noah (x. 1) and treat of
the sin of the angels that led to the flood, and of their temporal and
eternal punishment. This section is compounded of the Semjaza and Azazel
myths, and in its present composite form is already presupposed by 1
Enoch lxxxviii.-xc. Hence these chapters are earlier than 166 B.C.
Chapters cvi.-cvii. of the same book are probably from the same source;
likewise liv. 7-lv. 2, and Jubilees vii. 20-39, x. 1-15. In the former
passage of Jubilees the subject-matter leads to this identification, as
well as the fact that Noah is represented as speaking in the first
person, although throughout Jubilees it is the angel that speaks.
Possibly Eth. En. xli. 3-8, xliii.-xliv., lix. are from the same work.
The book may have opened with Eth. En. cvi.-cvii. On these chapters may
have followed Eth. En. vi.-xi., lxv.-lxix. 25, lx., xli. 3-8,
xliii.-xliv., liv. 7-lv. 2; Jubilees vii. 26-39, x. 1-15.

The Hebrew Book of Noah, a later work, is printed in Jellinek's _Bet
ha-Midrasch_, iii. 155-156, and translated into German in Ronsch, _Das
Buch der Jubilaen_, 385-387. It is based on the part of the above Book
of Noah which is preserved in the _Book of Jubilees_. The portion of
this Hebrew work which is derived from the older work is reprinted in
Charles's _Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees_, p. 179.

_1 Enoch, or the Ethiopic Book of Enoch._--This is the most important of
all the apocryphal writings for the history of religious thought. Like
the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Megilloth and the Pirke Aboth, this work
was divided into five parts, which, as we shall notice presently, spring
from five different sources. Originally written partly in Aramaic (i.e.
vi.-xxxvi.) and partly in Hebrew (i.-vi., xxxvii.-cviii.), it was
translated into Greek, and from Greek into Ethiopic and possibly Latin.
Only one-fifth of the Greek version in two forms survives. The various
elements of the book were written by different authors at different
dates, vi.-xxxvi. was written before 166 B.C., lxxii.-lxxxii. before the
_Book of Jubilees_, i.e. before 120 B.C. or thereabouts, lxxxiii.-xc.
about 166 B.C., i.-v., xci.-civ. before 95 B.C., and xxxvii.-lxxi.
before 64 B.C. There are many interpolations drawn mainly from the Book
of Noah.

_Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs._--This book, in some respects the
most important of Old Testament apocryphs, has only recently come into
its own. Till a few years ago, owing to Christian interpolations, it was
taken to be a Christian apocryph, written originally in Greek in the 2nd
century A.D. Now it is acknowledged by Christian and Jewish scholars
alike to have been written in Hebrew in the 2nd century B.C. From Hebrew
it was translated into Greek and from Greek into Armenian and Slavonic.
The versions have come down in their entirety, and small portions of the
Hebrew text have been recovered from later Jewish writings. The
Testaments were written about the same date as the _Book of Jubilees_.
These two books form the only Apology in Jewish literature for the
religious and civil hegemony of the Maccabees from the Pharisaic
standpoint. To the Jewish interpolation of the 1st century B.C. (about
60-40), i.e. T. Lev. x., xiv.-xvi.; T. Jud. xxii.-xxiii., &c., a large
interest attaches; for these, like I Enoch xci.-civ. and the Psalms of
Solomon, constitute an unmeasured attack on every office--prophetic,
priestly and kingly--administered by the Maccabees. The ethical
character of the book is of the highest type, and its profound influence
on the writers of the New Testament is yet to be appreciated. (See
TESTAMENTS OF THE XII. PATRIARCHS.)

_Psalms of Solomon._--These psalms, in all eighteen, enjoyed but small
consideration in early times, for only six direct references to them are
found in early literature. Their ascription to Solomon is due solely to
the copyists or translators, for no such claim is made in any of the
psalms. On the whole, Ryle and James are no doubt right in assigning
70-40 B.C. as the limits within which the psalms were written. The
authors were Pharisees. They divide their countrymen into two
classes--"the righteous," ii. 38-39, iii. 3-5, 7, 8, &c., and "the
sinners," ii. 38, iii. 13, iv. 9, &c.; "the saints," iii. 10, &c., and
"the transgressors," iv. II, &c. The former are the Pharisees; the
latter the Sadducees. They protest against the Asmonaean house for
usurping the throne of David, and laying violent hands on the high
priesthood (xvii. 5, 6, 8), and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the
Son of David, who is to set all things right and establish the supremacy
of Israel. Pss. xvii.-xviii. and i.-xvi. cannot be assigned to the same
authorship. The hopes of the Messiah are confined to the former, and a
somewhat different eschatology underlies the two works. Since the Psalms
were written in Hebrew, and intended for public worship in the
synagogues, it is most probable that they were composed in Palestine.
(See SOLOMON, THE PSALMS OF.)

_The Assumption of Moses_.--This book was lost for many centuries till a
large fragment of it was discovered by Ceriani in 1861 (_Monumenta
Sacra_, I. i. 55-64) from a palimpsest of the 6th century. Very little
was known about the contents of this book prior to this discovery. The
present book is possibly the long-lost [Greek: Diatheke Mouseos]
mentioned in some ancient lists, for it never speaks of the assumption
of Moses, but always of his natural death. About a half of the original
Testament is preserved in the Latin version. The latter half probably
dealt with questions about the creation. With this "Testament" the
"Assumption," to which almost all the patristic references and that of
Jude are made, was subsequently edited. The book was written between 4
B.C. and A.D. 7. As for the author, he was no Essene, for he recognizes
animal sacrifices and cherishes the Messianic hope; he was not a
Sadducee, for he looks forward to the establishment of the Messianic
kingdom (x.); nor a Zealot, for the quietistic ideal is upheld (ix.),
and the kingdom is established by God Himself (x.). He is therefore a
Chasid of the ancient type, and glorifies the ideals which were
cherished by the old Pharisaic party, but which were now being fast
disowned in favour of a more active role in the political life of the
nation. He pours his most scathing invectives on the Sadducees, who are
described in vii. in terms that recall the anti-Sadducean Psalms of
Solomon. His object, therefore, is to protest against the growing
secularization of the Pharisaic party through its adoption of popular
Messianic beliefs and political ideals. (See also MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF.)

_Apocalypse of Baruch--The Syriac._--This apocalypse has survived only
in the Syriac version. The Syriac is a translation from the Greek, and
the Greek in turn from the Hebrew. The book treats of the Messiah and
the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the
destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological
questions relating to original sin, free will, works, &c. The views
expressed on several of these subjects are often conflicting. We must,
therefore, assume a number of independent sources put together by an
editor or else that the book is on the whole the work of one author who
made use of independent writings but failed to blend them into one
harmonious whole. In its present form the book was written soon after
A.D. 70. For fuller treatment see BARUCH.

_4 Ezra._--This apocryph is variously named. In the first Arabic and
Ethiopic versions it is called I Ezra; in some Latin MSS. and in the
English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian 3 Ezra.
With the majority of the Latin MSS. we designate the book 4 Ezra. In its
fullest form this apocryph consists of sixteen chapters, but i.-ii. and
xv.-xvi. are of different authorship from each other and from the main
work iii.-xiv. The book was written originally in Hebrew. There are
Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic (two), and Armenian versions. The Greek
version is lost. This apocalypse is of very great importance, on account
of its very full treatment of the theological questions rife in the
latter half of the 1st century of the Christian era. The book, even if
written by one author, was based on a variety of already existing works.
It springs from the same school of thought as the _Apocalypse of
Baruch_, and its affinities with the latter are so numerous and profound
that scholars have not yet come to any consensus as to the relative
priority of either. In its present form it was composed A.D. 80-100. For
fuller treatment see EZRA.

_Apocalypse of Baruch--The Greek._--This work is referred to by Origen
(_de Princip._ II. iii. 6): "Denique etiam Baruch prophetae librum in
assertionis hujus' testimonium vocant, quod ibi de septem mundis vel
caelis evidentius indicatur." This book survives in two forms in
Slavonic and Greek. The former was translated by Bonwetsch in 1896, in
the _Nachrichten von der konigl. Ges. der Wiss. zu, Gott_. pp. 91-101;
the latter by James in 1897 in _Anecdota_, ii. 84-94, with an elaborate
introduction (pp. li.-lxxi.). The Slavonic is only of secondary value,
as it is merely an abbreviated form of the Greek. Even the Greek cannot
claim to be the original work, but only to be a recension of it; for,
whereas Origen states that this apocalypse contained an account of the
seven heavens, the existing Greek work describes only five, and the
Slavonic only two. As the original, work presupposes 2 Enoch and the
Syriac _Apocalypse of Baruch_ and was known to Origen, it was written
between A.D. 80 and 200, and nearer the earlier date than the later, as
it would otherwise be hard to understand how it came to circulate among
Christians. The superscription shows points of connexion with the _Rest
of the Words of Baruch_, but little weight can be attached to the fact,
since titles and superscriptions were so frequently transformed and
expanded in ancient times. As James and Kohler have pointed out, part of
section 4 on the Vine is a Christian addition. A German translation of
the Greek appears in Kautzsch's _Apok. u. Pseud_, ii. 448-457, and a
strong article by Kohler on the Jewish authorship of the book in the
_Jewish Encyclopedia_, ii. 549-551. (See BARUCH.)

_Apocalypse of Abraham._--This book is found only in the Slavonic
(edited by Bonwetsch, _Studien zur Geschichte d. Theologie und Kirche_,
1897), a translation from the Greek. It is of Jewish origin, but in part
worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats of Abraham's
conversion, and the second forms an apocalyptic expansion of Gen. xv.
This book was possibly known to the author of the _Clem. Recognitions_,
i. 32, a passage, however, which may refer to Jubilees. It is most
probably distinct from the [Greek: Apokalepsis Abraam] used by the
gnostic Sethites (Epiphanius, _Haer_. xxxix. 5), which was very
heretical. On the other hand, it is probably identical with the
apocryphal book [Greek: Abraam] mentioned in the Stichometry of
Nicephorus, and the Synopsis Athanasii, together with the Apocalypses of
Enoch, &c.

_Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph._--The _Prayer of Joseph_ is quoted
by Origen [_In Joann._ II. xxv, (Lommatzsch, i. 147, 148); _in Gen._
III. ix. (Lommatzsch, viii. 30-31)]. The fragments in Origen represent
Jacob as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's
presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and
declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by
Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously
anti-Christian. (See Schurer[3], iii. 265-266.)

_Book of Eldad and Modad._--This book was written in the name of the two
prophets mentioned in Num. xi. 26-29. It consisted, according to the
Targ. Jon. on Num. xi. 26-20, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last
attack on Israel. The Shepherd of Hermas quotes it _Vis._ ii. 3. (See
Marshall in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, i. 677.)

_Apocalypse of Elijah._--This apocalypse is mentioned in two of the
lists of books. Origen, Ambrosiaster, and Euthalius ascribe to it I Cor.
ii. 9. If they are right, the apocalypse is pre-Pauline. The peculiar
form in which I Cor. ii. 9 appears in Clemens Alex. _Protrept._ x. 94,
and the _Const. Apost._ vii. 32, shows that both have the same source,
probably this apocalypse. Epiphanius (_Haer._ xlii., ed. Oehler, vol.
ii. 678) ascribes to this work Eph. v. 14. Isr. Levi (_Revue des etudes
juives_, 1880, i. 108 sqq.) argues for the existence of a Hebrew
apocalypse of Elijah from two Talmudic passages. A late work of this
name has been published by Jellinek, _Bet ha-Midrasch_, 1855, iii.
65-68, and Buttenwieser in 1897. Zahn, _Gesch. des N.T. Kanons_, ii.
801-810, assigns this apocalypse to the 2nd century A.D. (See
Schurer[3], iii. 267-271.)

_Apocalypse of Zephaniah._--Apart from two of the lists this work is
known to us in its original form only through a citation in Clem. Alex.
_Strom._ v. II, 77. A Christian revision of it is probably preserved in
the two dialects of Coptic. Of these the Akhmim text is the original of
the Sahidic. These texts and their translations have been edited by
Steindorff, _Die Apokalypse des Elias, eine unbekannte Apokalypse und
Bruchstucke der Sophonias-Apokalypse_ (1809). As Schurer (_Theol.
Literaturzeitung_, 1899, No. I. 4-8) has shown, these fragments belong
most probably to the Zephaniah apocalypse. They give descriptions of
heaven and hell, and predictions of the Antichrist. In their present
form these Christianized fragments are not earlier than the 3rd century.
(See Schurer, _Gesch. des jud. Volkes[3]_, iii. 271-273.)

2 _Enoch_, or the _Slavonic Enoch_, or the _Book of the Secrets of
Enoch._--This new fragment of the Enochic literature was recently
brought to light through five MSS. discovered in Russia and Servia. The
book in its present form was written before A.D. 70 in Greek by an
orthodox Hellenistic Jew, who lived in Egypt. For a fuller account see
ENOCH.

_Oracles of Hystaspes._--See under _N. T. Apocalypses_, below.

_Testament of Job._--This book was first printed from one MS. by Mai,
_Script. Vet. Nov. Coll._ (1833), VII. i. 180, and translated into
French in Migne's _Dict. des Apocryphes_, ii. 403. An excellent edition
from two MSS. is given by M.R. James, _Apocrypha Anecdota_, ii. pp.
lxxii.-cii., 104-137, who holds that the book in its present form was
written by a Christian Jew in Egypt on the basis of a Hebrew Midrash on
Job in the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. Kohler (_Kohut Memorial Volume_,
1897, pp. 264-338) has given good grounds for regarding the whole work,
with the exception of some interpolations, as "one of the most
remarkable productions of the pre-Christian era, explicable only when
viewed in the light of Hasidean practice." See _Jewish Encycl._ vii.
200-202.

_Testaments of the III. Patriarchs._--For an account of these three
Testaments (referred to in the _Apost. Const._ vi. 16), the first of
which only is preserved in the Greek and is assigned by James to the 2nd
century A.D., see that scholar's "Testament of Abraham," _Texts and
Studies_, ii. 2 (1892), which appears in two recensions from six and
three MSS. respectively, and Vassiliev's _Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina_,
(1893), pp. 292-308, from one MS. already used by James. This work was
written in Egypt, according to James, and survives also in Slavonic,
Rumanian, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions. It deals with Abraham's
reluctance to die and the means by which his death was brought about.
James holds that this book is referred to by Origen (_Hom. in Luc._
xxxv.), but this is denied by Schurer, who also questions its Jewish
origin. With the exception of chaps. x.-xi., it is really a legend and
not an apocalypse. An English translation of James's texts will be found
in the _Ante-Nicene Christian Library_ (Clark, 1897), pp. 185-201. The
Testaments of Isaac and Jacob are still preserved in Arabic and Ethiopic
(see James, _op. cit._ 140-161). See TESTAMENTS OF THE III. PATRIARCHS.

_Sibylline Oracles._--Of the books which have come down to us the main
part is Jewish, and was written at various dates, iii. 97-829, iv.-v.
are decidedly of Jewish authorship, and probably xi.-xii., xiv. and
parts of i.-ii. The oldest portions are in iii., and belong to the 2nd
century B.C.


III. NEW TESTAMENT APOCALYPTIC

When we pass from Jewish literature to that of the New Testament, we
enter into a new and larger atmosphere at once recalling and
transcending what had been best in the prophetic periods of the past.
Again the heavens had opened and the divine teaching come to mankind, no
longer merely in books bearing the names of ancient patriarchs, but on
the lips of living men, who had taken courage to appear in person as
God's messengers before His people. But though Christianity was in
spirit the descendant of ancient Jewish prophecy, it was no less truly
the child of that Judaism which had expressed its highest aspirations
and ideals in pseudepigraphic and apocalyptic literature. Hence we shall
not be surprised to find that the two tendencies are fully represented
in primitive Christianity, and, still more strange as it may appear,
that New Testament apocalyptic found a more ready hearing amid the
stress and storm of the 1st century than the prophetic side of
Christianity, and that the type of the forerunner on the side of its
declared asceticism appealed more readily to primitive Christianity than
that of Him who came "eating and drinking," declaring both worlds good
and both God's.

Early Christianity had thus naturally a special fondness for this class
of literature. It was Christianity that preserved Jewish apocalyptic,
when it was abandoned by Judaism as it sank into Rabbinism, and gave it
a Christian character either by a forcible exegesis or by a systematic
process of interpolation. Moreover, it cultivated this form of
literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas. Though apocalyptic
served its purpose in the opening centuries of the Christian era, it
must be confessed that in _many_ of its aspects its office is
transitory, as they belong not to the essence of Christian thought. When
once it had taught men that the next world was God's world, though it
did so at the cost of relinquishing the present to Satan, it had
achieved its real task, and the time had come for it to quit the stage
of history, when Christianity appeared as the heir of this true
spiritual achievement. But Christianity was no less assuredly the heir
of ancient prophecy, and thus as spiritual representative of what was
true in prophecy and apocalyptic; its essential teaching was as that of
its Founder that both worlds were of God and that both should be made
God's.

(i.) Canonical:--
  Apocalypse in Mark xiii. (Matthew xxiv., Luke xxi.).
  2 Thessalonians ii.
  Revelation.

(ii.) Extra-Canonical:--
  Apocalypse of Peter.
  Testament of Hezekiah.
  Testament of Abraham.
  Oracles of Hystaspes.
  Vision of Isaiah.
  Shepherd of Hermas.
  5 Ezra.
  6 Ezra.
  Christian Sibyllines.
  Apocalypses of Paul, Thomas and Stephen.
  Apocalypses of Esdras, Paul, John, Peter, The Virgin, Sedrach,  Daniel.
  Revelations of Bartholomew.
  Questions of Bartholomew.

_Apocalypse in Mark xiii._--According to the teaching of the Gospels the
second advent was to take the world by surprise. Only one passage (Mark
xiii. = Matt. xxiv. = Luke xxi.) conflicts with this view, and is
therefore suspicious. This represents the second advent as heralded by a
succession of signs which are unmistakable precursors of its appearance,
such as wars, earthquakes, famines, the destruction of Jerusalem and the
like. Our suspicion is justified by a further examination of Mark xiii.
For the words "let him that _readeth_ understand" (ver. 14) indicate
that the prediction referred to appeared first not in a spoken address
but in a written form, as was characteristic of apocalypses. Again, in
ver. 30, it is declared that this generation shall not pass away until
all these things be fulfilled, whereas in 32 we have an undoubted
declaration of Christ "Of that day or of that hour knoweth no one, not
even the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father." On these
and other grounds verses 7, 8, 14-20, 24-27, 30, 31 should be removed
from their present context. Taken together they constitute a Christian
adaptation of an originally Jewish work, written A.D. 67-68, during the
troubles preceding the fall of Jerusalem. The apocalypse consists of
three Acts: Act i. consisting of verses 7, 8, enumerating the woes
heralding the parusia, Act ii. describing the actual tribulation, and
Act iii. the parusia itself. (See Wendt, _Lehre Jesu_, i. 12-21;
Charles, _Eschatology_, 325 sqq.; H.S. Holtzmann, _N. T. Theol._ 1-325
sqq. with literature there given.)

_2 Thessalonians ii._--The earliest form of Pauline eschatology is
essentially Jewish. He starts from the fundamental thought of Jewish
apocalyptic that the end of the world will be brought about by the
direct intervention of God when evil has reached its climax. The
manifestation of evil culminates in the Antichrist whose parusia (2
Thess. ii. 9) is the Satanic counterfeit of that of the true Messiah.
But the climax of evil is the immediate herald of its destruction; for
thereupon Christ will descend from heaven and destroy the Antichrist
(ii. 8). Nowhere in his later epistles does this forecast of the future
reappear. Rather under the influence of the great formative Christian
conceptions he parted gradually with the eschatology he had inherited
from Judaism, and entered on a progressive development, in the course of
which the heterogeneous elements were for the most part silently
dropped.

_Revelation._--Since this book is discussed separately we shall content
ourselves here with indicating a few of the conclusions now generally
accepted. The apocalypse was written about A.D. 96. Its object, like
other Jewish apocalypses, was to encourage faith under persecution; its
burden is not a call to repentance but a promise of deliverance. It is
derived from one author, who has made free use of a variety of elements,
some of which are Jewish and consort but ill with their new context. The
question of the pseudonymity of the book is still an open one.

_Apocalypse of Peter._--Till 1892 only some five or more fragments of
this book were known to exist. These are preserved in Clem. Alex. and in
Macarius Magnes (see Hilgenfeld, _N. T. extra Can._ iv. 74 sqq.; Zahn,
_Gesch. Kanons_ ii. 818-819). It is mentioned in the Muratorian Canon,
and according to Eusebius (_H.E._ vi. 14. i) was commented on by Clement
of Alexandria. In the fragment found at Akhmim there is a prediction of
the last things, and a vision of the abode and blessedness of the
righteous, and of the abode and torments of the wicked.

_Testament of Hezekiah._--This writing is fragmentary, and has been
preserved merely as a constituent of the Ascension of Isaiah. To it
belongs iii. 13b-iv. 18 of that book. It is found under the above name,
[Greek: Diatheke Ezekion], only in Cedrenus i. 120-121, who quotes
partially iv. 12. 14 and refers to iv. 15-18. For a full account see
ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF.

_Testament of Abraham._--This work in two recensions was first published
by James, _Texts and Studies_, ii. 2. Its editor is of opinion that it
was written by a Jewish Christian in Egypt in the 2nd century A.D., but
that it embodies legends of an earlier date, and that it received its
present form in the 9th or 10th century. It treats of Michael being sent
to announce to Abraham his death: of the tree speaking with a human
voice (iii.), Michael's sojourn with Abraham (iv.-v.) and Sarah's
recognition of him as one of the three angels, Abraham's refusal to die
(vii.), and the vision of judgment (x.-xx.).

_Oracles of Hystaspes._--This eschatological work ([Greek: Chreseis
Hystaspon]: so named by the anonymous 5th-century writer in Buresch,
_Klaros_, 1889, p. 95) is mentioned in conjunction with the Sibyllines
by Justin (_Apol._ i. 20), Clement of Alexandria (_Strom._ vi. 5), and
Lactantius (_Inst._ VII. xv. 19; xviii. 2-3). According to Lactantius,
it prophesied the overthrow of Rome and the advent of Zeus to help the
godly and destroy the wicked, but omitted all reference to the sending
of the Son of God. According to Justin, it prophesied the destruction of
the world by fire. According to the _Apocryph of Paul_, cited by
Clement, Hystaspes foretold the conflict of the Messiah with many kings
and His advent. Finally, an unknown 5th-century writer (see Buresch,
_Klaros_, 1889, pp. 87-126) says that the _Oracles of Hystaspes_ dealt
with the incarnation of the Saviour. The work referred to in the last
two writers has Christian elements, which were absent from it in
Lactantius's copy. The lost oracles were therefore in all probability
originally Jewish, and subsequently re-edited by a Christian.

_Vision of Isaiah._--This writing has been preserved in its entirety in
the _Ascension of Isaiah_, of which it constitutes chaps, vi.-xi. Before
its incorporation in the latter work it circulated independently in
Greek. There are independent versions of these chapters in Latin and
Slavonic. (See ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF.)

_Shepherd of Hermas._--In the latter half of the 2nd century this book
enjoyed a respect bordering on that paid to the writings of the New
Testament. Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria and Origen quote it as
Scripture, though in Africa it was not held in such high consideration,
as Tertullian speaks slightingly of it. The writer belongs really to the
prophetic and not to the apocalyptic school. His book is divided into
three parts containing visions, commands, similitudes. In incidental
allusions he lets us know that he had been engaged in trade, that his
wife was a termagant, and that his children were ill brought up. Various
views have been held as to the identity of the author. Thus some have
made him out to be the Hermas to whom salutation is sent at the end of
the Epistle to the Romans, others that he was the brother of Pius,
bishop of Rome in the middle of the 2nd century, and others that he was
a contemporary of Clement, bishop of Rome at the close of the ist
century. Zahn fixes the date at 97, Salmon a few years later, Lipsius
142. The literature of this book (see HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF) is very
extensive. Among the chief editions are those of Zahn, _Der Hirt des
Hermas_ (1868); Gebhardt and Harnack, _Patres Apostolici_ (1877, with
full bibliographical material); Funk, _Patres Apost._ (1878). Further
see Harnack, _Gesch. d. altchristl. Literatur_, i. 49-58; II. i.
257-267, 437 f.

_5 Ezra._--This book, which constitutes in the later MSS. the first two
chapters to 4 Ezra, falls obviously into two parts. The first (i. 5-ii.
9) contains a strong attack on the Jews whom it regards as the people of
God; the second (ii. 10-47) addresses itself to the Christians as God's
people and promises them the heavenly kingdom. It is not improbable that
these chapters are based on an earlier Jewish writing. In its present
form it may have been written before A.D. 200, though James and other
scholars assign it to the 3rd century. Its tone is strongly anti-Jewish.
The style is very vigorous and the materials of a strongly apocalyptic
character. See Hilgenfeld, _Messias Judaeorum_ (1869); James in Bensly's
edition of 4 Ezra, pp. xxxviii.-lxxx.; Weinel in Hennecke's _N.T.
Apokryphen_, 331-336.

_6 Ezra._--This work consists of chapters xv.-xvi. of 4 Ezra. It may
have been written as an appendix to 4 Ezra, as it has no proper
introduction. Its contents relate to the destruction of the world
through war and natural catastrophes--for the heathen a source of menace
and fear, but for the persecuted people of God one of admonition and
comfort. There is nothing specifically Christian in the book, which
represents a persecution which extends over the whole eastern part of
the Empire. Moreover, the idiom is particularly Semitic. Thus we have
xv. 8 _nec sustinebo in his quae inique exercent_, that is [Hebrew:
nasa be]: in 9 _vindicans vindicabo_: in 22 _non parcet dextera mea
super peccatores_ = [Greek: pheisetai] ... [Greek: epi] = [Hebrew: al]
... [Hebrew: yahmol]. In verses 9, 19 the manifest corruptions may be
explicable from a Semitic background. There are other Hebraisms in the
text. It is true that these might have been due to the writer's
borrowings from earlier Greek works ultimately of Hebrew origin. The
date of the book is also quite uncertain, though several scholars have
ascribed it to the 3rd century.

_Christian Sibyllines._--Critics are still at variance as to the extent
of the Christian Sibyllines. It is practically agreed that vi.-viii. are
of Christian origin. As for i.-ii., xi.-xiv. most writers are in favour
of Christian authorship; but not so Geffcken (ed. _Sibyll._, 1902), who
strongly insists on the Jewish origin of large sections of these books.

_Apocalypses of Paul, Thomas and Stephen._--These are mentioned in the
Gelasian decree. The first may possibly be the [Greek: Anabagikon
Paulou] mentioned by Epiphanius (_Haer_. xxxviii. 2) as current among
the Cainites. It is not to be confounded with the apocalypse mentioned
two sections later.

_Apocalypse of Esdras._--This Greek production resembles the more
ancient fourth book of Esdras in some respects. The prophet is perplexed
about the mysteries of life, and questions God respecting them. The
punishment of the wicked especially occupies his thoughts. Since they
have sinned in consequence of Adam's fall, their fate is considered
worse than that of the irrational creation. The description of the
tortures suffered in the infernal regions is tolerably minute. At last
the prophet consents to give up his spirit to God, who has prepared for
him a crown of immortality. The book is a poor imitation of the ancient
Jewish one. It may belong, however, to the 2nd or 3rd centuries of the
Christian era. See Tischendorf, _Apocalypses Apocryphae_, pp. 24-33.

_Apocalypse of Paul._--This work (referred to by Augustine, _Tractat. in
Joan._ 98) contains a description of the things which the apostle saw in
heaven and hell. The text, as first published in the original Greek by
Tischendorf (_Apocalypses Apocr._ 34-69), consists of fifty-one
chapters, but is imperfect. Internal evidence assigns it to the time of
Theodosius, i.e. about A.D. 388. Where the author lived is uncertain. Dr
Perkins found a Syriac MS. of this apocalypse, which he translated into
English, and printed in the _Journal of the American Oriental Society_,
1864, vol. viii. This was republished by Tischendorf below the Greek
version in the above work. In 1893 the Latin version from one MS. was
edited by M.R. James, _Texts and Studies_, ii. 1-42, who shows that the
Latin version is the completest of the three, and that the Greek in its
present form is abbreviated.

_Apocalypse of John_ (Tischendorf, _Apocalypses Apocr._ 70 sqq.)
contains a description of the future state, the general resurrection and
judgment, with an account of the punishment of the wicked, as well as
the bliss of the righteous. It appears to be the work of a Jewish
Christian. The date is late, for the writer speaks of the "venerable and
holy images," as well as "the glorious and precious crosses and the
sacred things of the churches" (xiv.), which points to the 5th century,
when such things were first introduced into churches. It is a feeble
imitation of the canonical apocalypse.

_Arabic Apocalypse of Peter_ contains a narrative of events from the
foundation of the world till the second advent of Christ. The book is
said to have been written by Clement, Peter's disciple. This Arabic work
has not been printed, but a summary of the contents is given by Nicoll
in his catalogue of the Oriental MSS. belonging to the Bodleian (p. 49,
xlviii.). There are eighty-eight chapters. It is a late production; for
Ishmaelites are spoken of, the Crusades, and the taking of Jerusalem.
See Tischendorf, _Apocalypses Apocr._ pp. xx.-xxiv.

_The Apocalypse of the Virgin_, containing her descent into hell, is not
published entire, but only several portions of it from Greek MSS. in
different libraries, by Tischendorf in his _Apocalypses Apocryphae_, pp.
95 sqq.; James, _Texts and Studies_, ii. 3. 109-126.

_Apocalypse of Sedrach._--This late apocalypse, which M.R. James assigns
to the 10th or 11th century, deals with the subject of intercession for
sinners and Sedrach's unwillingness to die. See James, _Texts and
Studies_, ii. 3. 127-137.

_Apocalypse of Daniel._--See Vassiliev's _Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina_
(Moscow, 1893), pp. 38-44; _Uncanonical Books of the Old Testament_
(Venice, 1901), pp. 237 sqq., 387 sqq.

_The Revelations of Bartholomew._--Dulaurier published from a Parisian
Sahidic MS., subjoining a French translation, what is termed a fragment
of the apocryphal revelations of St Bartholomew (_Fragment des
revelations apocryphes de Saint Barthelemy, &c._, Paris, 1835), and of
the history of the religious communities founded by St Pachomius. After
narrating the pardon obtained by Adam, it is said that the Son ascending
from Olivet prays the Father on behalf of His apostles; who consequently
receive consecration from the Father, together with the Son and Holy
Spirit--Peter being made archbishop of the universe. The late date of
the production is obvious.

_Questions of St Bartholomew._--See Vassiliev, _Anec. Graeco-Byzantina_
(1893), pp. 10-22. The introduction, which is wanting in the Greek MS.,
has been supplied by a Latin translation from the Slavonic version (see
pp. vii.-ix.). The book contains disclosures by Christ, the Virgin and
Beliar and much of the subject-matter is ancient. (R. H. C.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] See the separate headings for the various apocalyptic books
    mentioned in this article.




APOCATASTASIS, a Greek word, meaning "re-establishment," used as a
technical scientific term for a return to a previous position or
condition.




APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE. The history of the earlier usage of the term
"Apocrypha" (from [Greek: apokruptein], to hide) is not free from
obscurity. We shall therefore enter at once on a short account of the
origin of this literature in Judaism, of its adoption by early
Christianity, of the various meanings which the term "apocryphal"
assumed in the course of its history, and having so done we shall
proceed to classify and deal with the books that belong to this
literature. The word most generally denotes writings which claimed to
be, or were by certain sects regarded as, sacred scriptures although
excluded from the canonical scriptures.

_Apocrypha in Judaism._--Certain circles in Judaism, as the Essenes in
Palestine (Josephus, _B.J._ ii. 8. 7) and the Therapeutae (Philo, _De
Vita Contempl._ ii. 475, ed. Mangey) in Egypt possessed a secret
literature. But such literature was not confined to the members of these
communities, but had been current among the Chasids and their successors
the Pharisees.[1] To this literature belong essentially the apocalypses
which were published in fast succession from Daniel onwards. These works
bore, perforce, the names of ancient Hebrew worthies in order to procure
them a hearing among the writers' real contemporaries. To reconcile
their late appearance with their claims to primitive antiquity the
alleged author is represented as "shutting up and sealing" (Dan. xii. 4,
9) the book, until the time of its fulfilment had arrived; for that it
was not designed for his own generation but for far-distant ages (1
Enochi. 2, cviii. 1.; Ass. Mos. i. 16, 17). It is not improbable that
with many Jewish enthusiasts this literature was more highly treasured
than the canonical scriptures. Indeed, we have a categorical statement
to this effect in 4 Ezra xiv. 44 sqq., which tells how Ezra was inspired
to dictate the sacred scriptures which had been destroyed in the
overthrow of Jerusalem: "In forty days they wrote ninety-four books: and
it came to pass when the forty days were fulfilled that the Highest
spake, saying: the first that thou hast written publish openly that the
worthy and unworthy may read it; but keep the seventy last that thou
mayst deliver them only to such as be wise among the people; for in them
is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom and the stream of
knowledge." Such esoteric books are apocryphal in the original
conception of the term. In due course the Jewish authorities were forced
to draw up a canon or book of sacred scriptures, and mark them off from
those which claimed to be such without justification. The true
scriptures, according to the Jewish canon (Yad. iii. 5; Toseph. Yad. ii.
3), were those which defiled the hands of such as touched them. But
other scholars, such as Zahn, Schurer, Porter, state that the secret
books with which we have been dealing formed a class by themselves and
were called "Genuizim" [Hebrew: gnazim], and that this name and idea
passed from Judaism over into the Greek, and that [Greek: apokrypha
biblia] is a translation of [Hebrew: sfarim gnuzim]. But the Hebrew verb
does not mean "to bide" but "to store away," and is only used of things
in themselves precious. Moreover, the phrase is unknown in Talmudic
literature. The derivation of this idea from Judaism has therefore not
yet been established. Whether the Jews had any distinct name for these
esoteric works we do not know. For writings that stood wholly without
the pale of sacred books such as the books of heretics or Samaritans
they used the designation Hisonim, Sanh. x. 1 ([Hebrew: sfarim hizonim]
and [Hebrew: sifrei haminim]). To this class in later times even Sirach
was relegated, and indeed all books not included in the canon (Midr. r.
Num. 14 and on Koheleth xii. 12; cf. Jer. Sabb. 16).[2] In Aqiba's time
Sirach and other apocryphal books were not reckoned among the Hisonim;
for Sirach was largely quoted by rabbis in Palestine till the 3rd
century A.D.

_Apocrypha in Christianity._--Christianity as it springs from its
Founder had no secret or esoteric teaching. It was essentially the
revelation or manifestation of the truth of God. But as Christianity
took its origin from Judaism, it is not unnatural that a large body of
Jewish ideas was incorporated in the system of Christian thought. The
bulk of these in due course underwent transformation either complete or
partial, but there was always a residuum of incongruous and inconsistent
elements existing side by side with the essential truths of
Christianity. This was no isolated phenomenon; for in every progressive
period of the history of religion we have on the one side the doctrine
of God advancing in depth and fulness: on the other we have
cosmological, eschatological and other survivals, which, however
justifiable in earlier stages, are in unmistakable antagonism with the
theistic beliefs of the time. The eschatology of a nation--and the most
influential portion of Jewish and Christian apocrypha are
eschatological--is always the last part of their religion to experience
the transforming power of new ideas and new facts.

Now the current religious literature of Judaism outside the canon was
composed of apocryphal books, the bulk of which bore an apocalyptic
character, and dealt with the coming of the Messianic kingdom. These
naturally became the popular religious books of the rising
Jewish-Christian communities, and were held by them in still higher
esteem, if possible, than by the Jews. Occasionally these Jewish
writings were re-edited or adapted to their new readers by Christian
additions, but on the whole it was found sufficient to submit them to a
system of reinterpretation in order to make them testify to the truth of
Christianity and foreshadow its ultimate destinies. Christianity,
moreover, moved by the same apocalyptic tendency as Judaism, gave birth
to new Christian apocryphs, though, in the case of most of them, the
subject matter was to a large extent traditional and derived from Jewish
sources.

Another prolific source of apocryphal gospels, acts and apocalypses was
Gnosticism. While the characteristic features of apocalyptic literature
were derived from Judaism, those of Gnosticism sprang partly from Greek
philosophy, partly from oriental religions. They insisted on an
allegorical interpretation of the apostolic writings: they alleged
themselves to be the guardians of a secret apostolic tradition and laid
claim to prophetic inspiration. With them, as with the bulk of the
Christians of the 1st and 2nd centuries, apocryphal books as such were
highly esteemed. They were so designated by those who valued them. It
was not till later times that the term became one of reproach.

We have remarked above that the Jewish apocrypha--especially the
apocalyptic section and the host of Christian apocryphs--became the
ordinary religious literature of the early Christians. And this is not
strange seeing that of the former such abundant use was made by the
writers of the New Testament.[3] Thus Jude quotes the Book of Enoch by
name, while undoubted use of this book appears in the four gospels and 1
Peter. The influence of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is still
more apparent in the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels, and the same
holds true of Jubilees and the Assumption of Moses, though in a very
slight degree. The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in
by the writer of the Ep. of Barnabas, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement
of Alexandria. But the high position which apocryphal books occupied in
the first two centuries was undermined by a variety of influences. All
claims to the possession of a secret tradition were denied (Irenaeus ii.
27. 2, iii. 2. 1, 3. 1; Tertullian, _Praescript._ 22-27): true
inspiration was limited to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance
by the church was required as a proof of apostolic authorship. Under the
action of such principles apocryphal books tended to pass into the class
of spurious and heretical writings.

_The Term "Apocryphal."_--Turning now to the consideration of the word
"apocryphal" itself, we find that in its earliest use it was applied in
a laudatory sense to writings,'(1) which were kept secret because they
were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge which was too profound or too
sacred to be imparted to any save the initiated. Thus it occurs in a
magical book of Moses, which has been edited from a Leiden papyrus of
the 3rd or 4th century by Dieterich (Abraxas, 109). This book, which may
be as old as the 1st century, is entitled: "A holy and secret Book of
Moses, called eighth, or holy" ([Greek: Mouseos iera biblos apokryphos
epikaloumene ogdoe e hagia]). The disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus
boasted (Clem. Alex. _Strom._ i. 15. 69) that they possessed the secret
([Greek: aprokryphous]) books of Zoroaster. 4 Ezra is in its author's
view a secret work whose value was greater than that of the canonical
scriptures (xiv. 44 sqq.) because of its transcendent revelations of the
future. It is in a like laudatory meaning that Gregory reckons the New
Testament apocalypse as [Greek: en apokryphois] (_Oratio in suam
ordinationem_, iii. 549, ed. Migne; cf. Epiphanius, _Haer._ li. 3). The
word enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (cf. Acts of Thomas,
10, 27, 44). (2) But the word was applied to writings that were kept
from public circulation not because of their transcendent, but of, their
secondary or questionable value. Thus Origen distinguishes between
writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings;
[Greek: graphe me pheromene men en tois koinois kai dedemosieumenois
bibliois eikos d oti en apokryphois pheromene] (Origen's _Comm. in
Matt._, x. 18, on Matt. xiii. 57, ed. Lommatzsch iii. 49 sqq.). Cf.
_Epist. ad Africam_, ix. (Lommatzsch xvii. 31): Euseb. _H.E._ ii. 23,
25; iii. 3, 6. See Zahn, _Gesch. Kanons_, i. 126 sqq. Thus the meaning
of [Greek: apokryphros] is here practically equivalent to "excluded from
the public use of the church," and prepares the way for the third and
unfavourable sense of this word. (3) The word came finally to mean what
is false, spurious, bad, heretical. If we may trust the text, this
meaning appears in Origen (_Prolog, in Cant. Cantic._, Lommatzsch xiv.
325): "De scripturis his, quae appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa
in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita
non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem."

In addition to the above three meanings strange uses of the term appear
in the western church. Thus the Gelasian Decree includes the works of
Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, under this designation.
Augustine (_De Civ. Dei_, xv. 23) explains it as meaning obscurity of
origin, while Jerome (_Protogus Galeatus_) declares that all books
outside the Hebrew canon belong to this class of apocrypha. Jerome's
practice, however, did not square with his theory. The western church
did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, but retained the word
in its original meaning, though great confusion prevailed. Thus the
degree of estimation in which the apocryphal books have been held in the
church has varied much according to place and time. As they stood in the
Septuagint or Greek canon, along with the other books, and with no
marks of distinction, they were practically employed by the Greek
Fathers in the same way as the other books; hence Origen, Clement and
others often cite them as "scripture," "divine scripture," "inspired,"
and the like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine, and
familiar with the Hebrew canon, rigidly exclude all but the books
contained there. This view is reflected, for example, in the canon of
Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome. Augustine,
however (_De Doct. Christ_. ii. 8), attaches himself to the other side.
Two well-defined views in this way prevailed, to which was added a
third, according to which the books, though not to be put in the same
rank as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, yet were of
value for moral uses and to be read in congregations,--and hence they
were called "ecclesiastical"--a designation first found in Rufinus
(_ob_. 410). Notwithstanding the decisions of some councils held in
Africa, which were in favour of the view of Augustine, these diverse
opinions regarding the apocryphal books continued to prevail in the
church down through the ages till the great dogmatic era of the
Reformation. At that epoch the same three opinions were taken up and
congealed into dogmas, which may be considered characteristic of the
churches adopting them. In 1546 the council of Trent adopted the canon
of Augustine, declaring "He is also to be anathema who does not receive
these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed
to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions
of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical." The whole of the books
in question, with the exception of 1st and 2nd Esdras, and the Prayer of
Manasses, were declared canonical at Trent. On the other hand, the
Protestants universally adhered to the opinion that only the books in
the Hebrew collection are canonical. Already Wycliffe had declared that
"whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five
(Hebrew) shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or
belief." Yet among the churches of the Reformation a milder and a
severer view prevailed regarding the apocrypha. Both in the German and
English translations (Luther's, 1537; Coverdale's, 1535, &c.) these
books are separated from the others and set by themselves; but while in
some confessions, e.g. the Westminster, a decided judgment is passed on
them, that they are not "to be any otherwise approved or made use of
than other human writings," a milder verdict is expressed regarding them
in many other quarters, e.g. in the "argument" prefixed to them in the
Geneva Bible; in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is
said that "the other books the church doth read for example of life and
instruction of manners," though not to establish doctrine; and
elsewhere.

OLD TESTAMENT APOCRYPHAL BOOKS

We shall now proceed to enumerate the apocryphal books: first the
Apocrypha Proper, and next the rest of the Old and New Testament
apocryphal literature.

1. _The Apocrypha Proper_, or the apocrypha of the Old Testament as used
by English-speaking Protestants, consists of the following books: 1
Esdras, 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon,
Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Epistle of Jeremy, Additions to Daniel (Song of
the Three Holy Children, History of Susannah, and Bel and the Dragon),
Prayer of Manasses, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees. Thus the Apocrypha Proper
constitutes the surplusage of the Vulgate or Bible of the Roman Church
over the Hebrew Old Testament. Since this surplusage is in turn derived
from the Septuagint, from which the old Latin version was translated, it
thus follows that the difference between the Protestant and the Roman
Catholic Old Testament is, roughly speaking, traceable to the difference
between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canons of the Old Testament.
But this is only true with certain reservations; for the Latin Vulgate
was revised by Jerome according to the Hebrew, and, where Hebrew
originals were wanting, according to the Septuagint. Furthermore, the
Vulgate rejects 3 and 4 Maccabees and Psalm cli., which generally appear
in the Septuagint, while the Septuagint and Luther's Bible reject 4
Ezra, which is found in the Vulgate and the Apocrypha Proper. Luther's
Bible, moreover, rejects also 3 Ezra. It should further be observed that
the Vulgate adds the Prayer of Manasses and 3 and 4 Ezra after the New
Testament as apocryphal.

It is hardly possible to form any classification which is not open to
some objection. In any case the classification must be to some extent
provisional, since scholars are still divided as to the original
language, date and place of composition of some of the books which must
come under our classification.[4] We may, however, discriminate (i.) the
Palestinian and (ii.) the Hellenistic literature of the Old Testament,
though even this distinction is open to serious objections. The former
literature was generally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and seldom in
Greek; the latter naturally in Greek. Next, within these literatures we
shall distinguish three or four classes according to the nature of the
subject with which they deal. Thus the books of which we have to treat
will be classed as: (a) Historical, (b) Legendary (Haggadic), (c)
Apocalyptic, (d) Didactic or Sapiential.

The Apocrypha Proper then would be classified as follows:--

  i. Palestinian Jewish Literature:--
     (a) _Historical_.
        1 (i.e. 3) Ezra.
        1 Maccabees.

     (b) _Legendary_.
         Book of Baruch (see BARUCH).
         Judith.

     (c) _Apocalyptic_.
         2 (i.e. 4) Ezra (see also under separate article on APOCALYPTIC
           LITERATURE).

     (d) _Didactic_.
         Sirach (see ECCLESIASTICUS).
         Tobit.

  ii. Hellenistic Jewish Literature:--
     _Historical and Legendary_.
          Additions to Daniel (q.v.).
              "     "  Esther (q.v.).
          Epistle of Jeremy (q.v.).
          2 Maccabees (q.v.).
          Prayer of Manasses (see MANASSES).

     _Didactic_.
          Book of Wisdom (see WISDOM, BOOK OF.)

Since all these books are dealt with in separate articles, they call for
no further notice here.

LITERATURE.--Texts:--Holmes and Parsons, _Vet. Test. Graecum cum var.
lectionibus_ (Oxford, 1798-1827); Swete, _Old Testament in Greek_,
i.-iii. (Cambridge, 1887-1894); Fritzsche, _Libri Apocryphi V.T. Graece_
(1871). Commentaries:--O.F. Fritzsche and Grimm, _Kurzgef. exeget.
Handbuch zu den Apok. des A.T_. (Leipzig, 1851-1860); E.C. Bissell,
_Apocrypha of the Old Testament_ (Edinburgh, 1880); Zockler, _Apok. des
A.T._ (Munchen, 1891); Wace, _The Apocrypha_ ("Speaker's Commentary")
(1888). Introduction and General Literature:--E. Schurer[3], _Geschichte
des jud. Volkes_, vol. iii. 135 sqq., and his article on "Apokryphen" in
Herzog's _Realencykl_. i. 622-653; Porter in Hastings' _Bible Dic_. i.
111-123.

  2 (a). _Other Old Testament Apocryphal Literature_:--

     (a) _Historical_.
         History of Johannes Hyrcanus.

     (b) _Legendary_.
         Book of Jubilees.
         Paralipomena Jeremiae, or the Rest of the Words of Baruch.
         Martyrdom of Isaiah.
         Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum.
         Books of Adam.
         Jannes and Jambres.
         Joseph and Asenath.

     (c) _Apocalyptic_.
        (See separate article.)

     (d) _Didactic or Sapiential_.
         Pirke Aboth.

(a) _Historical._--_The History of Johannes Hyrcanus_ is mentioned in 1
Macc. xvi. 23-24, but no trace has been discovered of its existence
elsewhere. It must have early passed out of circulation, as it was
unknown to Josephus.

(b) _Legendary._--The _Book of Jubilees_ was written in Hebrew by a
Pharisee between the year of the accession of Hyrcanus to the
high-priesthood in 135 and his breach with the Pharisees some years
before his death in 105 B.C. _Jubilees_ was translated into Greek and
from Greek into Ethiopic and Latin. It is preserved in its entirety
only in Ethiopic. _Jubilees_ is the most advanced pre-Christian
representative of the midrashic tendency, which was already at work in
the Old Testament 1 and 2 Chronicles. As the chronicler rewrote the
history of Israel and Judah from the basis of the Priests' Code, so our
author re-edited from the Pharisaic standpoint of his time the book of
Genesis and the early chapters of Exodus. His work constitutes an
enlarged targum on these books, and its object is to prove the
everlasting validity of the law, which, though revealed in time, was
superior to time. Writing in the palmiest days of the Maccabean
dominion, he looked for the immediate advent of the Messianic kingdom.
This kingdom was to be ruled over by a Messiah sprung not from Judah but
from Levi, that is, from the reigning Maccabean family. This kingdom was
to be gradually realized on earth, the transformation of physical nature
going hand in hand with the ethical transformation of man. (For a fuller
account see JUBILEES, BOOK OF.)

_Paralipomena Jeremiae_, or the _Rest of the Words of Baruch._--This
book has been preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian and Slavonic. The
Greek was first printed at Venice in 1609, and next by Ceriani in 1868
under the title _Paralipomena Jeremiae_. It bears the same name in the
Armenian, but in Ethiopic it is known by the second title. (See under
BARUCH.)

_Martyrdom of Isaiah._--This Jewish work has been in part preserved in
the _Ascension of Isaiah_. To it belong i. 1, 2^a, 6^b-13^a; ii. 1-8,
10-iii. 12; v. 1^c-14 of that book. It is of Jewish origin, and recounts
the martyrdom of Isaiah at the hands of Manasseh. (See ISAIAH, ASCENSION
OF.)

_Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum._--Though the Latin
version of this book was thrice printed in the 16th century (in 1527,
1550 and 1599), it was practically unknown to modern scholars till it
was recognized by Conybeare and discussed by Cohn in the _Jewish
Quarterly Review_, 1898, pp. 279-332. It is an Haggadic revision of the
Biblical history from Adam to the death of Saul. Its chronology agrees
frequently with the LXX. against that of the Massoretic text, though
conversely in a few cases. The Latin is undoubtedly translated from the
Greek. Greek words are frequently transliterated. While the LXX. is
occasionally followed in its translation of Biblical passages, in others
the Massoretic is followed against the LXX., and in one or two passages
the text presupposes a text different from both. On many grounds Cohn
infers a Hebrew original. The eschatology is similar to that taught in
the similitudes of the Book of Enoch. In fact, Eth. En. li. 1 is
reproduced in this connexion. Prayers of the departed are said to be
valueless. The book was written after A.D. 70; for, as Cohn has shown,
the exact date of the fall of Herod's temple is predicted.

_Life of Adam and Eve._--Writings dealing with this subject are extant
in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Armenian and Arabic. They go back
undoubtedly to a Jewish basis, but in some of the forms in which they
appear at present they are christianized throughout. The oldest and for
the most part Jewish portion of this literature is preserved to us in
Greek, Armenian, Latin and Slavonic, (i.) The Greek [Greek: Diegesis
peri Adam kai Euas] (published under the misleading title [Greek:
Apokalypsis Mouseos] in Tischendorf's _Apocalypses Apocryphae_, 1866)
deals with the Fall and the death of Adam and Eve. Ceriani edited this
text from a Milan MS. (_Monumenta Sacra et Profana_, v. i). This work is
found also in Armenian, and has been published by the Mechitharist
community in Venice in their _Collection of Uncanonical Writings of the
Old Testament_, and translated by Conybeare (_Jewish Quarterly Review_,
vii. 216 sqq., 1895), and by Issaverdens in 1901. (ii.) The _Vita Adae
et Evae_ is closely related and in part identical with (i.). It was
printed by W. Meyer in _Abh. d. Munch. Akad._, Philos.-philol. Cl. xiv.,
1878. (iii.) The Slavonic Adam book was published by Jajic along with a
Latin translation (_Denkschr. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wiss._ xlii., 1893).
This version agrees for the most part with (i.). It has, moreover, a
section, SS 28-39, which though not found in (i.) is found in (ii.).
Before we discuss these three documents we shall mention other members
of this literature, which, though derivable ultimately from Jewish
sources, are Christian in their present form, (iv.) _The Book of Adam
and Eve_, also called the _Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan_,
translated from the Ethiopic (1882) by Malan. This was first translated
by Dillmann (_Das christl. Adambuch des Morgenlandes_, 1853), and the
Ethiopic book first edited by Trump (_Abh. d. Munch. Akad._ xv.,
1870-1881). (v.) A Syriac work entitled _Die Schalzhohle_ translated by
Bezold from three Syriac MSS. in 1883 and subsequently edited in Syriac
in 1888. This work has close affinities to (iv.), but is said by
Dillmann to be more original, (vi.) Armenian books on the _Death of
Adam_ (_Uncanonical Writings of O.T._ pp. 84 sqq., 1901, translated from
the Armenian), _Creation and Transgression of Adam_ (_op. cit._ 39
sqq.), _Expulsion of Adam from Paradise_ (_op. cit._ 47 sqq.),
_Penitence of Adam and Eve_ (_op. cit._ 71 sqq.) are mainly later
writings from Christian hands.

Returning to the question of the Jewish origin of i., ii., iii., we have
already observed that these spring from a common original. As to the
language of this original, scholars are divided. The evidence, however,
seems to be strongly in favour of Hebrew. How otherwise are we to
explain such Hebraisms (or Syriacisms) as [Greek: euo rheei to helaion
ex autou] (S 9), [Greek: ou eipen ... me phagein ap autou] (S 21). For
others see SS 23, 33. Moreover, as Fuchs has pointed out, in the words
[Greek: hesau en mataiois] addressed to Eve (S 25) there is a corruption
of [Hebrew: havalim] into [Hebrew: avalim]. Thus the words were: "Thou
shalt have pangs." In fact, Hebraisms abound throughout this book. (See
Fuchs, _Apok. u. Pseud, d. A.T._ ii. 511; _Jewish Encyc._ i. 179 sq.)

_Jannes and Jambres._--These two men are referred to in 2 Tim. iii. 8 as
the Egyptian magicians who withstood Moses. The book which treats of
them is mentioned by Origen (_ad Matt._ xxiii. 37 and xxvii. 9 [_Jannes
et Mambres Liber_]), and in the Gelasian Decree as the Paenitentia
Jamnis et Mambre. The names in Greek are generally [Greek: Iannes kai
Iambres] (= [Hebrew: yanim veyambarim]) as in the Targ.-Jon. on Exod. i.
15; vii. ii. In the Talmud they appear as [Hebrew: iohani umamra]. Since
the western text of 2 Tim. iii. 8 has [Greek: Mambres], Westcott and
Hort infer that this form was derived from a Palestinian source. These
names were known not only to Jewish but also to heathen writers, such as
Pliny and Apuleius. The book, therefore, may go back to pre-Christian
times. (See Schurer[3] iii. 292-294; _Ency. Biblica_, ii. 2327-2329.)

_Joseph and Asenath._--The statement in Gen. xli. 45, 50 that Joseph
married the daughter of a heathen priest naturally gave offence to later
Judaism, and gave rise to the fiction that Asenath was really the
daughter of Shechem and Dinah, and only the foster-daughter of
Potipherah (_Targ.-Jon._ on Gen. xli. 45; Tractat. _Sopherim_, xxi. 9;
_Jalkut Shimoni_, c. 134. See Oppenheim, _Fabula Josephi et Asenethae_,
1886, pp. 2-4). Origen also was acquainted with some form of the legend
(_Selecta in Genesin_, ad Gen. xli. 45, ed. Lommatzsch, viii. 89-90).
The Christian legend, which is no doubt in the main based on the Jewish,
is found in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, Slavonic and Medieval Latin. Since
it is not earlier than the 3rd or 4th century, it will be sufficient
here to refer to Smith's _Dict. of Christ. Biog._ i. 176-177; Hastings'
_Bible Dict._ i. 162-163; Schurer, iii. 289-291.

(d) _Didactic or Sapiential._--The _Pirke Aboth_, a collection of
sayings of the Jewish Fathers, are preserved in the 9th Tractate of the
Fourth Order of the Mishnah. They are attributed to some sixty Jewish
teachers, belonging for the most part to the years A.D. 70-170, though a
few of them are of a much earlier date. The book holds the same place in
rabbinical literature as the Book of Proverbs in the Bible. The sayings
are often admirable. Thus in iv. 1-4, "Who is wise? He that learns from
every man.... Who is mighty? He that subdues his nature.... Who is rich?
He that is contented with his lot.... Who is honoured? He that honours
mankind." (See further PIRKE ABOTH.)

  2 (b). _New Testament Apocryphal Literature_:--

     (a). _Gospels_:--
          Uncanonical sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish
             writings.
          Gospel according to the Egyptians.
             "       "      "     Hebrews.
          Protevangel of James.

          Gospel of  Nicodemus.
            "    "   Peter.
            "    "   Thomas.
            "    "   the Twelve.
          Gnostic gospels of Andrew, Apelles, Barnabas, Bartholomew,
             Basilides, Cerinthus and some seventeen others.

     (b) _Acts and Teachings of the Apostles_:--
         Acts of Andrew and later forms of these Acts.
          "    John.
          "    Paul.
          "    Peter.
         Preaching of Peter.
         Acts of Thomas.
         Teaching of the Twelve Apostles.
         Apostolic constitutions.

     (c) _Epistles_:--
         The Abgar Epistles.
         Epistle of Barnabas.
            "    "  Clement.
         "Clement's" 2nd Epistle of the Corinthians.
              "      Epistles on Virginity.
              "         "     to James.
         Epistles of Ignatius.
         Epistle of Polycarp.
         Pauline Epp. to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians.
         3 Pauline Ep. to the Corinthians.

     (d) _Apocalypses_: see under APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE.

(a) GOSPELS.--_Uncanonical Sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish
Sources._--Under the head of canonical sayings not found in the Gospels
only one is found, i.e. that in Acts xx. 35. Of the rest the uncanonical
sayings have been collected by Preuschen (_Reste der ausserkanonischen
Evangelien_, 1901, pp. 44-47). A different collection will be found in
Hennecke, _NTliche Apok._ 9-11. The same subject is dealt with in the
elaborate volumes of Resch (_Aussercanonische Paralleltexte zu den
Evangelien_, vols. i.-iii., 1893-1895).

To this section belongs also the _Fayum Gospel Fragment_ and the _Logia_
published by Grenfell and Hunt.[5] The former contains two sayings of
Christ and one of Peter, such as we find in the canonical gospels, Matt.
xxvi. 31-34, Mark xiv. 27-30. The papyrus, which is of the 3rd century,
was discovered by Bickell among the Rainer collection, who characterized
it (_Z. f. kath. Theol._, 1885, pp. 498-504) as a fragment of one of the
primitive gospels mentioned in Luke i. 1. On the other hand, it has been
contended that it is merely a fragment of an early patristic homily.
(See Zahn, _Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 780-790; Harnack, _Texte und
Untersuchungen_, v. 4; Preuschen, _op. cit._ p. 19.) The _Logia_ (q.v.)
is the name given to the sayings contained in a papyrus leaf, by its
discoverers Grenfell and Hunt. They think the papyrus was probably
written about A.D. 200. According to Harnack, it is an extract from the
_Gospel of the Egyptians_. All the passages referring to Jesus in the
Talmud are given by Laible, _Jesus Christus im Talmud_, with an
appendix, "Die talmudischen Texte," by G. Dalman (2nd ed. 1901). The
first edition of this work was translated into English by A.W. Streane
(_Jesus Christ in the Talmud_, 1893). In Hennecke's _NTliche Apok.
Handbuch_ (pp. 47-71) there is a valuable study of this question by A.
Meyer, entitled _Jesus, Jesu Junger und das Evangelium im Talmud und
verwandten judischen Schriflen_, to which also a good bibliography of
the subject is prefixed.

_Gospel according to the Egyptians._--This gospel is first mentioned by
Clem. Alex. (_Strom._ iii. 6. 45; 9. 63, 66; 13. 92), subsequently by
Origen (_Hom. in Luc._ i.) and Epiphanius (_Haer._ lxii. 2), and a
fragment is preserved in the so-called 2 Clem. Rom. xii. 2. It
circulated among various heretical circles; amongst the Encratites
(Clem. _Strom._ iii. 9), the Naas-senes (Hippolyt. _Philos._ v. 7), and
the Sabellians (Epiph. _Haer._ lxii. 2). Only three or four fragments
survive; see Lipsius (Smith and Wace, _Dict. of Christ. Biog._ ii. 712,
713); Zahn, _Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 628-642; Preuschen, _Reste d.
ausserkanonischen Evangelien_, 1901, p. 2, which show that it was a
product of pantheistic Gnosticism. With this pantheistic Gnosticism is
associated a severe asceticism. The distinctions of sex are one day to
come to an end; the prohibition of marriage follows naturally on this
view. Hence Christ is represented as coming to destroy the work of the
female (Clem. Alex. _Strom._ iii. 9. 63). Lipsius and Zahn assign it to
the middle of the 2nd century. It may be earlier.

_Protevangel of James._--This title was first given in the 16th century
to a writing which is referred to as _The Book of James_ ([Greek: he
biblos Iakobou]) by Origen (tom. xi. _in Matt._). Its author designates
it as [Greek: Istoria]. For various other designations see Tischendorf,
_Evang. Apocr.[2]_ 1 seq. The narrative extends from the Conception of the
Virgin to the Death of Zacharias. Lipsius shows that in the present form
of the book there is side by side a strange "admixture of intimate
knowledge and gross ignorance of Jewish thought and custom," and that
accordingly we must "distinguish between an original Jewish Christian
writing and a Gnostic recast of it." The former was known to Justin
(_Dial._ 78, 101) and Clem. Alex. (_Strom._ vii. 16), and belongs at
latest to the earliest years of the 2nd century. The Gnostic recast
Lipsius dates about the middle of the 3rd century. From these two works
arose independently the _Protevangel_ in its present form and the Latin
pseudo-Matthaeus (_Evangelium pseudo-Matthaei_). The _Evangelium de
Nativitate Mariae_ is a redaction of the latter. (See Lipsius in Smith's
_Dict. of Christ. Biog._ ii. 701-703.) But if we except the Zachariah
and John group of legends, it is not necessary to assume the Gnostic
recast of this work in the 3rd century as is done by Lipsius. The author
had at his disposal two distinct groups of legends about Mary. One of
these groups is certainly of non-Jewish origin, as it conceives Mary as
living in the temple somewhat after the manner of a vestal virgin or a
priestess of Isis. The other group is more in accord with the orthodox
gospels. The book appears to have been written in Egypt, and in the
early years of the 2nd century. For, since Origen states that many
appealed to it in support of the view that the brothers of Jesus were
sons of Joseph by a former marriage, the book must have been current
about A.D. 200. From Origen we may ascend to Clem. Alex. who (_Strom._
vi. 93) shows acquaintance with one of the chief doctrines of the
book--the perpetual virginity of Mary. Finally, as Justin's statements
as to the birth of Jesus in a cave and Mary's descent from David show in
all probability his acquaintance with the book, it may with good grounds
be assigned to the first decade of the 2nd century. (So Zahn, _Gesch.
Kanons_, i. 485, 499, 502, 504, 539; ii. 774-780.) For the Greek text
see Tischendorf, _Evang. Apocr.[2]_ 1-50; B.P. Grenfell, _An Alexandrian
erotic Fragment and other Papyri_, 1896, pp. 13-17: for the Syriac,
Wright, _Contributions to Apocryphal Literature of the N.T._, 1865, pp.
3-7; A.S. Lewis, _Studia Sinaitica_, xi. pp. 1-22. See literature
generally in Hennecke, _NT liche Apok. Handbuch_, 106 seq.

_Gospel of Nicodemus._--This title is first met with in the 13th
century. It is used to designate an apocryphal writing entitled in the
older MSS. [Greek: hypomnemata tou Kuriou hemon Iesou Christou
praxchenta epi Pontiou Pilatou]; also "Gesta Salvatoris Domini ...
inventa Theodosio magno imperatore in Ierusalem in praetorio Pontii
Pilati in codicibus publicis." See Tischendorf, _Evang. Apocr.[2]_ pp.
333-335. This work gives an account of the Passion (i.-xi.), the
Resurrection (xii.-xvi.), and the _Descensus ad Inferos_ (xvii.-xxvii.).
Chapters i.-xvi. are extant, in the Greek, Coptic, and two Armenian
versions. The two Latin versions and a Byzantine recension of the Greek
contain i.-xxvii. (see Tischendorf, _Evangelia Apocrypha[2]_, pp.
210-458). All known texts go back to A.D. 425, if one may trust the
reference to Theodosius. But this was only a revision, for as early as
376 Epiphanius (_Haer._ i. 1.) presupposes the existence of a like text.
In 325 Eusebius (_H.E._ ii. 2) was acquainted only with the heathen
_Acts of Pilate_, and knew nothing of a Christian work. Tischendorf and
Hofmann, however, find evidence of its existence in Justin's reference
to the [Greek: Hakta Pilatou] (_Apol._ i. 35, 48), and in Tertullian's
mention of the _Acta Pilati_ (_Apol._ 21), and on this evidence
attribute our texts to the first half of the 2nd century. But these
references have been denied by Scholten, Lipsius, and Lightfoot.
Recently Schubert has sought to derive the elements which are found in
the Petrine Gospel, but not in the canonical gospels, from the original
_Acta Pilati_, while Zahn exactly reverses the relation of these two
works. Rendel Harris (1899) advocated the view that the Gospel of
Nicodemus, as we possess it, is merely a prose version of the Gospel of
Nicodemus written originally in Homeric centones as early as the 2nd
century. Lipsius and Dobschutz relegate the book to the 4th century. The
question is not settled yet (see Lipsius in Smith's _Dict. of Christ.
Biography_, ii. 708-709, and Dobschutz in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_,
iii. 544-547).

_Gospel according to the Hebrews._--This gospel was cited by Ignatius
(_Ad Smyrnaeos_, iii.) according to Jerome (_Viris illus._ 16, and _in
Jes._ lib. xviii.), but this is declared to be untrustworthy by Zahn,
op. cit. i. 921; ii. 701, 702. It was written in Aramaic in Hebrew
letters, according to Jerome (_Adv. Pelag._ iii. 2), and translated by
him into Greek and Latin. Both these translations are lost. A collection
of the Greek and Latin fragments that have survived, mainly in Origen
and Jerome, will be found in Hilgenfeld's _NT extra Canonem receptum_,
Nicholson's _Gospel according to the Hebrews_ (1879), Westcott's
_Introd. to the Gospels_, and Zahn's _Gesch. des NTlichen Kanons_, ii.
642-723; Preuschen, _op. cit_. 3-8. This gospel was regarded by many in
the first centuries as the Hebrew original of the canonical Matthew
(Jerome, _in Matt._ xii. 13; _Adv. Pelag._ iii. 1). With the canonical
gospel it agrees in some of its sayings; in others it is independent. It
circulated among the Nazarenes in Syria, and was composed, according to
Zahn (_op. cit._ ii. 722), between the years 135 and 150. Jerome
identifies it with the _Gospel of the Twelve_ (_Adv. Pelag._ iii. 2),
and states that it was used by the Ebionites (_Comm. in Matt._ xii. 13).
Zahn (_op. cit._ ii. 662, 724) contests both these statements. The
former he traces to a mistaken interpretation of Origen (_Hom. I. in
Luc._). Lipsius, on the other hand, accepts the statements of Jerome
(Smith and Wace, _Dict. of Christian Biography_, ii. 709-712), and is of
opinion that this gospel, in the form in which it was known to
Epiphanius, Jerome and Origen, was "a recast of an older original,"
which, written originally in Aramaic, was nearly related to the Logia
used by St Matthew and the Ebionitic writing used by St Luke, "which
itself was only a later redaction of the Logia."

According to the most recent investigations we may conclude that the
Gospel according to the Hebrews was current among the Nazarenes and
Ebionites as early as 100-125, since Ignatius was familiar with the
phrase "I am no bodiless demon"--a phrase which, according to Jerome
(_Comm. in Is._ xviii.), belonged to this Gospel.

The name "Gospel according to the Hebrews" cannot have been original;
for if it had been so named because of its general use among the
Hebrews, yet the Hebrews themselves would not have used this
designation. It may have been known simply as "the Gospel." The language
was Western Aramaic, the mother tongue of Jesus and his apostles. Two
forms of Western Aramaic survive: the Jerusalem form of the dialect, in
the Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra; and the Galilean, in isolated
expressions in the Talmud (3rd century), and in a fragmentary 5th
century translation of the Bible. The quotations from the Old Testament
are made from the Massoretic text.

This gospel must have been translated at an early date into Greek, as
Clement and Origen cite it as generally accessible, and Eusebius
recounts that many reckoned it among the received books The gospel is
synoptic in character and is closely related to Matthew, though in the
Resurrection accounts it has affinities with Luke. Like Mark it seems to
have had no history of the birth of Christ, and to have begun with the
baptism. (For the literature see Hennecke, _NTliche Apok. Handbuch_,
21-23.)

_Gospel of Peter._--Before 1892 we had some knowlege of this gospel.
Thus Serapion, bishop of Antioch (A.D. 190-203) found it in use in the
church of Rhossus in Cilicia, and condemned it as Docetic (Eusebius,
_H.E._ vi. 12). Again, Origen (_In Matt._ tom. xvii. 10) says that it
represented the brethren of Christ as his half-brothers In 1885 a long
fragment was discovered at Akhmim, and published by Bouriant in 1892,
and subsequently by Lods, Robinson, Harnack, Zahn, Schubert, Swete.

_Gospel of Thomas._--This gospel professes to give an account of our
Lord's boyhood. It appears in two recensions. The more complete
recension bears the title [Greek: Thoma Isrealitou Philosophou hreta eis
ta paidika Kuriou], and treats of the period from the 7th to the 12th
year (Tischendorf, _Evangelia Apocrypha[2]_, 1876, 140-157). The more
fragmentary recension gives the history of the childhood from the 5th to
the 8th year, and is entitled [Greek: Sungramma tou hagiou apostolou
Thoma peri tes paidikes anastrophes tou Kuriou] (Tischendorf, _op. cit._
pp. 158-163). Two Latin translations have been published in this work by
the same scholar--one on pp. 164-180, the other under the wrong title,
_Pseudo-Matthaei Evangelium_, on pp. 93-112. A Syriac version, with an
English translation, was published by Wright in 1875. This gospel was
originally still more Docetic than it now is, according to Lipsius. Its
present form is due to an orthodox revision which discarded, so far as
possible, all Gnostic traces. Lipsius (Smith's _Dict. of Christ. Biog._
ii. 703) assigns it to the latter half of the 2nd century, but Zahn
(_Gesch. Kan._ ii. 771), on good grounds, to the earlier half. The
latter scholar shows that probably it was used by Justin (_Dial._ 88).
At all events it circulated among the Marcosians (Irenaeus, _Haer._ i.
20) and the Naasenes (Hippolytus, _Refut._ v. 7), and subsequently among
the Manichaeans, and is frequently quoted from Origen downwards (_Hom.
I. in Luc._). If the stichometry of Nicephorus is right, the existing
form of the book is merely fragmentary compared with its original
compass. For literature see Hennecke, _NTliche Apokryphen Handbuch_, 132
seq.

_Gospel of the Twelve._--This gospel, which Origen knew (_Hom. I. in
Luc._), is not to be identified with the _Gospel according to the
Hebrews_ (see above), with Lipsius and others, who have sought to
reconstruct the original gospel from the surviving fragments of these
two distinct works. The only surviving fragments of the _Gospel of the
Twelve_ have been preserved by Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 13-16, 22: see
Preuschen, _op. cit._ 9-11). It began with an account of the baptism. It
was used by the Ebionites, and was written, according to Zahn (op. cit.
ii. 742), about A.D. 170.

OTHER GOSPELS MAINLY GNOSTIC AND ALMOST ALL LOST.--_Gospel of
Andrew._--This is condemned in the Gelasian Decree, and is probably the
gospel mentioned by Innocent (1 Ep. iii. 7) and Augustine (_Contra
advers. Leg. et Proph._ i. 20).

_Gospel of Apelles._--Mentioned by Jerome in his _Prooem. ad Matt._

_Gospel of Barnabas._--Condemned in the Gelasian Decree (see under
BARNABAS _ad fin_.).

_Gospel of Bartholomew._--Mentioned by Jerome in his _Prooem. ad Matt._
and condemned in the Gelasian Decree.

_Gospel of Basilides._--Mentioned by Origen (_Tract. 26 in Matt._
xxxiii. 34, and in his _Prooem. in Luc._); by Jerome in his _Prooem. in
Matt._ (See Harnack i. 161; ii. 536-537; Zahn, _Gesch. Kanons_, i.
763-774.)

_Gospel of Cerinthus._--Mentioned by Epiphanius (_Haer._ li. 7).

_Gospel of the Ebionites._--A fragmentary edition of the canonical
Matthew according to Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 13), used by the Ebionites
and called by them the Hebrew Gospel.

_Gospel of Eve._--A quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius
(_Haer._ xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the Gospel of
Perfection ([Greek: Euangelion teleioseos]) which he touches upon in
xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of
complete pantheism.

_Gospel of James the Less._--Condemned in the Gelasian Decree.

_Wisdom of Jesus Christ._--This third work contained in the Coptic MS.
referred to under _Gospel of Mary_ gives cosmological disclosures and is
presumably of Valentinian origin.

_Apocryph of John._--This book, which is found in the Coptic MS.
referred to under _Gospel of Mary_ and contains cosmological disclosures
of Christ, is said to have formed the source of Irenaeus' account of the
Gnostics of Barbelus (i. 29-31). Thus this work would have been written
before 170.

_Gospel of Judas Iscariot._--References to this gospel as in use among
the Cainites are made by Irenaeus (i. 31. 1); Epiphanius (xxxviii. 1.
3).

_Gospel, The Living (Evangelium Vivum)._--This was a gospel of the
Manichaeans. See Epiphanius, _Haer_. lxvi. 2; Photius, _Contra Manich_.
i.

_Gospel of Marcion._--On this important gospel see Zahn, _Gesch.
Kanons_, i. 585-718.

_Descent of Mary_ ([Greek: Tenna Marias]).--This book was an anti-Jewish
legend representing Zacharias as having been put to death by the Jews
because he had seen the God of the Jews in the form of an ass in the
temple (Epiphanius, _Haer_. xxvi. 12).

_Questions of Mary_ (_Great and Little_).--Epiphanius (_Haer_. xxvi. 8)
gives some excerpts from this revolting work.

_Gospel of Mary._--This gospel is found in a Coptic MS. of the 5th
century. According to Schmidt's short account, _Sitzungsberichte d.
preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu. Berlin_ (1896), pp. 839 sqq., this gospel
gives disclosures on the nature of matter ([Greek: ulae]) and the
progress of the Gnostic soul through the seven planets.

_Gospel of Matthias._--Though this gospel is attested by Origen (_Horm.
in Luc._ i.), Eusebius, _H.E._ iii. 25. 6, and the List of Sixty Books,
not a shred of it has been preserved, unless with Zahn ii. 751 sqq. we
are to identify it with the _Traditions of Matthias_, from which Clement
has drawn some quotations.

_Gospel of Perfection_ (_Evangelium perfectionis_).--Used by the
followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, _Haer._ xxvi.
2.

_Gospel of Philip._--This gospel described the progress of a soul
through the next world. It is of a strongly Encratite character and
dates from the 2nd century. A fragment is preserved in Epiphanius,
_Haer_. xxvi. 13. In Preuschen, _Reste_, p. 13, the quotation breaks off
too soon. See Zahn ii. 761-768.

_Gospel of Thaddaeus._--Condemned by the Gelasian Decree.

_Gospel of Thomas._--Of this gospel only one fragment has been preserved
in Hippolytus, _Philos_. v. 7, pp. 140 seq. See Zahn, _op. cit._ i. 746
seq.; ii. 768-773; Harnack ii. 593-595.

_Gospel of Truth._--This gospel is mentioned by Irenaeus i. 11. 9, and
was used by the Valentinians. See Zahn i. 748 sqq.

(b) ACTS AND TEACHINGS OF THE APOSTLES.--_Acts of Andrew._--These Acts,
which are of a strongly Encratite character, have come down to us in a
fragmentary condition. They belong to the earliest ages, for they are
mentioned by Eusebius, _H.E._ iii. 25; Epiphanius, _Haer._ xlvii. 1;
lxi. 1; lxiii. 2; Philaster, _Haer._ lxviii., as current among the
Manichaeans and heretics. They are attributed to Leucius, a Docetic
writer, by Augustine (_c. Felic. Manich._ ii. 6) and Euodius (_De Fide
c. Manich._ 38). Euodius in the passage just referred to preserves two
small fragments of the original Acts. On internal grounds the section
recounting Andrew's imprisonment (Bonnet, _Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha_,
ii. 38-45) is also probably a constituent of the original work. As
regards the martyrdom, owing to the confusion introduced by the
multitudinous Catholic revisions of this section of the Acts, it is
practically impossible to restore its original form. For a complete
discussion of the various documents see Lipsius, _Apokryphen
Apostelgeschichte_, i. 543-622; also James in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ i.
92-93; Hennecke, _NT. Apokryphen_, _in loc._ The best texts are given in
Bonnet's _Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha_, 1898, II. i. 1-127. These contain
also the _Acts of Andrew and Matthew_ (or Matthias) in which Matthew (or
Matthias) is represented as a captive in the country of the
anthropophagi. Christ takes Andrew and his disciples with Him, and
effects the rescue of Matthew. The legend is found also in Ethiopic,
Syriac and Anglo-Saxon. Also the _Acts of Peter and Andrew_, which among
other incidents recount the miracle of a camel passing through the eye
of a needle. This work is preserved partly in Greek, but in its entirety
in Slavonic.

_Acts of John._--Clement of Alexandria in his _Hypotyposes_ on 1 John i.
1 seems to refer to chapters xciii. (or lxxxix.) of these Acts. Eusebius
(_H.E._ iii. 25. 6), Epiphanius (_Haer._ xlvii. 1) and other ancient
writers assign them to the authorship of Leucius Charinus. It is
generally admitted that they were written in the 2nd century. The text
has been edited most completely by Bonnet, _Acta Apostol. Apocr._, 1898,
151-216. The contents might be summarized with Hennecke as
follows:--Arrival and first sojourn of the apostle in Ephesus
(xviii.-lv.); return to Ephesus and second sojourn (history of Drusiana,
lviii.-lxxxvi.); account of the crucifixion of Jesus and His apparent
death (lxxxvii.-cv.); the death of John (cvi.-cxv.). There are manifest
gaps in the narrative, a fact which we would infer from the extent
assigned to it (i.e. 2500 stichoi) by Nicephorus. According to this
authority one-third of the text is now lost. Many chapters are lost at
the beginning; there is a gap in chapter xxxvii., also before lviii.,
not to mention others. The encratite tendency in these Acts is not so
strongly developed as in those of Andrew and Thomas. James (_Anecdota_,
ii. 1-25) has given strong grounds for regarding the Acts of John and
Peter as derived from one and the same author, but there are like
affinities existing between the Acts of Peter and those of Paul. For a
discussion of this work see Zahn, _Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 856-865; Lipsius,
_Apok. Apostelgesch._ i. 348-542; Hennecke, _NT. Apokryphen_, 423-432.
For bibliography, Hennecke, _NT. Apok. Handbuch_, 492 sq.

_Acts of Paul._--The discovery of the Coptic translation of these Acts
in 1897, and its publication by C. Schmidt (_Acta Pauli aus der
Heidelberger koptischen Papyrushandschrift herausgegeben_, Leipzig,
1894), have confirmed what had been previously only a hypothesis that
the Acts of Thecla had formed a part of the larger Acts of Paul. The
Acts therefore embrace now the following elements:-(a) Two quotations
given by Origen in his _Princip._ i. 2. 3 and his comment on John xx.
12. From the latter it follows that in the Acts of Paul the death of
Peter was recounted, (b) _Apocryphal 3rd Epistle of Paul to the
Corinthians_ and _Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul_. These two
letters are connected by a short account which is intended to give the
historical situation. Paul is in prison on account of Stratonice, the
wife of Apollophanes. The Greek and Latin versions of these letters have
for the most part disappeared, but they have been preserved in Syriac,
and through Syriac they obtained for the time being a place in the
Armenian Bible immediately after 2 Corinthians. Aphraates cites two
passages from 3 Corinthians as words of the apostle, and Ephraem
expounded them in his commentary on the Pauline Epistles. They must
therefore have been regarded as canonical in the first half of the 4th
century. From the Syriac Bible they made their way into the Armenian and
maintained their place without opposition to the 7th century. On the
Latin text see Carriere and Berger, _Correspondance apocr. de S.P. et
des Corinthiens_, 1891. For a translation of Ephraem's commentary see
Zahn ii. 592-611 and Vetter, _Der Apocr. 3. Korinthien_, 70 sqq., 1894.
The Coptic version (C. Schmidt, _Acta Pauli_, pp. 74-82), which is here
imperfect, is clearly from a Greek original, while the Latin and
Armenian are from the Syriac. (c) _The Acts of Paul and Thecla_. These
were written, according to Tertullian (_De Baptismo_, 17) by a presbyter
of Asia, who was deposed from his office on account of his forgery.
This, the earliest of Christian romances (probably before A.D. 150),
recounts the adventures and sufferings of a virgin, Thecla of Iconium.
Lipsius discovers Gnostic traits in the story, but these are denied by
Zahn (_Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 902). See Lipsius, _op. cit._ ii. 424-467;
Zahn (_op. cit._ ii. 892-910). The best text is that of Lipsius, _Acta
Apostol. Apocr._, 1891, i. 235-272. There are Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic
and Slavonic versions. As we have seen above, these Acts are now
recognized as belonging originally to the Acts of Paul. They were,
however, published separately long before the Gelasian Decree (496).
Jerome also was acquainted with them as an independent work. Thecla was
most probably a real personage, around whom a legend had already
gathered in the 2nd century. Of this legend the author of the Acts of
Paul made use, and introduced into it certain historical and
geographical facts, (d) The healing of Hermocrates of dropsy in Myra.
Through a comparison of the Coptic version with the Pseudo-Cyprian
writing "Caena," Rolffs (Hennecke, _NT. Apok._ 361) concludes that this
incident formed originally a constituent of our book, (e) The strife
with beasts at Ephesus. This event is mentioned by Nicephorus Callistus
(_H.E._ ii. 25) as recounted in the [Greek: perlodoi] of Paul. The
identity of this work with the Acts of Paul is confirmed by a remark of
Hippolytus in his commentary on Daniel iii. 29. 4, ed. Bonwetsch 176
(so Rolffs). (f) Martyrdom of Paul. The death of Paul by the sentence of
Nero at Rome forms the close of the Acts of Paul. The text is in the
utmost confusion. It is best given by Lipsius, _Acta Apostol. Apocr._ i.
104-117.

Notwithstanding all the care that has been taken in collecting the
fragments of these Acts, only about 900 stichoi out of the 3600 assigned
to them in the Stichometry of Nicephorus have as yet been recovered.

The author was, according to Tertullian (_De Baptism._ 17), a presbyter
in Asia, who out of honour to Paul wrote the Acts, forging at the same
time 3 Corinthians. Thus the work was composed before 190, and, since it
most probably uses the martyrdom of Polycarp, after 155. The object of
the writer is to embody in St Paul the model ideal of the popular
Christianity of the 2nd century. His main emphasis is laid on chastity
and the resurrection of the flesh. The tone of the work is Catholic and
anti-Gnostic. For the bibliography of the subject see Hennecke, _NT.
Apok._ 358-360.

_Acts of Peter._--These acts are first mentioned by Eusebius (_H.E._
iii. 3) by name, and first referred to by the African poet Commodian
about A.D. 250. Harnack, who was the first to show that these Acts were
Catholic in character and not Gnostic as had previously been alleged,
assigns their composition to this period mainly on the ground that
Hippolytus was not acquainted with them; but even were this assumption
true, it would not prove the non-existence of the Acts in question.
According to Photius, moreover, the Acts of Peter also were composed by
this same Leucius Charinus, who, according to Zahn (_Gesch. Kanons_, ii.
864), wrote about 160 (_op. cit._ p. 848). Schmidt and Ficker, however,
maintain that the Acts were written about 200 and in Asia Minor. These
Acts, which Ficker holds were written as a continuation and completion
of the canonical Acts of the Apostles, deal with Peter's victorious
conflict with Simon Magus, and his subsequent martyrdom at Rome under
Nero. It is difficult to determine the relation of the so-called Latin
_Actus Vercellenses_ (which there are good grounds for assuming were
originally called the [Greek: Praxeis Petrou]) with the Acts of John and
Paul. Schmidt thinks that the author of the former made use of the
latter, James that the Acts of Peter and of John were by one and the
same author, but Ficker is of opinion that their affinities can be
explained by their derivation from the same ecclesiastical atmosphere
and school of theological thought. No less close affinities exist
between our Acts and the Acts of Thomas, Andrew and Philip. In the case
of the Acts of Thomas the problem is complicated, sometimes the Acts of
Peter seem dependent on the Acts of Thomas, and sometimes the converse.

  For the relation of the _Actus Vercellenses_ to the "Martyrdom of the
  holy apostles Peter and Paul" (_Acta Apostol. Apocr._ i. 118-177) and
  to the "Acts of the holy apostles Peter and Paul" (_Acta Apostol.
  Apocr._ i. 178-234) see Lipsius ii. 1. 84 sqq. The "Acts of Xanthippe
  and Polyxena," first edited by James (_Texts and Studies_, ii. 3.
  1893), and assigned by him to the middle of the 3rd century, as well
  as the "Acts of the Disputation of Archelaus, bishop of Mesopotamia,
  and the Heresiarch Manes" ("Acta Disputationis Archelai Episcopi
  Mesopotamiae et Manetis Haeresiarchae," in Routh's _Reliquiae
  Sacrae[2]_, v. 36-206), have borrowed largely from our work.

  The text of the _Actus Vercellenses_ is edited by Lipsius, _Acta
  Apostol. Apocr._ i. 45-79. An independent Latin translation of the
  "Martyrdom of Peter" is published by Lipsius (_op. cit._ i. 1-22),
  _Martyrium beati Petri Apostoli a Lino episcopo conscriptum_. On the
  Coptic fragment, which Schmidt maintains is an original constituent of
  these Acts, see that writer's work: _Die alten Petrusakten im
  Zusammenhang der apokryphen Apostelliteratur nebst einem neuentdeckten
  Fragment_, and _Texte und Untersuch_. N.F. ix. 1 (1903). For the
  literature see Hennecke, _Neutestamentliche Apokryphen Handbuch_, 395
  sqq.

_Preaching of Peter._--This book ([Greek: Petrou Kerygma]) gave the
substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of
the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine
record of Peter's teaching. Heracleon had previously used it (see
Origen, _In Evang. Johann._ t. xiii. 17). It is spoken unfavourably of
by Origen (_De Prin._ Praef. 8). It was probably in the hands of Justin
and Aristides. Hence Zahn gives its date as 90-100 at latest; Dobschutz,
as 100-110; and Harnack, as 110-130. The extant fragments contain
sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism.

They have been edited by Hilgenfeld: _Nov. Test. extra Can._, 1884, iv.
51-65, and by von Dobschutz, _Das Kerygma Petri_, 1893. Salmon (_Dict.
Christ. Biog._ iv. 329-330) thinks that this work is part of a larger
work, _A Preaching of Peter and a Preaching of Paul_, implied in a
statement of Lactantius (_Inst. Div._ iv. 21); but this view is
contested by Zahn, see _Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 820-834, particularly pp.
827-828; Chase, in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ iv. 776.

_Acts of Thomas._--This is one of the earliest and most famous of the
Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands.
These Acts were used by the Encratites (Epiphanius, _Haer._ xlvii. 1),
the Manichaeans (Augustine, _Contra Faust_. xxii. 79), the Apostolici
(Epiphanius lxi. 1) and Priscillianists. The work is divided into
thirteen Acts, to which the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the
fourteenth. It was originally written in Syriac, as Burkitt (_Journ. of
Theol. Studies_, i. 278 sqq.) has finally proved, though Macke and
Noldeke had previously advanced grounds for this view. The Greek and
Latin texts were edited by Bonnet in 1883 and again in 1903, ii. 2; the
Greek also by James, _Apoc. Anec._ ii. 28-45, and the Syriac by Wright
(_Apocr. Acts of the Gospels_, 1871, i. 172-333). Photius ascribes their
composition to Leucius Charinus--therefore to the 2nd century, but
Lipsius assigns it to the early decades of the 3rd. (See Lipsius,
_Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten_, i. 225-347; Hennecke, _N.T.
Apokryphen_, 473-480.)

_Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (Didache).--This important work was
discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople and published in
1883. Since that date it has been frequently edited. The bibliography
can be found in Schaff's and in Harnack's editions. The book divides
itself into three parts. The first (i.-vi.) contains a body of ethical
instruction which is founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian
document, which forms the basis also of the _Epistle of Barnabas_. The
second part consists of vii.-xv., and treats of church ritual and
discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with the
second Advent. The book is variously dated by different scholars: Zahn
assigns it to the years A.D. 80-120; Harnack to 120-165; Lightfoot and
Funk to 80-100; Salmon to 120. (See Salmon in _Dict. of Christ. Biog._
iv. 806-815, also article DIDACHE.)

_Apostolical Constitutions._--For the various collections of these
ecclesiastical regulations--the Syriac _Didascalia, Ecclesiastical
Canons of the Holy Apostles_, &c.--see separate article.

(c) EPISTLES.--_The Abgar Epistles._--These epistles are found in
Eusebius (_H.E._ i. 3), who translated them from the Syriac. They are
two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar Uchomo, king of
Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ's answer, promising after
his ascension to send one of his disciples, who should "cure thee of thy
disease, and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people."
Lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year 200.
(See _Dict. Christ. Biog._ iv. 878-881, with the literature there
mentioned.) The above correspondence, which appears also in Syriac, is
inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best critical edition
of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, _Acta Apostolorum
Apocrypha_, 1891, pp. 279-283. (See also ABGAR.)

_Epistle of Barnabas._--The special object of this epistle was to guard
its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism. The date is
placed by some scholars as early as 70-79, by others as late as the
early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The text has been edited by
Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and Harnack in 1878, and Funk in 1887 and
1901. In these works will be found full bibliographies. (See further
BARNABAS.)

_Epistle of Clement._--The object of this epistle is the restoration of
harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by internal
discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the years 95-96. The
writer was in all probability the bishop of Rome of that name. He is
named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by Clement of
Alexandria (_Strom._ iv. 17. 105), and as late as the time of Eusebius
(_H.E._ iii. 16) it was still read in some of the churches. Critical
editions have been published by Gebhardt and Harnack, _Patr. Apost.
Op._, 1876, and in the smaller form in 1900, Lightfoot[2], 1890,
Funk[2], 1901. The Syriac version has been edited by Kennet, _Epp. of St
Clement to the Corinthians in Syriac_, 1899, and the Old Latin version
by Morin, _S. Clementis Romani ad Corinthios epistulae versio Latina
antiquissima_, 1894.

"_Clement's_" _2nd Ep. to the Corinthians._--This so-called letter of
Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius (_H. E_. iii. 38.
4). It is not a letter but really a homily written in Rome about the
middle of the 2nd century. The writer is a Gentile. Some of his
citations are derived from the Gospel to the Egyptians.

_Clement's Epistles on Virginity._--These two letters are preserved only
in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek. They are first referred
to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome. Critics have assigned them to the
middle of the 2nd century. They have been edited by Beelen, Louvain,
1856.

_Clement's Epistles to James._--On these two letters which are found in
the Clementine Homilies, see Smith's _Dict. of Christian Biography_, i.
559, 570, and Lehmann's monograph, _Die Clementischen Schriften_, Gotha,
1867, in which references will be found to other sources of information.

_Epistles of Ignatius._--There are two collections of letters bearing
the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 105 and 117. The first
consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius to the Ephesians,
Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to
Polycarp. The second collection consists of the preceding extensively
interpolated, and six others of Mary to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary,
to the Tarsians, Antiochians, Philippians and Hero, a deacon of Antioch.
The latter collection is a pseudepigraph written in the 4th century or
the beginning of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also
has been denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention.
The literature is overwhelming in its extent. See Zahn, _Patr. Apost.
Op_., 1876; Funk[2], _Die apostol. Vater_, 1901; Lightfoot[2],
_Apostolic Fathers_, 1889.

_Epistle of Polycarp._--The genuineness of this epistle stands or falls
with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith's _Dictionary
of Christian Biography_, iv. 423-431; Lightfoot, _Apostolic Fathers_, i.
629-702; also POLYCARP.

_Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians_.--The first of
these is found only in Latin. This, according to Lightfoot (see
_Colossians[3]_, 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation from the Greek.
Such an epistle is mentioned in the Muratorian canon. See Zahn, _op.
cit_. ii. 566-585. The Epistle to the Alexandrians is mentioned only in
the Muratorian canon (see Zahn ii. 586-592).

  For the _Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians_, and _Epistle from
  the Corinthians to Paul_, see under "Acts of Paul" above.
       (R. H. C.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Judaism was long accustomed to lay claim to an esoteric
    tradition. Thus though it insisted on the exclusive canonicity of the
    24 books, it claimed the possession of an oral law handed down from
    Moses, and just as the apocryphal books overshadowed in certain
    instances the canonical scriptures, so often the oral law displaced
    the written in the regard of Judaism.

  [2] See Porter in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ i. 113

  [3] The New Testament shows undoubtedly an acquaintance with several
    of the apocryphal books. Thus James i. 19 shows dependence on Sirach
    v. 11, Hebrews i. 3 on Wisdom vii. 26, Romans ix. 21 on Wisdom xv. 7,
    2 Cor. v. 1, 4 on Wisdom ix. 15, &c.

  [4] Thus some of the additions to Daniel and the Prayer of Manasses
    are most probably derived from a Semitic original written in
    Palestine, yet in compliance with the prevailing opinion they are
    classed under Hellenistic Jewish literature. Again, the Slavonic
    Enoch goes back undoubtedly in parts to a Semitic original, though
    most of it was written by a Greek Jew in Egypt.

  [5] These editors have discovered (1907) a gospel fragment of the 2nd
    century which represents a dialogue between our Lord and a chief
    priest--a Pharisee.




APODICTIC (Gr. [Greek: apodeiktikos], capable of demonstration), a
logical term, applied to judgments which are necessarily true, as of
mathematical conclusions. The term in Aristotelian logic is opposed to
dialectic, as scientific proof to probable reasoning. Kant contrasts
apodictical with problematic and assertorical judgments.




APOLDA, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, near the
river Ilm, 9 m. E. by N. from Weimar, on the main line of railway from
Berlin via Halle, to Frankfort-On-Main. Pop. (1900) 20,352. It has few
notable public buildings, but possesses three churches and monuments to
the emperor Frederick III. and to Christian Zimmermann (1759-1842), who,
by introducing the hosiery and cloth manufacture, made Apolda one of the
most important places in Germany in these branches of industry. It has
also extensive dyeworks, bell foundries, and manufactures of steam
engines, boilers and bicycles.




APOLLINARIS, "the Younger" (d. A.D. 390), bishop of Laodicea in Syria.
He collaborated with his father Apollinaris the Elder in reproducing the
Old Testament in the form of Homeric and Pindaric poetry, and the New
after the fashion of Platonic dialogues, when the emperor Julian had
forbidden Christians to teach the classics. He is best known, however,
as a warm opponent of Arianism, whose eagerness to emphasize the deity
of Christ and the unity of His person led him so far as a denial of the
existence of a rational human soul ([Greek: nous]) in Christ's human
nature, this being replaced in Him by a prevailing principle of
holiness, to wit the Logos, so that His body was a glorified and
spiritualized form of humanity. Over against this the orthodox or
Catholic position maintained that Christ assumed human nature in its
entirety including the [Greek: nous], for only so could He be example
and redeemer. It was held that the system of Apollinaris was really
Docetism (see DOCETAE), that if the Godhood without constraint swayed
the manhood there was no possibility of real human probation or of real
advance in Christ's manhood. The position was accordingly condemned by
several synods and in particular by that of Constantinople (A.D. 381).
This did not prevent its having a considerable following, which after
Apollinaris's death divided into two sects, the more conservative taking
its name (Vitalians) from Vitalis, bishop of Antioch, the other
(Polemeans) adding the further assertion that the two natures were so
blended that even the body of Christ was a fit object of adoration. The
whole Apollinarian type of thought persisted in what was later the
Monophysite (q.v.) school.

  Although Apollinaris was a prolific writer, scarcely anything has
  survived under his own name. But a number of his writings are
  concealed under the names of orthodox Fathers, e.g. [Greek: He kata
  meros pistis], long ascribed to Gregory Thaumaturgus. These have been
  collected and edited by Hans Lietzmann.

  He must be distinguished from the bishop of Hierapolis who bore the
  same name, and who wrote one of the early Christian "Apologies" (c.
  170). See A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_, vols. iii. and iv. _passim_;
  R.L. Ottley, _The Doctrine of the Incarnation_; G. Voisin,
  _L'Apollinarisme_ (Louvain, 1901); H. Lietzmann, _Apollinaris von
  Laodicea und seine Schule_ (Tubingen, 1905).




APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS, a learned grammarian of Carthage, who flourished
in the 2nd century A.D. He taught Pertinax--himself a teacher of grammar
before he was emperor,--and Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in the
highest terms (iv. 17). He is the reputed author of the metrical
arguments to the _Aeneid_ and to the plays of Terence and (probably)
Plautus (J.W. Beck, _De Sulpicio Apollinari_, 1884).




APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, CAIUS SOLLIUS (c. 430-487 or 488), Christian
writer and bishop, was born in Lyons about A.D. 430. Belonging to a
noble family, he was educated under the best masters, and particularly
excelled in poetry and polite literature. He married (about 452)
Papianilla, the daughter of Avitus, who was consul and afterwards
emperor. But Majorianus, in the year 457, having deprived Avitus of the
empire and taken the city of Lyons, Apollinaris fell into the hands of
the enemy. The reputation of his learning led Majorianus to treat him
with the greatest respect. In return Apollinaris composed a panegyric in
his honour (as he had previously done for Avitus), which won for him a
statue at Rome and the title of count. In 467 the emperor Anthemius
rewarded him for the panegyric which he had written in honour of him by
raising him to the post of prefect of Rome, and afterwards to the
dignity of a patrician and senator. In 472, more for his political than
for his theological abilities, he was chosen to succeed Eparchius in the
bishopric of Arverna (Clermont). On the capture of that city by the
Goths in 474 he was imprisoned, as he had taken an active part in its
defence; but he was afterwards restored by Euric, king of the Goths, and
continued to govern his bishopric as before. He died in A.D. 487 or 488.
His extant works are his _Panegyrics_ on different emperors (in which he
draws largely upon Statius, Ausonius and Claudian); and nine books of
_Letters_ and _Poems_, whose chief value consists in the light they shed
on the political and literary history of the 5th century. The _Letters_,
which are very stilted, also reveal Apollinaris as a man of genial
temper, fond of good living and of pleasure. The best edition is that in
the _Monumenta Germaniae Historica_ (Berlin, 1887), which gives a survey
of the manuscripts.

  Apollinaris Sidonius (the names are commonly inverted by the French)
  is the subject of numerous monographs, historical and literary. See,
  for bibliography, A. Molinier, _Sources de l'histoire de France_, no.
  136 (vol. i.). S. Dill, _Roman Society in the Fifth Century_, and T.
  Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (vol. vii.), contain interesting
  sections on Apollinaris. See also Teuffel and Ebert's histories of
  Latin literature.




APOLLO (Gr. [Greek: Apollon, Apellon]), in Greek mythology, one of the
most important and many-sided of the Olympian divinities. No
satisfactory etymology of the name has been given, the least improbable
perhaps being that which connects it with the Doric [Greek: apella]
("assembly")[1] so that Apollo would be the god of political life (for
other suggested derivations, ancient and modern, see C. Wernicke in
Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_). The derivation of all the functions
assigned to him from the idea of a single original light- or sun-god,
worked out in his _Lexikon der Mythologie_ by Roscher, who regards it as
"one of the most certain facts in mythology," has not found general
acceptance, although no doubt some features of his character can be
readily explained on this assumption.

In the legend, as set forth in the Homeric hymn to Apollo and the ode of
Callimachus to Delos, Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto. The latter,
pursued by the jealous Hera, after long wandering found shelter in Delos
(originally Asteria), where she bore a son, Apollo, under a palm-tree at
the foot of Mount Cynthus. Before this, Delos--like Rhodes, the centre
of the worship of the sun-god Helios, with whom Apollo was wrongly
identified in later times--had been a barren, floating rock, but now
became stationary, being fastened down by chains to the bottom of the
sea. Apollo was born on the 7th day ([Greek: Ebdomagenes]) of the month
Thargelion according to Delian, of the month Bysios according to
Delphian, tradition. The 7th and 20th, the days of the new and full
moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. In Homer Apollo appears
only as the god of prophecy, the sender of plagues, and sometimes as a
warrior, but elsewhere as exercising the most varied functions. He is
the god of agriculture, specially connected with Aristaeus (q.v.),
which, originally a mere epithet, became an independent personality
(see, however, Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, iv. 123). This side
of his character is clearly expressed in the titles _Sitalcas_
("protector of corn"); _Erythibius_ ("preventer of blight"); _Parnopius_
("destroyer of locusts"); _Smintheus_ ("destroyer of mice"), in which,
however, some modern inquirers see a totemistic significance (e.g. A.
Lang, "Apollo and the Mouse," in _Custom and Myth_, p. 101; against
this, W.W. Fowler, in _Classical Review_, November 1892); _Erithius_
("god of reapers"); and _Pasparius_ ("god of meal"). He is further the
god of vegetation generally--_Nomios_, "god of pastures" (explained,
however, by Cicero, as "god of law"), _Hersos_, "sender of the
fertilizing dew." Valleys and groves are under his protection, unless
the epithets _Napaeus_ and _Hylates_ belong to a more primitive aspect
of the god as supporting himself by the chase, and roaming the glades
and forests in pursuit of prey. Certain trees and plants, especially the
laurel, were sacred to him. As the god of agriculture and vegetation he
is naturally connected with the course of the year and the arrangement
of the seasons, so important in farming operations, and becomes the
orderer of time (_Horomedon_, "ruler of the seasons"), and frequently
appears on monuments in company with the Horae.

Apollo is also the protector of cattle and herds, hence _Poimnius_ ("god
of flocks"), _Tragius_ ("of goats"), _Kereatas_ ("of horned animals").
_Carneius_ (probably "horned") is considered by some to be a pre-Dorian
god of cattle, also connected with harvest operations, whose cult was
grafted on to that of Apollo; by others, to have been originally an
epithet of Apollo, afterwards detached as a separate personality
(Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 131). The epithet _Maleatas_, which, as the
quantity of the first vowel (a) shows,[2] cannot mean god of "sheep" or
"the apple-tree," is probably a local adjective derived from Malea
(perhaps Cape Malea), and may refer to an originally distinct
personality, subsequently merged in that of Apollo (see below). Apollo
himself is spoken of as a keeper of flocks, and the legends of his
service as a herdsman with Laomedon and Admetus point in the same
direction. Here probably also is to be referred the epithet _Lyceius_,
which, formerly connected with [Greek: luk-] ("shine") and used to
support the conception of Apollo as a light-god, is now generally
referred to [Greek: Lukos] ("wolf") and explained as he who keeps away
the wolves from the flock (cf. [Greek: Lukoergos, Lukoktonos]). In
accordance with this, the epithet [Greek: Lukogenes] will not mean "born
of" or "begetting light," but rather "born from the she-wolf," in which
form Leto herself was said to have been conducted by wolves to Delos.
The consecration of the wolf to Apollo is probably the relic of an
ancient totemistic religion (Farnell, _Cults_, i. 41; W. Robertson
Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., 1894, p. 226).

With the care of the fruits of the earth and the lower animals is
associated that of the highest animal, man, especially the youth on his
passage to manhood. As such Apollo is [Greek: kourotrophos] ("rearer of
boys") and patron of the palaestra. In many places gymnastic contests
form a feature of his festivals, and he himself is proficient in
athletic exercises ([Greek: enagonios]). Thus he was supposed to be the
first victor at the Olympic games; he overcomes Hermes in the foot-race,
and Ares in boxing.

The transition is easy to Apollo as a warlike god; in fact, the earlier
legends represent him as engaged in strife with Python, Tityus, the
Cyclopes and the Aloidae. He is _Boedromios_ ("the helper"), _Eleleus_
("god of the war-cry"), and the Paean was said to have been originally a
song of triumph composed by him after his victory over Python. In Homer
he frequently appears on the field, like Ares and Athene, bearing the
aegis to frighten the foe. This aspect is confirmed by the epithets
_Argyrotoxos_ ("god of the silver bow"), _Hecatebolos_ ("the shooter
from afar"), _Chrysaoros_ ("wearer of the golden sword"), and his
statues are often equipped with the accoutrements of war.[3]

The fame of the Pythian oracle at Delphi, connected with the slaying of
Python by the god immediately after his birth, gave especial prominence
to the idea of Apollo as a god of prophecy. Python, always represented
in the form of a snake, sometimes nameless, is the symbol of the old
chthonian divinity whose home was the place of "enquiry" ([Greek:
pythesthai]). When Apollo Delphinius with his worshippers from Crete
took possession of the earth-oracle Python, he received in consequence
the name Pythius. That Python was no fearful monster, symbolizing the
darkness of winter which is scattered by the advent of spring, is shown
by the fact that Apollo was considered to have been guilty of murder in
slaying it, and compelled to wander for a term of years and expiate his
crime by servitude and purification. Possibly at Delphi and other places
there was an old serpent-worship ousted by that of Apollo, which may
account for expiation for the slaying of Python being considered
necessary. In the solar explanation, the serpent is the darkness driven
away by the rays of the sun. (On the Delphian cult of Apollo and its
political significance, see AMPHICTYONY, DELPHI, ORACLE; and Farnell,
_Cults_, iv. pp. 179-218.) Oracular responses were also given at Claros
near Colophon in Ionia by means of the water of a spring which inspired
those who drank of it; at Patara in Lycia; and at Didyma near Miletus
through the priestly family of the Branchidae. Apollo's oracles, which
he did not deliver on his own initiative but as the mouthpiece of Zeus,
were infallible, but the human mind was not always able to grasp their
meaning; hence he is called _Loxias_ ("crooked," "ambiguous"). To
certain favoured mortals he communicated the gift of prophecy
(Cassandra, the Cumaean sibyl, Helenus, Melampus and Epimenides).
Although his favourite method was by word of mouth, yet signs were
sometimes used; thus Calchas interpreted the flight of birds; burning
offerings, sacrificial barley, the arrow of the god, dreams and the lot,
all played their part in communicating the will of the gods.

Closely connected with the god of oracles was the god of the healing
art, the oracle being frequently consulted in cases of sickness. These
two functions are indicated by the titles _Iatromantis_ ("physician and
seer") and _Oulios_, probably meaning "health-giving" (so Suidas) rather
than "destructive." This side of Apollo's character does not appear in
Homer, where Paieon is mentioned as the physician of the gods. Here
again, as in the case of Aristaeus and Carneius, the question arises
whether Paean (or Paeon) was originally an epithet of Apollo,
subsequently developed into an independent personality, or an
independent deity merged in the later arrival (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p.
234). According to Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in his edition of Isyllus, the
epithet Maleatas alluded to above is also connected with the functions
of the healing god, imported into Athens in the 4th century B.C. with
other well-known health divinities. In this connexion, it is said to
mean the "gentle one," who gave his name to the rock Malion or Maleas
(O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. 1442) on the Gortynian coast.
Apollo is further supposed to be the father of Asclepius (Aesculapius),
whose ritual is closely modelled upon his. The healing god could also
prevent disease and misfortune of all kinds: hence he is [Greek:
alexikakos] ("averter of evil") and [Greek: apotropaios]. Further, he is
able to purify the guilty and to cleanse from sin (here some refer the
epithet [Greek: iatromantis], in the sense of "physician of the soul").
Such a task can be fitly undertaken by Apollo, since he himself
underwent purification after slaying Python. According to the Delphic
legend, this took place in the laurel grove of Tempe, and after nine
years of penance the god returned, as was represented in the festival
called Stepterion or Septerion (see A. Mommsen, _Delphika_, 1878). Thus
the old law of blood for blood, which only perpetuated the crime from
generation to generation, gave way to the milder idea of the expiatory
power of atonement for murder (cf. the court called [Greek: to epi
Delphinio] at Athens, which retained jurisdiction in cases where
justifiable homicide was pleaded).

The same element of enthusiasm that affects the priestess of the oracle
at Delphi produces song and music. The close connexion between prophecy
and song is indicated in Homer (_Odyssey_, viii. 488), where Odysseus
suggests that the lay of the fall of Troy by Demodocus was inspired by
Apollo or the Muse. The metrical form of the oracular responses at
Delphi, the important part played by the paean and the Pythian nomos in
his ritual, contributed to make Apollo a god of song and music, friend
and leader of the Muses ([Greek: mousagetes]). He plays the lyre at the
banquets of the gods, and causes Marsyas to be flayed alive because he
had boasted of his superior skill in playing the flute, and the ears of
Midas to grow long because he had declared in favour of Pan, who
contended that the flute was a better instrument than Apollo's
favourite, the lyre.

A less important aspect of Apollo is that of a marine deity, due to the
spread of his cult to the Greek colonies and islands. As such, his
commonest name is _Delphinius_, the "dolphin god," in whose honour the
festival Delphinia was celebrated in Attica. This cult probably
originated in Crete, whence the god in the form of a dolphin led his
Cretan worshippers to the Delphian shore, where he bade them erect an
altar in his honour. He is _Epibaterius_ and _Apobaterius_ ("embarker"
and "disembarker"), _Nasiotas_ ("the islander"), _Euryalus_ ("god of the
broad sea"). Like Poseidon, he looks forth over his watery kingdom from
lofty cliffs and promontories ([Greek: aktaios], and perhaps [Greek:
akritas]).

These maritime cults of Apollo are probably due to his importance as the
god of colonization, who accompanied emigrants on their voyage. As such
he is [Greek: agetor] ("leader"), [Greek: oikistes] ("founder"), [Greek:
domatites] ("god of the home"). As _Agyieus_ ("god of streets and
ways"), in the form of a stone pillar with painted head, placed before
the doors of houses, he let in the good and kept out the evil (see
Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 150, who takes Agyieus to mean "leader"); on
the epithet _Prostaterius_, he who "stands before the house," hence
"protector," see G.M. Hirst in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxii.
(1902). Lastly, as the originator and protector of civil order, Apollo
was regarded as the founder of cities and legislation. Thus, at Athens,
Apollo _Patroos_ was known as the protector of the lonians, and the
Spartans referred the institutions of Lycurgus to the Delphic oracle.

It has been mentioned above that W.H. Roscher, in the article "Apollo"
in his _Lexikon der Mythologie_, derives all the aspects and functions
of Apollo from the conception of an original light-and sun-god. The
chief objections to this are the following. It cannot be shown that on
_Greek_ soil Apollo originally had the meaning of a sun-god; in Homer,
Aeschylus and Plato, the sun-god Helios is distinctly separated from
Phoebus Apollo; the constant epithet [Greek: Phoibos], usually explained
as the brightness of the sun, may equally well refer to his physical
beauty or moral purity; [Greek: lykegenes] has already been noticed. It
is not until the beginning of the 5th century B.C. that the
identification makes its appearance. The first literary evidence is a
fragment of Euripides (_Phaethon_), in which it is especially
characterized as an innovation. The idea was taken up by the Stoics, and
in the Roman period generally accepted. But the fact of the gradual
development of Apollo as a god of light and heaven, and his
identification with foreign sun-gods, is no proof of an original Greek
solar conception of him. Apollo-Helios must be regarded as "a late
by-product of Greek religion" (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 136; Wernicke in
Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencydopadie_). For the manner in which the solar
theory is developed, reference must be made to Roscher's article, but
one legend may here be mentioned, since it helps to trace the spread of
the cult of the god. It was said that Apollo soon after his birth spent
a year amongst the Hyperboreans, who dwelt in a land of perpetual
sunshine, before his return to Delphi. This return is explained as the
second birth of the god and his victory over the powers of winter; the
name Hyperboreans is explained as the "dwellers beyond the north wind."
This interpretation is now, however, generally rejected in favour of
that of H.L. Ahrens,--that Hyperborei is identical with the Perpherees
("the carriers"), who are described as the servants of Apollo, carriers
of cereal offerings from one community to another (Herodotus iv. 33).
This would point to the fact that certain settlements of Apolline
worship along the northernmost border of Greece (Illyria, Thrace,
Macedonia) were in the habit of sending offerings to the god to a centre
of his worship farther south (probably Delphi), advancing by the route
from Tempe through Thessaly, Pherae and Doris to Delphi; while others
adopted the route through Illyria, Epirus, Dodona, the Malian gulf,
Carystus in Euboea, and Tenos to Delos (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 100).

The most usual attributes of Apollo were the lyre and the bow; the
tripod especially was dedicated to him as the god of prophecy. Among
plants, the bay, used in expiatory sacrifices and also for making the
crown of victory at the Pythian games, and the palm-tree, under which he
was born in Delos, were sacred to him; among animals and birds, the
wolf, the roe, the swan, the hawk, the raven, the crow, the snake, the
mouse, the grasshopper and the griffin, a mixture of the eagle and the
lion evidently of Eastern origin. The swan and grasshopper symbolize
music and song; the hawk, raven, crow and snake have reference to his
functions as the god of prophecy.

The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the Carneia,
Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia (see
separate articles).

Among the Romans the worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks.
There is a tradition that the Delphian oracle was consulted as early as
the period of the kings during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, and in
430 a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence,
and during the Second Punic War (in 212) the _Ludi Apollinares_ were
instituted in his honour. But it was in the time of Augustus, who
considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even
said to be his son, that his worship developed and he became one of the
chief gods of Rome. After the battle of Actium, Augustus enlarged his
old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoil to him, and instituted
quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple on the
Palatine hill and transferred the secular games, for which Horace
composed his _Carmen Saeculare_, to Apollo and Diana.

Apollo was represented more frequently than any other deity in ancient
art. As Apollo Agyieus he was shown by a simple conic pillar; the Apollo
of Amyclae was a pillar of bronze surmounted by a helmeted head, with
extended arms carrying lance and bow. There were also rude idols of him
in wood (_xoana_), in which the human form was scarcely recognizable. In
the 6th century, his statues of stone were naked, stiff and rigid in
attitude, shoulders square, limbs strong and broad, hair falling down
the back. In the riper period of art the type is softer, and Apollo
appears in a form which seeks to combine manhood and eternal youth. His
long hair is usually tied in a large knot above his forehead. The most
famous statue of him is the Apollo Belvidere in the Vatican (found at
Frascati, 1455), an imitation belonging to the early imperial period of
a bronze statue representing him, with aegis in his left hand, driving
back the Gauls from his temple at Delphi (279 B.C.), or, according to
another view, fighting with the Pythian dragon. In the Apollo
Citharoedus or Musagetes in the Vatican, he is crowned with laurel and
wears the long, flowing robe of the Ionic bard, and his form is almost
feminine in its fulness; in a statue at Rome of the older and more
vigorous type he is naked and holds a lyre in his left hand; his right
arm rests upon his head, and a griffin is seated at his side. The Apollo
Sauroctonus (after Praxiteles), copied in bronze at the Villa Albani in
Rome and in marble at Paris, is a naked, youthful, almost boyish figure,
leaning against a tree, waiting to strike a lizard climbing up the
trunk. The gigantic statue of Helios (the sun-god), "the colossus of
Rhodes," by Chares of Lindus, celebrated as one of the seven wonders of
the world, is unknown to us. Bas-reliefs and painted vases reproduce the
contests of Apollo with Tityus, Marsyas, and Heracles, the slaughter of
the daughters of Niobe, and other incidents in his life.

  AUTHORITIES.--F.L.W. Schwartz, _De antiquissima Apollinis Natura_
  (Berlin, 1843); J.A. Schonborn, _Uber das Wesen Apollons_ (Berlin,
  1854); A. Milchhofer, _Uber den attischen Apollon_ (Munich, 1873); T.
  Schreiber, _Apollon Pythoktonos_ (Leipzig, 1879); W.H. Roscher,
  _Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie der Griechen und Romer_, i.
  (Leipzig, 1873); R. Hecker, _De Apollinis apud Romanos Cultu_
  (Leipzig, 1879); G. Colin, _Le Culte d'Apollon pythien a Athenes_
  (1905); L. Dyer, _The Gods in Greece_ (1891); articles in
  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, W.H. Roscher's _Lexikon der
  Mythologie_, and Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_;
  L. Preller, _Griechische und romische Mythologie_ (4th ed. by C.
  Robert); J. Marquardt, _Romische Staalsverwaltung_, iii.; G. Wissowa
  _Religion und Kultus der Romer_ (1902); D. Bassi, _Saggio di
  Bibliografia mitologica_, i. _Apollo_ (1896); L. Farnell, _Cults of
  the Greek States_, iv. (1907); O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie und
  Religionsgeschichte_, ii. (1906). In the article GREEK ART, fig. 9
  represents a bearded Apollo, playing on the lyre, in a chariot drawn
  by winged horses; fig. 55 (pl. ii.) Apollo of the Belvidere; fig. 76
  (pl. v.) a nude and roughly executed colossal figure of the god.
       (J. H. F.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Hesychius; who also gives the explanation [Greek: sekos]
    ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.

  [2] The authority for the quantity is Isyllus.

  [3] Hence some have derived "Apollo" from [Greek: apollunai], "to
    destroy."








*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "ANJAR" TO "APOLLO" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_37610.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Germany" to "Gibson, William"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Germany" to "Gibson, William"

Author: Various

Release date: October 3, 2011 [eBook #37610]
                Most recently updated: January 8, 2021

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "GERMANY" TO "GIBSON, WILLIAM" ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net









Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE GERMANY: "After Rupert's death two cousins, Jobst, margrave
      of Moravia, and Sigismund, king of Hungary, were in the autumn of
      1410 both chosen to fill the vacant throne by opposing parties ..."
      'After' amended from "After's".

    ARTICLE GERMANY: "... others--like the landgraves of Hesse and the
      cities of Magdeburg and Strassburg--refused to sign it, and thus it
      served only to emphasize the divisions among the Protestants.
      Moreover ..." 'Magdeburg' amended from 'Madgeburg'.

    ARTICLE GERMANY: "These Articles, embodying the more important
      terms, were included with slight verbal alterations in the treaty
      of peace signed at Prague on the 23rd of August." 'embodying'
      amended from 'enbodying'.

    ARTICLE GERMANY: "... Die Entwicklung des gelehrten Richtertums in
      deutschen Territorien (Stuttgart, 1872) ..." 'Entwicklung' amended
      from 'Entwickelung'.

    ARTICLE GETTYSBURG: "That no decisive success had been obtained by
      Lee was clear to all, but Ewell's men on Culp's Hill, and
      Longstreet's corps below Round Top, threatened to turn both flanks
      of the Federal position, which was no longer a compact horseshoe
      but had been considerably prolonged to the left ..." 'horseshoe'
      amended from 'horsehoe'.

    ARTICLE GHAZNI: "In 997 Mahmud, son of Sabuktagin, succeeded to the
      government, and with his name Ghazni and the Ghaznevid dynasty have
      become perpetually associated. Issuing forth year after year from
      that capital ..." 'become' amended from 'beome'.

    ARTICLE GHOST: "... on the other hand, the phrase 925 "ghostly man"
      for a clergyman (cf. the Ger. Geistlicher) is an archaism the use
      of which could only be justified by poetic licence, as in
      Tennyson's Elaine (1842)." '1842' amended from '1094'.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


           VOLUME XI, SLICE VIII

        Germany to Gibson, William




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  GERMANY (part)                   GHADAMES
  GERMERSHEIM                      GHAT
  GERMISTON                        GHATS
  GERMONIUS, ANASTASIUS            GHAZALI
  GERO                             GHAZI
  GEROLSTEIN                       GHAZIABAD
  GEROME, JEAN LEON                GHAZIPUR
  GERONA (province of Spain)       GHAZNI
  GERONA (town of Spain)           GHEE
  GEROUSIA                         GHEEL
  GERRESHEIM                       GHENT
  GERRHA                           GHETTO
  GERRUS                           GHIBERTI, LORENZO
  GERRY, ELBRIDGE                  GHICA
  GERRYMANDER                      GHILZAI
  GERS                             GHIRLANDAJO, DOMENICO
  GERSON, JOHN                     GHIRLANDAJO, RIDOLFO
  GERSONIDES                       GHOR
  GERSOPPA, FALLS OF               GHOST
  GERSTACKER, FRIEDRICH            GHOST DANCE
  GERSTENBERG, WILHELM VON         GIACOMETTI, PAOLO
  GERUZEZ, NICOLAS EUGENE          GIAMBELLI, FEDERIGO
  GERVAIS, PAUL                    GIANNONE, PIETRO
  GERVASE OF CANTERBURY            GIANNUTRI
  GERVASE OF TILBURY               GIANT
  GERVEX, HENRI                    GIANT'S CAUSEWAY
  GERVINUS, GEORG GOTTFRIED        GIANT'S KETTLE
  GERYON                           GIAOUR
  GESENIUS, FRIEDRICH WILHELM      GIB, ADAM
  GESNER, ABRAHAM                  GIBARA
  GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS          GIBBON, EDWARD
  GESNER, KONRAD VON               GIBBON
  GESSNER, SOLOMON                 GIBBONS, GRINLING
  GESSO                            GIBBONS, JAMES
  GESTA ROMANORUM                  GIBBONS, ORLANDO
  GETA, PUBLIUS SEPTIMIUS          GIBBS, JOSIAH WILLARD
  GETAE                            GIBBS, OLIVER WOLCOTT
  GETHSEMANE                       GIBEON
  GETTYSBURG                       GIBEONITES
  GEULINCX, ARNOLD                 GIBRALTAR
  GEUM                             GIBSON, CHARLES DANA
  GEVELSBERG                       GIBSON, EDMUND
  GEX                              GIBSON, JOHN
  GEYSER                           GIBSON, THOMAS MILNER
  GEZER                            GIBSON, WILLIAM HAMILTON
  GFRORER, AUGUST FRIEDRICH




GERMANY (Continued from volume 11 slice 7).

  Decay of the royal power.

Nothing could indicate more clearly than this fact how much of their old
power the German kings had lost. It was not past hope that even yet some
of their former splendour might be restored, and for a brief period
monarchy did again stand high. Still, its foundations were sapped.
Incessant war, both at home and in Italy, had deprived it of its force;
it had lost moral influence by humiliations, of which the scene at
Canossa was an extreme type. Steadily, with unwearied energy, letting no
opportunity escape, the princes had advanced towards independence, and
they might well look forward to such a bearing in regard to the kings as
the kings had formerly adopted in regard to them.


  Conrad III.

Henry the Proud was confident that he would succeed Lothair, who had
died on his return from Italy in December 1137; but, by a hasty and
irregular election, Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Franconia, was
chosen king in March 1138. Henry the Proud rebelled and was declared to
have forfeited his two duchies, Saxony and Bavaria, the former being
given to Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, and the latter to
Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. Henry defended his rights with vigour
and once again Germany was ravaged by war, for although he was unpopular
in Bavaria he was strongly supported by the Saxons, who, since the time
of Henry IV., had always been ready to join in an attack on the
monarchy, and he had little difficulty in driving Albert the Bear from
the land. However, in October 1139 Henry died suddenly, but his young
son, Henry the Lion, was recognized at once as duke of Saxony, while his
brother, Welf, upheld the fortunes of his house in Bavaria. The struggle
went on until May 1142, when peace was made at Frankfort. Saxony, with
the assent of Albert the Bear, was granted by Conrad to Henry the Lion,
and Bavaria was given to Henry Jasomirgott, who had just succeeded his
brother Leopold as margrave of Austria. But this was only a lull in the
civil strife, which was renewed after the king had made a successful
expedition into Bohemia. The princes clerical and lay were fighting
against each other, and the Bavarians were at war with the Hungarians,
who gained a great victory in 1146. Notwithstanding the many sources of
confusion Conrad was persuaded by the passionate eloquence of Bernard of
Clairvaux to take part in the second crusade; he left for the East in
1147 and returned to Germany in 1149, to find Welf again in arms and
Henry the Lion claiming Bavaria. The king had done nothing to stem the
rising tide of disorder when he died at Bamberg in February 1152. During
this reign the work of conquering and Germanizing the Slavonic tribes
east of the Elbe was seriously taken in hand under the lead of Albert
the Bear and Henry the Lion, and the foundation of the margraviate of
Brandenburg by Albert tended to make life and property more secure in
the north-east of Germany.


  Frederick I. becomes king.

After Conrad's death Germany passed under the rule of one of the
greatest of her sovereigns, Frederick I., called Barbarossa, nephew of
the late king and son of Frederick, that duke of Swabia who had fought
along with Conrad against Henry the Proud. Frederick himself had also
been closely associated with Conrad, who advised the princes to choose
his nephew as his successor. This was done, and the new king was crowned
at Aix-la-Chapelle in March 1152. Allied through his mother to the Welfs
of Bavaria, and anxious to put an end to the unrest which dominated
Germany, especially to the strife between the families of Welf and
Hohenstaufen, Frederick began his reign by promising to secure for Henry
the Lion the duchy of Bavaria, and by appeasing Henry's uncle, Count
Welf, by making him duke of Spoleto and margrave of Tuscany. But the new
king had another, and perhaps a more potent, reason for wishing to see
peace restored in Germany. For his adventurous and imaginative spirit
Italy and the imperial title had an irresistible charm, and in 1154, two
years after he had ascended the throne, he crossed the Alps, being
crowned emperor at Rome in June 1155. After this event the best years of
his life were spent in Italy, where, in his long and obstinate struggle
with the Lombard cities and with Pope Alexander III., he chiefly
acquired his fame. Although on the emperor's side this struggle was
conducted mainly with German troops it falls properly under the history
of Italy. In that country the record of this reign is a blood-stained
page, while in the history of Germany, on the contrary, Frederick's name
is associated with a peaceful and prosperous period.


  Bavaria and Saxony.

The promise that Bavaria should be granted to Henry the Lion was not
easily fulfilled, as Henry Jasomirgott refused to give up the duchy. At
last, however, in 1156, after his return from his first expedition to
Italy, Frederick reconciled the latter prince by making Austria into a
duchy with certain special privileges, an important step in the process
by which that country became the centre of a powerful state. Henry
Jasomirgott then renounced Bavaria, and Henry the Lion became its duke.
It was, however, in his other duchy of Saxony that the latter duke's
most important work was done. Although he often gave offence by his
haughty and aggressive disposition, few German princes have earned so
thoroughly the goodwill of posterity. Since the death of Otto the Great
the Slavonic lands to the east of the Elbe had been very imperfectly
held in subjection by the Germans. Devoting himself to the conquest of
the lands lying along the shore of the Baltic, Henry succeeded as no one
before him had ever done. But he was not only a conqueror. He built
towns and encouraged those which already existed; he founded and
restored bishoprics in his new territories; and between the Elbe and the
Oder he planted bodies of industrious colonists. While he was thus at
work a similar task was being performed to the south-east of Saxony by
Albert the Bear, the first margrave of Brandenburg, who, by his
energetic rule was preparing this country for its great destinies.


  Frederick in Poland and Germany.

Early in his reign, by settling a dispute over the crown of Denmark,
Frederick brought the king of that country once more into the position
of a German vassal. Having spent the year 1156 in settling the Bavarian
question and in enforcing order in the Rhineland and elsewhere, the
emperor marched into Poland in 1157, compelled its ruler, Boleslaus IV.,
to do the homage which he had previously refused to perform, and in
return for services rendered during the campaign and for promises of
future aid, raised the duke of Bohemia to the rank of a king, a change
which in no way affected his duties to the German crown, but which gave
him a certain precedence over other vassal princes. The king of Hungary,
too, although no attempt was made to subdue him, became a useful ally.
Thus the fame of Germany in the neighbouring countries, which had been
nearly destroyed during the confusion of Henry IV.'s reign, was to a
large extent restored. Frederick asserted his authority in Burgundy or,
as it was sometimes called, Franche Comte. In Germany itself internal
order was established by a strict appliance of the existing laws against
those who broke the peace, fresh orders for its observance were issued,
and in Frederick the robber nobles found a most implacable enemy. The
cities, too, flourished during this reign. The emperor attached them to
himself by granting to many of them the very liberties which, by a
strained interpretation of his imperial rights, he withheld from the
cities of Lombardy. Yet, notwithstanding his policy, in these directions
the German nobles appear to have been enthusiastically devoted to
Frederick. Time after time they followed him to Italy, enduring serious
losses and hardships in order that he might enforce claims which were of
no advantage to them, and which, previously, had been a curse to their
nation. Their loyalty is well illustrated by the famous scene at
Besancon in October 1157. During a meeting of the diet a papal legate
read a letter from Pope Adrian IV., which seemed to imply that the
Empire was a papal fief. Indignant murmurs rose from the assembled
nobles, and the life of the legate was only saved from their fury by the
intervention of the emperor himself. The secret of Frederick's great
popularity was partly the national pride excited by his foreign
achievements, partly the ascendance over other minds which his genius
gave him, and partly the conviction that while he would forego none of
his rights he would demand from his vassals nothing more than was
sanctioned by the laws of the Empire.


  Frederick and Alexander III.

Having suppressed a rising at Mainz Frederick set out in the autumn of
1163 for Italy, which country was now distracted by a papal schism. This
incident was bound to affect German politics. After the death of Adrian
IV. in 1159 the imperial party put forward an anti-pope, Victor IV.,
against Alexander III., who had been canonically elected. The emperor
made stupendous efforts to secure for Victor and then for his successor,
Paschal III., recognition by the sovereigns of Europe, but in vain; and
almost the only support which the anti-pope received came from the
German clergy. In May 1165 Frederick held a diet at Wurzburg, where the
princes lay and clerical swore to be faithful to Paschal and never to
recognize Alexander. But Alexander soon found partisans among the German
clergy, hitherto the most loyal of the emperor's friends; and Frederick
retaliated by driving the offending prelates from their sees, a
proceeding which tended to disturb the peace of the land. Then in August
1167, in the midst of the struggle in Italy, came the pestilence which
destroyed the imperial army in Rome, and drove the emperor as a fugitive
across the Alps. After this humiliation Frederick remained for six years
in Germany. He was fully occupied in restoring order in Saxony, in the
diocese of Salzburg and elsewhere; in adding to his hereditary lands; in
negotiating for a better understanding with France and England; and in
reminding the vassal states, Hungary, Poland and Bohemia, of their
duties towards the Empire. The success with which he carried out this
work shows clearly that, in Germany at least, the disaster at Rome had
not seriously affected his prestige. Again in Italy in 1174 the contest
with the Papacy was abruptly ended by Frederick's overwhelming defeat at
Legnano in May 1176, and by the treaty of Venice made about a year later
with Alexander III.


  Frederick and Henry the Lion.

In the later years of his reign the emperor's chief enemy was Henry the
Lion. Rendered arrogant by success and confident that his interests were
in northern, and not in southern Europe, the Saxon duke refused to
assist Frederick in the campaign which ended so disastrously at Legnano.
Ascribing his defeat to Henry's defection, Frederick returned to Germany
full of anger against the Saxon duke and firmly resolved to punish him.
The immediate cause of Henry's downfall, however, was not his failure to
appear in Italy, but his refusal to restore some lands to the bishop of
Halberstadt, and it was on this charge that he was summoned before the
diet. Three times he refused to appear, and early in 1180 sentence was
pronounced against him; he was condemned to lose all his lands and to go
into banishment. For some time he resisted, but at length the emperor in
person marched against him and he was forced to submit; the only favour
he could secure when peace was made at Erfurt in November 1181 was
permission to retain Brunswick and Luneburg, which have remained in the
possession of his descendants until our own day. Bavaria was granted to
Otto of Wittelsbach, but it lost some of its importance because Styria
was taken from it and made into a separate duchy. The extensive duchy of
Saxony was completely dismembered. The name was taken by the small
portion of the former duchy which was given to Bernard, son of Albert
the Bear, the founder of a new Saxon line, and the extensive western
part was added to the archbishopric of Cologne. The chief prelates of
Saxony and many of the late duke's most important feudatories were made
virtually independent of all control save that of the crown. Frederick's
object in thus breaking up the two greatest duchies in his kingdom was
doubtless to strengthen the imperial authority. But in reality he made
it certain that the princes would one day shake off the imperial power
altogether; for it was perhaps more difficult for the sovereign to
contend with scores of petty nobles than with two or three great
princes.


  Frederick and Philip of Heinsberg.

Less serious than the struggle with Henry the Lion was Frederick's
struggle with Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of Cologne (d. 1191), on
whom he had just conferred a great part of Saxony. When the emperor went
to Italy in 1184 he left the government of Germany to his son Henry,
afterwards the emperor Henry VI., who had been crowned German king in
1169. On all sides, but especially in the north-west, Henry was faced
with incipient revolution, and while he was combating this the quarrel
between Frederick and the Papacy broke out again in Italy. At this
juncture Philip of Cologne united the German and the Italian
oppositions. Several princes rallied to his standard and foreign powers
promised aid, but although very formidable in appearance the combination
had no vestige of popular support. The greater part of the German clergy
again proved their loyalty to Frederick, who hurried to Germany only to
see the opposition vanish before him. In March 1188 Philip of Cologne
submitted at Mainz.


  Frederick's death.

Germany was now at peace. With the accession of Gregory VIII. pope and
emperor were reconciled, and by the marriage of his son Henry with
Constance, daughter of Roger I., king of Sicily, the emperor had reason
to hope that the Empire would soon include Naples and Sicily. Resolving
that the sunset of his life should be even more splendid than its dawn
he decided to go on crusade, and in 1189 he started with a great army
for the Holy Land. When the news reached Germany that he had been
drowned, an event which took place in Cilicia in June 1190, men felt
that evil days were coming upon the country, for the elements of discord
would no longer be controlled by the strong hand of the great emperor.


  Henry VI.

Evil days did not, however, come in the time of Henry VI., who, although
without his father's greatness, had some of his determination and
energy, and was at least his equal in ambition. Having in 1190 reduced
Henry the Lion once more to submission, the new king set out to take
possession of his Sicilian kingdom, being on the way crowned emperor at
Rome. At the end of 1191 he returned to Germany, where he was soon faced
by two serious risings. The first of these centred round the restless
and unruly Welfs; after a time these insurgents were joined by their
former enemies, the rulers of Saxony, of Thuringia and of Meissen, who
were angered by Henry's conduct. The Welfs also gained the assistance of
Canute VI., king of Denmark. Equally dangerous was a rebellion in the
Lower Rhineland, where the emperor made many foes by appointing,
regardless of their fitness, his own candidates to vacant bishoprics. At
Liege this led to serious complications; and when Bishop Albert, who had
been chosen against Henry's wish, was murdered at Reims in November
1192, the emperor was openly accused of having instigated the crime. At
once the rulers of Brabant, of Limburg and of Flanders, with the
archbishops of Cologne and Trier, were in arms. In the east of Germany
Ottakar I. of Bohemia joined the circle of Henry's enemies, and the
southern duchies, Bavaria, Swabia and Austria, were too much occupied
with internal quarrels to send help to the harassed emperor. But
formidable as were these risings they were crushed, although not
entirely by force of arms. In 1193 Richard I. of England passed as a
prisoner into Henry's keeping, and with rare skill the emperor used him
as a means of compelling his enemies to come to terms. Henry the Lion
was the last to submit. He made his peace in 1194, when his son Henry
was promised the succession to the Rhenish Palatinate. Returning from
another visit to Sicily, the emperor was now so powerful that, in
pursuance of his plan for making himself the head of a great world
monarchy, he put forward the suggestion that the imperial crown should
be declared hereditary in his family. This proposal aroused much
opposition, but Henry persisted with it; he promised important
concessions to the princes, many of whom were induced to consent, and
but for his sudden death, which occurred in Sicily in September 1197, it
is probable that he would have attained his end.


  Philip of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick.

Great as was Henry's authority many of the princes, chief among them
being Adolph, archbishop of Cologne (d. 1220), refused to recognize his
son, Frederick, who had been chosen king of the Romans in 1196. This
attitude was possibly owing to the fact that Frederick was young and
inexperienced; it was, however, more probably due to a revival of the
fear that the German princes would be entangled in Italian politics. For
a time Adolph and his friends, who were mainly princes of the Rhineland,
sought in vain for a new king. While they were thus employed the
friends of the house of Hohenstaufen, convinced that Frederick's
kingship was not possible, chose the late emperor's brother, Philip,
duke of Swabia, to fill the vacant throne; soon afterwards the enemies
of the house found a candidate in the person of Henry the Lion's son,
Otto of Brunswick, who was also chosen German king. Thus the struggle
between Welf and Hohenstaufen was renewed and civil war broke out at
once. Philip's supporters were the nobles of southern and eastern
Germany, while a few cities in the west owned his authority; Otto's
friends were found mainly in the north and the north-west of the
country. The number of available warriors was increased by the return of
many crusaders, among them being the famous soldier, Henry von Kalden,
who was mainly responsible for the success of Philip's cause in 1199. If
Germany had been unconnected with the Papacy, or even if the Papacy had
been as weak as in the days of Henry VI., the issue of the strife would
almost certainly have been an early victory for Philip. A majority of
the princes were on his side and the French king Philip Augustus was his
ally, while his personal character commanded general respect. Otto,
whose chief supporter outside Germany was his uncle Richard I. of
England, on the other hand was a harsh and violent man. But
unfortunately for Germany the papal chair at this time was occupied by
Innocent III., a pope who emulated Hildebrand in ambition and in
statesmanship. At first vacillating, but by no means indifferent,
Innocent was spurred to action when a number of princes met at Spires in
May 1200, declared Philip to be the lawful king, and denied the right of
the pope to interfere. He was also annoyed by Philip's attitude with
regard to a vacancy in the archbishopric of Cologne, and in March 1201
he declared definitely for Otto. The efforts of the pope helped to
rekindle the expiring flames of war, and for a year or two success
completely deserted Philip. He lost the support of Ottakar of Bohemia
and of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia; he was driven from North
Germany into Swabia and Otto's triumph seemed assured. From 1204
onwards, however, fortune again veered round, and Philip's prospects
began to improve. Deserted by Ottakar and even by Adolph of Cologne and
his own brother Henry, count palatine of the Rhine, Otto was forced to
take refuge in Brunswick, his last line of defence, and was only saved
by Philip's murder, which occurred at Bamberg in June 1208. A feature of
this struggle was the reckless way in which the rival kings gave away
the property of the crown in order to gain adherents, thus enriching the
princes and weakening the central government.


  Otto IV. becomes sole king.

Otto was now again chosen German king, and to aid and mark the general
reconciliation he was betrothed to the murdered king's daughter Beatrix.
Nearly all the princes acknowledged him, and as pope and king were at
peace, Germany enjoyed a period of comparative quiet. This however, did
not last long. Having secured his coronation at Rome in October 1209,
Otto repudiated the many pledges he had made to Innocent and began to
act in defiance of the papal wishes. To punish him the pope put forward
his own ward, Henry VI.'s son Frederick, who was living in Sicily, as a
rival king. While Otto was warring in Italy a number of influential
princes met at Nuremberg, at the instigation of Innocent and of his ally
Philip Augustus of France, and invited Frederick to come to Germany.
Otto then left Italy hurriedly, but he was quickly followed by his young
rival, who in the warfare which had already broken out proved himself a
formidable opponent. Seeking to mend his failing fortunes, the Welf went
to France to support his ally, the English king John, against Philip
Augustus, and at the battle of Bouvines (July 27, 1214) memorable in the
history alike of Germany, of England and of France, his fate was sealed,
although until his death in May 1218 he maintained a desultory warfare
against Frederick.


  Frederick II.

Frederick II. was, if not the strongest, certainly the most brilliant of
German kings. With the medieval passion for adventure he combined the
intellectual culture and freedom of a modern gentleman. A lover of
poetry, of art and of science, he was also a great statesman; he knew
how to adapt his policy to changing circumstances and how to move men by
appealing at one time to their selfishness and weakness and at another
time to the nobler qualities of human nature. For outward splendour his
position was never surpassed, and before he died he possessed six
crowns, those of the Empire, Germany, Sicily, Lombardy, Burgundy and
Jerusalem. But Germany profited neither by his gifts nor by his
prestige. After Bouvines he purchased the assistance of Valdemar II.,
king of Denmark, by ceding to him a large stretch of land along the
Baltic coast; and, promising to go on crusade, he secured his coronation
at Aix-la-Chapelle in July 1215. Then being generally recognized as king
he was able to do something to quell disturbances in various parts of
the country, and, in April 1220, to bring about the election of his
young son Henry as king of the Romans. But for this favour he had been
compelled to pay a high price. Seven years before, at Eger in July 1213,
he had made extensive concessions to the church, undertaking to take no
part in episcopal elections, thus surrendering the advantages gained by
the concordat of Worms, and to allow to German bishops the right of
appeal to Rome. Proceeding a step farther in the same direction, he now
promised to erect no new toll-centre, or mint, on the lands of the
spiritual princes, and to allow no towns to be built thereon. Thus the
prelates possessed nearly all the rights of sovereigns, and regarded the
pope in Italy and not the king in Germany as their head, a state of
affairs which was fatal to the unity, nay, even to the existence of the
Empire.


  Germany in Frederick's absence.

Having made peace with Henry, count palatine of the Rhine and brother of
Otto IV., and settled a dispute about the lands of the extinct family of
Zahringen in the south-west of the country, Frederick left Germany in
August 1220; engaged in his bitter contest with the Papacy and the
Lombard cities, in ruling Sicily, and, after several real or imaginary
delays, in fulfilling his crusading vow, he did not return to it for
fifteen years. During this period he was represented by his son Henry,
in whose name the government of Germany was carried on by the regent
Engelbert, archbishop of Cologne. While Engelbert lived the country was
in a fairly peaceable condition, although, thanks to the emperor's
concessions, the spiritual princes were predominant, and all possible
means were taken to check the growth of the towns, whose interests and
aspirations were not favourable to this state of affairs. There was,
moreover, a struggle between Valdemar of Denmark and some neighbouring
German nobles. But after Engelbert's murder (November 1225) there was a
change for the worse, and the only success which can be placed to the
credit of the German arms during the next few years was the regaining of
the lands ceded to Denmark in 1215, lands which included the cities of
Hamburg and Lubeck. Under the rule of the new regent, Louis I., duke of
Bavaria, confusion reigned supreme, and civil war prevailed in nearly
every part of the country.


  Rebellion of King Henry.

After the treaty of San Germano, which was made with Pope Gregory in
1230, and the consequent lull in the struggle with the Papacy, Frederick
was able to devote some little attention to Germany, and in 1231 he
sanctioned the great Privilege of Worms. This was a reward to the
princes for their efforts in bringing about the peace, and an extension
of the concessions made in 1220. The princes, now for the first time
referred to officially as _domini terrae_, were given full rights of
jurisdiction over their lands and all the inferior officers of justice
were made subservient to them. Practically they became independent
sovereigns, and to make their victory more complete serious restraints
were laid upon the freedom of the towns. Before this date King Henry had
begun to take a personal part in the government and was already involved
in a quarrel with Otto II., duke of Bavaria. He disliked the Privilege
of Worms and, favouring the towns against the princes, his policy was
diametrically opposed to that of the emperor; however, in 1232 he went
to Italy and promised to obey his father's commands. But in 1234, at a
time of great and increasing disorder in Germany, he rebelled; he
appealed publicly to the princes for support, gained some followers,
especially in his own duchy of Swabia, and made an alliance with the
Lombard cities. Confident of his strength Frederick entered Germany with
a few attendants in the middle of 1235, and his presence had the
anticipated effect of quelling the insurrection; Henry was sent a
prisoner to Italy and disappeared from history. Then, in August 1235,
amid surroundings of great splendour, the emperor held a diet at Mainz,
which was attended by a large number of princes. This diet is very
important in the legal history of Germany, because here was issued that
great "land peace" (_Landfrieden_) which became the model for all
subsequent enactments of the kind. By it private war was declared
unlawful, except in cases where justice could not be obtained; a chief
justiciar was appointed for the Empire; all tolls and mints erected
since the death of Henry VI. were to be removed; and other provisions
dealt with the maintenance of order.


  Frederick in Germany.

In 1236, during another short stay in Germany, Frederick in person led
the imperial army against Frederick II., duke of Austria, who had defied
and overcome his representatives; having taken possession of Vienna and
the Austrian duchies he there secured the election of his son Conrad,
who had already succeeded his brother as duke of Swabia, as king of the
Romans (May 1237). But in spite of these imposing displays of power the
princes looked with suspicion upon an emperor who was almost a stranger
to their country and who was believed to be a renegade from their faith,
and soon after Frederick's return to Italy the gulf between him and his
German subjects was widened by his indifference to a great danger which
threatened them. This came from the Mongols who ravaged the eastern
frontiers of the country, but the peril was warded off by the efforts of
Henry II., duke of Silesia, who lost his life in a fight against these
foes near Liegnitz in April 1241, and of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia.


  Frederick and the pope.

The emperor's attitude with regard to the Mongol invasion is explained
by events in Italy where Frederick was engaged in a new and, if
possible, a more virulent struggle with the Lombard cities and with
Gregory IX. As usual, the course of politics in Germany, which at this
time was ruled by King Conrad and by the regent Siegfried, archbishop of
Mainz (d. 1249), was influenced by this quarrel. Frederick of Austria
had allied himself with Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and spurred on by the
papal emissary had tried to set up a rival king; but both the Danish and
the French princes who were asked to accept this thankless position
declined the invitation, and Frederick and Wenceslaus made their peace,
the former receiving back his duchies. After the defeat of the Mongols,
however, there was again the danger of a rebellion based upon a union
between the princes and the pope. Siegfried of Mainz deserted his
master, and visiting Germany in 1242 Frederick found it necessary to
purchase the support of the towns by a grant of extensive privileges;
but, although this had the desired effect, Conrad could make but little
headway against the increasing number of his enemies. At last the Papacy
found an anti-king. Having declared Frederick deposed at the council of
Lyons in 1245, Gregory's successor, Innocent IV., induced a number of
princes to choose as their king the landgrave of Thuringia, Henry Raspe,
who had served as regent of Germany. This happened in May 1246, and the
conduct of the struggle against the _Pfaffenkonig_, as Henry was called,
was left to Conrad, who was aided by the Bavarians, until February 1247,
when the anti-king died. The papal party then elected William II., count
of Holland, as Henry Raspe's successor, and during the state of anarchy
which now prevailed in Germany the emperor died in Italy in December
1250.


  Conrad IV.

Upon his father's death Conrad IV. was acknowledged by many as king in
Germany, but in 1251 he went to Italy, where he was fully occupied in
fighting against the enemies of his house until his death in May 1254.
The struggle to maintain the position of the Hohenstaufen in Italy was
continued after this event; but in October 1268, by the execution of
Conrad's son Conradin, the family became extinct.


  The interregnum.

After Conrad's death William of Holland received a certain allegiance,
especially in the north of the country, and was recognized by the
Rhenish cities which had just formed a league for mutual protection, a
league which for a short time gave promise of great strength and
usefulness. In January 1256, however, William was killed, and in the
following year there was a double election for the German crown,
Alphonso X., king of Castile, a grandson of Philip of Swabia, and
Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother of the English king Henry III., being
each chosen by parties of electors. Richard was crowned in May 1257, but
the majority of his subjects were probably ignorant of his very name;
Alphonso did not even visit the country over which he claimed to rule.


  The Teutonic Order in Prussia.

During the reign of Frederick II. Prussia was conquered for Christianity
and civilization by the knights of the Teutonic Order, who here built up
the state which was later, in association with Brandenburg, deeply to
influence the course of history. This work was begun in 1230. Knights
eager to win fame by engaging in the war against the heathen Prussians
flocked hither from all lands; towns, Konigsberg, Thorn, Kulm and
others, were founded; and in alliance with the Brothers of the Sword,
the order was soon pressing farther eastwards. Courland and Livonia were
brought into subjection, and into these lands also Christian
institutions were introduced and German settlers brought the arts of
peace.


  Period of Hohenstaufen dynasty.

The age of the Hohenstaufen emperors is, in many respects, the most
interesting in the medieval history of Germany. It was a period of great
men and great ideas, of dramatic contrasts of character and opinion--on
the one side a broad humanitarianism combined with a gay enjoyment of
the world, on the other side an almost superhuman spirituality which
sought its ideal in the rejection of all that the world could give. It
saw the new-birth of poetry and of art; it witnessed the rise of the
friars. The contest between Empire and Papacy was more than a mere
struggle for supremacy between two world-powers; it was a war to the
death between two fundamentally opposite conceptions of life, which in
many respects anticipated and prepared the way for the Renaissance and
the Reformation. The emperor Frederick II. himself stands out as the
type of the one tendency; Innocent III., Francis of Assisi and Dominic,
in their various degrees, are types of the other. Frederick himself, of
course, was Italian rather than German, akin to the despots of the
Renaissance in his many-sided culture, his tolerant scepticism and his
policy of "cruelty well applied." The culture of which he was the
supreme representative, that of Italy and of Provence, took a more
serious shade when it penetrated into Germany. The German _Minnesinger_
and romance-writers, whose golden age corresponded with that of the
Hohenstaufen, were not content only to sing the joy of life or the
chivalrous virtues of courage, courtesy and reverence for women; they in
some sort anticipated the underlying ideas of the Reformation by
championing the claims of the German nation against the papal monarchy
and pure religion, as they conceived it, against the arrogance and
corruption of the clergy. In them the medieval lay point of view became
articulate, finding perhaps its most remarkable expression in the ideas
of religious toleration proclaimed by Walther von der Vogelweide and
Wolfram von Eschenbach. In Germany, as elsewhere, the victory of the
Papacy was the victory of obscurantism. German culture, after a short
revival, perished once more amid the smoke of the fires kindled by
Conrad of Marburg and his fellow inquisitors.

In architecture, as in literature, this period was also one of great
achievement in Germany. Of the noble palaces which it produced the
castle of the Wartburg (q.v.) remains a perfect specimen, while the many
magnificent churches dating from this time that still survive, prove the
taste, wealth and piety of the burghers. For the science of government,
too, much was done, partly by the introduction from Italy of the study
of Roman law, partly by the collection of native customs in the
_Sachsenspiegel_ compiled by Eike von Repgow early in the 13th century,
and the less valuable _Deutschenspiegel_ and _Schwabenspiegel_.
Altogether, Germany has seen no more fascinating epoch, none more full
of life, movement and colour.


  Political character of Germany settled.

Yet it was in this age that the German nation utterly lost its political
strength. Even after Lothair the Saxon, a line of sovereigns rigidly
confining themselves to their own kingdom might have mastered the many
influences which were making for disunion. But the Hohenstaufen family,
like their Saxon and Franconian predecessors, would be content with
nothing short of universal dominion; and thus the crown which had once
been significant of power and splendour gradually sank into contempt.
Under the strong rule of Frederick Barbarossa and his son this process
was temporarily stopped, but only to advance more rapidly when they were
gone. During the confusion of the civil war carried on by Otto IV. and
Philip, the princes, being subject to hardly any check, freely obtained
crown lands and crown rights, and the mischief was too extensive to be
undone by Frederick II. In 1220, in order to secure the adhesion of the
church to his son Henry, he formally confirmed the spiritual princes in
their usurpations; eleven years later at Worms still more extensive
advantages were granted to the princes, both spiritual and secular, and
these formal concessions formed the lawful basis of the independence of
the princely class. Such authority as the emperor reserved for himself
he could exercise but feebly from a distant land in which his energies
were otherwise occupied. His immediate successors can hardly be said to
have exercised any authority whatever; and they lost hold of the border
countries which had hitherto been dependent upon or connected with
Germany. Thenceforth Denmark and Poland rendered no homage to the German
crown, and Burgundy was gradually absorbed by France.


  Classes of the population.

The country was not now divided into a few duchies which, with skilful
management, might still in times of emergency have been made to act
together. The age of the great duchies was past. As we have seen,
Bavaria was shorn of extensive lands, over which new dukes were placed,
and the duchy of Saxony was altogether broken up. Swabia and Franconia
ceased to have dukes, and Lorraine gave place to the duchy of Brabant
and other smaller states. Thus there were archbishops, bishops, abbots,
dukes, margraves, landgraves, counts--forming together a large
body--each of whom claimed to have no superior save the emperor, whose
authority they and their predecessors had slowly destroyed. All
immediate nobles were not princes; but even petty knights or barons, who
possessed little more than the rude towers from which they descended
upon passing travellers, if their only lord was the emperor, recognized
no law save their own will. Another independent element of the state was
composed of the imperial cities. So long as the emperor really reigned,
they enjoyed only such liberties as they could wring from him, or as he
voluntarily conferred. But when the sovereign's power decayed, the
imperial cities were really free republics, governing themselves
according to their own ideas of law and justice (see COMMUNE). Besides
the imperial cities, and the princes and other immediate nobles, there
were the mediate nobles, the men who held land in fief of the highest
classes of the aristocracy, and who, in virtue of this feudal relation,
looked down upon the allodial proprietors or freemen, and upon the
burghers. There were also mediate towns, acknowledging the supremacy of
some lord other than the sovereign. Beneath all these, forming the mass
of the agricultural population, were the peasantry and the serfs, the
latter attached to the land, the former ground down by heavy taxes.
There was another class, large and increasing in number, which was drawn
from various sections of society. This was composed of men who, being
without land, attached themselves to the emperor or to some powerful
noble; they performed services, generally of a military nature, for
their lord, and were called _Dienstmannen_ (_ministeriales_). They were
often transformed into "free knights" by the grant of a fief, and the
class ultimately became absorbed in that of the knights.


  The electors.

The period from the death of Conrad IV. to the election of Rudolph of
Habsburg in 1273 is generally called the Great Interregnum, and it was
used by the princes to extend their territories and to increase their
authority. On several occasions it had seemed as if the German crown
would become hereditary, but it had been kept elective by a variety of
causes, among them being the jealousy of the Papacy and the growing
strength of the aristocracy. In theory the election of each king needed
the sanction of the whole of the immediate nobles, but in practice the
right to choose the king had passed into the hands of a small but
varying number of the leading princes. During the 13th century several
attempts were made to enumerate these princes, and at the contested
election of 1257 seven of them took part. This was the real beginning of
the electoral college whose members at this time were the archbishops of
Mainz, Cologne and Trier, the duke of Saxony, the duke of Bavaria, who
was also count palatine of the Rhine, the margrave of Brandenburg and
the king of Bohemia. After this event the electors became a distinct
element in the state. They were important because they could maintain
the impotence of the crown to check disorder by imposing conditions upon
candidates for the throne, and by taking care that no prince powerful
enough to be dangerous to themselves should be elected to this position.


  Divisions of the princely lands.

Until the time of the interregnum the territories of a prince were rarely
divided among his descendants, the reason being that, although the
private fiefs of the nobles were hereditary, their offices--margrave,
count and the like--were in theory at the disposal of the king. There was
now a tendency to set this principle aside. Otto II., duke of Bavaria, a
member of the Wittelsbach family, had become by marriage ruler of the
Rhenish Palatinate, and after his death these extensive lands were ruled
in common by his two sons; but in 1255 a formal division took place and
the powerful family of Wittelsbach was divided into two branches. About
the same time the small duchy of Saxony was divided into two duchies,
those of Wittenberg and Lauenburg, the former to the south and the latter
to the north of the great mark of Brandenburg, and there were similar
divisions in the less important states. It was thus practically settled
that the offices and territories, as well as the private fiefs, of the
princes were hereditary, to be disposed of by them at their pleasure.
This being thoroughly established it would have been hard, perhaps
impossible, even for a sovereign of the greatest genius, to reassert in
anything like its full extent the royal authority. The process of
division and subdivision which steadily went on broke up Germany into a
bewildering multitude of principalities; but as a rule the members of
each princely house held together against common enemies, and ultimately
they learned to arrange by private treaties that no territory should pass
from the family while a single representative survived.


  The cities.

The consolidation of the power of the princes was contemporary with the
rise of the cities into new importance. Several of them, especially
Mainz, Worms and Spires, had received valuable rights from the kings and
other lords; they were becoming self-governing and to some extent
independent communities and an important and growing element in the
state. The increase of trade and a system of taxation provided the
governing body with funds, which were used to fortify the city and in
other ways to make life and property more secure. The destruction of
imperial authority compelled them to organize their resources, so as to
be at all times prepared against ambitious neighbours. They began to
form leagues which the greatest princes and combinations of princes
could not afford to despise. Of these leagues the chief at this time was
the Rhenish Confederation, which has been already mentioned. Great
importance was also acquired by the Hanseatic League, which had
originated during the interregnum in a treaty of alliance between Lubeck
and Hamburg. It ultimately included more than eighty cities and became
one of the greatest commercial powers in Europe (see HANSEATIC LEAGUE).


  Rudolph of Habsburg.

A political system which allowed the princes to do as they pleased was
very much to their liking, and if they had followed their own impulse it
is possible that they would never have placed a king over their country.
But the pope intervened. He found from his troubles in Italy and from
his diminished revenues from Germany that it would be still convenient
to have in the latter country a sovereign who, like some of his
predecessors, would be the protector of the church. Therefore, after the
death of Richard of Cornwall in April 1272, Pope Gregory X., ignoring
the absent Alphonso of Castile, told the electors that if they did not
choose a king he himself would appoint one. The threat was effective. In
September 1273 the electors met and raised to the throne a Swabian
noble, Rudolph, count of Habsburg, who proved to possess more energy
than they had imagined possible. For some time before this event the
most powerful prince in Germany had been Ottakar II., king of Bohemia,
who by marriage and conquest had obtained large territories outside his
native kingdom, including the duchy of Austria and other possessions of
the extinct family of Babenberg. Having himself cherished some hopes of
receiving the German crown Ottakar refused to do homage to the new
sovereign; after a time war broke out between them, and in August 1278
in a battle at Durnkrut on the March Ottakar was defeated and slain, his
lands, save Bohemia, passing into the possession of the victor. Rudolph
had been able to give his whole attention to this enterprise owing to
the good understanding which had been reached between himself and the
pope, to whom he had promised to allow a free hand in Italy.


  His reign.

Rudolph has often been called the restorer of the German kingdom, but he
has little real claim to this honourable title. He marched once or twice
against law-breakers, but in all the German duchies there were frequent
disturbances which he did very little to check. In his later years he
made some attempts to maintain the public peace, and he distinguished
himself by the vigour with which he punished robber barons in Thuringia;
he also won back some of the crown lands and dues which had been stolen
during the interregnum. But he made no essential change in the condition
of Germany. There seemed to be only one way in which a king could hope
to overcome the arrogance of the princes, and that was to encourage the
towns by forming with them a close and enduring alliance. Rudolph,
however, almost invariably favoured the princes and not the towns. The
latter had a class of burgher called _Pfahlburger_, men who lived in the
open country outside the _Pfahle_, or palisades of the town, but who
could claim the protection of the municipal authorities. By becoming
_Pfahlburger_ men were able of escape from the tyranny of the large
landholders, and consequently the princes strongly opposed the right of
the towns to receive them. Not only did the king take the part of the
princes in this important struggle, but he harassed the towns by
subjecting them to severe imposts, a proceeding which led to several
risings. About this time the princes were gaining influence in another
direction. Their assent to all important acts of state, especially to
grants of crown property, was now regarded as necessary and was conveyed
by means of _Willebriefe_; henceforward they were not merely the
advisers of the king, they were rather partners with him in the business
of government.


  The Habsburg family.

Rudolph had all the sympathies and prejudices of the noble class, and
the supreme object of his life was not to increase the power of the
state but to add to the greatness of his own family, a policy which was
perhaps justified by the condition of the German kingdom, the ruler of
which had practically no strength save that which he derived from his
hereditary lands. In this he was very successful. Four years after the
fall of Ottakar he obtained from the princes a tardy and reluctant
assent to the granting of Austria, Styria and Carniola to his own sons,
Rudolph and Albert. In 1286 Carinthia was given to Meinhard, count of
Tirol, on condition that when his male line became extinct it should
pass to the Habsburgs. Thus Rudolph made himself memorable as the real
founder of the house of Habsburg.


  Adolph of Nassau.

It was in vain that Rudolph sought to obtain the succession to the crown
for one of his sons; the electors would not take a step which might
endanger their own rights, and nearly a year after the king's death in
July 1291 they chose Adolph, count of Nassau, and not Rudolph's
surviving son Albert, as their sovereign. Adolph, an insignificant
prince, having been obliged to reward his supporters richly, wished to
follow the lines laid down by his predecessor and to secure an extensive
territory for his family. Meissen, which he claimed as a vacant fief of
the Empire, and Thuringia, which he bought from the landgrave Albert
II., seemed to offer a favourable field for this undertaking, and he
spent a large part of his short reign in a futile attempt to carry out
his plan. In his foreign policy Adolph allied himself with Edward I. of
England against Philip IV. of France, but after declaring war on France
in August 1294 he did nothing to assist his ally. At home he relieved
the cities of some of their burdens and upheld them in the quarrel about
the _Pfahlburger_; and he sought to isolate Albert of Habsburg, who was
treating with Philip of France. But many of the princes were disgusted
with him and, led by Albert of Habsburg, Gerhard, archbishop of Mainz,
and Wenceslaus II., king of Bohemia, they decided to overthrow him, and
at Mainz in June 1298 he was declared deposed. He resisted the sentence,
but Albert, who had been chosen his successor, marched against him, and
in July 1298, at Gollheim near Worms, Adolph was defeated and killed.


  Albert I.

After Adolph's death Albert was again chosen German king, and was
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in August 1298. Like his father Rudolph, the
new king made it the principal object of his reign to increase the power
of his house, but he failed in his attempts to add Bohemia and Thuringia
to the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs, and he was equally
unsuccessful in his endeavour to seize the countries of Holland and
Zealand as vacant fiefs of the Empire. In other directions, however, he
was more fortunate. He recovered some of the lost crown lands and sought
to abolish new and unauthorized tolls on the Rhine; he encouraged the
towns and took measures to repress private wars; he befriended the serfs
and protected the persecuted Jews. For a time Albert allied himself with
Philip IV. of France against Pope Boniface VIII., who had refused to
recognize him as king, but in 1303 he made peace with the pope, a step
which enabled him to turn his attention to Bohemia and Thuringia. The
greatest danger which he had to face during his reign came from a league
which was formed against him in 1300 by the four Rhenish electors--the
three archbishops and the count palatine of the Rhine--who disliked his
foreign policy and resented his action with regard to the tolls. Albert,
however, supported by the towns, was victorious; and the revolting
electors soon made their peace.


  Henry VII.

After Albert's murder, which took place in May 1308, Henry, count of
Luxemburg, a brother of Baldwin (1285-1354), the powerful archbishop of
Trier, became king as Henry VII. Although fortunate enough to obtain for
his son John the crown of Bohemia, the aggrandizement of his family was
not the main object of this remarkable sovereign, the last German king
of the old, ambitious type. It was the memory of the Empire which
stirred his blood; from the beginning of his reign he looked forward to
securing the Lombard and the imperial crowns. His purpose to cross the
Alps at the head of a great force was hailed with delight by the
Ghibellines, whose aspirations found utterance in Dante's noble prose,
but his life was too short for him to fulfil the hopes of his friends.
Having restored the Rhine tolls to the Rhenish archbishops and made his
peace with the Habsburgs, Henry went to Italy in the autumn of 1310,
not, however, with a large army, and remained in the peninsula until his
death in August 1313. As in former times the effect of the connexion of
Germany with Italy was altogether mischievous, because to expedite his
Italian journey the king had added to the great privileges of the
princes and had repressed the energies of the towns.


  Louis the Bavarian and Frederick of Austria.

After Henry's death the electors, again fearing lest the German crown
should become hereditary, refused to choose the late king's young son,
John of Bohemia, as their ruler, although the candidature of this prince
was supported by the powerful archbishops Baldwin of Trier and Peter of
Mainz. They failed, in fact, to agree upon any one candidate, and after
a long delay there was a double election for the throne. This took place
in October 1314, when the larger party chose Louis IV., duke of Upper
Bavaria, while the smaller party gave their votes to Frederick the Fair,
duke of Austria, a son of King Albert I. Although related to each other,
Louis and Frederick had come to blows before this event; they
represented two rival houses, those of Wittelsbach and Habsburg, and the
election only served to feed the flame of their antagonism. A second
time war broke out between them. The struggle, marked by numerous raids,
sieges and skirmishes, lasted for nine years, being practically ended by
Frederick's decisive defeat at Muhldorf in September 1322. The
vanquished king remained in captivity until 1325, when, during the
contest between the Empire and the Papacy, Louis came to terms with him.
Frederick acknowledged his rival, and later the suggestion was put
forward that they should rule Germany jointly, but this arrangement
aroused much opposition and it came to nothing. Frederick returned into
an honourable captivity and died in January 1330.


  Causes of the success of Louis.

The success of Louis in his war with Frederick was to some extent due to
the imperial cities, which supported him from the first. Not only did
they pay high taxes, but they made splendid voluntary contributions,
thus enabling the sovereign of their choice to continue the fight. But
Louis was perhaps still more indebted for his victory to the memorable
conflict between the Swiss and the Habsburgs, the defeat of Leopold of
Austria at Morgarten in 1315 striking a heavy blow at his position. Thus
this struggle for freedom, although belonging properly to the history of
Switzerland, exercised much influence on the course of German history.


  Louis IV. and the pope.

Had Louis been wise and prudent, it would have been fairly easy for him
to attain a strong position after his victory at Muhldorf. But he threw
away his advantages. He offended John of Bohemia, who had aided him at
Muhldorf, thus converting a useful friend into a formidable foe, and his
other actions were hardly more judicious. John was probably alarmed at
the increase in the power of the German king, and about the same time a
similar fear had begun to possess Pope John XXII. and Charles IV. of
France. About 1323 Louis had secured the mark of Brandenburg for his son
Louis, and he was eager to aggrandize his family in other directions. It
was just at the time when he had estranged John of Bohemia that the pope
made his decisive move. Asserting that the German crown could only be
worn by one who had received the papal approbation he called upon Louis
to lay it down; the answer was an indignant refusal, and in 1324 the
king was declared deposed and excommunicate. Thus the ancient struggle
between the Papacy and the Empire was renewed, a struggle in which the
pen, wielded by Marsiglio of Padua, William of Occam, John of Jandun and
others, played an important part, and in which the new ideas in religion
and politics worked steadily against the arrogant papal claim. The pope
and his French ally, Charles IV., whom it was proposed to seat upon the
German throne, had completely misread the signs of the times, and their
schemes met with very little favour in Germany. No longer had the
princes as in former years any reason to dread the designs of an
ambitious king; the destinies of the kingdom were in their own hands and
they would not permit them to be controlled by an alien power. Such was
the attitude of most of the temporal princes, and many spiritual princes
took the same view. As for the electors, they had the strongest possible
motive for resisting the papal claim, because if this were once admitted
they would quickly lose their growing importance in the state. Lastly,
the cities which had stood behind the Empire in the most difficult
crises of its contest with Rome were not likely to desert it now.


  Louis in Italy.

Thus encouraged, or rather driven forward, by the national sentiment
Louis continued to assert the independence of the crown against the
pope. In 1327 he marched into Italy, where he had powerful and numerous
friends in the Ghibelline party, the Visconti family and others; in
January 1328 he was crowned emperor at Rome, and after this event he
declared Pope John deposed and raised Peter of Corvara to the papal
chair as Nicholas V. The concluding stages of this expedition were not
favourable to the new emperor, but his humiliation was only slight and
it did not appreciably affect the conditions of the controversy.


  Louis in Germany.

For a short time after the emperor's return to Germany there was peace.
But this was soon broken by a dispute over the succession to the duchy
of Carinthia and the county of Tirol, then ruled by Henry V., who was
without sons, and whose daughter, Margaret Maultasch, was married to
John Henry, margrave of Moravia, a son of John of Bohemia. Upon these
lands the three great families in Germany, those of Wittelsbach, of
Habsburg and of Luxemburg, were already casting covetous eyes;
Carinthia, moreover, was claimed by the Habsburgs in virtue of an
arrangement made in 1286. Thus a struggle between the Luxemburgs and the
Habsburgs appeared certain, and Louis, anxious to secure for his house a
share of the spoil, hesitated for a time between these rivals. In 1335
Duke Henry died and the emperor adjudged his lands to the Habsburgs;
wars broke out, and the result was that John Henry secured Tirol while
the other contending family added Carinthia to its Austrian possessions.


  The pope and the electors.

During this time Louis had been negotiating continually with Pope John
and with his successor Benedict XII. to regain the favour of the church,
and so to secure a free hand for his designs in Germany. But the pope
was not equally complaisant, and in 1337 the emperor allied himself with
Edward III. of England against Philip VI. of France, whom he regarded as
primarily responsible for the unyielding attitude of the Papacy. This
move was very popular in Germany, and the papal party received a further
rebuff in July 1338 when the electors met at Rense and declared that in
no possible manner could they allow any control over, or limitation of,
their electoral rights. As a sequel to this declaration the diet,
meeting at Frankfort a month later, asserted that the imperial power
proceeded from God alone and that the individual chosen by a majority of
the electors to occupy this high station needed no confirmation from the
pope, or from any one else, to make his election valid. Contrary
opinions they denounced as _pestifera dogmata_.


  Louis and the Luxemburgs.

But in spite of this support Louis threw away his advantages; he
abandoned Edward III. in 1341, although this step did not win for him,
as he desired, the goodwill of the pope, and he was soon involved in a
more serious struggle with John of Bohemia and the Luxemburgs. With his
Bohemian followers John Henry had made himself very unpopular in Tirol,
where his wife soon counted herself among his enemies, and in 1341 he
was driven from the land, while Margaret announced her intention of
repudiating him and marrying the emperor's son Louis, margrave of
Brandenburg. The emperor himself entered heartily into this scheme for
increasing the power of his family; he declared the marriage with John
Henry void, and bestowed upon his son and his bride Margaret not only
Tirol, but also Carinthia, now in the hands of the Habsburgs. Nothing
more was needed to unite together all the emperor's foes, including Pope
Clement VI., who, like his predecessors, had rejected the advances of
Louis; but in 1345, before the gathering storm broke, the emperor took
possession of the counties of Holland, Zealand and Friesland, which had
been left without a ruler by the death of his brother-in-law, Count
William IV. By this time John of Bohemia and his allies had completed
their plans. In July 1346 five of the electors met, and, having declared
Louis deposed, they raised John's son Charles, margrave of Moravia, to
the German throne. For a time no serious steps were taken against Louis,
but after King John had met his death at Crecy Charles, who succeeded
him as king of Bohemia, began to make vigorous preparations for war, and
only the sudden death of the emperor (October 1347) saved Germany from
civil strife.


  The domestic policy of Louis.

Notwithstanding the defects of Louis's personal character his reign is
one of the most important in German history. The claim of the Papacy to
political supremacy received in his time its death-blow, and the popes
themselves sowed the seeds of the alienation from Rome which was
effected at the Reformation. With regard to the public peace Louis
persistently followed the lines laid down by Albert I. He encouraged the
princes to form alliances for its maintenance, and at the time of his
death such alliances existed in all parts of the country. To the cities
he usually showed himself a faithful friend. In many of them there had
been for more than a century a struggle between the old patrician
families and the democratic gilds. Louis could not always follow his own
impulses, but whenever he could he associated himself with the latter
party. Thus in his day the government of the imperial cities became more
democratic and industry and trade flourished as they had never before
done. The steady dislike of the princes was the best proof of the
importance of the cities. They contained elements capable of enormous
development; and had a great king arisen he might even yet, by their
means, have secured for Germany a truly national life.


  Charles IV. becomes king.

In January 1349 the friends of the late emperor elected Gunther, count
of Schwarzburg, as their king, but before this occurrence Charles of
Moravia, by a liberal use of gifts and promises, had won over many of
his enemies, prominent among whom were the cities. In a few months
Gunther himself abandoned the struggle, dying shortly afterwards, and
about the same time his victorious rival was recognized by Louis of
Brandenburg, the head of the Wittelsbach family. As king of Bohemia
Charles was an enlightened and capable ruler, but he was indifferent
towards Germany, although this country never stood in more urgent need
of a strong and beneficent sovereign. In the early years of the reign
the people, especially in the south and west, attacked and plundered the
Jews; and the consequent disorder was greatly increased by the ravages
of the Black Death and by the practices and preaching of the
Flagellants, both events serving to spur the maddened populace to
renewed outrages on the Jews. In dealing with this outburst of
fanaticism many of the princes, both spiritual and secular, displayed
vigour and humanity, but Charles saw only in the sufferings of this
people an excuse for robbing them of their wealth.


  The Golden Bull.

Charles's most famous achievement was the issue of the Golden Bull
(q.v.). Although the principle of election had long been admitted and
practised with regard to the German crown, yet it was surrounded by many
practical difficulties. For instance, if the territory belonging to an
electoral family were divided, as was often the case, it had never been
settled whether all the ruling princes were to vote, or, if one only
were entitled to this privilege, by what principle the choice was to be
made. Over these and other similar points many disputes had arisen, and,
having been crowned emperor at Rome in April 1355, Charles decided to
set these doubts at rest. The Golden Bull, promulgated in January 1356
and again after some tedious negotiations in December of the same year,
fixed the number of electors at seven, Saxe-Wittenberg and not
Saxe-Lauenburg obtaining the Saxon vote, and the vote of the
Wittelsbachs being given to the ruler of the Rhenish Palatinate and not
to the duke of Bavaria. The votes of a majority of the electors were
held to make an election valid. In order that there might be no
possibility of dispute between the princes of a single house, the
countries ruled by the four secular electors--Bohemia, the Rhenish
Palatinate, Saxony and Brandenburg--were declared to be indivisible and
to be heritable only by the accepted rules of primogeniture. The
electors were granted full sovereign rights over their lands, and their
subjects were allowed to appeal to the royal or the imperial tribunals
only in case they could not obtain justice elsewhere. A blow was struck
at the cities, which were forbidden to form leagues or to receive
_Pfahlburger_.


  Fehmic Courts.

If the Golden Bull be excepted, the true interest of this reign is in
the movements beyond the range of the emperor's influence. It is
significant that at this time the _Femgerichte_, or Fehmic Courts
(q.v.), vastly extended the sphere of their activities, and that in the
absence of a strong central authority they were respected as a check
upon the lawlessness of the princes. The cities, notwithstanding every
kind of discouragement, formed new associations for mutual defence or
strengthened those which already existed. The Hanseatic League carried
on war with Valdemar V., king of Denmark, and his ally, the king of
Norway, seventy-seven towns declaring war on these monarchs in 1367, and
emerged victorious from the struggle, while its commerce extended to
nearly all parts of the known world. In 1376 some Swabian towns formed a
league which, in spite of the imperial prohibition, soon became powerful
in south-west Germany and defeated the forces of the count of
Wurttemberg at Reutlingen in May 1377. The emperor, meanwhile, was
occupied in numerous intrigues to strengthen his personal position and
to increase the power of his house. In these he was very fortunate,
managing far more than his predecessors to avoid conflicts with the
Papacy and the princes. The result was that when he died in November
1378 he wore the crowns of the Empire, of Germany, of Bohemia, of
Lombardy and of Burgundy; he had added Lower Lusatia and parts of
Silesia to Bohemia; he had secured the mark of Brandenburg for his son
Wenceslaus in 1373; and he had bought part of the Upper Palatinate and
territories in all parts of Germany.


  Wenceslaus.

After the death of Charles, his son Wenceslaus, who had been crowned
German king in July 1376, was recognized by the princes as their ruler,
but the new sovereign was careless and indolent and in a few years he
left Germany to look after itself. During his reign the struggle between
the princes and the cities reached its climax. Following the example set
by the electors at Rense both parties formed associations for
protection, prominent among these being the Swabian League on the one
side and the League of the Lion (_Lowenbund_)[1] on the other. The
result was that the central authority was almost entirely disregarded.
Wenceslaus favoured first one of the antagonists and then the other, but
although he showed some desire to put an end to the increasing amount of
disorder he was unable, or unwilling, to take a strong and definite line
of action. The cities entered upon the approaching contest at a
considerable disadvantage. Often they were separated one from the other
by large stretches of territory under the rule of a hostile prince and
their trade was peculiarly liable to attack by an adventurous body of
knights. The citizens, who were called upon to fight their battles, were
usually unable to contend successfully with men whose whole lives had
been passed in warfare; the isolation of the cities was not favourable
to the creation or mobilization of an active and homogeneous force; and,
moreover, at this time many of them were disturbed by internal troubles.
However, they minimized this handicap by joining league to league; in
1381 the Swabian and the Rhenish cities formed an alliance for three
years, while the Swabian League obtained promises of help from the
Swiss.


  General disorder in Germany.

The Swiss opened the fight. Attacked by the Habsburgs they defeated and
killed Duke Leopold of Austria at Sempach in July 1386 and gained
another victory at Nafels two years later; but their allies, the Swabian
cities, were not equally prompt or equally fortunate. The decisive year
was 1388, when the strife became general all over south-west Germany. In
August 1388 the princes, under Count Eberhard of Wurttemberg, completely
defeated their foes at Doffingen, while in the following November Rupert
II., elector palatine of the Rhine, was equally successful in his attack
on the forces of the Rhenish cities near Worms. Exhaustion soon
compelled the combatants to come to terms, and greatly to the
disadvantage of the cities peace was made in 1389. The main result of
this struggle was everywhere to strengthen the power of the princes and
to incite them to fresh acts of aggression. During the same time the
Hanse towns were passing through a period of difficulty. They were
disturbed by democratic movements in many of the cities and they were
threatened by the changing politics of the three northern kingdoms,
Norway, Sweden and Denmark, and by their union in 1397; their trading
successes had raised up powerful enemies and had embroiled them with
England and with Flanders, and the Teutonic Order and neighbouring
princes were not slow to take advantage of their other difficulties.


  Rupert chosen king.

Towards the close of the century the discontent felt at the incompetent
and absent German king took a decided form. The movement was led by the
four Rhenish electors, and after some preliminary proceedings these
princes met in August 1400; having declared Wenceslaus dethroned they
chose one of their number, the elector palatine Rupert III., in his
stead, and the deposed monarch accepted the sentence almost without
demur. Rupert was an excellent elector, and under more favourable
circumstances would have made a good king, but so serious were the
jealousies and divisions in the kingdom that he found little scope for
his energies outside the Palatinate. In spite of the peace of 1389 the
cities had again begun to form leagues for peace; but, having secured a
certain amount of recognition in the south and west of Germany, the new
king turned aside from the pressing problems of government and in 1401
made a futile attempt to reach Rome, an enterprise which covered him
with ridicule. After his return to Germany he had to face the hostility
of many of the princes, and this contest, together with vain attempts to
restore order, occupied him until his death in May 1410.


  Sigismund is chosen king.

After Rupert's death two cousins, Jobst, margrave of Moravia, and
Sigismund, king of Hungary, were in the autumn of 1410 both chosen to
fill the vacant throne by opposing parties; and the position was further
complicated by the fact that the deposed king, Wenceslaus, was still
alive. Jobst, however, died in January 1411, and in the succeeding July
Sigismund, having come to terms with Wenceslaus, was again elected king
and was generally recognized. The commanding questions of this reign
were ecclesiastical. It was the age of the great schism, three popes
claiming the allegiance of Christendom, and of the councils of Constance
and of Basel; in all ranks of the Church there was an urgent cry for
reform. Unfortunately the council of Constance, which met mainly through
the efforts of Sigismund in 1414, marred its labours by the judicial
murders of John Huss and of Jerome of Prague. This act greatly incensed
the Bohemians, who broke into revolt in 1419, and a new and fiercer
outburst occurred in 1420 when Sigismund, who had succeeded his brother
Wenceslaus as king of Bohemia in the preceding August, announced his
intention of crushing the Hussites. Led by their famous general, John
Zizka, the Bohemians won several battles and spread havoc and terror
through the neighbouring German lands. During the progress of this
revolt Germany was so divided and her king was so poor that it was
impossible to collect an army of sufficient strength to crush the
malcontents. At the diet of Nuremberg in 1422 and at that of Frankfort
in 1427 Sigismund endeavoured to raise men and money by means of
contributions from the estates, but the plan failed owing to mutual
jealousies and especially to the resistance of the cities. He secured
some help from Frederick of Brandenburg, from Albert of Austria,
afterwards the German king Albert II., and from Frederick of Meissen, to
whom he granted the electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg; but it was only
when the Hussites were split into two factions, and when Zizka was dead,
that Germany was in any way relieved from a crushing and intolerable
burden.


  Brandenburg and the Hohenzollerns.

The continual poverty which hindered the successful prosecution of the
war against the Hussites, and which at times placed Sigismund in the
undignified position of having to force himself as an unwelcome guest
upon princes and cities, had, however, one good result. In 1415 he
granted, or rather sold, the mark of Brandenburg to his friend Frederick
of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, this land thus passing into the
hands of the family under whom it was destined to develop into the
kingdom of Prussia. During this reign the princes, especially the
electors, continued their endeavours to gain a greater share in the
government of Germany, and to some extent they succeeded. Sigismund, on
his part, tried to enforce peace upon the country by forming leagues of
the cities, but to no purpose; in fact all his plans for reform came to
nothing.


  Albert II.

Sigismund, who died in December 1437, was succeeded on the German throne
and also in Hungary and Bohemia by his son-in-law Albert of Austria, and
from this time, although remaining in theory elective, the German crown
was always conferred upon a member of the house of Habsburg until the
extinction of the male line of this family in 1740. The reign of Albert
II. was too short to enable him to do more than indicate his good
intentions; he acted in general with the electors in observing a neutral
attitude with regard to the dispute between the council of Basel and
Pope Eugenius IV., and he put forward a scheme to improve the
administration of justice. He died in October 1439, and was succeeded by
his kinsman Frederick, duke of Styria, who became German king as
Frederick IV. and, after his coronation at Rome in 1452, emperor as
Frederick III.


  Frederick III. and the Papacy.

The first concern of the new king was with the papal schism. The council
of Basel was still sitting, and had elected an anti-pope, Felix V., in
opposition to Eugenius IV., while the electors, adhering to their
neutral attitude, sought to bring Frederick into line with them on this
question. Some years were occupied in negotiations, but the king soon
showed himself anxious to come to terms with Eugenius, and about 1446
the electors ceased to act together. At length peace was made. The
consent of several of the electors having been purchased by concessions,
Frederick signed with Pope Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius, in
February 1448 the concordat of Vienna, an arrangement which bound the
German Church afresh to Rome and perpetuated the very evils from which
earnest churchmen had been seeking deliverance. Thus Germany lost the
opportunity of reforming the Church from within, and the upheaval of the
16th century was rendered inevitable.


  Germany under Frederick.

Frederick's reign is one of great importance in the history of Austria
and of the house of Habsburg, but under him the fortunes of Germany sank
to the lowest possible point. Without any interference from the central
authority wars were waged in every part of the country, and disputes of
every kind were referred to the decision of the sword. The old enmity
between the cities and the princes blazed out afresh; grievances of
every kind were brought forward and many struggles were the result.
Perhaps the most famous of these was one between a confederation of
Franconian and Swabian cities under the leadership of Nuremberg on the
one side, and Albert Achilles, afterwards elector of Brandenburg, and a
number of princes on the other. The war was carried on with great
barbarity for about four years (1449-1453), and was in every respect a
critical one. If the cities had gained the day they might still have
aimed at balancing the power of the princes, but owing partly to their
imperfect union, partly to the necessity of fighting with hired troops,
they did not gain any serious advantage. On the whole, indeed, in spite
of temporary successes, they decidedly lost ground, and on the
conclusion of peace there was no doubt that the balance of power in the
state inclined to the princes. Frederick meanwhile was involved in wars
with the Swiss, with his brother Albert and his Austrian subjects, and
later with the Hungarians. He had no influence in Italy; in Burgundy he
could neither stop Duke Philip the Good from adding Luxemburg to his
possessions, nor check the towering ambition of Charles the Bold; while
after the death of Charles in 1477 he was equally unable to prevent the
king of France from seizing a large part of his lands. Torn by
dissensions the Teutonic Order was unsuccessful in checking the
encroachments of the Poles, and in 1466 the land which it had won in the
north-east of Germany passed under the suzerainty of Poland, care being
taken to root out all traces of German influence therein. Another loss
took place in 1460, when Schleswig and Holstein were united with
Denmark. In Germany itself the king made scarcely any pretence of
exercising the supreme authority; for nearly thirty years he never
attended the imperial diet, and the suggestions which were made for his
deposition failed only because the electors could not agree upon a
successor. In his later years he became more of a recluse than ever, and
even before February 1486, when his son Maximilian was chosen German
king, he had practically ceased to take any part in the business of the
Empire, although he survived until August 1493.


  The power of the princes.

During the reign of Frederick the electors and the greater princes
continued the process of consolidating and increasing their power. Lands
under their rule, which were technically imperial fiefs, were divided
and devised by them at will like other forms of private property; they
had nearly all the rights of a sovereign with regard to levying tolls,
coining money, administering justice and granting privileges to towns;
they were assisted in the work of government by a privy council, while
their courts with their numerous officials began to resemble that of the
king or emperor. They did not, however, have everything their own way.
During this century their power was limited by the formation of diets in
many of the principalities. These bodies were composed of the mediate
prelates, the mediate nobles and representatives of the mediate cities.
They were not summoned because the princes desired their aid, but
because arms could only be obtained from the nobles and money from the
cities, at least on an adequate scale. Once having been formed these
local diets soon extended their functions. They claimed the right of
sanctioning taxation; they made their voice heard about the expenditure
of public money; they insisted, although perhaps not very effectually,
on justice being administered. Such institutions as these were clearly
of the highest importance, and for two centuries they did something to
atone for the lack of a genuine monarchy.


  Methods of warfare.

During this reign the conditions of warfare began to change. The
discovery of gunpowder made small bodies of men, adequately armed, more
than a match for great forces equipped in medieval fashion. Hence the
custom of hiring mercenary troops was introduced, and a prince could
never be certain, however numerous his vassals might be, that the
advantage would not rest with his opponent. This fact, added to the
influence of the local diets, made even the princes weary of war, and a
universal and continuous demand arose for some reform of the machinery
of government. Partly at the instance of the emperor a great Swabian
confederation was formed in 1488. This consisted of both princes and
cities and was intended to enforce the public peace in the south-western
parts of Germany. Its effects were excellent; but obviously no partial
remedy was sufficient. It was essential that there should be some great
reform which would affect every part of the kingdom, and for the present
this was not to be secured.


  Maximilian I.

Maximilian came to the throne in 1486 with exceptional advantages. He
was heir to the extensive Austrian lands, and as the widowed husband of
Charles the Bold's daughter Mary he administered the Netherlands.
Although he soon gave up these provinces to his son Philip, the fact
that they were in the possession of his family added to his influence,
and this was further increased when Philip married Joanna, the heiress
of the Spanish kingdoms. From Maximilian's accession the Empire
exercised in the affairs of Europe an authority which had not belonged
to it for centuries. The reason for this was not that the Empire was
stronger, but that its crown was worn by a succession of princes who
were great sovereigns in their own right.


  Reforms in Germany. 1495.

Having in 1490 driven the Hungarians from Vienna and recovered his
hereditary lands, and having ordered the affairs of the Netherlands,
Maximilian turned his attention to Italy, whither he was drawn owing to
the invasion of that country by Charles VIII. of France in 1494. But
before he could take any steps to check the progress of Charles
pecuniary necessities compelled him to meet the diet. At this time the
German, or imperial, diet consisted of three colleges, one of the
electors, another of the princes, both spiritual and secular, and a
third of representatives of the free cities, who had, however, only just
gained the right to sit beside the other two estates. The diet was an
extremely clumsy instrument of government, and it was perhaps never more
discredited or more impotent than when it met Maximilian at Worms in
March 1495. But in spite of repeated rebuffs the party of reform was
valorous and undaunted; its members knew that their case was
overwhelmingly strong. Although disappointed in the hope which they had
nourished until about 1490 that Maximilian himself would lead them, they
had found a capable head in Bertold, elector of Mainz. The king lost no
time in acquainting the diet with his demands. He wished for men and
money to encounter the French in Italy and to resist the Turks. Bertold
retorted that redress of grievances must precede supply, and Maximilian
and the princes were soon discussing the proposals put forward by the
sagacious elector. His first suggestion that a council nominated by the
estates should be set up with the power of vetoing the acts of the king
was abandoned because of the strenuous opposition of Maximilian; but
Bertold was successful in getting the diet to proclaim an eternal
_Landfriede_, that is, to forbid private war without any limitation of
time, and it was agreed that the diet should meet annually to advise the
king on matters of moment. The idea of a council, however, was not given
up although it took a different form. An imperial court of justice, the
_Reichskammergericht_, was established; this consisted of sixteen
members nominated by the estates and a president appointed by the king.
Its duties were to judge between princes of the Empire and to act as the
supreme court of appeal in cases where humbler persons were concerned.
Partly to provide for the expenses of this court, partly to furnish
Maximilian with the promised monetary aid, a tax called the common penny
was instituted, this impost taking the form both of a property tax and
of a poll tax. Such in outline were the reforms effected by the
important diet of Worms.


  Difficulties and further reforms.

The practical difficulties of the reformers, however, were only just
beginning. Although Maximilian took some interest in the collection of
the common penny it was difficult, and from some classes impossible, to
obtain payment of this tax, and the king was persistently hostile to the
imperial court of justice, his hostility and the want of money being
indeed successful in preventing that institution for a time from doing
any real service to Germany. In 1497 he set up a new Aulic council or
_Hofrat_, the members of which were chosen by himself, and to this body
he gave authority to deal with all the business of the Empire. Thus he
undermined the foundations of the _Reichskammergericht_ and stole a
march upon Bertold and his friends. A series of diets between 1495 and
1499 produced only mutual recriminations, and then Maximilian met with a
serious rebuff. The Swiss refused to pay the common penny and to submit
to the jurisdiction of the imperial court of justice. Consequently, in
1499, Maximilian sent such troops as he could collect against them, but
his forces were beaten, and by the peace of Basel he was forced to
concede all the demands made by the Swiss, who became virtually
independent of the Empire. Heartened by this circumstance Bertold and
his followers returned to the attack when the diet met at Augsburg in
1500. The common penny as a means of taxation fell into the background,
and in its place a scheme was accepted which it was thought would
provide the king with an army of about 30,000 men. But more important
perhaps was the administrative council, or _Reichsregiment_, which was
established by the diet at this time. A revival of the idea put forward
by the elector of Mainz at Worms in 1495, this council was to consist of
twenty members appointed by the electors and other princes and by
representatives of the cities, with a president named by the king. Its
work was practically that of governing Germany, and it was the most
considerable encroachment which had yet been made on the power of the
king. It is not surprising therefore that Maximilian hated the new body,
to the establishment of which he had only consented under great
pressure.


  Maximilian hampers the reformers.

In 1500 the _Reichsregiment_ met at Nuremberg and began at once to treat
for peace with France. Maximilian was not slow to resent this
interference; he refused to appoint a president, and soon succeeded in
making the meetings of the council impossible. The relations between the
king and the princes were now very strained. Bertold called the electors
together to decide upon a plan of campaign; Maximilian on his part tried
to destroy the electoral union by winning over individual members. The
result was that when the elector of Mainz died in 1504 the king's victory
was complete. The _Reichskammergericht_ and the _Reichsregiment_ were for
all practical purposes destroyed, and greater authority had been given to
the _Hofrat_. Henceforward it was the king who put forward schemes of
reform and the diet which modified or rejected them. When the diet met at
Cologne in 1505 Maximilian asked for an army and the request was granted,
the necessary funds being raised by the old plan of a levy on the
estates. At Constance, two years later, the diet raised men and money in
a similar fashion, and on this occasion the imperial court of justice was
restored, with some slight alteration in the method of appointing its
members. After Maximilian had taken the novel step of assuming the title
of Roman emperor at Trent in 1508 the last of the reforming diets met at
Cologne in 1512. In 1500 Germany had been divided into six circles
(_Kreise_) or districts, for the purpose of sending representatives to
the _Reichsregiment_. These circles were now increased in number to ten
and an official (_Hauptmann_) was placed over each, his duties being to
enforce the decisions of the _Reichskammergericht_. But it was some time
before the circles came into working order; the only permanent reform of
the reign was the establishment of the imperial court of justice, and
even this was not entirely satisfactory, Maximilian's remaining diets
loudly denouncing it for delay and incompetence. The period marked by the
attempted reform of Bertold of Mainz was that of the last struggle
between the supporters of a united Germany and those who preferred a
loose confederation of states. Victory remained with the latter party.
Maximilian himself had done a great deal to promote the unity of his
Austrian lands and, incidentally, to cut them off from the remainder of
the German kingdom, and other princes were following his example. This
movement spelled danger to the small principalities and to the free
cities, but it gave a powerful impetus to the growth of Brandenburg, of
Saxony, of Bavaria and of the Palatinate, and the future of the country
seemed likely to remain with the particularist and not with the national
idea.


  Maximilian's wars in Italy.

During the period of these constitutional struggles the king's chief
energies were spent in warring against the French kings Charles VIII.
and Louis XII. in Italy, where he hoped to restore the claims, dormant,
perhaps even extinct, of the German kings. In 1508 he helped to promote
the league of Cambrai, formed to despoil Venice, but he soon returned to
his former policy of waging war against France, and he continued to do
this until peace was made in 1516. The princes of Germany showed
themselves singularly indifferent to this struggle, and their king's
battles were largely fought with mercenary troops. Maximilian gained his
most conspicuous success in his own kingdom in 1504, when he interfered
in a struggle over the succession to the duchy of Bavaria-Landshut. He
gained some additions of territory, but his victory was more important
because it gave him the prestige which enabled him to break down the
opposition of the princes and to get his own way with regard to his
domestic policy.


  Decay of feudal relations.

In many respects the reign of Maximilian must be regarded as the end of
the middle ages. The feudal relation between the king and the princes
and between the princes and their vassals had become purely nominal. No
real control was exerted by the crown over the heads of the various
states, and, now that war was carried on mainly by mercenary troops, the
mediate nobles did not hold their lands on condition of military
service. The princes were sovereigns, not merely feudal lords; and by
the institution of local diets in their territories an approach was made
to modern conceptions of government. The age of war was far indeed from
being over, but men were at least beginning to see that unnecessary
bloodshed is an evil, and that the true outlet for the mass of human
energies is not conflict but industry. By the growth of the cities in
social, if not in political, importance the products of labour were more
and more widely diffused; and it was easier than at any previous time
for the nation to be moved by common ideas and impulses. The discovery
of America, the invention of printing, the revival of learning and many
other causes had contributed to effect a radical change in the point of
view from which the world was regarded; and the strongest of all
medieval relations, that of the nation to the Church, was about to pass
through the fiery trial of the Reformation. This vast movement, which
began in the later years of Maximilian, definitely severed the medieval
from the modern world.


  The Reformation.

The seeds of the Reformation were laid during the time of the great
conflict between the Papacy and the Empire. The arrogance and the
ambition of the popes then stamped upon the minds of the people an
impression that was never effaced. During the struggle of Louis IV. with
the popes of his day the feeling revived with fresh intensity; all
classes, clerical as well as lay, looked upon resistance to papal
pretensions as a necessity imposed by the national honour. At the same
time the spiritual teaching of the mystics awakened in many minds an
aspiration which the Church, in its corrupt state, could not satisfy,
and which was in any case unfavourable to an external authority. The
Hussite movement further weakened the spell of the Church. Still more
powerful, because touching other elements of human nature and affecting
a more important class, was the influence of the Renaissance, which,
towards the end of the 15th century, passed from Italy to the
universities of Germany. The men of the new learning did not sever
themselves from Christianity, but they became indifferent to it; its
conceptions seemed to them dim and faded, while there was a constantly
increasing charm in literature, in philosophy and in art. No kind of
effort was made by the Church to prepare for the storm. The spiritual
princes, besides displaying all the faults of the secular princes, had
special defects of their own; and as simony was universally practised,
the lives of multitudes of the inferior clergy were a public scandal,
while their services were cold and unimpressive. The moral sense was
outraged by such a pope as Alexander VI.; and neither the military
ambition of Julius II. nor the refined paganism of Leo X. could revive
the decaying faith in the spirituality of their office. Pope Leo, by his
incessant demands for money and his unscrupulous methods of obtaining
it, awakened bitter hostility in every class of the community.


  Luther.

The popular feeling for the first time found expression when Luther, on
All Saints' day 1517, nailed to a church door in Wittenberg the theses
in which he contested the doctrine which lay at the root of the
scandalous traffic in indulgences carried on in the pope's name by
Tetzel and his like. This episode, derided at first at Rome as the act
of an obscure Augustinian friar intent on scoring a point in a
scholastic disputation, was in reality an event of vast significance,
for it brought to the front, as the exponent of the national sentiment,
one of the mightiest spirits whom Germany has produced. Under the
influence of Luther's strong personality the most active and progressive
elements of the nation were soon in more or less open antagonism to the
Papacy.


  Charles V. and Luther.

When Maximilian died in January 1519 his throne was competed for by his
grandson Charles, king of Spain, and by Francis I. of France, and after
a long and costly contest the former was chosen in the following June.
By the time Charles reached Germany and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle
(October 1520) Luther had confronted the cardinal legate Cajetan, had
passed through his famous controversy at Leipzig with Johann Eck, and
was about to burn the bull of excommunication. After this daring step
retreat was impossible, and with keen excitement both the reformer's
followers and his enemies waited for the new sovereign to declare
himself on one side or on the other. Charles soon made up his mind about
the general lines of his policy, although he was completely ignorant of
the strength of the feeling which had been aroused. He fancied that he
had to deal with a mere monkish quarrel; at one time he even imagined
that a little money would set the difficulty at rest. It was not likely,
however, in any case that he would turn against the Roman Church, and
that for various reasons. He was by far the most important ruler of the
time, and the peoples under his direct sway were still adherents of the
old faith. He was king of Spain, of Sicily, of Naples and of Sardinia;
he was lord of the Netherlands, of the free county of Burgundy and of
the Austrian archduchies; he had at his command the immense resources of
the New World; and he had been chosen king of Germany, thus gaining a
title to the imperial crown. Following the example set by Maximilian he
called himself emperor without waiting for the formality of a coronation
at Rome. Now the protection of the Church had always been regarded as
one of the chief functions of the emperors; Charles could not,
therefore, desert it when it was so greatly in need of his services.
Like his predecessors he reserved to himself the right to resist it in
the realm of politics; in the realm of faith he considered that he owed
to it his entire allegiance. Moreover, he intended to undertake the
subjugation of northern Italy, a task which had baffled his imperial
grandfather, and in order to realize this scheme it was of the highest
importance that he should do nothing to offend the pope. Thus it came
about that at the diet of Worms, which met in January 1521, without any
thorough examination of Luther's position, Charles issued the famous
edict, drawn up by Cardinal Aleandro, which denounced the reformer and
his followers. This was accepted by the diet and Luther was placed under
the imperial ban.


  Charles and the movement for reform.

When Charles was chosen German king he was obliged to make certain
promises to the electors. Embodied in a _Wahlkapitulation_, as it was
called, these were practically the conditions on which the new sovereign
was allowed to take the crown, and the precedent was followed at
subsequent elections. At the diet of Worms steps were taken to carry
these promises into effect. By his _Wahlkapitulation_ Charles had
promised to respect the freedom of Germany, for the princes looked upon
him as a foreigner. He was neither to introduce foreign troops into the
country, nor to allow a foreigner to command German soldiers; he must
use the German language and every diet must meet on German soil. An
administrative council, a new _Reichsregiment_, must be established, and
other reforms were to be set on foot. The constitution and powers of
this _Reichsregiment_ were the chief subject of difference between
Charles and the princes at the diet. Eventually it was decided that this
council should consist of twenty-two members with a president named by
the emperor; but it was only to govern Germany during the absence of the
sovereign, at other times its functions were merely advisory. The
imperial chamber was restored on the lines laid down by Bertold of Mainz
in 1495 (it survived until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806), and
the estates undertook to aid the emperor by raising and paying an army.
In April 1521 Charles invested his brother Ferdinand, afterwards the
emperor Ferdinand I., with the Austrian archduchies, and soon afterwards
he left Germany to renew his long struggle with Francis I. of France.


  Sickingen's rising.

While the emperor was thus absent great disturbances took place in
Germany. Among Luther's friends was one, Ulrich von Hutten, at once
penetrated with the spirit of the Renaissance and emphatically a man of
action. The class to which Hutten and his friend, Franz von Sickingen, a
daring and ambitious Rhenish baron, belonged, was that of the small
feudal tenants in chief, the _Ritterschaft_ or knights of the Empire.
This class was subject only to the emperor, but its members lacked the
territorial possessions which gave power to the princes; they were
partly deprived of their employment owing to the suppression of private
wars, and they had suffered through the substitution of Roman law for
the ancient feudal laws and customs. They had no place in the
constitution or in the government of Germany, and they had already
paralysed the administration by refusing to pay the taxes. They were
intensely jealous of the princes, and it occurred to Hutten and
Sickingen that the Reformation might be used to improve the condition of
the knights and to effect a total change in the constitution of the
Empire. No general reform, they maintained, either in church or state,
could be secured while the country was divided into a number of
principalities, and their plan was to combine with all those who were
discontented with the existing order to attack the princes and to place
the emperor at the head of a united nation. Sickingen, who has been
compared to Wallenstein, and who doubtless hoped to secure a great
position for himself, had already collected a large army, which by its
very presence had contributed somewhat to the election of Charles at
Frankfort in 1519. He had also earned renown by carrying on feuds with
the citizens of Worms and of Metz, and now, with a view to realizing his
larger ambitions, he opened the campaign (August 1522) by attacking the
elector of Trier, who, as a spiritual prince, would not, it was hoped,
receive any help from the religious reformers. For a moment it seemed as
if Hutten's dream would be realized, but it was soon evident that it was
too late to make so great a change. Luther and other persons of
influence stood aloof from the movement; on the other hand, several
princes, including Philip, landgrave of Hesse, united their forces
against the knights, and in May 1523 Sickingen was defeated and slain. A
few weeks later Hutten died on an island in the lake of Zurich.


  The causes of the Peasants' War.

This war was followed by another of a much more serious nature. The
German peasants had grievances compared with which those of the knights
and lesser barons were imaginary. For about a century several causes had
tended to make their condition worse and worse. While taxes and other
burdens were increasing the power of the king to protect them was
decreasing; with or without the forms of law they were plundered by
every other class in the community; their traditional privileges were
withdrawn and, as in the case of the knights, their position had
suffered owing to the introduction of Roman law into Germany. In the
west and south-west of the country especially, opportunities of
migration and of expansion had been gradually reduced, and to provide
for their increasing numbers they were compelled to divide their
holdings again and again until these patches of land became too small
for the support of a household. Thus, solely under the influence of
social and economic conditions, various risings of the peasants had
taken place during the latter part of the 15th century, the first one
being in 1461, and at times the insurgents had combined their forces
with those of the lower classes in the towns, men whose condition was
hardly more satisfactory than their own. In the last decade of the 15th
and the first decade of the 16th century there were several
insurrections in the south-west of Germany, each of which was called a
_Bundschuh_, a shoe fastened upon a pole serving as the standard of
revolt. In 1514 Wurttemberg was disturbed by the rising of "poor
Conrad," but these and other similar revolts in the neighbourhood were
suppressed by the princes. These movements, however, were only preludes
to the great revolution, which is usually known as the Peasants' War
(_Bauernkrieg_).


  The Peasants' War.

The Renaissance and the Reformation were awakening extravagant hopes in
the minds of the German peasants, and it is still a matter of
controversy among historians to what extent Luther and the reformers
were responsible for their rising. It may, however, be stated with some
certainty that their condition was sufficiently wretched to drive them
to revolt without any serious pressure from outside. The rising was due
primarily neither to religious nor to political, but to economic
causes. The Peasants' War, properly so called, broke out at Stuhlingen
in June 1522. The insurgents found a leader in Hans Muller of
Bulgenbach, who gained some support in the surrounding towns, and soon
all Swabia was in revolt. Quickly the insurrection became general all
over central and southern Germany. In the absence of the emperor and of
his brother, the archduke Ferdinand, the authorities in these parts of
the country were unable to check the movement and, aided by many
knights, prominent among whom was Gotz von Berlichingen, the peasants
were everywhere victorious, while another influential recruit, Ulrich,
the dispossessed duke of Wurttemberg, joined them in the hope of
recovering his duchy. Ulrich's attempt, which was made early in 1525,
was, however, a failure, and about the same time the peasants drew up
twelve articles embodying their demands. These were sufficiently
moderate. They asked for a renewal of their ancient rights of fishing
and hunting freely, for a speedier method of obtaining justice, and for
the removal of new and heavy burdens. In many places the lords yielded
to these demands, among those who granted concessions being the elector
palatine of the Rhine, the bishops of Bamberg and of Spires, and the
abbots of Fulda and of Hersfeld. But meanwhile the movement was
spreading through Franconia to northern Germany and was especially
formidable in Thuringia, where it was led by Thomas Munzer. Here again
success attended the rebel standards. But soon the victorious peasants
became so violent and so destructive that Luther himself urged that they
should be sternly punished, and a number of princes, prominent among
whom was Philip of Hesse, banded themselves together to crush the
rising. Munzer and his followers were defeated at Frankenhausen in May,
the Swabian League gained victories in the area under its control,
successes were gained elsewhere by the princes, and with much cruelty
the revolt of the peasants was suppressed. The general result was that
the power of the territorial lords became greater than ever, although in
some cases, especially in Tirol and in Baden, the condition of the
peasants was somewhat improved. Elsewhere, however, this was not the
case; many of the peasants suffered still greater oppression and some of
the immediate nobles were forced to submit to a detested yoke.


  The Reichsregiment.

Before the suppression of this rising the _Reichsregiment_ had met with
very indifferent success in its efforts to govern Germany. Meeting at
Nuremberg early in 1522 it voted some slight assistance for the campaign
against the invading Turks, but the proposals put forward for raising
the necessary funds aroused much opposition, an opposition which came
mainly from the large and important cities. The citizens appealed to
Charles V., who was in Spain, and after some hesitation the emperor
decided against the _Reichsregiment_. Under such disheartening
conditions it is not surprising that this body was totally unable to
cope with Sickingen's insurrection, and that a few weeks after its
meeting at Nuremberg in 1524 it succumbed to a series of attacks and
disappeared from the history of Germany. But the _Reichsregiment_ had
taken one step, although this was of a negative character. It had shown
some sympathy with the reformers and had declined to put the edict of
Worms into immediate execution. Hardly less lukewarm, the imperial diet
ordered the edict to be enforced, but only as far as possible, and
meanwhile the possibilities of accommodation between the two great
religious parties were becoming more and more remote. A national
assembly to decide the questions at issue was announced to meet at
Spires, but the emperor forbade this gathering. Then the Romanists,
under the guidance of Cardinal Campeggio and the archduke Ferdinand, met
at Regensburg and decided to take strong and aggressive measures to
destroy Lutheranism, while, on the other hand, representatives of the
cities met at Spires and at Ulm, and asserted their intention of
forwarding and protecting the teaching of the reformed doctrines. All
over the country and through all classes of the people men were falling
into line on one side or the other, and everything was thus ready for a
long and bitter religious war.


  Progress of the Reformation.

During these years the religious and political ideas of the Reformation
were rapidly gaining ground, and, aided by a vigorous and violent
polemic literature, opposition to Rome was growing on every side.
Instigated by George of Saxony the Romanist princes formed a defensive
league at Dessau in 1525; the reforming princes took a similar step at
Gotha in 1526. Such were the prevailing conditions when the diet met at
Spires in June 1526 and those who were still loyal to the Roman Church
clamoured for repressive measures. But on this occasion the reformers
were decidedly in the ascendant. Important ecclesiastical reforms were
approved, and instructions forbidding all innovations and calling upon
the diet to execute the edict of Worms, sent by the emperor from Spain,
were brushed aside on the ground that in the preceding March when this
letter was written Charles and the pope were at peace, while now they
were at war. Before its dissolution the diet promulgated a decree
providing that, pending the assembly of a national council, each prince
should order the ecclesiastical affairs of his own state in accordance
with his own conscience, a striking victory for the reformers and
incidentally for separatist ideas. The three years which elapsed between
this diet and another important diet which met in the same city are full
of incident. Guided by Luther and Melanchthon, the principal states and
cities in which the ideas of the reformers prevailed--electoral Saxony,
Brandenburg, Hesse and the Rhenish Palatinate, Strassburg, Nuremberg,
Ulm and Augsburg--began to carry out measures of church reform. The
Romanists saw the significance of this movement and, fortunately for
them, were able to profit by the dissensions which were breaking out in
the ranks of their opponents, especially the doctrinal differences
between the followers of Luther and those of Zwingli. Persecutions for
heresy had begun, the feeling between the two great religious parties
being further embittered by some revelations made by Otto von Pack
(q.v.) to Philip of Hesse. Pack's stories, which concerned the existence
of a powerful league for the purpose of making war upon the reformers,
were proved to be false, but the soreness occasioned thereby remained.
The diet met in February 1529 and soon received orders from the emperor
to repeal the decree of 1526. The supporters of the older faith were now
predominant and, although they were inclined to adopt a somewhat haughty
attitude towards Charles, they were not averse from taking strong
measures against the reformers. The decree of the diet, formulated in
April, forbade the reformers to make further religious changes, while
the toleration which was conceded to Romanists in Lutheran states was
withheld from Lutherans in Romanist states. This decree was strongly
resented by the reforming princes and cities. They drew up a formal
protest against it (hence the name "Protestant"), which they presented
to the archduke Ferdinand, setting forward the somewhat novel theory
that the decree of 1526 could not be annulled by a succeeding diet
unless both the parties concerned assented thereto. By this decree they
declared their firm intention to abide.


  The diet of Augsburg.

The untiring efforts of Philip of Hesse to unite the two wings of the
Protestant forces met with very little success, and the famous
conference at Marburg in the autumn of 1529, for which he was
responsible, revealed the fact that it was practically impossible for
the Lutherans and the Zwinglians to act together even when threatened by
a common danger, while a little later the alliance between the Lutheran
states of north Germany and the Zwinglian cities of the south was
destroyed by differences upon points of doctrine. In 1530 the emperor,
flushed with success in Italy and at peace with his foreign foes, came
to Germany with the express intention of putting an end to heresy. In
June he opened the diet at Augsburg, and here the Lutherans submitted a
summary of their doctrines, afterwards called the Augsburg Confession.
Drawn up by Melanchthon, this pronouncement was intended to widen the
breach between the Lutherans and the Zwinglians, and to narrow that
between the Lutherans and the Romanists; from this time it was regarded
as the chief standard of the Lutheran faith. Four Zwinglian cities,
Strassburg, Constance, Lindau and Memmingen, replied with a confession
of their own and the Romanists also drew up an answer. The period of
negotiation which followed served only to show that no accommodation
was possible. Charles himself made no serious effort to understand the
controversy; he was resolved, whether the Lutherans had right on their
side or not, that they should submit, and he did not doubt but that he
would be able to awe them into submission by an unwonted display of
power. But to his surprise the Lutheran princes who attended the diet
refused to give way. They were, however, outnumbered by their enemies,
and it was the Romanist majority which dictated the terms of the decree,
which was laid before the diet in September, enjoining a return to
religious conformity within seven months. The Protestant princes could
only present a formal protest and leave Augsburg. Finally the decree of
the diet, promulgated in November, ordered the execution of the edict of
Worms, the restoration of all church property, and the maintenance of
the jurisdiction of the bishops. The duty of enforcing the decree was
especially entrusted to the _Reichskammergericht_; thus by the processes
of law the Protestant princes were to be deprived of much of their
property, and it seemed probable that if they did not submit the emperor
would have recourse to arms.


  The league of Schmalkalden.

For the present, however, fresh difficulties with France and an invasion
by the Turks, who had besieged Vienna with an immense army in the autumn
of 1529, forced Charles to mask his designs. Meanwhile some of the
Lutherans, angered and alarmed by the decisions of the
_Reichskammergericht_, abandoned the idea that resistance to the
imperial authority was unlawful and, meeting in December 1530, laid the
foundation of the important league of Schmalkalden, among the first
members of the confederation being the rulers of Saxony and Hesse and
the cities of Bremen and Magdeburg. The league was soon joined by other
strong cities, among them Strassburg, Ulm, Constance, Lubeck and Goslar;
but it was not until after the defeat and death of Zwingli at Kappel in
October 1531 that it was further strengthened by the adhesion of those
towns which had hitherto looked for leadership to the Swiss reformer.
About this time the military forces of the league were organized, their
heads being the elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse. But the
league had a political as well as a religious aspect. It was an alliance
between the enemies of the house of Habsburg, and on this side it gained
the support of the duke of Bavaria and treated with Francis I. of
France. To this its rapid growth was partly due, but more perhaps to the
fact that the Reformation in Germany was above all things a popular
movement, and thus many princes who would not have seceded from the
Roman Church of their own accord were compelled to do so from political
motives. They had been strong enough to undermine the imperial power;
they were not strong enough to resist the pressure put upon them by a
majority of their subjects. It was early in 1532, when faced with the
necessity of resisting the Turkish advance, that Charles met the diet at
Regensburg. He must have men and money for this purpose even at the
price of an arrangement with the Protestants. But the Lutherans were
absent from the diet, and the Romanists, although they voted help,
displayed a very uncompromising temper towards their religious foes.
Under these circumstances the emperor took the matter into his own
hands, and his negotiations with the Protestants resulted in July 1532
in the religious peace of Nuremberg, a measure which granted temporary
toleration to the Lutherans and which was repeatedly confirmed in the
following years. Charles's reward was substantial and immediate. His
subjects vied with each other in hurrying soldiers to his standard, and
in a few weeks the great Turkish host was in full retreat.


  Internal affairs of Germany.

While the probability of an alliance between Pope Clement VII. and
Francis I. of France, together with other international complications,
prevented the emperor from following up his victory over the Turks, or
from reducing the dissenters from the Roman religion to obedience,
Protestantism was making substantial progress in the states, notably in
Anhalt and in Pomerania, and in the cities, and in January 1534 the
Protestant princes were bold enough to declare that they did not regard
the decisions of the _Reichskammergericht_ as binding upon them. About
this time Germany witnessed three events of some importance. Through the
energy of Philip of Hesse, who was aided by Francis I., Ulrich of
Wurttemberg was forcibly restored to his duchy. The members of the
Romanist league recently founded at Halle would not help the Habsburgs,
and in June 1534, by the treaty of Cadan, King Ferdinand was forced to
recognize the restoration as a _fait accompli_; at the same time he was
compelled to promise that he would stop all proceedings of the
_Reichskammergericht_ against the members of the league of Schmalkalden.
The two other events were less favourable for the new religion, or
rather for its orthodox manifestations. After a struggle, the
Anabaptists obtained control of Munster and for a short time governed
the town in accordance with their own peculiar ideas, while at Lubeck,
under the burgomaster Jurgen Wullenweber, a democratic government was
also established. But the bishop of Munster and his friends crushed the
one movement, and after interfering in the affairs of Denmark the
Lubeckers were compelled to revert to their former mode of government.
The outbreak of the war between the Empire and France in 1536 almost
coincided with the enlargement of the league of Schmalkalden, the
existence of which was prolonged for ten years. All the states and
cities which subscribed to the confession of Augsburg were admitted to
it, and thus a large number of Protestants, including the duchies of
Wurttemberg and Pomerania and the cities of Augsburg and Frankfort,
secured a needful protection against the decrees of the
_Reichskammergericht_, which the league again repudiated. Among the new
members of the confederation was Christian III., king of Denmark. About
the same time (May 1536) an agreement between the Lutherans and the
Zwinglians was arranged by Martin Bucer, and was embodied in a document
called the Concord of Wittenberg, and for the present the growing
dissensions between the heads of the league, John Frederick, elector of
Saxony, and Philip of Hesse, were checked. Thus strengthened the
Protestant princes declared against the proposed general council at
Mantua, while as a counterpoise to the league of Schmalkalden the
imperial envoy, Mathias Held (d. 1563), persuaded the Romanist princes
in June 1538 to form the league of Nuremberg. But, although he had made
a truce with France at Nice in this very month, Charles V. was more
conciliatory than some of his representatives, and at Frankfort in April
1539 he came to terms with the Protestants, not, however, granting to
them all their demands. In 1539, too, the Protestants received a great
accession of strength, the Lutheran prince Henry succeeding his Romanist
brother George as duke of Saxony. Ducal Saxony was thus completely won
for the reformed faith, and under the politic elector Joachim II. the
same doctrines made rapid advances in Brandenburg. Thus practically all
North Germany was united in supporting the Protestant cause.


  Successes of the Protestants.

  Their defeats.

In 1542, when Charles V. was again involved in war with France and
Turkey, who were helped by Sweden, Denmark and Scotland, the league of
Schmalkalden took advantage of his occupations to drive its stubborn
foe, Henry, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, from his duchy and to
enthrone Protestantism completely therein. But this was not the only
victory gained by the Protestants about this time. The citizens of
Regensburg accepted their doctrines, which also made considerable
progress in the Palatinate and in Austria, while the archbishop of
Cologne, Hermann von Wied, and William, duke of Gelderland, Cleves and
Juliers, announced their secession from the Roman religion. The
Protestants were now at the height of their power, but their ascendancy
was about to be destroyed, and that rather by the folly and imprudence
of their leaders than by the skill and valour of their foes. The unity
and the power of the league of Schmalkalden were being undermined by two
important events, the bigamy of Philip of Hesse, which for political
reasons was condoned by the Lutheran divines, and the dissensions
between John Frederick, the ruler of electoral, and Maurice, the new
ruler of ducal Saxony. To save himself from the consequences of his
double marriage, which had provided him with powerful enemies, Philip in
June 1541 came to terms with the emperor, who thus managed to spike the
guns of the league of Schmalkalden, although the strength of this
confederation did not fail until after the campaign against Henry of
Brunswick. But while on the whole the fortunes of the European war, both
in the east and in the west, were unfavourable to the imperialists,
Charles V. found time in 1543 to lead a powerful force against William
of Gelderland, who had joined the circle of his foreign foes. William
was completely crushed; Gelderland was added to the hereditary lands of
the Habsburgs, while the league of Schmalkalden impotently watched the
proceedings. This happened about a year after war between the two
branches of the Saxon house had only been averted by the mediation of
Luther and of Philip of Hesse. The emperor, however, was unable, or
unwilling, to make a more general attack on the Protestants. In
accordance with the promises made to them at Frankfort in 1539,
conferences between the leaders of the two religious parties were held
at Hagenau, at Worms and at Regensburg, but they were practically
futile. The diets at Regensburg and at Nuremberg gave very little aid
for the wars, and did nothing to solve the religious difficulties which
were growing more acute with repeated delays. At the diet of Spires in
1544 Charles purchased military assistance from the Protestants by
making lavish promises to them. With a new army he marched against the
French, but suddenly in September 1544 he concluded the treaty of Crepy
with Francis I. and left himself free to begin a new chapter in the
history of Germany.


  Victory of Charles over the league of Schmalkalden.

Charles was now nearly ready to crush the Protestants, whose influence
and teaching had divided Germany and weakened the imperial power, and
were now endangering the supremacy of the Habsburgs in the Netherlands
and in Alsace. His plan was to bring about the meeting of a general
council to make the necessary reforms in the church, and then at
whatever cost to compel the Protestants to abide by its decisions. While
Pope Paul III., somewhat reluctantly, summoned the council which
ultimately met at Trent, Charles made vigorous preparations for war.
Having made peace with the Turks in October 1545 he began to secure
allies. Assistance was promised by the pope; the emperor purchased the
neutrality of Duke William of Bavaria, and at a high price the active
aid of Maurice of Saxony; he managed to detach from the league of
Schmalkalden those members who were without any enthusiasm for the
Protestant cause and also those who were too timid to enter upon a
serious struggle. Meanwhile the league was inactive. Its chiefs differed
on questions of policy, one section believing that the emperor did not
intend to proceed to extremities, and for some time no measures were
taken to meet the coming peril. At last, in June 1546, during the
meeting of the diet at Regensburg, Philip and John Frederick of Saxony
realized the extent of the danger and began to muster their forces. They
were still much more powerful than the emperor, but they did not work
well together, or with Sebastian Schartlin von Burtenbach, who led their
troops in South Germany. In July 1546 they were placed under the
imperial ban, and the war began in the valley of the Danube. Charles was
aided by soldiers hurried from Italy and the Netherlands, but he did not
gain any substantial successes until after October 1546, when his ally
Maurice invaded electoral Saxony and forced John Frederick to march
northwards to its defence. The Lutheran cities of southern and central
Germany, among them Strassburg, Augsburg, Ulm and Frankfort, now
submitted to the emperor, while Ulrich of Wurttemberg and the elector
palatine of the Rhine, Frederick II., followed their example. Having
restored Roman Catholicism in the archbishopric of Cologne and seen
Henry of Brunswick settled in his duchy early in 1547, Charles led his
men against his principal enemies, Philip of Hesse and John Frederick,
who had quickly succeeded in driving Maurice from his electorate. At
Muhlberg in April 1547 he overtook the army of the Saxon elector. His
victory was complete. John Frederick was taken prisoner, and a little
later Philip of Hesse, after vainly prolonging the struggle, was induced
to surrender. The rising in the other parts of northern Germany was
also put down, and the two leaders of political Lutheranism were
prisoners in the emperor's hands.


  The "Interim."

Unable to shake the allegiance of John Frederick to the Lutheran faith,
Charles kept him and Philip of Hesse in captivity and began to take
advantage of his triumph, although Magdeburg was still offering a
stubborn resistance to his allies. By the capitulation of Wittenberg the
electorate of Saxony was transferred to Maurice, and in the mood of a
conqueror the emperor met the diet at Augsburg in September 1547. His
proposals to strengthen and reform the administration of Germany were,
however, not acceptable to the princes, and the main one was not
pressed; but the Netherlands were brought under the protection of the
Empire and some minor reforms were carried through. A serious quarrel
with the pope, who had moved the council from Trent to Bologna, only
increased the determination of Charles to establish religious
conformity. In consultation with both Romanist and Lutheran divines a
confession of faith called the _Interim_ was drawn up; this was in the
nature of a compromise and was issued as an edict in May 1548, but owing
to the opposition of the Romanist princes it was not made binding upon
them, only upon the Lutherans. There was some resistance to the
_Interim_, but force was employed against Augsburg and other
recalcitrant cities, and soon it was generally accepted. Thus all
Germany seemed to lie at the emperor's feet. The Reformation had enabled
him to deal with the princes and the imperial cities in a fashion such
as no sovereign had dealt with them for three centuries.


  The imperial succession.

  The revolt of Maurice of Saxony.

Being now at the height of his power Charles wished to secure the
succession to the imperial throne to his son Philip, afterwards Philip
II. of Spain. This intention produced dissensions among the Habsburgs,
especially between the emperor and his brother Ferdinand, and other
causes were at work, moreover, to undermine the former's position. The
Romanist princes were becoming alarmed at his predominance, the
Protestant princes resented his arbitrary measures and disliked the
harsh treatment meted out to John Frederick and to Philip of Hesse; all
alike, irritated by the presence of Spanish soldiers in their midst,
objected strongly to take Philip for their king and to any extension of
Spanish influence in Germany. Turkey and France were again threatening
war, and although the council had returned to Trent it seemed less
likely than ever to satisfy the Protestants. The general discontent
found expression in the person of Maurice of Saxony, a son-in-law of
Philip of Hesse, whose services to Charles against the league of
Schmalkalden had made him very unpopular in his own country. Caring
little or nothing about doctrinal disputes, but a great deal about
increasing his own importance, Maurice now took the lead in plotting
against the emperor. He entered into an alliance with John, margrave of
Brandenburg-Custrin, with another Hohenzollern prince, Albert Alcibiades
of Bayreuth, and with other Lutheran leaders, and also with Henry II. of
France, who eagerly seized this opportunity of profiting by the
dissensions in the Empire and who stipulated for a definite reward.
Charles knew something of these proceedings, but his recent victory had
thrown him partly off his guard. The treaty with France was signed in
January 1552; in March Henry II. invaded Germany as the protector of her
liberties, while Maurice seized Augsburg and marched towards Innsbruck,
where the emperor was residing, with the intention of making him a
prisoner. An attempt at accommodation failed; Charles fled into
Carinthia; and at one stroke all the advantages which he had gained by
his triumph at Muhlberg were lost. Masters of the situation, Maurice and
his associates met their opponents at Passau in May 1552 and arranged
terms of peace, although the emperor did not assent to them until July.
The two captive princes were released, but the main point agreed upon
was that a diet should be called for the purpose of settling the
religious difficulty, and that in the meantime the Lutherans were to
enjoy full religious liberty.


  The peace of Augsburg.

Delayed by the war with France and Turkey, the diet for the settlement
of the religious difficulty did not meet at Augsburg until February
1555. Ferdinand represented his brother, and after a prolonged
discussion conditions of peace were arranged. Romanists and Lutherans
were placed upon an equal footing, but the toleration which was granted
to them was not extended to the Calvinists. Each secular prince had the
right to eject from his land all those who would not accept the form of
religion established therein; thus the principle of _cujus regio ejus
religio_ was set up. Although the Lutherans did not gain all their
demands, they won solid advantages and were allowed to keep all
ecclesiastical property secularized before the peace of Passau. A source
of trouble, however, was the clause in the treaty usually called the
ecclesiastical reservation. This required an ecclesiastical prince, if
he accepted the teaching of the confession of Augsburg, or in other
words became a Lutheran, forthwith to resign his principality. The
Lutherans denied the validity of this clause, and notwithstanding the
protests of the Roman Catholics several prelates became Lutheran and
kept their territories as secular possessions. The peace of Augsburg can
hardly be described as a satisfactory settlement. Individual toleration
was not allowed, or only allowed in unison with exile, and in the treaty
there was abundant material for future discord.


  End of the reign.

After Maurice of Saxony had made terms with Charles at Passau he went to
help Ferdinand against the Turks, but one of his allies, Henry II. of
France, continued the war in Germany while another, Albert Alcibiades,
entered upon a wild campaign of plunder in Franconia. The French king
seized Metz, which was part of the spoil promised to him by his allies,
and Charles made an attempt to regain the city. For this purpose he took
Albert Alcibiades into his service, but after a stubborn fight his
troops were compelled to retreat in January 1553. Albert then renewed
his raids, and these became so terrible that a league of princes, under
Maurice of Saxony, was formed to crush him; although Maurice lost his
life at Sievershausen in July 1553, this purpose was accomplished, and
Albert was driven from Germany. After the peace of Augsburg, which was
published in September 1555, the emperor carried out his intention of
abdicating. He entrusted Spain and the Netherlands to Philip, while
Ferdinand took over the conduct of affairs in Germany; although it was
not until 1558 that he was formally installed as his brother's
successor.


  Ferdinand I.

Ferdinand I., who like all the German sovereigns after him was
recognized as emperor without being crowned by the pope, made it a prime
object of his short reign to defend and enforce the religious peace of
Augsburg for which he was largely responsible. Although in all
probability numerically superior at this time to the Romanists, the
Protestants were weakened by divisions, which were becoming daily more
pronounced and more serious, and partly owing to this fact the emperor
was able to resist the demands of each party and to moderate their
excesses. He was continually harassed by the Turks until peace was made
in 1562, and connected therewith were troubles in Bohemia and especially
in Hungary, two countries which he had acquired through marriage, while
North Germany was disturbed by the wild schemes of Wilhelm von Grumbach
(q.v.) and his associate John Frederick, duke of Saxony. With regard to
the religious question efforts were made to compose the differences
among the Protestants; but while these ended in failure the Roman
Catholics were gaining ground. Ferdinand sought earnestly to reform the
church from within, and before he died in July 1564 the
Counter-Reformation, fortified by the entrance of the Jesuits into
Germany and by the issue of the decrees of the council of Trent, had
begun.


  Administrative changes.

Under Ferdinand's rule there were some changes in the administration of
the Empire. Lutherans sat among the judges of the _Reichskammergericht_,
and the Aulic Council, or _Hofrat_, established by Maximilian I. for the
Austrian lands, extended its authority over the Empire and was known as
the _Reichshofrat_. Side by side with these changes the imperial diet
was becoming more useless and unwieldy, and the electors were gaining
power, owing partly to the _Wahlkapitulation_, by which on election they
circumscribed the power of each occupant of the imperial throne.


  Maximilian II.

Ferdinand's son and successor, the emperor Maximilian II., was a man of
tolerant views; in fact at one time he was suspected of being a
Lutheran, a circumstance which greatly annoyed the Habsburgs and delayed
his own election as king of the Romans. However, having given to the
electors assurances of his fidelity to the Roman Church, he was chosen
king in November 1562, and became ruler of Germany on his father's death
nearly two years later. Like other German sovereigns Maximilian pursued
the phantom of religious union. His first diet, which met at Augsburg in
1566, was, however, unable, or unwilling, to take any steps in this
direction, and while the Roman Catholics urged the enforcement of the
decrees of the council of Trent the serious differences among the
Protestants received fresh proof from the attempt made to exclude the
Calvinist prince Frederick III., elector palatine of the Rhine, from the
benefits of the peace of Augsburg. After this Frederick and the
Calvinists looked for sympathy more and more to the Protestants in
France and the Netherlands, whom they assisted with troops, while the
Lutherans, whose chief prince was Augustus, elector of Saxony, adopted a
more cautious policy and were anxious not to offend the emperor. There
were, moreover, troubles of a personal and private nature between these
two electors and their families, and these embittered their religious
differences. But these divergences of opinion were not only between
Roman Catholic and Lutheran or between Lutheran and Calvinist, they
were, in electoral and ducal Saxony at least, between Lutheran and
Lutheran. Thus the Protestant cause was weakened just when it needed
strengthening, as, on the other side, the Roman Catholics, especially
Albert, duke of Bavaria, were eagerly forwarding the progress of the
older faith, which towards the end of this reign was restored in the
important abbey of Fulda. In secular affairs Maximilian had, just after
his accession, to face a renewal of the Turkish war. Although his first
diet voted liberal assistance for the defence of the country, and a
large and splendid army was collected, he had gained no advantage when
the campaign ended. The diet of Spires, which met in 1570, was mainly
occupied in discussing measures for preventing the abuses caused by the
enlistment by foreigners of German mercenary troops, but nothing was
done to redress this grievance, as the estates were unwilling to accept
proposals which placed more power in the emperor's hands. Maximilian
found time to make earnest but unavailing efforts to mediate between his
cousin, Philip II. of Spain, and the revolted Netherlands, and also to
interfere in the affairs of Poland, where a faction elected him as their
king. He was still dealing with this matter and hoping to gain support
for it from the diet of Regensburg when he died (October 1576).


  Rudolph II.

Maximilian's successor was his son, Rudolph II., who had been chosen
king of the Romans in October 1575, and who in his later years showed
marked traces of insanity. The new emperor had little of his father's
tolerant spirit, and under his feeble and erratic rule religious and
political considerations alike tended to increase the disorder in
Germany. The death of the Calvinist leader, the elector palatine
Frederick III., in October 1576 and the accession of his son Louis, a
prince who held Lutheran opinions, obviously afforded a favourable
opportunity for making another attempt to unite the Protestants. Under
the guidance of Augustus of Saxony a Lutheran confession of faith, the
_Formula concordiae_, was drawn up; but, although this was accepted by
51 princes and 35 towns, others--like the landgraves of Hesse and the
cities of Magdeburg and Strassburg--refused to sign it, and thus it
served only to emphasize the divisions among the Protestants. Moreover,
the friendship between the Saxon and the Palatine houses was soon
destroyed; for, when the elector Louis died in 1583, he was succeeded by
a minor, his son Frederick IV., who was under the guardianship of his
uncle John Casimir (1543-1592), a prince of very marked Calvinist
sympathies and of some military experience. Just before this time much
unrest in the north-west of Germany had been caused by the settlement
there of a number of refugees from the Netherlands. Spreading their
advanced religious views, these settlers were partly responsible for two
serious outbreaks of disorder. At Aix-la-Chapelle the Protestants, not
being allowed freedom of worship, took possession of the city in 1581.
The matter came before the diet, which was opened at Augsburg in July
1582, but the case was left undecided; afterwards, however, the
_Reichshofrat_ declared against the insurgents, although it was not
until 1598 that Protestant worship was abolished and the Roman Catholic
governing body was restored. At Cologne the archbishop, Gebhard
Truchsess von Waldburg, married and announced his intention of retaining
his spiritual office. Had this proceeding passed unchallenged, the
Protestants, among whom Gebhard now counted himself, would have had a
majority in the electoral college. The Roman Catholics, however, secured
the deposition of Gebhard and the election in his stead of Ernest,
bishop of Liege, and war broke out in 1583. Except John Casimir, the
Protestant princes showed no eagerness to assist Gebhard, who in a short
time was driven from his see, and afterwards took up his residence in
Strassburg, where also he instigated a rebellion on a small scale. Thus
these quarrels terminated in victories for the Roman Catholics, who were
successful about this time in restoring their faith in the bishoprics of
Wurzburg, Salzburg, Bamberg, Paderborn, Minden and Osnabruck. Another
dispute also ended in a similar way. This was the claim made by the
administrator of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, a Hohenzollern prince,
Joachim Frederick, afterwards elector of Brandenburg, to sit and vote in
the imperial diet; it was not admitted, and the administrator retired
from Augsburg, a similar fate befalling a similar claim made by several
other administrators some years later.


  The Protestant grievances.

After the death of Augustus of Saxony in February 1586 there was another
brief alliance between the Protestant parties, although on this occasion
the lead was taken not by the Saxon, but by the Palatine prince. Less
strict in his adherence to the tenets of Lutheranism than Augustus, the
new elector of Saxony, Christian I., fell under the influence of John
Casimir. The result was that Protestant princes, including the three
temporal electors, united in placing their grievances before the
emperor; obtaining no redress they met at Torgau in 1591 and offered
help to Henry IV. of France, a proceeding which was diametrically
opposed to the past policy of Saxony. But this alliance, like its
forerunner, was of very short duration. Christian I. died in 1591, and
under Christian II. electoral Saxony re-established a rigid Lutheranism
at home and pursued a policy of moderation and neutrality abroad. A
short time afterwards the militant party among the Protestants suffered
a heavy loss by the death of their leader, John Casimir, whose policy,
however, was continued by his nephew and pupil, the elector Frederick
IV. But neither desertion nor death was able to crush entirely the
militant Protestants, among whom Christian, prince of Anhalt
(1568-1630), was rapidly becoming the most prominent figure. They made
themselves very troublesome at the diet of Regensburg in 1593, and also
at the diet held in the same city four years later, putting forward
various demands for greater religious freedom and seeking to hinder, or
delay, the payment of the grant for the Turkish war. Moreover, in 1598
they put forward the theory that the vote of a majority in the diet was
not binding upon the minority; they took up the same position at
Regensburg in 1603, when they raised strong objections to the decisions
of the _Reichshofrat_ and afterwards withdrew from the diet in a body.
Thus, under Maximilian of Bavaria and Christian of Anhalt respectively
the two great parties were gaining a better idea of their own needs and
of each other's aims and were watching vigilantly the position in the
duchies of Cleves, Julich and Berg, where a dispute over the succession
was impending. While wars and rumours of wars were disturbing the peace
in the west of Germany the Turks were again harassing the east. The war
between them and the Empire, which was renewed in 1593, lasted almost
without interruption until November 1606, when peace was made, the
tribute long paid by the emperor to the sultan being abandoned. This
peace was concluded not by Rudolph, but by his brother, the archduke
Matthias, who owing to the emperor's mental incapacity had just been
declared by his kinsman the head of the house of Habsburg. Rudolph
resented this indignity very greatly, and until his death in January
1612 the relations between the brothers were very strained, but this
mainly concerns the history of Hungary and of Bohemia, which were
sensibly affected by the fraternal discord.


  The Counter-Reformation.

By this time however, there were signs of substantial progress on the
part of the great Catholic reaction, which was to have important
consequences for Germany. This was due mainly to the persistent zeal of
the Jesuits. For a long time the Protestants had absorbed the
intellectual strength of the country, but now many able scholars and
divines among the Jesuits could hold their own with their antagonists.
These devoted missionaries of the church gave their attention mainly to
the young, and during the reign of Rudolph II. they were fortunate
enough to make a deep impression upon two princes, each of whom was
destined to play a great part in the events of his time. These princes
were Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, and Ferdinand, archduke of Styria, the
former a member of the house of Wittelsbach, and the latter of the house
of Habsburg. Maximilian became prominent in 1607 by executing an
imperial mandate against the free city of Donauworth, where a religious
riot had taken place, and afterwards treating it as his own. Rendered
suspicious by this arbitrary act, the Protestant princes in 1608 formed
a confederation known as the Evangelical Union, and in response the
Roman Catholics, under the guidance of Maximilian, united in a similar
confederation afterwards called the Catholic League. This was founded at
Munich in July 1609. As the Union was headed by the elector palatine of
the Rhine, Frederick IV., who was a Calvinist, many Lutherans, among
them the elector of Saxony, were by no means enthusiastic in its
support. It acquired, however, immense importance through its alliance
with Henry IV. of France, who, like Henry II., wished to profit by the
quarrels in Germany, and who interfered in the disputed succession to
the duchies of Cleves and Julich. War seemed about to break out between
the two confederations and their foreign allies over this question, but
after the murder of the French king in May 1610 the Union did not
venture to fight.


  Ferdinand II.

Ferdinand was even more vigorous than Maximilian in defence of his
religion. On assuming the government of Styria he set to work to
extirpate Protestantism, which had made considerable progress in the
Austrian archduchies. Soon afterwards he was selected by the Habsburgs
as the heir of the childless emperor Matthias, and on coming to Vienna
after the death of that sovereign in March 1619 he found himself in the
midst of hopeless confusion. The Bohemians refused to acknowledge him as
their king and elected in his stead Frederick V., the elector palatine
of the Rhine, a son-in-law of the English king James I., and the
Hungarians and the Austrians were hardly less disaffected. As Ferdinand
II., however, he succeeded in obtaining the imperial crown in August
1619, and from that time he was dominated by a fixed resolve to secure
the triumph of his church throughout the Empire, a resolve which cost
Germany the Thirty Years' War.


  The congress in Bohemia.

He began with Bohemia. Although supported by Spain he could not obtain
from this quarter an army sufficiently strong to crush the Bohemians,
and for some time he remained powerless and inactive in Vienna. Then at
the beginning of 1620 he came to terms with Maximilian of Bavaria, who,
after carefully securing his own interests, placed the army of the
League, commanded by the celebrated Tilly, at his disposal.
Conditionally the Union promised assistance to Frederick, but he wasted
several months and vaguely hoped that the English king would help him
out of his embarrassments. Meanwhile Tilly advanced into Bohemia, and in
November 1620 Frederick's army was utterly routed at the battle of the
White Hill, near Prague, and the unfortunate elector had just time to
escape from the kingdom he had rashly undertaken to govern. Ferdinand
drove to the uttermost the advantages of his victory. The Union being
destroyed and the Bohemian revolution crushed, attention was turned to
the hereditary lands of the elector palatine. The Spanish troops and the
army of the League invaded the Rhenish Palatinate, which was defended by
Frederick's remaining adherents, Christian of Brunswick and Count Ernst
von Mansfeld, but after several battles it passed completely into the
possession of the imperialists. Having been placed under the imperial
ban Frederick became an exile from his inheritance, and the electorate
which he was declared to have forfeited was conferred on Maximilian.


  Danish interference in the war.

Thus ended the first stage of the Thirty Years' War, although some
desultory fighting continued between the League and its opponents. The
second began in 1625 with the formation, after much fruitless
negotiation, of a Protestant combination, which had the support of
England, although its leading member was Christian IV., king of Denmark,
who as duke of Holstein was a prince of the Empire, and who like other
Lutherans was alarmed at the emperor's successes. It was in this war
that Europe first became familiar with the great name of Wallenstein.
Unable himself to raise and equip a strong army, and restive at his
dependence on the League, Ferdinand gladly accepted Wallenstein's offer
to put an army into the field at no cost to himself. After Wallenstein
had beaten Mansfeld at the bridge of Dessau in April 1626, and Tilly had
defeated Christian of Denmark at Lutter in the succeeding August, the
two generals united their forces. Denmark was invaded, and Wallenstein,
now duke of Friedland, was authorized to govern the conquered duchies of
Mecklenburg and Pomerania; but his ambitious scheme of securing the
whole of the south coast of the Baltic was thwarted by the resistance of
the city of Stralsund, which for five months he vainly tried to take.
Denmark, however, was compelled to conclude peace at Lubeck in May 1629.


  Dismissal of Wallenstein.

Intoxicated by success, Ferdinand had issued two months before the
famous Edict of Restitution. This ordered the restoration of all
ecclesiastical lands which had come into the possession of the
Protestants since the peace of Passau in 1552, and, as several
archbishoprics and bishoprics had become Protestant, it struck a
tremendous blow at the emperor's foes and stirred among them intense and
universal opposition. A little later, yielding to Maximilian and his
colleagues in the League, Ferdinand dismissed Wallenstein, whose
movements had aroused their resentment, from his service. A more
inauspicious moment could not have been chosen for these two serious
steps, because in the summer of 1630 Gustavus Adolphus left Sweden at
the head of a strong army for the purpose of sustaining the Protestant
cause in Germany. At first this great king was coldly received by the
Protestants, who were ignorant of his designs and did not want a
stranger to profit by the internal disputes of their country. A mistake
at the outset would probably have been fatal to him, but he saw the
dangers of his position and moved so warily that in less than a year he
had obtained the alliance of the elector of Saxony, a consequence of the
terrible sack of Magdeburg by the imperialists in May 1631 and of the
devastation of the electorate by Tilly. He had also obtained on his own
terms the assistance of France, and was ready to enter upon his short
but brilliant campaign.


  The campaign of Gustavus Adolphus.

Having captured Frankfort-on-Oder and forced the hesitating elector of
Brandenburg, George William, to grant him some assistance, Gustavus
Adolphus added the Saxon army to his own, and in September 1631 he met
Tilly, at the head of nearly the whole force of the League, at
Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, where he gained a victory which placed North
Germany entirely at his feet. So utterly had he shattered the emperor's
power that he could doubtless have marched straight to Vienna; he
preferred, however, to proceed through central into southern Germany,
while his Saxon ally, the elector John George, recovered Silesia and
Lusatia and invaded Bohemia. Wurzburg and Frankfort were among the
cities which opened their gates to the Swedish king as the deliverer of
the Protestants; several princes sought his alliance, and, making the
captured city of Mainz his headquarters, he was busily engaged for some
months in resting and strengthening his army and in negotiating about
the future conduct of the war. Early in 1632 he led his troops into
Bavaria. In April he defeated Tilly at the crossing of the Lech, the
imperialist general being mortally wounded during this fight, and then
he took possession of Augsburg and of Munich. Before these events
Ferdinand had realized how serious had been his mistake in dismissing
Wallenstein, and after some delay his agents persuaded the great general
to emerge from his retirement. The conditions, however, upon which
Wallenstein consented to come to the emperor's aid were remarkably
onerous, but Ferdinand had perforce to assent to them. He obtained sole
command of the imperial armies, with the power of concluding treaties
and of granting pardons, and he doubtless insisted on the withdrawal of
the Edict of Restitution, although this is not absolutely certain; in
brief, the only limits to his power were the limits to the strength of
his army. Having quickly assembled this, he drove the Saxons from
Bohemia, and then marched towards Franconia, with the intention of
crossing swords with his only serious rival, Gustavus Adolphus, who had
left Munich when he heard that this foe had taken the field. The Swedes
and their allies occupied Nuremberg, while the imperialists fortified a
great camp and blockaded the city. Gustavus made an attempt to storm
these fortifications, but he failed to make any impression on them; he
failed also in inducing Wallenstein to accept battle, and he was forced
to abandon Nuremberg and to march to the protection of Saxony.
Wallenstein followed, and the two armies faced each other at Lutzen on
the 16th of November 1632. Here the imperialists were beaten, but the
victory was even more disastrous to the Protestant cause than a defeat,
for the Swedish king was among the slain.


  The league of Heilbronn and the death of Wallenstein.

The Swedes, whose leader was now the chancellor Oxenstjerna, were
stunned by this catastrophe, but in a desultory fashion they maintained
the struggle, and in April 1633 a new league was formed at Heilbronn
between them and the representatives of four of the German circles,
while by a new agreement France continued to furnish monetary aid. Of
this alliance Sweden was the predominant member, but the German allies
had a certain voice in the direction of affairs, the military command
being divided between the Swedish general Horn and Bernhard, duke of
Saxe-Weimar. About this time some discontent arose in the allied army,
and to allay this Bernhard was granted the bishoprics of Wurzburg and of
Bamberg, with the title of duke of Franconia, but on the strange
condition that he should hold the duchy as the vassal of Sweden, not as
a vassal of the Empire. The war, thus revived, was waged principally in
the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine, the Swedes, seizing Alsace
while Bernhard captured Regensburg. Meanwhile Wallenstein was again
arousing the suspicions of his nominal allies. Instead of attacking the
enemy with his accustomed vigour, he withdrew into Bohemia and was
engaged in lengthy negotiations with the Saxon soldier and diplomatist,
Hans Georg von Arnim (1581-1641); his object being doubtless to come to
terms with Saxony and Brandenburg either with or without the emperor's
consent. His prime object was, however, to secure for himself a great
territorial position, possibly that of king of Bohemia, and it is
obvious that his aims and ambitions were diametrically opposed to the
ends desired by Ferdinand and by his Spanish and Bavarian allies. At
length he set his troops in motion. Having gained some successes in the
north-east of Germany he marched to succour the hardly pressed elector
of Bavaria; then suddenly abandoning this purpose he led his troops back
to Bohemia and left Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar in possession of the Danube
valley. It is not surprising that a cry, louder than ever, now arose for
his dismissal. Ferdinand did as he was required. In January 1634 he
declared Wallenstein deposed from his command, but he was still at the
head of an army when he was murdered in the following month at Eger.
Commanded now by the king of Hungary, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand
III., the imperialists retook Regensburg and captured Donauworth; then,
aided by some Spanish troops, they gained a victory at Nordlingen in
September 1634, the results of which were as decisive and as
satisfactory for them as the results of Breitenfeld had been for their
foes two years before.


  France takes part in the war.

The demoralization of the Swedes and their allies, which was a
consequence of the defeat at Nordlingen, was the opportunity of France.
Having by clever diplomacy placed garrisons in several places in Alsace
and the Palatinate, the king of France, or rather Cardinal Richelieu,
now entered the field as a principal, made a definite alliance with
Sweden at Compiegne in April 1635, and in the following month declared
war and put four armies in motion. But the thoughts of many had already
turned in the direction of peace, and in this manner John George of
Saxony took the lead, signing in May 1635 the important treaty of Prague
with the emperor. The vexed and difficult question of the ownership of
the ecclesiastical lands was settled by fixing November 1627 as the
deciding date; those who were in possession then were to retain them for
forty years, during which time it was hoped a satisfactory arrangement
would be reached. The Saxon elector gained some additions of territory
and promised to assist Ferdinand to recover any lands which had been
taken from him by the Swedes, or by other foes. For this purpose a
united army was to serve under an imperial general, and all leagues were
to be dissolved. In spite of the diplomatic efforts of Sweden the treaty
of Prague was accepted almost at once by the elector of Brandenburg, the
duke of Wurttemberg and other princes, and also by several of the most
important of the free cities. It was only, in fact, the failure of
Saxony and Sweden to come to terms which prevented a general peace in
Germany. The Thirty Years' War now took a different form. Its original
objects were almost forgotten and it was continued mainly to further the
ambitions of France, thus being a renewal of the great fight between the
houses of Habsburg and of Bourbon, and to secure for Sweden some
recompense for the efforts which she had put forward.


  Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar.

While the signatories of the peace of Prague were making ready to assist
the emperor the only Germans on the other side were found in the army
under Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. The final stage of the war opened with
considerable Swedish successes in the north of Germany, especially the
signal victory gained by them over the imperialists and the Saxons at
Wittstock in October 1636. At the same time good fortune was attending
the operations of the French in the Rhineland, where they were aided by
Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, a satisfactory financial arrangement between
these parties having been reached in the autumn of 1635. The year 1638
was an especially fortunate one for France and her allies. Bernhard's
capture of Rheinfelden and of Breisach gave them possession of the
surrounding districts, but dissensions arose concerning the division of
the spoil; these, however, were stopped by the death of Bernhard in July
1639, when France took his army into her pay. Thus the war continued,
but the desire for peace was growing stronger, and this was reflected in
the proceedings of the diet which met at Regensburg in 1640. Under Count
Torstenssen the Swedes defeated the imperialists at Breitenfeld in 1642;
three years later they gained another victory at Jankau and advanced
almost to Vienna, and then the last decisive move of the war was made by
the great French general, Turenne. Having been successful in the
Rhineland, where he had captured Philippsburg and Worms, Turenne joined
his forces to those of Sweden under Wrangel and advanced into Bavaria.
Ravaging the land, they compelled the elector Maximilian to sign a truce
and to withdraw his troops from the imperial army. When, however, the
allied army had retired Maximilian repented of his action. Again he
joined the emperor, but his punishment was swift and sure, as Turenne
and Wrangel again marched into the electorate and defeated the Bavarians
at Zusmarshausen, near Augsburg, in May 1648. A few minor operations
followed, and then came the welcome news of the conclusion of the
treaty of Westphalia.


  The peace of Westphalia.

The preliminary negotiations for peace were begun at Hamburg and Cologne
before the death of the emperor Ferdinand II. in 1637. By a treaty
signed at Hamburg in December 1641 it was agreed that peace conferences
should meet at Munster and at Osnabruck in March 1642, the emperor
treating with France in the former, and with Sweden in the latter city.
The Roman Catholic princes of the Empire were to be represented at
Munster and the Protestants at Osnabruck. Actually the conferences did
not meet until 1645, when the elector of Brandenburg had made, and the
elector of Saxony was about to make, a truce with Sweden, these two
countries being withdrawn from the ravages of the war. In three years
the many controversial questions were discussed and settled, and in
October 1648 the treaty of Westphalia was signed and the Thirty Years'
War was at an end.


  Effects of the Thirty Years' War.

The Thirty Years' War settled once for all the principle that men should
not be persecuted for their religious faith. It is true that the peace
of Westphalia formally recognized only the three creeds, Catholicism,
Lutheranism and Calvinism, but so much suffering had been caused by the
interference of the state with individual conviction, that toleration in
the largest sense, so far as law was concerned, was virtually conceded.
This was the sole advantage gained from the war by the Protestants. The
Catholics insisted at first on keeping all the ecclesiastical lands
which had been taken from them before the Edict of Restitution in 1629.
The Protestants responded by demanding that they should lose nothing
which they had held before 1618, when the war began. A compromise was at
last effected by both parties agreeing to the date 1624, an arrangement
which secured to the Catholics their gains in Bohemia and the other
territories of the house of Habsburg. The restoration of the elector
palatine to part of his lands, and his reinstatement in the electoral
office, were important concessions; but on the other hand, the duke of
Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate, the elector palatine becoming the
eighth and junior member of the electoral college.


  Loss of territory.

The country suffered enormous territorial losses by the war. Up to this
time the possession of Metz, Toul and Verdun by France had never been
officially recognized; now these bishoprics were formally conceded to
her. She also received as much of Alsace as belonged to Austria. To the
Swedes were granted Western Pomerania, with Stettin, and the
archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Verden. These acquisitions,
which surpassed the advantages Gustavus Adolphus had hoped to win, gave
Sweden the command both of the Baltic and of the North Sea. In virtue of
her German possessions Sweden became a member of the Empire; but France
obtained absolute control of her new territories. There was a further
diminution of Germany by the recognition of the independence of
Switzerland and the United Provinces. Both had long been virtually free;
they now for the first time took the position of distinct nations.


  The Reformation and the political constitution.

In the political constitution of Germany the peace of Westphalia did not
so much make changes as sanction those already effected. The whole
tendency of the Reformation had been to relax the bonds which united the
various elements of the state to each other and to their head. It
divided the nation into two hostile parties, and the emperor was not
able to assume towards them a perfectly impartial position. His imperial
crown imposed upon him the necessity of associating himself with the
Roman Catholics; so that the Protestants had a new and powerful reason
for looking upon him with jealousy, and trying to diminish his
authority. The Roman Catholics, while maintaining their religion, were
willing enough to co-operate with them for this object; and Germany
often saw the strange spectacle of princes rallying round the emperor
for the defence of the church, and at the same time striking deadly
blows at his political influence. The diet was a scene of perpetual
quarrelling between the two factions, and their differences made it
impossible for the imperial chamber to move beyond the region of
official routine. Thus before the Thirty Years' War the Empire had
virtually ceased to exist, Germany having become a loose confederation
of principalities and free cities. For a moment the emperor Ferdinand
appeared to have touched the ideal of Charles V. in so far, at least, as
it related to Germany, but only for a moment. The stars in their courses
fought against him, and at the time of his death he saw how far beyond
his power were the forces with which even Charles had been unable to
contend. The state of things which actually existed the peace of
Westphalia made legal. So nearly complete was the independence of the
states that each received the right to form alliances with any of the
others, or with foreign powers, nominally on condition that their
alliances should not be injurious to the emperor or to the Empire. Any
authority which still lawfully belonged to the emperor was transferred
to the diet. It alone had now the power of making laws, of concluding
treaties in the name of Germany, and of declaring war and
re-establishing peace. No one, however, expected that it would be of any
real service. From 1663 it became a permanent body, and was attended
only by the representatives of the princes and the cities; and from that
time it occupied itself mainly with trifles, leaving the affairs of each
state to be looked after by its own authorities, and those of the
country generally to such fortunes as chance should determine.


  Continuance of the empire.

It would not have been strange if so shadowy an Empire had been brought
altogether to an end. Some slight bond of connexion was, however,
necessary for defence against common dangers; and the Empire had existed
so long, and so many great associations were connected with it, that it
seemed to all parties preferable to any other form of union. Moreover,
Sweden, and other states which were now members of the Empire, warmly
supported it; and the house of Habsburg, on which it reflected a certain
splendour, would not willingly have let it die. An Austrian ruler, even
when he spoke only in the name of Austria, derived authority from the
fact that as emperor he represented many of the greatest memories of
European history.


  National life.

The effect of the Thirty Years' War on the national life was disastrous.
It had not been carried on by disciplined armies, but by hordes of
adventurers whose sole object was plunder. The cruelties they inflicted
on their victims are almost beyond conception. Before the war the
population was nearly twenty millions; after it the number was probably
about six millions. Whole towns and villages were laid in ashes, and
vast districts turned into deserts. Churches and schools were closed by
hundreds, and to such straits were the people often reduced that
cannibalism is said to have been not uncommon. Industry and trade were
so completely paralysed that in 1635 the Hanseatic League was virtually
broken up, because the members, once so wealthy, could not meet the
necessary expenditure. The population was not only impoverished and
reduced in numbers but broken in spirit. It lost confidence in itself,
and for a time effected in politics, literature, art and science little
that is worthy of serious study.


  The princes.

  The cities.

The princes knew well how to profit by the national prostration. The
local diets, which, as we have seen, formed a real check on petty
tyranny, and kept up an intimate relation between the princes and their
subjects, were nearly all destroyed. Those which remained were injurious
rather than beneficial, since they often gave an appearance of
lawfulness to the caprices of arbitrary sovereigns. After the Thirty
Years' War it became fashionable for the heirs of principalities to
travel, and especially to spend some time at the court of France. Here
they readily imbibed the ideas of Louis XIV., and in a short time nearly
every petty court in Germany was a feeble imitation of Versailles.
Before the Reformation, and even for some time after it, the princes
were thorough Germans in sympathies and habits; they now began to be
separated by a wide gulf from their people. Instead of studying the
general welfare, they wrung from exhausted states the largest possible
revenue to support a lavish and ridiculous expenditure. The pettiest
princeling had his army, his palaces, his multitudes of household
officers; and most of them pampered every vulgar appetite without
respect either to morality or to decency. Many nobles, whose lands had
been wasted during the war, flocked to the little capitals to make their
way by contemptible court services. Beneath an outward gloss of
refinement these nobles were, as a class, coarse and selfish, and they
made it their chief object to promote their own interests by fostering
absolutist tendencies. Among the people there was no public opinion to
discourage despotism; the majority accepted their lot as inevitable, and
tried rather to reproduce than to restrain the vices of their rulers.
Even the churches offered little opposition to the excesses of persons
in authority, and in many instances the clergy, both Protestant and
Catholic, acquired an unenviable notoriety for their readiness to
overlook or condone actions which outraged the higher sentiments of
humanity. In the free imperial cities there was more manliness of tone
than elsewhere, but there was little of the generous rivalry among the
different classes which had once raised them to a high level of
prosperity. Most of them resigned their liberties into the hands of
oligarchies, and others allowed themselves to be annexed by ambitious
princes. (A. W. H.*)


  Ferdinand III.

  Leopold I.

  Louis XIV. of France.

  War of Spanish Succession.

Ferdinand III. succeeded to the throne when the fortunes of his house
were at a low ebb, and he continued the Thirty Years' War, not in the
hope of re-establishing the Roman Catholic religion or of restoring the
imperial authority, but of remedying as far as he could the havoc caused
by his father's recklessness. After the conclusion of peace nothing
happened to make his reign memorable. His son Leopold I. was a man of
narrow intellect and feeble will; yet Germany seldom so keenly felt the
need of a strong emperor, for she had during two generations to contend
with a watchful and grasping rival. For more than a century it had been
the policy of France to strengthen herself by fostering the internal
dissensions of Germany. This was now easy, and Louis XIV. made
unscrupulous use of the advantages his predecessors had helped to gain
for him. Germany, as a whole, could not for a long time be induced to
resist him. His schemes directly threatened the independence of the
princes; but they were too indolent to unite against his ambition. They
grudged even the contributions necessary for the maintenance of the
frontier fortresses, and many of them stooped to accept the bribes he
offered them on condition that they should remain quiet. In his war with
the United Provinces and Spain, begun in 1672, he was opposed by the
emperor as ruler of Austria, and by Frederick William, the elector of
Brandenburg; and in 1675 the latter gained a splendid victory at
Fehrbellin over his allies, the Swedes. At the end of the war, in 1678,
by the peace of Nijmwegen, Louis took care that Frederick William should
be deprived of the fruits of his victory, and Austria had to resign
Freiburg im Breisgau to the French. Under the pretence that when France
gained the Austrian lands in Alsace she also acquired a right to all
places that had ever been united to them, Louis began a series of
systematic robberies of German towns and territories. "Chambers of
Reunion" were appointed to give an appearance of legality to these
proceedings, which culminated, in 1681, in the seizure of Strassburg.
Germans of all states and ranks were indignant at so gross a
humiliation, but even the loss of Strassburg did not suffice to move the
diet. The emperor himself might probably have interfered, but Louis had
provided him with ample employment by stirring up against him the
Hungarians and the Turks. So complete was his hold over the majority of
the princes that when the Turks, in 1683, surrounded Vienna, and
appeared not unlikely to advance into the heart of Germany, they looked
on indifferently, and allowed the emperor to be saved by the promptitude
and courage of John Sobieski, king of Poland. At last, when, in 1689, on
the most frivolous pretext, Louis poured into southern Germany armies
which were guilty of shameful outrages, a number of princes came forward
and aided the emperor. This time France was sternly opposed by the
league of which William III. of England was the moving spirit; and
although at the end of the war he kept Strassburg, he had to give up
Freiburg, Philipsburg, Breisach, and the places he had seized because of
their former connexion with Alsace. In the War of the Spanish Succession
two powerful princes, the elector of Bavaria and the elector of Cologne,
joined Louis; but as the states of the Empire declared war against him
in 1702, the other princes, more or less loyally, supported the emperor
and his allies. Leopold died during the progress of this war, but it was
vigorously continued by his son Joseph I.


  Charles VI.

  Pragmatic sanction.

Joseph's brother and successor, Charles VI., also went on with it; and
such were the blows inflicted on France by the victories of Blenheim,
Ramillies and Malplaquet that the war was generally expected to end in
her utter discomfiture. But the conclusion of the treaty of Utrecht by
England, in 1713, so limited the military power of Charles VI. that he
was obliged to resign the claims of Austria to the Spanish throne, and
to content himself with the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples and
Sardinia. He cared so little for Germany, as distinguished from Austria,
that he allowed Louis to compel the diet to cede the imperial fortress
of Landau. At a later stage in his reign he was guilty of an act of even
grosser selfishness; for after the War of the Polish Succession, in
which he supported the claims of Augustus III., elector of Saxony, he
yielded Lorraine to Stanislaus Leszczynski, whose claims had been
defended by France, and through whom France ultimately secured this
beautiful German province. Having no son, Charles drew up in 1713 the
pragmatic sanction, which ordained that, in the event of an Austrian
ruler being without male heirs, his hereditary lands and titles should
pass to his nearest female relative. The aim of his whole policy was to
secure for this measure, which was proclaimed as a fundamental law in
1724, the approval of Europe; and by promises and threats he did at last
obtain the guarantee of the states of the Empire and the leading
European powers.


  Growth of Prussia.

  Maria Theresa.

Germany was now about to be aroused from the torpor into which she had
been cast by the Thirty Years' War; but her awakening was due, not to
the action of the Empire, which was more and more seen to be practically
dead, but to the rivalry of two great German states, Austria and
Prussia. The latter had long been laying the foundations of her power.
Brandenburg, the centre of the Prussian kingdom, was, as we have seen,
granted in the 15th century by the emperor Sigismund to Frederick, count
of Hohenzollern. In his hands, and in those of his prudent successors,
it became one of the most flourishing of the North-German
principalities. At the time of the Reformation Albert, a member of a
subordinate branch of the house of Hohenzollern, happened to be grand
master of the Teutonic Order. He became a Protestant, dissolved the
order, and received in fief of the king of Poland the duchy of Prussia.
In 1611 this duchy fell by inheritance to the elector of Brandenburg,
and by the treaty of Wehlau, in 1657, in the time of Frederick William,
the Great Elector, it was declared independent of Poland. By skill,
foresight and courage Frederick William managed to add largely to his
territories; and in an age of degenerate sovereigns he was looked upon
as an almost model ruler. His son, Frederick, aspired to royal dignity,
and in 1701, having obtained the emperor's assent, was crowned king of
Prussia. The extravagance of Frederick drained the resources of his
state, but this was amply atoned for by the rigid economy of Frederick
William I., who not only paid off the debts accumulated by his father,
but amassed an enormous treasure. He so organized all branches of the
public service that they were brought to a point of high efficiency, and
his army was one of the largest, best appointed and best trained in
Europe (see PRUSSIA: _History_). He died in 1740, and within six months,
when Frederick II. was on the Prussian throne, Maria Theresa claimed, in
virtue of the pragmatic sanction, the lands and hereditary titles of her
father Charles VI.


  Frederick the Great.

  First Silesian War.

  Charles VII.

  Second Silesian War.

Frederick II., a young, ambitious and energetic sovereign, longed not
only to add to his dominions but to play a great part in European
politics. His father had guaranteed the pragmatic sanction, but as the
conditions on which the guarantee had been granted had not been
fulfilled by Charles VI., Frederick did not feel bound by it, and
revived some old claims of his family on certain Silesian duchies. Maria
Theresa would not abate her rights, but before she could assert them
Frederick had entered Silesia and made himself master of it. Meanwhile,
the elector of Bavaria had come forward and disputed Maria Theresa's
right to the succession, and the elector of Saxony had also put in a
claim to the Austrian lands. Taking advantage of these disputes, France
formed an alliance with the two electors and with the king of Prussia
against Austria; and in the war which followed the allies were at first
so successful that the elector of Bavaria, through the influence of
France, was crowned emperor as Charles VII. (1742-1745). Maria Theresa,
a woman of a noble and undaunted spirit, appealed, with her infant son,
afterwards Joseph II., in her arms, to the Hungarian diet, and the
enthusiastic Magyars responded chivalrously to her call. To be more at
freedom she concluded peace with Frederick, and ceded Silesia to him,
although greatly against her will. Saxony also was pacified and retired
from the struggle. After this Maria Theresa, supported by England, made
way so rapidly and so triumphantly that Frederick became alarmed for his
new possessions; and in 1742 he once more proclaimed war against her,
nominally in aid of the emperor, Charles VII. Ultimately, in 1748, she
was able to conclude an honourable peace at Aix-la-Chapelle; but she had
been forced, as before, to rid herself of Frederick by confirming him in
the sovereignty of the territory he had seized.


  Francis I.

After the death of Charles VII., Francis, grand duke of Tuscany, Maria
Theresa's husband, was elected emperor. Francis I. (1745-1765), an
amiable nonentity, with the instincts of a shopkeeper, made no pretence
of discharging important imperial duties, and the task of ruling the
hereditary possessions of the house of Habsburg fell wholly to the
empress-queen. She executed it with discretion and vigour, so that
Austria in her hands was known to be one of the most formidable powers
in the world. Her rival, Frederick II., was, if possible, still more
active. It did not occur to him, any more than to the other German
sovereigns of the 18th century, to associate his people with him in the
government of the country; he was in every respect a thoroughly absolute
sovereign. But he shared the highest ideas of the age respecting the
responsibilities of a king, and throughout his long reign acted in the
main faithfully as "the first servant of the state." The army he always
kept in readiness for war; but he also encouraged peaceful arts, and
diffused throughout his kingdom so much of his own alert and aggressive
spirit that the Prussians became more intelligent and more wealthy than
they had ever before been. He excited the admiration of the youth of
Germany, and it was soon the fashion among the petty princes to imitate
his methods of government. As a rule, they succeeded only in raising far
larger armies than the taxpayers could afford to maintain.


  The Seven Years' War, 1756-1763.

Maria Theresa never gave up the hope of winning back Silesia, and, in
order to secure this object, she laid aside the jealousies of her house,
and offered to conclude an alliance with France. Frederick had excited
the envy of surrounding sovereigns, and had embittered them against him
by stinging sarcasms. Not only France, therefore, but Russia, Saxony and
ultimately Sweden, willingly came to terms with Austria, and the aim of
their union was nothing short of the partition of Prussia. Frederick,
gaining knowledge of the plot, turned to England, which had in the
previous war helped Austria. At the close of 1755 his offer of an
alliance was acceded to; and in the following year, hoping by vigorously
taking the initiative to prevent his enemies from united action, he
invaded Saxony, and began the Seven Years' War (q.v.), the result of
which was to confirm Prussia in the possession of Silesia.

Prussia now took rank as one of the leading European powers, and by her
rise a new element was introduced into the political life of Germany.
Austria, although associated with the Empire, could no longer feel sure
of her predominance, and it was inevitable that the jealousies of the
two states should lead to a final conflict for supremacy. Even before
the Seven Years' War there were signs that the German people were
beginning to tire of incessant imitation of France, for in literature
they welcomed the early efforts of Klopstock, Wieland and Lessing; but
the movement received a powerful impulse from the great deeds of
Frederick. The nation, as a whole, was proud of him, and began, for the
first time since the Thirty Years' War, to feel that it might once more
assume a commanding place in the world.


  Partition of Poland.

  Joseph II.

In 1772 the necessities of Frederick's position compelled him to join
Russia and Austria in the deplorable partition of Poland, whereby he
gained West Prussia, exclusive of Danzig and Thorn, and Austria acquired
West Silesia. After this he had to watch closely the movements of the
emperor Joseph II., who, although an ardent admirer of Frederick, was
anxious to restore to Austria the greatness she had partially lost. The
younger branch of the Wittelsbach line, which had hitherto possessed
Bavaria, having died out in 1777, Joseph asserted claims to part of its
territory. Frederick intervened, and although no battle was fought in
the nominal war which followed, the emperor was obliged to content
himself with a very unimportant concession. He made a second attempt in
1785, but Frederick again came forward. This time he formed a league
(_Furstenbund_) for the defence of the imperial constitution, and it was
joined by the majority of the small states. The memory of this league
was almost blotted out by the tremendous events which soon absorbed the
attention of Germany and the world, but it truly indicated the direction
of the political forces which were then at work beneath the surface, and
which long afterwards triumphed. The formation of the league was a
distinct attempt on the part of Prussia to make herself the centre for
the national aspirations both of northern and of southern Germany.


  French Revolution.

The French Revolution was hailed by many of the best minds of Germany as
the opening of a new era. Among the princes it excited horror and alarm,
and in 1792 the emperor Leopold II. and Frederick William II., the
unworthy successor of Frederick the Great, met at Pillnitz, and agreed
to support by arms the cause of the French king. A more important
resolution was never taken. It plunged Europe into a conflict which cost
millions of lives, and which overthrew the entire states system of the
continent. Germany herself was the principal sufferer. The structure
which the princes had so laboriously built up crumbled into ruins, and
the mistakes of centuries were expiated in an agony of disaster and
humiliation.


  End of the Holy Roman Empire.

The states of the Empire joined Austria and Prussia, and, had there been
hearty co-operation between the allies, they could scarcely have failed
of success. While the war was in progress, in 1793, Prussia joined
Russia in the second partition of Poland. Austria considered herself
overreached, and began negotiations with Russia for the third and final
partition, which was effected by the three powers in 1795. Prussia,
irritated by the proceedings of her rival, did as little as possible in
the war with France; and in 1795 she retired from the struggle, and by
the treaty of Basel ceded to the French republic her possessions on the
left bank of the Rhine. The war was continued by Austria, but her power
was so effectually shattered by blow after blow that in 1797 she was
forced to conclude the peace of Campo Formio. Napoleon Bonaparte, to
whose genius the triumph of France was mainly due, began separate
negotiations with the states of the Empire at Rastadt; but, before terms
could be agreed upon, war again began in 1799, Austria acting on this
occasion as the ally of Great Britain and Russia. She was beaten, and
the peace of Luneville added fresh humiliations to those imposed upon
her by the previous war. France now obtained the whole of the left bank
of the Rhine, the dispossessed princes being compensated by grants of
secularized church lands and of mediatized imperial cities (1803). The
contempt of Napoleon for the Empire was illustrated by his occupation
of Hanover in 1803, and by his seizure of the duke of Enghien on
imperial territory in 1804. In 1805 Austria once more appealed to arms
in association with her former allies, but in vain. By the peace of
Presburg she accepted more disastrous terms than ever, and for the
moment it seemed as if she could not again hope to rise to her former
splendour. In this war she was opposed not only by France, but by
Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Baden, all of which were liberally rewarded for
their services, the rulers of the two former countries being proclaimed
kings. The degradation of Germany was completed by the formation, in
1806, of the Confederation of the Rhine, which was composed of the chief
central and southern states. The welfare of the Empire was asserted to
be its object, but a body of which Napoleon was the protector existed,
of course, for no other purpose than to be a menace to Austria and
Prussia. Francis II., who had succeeded Leopold II. in 1792 and in 1804
had proclaimed himself hereditary emperor of Austria, as Francis I., now
resigned the imperial crown, and thus the Holy Roman Empire and the
German kingdom came to an end. The various states, which had for
centuries been virtually independent, were during the next few years not
connected even by a nominal bond.     (J. Si.)


  Prussia defeated at Jena.

Frederick William III. (1797-1840) of Prussia, the successor of
Frederick William II., had held aloof from the struggle of Austria with
France. This attitude had been dictated partly by his constitutional
timidity, partly by the desire to annex Hanover, to which Austria and
Russia would never have assented, but which Napoleon was willing to
concede in return for a Prussian alliance. The Confederation of the
Rhine, however, was a menace to Prussia too serious to be neglected; and
Frederick William's hesitations were suddenly ended by Napoleon's
contemptuous violation of Prussian territory in marching three French
brigades through Ansbach without leave asked. The king at once concluded
a convention with the emperor Alexander I. of Russia and declared war on
France. The campaign that ended in the disastrous battle of Jena
(October 14, 1806) followed; and the prestige of the Prussian arms,
created by Frederick the Great, perished at a blow. With the aid of
Russia Frederick William held out a while longer, but after Napoleon's
decisive victory at Friedland (June 14, 1807) the tsar came to terms
with the French emperor, sacrificing the interests of his ally. By the
treaty of Tilsit (July 9) the king of Prussia was stripped of the best
part of his dominions and more than half his subjects.


  Napoleon in power.

Germany now seemed fairly in the grip of Napoleon. Early in November
1806 he had contemptuously deposed the elector of Hesse and added his
dominions to Jerome's kingdom of Westphalia; on the 21st of the same
month he issued from Berlin the famous decree establishing the
"continental system," which, by forbidding all trade with England,
threatened German commerce with ruin. His triumph seemed complete when,
on the 11th of October 1807, Metternich signed at Fontainebleau, on
behalf of Austria, a convention that conceded all his outstanding
claims, and seemed to range the Habsburg monarchy definitely on his
side. There was, however, to be one final struggle before Napoleon's
supremacy was established. The submission of Austria had been but an
expedient for gaining time; under Count Stadion's auspices she set to
work increasing and reorganizing her forces; and when it became clear
from Napoleon's resentment that he was meditating fresh designs against
her she declared war (1809). The campaign ended in the crushing defeat
of Wagram (July 6) and the humiliating treaty of peace dictated by
Napoleon at the palace of Schonbrunn in Vienna (October 14). Austria,
shorn of her fairest provinces, robbed of her oversea commerce, bankrupt
and surrounded on all sides by the territories of the French emperor and
his allies, seemed to exist only on sufferance, and had ceased to have
any effective authority in Germany--now absolutely in the power of
Napoleon, who proved this in 1810 by annexing the whole of the northern
coast as far as the Elbe to his empire.


  Revival of Germany.

The very completeness of the humiliation of Germany was the means of her
deliverance. She had been taught self-respect by Frederick II., and by
her great writers in literature and philosophy; it was felt to be
intolerable that in politics she should do the bidding of a foreign
master. Among a large section of the community patriotism became for the
first time a consuming passion, and it was stimulated by the counsels of
several manly teachers, among whom the first place belongs to the
philosopher Fichte. The governments cautiously took advantage of the
national movement to strengthen their position. Even in Austria, where
on the 8th of October 1809 Metternich had become minister for foreign
affairs and the dominant influence in the councils of the empire, some
timely concessions were made to the various populations. Prussia, under
the guidance of her great minister Stein, reorganized her entire
administration. She abolished serfdom, granted municipal rights to the
cities, established an admirable system of elementary and secondary
education, and invited all classes to compete for civil offices; and
ample means were provided for the approaching struggle by drastic
military reform. Napoleon had extracted an engagement that the Prussian
army should be limited to 42,000 men. This was fulfilled in the letter,
but in spirit set aside, for one body of men was trained after another
until the larger part of the male population were in a position, when a
fitting opportunity should occur, to take up arms for their country.


  War of Liberation.

The disastrous retreat of the French from Moscow in 1812 gave Germany
the occasion she desired. In 1813 King Frederick William, after an agony
of hesitation, was forced by the patriotic initiative of General Yorck,
who concluded with the Russians the convention of Tauroggen on his own
responsibility, and by the pressure of public opinion supported by Queen
Louise and by Hardenberg, to enter into an alliance with Russia. All now
depended on the attitude of Austria; and this was for some time
doubtful. The diplomacy of Metternich (q.v.), untouched by the patriotic
fervour which he disliked and distrusted, was directed solely to gaining
time to enable Austria to intervene with decisive effect and win for the
Habsburg monarchy the position it had lost. When the time came, after
the famous interview with Napoleon at Dresden, and the breakdown of the
abortive congress of Prague, Austria threw in her lot with the allies.
The campaign that followed, after some initial reverses, culminated in
the crushing victory of the allies at Leipzig (October 16-18, 1813), and
was succeeded by the joint invasion of France, during which the German
troops wreaked vengeance on the unhappy population for the wrongs and
violences of the French rule in Germany.

Long before the issue of the War of Liberation had been finally decided,
diplomacy had been at work in an endeavour to settle the future
constitution of Germany. In this matter, as in others, the weakness of
the Prussian government played into the hands of Austria. Metternich had
been allowed to take the initiative in negotiating with the princes of
the Confederation of the Rhine, and the price of their adhesion to the
cause of the allies had been the guarantee by Austria of their
independent sovereignty. The guarantee had been willingly given; for
Metternich had no desire to see the creation of a powerful unified
German empire, but aimed at the establishment of a loose confederation
of weak states over which Austria, by reason of her ancient imperial
prestige and her vast non-German power, would exercise a dominant
influence. This, then, was the view that prevailed, and by the treaty of
Chaumont (March 1, 1814) it was decided that Germany should consist of a
confederation of sovereign states.


  The German confederation.

The new constitution of Germany, as embodied in the Final Act of the
congress of Vienna (June 9, 1815) was based on this principle. It was
the work of a special committee of the congress, presided over by
Metternich; and, owing to the panic created by Napoleon's return from
Elba (March 5), it remained a mere sketch, the hasty output of a few
hurried sessions, of which the elaboration was reserved for the future.
In spite of the clamour of the mediatized princes for the restoration
of their "liberties," no attempt was made to reverse the essential
changes in the territorial disposition of Germany made during the
revolutionary epoch. Of the 300 odd territorial sovereignties under the
Holy Empire only 39 survived, and these were readjusted on the
traditional principles of "compensations," "rectification of frontiers"
and "balance of power." The most fateful arrangements were naturally
those that affected the two leading powers, Austria and Prussia. The
latter had made strenuous efforts, supported by Alexander I. of Russia,
to obtain the annexation of the whole of Saxony, a project which was
defeated by the opposition of Great Britain, Austria and France, an
opposition which resulted in the secret treaty of the 3rd of January
1815 for eventual armed intervention. She received, however, the
northern part of Saxony, Swedish Pomerania, Posen and those
territories--formerly part of the kingdom of Westphalia--which
constitute her Rhine provinces. While Prussia was thus established on
the Rhine, Austria, by exchanging the Netherlands for Lombardo-Venetia
and abandoning her claims to the former Habsburg possessions in Swabia,
definitively resigned to Prussia the task of defending the western
frontier of Germany, while she strengthened her power in the south-east
by recovering from Bavaria, Salzburg, Vorarlberg and Tirol. Bavaria, in
her turn, received back the greater part of the Palatinate on the left
bank of the Rhine, with a strip of territory to connect it with the main
body of her dominions. For the rest the sovereigns of Wurttemberg and
Saxony retained the title of king bestowed upon them by Napoleon, and
this title was also given to the elector of Hanover; the dukes of
Weimar, Mecklenburg and Oldenburg became grand dukes; and Lubeck,
Bremen, Hamburg and Frankfort were declared free cities.


  The federal diet.

As the central organ of this confederation (_Bund_) was established the
federal diet (_Bundestag_), consisting of delegates of the several
states. By the terms of the Final Act this diet had very wide powers for
the development of the mutual relations of the governments in all
matters of common interest. It was empowered to arrange the fundamental
laws of the confederation; to fix the organic institutions relating to
its external, internal and military arrangements; to regulate the trade
relations between the various federated states. Moreover, by the famous
Article 13, which enacted that there were to be "assemblies of estates"
in all the countries of the _Bund_, the constitutional liberties of the
German people seemed to be placed under its aegis. But the constitution
of the diet from the first condemned its debates to sterility. In the
so-called narrower assembly (_Engere Versammlung_), for the transaction
of ordinary business, Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover,
Wurttemberg, Baden, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Holstein and
Luxemburg had one vote each; while the remaining twenty-eight states
were divided into six _curiae_, of which each had but a single vote. In
this assembly a vote of the majority decided. Questions of more than
usual importance were, however, to be settled in the general assembly
(_Plenum_) where a two-thirds majority was necessary to carry a
resolution. In this assembly the voting power was somewhat differently
distributed; but the attempt to make it bear some proportion to the
importance of the various states worked out so badly that Austria had
only four times the voting power of the tiny principality of
Liechtenstein. Finally it was laid down by Article 7 that a unanimous
vote was necessary for changing "fundamental laws, organic institutions,
individual rights, or in matters of religion," a formula wide enough to
embrace every question of importance with which the diet might be called
upon to deal. Austria, in virtue of her tradition, received the
perpetual presidency of the diet. It was clear that in such a governing
body neither Austria nor Prussia would be content with her
constitutional position, and that the internal politics of Germany would
resolve themselves into a diplomatic duel for ascendancy between the two
powers, for which the diet would merely serve as a convenient arena.

In this duel the victory of Austria was soon declared. The Prussian
government believed that the effective government of Germany could only
be secured by a separate understanding between the two great powers; and
the indiscretion of the Prussian plenipotentiary revealed to the diet a
plan for what meant practically the division of Germany into Prussian
and Austrian spheres of influence. This threw the lesser princes,
already alarmed at the growth of Prussian military power, into the arms
of Austria, which thus secured a permanent majority in the diet. To
avoid any possible modification of a situation so satisfactory, Count
Buol, the Austrian president of the diet, was instructed to announce
that the constitution as fixed by the Final Act, and guaranteed by
Europe, must be regarded as final; that it might be interpreted, but not
altered.

The conception of the diet as a sort of international board of control,
responsible in the last resort not to Germany but to Europe, exactly
suited Metternich's policy, in which the interests of Germany were
subordinate to the wider ambitions of the Habsburg monarchy. It was,
moreover, largely justified by the constituent elements of the diet
itself. Of the German states represented in it even Prussia, by the
acquisition of Posen, had become a non-German power; the Habsburg
monarchy was predominantly non-German; Hanover was attached to the crown
of Great Britain, Holstein to that of Denmark, Luxemburg to that of the
Netherlands. The diet, then, properly controlled, was capable of being
converted into an effective instrument for furthering the policy of
"stability" which Metternich sought to impose upon Europe. Its one
effort to make its authority effective as the guardian of the
constitution, in the matter of the repudiation of the Westphalian debt
and of the sale of the domains by the elector of Hesse, was crushed by
the indignant intervention of Austria. Henceforth its sole effective
function was to endorse and promulgate the decrees of the government of
Vienna.


  The question of constitutions.

In this respect the diet fairly reflected the place of Germany in
Europe. The constitution was the work of the powers, which in all
matters arising out of it constituted the final court of appeal. The
result was not wholly one-sided. Until the congress of Troppau in 1820
"Jacobinism" was still enthroned in high places in the person of
Alexander I. of Russia, whose "divine mission," for the time, included a
not wholly disinterested advocacy of the due carrying out of Article 13
of the Final Act. It was not to Russia's interest to see Austrian
influence supreme in the confederation. The lesser German princes, too,
were quick to grasp at any means to strengthen their position against
the dominant powers, and to this end they appealed to the Liberal
sentiment of their peoples. Not that this sentiment was very deep or
widespread. The mass of the people, as Metternich rightly observed,
wished for rest, not constitutions; but the minority of thoughtful
men--professors, students, officials, many soldiers--resented the
dashing of the hopes of German unity aroused by the War of Liberation,
and had drunk deep of the revolutionary inspiration. This sentiment,
since it could not be turned to the uses of a united Germany, might be
made to serve the purposes of particularism. Prussia, in spite of the
promises of Frederick William in the hour of need, remained without a
central constitution; all the more reason why the states of second rank
should provide themselves with one. Charles Augustus, the enlightened
grand duke of Weimar, set the example, from the best of motives.
Bavaria, Baden, Wurttemberg and others followed, from motives less
disinterested. Much depended on the success of these experiments.


  Metternich and the constitutions.

  The Wartburg festival, 1818.

To Metternich they were wholly unwelcome. In spite of the ring-fence of
censors, and custom-house officers, there was danger of the Liberal
infection spreading to Austria, with disintegrating results; and the
pose of the tsar as protector of German liberties was a perpetual
menace. The zeal and inexperience of German Liberals played into his
hands. The patriotism and Pan-Germanism of the gymnastic societies
(_Turnvereine_) and students' associations (_Burschenschaften_)
expressed themselves with more noise than discretion; in the
South-German parliaments the platitudes and catchwords of the Revolution
were echoed. Soon, in Baden, in Wurttemberg, in Bavaria, the sovereigns
and the chambers were at odds, united only in a common opposition to the
central authority. To sovereigns whose nerves had been shattered by the
vicissitudes of the revolutionary epoch these symptoms were in the
highest degree alarming; and Metternich was at pains to exaggerate their
significance. The "Wartburg festival" of October 1818, which issued in
nothing worse than the solemn burning, in imitation of Dr Martin Luther,
of Kamptz's police law, a corporal's cane and an uhlan's stays, was
magnified into a rebellion; drew down upon the grand duke of Weimar a
collective protest of the powers; and set in motion the whole machinery
of reaction. The murder of the dramatist Kotzebue, as an agent of this
reaction, in the following year, by a fanatical student named Karl Sand,
clinched the matter; it became obvious to the governments that a policy
of rigorous repression was necessary if a fresh revolution were to be
avoided. In October, after a preliminary meeting between Metternich and
Hardenberg, in the course of which the latter signed a convention
pledging Prussia to Austria's system, a meeting of German ministers was
held at Carlsbad, the discussion of which issued in the famous Carlsbad
Decrees (October 17, 1819). These contained elaborate provisions for
supervising the universities and muzzling the press, laying down that no
constitution "inconsistent with the monarchical principle" should be
granted, and setting up a central commission at Mainz to inquire into
the machinations of the great revolutionary secret society which existed
only in the imagination of the authorities. The Carlsbad Decrees,
hurried through the diet under Austrian pressure, excited considerable
opposition among the lesser sovereigns, who resented the claim of the
diet to interfere in the internal concerns of their states, and whose
protests at Frankfort had been expunged from the records. The king of
Wurttemberg, ever the champion of German "particularism," gave
expression to his feelings by issuing a new constitution to his kingdom,
and appealed to his relative, the emperor Alexander, who had not yet
been won over by Metternich to the policy of war _a outrance_ against
reform, and took this occasion to issue a fresh manifesto of his Liberal
creed.

At the conference of ministers which met at Vienna, on the 20th of
November, for the purpose of "developing and completing the Federal Act
of the congress of Vienna," Metternich found himself face to face with a
more formidable opposition than at Carlsbad. The "middle" states, headed
by Wurttemberg, had drawn together, to form the nucleus of an inner
league of "pure German States" against Austria and Prussia, and of
"Liberal particularism" against the encroachments of the diet. With
Russia and, to a certain extent, Great Britain sympathetic, it was
impossible to ignore their opposition. Moreover, Prussia was hardly
prepared to endorse a policy of greatly strengthening the authority of
the diet, which might have been fatal to the Customs Union of which she
was laying the foundation. Metternich realized the situation, and
yielded so gracefully that he gave his temporary defeat the air of a
victory. The result was that the Vienna Final Act (May 15,1820), which
received the sanction of the diet on the 8th of June, was not
unsatisfactory to the lesser states while doing nothing to lessen
Austrian prestige. This instrument merely defined more clearly the
principles of the Federal Act of 1815. So far from enlarging the powers
of the diet, it reaffirmed the doctrine of non-intervention; and, above
all, it renewed the clause forbidding any fundamental modification of
the constitution without a unanimous vote. On the vexed question of the
interpretation of Article 13 Metternich recognized the inexpediency of
requiring the South German states to revise their constitutions in a
reactionary sense. By Articles 56 and 57, however, it was laid down that
constitutions could only be altered by constitutional means; that the
complete authority of the state must remain united in its head; and that
the sovereign could be bound to co-operate with the estates only in the
exercise of particular rights. These provisions, in fact, secured for
Metternich all that was necessary for the success of his policy: the
maintenance of the _status quo_. So long as the repressive machinery
instituted by the Carlsbad Decrees worked smoothly, Germany was not
likely to be troubled by revolutions.


  Revolutions of 1830.

The period that followed was one, outwardly at least, of political
stagnation. The Mainz Commission, though hampered by the jealousy of the
governments (the king of Prussia refused to allow his subjects to be
haled before it), was none the less effective enough in preventing all
free expression of opinion; while at the universities the official
"curators" kept Liberal enthusiasts in order. The exuberance of the
epoch of Liberation gave place to a dull lethargy in things political,
relieved only by the Philhellenism which gave voice to the aspirations
of Germany under the disguise of enthusiasm for Greece. Even the July
revolution of 1830 in Paris reacted but partially and spasmodically on
Germany. In Hanover, Brunswick, Saxony and Hesse-Cassel popular
movements led to the granting of constitutions, and in the states
already constitutional Liberal concessions were made or promised. But
the governments of Prussia and Austria were unaffected; and when the
storm had died down Metternich was able, with the aid of the federal
diet, to resume his task of holding "the Revolution" in check. No
attempt was, indeed, made to restore the deposed duke of Brunswick, who
by universal consent had richly deserved his fate; but the elector of
Hesse could reckon on the sympathy of the diet in his struggle with the
chambers (see HESSE-CASSEL), and when, in 1837, King Ernest Augustus of
Hanover inaugurated his reign by restoring the old illiberal
constitution abolished in 1831, the diet refused to interfere. It was
left to the seven professors of Gottingen to protest; who, deprived of
their posts, became as famous in the constitutional history of Germany
as the seven bishops in that of England.


  The Prussian system.

Yet this period was by no means sterile in developments destined to
produce momentous results. In Prussia especially the government
continued active in organizing and consolidating the heterogeneous
elements introduced into the monarchy by the settlement of 1815. The
task was no easy one. There was no sense of national unity between the
Catholics of the Rhine provinces, long submitted to the influence of
liberal France, and the Lutheran squires of the mark of Brandenburg, the
most stereotyped class in Europe; there was little in common between
either and the Polish population of the province of Posen. The Prussian
monarchy, the traditional champion of Protestant orthodoxy, found the
new Catholic elements difficult to assimilate; and premonitory symptoms
were not wanting of a revival of the secular contest between the
spiritual and temporal powers which was to culminate after the
promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility (1870) in the
_Kulturkampf_. These conditions formed the excuse for the continual
postponement of the promised constitution. But the narrow piety of
Frederick William III. was less calculated to promote the success of a
benevolent despotism than the contemptuous scepticism of Frederick the
Great, and a central parliament would have proved a safety valve for
jarring passions which the mistaken efforts of the king to suppress, by
means of royal decrees and military coercion, only served to embitter.
Yet the conscientious tradition of Prussian officialism accomplished
much in the way of administrative reform.


  The Prussian Zollverein.

Above all it evolved the Customs-Union (_Zollverein_), which gradually
attached the smaller states, by material interests if not by sympathy,
to the Prussian system. A reform of the tariff conditions in the new
Prussian monarchy had been from the first a matter of urgent necessity,
and this was undertaken under the auspices of Baron Heinrich von Bulow
(1792-1846), minister in the foreign department for commerce and
shipping, and Karl Georg Maassen (1769-1834), the minister of finance.
When they took office there were in Prussia sixty different tariffs,
with a total of nearly 2800 classes of taxable goods: in some parts
importation was free, or all but free; in others there was absolute
prohibition, or duties so heavy as to amount to practical prohibition.
Moreover, the long and broken line of the Prussian frontier, together
with the numerous enclaves, made the effective enforcement of a high
tariff impossible. In these circumstances it was decided to introduce a
system of comparative free trade; raw materials were admitted free; a
uniform import of 10% was levied on manufactured goods, and 20% on
"colonial wares," the tax being determined not by the estimated value,
but by the weight of the articles. It was soon realized, however, that
to make this system complete the neighbouring states must be drawn into
it; and a beginning was made with those which were enclaves in Prussian
territory, of which there were no less than thirteen. Under the new
tariff laws light transit dues were imposed on goods passing through
Prussia; and it was easy to bring pressure to bear on states completely
surrounded by Prussian territory by increasing these dues or, if need
were, by forbidding the transit altogether. The small states, though
jealous of their sovereign independence, found it impossible to hold
out. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen was the first to succumb (1819);
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1822), Saxe-Weimar and Anhalt-Bernburg (1823),
Lippe-Detmold and Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1826) followed suit so far as
their "enclaved" territories were concerned; and in 1826 Anhalt-Dessau
and Anhalt-Cothen, after several years' resistance, joined the Prussian
Customs-Union. In 1828 Hesse-Cassel entered into a commercial treaty
with Prussia. Meanwhile, alarmed at this tendency, and hopeless of
obtaining any general system from the federal diet, the "middle" states
had drawn together; by a treaty signed on the 18th of January 1828
Wurttemberg and Bavaria formed a tariff union, which was joined in the
following year by the Hohenzollern principalities; and on the 24th of
September 1828 was formed the so-called "Middle German Commercial Union"
(_Handelsverein_) between Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, the Saxon duchies,
Brunswick, Nassau, the principalities of Reuss and Schwarzburg, and the
free cities of Frankfort and Bremen, the object of which was to prevent
the extension of the Prussian system and, above all, any union of the
northern Zollverein with that of Bavaria and Wurttemberg. It was soon,
however, found that these separate systems were unworkable; on the 27th
of May 1829 Prussia signed a commercial treaty with the southern union;
the _Handelsverein_ was broken up, and one by one the lesser states
joined the Prussian Customs-Union. Finally, on the 22nd of March 1833,
the northern and southern unions were amalgamated; Saxony and the
Thuringian states attached themselves to this union in the same year;
and on the 1st of January 1834 the German Customs- and Commercial-Union
(_Deutscher Zoll- und Handelsverein_) came into existence, which
included for tariff purposes within a single frontier the greater part
of Germany. Outside this, though not in hostility to it, Hanover,
Brunswick, Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe formed a separate
customs-union (_Steuerverein_) by treaties signed on the 1st of May 1834
and the 7th of May 1836, and to this certain Prussian and Hessian
enclaves were attached. Subsequently other states, e.g. Baden and Nassau
(1836), Frankfort and Luxemburg (1842), joined the Prussian Zollverein,
to which certain of the members of the Steuerverein also transferred
themselves (Brunswick and Lippe, 1842). Finally, as a counter-move to
the Austrian efforts to break up the Zollverein, the latter came to
terms with the Steuerverein, which, on the 1st of January 1854, was
absorbed in the Prussian system. Hamburg was to remain outside until
1883; but practically the whole of what now is Germany was thus included
in a union in which Prussia had a predominating influence, and to which,
when too late, Austria in vain sought admission.[2]

Even in the earlier stages of its development the Zollverein had a
marked effect on the condition of the country. Its growth coincided with
the introduction of railways, and enabled the nation to derive from them
the full benefit; so that, in spite of the confusion of political
powers, material prosperity increased, together with the consciousness
of national unity and a tendency to look to Berlin rather than to Vienna
as the centre of this unity.


  Frederick William IV.

This tendency was increased by the accession to the throne of Prussia,
in 1840, of Frederick William IV., a prince whose conspicuous talents
and supposed "advanced" views raised the hopes of the German Liberals in
the same degree as they excited the alarm and contempt of Metternich. In
the end, however, the fears were more justified than the hopes. The
reign began well, it is true, notably in the reversal of the narrow
ecclesiastical policy of Frederick William III. But the new king was a
child of the romantic movement, with no real understanding of, and still
less sympathy with, the modern Liberal point of view. He cherished the
idea of German unity, but could conceive of it only in the form of the
restored Holy Empire under the house of Habsburg; and so little did he
understand the growing nationalist temper of his people that he
seriously negotiated for a union of the Lutheran and Anglican churches,
of which the sole premature offspring was the Protestant bishopric of
Jerusalem.

Meanwhile the Unionist and Liberal agitation was growing in strength,
partly owing to the very efforts made to restrain it. The emperor
Nicholas I. of Russia, kept informed by his agents of the tendencies of
opinion, thought it right to warn his kinsman of Prussia of the approach
of danger. But Frederick William, though the tsar's influence over him
was as great as over his father, refused to be convinced. He even
thought the time opportune for finishing "the building begun by Papa" by
summoning the central assembly of the diets, and wrote to the tsar to
this effect (December 31, 1845); and he persevered in this intention in
spite of the tsar's paternal remonstrances. On the 13th of February 1847
was issued a patent summoning the united diet of Prussia. But, as
Metternich had prophesied, this only provided an organ for giving voice
to larger constitutional aspirations. The result was a constitutional
dead-lock; for the diet refused to sanction loans until its
"representative" character was recognized; and the king refused to allow
"to come between Almighty God in heaven and this land a blotted
parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to replace the ancient,
sacred bond of loyalty." On the 26th of June the diet was dissolved,
nothing having been done but to reveal the widening gulf between the
principle of monarchy and the growing forces of German Liberalism.

The strength of these forces was revealed when the February revolution
of 1848 in Paris gave the signal for the outbreak of popular movements
throughout Europe. The effect of the revolution in Vienna, involving the
fall of Metternich (May 13) and followed by the nationalist movements in
Hungary and Bohemia, was stupendous in Germany. Accustomed to look to
Austria for guidance and material support, the princes everywhere found
themselves helpless in face of the popular clamour. The only power which
might have stemmed the tide was Prussia. But Frederick William's
emotional and kindly temperament little fitted him to use "the mailed
fist"; though the riot which broke out in Berlin on the 15th of March
was suppressed by the troops with but little bloodshed, the king shrank
with horror from the thought of fighting his "beloved Berliners," and
when on the night of the 18th the fighting was renewed, he entered into
negotiation with the insurgents, negotiations that resulted in the
withdrawal of the troops from Berlin. The next day, Frederick William,
with characteristic histrionic versatility, was heading a procession
round the streets of Berlin, wrapped in the German tricolour, and
extolling in a letter to the indignant tsar the consummation of "the
glorious German revolution."


  German nationalism.

  Frankfort parliament.

The collapse of the Prussian autocracy involved that of the lesser German
potentates. On the 30th of March the federal diet hoisted the German
tricolour and authorized the assembling of the German national parliament
at Frankfort. Arrangements for this had already been made without
official sanction. A number of deputies, belonging to different
legislative assemblies, taking it upon themselves to give voice to the
national demands, had met at Heidelberg, and a committee appointed by
them had invited all Germans who then were, or who had formerly been,
members of diets, as well as some other public men, to meet at Frankfort
for the purpose of considering the question of national reform. About 500
representatives accepted the invitation. They constituted themselves a
preliminary parliament (_Vorparlament_), and at once began to provide for
the election of a national assembly. It was decided that there should be
a representative for every group of 50,000 inhabitants, and that the
election should be by universal suffrage. A considerable party wished
that the preliminary parliament should continue to act until the assembly
should be formed, but this was overruled, the majority contenting
themselves with the appointment of a committee of 50, whose duty it
should be in the interval to guard the national interests. Some of those
who were discontented with this decision retired from the preliminary
parliament, and a few of them, of republican sympathies, called the
population of Upper Baden to arms. The rising was put down by the troops
of Baden, but it did considerable injury by awakening the fears of the
more moderate portion of the community. Great hindrances were put in the
way of the elections, but, as the Prussian and Austrian governments were
too much occupied with their immediate difficulties to resist to the
uttermost, the parliament was at last chosen, and met at Frankfort on the
18th May. The old diet, without being formally dissolved, (an omission
that was to have notable consequences) broke up, and the national
representatives had before them a clear field. Their task would in any
case have been one of extreme difficulty. The new-born sentiment of
national unity disguised a variety of conflicting ideals, as well as
deep-seated traditional local antagonisms; the problem of constructing a
new Germany out of states, several of which, and those the most powerful,
were largely composed of non-German elements, was sure to lead to
international complications; moreover, the military power of the
monarchies had only been temporarily paralysed, not destroyed. Yet, had
the parliament acted with promptitude and discretion it might have been
successful. Neither Austria nor Prussia was for some time in a position
to thwart it, and the sovereigns of the smaller states were too much
afraid of the revolutionary elements manifested on all sides to oppose
its will. But the Germans had had no experience of free political life.
Nearly every deputy had his own theory of the course which ought to be
pursued, and felt sure that the country would go to ruin if it were not
adopted. Learned professors and talkative journalists insisted on
delivering interminable speeches and on examining in the light of
ultimate philosophical principles every proposal laid before the
assembly. Thus precious time was lost, violent antagonisms were called
forth, the patience of the nation was exhausted, and the reactionary
forces were able to gather strength for once more asserting themselves.
The very first important question brought out the weaknesses of the
deputies. This related to the nature of the central provisional
executive. A committee appointed to discuss the matter suggested that
there should be a directory of three members, appointed by the German
governments, subject to the approval of the parliament, and ruling by
means of ministers responsible to the latter body. This elaborate scheme
found favour with a large number of members, but others insisted that
there should be a president or a central committee, appointed by the
parliament, while another party pleaded that the parliament itself should
exercise executive as well as legislative functions. At last, after a
vast amount of tedious and useless discussion, it was agreed that the
parliament should appoint an imperial vicar (_Reichsverweser_) who should
carry on the government by means of a ministry selected by himself; and
on the motion of Heinrich von Gagern the archduke John of Austria was
chosen by a large majority for the office. With as little delay as
possible he formed an imperial cabinet, and there were hopes that, as his
appointment was generally approved both by the sovereigns and the people,
more rapid progress would be made with the great and complicated work in
hand. Unfortunately, however, it was necessary to enter upon the
discussion of the fundamental laws, a subject presenting many
opportunities for the display of rhetoric and intellectual subtlety. It
was soon obvious that beneath all varieties of individual opinion there
were two bitterly hostile tendencies--republican and constitutionalist.
These two parties attacked each other with constantly growing animosity,
and in a few weeks sensible men outside the parliament gave up all hope
of their dealing satisfactorily with the problem they had been appointed
to solve.


  Schleswig-Holstein.

In the midst of these disputes the attention of the nation was occupied
by a question which had arisen before the outbreak of the revolutionary
movements--the so-called "Schleswig-Holstein question" (q.v.). In 1846
Christian VIII. of Denmark had officially proclaimed that Schleswig and
the greater part of Holstein were indissolubly connected with the Danish
monarchy. This excited vehement opposition among the Germans, on the
ground that Holstein, although subject to the king of Denmark, was a
member of the German confederation, and that in virtue of ancient
treaties it could not be severed from Schleswig. In 1848 the German
party in the duchies, headed by Prince Frederick of Augustenburg, rose
against the Danish government. Frederick VII., who had just succeeded
Christian VIII., put down the rebellion, but Prussia, acting in the name
of the confederation, despatched an army against the Danes, and drove
them from Schleswig. The Danes, who were supported by Russia, responded
by blockading the Baltic ports, which Germany, having no navy, was
unable effectually to defend. By the mediation of Great Britain an
armistice was concluded, and the Prussian troops evacuated the northern
districts of Schleswig. As the Danes soon afterwards took possession of
Schleswig again, the Prussians once more drove them back, but, in view
of the threatening attitude of the powers, Frederick William summoned up
courage to flout the opinion of the German parliament, and on the 26th
of August, without the central government being consulted, an armistice
of seven months was agreed upon at Malmoe.


  Disputes in the Frankfort assembly.

The full significance of this event was not at once realized. To
indignant patriots it seemed no more than a piece of perfidy, for which
Prussia should be called to account by united Germany. The provisional
government of the duchies appealed from Prussia to the German regent;
and the Frankfort parliament hotly took up its cause. A large majority
voted an order countermanding the withdrawal of the Prussian troops, in
spite of the protest of the ministry, who saw that it would be
impossible to make it effective. The ministry resigned, but no other
could be found to take its place; and the majority began to realize the
situation. The central government depended ultimately on the armed
support of the two great powers; to quarrel with those would be to ruin
the constitution, or at best to play into the hands of the extreme
revolutionists. On the 14th of September the question of the convention
of Malmoe again came up for discussion, and was angrily debated. The
democrats called their adherents to arms against the traitors who were
preparing to sell the Schleswig-Holsteiners. The Moderates took alarm;
they had no stomach for an open war with the governments; and in the end
the convention was confirmed by a sufficient majority. The result was
civil war in the streets of Frankfort; two deputies were murdered; and
the parliament, which could think of no better way of meeting the crisis
than by continuing "with imposing calm" to discuss "fundamental rights,"
was only saved from the fury of the mob by Prussian troops. Its
existence was saved, but its prestige had vanished; and the destinies of
the German people were seen to be in the hands that held the sword.


  The revolution in Austria.

While these events were in progress, it seemed not impossible that the
Austrian empire would fall to pieces. Bohemia and the Italian states
were in revolt, and the Hungarians strove with passionate earnestness
for independence. Towards the end of 1848 Vienna was completely in the
hands of the revolutionary party, and it was retaken only after
desperate fighting. A reactionary ministry, headed by Prince
Schwarzenberg, was then raised to power, and in order that a strong
policy might be the more vigorously pushed forward, the emperor
Ferdinand resigned, and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph.


  Reform in Prussia.

The prospects of reform were not much more favourable in Prussia. The
assembly summoned amid the revolutionary excitement of March met on the
22nd of May. Demands for a constitutional system were urged with great
force, and they would probably have been granted but for the opposition
due to the violence of politicians out of doors. The aristocratic class
saw ruin before it if the smallest concession were made to popular
wishes, and it soon recovered from the terror into which it had been
plunged at the outbreak of the revolution. Extreme antagonism was
excited by such proposals as that the king should no longer be said to
wear his crown "by the grace of God"; and the animosity between the
liberal and the conservative sections was driven to the highest pitch by
the attack of the democratic majority of the diet on the army and the
attempt to remodel it in the direction of a national militia. Matters
came to a crisis at the end of October when the diet passed a resolution
calling on the king to intervene in favour of the Viennese
revolutionists. When, on the evening of the 30th, a mob surrounded the
palace, clamouring for the king to give effect to this resolution,
Frederick William lost patience, ordered General Wrangel to occupy
Berlin with troops, and on the 2nd of November placed Count Brandenburg,
a scion of the royal house and a Prussian of the old school, at the head
of a new ministry. On the pretext that fair deliberation was impossible
in the capital, the assembly was now ordered to meet in Brandenburg,
while troops were concentrated near Berlin and a state of siege was
proclaimed. In vain the assembly protested and continued its sittings,
going even so far as to forbid the payment of taxes while it was
subjected to illegal treatment. It was forced in the end to submit. But
the discussions in Brandenburg were no more successful than those in
Berlin; and at last, on the 5th of December, the king dissolved the
assembly, granted a constitution about which it had not been consulted,
and gave orders for the election of a representative chamber.


  The question of the constitution.

About the time that the Prussian parliament was thus created, and that
the emperor Ferdinand resigned, the Frankfort parliament succeeded in
formulating the fundamental laws, which were duly proclaimed to be those
of Germany as it was now to be constituted. The principal clauses of the
constitution then began to be discussed. By far the most difficult
question was the relation in which Austria should stand to the Germany
of the future. There was a universal wish that the Austrian Germans
should be included in the German state; on the other hand, it was felt
that if all the various nationalities of Austria formed a united
monarchy, and if this monarchy as a whole were included in the
confederation, it would necessarily overshadow Germany, and expose her
to unnecessary external dangers. It was therefore resolved that,
although a German country might be under the same ruler as non-German
lands, it could not be so joined to them as to form with them a single
nation. Had the parliament adopted this resolution at once, instead of
exhausting itself by pedantic disquisitions on the abstract principles
of jurisprudence, it might have hoped to triumph; but Austria was not
likely to submit to so severe a blow at the very time when she was
strong enough to appoint a reactionary government, and had nearly
re-established her authority, not only in Vienna, but in Bohemia and in
Italy. Prince Schwarzenberg took the earliest opportunity to declare
that the empire could not assent to any weakening of its influence.
Bitter strife now broke out in the parliament between the Great German
(_Gross-Deutsch_) and Little German (_Klein-Deutsch_) parties. Two of
the ministers resigned, and one of those who took their place, Heinrich
von Gagern (q.v.), proposed that, since Austria was to be a united
state, she should not enter the confederation, but that her relations to
Germany should be regulated by a special act of union. This of course
meant that Prussia should be at the head of Germany, and recommended
itself to the majority of the constitutional party. It was resisted by
the Austrian members, who were supported by the ultramontanes and the
democrats, both of whom disliked Prussia, the former because of her
Protestantism, the latter because of her bureaucratic system. Gagern's
proposal was, however, adopted. Immediately afterwards the question as
to the character of the executive was raised. Some voted that a
directory of princes should be appointed, others that there should be a
president, eligible from the whole German nation; but the final decision
was that the headship of the state should be offered by the parliament
to some particular German prince, and that he should bear the title of
German emperor.


  Proposed empire.

The whole subject was as eagerly discussed throughout the country as in
Frankfort. Austria firmly opposed the idea of a united German state,
insisting that the Austrian emperor could not consent to be subordinate
to any other prince. She was supported by Bavaria, but on the other side
were Prussia, Brunswick, Baden, Nassau, Mecklenburg and various other
countries, besides the Hanseatic towns. For some time Austria offered no
counter scheme, but she ultimately proposed that there should be a
directory of seven princes, the chief place being held alternately by a
Prussian and an Austrian imperial vicar. Nothing came of this
suggestion, and in due time the parliament proceeded to the second
reading of the constitution. It was revised in a democratic sense, but
the imperial title was maintained, and a narrow majority decided that it
should be hereditary. Frederick William IV. of Prussia was then chosen
emperor.

All Germany awaited with anxiety the reply of Frederick William. It was
thought not improbable that he would accept the honour offered him, for
in the early part of his reign he had spoken of German unity as
enthusiastically as of liberty, and, besides, the opportunity was
surprisingly favourable. The larger number of the North-German states
were at least not unwilling to submit to the arrangement; and Austria,
whose opposition in ordinary circumstances would have been fatal, was
paralysed by her struggle with Hungary. Frederick William, however,
whose instincts were far from democratic, refused "to pick up a crown
out of the gutter"; and the deputation which waited upon him was
dismissed with the answer that he could not assume the imperial title
without the full sanction of the princes and the free cities.


  End of Frankfort parliament.

This answer was in reality a death-blow to the hopes of German patriots,
but the parliament affected to believe that its cause was not yet lost,
and appointed a committee to see that the provisions of the constitution
were carried out. A vigorous agitation began in the country for the
acceptance of the constitution by the governments. The king of
Wurttemberg was forced to accede to it; and in Saxony, Baden and Rhenish
Bavaria armed multitudes kept the sovereigns in terror. Prussia, which,
following the example of Austria, had recalled her representatives from
Frankfort, sent her troops to put down these risings, and on the 21st of
May 1849 the larger number of the deputies to the parliament voluntarily
resigned their seats. A few republican members held on by it, and
transferred the sittings to Stuttgart. Here they even elected an
imperial government, but they had no longer any real influence, and on
the 18th of June they were forcibly dispersed by order of the
Wurttemberg ministry.


  The Prussian Union.


  Policy of Austria.

Although Frederick William had refused to become emperor, he was
unwilling to miss altogether the opportunity afforded by the
difficulties of Austria. He invited the states to send representatives
to Berlin to discuss the condition of Germany; and he concluded a treaty
with the kings of Saxony and Hanover. Two days afterwards the three
allies agreed upon a constitution which was in many respects identical
with that drawn up by the Frankfort parliament. The functions of the
executive were, however, extended, the electoral law was made less
democratic, and it was decided that, instead of an emperor, there should
be merely a supreme chief aided by a college of princes. This
constitution was accepted by a number of states, which assumed the name
of "The Union," and on the 20th of March 1850 a parliament consisting
of two houses met in Erfurt. Both houses accepted the constitution; and,
immediately after they broke up, the members of the Union assembled in
Berlin, and a provisional college of princes was elected. By that time,
however, the whole situation of Germany had changed. In the autumn of
1849 Austria had succeeded, by the help of Russia, in quelling the
Hungarian insurrection, and she was then in no mood to let herself be
thrust aside by Prussia. Encouraged by her, Hanover and Saxony had
severed themselves from the Union, and Saxony, Wurttemberg and Bavaria
arrived at an understanding as to a wholly new constitution. Afterwards
all four states, with several others, accepted the invitation of Austria
to consider the propriety of re-establishing the Confederation. The
representatives of the states favourable to this proposal, i.e. Austria,
Luxemburg, Denmark and the four kingdoms, came together in Frankfort on
the 4th of September 1850, constituted themselves a _Plenum_ of the old
diet and refused to admit the other states except under the terms of the
act of 1815.


  Disturbance in Hesse-Cassel.

Thus the issue to which the events of about a century had been pointing
was apparently raised; Germany was divided into two hostile parties, one
set of states grouping themselves around Austria, another around
Prussia. A difficulty which arose in Hesse-Cassel almost compelled the
powers to bring their differences to the test of war. In this small
state the liberal movement of 1848 had been followed by reaction, and
the elector ventured to replace Hassenpflug, the unpopular minister who
had been driven from power. Hassenpflug, being detested by the chamber,
dissolved it in June 1850; but the new one was not less hostile, and
refused to sanction the collection of the taxes until it had considered
the budget. For this offence it also was dissolved, and orders were
issued for the raising of the taxes without its consent. Many officials
refused to obey; the judges remained loyal to the constitution; and when
attempts were made to solve the difficulty by the army, the officers
instructed to act resigned in a body. Meanwhile, Hassenpflug had
appealed to the representatives in Frankfort who claimed to be the
restored diet, and under the influence of Austria they resolved to
support him. Prussia, on the other hand, announced its determination to
carry out the principles of the Union and to maintain the Hessian
constitution. Austrian and Bavarian troops having entered Hesse, a
Prussian army immediately occupied Cassel, and war appeared to be
imminent. Prussia, however, was wholly unprepared for war; and, when
this was realized, Radowitz, the foreign minister, who had so far
pursued a vigorous policy, retired, and was replaced by Manteuffel, who,
although the whole Prussian army was mobilized, began by making
concessions. The Union was dissolved; and after Austria had despatched
an ultimatum formulating her demands, Baron Manteuffel met Prince
Schwarzenberg at Olmutz, and, by a convention signed on the 29th of
November 1850, virtually yielded everything he insisted upon. The
difficulty in Hesse was to be left to the decision of the German
governments; and as soon as possible ministerial conferences were to be
held in Dresden, with a view to the settlement of the German
constitution.


  Diet restored.

The Austrian government strove to secure the appointment of a stronger
executive than had hitherto existed; but its proposals met with steady
opposition from Prussia. Every Prussian scheme was in like manner
resisted by Austria. Thus, from the sheer inability of the assembled
ministers to devise a plan on which all could agree, Prussia and the
states that had joined her in the Union were compelled to recognize the
Frankfort diet. From the 12th of June 1851 its sittings went on as if
nothing had occurred since it was dispersed.

This wretched fiasco was hardly less satisfactory to the majority of
Germans than the manner in which the national claims in
Schleswig-Holstein were maintained. The armistice of Malmoe having
expired in March 1849, the war with Denmark was resumed. A considerable
army was despatched against the Danes by the Frankfort government, but
on the 10th of July an armistice was signed at Berlin for six months,
and a year afterwards Prussia concluded peace. The inhabitants of the
duchies, however, continued the war. During the interview at Olmutz
between Manteuffel and Schwarzenberg it was agreed that, like the
affairs of Hesse-Cassel, those of Schleswig-Holstein should be submitted
to the decision of all German states, but that, in the meantime, Prussia
and Austria should act together. By the intervention of Austrian troops
peace was restored; and when, early in 1852, the government of Denmark,
in providing a constitution for the whole monarchy, promised to appoint
separate ministers for Schleswig and Holstein, and to do equal justice
to the German and the Danish populations, the two powers declared
themselves satisfied and the Austrian forces were withdrawn. The diet
also, after some delay, professed to be content with this arrangement.
While it was discussing the subject, a conference of the European powers
met in London, and by the protocol of May 28, 1852, settled that
Frederick VII. of Denmark should be succeeded by Christian, duke of
Glucksburg, and that the duchies should be indissolubly united to the
Danish monarchy. Austria and Prussia accepted the protocol, but it was
not signed by the diet.


  Austria and the Zollverein.

In all these later events the first place had been taken by Austria. The
temporary dissolution of the Zollverein in 1851 gave her an opportunity
of trying to extend her influence; she demanded that a union should be
formed of which she should be the leading member. A congress of all
German states, with the exception of Prussia and one or two states which
sympathized with her, was held in Vienna; and it was followed by several
other congresses favourable to Austrian pretensions. Prussia, however,
being here on strong ground, refused to give way; and not only was the
customs union restored in accordance with her wishes, but Austria
concluded with her in 1853 a treaty of commerce which embodied some
important concessions.


  Political reaction.

Germany had now fairly entered a period which, although it did not last
very long, was, in some respects, as humiliating as any in her history.
The popular movement, from which great things had been hoped, had on
some occasions almost touched its goal; and, as might have been
expected, a reaction set in, which the princes knew how to turn to the
fullest advantage. The Austrian government, after the subjection of
Hungary, withdrew every concession it had made under pressure, and
established a thorough despotism, trampling upon the rights of the
individual nationalities, and forcing all its subjects into a common
political mould. In Prussia the parliament, summoned by the king on the
5th of December 1848, met early in the following year. Although the
democrats had declined to vote, it was not conservative enough for the
court, and not till the 31st of January 1850 was an understanding
arrived at respecting the constitution. The system thus established was
repeatedly revised, and always with the same object--to reduce to a
minimum the power of the national representatives, and to exalt and
extend that of the government. At the same time the ministry persecuted
the press, and allowed hardly a whisper of discontent to pass
unpunished. The smaller states followed with alacrity in the steps of
the two leading powers. The Liberal ministries of 1848 were dismissed,
the constitutions were changed or abolished, and new chambers were
elected under a severely restricted suffrage. Had the battle been fairly
fought out between the governments and the people, the latter would
still have triumphed; but the former had now, in the Frankfort diet, a
mightier instrument than ever against freedom. What it could do was seen
too clearly from the case of Hesse-Cassel. After the settlement of
Olmutz, federal troops occupied that country, and federal execution was
carried out with shameful harshness. Martial law was everywhere
proclaimed; officers, and all classes of officials who had incurred the
displeasure of the government, were subjected to arbitrary penalties;
and such was the misery of the people that multitudes of them were
compelled to emigrate. The constitution having been destroyed by the
_Bund_, the elector proclaimed one of his own making; but even the
chamber elected under the provisions of this despotic scheme could not
tolerate his hateful tyranny, and there were incessant disputes between
it and the government. The _Bund_ interfered in a like spirit in
Hanover, although with less disastrous results, after the accession of
George V. in 1851. For the whole of Germany this was emphatically the
period of petty despotism; and not only from Hesse, but from all parts
of the country there was a vast stream of emigration, mainly to the New
World.


  Crimean War.

The outbreak of the Crimean War profoundly moved the German nation. The
sympathies of Austria were necessarily with the Western powers, and in
Prussia the majority of the people took the same side; but the Prussian
government, which was at this time completely under the control of
Russia, gave its moral support to the tsar. It did, indeed, assent to a
treaty--afterwards signed on behalf of the confederation--by which
Prussia and Austria guaranteed each other, but it resolutely opposed the
mobilization of the confederate army. The Prussian people were keenly
irritated by the cordial relations between their court and the most
despotic power in Europe. They felt that they were thus most unjustly
separated from the main stream of Western progress.

During the Crimean War the political reaction continued with unabated
force. In Prussia the government appeared resolved to make up for its
temporary submission to the popular will by the utmost violence on which
it could venture. A general election took place in the autumn of 1855,
and so harshly was the expression of opinion restrained that a chamber
was returned with scarcely a single liberal element of serious
importance. The feudalists called for a still further revision of the
constitution, and urged that even the reforms effected by Stein should
be undone. In Bavaria a chamber elected about the same time as that of
Prussia was rather less docile; but the government shared to the full
the absolutist tendencies of the day, and energetically combated the
party which stood up for law and the constitution. The Hanoverian
government, backed by the Frankfort diet, was still more successful in
its warfare with the moderate reformers whom it was pleased to treat as
revolutionists; and in Austria the feudalists so completely gained the
upper hand that on the 18th of August 1855 the government signed a
concordat, by which the state virtually submitted itself to the control
of the church.


  Prussia and Switzerland.

The German people seemed to have lost both the power and the will to
assert their rights; but in reality they were deeply dissatisfied. And
it was clear to impartial observers that, in the event of any great
strain upon the power of the governments, the absolutist system would
break down. The first symptom that the reaction had attained its utmost
development displayed itself in Prussia, whose attention was for a time
distracted from home politics by a quarrel with Switzerland. The Swiss
authorities had imprisoned some foolish royalists of Neuchatel, in which
the house of Hohenzollern had never resigned its rights. War was
threatened by Prussia, but when the prisoners were set free, the two
states entered upon negotiations, and in the summer of 1857 King
Frederick William withdrew all claims to the principality.


  Regency of William of Prussia.

Soon after this, the mental condition of the king made it necessary that
his duties should be undertaken by a substitute, and his brother
William, the prince of Prussia, took his place for three months. In
October 1858 the prince became regent. The accession to power of the new
regent was universally recognized as involving a change of system. The
temper of William, in contradistinction to that of his brother, was
pre-eminently practical; and he had the reputation of a brave, piously
orthodox Prussian soldier. The nickname "cartridge-prince"
(_Kartatschenprinz_) bestowed upon him during the troubles of '48 was
undeserved; but he was notoriously opposed to Liberalism and, had he
followed his own instincts, he would have modified the constitution in a
reactionary sense. Fortunately, however, he was singularly open to
conviction, and Otto von Bismarck, though not yet in office, was
already in his confidence. Bismarck realized that, in the struggle with
Austria which he foresaw, Prussia could only be weakened were she to
take up an attitude of opposition to the prevailing Liberal sentiment,
and that to tamper with the constitution would not only be inexpedient,
but useless, since special measures could always be resorted to, to meet
special circumstances. The interests of Prussia, he urged, had been too
often sacrificed to abstract ideas. William listened and was convinced.
He not only left the constitution intact, but he dismissed Manteuffel's
"feudal" ministry and replaced it with moderate Liberals.

The change was more revolutionary in appearance than in reality.
Manteuffel and his policy were associated in the regent's mind with the
humiliation of Olmutz, and the dismissal of the ministry symbolized the
reversal of this policy. William believed with his whole soul in the
unification of Germany, and in Prussia as its instrument; and, if he
doubted, it was only as to the how and when. Of one thing he was
certain--that whoever aspired to rule over Germany must be prepared to
seize it (letter to von Natzmer, May 20, 1849). This attitude had little
in common with the Liberal appeal to the voice of the people. Such a
revolutionary foundation might be good enough for the ephemeral empires
of France; the appeal of Prussia should be to the God of battles alone.


  Prussia and the Austro-Italian War.

The antagonism between these conflicting principles was not long in
revealing itself. In Germany the relations between Austria and Prussia
were becoming unpleasantly strained in the question of the admission of
the Habsburg monarchy to the Zollverein, in that of the elector of Hesse
and his parliament, in that of the relation of the Elbe duchies to the
crown of Denmark. But for the outbreak of the Italian war of 1859 the
struggle of 1866 might have been anticipated. The outcome of the war
increased the prestige of Prussia. She had armed, not with the idea of
going to the aid of a German power in difficulties, but in order, at the
right moment, to cast her sword into the scale wherein her own interests
might for the time lie. At the menace of her armaments, concentrated on
the Rhine, Napoleon had stopped dead in the full career of victory;
Austria, in the eyes of German men, had been placed under an obligation
to her rival; and Italy realized the emergence of a new military power,
whose interests in antagonism to Austria were identical with her own.


  Military reforms and constitutional crisis in Prussia.

So striking an object lesson was not lost on the Prussian regent, and he
entered on a vigorous policy of reforming and strengthening the army,
General von Roon being appointed minister of war for this purpose. To
the Liberal ministers, however, and to the Liberal majority in the
Prussian diet, this was wholly objectionable. Schemes were under
discussion for reforming the constitution of the Confederation and
drawing the German states closer together on a Liberal basis; the moment
seemed singularly inopportune for Prussia, which had not shown herself
particularly zealous for the common interests, to menace the other
German governments by increasing her separate armaments. When,
therefore, on the 10th of February 1860, the bills necessary for
carrying out the reform of the army were introduced into the diet, they
met with so strenuous an opposition that they had to be withdrawn.
Supplies were, however, granted for fourteen months, and the regent took
this as justifying him in proceeding with his plans. On the 1st of
January 1861 the standards of the new regiments were solemnly blessed;
on the next day Frederick William IV. died, and the new king was face to
face with a constitutional crisis.

Austria, meanwhile, had been making the first tentative essays in
constitutional concession, which culminated, in May 1861, in the
establishment at Vienna of a _Reichsrat_ for the whole empire, including
Hungary. The popularity she thus gained among German Liberals and
Nationalists was helped by the course of events at Berlin. The Prussian
diet of 1862 was no whit more tractable than its predecessor, but fell
to attacking the professional army and advocating the extension of the
militia (_Landwehr_) system; on the 11th of March the king dissolved it
in disgust, whereupon the Liberal ministry resigned, and was succeeded
by the Conservative cabinet of Prince Hohenlohe. Public opinion was now
violently excited against the government; the new elections resulted
(May 6) in the return of a yet larger Liberal majority; on the 22nd of
August the army estimates were thrown out. Hohenlohe now declared
himself incapable of carrying on the government, and King William
entrusted it to Otto von Bismarck.


  Bismarck.

In choosing this man of iron will as his instrument during the actual
crisis the king's instinct had not betrayed him. For nine years Prussian
delegate at the diet of Frankfort, Bismarck was intimately acquainted
with all the issues of the German problem; with his accustomed
calculated bluntness he had more than once openly asserted that this
problem could only be settled by Austria ceasing to influence the German
courts and transferring "her centre of gravity towards Budapest"; with
equal bluntness he told the committee on the budget, on the 30th of
September 1862, that the problem could not be solve "by parliamentary
decrees," but only "by blood and iron." For the supreme moment of this
solution he was determined that Prussia should be fully prepared; and
this meant that he must defy the majority within the diet and public
opinion without. Some sort of constitutional pretence was given to the
decision of the government to persevere with the military reforms by the
support of the Upper House, and of this Bismarck availed himself to
raise the necessary taxes without the consent of the popular assembly.
He regretted the necessity for flouting public opinion, which he would
have preferred to carry with him; in due course he would make his peace
with Liberal sentiment, when success should have justified his defiance
of it. His plans were singularly helped by international developments.
The Polish rising of 1863 came just in time to prevent a threatened
Franco-Russian alliance; the timid and double-faced attitude of both
France and Austria during the revolt left them isolated in Europe, while
Bismarck's ready assistance to Russia assured at least the benevolent
neutrality in the coming struggle with the Habsburg power.


  Views as to Germany unity.

Meanwhile, among the German people the object lesson of the Italian war
had greatly stimulated the sentiment of national unity. As to the
principle, however, on which this unity was to be based, the antagonism
that had been fatal in 1849 still existed. The German National Union
(_Deutscher Nationalverein_), organized in the autumn of 1859, favoured
the exclusion of Austria and the establishment of a federation under the
hegemony of Prussia; it represented the views of the so-called
"Gothaer," the political heirs of the rump of the Frankfort parliament
which had reassembled at Gotha in June 1849, and supported the Prussian
Union and the Erfurt parliament. To counteract this, a conference of
five hundred "Great Germans" assembled at Frankfort and, on the 22nd of
October 1862, founded the German Reform Union (_Deutscher
Reformverein_), which, consisting mainly of South German elements,
supported the policy of Austria and the smaller states. The
constitutional crisis in Prussia, however, brought both societies into
line, and in 1863 the National Union united with the Reform Union in an
attempt to defeat Prussian policy in the Schleswig-Holstein question.


  The "Furstentag" of Frankfort.

This anti-Prussian feeling Austria now tried to exploit for her own
advantage. On the 2nd of August the emperor Francis Joseph proposed to
King William, during a meeting at Gastein, to lay before an assembly of
the German princes a scheme for the reconstitution of the Bund. The king
neither accepted nor refused; but, without waiting for his assent,
invitations were sent out to the other princes, and on the 14th the
congress (_Furstentag_) opened at Frankfort. Of the German sovereign
states but four were unrepresented--Anhalt-Bernburg, Holstein, Lippe and
Prussia; but the absence of Prussia was felt to be fatal; the minor
princes existed by reason of the balance between the two great powers,
and objected as strongly to the exclusion of the one as of the other
from the Confederation; an invitation to King William was therefore
signed by all present and carried by the king of Saxony in person to
Berlin. Bismarck, however, threatened to resign if the king accepted;
and the congress had to do the best it could without Prussian
co-operation. On the 1st of September it passed, with some slight
modifications, the Austrian proposals for the reconstruction of the
_Bund_ under a supreme Directory, an assembly of delegates from the
various parliaments, a federal court of appeal and periodical
conferences of sovereigns. Everything now depended on the attitude of
Prussia, and on the 22nd her decision was received. "In any reform of
the _Bund_," it ran, "Prussia, equally with Austria, must have the right
of vetoing war; she must be admitted, in the matter of the presidency,
to absolute equality with Austria; and, finally, she will yield no
tittle of her rights save to a parliament representing the whole German
nation."

Prussia thus made a bid for the sympathy of the democracy at the same
time as she declared war against the dynasties; and her power was
revealed by the fact that her veto was sufficient to wreck a proposal
seconded by the all but unanimous vote of the German sovereigns. The
Austrian stroke had failed, and worse than failed, for Napoleon III.,
who had been filled with alarm at this attempt to create on his flank an
"empire of 70,000,000," saw in Prussia's attitude no more than a
determination to maintain for her own ends the division and weakness of
Germany; and this mistaken diagnosis of the situation determined his
attitude during the crisis that followed.


  The Schleswig-Holstein question, 1863.

This crisis was due to the reopening of a fresh acute phase of the
Schleswig-Holstein question by the accession of the "protocol-king"
Christian IX. to the throne of Denmark (November 15, 1863), and his
adhesion to the new constitution, promulgated two days before, which
embodied the principle of the inalienable union of the Elbe duchies with
the Danish body politic. The news of this event caused vast excitement
in Germany; and the federal diet was supported by public opinion in its
decision to uphold the claims of Prince Frederick of Augustenburg to the
succession of the duchies. An agitation in his favour had already begun
in Holstein and, after the promulgation of the new Danish constitution,
this was extended to Schleswig. On the 24th of December Saxon and
Hanoverian troops occupied Holstein in the name of the German
Confederation, and supported by their presence and the favour of the
population the prince of Augustenburg, as Duke Frederick VIII., assumed
the government.


  Austro-Prussian alliance.

From these proceedings Prussia and Austria held rigorously aloof. Both
had signed the protocol of 1852, and both realized that, if the European
powers were to be given no excuse to intervene, their attitude must be
scrupulously "correct"; and this involved the recognition of King
Christian's rights in the duchies. On the other hand, the constitution
of the 13th of November had been in flat contradiction to the protocol
of London, which recognized the separate rights of the duchies; and if
the two great German powers chose to make this violation of an agreement
to which they had been parties a _casus belli_, Europe would have no
right to interfere. Prussia had begun to mobilize in November; and
Austria also soon realized that action must speedily be taken if the
lesser German governments were not to be allowed to get out of hand.
Russia and Great Britain had already protested against the occupation of
Holstein and the support given to the Augustenburg claimant; and now
Beust, the Saxon minister, was proposing that the federal diet, which
had been no party to the protocol, should formally recognize his claim.
Bismarck, then, had no difficult task in persuading Austria that the
time for action had come. A last attempt of the two powers to carry the
diet with them in recognizing the protocol having failed, they formally
announced that they would act in the matter as independent European
powers. On the 16th of January 1864 the agreement between them was
signed, an article, drafted by Austria, intended to safeguard the
settlement of 1852, being replaced at the instance of Prussia by
another, which stated that the contracting powers would decide only in
concert upon the relations of the duchies, and that in no case would
they determine the succession save by mutual consent. A clause was also
inserted provisionally recognizing the principle of the integrity of
Denmark.


  Danish War of 1864.

Whatever Austria's ulterior views may have been, Bismarck certainly from
the first had but one aim before him. He saw clearly what the possession
of the duchies would mean to Germany, their vast importance for the
future of German sea-power; already he had a vision of the great
war-harbour of Kiel and the canal connecting the Baltic and the North
seas; and he was determined that these should be, if not wholly
Prussian, at least wholly under Prussian control. Annexation was the
goal which from the beginning he kept steadily before his eyes
(_Reminiscences_, ii. 10). As for treaties to the contrary, he was to
avow in his _Reminiscences_ that these have little force when no longer
reinforced by the interests of the contracting parties. His main fear
was that the Danes might refuse to fight and appeal instead to a
European congress; and, to prevent this, he led the Copenhagen
government to believe that Great Britain had threatened to intervene in
the event of Prussia going to war, "though, as a matter of fact, England
did nothing of the kind." This sufficed to provoke the defiance of the
Danes, and on the 1st of February 1864 the Austrian and Prussian troops
crossed the Eider. The issue of a war between powers so ill-matched was
a foregone conclusion; the famous rampart of the Dannewerk (q.v.), on
which the Danish defence chiefly relied, was turned, and after a short
campaign, in which the Danes fought with distinguished courage, peace
was concluded by the treaty of Vienna (August 1, 1864), by which
Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were ceded to Austria and Prussia
jointly.


  Austria, Prussia and the Zollverein.

The Austro-Prussian alliance had been only an interlude in the great
drama in which the two powers were playing rival parts. To the other
causes of friction between them had been added, just before the war, a
renewed quarrel as to Austria's relation to the Zollverein. In 1862, in
the name of the customs union, Prussia had concluded with France a
commercial treaty, based mainly on free trade principles. This treaty
most of the small states refused to sign, and they were supported in
their objections by Austria, which loudly complained that Prussia had
given to a foreign power what she had denied to a sister state of the
_Bund_. Prussia, however, remained firm, and declared that, were the
treaty rejected, she would break up the Zollverein. After the war
Bismarck in fact succeeded in obtaining the signature of the smaller
states to the treaty; and Austria, her protests having proved
unavailing, was fain to sign a commercial treaty with the Zollverein,
essentially the same as that of 1853. Treaties concluded with Great
Britain and Belgium, about the same time, also tended to enhance
Prussian prestige.


  Convention of Gastein.

Austria now sought in the question of the Elbe duchies an occasion for
re-establishing her influence in Germany. The ambitions of Prussia were
notorious, and Austria had no wish to see her rival still further
strengthened by the annexation of the duchies. In this attitude she was
sure of the support of the German princes, and of German public opinion,
which was enthusiastically in favour of the Augustenburg claimant. She
therefore took up the cause of Duke Frederick, and under her influence a
small majority of the federal diet decided to request the two powers to
invest him with the sovereignty of Holstein. Bismarck's reply was to
deny the competency of the diet to interfere; and in the Prussian
parliament the minister of war moved for a special grant for the
creation of a war-harbour at Kiel. Against this Austria protested, as
having the same right as Prussia to Kiel; an angry correspondence
followed; but neither power was quite prepared for war, and on the 20th
of August 1865 the convention of Gastein, to use Bismarck's phrase,
"papered over the cracks." Pending a settlement, Schleswig was to be
occupied and administered by Prussia, Holstein by Austria; while
Lauenburg was made over absolutely to Prussia in return for a money
payment. This was so far a diplomatic victory for Prussia, as it ignored
entirely the claims of the duke of Augustenburg.


  Hostile attitude of France.

Bismarck had consented to the convention of Gastein in order to gain
time to prepare the ground for the supreme struggle with Austria for the
hegemony of Germany. He had no intention of postponing the issue long;
for the circumstances of the two powers were wholly favourable to
Prussia. The Prussian army had attained an unprecedented excellence of
organization and discipline; the Prussian people, in spite of the
parliamentary deadlock, were loyal and united; while in Austria army and
state were alike disorganized by nationalist discontent and the
breakdown of the centralized system. But there were other factors to be
considered. The attitude of Napoleon was dubious; the active alliance of
Italy was necessary to the certainty of Prussian success; and the policy
of Italy depended ultimately upon that of France. Lastly, the conscience
of King William, though since the acquisition of Lauenburg he had
"developed a taste for conquest," shrank from provoking war with a
German power. The news of the convention of Gastein, which seemed to
re-cement the union of Germany, had been received in France with
clamorous indignation; and on the 29th of August, under pressure of
public opinion, the French government issued a circular note denouncing
it as an outrage on national liberty and European law, the protest being
backed by note of the 14th of September circulated by Lord John Russell
on behalf of the British government. But Napoleon was himself little
inclined to use the warlike tone of his people; and Bismarck found it
easy to win him over to his views by explaining the temporary nature of
the convention, and by dropping hints at the famous interview at
Biarritz (September 30, 1865) of possible "compensations" to France in
the event of a Prussian victory over Austria; the probability of a
prolonged struggle in Germany between two powers apparently evenly
matched, moreover, held out to the French emperor the prospect of his
being able to intervene at the proper moment with overwhelming effect.


  End of the Austro-Prussian understanding.

Napoleon having been successfully hoodwinked, Bismarck turned to Italy.
His previous advances had been interrupted by the Gastein convention,
which seemed to the Italian government a betrayal of the Italian cause.
Italy attempted to negotiate with Austria for the purchase of Venetia;
but the offer was curtly refused by the emperor Francis Joseph, and the
counter-proposal of a commercial _rapprochement_ was forestalled by
Prussia, which with the aid of most of the lesser states, angered by the
betrayal of their interests by Austria at Gastein, arranged a commercial
treaty between Italy and the Zollverein, an act which involved the
recognition of the Italian kingdom. The counter-stroke of Austria was to
embarrass Prussia by allowing full play in Holstein to the agitation in
favour of the Augustenburg claimant. To the protests of Prussia, Austria
replied that she had a full right to do what she liked in the duchy, and
that she still adhered to the declaration of the princes, made on the
28th of May 1864, in favour of Duke Frederick. This "perfidy" removed
the last scruples of King William; and the Austro-Prussian alliance came
to an end with the declaration of Bismarck that Prussia "must win full
freedom for her own entire policy" and his refusal to continue the
correspondence.


  Prusso-Italian alliance.

War, though still postponed, was now certain; and with this certainty
the desire of the Italians for the Prussian alliance, now recommended by
Napoleon, revived. By the 16th of March 1866 the Austrian war
preparations were so far advanced that Count Mensdorff thought it safe
to send an ultimatum to Prussia and, at the same time, a circular note
to the princes declaring that, in the event of an evasive reply, Austria
would move in the diet for the mobilization of the federal forces. On
the 24th Bismarck in his turn issued a circular note stating that, in
view of the Austrian war preparations, Prussia must take measures for
her defence; at the same time he laid before the princes the outline of
the Prussian scheme for the reform of the Confederation, a scheme which
included a national parliament to be elected by universal suffrage, "as
offering surer guarantees for conservative action than limitations that
seek to determine the majority beforehand." Clearly Prussia meant war,
and the Italian government thought it safe to sign, on the 8th of April
1866, a treaty of alliance. By this instrument it was agreed that in
the event of her proposals for the reform of the federal constitution
being rejected by the German princes, Prussia should declare war "in
order to give effect to her proposals," and that, in that case, Italy
would also declare war against Austria. As a result of the war Venetia
was to be added to Italy and an equivalent amount of territory in North
Germany to Prussia. The agreement, however, was only to hold good if war
broke out within three months.


  Prussian scheme for the reform of the "Bund."

  Prussia withdraws from the "Bund."

On the day after the signature of the treaty the Prussian project of
reform was presented to the federal diet. It was, however, no more than
a bid for the support of public opinion on the part of Bismarck; for
even while it was under discussion an angry correspondence was being
carried on between Berlin and Vienna on the question of armaments, and
by the beginning of May both powers were making undisguised preparations
for war. On the 21st of April, the very day when the discussion of the
Prussian proposals began in the diet, Austria, alarmed at a threatened
attack by Garibaldi on Venetia, began to mobilize in defiance of an
agreement just arrived at with Prussia. Five days later, in spite of
this, she sent an ultimatum to Berlin, demanding the continuance of the
Prussian disarmament and an immediate settlement of the
Schleswig-Holstein question. The supreme issue was, however, delayed for
a few weeks by the intervention of Napoleon, who, urged on by the loud
alarm of the French people at the prospective aggrandizement of Prussia,
attempted to detach Italy from the Prussian alliance by persuading
Austria to a cession of Venetia. The negotiations broke down on the
refusal of Italy to throw over her ally, and Napoleon's proposal of a
European congress, to reconsider the whole settlement under the treaties
of 1815, proved equally abortive. Meanwhile the preparations for war had
been continued, and on the 1st of June Austria flung down the gage by
declaring her intention of submitting the whole question of the duchies
to the federal diet and of summoning a meeting of the Holstein estates.
This was denounced by Bismarck in a circular note to the powers as a
breach of the convention of Gastein and of the treaty of January 16,
1864, by which Austria and Prussia had agreed to govern the duchies in
common. At the same time he handed in the formal protest of Prussia to
the federal diet. Prussia, he said, would only recognize the right of a
reformed federal power to settle the Schleswig-Holstein question, and
this power must be based on a German parliament, which alone could
guarantee Prussia that any sacrifices she might make would be for the
good of Germany and not of the dynasties. The Prussian plan of reform
laid before the diet included the exclusion of Austria from the
Confederation; the creation of a federal navy; the division of the
supreme command of the army between Prussia and Bavaria; a parliament
elected by manhood suffrage; the regulation of the relations between the
Confederation and Austria by a special treaty. In the event of the
actual constitution of the Bund being shattered by war, the German
states were asked whether they would be prepared to join this new
organization. On the 9th of June Prussian troops had already marched
into Holstein, the Austrians, with Duke Frederick, falling back on
Altona. On the 14th the Prussian scheme of reform was laid before the
diet, together with Austria's counter-proposal for a decree of federal
execution against Prussia. In the event of the rejection of Prussia's
motion, Bismarck had made it clear that Prussia would withdraw from the
Confederation, and that in the event of her being victorious in the
ensuing war those states of northern Germany that voted against her
would cease to exist. In spite of this, the Austrian motion was carried
by nine votes to six. The Prussian delegate at once withdrew from the
diet, and on the following day (June 15) the Prussian troops advanced
over the Saxon frontier.


  Austro-Prussian War of 1866.

  Treaty of Prague, August 23.

  Aggrandizement of Prussia.

The war that followed, conveniently called the Seven Weeks' War (q.v.),
culminated before a month had passed, on the 3rd of July, in the
crushing Prussian victory of Koniggratz. The rapidity and overwhelming
character of the Prussian success ensured the triumph of Bismarck's
policy. The intervention which Napoleon had planned resolved itself into
diplomatic _pourparlers_ of which the result was wholly insignificant;
and even before the war was ended Bismarck was preparing for an
understanding with Austria and with the South German states that should
minimize the risk of a French attack. By the preliminary treaty of peace
signed at Nikolsburg on the 26th of July the great objects for which
Prussia had fought were fully secured. By Article I. the integrity of
the Austrian monarchy was preserved, with the exception of
Lombardo-Venetia; by Article II. Austria consented to "a new
organization of Germany without the participation of the empire of
Austria," consented to "the closer union" to be founded by the king of
Prussia to the north of the Main, and to the German states south of the
Main entering into a union, the national relations of which with the
North German Confederation were to be "the subject of an ulterior
agreement between the two parties"; by Article III. Austria transferred
all her rights in Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia, reserving the right
of the people of north Schleswig to be again united to Denmark should
they "express a desire to be so by a vote freely given"; by Article V.
the territory of Saxony was to remain intact. These Articles, embodying
the more important terms, were included with slight verbal alterations
in the treaty of peace signed at Prague on the 23rd of August. Separate
treaties of peace had been signed with Wurttemberg on the 13th, with
Baden on the 17th and with Bavaria on the 22nd of August; treaties with
Hesse-Darmstadt followed on the 3rd of September, with Saxe-Meiningen on
the 8th of October and with Saxony on the 21st. The other unfortunate
North German states which had sided with Austria were left to their
fate, and on the 20th of September King William issued a decree annexing
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau and the free city of Frankfort to the
Prussian monarchy, and bringing them under the Prussian constitution.


  Federal constitution.

The return of King William to his capital had been a triumphal progress;
and Bismarck had shared to the full the new-born popularity of his
master. He seized the occasion to make his peace with Liberal sentiment,
and the bill of indemnity for past ministerial breaches of the
constitution was carried in the new Prussian diet with enthusiasm. On
the 24th of February 1867 the constituent diet of the confederation,
elected by universal suffrage and the ballot, met in Berlin, and soon
accepted in its essential features the constitution submitted to it. It
was arranged that the headship of the confederation should be
hereditary, that it should belong to the king of Prussia, and that
legislative functions should be exercised by a federal council
(_Bundesrat_), representative of the various governments, and by a diet
(_Bundestag_) elected by the whole people.


  National Liberals.

  Customs parliament.

  South German hostility to union.

  Irritation of France.

The federal parliament began at once the task of consolidating the new
institutions. In the sessions of 1869 and 1870 it established a supreme
tribunal of commerce, sitting in Leipzig, and passed a new penal code.
Great as were these results, they did not satisfy the aspirations of
patriotic Germans, who, having so suddenly and so unexpectedly
approached unity, longed that the work should be completed. A party
called the National Liberals was formed, whose main object was to secure
the union of South with North Germany, and it at once entered into
peculiar relations with Bismarck, who, in spite of his native contempt
for parliaments and parliamentary government, was quite prepared to make
use of any instruments he found ready to his hand. There was, indeed,
plentiful need for some show of concession to Liberal sentiment, if a
union of hearts was to be established between the South and North
Germans. The states south of the Main had issued from the war as
sovereign and independent powers, and they seemed in no great haste to
exchange this somewhat precarious dignity either for a closer alliance
among each other or with the North German Confederation. The peoples,
too, fully shared the dislike of their rulers to the idea of a closer
union with North Germany. The democrats hated Prussia as "the land of
the corporal's stick," and Bismarck as the very incarnation of her
spirit. The Roman Catholics hated her as the land _par excellence_ of
Protestantism and free thought. Nothing but the most powerful common
interests could have drawn the dissevered halves of Germany together.
This sense of common interests it was Bismarck's study to create. An
important step was taken in 1867 by the conclusion of a treaty with the
southern states, by which it was agreed that all questions of customs
should be decided by the federal council and the federal diet, and that,
for the consideration of such questions, the southern states should send
representatives to Berlin. In reality, however, the customs parliament
(_Zollparlament_) was of little service beyond the limits of its special
activity. In the election to the customs parliament in 1868, Wurttemberg
did not return a single deputy who was favourable to the national cause;
in Bavaria the anti-nationalists had a large majority; and even in Baden
and Hesse-Darmstadt, where the opposition to Prussia was less severe, a
powerful minority of the deputies had no liking for Bismarck and his
ways. Thus the customs parliament was kept rigidly to the objects for
which it was founded, greatly to the disappointment of patriots who had
not doubted that it would become an effective instrument for the
attainment of far larger purposes. Had the completion of unity depended
wholly on internal causes, it certainly would not have been soon
achieved; but other forces, not altogether unexpectedly, came to
Bismarck's aid. France had been irritated by the enormous increase of
Prussian power, and even before the treaty of Prague was signed the
emperor Napoleon III. indicated a wish to be "compensated" with the left
bank of the Rhine. This was a claim exactly calculated to play into
Bismarck's hands. The communication of the French emperor's original
proposals to the South German governments, whose traditional policy had
been to depend on France to save them from the ambitions of the German
great powers, was enough to throw them into the arms of Prussia. The
treaties of peace between Prussia and the South German states were
accompanied by secret treaties of offensive and defensive alliance,
under which the supreme command in war was to be given to the Prussian
king. A common war against a common enemy now appeared the surest means
of welding the dissevered halves of Germany together, and for this war
Bismarck steadily prepared. There were soon plentiful signs of where
this enemy was to be sought. On the 14th of March 1867 Thiers in the
French Chamber gave voice to the indignation of France at the bungling
policy that had suffered the aggrandizement of Prussia. The reply of
Bismarck was to publish (March 19) the secret treaties with the South
German states. War was now only a question of time, and the study of
Bismarck was to bring it on at the moment most favourable to Germany,
and by a method that should throw upon France the appearance of being
the aggressor. The European situation was highly favourable. France was
hampered by the Roman question, which divided her own counsels while it
embroiled her with Italy; the Luxemburg question, arising out of her
continued demand for "compensation," had only served to isolate her
still further in Europe. French patriotic feeling, suspicious, angry and
alarmed, needed only a slight provocation to cause it to blaze up into
an uncontrollable fever for war.


  The Hohenzollern candidature.

  Franco-German War.

  Proclamation of the German empire.

The provocation was supplied at the right moment by the candidature of
the prince of Hohenzollern for the vacant crown of Spain. To bring the
Peninsula under French influence had been for centuries the ambition of
French statesmen; it was intolerable that it should fall to a "Prussian"
prince and that France should be threatened by this new power not only
from the east but from the south. High language was used at Paris; and
the French ambassador, Count Benedetti, was instructed to demand from
the king of Prussia the withdrawal of the Hohenzollern candidature. The
demand was politely but firmly refused, and Bismarck, judging that the
moment had come for applying the match to the powder magazine,
published an "edited" version of the telegram from the king describing
the episode, a version which "without the addition of a single word"
turned the refusal into an insult. The "Ems telegram" made the
continuance of peace impossible; on the 14th of July Napoleon III.
signed the declaration of war; and on the 2nd of August the affair of
Saarbrucken opened the struggle which was to cause the downfall of the
French and the creation of the German empire (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). On
the 18th of January 1871, ten days before the capitulation of Paris,
William I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed German emperor in the great
hall of the palace of Versailles, on the initiative of the king of
Bavaria, the most powerful of the South German sovereigns, the
traditional ally of France. The cession of Alsace and the greater part
of Lorraine, wrested two centuries before by Louis XIV. from the Holy
Empire, was the heaviest part of the price that France had to pay for
peace (treaty of Frankfort, May 10, 1871).     (W. A. P.)


  The new empire, 1871.

The foundation of the empire in 1871 begins a new era in the history of
Germany. The rivalry of the dynasties to which for so long the interests
of the nation had been sacrificed now ceased. By the treaties of
Versailles the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurttemberg, and the grand-duchy
of Baden, as well as the southern provinces of the grand-duchy of Hesse,
were added to the North German Confederation. Henceforward all the
German states that had survived the struggle of 1866, with the exception
of the empire of Austria, the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, and the
principality of Liechtenstein, were incorporated in a permanent federal
state under the leadership of Prussia. The revision in 1871 made no
important alterations in the constitution of 1867. The states retained
their autonomy except in those matters which were expressly transferred
to the imperial authorities; the princes retained their sovereignty; the
king of Prussia, though he now took the title of German emperor, was
only _primus inter pares_; he was president of the confederation, but
had no suzerainty over the other princes. None the less, from this time
the acts of the state governments and parliaments have ceased to have
more than a local importance; the history of the nation is centred in
Berlin, in the Bundesrat or federal council, in which the interests of
the individual states are represented; in the Reichstag, in which the
feelings and wishes of the nation are expressed; and above all, in the
Prussian government and imperial executive.


  The empire and the states.

The new constitution has stood the test. The number of states of which
the empire consists has remained unaltered;[3] occasional disputes have
been settled harmoniously in a legal manner. The special rights reserved
to Bavaria and Wurttemberg have not proved, as was feared, a danger to
the stability of the empire. Much apprehension had been caused by the
establishment of a permanent committee for foreign affairs in the
Bundesrat, over which the Bavarian representative was to preside; but
the clause remained a dead letter. There is no record that the committee
ever met until July 1900, when it was summoned to consider the situation
in China; and on that occasion it probably formed a useful support to
the government, and helped to still apprehension lest a too adventurous
policy should be pursued. Another clause determined that in a division
in the Reichstag on any law which did not concern the whole empire, the
representatives of those states which were not concerned should not
vote. This, had it been retained, would have destroyed the coherence of
the Reichstag as representative of the whole nation. It was repealed in
1873. The permission to maintain diplomatic missions has been equally
harmless: most of the states have recalled all their diplomatic
representatives; Saxony, Bavaria and Wurttemberg have maintained only
those at Vienna, the Vatican and at St Petersburg. Bavaria has even
voluntarily adopted many imperial laws from which it was legally
exempted; for instance, the laws of settlement.


  Prussia and the empire.

If the states have been loyal to the empire, the imperial government has
also respected the constitutional privileges of the states. The
harmonious working of the constitution depends on the union of policy
between the empire and Prussia, for it is the power of Prussia which
gives strength to the empire. This was practically secured by the fact
that the emperor, who is king of Prussia, appoints the chancellor, and
the chancellor is generally president of the Prussian ministry as well
as minister of foreign affairs--in his person the government of the two
is identified. For twenty years the double office was held by Bismarck,
who, supported as he was by the absolute confidence of the emperor, and
also of the allied princes, held a position greater than that ever
attained by any subject in modern Europe since the time of Richelieu.
For ten months in 1873 he, indeed, resigned the office of
minister-president to Roon; and in the same way Caprivi, during the
years 1893-1894, held the chancellorship alone; but in neither case was
the experiment successful, and Hohenlohe and Bulow adhered to the older
plan. So important is the practical co-operation of the imperial
administration and the Prussian government, that it has become customary
to appoint to seats in the Prussian ministry the more important of the
secretaries of state who administer imperial affairs under the
chancellor. Delbruck, head of the imperial chancery, had held this
position since 1868; in 1877 Bulow, secretary of state for foreign
affairs, was appointed Prussian minister, and this has become the
ordinary practice. One result of this is to diminish the control which
the Prussian parliament is able to maintain over the Prussian ministry.

In the federal council Prussian policy nearly always prevails, for
though Prussia has only seventeen votes out of fifty-eight, the smaller
states of the North nearly always support her; practically she controls
the vote of Waldeck and since 1885 those of Brunswick. A definite defeat
of Prussia on an important question of policy must bring about a serious
crisis; it is generally avoided because, as the meetings are secret, an
arrangement or compromise can be made. Bismarck, knowing that nothing
would more impede the consolidation of the empire than an outbreak of
local patriotism, always so jealous of its rights, generally used his
influence to avoid constitutional disputes, and discouraged the
discussion of questions which would require an authoritative
interpretation of the constitution. It was, however, opposition in the
Bundesrat which obliged him to abandon his scheme for imperial railways,
and when, in 1877, it was necessary to determine the seat of the new
supreme court of justice, the proposal of the government that Berlin
should be chosen was out-voted by thirty to twenty-eight in favour of
Leipzig. On this occasion Bismarck accepted the decision, but when
important interests were at stake he showed himself as ready to crush
opposition as in the older days, as in the case of Hamburg and Bremen.

The great personal qualities of the reigning emperors and the widely
extended family connexions of the house of Hohenzollern have enabled
them to hold with ease their position as leaders among the ruling
families. So far as is known, with one or two unimportant exceptions,
the other princes loyally accepted their new position. It is only as
regards the house of Brunswick that the older dynastic questions still
have some political importance.


  Hanover.

The other princes who were dispossessed in 1866 have all been reconciled
to Prussia. The elector of Hesse and the duke of Nassau have formally
relinquished their claims. In 1883 the daughter of the duke of
Augustenburg, the former claimant to the duchies of Schleswig and
Holstein, married the heir to the Prussian throne, who became William
II. On the other hand, the royal family of Hanover has never ceased to
protest against the acts by which they were deprived of their dominions.
King George to the end of his days, whether in Austria or in France,
still regarded himself as in a state of war with Prussia. As he had used
his large personal property to organize a regiment in order to regain
his possessions, the Prussian government had sequestrated that part of
his income, amounting to some L50,000, over which they had control, and
used it as secret service money chiefly for controlling the press; to
this fund the name "Welfen-Fond" was commonly given. After 1870 the
Hanoverian regiment was disbanded, but the sequestration continued. The
death of the old king in 1878 made no difference, for his son in a
letter to the king of Prussia announced that he assumed and maintained
all his father's rights, and that he did not recognize the legal
validity of the acts by which he was, as a matter of fact, prevented
from enjoying them. His protest was supported by a considerable number
of his former subjects, who formed a party in the Reichstag. The
marriage of the duke of Cumberland (the title by which the king called
himself till he could come into his possessions) with Princess Thyra of
Denmark in the same year was made the occasion of a great demonstration,
at which a deputation of the Hanoverian nobility assured the duke of
their continued attachment to his house.

After Bismarck's retirement the emperor attempted to bring about a
reconciliation with the duke and the Hanoverians. His attention had been
drawn to the bad moral effect of the use to which the Welfen-Fond was
applied, and on the duke of Cumberland writing him a letter, in which,
while maintaining his claims to the throne of Hanover, he recognized the
empire and undertook not to support any enterprise against the empire or
Prussia, with the consent of the Prussian parliament the sequestration
of his property was removed. The attitude of passive resistance is,
however, still maintained, and has affected the position of the duchy of
Brunswick.


  Duchy of Brunswick.

  Waldeck.

In 1884 William, duke of Brunswick, died after a reign of fifty-four
years. The younger son of the duke who fell at Quatre Bras, he had been
called to the throne in 1831 to take the place of his elder brother
Charles, who had been deposed. Duke Charles had died at Geneva in 1873,
and as both brothers were childless the succession went to the duke of
Cumberland as head of the younger branch of the house of
Brunswick-Luneburg. Duke William before his death had arranged that the
government should be carried on by a council of regency so long as the
heir was prevented from actually assuming the government; at the end of
a year a regent was to be chosen from among the non-reigning German
princes. He hoped in this way to save his duchy, the last remnant of the
dominions of his house, from being annexed by Prussia. As soon as he
died the town was occupied by the Prussian troops already stationed
therein; the duke of Cumberland published a patent proclaiming his
succession; the council of state, however, declared, in agreement with
the Bundesrat, that the relations in which he stood to the kingdom of
Prussia were inconsistent with the alliances on which the empire was
based, and that therefore he could not assume the government. The claim
of the duke of Cambridge as the only male heir of full age was referred
to the Bundesrat, but the duke refused to bring it before that body, and
after a year the Brunswick government elected as regent Prince Albert of
Hohenzollern, to hold office so long as the true heir was prevented from
entering on his rights. On the death of Prince Albert in September 1906,
the Brunswick diet petitioned the Bundesrat to allow the youngest son of
the duke of Cumberland to succeed to the duchy on renouncing his
personal claims to the crown of Hanover. This was refused, and on the
28th of May 1907 Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg-Schwerin was elected
regent by the diet. Under the regency of Prince Albert, Brunswick, which
had hitherto steadily opposed all attempts to assimilate and subordinate
its institutions to those of Prussia, though it retained formal
independence, was brought into very close dependence upon Prussia, as is
the case with all the other northern states. In them the armies are
incorporated in the Prussian army; the railways are generally merged in
the Prussian system; indirect taxation, post office, and nearly the
whole of the judicial arrangements are imperial. None, however, has yet
imitated the prince of Waldeck, who in 1867, at the wish of his own
subjects, transferred the administration of his principality to Prussia.
The local estates still meet, and the principality still forms a
separate administrative district, but it is managed by a director
appointed by Prussia. The chief reason for this act was that the state
could not meet the obligations laid upon it under the new system, and
the responsibility for any deficit now rests with Prussia.


  Lippe.

A curious difficulty, a relic of an older state of society, arose in the
principality of Lippe, in consequence of the extinction of the elder
ruling line and a dispute as to the succession (see LIPPE). Some
political importance attached to the case, for it was not impossible
that similar difficulties might occur elsewhere, and the open support
given by the emperor to the prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, who had married
his sister, caused apprehension of Prussian aggression.


  The Mecklenburg constitution.

A much more serious question of principle arose from the peculiar
circumstances of Mecklenburg. The grand-duchies, which, though divided
between two lines of the ducal house, had a common constitution, were
the only state in Germany in which the parliament still took the form of
a meeting of the estates--the nobility and the cities--and had not been
altered by a written constitution. Repeated attempts of the grand-dukes
to bring about a reform were stopped by the opposition of the
Ritterschaft. Buffing, one of the Mecklenburg representatives in the
Reichstag, therefore proposed to add to the imperial constitution a
clause that in every state of the confederation there should be a
parliamentary assembly. This was supported by all the Liberal party and
carried repeatedly; of course it was rejected by the Bundesrat, for it
would have established the principle that the constitution of each state
could be revised by the imperial authorities, which would have
completely destroyed their independence. It is noticeable that in 1894
when this motion was introduced it was lost; a striking instance of the
decay of Liberalism.


  Public affairs: political parties.

The public political history of Germany naturally centres around the
debates in the Reichstag, and also those in the Prussian parliament. In
the Prussian parliament are discussed questions of education, local
government, religion and direct taxation, and though of course it is
only concerned with Prussian affairs, Prussia is so large a part of
Germany that its decisions have a national importance. A very large
number of the members of the Reichstag and of the Prussian parliament
sit in both, and the parties in the two are nearly identical. In fact,
the political parties in the Reichstag are generally directly descended
from the older Prussian parties.


  Conservatives.

The first place belongs to the Conservatives, who for twenty years had
been the support of the Prussian government. The party of the feudal
aristocracy in North Germany, they were strongest in the agricultural
districts east of the Elbe; predominantly Prussian in origin and in
feeling, they had great influence at court and in the army, and desired
to maintain the influence of the orthodox Lutheran Church. To them
Bismarck had originally belonged, but the estrangement begun in 1866
constantly increased for the next ten years. A considerable number of
the party had, however, seceded in 1867 and formed a new union, to which
was given the name of the _Deutsche Reichspartei_ (in the Prussian House
they were called the _Frei Conservativen_). These did not include any
prominent parliamentary leaders, but many of the most important
ministers and officials, including Moltke and some of the great nobles.
They were essentially a government party, and took no part in the
attacks on Bismarck, which came from the more extreme Conservatives, the
party of the _Kreuzzeitung_.


  National Liberals.

The events of 1866 had brought about a similar division among the
Progressives. A large section, including the most important leaders,
determined to support Bismarck in his national policy and to subordinate
to this, though not to surrender, the struggle after constitutional
development. Under the name of _National-Liberal-Partei_ they became in
numbers as in ability the strongest party both in Prussia and the
empire. Essentially a German, not a Prussian, party, they were joined by
the Nationalists from the annexed provinces of Hanover and Hesse; in
1871 they were greatly strengthened by the addition of the National
representatives from the southern states; out of fourteen
representatives from Baden twelve belonged to them, seventeen out of
eighteen Wurttemberger, and a large majority of the Bavarians. It was on
their support that Bismarck depended in building up the institutions of
the empire. The remainder of the Progressives, the _Fortschrittspartei_,
maintained their protest against the military and monarchical elements
in the state; they voted against the constitution in 1867 on the ground
that it did not provide sufficient guarantees for popular liberty, and
in 1871 against the treaty with Bavaria because it left too much
independence to that state. Their influence was strongest in Berlin, and
in the towns of East Prussia; they have always remained
characteristically Prussian.

These great parties were spread over the whole of Germany, and
represented the great divisions of political thought. To them must be
added others which were more local, as the _Volkspartei_ or People's
party in Wurttemberg, which kept alive the extreme democratic principles
of 1848, but was opposed to Socialism. They had been opposed to Prussian
supremacy, and in 1870 for the time completely lost their influence,
though they were to regain it in later years.


  The Centre.

Of great importance was the new party of the Centre. Till the year 1863
there had been a small party of Catholics in the Prussian parliament who
received the name of the _Centrum_, from the part of the chamber in
which they sat. They had diminished during the years of conflict and
disappeared in 1866. In December 1870 it was determined to found a new
party which, while not avowedly Catholic, practically consisted entirely
of Catholics. The programme required the support of a
Christian-Conservative tendency; it was to defend positive and
historical law against Liberalism, and the rights of the individual
states against the central power. They were especially to maintain the
Christian character of the schools. Fifty-four members of the Prussian
parliament at once joined the new party, and in the elections for the
Reichstag in 1871 they won sixty seats. Their strength lay in Westphalia
and on the Rhine, in Bavaria and the Polish provinces of Prussia. The
close connexion with the Poles, the principle of federalism which they
maintained, the support given to them by the Bavarian "patriots," their
protest against the "revolution from above" as represented equally by
the annexation of Hanover and the abolition of the papal temporal power,
threw them into strong opposition to the prevailing opinion, an
opposition which received its expression when Hermann von Mallincrodt
(1821-1874), the most respected of their parliamentary leaders, declared
that "justice was not present at the birth of the empire." For this
reason they were generally spoken of by the Nationalist parties as
_Reichsfeindlich_.

This term may be more properly applied to those who still refuse to
recognize the legality of the acts by which the empire was founded. Of
these the most important were the so-called Guelphs (_Welfen_),
described by themselves as the _Hannoverische Rechtspartei_, member of
the old Hanoverian nobility who represented the rural districts of
Hanover and still regarded the deposed King George V. and, after his
death, the duke of Cumberland as their lawful sovereign. In the
elections of 1898 they still returned nine members to the Reichstag, but
in those of 1903 their representation had sunk to six, and in 1907 it
had practically disappeared. A similar shrinkage has been displayed in
the case of the protesting Alsace-Lorrainers, who returned only two
deputies in 1907. A pleasant concession to Hanoverian feeling was made
in 1899, when the emperor ordered that the Hanoverian regiments in the
Prussian army should be allowed to assume the names and so continue the
traditions of the Hanoverian army which was disbanded in 1866.


  Poles.

The government has also not succeeded in reconciling to the empire the
alien races which have been incorporated in the kingdom of Prussia. From
the Polish districts of West Prussia, Posen and Silesia a number of
representatives have continued to be sent to Berlin to protest against
their incorporation in the empire. Bismarck, influenced by the older
Prussian traditions, always adopted towards them an attitude of
uncompromising opposition. The growth of the Polish population has
caused much anxiety; supported by the Roman Catholic Church, the Polish
language has advanced, especially in Silesia, and this is only part of
the general tendency, so marked throughout central Europe, for the Slavs
to gain ground upon the Teutons. The Prussian government has attempted
to prevent this by special legislation and severe administrative
measures. Thus in 1885 and 1886 large numbers of Austrian and Russian
Poles who had settled in these provinces were expelled. Windthorst
thereupon raised the question in the Reichstag, but the Prussian
government refused to take any notice of the interpolation on the ground
that there was no right in the constitution for the imperial authority
to take cognizance of acts of the Prussian government. In the Prussian
parliament Bismarck introduced a law taking out of the hands of the
local authorities the whole administration of the schools and giving
them to the central authority, so as to prevent instruction being given
in Polish. A further law authorized the Prussian government to spend
L5,000,000 in purchasing estates from Polish families and settling
German colonists on the land. The commission, which was appointed for
the purpose, during the next ten years bought land to the amount of
about 200,000 acres and on it settled more than 2000 German peasants.
This policy has not, however, produced the intended effect; for the
Poles founded a society to protect their own interests, and have often
managed to profit by the artificial value given to their property. It
has merely caused great bitterness among the Polish peasants, and the
effect on the population is also counteracted by the fact that the large
proprietors in purely German districts continue to import Polish
labourers to work on their estates.

In the general change of policy that followed after the retirement of
Bismarck an attempt was made by the emperor to conciliate the Poles.
Concessions were made to them in the matter of schools, and in 1891 a
Pole, Florian von Stablewski (1841-1906), who had taken a prominent part
in the Kulturkampf, was accepted by the Prussian government as
archbishop of Posen-Gnesen. A moderate party arose among the Poles which
accepted their position as Prussian subjects, gave up all hopes of an
immediate restoration of Polish independence, and limited their demands
to that free exercise of the religion and language of their country
which was enjoyed by the Poles in Austria. They supported government
bills in the Reichstag, and won the commendation of the emperor.
Unfortunately, for reasons which are not apparent, the Prussian
government did not continue a course of conciliation; in 1901
administrative edicts still further limited the use of the Polish
language; even religious instruction was to be given in German, and an
old royal ordinance of 1817 was made the pretext for forbidding private
instruction in Polish.

All these efforts have been in vain. The children in the schools became
the martyrs of Polish nationality. Religious instruction continued to be
given to them in German, and when they refused to answer questions which
they did not understand, they were kept in and flogged. In 1906, as a
protest, the school children to the number of 100,000 struck throughout
Prussian Poland; and, as a result of a pastoral issued by the
archbishop, Polish parents withdrew their children from religious
instruction in the schools. The government responded by fining and
imprisoning the parents. The efforts of the government were not confined
to the forcible Germanization of the children. Polish newspapers were
confiscated and their editors imprisoned, fines were imposed for holding
Polish meetings, and peasants were forbidden to build houses on their
own land. The country gentlemen could not have a garden party without
the presence of a commissary of police.

The climax, however, was reached in 1907 when Prince Bulow, on the 26th
of November, introduced into the Prussian parliament a bill to arm the
German Colonization Committee in Posen with powers of compulsory
expropriation. He pointed out that though the commission had acquired
815,000 acres of land and settled upon it some 100,000 German colonists,
nearly 250,000 acres more had passed from German into Polish hands. He
proposed, therefore, to set aside a credit of L17,500,000 for this
purpose. On the 26th of February 1908 the discussion on this bill was
continued, Count Arnim defending it on the ground that "conciliation had
failed and other measures must now be tried!" The Poles were aiming at
raising their standard of civilization and learning and thus gradually
expelling the Germans, and this, together with the rapid growth of the
Polish population, constituted a grave danger. These arguments were
reinforced by an appeal of Prince Bulow to the traditions of Bismarck,
and in spite of a strenuous and weighty opposition, the bill with
certain modifications passed by 143 votes to 111 in the Upper House, and
was accepted by the Lower House on the 13th of March. A bill forbidding
the use of any language but German at public meetings, except by special
permission of the police, had been laid before the Reichstag in 1907 by
Prince Bulow at the same time as he had introduced the Expropriation
Bill into the Prussian parliament. The bill, with certain drastic
amendments limiting its scope, passed the House on the 8th of April by a
majority of 200 to 179. This law gave increased freedom in the matter of
the right of association and public meeting; but in the case of the
Poles it was applied with such rigidity that, in order to evade it they
held "mute" public meetings, resolutions being written up in Polish on a
blackboard and passed by show of hands, without a word being said.[4]


  Danes.

Compared with the Polish question, that of the Danes in North Schleswig
is of minor importance; they number less than 150,000, and there is not
among them, as among the Poles, the constant encroachment along an
extended line of frontier; there is also no religious question involved.
These Danish subjects of Germany have elected one member to the
Reichstag, whose duty is to demand that they should be handed over to
Denmark. Up to the year 1878 they could appeal to the treaty of Prague;
one clause in it determined that the inhabitants of selected districts
should be allowed to vote whether they should be Danish or German. This
was inserted merely to please Napoleon; after his fall there was no one
to demand its execution. In 1878, when the Triple Alliance was
concluded, Bismarck, in answer to the Guelphic demonstration at
Copenhagen, arranged with Austria, the other party to the treaty of
Prague, that the clause should lapse. Since then the Prussian
government, by prohibiting the use of Danish in the schools and public
offices, and by the expulsion from the country of the numerous Danish
optants who had returned to Schleswig, has used the customary means for
compelling all subjects of the king to become German in language and
feeling.[5]


  Alsace-Lorraine.

The attempt to reconcile the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine to their
condition proved equally difficult. The provinces had been placed under
the immediate rule of the emperor and the chancellor, who was minister
for them; laws were to be passed by the Reichstag. In accordance with
the treaty of Frankfort, the inhabitants were permitted to choose
between French and German nationality, but all who chose the former had
to leave the country; before the 1st of October 1872, the final day,
some 50,000 had done so. In 1874, for the first time, the provinces were
enabled to elect members for the Reichstag; they used the privilege to
send fifteen _Elsasser_, who, after delivering a formal protest against
the annexation, retired from the House; they joined no party, and took
little part in the proceedings except on important occasions to vote
against the government. The same spirit was shown in the elections for
local purposes. It seemed to be the sign of a change when a new party,
the _Autonomisten_, arose, who demanded as a practical concession that
the dictatorship of the chancellor should cease and local
self-government be granted. To some extent this was done in 1879; a
resident governor or _Statthalter_ was appointed, and a local
representative assembly, which was consulted as to new laws. All the
efforts of Field marshal Edwin von Manteuffel, the first governor, to
win the confidence of the people failed; the anti-German feeling
increased; the party of protestors continued in full numbers. The next
governor, Prince Hohenlohe, had to use more stringent measures, and in
1888, to prevent the agitation of French agents, an imperial decree
forbade any one to cross the frontier without a passport. Since 1890
there has been, especially in the neighbourhood of Strassburg, evidence
of a spread of national German feeling, probably to a great extent due
to the settlement of Germans from across the Rhine.

The presence of these anti-German parties, amounting sometimes to
one-tenth of the whole, in the Reichstag added greatly to the difficulty
of parliamentary government. Gradually, however, as a new generation
grew up their influence declined. In the Reichstag of 1907, Guelphs,
Alsace-Lorrainers and Danes together could muster only five members.


  The period 1870 to 1878.

The great work since 1870 has been that of building up the institutions
of the empire. For the first time in the history of Germany there has
been a strong administration ordering, directing and arranging the life
of the whole nation. The unification of Germany was not ended by the
events of 1866 and 1871; it was only begun. The work has throughout been
done by Prussia; it has been the extension of Prussian principles and
Prussian administrative energy over the whole of Germany. It naturally
falls into two periods; the first, which ends in 1878, is that in which
Bismarck depended on the support of the National Liberals. They were the
party of union and uniformity. The Conservatives were attached to the
older local diversities, and Bismarck had therefore to turn for help to
his old enemies, and for some years an alliance was maintained, always
precarious but full of results.


  Legal reform.

The great achievement of the first period was legal reform. In nothing
else was legislation so much needed. Forty-six districts have been
enumerated, each of which enjoyed a separate legal system, and the
boundaries of these districts seldom coincided with the frontiers of the
states. Everywhere the original source of law was the old German common
law, but in each district it had been wholly or partly superseded by
codes, text-books and statutes to a great extent founded on the
principles of the Roman civil law. Owing to the political divisions,
however, this legislation, which reached back to the 14th century, had
always been carried out by local authorities. There had never been any
effective legislation applicable to the whole nation. There was not a
state, not the smallest principality, in which some authoritative but
imperfect law or code had not been published. Every free city, even an
imperial village, had its own "law," and these exist down to the present
time. In Bremen the foundation of the civil code was still the statutes
of 1433; in Munich, those of 1347. Most of the states by which these
laws had been published had long ago ceased to exist; probably in every
case their boundaries had changed, but the laws remained valid (except
in those cases in which they had been expressly repealed) for the whole
of the district for which they had been originally promulgated. Let us
take a particular case. In 1591 a special code was published for the
upper county of Katzellenbogen. More than a hundred years ago
Katzellenbogen was divided between the neighbouring states. But till the
end of the 19th century this code still retained its validity for those
villages in Hesse, and in the Prussian province of Hesse, which in old
days had been parts of Katzellenbogen. The law, however, had to be
interpreted so as to take into consideration later legislation by the
kingdom of Westphalia, the electorate of Hesse, and any other state (and
they are several) in which for a short time some of these villages might
have been incorporated.

In addition to these earlier imperfect laws, three great codes have been
published, by which a complete system was applied to a large district:
the Prussian Code of 1794, the Austrian Code of 1811 and the Code
Napoleon, which applied to all Germany left of the Rhine; for neither
Prussia, nor Bavaria, nor Hesse had ever ventured to interfere with the
French law. In Prussia therefore the older provinces came under the
Prussian Code, the Rhine provinces had French law, the newly annexed
provinces had endless variety, and in part of Pomerania considerable
elements of Swedish law still remained, a relic of the long Swedish
occupation. On the other hand, some districts to which the Prussian Code
applied no longer belonged to the kingdom of Prussia--for instance,
Anspach and Bayreuth, which are now in Bavaria. In other parts of
Bavaria in the same way Austrian law still ran, because they had been
Austrian in 1811. In two states only was there a more or less uniform
system: in Baden, which had adopted a German translation of the Code
Napoleon; and in Saxony, which had its own code, published in 1865. In
criminal law and procedure there was an equal variety. In one district
was trial by jury in an open court; in another the old procedure by
written pleadings before a judge. In many districts, especially in
Mecklenburg and some of the Prussian provinces, the old feudal
jurisdiction of the manorial courts survived.

The constant changes in the law made by current legislation in the
different states really only added to the confusion, and though imperial
laws on these points with which the central government was qualified to
deal superseded the state laws, it is obvious that to pass occasional
acts on isolated points would have been only to introduce a further
element of complication. It was therefore convenient, so far as was
possible, to allow the existing system to continue until a full and
complete code dealing with the whole of one department of law could be
agreed upon, and thus a uniform system (superseding all older
legislation) be adopted. Legislation, therefore, has generally taken the
form of a series of elaborate codes, each of which aims at scientific
completeness, and further alterations have been made by amendments in
the original code. The whole work has been similar in character to the
codification of French law under Napoleon; in most matters the variety
of the older system has ceased, and the law of the empire is now
comprised in a limited number of codes.

A beginning had been made before the foundation of the empire; as early
as 1861 a common code for trade, commerce and banking had been agreed
upon by the states included in the Germanic Confederation. It was
adopted by the new confederation of 1869. In 1897 it was replaced by a
new code. In 1869 the criminal law had been codified for the North
German Confederation, and in 1870 there was passed the _Gewerbeordnung_,
an elaborate code for the regulation of manufactures and the relations
of masters to workmen. These were included in the law of the empire, and
the work was vigorously continued.

In 1871 a commission was appointed to draw up regulations for civil and
criminal procedure, and also to frame regulations for the organization
of the law courts. The draft code of civil procedure, which was
published in December 1872, introduced many important reforms,
especially by substituting public and verbal procedure for the older
German system, under which the proceedings were almost entirely carried
on by written documents. It was very well received. The drafts for the
other two laws were not so successful. Protests, especially in South
Germany, were raised against the criminal procedure, for it was proposed
to abolish trial by jury and substitute over the whole empire the
Prussian system, and a sharp conflict arose as to the method of dealing
with the press. After being discussed in the Reichstag, all three
projects were referred to a special commission, which after a year
reported to the diet, having completely remodelled the two latter laws.
After further amendment they were eventually accepted, and became law in
1877. By these and other supplementary laws a uniform system of law
courts was established throughout the whole empire; the position and pay
of the judges, the regulations regarding the position of advocates, and
costs, were uniform, and the procedure in every state was identical. To
complete the work a supreme court of appeal was established in Leipzig,
which was competent to hear appeals not only from imperial law, but also
from that of the individual states.

By the original constitution, the imperial authorities were only
qualified to deal with criminal and commercial law; the whole of the
private law, in which the variety was greatest, was withdrawn from their
cognizance. Lasker, to remedy this defect, proposed, therefore, an
alteration in the constitution, which, after being twice carried against
the opposition of the Centre, was at last accepted by the Bundesrat. A
commission was then appointed to draw up a civil code. They completed
the work by the end of 1887; the draft which they then published was
severely criticized, and it was again submitted for revision to a fresh
commission, which reported in 1895. In its amended form this draft was
accepted by the Reichstag in 1896, and it entered into force on the 1st
of January 1900. The new Civil Code deals with nearly all matters of
law, but excludes those concerning or arising out of land tenure and all
matters in which private law comes into connexion with public law; for
instance, the position of government officials, and the police: it
excludes also the relations of master and servant, which in most points
are left to the control of individual states. It was accompanied by a
revision of the laws for trade and banking.


  Commercial reform.

Equal in importance to the legal was the commercial reform, for this was
the condition for building up the material prosperity of the country.
Germany was a poor country, but the poverty was to a great extent the
result of political causes. Communication, trade, manufactures, were
impeded by the political divisions, and though the establishment of a
customs union had preceded the foundation of the empire, the removal of
other barriers required imperial legislation. A common system of weights
and measures was introduced in 1868. The reform of the currency was the
first task of the empire. In 1871 Germany still had seven different
systems; the most important was the _Thaler_ and the _Groschen_, which
prevailed over most of North Germany, but even within this there were
considerable local differences. Throughout the whole of the south of
Germany and in some North German states the gulden and kreuzer
prevailed. Then there were other systems in Hamburg and in Bremen.
Everywhere, except in Bremen, the currency was on a silver basis. In
addition to this each state had its own paper money, and there were over
100 banks with the right of issuing bank-notes according to regulations
which varied in each state. In 1871 a common system for the whole empire
was established, the unit being the _Mark_ (= 11-3/4d.), which was
divided into a hundred _Pfennige_: a gold currency was introduced
(_Doppel-Kronen_ = 20 _M._; _Kronen_ = 10 _M._); no more silver was to
be coined, and silver was made a legal tender only up to the sum of
twenty marks. The gold required for the introduction of the new coinage
was provided from the indemnity paid by France. Great quantities of
thalers, which hitherto had been the staple of the currency, were sold.
The right of coinage was, however, left to the individual states, and as
a special concession it was determined that the rulers of the states
should be permitted to have their head placed on the reverse of the gold
coins. All paper currency, except that issued by the empire, ceased, and
in 1873 the Prussian Bank was converted into the Imperial Bank
(Reichsbank).


  Banking laws.

Closely connected with the reform of the currency and the codification
of the commercial law was the reform of the banking laws. Here the
tendency to substitute uniform imperial laws for state laws is clearly
seen. Before 1870 there had been over 100 banks with the right of issue,
and the conditions on which the privilege was granted varied in each
state. By the Bank Act of March 14, 1875, which is the foundation of the
existing system, the right of granting the privilege is transferred from
the governments of the states to the Bundesrat. The existing banks could
not be deprived of the concessions they had received, but unless they
submitted to the regulations of the new law their notes were not to be
recognized outside the limits of the state by which the concession had
been granted. All submitted to the conditions except the Brunswick Bank,
which remained outside the banking system of the empire until the Bank
Act of June 5, 1906, was passed, when it surrendered its right to issue
notes. The experience of Germany in this matter has been different from
that of England, for nearly all the private banks have now surrendered
their privilege, and there remain only five banks, including the
Reichsbank, which still issue bank notes. The other four are situated in
Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemberg and Baden. The total note-issue was fixed
by the law of 1875, a proposal being assigned to each bank. Any part of
this issue assigned to private banks which might be withdrawn from
circulation, owing to a deficiency in the legal reserve funds, was to be
transferred to the Reichsbank. The result has been the tendency of the
latter gradually to absorb the whole note-issue. By the law of 1906 the
Reichsbank was authorized to issue 20 M. and 50 M. notes. Treasury notes
(_Reichs-Kassenscheine_) for these amounts were no longer to be issued;
but the state reserved the right to circulate notes of the value of 5 M.
and 10 M.

The organization of the imperial post-office was carried out with great
success by Herr von Stephan (q.v.), who remained at the head of this
department from its creation till his death in 1897. Proposals were also
made to Bavaria and Wurttemberg to surrender their special rights, but
these were not accepted.


  Railways.

The unification of the railways caused greater difficulties. Nearly
every state had its own system; there was the greatest variety in the
methods of working and in the tariffs, and the through traffic, so
important for the commercial prosperity of the country, was very
ineffective. In Baden, Wurttemberg and Hanover the railways were almost
entirely the property of the state, but in all other parts public and
private lines existed side by side, an arrangement which seemed to
combine the disadvantages of both systems. In 1871 three-quarters of the
railway lines belonged to private companies, and the existence of these
powerful private corporations, while they were defended by many of the
Liberals, was, according to the national type of thought, something of
an anomaly. Bismarck always attached great importance to the improvement
of the railway service, and he saw that uniformity of working and of
tariffs was very desirable. In the constitution of the empire he had
introduced several clauses dealing with it. The independent
administration of its lines by each state was left, but the empire
received the power of legislating on railway matters; it could build
lines necessary for military purposes even against the wish of the state
in whose territory they lay, and the states bound themselves to
administer their lines as part of a common system. In order to carry out
these clauses a law was passed on the 27th of June 1873 creating an
imperial railway office (_Reichseisenbahnamt_) for the purpose of
exercising a general control over the railways. This office has done
much in the matter of unifying the systems of various railways and of
regulating their relations to the military, postal and telegraph
organizations; it also took a leading part in the framing of the
international laws regarding goods traffic; but the imperial code of
railway law which it drafted has never been laid before the Reichstag.
It effectively controls only the privately owned lines in Prussia. Yet,
in setting it up, Bismarck had in mind the ultimate acquisition of all
the railways by the empire. He found, however, that it was impossible to
carry any Bill enforcing this. He therefore determined to begin by
transferring to the imperial authority the Prussian state railways; had
he been able to carry this out the influence of the imperial railways
would have been so great that they would gradually have absorbed those
of the other states. The Bill was carried through the Prussian
parliament, but the opposition aroused in the other states was so great
that he did not venture even to introduce in the Bundesrat a law
empowering the empire to acquire the Prussian railways. In many of the
state parliaments resolutions were carried protesting against the system
of imperial railways, and from that time the preservation of the local
railway management has been the chief object towards which, in Saxony,
Bavaria and Wurttemberg, local feeling has been directed. The only
imperial railways are those in Alsace-Lorraine.

The result of the legal reform and other laws has been greatly to
diminish the duties of the state governments, for every new imperial law
permanently deprives the local parliaments of part of their authority.
Generally there remains to them the control of education and
religion--their most important duty--police, all questions connected
with land tenure, local government, the raising of direct taxes, and, in
the larger states, the management of railways. The introduction of
workmen's insurance, factory legislation, and other measures dealing
with the condition of the working classes by imperial legislation, was
at a later period still further to limit the scope of state legislation.


  Army organization.

Meanwhile the government was busy perfecting the administration of the
national defences. From the war indemnity large sums had been expended
on coast defence, on fortifications and on replacing the equipment and
stores destroyed during the war. A special fund, producing annually
about a million pounds, was put aside, from which pensions to the
wounded, and to the widows and orphans of those who had fallen, should
be provided. It was also desirable to complete the military
organization. It must be remembered that technically there is no German
army, as there is no German minister of war. Each state, however small,
maintains its own contingent, subject to its own prince, who has the
right and the obligation of administering it according to the provisions
of the treaty by which he entered the federation. Practically they are
closely tied in every detail of military organization. The whole of the
Prussian military system, including not only the obligation to military
service, but the rules for recruiting, organization, drill and uniforms,
has to be followed in all the states; all the contingents are under the
command of the emperor, and the soldiers have to swear obedience to him
in addition to the oath of allegiance to their own sovereign. It is
therefore not surprising that, having so little freedom in the exercise
of their command, all the princes and free cities (with the exception of
the three kings) arranged separate treaties with the king of Prussia,
transferring to him (except for certain formal rights) the
administration of their contingents, which are thereby definitely
incorporated in the Prussian army. The first of these treaties was
arranged with Saxe-Coburg Gotha in 1861; those with the other North
German states followed at short intervals after 1866. The last was that
with Brunswick, which was arranged in 1885; Duke William had always
refused to surrender the separate existence of his army. Owing to the
local organization, this does not prevent the contingent of each state
from preserving its separate identity; it is stationed in its own
district, each state contributing so many regiments.


  The Septennat.

In 1872 a common system of military jurisprudence was introduced for the
whole empire except Bavaria (a revised code of procedure in military
courts was accepted by Bavaria in 1898); finally, in February 1874, an
important law was laid before the Reichstag codifying the administrative
rules. This superseded the complicated system of laws and royal
ordinances which had accumulated in Prussia during the fifty years that
had elapsed since the system of short service had been introduced; the
application to other states of course made a clearer statement of the
laws desirable. Most of this was accepted without opposition or debate.
On one clause a serious constitutional conflict arose. In 1867 the peace
establishment had been provisionally fixed by the constitution at 1% of
the population, and a sum of 225 thalers (L33, 15s.) had been voted for
each soldier. This arrangement had in 1871 been again continued to the
end of 1874, and the peace establishment fixed at 401,659. The new law
would have made this permanent. If this had been done the power of the
Reichstag over the administration would have been seriously weakened;
its assent would no longer have been required for either the number of
the army or the money. The government attached great importance to the
clause, but the Centre and the Liberal parties combined to throw it out.
A disastrous struggle was averted by a compromise suggested by
Bennigsen. The numbers were fixed for the next seven years (the
so-called _Septennat_); this was accepted by the government, and carried
against the votes of the Centre and some of the Progressives. On this
occasion the Fortschrittpartei, already much diminished, split up into
two sections. The principle then established has since been maintained;
the periodical votes on the army have become the occasion for formally
testing the strength of the Government.


  Kulturkampf.

The influence of Liberalism, which served the government so well in this
work of construction, brought about also the conflict with the Roman
Catholic Church which distracted Germany for many years. The causes
were, indeed, partly political. The Ultramontane party in Austria,
France and Bavaria had, after 1866, been hostile to Prussia; there was
some ground to fear that it might still succeed in bringing about a
Catholic coalition against the empire, and Bismarck lived in constant
dread of European coalitions. The Polish sympathies of the Church in
Germany made him regard it as an anti-German power, and the formation of
the Catholic faction in parliament, supported by Poles and Hanoverians,
appeared to justify his apprehensions. But besides these reasons of
state there was a growing hostility between the triumphant National
parties and the Ultramontanes, who taught that the pope was greater than
the emperor and the Church than the nation. The conflict had already
begun in Baden. As in every other country, the control of the schools
was the chief object of contention, but the government also claimed a
control over the education and training of the clergy. With the
formation of the empire the conflict was transferred from Baden to
Prussia, where there had been for thirty years absolute peace, a peace
gained, indeed, by allowing to the Catholics complete freedom; the
Prussian constitution ensured them absolute liberty in the management of
ecclesiastical affairs; in the ministry for religion and education there
was a separate department for Catholic affairs, and (owing to the
influence of the great family of the Radziwills) they enjoyed
considerable power at court.


  Old Catholics.

The latent opposition was aroused by the Vatican decrees. A small number
of Catholics, including several men of learning and distinction, refused
to accept Papal Infallibility. They were encouraged by the Bavarian
court, which maintained the Febronian tradition and was jealous of any
encroachment of the Papacy (see FEBRIONIANISM); but besides this the
Protestants throughout Germany and all opponents of the Papacy joined in
the agitation. They made it the occasion for an attack on the Jesuits;
even in 1869 there had been almost a riot in Berlin when a chapel
belonging to a religious order was opened there. During 1870 and 1871
meetings were held by the Gustavus Adolphus Verein, and a great
Protestant conference was called, at which resolutions were passed
demanding the expulsion of the Jesuits and condemning the Vatican
decrees. As the leaders in these meetings were men like Virchow and
Bluntschli, who had been lifelong opponents of Catholicism in every
form, the result was disastrous to the Liberal party among the
Catholics, for a Liberal Catholic would appear as the ally of the
bitterest enemies of the Church; whatever possibility of success the Old
Catholic movement might have had was destroyed by the fact that it was
supported by those who avowedly wished to destroy the influence of
Catholicism. No bishop joined it in Germany or in Austria, and few
priests, though the governments were ready to protect them in the
enjoyment of the privileges secured to Catholics, and to maintain them
in the use of the temporalities. There was no great following among the
people; it was only in isolated places that priests and congregation
together asserted their rights to refuse to accept the decrees of the
Church. Without the help of the bishops, the leaders had no legal basis;
unsupported by the people, they were generals without an army, and the
attempt to use the movement for political purposes failed.

None the less this was the occasion for the first proceedings against
the Catholics, and curiously enough the campaign began in Bavaria. The
archbishop of Munich had published the Vatican decrees without the
_Regium placetum_, which was required by the constitution, and the
government continued to treat Old Catholics as members of the Church. In
the controversy which ensued, Lutz, the chief member of the ministry,
found himself confronted by an Ultramontane majority, and the priests
used their influence to stir up the people. He therefore turned for help
to the imperial government, and at his instance a clause was added to
the penal code forbidding priests in their official capacity to deal
with political matters. (This law, which still exists, is popularly
known as the Kanzlei or Pulpit-paragraph.) It was of course opposed by
the Centre, who declared that the Reichstag had no right to interfere in
what was after all a religious question, and the Bavarian Opposition
expressed much indignation that their government should turn for help to
the Protestants of the North in order to force upon the Catholics of
Bavaria a law which they could not have carried in that state.

For twenty years the Old Catholics continued to be a cause of contention
in Bavaria, until the struggle ended in the victory of the
Ultramontanes. In 1875 the parliament which had been elected in 1869 for
six years came to an end. In order to strengthen their position for the
new elections, the Liberal ministry, who owed their position chiefly to
the support of the king, by royal ordinance ordered a redistribution of
seats. By the constitution this was within their power, and by clever
manipulation of the constituencies they brought it about that the
Ultramontane majority was reduced to two. It does not appear that this
change represented any change of feeling in the majority of the people.
The action of the government, however, caused great indignation, and in
a debate on the address an amendment was carried petitioning the king to
dismiss his ministry. They offered their resignation, but the king
refused to accept it, publicly expressed his confidence in them, and
they continued in office during the lifetime of the king, although in
1881 the growing reaction gave a considerable majority to the
Ultramontane party. After the death of the king the prince-regent,
Luitpold, still retained the old administration, but several concessions
were made to the Catholics in regard to the schools and universities,
and in 1890 it was decided that the claim of the Old Catholics to be
regarded officially as members of the Church should no longer be
recognized.


  May Laws.

Meanwhile at Berlin petitions to the Reichstag demanded the expulsion of
the Jesuits, and in 1872 an imperial law to this effect was carried;
this was again a serious interference with the control over religious
matters reserved to the states. In Prussia the government, having
determined to embark on an anti-Catholic policy, suppressed the Catholic
division in the ministry, and appointed a new minister, Falk, a Liberal
lawyer of uncompromising character. A law was carried placing the
inspection of schools entirely in the hands of the state; hitherto in
many provinces it had belonged to the clergy, Catholic or Protestant.
This was followed by the measures to which the name _Kulturkampf_ really
applied (an expression used first by Virchow to imply that it was a
struggle of principle between the teaching of the Church and that of
modern society). They were measures in which the state no longer, as in
the school inspection law or in the introduction of civil marriage,
defended its prerogatives against the Church, but assumed itself a
direct control over ecclesiastical matters.

At the end of 1872 and the beginning of 1873 Falk laid before the
Prussian Lower House the draft of four laws. Of these, one forbade
ministers of religion from abusing ecclesiastical punishment; the
second, which was the most important, introduced a law already adopted
in Baden, that no one should be appointed to any office in the Church
except a German, who must have received his education in a German
gymnasium, have studied for three years in a German university, and have
passed a state examination in philosophy, history, German literature and
classics; all ecclesiastical seminaries were placed under the control of
the state, and all seminaries for boys were forbidden. Moreover, every
appointment to an ecclesiastical benefice was to be notified to the
president of the province, and the confirmation could be refused on the
ground that there were facts which could support the assumption that the
appointment would be dangerous to public order. The third law appointed
a court for trying ecclesiastical offences, to which was given the right
of suspending both priests and bishops, and a fourth determined the
procedure necessary for those who wished to sever their connexion with
the Roman Catholic Church.

As these laws were inconsistent with those articles of the Prussian
constitution which guaranteed to a religious corporation the
independent management of its own affairs, it was therefore necessary to
alter the constitution. This was done, and a later law in 1875 repealed
the articles altogether.

The opposition of the bishops to these laws was supported even by many
Protestants, especially by the more orthodox Lutherans, who feared the
effect of this increased subjection of all churches to the state; they
were opposed also by the Conservative members of the Upper House. All,
however, was unavailing. Bismarck in this case gave the Liberals a free
hand, and the laws eventually were carried and proclaimed on the 15th of
May 1873; hence they got the name of the May laws, by which they are
always known. The bishops meanwhile had held a meeting at Fulda, at the
tomb of St Boniface, whence they addressed a protest to the king, and
declared that they would be unable to recognize the laws as valid. They
were supported in this by the pope, who addressed a protest personally
to the emperor. The laws were put into force with great severity. Within
a year six Prussian bishops were imprisoned, and in over 1300 parishes
the administration of public worship was suspended. The first sufferer
was the cardinal archbishop of Posen, Count Ledochowski. He refused to
report to the president of the province appointments of incumbents; he
refused also to allow the government commissioners to inspect the
seminaries for priests, and when he was summoned before the new court
refused to appear. He was then deprived of the temporalities of his
office; but the Polish nobles continued to support him, and he continued
to act as bishop. Heavy fines were imposed upon him, but he either could
not or would not pay them, and in March 1874 he was condemned to
imprisonment for two years, and dismissed from his bishopric. The bishop
of Trier, the archbishop of Cologne, and other bishops soon incurred a
similar fate. These measures of the government, however, did not succeed
in winning over the Catholic population, and in the elections for the
Reichstag in January 1874 the party of the Centre increased in number
from 63 to 91; 1,443,170 votes were received by them. In Bavaria the
Ultramontanes won a complete victory over the more moderate Catholics.
The Prussian government proceeded to further measures. According to the
ordinary practice towards parties in opposition, public meetings were
broken up on the smallest pretence, and numerous prosecutions for insult
to government officials (_Beamtenbeleidigung_) were brought against
members of the party. The Catholic agitation was, however, carried on
with increased vigour throughout the whole empire; over a hundred
newspapers were founded (three years before there had been only about
six Catholic papers in the whole of Germany), and great numbers of
pamphlets and other polemical works were published. The bishops from
their prisons continued to govern the dioceses; for this purpose they
appointed representatives, to whom they transferred their rights as
ordinary and secretly authorized priests to celebrate services and to
perform the other duties of an incumbent. To meet this a further law was
passed in the Prussian parliament, forbidding the exercise of
ecclesiastical offices by unauthorized persons, and it contained a
provision that any one who had been convicted under the law could be
deprived of his rights of citizenship, ordered to live in a particular
district, or even expelled from the kingdom. The result was that in
numerous parishes the police were occupied in searching for the priest
who was living there among the people; although his habitation was known
to hundreds of people, the police seldom succeeded in arresting him.
Bismarck confesses that his doubts as to the wisdom of this legislation
were raised by the picture of heavy but honest _gens d'armes_ pursuing
light-footed priests from house to house. This law was followed by one
authorizing the government to suspend, in every diocese where the bishop
continued recalcitrant, the payment of that contribution to the Roman
Catholic Church which by agreement had been given by the state since
1817. The only result of this was that large sums were collected by
voluntary contribution among the Roman Catholic population.

The government tried to find priests to occupy the vacant parishes; few
consented to do so, and the _Staatskatholiken_ who consented to the new
laws were avoided by their parishioners. Men refused to attend their
ministrations; in some cases they were subjected to what was afterwards
called boycotting, and it was said that their lives were scarcely safe.
Other laws excluded all religious orders from Prussia, and civil
marriage was made compulsory; this law, which at first was confined to
Prussia, was afterwards passed also in the Reichstag.

These laws were all peculiar to Prussia, but similar legislation was
carried out in Baden and in Hesse, where in 1871, after twenty-one years
of office, the particularist and Conservative government of Dalwigk[6]
had come to an end and after the interval of a year been succeeded by a
Liberal ministry. In Wurttemberg alone the government continued to live
peaceably with the bishops.

The government had used all its resources; it had alienated millions of
the people; it had raised up a compact party of nearly a hundred members
in parliament. The attempt of the Liberals to subjugate the Church had
given to the Papacy greater power than it had had since the time of
Wallenstein.


  Reaction against Liberalism.

The ecclesiastical legislation and other Liberal measures completed the
alienation between Bismarck and the Conservatives. In the Prussian
parliament seventy-three members broke off from the rest, calling
themselves the "old Conservatives"; they used their position at court to
intrigue against him, and hoped to bring about his fall; Count Arnim
(q.v.) was looked upon as his successor. In 1876, however, the party in
Prussia, reunited on a programme which demanded the maintenance of the
Christian character of the schools, cessation of the Kulturkampf,
limitation of economic liberty, and repression of social democracy, and
this was accepted also by the Conservatives in the Reichstag. This
reunion of the Conservatives became the nucleus of a great reaction
against Liberalism. It was not confined to any one department of life,
but included Protection as against Free Trade, State Socialism as
against individualism, the defence of religion as against a separation
of Church and State, increased stress laid on the monarchical character
of the state, continued increase of the army, and colonial expansion.

The causes of the change in public opinion, of which this was to be the
beginning, are too deep-seated to be discussed here. We must note that
it was not peculiar to Germany; it was part of that great reaction
against Liberal doctrine which marked the last quarter of the 19th
century in so many countries. In Germany, however, it more rapidly
attained political importance than elsewhere, because Bismarck used it
to carry out a great change of policy. He had long been dissatisfied
with his position. He was much embarrassed by the failure of his
ecclesiastical policy. The alliance with the Liberals had always been
half-hearted, and he wished to regain his full freedom of action; he
regarded as an uncontrollable bondage all support that was not given
unconditionally. The alliance had been of the nature of a limited
co-operation between two hostile powers for a definite object; there had
always been suspicion and jealousy on either side, and a rupture had
often been imminent, as in the debates on the military bill and the law
reform. Now that the immediate object had been attained, he wished to
pass on to other projects in which they could not follow him. Political
unity had been firmly established; he desired to use the whole power of
the imperial government in developing the material resources of the
country. In doing this he placed himself in opposition to both the
financial and the economic doctrines of the Liberals.


  Official changes.

The new period which now begins was introduced by some alterations in
the official organization. Hitherto almost the whole of the internal
business had been concentrated in the imperial chancery
(_Reichskanzleramt_), and Bismarck had allowed great freedom of action
to Delbruck, the head of the office. Delbruck, however, had resigned in
1876, justly foreseeing that a change of policy was imminent in which
he could no longer co-operate with Bismarck. The work of the office was
then divided between several departments, at the head of each of which
was placed a separate official, the most important receiving the title
of secretary of state. Bismarck, as always, refused to appoint ministers
directly responsible either to the emperor or to parliament; the new
officials in no way formed a collegiate ministry or cabinet. He still
retained in his own hands, as sole responsible minister, the ultimate
control over the whole imperial administration. The more important
secretaries of state, however, are political officials, who are
practically almost solely responsible for their department; they sit in
the Bundesrat, and defend their policy in the Reichstag, and they often
have a seat in the Prussian ministry. Moreover, a law of 1878, the
occasion of which was Bismarck's long absence from Berlin, empowered the
chancellor to appoint a substitute or representative (_Stellvertreter_)
either for the whole duties of his office or for the affairs of a
particular department. The signature of a man who holds this position
gives legal validity to the acts of the emperor.

This reorganization was a sign of the great increase of work which had
already begun to fall on the imperial authorities, and was a necessary
step towards the further duties which Bismarck intended to impose upon
them.

Meanwhile the relations with the National Liberals reached a crisis.
Bismarck remained in retirement at Varzin for nearly a year; before he
returned to Berlin, at the end of 1877, he was visited by Bennigsen, and
the Liberal leader was offered the post of vice-president of the
Prussian ministry and vice-president of the Bundesrat. The negotiations
broke down, apparently because Bennigsen refused to accept office unless
he received a guarantee that the constitutional rights of the Reichstag
should be respected, and unless two other members of the party,
Forckenbeck and Stauffenberg, were given office. Bismarck would not
assent to these conditions, and, even if he had been willing to do so,
could hardly have overcome the prejudices of the emperor. On the other
hand, Bennigsen refused to accept Bismarck's proposal for a state
monopoly of tobacco. From the beginning the negotiations were indeed
doomed to failure, for what Bismarck appears to have aimed at was to
detach Bennigsen from the rest of his party and win his support for an
anti-Liberal policy.


  Period after 1878.

The session of 1878, therefore, opened with a feeling of great
uncertainty. The Liberals were very suspicious of Bismarck's intentions.
Proposals for new taxes, especially one on tobacco, were not carried.
Bismarck took the opportunity of avowing that his ideal was a monopoly
of tobacco, and this statement was followed by the resignation of
Camphausen, minister of finance. It was apparent that there was no
prospect of his being able to carry through the great financial reform
which he contemplated. He was looking about for an opportunity of
appealing to the country on some question which would enable him to free
himself from the control of the Liberal majority. The popular
expectations were expressed in the saying attributed to him, that he
would "crush the Liberals against the wall." The opportunity was given
by the Social Democrats.


  Social democracy.

The constant increase of the Social Democrats had for some years caused
much uneasiness not only to the government, but also among the middle
classes. The attacks on national feeling, the protest against the war of
1870, the sympathy expressed for the _Communards_, had offended the
strongest feelings of the nation, especially as the language used was
often very violent; the soldiers were spoken of as murderers, the
generals as cut-throats. Attacks on religion, though not an essential
part of the party programme, were common, and practically all avowed
Social Democrats were hostile to Christianity. These qualities, combined
with the open criticism of the institutions of marriage, of monarchy,
and of all forms of private property, joined to the deliberate attempt
to stir up class hatred, which was indeed an essential part of their
policy, caused a widespread feeling that the Social Democrats were a
serious menace to civilization. They were looked upon even by many
Liberals as an enemy to be crushed; much more was this the case with
the government. Attempts had already been made to check the growth of
the party. Charges of high treason were brought against some. In 1872
Bebel and Liebknecht were condemned to two years' imprisonment. In 1876
Bismarck proposed to introduce into the Criminal Code a clause making it
an offence punishable with two years' imprisonment "to attack in print
the family, property, universal military service, or other foundation of
public order, in a manner which undermined morality, feeling for law, or
the love of the Fatherland." The opposition of the Liberals prevented
this from being carried. Lasker objected to these "elastic paragraphs,"
an expression for which in recent years there has been abundant use. The
ordinary law was, however, sufficient greatly to harass the Socialists.
In nearly every state there still existed, as survivals of the old days,
laws forbidding the union of different political associations with one
another, and all unions or associations of working men which followed
political, socialistic or communistic ends. It was possible under these
to procure decisions in courts of justice dissolving the General Union
of Workers and the coalitions and unions of working men. The only result
was, that the number of Socialists steadily increased. In 1874 they
secured nine seats in the Reichstag, in 1877 twelve, and nearly 500,000
votes were given to Socialist candidates.


  Legislation against the Socialists.

There was then no ground for surprise that, when in April 1878 an
attempt was made on the life of the emperor, Bismarck used the excuse
for again bringing in a law expressly directed against the Socialists.
It was badly drawn up and badly defended. The National Liberals refused
to vote for it, and it was easily defeated. The Reichstag was prorogued;
six days later a man named Nobiling again shot at the emperor, and this
time inflicted dangerous injuries. It is only fair to say that no real
proof was brought that the Socialists had anything to do with either of
these crimes, or that either of the men was really a member of the
Socialist party; nevertheless, a storm of indignation rose against them.
The government seized the opportunity. So great was the popular feeling,
that a repressive measure would easily have been carried; Bismarck,
however, while the excitement was at its height, dissolved the
Reichstag, and in the elections which took place immediately, the
Liberal parties, who had refused to vote for the first law, lost a
considerable number of seats, and with them their control over the
Reichstag.

The first use which Bismarck made of the new parliament was to deal with
the Social Democrats. A new law was introduced forbidding the spread of
Socialistic opinions by books, newspapers or public meetings, empowering
the police to break up meetings and to suppress newspapers. The
Bundesrat could proclaim a state of siege in any town or district, and
when this was done any individual who was considered dangerous by the
police could be expelled. The law was carried by a large majority, being
opposed only by the Progressives and the Centre. It was applied with
great severity. The whole organization of newspapers, societies and
trades unions was at once broken up. Almost every political newspaper
supported by the party was suppressed; almost all the pamphlets and
books issued by them were forbidden; they were thereby at once deprived
of the only legitimate means which they had for spreading their
opinions. In the autumn of 1878 the minor state of siege was proclaimed
in Berlin, although no disorders had taken place and no resistance had
been attempted, and sixty-seven members of the party were excluded from
the city. Most of them were married and had families; money was
collected in order to help those who were suddenly deprived of their
means of subsistence. Even this was soon forbidden by the police. At
elections every kind of agitation, whether by meetings of the party or
by distribution of literature, was suppressed. The only place in Germany
where Socialists could still proclaim their opinions was in the
Reichstag. Bismarck attempted to exclude them from it also. In this,
however, he failed. Two members who had been expelled from Berlin
appeared in the city for the meeting of the Reichstag at the end of
1878. The government at once asked permission that they should be
charged with breaking the law. The constitution provided that no member
of the House might be brought before a court of justice without the
permission of the House, a most necessary safeguard. In this case the
permission was almost unanimously refused. Nor did they assent to
Bismarck's proposal that the Reichstag should assume power to exclude
from the House members who were guilty of misusing the liberty of speech
which they enjoyed there. Bismarck probably expected, and it is often
said that he hoped, to drive the Socialists into some flagrant violation
of the law, of such a kind that it would be possible for him completely
to crush them. This did not happen. There were some members of the party
who wished to turn to outrage and assassination. Most, a printer from
Leipzig, who had been expelled from Berlin, went to London, where he
founded the _Freiheit_, a weekly paper, in which he advocated a policy
of violence. He was thereupon excluded from the party, and after the
assassination of the emperor Alexander II. of Russia had to leave
England for Chicago. A similar expulsion befell others who advocated
union with the Anarchists. As a whole, however, the party remained firm
in opposition to any action which would strengthen the hands of their
opponents. They carried on the agitation as best they could, chiefly by
distributing reports of speeches made in the Reichstag. A weekly paper,
the _Social-Democrat_, was established at Zurich. Its introduction into
Germany was of course forbidden, but it was soon found possible
regularly to distribute thousands of copies every week in every part of
the country, and it continued to exist till 1887 at Zurich, and till
1890 in London. In August of 1880 a congress of Socialists was held at
the castle of Wyden, in Switzerland, at which about eighty members of
the party met, discussed their policy, and separated before the police
knew anything of it. Here it was determined that the members of the
Reichstag, who were protected by their position, should henceforward be
the managing committee of the party, and arrangements were made for
contesting the elections of 1881. A similar meeting was held in 1883 at
Copenhagen, and in 1887 at St Gallen, in Switzerland. Notwithstanding
all the efforts of the government, though every kind of public agitation
was forbidden, they succeeded in winning twelve seats in 1881. The law,
which had obviously failed, was renewed in 1881; the state of siege was
applied to Hamburg, Leipzig and Stettin, but all to no purpose; and
though the law was twice more renewed, in 1886 and in 1888, the feeling
began to grow that the Socialists were more dangerous under it than they
had been before.

The elections of 1878, by weakening the Liberal parties, enabled
Bismarck also to take in hand the great financial reform which he had
long contemplated.


  Financial reform.

  Protection.

At the foundation of the North German Confederation it had been arranged
that the imperial exchequer should receive the produce of all customs
duties and also of excise. It depended chiefly on the taxes on salt,
tobacco, brandy, beer and sugar. So far as the imperial expenses were
not covered by these sources of revenue, until imperial taxes were
introduced, the deficit had to be covered by "matricular" contributions
paid by the individual states in proportion to their population. All
attempts to introduce fresh imperial taxes had failed. Direct taxation
was opposed by the governments of the states, which did not desire to
see the imperial authorities interfering in those sources of revenue
over which they had hitherto had sole control; moreover, the whole
organization for collecting direct taxes would have had to be created.
At the same time, owing to the adoption of free trade, the income from
customs was continually diminishing. The result was that the sum to be
contributed by the individual states constantly increased, and the
amount to be raised by direct taxation, including local rates,
threatened to become greater than could conveniently be borne. Bismarck
had always regarded this system with disapproval, but during the first
four or five years he had left the care of the finances entirely to the
special officials, and had always been thwarted in his occasional
attempts to introduce a change. His most cherished project was a large
increase in the tax on tobacco, which at this time paid, for homegrown
tobacco, the nominal duty of four marks per hundred kilo. (about a
farthing a pound), and on imported tobacco twenty-four marks. Proposals
to increase it had been made in 1869 and in 1878, and on the latter
occasion Bismarck for the first time publicly announced his desire for a
state monopoly, a project which he never gave up, but for which he never
was able to win any support. Now, however, he was able to take up the
work. At his invitation a conference of the finance ministers met in
July at Heidelberg; they agreed to a great increase in the indirect
taxes, but refused to accept the monopoly on tobacco. At the beginning
of the autumn session a union of 204 members of the Reichstag was formed
for the discussion of economic questions, and they accepted Bismarck's
reforms. In December he was therefore able to issue a memorandum
explaining his policy; it included a moderate duty, about 5%, on all
imported goods, with the exception of raw material required for German
manufactures (this was a return to the old Prussian principle); high
finance duties on tobacco, beer, brandy and petroleum; and protective
duties on iron, corn, cattle, wood, wine and sugar. The whole of the
session of 1879 was occupied with the great struggle between Free Trade
and Protection, and it ended with a decisive victory for the latter. On
the one side were the seaports, the chambers of commerce, and the city
of Berlin, the town council of which made itself the centre of the
opposition. The victory was secured by a coalition between the
agricultural interests and the manufacturers; the latter promised to
vote for duties on corn if the landlords would support the duties on
iron. In the decisive vote the duty on iron was carried by 218 to 88, on
corn by 226 to 109. The principle of protection was thus definitely
adopted, though considerable alterations have been made from time to
time in the tariff. The result was that the income from customs and
excise rose from about 230 million marks in 1878-1879 to about 700
millions in 1898-1899, and Bismarck's object in removing a great burden
from the states was attained.


  State contributions.

The natural course when the new source of income had been obtained would
have been simply to relieve the states of part or all of their
contribution. This, however, was not done. The Reichstag raised
difficulties on the constitutional question. The Liberals feared that if
the government received so large a permanent source of revenue it would
be independent of parliament; the Centre, that if the contributions of
the states to the imperial exchequer ceased, the central government
would be completely independent of the states. Bismarck had to come to
an agreement with one party or the other; he chose the Centre, probably
for the reason that the National Liberals were themselves divided on the
policy to be pursued, and therefore their support would be uncertain;
and he accepted an amendment, the celebrated _Franckenstein Clause_,
proposed by Georg Arbogast Freiherr von Franckenstein (1825-1890), one
of the leaders of the Centre, by which all proceeds of customs and the
tax on tobacco above 130 million marks should be paid over to the
individual states in proportion to their population. Each year a large
sum would be paid to the states from the imperial treasury, and another
sum as before paid back to meet the deficit in the form of state
contributions. From 1871 to 1879 the contribution of the states had
varied from 94 to 67 million marks; under the new system the surplus of
the contributions made by the states over the grant by the imperial
treasury was soon reduced to a very small sum, and in 1884-1885 payments
of the empire to the states exceeded the contributions of the states to
the empire by 20 million marks, and this excess continued for many
years; so that there was, as it were, an actual grant in relief of
direct taxation. In Prussia, by the Lex Huene, from 1885 to 1895, all
that sum paid to Prussia, so far as it exceeded 15 million marks, was
handed over to the local authorities in relief of rates. The increased
expenditure on the navy after 1897 again caused the contributions
required from the states to exceed the grants to them from the imperial
exchequer. In 1903 Baron von Stengel, who succeeded Baron von Thielmann
as finance minister in this year, proposed that the matricular
contributions of the several states, instead of varying as heretofore
with the exigencies of the annual budget, should be fixed by law. This
plan, originally suggested by Dr von Miquel, was adopted by the
Reichstag in May 1904. The deficits in the imperial budget, however,
continued. In 1909 the whole system of German imperial finance was once
more in the melting-pot, and, in spite of the undoubted wealth of the
country, the conflict of state and party interests seemed to make it
practically impossible to remould it on a satisfactory basis.


  Party changes.

  Secessionists.

  Freisinnige.

The acceptance by Bismarck of the principle of Protection and his
alliance with the Catholic Centre were followed by the disruption of the
National Liberal party and a complete change in the parliamentary
situation. Already the Liberal ministers, Falk and Hobrecht, had
resigned, as well as Max von Forckenbeck the president, and Stauffenberg
the vice-president of the Reichstag; in their place there were chosen a
Conservative, and the Catholic Baron von Franckenstein. The whole party
had voted against the Franckenstein Clause, but a few days later fifteen
of the right wing left the party and transferred their support to the
government. For another year the remainder kept together, but there was
no longer any real harmony or co-operation; in 1880 nineteen, including
most of the ablest leaders, Lasker, Forckenbeck, Bamberger and Bunsen,
left the party altogether. The avowed cause of difference was commercial
policy; they were the Free Traders, but they also justly foresaw that
the reaction would extend to other matters. They took the name of the
_Liberale Vereinigung_, but were generally known as the
_Sezessionisten_; they hoped to become the nucleus of a united Liberal
party in which all sections should join together on the principles of
Free Trade and constitutional development. At the elections of 1881 they
secured forty-seven seats, but they were not strong enough to maintain
themselves, and with great reluctance in 1884 formed a coalition with
the Progressives (_Freisinnigen_), who had gained greatly in strength
owing to the breach among the government parties. They did so
reluctantly, because they would thereby condemn themselves to assume
that attitude of purely negative criticism which, during the great days
of their prosperity, they had looked down upon with contempt, and were
putting themselves under the leadership of Eugen Richter, whom they had
long opposed. The new party, the _Deutschfreisinnige_, had no success;
at the election of 1884 they secured only sixty-seven seats, a loss of
thirty-nine; they were subjected to all inconveniences which belonged to
opposition; socially, they were boycotted by all who were connected with
the court or government; they were cut off from all hope of public
activity, and were subjected to constant accusations for _Bismarck
Beleidigung_. Their only hope was in the time when the crown prince, who
had shown great sympathy with them, should succeed. They were popularly
known as the crown prince's party. Lasker soon died; others, such as
Forckenbeck and Bunsen, retired from public life, unable to maintain
their position at a time when the struggle of class interests had
superseded the old conflicts of principle. At the election of 1887 they
lost more than half their seats, and in 1893 the party again broke up.

The remainder of the National Liberals only won forty-five seats in
1881, and during the next three years they were without influence on the
government; and even Bennigsen, unable to follow Bismarck in his new
policy, disgusted at the proposals for biennial budgets and the misuse
of government influence at the elections, retired from political life.
In 1884 a new development took place: under the influence of Miquel a
meeting was held at Heidelberg of the South German members of the party,
who accepted the commercial and social policy of the government,
including the Socialist law; their programme received Bismarck's
approval, and was accepted by the rest of the party, so that they
henceforward were taken into favour by the government; but they had won
the position by sacrificing almost all the characteristics of the older
Liberalism; the hope of a reunion for all the different sections which
had hitherto kept the name of Liberal was at an end.


  Political reaction.

These events had a very unfortunate effect on the character of the
parliament. From 1878 to 1887 there was no strong party on which
Bismarck could depend for support. After 1881 the parties of opposition
were considerably strengthened. Alsatians and Poles, Guelphs, Clericals
and Radicals were joined in a common hostility to the government.
Parliamentary history took the form of a hostile criticism of the
government proposals, which was particularly bitter because of the
irreconcilable opposition of the Free Traders. Few of the proposals were
carried in their entirety, many were completely lost; the tobacco
monopoly and the brandy monopoly were contemptuously rejected by
enormous majorities; even an increase of the tax on tobacco was refused;
the first proposals for a subsidy to the Norddeutsche Lloyd were
rejected. The personal relations of the chancellor to Parliament were
never so bitter. At the same time, in Prussia there was a tendency to
make more prominent the power of the king and to diminish the influence
of the parliament. A proposal to introduce biennial budgets was for this
reason regarded with great suspicion by the Opposition as a reactionary
measure, and rejected. The old feelings of suspicion and jealousy were
again aroused; the hostility which Bismarck encountered was scarcely
less than in the old days of the conflict. After the elections of 1881 a
protest was raised against the systematic influence exercised by
Prussian officials. Puttkammer, who had now become minister of the
interior, defended the practice, and a royal edict of 4th January 1882
affirmed the monarchical character of the Prussian constitution, the
right of the king personally to direct the policy of the state, and
required those officials who held appointments of a political nature to
defend the policy of the government, even at elections.


  End of the Kulturkampf.

One result of the new policy was a reconciliation with the Centre. Now
that Bismarck could no longer depend on the support of the Liberals, it
would be impossible to carry on the government if the Catholics
maintained their policy of opposition to all government measures. They
had supported him in his commercial reform of 1878, but by opposing the
Septennate in 1880 they had shown that he could not depend upon them. It
was impossible to continue to treat as enemies of the state a party
which had supplied one of the vice-presidents to the Reichstag, and
which after the election of 1881 outnumbered by forty votes any other
single party. Moreover, the government, which was now very seriously
alarmed at the influence of the Social Democrats, was anxious to avail
itself of every influence which might be used against them. In the
struggle to regain the adherence of the working men it seemed as though
religion would be the most valuable ally, and it was impossible to
ignore the fact that the Roman Catholic priests had alone been able to
form an organization in which hundreds of thousands of working men had
been enlisted. It was therefore for every reason desirable to remedy a
state of things by which so many parishes were left without incumbents,
a condition the result of which must be either to diminish the hold of
Christianity over the people, or to confirm in them the belief that the
government was the real enemy of Christianity. It was not easy to
execute this change of front with dignity, and impossible to do so
without forsaking the principles on which they had hitherto acted. Ten
years were to pass before the work was completed. But the cause of the
conflict had been rather in the opinions of the Liberals than in the
personal desire of Bismarck himself. The larger political reasons which
had brought about the conflict were also no longer valid; the fears to
which the Vatican decrees had given rise had not been fulfilled; the
failure of the Carlists in Spain and of the Legitimists in France, the
consolidation of the new kingdom in Italy, and the alliance with Austria
had dispelled the fear of a Catholic league. The growth of the Catholic
democracy in Germany was a much more serious danger, and it proved to be
easier to come to terms with the pope than with the parliamentary
Opposition. It would clearly be impossible to come to any agreement on
the principles. Bismarck hoped, indeed, putting all questions of
principle aside, to establish a _modus vivendi_; but even this was
difficult to attain. An opportunity was given by the death of the pope
in 1878. Leo XIII. notified his accession to the Prussian government in
a courteous despatch; the interchange of letters was followed by a
confidential discussion between Bismarck and Cardinal Franchi at
Kissingen during the summer of 1878. The hope that this might bring
about some agreement was frustrated by the sudden death of the cardinal,
and his successor was more under the influence of the Jesuits and the
more extreme party. Bismarck, however, was not discouraged.

The resignation of Falk in July 1879 was a sign of the change of policy;
he was succeeded by Puttkammer, who belonged to the old-fashioned
Prussian Conservatives and had no sympathy with the Liberal legislation.
The way was further prepared by a lenient use of the penal laws. On the
24th of February 1880 the pope, in a letter to the ex-archbishop of
Cologne, said he was willing to allow clerical appointments to be
notified if the government withdrew the obnoxious laws. In 1880 a
provisional Bill was submitted to parliament giving the crown
discretionary power not to enforce the laws. It was opposed by the
Liberals on the ground that it conceded too much, by the Clericals that
it granted too little, but, though carried only in a mutilated form, it
enabled the priests who had been ejected to appoint substitutes, and
religious worship was restored in nearly a thousand parishes. In the
elections of 1881 the Centre gained five more seats, and in 1883 a new
law was introduced prolonging and extending that of 1881. Meanwhile a
Prussian envoy had again been appointed at the Vatican; all but three of
the vacant bishoprics were filled by agreement between the pope and the
king, and the sequestrated revenues were restored. Finally, in 1886, a
fresh law, besides other concessions, did away with the _Kultur Examen_,
and exempted seminaries from state control. It also abolished the
ecclesiastical court, which, in fact, had proved to be almost
unworkable, for no priests would appeal to it. By this, the real
Kulturkampf, the attempt of the state to control the intellect and faith
of the clergy, ceased. A further law of 1887 permitted the return to
Prussia of those orders which were occupied in charitable work.

As permanent results of the conflict there remain only the alteration in
the Prussian constitution and the expulsion of the Jesuits; the Centre
continued to demand the repeal of this, and to make it the price of
their support of government measures; in 1897 the Bundesrat permitted
the return of the Redemptorists, an allied order. With these exceptions
absolute religious peace resulted; the Centre to a great extent
succeeded to the position which the National Liberals formerly held; in
Bavaria, in Baden, in Prussia they obtained a dominant position, and
they became a government party.


  Nationalization of railways.

Meanwhile Bismarck, who was not intimidated by the parliamentary
opposition, irritating and embarrassing though it was, resolutely
proceeded with his task of developing the material resources of the
empire. In order to do so the better, he undertook, in addition to his
other offices, that of Prussian minister of commerce. He was now able to
carry out, at least partially, his railway schemes, for he could afford
to ignore Liberal dislike to state railways, and if he was unable to
make all the lines imperial, he could make most of them Prussian. The
work was continued by his successors, and by the year 1896 there
remained only about 2000 kilometres of private railways in Prussia; of
these none except those in East Prussia belonged to companies of any
great importance. More than this, Bismarck was able to obtain Prussian
control of the neighbouring states; in 1886 the Brunswick railways were
acquired by the Prussian government, and in 1895 the private lines in
Thuringia. The imperial railways in Alsace-Lorraine are managed in close
connexion with the Prussian system, and in 1895 an important step was
taken towards extending Prussian influence in the south. A treaty was
made between Prussia and Hesse by which the two states together bought
up the Hesse-Ludwig railway (the most important private company
remaining in Germany), and in addition to this agreed that they would
form a special union for the joint administration of all the lines
belonging to either state. What this means is that the Hessian lines are
managed by the Prussian department, but Hesse has the right of
appointing one director, and the expenses and profits are divided
between the two states in proportion to their population. Thus a nucleus
and precedent has been formed similar to that by which the _Zollverein_
was begun, and it was hoped that it might be possible to arrange similar
agreements with other states, so that in this way a common management
for all lines might be established. There is, however, strong
opposition, especially in South Germany, and most of the states cling to
the separate management of their own lines. Fearful that Prussia might
obtain control over the private lines, they have imitated Prussian
policy and acquired all railways for the state, and much of the old
opposition to Prussia is revived in defence of the local railways.


  Canals.

A natural supplement to the nationalization of railways was the
development of water communication. This is of great importance in
Germany, as all the chief coal-fields and manufacturing
districts--Silesia, Saxony, Westphalia and Alsace--are far removed from
the sea. The most important works were the canal from Dortmund to the
mouth of the Ems, and the Jahde canal from the Ems to the Elbe, which
enables Westphalian coal to reach the sea, and so to compete better with
English coal. In addition to this, however, a large number of smaller
works were undertaken, such as the canalization of the Main from
Frankfort to the Rhine; and a new canal from the Elbe to Lubeck. The
great ship canal from Kiel to the Elbe, which was begun in 1887 and
completed in 1896, has perhaps even more importance for naval than for
commercial purposes. The Rhine, so long the home of romance, has become
one of the great arteries of traffic, and lines of railways on both
sides have caused small villages to become large towns. The Prussian
government also planned a great scheme by which the Westphalian
coal-fields should be directly connected with the Rhine in one direction
and the Elbe in the other by a canal which would join together Minden,
Hanover and Magdeburg. This would give uninterrupted water communication
from one end of the country to the other, for the Elbe, Oder and Vistula
are all navigable rivers connected by canals. This project, which was a
natural continuation of Bismarck's policy, was, however, rejected by the
Prussian parliament in 1899. The opposition came from the Agrarians and
extreme Conservatives, who feared that it would enable foreign corn to
compete on better terms with German corn; they were also jealous of the
attention paid by the government to commercial enterprise in which they
were not immediately interested. The project was again laid by the
government before the Prussian _Landtag_ on the 14th of April 1901 and
was again rejected. In 1904 it was once more introduced in the modified
form of a proposal of a canal from the Rhine to Leine in Hanover, with a
branch from Datteln to Ham, and also of a canal from Berlin to Stettin.
This bill was passed in February 1905.


  Hamburg and Bremen.

Equally important was the action of the government in developing foreign
trade. The first step was the inclusion of Hamburg and Bremen in the
_Zollverein_; this was necessary if German maritime enterprise was to
become a national and not merely a local concern, for the two Hansa
cities practically controlled the whole foreign trade and owned
three-quarters of the shipping; but so long as they were excluded for
the Customs Union their interests were more cosmopolitan than national.
Both cities, but especially Hamburg, were very reluctant to give up
their privileges and the commercial independence which they had enjoyed
almost since their foundation. As a clause in the constitution
determined that they should remain outside the Customs Union until they
voluntarily offered to enter it, there was some difficulty in overcoming
their opposition. Bismarck, with characteristic energy, proposed to take
steps, by altering the position of the imperial customs stations, which
would practically destroy the commerce of Hamburg, and some of his
proposals which seemed contrary to the constitution aroused a very sharp
resistance in the Bundesrat. It was, however, not necessary to go to
extremities, for in 1881 the senate of Hamburg accepted an agreement
which, after a keen struggle, was ratified by the citizens. By this
Hamburg was to enter the _Zollverein_; a part of the harbour was to
remain a free port, and the empire contributed two million pounds
towards rearranging and enlarging the harbour. A similar treaty was made
with Bremen, the free port of that city being situated near the mouth of
the Weser at Bremerhaven; and in 1888, the necessary works having been
completed, the cities entered the Customs Union. They have had no reason
to regret the change, for no part of the country profited so much by the
great prosperity of the following years, notwithstanding the temporary
check caused by the serious outbreak of cholera at Hamburg in 1892.


  Colonies.

During the first years of the empire Bismarck had occasionally been
asked to interest himself in colonial enterprise. He had refused, for he
feared that foreign complications might ensue, and that the country
might weaken itself by dissipation of energy. He was satisfied that the
Germans should profit by the commercial liberty allowed in the British
colonies. Many of the Germans were, however, not contented with this,
and disputes regarding the rights of German settlers in Fiji caused some
change of feeling. The acquisition of German colonies was really the
logical and almost necessary sequel of a protective policy. For that
reason it was always opposed by the extreme Liberal party.

The failure of the great Hamburg house of Godefroy in 1879 threatened to
ruin the growing German industries in the South Seas, which it had
helped to build up. Bismarck therefore consented to apply to the
Reichstag for a state guarantee to a company which would take over its
great plantations in Samoa. This was refused, chiefly owing to the
influence of the Liberal party. Bismarck therefore, who took this rebuff
much to heart, said he would have nothing more to do with the matter,
and warned those interested in colonies that they must depend on
self-help; he could do nothing for them. By the support of some of the
great financial firms they succeeded in forming a company, which carried
on the business and undertook fresh settlements on the islands to the
north of New Guinea. This event led also to the foundation of a society,
the _Deutscher Kolonial Verein_, under the presidency of the prince of
Hohenlohe-Langenburg, to educate public opinion. Their immediate object
was the acquisition of trading stations. The year 1884 brought a
complete change. Within a few months Germany acquired extended
possessions in several parts both of Africa and the South Seas. This was
rendered possible owing to the good understanding which at that time
existed between Germany and France. Bismarck therefore no longer feared,
as he formerly had, to encounter the difficulties with Great Britain
which would be the natural result of a policy of colonial expansion.


  Africa.

His conversion to the views of the colonial party was gradual, as was
seen in his attitude to the proposed acquisition of German stations in
South-West Africa. In Namaqualand and Damaraland, British influence,
exercised from Cape Colony, had long been strong, but the British
government had refused to annex the country even when asked so to do by
the German missionaries who laboured among the natives. In 1882 F. A.
Luderitz, a Bremen tobacco merchant, approached Bismarck on the question
of establishing a trading station on the coast at Angra Pequena. The
chancellor, while not discouraging Luderitz, acted with perfect fairness
to Great Britain, and throughout 1883 that country might have acted had
she known her mind. She did not, and in the summer of 1884 Bismarck
decided no longer to await her pleasure, and the south-west coast of
Africa from the frontier of the Portuguese possessions to the Orange
river, with the exception of Walfish Bay, was taken under German
protection. During the same year Dr Nachtigal was despatched to the west
coast, and stealing a march on his British and French rivals he secured
not only Togoland but Cameroon for the Germans. On the east coast
Bismarck acted decisively without reference to British interests. A
company, the _Gesellschaft fur deutsche Kolonization_, was founded early
in 1884 by Dr Carl Peters, who with two companions went off to the east
coast of Africa and succeeded in November of that year in negotiating
treaties with various chiefs on the mainland who were alleged to be
independent of Zanzibar. In this region British opposition had to be
considered, but in February 1885 a German protectorate over the
territory acquired by Peters was proclaimed.


  The Pacific.

Similar events took place in the South Seas. The acquisition of Samoa,
where German interests were most extensive, was prevented (for the time
being) by the arrangement made in 1879 with Great Britain and the United
States. But in 1884 and 1885 the German flag was hoisted on the north of
New Guinea (to which the name Kaiser Wilhelmsland has been given), on
several parts of the New Britain Archipelago (which afterwards became
the Bismarck Archipelago), and on the Caroline Islands. The last
acquisition was not kept. The Spanish government claimed the islands,
and Bismarck, in order to avoid a struggle which would have been very
disastrous to monarchical government in Spain, suggested that the pope
should be asked to mediate. Leo XIII. accepted the offer, which was an
agreeable reminiscence of the days when popes determined the limits of
the Spanish colonial empire, all the more gratefully that it was made by
a Protestant power. He decided in favour of Spain, Germany being granted
certain rights in the islands. The loss of the islands was amply
compensated for by the political advantages which Bismarck gained by
this attention to the pope, and, after all, not many years elapsed
before they became German.

Bismarck in his colonial policy had repeatedly explained that he did not
propose to found provinces or take over for the government the
responsibility for their administration; he intended to leave the
responsibility for their material development to the merchants, and even
to entrust to them the actual government. He avowedly wished to imitate
the older form of British colonization by means of chartered companies,
which had been recently revived in the North Borneo Company; the only
responsibility of the imperial government was to be their protection
from foreign aggression. In accordance with this policy, the territories
were not actually incorporated in the empire (there would also have been
constitutional difficulties in doing that), and they were officially
known as Protectorates (_Schutzgebiete_), a word which thus acquired a
new signification. In 1885 two new great companies were founded to
undertake the government. The _Deutsch-Ost-Afrika Gesellschaft_, with a
capital of L200,000, took over the territories acquired by Dr Peters,
and for the South Seas the _Neu-Guinea Gesellschaft_, founded by an
amalgamation of a number of firms in 1884, received a charter in 1885.
It was not, however, possible to limit the imperial responsibility as
Bismarck intended. In East Africa the great revolt of the Arabs in 1888
drove the company out of all their possessions, with the exception of
the port of Dar-es-Salam. The company was not strong enough to defend
itself; troops had to be sent out by the emperor under Captain Wissmann,
who as imperial commissioner took over the government. This, which was
at first a temporary arrangement, was afterwards made permanent.

The New Guinea Company had less formidable enemies to contend with, and
with the exception of a period of three years between 1889 and 1892,
they maintained a full responsibility for the administration of their
territory till the year 1899, when an agreement was made and ratified in
the Reichstag, by which the possession and administration was
transferred to the empire in return for a subsidy of L20,000 a year, to
be continued for ten years. The whole of the colonies have therefore now
come under the direct administration of the empire. They were at first
placed under the direction of a special department of the Foreign
Office, and in 1890 a council of experts on colonial matters was
instituted, while in 1907 a separate office for colonial affairs was
created. In 1887 the two chief societies for supporting the colonial
movement joined under the name of the _Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft_.
This society takes a great part in forming public opinion on colonial
matters.


  Germany and Great Britain.

This new policy inevitably caused a rivalry of interests with other
countries, and especially with Great Britain. In every spot at which the
Germans acquired territory they found themselves in opposition to
British interests. The settlement of Angra Pequena caused much
ill-feeling in Cape Colony, which was, however, scarcely justified, for
the Cape ministry was equally responsible with the British government
for the dilatoriness which led to the loss of what is now German
South-West Africa. In Togoland and Cameroon British traders had long
been active, and the proclamation of British sovereignty was impending
when the German flag was hoisted. The settlement in East Africa menaced
the old-established British influence over Zanzibar, which was all the
more serious because of the close connexion between Zanzibar and the
rulers of the Persian Gulf; and Australia saw with much concern the
German settlement in New Guinea, especially as a British Protectorate
(which in the view of Australians should have included the whole of what
Germany was allowed to take) had previously been established in the
island. In Africa Britain and France proceeded to annex territory
adjacent to the German acquisitions, and a period followed during which
the boundaries of German, French and British possessions were determined
by negotiation. The overthrow of Jules Ferry and the danger of war with
France made a good understanding with Great Britain of more importance.
Bismarck, by summoning a conference to Berlin (1884-1885) to discuss
African questions, secured for Germany a European recognition which was
very grateful to the colonial parties; and in 1888, by lending his
support to the anti-slavery movement of Cardinal Lavigerie, he won the
support of the Centre, who had hitherto opposed the colonial policy.
Finally a general agreement for the demarcation of Africa was made in
1890 (see AFRICA, S 5). A similar agreement had been made in 1886
regarding the South Seas. It was made after Bismarck had retired from
office, and he, as did the colonial party, severely criticized the
details; for the surrender of Zanzibar and Witu cut short the hopes
which had been formed of building up a great German empire controlling
the whole of East Africa. Many of the colonial party went further, and
criticized not only the details, but the principle. They were much
offended by Caprivi's statement that no greater injury could be done to
Germany than to give her the whole of Africa, and they refused to accept
his contention that "the period of flag-hoisting was over," and that the
time had come for consolidating their possessions. It must, however, be
recognized that a continuation of the ambitious policy of the last few
years might easily have involved Germany in dangerous disputes.


  Heligoland.

It appeared a small compensation that Great Britain surrendered to
Germany the island of Heligoland, which she had taken from the Danes in
the Napoleonic wars. It was annexed to Prussia; the natives born before
the year 1880 were exempted from military service, and till the year
1901 no additional import duties were to be imposed. It has been
strongly fortified and made a naval station.


  Progress of German colonial expansion.

  Colonial wars. The Herero rising.

It was easy for the Opposition to criticize the colonial policy. They
could point out that, with the exception of parts of South-West Africa,
no territory had been acquired in which any large number of German
emigrants could live and rear families. They went as a rule to the
United States and South America, or to territories under the British
flag. As markets for German products the colonies remained of small
importance; in 1907 the whole value of the trade, import and export,
between Germany and her colonies was less than L3,300,000, and the cost
of administration, including the grant to the shipping companies, often
exceeded the total trade. Many mistakes were made in the administration,
and cases of misconduct by individual officials formed the text for
attacks on the whole system. Generally, however, these criticisms were
premature; it was surely wise, while the opportunity was still open, to
take care that Germany, in the partition of the world among European
races, should not alone go entirely without a share. The lack of
colonial experience, and, often, the lack of sympathy with, or
understanding of, the negro and other races over whom they had assumed a
protectorate, were contributory causes in the slow development of
Germany's African colonies. The unwillingness of the Reichstag to
sanction the expenditure of any large sums on railways and other public
works also hindered the exploitation of the economic resources of very
large areas. Yet at the close of the first twenty-five years' existence
of the colonial empire it might be said that the initial difficulties
had been overcome, and sufficient knowledge gained to ensure Germany a
return fairly commensurate with the efforts she had put forth. The
necessity to enlist the interests of the natives on the side of the
government, if any progress was to be made in industry or trade, was a
lesson slowly learned. After the Arab opposition had been crushed on the
east coast of Africa, there still remained the native states to be dealt
with, and few tribes voluntarily submitted to European control. There
was a serious rising in 1905-1906, when thousands of lives were lost. In
Togoland there were disturbances of a comparatively minor character; in
the Cameroon hinterland campaigns were undertaken against the Fulu and
Bornuese princes. It was, however, in South-West Africa that the Germans
had their chief and most bitter experience in colonial warfare. Though
"annexed" in 1884 it was not till ten years later, after protracted
fighting, that the Hottentots of Namaqualand recognized Germany. After
another decade of comparative peace war again broke out (1903) and
spread from the Hottentots to the Herero. The Anglo-Boer War had then
but recently ended, and in Germany generally, and especially in military
circles, it had provoked much adverse criticism on the inability of the
British to bring the contest to a speedier conclusion. To their surprise
the Germans now found that, against an inferior foe operating in a more
restricted area, they were unable to do as well as the British army had
done. The story of the war is told elsewhere (see GERMAN SOUTH-WEST
AFRICA); it lasted well into 1908 and the Germans were indebted to the
Cape Mounted Police for material help in bringing it to an end. As it
progressed the Germans adopted many of the methods employed by the
British in their colonial wars, and they learned to appreciate more
accurately the immensity of the task which Lord Kitchener accomplished
in overcoming the guerrilla warfare in the Boer republics.


  Enlarged industrial policy.

It was obviously little use acquiring colonies and creating manufactures
if German foreign trade was to be in the hands of other nations. As
early as 1881 the government had published a proposal for a subvention
to German shipping; it was criticized with peculiar energy by Bamberger
and the Free Traders; a Bill introduced in 1884 was abandoned, but in
1885 Bismarck succeeded in carrying a vote by which, for fifteen years,
four million marks could annually be devoted to helping a line of mail
steamers to the Pacific and Australia and a branch line in the
Mediterranean. An agreement was made with the Norddeutsche Lloyd, one
clause of which was that all the new steamers were to be built in
Germany; in 1890 a further vote was passed for a line to Delagoa Bay and
Zanzibar. This far from exhausts the external activity of the nation and
the government: the establishment of studentships for the study of
oriental languages enabled Germans to make their way in the Turkish and
Persian empires, and to open up a fresh market for German goods; by the
great excavations at Pergamum and Olympia Germany entered with great
distinction on a field in which the way had been shown by France and
Great Britain. The progress of technical studies and industrial
enterprise enabled Germany to take a leading place in railway and
shipbuilding, in the manufacture of military weapons, in chemical
experiments, and in electrical work.


  Social reforms.

  Christian socialism.

It was a part of the new policy not only to combat Social Democracy by
repression, but to win the confidence of the working men by extending to
them the direct protection of the state. Recent legislation, culminating
in the _Gewerbeordnung_ of 1869, had, in accordance with the principles
of the Liberal Economists, or, as the Germans called it, the Manchester
School, instituted freedom from state control in the relations between
employers and workmen. The old gilds had been destroyed, compulsory
apprenticeship had ceased; little protection, however, was given to the
working men, and the restrictions on the employment of women and
children were of little use, as there was no efficient system of factory
inspection. It was difficult for the men by their own exertions to
improve their condition, for the masters had full liberty of
association, which the law refused to the workmen. Even before 1870 a
protest was raised against this system among the Roman Catholics, who
were chiefly concerned for the preservation of family life, which was
threatened by the growth of the factory system and also by the teaching
of the Social Democrats. Baron von Ketteler, archbishop of Mainz, had
maintained that it was the duty of the state to secure working men work
and provision during sickness and old age. The general interest of the
Church in the social question was recognized by a congress of the
bishops at Fulda. Ketteler's work was continued by Canon Moufang, and
Catholics brought forward motions in the Reichstag demanding new factory
legislation. The peculiar importance of the Catholic movement is that it
alone was able to some extent to meet the Socialists on their own
ground. The Catholics formed societies which were joined by large
numbers of workmen. Originated by Father Kolping on the Rhine, they soon
spread over the whole of Catholic Germany. Herr von Schorlemer-Ast, a
Catholic landed proprietor from Westphalia, formed similar associations
among the peasants. The result of this has been that the Social
Democrats have failed to conquer the Catholic as they have the
Protestant districts. A similar movement began among the Protestants
after the commercial crisis of 1873, which forms an epoch in German
thought, since it was from that year that men first began to question
the economic doctrines of Liberalism, and drew attention to the
demoralization which seemed to arise from the freedom of speculation and
the influence of the stock exchange--a movement which in later years led
to some remarkable attempts to remedy the evil by legislation. A
minister, Rudolph Todt, and Rudolph Meyer criticized the moral and
economic doctrines of Liberalism; his writings led to the foundation of
the _Christlich-Soziale-Arbeiterverein_, which for a few years attained
considerable notoriety under the leadership of Adolph Stocker. The
Protestant movement has not succeeded in attaining the same position as
has the Catholic among the working men; but it received considerable
support among the influential classes at court, and part of the
programme was adopted by the Conservative party, which in 1876 demanded
restriction of industrial liberty and legislation which would prevent
the ruin of the independent artizans.

In a country where learned opinion has so much influence on public
affairs it was of especial importance that several of the younger
teachers separated themselves from the dominant Manchester School and
asserted the duty of the state actively to promote the well-being of the
working classes. At a congress held in Erfurt in 1873, Schmoller,
Wagner, Brentano and others founded the _Verein fur Sozial-Politik_,
which by its publications has had much influence on German thought.


  Anti-Semites.

The peculiar social conditions brought it about that in many cases the
Christian Social movement took the form of Anti-Semitism (q.v.). Nearly
all the bankers and stockbrokers in Germany were Jews. Many of the
leaders of the Liberal parties, e.g. Bamberger and Lasker, were of
Jewish origin; the doctrines of Liberalism were supported by papers
owned and edited by Jews; hence the wish to restore more fully the
avowedly Christian character of the state, coinciding with the attack on
the influence of finance, which owed so much to the Liberal economic
doctrines, easily degenerated into attacks on the Jews. The leader in
this was Stocker. During the years 1879 to 1881 the anti-Semite
agitation gained considerable importance in Berlin, Breslau and other
Prussian cities, and it culminated in the elections of that year,
leading in some cases to riots and acts of violence.

So long as the government was under the influence of the National
Liberals, it was indifferent, if not hostile to these movements. The
Peasants' Union had actually been forbidden by the police; Bismarck
himself was violently attacked for his reputed connexion with a great
Jewish firm of bankers. He had, however, kept himself informed regarding
these movements, chiefly by means of Hermann Wagener, an old editor of
the _Kreuzzeitung_, and in the year 1878 he felt himself free to return
in this matter to his older opinions. The new policy suggested in that
year was definitely announced at the opening of the session in the
spring of 1881, and at the meeting of the new Reichstag in November
1881. It was explained in a speech from the throne, which, as the
emperor could not be present, became an imperial message. This is
generally spoken of as the beginning of a new era. The help of the
Reichstag was asked for "healing social evils by means of legislation
... based on the moral foundation of Christianity." Compulsory
insurance, the creation of corporate unions among working men under the
protection of the state, and the introduction of indirect taxes, were
the chief elements in the reform.

The condition of parties was such that Bismarck could not hope to win a
majority for his schemes, especially as he could not obtain the monopoly
on tobacco on which he depended to cover the expense. The first reform
was the restoration of the gilds, to which the Conservatives attached
great importance. Since 1869 they continued to exist only as voluntary
associations with no public duties; many had been dissolved, and this is
said to have brought about bad results in the management of
lodging-houses, the condition of apprentices, support during illness,
and the maintenance of labour bureaus. It was supposed that, if they
could be restored, the corporate spirit would prevent the working men
from falling under the influence of the Socialists. The law of 1881,
while it left membership voluntary, gave to them many duties of a
semi-public nature, especially that of arbitration between masters and
men. These were extended by a further law in 1884.


  Compulsory insurance.

The really important element was the scheme for a great imperial system
by which all working men and women should be provided for in case of
sickness, accident or old age. Bismarck hoped by this to relieve the
parishes of the burden of the poor-rate, which would be transferred to
the empire; at the same time the power of the government would be
greatly extended. The first proposal in March 1881 was for compulsory
insurance against accidents. Every one employed on railways, mines and
factories was to be insured in an imperial office; the premium was to be
divided equally between masters, workmen and the state. It was bitterly
opposed by the Liberals, especially by Bamberger; all essential features
were altered by the Reichstag, and it was withdrawn by the government
after it had passed the third reading.

In 1882 a fresh scheme was laid before the newly elected Reichstag
dealing with insurance against accident and against sickness. The two
parts were separated by the Reichstag; the second, which was the
necessary prelude to the other, was passed in 1883. The law was based on
an old Prussian principle; insurance was made compulsory, but the state,
instead of doing the work itself, recognized the existing friendly and
other societies; they were still to enjoy their corporate existence and
separate administration, but they were placed under state control, and
for this purpose an imperial insurance department was created in the
office of the secretary of state for the interior. Uniform regulations
were to be followed in all trades and districts; one-third of the
premium was paid by the employer, two-thirds by the workmen.

The Accident Law of 1883 was rejected, for it still included the state
contribution to which the Reichstag would not assent, and also
contributions from the workmen. A new law, drafted according to their
wishes, was passed in 1884. It applied only to those occupations, mines
and factories, in which the use of machinery was common; it threw the
whole burden of compensation on to the masters; but, on the other hand,
for the first thirteen weeks after an accident the injured workman
received compensation from the sick fund, so that the cost only fell on
the masters in the more serious cases. The masters were compelled to
insure themselves against the payments for which they might become
liable, and for this purpose had to form trades associations,
self-governing societies, which in each district included all the
masters for each particular trade. The application of this law was
subsequently extended to other trades. It was not till 1889 that the
greatest innovation, that of insurance against old age, was carried. The
obligation to insure rested on all who were in receipt of wages of not
more than two pounds a week. Half the premium, according to the wages
received, was paid by the master. The pension began at the age of
seventy, the amount varying by very complicated rules, but the state
paid a fixed sum of two pounds ten shillings annually in addition to the
pension. These measures worked well. They were regarded with
satisfaction by masters and men alike. Alterations have been made in
detail, and further alterations demanded, but the laws have established
themselves in practice. The large amount of self-administration has
prevented an undue increase of bureaucratic power. The co-operation of
masters and men in the administration of the societies has a good effect
on the relations of the classes.

Except in the matter of insurance, the total result, however, for the
moment was small. The demands repeatedly made by the Centre and the
Conservatives for effective factory legislation and prohibition of
Sunday labour were not successful. Bismarck did not wish to lay heavier
burdens on the capitalists, and it was not till a later period that they
were carried out.


  Foreign affairs: the Triple Alliance.

During all this period Bismarck's authority was so great, that in the
conduct of foreign affairs he was freed from the criticism and
opposition which so often hampered him in his internal policy, and he
was able to establish that system of alliances on which for so many
years the political system of Europe depended. The close union of the
three empires which had existed since the meeting of the emperors in
1872 did not survive the outbreak of disturbances in the East. Bismarck
had maintained an attitude of neutrality, but after the congress of
Berlin he found himself placed between the alternatives of friendship
with Austria or Russia. Movements of Russian troops on the western
frontier threatened Austria, and the tsar, in a letter to the German
emperor, stated that peace could only be maintained if Germany gave her
support to Russia. Bismarck, now that the choice was forced upon him,
determined in favour of Austria, and during a visit to Vienna in
October, arranged with Count Andrassy an alliance by which in the event
of either being attacked by Russia the other was to assist; if either
was attacked by any power other than Russia, the other was to preserve
benevolent neutrality unless the attacking power was helped by Russia.
The effect of this was to protect Austria from attack by Russia, and
Germany from the danger of a combined attack by France and Russia.
Bismarck with some difficulty procured the consent of the emperor, who
by arranging a meeting with the tsar had attempted to preserve the old
friendship. From that time the alliance with Austria has continued. In
1883 it was joined by Italy, and was renewed in 1887, and in 1891 for
six years, and if not then denounced, for twelve.

In 1882, after the retirement of Gorchakov, the relations with Russia
again improved. In 1884 there was a meeting of the three emperors, and
at the same time Bismarck came to a close understanding with France on
colonial questions. The period of quiet did not last long. The disaster
in Tongking brought about a change of ministry in France, and Bulgarian
affairs again alienated Austria and Russia. Bismarck with great skill
used the growing foreign complications as a means of freeing himself
from parliamentary difficulties at the same time that he secured the
position of Germany in Europe.


  Elections of 1887.

To meet the increase in the French army, and the open menaces in which
the Russian press indulged, a further increase in the German army seemed
desirable. The Septennate would expire in 1888. In the autumn of 1886 a
proposal was laid before the Reichstag to increase the peace
establishment for the next seven years to 468,409 men. The Reichstag
would not assent to this, but the opposition parties offered to vote the
required increase for three years. Bismarck refused to accept this
compromise, and the Reichstag was dissolved. Under his influence the
Conservatives and National Liberals formed a coalition or _Cartel_ by
which each agreed to support the candidates of the other. The elections
caused greater excitement than any which had taken place since 1870.
The numbers who went to the poll were much larger, and all the
opposition parties, except the Catholics, including even the Socialists,
suffered severe loss. Bismarck, in order to win the support of the
Centre, appealed directly to the pope, but Windthorst took the
responsibility of refusing to obey the pope's request on a matter purely
political. The National Liberals again became a government party, but
their position was much changed. They were no longer, as in the old
days, the leading factor. They had to take the second place. They were
subordinate to the Conservatives. They could no longer impose their will
upon the government. In the new parliament the government proposals were
accepted by a majority of 223 to 48 (seven members of the Centre voted
for it, the others abstained). The opposition consisted chiefly of
Socialists and Radicals (_Freisinnigen_).


  Relations with Russia.

The fall of Boulanger removed the immediate danger from France, but for
the rest of the year the relations with Russia caused serious
apprehensions. Anti-German articles appeared in Russian newspapers. The
growth of the Nationalist party in Russia led to measures injurious to
German trade and German settlers in Russia. German vessels were
forbidden to trade on the Niemen. The increase of the duties on iron
injured German trade. Stringent measures were taken to stamp out German
nationality in the Baltic provinces, similar to those used by the
Germans against the Poles. Foreigners were forbidden to hold land in
Russia. The German government retaliated by a decree of the Reichsbank
refusing to deal with Russian paper. Large accumulations of troops on
the western frontier excited alarm in Germany and Austria. During a
short visit paid by the emperor of Russia to Berlin in November Bismarck
discovered that forged despatches misrepresenting the policy of Germany
in the Eastern Question had been communicated to him. This did not seem
to remove all danger, and in February 1888 the government introduced an
amendment to the imperial Military Law extending the obligation for
service from twelve to eighteen years. In this way it was possible to
increase the war establishment, excluding the Landsturm, by about half a
million men without adding to the burden in time of peace. Another law
authorized a loan of L14,000,000 for military equipment. At the same
time the text of the Triple Alliance was published. The two laws were
adopted without opposition. Under the effect of one of Bismarck's
speeches, the Military Bill was unanimously passed almost without
debate.


  Secret treaty with Russia.

It was probably at the meeting of 1884 that a secret treaty, the
existence of which was not known for many years, was arranged between
Germany and Russia. The full text has never been published, and the
exact date is uncertain. Either state pledged itself to observe
benevolent neutrality in case the other were attacked by a third power.
Apparently the case of an attack by France on Germany, or by Austria on
Russia, was expressly mentioned. The treaty lapsed in 1890, and owing to
Bismarck's dismissal was not renewed. Caprivi refused to renew it
because it was doubtful whether by increasing the number of treaties the
value of them was not diminished. Under this system it was to be
apprehended that if war broke out between Austria and Russia, Austria
would claim the support of Germany under the Triple Alliance, Russia
neutrality under this treaty. The decision of Germany would
theoretically have to depend on the question which party was the
aggressor--a question which notoriously is hardly ever capable of an
answer. (For this treaty see the debate in the Reichstag of the 16th of
November 1896; the _Hamburger Nachrichten_ of 24th October in the same
year; and Schulthess, _Europaisches Geschichtskalendar_, 1896.)


  Reign of Frederick III.

The emperor William died on the 9th of March 1888. He was succeeded by
his son, who took the title of Frederick III. In Italy the older title
of king of Piedmont has been absorbed in the newer kingdom of Italy;
this is not the case in Germany, where the title German emperor is
merely attached to and not substituted for that of king of Prussia. The
events of this short reign, which lasted only ninety-nine days, have
chiefly a personal interest, and are narrated under the articles
FREDERICK III. and BISMARCK. The illness and death of the emperor,
however, destroyed the last hope of the Liberals that they might at
length succeed to power. For a generation they had waited for his
accession, and bitter was their disappointment, for it was known that
his son was more inclined to follow the principles of Bismarck than
those of his own father. The emperor, crippled and dying though he was,
showed clearly how great a change he would, had he lived, have
introduced in the spirit of the government. One of his first acts was
severely to reprimand Puttkammer for misusing government influence at
elections. The minister sent in his resignation, which was accepted, and
this practice, which had been deliberately revived during the last ten
years, was thereby publicly disavowed. Bismarck's own position would
naturally have been seriously affected by the fall of a colleague with
whom he was closely connected, and another point of internal policy
showed also how numerous were the differences between the chancellor and
the emperor. Laws had been passed prolonging the period of both the
Prussian and Imperial parliaments from three to five years; when they
were laid before the emperor for his signature he said that he must
consider them. Bismarck then pointed out that the constitution of the
empire did not authorize the emperor to withhold his assent from a law
which had passed both the Reichstag and the Bundesrat; he could as king
of Prussia oppose it by his representatives in the federal council, but
when it had been accepted there, it was his duty as emperor to put the
law into execution. The emperor accepted this exposition of the
constitution, and after some delay eventually gave his consent also to
the Prussian law, which he was qualified to reject.


  William II.

He was succeeded by his eldest son, William II. (q.v.). The first year
of the new reign was uneventful. In his public speeches the emperor
repeatedly expressed his reverence for the memory of his grandfather,
and his determination to continue his policy; but he also repudiated the
attempt of the extreme Conservatives to identify him with their party.
He spent much time on journeys, visiting the chief courts of Europe, and
he seemed to desire to preserve close friendship with other nations,
especially with Russia and Great Britain. Changes were made in the
higher posts of the army and civil service, and Moltke resigned the
office of chief of the staff, which for thirty years he had held with
such great distinction.


  Fall of Bismarck.

The beginning of the year 1890 brought a decisive event. The period of
the Reichstag elected in 1887 expired, and the new elections, the first
for a quinquennial period, would take place. The chief matter for
decision was the fate of the Socialist law; this expired on the 30th of
September 1890. The government at the end of 1889 introduced a new law,
which was altered in some minor matters, and which was to be permanent.
The Conservatives were prepared to vote for it; the Radicals and Centre
opposed it; the decision rested with the National Liberals, and they
were willing to accept it on condition that the clause was omitted which
allowed the state governments to exclude individuals from districts in
which the state of siege had been proclaimed. The final division took
place on the 25th of February 1890. An amendment had been carried
omitting this clause, and the National Liberals therefore voted for the
bill in its amended form. The Conservatives were ready to vote as the
government wished; if Bismarck was content with the amended bill, they
would vote for it, and it would be carried; no instructions were sent to
the party; they therefore voted against the bill, and it was lost. The
House was immediately dissolved. It was to have been expected that, as
in 1878, the government would appeal to the country to return a
Conservative majority willing to vote for a strong law against the
Socialists. Instead of this, the emperor, who was much interested in
social reform, published two proclamations. In one addressed to the
chancellor he declared his intention, as emperor, of bettering the lot
of the working classes; for this purpose he proposed to call an
international congress to consider the possibility of meeting the
requirements and wishes of the working men; in the other, which he
issued as king of Prussia, he declared that the regulation of the time
and conditions of labour was the duty of the state, and the council of
state was to be summoned to discuss this and kindred questions.
Bismarck, who was less hopeful than the emperor, and did not approve of
this policy, was thereby prevented from influencing the elections as he
would have wished to do; the coalition parties, in consequence, suffered
severe loss; Socialists, Centre and Radicals gained numerous seats. A
few days after the election Bismarck was dismissed from office. The
difference of opinion between him and the emperor was not confined to
social reform; beyond this was the more serious question as to whether
the chancellor or the emperor was to direct the course of the
government. The emperor, who, as Bismarck said, intended to be his own
chancellor, required Bismarck to draw up a decree reversing a cabinet
order of Frederick William IV., which gave the Prussian
minister-president the right of being the sole means of communication
between the other ministers and the king. This Bismarck refused to do,
and he was therefore ordered to send in his resignation.


  Chancellorship of Count von Caprivi.

Among those more immediately connected with the government his fall was
accompanied by a feeling of relief which was not confined to the
Opposition, for the burden of his rule had pressed heavily upon all.
There was, however, no change in the principles of government or avowed
change in policy; some uncertainty of direction and sudden oscillations
of policy showed the presence of a less experienced hand. Bismarck's
successor, General von Caprivi, held a similar combination of offices,
but the chief control passed now into the hands of the emperor himself.
He aspired by his own will to direct the policy of the state; he put
aside the reserve which in modern times is generally observed even by
absolute rulers, and by his public speeches and personal influence took
a part in political controversy. He made very evident the monarchical
character of the Prussian state, and gave to the office of emperor a
prominence greater than it had hitherto had.

One result of this was that it became increasingly difficult in
political discussions to avoid criticizing the words and actions of the
emperor. Prosecutions for _lese-majeste_ became commoner than they were
in former reigns, and the difficulty was much felt in the conduct of
parliamentary debate. The rule adopted was that discussion was permitted
on those speeches of the emperor which were officially published in the
_Reichsanzeiger_. It was, indeed, not easy to combine that respect and
reverence which the emperor required should be paid to him, with that
open criticism of his words which seemed necessary (even for
self-defence) when the monarch condescended to become the censor of the
opinions and actions of large parties and classes among his subjects.
The attempts to combine personal government with representative
institutions was one of much interest; it was more successful than might
have been anticipated, owing to the disorganization of political parties
and the absence of great political leaders; in Germany, as elsewhere,
the parliaments had not succeeded in maintaining public interest, and it
is worth noting that even the attendance of members was very irregular.
There was below the surface much discontent and subdued criticism of the
exaggeration of the monarchical power, which the Germans called
_Byzantinismus_; but after all the nation seemed to welcome the
government of the emperor, as it did that of Bismarck. The uneasiness
which was caused at first by the unwonted vigour of his utterances
subsided, as it became apparent how strong was his influence for peace,
and with how many-sided an activity he supported and encouraged every
side of national life. Another result of the personal government by the
emperor was that it was impossible, in dealing with recent history, to
determine how far the ministers of state were really responsible for the
measures which they defended, and how far they were the instruments and
mouthpieces of the policy of the emperor.


  Factory laws.

The first efforts of the "New course," as the new administration was
termed, showed some attempt to reconcile to the government those parties
and persons whom Bismarck had kept in opposition. The continuation of
social reform was to win over the allegiance of the working men to the
person of the emperor; an attempt was made to reconcile the Guelphs,
and even the Poles were taken into favour; Windthorst was treated with
marked distinction. The Radicals alone, owing to their ill-timed
criticism on the private relations of the imperial family, and their
continued opposition to the army, were excluded. The attempt, however,
to unite and please all parties failed, as did the similar attempt in
foreign policy. Naturally enough, it was social reform on which at first
activity was concentrated, and the long-delayed factory legislation was
now carried out. In 1887 and 1888 the Clerical and Conservative majority
had carried through the Reichstag laws restricting the employment of
women and children and prohibiting labour on Sundays. These were not
accepted by the Bundesrat, but after the International Congress of 1890
an important amendment and addition to the _Gewerbeordnung_ was carried
to this effect. It was of even greater importance that a full system of
factory inspection was created. A further provision empowered the
Bundesrat to fix the hours of labour in unhealthy trades; this was
applied to the bakeries by an edict of 1895, but the great outcry which
this caused prevented any further extension.


  Progress of Socialism.

These acts were, however, accompanied by language of great decision
against the Social Democrats, especially on the occasion of a great
strike in Westphalia, when the emperor warned the men that for him every
Social Democrat was an enemy to the empire and country. None the less,
all attempts to win the working men from the doctrinaire Socialists
failed. They continued to look on the whole machinery of government,
emperor and army, church and police, as their natural enemies, and
remained completely under the bondage of the abstract theories of the
Socialists, just as much as fifty years ago the German bourgeois were
controlled by the Liberal theories. It is strange to see how the
national characteristics appeared in them. What began as a great
revolutionary movement became a dogmatic and academic school of thought;
it often almost seemed as though the orthodox interpretation of Marx's
doctrine was of more importance than an improvement in the condition of
the working men, and the discussions in the annual Socialist Congress
resembled the arguments of theologians rather than the practical
considerations of politicians. The party, however, prospered, and grew
in strength beyond all anticipation. The repeal of the Socialist law was
naturally welcome to them as a great personal triumph over Bismarck; in
the elections of 1890 they won thirty-five, in 1893 forty-four, in 1898
fifty-six seats. Their influence was not confined to the artisans; among
their open or secret adherents were to be found large numbers of
government employes and clerks. In the autumn of 1890 they were able,
for the first time, to hold in Germany a general meeting of delegates,
which was continued annually. In the first meetings it appeared that
there were strong opposing tendencies within the party which for the
first time could be brought to public discussion. On the one side there
was a small party, _die Jungen_, in Berlin, who attacked the
parliamentary leaders on the ground that they had lent themselves to
compromise and had not maintained the old _intransigeant_ spirit. In
1891, at Erfurt, Werner and his followers were expelled from the party;
some of them drifted into anarchism, others disappeared. On the other
hand, there was a large section, the leader of whom was Herr von
Vollmar, who maintained that the social revolution would not come
suddenly, as Bebel and the older leaders had taught, but that it would
be a gradual evolution; they were willing to co-operate with the
government in remedial measures by which, within the existing social
order, the prosperity and freedom of the working classes might be
advanced; their position was very strong, as Vollmar had succeeded in
extending Socialism even in the Catholic parts of Bavaria. An attempt to
treat them as not genuine Socialists was frustrated, and they continued
in co-operation with the other branch of the party. Their position would
have been easier were it not for the repeated attempts of the Prussian
government to crush the party by fresh legislation and the supervision
exercised by the police. It was a sign of most serious import for the
future that in 1897 the electoral law in the kingdom of Saxony was
altered with the express purpose of excluding the Socialists from the
Saxon Landtag. This and other symptoms caused serious apprehension that
some attempt might be made to alter the law of universal suffrage for
the Reichstag, and it was policy of this kind which maintained and
justified the profound distrust of the governing classes and the class
hatred on which Social democracy depends. On the other hand, there were
signs of a greater willingness among the Socialists to co-operate with
their old enemies the Liberals.


  Military legislation.

In foreign affairs a good understanding with Great Britain was
maintained, but the emperor failed at that time to preserve the
friendship of Russia. The close understanding between France and Russia,
and the constant increase in the armies of these states, made a still
further increase of the German army desirable. In 1890, while the
Septennate had still three more years to run, Caprivi had to ask for an
additional 20,000 men. It was the first time that an increase of this
kind had been necessary within the regular period. When, in 1893, the
proposals for the new period were made, they formed a great change.
Compulsory service was to be made a reality; no one except those
absolutely unfit was to escape it. To make enlistment of so large an
additional number of recruits possible, the period of service with the
colours was reduced to two years. The parliamentary discussion was very
confused; the government eventually accepted an amendment giving them
557,093 for five and a half years instead of the 570,877 asked for; this
was rejected by 210 to 162, the greater part of the Centre and of the
Radicals voting against it. Parliament was at once dissolved. Before the
elections the Radical party broke up, as about twenty of them determined
to accept the compromise. They took the name of the _Freisinnige
Vereinigung_, the others who remained under the leadership of Richter
forming the _Freisinnige Volkspartei_. The natural result of this split
was a great loss to the party. The Liberal opposition secured only
twenty-three seats instead of the sixty-seven they had held before. It
was, so far as now can be foreseen, the final collapse of the old
Radical party. Notwithstanding this the bill was only carried by sixteen
votes, and it would have been thrown out again had not the Poles for the
first time voted for the government, since the whole of the Centre voted
in opposition.

This vote was a sign of the increasing disorganization of parties and of
growing parliamentary difficulties which were even more apparent in the
Prussian Landtag. Miquel, as minister of finance, succeeded indeed in
carrying a reform by which the proceeds of the tax on land and buildings
were transferred to the local government authorities, and the loss to
the state exchequer made up by increased taxation of larger incomes and
industry. The series of measures which began in 1891, and were completed
in 1895, won a more general approbation than is usual, and Miquel in
this successfully carried out his policy of reconciling the growing
jealousies arising from class interests.


  Commercial treaties.

Caprivi's administration was further remarkable for the arrangement of
commercial treaties. In 1892 treaties with Austria-Hungary, Italy,
Belgium and Switzerland for twelve years bound together the greater part
of the continent, and opened a wide market for German manufactures; the
idea of this policy was to secure, by a more permanent union of the
middle European states, a stable market for the goods which were being
excluded owing to the great growth of Protection in France, Russia and
America. These were followed by similar treaties with Rumania and
Servia, and in 1894, after a period of sharp customs warfare, with
Russia. In all these treaties the general principle was a reduction of
the import duties on corn in return for advantages given to German
manufactures, and it is this which brought about the struggle of the
government with the Agrarians which after 1894 took the first place in
party politics.


  Agrarians.

The agricultural interests in Germany had during the middle of the 19th
century been in favour of Free Trade. The reason of this was that, till
some years after the foundation of the empire, the production of corn
and food-stuffs was more than sufficient for the population; as long as
they exported corn, potatoes and cattle, they required no protection
from foreign competition, and they enjoyed the advantages of being able
to purchase colonial goods and manufactured articles cheaply.
Mecklenburg and Hanover, the purely agricultural states, had, until
their entrance into the Customs Union, followed a completely Free Trade
policy. The first union of the Agrarian party, which was formed in 1876
under the name of the Society for the Reform of Taxation, did not place
protection on their programme; they laid stress on bimetallism, on the
reform of internal taxation, especially of the tax on land and
buildings, and on the reform of the railway tariff, and demanded an
increase in the stamp duties. These last three points were all to some
extent attained. About this time, however, the introduction of cheap
corn from Russia began to threaten them, and it was in 1879 that,
probably to a great extent influenced by Bismarck, they are first to be
found among those who ask for protection.

After that time there was a great increase in the importation of
food-stuffs from America. The increase of manufactures and the rapid
growth of the population made the introduction of cheap food from abroad
a necessity. In the youth of the empire the amount of corn grown in
Germany was sufficient for the needs of its inhabitants; the amount
consumed in 1899 exceeded the amount produced by about one-quarter of
the total. At the same time the price, making allowance for the
fluctuations owing to bad harvests, steadily decreased, notwithstanding
the duty on corn. In twenty years the average price fell from about 235
to 135 marks the 1000 kilo. There was therefore a constant decrease in
the income from land, and this took place at a time when the great
growth of wealth among the industrial classes had made living more
costly. The agriculturists of the north and east saw themselves and
their class threatened with loss, and perhaps ruin; their discontent,
which had long been growing, broke out into open fire during the
discussion of the commercial treaties. As these would inevitably bring
about a large increase in the importation of corn from Rumania and
Russia, a great agitation was begun in agricultural circles, and the
whole influence of the Conservative party was opposed to the treaties.
This brought about a curious situation, the measures being only carried
by the support of the Centre, the Radicals, and the Socialists, against
the violent opposition of those classes, especially the landowners in
Prussia, who had hitherto been the supporters of the government. In
order to prevent the commercial treaty with Russia, a great agricultural
league was founded in 1893, the _Bund der Landwirte_; some 7000
landowners joined it immediately. Two days later the Peasants' League,
or _Deutsche Bauernbund_, which had been founded in 1885 and included
some 44,000 members, chiefly from the smaller proprietors in Pomerania,
Posen, Saxony and Thuringia, merged itself in the new league. This
afterwards gained very great proportions. It became, with the Social
Democrats, the most influential society which had been founded in
Germany for defending the interests of a particular class; it soon
numbered more than 200,000 members, including landed proprietors of all
degrees. Under its influence a parliamentary union, the
_Wirtschaftsvereinigung_, was founded to ensure proper consideration for
agricultural affairs; it was joined by more than 100 members of the
Reichstag; and the Conservative party fell more and more under the
influence of the Agrarians.

Having failed to prevent the commercial treaties, Count Kanitz
introduced a motion that the state should have a monopoly of all
imported corn, and that the price at which it was to be sold should be
fixed by law. On the first occasion, in 1894, only fifty members were
found to vote for this, but in the next year ninety-seven supported the
introduction of the motion, and it was considered worth while to call
together the Prussian council of state for a special discussion. The
whole agitation was extremely inconvenient to the government. The
violence with which it was conducted, coming, as it did, from the
highest circles of the Prussian nobility, appeared almost an imitation
of Socialist methods; but the emperor, with his wonted energy,
personally rebuked the leaders, and warned them that the opposition of
Prussian nobles to their king was a monstrosity. Nevertheless they were
able to overthrow the chancellor, who was specially obnoxious to them.
In October 1894 he was dismissed suddenly, without warning, and almost
without cause, while the emperor was on a visit to the Eulenburgs, one
of the most influential families of the Prussian nobility.


  Fall of Caprivi.

Caprivi's fall, though it was occasioned by a difference between him and
Count Eulenburg, and was due to the direct act of the emperor, was
rendered easier by the weakness of his parliamentary position. There was
no party on whose help he could really depend. The Military Bill had
offended the prejudices of conservative military critics; the British
treaty had alienated the colonial party; the commercial treaties had
only been carried by the help of Poles, Radicals and Socialists; but it
was just these parties who were the most easily offended by the general
tendencies of the internal legislation, as shown in the Prussian School
Bill. Moreover, the bitter and unscrupulous attacks of the Bismarckian
press to which Caprivi was exposed made him unpopular in the country,
for the people could not feel at ease so long as they were governed by a
minister of whom Bismarck disapproved. There was therefore no prospect
of forming anything like a stable coalition of parties on which he could
depend.


  Chancellor Prince v. Hohenlohe.

The emperor was fortunate in securing as his successor Prince Chlodwig
von Hohenlohe. Though the new chancellor once more united with this
office that of Prussian minister-president, his age, and perhaps also
his character, prevented him from exercising that constant activity and
vigilance which his two predecessors had displayed. During his
administration even the secretary of state for foreign affairs, Baron
Marschall von Bieberstein, and afterwards Count von Bulow, became the
ordinary spokesman of the government, and in the management of other
departments the want of a strong hand at the head of affairs was often
missed. Between the emperor, with whom the final direction of policy
rested, and his subordinates, the chancellor often appeared to evade
public notice. The very first act of the new chancellor brought upon him
a severe rebuff. At the opening of the new buildings which had been
erected in Berlin for the Reichstag, cheers were called for the emperor.
Some of the Socialist members remained seated. It was not clear that
their action was deliberate, but none the less the chancellor himself
came down to ask from the House permission to bring a charge of
_lese-majeste_ against them, a request which was, of course, almost
unanimously refused.

The Agrarians still maintained their prominent position in Prussia. They
opposed all bills which would appear directly or indirectly to injure
agricultural interests. They looked with suspicion on the naval policy
of the emperor, for they disliked all that helps industry and commerce.
They would only give their support to the Navy Bills of 1897 and 1900 in
return for large concessions limiting the importation of margarine and
American preserved meat, and the removal of the _Indemnitats Nachweis_
acted as a kind of bounty on the export of corn. They successfully
opposed the construction of the great canal from Westphalia to the Elbe,
on the ground that it would facilitate the importation of foreign corn.
They refused to accept all the compromises which Miquel, who was very
sympathetic towards them, suggested, and thereby brought about his
retirement in May 1901.

The opposition of the Agrarians was for many reasons peculiarly
embarrassing. The franchise by which the Prussian parliament is elected
gave the Conservatives whom they controlled a predominant position. Any
alteration of the franchise was, however, out of the question, for that
would admit the Socialists. It was, moreover, the tradition of the
Prussian court and the Prussian government (and it must be remembered
that the imperial government is inspired by Prussian traditions) that
the nobility and peasants were in a peculiar way the support of the
crown and the state. The old distrust of the towns, of manufacturers and
artisans, still continued. The preservation of a peasant class was
considered necessary in the interests of the army. Besides, intellectual
and social prejudices required a strong Conservative party. In the south
and west of Germany, however, the Conservative party was practically
non-existent. In these parts, owing to the changes introduced at the
revolution, the nobility, who hold little land, are, comparatively
speaking, without political importance. In the Catholic districts the
Centre had become absolutely master, except so far as the Socialists
threaten their position. Those of the great industrialists who belonged
to the National Liberals or the Moderate Conservatives did not command
that influence which men of their class generally hold in Great Britain,
because the influence of Social Democracy banded together the whole of
the working men in a solid phalanx of irreconcilable opposition, the
very first principle of which was the hostility of classes. The
government, therefore, were compelled to turn for support to the Centre
and the Conservatives, the latter being almost completely under the
influence of the old Prussian nobility from the north-east. But every
attempt to carry out the policy supported by these parties aroused an
opposition most embarrassing to the government.


  Exchange regulations.

The Conservatives distrusted the financial activity which centred round
the Exchanges of Berlin and other towns, and in this they had the
sympathy of Agrarians and Anti-Semites, as well as of the Centre. The
Agrarians believed that the Berlin Exchange was partly responsible for
the fall of prices in corn; the Anti-Semites laid stress on the fact
that many of the financiers were of Jewish extraction; the Centre feared
the moral effects of speculation. This opposition was shown in the
demand for additional duties on stamps (this was granted by Bismarck),
in the opposition to the renewal of the Bank Charter, and especially in
the new regulations for the Exchange which were carried in 1896. One
clause in this forbade the dealing in "futures" in corn, and at the same
time a special Prussian law required that there should be
representatives of agriculture on the managing committee of the
Exchange. The members of the Exchanges in Berlin and other towns refused
to accept this law. When it came into effect they withdrew and tried to
establish a private Exchange. This was prevented, and after two years
they were compelled to submit and the Berlin Bourse was again opened.


  Political bargaining.

Political parties now came to represent interests rather than
principles. The government, in order to pass its measures, was obliged
to purchase the votes by class legislation, and it bought those with
whom it could make the best bargain--these being generally the Centre,
as the ablest tacticians, and the Conservatives, as having the highest
social position and being boldest in declaring their demands. No great
parliamentary leader took the place of Windthorst, Lasker and Bennigsen;
the extra-parliamentary societies, less responsible and more violent,
grew in influence. The Anti-Semites gained in numbers, though not in
reputation. The Conservatives, hoping to win votes, even adopted an
anti-Semite clause in their programme. The general tendency among the
numerous societies of Christian Socialism, which broke up almost as
quickly as they appeared, was to drift from the alliance with the
ultra-Conservatives and to adopt the economic and many of the political
doctrines of the Social Democrats. The _National-Sozialer Verein_
defended the union of Monarchy and Socialism. Meanwhile the extreme
spirit of nationality was fostered by the _All-deutscher Verein_, the
policy of which would quickly involve Germany in war with every other
nation. More than once the feelings to which they gave expression
endangered the relations of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The persecution
of the Poles in Prussia naturally aroused indignation in Austria, where
the Poles had for long been among the strongest elements on which the
government depended; and it was not always easy to prevent the agitation
on behalf of the Germans in Bohemia from assuming a dangerous aspect.

In the disintegration of parties the Liberals suffered most. The unity
of the Conservatives was preserved by social forces and the interests of
agriculture; the decay of the Liberals was the result of universal
suffrage. Originally the opponents of the landed interest and the
nobility, they were the party of the educated middle class, of the
learned, of the officials and finance. They never succeeded in winning
the support of the working men. They had identified themselves with the
interests of the capitalists, and were not even faithful to their own
principles. In the day of their power they showed themselves as
intolerant as their opponents had been. They resorted to the help of the
government in order to stamp out the opinions with which they disagreed,
and the claims of the artisans to practical equality were rejected by
them, as in earlier days the claims of the middle class had been by the
nobles.

The Centre alone maintained itself. Obliged by their constitution to
regard equally the material interests of all classes--for they represent
rich and poor, peasants and artisans--they were the natural support of
the government when it attempted to find a compromise between the
clamour of opposing interests. Their own demands were generally limited
to the defence of order and religion, and to some extent coincided with
the wishes of the emperor; but every attempt to introduce legislation in
accordance with their wishes led to a conflict with the educated opinion
of the country, which was very detrimental to the authority of the
government. In the state parliaments of Bavaria, Baden and Hesse their
influence was very great. There was, moreover, a tendency for local
parties to gain in numbers and influence--the _Volkspartei_ in
Wurttemberg, the Anti-Semites in Hesse, and the _Bauernbund_ (Peasants'
League) in Bavaria. The last demanded that the peasants should be freed
from the payment to the state, which represented the purchase price for
the remission of feudal burdens. It soon lost ground, however, partly
owing to personal reasons, and partly because the Centre, in order to
maintain their influence among the peasants, adopted some features of
their programme.


  Mittelstandpolitik.

Another class which, seeing itself in danger from the economic changes
in society, agitated for special legislation was the small retail
traders of the large towns. They demanded additional taxation on the
vast shops and stores, the growth of which in Berlin, Munich and other
towns seemed to threaten their interests. As the preservation of the
smaller middle class seemed to be important as a bulwark against
Socialism, they won the support of the Conservative and Clerical
parties, and laws inspired by them were passed in Bavaria, Wurttemberg
and Prussia. This _Mittelstand-Politik_, as it is called, was very
characteristic of the attitude of mind which was produced by the policy
of Protection. Every class appealed to the government for special laws
to protect itself against the effects of the economic changes which had
been brought about by the modern industrial system. Peasants and
landlords, artisans and tradesmen, each formed their own league for the
protection of their interests, and all looked to the state as the proper
guardian of their class interests.


  Moral and religious policy.

  Umsturz-Vorlage.

  Lex Heinze.

After the fall of Caprivi the tendency of the German government to revert
to a strong Conservative policy in matters of religion, education, and in
the treatment of political discussions became very marked. The complete
alienation of the working classes from Christianity caused much natural
concern, combined as it was with that indifference to religion which
marks the life of the educated classes in the large towns, and especially
in Berlin. A strong feeling arose that social and political dangers could
only be avoided by an increase in religious life, and the emperor gave
the authority of his name to a movement which produced numerous societies
for home mission work, and (at least in Berlin) led to the erection of
numerous churches. Unfortunately, this movement was too often connected
with political reaction, and the working classes were inclined to believe
that the growth of religion was valued because it afforded an additional
support to the social and political order. The situation was somewhat
similar to that which existed during the last years of Frederick William
IV., when the close association of religion with a Conservative policy
made orthodoxy so distasteful to large sections of society. The
government, which had not taken warning by the fate of the School Bill,
attempted to carry other measures of the same kind. The emperor had
returned to Bismarck's policy of joining social reform with repressive
legislation. In a speech at Konigsberg in November 1894, he summoned the
nobles of Prussia to support him in the struggle for religion, for
morality, for order, against the parties of _Umsturz_, or Revolution,
and shortly afterwards an amendment of the Criminal Code, commonly called
the _Umsturz-Vorlage_, was introduced, containing provisions to check
attempts to undermine the loyalty of the soldiers, and making it a crime
punishable with three years' imprisonment to attack religion, monarchy,
marriage, the family or property by abusive expressions in such a manner
as to endanger public peace. The discussion of this measure occupied most
of the session of 1895; the bill was amended by the Centre so as to make
it even more strongly a measure for the defence of religion; and clauses
were introduced to defend public morality, by forbidding the public
exhibition of pictures or statues, or the sale of writings, which,
"without being actually obscene, might rudely offend the feeling of
modesty." These Clerical amendments aroused a strong feeling of
indignation. It was represented that the freedom of art and literature
was being endangered, and the government was obliged to withdraw the
bill. The tendency towards a stricter censorship was shown by a proposal
which was carried through the Prussian parliament for controlling the
instruction given at the universities by the _Privatdozenten_. Some of
the Conservative leaders, especially Baron von Stumm, the great
manufacturer (one of Bismarck's chief advisers on industrial matters),
demanded protection against the teaching of some of the professors with
whose economic doctrines they did not agree; pastors who took part in the
Christian-Social movement incurred the displeasure of the government; and
Professor Delbruck was summoned before a disciplinary court because, in
the _Preussische Jahrbucher_, which he edited, he had ventured to
criticize the policy of the Prussian government towards the Danes in
Schleswig. All the discontent and suspicion caused by this policy broke
out with greater intensity when a fresh attempt was made in 1900 to carry
those clauses of the old _Umsturz-Vorlage_ which dealt with offences
against public morality. The gross immoralities connected with
prostitution in Berlin had been disclosed in the case of a murderer
called Heinze in 1891; and a bill to strengthen the criminal law on the
subject was introduced but not carried. The measure continued, however,
to be discussed, and in 1900 the government proposed to incorporate with
this bill (which was known as the _Lex Heinze_) the articles from the
_Umsturz-Vorlage_ subjecting art and literature to the control of the
criminal law and police. The agitation was renewed with great energy. A
_Goethe-Verein_ was founded to protect _Kultur_, which seemed to be in
danger. In the end the obnoxious clauses were only withdrawn when the
Socialists used the forms of the House to prevent business from being
transacted. It was the first time that organized obstruction had appeared
in the Reichstag, and it was part of the irony of the situation that the
representatives of art and learning owed their victory to the Socialists,
whom they had so long attacked as the great enemies of modern
civilization.


  Law of combination.

These were not the only cases in which the influence of the parties of
reaction caused much discontent. There was the question of the right of
combination. In nearly every state there still existed old laws
forbidding political societies to unite with one another. These laws had
been passed in the years immediately after the revolution of 1848, and
were quite out of place under modern conditions. The object of them was
to prevent a network of societies from being formed extending over large
districts, and so acquiring political power. In 1895 the Prussian police
used a law of 1850 as a pretext for dissolving the Socialist organization
in Berlin, as had been done twenty years before. A large majority of the
Reichstag demanded that an imperial law should be passed repealing these
laws and establishing the right of combination, and they refused to pass
the revised Civil Code until the chancellor promised that this should be
done. Instead of this course being adopted, however, special laws were
introduced in most of the states, which, especially in Prussia and
Saxony, while they gave the right of combination, increased the power of
the police to forbid assemblies and societies. It was apparent that large
and influential parties still regarded political meetings as something
in themselves dangerous and demoralizing, and hence the demand of the
Conservatives that women and young persons should be forbidden to attend.
In Prussia a majority of the Upper House and a very large minority of the
Lower House (193 to 206) voted for an amendment expressly empowering the
police to break up meetings in which anarchistic, socialistic or
communistic doctrines were defended in such a manner as to be dangerous
to society; the Saxon Conservatives demanded that women at least should
be forbidden to attend socialistic meetings, and it remained illegal for
any one under twenty-one years of age to be present at a political
meeting. In consequence of the amendments in the Upper House the Prussian
law was lost; and at last, in 1899, a short imperial law was carried to
the effect that "societies of every kind might enter into union with one
another." This was at once accepted by the chancellor; it was the time
when the Navy Bill was coming on, and it was necessary to win votes. The
general feeling of distrust which this prolonged controversy aroused was,
however, shown by the almost contemptuous rejection in 1899 of a Bill to
protect artisans who were willing to work against intimidation or
violence (the _Zuchthaus-Vorlage_), a vote which was the more significant
as it was not so much occasioned by the actual provisions of the bill,
but was an expression of the distrust felt for the motives by which the
government was moved and the reluctance to place any further powers in
their hands.


  Welt-Politik.

  The "mailed fist."

Meanwhile the emperor had set himself the task of doing for the German
fleet what his grandfather had done for the army. The acquisition of
Heligoland enabled a new naval station to be established off the mouth
of the Elbe; the completion of the canal from Kiel to the mouth of the
Elbe, by enabling ships of war to pass from the Baltic to the North Sea
greatly increased the strategic strength of the fleet. In 1890 a change
in the organization separated the command of the fleet from the office
of secretary of state, who was responsible for the representation of the
admiralty in the Reichstag, and the emperor was brought into more direct
connexion with the navy. During the first five years of the reign four
line-of-battle ships were added and several armoured cruisers for the
defence of commerce and colonial interests. With the year 1895 began a
period of expansion abroad and great naval activity. The note was given
in a speech of the emperor's on the twenty-fifth anniversary of the
foundation of the empire, in which he said, "the German empire has
become a world empire." The ruling idea of this new _Welt-Politik_ was
that Germany could no longer remain merely a continental power; owing to
the growth of population she depended for subsistence on trade and
exports; she could not maintain herself amid the rivalry of nations
unless the government was able actively to support German traders in all
parts of the world. The extension of German trade and influence has, in
fact, been carried out with considerable success. There was no prospect
of further territory in Equatorial Africa, and the hope of bringing
about a closer union with the South African Republic was not fulfilled.
On the Pacific, however, there were great gains;[7] long-established
plans for obtaining a port in China which might serve as a base for the
growing trade at Tientsin were carried out at the end of 1897; the
murder of two Catholic missionaries was made the pretext for landing
troops in the bay of Kiao-chau; and in amends China granted the lease of
some 50 sq. m. of territory, and also a concession for building
railways. The emperor showed his strong personal interest by sending his
brother, Prince Henry, in command of a squadron to take possession of
this territory, and the visit of a German prince to the emperor of China
strongly appealed to the popular imagination. The emperor's
characteristically rhetorical speeches on this occasion--particularly
his identification of his brother with the "mailed fist" of
Germany--excited considerable comment. In Turkey the government, helped
again by the personal interest of the emperor, who himself visited the
sultan at Constantinople, gained important concessions for German
influence and German commerce. The Turkish armies were drilled and
commanded by German officers, and in 1899 a German firm gained an
important concession for building a railway to Baghdad. In Brazil
organized private enterprise established a considerable settlement of
German emigrants, and though any political power was for the time
impossible, German commerce increased greatly throughout South America.


  Naval programme, 1897.

Encouraged by the interest which the events in China had aroused, a very
important project was laid before the Reichstag in November 1897, which
would enable Germany to take a higher place among the maritime powers. A
completely new procedure was introduced. Instead of simply proposing to
build a number of new ships, the bill laid down permanently the number
of ships of every kind of which the navy was to consist. They were to be
completed by 1904; and the bill also specified how often ships of each
class were to be replaced. The plan would establish a normal fleet, and
the Reichstag, having once assented, would lose all power of controlling
the naval budget. The bill was strongly opposed by the Radicals; the
Centre was divided; but the very strong personal influence of the
emperor, supported by an agitation of the newly-formed _Flottenverein_
(an imitation of the English Navy League), so influenced public opinion
that the opposition broke down. A general election was imminent, and no
party dared to go to the country as the opponents of the fleet.


  Hostility to England.

  Pro-Boer movement.

  Navy Bill, 1900.

Scarcely had the bill been carried when a series of events took place
which still more fully turned public attention to colonial affairs, and
seemed to justify the action of the government. The war between the
United States and Spain showed how necessary an efficient fleet was
under modern conditions, and also caused some feeling of apprehension
for the future arising from the new policy of extension adopted by the
United States. And the brewing of the storm in South Africa, where the
Boers were preparing to resist British suzerainty, helped to make the
nation regret that their fleet was not sufficiently strong to make
German sympathies effective. The government used with great address the
bitter irritation against Great Britain which had become one of the most
deep-seated elements in modern German life. This feeling had its origin
at first in a natural reaction against the excessive admiration for
English institutions which distinguished the Liberals of an older
generation. This reaction was deliberately fostered during Bismarck's
later years for internal reasons; for, as Great Britain was looked upon
as the home of parliamentary government and Free Trade, a less
favourable view might weaken German belief in doctrines and institutions
adopted from that country. There also existed in Germany a curious
compound of jealousy and contempt, natural in a nation the whole
institutions of which centred round the army and compulsory service, for
a nation whose institutions were based not on military, but on
parliamentary and legal institutions. It came about that in the minds of
many Germans the whole national regeneration was regarded as a
liberation from British influence. This feeling was deliberately
fostered by publicists and historians, and was intensified by commercial
rivalry, since in the struggle for colonial expansion and trade Germans
naturally came to look on Great Britain, who held the field, as their
rival. The sympathy which the events of 1896 and 1899 awakened for the
Boers caused all these feelings, which had long been growing, to break
out in a popular agitation more widespread than any since the foundation
of the empire. It was used by the Nationalist parties, in Austria as
well as in Germany, to spread the conception of Pan-Germanism; the Boers
as Low Germans were regarded as the representatives of Teutonic
civilization, and it seemed possible that the conception might be used
to bring about a closer friendship, and even affiance, with Holland. In
1896 the emperor, by despatching a telegram of congratulation to
President Kruger after the collapse of the Jameson Raid, had appeared
to identify himself with the national feeling. When war broke out in
1899 it was obviously impossible to give any efficient help to the
Boers, but the government did not allow the moment to pass without using
it for the very practical purpose of getting another bill through the
Reichstag by which the navy was to be nearly doubled. Some difficulties
which arose regarding the exercise by the British government of the
right of search for contraband of war were also used to stimulate public
feeling. The Navy Bill was introduced in January 1900. There were some
criticisms of detail, but the passing of the bill was only a matter of
bargaining. Each party wished in return for its support to get some
concessions from the government. The Agrarians asked for restrictions on
the importation of food; the Centre for the Lex Heinze and the repeal of
the Jesuit law; the Liberals for the right of combination.


  Von Bulow, chancellor.

The murder of the German ambassador, Baron von Ketteler, at Peking in
1900 compelled the government to take a leading part in the joint
expedition of the powers to China. A force of over 20,000 men was
organized by voluntary enlistment from among the regular army; and the
supreme command was obtained by the emperor for Count von Waldersee, who
had succeeded Moltke as chief of the staff. The government was, however,
sharply criticized for not first consulting the Reichstag in a matter
involving the first military expedition since the foundation of the
empire. It was desirable in such circumstances that a younger and more
vigorous statesman than Prince Hohenlohe should be placed at the head of
affairs before the Reichstag met; and on the 17th of October he
resigned, and was succeeded as chancellor by Herr von Bulow, the foreign
secretary.     (J. W. He.; W. A. P.)


  Naval Progress.

It remains only to sketch the main features of German history in later
years. In spite of the denunciation by the Social Democratic leaders of
what they stigmatized as a "policy of brag," the general popularity of
the idea of establishing a strong sea power was proved by the rapid
extension of the Navy League, which in 1904 had already 3595 branches.
For an increase in the navy there was, indeed, sufficient excuse in the
enormous expansion of German oversea commerce and the consequent growth
of the mercantile marine; the value of foreign trade, which in 1894 was
L365,000,000, had risen in 1904 to L610,000,000, and in the same period
the tonnage of German merchant shipping had increased by 234%. In the
session of 1901 Admiral von Tirpitz, the minister of marine, admitted in
answer to a Socialist interpellation that the naval programme of 1900
would have to be enlarged. In 1903 Count Bulow declared in the Reichstag
that the government was endeavouring to pursue a middle course between
"the extravagant aspirations of the Pan-Germans and the parochial policy
of the Social Democrats, which forgets that in a struggle for life and
death Germany's means of communication might be cut off." At the same
time the emperor presented to the Reichstag a comparative table, drawn
up by his own hand, showing the relative strength of the British and
German navies. An inspired article in the _Grenzboten_ declared the
object of this to be to moderate at once the aggressive attitude of the
Pan-Germans towards Great Britain and British alarms at the naval
development of Germany. This gave a fresh impetus to the naval agitation
and counter-agitation. In 1904 Count Bulow again found it necessary, in
reply to the Socialist leader Bebel, to declare that the German naval
armaments were purely defensive. "I cannot conceive," he said, "that the
idea of an Anglo-German war should be seriously entertained by sensible
people in either country." On the 16th of November 1905 a new Navy Bill
amplifying the programme of 1900 was accepted by the Federal Diet. The
Navy League, encouraged by its success, now redoubled its exertions and
demanded that the whole programme should be completed by 1912 instead of
1917. Bebel denounced this agitation as obviously directed against
England; and the government thought it expedient to disavow the action
of its too zealous allies. A telegram addressed by the emperor William
to the presidents of the League, Generals Keim and Menges, led to their
resignation; but the effect of this was largely counteracted by the
presence of Prince Henry of Prussia and the king of Wurttemberg at the
annual congress of the League at Stuttgart in May, while at the Colonial
Congress in the autumn the necessity for a powerful navy was again one
of the main themes of discussion. That the government was, in fact, at
one with the League as to the expediency of pushing on the naval
programme was proved by the revelations of the first lord of the
admiralty, Mr McKenna, in the debate on the naval estimates in the
British parliament of 1909. From these it was clear that the German
government had for some time past been pressing on its naval armaments
with little regard to the ostensible programme, and that in the matter
of the newest types of battleships, Great Britain had to reckon with the
fact that, before the date fixed for the completion of the programme,
Germany might establish at least an equality.


  Foreign policy.

  The Konigsberg trial.

The same determined spirit which characterized German naval policy was
evident also in her relations with the other powers. The suspicions as
to the stability of the Triple Alliance produced, indeed, for some years
a kind of nervousness in the attitude of the government, whose
determination to assert for Germany a leading international role tended
to isolate her in Europe. This nervousness was, in 1903 and 1904,
especially evident in the efforts to weaken the Franco-Russian alliance
by the policy of what Bebel denounced as Germany "crawling on her
stomach before Russia." Germany not only backed up Russian policy in the
East, and at the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War took up towards her
an attitude of more than benevolent neutrality, but the cabinets of
Berlin and St Petersburg entered into an agreement under which political
offenders against either government were to be treated as traitors to
both. This arrangement, which made the Prussian police the active allies
of the Third Section in the persecution of political suspects, created
vast indignation among all shades of Liberal opinion in Germany, an
indignation which culminated with the famous Konigsberg trial. This was
a prosecution of nine German subjects for sedition, conspiracy and
_lese-majeste_ against the Russian emperor, and for the circulation of
books and pamphlets attacking him and his government. The defendants
were poor smugglers from the Esthonian border marshes, who in the course
of their ordinary avocations had carried bales of revolutionary tracts
into Russia without troubling as to their contents. The trial, which
took place in July 1904, excited widespread attention. The prosecution
was conducted with all the force of the government; the defence was
undertaken by some of the most brilliant Liberal advocates of Germany
and developed in effect into an elaborate indictment, supported by a
great weight of first-hand evidence, of the iniquities of the Russian
regime. The verdict of the court was a serious rebuff for the
government; after a preliminary investigation of nine months, and a
public trial of a fortnight, the major charges against the prisoners
were dismissed, and six of them were condemned only to short terms of
imprisonment for conspiracy.

The progress of the Russo-Japanese War, however, soon relieved Germany
of all anxiety as to the safety of her eastern frontiers, and produced a
corresponding change in her attitude. The Russian disasters in Manchuria
at the beginning of 1905 were followed by an extraordinary demonstration
of the emperor William's ideas as to "the world-wide dominion of the
Hohenzollerns," in a sort of imperial progress in the East, made for the
purpose of impressing the Mahommedan world with the power of Germany. In
1904 the German attitude towards Great Britain had been in the highest
degree conciliatory; the Anglo-French agreement as to Egypt was agreed
to at Berlin; a visit of King Edward VII. to Kiel was reciprocated by
that of the German squadron to Plymouth; in July a treaty of arbitration
was signed between the two countries, while in the Reichstag the
chancellor declared that, Germany's interests in Morocco being purely
commercial, the understanding between France and England as to that
country, embodied in the convention of the 8th of April 1904, did not
immediately concern her. This attitude was now changed. On the 31st of
March 1905 the emperor William landed at Tangier, and is reported on
this occasion to have used language which in effect amounted to a
promise to support the sultan of Morocco in resisting French control.
His visit to the Holy Land and the solemn pilgrimage to Jerusalem were,
in the same way, a striking _coup de theatre_ designed to strengthen the
influence won by Germany in the councils of the Ottoman empire, an
influence which she had been careful not to weaken by taking too active
a part in the concert of the powers engaged in pressing on the question
of Macedonian reform.

Meanwhile pressure was being put upon France to admit the German claim
to a voice in the affairs of North Africa, a claim fortified by the
mission of Count von Tattenbach, German minister at Lisbon, to Fez for
the purpose of securing from the sherifian government special privileges
for Germany. This aggressive policy was firmly resisted by M. Delcasse,
the French minister of foreign affairs, and for a while war seemed to be
inevitable. At Berlin powerful influences, notably that of Herr von
Holstein--that mysterious omnipotence behind the throne--were working
for this end; the crippling of Russia seemed too favourable an
opportunity to be neglected for crushing the menace of French armaments.
That an actual threat of war was conveyed to the French government
(through the German ambassador at Rome, it is said) there can be no
doubt. That war was prevented was due partly to the timidity of French
ministers, partly to the fact that at the last moment Herr von Holstein
shrank from the responsibility of pressing his arguments to a practical
conclusion. The price of peace, however, was the resignation of M.
Delcasse, who had been prepared to maintain a bold front. Germany had
perhaps missed an opportunity for putting an end for ever to the rivalry
of France; but she had inflicted a humiliation on her rival, and proved
her capacity to make her voice heard in the councils of Europe.[8] The
proceedings of the conference of Algeciras (see MOROCCO) emphasized the
restored confidence of Germany in her international position. It was
notably the part played by Austria in supporting the German point of
view throughout at the conference that strengthened the position of
Germany in Europe, by drawing closer the bonds of sympathy between the
two empires. How strong this position had become was demonstrated during
the crisis that arose after the revolution in Turkey and the annexation
of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in October 1908. The complete
triumph of Baron von Aehrenthal's policy, in the face of the opposition
of most of the European powers, was due to German support, and Germany
suddenly appeared as the arbiter of the affairs of the European
continent (see EUROPE: _History_). German nervousness, which had seen
British intrigues everywhere, and suspected in the beneficent activities
of King Edward VII. a Machiavellian plan for isolating Germany and
surrounding her with a net of hostile forces, gave way to a spirit of
confidence which could afford to laugh at the terror of Germany which,
to judge from the sensational reports of certain popular British
journals, had seized upon Great Britain.


  Internal difficulties.

The great position gained by the German empire in these years was won in
the face of great and increasing internal difficulties. These
difficulties were, in the main, the outcome of the peculiar constitution
of the empire, of the singular compromise which it represented between
the traditional medieval polity and the organization of a modern state,
and of the conflicts of ideals and of interests to which this gave rise;
these being complicated by the masterful personality of the emperor
William, and his tendency to confuse his position as German emperor by
the will of the princes with his position as king of Prussia by the
grace of God.

In general, Germany had passed since the war through a social and
economic revolution similar to that undergone by Great Britain during
the earlier half of the 19th century, though on a greater scale and at a
much accelerated pace. A country mainly agricultural, and in parts
purely feudal, was changed into one of vast industries and of great
concentrations of population; and for the ferment created by this change
there was no such safety-valve in the representative system as had
existed in England since the Reform Bill. In spite of the election of
the Reichstag by manhood suffrage, there existed, as Count Bulow pointed
out in 1904, no real parliamentary system in Germany, and "owing to the
economic, political, social and religious structure of the nation" there
could never be one. Of the numerous groups composing the German
parliament no one ever secured a majority, and in the absence of such a
majority the imperial government, practically independent of parliament,
knew how to secure its assent to its measures by a process of bargaining
with each group in turn. This system had curious and very far-reaching
results. The only group which stood outside it, in avowed hostility to
the whole principle on which the constitution was based, was that of the
Social Democrats, "the only great party in Germany which," so the
veteran Mommsen declared in 1901, "has any claim to political respect."
The consequence was the rapid extension and widening of the chasm that
divided the German people. The mass of the working-class population in
the Protestant parts of Germany belonged to the Social Democracy, an
inclusive term covering variations of opinion from the doctrinaire
system of Marx to a degree of Radicalism which in England would not be
considered a bar to a peerage. To make head against this, openly
denounced by the emperor himself as a treasonable movement, the
government was from time to time forced to make concessions to the
various groups which placed their sectional interests in the forefront
of their programmes. To conciliate the Catholic Centre party,
numerically the strongest of all, various concessions were from time to
time made to the Roman Catholic Church, e.g. the repeal in 1904 of the
clause of the Anti-Jesuit Law forbidding the settlement of individual
members of the order in Germany. The Conservative Agrarians were
conciliated by a series of tariff acts placing heavy duties on the
importation of agricultural produce and exempting from duty agricultural
implements.


  Social Democracy.

The first of these tariffs, which in order to overcome Socialist
obstruction was passed _en bloc_ on December 13-14, 1902, led to an
alarming alteration in the balance of parties in the new Reichstag of
1903, the Socialists--who had previously numbered 58--winning 81 seats,
a gain of 23. Of the other groups only one, and that hostile to the
government--the Poles--had gained a seat. This startling victory of the
Social Democracy, though to a certain extent discounted by the
dissensions between the two wings of the party which were revealed at
the congress at Dresden in the same year, was in the highest degree
disconcerting to the government; but in the actual manipulation of the
Reichstag it facilitated the work of the chancellor by enabling him to
unite the other groups more readily against the common enemy. The most
striking effect of the development of this antagonism was the gradual
disappearance as a factor in politics of the Liberals, the chief
builders of the Empire. Their part henceforth was to vote blindly with
the Conservative groups, in a common fear of the Social Democracy, or to
indulge in protests, futile because backed by no power inside or outside
the parliament; their impotence was equally revealed when in December
1902 they voted with the Agrarians for the tariff, and in May 1909 when
they withdrew in dudgeon from the new tariff committee, and allowed the
reactionary elements a free hand. The political struggle of the future
lay between the Conservative and Clerical elements in the state, alike
powerful forces, and the organized power of the Social Democracy. In the
elections of 1907, indeed, the Social Democratic party, owing to the
unparalleled exertion of the government, had a set-back, its
representation in parliament sinking to 43; but at the International
Socialist Congress, which met at Stuttgart on the 18th of August, Herr
Bebel was able to point out that, in spite of its defeat at the polls,
the Socialist cause had actually gained strength in the country, their
total poll having increased from 3,010,771 in 1903 to 3,250,000.


  Prussia and the Empire.

In addition to the political strife and anxiety due to this fundamental
cleavage within the nation, Germany was troubled during the first decade
of the 20th century by friction and jealousies arising out of the
federal constitution of the Empire and the preponderant place in it of
Prussia. In the work of pressing on the national and international
expansion of Germany the interests and views of the lesser constituent
states of the Empire were apt to be overlooked or overridden; and in the
southern states there was considerable resentment at the unitarian
tendency of the north, which seemed to aim at imposing the Prussian
model on the whole nation. This resentment was especially conspicuous in
Bavaria, which clings more tenaciously than the other states to its
separate traditions. When, on the 1st of April 1902, a new stamp, with
the superscription "Deutsches Reich," was issued for the Empire,
including Wurttemberg, Bavaria refused to accept it, retaining the stamp
with the Bavarian lion, thus emphasizing her determination to retain her
separate postal establishment. On the 23rd of October 1903 Baron
Podevils, the new premier, addressing the Bavarian diet, declared that
his government "would combat with all its strength" any tendency to
assure the future of the Empire on any lines other than the federative
basis laid down in the imperial constitution.


  Personal intervention of the emperor.

This protest was the direct outcome of an instance of the tendency of
the emperor to interfere in the affairs of the various governments of
the Empire. In 1902 the Clerical majority in the Bavarian diet had
refused to vote L20,000 asked by the government for art purposes,
whereupon the emperor had telegraphed expressing his indignation and
offering to give the money himself, an offer that was politely declined.
Another instance of the emperor's interference, constitutionally of more
importance as directly affecting the rights of the German sovereigns,
was in the question of the succession to the principality of Lippe (see
LIPPE). The impulsive character of the emperor, which led him, with the
best intentions and often with excellent effect, to interfere everywhere
and in everything and to utter opinions often highly inconvenient to his
ministers, was the subject of an interpellation in the Reichstag on the
20th of January 1903 by the Socialist Herr von Vollmar, himself a
Bavarian. Count Bulow, in answer to his criticisms, declared that "the
German people desired, not a shadow, but an emperor of flesh and blood."
None the less, the continued "indiscretions" of the emperor so incensed
public opinion that, five years later, the chancellor himself was forced
to side with it in obtaining from the emperor an undertaking to submit
all his public utterances previously to his ministers for approval (see
WILLIAM II., German emperor).


  The non-German nationalities.

Meanwhile, the attempt to complete the Germanization of the frontier
provinces of the Empire by conciliation or repression continued. In this
respect progress was made especially in Alsace-Lorraine. In May 1902, in
return for the money granted by the _Reichslander_ for the restoration
of the imperial castle of Hohekonigsburg in the Vosges, the emperor
promised to abolish the _Diktaturparagraphen_; the proposal was accepted
by the Reichstag, and the exceptional laws relating to Alsace-Lorraine
were repealed. Less happy were the efforts of the Prussian government at
the Germanization of Prussian Poland and Schleswig. In the former, in
spite of, or perhaps because of, the attempt to crush the Polish
language and spirit, the Polish element continuously increased,
reinforced by immigrants from across the frontier; in the latter the
Danish language more than held its own, for similar reasons, but the
treaty signed on the 11th of January 1907 between Prussia and Denmark,
as to the status of the Danish "optants" in the duchies, removed the
worst grievance from which the province was suffering (see
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION).


  Resignation of Prince von Bulow.

Of more serious import were the yearly and increasing deficits in the
imperial budget, and the consequent enormous growth of the debt. This
was partly due to the commercial and industrial depression of the early
years of the century, partly was another outcome of the federal
constitution, which made it difficult to adjust the budget to the
growing needs of the Empire without disarranging the finances of its
constitutent states. The crisis became acute when the estimates for the
year 1909 showed that some L25,000,000 would have to be raised by
additional taxes, largely to meet the cost of the expanded naval
programme. The budget presented to the Reichstag by Prince Bulow, which
laid new burdens upon the landed and capitalist classes, was fiercely
opposed by the Agrarians, and led to the break-up of the
Liberal-Conservative _bloc_ on whose support the chancellor had relied
since the elections of 1906. The budget was torn to pieces in the
committee selected to report on it; the Liberal members, after a vain
protest, seceded; and the Conservative majority had a free hand to amend
it in accordance with their views. In the long and acrimonious debates
that followed in the Reichstag itself the strange spectacle was
presented of the chancellor fighting a coalition of the Conservatives
and the Catholic Centre with the aid of the Socialists and Liberals. The
contest was from the first hopeless, and, but for the personal request
of the emperor that he would pilot the Finance Bill through the House in
some shape or other, Prince Bulow would have resigned early in the year.
So soon as the budget was passed he once more tendered his resignation,
and on the 14th of July a special edition of the _Imperial Gazette_
announced that it had been accepted by the emperor. The post of imperial
chancellor was at the same time conferred on Theobald von
Bethmann-Hollweg, the imperial secretary of state for the interior.[9]
     (W. A. P.)

_Bibliography of German History._--Although the authorities for the
history of Germany may be said to begin with Caesar, it is Tacitus who
is especially useful, his _Germania_ being an invaluable mine of
information about the early inhabitants of the country. In the dark and
disordered centuries which followed there are only a few scanty notices
of the Germans, mainly in the works of foreign writers like Gregory of
Tours and Jordanes; and then the 8th and 9th centuries, the time of the
revival of learning which is associated with the name of Charlemagne, is
reached. By the end of this period Christianity had been firmly
established among most of the German tribes; the monks were the trustees
of the new learning, and we must look mainly, although not exclusively,
to the monasteries for our authorities. The work of the monks generally
took the form of _Annales_ or _Chronica_, and among the numerous German
monasteries which are famous in this connexion may be mentioned Fulda,
Reichenau, St Gall and Lorsch. For contemporary history and also for the
century or so which preceded the lifetimes of their authors these
writings are fairly trustworthy, but beyond this they are little more
than collections of legends. There are also a large number of lives of
saints and churchmen, in which the legendary element is still more
conspicuous.

With regard to the _Annales_ and _Chronica_ three important
considerations must be mentioned. They are local, they are monastic, and
they are partisan. The writer in the Saxon abbey of Corvey, or in the
Franconian abbey of Fulda, knows only about events which happened near
his own doors; he records, it is true, occurrences which rumour has
brought to his ears, but in general he is trustworthy only for the
history of his own neighbourhood. The Saxon and the Franconian annalists
know nothing of the distant Bavarians; there is even a gulf between the
Bavarian and the Swabian. Then the Annals are monastic. To their writers
the affairs of the great world are of less importance than those of the
monastery itself. The Saxon Widukind, for instance, gives more space to
the tale of the martyrdom of St Vitus than he does to several of the
important campaigns of Henry the Fowler. Lastly, the annalist is a
partisan. One is concerned to glorify at all costs the Carolingian
house; another sacrifices almost everything to attack the emperor Henry
IV. and to defend the Papacy; while a third holds a brief for some king
or emperor, like Louis the Pious or Otto the Great.

Two difficulties are met with in giving an account of the sources of
German history. In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries it is hard, if not
impossible, to disentangle the history of Germany from that of the rest
of the Frankish empire of which it formed part; in fact it is not until
the time of the dissensions between the sons of the emperor Louis I.
that there are any signs of demarcation between the East and the West
Franks, or, in other words, any separate history of Germany. The second
difficulty arises later and is due to the connexion of Germany with the
Empire. Germany was always the great pillar of the imperial power; for
several centuries it was the Empire in everything but in name, and yet
its political history is often overshadowed by the glamour of events in
Italy. While the chroniclers were recording the deeds of Frederick I.
and of Frederick II. in the peninsula, the domestic history of Germany
remained to a large extent unwritten.

Among the early German chroniclers the Saxon Widukind, the author of the
_Res gestae Saxonicae_, is worthy of mention. He was a monk of Corvey,
and his work is the best authority for the early history of Saxony.
Lambert, a monk of Hersfeld, and Widukind's countryman, Bruno, in his
_De bello Saxonico_, tell the story of the great contest between the
emperor Henry IV. and Pope Gregory VII., with special reference to the
Saxon part of the struggle. But perhaps the ablest and the most
serviceable of these early writers is Otto of Freising, a member of the
Babenberg family. Otto was also related to the great house of
Hohenstaufen, a relationship which gave him access to sources of
information usually withheld from the ordinary monastic annalist, and
his work is very valuable for the earlier part of the career of
Frederick I. Something is learned, too, from biographies written by the
monks, of which Einhard's _Vita Karoli Magni_ is the greatest and the
best, and Wipo's life of the emperor Conrad II. is valuable, while
another Carolingian courtier, Nithard, has a special interest as, almost
alone among these early chroniclers, being a soldier and not a monk.

The monastic writers remain our chief authorities until the great change
brought about by the invention of printing, although a certain amount of
work was done by clerical writers attached to the courts of various
rulers. Parallel with this event the revival of learning was producing a
great number of men who could write, and, more important still, of men
who were throwing off the monastic habits of thought and passing into a
new intellectual atmosphere. The Renaissance was followed by the fierce
controversies aroused by the Reformation, and the result was the output
of an enormous mass of writings covering every phase of the mighty
combat and possessing every literary virtue save that of impartiality.
But apart from these polemical writings, many of which had only an
ephemeral value, the Renaissance was the source of another stream of
historical literature. Several princes and other leading personages,
foremost among whom was the emperor Maximilian I., had spent a good deal
of time and money in collecting the manuscripts of the medieval
chroniclers, and these now began to be printed. The chronicle of Otto of
Freising, which appeared in 1515, and the _Vita_ of Einhard, which
appeared six years later, are only two among the many printed at this
time. The publication of collections of chronicles began in 1529, and
the uncritical fashion in which these were reproduced made forgeries
easy and frequent. There was, indeed, more than a zeal for pure learning
behind this new movement; for both parties in the great religious
controversy of the time used these records of the past as a storehouse
of weapons of offence. The Protestants eagerly sought out the writings
which exposed and denounced the arrogance of the popes, while the
Romanists attempted to counter them with the numerous lives of the
saints.

But before the raw material of history thus began to increase enormously
in bulk, it had already begun to change its character and to assume its
modern form. The _Chronicle_ still survived as a medium of conveying
information, though more often than not this was now written by a
layman; but new stores of information were coming into existence, or
rather the old stores were expanding and taking a different form. Very
roughly these may be divided into six sections. (1) Official documents
issued by the emperors and other German rulers. (2) Treaties concluded
between Germany and other powers and also between one German state and
another. (3) Despatches sent to England, Spain and other countries by
their representatives in various parts of Germany. (4) Controversial
writings or treatises written to attack or defend a given position,
largely the product of the Reformation period. (5) The correspondence of
eminent and observant persons. (6) An enormous mass of personal
impressions taking the form of Commentaries, Memoirs and Diaries
(_Tagebucher_). Moreover, important personages still find eulogistic
biographers and defenders, e.g. the fanciful writings about the emperor
Maximilian I. or Pufendorf's _De rebus gestis Friderici Wilhelmi Magni
electoris Brandenburgici_.

Through the dust aroused by the great Reformation controversy appear the
dim beginnings of the scientific spirit in the writing of history, and
in this connexion the name of Aventinus, "the Bavarian Herodotus," may
be mentioned. But for many years hardly any progress was made in this
direction. Even if they possessed the requisite qualifications the
historiographers attached to the courts of the emperor Charles V. and of
lesser potentates could not afford to be impartial. Thus new histories
were written and old ones unearthed, collected and printed, but no
attempt was made to criticize and collate the manuscripts of the past,
or to present two sides of a question in the writings of the present.
Among the collections of authorities made during the 16th and 17th
centuries those of J. Pistorius (Frankfort, 1583-1607), of E. Lindenbrog
(Frankfort, 1609) and of M. Freher (Frankfort, 1600-1611), may be
noticed, although these were only put together and printed in the most
haphazard and unconnected fashion. Passing thus through these two
centuries we reach the beginning of the 18th century and the work done
for German historical scholarship by the philosopher Leibnitz, who
sought to do for his own country what Muratori was doing for Italy. For
some years it had been recognized that the collection and arrangement of
the authorities for German history was too great an undertaking for any
one man, and societies under very influential patronage were founded for
this purpose. But very slight results attended these elaborate schemes,
although their failure did not deter Leibnitz from pursuing the same
end. The two chief collections which were issued by the philosopher are
the _Accessiones historicae_ (1698-1700) and the _Scriptores rerum
Brunsvicensium_; the latter of these, containing documents centring
round the history of the Welf family, was published in three volumes at
Hanover (1707-1711). Leibnitz worked at another collection, the
_Origines Guelficae_, which was completed and issued by his pupils
(Hanover, 1750-1780), and also at _Annales imperii occidentis
Brunsvicenses_, which, although the most valuable collection of the kind
yet made, was not published until edited by G. H. Pertz (Hanover,
1843-1846). Other collections followed those of Leibnitz, among which
may be mentioned the _Corpus historicum medii aevi_ of J. G. Eccard
(Leipzig, 1723) and the _Scriptores rerum Germanicarum_ of J. B. Mencke
(Leipzig, 1728). But these collections are merely heaps of historical
material, good and bad; the documents therein were not examined and they
are now quite superseded. They give, however, evidence of the great
industry of their authors, and are the foundations upon which modern
German scholarship has built.

In the 19th century the scientific spirit received a great impetus from
the German system of education, one feature of which was that the
universities began to require original work for some of their degrees.
In this field of scientific research the Germans were the pioneers, and
in it they are still pre-eminent, with Ranke as their most famous name
and the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_ as their greatest production.
The _Monumenta_ is a critical and ordered collection of documents
relating to the history of Germany between 500 and 1500. It owes its
origin mainly to the efforts of the statesman Stein, who was responsible
for the foundation of the _Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche
Geschichtskunde_, under the auspices of which the work was begun. The
_Gesellschaft_ was established in 1819, and, the editorial work having
been entrusted to G. H. Pertz, the first volume of the _Monumenta_ was
published in 1826. The work was divided into five sections:
_Scriptores_, _Leges_, _Diplomata_, _Epistolae_ and _Antiquitates_, but
it was many years before anything was done with regard to the two
last-named sections. In the three remaining ones, however, folio volumes
were published regularly, and by 1909 thirty folio volumes of
_Scriptores_, five of _Leges_ and one of _Diplomata imperii_ had
appeared. But meanwhile a change of organization had taken place. When
Pertz resigned his editorial position in 1874 and the _Gesellschaft_ was
dissolved, twenty-four folio volumes had been published. The Prussian
Academy of Sciences now made itself responsible for the continuance of
the work, and a board of direction was appointed, the presidents of
which were successively G. Waitz, W. Wattenbach, E. Dummler and O.
Holder-Egger. Soon afterwards as money became more plentiful the scope
of work was extended; the production of the folio volumes continued, but
the five sections were subdivided and in each of these a series of
quarto volumes was issued. The titles of these new sections give a
sufficient idea of their contents. The _Scriptores_ are divided into
_Auctores antiquissimi_, _Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum_, _Scriptores
rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum_, _Libelli de lite imperatorum et
pontificum_, _Gesta pontificum Romanorum_ and _Deutsche Chroniken_, or
_Scriptores qui vernacula lingua usi sunt_. The _Leges_ are divided into
_Leges nationum Germanicarum_, _Capitularia regum Francorum_,
_Concilia_, _Constitutiones imperatorum et regum_ and _Formulae_. Three
quarto volumes of _Diplomata regum et imperatorum Germaniae_ and one of
_Diplomata Karolingorum_ had been published by 1909. Work was also begun
upon the _Antiquitates_ and the _Epistolae_. The sections of the former
are _Poetae Latini medii aevi_, _Libri confraternitatum_ and _Necrologia
Germaniae_, and of the latter _Epistolae saeculi XIII._ and _Epistolae
Merovingici et Karolini aevi_. Meanwhile the publication of the
_Scriptores_ proper continues, although the thirty-first and subsequent
volumes are in quarto and not in folio, and the number of volumes in the
whole undertaking is continually being increased. The archives of the
_Gesellschaft_ have been published in twelve volumes, and a large number
of volumes of the _Neues Archiv_ have appeared. Some of the MSS. have
been printed in facsimile, and an index to the _Monumenta_, edited by O.
Holder-Egger and K. Zeumer, appeared in 1890. The writings of the more
important chroniclers have been published separately, and many of them
have been translated into German.

It will thus be seen that the ground covered by the _Monumenta_ is
enormous. The volumes of the _Scriptores_ contain not only the domestic
chroniclers, but also selections from the work of foreign writers who
give information about the history of Germany--for example, the
Englishman Matthew Paris. In the main these writings are arranged in
chronological order. Each has been edited by an expert, and the various
introductions give evidence of the number of MSS. collated and the great
pains taken to ensure textual accuracy on the part of the different
editors, among whom may be mentioned Mommsen and Lappenberg. Other great
names in German historical scholarship have also assisted in this work.
In addition to Waitz the _Leges_ section has enjoyed the services of F.
Bluhme and of H. Brunner, and the _Diplomata_ section of T. Sickel, H.
Bresslau and E. Muhlbacher.

The progress of the _Monumenta_ stimulated the production of other works
of a like nature, and among the smaller collections of authorities which
appeared during the 19th century two are worthy of mention. These are
the _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart,
1843-1868), a collection of sources of the 12th, 13th and 14th
centuries, and the _Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum_, edited by Ph.
Jaffe (Berlin, 1864-1873). Another development followed the production
of the _Monumenta_, this being the establishment in most of the German
states of societies the object of which was to foster the study of local
history. Reference may be made to a _Verein_ for this purpose in Saxony
and to others in Silesia and in Mecklenburg. Much has also been done in
Prussia, in Brandenburg, in Bavaria, in Hanover, in Wurttemberg and in
Baden, and collections of authorities have been made by competent
scholars, of which the _Geschichtsquellen der Provinz Sachsen und
angrenzender Gebiete_ (Halle, 1870, fol.), which extends to forty
volumes, the smaller _Scriptores rerum Prussicarum_ (Leipzig,
1861-1874), and the seventy-seven volumes of the _Publikationen aus den
koniglichen preussischen Staatsarchiven, veranlasst und unterstutzt
durch die konigliche Archiverwaltung_ (Leipzig, 1878, fol.), may be
cited as examples. The cities have followed the same path and their
archives are being thoroughly examined. In 1836 an _Urkundenbuch_ of
Frankfort was published, and this example has been widely followed, the
work done in Cologne, in Bremen and in Mainz being perhaps specially
noticeable. Moreover an historical commission at Munich has published
twenty-eight volumes in the series _Die Chroniken der deutschen Stadte
vom 14. bis ins 16. Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1862, fol.). Lastly, many
documents relating to the great families of Germany, among them those of
Hohenzollern and of Wittelsbach, have been carefully edited and given to
the world.

With this great mass of material collected, sifted and edited by
scholars of the highest standing it is not surprising that modern works
on the history of Germany are stupendous in number and are generally of
profound learning, and this in spite of the fact that some German
historians--Gregorovius, Pauli and Lappenberg, for example--have devoted
their time to researches into the history of foreign lands.

  The earliest period is dealt with by K. Zeuss in _Die Deutschen und
  die Nachbarstamme_ (Munich, 1837; new ed., Gottingen, 1904); and then
  by F. Dahn in his _Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen
  Volker_ (Berlin, 1880-1889) and his _Die Konige der Germanen_, volumes
  of which have appeared at intervals between 1861 and 1909.

  The Carolingian time is covered by E. Dummler's _Geschichte des
  ostfrankischen Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888), and then follow Ranke's
  _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter dem sachsischen Hause_ (Berlin,
  1837-1840), W. von Giesebrecht's _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_
  (1855-1888), and F. Raumer's _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen_.

  For the reigns of Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III. P. Jaffe's books,
  _Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Lothar dem Sachsen_ (Berlin,
  1843) and _Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Conrad III._
  (Hanover, 1845), may be consulted.

  The chief histories on the period between the fall of the Hohenstaufen
  and the Renaissance are: T. Lindner, _Deutsche Geschichte unter den
  Habsburgern und Luxemburgern_ (Stuttgart, 1888-1893); O. Lorenz,
  _Deutsche Geschichte im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert_ (Vienna, 1863-1867);
  J. Aschbach, _Geschichte Kaiser Sigmunds_ (Hamburg, 1838-1845); K.
  Fischer, _Deutsches Leben und deutsche Zustande von der
  Hohenstaufenzeit bis ins Reformationszeitalter_ (Gotha, 1884); V. von
  Kraus, _Deutsche Geschichte im Ausgange des Mittelalters_ (Stuttgart,
  1888-1905), and A. Bachmann, _Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter
  Friedrichs III. und Maximilians I._ (Leipzig, 1884-1894).

  The two greatest works on the Reformation period are L. von Ranke's
  _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation_ (Leipzig, 1882) and
  J. Janssen's _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des
  Mittelalters_ (1897-1903). Other works which may be mentioned are: F.
  B. von Bucholtz, _Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinands I._ (Vienna,
  1831-1838); C. Egelhaaf, _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der
  Reformation_ (Berlin, 1893), and F. von Bezold, _Geschichte der
  deutschen Reformation_ (Berlin, 1890).

  For the years after the Reformation we have Ranke, _Zur deutschen
  Geschichte--Vom Religionsfrieden bis zum 30-jahrigen Kriege_ (Leipzig,
  1888); M. Ritter, _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der
  Gegenreformation und des dreissigjahrigen Krieges_ (Stuttgart, 1887,
  fol.); G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Gegenreformation_ (Berlin, 1893);
  A. Gindely, _Rudolf II. und seine Zeit_ (Prague, 1862-1868) and
  _Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges_ (Prague, 1869-1880).
  Gindely's book is, of course, only one among an enormous number of
  works on the Thirty Years' War.

  For the period leading up to the time of Frederick the Great we have
  B. Erdmannsdorffer, _Deutsche Geschichte vom Westfalischen Frieden bis
  zum Regierungsantritt Friedrichs des Grossen_ (Berlin, 1892-1893); and
  then follow Ranke, _Zur Geschichte von Osterreich und Preussen
  zwischen den Friedensschlussen von Aachen und Hubertusburg_ (Leipzig,
  1875) and _Die deutschen Machte und der Furstenbund_ (Leipzig,
  1871-1872); K. Biedermann, _Deutschland im 18. Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig,
  1854-1880); W. Oncken, _Das Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen_ (Berlin,
  1880-1882); A. von Arneth, _Geschichte Maria Theresias_ (Vienna,
  1863-1879); L. Hausser, _Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des
  Grossen bis zur Grundung des Deutschen Bundes_ (Berlin, 1861-1863),
  and K. T. von Heigel, _Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des
  Grossen bis zur Auflosung des alten Reichs_ (Stuttgart, 1899, fol.).

  For the 19th century we may mention: H. von Treitschke, _Deutsche
  Geschichte im 19. Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1879-1894); H. von Sybel,
  _Die Begrundung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I._ (Munich,
  1889-1894); G. Kaufmann, _Politische Geschichte Deutschlands im 19.
  Jahrhundert_ (Berlin, 1900), and H. von Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst,
  _Deutsche Geschichte von der Auflosung des alten bis zur Grundung des
  neuen Reiches_ (Stuttgart, 1897-1905). These are perhaps the most
  important, but there are many others of which the following is a
  selection: K. Fischer, _Die Nation und der Bundestag_ (Leipzig, 1880);
  K. Klupfel, _Geschichte der deutschen Einheitsbestrebungen bis zu
  ihrer Erfullung_ (Berlin, 1872-1873); H. Blum, _Die deutsche
  Revolution_ 1848-1849 (Florence, 1897) and _Das deutsche Reich zur
  Zeit Bismarcks_ (Leipzig, 1893); W. Maurenbrecher, _Grundung des
  deutschen Reiches_ (Leipzig, 1892); H. Friedjung, _Der Kampf um die
  Vorherrschaft in Deutschland_ 1859-1866 (Stuttgart, 1897); C. von
  Kaltenborn, _Geschichte der deutschen Bundesverhaltnisse und
  Einheitsbestrebungen von 1806-1856_ (Berlin, 1857); J. Jastrow,
  _Geschichte des deutschen Einheitstraumes und seiner Erfullung_
  (Berlin, 1885), and P. Kloppel, _Dreissig Jahre deutscher
  Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1900).

  For the most recent developments of German politics see H. Schulthess,
  _Europaischer Geschichtskalender_ (Nordlingen, 1861, fol., a work
  similar to the English _Annual Register_); W. Muller and K.
  Wippermann, _Politische Geschichte der Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1868,
  fol.); the _Statistisches Jahrbuch des deutschen Reichs_, and A. L.
  Lowell, _Governments and Parties in Continental Europe_ (1896).

  A good general history of Germany is the _Bibliothek deutscher
  Geschichte_, edited by H. von Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst (Stuttgart, 1876,
  fol.). Other general histories, although on a smaller scale, are K.
  Lamprecht, _Deutsche Geschichte_ (Berlin, 1891-1896); O. Kammel,
  _Deutsche Geschichte_ (Dresden, 1889); K. Biedermann, _Deutsche Volks-
  und Kulturgeschichte_ (Wiesbaden, 1885); T. Lindner, _Geschichte des
  deutschen Volks_ (Stuttgart, 1894); the _Handbuch der deutschen
  Geschichte_, edited by B. Gebhardt (Stuttgart, 1901), and K. W.
  Nitzsch, _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes bis zum Augsburger
  Religionsfrieden_ (Leipzig, 1883-1885).

  Special reference is deservedly made to three works of the highest
  value. These are J. G. Droysen's great _Geschichte der preussischen
  Politik_ (Berlin, 1855-1886); the _Deutsche Reichstagsakten_, the
  first series of which was published at Munich (1867, fol.) and the
  second at Gotha (1893-1901); and the collection known as the _Regesta
  imperii_, which owes its existence to the labours of J. F. Bohmer.
  Nearly the whole of the period between 751 and 1347 is covered by
  these volumes; the charters and other documents of some of the German
  kings being edited by Bohmer himself, and new and enlarged editions of
  certain sections have been brought out by J. Ficker, E. Winkelmann and
  others. Much useful information on the history of different periods is
  contained in the lives of individual emperors and others. Among these
  are H. Prutz, _Kaiser Friedrich I._ (Danzig, 1871-1874); F. W.
  Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friedrich II._ (Gottingen, 1859-1865); H.
  Ulmann, _Kaiser Maximilian I._ (Stuttgart, 1884-1891); F. von Hurter,
  _Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II._ (Schaffhausen, 1857-1864), and H.
  Blum, _Furst Bismarck und seine Zeit_ (Munich, 1895). There is also
  the great series of volumes, primary and supplementary, forming the
  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (Leipzig, 1875, fol.), in which the
  word _deutsche_ is interpreted in the widest possible sense.

  Apart from political histories there are useful collections of laws
  and other official documents of importance, and also a large number of
  valuable works on the laws and constitutions of the Germans and on
  German institutions generally. Among the collections are M. Goldast,
  _Collectio constitutionum imperialium_ (1613; new and enlarged
  edition, 1673); the _Capitulationes imperatorum et regum
  Romana-Germanorum_ (Strassburg, 1851) of Johann Limnaus, and the
  _Corpus juris Germanici antiqui_ (Berlin, 1824) of F. Walter.
  Collections dealing with more recent history are J. C. Glaser's
  _Archiv des norddeutschen Bundes. Sammlung aller Gesetze, Vertrage und
  Aktenstucke, die Verhaltnisse des norddeutschen Bundes betreffend_
  (Berlin, 1867); W. Jungermann's _Archiv des deutschen Reiches_
  (Berlin, 1873, fol.), and the _Acta Borussica. Denkmaler der
  preussischen Staatsverwaltung im 18. Jahrhundert_ (Berlin, 1892,
  fol.). Mention may also be made of C. C. Homeyer's edition of the
  _Sachsenspiegel_ and L. A. von Lassberg's edition of the
  _Schwabenspiegel_; the many volumes of Wallenstein's letters and
  papers; the eighteen volumes of the _Urkunden und Aktenstucke zur
  Geschichte des Kurfursten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg_ (Berlin,
  1864, fol.); and the thirty volumes of the _Politische Korrespondenz
  Friedrichs des Grossen_ (Berlin, 1879-1905). Modern writers on these
  subjects distinguished for their learning are G. Waitz (_Deutsche
  Verfassungsgeschichte_, Kiel and Berlin, 1844, fol.) and G. L. von
  Maurer (_Geschichte der Stadteverfassung in Deutschland_, Erlangen,
  1869-1871, and other cognate writings), their works being valuable not
  only for the early institutions of the Germans, but also for those of
  other Teutonic peoples. Other works on the German constitution and
  German laws are K. F. Eichhorn, _Deutsche Staats- und
  Rechtsgeschichte_ (Gottingen, 1843-1844); R. Schroder, _Lehrbuch der
  deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1889 and again 1902); H.
  Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1887-1892), and
  _Grundzuge der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1901-1903), and
  E. Mayer, _Deutsche und franzosische Verfassungsgeschichte vom 9.-11.
  Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1899).

  Manners and customs are dealt with in J. Scherr's _Deutsche Kultur-
  und Sittengeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1852-1853); J. Lippert's _Deutsche
  Sittengeschichte_ (Vienna and Prague, 1889); O. Henne am Rhyn's
  _Kulturgeschichte des deutschen Volkes_ (Berlin, 1886); the
  _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes und seiner Kultur im Mittelalter_
  (Leipzig, 1891-1898) of H. Gerdes, and F. von Loher's
  _Kulturgeschichte der Deutschen im Mittelalter_ (Munich, 1891-1894).
  Among the works on husbandry may be mentioned: K. Bucher, _Die
  Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft_ (Tubingen, 1893); K. T. von
  Inama-Sternegg, _Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1879-1901),
  and K. Lamprecht, _Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben im Mittelalter_
  (Leipzig, 1886). For antiquities see M. Heyne, _Funf Bucher deutscher
  Hausaltertumer von den altesten geschichtlichen Zeiten bis zum 16.
  Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1899-1903), and L. Lindenschmit, _Handbuch der
  deutschen Altertumskunde_ (Brunswick, 1880-1889). For the history of
  the German church see A. Hauck, _Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands_
  (Leipzig, 1887-1903); F. W. Rettberg, _Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands_
  (Gottingen, 1846-1848), and J. Friedrich, _Kirchengeschichte
  Deutschlands_ (Bamberg, 1867-1869). For finance see K. D. Hullmann,
  _Deutsche Finanzgeschichte des Mittelalters_ (1805); for the
  administration of justice, O. Franklin, _Das Reichshofgericht im
  Mittelalter_ (Weimar, 1867-1869), and A. Stolzel, _Die Entwicklung des
  gelehrten Richtertums in deutschen Territorien_ (Stuttgart, 1872); for
  the towns and their people see J. Jastrow, _Die Volkszahl deutscher
  Stadte zu Ende des Mittelalters und zu Beginn der Neuzeit_ (Berlin,
  1886); F. W. Barthold, _Geschichte der deutschen Stadte und des
  deutschen Burgertums_ (Leipzig, 1850-1854), and K. Hegel, _Stadte und
  Gilden der germanischen Volker im Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1891); and
  for manufactures and commerce see J. Falke, _Die Geschichte des
  deutschen Handels_ (Leipzig, 1859-1860); H. A. Mascher, _Das deutsche
  Gewerbewesen von der fruhesten Zeit bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Potsdam,
  1866); F. W. Stahl, _Das deutsche Handwerk_ (Giessen, 1874); the
  numerous writings on the history of the Hanseatic League and other
  works. The nobles and the other social classes have each their
  separate histories, among these being C. F. F. von Strantz,
  _Geschichte des deutschen Adels_ (Breslau, 1845), and K. H. Roth von
  Schreckenstein, _Die Ritterwurde und der Ritterstand_ (Freiburg,
  1866).

  The Germans have produced some excellent historical atlases, among
  them K. von Spruner's _Historisch-geographischer Handatlas_ (Gotha,
  1853); a new edition of this by T. Menke called _Handatlas fur die
  Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit_ (Gotha, 1880), and
  G. Droysen's _Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas_ (Leipzig, 1886). The
  historical geography of Germany is dealt with in B. Knull's
  _Historische Geographie Deutschlands im Mittelalter_ (Breslau, 1903);
  in F. H. Muller's _Die deutschen Stamme und ihre Fursten_ (Hamburg,
  1852), and in many other works referring to the different parts of the
  country.

  English books on the history of Germany are not very numerous. There
  is a short _History of Germany_ by James Sime (1874), another by E. F.
  Henderson (1902), and _A History of Germany 1715-1815_ by C. T.
  Atkinson (1909). H. A. L. Fisher's _Medieval Empire_ (1898) is very
  useful for the earlier period, and J. Bryce's _Holy Roman Empire_ is
  indispensable. There is a translation of Janssen's _Geschichte_ by M.
  A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie (1896, fol.), and there are useful
  chapters in the different volumes of the _Cambridge Modern History_.
  Two English historians have distinguished themselves by their work on
  special periods: Carlyle with his _History of Friedrich II., called
  the Great_ (1872-1873), and W. Robertson with his _History of the
  Reign of Charles V._ (1820). There is also E. Armstrong's Charles V.
  (London, 1902). Among German historical periodicals are the
  _Historische Zeitschrift_, long associated with the name of H. von
  Sybel, and the _Historisches Jahrbuch_.

  In guides to the historical sources and to modern historical works
  Germany is well served. There is the _Quellenkunde der deutschen
  Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1906) of Dahlmann-Waitz, a most compendious
  volume, and the learned _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im
  Mittelalter_ (Berlin, 1893-1894) of W. Wattenbach; A. Potthast's
  _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_ (Berlin, 1896), and the
  _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen seit der Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts_
  (Berlin, 1886-1887) of O. Lorenz and A. Goldmann.     (A. W. H.*)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] So called from the badge worn by the knights (_Lowenritter_) who
    composed it.

  [2] The best account, in English, of the development of the
    Zollverein is in Percy Ashley's _Modern Tariff History_ (London,
    1904).

  [3] The only formal change is that the duchy of Lauenburg, which
    since 1865 had been governed by the king of Prussia as a separate
    principality (but without a vote in the Bundesrat), was in 1876
    incorporated in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein.

  [4] See _Annual Register_ (1908), pp. 289 et seq.

  [5] The whole question is exhaustively treated from the Danish point
    of view in _La Question de Slesvig_ (Copenhagen, 1906), a collective
    work edited by F. de Jessens.

  [6] Reinhard Karl Friedrich von Dalwigk (1802-1880). Though a
    Lutheran, he had been accused in 1854 of an excessive subserviency to
    the Roman Catholic Church. He was responsible for the policy which
    threatened to involve the grand-duchy of Hesse in the fate of the
    Electorate in 1866. But it was due to his diplomatic skill that Upper
    Hesse was saved for the grand-duke.

  [7] In 1899, following the Spanish-American War, Germany purchased
    the Caroline, Pelew and Marianne Islands from Spain; in 1899-1900 by
    agreement with Great Britain and America she acquired the two largest
    of the Samoan islands, renouncing in favour of Britain her
    protectorate over certain of the Solomon islands.

  [8] The elevation of Count Bulow to the rank of prince immediately
    after the crisis was significantly compared with the same honour
    bestowed on Bismarck at Versailles in 1871.

  [9] He was born on November 29, 1856, the son of a wealthy Rhenish
    landowner, and grandson of Moritz August von Bethmann-Hollweg
    (1795-1877), professor of law at Bonn, ennobled in 1840, and from
    1858 to 1862 minister of education and religion at Berlin. Herr von
    Bethmann-Hollweg studied law at Strassburg, Leipzig and Berlin,
    entered the Prussian civil service in 1882, and, passing successfully
    through the various stages of a German administrative career, became
    governor (Oberprasident) of the province of Brandenburg in 1899. In
    1905 he became Prussian minister of the interior. Two years later he
    succeeded Count Posadowsky as imperial secretary of state for the
    interior and representative of the imperial chancellor, and was at
    the same time made vice-president of the council of Prussian
    ministers, an office and title which had been in abeyance for some
    years and were now again suppressed.




GERMERSHEIM, a fortified town of Germany in Rhenish Bavaria, at the
confluence of the Queich and the Rhine, 8 m. S.W. of Speyer. Pop. (1905)
5914. It possesses a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a
synagogue, a progymnasium and a hospital. The industries include
fishing, shipbuilding and brewing. Germersheim existed as a Roman
stronghold under the name of _Vicus Julius_. The citadel was rebuilt by
the emperor Conrad II., but the town itself was founded in 1276 by the
emperor Rudolph I., who granted it the rights of a free imperial city.
From 1330 to 1622, when it was conquered by Austria, the town formed
part of the Palatinate of the Rhine. From 1644 to 1650 it was in the
possession of France; but on the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia
it was again joined to the Palatinate. In 1674 it was captured and
devastated by the French under Turenne, and after the death of the
elector Charles (1685) it was claimed by the French as a dependency of
Alsace. As a consequence there ensued the disastrous Germersheim war of
succession, which lasted till the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Through the
intervention of the pope in 1702, the French, on payment of a large sum,
agreed to vacate the town, and in 1715 its fortifications were rebuilt.
On the 3rd of July 1744 the French were defeated there by the imperial
troops, and on the 19th and 22nd of July 1793 by the Austrians. In 1835
the new town was built, and the present fortifications begun.

  See Probst, _Geschichte der Stadt und Festung Germersheim_ (Speyer,
  1898).




GERMISTON, a town of the Transvaal, 9 m. E. of Johannesburg. Pop. of the
municipality (1904) 29,477, of whom 9123 were whites. It lies 5478 ft.
above the sea, in the heart of the Witwatersrand gold-mining district,
and is an important railway junction. The station, formerly called
Elandsfontein Junction, is the meeting-point of lines from the ports of
the Cape and Natal, and from Johannesburg, Pretoria and Delagoa Bay.
Though possessing a separate municipality, Germiston is practically a
suburb of Johannesburg (q.v.).




GERMONIUS, ANASTASIUS [ANASTASE GERMON] (1551-1627), canon lawyer,
diplomatist and archbishop of Tarantaise, belonged to the family of the
marquises of Ceve, in Piedmont, where he was born. As archdeacon at
Turin he was a member of the commission appointed by Pope Clement VIII.
to edit the _Liber septimus decretalium_; and he also wrote _Paratitla_
on the five books of the _Decretals of Gregory IX._ He represented the
duke of Savoy at the court of Rome under Clement VIII. and Paul V., and
was ambassador to Spain under Kings Philip III. and IV. He died on the
4th of August 1627. Germonius is best known for his treatise on
ambassadors, _De legatis principum et populorum libri tres_ (Rome,
1627). The book is diffuse, pedantic and somewhat heavy in style, but
valuable historically as written by a theorist who was also an expert
man of affairs. (See DIPLOMACY.)




GERO (c. 900-965), margrave of the Saxon east mark, was probably a
member of an influential Saxon family. In 937 he was entrusted by the
German king Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto the Great, with the
defence of the eastern frontier of Saxony against the Wends and other
Slavonic tribes; a duty which he discharged with such ability and
success that in a few years he extended the Saxon frontier almost to the
Oder, and gained the chief credit for the suppression of a rising of the
conquered peoples in a great victory on the 16th of October 955. In 963
he defeated the Lusatians, compelled the king of the Poles to recognize
the supremacy of the German king, and extended the area of his mark so
considerably that after his death it was partitioned into three, and
later into five marks. Gero, who is said to have made a journey to Rome,
died on the 20th of May 965, and was buried in the convent of Gernrode
which he had founded on his Saxon estates. He is referred to by the
historian Widukind as a _preses_, and is sometimes called the "great
margrave." He has been accused of treachery and cruelty, is celebrated
in song and story, and is mentioned as the "marcgrave Gere" in the
_Nibelungenlied_.

  See Widukind, "Res gestae Saxonicae," in the _Monumenta Germaniae
  historica_. _Scriptores_, Band iii.; O. von Heinemann, _Markgraf Gero_
  (Brunswick, 1860).




GEROLSTEIN, a village and climatic health resort of Germany, in the
Prussian Rhine Province, attractively situated on the Kyll, in the Eifel
range, 1100 ft. above the sea, 58 m. W. of Andernach by rail, and at the
junction of lines to Treves and St Vith. The castle of Gerolstein, built
in 1115 and now in ruins, affords a fine view of the Kyllthal.
Gerolstein is celebrated for its lithia waters, which are largely
exported. Pop. (1900) 1308.




GEROME, JEAN LEON (1824-1904), French painter, was born on the 11th of
May 1824 at Vesoul (Haute-Saone). He went to Paris in 1841 and worked
under Paul Delaroche, whom he accompanied to Italy (1844-1845). On his
return he exhibited "The Cock-fight," which gained him a third-class
medal in the Salon of 1847. "The Virgin with Christ and St John" and
"Anacreon, Bacchus and Cupid" took a second-class medal in 1848. He
exhibited "Bacchus and Love, Drunk," a "Greek Interior" and "Souvenir
d'Italie," in 1851; "Paestum" (1852); and "An Idyll" (1853). In 1854
Gerome made a journey to Turkey and the shores of the Danube, and in
1857 visited Egypt. To the exhibition of 1855 he contributed a
"Pifferaro," a "Shepherd," "A Russian Concert" and a large historical
canvas, "The Age of Augustus and the Birth of Christ." The last was
somewhat confused in effect, but in recognition of its consummate
ability the State purchased it. Gerome's reputation was greatly enhanced
at the Salon of 1857 by a collection of works of a more popular kind:
the "Duel: after a Masquerade," "Egyptian Recruits crossing the Desert,"
"Memnon and Sesostris" and "Camels Watering," the drawing of which was
criticized by Edmond About. In "Caesar" (1859) Gerome tried to return to
a severer class of work, but the picture failed to interest the public.
"Phryne before the Areopagus," "Le Roi Candaule" and "Socrates finding
Alcibiades in the House of Aspasia" (1861) gave rise to some scandal by
reason of the subjects selected by the painter, and brought down on him
the bitter attacks of Paul de Saint-Victor and Maxime Ducamp. At the
same Salon he exhibited the "Egyptian chopping Straw," and "Rembrandt
biting an Etching," two very minutely finished works. Gerome's best
paintings are of Eastern subjects; among these may be named the "Turkish
Prisoner" and "Turkish Butcher" (1863); "Prayer" (1865); "The Slave
Market" (1867); and "The Harem out Driving" (1869). He often illustrated
history, as in "Louis XIV. and Moliere" (1863); "The Reception of the
Siamese Ambassadors at Fontainebleau" (1865); and the "Death of Marshal
Ney" (1868). Gerome was also successful as a sculptor; he executed,
among other works, "Omphale" (1887), and the statue of the duc d'Aumale
which stands in front of the chateau of Chantilly (1899). His "Bellona"
(1892), in ivory, metal, and precious stones, which was also exhibited
in the Royal Academy of London, attracted great attention. The artist
then began an interesting series of "Conquerors," wrought in gold,
silver and gems--"Bonaparte entering Cairo" (1897); "Tamerlane" (1898);
and "Frederick the Great" (1899). Gerome was elected member of the
Institut in 1865. He died in 1904.




GERONA, a maritime frontier province in the extreme north-east of Spain,
formed in 1833 of districts taken from Catalonia, and bounded on the N.
by France, E. and S.E. by the Mediterranean Sea, S.W. and W. by
Barcelona, and N.W. by Lerida. Pop. (1900) 299,287; area, 2264 sq. m. In
the north-west a small section of the province, with the town of Llivia,
is entirely isolated and surrounded by French territory; otherwise
Gerona is separated from France by the great range of the Pyrenees. Its
general aspect is mountainous, especially in the western districts. Most
of the lower chains are covered with splendid forests of oak, pine and
chestnut. There are comparatively level tracts of arable land along the
lower course of the three main rivers--the Ter, Muga and Fluvia, which
rise in the Pyrenees and flow in a south-easterly direction to the sea.
The coast-line is not deeply indented, but includes one large bay, the
Gulf of Rosas. Its two most conspicuous promontories, Capes Creus and
Bagur, are the easternmost points of the Iberian Peninsula. The climate
is generally temperate and rainy during several months in the valleys
and near the coast, but cold in the Cerdana district and other
mountainous regions during eight months, while Gerona, La Bisbal and
Santa Coloma are quite Mediterranean in their hot summers and mild
winters. Agriculture is backward, but there are profitable fisheries and
fish-curing establishments along the whole seaboard, notably at the
ports of Llansa, Rosas, Palamos, San Feliu de Guixols and Blanes. Next
in importance is the cork industry at San Feliu de Guixols, Palafrugell
and Cassa. More than one hundred mineral springs are scattered over the
province, and in 1903 twenty mines were at work, although their total
output, which included antimony, coal, copper, lead, iron and other
ores, was valued at less than L7000. There are also important hydraulic
cement and ochre works, and no fewer than twenty-two of the towns are
centres of manufactures of linen, cotton, woollen stuffs, paper, cloth,
leather, steel and furniture. The commerce of the province is important,
Port Bou (or Portbou) being, after Irun, the most active outlet for the
trade by railway not only with France but with the rest of the
continent. The main railway from Barcelona to France runs through the
province, and several branch railways, besides steam and electric
tramways, connect the principal towns. Gerona, the capital (pop. 1900,
15,787), and Figueras (10,714), long a most important frontier fortress,
are described in separate articles; the only other towns with more than
7000 inhabitants are San Feliu de Guixols (11,333), Olot (7938) and
Palafrugell (7087). The inhabitants of the province are, like most
Catalans, distinguished for their enterprise, hardiness and keen local
patriotism; but emigration, chiefly to Barcelona, kept their numbers
almost stationary during the years 1875-1905. The percentage of
illegitimate births (1.5) is lower than in any other part of Spain. (See
also CATALONIA.)




GERONA, the capital of the province of Gerona, in north-eastern Spain,
on the railway from Barcelona to Perpignan in France, and on the right
bank of the river Ter, at its confluence with the Ona, a small
right-hand tributary. Pop. (1900) 15,787. The older part of the town
occupies the steep slope of the Montjuich, or Hill of the Capuchins, and
with its old-fashioned buildings presents a picturesque appearance
against a background of loftier heights; the newer portion stretches
down into the plain and beyond the Ona, which is here crossed by a
bridge of three arches. The old city walls and their bastions still
remain, though in a dilapidated state; and the hill is crowned by what
were at one time very strong fortifications, now used as a prison.
Gerona is the seat of a bishop, has a seminary, a public library and a
theatre, and carries on the manufacture of paper and cotton and woollen
goods. Its churches are of exceptional interest. The cathedral is one of
the grandest specimens of Gothic architecture in Spain, the nave being
the widest pointed vault in Christendom, as it measures no less than 73
ft. from side to side, while Albi, the next in size, is only 58 ft., and
Westminster Abbey is only 38. The old cathedral on the same site was
used as a mosque by the Moors, and on their expulsion in 1015 it appears
to have been very greatly modified, if not entirely rebuilt. During the
14th century new works were again carried out on an extensive scale, but
it was not till the beginning of the 15th that the proposal to erect the
present magnificent nave was originated by the master of the works,
Guillermo Boffiy. The general appearance of the exterior is rather
ungainly, but there is a fine approach by a flight of 86 steps to the
facade, which rises in tiers and terminates in an oval rose-window.
Among the tombs may be mentioned those of Bishop Berenger or Berenguer
(d. 1408), Count Ramon Berenger II. (d. 1082) and the countess Ermesinda
(d. 1057). The collegiate church of San Feliu (St Felix) is mainly of
the 14th century, but it was considerably modified in the 16th, and its
facade dates from the 18th. It is one of the few Spanish churches that
can boast of a genuine spire, and it thus forms a striking feature in
the general view of the town. The Benedictine church of San Pedro de
Galligans (or de los Gallos) is an interesting Romanesque building of
early date. It is named from the small river Galligans, an affluent of
the Ona, which flows through the city. In the same neighbourhood is a
small church worthy of notice as a rare Spanish example of a transverse
triapsal plan.

Gerona is the ancient Gerunda, a city of the Auscetani. It claims to be
the place in which St Paul and St James first rested when they came to
Spain; and it became the see of a bishop about 247. For a considerable
period it was in the hands of the Moors, and their emir, Suleiman, was
in alliance with Pippin the Short, king of the Franks, about 759. It was
taken by Charlemagne in 785; but the Moors regained and sacked it in
795, and it was not till 1015 that they were finally expelled. At a
later date it gave the title of count to the king of Aragon's eldest
son. It has been besieged no fewer than twenty-five times in all, and
only four of the sieges have resulted in its capture. The investment by
the French under Marshal Hocquincourt in 1653, that of 1684 by the
French under Marshal Bellefonds, and the successful enterprise of
Marshal Noailles in 1694 are the three great events of its history in
the 17th century. Surrendered by the French at the peace of Ryswick, it
was again captured by the younger Marshal Noailles in 1706, after a
brilliant defence; and in 1717 it held out against the Austrians. But
its noblest resistance was yet to be made. In May 1809 it was besieged
by the French, with 35,000 troops, under J. A. Verdier, P. F. Augereau
and Gouvion St Cyr; forty batteries were erected against it and a heavy
bombardment maintained; but under the leadership of Mariano Alvarez de
Castro it held out till famine and fever compelled a capitulation on the
12th of December. The French, it is said, had spent 20,000 bombs and
60,000 cannon balls, and their loss was estimated at 15,000 men.

  See Juan Gaspar Roig y Jalpi, _Resumen de las Grandezas_, &c.
  (Barcelona, 1678); J. A. Nieto y Samaniego, _Memorias_ (Tarragona,
  1810); G. E. Street, _Gothic Architecture in Spain_ (London, 1869).




GEROUSIA ([Greek: gerousia], Doric [Greek: geroia]), the ancient council
of elders at Sparta, corresponding in some of its functions to the
Athenian Boule. In historical times it numbered twenty-eight members, to
whom were added _ex officio_ the two kings and, later, the five ephors.
Candidates must have passed their sixtieth year, i.e. they must no
longer be liable to military service, and they were possibly restricted
to the nobility. Vacancies were filled by the Apella, that candidate
being declared elected whom the assembly acclaimed with the loudest
shouts--a method which Aristotle censures as childish (_Polit._ ii. 9,
p. 1271 a 9). Once elected, the _gerontes_ held office for life and were
irresponsible. The functions of the council were among the most
important in the state. It prepared the business which was to be
submitted to the Apella, and was empowered to set aside, in conjunction
with the kings, any "crooked" decision of the people. Together with the
kings and ephors it formed the supreme executive committee of the state,
and it exercised also a considerable criminal and political
jurisdiction, including the trial of kings; its competence extended to
the infliction of a sentence of exile or even of death. These powers, or
at least the greater part of them, were transferred by Cleomenes III. to
a board of _patronomi_ (Pausanias ii. 9. 1); the gerousia, however,
continued to exist at least down to Hadrian's reign, consisting of
twenty-three members annually elected, but eligible for re-election
(_Sparta Museum Catalogue_, Nos. 210, 612 and Introduction S 17).

  Fuller discussions of the gerousia will be found in Aristotle,
  _Politics_, ii. 9, 17-19: Plutarch, _Lycurgus_, 5, 26; G. F. Schomann,
  _Antiquities of Greece; The State_ (Eng. trans.), p. 230 ff.; G.
  Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens_ (Eng.
  trans.), p. 47 ff.; C. O. Muller, _History and Antiquities of the
  Doric Race_ (Eng. trans.), iii. c. 6, SS 1-3; G. Busolt, _Die
  griechischen Staats- und Rechtsaltertumer_ (Iwan Muller's _Handbuch
  der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. 1), S 89; _Griechische
  Geschichte_, 2te Auflage i. 550 ff.; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook of
  Greek Constitutional History_, 100 ff.; H. Gabriel, _De magistratibus
  Lacedaemoniorum_, 31 ff.     (M. N. T.)




GERRESHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 6 m. by
rail E. of Dusseldorf. It contains a fine Romanesque church, dating from
the 13th century, which forms a portion of an ancient nunnery (founded
in the 10th century and secularized in 1806), and has extensive glass
manufactures and wire factories. Pop. (1905) 14,434.




GERRHA (Arab. _al-Jar`a_), an ancient city of Arabia, on the west side
of the Persian Gulf, described by Strabo (Bk. xvi.) as inhabited by
Chaldean exiles from Babylon, who built their houses of salt and
repaired them by the application of salt water. Pliny (_Hist. Nat._ vi.
32) says it was 5 m. in circumference with towers built of square blocks
of salt. Various identifications of the site have been attempted, J. P.
B. D'Anville choosing El Katif, C. Niebuhr preferring Kuwet and C.
Forster suggesting the ruins at the head of the bay behind the islands
of Bahrein.

  See A. Sprenger, _Die alte Geographie Arabiens_ (Bern, 1875), pp.
  135-137.




GERRUS, a small province of Persia, situated between Khamseh and
Azerbaijan in the N., Kurdistan in the W. and Hamadan in the S. Its
population is estimated at 80,000, and its capital, Bijar, 180 m. from
Hamadan, has a population of about 4000 and post and telegraph offices.
The province is fief of the chief of the Gerrus Kurds, pays a yearly
revenue of about L3000, and supplies a battalion of infantry (the 34th)
to the army.




GERRY, ELBRIDGE (1744-1814), American statesman, was born in Marblehead,
Massachusetts, on the 17th of July 1744, the son of Thomas Gerry (d.
1774), a native of Newton, England, who emigrated to America in 1730, and
became a prosperous Marblehead merchant. The son graduated at Harvard in
1762 and entered his father's business. In 1772 and 1773 he was a member
of the Massachusetts General Court, in which he identified himself with
Samuel Adams and the patriot party, and in 1773 he served on the Committee
of Correspondence, which became one of the great instruments of
intercolonial resistance. In 1774-1775 he was a member of the
Massachusetts Provincial Congress. The passage of a bill proposed by him
(November 1775) to arm and equip ships to prey upon British commerce, and
for the establishment of a prize court, was, according to his biographer,
Austin, "the first actual avowal of offensive hostility against the mother
country, which is to be found in the annals of the Revolution." It is also
noteworthy, says Austin, as "the first effort to establish an American
naval armament." From 1776 to 1781 Gerry was a member of the Continental
Congress, where he early advocated independence, and was one of those who
signed the Declaration after its formal signing on the 2nd of August 1776,
at which time he was absent. He was active in debates and committee work,
and for some time held the chairmanship of the important standing
committee for the superintendence of the treasury, in which capacity he
exercised a predominating influence on congressional expenditures. In
February 1780 he withdrew from Congress because of its refusal to respond
to his call for the yeas and nays. Subsequently he laid his protest before
the Massachusetts General Court which voted its approval of his action. On
his return to Massachusetts, and while he was still a member of Congress,
he was elected under the new state constitution (1780) to both branches of
the state legislature, but accepted only his election to the House of
Representatives. On the expiration of his congressional term, he was again
chosen a delegate by the Massachusetts legislature, but it was not until
1783 that he resumed his seat. During the second period of his service in
Congress, which lasted until 1785, he was a member of the committee to
consider the treaty of peace with Great Britain, and chairman of two
committees appointed to select a permanent seat of government. In 1784 he
bitterly attacked the establishment of the order of the Cincinnati on the
ground that it was a dangerous menace to democratic institutions. In 1786
he served in the state House of Representatives. Not favouring the
creation of a strong national government he declined to attend the
Annapolis Convention in 1786, but in the following year, when the
assembling of the Constitutional Convention was an assured fact, although
he opposed the purpose for which it was called, he accepted an appointment
as one of the Massachusetts delegates, with the idea that he might
personally help to check too strong a tendency toward centralization. His
exertions in the convention were ceaseless in opposition to what he
believed to be the wholly undemocratic character of the instrument, and
eventually he refused to sign the completed constitution. Returning to
Massachusetts, he spoke and wrote in opposition to its ratification, and
although not a member of the convention called to pass upon it, he laid
before this convention, by request, his reasons for opposing it, among
them being that the constitution contained no bill of rights, that the
executive would unduly influence the legislative branch of the government,
and that the judiciary would be oppressive. Subsequently he served as an
Anti-Federalist in the national House of Representatives in 1789-1793,
taking, as always, a prominent part in debates and other legislative
concerns. In 1797 he was sent by President John Adams, together with John
Marshall and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, on a mission to France to obtain
from the government of the Directory a treaty embodying a settlement of
several long-standing disputes. The discourteous and underhanded treatment
of this embassy by Talleyrand and his agents, who attempted to obtain
their ends by bribery, threats and duplicity, resulted in the speedy
retirement of Marshall and Pinckney. The episode is known in American
history as the "X Y Z Affair." Gerry, although despairing of any good
results, remained in Paris for some time in the vain hope that Talleyrand
might offer to a known friend of France terms that had been refused to
envoys whose anti-French views were more than suspected. This action of
Gerry's brought down upon him from Federalist partisans a storm of abuse
and censure, from which he never wholly cleared himself. In 1810-1812 he
was governor of Massachusetts. His administration, which was marked by
extreme partisanship, was especially notable for the enactment of a law by
which the state was divided into new senatorial districts in such a manner
as to consolidate the Federalist vote in a few districts, thus giving the
Democratic-Republicans an undue advantage. The outline of one of these
districts, which was thought to resemble a salamander, gave rise in 1812,
through a popular application of the governor's name, to the term
"Gerrymander" (q.v.). In 1812, Gerry, who was an ardent advocate of the
war with Great Britain, was elected vice-president of the United States,
on the ticket with James Madison. He died in office at Washington on the
23rd of November 1814.

  See J. T. Austin, _Life of Elbridge Gerry, with Contemporary Letters_
  (2 vols., Boston, 1828-1829).




GERRYMANDER (usually pronounced "jerrymander," but the _g_ was
originally pronounced hard), an American expression which has taken root
in the English language, meaning to arrange election districts so as to
give an unfair advantage to the party in power by means of a
redistribution act, and so to manipulate constituencies generally, or
arrange any political measure, with a view to an unfair party advantage.
The word is derived from the name of the American politician Elbridge
Gerry (q.v.). John Fiske, in his _Civil Government in the United States_
(1890), says that in 1812, when Gerry was governor of Massachusetts, the
Democratic state legislature (in order, according to Winsor, to secure
an increased representation of the Democratic party in the state senate)
"redistributed the districts in such wise that the shapes of the towns
forming a single district in Essex county gave to the district a
somewhat dragon-like contour. This was indicated upon a map of
Massachusetts which Benjamin Russell, an ardent Federalist and editor of
the _Centinel_, hung up over the desk in his office. The painter,
Gilbert Stuart, coming into the office one day and observing the uncouth
figure, added with his pencil a head, wings and claws, and exclaimed,
'That will do for a salamander!' 'Better say a Gerrymander,' growled the
editor; and the outlandish name, thus duly coined, soon came into
general currency." It was, however, only the name that was new. Fiske
(who also refers to Winsor's _Memorial History of Boston_, iii. 212, and
Bryce's _American Commonwealth_, i. 121) says that gerrymandering, as a
political dodge, "seems to have been first devised in 1788, by the
enemies of the Federal constitution in Virginia, in order to prevent the
election of James Madison to the first Congress, and fortunately it was
unsuccessful." But it was really earlier than that, and in the American
colonial period political advantage was often obtained by changing
county lines. In 1709 the Pennsylvania counties of Bucks, Chester and
Philadelphia formed a combination for preventing the city of
Philadelphia from securing its proportionate representation; and in 1732
George Burrington, royal governor of North Carolina, divided the voting
precincts of the province for his own advantage. Gerry was not the
originator of the Massachusetts law of 1812, which was probably drafted
by Samuel Dana or by Judge Story. The law resulted in 29 seats being
secured in Massachusetts by 50,164 Democratic votes, while 51,766
Federalist votes only returned 11 members; and Essex county, which,
undivided, sent 5 Federalists to the Senate, returned 3 Democrats and 2
Federalists after being "gerrymandered," Stuart's drawing (reproduced in
Fiske's book) was contrived so as to make the back line of the
creature's body form a caricature of Gerry's profile. The law of 1812
was repealed in 1813, when the Federalists had again gained control of
the Massachusetts legislature.

  See also Elmer C. Griffith, _The Rise and Development of the
  Gerrymander_ (Chicago, 1907); John W. Dean, "History of the
  Gerrymander," in _New England Historical and Genealogical Register_,
  vol. xlvi. (Boston, 1892).




GERS, a department of south-western France, composed of the whole or
parts of certain districts of Gascony, viz. Armagnac, Astarac, Fezensac,
Pardiac, Pays de Gaure, Lomagne, Comminges, Condomois and of a small
portion of Agenais. It is bounded N. by the department of
Lot-et-Garonne, N.E. by Tarn-et-Garonne, E. and S.E. by Haute-Garonne,
S. by Hautes-Pyrenees, S.W. by Basses-Pyrenees and W. by Landes. Pop.
(1906) 231,088. Area, 2428 sq. m. The department consists of a plateau
sloping from south to north and traversed by numerous rivers, most of
them having their source close together in the Plateau de Lannemezan
(Hautes-Pyrenees), from which point they diverge in the shape of a fan
to the north-west, north and north-east. In the south several summits
exceed 1100 ft. in height. Thence the descent towards the north is
gradual till on the northern limit of the department the lowest point
(less than 200 ft.) is reached. The greater part of the department
belongs to the basin of the Garonne, while a small portion in the west
is drained by the Adour. The chief affluents of the former are the Save,
Gimone, Arrats, Gers and Baise, which derive their waters in great part
from the Canal de la Neste in the department of Hautes-Pyrenees; and of
the latter, the Arros, Midou and Douze, the last two uniting and taking
the name of Midouze before joining the Adour. The climate is temperate;
its drawbacks are the unwholesome south-east wind and the destructive
hail-storms which sometimes occur in spring. There is seldom any snow or
frost. Over the greater portion of the department the annual rainfall
varies between 28 and 32 in. Gers is primarily agricultural. The
south-western district is the most productive, but the valleys generally
are fertile and the grain produced is more than sufficient for local
consumption. Wheat, maize and oats are the principal cereals. About
one-third of the wine produced is used for home consumption, and the
remainder is chiefly manufactured into brandy, known by the name of
Armagnac, second only to Cognac in reputation. The natural pastures are
supplemented chiefly by crops of sainfoin and clover; horses, cattle,
sheep and swine are reared in considerable numbers; turkeys, geese and
other poultry are abundant. There are mineral springs at Aurenson,
Barbotan and several other places in the department. The mineral
production and manufactures are unimportant. Building stone and clay are
obtained. Flour-mills, saw-mills, tanneries, brickworks and cask-works
are the chief industrial establishments.

Gers is divided into the arrondissements of Auch, Lectoure, Mirande,
Condom and Lombez, with 29 cantons and 466 communes. The chief town is
Auch, the seat of an archbishopric. The department falls within the
circumscription of the appeal-court of Agen, and the region of the XVII.
army corps. It forms part of the academie (educational circumscription)
of Toulouse. Auch, Condom, Lectoure and Mirande are the principal towns.
The following are also of interest: Lombez, with its church of
Sainte-Marie, once a cathedral, dating from the 14th century, when the
bishopric was created; Flaran, with an abbey-church of the last half of
the 12th century; La Romieu, with a church of the same period and a
beautiful cloister; Simorre, with a fortified abbey-church of the 14th
century; and Fleurance, with a handsome church, also of the 14th
century, containing stained glass of the 16th century.




GERSON, JOHN (1363-1429), otherwise JEAN CHARLIER DE GERSON, French
scholar and divine, chancellor of the university of Paris, and the
ruling spirit in the oecumenical councils of Pisa and Constance, was
born at the village of Gerson, in the bishopric of Reims and department
of Ardennes, on the 14th of December 1363. His parents, Arnulph Charlier
and Elizabeth de la Chardeniere, "a second Monica," were pious peasants,
and seven of their twelve children, four daughters and three sons,
devoted themselves to a religious life. Young Gerson was sent to Paris
to the famous college of Navarre when fourteen years of age. After a
five years' course he obtained the degree of licentiate of arts, and
then began his theological studies under two very celebrated teachers,
Gilles des Champs (Aegidius Campensis) and Pierre d'Ailly (Petrus de
Alliaco), rector of the college of Navarre, chancellor of the
university, and afterwards bishop of Puy, archbishop of Cambrai and
cardinal. Pierre d'Ailly remained his life-long friend, and in later
life the pupil seems to have become the teacher (see pref. to _Liber de
vita Spir. Animae_).

Gerson very soon attracted the notice of the university. He was elected
procurator for the French "nation" in 1383, and again in 1384, in which
year he graduated bachelor of theology. Three years later a still higher
honour was bestowed upon him; he was sent along with the chancellor and
others to represent the university in a case of appeal taken to the
pope. John of Montson (Monzon de Montesono), an Aragonese Dominican who
had recently graduated as doctor of theology at Paris, had in 1387 been
condemned by the faculty of theology because he had taught that the
Virgin Mary, like other ordinary descendants of Adam, was born in
original sin; and the Dominicans, who were fierce opponents of the
doctrine of the immaculate conception, were expelled the university.
John of Montson appealed to Pope Clement VII. at Avignon, and Pierre
d'Ailly, Gerson and the other university delegates, while they
personally supported the doctrine of the immaculate conception, were
content to rest their case upon the legal rights of the university to
test in its own way its theological teachers. Gerson's biographers have
compared his journey to Avignon with Luther's visit to Rome. It is
certain that from this time onwards he was zealous in his endeavours to
spiritualize the universities, to reform the morals of the clergy, and
to put an end to the schism which then divided the church. In 1392
Gerson became doctor of theology, and in 1395, when Pierre d'Ailly was
made bishop of Puy, he was, at the early age of thirty-two, elected
chancellor of the university of Paris, and made a canon of Notre Dame.
The university was then at the height of its fame, and its chancellor
was necessarily a man prominent not only in France but in Europe, sworn
to maintain the rights of his university against both king and pope, and
entrusted with the conduct and studies of a vast crowd of students
attracted from almost every country in Europe. Gerson's writings bear
witness to his deep sense of the responsibilities, anxieties and
troubles of his position. He was all his days a man of letters, and an
analysis of his writings is his best biography. His work has three
periods, in which he was engaged in reforming the university studies,
maturing plans for overcoming the schism (a task which after 1404
absorbed all his energies), and in the evening of his life writing books
of devotion.

Gerson wished to banish scholastic subtleties from the studies of the
university, and at the same time to put some evangelical warmth into
them. He was called at this period of his life Doctor Christianissimus;
later his devotional works brought him the title Doctor Consolatorius.
His plan was to make theology plain and simple by founding it on the
philosophical principles of nominalism. His method was a clear
exposition of the principles of theology where clearness was possible,
with a due recognition of the place of mystery in the Christian system
of doctrine. Like the great nominalist William of Occam, he saved
himself from rationalism by laying hold on mysticism--the Christian
mysticism of the school of St Victor. He thought that in this way he
would equally guard against the folly of the old scholasticism, and the
seductions of such Averroistic pantheism as was preached by heretics
like Amalric of Bena. His plans for the reformation of university
studies may be learned from his _Tract. de examinatione doctrinarum_
(Opp. i. 7), _Epistolae de reform, theol._ (i. 121), _Epistolae ad
studentes Collegii Navarrae, quid et qualiter studere debeat novus
theologiae auditor, et contra curiositatem studentium_ (i. 106), and
_Lectiones duae contra vanam curiositatem in negotio fidei_ (i. 86). The
study of the Bible and of the fathers was to supersede the idle
questions of the schools, and in his _Tract. contra romantiam de rosa_
(iii. 297) he warns young men against the evil consequences of
romance-reading. He was oftentimes weary of the chancellorship,--it
involved him in strife and in money difficulties; he grew tired of
public life, and longed for learned leisure. To obtain it he accepted
the deanery of Bruges from the duke of Burgundy, but after a short
sojourn he returned to Paris and to the chancellorship.

Gerson's chief work was what he did to destroy the great schism. Gregory
XI. had died in 1378, one year after Gerson went to the college of
Navarre, and since his death the church had had two popes, which to the
medieval mind meant two churches and a divided Christ. The schism had
practically been brought about by France. The popes had been under
French influence so long that it appeared to France a political
necessity to have her own pope, and pious Frenchmen felt themselves
somewhat responsible for the sins and scandals of the schism. Hence the
melancholy piety of Gerson, Pierre d'Ailly and their companions, and the
energy with which they strove to bring the schism to an end. During the
lifetime of Clement VII. the university of Paris, led by Pierre d'Ailly,
Gerson and Nicolas of Clamenges,[1] met in deliberation about the state
of Christendom, and resolved that the schism could be ended in three
ways,--by cession, if both popes renounced the tiara unconditionally, by
arbitration or by a general council. Clement died. The king of France,
urged by the university, sent orders that no new pope should be elected.
The cardinals first elected, and then opened the letter. In the new
elections, however, both at Rome and Avignon, the influence of Paris was
so much felt that each of the new popes swore to "cede" if his rival
would do so also.

Meanwhile in 1395 the national assembly of France and the French clergy
adopted the programme of the university--cession or a general council.
The movement gathered strength. In 1398 most of the cardinals and most
of the crowned heads in Europe had given their adhesion to the plan.
During this period Gerson's literary activity was untiring, and the
throb of public expectancy, of hope and fear, is revealed in his
multitude of pamphlets. At first there were hopes of a settlement by way
of cession. These come out in _Protest, super statum ecclesiae_ (ii. 1),
_Tract. de modo habendi se tempore schismatis_, _De schismate_, &c. But
soon the conduct of the popes made Europe impatient, and the desire for
a general council grew strong--see _De concilio generali unius
obedientiae_ (ii. 24). The council was resolved upon. It was to meet at
Pisa, and Gerson poured forth tract after tract for its guidance. The
most important are--_Trilogus in materia schismatis_ (ii. 83), and _De
unitate Ecclesiae_ (ii. 113), in which, following Pierre d'Ailly (see
Tschackert's _Peter v. Ailli_, p. 153), Gerson demonstrates that the
ideal unity of the church, based upon Christ, destroyed by the popes,
can only be restored by a general council, supreme and legitimate,
though unsummoned by a pope. The council met, deposed both antipopes,
and elected Alexander V. Gerson was chosen to address the new pope on
the duties of his office. He did so in his _Sermo coram Alexandro Papa
in die ascensionis in concilio Pisano_ (ii. 131). All hopes of
reformation, however, were quenched by the conduct of the new pope. He
had been a Franciscan, and loved his order above measure. He issued a
bull which laid the parish clergy and the universities at the mercy of
the mendicants. The great university of Paris rose in revolt, headed by
her chancellor, who wrote a fierce pamphlet--_Censura professorum in
theologia circa bullam Alexandri V._ (ii. 442). The pope died soon
after, and one of the most profligate men of that time, Pope John XXIII.
(Baldassare Cossa), was elected his successor. The council of Pisa had
not brought peace; it had only added a third pope. Pierre d'Ailly
despaired of general councils (see his _De difficultate reformationis in
concilio universali_), but Gerson struggled on. Another matter too had
roused him. The feuds between the houses of Orleans and Burgundy had
long distracted France. The duke of Orleans had been treacherously
murdered by the followers of the duke of Burgundy, and a theologian,
Jean Petit (c. 1360-1411), had publicly and unambiguously justified the
murder. His eight verities, as he called them--his apologies for the
murder--had been, mainly through the influence of Gerson, condemned by
the university of Paris, and by the archbishop and grand inquisitor,
and his book had been publicly burned before the cathedral of Notre
Dame. Gerson wished a council to confirm this sentence. His literary
labours were as untiring as ever. He maintained in a series of tracts
that a general council could depose a pope; he drew up indictments
against the reigning pontiffs, reiterated the charges against Jean
Petit, and exposed the sin of schism--in short, he did all he could to
direct the public mind towards the evils in the church and the way to
heal them. His efforts were powerfully seconded by the emperor
Sigismund, and the result was the council of Constance (see CONSTANCE,
COUNCIL OF). Gerson's influence at the council was supreme up to the
election of a new pope. It was he who dictated the form of submission
and cession made by John XXIII., and directed the process against Huss.
Many of Gerson's biographers have found it difficult to reconcile his
proceedings against Huss with his own opinions upon the supremacy of the
pope; but the difficulty has arisen partly from misunderstanding
Gerson's position, partly from supposing him to be the author of a
famous tract--_De modis uniendi ac reformandi Ecclesiam in concilio
universali_. All Gerson's high-sounding phrases about the supremacy of a
council were meant to apply to some time of emergency. He was
essentially a trimmer, and can scarcely be called a reformer, and he
hated Huss with all the hatred the trimmer has of the reformer. The
three bold treatises, _De necessitate reformationis Ecclesiae_, _De
modis uniendi ac reformandi Ecclesiam_, and _De difficultate
reformationis in concilio universali_, long ascribed to Gerson, were
proved by Schwab in his _Johannes Gerson_ not to be his work, and have
since been ascribed to Abbot Andreas of Randuf, and with more reason to
Dietrich of Nieheim (see NIEM, DIETRICH OF).

The council of Constance, which revealed the eminence of Gerson, became
in the end the cause of his downfall. He was the prosecutor in the case
of Jean Petit, and the council, overawed by the duke of Burgundy, would
not affirm the censure of the university and archbishop of Paris.
Petit's justification of murder was declared to be only a moral and
philosophical opinion, not of faith. The utmost length the council would
go was to condemn one proposition, and even this censure was annulled by
the new pope, Martin V., on a formal pretext. Gerson dared not return to
France, where, in the disturbed state of the kingdom, the duke of
Burgundy was in power. He lay hid for a time at Constance and then at
Rattenberg in Tirol, where he wrote his famous book _De consolatione
theologiae_. On returning to France he went to Lyons, where his brother
was prior of the Celestines. It is said that he taught a school of boys
and girls in Lyons, and that the only fee he exacted was to make the
children promise to repeat the prayer, "Lord, have mercy on thy poor
servant Gerson." His later years were spent in writing books of mystical
devotion and hymns. He died at Lyons on the 12th of July 1429. Tradition
declares that during his sojourn there he translated or adapted from the
Latin a work upon eternal consolation, which afterwards became very
famous under the title of _The Imitation of Christ_, and was attributed
to Thomas a Kempis. It has, however, been proved beyond a doubt that the
famous _Imitatio Christi_ was really written by Thomas, and not by John
Gerson or the abbot Gerson.

  The literature on Gerson is very abundant. See Dupin, _Gersoniana_,
  including _Vita Gersoni_, prefixed to the edition of Gerson's works in
  5 vols, fol., from which quotations have here been made; Charles
  Schmidt, _Essai sur Jean Gerson, chancelier de l'Universite de Paris_
  (Strassburg, 1839); J. B. Schwab, _Johannes Gerson_ (Wurzburg, 1859);
  H. Jadart, _Jean Gerson, son origine, son village natal et sa familie_
  (Reims, 1882). On the relations between Gerson and D'Ailly see Paul
  Tschackert, _Peter von Ailli_ (Gotha, 1877). On Gerson's public life
  see also histories of the councils of Pisa and Constance, especially
  Herm. v. der Hardt, _Con. Constantiensis libri iv._ (1695-1699). The
  best editions of his works are those of Paris (3 vols., 1606) and
  Antwerp (5 vols., 1706). See also Ulysse Chevalier, _Repertoire des
  sources hist. Bio-bibliographie_ (Paris, 1905, &c.), s.v. "Gerson."
       (T. M. L.; X.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Born c. 1360; rector of the university of Paris 1393; afterwards
    treasurer of Langres and archdeacon of Bayeux; died at Paris in 1437.




GERSONIDES, or BEN GERSON (GERSHON), LEVI, known also as RALBAG
(1288-1344), Jewish philosopher and commentator, was born at Bagnols in
Languedoc, probably in 1288. As in the case of the other medieval Jewish
philosophers little is known of his life. His family had been
distinguished for piety and exegetical skill, but though he was known in
the Jewish community by commentaries on certain books of the Bible, he
never seems to have accepted any rabbinical post. Possibly the freedom
of his opinions may have put obstacles in the way of his preferment. He
is known to have been at Avignon and Orange during his life, and is
believed to have died in 1344, though Zacuto asserts that he died at
Perpignan in 1370. Part of his writings consist of commentaries on the
portions of Aristotle then known, or rather of commentaries on the
commentaries of Averroes. Some of these are printed in the early Latin
editions of Aristotle's works. His most important treatise, that by
which he has a place in the history of philosophy, is entitled
_Milhamoth 'Adonai_ (The Wars of God), and occupied twelve years in
composition (1317-1329). A portion of it, containing an elaborate survey
of astronomy as known to the Arabs, was translated into Latin in 1342 at
the request of Clement VI. The _Milhamoth_ is throughout modelled after
the plan of the great work of Jewish philosophy, the _Moreh Nebuhim_ of
Moses Maimonides, and may be regarded as an elaborate criticism from the
more philosophical point of view (mainly Averroistic) of the syncretism
of Aristotelianism and Jewish orthodoxy as presented in that work. The
six books pass in review (1) the doctrine of the soul, in which
Gersonides defends the theory of impersonal reason as mediating between
God and man, and explains the formation of the higher reason (or
acquired intellect, as it was called) in humanity,--his view being
thoroughly realist and resembling that of Avicebron; (2) prophecy; (3)
and (4) God's knowledge of facts and providence, in which is advanced
the curious theory that God does not know individual facts, and that,
while there is general providence for all, special providence only
extends to those whose reason has been enlightened; (5) celestial
substances, treating of the strange spiritual hierarchy which the Jewish
philosophers of the middle ages accepted from the Neoplatonists and the
pseudo-Dionysius, and also giving, along with astronomical details, much
of astrological theory; (6) creation and miracles, in respect to which
Gerson deviates widely from the position of Maimonides. Gersonides was
also the author of a commentary on the Pentateuch and other exegetical
and scientific works.

  A careful analysis of the _Milhamoth_ is given in Rabbi Isidore Weil's
  _Philosophie religieuse de Levi-Ben-Gerson_ (Paris, 1868). See also
  Munk, _Melanges de phil. juive et arabe_; and Joel,
  _Religionsphilosophie d. L. Ben-Gerson_ (1862). The _Milhamoth_ was
  published in 1560 at Riva di Trento, and has been published at
  Leipzig, 1866.     (I. A.)




GERSOPPA, FALLS OF, a cataract on the Sharavati river in the North
Kanara district of Bombay. The falls are considered the finest in India.
The river descends in four separate cascades called the Raja or
Horseshoe, the Roarer, the Rocket and the Dame Blanche. The cliff over
which the river plunges is 830 ft. high, and the pool at the base of the
Raja Fall is 132 ft. deep. The falls are reached by boat from Honavar,
or by road from Gersoppa village, 18 m. distant. Near the village are
extensive ruins (the finest of which is a cruciform temple) of
Nagarbastikere, the capital of the Jain chiefs of Gersoppa. Their family
was established in power in 1409 by the Vijayanagar kings, but
subsequently became practically independent. The chieftaincy was several
times held by women, and on the death of the last queen (1608) it
collapsed, having been attacked by the chief of Bednur. Among the
Portuguese the district was celebrated for its pepper, and they called
its queen "Regina da pimenta" (queen of pepper).




GERSTACKER, FRIEDRICH (1816-1872), German novelist and writer of
travels, was born at Hamburg on the 10th of May 1816, the son of
Friedrich Gerstacker (1790-1825), a celebrated opera singer. After being
apprenticed to a commercial house he learnt farming in Saxony. In 1837,
however, having imbibed from _Robinson Crusoe_ a taste for adventure, he
went to America and wandered over a large part of the United States,
supporting himself by whatever work came to hand. In 1843 he returned to
Germany, to find himself, to his great surprise, famous as an author.
His mother had shown his diary, which he regularly sent home, and which
contained descriptions of his adventures in the New World, to the editor
of the _Rosen_, who published them in that periodical. These sketches
having found favour with the public, Gerstacker issued them in 1844
under the title _Streif-und Jagdzuge durch die Vereinigten Staaten
Nordamerikas_. In 1845 his first novel, _Die Regulatoren in Arkansas_,
appeared, and henceforth the stream of his productiveness flowed on
uninterruptedly. From 1849 to 1852 Gerstacker travelled round the world,
visiting North and South America, Polynesia and Australia, and on his
return settled in Leipzig. In 1860 he again went to South America,
chiefly with a view to inspecting the German colonies there and
reporting on the possibility of diverting the stream of German
emigration in this direction. The result of his observations and
experiences he recorded in _Achtzehn Monate in Sudamerika_ (1862). In
1862 he accompanied Duke Ernest of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Egypt and
Abyssinia, and on his return settled at Coburg, where he wrote a number
of novels descriptive of the scenes he had visited. In 1867-1868
Gerstacker again undertook a long journey, visiting North America,
Venezuela and the West Indies, and on his return lived first at Dresden
and then at Brunswick, where he died on the 31st of May 1872. His genial
and straightforward character made him personally beloved; and his
works, dealing as they did with the great world hitherto hidden from the
narrow "parochialism" of German life, obtained an immense popularity.
This was not due to any graces of style, in which they are singularly
lacking; but the unstudied freshness of the author's descriptions, and
his sturdy humour, appealed to the wholesome instincts of the public.
Many of his books were translated into foreign languages, notably into
English, and became widely known on both sides of the Atlantic. His best
works, from a literary point of view, are, besides the above-mentioned
_Regulatoren_, his _Flusspiraten des Mississippi_ (1848); the novel
_Tahiti_ (1854); his Australian romance _Die beiden Straflinge_ (1857);
_Aus dem Matrosenleben_ (1857); and _Blau Wasser_ (1858). His _Travels_
exist in an English translation.

  Gerstacker's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published at Jena in 44 vols.
  (1872-1879); a selection, edited by D. Theden in 24 vols. (1889-1890).
  See A. Karl, _Friedrich Gerstacker, der Weitgereiste. Ein Lebensbild_
  (1873).




GERSTENBERG, HEINRICH WILHELM VON (1737-1823), German poet and critic,
was born at Tondern in Schleswig on the 3rd of January 1737. After
studying law at Jena he entered the Danish military service and took
part in the Russian campaign of 1762. He spent the next twelve years in
Copenhagen, where he was intimate with Klopstock. From 1775 to 1783 he
represented Denmark's interests as "Danish Resident" at Lubeck, and in
1786 received a judicial appointment at Altona, where he died on the 1st
of November 1823. In the course of his long life Gerstenberg passed
through many phases of his nation's literature. He began as an imitator
of the Anacreontic school (_Tandeleien_, 1759); then wrote, in imitation
of Gleim, _Kriegslieder eines danischen Grenadiers_ (1762); with his
_Gedicht eines Skalden_ (1766) he joined the group of "bards" led by
Klopstock. His _Ariadne auf Naxos_ (1767) is the best cantata of the
18th century; he translated Beaumont and Fletcher's _Maid's Tragedy_
(1767), and helped to usher in the _Sturm und Drang_ period with a
gruesome but powerful tragedy, _Ugolino_ (1768). But he did perhaps even
better service to the new literary movement with his _Briefe uber
Merkwurdigkeiten der Literatur_ (1766-1770), in which the critical
principles of the _Sturm und Drang_--and especially its enthusiasm for
Shakespeare,--were first definitely formulated. In later life
Gerstenberg lost touch with literature, and occupied himself mainly with
Kant's philosophy.

  His _Vermischte Schriften_ appeared in 3 vols. (1815). The _Briefe
  uber Merkwurdigkeiten der Literatur_ were republished by A. von Weilen
  (1888), and a selection of his poetry, including _Ugolino_, by R.
  Hamel, will be found in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vol.
  48 (1884).




GERUZEZ, NICOLAS EUGENE (1799-1865), French critic, was born on the 6th
of January 1799 at Reims. He was assistant professor at the Sorbonne,
and in 1852 he became secretary to the faculty of literature. He wrote a
_Histoire de l'eloquence politique et religieuse en France aux XIV^e,
XV^e, et XVI^e siecles_ (1837-1838); an admirable _Histoire de la
litterature francaise depuis les origines jusqu'a la Revolution_ (1852),
which he supplemented in 1859 by a volume bringing down the history to
the close of the revolutionary period; and some miscellaneous works.
Geruzez died on the 29th of May 1865 in Paris. A posthumous volume of
_Melanges et pensees_ appeared in 1877.




GERVAIS, PAUL (1816-1879), French palaeontologist, was born on the 26th
of September 1816 at Paris, where he obtained the diplomas of doctor of
science and of medicine, and in 1835 he began palaeontological research
as assistant in the laboratory of comparative anatomy at the Museum of
Natural History. In 1841 he obtained the chair of zoology and
comparative anatomy at the Faculty of Sciences in Montpellier, of which
he was in 1856 appointed dean. In 1848-1852 appeared his important work
_Zoologie et paleontologie francaises_, supplementary to the
palaeontological publications of G. Cuvier and H. M. D. de Blainville;
of this a second and greatly improved edition was issued in 1859. In
1865 he accepted the professorship of zoology at the Sorbonne, vacant
through the death of L. P. Gratiolet; this post he left in 1868 for the
chair of comparative anatomy at the Paris museum of natural history, the
anatomical collections of which were greatly enriched by his exertions.
He died in Paris on the 10th of February 1879.

  He also wrote _Histoire naturelle des mammiferes_ (1853, &c.);
  _Zoologie medicale_ (1859, with P. J. van Beneden); _Recherches sur
  l'anciennete de l'homme et la periode quaternaire_, 19 pl. (1867);
  _Zoologie et paleontologie generales_ (1867); _Osteographie des
  cetaces_ (1869, &., with van Beneden).




GERVASE OF CANTERBURY (d. c. 1210), English monk and chronicler, entered
the house of Christchurch, Canterbury, at an early age. He made his
profession and received holy orders in 1163; but we have no further clue
to the date of his birth. We know nothing of his life beyond what may be
gathered from his own writings. Their evidence suggests that he died in
or shortly after 1210, and that he had resided almost continuously at
Canterbury from the time of his admission. The only office which we know
him to have held is that of sacrist, which he received after 1190 and
laid down before 1197. He took a keen interest in the secular quarrels
of the Canterbury monks with their archbishops, and his earliest
literary efforts were controversial tracts upon this subject. But from
1188 he applied his mind to historical composition. About that year he
began the compilation of his _Chronica_, a work intended for the private
reading of his brethren. Beginning with the accession of Stephen he
continued his narrative to the death of Richard I. Up to 1188 he relies
almost entirely upon extant sources; but from that date onwards is
usually an independent authority. A second history, the _Gesta Regum_,
is planned on a smaller scale and traces the fortunes of Britain from
the days of Brutus to the year 1209. The latter part of this work,
covering the years 1199-1209, is perhaps an attempt to redeem the
promise, which he had made in the epilogue to the _Chronica_, of a
continuation dealing with the reign of John. This is the only part of
the _Gesta_ which deserves much attention. The work was continued by
various hands to the year 1328. From the _Gesta_ the indefatigable
Gervase turned to a third project, the history of the see of Canterbury
from the arrival of Augustine to the death of Hubert Walter (1205). A
topographical work, with the somewhat misleading title _Mappa mundi_,
completes the list of his more important writings. The _Mappa mundi_
contains a useful description of England shire by shire, giving in
particular a list of the castles and religious houses to be found in
each. The industry of Gervase was greater than his insight. He took a
narrow and monastic view of current politics; he was seldom in touch
with the leading statesmen of his day. But he appears to be tolerably
accurate when dealing with the years 1188-1209; and sometimes he
supplements the information provided by the more important chronicles.

  See the introductions and notes in W. Stubbs's edition of the
  _Historical Works of Gervase of Canterbury_ (Rolls edition, 2 vols.,
  1879-1880).     (H. W. C. D.)




GERVASE OF TILBURY (fl. 1211), Anglo-Latin writer of the late 12th and
early 13th centuries, was a kinsman and schoolfellow of Patrick, earl of
Salisbury, but lived the life of a scholarly adventurer, wandering from
land to land in search of patrons. Before 1177 he was a student and
teacher of law at Bologna; in that year he witnessed the meeting of the
emperor Frederic I. and Pope Alexander III. at Venice. He may have hoped
to win the favour of Frederic, who in the past had found useful
instruments among the civilians of Bologna. But Frederic ignored him;
his first employer of royal rank was Henry fitz Henry, the young king of
England (d. 1183), for whom Gervase wrote a jest-book which is no longer
extant. Subsequently we hear of Gervase as a clerk in the household of
William of Champagne, cardinal archbishop of Reims (d. 1202). Here, as
he himself confesses, he basely accused of heretical opinions a young
girl, who had rejected his advances, with the result that she was burned
to death. He cannot have remained many years at Reims; before 1189 he
attracted the favour of William II. of Sicily, who had married Joanna,
the sister of Henry fitz Henry. William took Gervase into his service
and gave him a country-house at Nola. After William's death the kingdom
of Sicily offered no attractions to an Englishman. The fortunes of
Gervase suffered an eclipse until, some time after 1198, he found
employment under the emperor Otto IV., who by descent and political
interest was intimately connected with the Plantagenets. Though a clerk
in orders Gervase became marshal of the kingdom of Arles, and married an
heiress of good family. For the delectation of the emperor he wrote,
about 1211, his _Otia Imperialia_ in three parts. It is a farrago of
history, geography, folklore and political theory--one of those books of
table-talk in which the literature of the age abounded. Evidently
Gervase coveted but ill deserved a reputation for encyclopaedic
learning. The most interesting of his dissertations are contained in the
second part of the _Otia_, where he discusses, among other topics, the
theory of the Empire and the geography and history of England. We do not
know what became of Gervase after the downfall of Otto IV. But he became
a canon; and may perhaps be identified with Gervase, provost of
Ebbekesdorf, who died in 1235.

  See the _Otia Imperialia_ in G. Leibnitz's _Scriptores rerum
  Brunsvicensium_, vols. i. and ii. (Hanover, 1707); extracts in J.
  Stevenson's edition of _Coggeshall_ (Rolls series, 1875). Of modern
  accounts the best are those by W. Stubbs in his edition of _Gervase of
  Canterbury_, vol. i. introd. (Rolls series, 1879), and by R. Pauli in
  _Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen_ (1882).
  In the older biographers the _Dialogus de scaccario_ of Richard Fitz
  Neal (q.v.) is wrongly attributed to Gervase.     (H. W. C. D.)




GERVEX, HENRI (1852-   ), French painter, was born in Paris on the 10th
of December 1852, and studied painting under Cabanel, Brisset and
Fromentin. His early work belonged almost exclusively to the
mythological genre which served as an excuse for the painting of the
nude--not always in the best of taste; indeed, his "Rolla" of 1878 was
rejected by the jury of the Salon _pour immoralite_. He afterwards
devoted himself to representations of modern life and achieved signal
success with his "Dr Pean at the Salpetriere," a modernized paraphrase,
as it were, of Rembrandt's "Anatomy Lesson." He was entrusted with
several important official paintings and the decoration of public
buildings. Among the first are "The Distribution of Awards (1889) at the
Palais de l'Industrie" (now in the Versailles Museum), "The Coronation
of Nicolas II." (Moscow, May 14, 1896), "The Mayors' Banquet" (1900),
and the portrait group "La Republique Francaise"; and among the second,
the ceiling for the Salle des Fetes at the hotel de ville, Paris, and
the decorative panels painted in conjunction with Blanchon for the
mairie of the 19th arrondissement, Paris. He also painted, with Alfred
Stevens, a panorama, "The History of the Century" (1889). At the
Luxembourg is his painting "Satyrs playing with a Bacchante" as well as
the large "Members of the Jury of the Salon" (1885). Other pictures of
importance, besides numerous portraits in oils and pastel, are
"Communion at Trinity Church," "Return from the Ball," "Diana and
Endymion," "Job," "Civil Marriage," "At the Ambassadeurs," "Yachting in
the Archipelago," "Nana" and "Maternity."




GERVINUS, GEORG GOTTFRIED (1805-1871), German literary and political
historian, was born on the 20th of May 1805 at Darmstadt. He was
educated at the gymnasium of the town, and intended for a commercial
career, but in 1825 he became a student of the university of Giessen. In
1826 he went to Heidelberg, where he attended the lectures of the
historian Schlosser, who became henceforth his guide and his model. In
1828 he was appointed teacher in a private school at Frankfort-on-Main,
and in 1830 _Privatdozent_ at Heidelberg. A volume of his collected
_Historische Schriften_ procured him the appointment of professor
extraordinarius; while the first volume of his _Geschichte der
poetischen Nationallitteratur der Deutschen_ (1835-1842, 5 vols.,
subsequently entitled _Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_; 5th edition,
by K. Bartsch, 1871-1874) brought him the appointment to a regular
professorship of history and literature at Gottingen. This work is the
first comprehensive history of German literature written both with
scholarly erudition and literary skill. In the following year he wrote
his _Grundzuge der Historik_, which is perhaps the most thoughtful of
his philosophico-historical productions. The same year brought his
expulsion from Gottingen in consequence of his manly protest, in
conjunction with six of his colleagues, against the unscrupulous
violation of the constitution by Ernest Augustus, king of Hanover and
duke of Cumberland. After several years in Heidelberg, Darmstadt and
Rome, he settled permanently in Heidelberg, where, in 1844, he was
appointed honorary professor. He zealously took up in the following year
the cause of the German Catholics, hoping it would lead to a union of
all the Christian confessions, and to the establishment of a national
church. He also came forward in 1846 as a patriotic champion of the
Schleswig-Holsteiners, and when, in 1847, King Frederick William IV.
promulgated the royal decree for summoning the so-called "United Diet"
(Vereinigter Landtag), Gervinus hoped that this event would form the
basis of the constitutional development of the largest German state. He
founded, together with some other patriotic scholars, the _Deutsche
Zeitung_, which certainly was one of the best-written political journals
ever published in Germany. His appearance in the political arena secured
his election as deputy for the Prussian province of Saxony to the
National Assembly sitting in 1848 at Frankfort. Disgusted with the
failure of that body, he retired from all active political life.

Gervinus now devoted himself to literary and historical studies, and
between 1849 and 1852 published his work on _Shakespeare_ (4 vols., 4th
ed. 2 vols., 1872; Eng. trans. by F. E. Bunnett, 1863, new ed. 1877). He
also revised his _History of German Literature_, for a fourth edition
(1853), and began at the same time to plan his _Geschichte des
neunzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (8 vols., 1854-1860), which was preceded by an
_Einleitung in die Geschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1853). The
latter caused some stir in the literary and political world, owing to
the circumstance that the government of Baden imprudently instituted a
prosecution against the author for high treason. In 1868 appeared
_Handel und Shakespeare, zur Asthetik der Tonkunst_, in which he drew an
ingenious parallel between his favourite poet and his favourite
composer, showing that their intellectual affinity was based on the
Teutonic origin common to both, on their analogous intellectual
development and character. The ill-success of this publication, and the
indifference with which the latter volumes of his _History of the 19th
Century_ were received by his countrymen, together with the feeling of
disappointment that the unity of Germany had been brought about in
another fashion and by other means than he wished to see employed,
embittered his later years. He died at Heidelberg on the 18th of March
1871.

  Gervinus's autobiography (_G. G. Gervinus' Leben, von ihm selbst_) was
  published by his widow in 1893. It does not, however, go beyond the
  year 1836. See E. Lehmann, _Gervinus, Versuch einer Charakteristik_
  (1871); R. Gosche, _Gervinus_ (1871); J. Dorfel, _Gervinus als
  historischer Denker_ (1904).




GERYON (GERYONES, GERYONEUS), in Greek mythology, the son of Chrysaor
and Callirrhoe, daughter of Oceanus, and king of the Island of Erytheia.
He is represented as a monster with three heads or three bodies
(_triformis_, _trigeminus_), sometimes with wings, and as the owner of
herds of red cattle, which were tended by the giant shepherd Eurytion
and the two-headed dog Orthrus. To carry off these cattle to Greece was
one of the twelve "labours" imposed by Eurystheus upon Heracles. In
order to get possession of them, Heracles travelled through Europe and
Libya, set up the two pillars in the Straits of Gibraltar to show the
extent of his journey, and reached the great river Oceanus. Having
crossed Oceanus and landed on the island, Heracles slew Orthrus together
with Eurytion, who in vain strove to defend him, and drove off the
cattle. Geryon started in pursuit, but fell a victim to the arrows of
Heracles, who, after various adventures, succeeded in getting the cattle
safe to Greece, where they were offered in sacrifice to Hera by
Eurystheus. The geographical position of Erytheia is unknown, but all
ancient authorities agree that it was in the far west. The name itself
(= red) and the colour of the cattle suggest the fiery aspect of the
disk of the setting sun; further, Heracles crosses Oceanus in the golden
cup or boat of the sun-god Helios. Geryon (from [Greek: geryo], the
howler or roarer) is supposed to personify the storm, his father
Chrysaor the lightning, his mother Callirrhoe the rain. The cattle are
the rain-clouds, and the slaying of their keepers typifies the victory
of the sun over the clouds, or of spring over winter. The euhemeristic
explanation of the struggle with the triple monster was that Heracles
fought three brothers in succession.

  See Apollodorus ii. 5. 10; Hesiod, _Theogony_, 287; Diod. Sic. iv. 17;
  Herodotus iv. 8; F. Wieseler in Ersch and Gruber, _Allgemeine
  Encyclopadie_; F. A. Voigt in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; L.
  Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_; article "Hercules" in Daremberg and
  Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_.




GESENIUS, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1786-1842), German orientalist and
biblical critic, was born at Nordhausen, Hanover, on the 3rd of February
1786. In 1803 he became a student of philosophy and theology at the
university of Helmstadt, where Heinrich Henke (1752-1809) was his most
influential teacher; but the latter part of his university course was
taken at Gottingen, where J. G. Eichhorn and T. C. Tychsen (1758-1834)
were then at the height of their popularity. In 1806, shortly after
graduation, he became _Repetent_ and _Privatdozent_ in that university;
and, as he was fond of afterwards relating, had Neander for his first
pupil in Hebrew. In 1810 he became professor extraordinarius in
theology, and in 1811 ordinarius, at the university of Halle, where, in
spite of many offers of high preferment elsewhere, he spent the rest of
his life. He taught with great regularity for upward of thirty years,
the only interruptions being that of 1813-1814 (occasioned by the War of
Liberation, during which the university was closed) and those occasioned
by two prolonged literary tours, first in 1820 to Paris, London and
Oxford with his colleague Johann Karl Thilo (1794-1853) for the
examination of rare oriental manuscripts, and in 1835 to England and
Holland in connexion with his Phoenician studies. He soon became the
most popular teacher of Hebrew and of Old Testament introduction and
exegesis in Germany; during his later years his lectures were attended
by nearly five hundred students. Among his pupils the most eminent were
Peter von Bohlen (1796-1840), A. G. Hoffmann (1769-1864), Hermann
Hupfeld, Emil Rodiger (1801-1874), J. F. Tuch (1806-1867), W. Vatke
(1806-1882) and Theodor Benfey (1809-1881). In 1827, after declining an
invitation to take Eichhorn's place at Gottingen, Gesenius was made a
_Consistorialrath_; but, apart from the violent attacks to which he,
along with his friend and colleague Julius Wegscheider, was in 1830
subjected by E. W. Hengstenberg and his party in the _Evangelische
Kirchenzeitung_, on account of his rationalism, his life was uneventful.
He died at Halle on the 23rd of October 1842. To Gesenius belongs in a
large measure the credit of having freed Semitic philology from the
trammels of theological and religious prepossession, and of inaugurating
the strictly scientific (and comparative) method which has since been so
fruitful. As an exegete he exercised a powerful, and on the whole a
beneficial, influence on theological investigation.

  Of his many works, the earliest, published in 1810, entitled _Versuch
  uber die maltesische Sprache_, was a successful refutation of the
  widely current opinion that the modern Maltese was of Punic origin. In
  the same year appeared the first volume of the _Hebraisches u.
  Chaldaisches Handworterbuch_, completed in 1812. Revised editions of
  this appear periodically in Germany, e.g. that of H. Zimmern and F.
  Buhl (1905). The publication of a new English edition was started in
  1892 under the editorship of Professors C. A. Briggs, S. R. Driver and
  F. Brown. _The Hebraische Grammatik_, published in 1813 (27th edition
  by E. Kautzsch; English translation from 25th and 26th German editions
  by G. W. Collins and A. E. Cowley, 1898), was followed in 1815 by the
  _Geschichte der hebraischen Sprache_ (now very rare), and in 1817 by
  the _Ausfuhrliches Lehrgebaude der hebraischen Sprache_. The first
  volume of his well-known commentary on Isaiah (_Der Prophet Jesaja_),
  with a translation, appeared in 1821; but the work was not completed
  until 1829. The _Thesaurus philologico-criticus linguae Hebraicae et
  Chaldaicae V. T._, begun in 1829, he did not live to complete; the
  latter part of the third volume is edited by E. Rodiger (1858). Other
  works: _De Pentateuchi Samaritani origine, indole, et auctoritate_
  (1815), supplemented in 1822 and 1824 by the treatise _De
  Samaritanorum theologia_, and by an edition of _Carmina Samaritana_;
  _Palaographische Studien uber phonizische u. punische Schrift_ (1835),
  a pioneering work which he followed up in 1837 by his collection of
  Phoenician monuments (_Scripturae linguaeque Phoeniciae monumenta
  quotquot supersunt_); an Aramaic lexicon (1834-1839); and a treatise
  on the Himyaritic language written in conjunction with E. Rodiger in
  1841. Gesenius also contributed extensively to Ersch and Gruber's
  _Encyclopadie_, and enriched the German translation of J. L.
  Burckhardt's _Travels in Syria and the Holy Land_ with valuable
  geographical notes. For many years he also edited the Halle
  _Allgemeine Litteraturzeitung_. A sketch of his life was published
  anonymously in 1843 (_Gesenius: eine Erinnerung fur seine Freunde_),
  and another by H. _Gesenius, Wilhelm Gesenius, ein Erinnerungsblatt an
  den hundertjahrigen Geburtstag_, in 1886. See also the article in the
  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_.




GESNER, ABRAHAM (1797-1864), Canadian geologist, was born in Nova Scotia
in 1797. He qualified as a doctor of medicine in London in 1827.
Returning to the Dominion, he published in 1836 _Remarks on the Geology
and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia_, and continuing his researches he was
enabled in 1843 to bring before the Geological Society of London "A
Geological Map of Nova Scotia, with an accompanying Memoir" (_Proc.
Geol. Soc._ iv. 186). In 1849 he issued a volume on the industrial
resources of the country. He dealt also with the geology and mineralogy
of New Brunswick and Prince Edward's Island. Devoting himself to the
economic side of geology in various parts of North America, he was
enabled to bring out in 1861 _A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum
and other Distilled Oils_. He died at Halifax, N.S., on the 29th of
April 1864.




GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS (1691-1761), German classical scholar and
schoolmaster, was born at Roth near Ansbach on the 9th of April 1691. He
studied at the university of Jena, and in 1714 published a work on the
_Philopatris_ ascribed to Lucian. In 1715 he became librarian and
conrector (vice-principal) at Weimar, in 1729 rector of the gymnasium at
Ansbach, and in 1730 rector of the Thomas school at Leipzig. On the
foundation of the university of Gottingen he became professor of
rhetoric (1734) and subsequently librarian. He died at Gottingen on the
3rd of August 1761. His special merit lies in the attention he devoted
to the explanation and illustration of the subject matter of the
classical authors.

  His principal works are: editions of the _Scriptores rei rusticae_, of
  Quintilian, Claudian, Pliny the Younger, Horace and the Orphic poems
  (published after his death); _Primae lineae isagoges in eruditionem
  universalem_ (1756); an edition of B. Faber's _Thesaurus eruditionis
  scholasticae_ (1726), afterwards continued under the title _Novus
  linguae et eruditionis Romanae thesaurus_ (1749); _Opuscula minora
  varii argumenti_ (1743-1745); _Thesaurus epistolicus Gesnerianus_ (ed.
  Klotz, 1768-1770); _Index etymologicus latinitatis_ (1749). See J. A.
  Ernesti, _Opuscula oratoria_ (1762), p. 305; H. Sauppe, _Gottinger
  Professoren_ (1872); C. H. Pohnert, _J. M. Gesner und sein Verhaltnis
  zum Philanthropinismus und Neuhumanismus_ (1898), a contribution to
  the history of pedagogy in the 18th century; articles by F. A.
  Eckstein in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ ix.; and Sandys, _Hist.
  of Class. Schol._ iii. (1908), 5-9.




GESNER [improperly GESSNER; in Latin, GESNERUS], KONRAD VON (1516-1565),
German-Swiss writer and naturalist, called "the German Pliny" by Cuvier,
was born at Zurich on the 26th of March 1516. The son of a poor furrier,
he was educated in that town, but fell into great need after the death
of his father at the battle of Kappel (1531). He had good friends,
however, in his old master, Myconius, and subsequently in Heinrich
Bullinger, and he was enabled to continue his studies at the
universities of Strassburg and Bourges (1532-1533); he found also a
generous patron in Paris (1534), in the person of Joh. Steiger of Berne.
In 1535 the religious troubles drove him back to Zurich, where he made
an imprudent marriage. His friends again came to his aid, enabled him to
study at Basel (1536), and in 1537 procured for him the professorship of
Greek at the newly founded academy of Lausanne (then belonging to
Berne). Here he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies,
especially botany. In 1540-1541 he visited the famous medical university
of Montpellier, took his degree of doctor of medicine (1541) at Basel,
and then settled down to practise at Zurich, where he obtained the post
of lecturer in physics at the Carolinum. There, apart from a few
journeys to foreign countries, and annual summer botanical journeys in
his native land, he passed the remainder of his life. He devoted himself
to preparing works on many subjects of different sorts. He died of the
plague on the 13th of December 1565. In the previous year he had been
ennobled.

To his contemporaries he was best known as a botanist, though his
botanical MSS. were not published till long after his death (at
Nuremberg, 1751-1771, 2 vols, folio), he himself issuing only the
_Enchiridion historiae plantarum_ (1541) and the _Catalogus plantarum_
(1542) in four tongues. In 1545 he published his remarkable _Bibliotheca
universalis_ (ed. by J. Simler, 1574), a catalogue (in Latin, Greek and
Hebrew) of all writers who had ever lived, with the titles of their
works, &c. A second part, under the title of _Pandeclarium sive
partitionum universalium Conradi Gesneri Ligurini libri xxi._, appeared
in 1548; only nineteen books being then concluded. The 21st book, a
theological encyclopaedia, was published in 1549, but the 20th, intended
to include his medical work, was never finished. His great zoological
work, _Historia animalium_, appeared in 4 vols. (quadrupeds, birds,
fishes) folio, 1551-1558, at Zurich, a fifth (snakes) being issued in
1587 (there is a German translation, entitled _Thierbuch_, of the first
4 vols., Zurich, 1563): this work is the starting-point of modern
zoology. Not content with such vast works, Gesner put forth in 1555 his
book entitled _Mithridates de differentiis linguis_, an account of about
130 known languages, with the Lord's Prayer in 22 tongues, while in 1556
appeared his edition of the works of Aelian. To non-scientific readers,
Gesner will be best known for his love of mountains (below the
snow-line) and for his many excursions among them, undertaken partly as
a botanist, but also for the sake of mere exercise and enjoyment of the
beauties of nature. In 1541 he prefixed to a singular little work of his
(_Libellus de lacte et operibus lactariis_) a letter addressed to his
friend, J. Vogel, of Glarus, as to the wonders to be found among the
mountains, declaring his love for them, and his firm resolve to climb at
least one mountain every year, not only to collect flowers, but in order
to exercise his body. In 1555 Gesner issued his narrative (_Descriptio
Montis Fracti sive Montis Pilati_) of his excursion to the Gnepfstein
(6299 ft.), the lowest point in the Pilatus chain, and therein explains
at length how each of the senses of man is refreshed in the course of a
mountain excursion.

  Lives by J. Hanhart (Winterthur, 1824) and J. Simler (Zurich, 1566);
  see also Lebert's _Gesner als Arzt_ (Zurich, 1854). A part of his
  unpublished writing, edited by Prof. Schmiedel, was published at
  Nuremberg in 1753.




GESSNER, SOLOMON (1730-1788), Swiss painter and poet, was born at Zurich
on the 1st of April 1730. With the exception of some time (1749-1750)
spent in Berlin and Hamburg, where he came under the influence of Ramler
and Hagedorn, he passed the whole of his life in his native town, where
he carried on the business of a bookseller. He died on the 2nd of March
1788. The first of his writings that attracted attention was his _Lied
eines Schweizers an sein bewaffnetes Madchen_ (1751). Then followed
_Daphnis_ (1754), _Idyllen_ (1756 and 1772), _Inkel and Yariko_ (1756),
a version of a story borrowed from the _Spectator_ (No. 11, 13th of
March 1711) and already worked out by Gellert and Bodmer, and _Der Tod
Abels_ (1758), a sort of idyllic pastoral. It is somewhat difficult for
us now to understand the reason of Gessner's universal popularity,
unless it was the taste of the period for the conventional pastoral.
His writings are marked by sweetness and melody, qualities which were
warmly appreciated by Lessing, Herder and Goethe. As a painter Gessner
represented the conventional classical landscape.

  Collected editions of Gessner's works were repeatedly published (2
  vols. 1777-1778, finally 2 vols. 1841, both at Zurich). They were
  translated into French (3 vols., Paris, 1786-1793), and versions of
  the _Idyllen_ appeared in English, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish
  and Bohemian. Gessner's life was written by Hottinger (Zurich, 1796),
  and by H. Wolfflin (Frauenfeld, 1889); see also his _Briefwechsel mit
  seinem Sohn_ (Bern and Zurich, 1801).




GESSO, an Italian word (Lat. _gypsum_), for "plaster of Paris"
especially when used as a ground for painting, or for modelling or
sculpture.




GESTA ROMANORUM, a Latin collection of anecdotes and tales, probably
compiled about the end of the 13th century or the beginning of the 14th.
It still possesses a twofold literary interest, first as one of the most
popular books of the time, and secondly as the source, directly or
indirectly, of later literature, in Chaucer, Gower, Shakespeare and
others. Of its authorship nothing certain is known; and there is little
but gratuitous conjecture to associate it either with the name of
Helinandus or with that of Petrus Berchorius (Pierre Bercheure). It is
even a matter of debate whether it took its rise in England, Germany or
France. The work was evidently intended as a manual for preachers, and
was probably written by one who himself belonged to the clerical
profession. The name, _Deeds of the Romans_, is only partially
appropriate to the collection in its present form, since, besides the
titles from Greek and Latin history and legend, it comprises fragments
of very various origin, oriental and European. The unifying element of
the book is its moral purpose. The style is barbarous, and the narrative
ability of the compiler seems to vary with his source; but he has
managed to bring together a considerable variety of excellent material.
He gives us, for example, the germ of the romance of "Guy of Warwick";
the story of "Darius and his Three Sons," versified by Occleve; part of
Chaucer's "Man of Lawes' Tale"; a tale of the emperor Theodosius, the
same in its main features as that of Shakespeare's _Lear_; the story of
the "Three Black Crows"; the "Hermit and the Angel," well known from
Parnell's version, and a story identical with the _Fridolin_ of
Schiller. Owing to the loose structure of the book, it was easy for a
transcriber to insert any additional story into his own copy, and
consequently the MSS. of the _Gesta Romanorum_ exhibit considerable
variety. Oesterley recognizes an English group of MSS. (written always
in Latin), a German group (sometimes in Latin and sometimes in German),
and a group which is represented by the vulgate or common printed text.
The earliest editions are supposed to be those of Ketelaer and de
Lecompt at Utrecht, of Arnold Ter Hoenen at Cologne, and of Ulrich Zell
at Cologne; but the exact date is in all three cases uncertain.

  An English translation, probably based directly on the MS. Harl. 5369,
  was published by Wynkyn de Worde about 1510-1515, the only copy of
  which now known to exist is preserved in the library of St John's
  College, Cambridge. In 1577 Richard Robinson published a revised
  edition of Wynkyn de Worde, and the book proved highly popular.
  Between 1648 and 1703 at least eight impressions were issued. In 1703
  appeared the first vol. of a translation by B. P., probably
  Bartholomew Pratt, "from the Latin edition of 1514." A translation by
  the Rev. C. Swan, first published in 2 vols. in 1824, forms part of
  Bonn's antiquarian library, and was re-edited by Wynnard Hooper in
  1877 (see also the latter's edition in 1894). The German translation
  was first printed at Augsburg, 1489. A French version, under the title
  of _Le Violier des histoires romaines moralisez_, appeared in the
  early part of the 16th century, and went through a number of editions;
  it has been reprinted by G. Brunet (Paris, 1858). Critical editions of
  the Latin text have been produced by A. Keller (Stuttgart, 1842) and
  Oesterley (Berlin, 1872). See also Warton, "On the Gesta Romanorum,"
  dissertation iii., prefixed to the _History of English Poetry_; Douce,
  _Illustrations of Shakespeare_, vol. ii.; Frederick Madden,
  Introduction to the Roxburghe Club edition of _The Old English
  Versions of the Gesta Romanorum_ (1838).




GETA, PUBLIUS SEPTIMIUS (189-212), younger son of the Roman emperor
Septimius Severus, was born at Mediolanum (Milan). In 198 he received
the title of Caesar, and in 209 those of Imperator and Augustus. Between
him and his brother Caracalla there existed from their early years a
keen rivalry and antipathy. On the death of their father in 211 they
were proclaimed joint emperors; and after the failure of a proposed
arrangement for the division of the empire, Caracalla pretended a desire
for reconciliation. He arranged a meeting with his brother in his
mother's apartments, and had him murdered in her arms by some
centurions.

  Dio Cassius lxxvii. 2; Spartianus, _Caracalla_, 2; Herodian iv. 1.




GETAE, an ancient people of Thracian origin, closely akin to the Daci
(see DACIA). Their original home seems to have been the district on the
right bank of the Danube between the rivers Oescus (Iskr) and Iatrus
(Yantra). The view that the Getae were identical with the Goths has
found distinguished supporters, but it is not generally accepted. Their
name first occurs in connexion with the expedition of Darius Hystaspis
(515 B.C.) against the Scythians, in the course of which they were
brought under his sway, but they regained their freedom on his return to
the East. During the 5th century, they appear as furnishing a contingent
of cavalry to Sitalces, king of the Odrysae, in his attack on Perdiccas
II., king of Macedon, but the decay of the Odrysian kingdom again left
them independent. When Philip II. of Macedon in 342 reduced the Odrysae
to the condition of tributaries, the Getae, fearing that their turn
would come next, made overtures to the conqueror. Their king Cothelas
undertook to supply Philip with soldiers, and his daughter became the
wife of the Macedonian. About this time, perhaps being hard pressed by
the Triballi and other tribes, the Getae crossed the Danube. Alexander
the Great, before transporting his forces into Asia, decided to make his
power felt by the Macedonian dependencies. His operations against the
Triballi not having met with complete success, he resolved to cross the
Danube and attack the Getae. The latter, unable to withstand the
phalanx, abandoned their chief town, and fled to the steppes ([Greek:
Getia he eremos], north of the Danube delta), whither Alexander was
unwilling to follow them. About 326, an expedition conducted by
Zopyrion, a Macedonian governor of Thrace, against the Getae, failed
disastrously. In 292, Lysimachus declared war against them, alleging as
an excuse that they had rendered assistance to certain barbarous
Macedonian tribes. He penetrated to the plains of Bessarabia, where his
retreat was cut off and he was forced to surrender. Although the people
clamoured for his execution, Dromichaetes, king of the Getae, allowed
him to depart unharmed, probably on payment of a large ransom, great
numbers of gold coins having been found near Thorda, some of them
bearing the name of Lysimachus. When the Gauls made their way into
eastern Europe, they came into collision with the Getae, whom they
defeated and sold in large numbers to the Athenians as slaves. From this
time the Getae seem to have been usually called Daci; for their further
history see DACIA.

The Getae are described by Herodotus as the most valiant and upright of
the Thracian tribes; but what chiefly struck Greek inquirers was their
belief in the immortality of the soul (hence they were called [Greek:
athanatizontes]) and their worship of Zalmoxis (or Zamolxis), whom the
euhemerists of the colonies on the Euxine made a pupil of Pythagoras.
They were very fond of music, and it was the custom for their
ambassadors the priests to present themselves clad in white, playing the
lyre and singing songs. They were experts in the use of the bow and
arrows while on horseback.

  See E. R. Rosler, "Die Geten und ihre Nachbarn," in _Sitzungsberichte
  der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Classe_,
  xliv. (1863), and _Romanische Studien_ (Leipzig, 1871); W. Tomaschek,
  "Die alten Thraker," in above _Sitzungsberichte_, cxxviii. (Vienna,
  1893); W. Bessel, _De rebus Geticis_ (Gottingen, 1854); C. Mullenhoff
  in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; T. Mommsen, _Hist. of
  Rome_ (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7.




GETHSEMANE (Hebr. for "oil-press"), the place to which Jesus and His
disciples withdrew on the eve of the Crucifixion. It was evidently an
enclosed piece of ground, a plantation rather than a garden in our sense
of the word. It lay east of the Kidron and on the lower slope of the
mount of Olives, at the foot of which is the traditional site dating
from the 4th century and now possessed by the Franciscans. The Grotto of
the Agony, a few hundred yards farther north, is an ancient
cave-cistern, now a Latin sanctuary. (See further JERUSALEM.)




GETTYSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Adams county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., about 35 m. S.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 3495; (1910) 4030.
It is served by the Western Maryland and the Gettysburg & Harrisburg
railways. The site of the borough is a valley about 1-1/2 m. wide; the
neighbouring country abounds in attractive scenery. Katalysine Spring in
the vicinity was once a well-known summer resort; its waters contain
lithia in solution. Gettysburg has several small manufacturing
establishments and is the seat of Pennsylvania College (opened in 1832,
and the oldest Lutheran college in America), which had 312 students (68
in the preparatory department) in 1907-1908, and of a Lutheran
theological seminary, opened in 1826 on Seminary Ridge; but the borough
is best known as the scene of one of the most important battles of the
Civil War. Very soon after the battle a soldiers' national cemetery was
laid out here, in which the bodies of about 3600 Union soldiers have
been buried; and at the dedication of this cemetery, in November 1863,
President Lincoln delivered his celebrated "Gettysburg Address." In 1864
the Gettysburg Battle-Field Memorial Association was incorporated, and
the work of this association resulted in the conversion of the
battle-field into a National Park, an act for the purpose being passed
by Congress in 1895. Within the park the lines of battle have been
carefully marked, and about 600 monuments, 1000 markers, and 500 iron
tablets have been erected by states and regimental associations.
Hundreds of cannon have been mounted, and five observation towers have
been built. From 1816 to 1840 Gettysburg was the home of Thaddeus
Stevens. Gettysburg was settled about 1740, was laid out in 1787, was
made the county-seat in 1800, and was incorporated as a borough in 1806.

_Battle of Gettysburg._--The battle of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd of July 1863
is often regarded as the turning-point of the American Civil War (q.v.)
although it arose from a chance encounter. Lee, the commander of the
Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, had merely ordered his scattered
forces to concentrate there, while Meade, the Federal commander, held
the town with a cavalry division, supported by two weak army corps, to
screen the concentration of his Army of the Potomac in a selected
position on Pipe Creek to the south-eastward. On the 1st of July the
leading troops of General A. P. Hill's Confederate corps approached
Gettysburg from the west to meet Ewell's corps, which was to the N. of
the town, whilst Longstreet's corps followed Hill. Lee's intention was
to close up Hill, Longstreet and Ewell before fighting a battle. But
Hill's leading brigades met a strenuous resistance from the Federal
cavalry division of General John Buford, which was promptly supported by
the infantry of the I. corps under General J. F. Reynolds. The Federals
so far held their own that Hill had to deploy two-thirds of his corps
for action, and the western approaches of Gettysburg were still held
when Ewell appeared to the northward. Reynolds had already fallen, and
the command of the Federals, after being held for a time by Gen. Abner
Doubleday, was taken over by Gen. O. O. Howard, the commander of the XI.
corps, which took post to bar the way to Ewell on the north side. But
Ewell's attack, led by the fiery Jubal Early, swiftly drove back the XI.
corps to Gettysburg; the I. corps, with its flank thus laid open, fell
back also, and the remnants of both Federal corps retreated through
Gettysburg to the Cemetery Hill position. They had lost severely in the
struggle against superior numbers, and there had been some disorder in
the retreat. Still a formidable line of defence was taken up on Cemetery
Hill and both Ewell and Lee refrained from further attacks, for the
Confederates had also lost heavily during the day and their
concentration was not complete. In the meanwhile Meade had sent forward
General W. S. Hancock, the commander of the Federal II. corps, to
examine the state of affairs, and on Hancock's report he decided to
fight on the Cemetery Hill position. Two corps of his army were still
distant, but the XII. arrived before night, the III. was near, and
Hancock moved the II. corps on his own initiative. Headquarters and the
artillery reserve started for Gettysburg on the night of the 1st. On
the other side, the last divisions of Hill's and Ewell's corps formed up
opposite the new Federal position, and Longstreet's corps prepared to
attack its left.

[Illustration: Gettysburg.]

Owing, however, to misunderstandings between Lee and Longstreet (q.v.),
the Confederates did not attack early on the morning of the 2nd, so that
Meade's army had plenty of time to make its dispositions. The Federal
line at this time occupied the horse-shoe ridge, the right of which was
formed by Culp's Hill, and the centre by the Cemetery hill, whence the
left wing stretched southward, the III. corps on the left, however,
being thrown forward considerably. The XII. held Culp's, the remnant of
the I. and XI. the Cemetery hills. On the left was the II., and in its
advanced position--the famous "Salient"--the III., soon to be supported
by the V.; the VI., with the reserve artillery, formed the general
reserve. It was late in the day when the Confederate attack was made,
and valuable time had been lost, but Longstreet's troops advanced with
great spirit. The III. corps Salient was the scene of desperate
fighting; and the "Peach Orchard" and the "Devil's Den" became as famous
as the "Bloody Angle" of Spottsylvania or the "Hornets' Nest" of Shiloh.
While the Confederate attack was developing, the important positions of
Round Top and Little Round Top were unoccupied by the defenders--an
omission which was repaired only in the nick of time by the commanding
engineer of the army, General G. K. Warren, who hastily called up troops
of the V. corps. The attack of a Confederate division was, after a hard
struggle, repulsed, and the Federals retained possession of the Round
Tops. The III. corps in the meantime, furiously attacked by troops of
Hill's and Longstreet's corps, was steadily pressed back, and the
Confederates actually penetrated the main line of the defenders, though
for want of support the brigades which achieved this were quickly driven
out. Ewell, on the Confederate left, waited for the sound of
Longstreet's guns, and thus no attack was made by him until late in the
day. Here Culp's Hill was carried with ease by one of Ewell's divisions,
most of the Federal XII. corps having been withdrawn to aid in the fight
on the other wing; but Early's division was repulsed in its efforts to
storm Cemetery Hill, and the two divisions of the centre (one of Hill's,
one of Ewell's corps) remained inactive.

That no decisive success had been obtained by Lee was clear to all, but
Ewell's men on Culp's Hill, and Longstreet's corps below Round Top,
threatened to turn both flanks of the Federal position, which was no
longer a compact horseshoe but had been considerably prolonged to the
left; and many of the units in the Federal army had been severely
handled in the two days' fighting. Meade, however, after discussing the
eventuality of a retreat with his corps commanders, made up his mind to
hold his ground. Lee now decided to alter his tactics. The broken ground
near Round Top offered so many obstacles that he decided not to press
Longstreet's attack further. Ewell was to resume his attack on Meade's
extreme right, while the decisive blow was to be given in the centre
(between Cemetery Hill and Trostle's) by an assault delivered in the
Napoleonic manner by the fresh troops of Pickett's division
(Longstreet's corps). Meade, however, was not disposed to resign Culp's
Hill, and with it the command of the Federal line of retreat, to Ewell,
and at early dawn on the 3rd a division of the XII. corps, well
supported by artillery, opened the Federal counter-attack; the
Confederates made a strenuous resistance, but after four hours' hard
fighting the other division of the XII. corps, and a brigade of the VI.,
intervened with decisive effect, and the Confederates were driven off
the hill. The defeat of Ewell did not, however, cause Lee to alter his
plans. Pickett's division was to lead in the great assault, supported by
part of Hill's corps (the latter, however, had already been engaged).
Colonel E. P. Alexander, Longstreet's chief of artillery, formed up one
long line of seventy-five guns, and sixty-five guns of Hill's corps came
into action on his left. To the converging fire of these 140 guns the
Federals, cramped for space, could only oppose seventy-seven. The
attacking troops formed up before 9 A.M., yet it was long before
Longstreet could bring himself to order the advance, upon which so much
depended, and it was not till about 1 P.M. that the guns at last opened
fire to prepare the grand attack. The Federal artillery promptly
replied, but after thirty minutes' cannonade its commander, Gen. H. J.
Hunt, ordered his batteries to cease fire in order to reserve their
ammunition to meet the infantry attack. Ten minutes later Pickett asked
and received permission to advance, and the infantry moved forward to
cross the 1800 yds. which separated them from the Federal line. Their
own artillery was short of ammunition, the projectiles of that day were
not sufficiently effective to cover the advance at long ranges, and thus
the Confederates, as they came closer to the enemy, met a tremendous
fire of unshaken infantry and artillery.

The charge of Pickett's division is one of the most famous episodes of
military history. In the teeth of an appalling fire from the rifles of
the defending infantry, who were well sheltered, and from the guns which
Hunt had reserved for the crisis, the Virginian regiments pressed on,
and with a final effort broke Meade's first line. But the strain was too
great for the supporting brigades, and Pickett was left without
assistance. Hancock made a fierce counterstroke, and the remnant of the
Confederates retreated. Of Pickett's own division over three-quarters,
3393 officers and men out of 4500, were left on the field, two of his
three brigadiers were killed and the third wounded, and of fifteen
regimental commanders ten were killed and five wounded. One regiment
lost 90% of its numbers. The failure of this assault practically ended
the battle; but Lee's line was so formidable that Meade did not in his
turn send forward the Army of the Potomac. By the morning of the 5th of
July Lee's army was in full retreat for Virginia. He had lost about
30,000 men in killed, wounded and missing out of a total force of
perhaps 75,000. Meade's losses were over 23,000 out of about 82,000 on
the field. The main body of the cavalry on both sides was absent from
the field, but a determined cavalry action was fought on the 3rd of July
between the Confederate cavalry under J. E. B. Stuart and that of the
Federals under D. McM. Gregg some miles E. of the battlefield, and other
Federal cavalry made a dashing charge in the broken ground south-west of
Round Top on the third day, inflicting thereby, though at great loss to
themselves, a temporary check on the right wing of Longstreet's
infantry.




GEULINCX, ARNOLD (1624-1669), Belgian philosopher, was born at Antwerp
on the 31st of January 1624. He studied philosophy and medicine at the
university of Louvain, where he remained as a lecturer for several
years. Having given offence by his unorthodox views, he left Louvain,
and took refuge in Leiden, where he appears to have been in the utmost
distress. He entered the Protestant Church, and in 1663, through the
influence of his friend Abraham Heidanus, who had assisted him in his
greatest need, he obtained a poorly paid lectureship at the university.
He died at Leiden in November 1669. His most important works were
published posthumously. The _Metaphysica vera_ (1691), and the [Greek:
Gnothi seauton], _sive Ethica_ (under the pseudonym "Philaretus," 1675),
are the works by which he is chiefly known. Mention may also be made of
_Physica vera_ (1688), _Logica restituta_ (1662) and _Annotata in
Principia philosophiae R. Cartesii_ (1691).

Geulincx principally deals with the question, left in an obscure and
unsatisfactory state by Descartes, of the relation between soul and
body. Whereas Descartes made the union between them a violent
collocation, Geulincx practically called it a miracle. Extension and
thought, the essences of corporeal and spiritual natures, are absolutely
distinct, and cannot act upon one another. External facts are not the
causes of mental states, nor are mental states the causes of physical
facts. So far as the physical universe is concerned, we are merely
spectators; the only action that remains for us is contemplation. The
influence we seem to exercise over bodies by will is only apparent;
volition and action only accompany one another. Since true activity
consists in knowing what one does and how one does it, I cannot be the
author of any state of which I am unconscious; I am not conscious of the
mechanism by which bodily motion is produced, hence I am not the author
of bodily motion ("Quod nescis quomodo fiat, id non facis"). Body and
mind are like two clocks which act together, because both have been set
together by God. A physical occurrence is but the occasion (opportunity,
occasional cause) on which God excites in me a corresponding mental
state; the exercise of my will is the occasion on which God moves my
body. Every operation in which mind and matter are both concerned is an
effect of neither, but the direct act of God. Geulincx was thus the
first definitely to systematize the theory called Occasionalism, which
had already been propounded by Gerauld de Cordemoy (d. 1684), a Parisian
lawyer, and Louis de la Forge, a physician of Saumur. But the principles
on which the theory was founded compelled a further advance. God, who is
the cause of the concomitance of bodily and mental facts, is in truth
the sole cause in the universe. No fact contains in itself the ground of
any other; the existence of the facts is due to God, their sequence and
coexistence are also due to him. He is the ground of all that is. My
desires, volitions and thoughts are thus the desires, volitions and
thoughts of God. Apart from God, the finite being has no reality, and we
only have the idea of it from God. Descartes had left untouched, or
nearly so, the difficult problem of the relation between the universal
element or thought and the particular desires or inclinations. All these
are regarded by Geulincx as modes of the divine thought and action, and
accordingly the end of human endeavour is the end of the divine will or
the realization of reason. The love of right reason is the supreme
virtue, whence flow the cardinal virtues, diligence, obedience, justice
and humility. Since it is impossible for us to make any alteration in
the world of matter, all we can do is to submit. Chief of the cardinal
virtues is humility, a confession of our own helplessness and submission
to God. Geulincx's idea of life is "a resigned optimism."

Geulincx carried out to their extreme consequences the irreconcilable
elements in the Cartesian metaphysics, and his works have the peculiar
value attaching to the vigorous development of a one-sided principle.
The abrupt contradictions to which such development leads of necessity
compels revision of the principle itself. He was thus important as the
precursor of Malebranche and Spinoza.

  Edition of his philosophical works by J. P. N. Land (1891-1893, for
  which a recently discovered MS. was consulted); see also the same
  editor's _Arnold Geulincx und seine Philosophie_ (1895), and article
  (translated) in _Mind_, xvi. 223 seq.; V. van der Haeghen, _Geulincx.
  Etude sur sa vie, sa philosophie, et ses ouvrages_ (Ghent, 1886); E.
  Grimm, _A. Geulincx' Erkenntnisstheorie und Occasionalismus_ (1875);
  E. Pfleiderer, _A. G. als Hauptvertreter der okkasionalistischen
  Metaphysik und Ethik_ (1882); G. Samtleben, _Geulincx, ein Vorganger
  Spinozas_ (1885); also Falckenberg, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng.
  trans., 1895), ch. iii.; G. Monchamp, _Hist. du Cartesianisme en
  Belgique_ (Brussels, 1886); H. Hoffding, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng.
  trans., 1900), i. 245.




GEUM, in botany, a genus of hardy perennial herbs (natural order
Rosaceae) containing about thirty species, widely distributed in
temperate and arctic regions. The erect flowering shoots spring from a
cluster of radical leaves, which are deeply cut or lobed, the largest
division being at the top of the leaf. The flowers are borne singly on
long stalks at the end of the stem or its branches. They are white,
yellow or red in colour, and shallowly cup-shaped. The fruit consists of
a number of dry achenes, each of which bears a hook formed from the
persistent lower portion of the style, and admirably adapted for
ensuring distribution. Two species occur in Britain under the popular
name "avens." _G. urbanum_ is a very common hedge-bank plant with small
yellow flowers; _G. rivale_ (water avens) is a rarer plant found by
streams, and has larger yellow flowers an inch or more across. The
species are easy to cultivate and well adapted for borders or the
rock-garden. They are propagated by seeds or by division. The most
popular garden species are _G. chiloense_ and its varieties, _G.
coccineum_ and _G. montanum_.




GEVELSBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 6 m. S.W.
from Hagen, on the railway to Dusseldorf. It has two churches, schools
and a hospital, and considerable manufactures of cutlery. Pop. (1905)
15,838.




GEX, a town of eastern France, chief town of an arrondissement in the
department of Ain, 10 m. N.W. of Geneva and 3 m. from the Swiss
frontier. Pop. (1906) town, 1385; commune, 2727. The town is beautifully
situated 2000 ft. above sea-level at the base of the most easterly and
highest chain of the Jura. It is the seat of a subprefect and has a
tribunal of first instance, and carries on considerable trade in wine,
cheese and other provisions, chiefly with Geneva. It gives its name to
the old Pays de Gex, situated between the Alps and the Jura, which was
at various times under the protection of the Swiss, the Genevese and the
counts of Savoy, until in 1601 it came into the possession of France,
retaining, however, until the Revolution its old independent
jurisdiction, with Gex as its chief town. The Pays de Gex is isolated by
the Jura from the rest of French territory, and comes within the
circumscription of the Swiss customs, certain restrictions being imposed
on its products by the French customs.




GEYSER, GEISER, or GEISIR, a natural spring or fountain which discharges
into the air, at more or less regular intervals of time, a column of
heated water and steam; it may consequently be regarded as an
intermittent hot spring. The word is the Icelandic _geysir_, gusher or
rager, from the verb _geysa_, a derivative of _gjosa_, to gush. In
native usage it is the proper name of the Great Geyser, and not an
appellative--the general term _hver_, a hot spring, making the nearest
approach to the European sense of the word (see Cleasby and Vigfusson,
_Icelandic English Dictionary_, s.v.).

Any hot spring capable of depositing siliceous material by the
evaporation of its water may in course of time transform itself into a
geyser, a tube being gradually built up as the level of the basin is
raised, much in the same manner as a volcanic cone is produced. Every
geyser continuing to deposit siliceous material is preparing its own
destruction; for as soon as the tube becomes deep enough to contain a
column of water sufficiently heavy to prevent the lower strata attaining
their boiling points, the whole mechanism is deranged. The deposition of
the sinter is due in part to the cooling and evaporation of the
siliceous waters, and in part to the presence of living algae. In geyser
districts it is easy to find thermal springs busy with the construction
of the tube; warm pools, or _laugs_, as the Icelanders call them, on the
top of siliceous mounds, with the mouth of the shaft still open in the
middle; and dry basins from which the water has receded with their
shafts now choked with rubbish.

Geysers exist at the present time in many volcanic regions, as in the
Malay Archipelago, Japan and South America; but the three localities
where they attain their highest development are Iceland, New Zealand and
the Yellowstone Park, U.S.A. The very name by which we call them
indicates the historical priority of the Iceland group.

The Iceland geysers, mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus, are situated about
30 m. N.W. of Hecla, in a broad valley at the foot of a range of hills
from 300 to 400 ft. in height. Within a circuit of about 2 m., upwards
of one hundred hot springs may be counted, varying greatly both in
character and dimensions. The Great Geyser in its calm periods appears
as a circular pool about 60 ft. in diameter and 4 ft. in depth,
occupying a basin on the summit of a mound of siliceous concretion; and
in the centre of the basin is a shaft, about 10 ft. in diameter and 70
ft. in depth, lined with the same siliceous material. The clear
sea-green water flows over the eastern rim of the basin in little
runnels. On the surface it has a temperature of from 76 deg. to 89 deg.
C., or from 168 deg. to 188 deg. F. Within the shaft there is of course
a continual shifting both of the average temperature of the column and
of the relative temperatures of the several strata. The results of the
observations of Bunsen and A. L. O. Descloizeaux in 1847 were as follows
(cf. _Pogg. Ann._, vol. 72 and _Comptes rendus_, vol. 19): About three
hours after a great eruption on July 6, the temperature 6 metres from
the bottom of the shaft was 121.6 deg. C; at 9.50 metres, 121.1 deg.; at
16.50 metres, 109 deg. (?); and at 19.70 metres, 95 deg. (?). About nine
hours after a great eruption on July 6, at about 0.3 metres from the
bottom, it was 123 deg.; at 4.8 metres it was 122.7 deg.; at 9.6 metres,
113 deg.; at 14.4 metres, 85.8 deg.; at 19.2 metres, 82.6 deg. On the
7th, there having been no eruption since the previous forenoon, the
temperature at the bottom was 127.5 deg.; at 5 metres from the bottom,
123 deg.; at 9 metres, 120.4 deg.; at 14.75 metres, 106.4 deg.; and at
19 metres, 55 deg. About three hours after a small eruption, which took
place at forty minutes past three o'clock in the afternoon of the 7th,
the temperature at the bottom was 126.5 deg.; at 6.85 metres up it was
121.8 deg.; at 14.75 metres, 110 deg.; and at 19 metres, 55 deg. Thus,
continues Bunsen, it is evident that the temperature of the column
diminishes from the bottom upwards; that, leaving out of view small
irregularities, the temperature in all parts of the column is found to
be steadily on the increase in proportion to the time that has elapsed
since the previous eruption; that even a few minutes before the great
eruption the temperature at no point of the water column reached the
boiling point corresponding to the atmospheric pressure at that part;
and finally, that the temperature about half-way up the shaft made the
nearest approach to the appropriate boiling point, and that this
approach was closer in proportion as an eruption was at hand. The Great
Geyser has varied very much in the nature and frequency of its eruptions
since it began to be observed. In 1809 and 1810, according to Sir W. J.
Hooker and Sir George S. Mackenzie, its columns were 100 or 90 ft. high,
and rose at intervals of 30 hours, while, according to Henderson, in
1815 the intervals were of 6 hours and the altitude from 80 to 150 ft.

About 100 paces from the Great Geyser is the _Strokkr_ or churn, which
was first described by Stanlay in 1789. The shaft in this case is about
44 ft. deep, and, instead of being cylindrical, is funnel-shaped, having
a width of about 8 ft. at the mouth, but contracting to about 10 in.
near the centre. By casting stones or turf into the shaft so as to
stopper the narrow neck, eruptions can be accelerated, and they often
exceed in magnitude those of the Great Geyser itself. During quiescence
the column of water fills only the lower part of the shaft, its surface
usually lying from 9 to 12 ft. below the level of the soil. Unlike that
of the Great Geyser, it is always in ebullition, and its temperature is
subject to comparatively slight differences. On the 8th of July 1847
Bunsen found the temperature at the bottom 112.9 deg. C; at 3 metres
from the bottom, 111.4 deg.; and at 6 metres, 108 deg.; the whole depth
of water was on that occasion 10.15 metres. On the 6th, at 2.90 metres
from the bottom it was 114.2 deg.; and at 6.20 metres, 109.3 deg. On
the 10th, at 0.35 metres from the bottom, the reading gave 113.9 deg.;
at 4.65 metres, 113.7 deg.; and at 8.85 metres, 99.9 deg.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

The great geyser-district of New Zealand is situated in the south of the
province of Auckland in or near the upper basin of the Waikato river, to
the N.E. of Lake Taupo. The scene presented in various parts of the
districts is far more striking and beautiful than anything of the same
kind to be found in Iceland, but this is due not so much to the grandeur
of the geysers proper as to the bewildering profusion of boiling
springs, steam-jets and mud-volcanoes, and to the fantastic effects
produced on the rocks by the siliceous deposits and by the action of the
boiling water. In about 1880 the geysers were no longer active, and this
condition prevailed until the Tarawera eruption of 1886, when seven
gigantic geysers came into existence; water, steam, mud and stones were
discharged to a height of 600 to 800 ft. for a period of about four
hours, when quieter conditions set in. Waikite near Lake Rotorua throws
the column to a height of 30 or 35 ft.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

In the Yellowstone National Park, in the north-west corner of Wyoming,
the various phenomena of the geysers can be observed on the most
portentous scale. The geysers proper are about one hundred in number;
the non-eruptive hot springs are much more numerous, there being more
than 3000. The dimensions and activity of several of the geysers render
those of Iceland and New Zealand almost insignificant in comparison. The
principal groups are situated along the course of that tributary of the
Upper Madison which bears the name of Fire Hole River. Many of the
individual geysers have very distinctive characteristics in the form and
colour of the mound, in the style of the eruption and in the shape of
the column. The "Giantess" lifts the main column to a height of only 50
or 60 ft., but shoots a thin spire to no less than 250 ft. The "Castle"
varies in height from 10 or 15 to 250 ft.; and on the occasions of
greatest effort the noise is appalling, and shakes the ground like an
earthquake. "Old Faithful" owes its name to the regularity of its
action. Its eruptions, which raise the water to a height of 100 or 150
ft., last for about five minutes, and recur every hour or thereabouts.
The "Beehive" sometimes attains a height of 219 it.; and the water,
instead of falling back into the basin, is dissipated in spray and
vapour. Very various accounts are given of the "Giant." F. V. Hayden saw
it playing for an hour and twenty minutes, and reaching a height of 140
ft., and Doane says it continued in action for three hours and a half,
and had a maximum of 200 ft.; but at the earl of Dunraven's visit the
eruption lasted only a few minutes.

  _Theory of Geysers._--No satisfactory explanation of the phenomena of
  geysers was advanced till near the middle of the 19th century, when
  Bunsen elucidated their nature. Sir George Mackenzie, in his _Travels
  in Iceland_ (2nd ed., 1812), submitted a theory which partially
  explained the phenomena met with. "Let us suppose a cavity C (fig. 1),
  communicating with the pipe PQ, filled with boiling water to the
  height AB, and that the steam above this line is confined so that it
  sustains the water to the height P. If we suppose a sudden addition of
  heat to be applied under the cavity C, a quantity of steam will be
  produced which, owing to the great pressure, will be evolved in
  starts, causing the noises like discharges of artillery and the
  shaking of the ground." He admitted that this could be only a partial
  explanation of the facts of the case, and that he was unable to
  account for the frequent and periodical production of the necessary
  heat; but he has the credit of hitting on what is certainly the
  proximate cause--the sudden evolution of steam. By Bunsen's theory the
  whole difficulty is solved, as is beautifully demonstrated by the
  artificial geyser designed by J. H. J. Muller of Freiburg (fig. 2). If
  the tube ab be filled with water and heated at two points, first at a
  and then at b, the following succession of changes is produced. The
  water at a beginning to boil, the superincumbent column is
  consequently raised, and the stratum of water which was on the point
  of boiling at b being raised to d is there subjected to a diminished
  pressure; a sudden evolution of steam accordingly takes place at d,
  and the superincumbent water is violently ejected. Received in the
  basin c, the air-cooled water sinks back into the tube, and the
  temperature of the whole column is consequently lowered; but the under
  strata of water are naturally those which are least affected by the
  cooling process; the boiling begins again at a, and the same
  succession of events is the result (see R. Bunsen, "Physikalische
  Beobachtungen uber die hauptsachlichsten Geisire Islands," _Pogg.
  Ann._, 1847, vol. 72; and Muller, "Uber Bunsen's Geysertheorie,"
  ibid., 1850, vol. 79).

  [Illustration]

  The principal difference between the artificial and the natural
  geyser-tube is that in the latter the effect is not necessarily
  produced by two distinct sources of heat like the two fires of the
  experimental apparatus, but by the continual influx of heat from the
  bottom of the shaft, and the differences between the boiling-points of
  the different parts of the column owing to the different pressures of
  the superincumbent mass. This may be thus illustrated: AB is the
  column of water; on the right side the figures represent approximately
  the boiling-points (Fahr.) calculated according to the ordinary laws,
  and the figures on the left the actual temperature of the same places.
  Both gradually increase as we descend, but the relation between the
  two is very different at different heights. At the top the water is
  still 39 deg. from its boiling-point, and even at the bottom it is 19
  deg.; but at D the deficiency is only 4 deg. If, then, the stratum at
  D be suddenly lifted as high as C, it will be 2 deg. above the
  boiling-point there, and will consequently expend those 2 deg. in the
  formation of steam.




GEZER (the Kazir of Tethmosis [Thothmes] III.'s list of Palestinian
cities and the Gazri of the Amarna tablets), a royal Canaanite city on
the boundary of Ephraim, in the maritime plain (Josh. xvi. 3-10), and
near the Philistine border (2 Sam. v. 25). It was allotted to the
Levites, but its original inhabitants were not driven out until the time
of Solomon, when "Pharaoh, king of Egypt" took the city and gave it as a
dowry to his daughter, Solomon's wife (1 Kings ix. 16). Under the form
Gazera it is mentioned (1 Macc. iv. 15) as being in the neighbourhood of
Emmaus-Nicopolis ('Amwas) and Jamnia (Yebnah). Throughout the history of
the Maccabean wars Gezer or Gazara plays the part of an important
frontier post. It was first taken from the Syrians by Simon the Asmonean
(1 Macc. xiv. 7). Josephus also mentions that the city was "naturally
strong" (_Antiq._ viii. 6. 1). The position of Gezer is defined by
Jerome (_Onomasticon_, s.v.) as four Roman miles north (_contra
septentrionem_) of Nicopolis ('Amwas). This points to the mound of
debris called _Tell-el-Jezari_ near the village of Abu Shusheh. The site
is naturally very strong, the town standing on an isolated hill,
commanding the western road to Jerusalem just where it begins to enter
the mountains of Judea. This identification has been confirmed by the
discovery of a series of boundary inscriptions, apparently marking the
limit of the city's lands, which have been found cut in rock--outcrops
partly surrounding the site. They read in every case in [Hebrew: nur]
[Hebrew: taham][1], "the boundary of Gezer," with the name _Alkios_ in
Greek, probably that of the governor under whom the inscriptions were
cut. The site has been partially excavated by the Palestine Exploration
Fund, and an enormous mass of material for the history of Palestine
recovered from it, including remains of a pre-Semitic aboriginal race, a
remarkably perfect High Place, the castle built by Simon, and other
remains of the first importance.

  See R. A. S. Macalister's reports in _Palestine Exploration Fund
  Quarterly Statement_ (October 1902 onwards). Also _Bible Sidelights
  from the Mound of Gezer_, by the same writer.     (R. A. S. M.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] So written, with a medial _mem_ ([Hebrew: mem]) instead of the
    final ([Hebrew: mem]).




GFRORER, AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1803-1861), German historian, was born at
Calw, Wurttemberg, on the 5th of March 1803, and at the close of his
preliminary studies at the seminary of Blaubeuren entered the university
of Tubingen in 1821 as a student of evangelical theology. After passing
his final examinations in 1825, he spent a year in Switzerland, during
part of the time acting as companion and secretary to C. von Bonstetten
(1745-1832); the year 1827 was spent chiefly in Rome. Returning to
Wurttemberg in 1828, he first undertook the duties of repetent or
theological tutor in Tubingen, and afterwards accepted a curacy in
Stuttgart; but having in 1830 received an appointment in the royal
public library at Stuttgart, he thenceforth gave himself exclusively to
literature and historical science. His first work on Philo (_Philo u.
die judisch-alexandrinische Theosophie_, Stuttgart, 1831) was rapidly
followed by an elaborate biography, in two volumes, of Gustavus Adolphus
(_Gustav Adolf, Konig von Schweden, und seine Zeit_, Stuttgart,
1835-1837), and by a critical history of primitive Christianity
(_Kritische Geschichte des Urchristenthums_, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1838).
Here Gfrorer had manifested opinions unfavourable to Protestantism,
which, however, were not openly avowed until fully developed in his
church history (_Allgemeine Kirchengeschichte bis Beginn des 14ten
Jahrhunderts_, Stuttgart, 1841-1846). In the autumn of 1846 he was
appointed to the chair of history in the university of Freiburg, where
he continued to teach until his death at Carlsbad on the 6th of July
1861. In 1848 he sat as a representative in the Frankfort parliament,
where he supported the "High German" party, and in 1853 he publicly went
over to the Church of Rome. He was a bitter opponent of Prussia and an
ardent controversialist.

  Among his later historical works the most important is the _Geschichte
  der ost- u. westfrankischen Karolinger_ (Freiburg, 1848); but those on
  the pseudo-Isidorian Decretals (_Untersuchung uber Alter, Ursprung, u.
  Werth der Decretalen des falschen Isidorus_, 1848), on the primitive
  history of mankind (_Urgeschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts_,
  1855), on Hildebrand (_Papst Gregorius VII. u. sein Zeitalter_, 7
  vols., 1859-1861), on the history of the 18th century (_Geschichte des
  18ten Jahrhunderts_, 1862-1873), on German popular rights (_Zur
  Geschichte deutscher Volksrechte im Mittelalter_, Basel, 1865-1866)
  and on Byzantine history (_Byzantinische Geschichten_, 1872-1874), are
  also of real value.




GHADAMES, GADAMES or RHADAMES, a town in an oasis of the same name, in
that part of the Sahara which forms part of the Turkish vilayet of
Tripoli. It is about 300 m. S.W. of the city of Tripoli and some 10 m.
E. of the Algerian frontier. According to Gerhard Rohlfs, the last form
given to the word most correctly represents the Arabic pronunciation,
but the other forms are more often used in Europe. The streets of the
town are narrow and vaulted and have been likened to the bewildering
galleries of a coalpit. The roofs are laid out as gardens and preserved
for the exclusive use of the women. The Ghadamsi merchants have been
known for centuries as keen and adventurous traders, and their agents
are to be found in the more important places of the western and central
Sudan, such as Kano, Katsena, Kanem, Bornu, Timbuktu, as well as at Ghat
and Tripoli. Ghadames itself is the centre of a large number of caravan
routes, and in the early part of the 19th century about 30,000 laden
camels entered its markets every year. The caravan trade was created by
the Ghadamsi merchants who, aided by their superior intelligence,
capacity and honesty, long enjoyed a monopoly. In 1873 Tripolitan
merchants began to compete with them. In 1893 came the invasion of Bornu
by Rabah, and the total stoppage of this caravan route for nearly ten
years to the great detriment of the merchants of Ghadames. The caravans
from Kano were also frequently pillaged by the Tuareg, so that the
prosperity of the town declined. Later on, the opening of rapid means of
transport from Kano and other cities to the Gulf of Guinea also affected
Ghadames, which, however, maintains a considerable trade. The chief
articles brought by the caravans are ostrich feathers, skins and ivory
and one of the principal imports is tea. In 1845 the population was
estimated at 3000, of whom about 500 were slaves and strangers, and
upwards of 1200 children; in 1905 it amounted in round numbers to 7000.
The inhabitants are chiefly Berbers and Arabs. A Turkish garrison is
maintained in the town.

Before the Christian era Ghadames was a stronghold of the Garamantes
whose power was overthrown in the days of Augustus by L. Cornelius
Balbus Minor, who captured Ghadames (Cydamus). It is not unlikely that
Roman settlers may have been attracted to the spot by the presence of
the warm springs which still rise in the heart of the town, and spread
fertility in the surrounding gardens. In the 7th century Ghadames was
conquered by the Arabs. It appears afterwards to have fallen under the
power of the rulers of Tunisia, then to a native dynasty which reigned
at Tripoli, and in the 16th century it became part of the Turkish
vilayet of Tripoli. It has since then shared the political fortunes of
that country. In the first half of the 19th century it was visited by
several British explorers and later by German and French travellers.

  See J. Richardson, _Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara in 1845-1846
  ... including a Description of ... Ghadames_ (London, 1848); G.
  Rohlfs, _Reise durch Marokko ... und Reise durch die Grosse Wuste uber
  Rhadames nach Tripoli_ (Bremen, 1868).




GHAT, or RHAT, an oasis and town, forming part of the Turkish vilayet of
Tripoli. Ghat is an important centre of the caravan trade between the
Nigerian states and the seaports of the Mediterranean (see TRIPOLI).




GHATS, or GHAUTS (literally "the Landing Stairs" from the sea, or
"Passes"), two ranges of mountains extending along the eastern and
western shores of the Indian peninsula. The word properly applies to the
passes through the mountains, but from an early date was transferred by
Europeans to the mountains themselves.

The Eastern Ghats run in fragmentary spurs and ranges down the Madras
coast. They begin in the Orissa district of Balasore, pass southwards
through Cuttack and Puri, enter the Madras presidency in Ganjam, and
sweep southwards through the districts of Vizagapatam, Godavari,
Nellore, Chingleput, South Arcot, Trichinopoly and Tinnevelly. They run
at a distance of 50 to 150 m. from the coast, except in Ganjam and
Vizagapatam, where in places they almost abut on the Bay of Bengal.
Their geological formation is granite, with gneiss and mica slate, with
clay slate, hornblende and primitive limestone overlying. The average
elevation is about 1500 ft., but several hills in Ganjam are between
4000 and 5000 ft. high. For the most part there is a broad expanse of
low land between their base and the sea, and their line is pierced by
the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery rivers.

The Western Ghats (Sahyadri in Sanskrit) start from the south of the
Tapti valley, and run south through the districts of Khandesh, Nasik,
Thana, Satara, Ratnagiri, Kanara and Malabar, and the states of Cochin
and Travancore, meeting the Eastern Ghats at an angle near Cape Comorin.
The range of the Western Ghats extends uninterruptedly, with the
exception of a gap or valley 25 m. across, known as the Palghat gap,
through which runs the principal railway of the south of India. The
length of the range is 800 m. from the Tapti to the Palghat gap, and
south of this about 200 m. to the extreme south of the peninsula. In
many parts there is only a narrow strip of coast between the hills and
the sea; at one point they rise in magnificent precipices and headlands
out of the ocean. The average elevation is 3000 ft., precipitous on the
western side facing the sea, but with a more gradual slope on the east
to the plains below. The highest peaks in the northern section are
Kalsubai, 5427 ft.; Harischandragarh, 4691 ft.; and Mahabaleshwar, where
is the summer capital of the government of Bombay, 4700 ft. South of
Mahabaleshwar the elevation diminishes, but again increases, and attains
its maximum towards Coorg, where the highest peaks vary from 5500 to
7000 ft., and where the main range joins the interior Nilgiri hills.
South of the Palghat gap, the peaks of the Western Ghats rise as high as
8000 ft. The geological formation is trap in the northern and gneiss in
the southern section.




GHAZALI [Muhammad ibn Muhammad Abu Hamid al-Ghazali] (1058-1111),
Arabian philosopher and theologian, was born at Tus, and belonged to a
family of Ghazala (near Tus) distinguished for its knowledge of canon
law. Educated at first in Tus, then in Jorjan, and again in Tus, he went
to college at Nishapur, where he studied under Juwaini (known as the
Imam ul-Haramain) until 1085, when he visited the celebrated vizier
Nizam ul-Mulk, who appointed him to a professorship in his college at
Bagdad in 1091. Here he was engaged in writing against the Isma'ilites
(Assassins). After four years of this work he suddenly gave up his
chair, left home and family and gave himself to an ascetic life. This
was due to a growing scepticism, which caused him much mental unrest and
which gradually gave way to mysticism. Having secured his chair for his
brother he went to Damascus, Jerusalem, Hebron, Mecca, Medina and
Alexandria, studying, meditating and writing in these cities. In 1106 he
was tempted to go to the West, where the Moravid (Almoravid) reformation
was being led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, with whom he had been in
correspondence earlier. Yusuf, however, died in this year, and Ghazali
abandoned his idea. At the wish of the sultan Malik Shah he again
undertook professorial work, this time in the college of Nizam ul-Mulk
at Nishapur, but returned soon after to Tus, where he died in December
1111.

  Sixty-nine works are ascribed to Ghazali (cf. C. Brockelmann's _Gesch.
  d. arabischen Litteratur_, i. 421-426, Weimar, 1898). The most
  important of those which have been published are: a treatise on
  eschatology called _Ad-durra ul-fakhira_ ("The precious pearl"), ed.
  L. Gautier (Geneva, 1878); the great work, _Ihya ul-`Ulum_ ("Revival
  of the sciences") (Bulaq, 1872; Cairo, 1889); see a commentary by
  al-Murtada called the Ithaf, published in 13 vols. at Fez, 1885-1887,
  and in 10 vols. at Cairo, 1893; the _Bidayat ul-Hidaya_ (Bulaq, 1870,
  and often at Cairo); a compendium of ethics, _Mizan ul-`Amal_,
  translated into Hebrew, ed. J. Goldenthal (Paris, 1839); a more
  popular treatise on ethics, the _Kimiya us-Sa`ada_, published at
  Lucknow, Bombay and Constantinople, ed. H. A. Homes as _The Alchemy of
  Happiness_ (Albany, N.Y., 1873); the ethical work _O Child_, ed. by
  Hammer-Purgstall in Arabic and German (Vienna, 1838); the _Destruction
  of Philosophers_ (_Tahafut ul-Falasifa_) (Cairo, 1885, and Bombay,
  1887). Of this work a French translation was begun by Carra de Vaux in
  _Museon_, vol. xviii. (1899); the _Maqasid ul-Falasifa_, of which the
  first part on logic was translated into Latin by Dom. Gundisalvi
  (Venice, 1506), ed. with notes by G. Beer (Leiden, 1888); the _Kitab
  ul-Munqid_, giving an account of the changes in his philosophical
  ideas, ed. by F. A. Schmolders in his _Essai sur les ecoles
  philosophiques chez les Arabes_ (Paris, 1842), also printed at
  Constantinople, 1876, and translated into French by Barbier de Meynard
  in the _Journal asiatique_ (1877, i. 1-93); answers to questions asked
  of him ed. in Arabic and Hebrew, with German translation and notes by
  H. Malter (Frankfort, 1896); Eng. trans., _Confessions of
  al-Ghazzali_, by Claud Field (1909).

  For Ghazali's life see McG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan,
  ii. 621 ff.; R. Gosche's _Uber Ghazzali's Leben und Werke_ (Berlin,
  1859); D. B. Macdonald's "Life of al-Ghazzali," in _Journal of
  American Oriental Society_, vol. xx. (1899), and Carra de Vaux's
  _Gazali_ (Paris, 1902); see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY.     (G. W. T.)




GHAZI (an Arabic word, from _ghaza_, to fight), the name given to
Mahommedans who have vowed to exterminate unbelievers by the sword. It
is also used as a title of honour, generally translated "the
Victorious," in the Ottoman empire for military officers of high rank,
who have distinguished themselves in the field against non-Moslem
enemies; thus it was conferred on Osman Pasha after his famous defence
of Plevna.




GHAZIABAD, a town of British India in Meerut district of the United
Provinces, 12 m. from Delhi and 28 m. from Meerut. Pop. (1901) 11,275.
The town was founded in 1740 by Ghazi-ud-din, son of Azaf Jah, first
nizam of the Deccan, and takes its name from its founder. It has
considerably risen in importance as the point of junction of the East
Indian, the North-Western and the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway systems. The
town has a trade in grain and hides.




GHAZIPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Benares division
of the United Provinces. The town stands on the left bank of the Ganges,
44 m. E. of Benares. It is the headquarters of the government opium
department, where all the opium from the United Provinces is collected
and manufactured under a monopoly. There are also scent distilleries,
using the produce of the rose-gardens in the vicinity. Lord Cornwallis,
governor-general of India, died at Ghazipur in 1805, and a domed
monument and marble statue (by Flaxman) are erected over his grave. Pop.
(1901) 39,429.

The district of Ghazipur has an area of 1389 sq. m. It forms part of the
great alluvial plain of the Ganges, which divides it into two unequal
portions. The northern subdivision lies between the Gumti and the
Gogra, whose confluences with the main stream mark its eastern and
western limits respectively. The southern tract is a much smaller strip
of country, enclosed between the Karamnasa and the great river itself.
There are no hills in the district. A few lakes are scattered here and
there, formed where the rivers have deserted their ancient channels. The
largest is that of Suraha, once a northern bend of the Ganges, but now
an almost isolated sheet of water, 5 m. long by about 4 broad. Ghazipur
is said to be one of the hottest and dampest districts in the United
Provinces. In 1901 the population was 913,818, showing a decrease of 11%
in the decade. Sugar refining is the chief industry, and provides the
principal article of export. The main line of the East Indian railway
traverses the southern portion of the district, with a branch to the
Ganges bank opposite Ghazipur town; the northern portion is served by
the Bengal & North-Western system.




GHAZNI, a famous city in Afghanistan, the seat of an extensive empire
under two medieval dynasties, and again of prominent interest in the
modern history of British India. Ghazni stands on the high tableland of
central Afghanistan, in 68 deg. 18' E. long., 33 deg. 44' N. lat., at a
height of 7280 ft. above the sea, and on the direct road between
Kandahar and Kabul, 221 m. by road N.E. from the former, and 92 m. S.W.
from the latter. A very considerable trade in fruit, wool, skins, &c.,
is carried on between Ghazni and India by the Povindah kafilas, which
yearly enter India in the late autumn and pass back again to the Afghan
highlands in the early spring. The Povindah merchants invariably make
use of the Gomal pass which leads to the British frontier at Dera Ismail
Khan. The opening up of this pass and the British occupation of Wana, by
offering protection to the merchants from Waziri blackmailing, largely
increased the traffic.

Ghazni, as it now exists, is a place in decay, and probably does not
contain more than 4000 inhabitants. It stands at the base of the
terminal spur of a ridge of hills, an offshoot from the Gul-Koh, which
forms the watershed between the Arghandab and Tarnak rivers. The castle
stands at the northern angle of the town next the hills, and is about
150 ft. above the plain. The town walls stand on an elevation, partly
artificial, and form an irregular square, close on a mile in circuit
(including the castle), the walls being partly of stone or brick laid in
mud, and partly of clay built in courses. They are flanked by numerous
towers. There are three gates. The town consists of dirty and very
irregular streets of houses several stories high, but with two
straighter streets of more pretension, crossing near the middle of the
town. Of the strategical importance of Ghazni there can hardly be a
question. The view to the south is extensive, and the plain in the
direction of Kandahar stretches to the horizon. It is bare except in the
vicinity of the river, where villages and gardens are tolerably
numerous. Abundant crops of wheat and barley are grown, as well as of
madder, besides minor products. The climate is notoriously cold,--snow
lying 2 or 3 ft. deep for about three months, and tradition speaks of
the city as having been more than once overwhelmed by snowdrift. Fuel is
scarce, consisting chiefly of prickly shrubs. In summer the heat is not
like that of Kandahar or Kabul, but the radiation from the bare heights
renders the nights oppressive, and constant dust-storms occur. It is
evident that the present restricted walls cannot have contained the
vaunted city of Mahmud. Probably the existing site formed the citadel
only of his city. The remarks of Ibn Batuta (c. 1332) already suggest
the present state of things, viz. a small town occupied, a large space
of ruin; for a considerable area to the N.E. is covered with ruins, or
rather with a vast extent of shapeless mounds, which are pointed out as
Old Ghazni. The only remains retaining architectural character are two
remarkable towers rising to the height of about 140 ft., and some 400
yds. apart from each other. They are similar, but whether identical, in
design, is not clearly recorded. They belong, on a smaller and far less
elaborate scale, to the same class as the Kutb Minar at Delhi (q.v.).
Arabic inscriptions in Cufic characters show the most northerly to have
been the work of Mahmud himself, the other that of his son Masa'ud. On
the Kabul road, a mile beyond the Minaret of Mahmud, is a village called
Rauzah ("the Garden," a term often applied to garden-mausoleums). Here,
in a poor garden, stands the tomb of the famous conqueror. It is a prism
of white marble standing on a plinth of the same, and bearing a Cufic
inscription praying the mercy of God on the most noble Amir, the great
king, the lord of church and state, Abul Kasim Mahmud, son of
Sabuktagin. The tomb stands in a rude chamber, covered with a dome of
clay, and hung with old shawls, ostrich eggs, tiger-skins and so forth.
The village stands among luxuriant gardens and orchards, watered by a
copious aqueduct. Sultan Baber celebrates the excellence of the grapes
of Rauzah.

There are many holy shrines about Ghazni surrounded by orchards and
vineyards. Baber speaks of them, and tells how he detected and put a
stop to the imposture of a pretended miracle at one of them. These
sanctuaries make Ghazni a place of Moslem pilgrimage, and it is said
that at Constantinople much respect is paid to those who have worshipped
at the tomb of the great Ghazi. To test the genuineness of the boast,
professed pilgrims are called on to describe the chief _notabilia_ of
the place, and are expected to name all those detailed in certain
current Persian verses.

_History._--The city is not mentioned by any narrator of Alexander's
expedition, nor by any ancient author so as to admit of positive
recognition. But it is very possibly the _Gazaca_ which Ptolemy places
among the _Paropamisadae_, and this may not be inconsistent with Sir H.
Rawlinson's identification of it with _Gazos_, an Indian city spoken of
by two obscure Greek poets as an impregnable place of war. The name is
probably connected with the Persian and Sanskrit _ganj_ and _ganja_, a
treasury (whence the Greek and Latin _Gaza_). We seem to have positive
evidence of the existence of the city before the Mahommedan times (644)
in the travels of the Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, who speaks of
_Ho-si-na_ (i.e. probably _Ghazni_) as one of the capitals of _Tsaukuta_
or Arachosia, a place of great strength. In early Mahommedan times the
country adjoining Ghazni was called _Zabul_. When the Mahommedans first
invaded that region Ghazni was a wealthy entrepot of the Indian trade.
Of the extent of this trade some idea is given by Ibn Haukal, who states
that at Kabul, then a mart of the same trade, there was sold yearly
indigo to the value of two million dinars (L1,000,000). The enterprise
of Islam underwent several ebbs and flows over this region. The
provinces on the Helmund and about Ghazni were invaded as early as the
caliphate of Moaiya (662-680). The arms of Yaqub b. Laith swept over
Kabul and Arachosia (Al-Rukhaj) about 871, and the people of the latter
country were forcibly converted. Though the Hindu dynasty of Kabul held
a part of the valley of Kabul river till the time of Mahmud, it is
probably to the period just mentioned that we must refer the permanent
Mahommedan occupation of Ghazni. Indeed, the building of the fort and
city is ascribed by a Mahommedan historian to Amr b. Laith, the brother
and successor of Ya`kub (d. 901), though the facts already stated
discredit this. In the latter part of the 9th century the family of the
Samanid, sprung from Samarkand, reigned in splendour at Bokhara.
Alptagin, originally a Turkish slave, and high in the service of the
dynasty, about the middle of the 10th century, losing the favour of the
court, wrested Ghazni from its chief (who is styled Abu Bakr Lawik, wali
of Ghazni), and established himself there. His government was recognized
from Bokhara, and held till his death. In 977 another Turk slave,
Sabuktagin, who had married the daughter of his master Alptagin,
obtained rule in Ghazni. He made himself lord of nearly all the present
territory of Afghanistan and of the Punjab. In 997 Mahmud, son of
Sabuktagin, succeeded to the government, and with his name Ghazni and
the Ghaznevid dynasty have become perpetually associated. Issuing forth
year after year from that capital, Mahmud (q.v.) carried fully seventeen
expeditions of devastation through northern India and Gujarat, as well
as others to the north and west. From the borders of Kurdistan to
Samarkand, from the Caspian to the Ganges, his authority was
acknowledged. The wealth brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and
contemporary historians give glowing descriptions of the magnificence of
the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent support of
literature. Mahmud died in 1030, and some fourteen kings of his house
came after him; but though there was some revival of importance under
Ibrahim (1059-1099), the empire never reached anything like the same
splendour and power. It was overshadowed by the Seljuks of Persia, and
by the rising rivalry of Ghor (q.v.), the hostility of which it had
repeatedly provoked. Bahram Shah (1118-1152) put to death Kutbuddin, one
of the princes of Ghor, called king of the Jibal or Hill country, who
had withdrawn to Ghazni. This prince's brother, Saifuddin Suri, came to
take vengeance, and drove out Bahram. But the latter recapturing the
place (1149) paraded Saifuddin and his vizier ignominiously about the
city, and then hanged them on the bridge. Ala-uddin of Ghor, younger
brother of the two slain princes, then gathered a great host, and came
against Bahram, who met him on the Helmund. The Ghori prince, after
repeated victories, stormed Ghazni, and gave it over to fire and sword.
The dead kings of the house of Mahmud, except the conqueror himself and
two others, were torn from their graves and burnt, whilst the bodies of
the princes of Ghor were solemnly disinterred and carried to the distant
tombs of their ancestors. It seems certain that Ghazni never recovered
the splendour that perished then (1152). Ala-uddin, who from this deed
became known in history as _Jah[=an]-soz_ (_Brulemonde_), returned to
Ghor, and Bahram reoccupied Ghazni; he died in 1157. In the time of his
son Khusru Shah, Ghazni was taken by the Turkish tribes called Ghuzz
(generally believed to have been what are now called Turkomans). The
king fled to Lahore, and the dynasty ended with his son. In 1173 the
Ghuzz were expelled by Ghiyasuddin sultan of Ghor (nephew of Ala-uddin
Jahansoz), who made Ghazni over to his brother Muizuddin. This famous
prince, whom the later historians call Mahommed Ghori, shortly
afterwards (1174-1175) invaded India, taking Multan and Uchh. This was
the first of many successive inroads on western and northern India, in
one of which Lahore was wrested from Khusru Malik, the last of Mahmud's
house, who died a captive in the hills of Ghor. In 1192 Prithvi Rai or
Pithora (as the Moslem writers call him), the Chauhan king of Ajmere,
being defeated and slain near Thanewar, the whole country from the
Himalaya to Ajmere became subject to the Ghori king of Ghazni. On the
death of his brother Ghiyasuddin, with whose power he had been
constantly associated, and of whose conquests he had been the chief
instrument, Muizuddin became sole sovereign over Ghor and Ghazni, and
the latter place was then again for a brief period the seat of an empire
nearly as extensive as that of Mahmud the son of Sabuktagin. Muizuddin
crossed the Indus once more to put down a rebellion of the Khokhars in
the Punjab, and on his way back was murdered by a band of them, or, as
some say, by one of the _Mulahidah_ or Assassins. The slave lieutenants
of Muizuddin carried on the conquest of India, and as the rapidly
succeeding events broke their dependence on any master, they established
at Delhi that monarchy of which, after it had endured through many
dynasties, and had culminated with the Mogul house of Baber, the shadow
perished in 1857. The death of Muizuddin was followed by struggle and
anarchy, ending for a time in the annexation of Ghazni to the empire of
Khwarizm by Mahommed Shah, who conferred it on his famous son,
Jelaluddin, and Ghazni became the headquarters of the latter. After
Jenghiz Khan had extinguished the power of his family in Turkestan,
Jelaluddin defeated the army sent against him by the Mongol at Parwan,
north of Kabul. Jenghiz then advanced and drove Jelaluddin across the
Indus, after which he sent Ogdai his son to besiege Ghazni. Henceforward
Ghazni is much less prominent in Asiatic history. It continued subject
to the Mongols, sometimes to the house of Hulagu in Persia, and
sometimes to that of Jagatai in Turkestan. In 1326, after a battle
between Amir Hosain, the viceroy of the former house in Khorasan, and
Tarmashirin, the reigning khan of Jagatai, the former entered Ghazni and
once more subjected it to devastation, and this time the tomb of Mahmud
to desecration.

Ibn Batuta (c. 1332) says the greater part of the city was in ruins, and
only a small part continued to be a town. Timur seems never to have
visited Ghazni, but we find him in 1401 bestowing the government of
Kabul, Kandahar, and Ghazni on Pir Mahommed, the son of his son
Jahangir. In the end of the century it was still in the hands of a
descendant of Timur, Ulugh Beg Mirza, who was king of Kabul and Ghazni.
The illustrious nephew of this prince, Baber, got peaceful possession of
both cities in 1504, and has left notes on both in his own inimitable
Memoirs. His account of Ghazni indicates how far it had now fallen. "It
is," he says, "but a poor mean place, and I have always wondered how its
princes, who possessed also Hindustan and Khorasan, could have chosen
such a wretched country for the seat of their government, in preference
to Khorasan." He commends the fruit of its gardens, which still
contribute largely to the markets of Kabul. Ghazni remained in the hands
of Baber's descendants, reigning at Delhi and Agra, till the invasion of
Nadir Shah (1738), and became after Nadir's death a part of the new
kingdom of the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durani. We know of but two
modern travellers who have recorded visits to the place previous to the
war of 1839. George Forster passed as a disguised traveller with a
qafila in 1783. "Its slender existence," he says, "is now maintained by
some Hindu families, who support a small traffic, and supply the wants
of the few Mahommedan residents." Vigne visited it in 1836, having
reached it from Multan with a caravan of Lohani merchants, travelling by
the Gomal pass. The historical name of Ghazni was brought back from the
dead, as it were, by the news of its capture by the British army under
Sir John Keane, 23rd July 1839. The siege artillery had been left behind
at Kandahar; escalade was judged impracticable; but the project of the
commanding engineer, Captain George Thomson, for blowing in the Kabul
gate with powder in bags, was adopted, and carried out successfully, at
the cost of 182 killed and wounded. Two years and a half later the
Afghan outbreak against the British occupation found Ghazni garrisoned
by a Bengal regiment of sepoys, but neither repaired nor provisioned.
They held out under great hardships from the 16th of December 1841 to
the 6th of March 1842, when they surrendered. In the autumn of the same
year General Nott, advancing from Kandahar upon Kabul, reoccupied
Ghazni, destroyed the defences of the castle and part of the town, and
carried away the famous gates of Somnath (q.v.).




GHEE (Hindustani _ghi_), a kind of clarified butter made in the East.
The best is prepared from butter of the milk of cows, the less esteemed
from that of buffaloes. The butter is melted over a slow fire, and set
aside to cool; the thick, opaque, whitish, and more fluid portion, or
ghee, representing the greater bulk of the butter, is then removed. The
less liquid residue, mixed with ground-nut oil, is sold as an inferior
kind of ghee. It may be obtained also by boiling butter over a clear
fire, skimming it the while, and, when all the water has evaporated,
straining it through a cloth. Ghee which is rancid or tainted, as is
often that of the Indian bazaars, is said to be rendered sweet by
boiling with leaves of the _Moringa pterygosperma_ or horse-radish tree.
In India ghee is one of the commonest articles of diet, and indeed
enters into the composition of everything eaten by the Brahmans. It is
also extensively used in Indian religious ceremonies, being offered as a
sacrifice to idols, which are at times bathed in it. Sanskrit treatises
on therapeutics describe ghee as cooling, emollient and stomachic, as
capable of increasing the mental powers, and of improving the voice and
personal appearance, and as useful in eye-diseases, tympanitis, painful
dyspepsia, wounds, ulcers and other affections. Old ghee is in special
repute among the Hindus as a medicinal agent, and its efficacy as an
external application is believed by them to increase with its age. Ghee
more than ten years old, the _purana ghrita_ of Sanskrit materia
medicas, has a strong odour and the colour of lac. Some specimens which
have been much longer preserved--and "clarified butter a hundred years
old is often heard of"--have an earthy look, and are quite dry and hard,
and nearly inodorous. Medicated ghee is made by warming ordinary ghee
to remove contained water, melting, after the addition of a little
turmeric juice, in a metal pan at a gentle heat, and then boiling with
the prepared drugs till all moisture is expelled, and straining through
a cloth.




GHEEL, or GEEL, a town of Belgium, about 30 m. E. of Antwerp and in the
same province. Pop. (1904) 14,087. It is remarkable on account of the
colony of insane persons which has existed there for many centuries. The
legend reads that in the year 600 Dymphna, an Irish princess, was
executed here by her father, and in consequence of certain miracles she
had effected she was canonized and made the patron saint of the insane.
The old Gothic church is dedicated to her, and in the choir is a shrine,
enclosing her relics, with fine panel paintings representing incidents
in her life by, probably, a contemporary of Memling. The colony of the
insane is established in the farms and houses round the little place
within a circumference of 30 m. and is said to have existed since the
13th century. This area is divided into four sections, each having a
doctor and a superintendent attached to it. The Gheel system is regarded
as the most humane method of dealing with the insane who have no
homicidal tendencies, as it keeps up as long as possible their interest
in life.




GHENT (Flem. _Gent_, Fr. _Gand_), the capital of East Flanders, Belgium,
at the junction of the Scheldt and the Lys (Ley). Pop. (1880) 131,431,
(1904) 162,482. The city is divided by the rivers (including the small
streams Lieve and Moere) and by canals, some navigable, into numerous
islands connected by over 200 bridges of various sorts. Within the
limits of the town, which is 6 m. in circumference, are many gardens,
meadows and promenades; and, though its characteristic lanes are gloomy
and narrow, there are also broad new streets and fine quays and docks.
The most conspicuous building in the city is the cathedral of St
Bavon[1] (Sint Baafs), the rich interior of which contrasts strongly
with its somewhat heavy exterior. Its crypt dates from 941, the choir
from 1274-1300, the Late Gothic choir chapels from the 15th century, and
the nave and transept from 1533-1554. Among the treasures of the church
is the famous "Worship of the Lamb" by Hubert and Jan van Eyck. Of the
original 12 panels, taken to France during the Revolutionary Wars, only
4 are now here, 6 being in the Berlin museum and two in that of
Brussels. Among the other 55 churches may be mentioned that of St
Nicholas, an Early Gothic building, the oldest church in date of
foundation in Ghent, and that of St Michael, completed in 1480, with an
unfinished tower. In the centre of the city stands the unfinished Belfry
(_Beffroi_), a square tower some 300 ft. high, built 1183-1339. If has a
cast-iron steeple (restored in 1854), on the top of which is a gold
dragon which, according to tradition, was brought from Constantinople
either by the Varangians or by the emperor Baldwin after the Latin
conquest. Close to it is the former Cloth-hall, a Gothic building of
1325. The hotel-de-ville consists of two distinct parts. The northern
facade, a magnificent example of Flamboyant Gothic, was erected between
1518 and 1533, restored in 1829 and again some fifty years later. The
eastern facade overlooking the market-place was built in 1595-1628, in
the Renaissance style, with three tiers of columns. It contains a
valuable collection of archives, from the 13th century onwards. On the
left bank of the Lys is the Oudeburg (s'Gravenstein, Chateau des
Contes), the former castle of the first counts of Flanders, dating from
1180 and now restored. The chateau of the later counts, in which the
emperor Charles V. was born, is commemorated only in the name of a
street, the Cours des Princes.

To the north of the Oudeburg, on the other side of the Lys, is the
Marche du Vendredi, the principal square of the city. This was the
centre of the life of the medieval city, the scene of all great public
functions, such as the homage of the burghers to the counts, and of the
auto-da-fes under the Spanish regime. In it stands a bronze statue of
Jacob van Artevelde, by Devigne-Quyo, erected in 1863. At a corner of
the square is a remarkable cannon, known as _Dulle Griete_ (Mad Meg), 19
ft. long and 11 ft. in circumference. It is ornamented with the arms of
Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, and must have been cast between 1419
and 1467. On the Scheldt, near the Place Laurent, is the
Geerard-duivelsteen (chateau of Gerard the Devil), a 13th-century tower
formerly belonging to one of the patrician families, now restored and
used as the office of the provincial records. Of modern buildings may be
mentioned the University (1826), the Palais de Justice (1844), and the
new theatre (1848), all designed by Roelandt, and the Institut des
Sciences (1890) by A. Pauli. In the park on the site of the citadel
erected by Charles V. are some ruins of the ancient abbey of St Bavon
and of a 12th-century octagonal chapel dedicated to St Macharius. In the
park is also situated the Museum of Fine Arts, completed in 1902.

One of the most interesting institutions of Ghent is the great Beguinage
(Begynhof) which, originally established in 1234 by the Bruges gate, was
transferred in 1874 to the suburb of St Amandsberg. It constitutes a
little town of itself, surrounded by walls and a moat, and contains
numerous small houses, 18 convents and a church. It is occupied by some
700 Beguines, women devoted to good works (see BEGUINES). Near the
station is a second Beguinage with 400 inmates. In addition to these
there were in Ghent in 1901 fifty religious houses of various orders.

As a manufacturing centre Ghent, though not so conspicuous as it was in
the middle ages, is of considerable importance. The main industries are
cotton-spinning, flax-spinning, cotton-printing, tanning and sugar
refining; in addition to which there are iron and copper foundries,
machine-building works, breweries and factories of soap, paper, tobacco,
&c. As a trading centre the city is even more important. It has direct
communication with the sea by a ship-canal, greatly enlarged and
deepened since 1895, which connects the Grand Basin, stretching along
the north side of the city, with a spacious harbour excavated at
Terneuzen on the Scheldt, 21-1/2 m. to the north, thus making Ghent
practically a sea-port; while a second canal, from the Lys, connects the
city via Bruges with Ostende.

Among the educational establishments is the State University, founded by
King William I. of the Netherlands in 1816. With it are connected a
school of engineering, a school of arts and industries and the famous
library (about 300,000 printed volumes and 2000 MSS.) formerly belonging
to the city. In addition there are training schools for teachers, an
episcopal seminary, a conservatoire and an art academy with a fine
collection of pictures mainly taken from the religious houses of the
city on their suppression in 1795. The oldest Belgian newspaper, the
_Gazet van Gent_, was founded here in 1667.

_History._--The history of the city is closely associated with that of
the countship of Flanders (q.v.), of which it was the seat. It is
mentioned so early as the 7th century and in 868 Baldwin of the Iron
Arm, first count of Flanders, who had been entrusted by Charles the Bald
with the defence of the northern marches, built a castle here against
the Normans raiding up the Scheldt. This was captured in 949 by the
emperor Otto I. and was occupied by an imperial burgrave for some fifty
years, after which it was retaken by the counts of Flanders. Under their
protection, and favoured by its site, the city rapidly grew in wealth
and population, the zenith of its power and prosperity being reached
between the 13th and 15th centuries, when it was the emporium of the
trade of Germany and the Low Countries, the centre of a great cloth
industry, and could put some 20,000 armed citizens into the field. The
wealth of the burghers during this period was equalled by their
turbulent spirit of independence; feuds were frequent,--against the
rival city of Bruges, against the counts, or, within the city itself,
between the plebeian crafts and the patrician governing class. Of these
risings the most notable was that, in the earlier half of the 14th
century, against Louis de Crecy, count of Flanders, under the leadership
of Jacob van Artevelde (q.v.).

The earliest charter to the citizens of Ghent was that granted by Count
Philip of Flanders between 1169 and 1191. It did little more than
arrange for the administration of justice by nominated jurats
(_scabini_) under the count's _bailli_. Far more comprehensive was the
second charter, granted by Philip's widow Mathilda, after his death on
crusade in 1191, as the price paid for the faithfulness of the city to
her cause. The magistrates of the city were still nominated _scabini_
(fixed at thirteen), but their duties and rights were strictly defined
and the liberties of the citizens safe-guarded; the city, moreover,
received the right to fortify itself and even individuals within it to
fortify their houses. This charter was confirmed and extended by Count
Baldwin VIII. when he took over the city from Mathilda, an important new
provision being that general rules for the government of the city were
only to be made by arrangement between the count or his officials and
the common council of the citizens. The burghers thus attained to a very
considerable measure of self-government. A charter of 1212 of Count
Ferdinand (of Portugal) and his wife Johanna introduced a modified
system of election for the _scabini_; a further charter (1228) fixed the
executive at 39 members, including _scabini_ and members of the commune,
and ordained that the _bailli_ of the count and his _servientes_, like
the _podestas_ of Italian cities, were not to be natives of Ghent.

Thus far the constitution of the city had been wholly aristocratic; in
the 13th century the patricians seem to have been united into a gild
(_Commans-gulde_) from whose members the magistrates were chosen. By the
14th century, however, the democratic craft gilds, notably that of the
weavers, had asserted themselves; the citizens were divided for civic
and military purposes into three classes; the rich (i.e. those living on
capital), the weavers and the members of the 52 other gilds. In the
civic executive, as it existed to the time of Charles V., the deans of
the two lower classes sat with the _scabini_ and councillors.

The constitution and liberties of the city, which survived its
incorporation in Burgundy, were lost for a time as a result of the
unsuccessful rising against Duke Philip the Good (1450). The citizens,
however, retained their turbulent spirit. After the death of Mary of
Burgundy, who had resided in the city, they forced her husband, the
archduke Maximilian, to conclude the treaty of Arras (1482). They were
less fortunate in their opposition to Maximilian's son, the emperor
Charles V. In 1539 they refused, on the plea of their privileges, to
contribute to a general tax laid on Flanders, and when Charles's sister
Mary, the governess of the Netherlands, seized some merchants as bail
for the payment, they retaliated by driving out the nobles and the
adherents of Charles's government. The appearance of Charles himself,
however, with an overwhelming force quelled the disturbance; the
ringleaders were executed, and all the property and privileges of the
city were confiscated. In addition, a fine of 150,000 golden gulden was
levied on the city, and used to build the "Spanish Citadel" on the site
of what is now the public park.

In the long struggle of the Netherlands against Spain, Ghent took a
conspicuous part, and it was here that, on the 8th of November 1576, was
signed the instrument, known as the Pacification of Ghent, which
established the league against Spanish tyranny. In 1584, however, the
city had to surrender on onerous terms to the prince of Parma.

The horrors of war and of religious persecution, and the consequent
emigration or expulsion of its inhabitants, had wrecked the prosperity
of Ghent, the recovery of which was made impossible by the closing of
the Scheldt. The city was captured by the French in 1698, 1708 and 1745.
After 1714 it formed part of the Austrian Netherlands, and in 1794
became the capital of the French department of the Scheldt. In 1814 it
was incorporated in the kingdom of the United Netherlands, and it was
here that Louis XVIII. of France took refuge during the Hundred Days.
Here too was signed (December 24, 1814) the treaty of peace between
Great Britain and the United States of America. After 1815 Ghent was for
a time the centre of Catholic opposition to Dutch rule, as it is now
that of the Flemish movement in Belgium. During the 19th century its
prosperity rapidly increased. In 1866-1867, however, a serious outbreak
of cholera again threatened it with ruin; but improved sanitation, the
provision of a supply of pure water and the demolition of a mass of
houses unfit for habitation soon effected a radical cure.

  See L. A. Warnkonig, _Flandrische Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte bis
  1305_ (3 vols., Tubingen, 1835-1842), and Gueldorf, _Hist. de Gand_,
  translated from Warnkonig, with corrections and additions (Brussels,
  1846); F. de Potter, _Gent van den oudsten tijd tot heden_ (6 vols.,
  Ghent, 1883-1891); Van Duyse, _Gand monumental et pittoresque_
  (Brussels, 1886); de Vlaminck, _Les Origines de la ville de Gand_
  (Brussels, 1891); _Annales Gandenses_, ed. G. Funck-Brentano (Paris,
  1895); Vuylsteke, _Oorkondenboek der stad Gent_ (Ghent, 1900, &c.);
  Karl Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891), vol. ii. p. 175,
  where further authorities are cited. For a comprehensive bibliography,
  including monographs and published documents, see Ulysse Chevalier,
  _Repertoire des sources hist. Topo-bibliogr._, s.v. "Gand."


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Bavo, or Allowin (c. 589-c. 653), patron saint of Ghent, was a
    nobleman converted by St Amandus, the apostle of Flanders. He lived
    first as an anchorite in the forest of Mendonk, and afterwards in the
    monastery founded with his assistance by Amandus at Ghent.




GHETTO, formerly the street or quarter of a city in which Jews were
compelled to live, enclosed by walls and gates which were locked each
night. The term is now used loosely of any locality in a city or country
where Jews congregate. The derivation of the word is doubtful. In
documents of the 11th century the Jew-quarters in Venice and Salerno are
styled "Judaca" or "Judacaria." At Capua in 1375 there was a place
called San Nicolo ad Judaicam, and later elsewhere a quarter San Martino
ad Judaicam. Hence it has been suggested Judaicam became Italian
Giudeica and thence became corrupted into ghetto. Another theory traces
it to "gietto," the common foundry at Venice near which was the first
Jews' quarters of that city. More probably the word is an abbreviation
of Italian _borghetto_ diminutive of _borgo_ a "borough."

The earliest regular ghettos were established in Italy in the 11th
century, though Prague is said to have had one in the previous century.
The ghetto at Rome was instituted by Paul IV. in 1556. It lay between
the Via del Pianto and Ponte del Quattro Capi, and comprised a few
narrow and filthy streets. It lay so low that it was yearly flooded by
the Tiber. The Jews had to sue annually for permission to live there,
and paid a yearly tax for the privilege. This formality and tax survived
till 1850. During three centuries there were constant changes in the
oppressive regulations imposed upon the Jews by the popes. In 1814 Pius
VII. allowed a few Jews to live outside the ghetto, and in 1847 Pius IX.
decided to destroy the gates and walls, but public opinion hindered him
from carrying out his plans. In 1870 the Jews petitioned Pius IX. to
abolish the ghetto; but it was to Victor Emmanuel that this reform was
finally due. The walls remained until 1885.

During the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to leave the ghetto after
sunset when the gates were locked, and they were also imprisoned on
Sundays and all Christian holy days. Where the ghetto was too small for
the carrying on of their trades, a site beyond its wall was granted them
as a market, e.g. the Jewish _Tandelmarkt_ at Prague. Within their
ghettos the Jews were left much to their own devices, and the more
important ghettos, such as that at Prague, formed cities within cities,
having their own town halls and civic officials, hospitals, schools and
rabbinical courts. Fires were common in ghettos and, owing to the
narrowness of the streets, generally very destructive, especially as
from fear of plunder the Jews themselves closed their gates on such
occasions and refused assistance. On the 14th of June 1711 a fire, the
largest ever known in Germany, destroyed within twenty-four hours the
ghetto at Frankfort-on-Main. Other notable ghetto fires are that of Bari
in 1030 and Nikolsburg in 1719. The Jews were frequently expelled from
their ghettos, the most notable expulsions being those of Vienna (1670)
and Prague (1744-1745). This latter exile was during the war of the
Austrian Succession, when Maria Theresa, on the ground that "they were
fallen into disgrace," ordered Jews to leave Bohemia. The empress was,
however, induced by the protests of the powers, especially of England
and Holland, to revoke the decree. Meantime the Jews, ignorant of the
revocation, petitioned to be allowed to return in payment of a yearly
tax. This tax the Bohemian Jews paid until 1846. The most important
ghettos were those at Venice, Frankfort, Prague and Trieste. By the
middle of the 19th century the ghetto system was moribund, and with the
disappearance of the ghetto at Rome in 1870 it became obsolete.

  See D. Philipson, _Old European Jewries_ (Philadelphia, 1894); Israel
  Abrahams, _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_ (1896); S. Kahn, article
  "Ghetto" in _Jewish Encyclopedia_, v. 652.




GHIBERTI, LORENZO (1378-1455), Italian sculptor, was born at Florence in
1378. He learned the trade of a goldsmith under his father Ugoccione,
commonly called Cione, and his stepfather Bartoluccio; but the
goldsmith's art at that time included all varieties of plastic arts, and
required from those who devoted themselves to its higher branches a
general and profound knowledge of design and colouring. In the early
stage of his artistic career Ghiberti was best known as a painter in
fresco, and when Florence was visited by the plague he repaired to
Rimini, where he executed a highly prized fresco in the palace of the
sovereign Pandolfo Malatesta. He was recalled from Rimini to his native
city by the urgent entreaties of his stepfather Bartoluccio, who
informed him that a competition was to be opened for designs of a second
bronze gate in the baptistery, and that he would do wisely to return to
Florence and take part in this great artistic contest. The subject for
the artists was the sacrifice of Isaac; and the competitors were
required to observe in their work a certain conformity to the first
bronze gate of the baptistery, executed by Andrea Pisano about 100 years
previously. Of the six designs presented by different Italian artists,
those of Donatello, Brunelleschi and Ghiberti were pronounced the best,
and of the three Brunelleschi's and Ghiberti's superior to the third,
and of such equal merit that the thirty-four judges with whom the
decision was left entrusted the execution of the work to the joint
labour of the two friends. Brunelleschi, however, withdrew from the
contest. The first of his two bronze gates for the baptistery occupied
Ghiberti twenty years.

Ghiberti brought to his task a deep religious feeling and the striving
after a high poetical ideal which are not to be found in the works of
Donatello, though in power of characterization the second sculptor often
stands above the first. Like Donatello, he seized every opportunity of
studying the remains of ancient art; but he sought and found purer
models for imitation than Donatello, through his excavations and studies
in Rome, had been able to secure. The council of Florence, which met
during the most active period of Ghiberti's artistic career, not only
secured him the patronage of the pontiff, who took part in the council,
but enabled him, through the important connexions which he then formed
with the Greek prelates and magnates assembled in Florence, to obtain
from many quarters of the Byzantine empire the precious memorials of old
Greek art, which he studied with untiring zeal. The unbounded admiration
called forth by Ghiberti's first bronze gate led to his receiving from
the chiefs of the Florentine gilds the order for the second, of which
the subjects were likewise taken from the Old Testament. The Florentines
gazed with especial pride on these magnificent creations, which must
still have shone with all the brightness of their original gilding when,
a century later, Michelangelo pronounced them worthy to be the gates of
paradise. Next to the gates of the baptistery Ghiberti's chief works
still in existence are his three statues of St John the Baptist, St
Matthew and St Stephen, executed for the church of Or San Michele. In
the bas-relief of the coffin of St Zenobius, in the Florence cathedral,
Ghiberti put forth much of his peculiar talent, and though he did not,
as is commonly stated, execute entirely the painted glass windows in
that edifice, he furnished several of the designs, and did the same
service for a painted glass window in the church of Or San Michele. He
died at the age of 77.

We are better acquainted with Ghiberti's theories of art than with those
of most of his contemporaries, for he left behind him a commentary, in
which, besides his notices of art, he gives much insight into his own
personal character and views. Every page attests the religious spirit in
which he lived and worked. Not only does he aim at faithfully reflecting
Christian truths in his creations, he regards the old Greek statues with
a kindred feeling, as setting forth the highest intellectual and moral
attributes of human nature. He appears to have cared as little as
Donatello for money.

Benvenuto Cellini's criticism on Ghiberti that in his creations of
plastic art he was more successful in small than in large figures, and
that he always exhibited in his works the peculiar excellences of the
goldsmith's quite as much as those of the sculptor's art, is after all
no valid censure, for it merely affirms that Ghiberti faithfully
complied with the peculiar conditions of the task imposed upon him. More
frequent have been the discussions as to the part played by perspective
in his representations of natural scenery. These acquired a fresh
importance since the discovery of the data, from which it appeared that
Paolo Uccello, who had commonly been regarded as the first great master
of perspective, worked for several years in the studio or workshop of
Ghiberti, so that it became difficult to determine to what extent
Uccello's successful innovations in perspective were due to Ghiberti's
teaching.

  Cicognara's criticism on Ghiberti, in his _History of Sculpture_, has
  supplied the chief materials for the illustrative text of Lasinio's
  series of engravings of the three bronze gates of the baptistery. They
  consist of 42 plates in folio, and were published at Florence by Bardi
  in 1821. Still more vivid representations are the reproductions on a
  very large scale by the photographic establishment of Alinari. Both C.
  C. Perkins, in his _History of Tuscan Sculpture_ (1864), and A. F.
  Rio, in his _Art chretien_ (1861-1867), have treated Ghiberti's works
  with much fulness, and in a spirit of sound appreciation. See also the
  chapter expressly devoted to the history of the competition for the
  baptistery gates in Hans Semper, _Donatello_ (1887); the articles by
  Adolf Rosemberg in Dohme's _Kunst und Kunstler des Mittelalters_
  (Leipzig, 1877); Leader Scott, _Ghiberti and Donatello_ (1882). In the
  _Sammlung ausgewahlter Biographien Vasari_, ed. Carl Frey, vol. iii.
  (1886), is given Ghiberti's commentary on art.




GHICA, GHIKA or GHYKA, a family which played a great part in the modern
development of Rumania, many of its members being princes of Moldavia
and Walachia. According to Rumanian historians the Ghicas were of very
humble origin, and came from Kiupru in Albania.

1. George or Gheorghe (c. 1600-1664), the founder of the family, is said
to have been a playmate of another Albanian known in history as Kupruli
Aga, the famous vizier, who recognized George while he was selling
melons in the streets of Constantinople, and helped him on to high
positions. George became prince of Moldavia in 1658 and prince of
Walachia in 1659-1660. He moved the capital from Tirgovishtea to
Bucharest. From him are derived the numerous branches of the family
which became so conspicuous in the history of Moldavia and Walachia.

2. The Walachian branch starts afresh from the great ban Demetrius or
Dumitru Ghica (1718-1803), who was twice married and had fourteen
children (see RUMANIA: _History_). One of these, Gregory (Grigorie),
prince of Walachia 1822-1828, starts a new era of civilization, by
breaking with the traditions of the Phanariot (Greek) period and
assisting in the development of a truly national Rumanian literature.
His brother, Prince Alexander Ghica, appointed jointly by Turkey and
Russia (1834-1842) as hospodar of Walachia, died in 1862. Under him the
so-called _reglement organique_ had been promulgated; an attempt was
made to codify the laws in conformity with the institutions of the
country and to secure better administration of justice. Prince Demetrius
Ghica, who died as president of the Rumanian senate in 1897, was the son
of the Walachian prince Gregory.

3. Another Gregory Ghica, prince of Moldavia from 1775 to 1777, paid
with his life for the opposition he offered when the Turks ceded the
province of Bukovina to Austria.

4. Michael (Michail) (1794-1850) was the father of Elena (1827-1888), a
well-known novelist, who wrote under the name of Dora d'Istria. Brought
up, as was customary at the time, under Greek influences, she showed
premature intelligence and literary power. She continued her education
in Germany and married a Russian prince, Koltsov Mazalskiy, in 1849, but
the marriage was an unhappy one, and in 1855 she left St Petersburg for
Florence, where she died in 1888. In that city she developed her
literary talent and published a number of works characterized by
lightness of touch and brilliance of description, such as _Pelerinage
au tombeau de Dante, La Vie monastique dans les eglises orientales_
(1844), _La Suisse allemande_, &c. One of her last works was devoted to
the history of her own family, _Gli Albanesi in Roumenia: Storia dei
Principi Ghika nei secoli XVII-XIX_ (Florence, 1873). Her sister was
Sophia, Countess O'Rourke.

5. Scarlat Ghica (1750-1802) was twice prince of Walachia. His grandson
John (Ioan) Ghica (1817-1897), a lifelong friend of Turkey, was educated
in Bucharest and in the West, and studied engineering and mathematics in
Paris from 1837 to 1840; returning to Moldavia he was involved in the
conspiracy of 1841, which was intended to bring about the union of
Walachia and Moldavia under one native prince (Michael Sturdza). The
conspiracy failed and John Ghica became a lecturer on mathematics at the
university which was founded by Prince Sturdza in Jassy. In 1848 he
joined the party of revolution and in the name of a provisional
government then established in Bucharest went to Constantinople to
approach the Turkish government. Whilst there he was appointed Bey of
Samos (1853-1859), where he extirpated piracy, rampant in that island.
In 1859 after the union of Moldavia and Walachia had been effected
Prince Cuza induced John Ghica to return. He was the first prime
minister under Prince (afterwards King) Charles of Hohenzollern. His
restless nature made him join the anti-dynastic movement of 1870-1871.
In 1881 he was appointed Rumanian minister in London and retained this
office until 1889. He died on the 7th of May 1897 in Gherghani. Besides
his political distinction John Ghica earned a literary reputation by his
"Letters to Alexandri" (2nd edition, 1887), his lifelong friend, written
from London and describing the ancient state of Rumanian society, fast
fading away. He was also the author of _Amintiri din pribegie_,
"Recollections of Exile in 1848" (Bucharest, 1890) and of _Convorbiri
Economice_, discussions on economic questions (Bucharest, 1866-1873). He
was the first to advocate the establishment of national industry and
commerce, and also, to a certain extent, principles of "exclusive
dealing."     (M. G.)




GHILZAI, a large and widespread Afghan tribe, who extend from
Kalat-i-Ghilzai on the S. to the Kabul river on the N., and from the Gul
Koh range on the W. to the Indian border on the E., in many places
overflowing these boundaries. The popular theory of the origin of the
Ghilzais traces them to the Turkish tribe of Kilji, once occupying
districts bordering the upper course of the Syr Darya (Jaxartes), and
affirms that they were brought into Afghanistan by the Turk Sabuktagin
in the 10th century. However that may be, the Ghilzai clans now rank
collectively as second to none in strength of military and commercial
enterprise. They are a fine, manly race of people, and it is from some
of their most influential clans (Suliman Khel, Nasir Khel, Kharotis,
&c.) that the main body of povindah merchants is derived.




GHIRLANDAJO, DOMENICO (1449-1494), Florentine painter. His full name is
given as Domenico di Tommaso Curradi di Doffo Bigordi; it appears
therefore that his father's surname was Curradi, and his grandfather's
Bigordi. The painter is generally termed Domenico Bigordi, but some
authors give him, and apparently with reason, the paternal surname
Curradi. Ghirlandajo (garland-maker) was only a nickname, coming to
Domenico from the employment of his father (or else of his earliest
instructor), who was renowned for fashioning the metallic garlands worn
by Florentine damsels; he was not, however, as some have said, the
inventor of them. Tommaso was by vocation a jeweller on the Ponte
Vecchio, or perhaps a broker. Domenico, the eldest of eight children,
was at first apprenticed to a jeweller or goldsmith, probably enough his
own father; in his shop he was continually making portraits of the
passers-by, and it was thought expedient to place him with Alessio
Baldovinetti to study painting and mosaic. His youthful years were,
however, entirely undistinguished, and at the age of thirty-one he had
not a fixed abode of his own. This is remarkable, as immediately
afterwards, from 1480 onwards to his death at a comparatively early age
in 1494, he became the most proficient painter of his time, incessantly
employed, and condensing into that brief period of fourteen years fully
as large an amount of excellent work as any other artist that could be
named; indeed, we should properly say eleven years, for nothing of his
is known of a later date than 1491.

In 1480 Ghirlandajo painted a "St Jerome" and other frescoes in the
church of Ognissanti, Florence, and a life-sized "Last Supper" in its
refectory, noticeable for individual action and expression. From 1481 to
1485 he was employed upon frescoes in the Sala dell' Orologio in the
Palazzo Vecchio; he painted the apotheosis of St Zenobius, a work beyond
the size of life, with much architectural framework, figures of Roman
heroes and other detail, striking in perspective and structural
propriety. While still occupied here, he was summoned to Rome by Pope
Sixtus IV. to paint in the Sixtine chapel; he went thither in 1483. In
the Sixtine he executed, probably before 1484, a fresco which has few
rivals in that series, "Christ calling Peter and Andrew to their
Apostleship,"--a work which, though somewhat deficient in colour, has
greatness of method and much excellence of finish. The landscape
background, in especial, is very superior to anything to be found in the
works, which had no doubt been zealously studied by Ghirlandajo, of
Masaccio and others in the Brancacci chapel. He also did some other
works in Rome, now perished. Before 1485 he had likewise produced his
frescoes in the chapel of S. Fina, in the Tuscan town of S. Gimignano,
remarkable for grandeur and grace,--two pictures of Fina, dying and
dead, with some accessory work. Sebastian Mainardi assisted him in these
productions in Rome and in S. Gimignano; and Ghirlandajo was so well
pleased with his co-operation that he gave him his sister in marriage.

He now returned to Florence, and undertook in the church of the Trinita,
and afterwards in S. Maria Novella, the works which have set the seal on
his celebrity. The frescoes in the Sassetti chapel of S. Trinita are six
subjects from the life of St Francis, along with some classical
accessories, dated 1485. Three of the principal incidents are "St
Francis obtaining from Pope Honorius the approval of the Rules of his
Order"; his "Death and Obsequies," and the Resuscitation, by the
interposition of the beatified saint, of a child of the Spini family,
who had been killed by falling out of a window. In the first work is a
portrait of Lorenzo de' Medici; and in the third the painter's own
likeness, which he introduced also into one of the pictures in S. Maria
Novella, and in the "Adoration of the Magi" in the hospital of the
Innocenti. The altar-piece of the Sassetti chapel, the "Adoration of the
Shepherds," is now in the Florentine Academy. Immediately after
disposing of this commission, Ghirlandajo was asked to renew the
frescoes in the choir of S. Maria Novella. This choir formed the chapel
of the Ricci family, but the Tornabuoni and Tornaquinci families, then
much more opulent than the Ricci, undertook the cost of the restoration,
under conditions, as to preserving the arms of the Ricci, which gave
rise in the end to some amusing incidents of litigation. The frescoes,
in the execution of which Domenico had many assistants, are in four
courses along the three walls,--the leading subjects being the lives of
the Madonna and of the Baptist. Besides their general richness and
dignity of art, these works are particularly interesting as containing
many historical portraits--a method of treatment in which Ghirlandajo
was pre-eminently skilled.

There are no less than twenty-one portraits of the Tornabuoni and
Tornaquinci families; in the subject of the "Angel appearing to
Zacharias," those of Politian, Marsilio Ficino and others; in the
"Salutation of Anna and Elizabeth," the beautiful Ginevra de' Benci; in
the "Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple," Mainardi and Baldovinetti
(or the latter figure may perhaps be Ghirlandajo's father). The Ricci
chapel was reopened and completed in 1490; the altar-piece, now removed
from the chapel, was probably executed with the assistance of Domenico's
brothers, David and Benedetto, painters of ordinary calibre; the painted
window was from Domenico's own design. Other distinguished works from
his hand are an altar-piece in tempera of the "Virgin adored by Sts
Zenobius, Justus and others," painted for the church of St Justus, but
now in the Uffizi gallery, a remarkable masterpiece; "Christ in glory
with Romuald and other Saints," in the Badia of Volterra; the
"Adoration of the Magi," in the church of the Innocenti (already
mentioned), perhaps his finest panel-picture (1488); and the
"Visitation," in the Louvre, bearing the latest ascertained date (1491)
of all his works. Ghirlandajo did not often attempt the nude; one of his
pictures of this character, "Vulcan and his Assistants forging
Thunderbolts," was painted for Lo Spedaletto, but (like several others
specified by Vasari) it exists no longer. Two portraits by him are in
the National Gallery, London. The mosaics which he produced date before
1491; one, of especial celebrity, is the "Annunciation," on a portal of
the cathedral of Florence.

In general artistic attainment Ghirlandajo may fairly be regarded as
exceeding all his precursors or competitors; though the names of a few,
particularly Giotto, Masaccio, Lippo Lippi and Botticelli, stand higher
for originating power. His scheme of composition is grand and decorous;
his chiaroscuro excellent, and especially his perspectives, which he
would design on a very elaborate scale by the eye alone; his colour is
more open to criticism, but this remark applies much less to the
frescoes than the tempera-pictures, which are sometimes too broadly and
crudely bright. He worked in these two methods alone--never in oils; and
his frescoes are what the Italians term "buon fresco," without any
finishing in tempera. A certain hardness of outline, not unlike the
character of bronze sculpture, may attest his early training in metal
work. He first introduced into Florentine art that mixture of the sacred
and the profane which had already been practised in Siena. His types in
figures of Christ, the Virgin and angels are not of the highest order;
and a defect of drawing, which has been often pointed out, is the
meagreness of his hands and feet. It was one of his maxims that
"painting is designing." Ghirlandajo was an insatiate worker, and
expressed a wish that he had the entire circuit of the walls of Florence
to paint upon. He told his shop-assistants not to refuse any commission
that might offer, were it even for a lady's petticoat-panniers: if they
would not execute such work, he would. Not that he was in any way
grasping or sordid in money-matters, as is proved by the anecdote of the
readiness with which he gave up a bonus upon the stipulated price of the
Ricci chapel frescoes, offered by the wealthy Tornabuoni in the first
instance, but afterwards begrudged. Vasari says that Ghirlandajo was the
first to abandon in great part the use of gilding in his pictures,
representing by genuine painting any objects supposed to be gilded; yet
this does not hold good without some considerable exceptions--the high
lights of the landscape, for instance, in the "Adoration of the
Shepherds," now in the Florence Academy, being put in in gold. Many
drawings and sketches by this painter are in the Uffizi gallery,
remarkable for vigour of outline. One of the great glories of
Ghirlandajo is that he gave some early art-education to Michelangelo,
who cannot, however, have remained with him long. F. Granacci was
another of his pupils.

This renowned artist died of pestilential fever on the 11th of January
1494, and was buried in S. Maria Novella. He had been twice married, and
left six children, three of them being sons. He had a long and
honourable line of descendants, which came to a close in the 17th
century, when the last members of the race entered monasteries. It is
probable that Domenico died poor; he appears to have been gentle,
honourable and conscientious, as well as energetically diligent.

  The biography of Ghirlandajo is carefully worked out in Crowe and
  Cavalcaselle's book. A recent German work on the subject is that of
  Ernst Steinmann (1897). See also _Codex Escurialensis, ein Skizzenbuch
  aus der Werkstatt Domenico Ghirlandaios_ (texts and plates), by Chr.
  Hulsen, Adolf Michaelis and Hermann Egger in the _Sonderschriften des
  osterr. archaol. Instituts in Wien_ (2 vols., 1906), and cf. T. Ashby
  in _Classical Quarterly_ (April 1909).     (W. M. R.)




GHIRLANDAJO, RIDOLFO (1483-1560), son of Domenico Ghirlandajo,
Florentine painter, was born on the 14th of February 1483, and, being
less than eleven years old when his father died, was brought up by his
uncle David. To this second-rate artist he owed less in the way of
professional training than to Granacci, Piero di Cosimo and perhaps
Cosimo Rosselli. It has been said that Ridolfo studied also under Fra
Bartolommeo, but this is not clearly ascertained. He was certainly one
of the earliest students of the famous cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo. His works between the dates 1504 and 1508 show a marked
influence from Fra Bartolommeo and Raphael, with the latter of whom he
was on terms of familiar friendship; hence he progressed in selection of
form and in the modelling and relief of his figures. Raphael, on
reaching Rome in 1508, wished Ridolfo to join him; but the Florentine
painter was of a particularly home-keeping humour, and he neglected the
opportunity. He soon rose to the head of the Florentine oil-painters of
his time; and, like his father, accepted all sorts of commissions, of
whatever kind. He was prominent in the execution of vast scenic canvases
for various public occasions, such as the wedding of Giuliano de'
Medici, and the entry of Leo X. into Florence in 1515. In his prime he
was honest and conscientious as an artist; but from about 1527 he
declined, having already accumulated a handsome property, more than
sufficient for maintaining in affluence his large family of fifteen
children, and his works became comparatively mannered and
self-repeating. His sons traded in France and in Ferrara; he himself
took a part in commercial affairs, and began paying some attention to
mosaic work, but it seems that, after completing one mosaic, the
"Annunciation" over the door of the Annunziata, patience failed him for
continuing such minute labours. In his old age Ridolfo was greatly
disabled by gout. He appears to have been of a kindly, easy-going
character, much regarded by his friends and patrons.

The following are some of his leading works, the great majority of them
being oil-pictures:--

  "Christ and the Maries on the road to Calvary," now in the Palazzo
  Antinori, Florence, an early example, with figures of half life-size.
  An "Annunciation" in the Abbey of Montoliveto near Florence,
  Leonardesque in style. In 1504, the "Coronation of the Virgin," now in
  the Louvre. A "Nativity," very carefully executed, now in the
  Hermitage, St Petersburg, and ascribed in the catalogue to Granacci. A
  "Predella," in the oratory of the Bigallo, Florence, five panels,
  representing the Nativity and other subjects, charmingly finished. In
  1514, on the ceiling of the chapel of St Bernard in the Palazzo
  Pubblico, Florence, a fresco of the "Trinity," with heads of the
  twelve apostles and other accessories, and the "Annunciation"; also
  the "Assumption of the Virgin, who bestows her girdle on St Thomas,"
  in the choir loft of Prato cathedral. Towards the same date, a picture
  showing his highest skill, replete with expression, vigorous life, and
  firm accomplished pictorial method, now in the gallery of the Uffizi,
  "St Zenobius resuscitating a child"; also the translation of the
  remains of the same Saint. The "Virgin and various saints," at S. Pier
  Maggiore, Pistoja. In 1521, the "Pieta," at S. Agostino, Colle di
  Valdelsa, life-sized. Towards 1526, the "Assumption," now in the
  Berlin Museum, containing the painter's own portrait. An excellent
  portrait of "Cosimo de' Medici" (the Great) in youth. In 1543, a
  series of frescoes in the monastery of the Angeli. In the National
  Gallery, London, is "The Procession to Calvary." A great number of
  altar-pieces were executed by Ghirlandajo, with the assistance of his
  favourite pupil, currently named Michele di Ridolfo. Another of his
  pupils was Mariano da Pescia.     (W. M. R.)




GHOR, or GHUR, an ancient kingdom of Afghanistan. The name of Ghor was
in the middle ages, and indeed locally still is, applied to the
highlands east of Herat, extending eastward to the upper Helmund valley,
or nearly so. Ghor is the southern portion of that great peninsula of
strong mountain country which forms the western part of modern
Afghanistan. The northern portion of the peninsula was in the middle
ages comprehended under the names of _Gharjistan_ (on the west), and
_Juzjana_ (on the east), whilst the basin of the Herat river, and all
south of it, constituted Ghor. The name as now used does not include the
valley of the Herat river; on the south the limit seems to be the
declivity of the higher mountains dominating the descent to the lower
Helmund, and the road from Farah to Kandahar. It is in Ghor that rise
all those affluents of the closed basin of Seistan, the Hari-rud, the
Farah-rud, the Khash-rud, besides other considerable streams joining the
Helmund above Girishk.

Ghor is mentioned in the Shahnama of Firdousi (A.D. 1010), and in the
Arab geographers of that time, though these latter fail in details
almost as much as we moderns, thus indicating how little accessible the
country has been through all ages. Ibn Hau[k.]al's map of Khorasan (c.
976) shows _Jibal-al-Ghur_, "the hill-country of Ghor," as a circle
ring-fenced with mountains. His brief description speaks of it as a land
fruitful in crops, cattle and flocks, inhabited by infidels, except a
few who passed for Mahommedans, and indicates that, like other pagan
countries surrounded by Moslem populations, it was regarded as a store
of slaves for the faithful. The boundary of Ghor in ascending the valley
of the Hari-rud was six and a half easy marches from Herat, at Chist,
two marches above Obeh.

The chief part of the present population of Ghor are Taimanis, belonging
to the class of nomad or semi-nomad clans called Aimak, intermingled
with Zuris and Tajiks.

The people and princes of Ghor first become known to us in connexion
with the Ghaznevid dynasty, and the early medieval histories of Ghor and
Ghazni are so intertwined that little need be added on that subject to
what will be found under GHAZNI (q.v.). What we read of Ghor shows it as
a country of lofty mountains and fruitful valleys, and of numerous
strongholds held by a variety of hill-chieftains ruling warlike clans
whose habits were rife with feuds and turbulence,--indeed, in character
strongly resembling the tribes of modern Afghanistan, though there seems
no good reason to believe that they were of Afghan race. It is probable
that they were of old Persian blood, like the older of those tribes
which still occupy the country. It is possibly a corroboration of this
that, in the 14th century, when one of the Ghori kings, of the Kurt
dynasty reigning in Herat, had taken to himself some of the insignia of
independent sovereignty, an incensed Mongol prince is said to have
reviled him as "an insolent _Tajik_." Sabuktagin of Ghazni, and his
famous son Mahmud, repeatedly invaded the mountain country which so
nearly adjoined their capital, subduing its chiefs for the moment, and
exacting tribute; but when the immediate pressure was withdrawn, the
yoke was thrown off and the tribute withheld. In 1020 Masa'ud, the son
of Mahmud, being then governor of Khorasan, made a systematic invasion
of Ghor from the side of Herat, laying siege to its strongholds one
after the other, and subduing the country more effectually than ever
before. About a century later one of the princely families of Ghor,
deriving the appellation of Shansabi, or Shansabaniah, from a certain
ancestor Shansab, of local fame, and of alleged descent from Zohak,
acquired predominance in all the country, and at the time mentioned
Malik 'Izzuddin al Hosain of this family came to be recognized as lord
of Ghor. He was known afterwards as "the Father of Kings," from the
further honour to which several of his seven sons rose. Three of these
were--(1) Amir Kutbuddin Mahommed, called the lord of the Jibal or
mountains; (2) Sultan Saifuddin Suri, for a brief period master of
Ghazni,--both of whom were put to death by Bahram the Ghaznevid; and (3)
Sultan Alauddin Jahansoz, who wreaked such terrible vengeance upon
Ghazni. Alauddin began the conquests which were afterwards immensely
extended both in India and in the west by his nephews Ghiyasuddin
Mahommed b. Sam and Mahommed Ghori (Muizuddin b. Sam or Shahabuddin b.
Sam), and for a brief period during their rule it was boasted, with no
great exaggeration, that the public prayer was read in the name of the
Ghori from the extremity of India to the borders of Babylonia, and from
the Oxus to the Straits of Ormus. After the death of Mahommed Ghori,
Mahmud the son of Ghiyasuddin was proclaimed sovereign (1200) throughout
the territories of Ghor, Ghazni and Hindustan. But the Indian dominion,
from his uncle's death, became entirely independent, and his actual
authority was confined to Ghor, Seistan and Herat. The whole kingdom
fell to pieces before the power of Mahommed Shah of Khwarizm and his son
Jelaluddin (c. 1214-1215), a power in its turn to be speedily shattered
by the Mongol flood.

Besides the thrones of Ghor and Ghazni, the Shansabaniah family, in the
person of Fakhruddin, the eldest of the seven sons of Malik 'Izzuddin,
founded a kingdom in the Oxus basin, having its seat at BAMIAN (q.v.),
which endured for two or three generations, till extinguished by the
power of Khwarizm (1214). And the great Mussulman empire of Delhi was
based on the conquests of Muizuddin the Ghorian, carried out and
consolidated by his Turki freedmen, Kutbuddin Aibak and his successors.
The princes of Ghor experienced, about the middle of the 13th century,
a revival of power, which endured for 140 years. This later dynasty bore
the name of Kurt or K[)a]rt. The first of historical prominence was
Malik Shamsuddin Kurt, descended by his mother from the great king
Ghiyasuddin Ghori, whilst his other grandfather was that prince's
favourite minister. In 1245 Shamsuddin held the lordship of Ghor in some
kind of alliance with, or subordination to, the Mongols, who had not yet
definitively established themselves in Persia; and in 1248 he received
from the Great Khan Mangu an investiture of all the provinces from Merv
to the Indus, including by name Sijistan (or Seistan), Kabul, Tirah
(adjoining the Khyber pass), and Afghanistan (a very early occurrence of
this name), which he ruled from Herat. He stood well with Hulagu, and
for a long time with his son Abaka, but at last incurred the latter's
jealousy, and was poisoned when on a visit to the court at Tabriz
(1276). His son Ruknuddin Kurt was, however, invested with the
government of Khorasan (1278), but after some years, mistrusting his
Tatar suzerains, he withdrew into Ghor, and abode in his strong fortress
of Kaissar till his death there in 1305. The family held on through a
succession of eight kings in all, sometimes submissive to the Mongol,
sometimes aiming at independence, sometimes for a series of prosperous
years adding to the strength and splendour of Herat, and sometimes
sorely buffeted by the hosts of masterless Tatar brigands that tore
Khorasan and Persia in the decline of the dynasties of Hulagu and
Jagatai. It is possible that the Kurts might have established a lasting
Tajik kingdom at Herat, but in the time of the last of the dynasty,
Ghiyasuddin Pir-'Ali, Tatardom, reorganized and re-embodied in the
person of Timur, came against Herat, and carried away the king and the
treasures of his dynasty (1380). A revolt and massacre of his garrison
provoked Timur's vengeance; he put the captive king to death, came
against the city a second time, and showed it no mercy (1383). Ghor has
since been obscure in history.

The capital of the kingdom of Ghor, when its princes were rising to
dominion in the 12th century, was Firoz Koh, where a city and fortress
were founded by Saifuddin Suri. The exact position of Firoz Koh is
difficult to determine, unless it be represented by the ruins of one or
other of the ancient cities in the upper Murghab valley, the habitat of
the Firoz Kohi section of the Chahar Aimak, which were visited by the
surveyors of the Russo-Afghan boundary delimitation of 1884-1885.
Extensive ruins were also found at Taiwara on one of the main affluents
of the Farah Rud, where walls and terraces still existing supported the
local tradition that this place was the ancient capital of Ghor. The
valleys of the Taimani tribes though narrow are fertile and well
cultivated, and there are many walled villages and forts about Parjuman
and Zarni in the south-eastern districts. The peak of "Chalap Dalan"
(described by Ferrier as "one of the highest in the world") is the
Koh-i-Kaisar, which is a trifle over 13,000 ft. in height. All the
country now known as Ghor was mapped during the progress of the
Russo-Afghan boundary delimitation.

  See the "Tabakat-i-Nasiri," in the _Bibl. Indica_, transl. by Raverty;
  _Journal asiatique_, ser. v. tom. xvii.; "Ibn Haukal," in _J. As. Soc.
  Beng._ vol. xxii.; Ferrier's _Caravan Journeys_; Hammer's _Ilkhans_,
  &c.




GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages; O.E. _gaest_, Dutch,
_geest_, Ger. _Geist_), in the sense now prevailing, the spirit of a
dead person considered as appearing in some visible or sensible form to
the living (see APPARITIONS; PSYCHICAL RESEARCH, "Phantasms of the
Dead"; SPIRITUALISM). In the earlier and wider sense of spirit in
general, or of the principle of life, the word is practically obsolete.
The language of the Authorized Version of the Bible, however, has
preserved the phrase "to give up the ghost," still sometimes used of
dying. The Spirit of God, too, the third person of the Trinity, is still
called, not in the technical language of theology only, the Holy Ghost.
The adjective "ghostly" is still occasionally used for "spiritual" (cf.
the Ger. _geistlich_) as contrasted with "bodily," especially in such
combinations as "ghostly counsel," "ghostly comfort." We may even speak
of a "ghostly adviser," though not without a touch of affectation; on
the other hand, the phrase "ghostly man" for a clergyman (cf. the Ger.
_Geistlicher_) is an archaism the use of which could only be justified
by poetic licence, as in Tennyson's _Elaine_ (1842). The word "ghost,"
from the shadowy and unsubstantial quality attributed to the apparitions
of the dead, has come also to be commonly used to emphasize the want of
force or substance generally, in such phrases as "not the ghost of a
chance," "not the ghost of an idea." It is also applied to those
literary and artistic "hacks" who are paid to do work for which others
get the credit.




GHOST DANCE, an American-Indian ritual dance, sometimes called the
Spirit Dance, the dancers wearing a white cloak. It is connected with
the doctrine of a Messiah, which arose in Nevada among the Paiute
Indians in 1888 and spread to other tribes. A young Paiute Indian
medicine-man, known as Wovoka, and called Jack Wilson by the whites,
proclaimed that he had had a revelation, and that, if this ghost dance
and other ceremonies were duly performed, the Indians would be rid of
the white men. The movement led to a sort of craze among the Indian
tribes, and in 1890 it was one of the causes of the Sioux outbreak.

  See J. Mooney, _14th Report (1896) of Bureau of American Ethnology_.




GIACOMETTI, PAOLO (1816-1882), Italian dramatist, born at Novi Ligure,
was educated in law at Genoa, but at the age of twenty had some success
with his play _Rosilda_ and then devoted himself to the stage. Depressed
circumstances made him attach himself as author to various touring
Italian companies, and his output was considerable; moreover, such
actors as Ristori, Rossi and Salvini made many of these plays great
successes. Among the best of them were _La Donna_ (1850), _La Donna in
seconde nozze_ (1851), _Giuditta_ (1857), _Sofocle_ (1860), _La Morte
civile_ (1880). A collection of his works was published at Milan in
eight volumes (1859 et seq.).




GIAMBELLI (or GIANIBELLI), FEDERIGO, Italian military engineer, was born
at Mantua about the middle of the 16th century. Having had some
experience as a military engineer in Italy, he went to Spain to offer
his services to Philip II. His proposals were, however, lukewarmly
received, and as he could obtain from the king no immediate employment,
he took up his residence at Antwerp, where he soon gained considerable
reputation for his knowledge in various departments of science. He is
said to have vowed to be revenged for his rebuff at the Spanish court;
and when Antwerp was besieged by the duke of Parma in 1584, he put
himself in communication with Queen Elizabeth, who, having satisfied
herself of his abilities, engaged him to aid by his counsels in its
defence. His plans for provisioning the town were rejected by the
senate, but they agreed to a modification of his scheme for destroying
the famous bridge which closed the entrance to the town from the side of
the sea, by the conversion of two ships of 60 and 70 tons into infernal
machines. One of these exploded, and, besides destroying more than 1000
soldiers, effected a breach in the structure of more than 200 ft. in
width, by which, but for the hesitation of Admiral Jacobzoon, the town
might at once have been relieved. After the surrender of Antwerp
Giambelli went to England, where he was engaged for some time in
fortifying the river Thames; and when the Spanish Armada was attacked by
fireships in the Calais roads, the panic which ensued was very largely
due to the conviction among the Spaniards that the fireships were
infernal machines constructed by Giambelli. He is said to have died in
London, but the year of his death is unknown.

  See Motley's _History of the United Netherlands_, vols. i. and ii.




GIANNONE, PIETRO (1676-1748), was born at Ischitella, in the province of
Capitanata, on the 7th of May 1676. Arriving in Naples at the age of
eighteen, he devoted himself to the study of law, but his legal pursuits
were much surpassed in importance by his literary labours. He devoted
twenty years to the composition of his great work, the _Storia civile
del regno di Napoli_, which was ultimately published in 1723. Here in
his account of the rise and progress of the Neapolitan laws and
government, he warmly espoused the side of the civil power in its
conflicts with the Roman Catholic hierarchy. His merit lies in the fact
that he was the first to deal systematically with the question of Church
and State, and the position thus taken up by him, and the manner in
which that position was assumed, gave rise to a lifelong conflict
between Giannone and the Church; and in spite of his retractation in
prison at Turin, he deserves the palm--as he certainly endured the
sufferings--of a confessor and martyr in the cause of what he deemed
historical truth. Hooted by the mob of Naples, and excommunicated by the
archbishop's court, he was forced to leave Naples and repair to Vienna.
Meanwhile the Inquisition had attested after its own fashion the value
of his history by putting it on the _Index_. At Vienna the favour of the
emperor Charles VI. and of many leading personages at the Austrian court
obtained for him a pension and other facilities for the prosecution of
his historical studies. Of these the most important result was _Il
Triregno, ossia del regno del cielo, della terra, e del papa_. On the
transfer of the Neapolitan crown to Charles of Bourbon, Giannone lost
his Austrian pension and was compelled to remove to Venice. There he was
at first most favourably received. The post of consulting lawyer to the
republic, in which he might have continued the special work of Fra Paolo
Sarpi, was offered to him, as well as that of professor of public law in
Padua; but he declined both offers. Unhappily there arose a suspicion
that his views on maritime law were not favourable to the pretensions of
Venice, and this suspicion, notwithstanding all his efforts to dissipate
it, together with clerical intrigues, led to his expulsion from the
state. On the 23rd of September 1735 he was seized and conveyed to
Ferrara. After wandering under an assumed name for three months through
Modena, Milan and Turin, he at last reached Geneva, where he enjoyed the
friendship of the most distinguished citizens, and was on excellent
terms with the great publishing firms. But in an evil hour he was
induced to visit a Catholic village within Sardinian territory in order
to hear mass on Easter day, where he was kidnapped by the agents of the
Sardinian government, conveyed to the castle of Miolans and thence
successively transferred to Ceva and Turin. In the fortress of Turin he
remained immured during the last twelve years of his life, although part
of his time was spent in composing a defence of the Sardinian interests
as opposed to those of the papal court, and he was led to sign a
retractation of the statements in his history most obnoxious to the
Vatican (1738). But after his recantation his detention was made less
severe and he was allowed many alleviations. He died on the 7th of March
1748, in his seventy-second year.

Giannone's style as an Italian writer has been pronounced to be below a
severe classical model; he is often inaccurate as to the facts, for he
did not always work from original authorities (see A. Manzoni, _Storia
della colonna infame_), and he was sometimes guilty of unblushing
plagiarism. But his very ease and freedom have helped to make his
volumes more popular than many works of greater classical renown. In
England the just appreciation of his labours by Gibbon, and the ample
use made of them in the later volumes of _The Decline and Fall_, early
secured him his rightful place in the estimation of English scholars.

  The story of his life has been recorded in the _Vita_ by L. Panzini,
  which is based on Giannone's unpublished _Autobiografia_ and printed
  in the Milan edition of the historian's works (1823); whilst a more
  complete estimate of his literary and political importance may be
  formed by the perusal of the collected edition of the works written by
  him in his Turin prison, published in Turin in 1859--under the care of
  the distinguished statesman Pasquale Stanislao Mancini, universally
  recognized as one of the first authorities in Italy on questions
  relating to the history of his native Naples, and especially of the
  conflicts between the civil power and the Church. See also R. Mariano,
  "Giannone e Vico," in the _Rivista contemporanea_ (1869); G. Ferrari,
  _La Mente di Pietro Giannone_ (1868). G. Bonacci's _Saggio sulla
  Storia civile del Giannone_ (Florence, 1903) is a bitter attack on
  Giannone, and although the writer's remarks on the plagiarisms in the
  _Storia civile_ are justified, the charge of servility is greatly
  exaggerated.




GIANNUTRI (Gr. [Greek: Artemision], Lat. _Dianium_), an island of Italy,
about 1 sq. m. in total area, 10 m. S.E. of Giglio and about 10 m. S. of
the promontory of Monte Argentario (see ORBETELLO). The highest point is
305 ft. above sea-level. It contains the ruins of a large Roman villa,
near the Cala Maestra on the E. coast of the island. The buildings may
be divided into five groups: (1) a large cistern in five compartments,
each measuring 39 by 17 ft.; (2) habitations both for the owners and for
slaves, and store-rooms; (3) baths; (4) habitations for slaves; (5)
belvedere. The brick-stamps found begin in the Flavian and end with the
Hadrianic period. The villa may have belonged to the Domitii Ahenobarbi,
who certainly under the republic had property in the island of Igilium
(Giglio) and near Cosa.

  See G. Pellegrini in _Notizie degli scavi_ (1900), 609 seq.




GIANT (O. E. _geant_, through Fr. _geant_, O. Fr. _gaiant_, _jaiant_,
_jeant_, med. pop. Lat. _gagante_--cf. Ital. _gigante_--by assimilation
from _gigantem_, acc. of Lat. _gigas_, Gr. [Greek: gigas]). The idea
conveyed by the word in classic mythology is that of beings more or less
manlike, but monstrous in size and strength. Figures like the Titans and
the Giants whose birth from Heaven and Earth is sung by Hesiod in the
_Theogony_, such as can heap up mountains to scale the sky and war
beside or against the gods, must be treated, with other like monstrous
figures of the wonder-tales of the world, as belonging altogether to the
realms of mythology. But there also appear in the legends of giants some
with historic significance. The ancient and commonly repeated
explanation of the Greek word [Greek: gigas], as connected with or
derived from [Greek: gegenes], or "earth-born," is etymologically
doubtful, but at any rate the idea conveyed by it was familiar to the
ancient Greeks, that the giants were earth-born or indigenous races (see
Welcker, _Griechische Gotterlehre_, i. 787). The Bible (the English
reader must be cautioned that the word giant has been there used
ambiguously, from the Septuagint downwards) touches the present matter
in so far as it records the traditions of the Israelites of fighting in
Palestine with tall races of the land such as the Anakim (Numb. xiii.
33; Deut. ii. 10, iii. 11; 1 Sam. xvii. 4). When reading in Homer of
"the Cyclopes and the wild tribes of the Giants," or of the adventures
of Odysseus in the cave of Polyphemus (Homer, _Odyss._ vii. 206; ix.),
we seem to come into view of dim traditions, exaggerated through the
mist of ages, of pre-Hellenic barbarians, godless, cannibal,
skin-clothed, hurling huge stones in their rude warfare. Giant-legends
of this class are common in Europe and Asia, where the big and stupid
giants would seem to have been barbaric tribes exaggerated into monsters
in the legends of those who dispossessed and slew them. In early times
it was usual for cities to have their legends of giants. Thus London had
Gog and Magog, whose effigies (14 ft. high) still stand in the Guildhall
(see GOG); Antwerp had her Antigonus, 40 ft. high; Douai had Gayant, 22
ft. high, and so on.

Besides the conception of giants, as special races distinct from
mankind, it was a common opinion of the ancients that the human race had
itself degenerated, the men of primeval ages having been of so far
greater stature and strength as to be in fact gigantic. This, for
example, is received by Pliny (_Hist. Nat._ vii. 16), and it becomes a
common doctrine of theologians such as Augustine (_De civitate Dei_, xv.
9), lasting on into times so modern that it may be found in Cruden's
_Concordance_. Yet so far as can be judged from actual remains, it does
not appear that giants, in the sense of tribes of altogether superhuman
stature, ever existed, or that the men of ancient time were on the whole
taller than those now living. It is now usual to apply the word giant
not to superhuman beings but merely to unusually tall men and women. In
every race of mankind the great mass of individuals do not depart far
from a certain mean or average height, while the very tall or very short
men become less and less numerous as they depart from the mean standard,
till the utmost divergence is reached in a very few giants on the one
hand, and a very few dwarfs on the other. At both ends of the scale, the
body is usually markedly out of the ordinary proportions; thus a giant's
head is smaller and a dwarf's head larger than it would be if an average
man had been magnified or diminished. The principle of the distribution
of individuals of different sizes in a race or nation has been ably set
forth by Quetelet (_Physique sociale_, vol. ii.; _Anthropometrie_, books
iii. and iv.). Had this principle been understood formerly, we might
have been spared the pains of criticizing assertions as to giants 20 ft.
high, or even more, appearing among mankind. The appearance of an
individual man 20 ft. high involves the existence of the race he is an
extreme member of, whose mean stature would be at least 12 to 14 ft.,
which is a height no human being has been proved on sufficient evidence
to have approached (_Anthropom._ p. 302). Modern statisticians cannot
accept the loose conclusion in Buffon (_Hist. nat._, ed. Sonnini, iv.
134) that there is no doubt of giants having been 10, 12, and perhaps 15
ft. high. Confidence is not even to be placed in ancient asserted
measurements, as where Pliny gives to one Gabbaras, an Arabian, the
stature of 9 ft. 9 in. (about 9 ft. 5-1/2 in. English), capping this
with the mention of Posio and Secundilla, who were half a foot higher.
That two persons should be described as both having this same
extraordinary measure suggests to the modern critic the notion of a note
jotted down on the philosopher's tablets, and never tested afterwards.

Under these circumstances it is worth while to ask how it is that legend
and history so abound in mentions of giants outside all probable
dimensions of the human frame. One cause is that, when the story-teller
is asked the actual stature of the huge men who figure in his tales, he
is not sparing of his inches and feet. What exaggeration can do in this
way may be judged from the fact that the Patagonians, whose average
height (5 ft. 11 in.) is really about that of the Chirnside men in
Berwickshire, are described in Pigafetta's _Voyage round the World_ as
so monstrous that the Spaniards' heads hardly reached their waists. It
is reasonable to suppose, with Professor Nilsson (_Primitive Inhabitants
of Scandinavia_, chap. vi.), that in the traditions of early Europe
tribes of savages may have thus, if really tall, expanded into giants,
or, if short, dwindled into dwarfs. Another cause which is clearly
proved to have given rise to giant-myths of yet more monstrous type has
been the discovery of great fossil bones, as of mammoth or mastodon,
which were formerly supposed to be bones of giants (see Tylor, _Early
History of Mankind_, chap. xi.; _Primitive Culture_, chap. x.). A tooth
weighing 4-3/4 [lb] and a thigh-bone 17 ft. long having been found in
New England in 1712 (they were probably mastodon), Dr Increase Mather
thereupon communicated to the Royal Society of London his theory of the
existence of men of prodigious stature in the antediluvian world (see
the _Philosophical Transactions_, xxiv. 85; D. Wilson, _Prehistoric
Man_, i. 54). The giants in the streets of Basel and supporting the arms
of Lucerne appear to have originated from certain fossil bones found in
1577, examined by the physician Felix Plater, and pronounced to have
belonged to a giant some 16 or 19 ft. high. These bones have since been
referred to a very different geological genus, but Plater's giant
skeleton was accepted early in the 19th century as a genuine relic of
the giants who once inhabited the earth. Of giants in real life whose
stature has been authentically recorded Quetelet gives the palm to
Frederick the Great's Scotch giant, who measured about 8 ft. 3 in. But
since his time there have been several giants who have equalled or
surpassed this figure. Patrick Cotler, an Irishman, who died at Clifton,
Bristol, in 1802, was 8 ft. 7 in. high. The famous "Irish giant" O'Brien
(Charles Byrne), whose skeleton is preserved in the museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons, London, was 8 ft. 4 in. Chang (Chang-woo-goo), who
appeared in London in 1865-1866 and again in 1880, was 8 ft. 2 in. Josef
Winkelmaier, an Austrian, exhibited in London on the 10th of January
1887, was 8 ft. 9 in.; while Elizabeth Lyska, a Russian child of twelve,
when shown in London in 1889, had already reached 6 ft. 8 in. Machnow, a
Russian, born at Charkow, was exhibited in London in his twenty-third
year in 1905; he then stood 9 ft. 3 in., and weighed 360 [lb] (25 st. 10
[lb]). From his wrist to the top of his second finger he measured 2 ft.
(see _The Times_, 10th February 1905).

  The whole subject of giant myths and the now entirely exploded theory
  that mankind has, as far as stature is concerned, degenerated since
  prehistoric times, has been ably dealt with in a volume published by
  MM. P. E. Launois and P. Roy, entitled _Etudes biologiques sur les
  geans_ (Paris, 1904). See also E. J. Wood, _Giants and Dwarfs_ (1860).




GIANT'S CAUSEWAY, a promontory of columnar basalt, situated on the north
coast of county Antrim, Ireland. It is divided by whin-dykes into the
Little Causeway, the Middle Causeway or "Honeycomb," as it is locally
termed, and the Larger or Grand Causeway. The pillars composing it are
close-fitting and for the most part somewhat irregular hexagons, made
up of articulated portions varying from a few inches to some feet in
depth, and concave or convex at the upper and lower surfaces. In
diameter the pillars vary from 15 to 20 in., and in height some are as
much as 20 ft. The Great Causeway is chiefly from 20 to 30, and for a
few yards in some places nearly 40 ft. in breadth, exclusive of outlying
broken pieces of rock. It is highest at its narrowest part. At about
half a dozen yards from the cliff, widening and becoming lower, it
extends outwards into a platform, which has a slight seaward
inclination, but is easy to walk upon, and for nearly 100 yds. is always
above water. At the distance of about 150 yds. from the cliff it turns a
little to the eastward for 20 or 30 yds., and then sinks into the sea.
The neighbouring cliffs exhibit in many places columns similar to those
of the Giant's Causeway, a considerable exposure of them being visible
at a distance of 500 to 600 yds. in the bay to the east. A group of
these columns, from their arrangement, have been fancifully named the
"Giant's Organ." The most remarkable of the cliffs is the Pleaskin, the
upper pillars of which have the appearance of a colonnade, and are 60
ft. in height; beneath these is a mass of coarse black amygdaloid, of
the same thickness, underlain by a second range of basaltic pillars,
from 40 to 50 ft. in height. The view eastward over Bengore and towards
Fair Head is magnificent. Near the Giant's Causeway are the ruins of the
castles of Dunseverick and Dunluce, situated high above the sea on
isolated crags, and the swinging bridge of Carrick-a-Rede, spanning a
chasm 80 ft. deep, and connecting a rock, which is used as a
salmon-fishing station, with the mainland. In 1883 an electric railway,
the first in the United Kingdom, was opened for traffic, connecting the
Causeway with Portrush and Bushmills. After a protracted lawsuit
(1897-1898) the Causeway, and certain land in the vicinity, were
declared to be private property, and a charge is made for admission.




GIANT'S KETTLE, GIANT'S CAULDRON or POT-HOLE, in physical geography, the
name applied to cavities or holes which appear to have been drilled in
the surrounding rocks by eddying currents of water bearing stones,
gravel and other detrital matter. The size varies from a few inches to
several feet in depth and diameter. The commonest occurrence is in
regions where glaciers exist or have existed; a famous locality is the
Gletscher Garten of Lucerne, where there are 32 giant's kettles, the
largest being 26 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep; they are also common in
Germany, Norway and in the United States. It appears that water,
produced by the thawing of the ice and snow, forms streams on the
surface of the glacier, which, having gathered into their courses a
certain amount of morainic debris, are finally cast down a crevasse as a
swirling cascade or _moulin_. The sides of the crevasse are abraded, and
a vertical shaft is formed in the ice. The erosion may be continued into
the bed of the glacier, and, the ice having left the district, the
giant's kettle so formed is seen as an empty shaft, or as a pipe filled
with gravel, sand or boulders. Such cavities and pipes afford valuable
evidence as to the former extent of glaciers (see J. Geikie, _The Great
Ice Age_). Similar holes are met with in river beds at the foot of
cascades, and under some other circumstances. The term "pot-hole" is
also sometimes used synonymously with "swallow-hole" (q.v.).




GIAOUR (a Turkish adaptation of the Pers. _gawr_ or _gor_, an infidel),
a word used by the Turks to describe all who are not Mahommedans, with
especial reference to Christians. The word, first employed as a term of
contempt and reproach, has become so general that in most cases no
insult is intended in its use; similarly, in parts of China, the term
"foreign devil" has become void of offence. A strict analogy to _giaour_
is found in the Arabic _kaffir_, or unbeliever, which is so commonly in
use as to have become the proper name of peoples and countries.




GIB, ADAM (1714-1788), Scottish divine and leader of the Antiburgher
section of the Scottish Secession Church, was born on the 14th of April
1714 in the parish of Muckhart, Perthshire, and, on the completion of
his literary and theological studies at Edinburgh and Perth, was
licensed as a preacher in 1740. His eldest brother being a prodigal he
succeeded to the paternal estate, but threw the will into the fire on
his brother's promising to reform. In 1741 he was ordained minister of
the large Secession congregation of Bristo Street, Edinburgh. In 1745 he
was almost the only minister of Edinburgh who continued to preach
against rebellion while the troops of Charles Edward were in occupation
of the town. When in 1747 "the Associate Synod," by a narrow majority,
decided not to give full immediate effect to a judgment which had been
passed in the previous year against the lawfulness of the "Burgess
Oath," Gib led the protesting minority, who separated from their
brethren and formed the Antiburgher Synod (April 10th) in his own house
in Edinburgh. It was chiefly under his influence that it was agreed by
this ecclesiastical body at subsequent meetings to summon to the bar
their "Burgher" brethren, and finally to depose and excommunicate them
for contumacy. Gib's action in forming the Antiburgher Synod led, after
prolonged litigation, to his exclusion from the building in Bristo
Street where his congregation had met. In 1765 he made a vigorous and
able reply to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, which had
stigmatized the Secession as "threatening the peace of the country."
From 1753 till within a short period of his death, which took place on
the 18th of June 1788, he preached regularly in Nicolson Street church,
which was constantly filled with an audience of two thousand persons.
His dogmatic and fearless attitude in controversy earned for him the
nickname "Pope Gib."

  Principal publications: _Tables for the Four Evangelists_ (1770, and
  with author's name, 1800); _The Present Truth, a Display of the
  Secession Testimony_ (2 vols., 1774); _Vindiciae dominicae_ (Edin.,
  1780). See Chambers's _Eminent Scotsmen_; also article UNITED
  PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.




GIBARA, or JIBARA (once "Punta del Yarey" and "Yarey de Gibara"), a
north-coast city of Oriente Province, Cuba, 80 m. N.W. of Santiago de
Cuba. Pop. (1907) 6170. It is served by railway to the S.S.W., to
Holguin and Cacocum (where it connects with the main line between
Santiago and Havana), and is a port of call for the American Munson
Line. It lies on a circular harbour, about 1 m. in diameter, which,
though open to the N., affords fair shelter. At the entrance to the
harbour is San Fernando, an old fort (1817), and the city is very quaint
in appearance. At the back of the city are three stone-topped hills,
Silla, Pan and Tabla, reputed to be those referred to by Columbus in his
journal of his first voyage. Enclosing the town is a stone wall, built
by the Spaniards as a defence against attack during the rebellion of
1868-1878. Gibara is the port of Holguin. It exports cedar, mahogany,
tobacco, sugar, tortoise-shell, Indian corn, cattle products, coco-nuts
and bananas; and is the centre of the banana trade with the United
States. Gibara is an old settlement, but it did not rise above the
status of a petty village until after 1817; its importance dates from
the opening of the port to commerce in 1827.




GIBBON, EDWARD (1737-1794), English historian, was descended, he tells
us in his autobiography, from a Kentish family of considerable
antiquity; among his remoter ancestors he reckons the lord high
treasurer Fiennes, Lord Say and Sele, whom Shakespeare has immortalized
in his _Henry VI._ His grandfather was a man of ability, an enterprising
merchant of London, one of the commissioners of customs under the Tory
ministry during the last four years of Queen Anne, and, in the judgment
of Lord Bolingbroke, as deeply versed in the "commerce and finances of
England" as any man of his time. He was not always wise, however, either
for himself or his country; for he became deeply involved in the South
Sea Scheme, in the disastrous collapse of which (1720) he lost the ample
wealth he had amassed. As a director of the company, moreover, he was
suspected of fraudulent complicity, taken into custody and heavily
fined; but L10,000 was allowed him out of the wreck of his estate, and
with this his skill and enterprise soon constructed a second fortune. He
died at Putney in 1736, leaving the bulk of his property to his two
daughters--nearly disinheriting his only son, the father of the
historian, for having married against his wishes. This son (by name
Edward) was educated at Westminster[1] and Cambridge, but never took a
degree, travelled, became member of parliament, first for Petersfield
(1734), then for Southampton (1741), joined the party against Sir Robert
Walpole, and (as his son confesses, not much to his father's honour) was
animated in so doing by "private revenge" against the supposed
"oppressor" of his family in the South Sea affair. If so, revenge, as
usual, was blind; for Walpole had sought rather to moderate than to
inflame public feeling against the projectors.

The historian was born at Putney, Surrey, April 27 (Old Style), 1737.
His mother, Judith Porten, was the daughter of a London merchant. He was
the eldest of a family of six sons and a daughter, and the only one who
survived childhood; his own life in youth hung by so mere a thread as to
be again and again despaired of. His mother, between domestic cares and
constant infirmities (which, however, did not prevent an occasional
plunge into fashionable dissipation in compliance with her husband's
wishes), did but little for him. The "true mother of his mind as well as
of his health" was a maiden aunt--Catherine Porten by name--with respect
to whom he expresses himself in language of the most grateful
remembrance. "Many anxious and solitary days," says Gibbon, "did she
consume with patient trial of every mode of relief and amusement. Many
wakeful nights did she sit by my bedside in trembling expectation that
each hour would be my last." As circumstances allowed, she appears to
have taught him reading, writing and arithmetic--acquisitions made with
so little of remembered pain that "were not the error corrected by
analogy," he says, "I should be tempted to conceive them as innate." At
seven he was committed for eighteen months to the care of a private
tutor, John Kirkby by name, and the author, among other things, of a
"philosophical fiction" entitled the _Life of Automathes_. Of Kirkby,
from whom he learned the rudiments of English and Latin grammar, he
speaks gratefully, and doubtless truly, so far as he could trust the
impressions of childhood. With reference to _Automathes_ he is much more
reserved in his praise, denying alike its originality, its depth and its
elegance; but, he adds, "the book is not devoid of entertainment or
instruction."

In his ninth year (1746), during a "lucid interval of comparative
health," he was sent to a school at Kingston-upon-Thames; but his former
infirmities soon returned, and his progress, by his own confession, was
slow and unsatisfactory. "My timid reserve was astonished by the crowd
and tumult of the school; the want of strength and activity disqualified
me for the sports of the play-field.... By the common methods of
discipline, at the expense of many tears and some blood, I purchased the
knowledge of the Latin syntax," but manifestly, in his own opinion, the
_Arabian Nights_, Pope's _Homer_, and Dryden's _Virgil_, eagerly read,
had at this period exercised a much more powerful influence on his
intellectual development than Phaedrus and Cornelius Nepos, "painfully
construed and darkly understood."

In December 1747 his mother died, and he was taken home. After a short
time his father removed to the "rustic solitude" of Buriton (Hants), but
young Gibbon lived chiefly at the house of his maternal grandfather at
Putney, where, under the care of his devoted aunt, he developed, he
tells us, that passionate love of reading "which he would not exchange
for all the treasures of India," and where his mind received its most
decided stimulus. Of 1748 he says, "This year, the twelfth of my age, I
shall note as the most propitious to the growth of my intellectual
stature." After detailing the circumstances which unlocked for him the
door of his grandfather's "tolerable library," he says, "I turned over
many English pages of poetry and romance, of history and travels. Where
a title attracted my eye, without fear or awe I snatched the volume from
the shelf." In 1749, in his twelfth year, he was sent to Westminster,
still residing, however, with his aunt, who, rendered destitute by her
father's bankruptcy, but unwilling to live a life of dependence, had
opened a boarding-house for Westminster school. Here in the course of
two years (1749-1750), interrupted by danger and debility, he "painfully
climbed into the third form"; but it was left to his riper age to
"acquire the beauties of the Latin and the rudiments of the Greek
tongue." The continual attacks of sickness which had retarded his
progress induced his aunt, by medical advice, to take him to Bath; but
the mineral waters had no effect. He then resided for a time in the
house of a physician at Winchester; the physician did as little as the
mineral waters; and, after a further trial of Bath, he once more
returned to Putney, and made a last futile attempt to study at
Westminster. Finally, it was concluded that he would never be able to
encounter the discipline of a school; and casual instructors, at various
times and places, were provided for him. Meanwhile his indiscriminate
appetite for reading had begun to fix itself more and more decidedly
upon history; and the list of historical works devoured by him during
this period of chronic ill-health is simply astonishing. It included,
besides Hearne's _Ductor historicus_ and the successive volumes of the
_Universal History_, which was then in course of publication,
Littlebury's _Herodotus_, Spelman's _Xenophon_, Gordon's _Tacitus_, an
anonymous translation of Procopius; "many crude lumps of Speed, Rapin,
Mezeray, Davila, Machiavel, Father Paul, Bower, &c., were hastily
gulped. I devoured them like so many novels; and I swallowed with the
same voracious appetite the descriptions of India and China, of Mexico
and Peru." His first introduction to the historic scenes the study of
which afterwards formed the passion of his life took place in 1751,
when, while along with his father visiting a friend in Wiltshire, he
discovered in the library "a common book, the continuation of Echard's
_Roman History_." "To me the reigns of the successors of Constantine
were absolutely new; and I was immersed in the passage of the Goths over
the Danube, when the summons of the dinner bell reluctantly dragged me
from my intellectual feast." Soon afterwards his fancy kindled with the
first glimpses into Oriental history, the wild "barbaric" charm of which
he never ceased to feel. Ockley's book on the Saracens "first opened his
eyes" to the striking career of Mahomet and his hordes; and with his
characteristic ardour of literary research, after exhausting all that
could be learned in English of the Arabs and Persians, the Tatars and
Turks, he forthwith plunged into the French of D'Herbelot, and the Latin
of Pocock's version of Abulfaragius, sometimes understanding them, but
oftener only guessing their meaning. He soon learned to call to his aid
the subsidiary sciences of geography and chronology, and before he was
quite capable of reading them had already attempted to weigh in his
childish balance the competing systems of Scaliger and Petavius, of
Marsham and Newton. At this early period he seems already to have
adopted in some degree the plan of study he followed in after life and
recommended in his _Essai sur l'etude_--that is, of letting his subject
rather than his author determine his course, of suspending the perusal
of a book to reflect, and to compare the statements with those of other
authors--so that he often read portions of many volumes while mastering
one.

Towards his sixteenth year he tell us "nature displayed in his favour
her mysterious energies," and all his infirmities suddenly vanished.
Thenceforward, while never possessing or abusing the insolence of
health, he could say "few persons have been more exempt from real or
imaginary ills." His unexpected recovery revived his father's hopes for
his education, hitherto so much neglected if judged by ordinary
standards; and accordingly in January 1752 he was placed at Esher,
Surrey, under the care of Dr Francis, the well-known translator of
Horace. But Gibbon's friends in a few weeks discovered that the new
tutor preferred the pleasures of London to the instruction of his
pupils, and in this perplexity decided to send him prematurely to
Oxford, where he was matriculated as a gentleman commoner of Magdalen
College, 3rd April 1752. According to his own testimony he arrived at
the university "with a stock of information which might have puzzled a
doctor, and a degree of ignorance of which a schoolboy might be
ashamed." And indeed his huge wallet of scraps stood him in little stead
at the trim banquets to which he was invited at Oxford, while the
wandering habits by which he had filled it absolutely unfitted him to be
a guest. He was not well grounded in any of the elementary branches,
which are essential to university studies and to all success in their
prosecution. It was natural, therefore, that he should dislike the
university, and as natural that the university should dislike him. Many
of his complaints of the system were certainly just; but it may be
doubted whether any university system would have been profitable to him,
considering his antecedents. He complains especially of his tutors, and
in one case with abundant reason; but, by his own confession, they might
have recriminated with justice, for he indulged in gay society, and kept
late hours. His observations, however, on the defects of the English
university system, some of which have only very recently been removed,
are acute and well worth pondering, however little relevant to his own
case. He remained at Magdalen about fourteen months. "To the university
of Oxford," he says, "I acknowledge no obligation; and she will as
cheerfully renounce me for a son as I am willing to disclaim her for a
mother. I spent fourteen months at Magdalen College; they proved the
fourteen months the most idle and unprofitable of my whole life."

But thus "idle" though he may have been as a "student," he already
meditated authorship. In the first long vacation--during which he,
doubtless with some sarcasm, says that "his taste for books began to
revive"--he contemplated a treatise on the age of Sesostris, in which
(and it was characteristic) his chief object was to investigate not so
much the events as the probable epoch of the reign of that semi-mythical
monarch, whom he was inclined to regard as having been contemporary with
Solomon. "Unprovided with original learning, unformed in the habits of
thinking, unskilled in the arts of composition, I resolved to write a
book"; but the discovery of his own weakness, he adds, was the first
symptom of taste. On his first return to Oxford the work was "wisely
relinquished," and never afterwards resumed. The most memorable
incident, however, in Gibbon's stay at Oxford was his temporary
conversion to the doctrines of the church of Rome. The bold criticism of
Middleton's recently (1749) published _Free Enquiry into the Miraculous
Powers which are supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church_
appears to have given the first shock to his Protestantism, not indeed
by destroying his previous belief that the gift of miraculous powers had
continued to subsist in the church during the first four or five
centuries of Christianity, but by convincing him that within the same
period most of the leading doctrines of popery had been already
introduced both in theory and in practice. At this stage he was
introduced by a friend (Mr Molesworth) to Bossuet's _Variations of
Protestantism_ and _Exposition of Catholic Doctrine_ (see Gibbon,
_Decline and Fall_, c. xv., note 79). "These works," says he, "achieved
my conversion, and I surely fell by a noble hand." In bringing about
this "fall," however, Parsons the Jesuit appears to have had a
considerable share; at least Lord Sheffield has recorded that on the
only occasion on which Gibbon talked with him on the subject he imputed
the change in his religious views principally to that vigorous writer,
who, in his opinion, had urged all the best arguments in favour of Roman
Catholicism. But be this as it may, he had no sooner adopted his new
creed than he resolved to profess it; "a momentary glow of enthusiasm"
had raised him above all temporal considerations, and accordingly, on
June 8, 1753, he records that having "privately abjured the heresies" of
his childhood before a Catholic priest of the name of Baker, a Jesuit,
in London, he announced the same to his father in an elaborate
controversial epistle which his spiritual adviser much approved, and
which he himself afterwards described to Lord Sheffield as having been
"written with all the pomp, the dignity, and self-satisfaction of a
martyr."

The elder Gibbon heard with indignant surprise of this act of juvenile
apostasy, and, indiscreetly giving vent to his wrath, precipitated the
expulsion of his son from Oxford, a punishment which the culprit, in
after years at least, found no cause to deplore. In his _Memoirs_ he
speaks of the results of his "childish revolt against the religion of
his country" with undisguised self-gratulation. It had delivered him
for ever from the "port and prejudice" of the university, and led him
into the bright paths of philosophic freedom. That his conversion was
sincere at the time, that it marked a real if but a transitory phase of
genuine religious conviction, we have no reason to doubt,
notwithstanding the scepticism he has himself expressed. "To my present
feelings it seems incredible that I should ever believe that I believed
in transubstantiation," he indeed declares; but his incredulous
astonishment is not unmixed with undoubting pride. "I could not blush
that my tender mind was entangled in the sophistry which had reduced the
acute and manly understandings of a Chillingworth or a Bayle." Nor is
the sincerity of the Catholicism he professed in these boyish days in
any way discredited by the fact of his subsequent lack of religion.
Indeed, as one of the acutest and most sympathetic of his critics has
remarked, the deep and settled grudge he has betrayed towards every form
of Christian belief, in all the writings of his maturity, may be taken
as evidence that he had at one time experienced in his own person at
least some of the painful workings of a positive faith.

But little time was lost by the elder Gibbon in the formation of a new
plan of education for his son, and in devising some method which if
possible might effect the cure of his "spiritual malady." The result of
deliberation, aided by the advice and experience of Lord Eliot, was that
it was almost immediately decided to fix Gibbon for some years abroad
under the roof of M. Pavilliard, a Calvinist minister at Lausanne. In as
far as regards the instructor and guide thus selected, a more fortunate
choice could scarcely have been made. From the testimony of his pupil,
and the still more conclusive evidence of his own correspondence with
the father, Pavilliard seems to have been a man of singular good sense,
temper and tact. At the outset, indeed, there was one considerable
obstacle to the free intercourse of tutor and pupil: M. Pavilliard
appears to have known little of English, and young Gibbon knew
practically nothing of French. But this difficulty was soon removed by
the pupil's diligence; the very exigencies of his situation were of
service to him in calling forth all his powers, and he studied the
language with such success that at the close of his five years' exile he
declares that he "spontaneously thought" in French rather than in
English, and that it had become more familiar to "ear, tongue and pen."
It is well known that in after years he had doubts whether he should not
compose his great work in French; and it is certain that his familiarity
with that language, in spite of considerable efforts to counteract its
effects, tinged his style to the last.

Under the judicious regulations of his new tutor a methodical course of
reading was marked out, and most ardently prosecuted; the pupil's
progress was proportionably rapid. With the systematic study of the
Latin, and to a slight extent also of the Greek classics, he conjoined
that of logic in the prolix system of Crousaz; and he further
invigorated his reasoning powers, as well as enlarged his knowledge of
metaphysics and jurisprudence, by the perusal of Locke, Grotius and
Montesquieu. He also read largely, though somewhat indiscriminately, in
French literature, and appears to have been particularly struck with
Pascal's _Provincial Letters_, which he tells us he reperused almost
every year of his subsequent life with new pleasure, and which he
particularly mentions as having been, along with Bleterie's _Life of
Julian_ and Giannone's _History of Naples_, a book which probably
contributed in a special sense to form the historian of the Roman
empire. The comprehensive scheme of study included mathematics also, in
which he advanced as far as the conic sections in the treatise of
L'Hopital. He assures us that his tutor did not complain of any
inaptitude on the pupil's part, and that the pupil was as happily
unconscious of any on his own; but here he broke off. He adds, what is
not quite clear from one who so frankly acknowledges his limited
acquaintance with the science, that he had reason to congratulate
himself that he knew no more. "As soon," he says, "as I understood the
principles, I relinquished for ever the pursuit of the mathematics; nor
can I lament that I desisted before my mind was hardened by the habit of
rigid demonstration, so destructive of the finer feelings of moral
evidence, which must, however, determine the action and opinions of our
lives."

Under the new influences which were brought to bear on him, he in less
than two years resumed his Protestantism. "He is willing," he says, to
allow M. Pavilliard a "handsome share in his reconversion," though he
maintains, and no doubt rightly, that it was principally due "to his own
solitary reflections." He particularly congratulated himself on having
discovered the "philosophical argument" against transubstantiation,
"that the text of Scripture which seems to inculcate the real presence
is attested only by a single sense--our sight, while the real presence
itself is disproved by three of our senses--the sight, the touch, and
the taste." Before a similar mode of reasoning, all the other
distinctive articles of the Romish creed "disappeared like a dream"; and
"after a full conviction," on Christmas day, 1754, he received the
sacrament in the church of Lausanne. Although, however, he adds that at
this point he suspended his religious inquiries, "acquiescing with
implicit belief in the tenets and mysteries which are adopted by the
general consent of Catholics and Protestants," his readers will probably
do him no great injustice if they assume that even then it was rather to
the negations than to the affirmations of Protestantism that he most
heartily assented.

With all his devotion to study at Lausanne[2] (he read ten or twelve
hours a day), he still found some time for the acquisition of some of
the lighter accomplishments, such as riding, dancing, drawing, and also
for mingling in such society as the place had to offer. In September
1755 he writes to his aunt: "I find a great many agreeable people here,
see them sometimes, and can say upon the whole, without vanity, that,
though I am the Englishman here who spends the least money, I am he who
is most generally liked." Thus his "studious and sedentary life" passed
pleasantly enough, interrupted only at rare intervals by boyish
excursions of a day or a week in the neighbourhood, and by at least one
memorable tour of Switzerland, by Basel, Zurich, Lucerne and Bern, made
along with Pavilliard in the autumn of 1755. The last eighteen months of
this residence abroad saw the infusion of two new elements--one of them
at least of considerable importance--into his life. In 1757 Voltaire
came to reside at Lausanne; and although he took but little notice of
the young Englishman of twenty, who eagerly sought and easily obtained
an introduction, the establishment of the theatre at Monrepos, where the
brilliant versifier himself declaimed before select audiences his own
productions on the stage, had no small influence in fortifying Gibbon's
taste for the French theatre, and in at the same time abating that
"idolatry for the gigantic genius of Shakespeare which is inculcated
from our infancy as the first duty of an Englishman." In the same
year--apparently about June--he saw for the first time, and forthwith
loved, the beautiful, intelligent and accomplished Mademoiselle Susan
Curchod, daughter of the pasteur of Crassier. That the passion which she
inspired in him was tender, pure and fitted to raise to a higher level a
nature which in some respects was much in need of such elevation will
be doubted by none but the hopelessly cynical; and probably there are
few readers who can peruse the paragraph in which Gibbon "approaches the
delicate subject of his early love" without discerning in it a pathos
much deeper than that of which the writer was himself aware. During the
remainder of his residence at Lausanne he had good reason to "indulge
his dream of felicity"; but on his return to England, "I soon discovered
that my father would not hear of this strange alliance, and that without
his consent I was myself destitute and helpless. After a painful
struggle I yielded to my fate; I sighed as a lover, I obeyed as a son;
my wound was insensibly healed by time, absence, and the habits of a new
life."[3]

In 1758 he returned with mingled joy and regret to England, and was
kindly received at home. But he found a stepmother there; and this
apparition on his father's hearth at first rather appalled him. The
cordial and gentle manners of Mrs Gibbon, however, and her unremitting
care for his happiness, won him from his first prejudices, and gave her
a permanent place in his esteem and affection. He seems to have been
much indulged, and to have led a very pleasant life of it; he pleased
himself in moderate excursions, frequented the theatre, mingled, though
not very often, in society; was sometimes a little extravagant, and
sometimes a little dissipated, but never lost the benefits of his
Lausanne exile; and easily settled into a sober, discreet, calculating
Epicurean philosopher, who sought the _summum bonum_ of man in
temperate, regulated and elevated pleasure. The first two years after
his return to England he spent principally at his father's country seat
at Buriton, in Hampshire, only nine months being given to the
metropolis. He has left an amusing account of his employments in the
country, where his love of study was at once inflamed by a large and
unwonted command of books and checked by the necessary interruptions of
his otherwise happy domestic life. After breakfast "he was expected," he
says, to spend an hour with Mrs Gibbon; after tea his father claimed his
conversation; in the midst of an interesting work he was often called
down to entertain idle visitors; and, worst of all, he was periodically
compelled to return the well-meant compliments. He mentions that he
dreaded the "recurrence of the full moon," which was the period
generally selected for the more convenient accomplishment of such
formidable excursions.

His father's library, though large in comparison with that he commanded
at Lausanne, contained, he says, "much trash"; but a gradual process of
reconstruction transformed it at length into that "numerous and select"
library which was "the foundation of his works, and the best comfort of
his life both at home and abroad." No sooner had he returned home than
he began the work of accumulation, and records that, on the receipt of
his first quarter's allowance, a large share was appropriated to his
literary wants. "He could never forget," he declares, "the joy with
which he exchanged a bank note of twenty pounds for the twenty volumes
of the _Memoirs_ of the Academy of Inscriptions," an Academy which has
been well characterized (by Sainte-Beuve) as Gibbon's intellectual
fatherland. It may not be uninteresting here to note the principles
which guided him both now and afterwards in his literary purchases. "I
am not conscious," says he, "of having ever bought a book from a motive
of ostentation; every volume, before it was deposited on the shelf, was
either read or sufficiently examined"; he also mentions that he soon
adopted the tolerating maxim of the elder Pliny, that no book is ever so
bad as to be absolutely good for nothing.

In London he seems to have seen but little select society--partly from
his father's taste, "which had always preferred the highest and lowest
company," and partly from his own reserve and timidity, increased by his
foreign education, which had made English habits unfamiliar, and the
very language in some degree strange. And thus he was led to draw that
interesting picture of the literary recluse among the crowds of London:
"While coaches were rattling through Bond Street, I have passed many a
solitary evening in my lodging with my books. My studies were sometimes
interrupted with a sigh, which I breathed towards Lausanne; and on the
approach of spring I withdrew without reluctance from the noisy and
extensive scene of crowds without company, and dissipation without
pleasure." He renewed former acquaintance, however, with the "poet"
Mallet, and through him gained access to Lady Hervey's circle, where a
congenial admiration, not to say affectation, of French manners and
literature made him a welcome guest. It ought to be added that in each
of the twenty-five years of his subsequent acquaintance with London "the
prospect gradually brightened," and his social as well as his
intellectual qualities secured him a wide circle of friends. In one
respect Mallet gave him good counsel in those early days. He advised him
to addict himself to an assiduous study of the more idiomatic English
writers, such as Swift and Addison--with a view to unlearn his foreign
idiom and recover his half-forgotten vernacular--a task, however, which
he never perfectly accomplished. Much as he admired these writers, Hume
and Robertson were still greater favourites, as well from their subject
as for their style. Of his admiration of Hume's style, of its nameless
grace of simple elegance, he has left us a strong expression, when he
tells us that it often compelled him to close the historian's volumes
with a mixed sensation of delight and despair.

In 1761 Gibbon, at the age of twenty-four, after many delays, and with
many flutterings of hope and fear, gave to the world, in French, his
maiden publication, an _Essai sur l'etude de la litterature_, which he
had composed two years before. It was published partly in compliance
with his father's wishes, who thought that the proof of some literary
talent might introduce him favourably to public notice, and secure the
recommendation of his friends for some appointment in connexion with the
mission of the English plenipotentiaries to the congress at Augsburg
which was at that time in contemplation. But in yielding to paternal
authority, Gibbon frankly owns that he "complied, like a pious son, with
the wish of his own heart."

The subject of this youthful effort was suggested, its author says, by a
refinement of vanity--"the desire of justifying and praising the object
of a favourite pursuit," namely, the study of ancient literature. Partly
owing to its being written in French, partly to its character, the
_Essai_ excited more attention abroad than at home. Gibbon has
criticized it with the utmost frankness, not to say severity; but, after
every abatement, it is unquestionably a surprising effort for a mind so
young, and contains many thoughts which would not have disgraced a
thinker or a scholar of much maturer age. His account of its first
reception and subsequent fortunes in England deserves to be cited as a
curious piece of literary history. "In England," he says, "it was
received with cold indifference, little read, and speedily forgotten. A
small impression was slowly dispersed; the bookseller murmured, and the
author (had his feelings been more exquisite) might have wept over the
blunders and baldness of the English translation. The publication of my
history fifteen years afterwards revived the memory of my first
performance, and the essay was eagerly sought in the shops. But I
refused the permission which Becket solicited of reprinting it; the
public curiosity was imperfectly satisfied by a pirated copy of the
booksellers of Dublin; and when a copy of the original edition has been
discovered in a sale, the primitive value of half-a-crown has risen to
the fanciful price of a guinea or thirty shillings."[4]

Some time before the publication of the essay, Gibbon had entered a new
and, one might suppose, a very uncongenial scene of life. In an hour of
patriotic ardour he became (June 12, 1759) a captain in the Hampshire
militia, and for more than two years (May 10, 1760, to December 23,
1762) led a wandering life of "military servitude." Hampshire, Kent,
Wiltshire and Dorsetshire formed the successive theatres of what he
calls his "bloodless and inglorious campaigns." He complains of the busy
idleness in which his time was spent; but, considering the
circumstances, so adverse to study, one is rather surprised that the
military student should have done so much, than that he did so little;
and never probably before were so many hours of literary study spent in
a tent. In estimating the comparative advantages and disadvantages of
this wearisome period of his life, he has summed up with the
impartiality of a philosopher and the sagacity of a man of the world.
Irksome as were his employments, grievous as was the waste of time,
uncongenial as were his companions, solid benefits were to be set off
against these things; his health became robust, his knowledge of the
world was enlarged, he wore off some of his foreign idiom, got rid of
much of his reserve; he adds--and perhaps in his estimate it was the
benefit to be most prized of all--"the discipline and evolutions of a
modern battalion gave me a clearer notion of the phalanx and the legion,
and the captain of the Hampshire grenadiers (the reader may smile) has
not been useless to the historian of the Roman empire."

It was during this period that he read Homer and Longinus, having for
the first time acquired some real mastery of Greek; and after the
publication of the _Essai_, his mind was full of projects for a new
literary effort. The Italian expedition of Charles VIII. of France, the
crusade of Richard I., the wars of the barons, the lives and comparisons
of Henry V. and the emperor Titus, the history of the Black Prince, the
life of Sir Philip Sidney, that of Montrose, and finally that of Sir W.
Raleigh, were all of them seriously contemplated and successively
rejected. By their number they show how strong was the impulse to
literature, and by their character, how determined the bent of his mind
in the direction of history; while their variety makes it manifest also
that he had then at least no special purpose to serve, no preconceived
theory to support, no particular prejudice or belief to overthrow.

The militia was disbanded in 1762, and Gibbon joyfully shook off his
bonds; but his literary projects were still to be postponed. Following
his own wishes, though with his father's consent, he had early in 1760
projected a Continental tour as the completion "of an English
gentleman's education." This had been interrupted by the episode of the
militia; now, however, he resumed his purpose, and left England in
January 1763. Two years were "loosely defined as the term of his
absence," which he exceeded by half a year--returning June 1765. He
first visited Paris, where he saw a good deal of d'Alembert, Diderot,
Barthelemy, Raynal, Helvetius, Baron d'Holbach and others of that
circle, and was often a welcome guest in the saloons of Madame Geoffrin
and Madame du Deffand.[5] Voltaire was at Geneva, Rousseau at
Montmorency, and Buffon he neglected to visit; but so congenial did he
find the society for which his education had so well prepared him, and
into which some literary reputation had already preceded him, that he
declared, "Had I been rich and independent, I should have prolonged and
perhaps have fixed my residence at Paris."

From France he proceeded to Switzerland, and spent nearly a year at
Lausanne, where many old friendships and studies were resumed, and new
ones begun. His reading was largely designed to enable him fully to
profit by the long-contemplated Italian tour which began in April 1764
and lasted somewhat more than a year. He has recorded one or two
interesting notes on Turin, Genoa, Florence and other towns at which
halt was made on his route; but Rome was the great object of his
pilgrimage, and the words in which he has alluded to the feelings with
which he approached it are such as cannot be omitted from any sketch of
Gibbon, however brief. "My temper is not very susceptible of enthusiasm,
and the enthusiasm which I do not feel I have ever scorned to affect.
But at the distance of twenty-five years I can neither forget nor
express the strong emotions which agitated my mind as I first approached
and entered the Eternal City. After a sleepless night, I trod with a
lofty step the ruins of the forum; each memorable spot, where Romulus
stood, or Tully spoke, or Caesar fell, was at once present to my eye;
and several days of intoxication were lost or enjoyed before I could
descend to a cool and minute investigation." Here at last his long
yearning for some great theme worthy of his historic genius was
gratified. The first conception of the _Decline and Fall_ arose as he
lingered one evening amidst the vestiges of ancient glory. "It was at
Rome, on the 15th of October 1764, as I sat musing amidst the ruins of
the Capitol, while the barefooted friars were singing vespers in the
temple of Jupiter, that the idea of writing the decline and fall of the
city first started to my mind."

The five years and a half which intervened between his return from this
tour, in June 1765, and the death of his father, in November 1770, seem
to have formed the portion of his life which "he passed with the least
enjoyment and remembered with the least satisfaction." He attended every
spring the meetings of the militia at Southampton, and rose successively
to the rank of major and lieutenant-colonel commandant; but was each
year "more disgusted with the inn, the wine, the company, and the
tiresome repetition of annual attendance and daily exercise." From his
own account, however, it appears that other and deeper causes produced
this discontent. Sincerely attached to his home, he yet felt the anomaly
of his position. At thirty, still a dependant, without a settled
occupation, without a definite social status, he often regretted that he
had not "embraced the lucrative pursuits of the law or of trade, the
chances of civil office or India adventure, or even the fat slumbers of
the church." From the emoluments of a profession he "might have derived
an ample fortune, or a competent income instead of being stinted to the
same narrow allowance, to be increased only by an event which he
sincerely deprecated." Doubtless the secret fire of a consuming, but as
yet ungratified, literary ambition also troubled his repose. He was
still contemplating "at an awful distance" _The Decline and Fall_, and
meantime revolved some other subjects, that seemed more immediately
practicable. Hesitating for some time between the revolutions of
Florence and those of Switzerland, he consulted M. Deyverdun, a young
Swiss with whom he had formed a close and intimate friendship during his
first residence at Lausanne, and finally decided in favour of the land
which was his "friend's by birth" and "his own by adoption." He executed
the first book in French; it was read (in 1767), as an anonymous
production, before a literary society of foreigners in London, and
condemned. Gibbon sat and listened unobserved to their strictures. It
never got beyond that rehearsal; Hume, indeed, approved of the
performance, only deprecating as unwise the author's preference for
French; but Gibbon sided with the majority.

In 1767 also he joined with M. Deyverdun in starting a literary journal
under the title of _Memoires litteraires de la Grande-Bretagne_. But its
circulation was limited, and only the second volume had appeared (1768)
when Deyverdun went abroad. The materials already collected for a third
volume were suppressed. It is interesting, however, to know, that in the
first volume is a review by Gibbon of Lord Lyttelton's _History of Henry
II._, and that the second volume contains a contribution by Hume on
Walpole's _Historic Doubts_.

The next appearance of the historian made a deeper impression. It was
the first distinct print of the lion's foot. "Ex ungue leonem" might
have been justly said, for he attacked, and attacked successfully, the
redoubtable Warburton. Of the many paradoxes in the _Divine Legation_,
few are more extravagant than the theory that Virgil, in the sixth book
of his _Aeneid_, intended to allegorize, in the visit of his hero and
the Sibyl to the shades, the initiation of Aeneas, as a lawgiver, into
the Eleusinian mysteries. This theory Gibbon completely exploded in his
_Critical Observations_ (1770)--no very difficult task, indeed, but
achieved in a style, and with a profusion of learning, which called
forth the warmest commendations both at home and abroad. Warburton never
replied; and few will believe that he would not, if he had not thought
silence more discreet. Gibbon, however, regrets that the style of his
pamphlet was too acrimonious; and this regret, considering his
antagonist's slight claims to forbearance, is creditable to him. "I
cannot forgive myself the contemptuous treatment of a man who, with all
his faults, was entitled to my esteem; and I can less forgive, in a
personal attack, the cowardly concealment of my name and character."

Soon after his "release from the fruitless task of the Swiss revolution"
in 1768, he had gradually advanced from the wish to the hope, from the
hope to the design, from the design to the execution of his great
historical work. His preparations were indeed vast. The classics, "as
low as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Juvenal," had been long familiar.
He now "plunged into the ocean of the Augustan history," and "with pen
almost always in hand," pored over all the original records, Greek and
Latin, between Trajan and the last of the Western Caesars. "The
subsidiary rays of medals and inscriptions, of geography and chronology,
were thrown on their proper objects; and I applied the collections of
Tillemont, whose inimitable accuracy almost assumes the character of
genius, to fix and arrange within my reach the loose and scattered atoms
of historical information." The Christian apologists and their pagan
assailants; the Theodosian Code, with Godefroy's commentary; the _Annals
and Antiquities_ of Muratori, collated with "the parallel or transverse
lines" of Sigonius and Maffei, Pagi and Baronius, were all critically
studied. Still following the wise maxim which he had adopted as a
student, "multum legere potius quam multa," he reviewed again and again
the immortal works of the French and English, the Latin and Italian
classics. He deepened and extended his acquaintance with Greek,
particularly with his favourite authors Homer and Xenophon; and, to
crown all, he succeeded in achieving the third perusal of Blackstone's
_Commentaries_.

The course of his study was for some time seriously interrupted by his
father's illness and death in 1770, and by the many distractions
connected with the transference of his residence from Buriton to London.
It was not, indeed, until October 1772 that he found himself at last
independent, and fairly settled in his house and library, with full
leisure and opportunity to set about the composition of the first volume
of his history. Even then it appears from his own confession that he
long brooded over the chaos of materials he had amassed before light
dawned upon it. At the commencement, he says, "all was dark and
doubtful"; the limits, divisions, even the title of his work were
undetermined; the first chapter was composed three times, and the second
and third twice, before he was satisfied with his efforts. This
prolonged meditation on his design and its execution was ultimately well
repaid by the result: so methodical did his ideas become, and so readily
did his materials shape themselves, that, with the above exceptions, the
original MS. of the entire six quartos was sent uncopied to the
printers. He also says that not a sheet had been seen by any other eyes
than those of author and printer, a statement indeed which must be taken
with a small deduction; or rather we must suppose that a few chapters
had been submitted, if not to the "eyes," to the "ears" of others; for
he elsewhere tells us that he was "soon disgusted with the modest
practice of reading the manuscript to his friends." Such, however, were
his preliminary difficulties that he confesses he was often "tempted to
cast away the labour of seven years"; and it was not until February 1776
that the first volume was published. The success was instant, and, for a
quarto, probably unprecedented. The entire impression was exhausted in a
few days; a second and a third edition were scarcely adequate to the
demand. The author might almost have said, as Lord Byron after the
publication of _Childe Harold_, that "he awoke one morning and found
himself famous." In addition to public applause, he was gratified by the
more select praises of the highest living authorities in that branch of
literature: "the candour of Dr Robertson embraced his disciple"; Hume's
letter of congratulation "overpaid the labour of ten years." The latter,
however, with his usual sagacity, anticipated the objections which he
saw could be urged against the famous fifteenth and sixteenth chapters.
"I think you have observed a very prudent temperament; but it was
impossible to treat the subject so as not to give grounds of suspicion
against you, and you may expect that a clamour will arise."

The "clamour" thus predicted was not slow to make itself heard. Within
two years the famous chapters had elicited what might almost be called a
library of controversy. The only attack, however, to which Gibbon
deigned to make any reply was that of Davies, who had impugned his
accuracy or good faith. His _Vindication_ appeared in February 1779;
and, as Milman remarks, "this single discharge from the ponderous
artillery of learning and sarcasm laid prostrate the whole disorderly
squadron" of his rash and feeble assailants.[6]

Two years before the publication of this first volume Gibbon was elected
member of parliament for Liskeard (1774). His political duties did not
suspend his prosecution of his history, except on one occasion, and for
a little while, in 1779, when he undertook, on behalf of the ministry, a
task which, if well performed, was also, it must be added, well
rewarded. The French government had issued a manifesto preparatory to a
declaration of war, and Gibbon was solicited by Chancellor Thurlow and
Lord Weymouth, secretary of state, to answer it. In compliance with this
request he produced the able _Memoire justificatif_, composed in French,
and delivered to the courts of Europe; and shortly afterwards he
received a seat at the Board of Trade and Plantations--little more than
a sinecure in itself, but with a very substantial salary of nearly L800
per annum. His acceptance displeased some of his former political
associates, and he was accused of "deserting his party." In his
_Memoir_, indeed, Gibbon denies that he had ever enlisted with the
Whigs. A note of Fox, however, on the margin of a copy of _The Decline
and Fall_ records a very distinct remembrance of the historian's
previous vituperation of the ministry; within a fortnight of the date of
his acceptance of office, he is there alleged to have said that "there
was no salvation for this country until six heads of the principal
persons in administration were laid upon the table." Lord Sheffield
merely replies, somewhat weakly it must be said, that his friend never
intended the words to be taken literally. More to the point is the
often-quoted passage from Gibbon's letter to Deyverdun, where the frank
revelation is made: "You have not forgotten that I went into parliament
without patriotism and without ambition, and that all my views tended
to the convenient and respectable place of a lord of trade."

In April 1781 the second and third quartos of his _History_ were
published. They excited no controversy, and were comparatively little
talked about--so little, indeed, as to have extorted from him a half
murmur about "coldness and prejudice." The volumes, however, were bought
and read with silent avidity. Meanwhile public events were developing in
a manner that had a considerable influence upon the manner in which the
remaining years of the historian's life were spent. At the general
election in 1780 he had lost his seat for Liskeard, but had subsequently
been elected for Lymington. The ministry of Lord North, however, was
tottering, and soon after fell; the Board of Trade was abolished by the
passing of Burke's bill in 1782, and Gibbon's salary vanished with
it--no trifle, for his expenditure had been for three years on a scale
somewhat disproportionate to his private fortune. He did not like to
depend on statesmen's promises, which are proverbially uncertain of
fulfilment; he as little liked to retrench; and he was wearied of
parliament, where he had never given any but silent votes. Urged by such
considerations, he once more turned his eyes to the scene of his early
exile, where he might live on his decent patrimony in a style which was
impossible in England, and pursue unembarrassed his literary studies. He
therefore resolved to fix himself at Lausanne.

A word only is necessary on his parliamentary career. Neither nature nor
acquired habits qualified him to be an orator; his late entrance on
public life, his natural timidity, his feeble voice, his limited command
of idiomatic English, and even, as he candidly confesses, his literary
fame, were all obstacles to success. "After a fleeting, illusive hope,
prudence condemned me to acquiesce in the humble station of a mute.[7]
... I was not armed by nature and education with the intrepid energy of
mind and voice--'Vincentem strepitus et natum rebus agendis.' Timidity
was fortified by pride, and even the success of my pen discouraged the
trial of my voice." His repugnance to public life had been strongly
expressed to his father in a letter of a very early date, in which he
begged that the money which a seat in the House of Commons would cost
might be expended in a mode more agreeable to him. Gibbon was
eight-and-thirty when he entered parliament; and the obstacles which
even at an earlier period he had not had courage to encounter were
hardly likely to be vanquished then. Nor had he much political sagacity.
He was better skilled in investigating the past than in divining the
future. While Burke and Fox and so many great statesmen proclaimed the
consequences of the collision with America, Gibbon saw nothing but
colonies in rebellion, and a paternal government justly incensed. His
silent votes were all given on that hypothesis. In a similar manner,
while he abhorred the French Revolution when it came, he seems to have
had no apprehension, like Chesterfield, Burke, or even Horace Walpole,
of its approach; nor does he appear to have at all suspected that it had
had anything to do with the speculations of the philosophic coteries in
which he had taken such delight. But while it may be doubted whether his
presence in parliament was of any direct utility to the legislative
business of the country, there can be no question of the present
advantage which he derived from it in the prosecution of the great work
of his life--an advantage of which he was fully conscious when he wrote:
"The eight sessions that I sat in parliament were a school of civil
prudence, the first and most essential virtue of an historian."

Having sold all his property except his library--to him equally a
necessary and a luxury--Gibbon repaired to Lausanne in September 1783,
and took up his abode with his early friend Deyverdun, now a resident
there. Perfectly free from every engagement but those which his own
tastes imposed, easy in his circumstances, commanding just as much
society, and that as select, as he pleased, with the noblest scenery
spread out at his feet, no situation can be imagined more favourable for
the prosecution of his literary enterprise; a hermit in his study as
long as he chose, he found the most delightful recreation always ready
for him at the threshold. "In London," says he, "I was lost in the
crowd; I ranked with the first families in Lausanne, and my style of
prudent expense enabled me to maintain a fair balance of reciprocal
civilities.... Instead of a small house between a street and a
stable-yard, I began to occupy a spacious and convenient mansion,
connected on the north side with the city, and open on the south to a
beautiful and boundless horizon. A garden of four acres had been laid
out by the taste of M. Deyverdun: from the garden a rich scenery of
meadows and vineyards descends to the Leman Lake, and the prospect far
beyond the lake is crowned by the stupendous mountains of Savoy." In
this enviable retreat, it is no wonder that a year should have been
suffered to roll round before he vigorously resumed his great work--and
with many men it would never have been resumed in such a paradise. We
may remark in passing that the retreat was often enlivened, or invaded,
by friendly tourists from England, whose "frequent incursions" into
Switzerland our recluse seems half to lament as an evil. Among his more
valued visitors were M. and Mme Necker; Mr Fox also gave him two welcome
"days of free and private society" in 1788. Differing as they did in
politics, Gibbon's testimony to the genius and character of the great
statesman is highly honourable to both: "Perhaps no human being," he
says, "was ever more perfectly exempt from the taint of malevolence,
vanity, or falsehood."

When once fairly reseated at his task, he proceeded in this delightful
retreat leisurely, yet rapidly, to its completion. The fourth volume,
partly written in 1782, was completed in June 1784; the preparation of
the fifth volume occupied less than two years; while the sixth and last,
begun 18th May 1786, was finished in thirteen months. The feelings with
which he brought his labours to a close must be described in his own
inimitable words: "It was on the day, or rather night, of the 27th of
June 1787, between the hours of eleven and twelve, that I wrote the last
lines of the last page in a summer house in my garden. After laying down
my pen, I took several turns in a _berceau_ or covered walk of acacias,
which commands a prospect of the country, the lake, and the mountains.
The air was temperate, the sky was serene, the silver orb of the moon
was reflected from the waters, and all nature was silent. I will not
dissemble the first emotions of joy on the recovery of my freedom, and,
perhaps, the establishment of my fame. But my pride was soon humbled,
and a sober melancholy was spread over my mind by the idea that I had
taken an everlasting leave of an old and agreeable companion, and that
whatsoever might be the future date of my _History_, the life of the
historian must be short and precarious."

Taking the manuscript with him, Gibbon, after an absence of four years,
once more visited London in 1787; and the 51st anniversary of the
author's birthday (27th April 1788) witnessed the publication of the
last three volumes of _The Decline and Fall_. They met with a quick and
easy sale, were very extensively read, and very liberally and deservedly
praised for the unflagging industry and vigour they displayed, though
just exception, if only on the score of good taste, was taken to the
scoffing tone he continued to maintain in all passages where the
Christian religion was specially concerned, and much fault was found
with the indecency of some of his notes.[8]

He returned to Switzerland in July 1788, cherishing vague schemes of
fresh literary activity; but genuine sorrow caused by the death of his
friend Deyverdun interfered with steady work, nor was it easy for him to
fix on a new subject which should be at once congenial and proportioned
to his powers; while the premonitory mutterings of the great
thunderstorm of the French Revolution, which reverberated in hollow
echoes even through the quiet valleys of Switzerland, further troubled
his repose. For some months he found amusement in the preparation of the
delightful _Memoirs_ (1789) from which most of our knowledge of his
personal history is derived; but his letters to friends in England,
written between 1788 and 1793 occasionally betray a slight but
unmistakable tone of ennui. In April 1793 he unexpectedly received
tidings of the death of Lady Sheffield; and the motive of friendship
thus supplied combined with the pressure of public events to urge him
homewards. He arrived in England in the following June, and spent the
summer at Sheffield Place, where his presence was even more highly
prized than it had ever before been. Returning to London early in
November, he found it necessary to consult his physicians for a symptom
which, neglected since 1761, had gradually become complicated with
hydrocele, and was now imperatively demanding surgical aid; but the
painful operations which had to be performed did not interfere with his
customary cheerfulness, nor did they prevent him from paying a Christmas
visit to Sheffield Place. Here, however, fever made its appearance; and
a removal to London (January 6, 1794) was considered imperative. Another
operation brought him some relief; but a relapse occurred during the
night of the 15th, and on the following day he peacefully breathed his
last. His remains were laid in the burial place of the Sheffield family,
Fletching, Sussex, where an epitaph by Dr Parr describes his character
and work in the language at once of elegance, of moderation and of
truth.

The personal appearance of Gibbon as a lad of sixteen is brought before
us somewhat dimly in M. Pavilliard's description of the "thin little
figure, with a large head, disputing and arguing, with the greatest
ability, all the best arguments that had ever been used in favour of
popery." What he afterwards became has been made more vividly familiar
by the clever silhouette prefixed to the _Miscellaneous Works_ (Gibbon
himself, at least, we know, did not regard it as a caricature), and by
Sir Joshua Reynolds's portrait so often engraved. It is hardly fair
perhaps to add a reference to Suard's highly-coloured description of the
short Silenus-like figure, not more than 56 in. in height, the slim
legs, the large turned-in feet, the shrill piercing voice; but almost
every one will remember, from Croker's _Boswell_, Colman's account of
the great historian "tapping his snuff-box, smirking and smiling, and
rounding his periods" from that mellifluous mouth. It has already been
seen that Gibbon's early ailments all left him on the approach of
manhood; thenceforward, "till admonished by the gout," he could truly
boast of an immunity well-nigh perfect from every bodily complaint; an
exceptionally vigorous brain, and a stomach "almost too good," united to
bestow upon him a vast capacity alike for work and for enjoyment. This
capacity he never abused so as to burden his conscience or depress his
spirits. "The madness of superfluous health I have never known." To
illustrate the intensity of the pleasure he found alike in the solitude
of his study and in the relaxations of genial social intercourse, almost
any page taken at random, either from the _Life_ or from the _Letters_,
would suffice; and many incidental touches show that he was not a
stranger to the delights of quiet contemplation of the beauties and
grandeurs of nature. His manners, if formal, were refined; his
conversation, when he felt himself at home, interesting and unaffected;
and that he was capable alike of feeling and inspiring a very constant
friendship there are many witnesses to show. That his temperament at the
same time was frigid and comparatively passionless cannot be denied; but
neither ought this to be imputed to him as a fault; hostile criticisms
upon the grief for a father's death, that "was soothed by the conscious
satisfaction that I had discharged all the duties of filial piety," seem
somewhat out of place. His most ardent admirers, however, are
constrained to admit that he was deficient in large-hearted benevolence;
that he was destitute of any "enthusiasm of humanity"; and that so far
as every sort of religious yearning or aspiration is concerned, his
poverty was almost unique. Gibbon was such a man as Horace might have
been, had the Roman Epicurean been fonder of hard intellectual work,
and less prone than he was to the indulgence of emotion.
     (H. Ro.; J. S. Bl.)

Gibbon's literary art, the sustained excellence of his style, his
piquant epigrams and his brilliant irony, would perhaps not secure for
his work the immortality which it seems likely to enjoy, if it were not
also marked by ecumenical grasp, extraordinary accuracy and striking
acuteness of judgment. It is needless to say that in many points his
statements and conclusions must now be corrected. He was never content
with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible; "I
have always endeavoured," he says, "to draw from the fountainhead; my
curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the
originals; and if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully
marked the secondary evidence on whose faith a passage or a fact were
reduced to depend." Since he wrote, new authorities have been discovered
or rendered accessible; works in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Armenian,
Syriac, Arabic and other languages, which he was unable to consult, have
been published. Again, many of the authorities which he used have been
edited in superior texts. The relative weights of the sources have been
more nicely determined by critical investigation. Archaeology has become
a science. In the immense region which Gibbon surveyed there is hardly a
section which has not been submitted to the microscopic examination of
specialists.

But apart from the inevitable advances made in the course of a century
during which historical research entered upon a new phase, the reader of
Gibbon must be warned against one capital defect. In judging the
_Decline and Fall_ it should carefully be observed that it falls into
two parts which are heterogeneous in the method of treatment. The first
part, a little more than five-eighths of the work, supplies a very
_full_ history of 460 years (A.D. 180-641); the second and smaller part
is a summary history of about 800 years (A.D. 641-1453) in which certain
episodes are selected for fuller treatment and so made prominent. To the
first part unstinted praise must be accorded; it may be said that, with
the materials at the author's disposition, it hardly admitted of
improvement, except in trifling details. But the second, notwithstanding
the brilliancy of the narrative and the masterly art in the grouping of
events, suffers from a radical defect which renders it a misleading
guide. The author designates the story of the later empire at
Constantinople (after Heraclius) as "a uniform tale of weakness and
misery," a judgment which is entirely false; and in accordance with this
doctrine, he makes the empire, which is his proper subject, merely a
string for connecting great movements which affected it, such as the
Saracen conquests, the Crusades, the Mongol invasions, the Turkish
conquests. He failed to bring out the momentous fact that up to the 12th
century the empire was the bulwark of Europe against the East, nor did
he appreciate its importance in preserving the heritage of Greek
civilization. He compressed into a single chapter the domestic history
and policy of the emperors from the son of Heraclius to Isaac Angelus;
and did no justice to the remarkable ability and the indefatigable
industry shown in the service of the state by most of the sovereigns
from Leo III. to Basil II. He did not penetrate into the deeper causes
underlying the revolutions and palace intrigues. His eye rested only on
superficial characteristics which have served to associate the name
"Byzantine" with treachery, cruelty, bigotry and decadence. It was
reserved for Finlay to depict, with greater knowledge and a juster
perception, the lights and shades of Byzantine history. Thus the later
part of the _Decline and Fall_, while the narrative of certain episodes
will always be read with profit, does not convey a true idea of the
history of the empire or of its significance in the history of Europe.
It must be added that the pages on the Slavonic peoples and their
relations to the empire are conspicuously insufficient; but it must be
taken into account that it was not till many years after Gibbon's death
that Slavonic history began to receive due attention, in consequence of
the rise of competent scholars among the Slavs themselves.

The most famous chapters of the _Decline and Fall_ are the fifteenth
and sixteenth, in which the historian traces the early progress of
Christianity and the policy of the Roman government towards it. The
flavour of these chapters is due to the irony which Gibbon has employed
with consummate art and felicity. There was a practical motive for using
this weapon. An attack on Christianity laid a writer open to prosecution
and penalties under the statutes of the realm (9 and 10 William III. c.
22, still unrepealed). Gibbon's stylistic artifice both averted the
peril of prosecution and rendered the attack more telling. In his
_Autobiography_ he alleges that he learned from the _Provincial Letters_
of Pascal "to manage the weapon of grave and temperate irony, even on
subjects of ecclesiastical solemnity." It is not easy, however, to
perceive much resemblance between the method of Pascal and that of
Gibbon, though in particular passages we may discover the influence
which Gibbon acknowledges. For instance, the well-known description (in
chap. xlvii.) of the preposition "in" occurring in a theological dogma
as a "momentous particle which the memory rather than the understanding
must retain" is taken directly from the first Provincial Letter. The
main points in the general conclusions of these chapters have been borne
out by subsequent research. The account of the causes of the expansion
of Christianity is chiefly to be criticized for its omissions. There
were a number of important contributory conditions (enumerated in
Harnack's _Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums_) which Gibbon did
not take into account. He rightly insisted on the facilities of
communication created by the Roman empire, but did not emphasize the
diffusion of Judaism. And he did not realize the importance of the
kinship between Christian doctrine and Hellenistic syncretism, which
helped to promote the reception of Christianity. He was ignorant of
another fact of great importance (which has only in recent years been
fully appreciated through the researches of F. Cumont), the wide
diffusion of the Mithraic religion and the close analogies between its
doctrines and those of Christianity. In regard to the attitude of the
Roman government towards the Christian religion, there are questions
still _sub judice_; but Gibbon had the merit of reducing the number of
martyrs within probable limits.

Gibbon's verdict on the history of the middle ages is contained in the
famous sentence, "I have described the triumph of barbarism and
religion." It is important to understand clearly the criterion which he
applied; it is frequently misapprehended. He was a son of the 18th
century; he had studied with sympathy Locke and Montesquieu; no one
appreciated more keenly than he did political liberty and the freedom of
an Englishman. This is illustrated by his love of Switzerland, his
intense interest in the fortunes of that country, his design of writing
"The History of the Liberty of the Swiss"--a theme, he says "from which
the dullest stranger would catch fire." Such views and sentiments are
incompatible with the idealization of a benevolent despotism. Yet in
this matter Gibbon has been grossly misapprehended and misrepresented.
For instance, Mirabeau wrote thus to Sir Samuel Romilly: "I have never
been able to read the work of Mr Gibbon without being astounded that it
should ever have been written in English; or without being tempted to
turn to the author and say, 'You an Englishman? No, indeed.' That
admiration for an empire of more than two hundred millions of men, where
not one had the right to call himself free; that effeminate philosophy
which has more praise for luxury and pleasures than for all the virtues;
that style always elegant and never energetic, reveal at the most the
elector of Hanover's slave." This criticism is based on a perverse
misreading of the historian's observations on the age of Trajan, Hadrian
and the Antonines. He enlarges, as it was his business to do, on the
tranquillity and prosperity of the empire in that period, but he does
not fail to place his finger on the want of political liberty as a fatal
defect. He points out that under this benevolent despotism, though men
might be happy, their happiness was unstable, because it depended on the
character of a single man; and the highest praise he can give to those
virtuous princes is that they "deserved the honour of restoring the
republic, had the Romans of their days been capable of a rational
freedom." The criterion by which Gibbon judged civilization and
progress was the measure in which the happiness of men is secured, and
of that happiness he considered political freedom an essential
condition. He was essentially humane; and it is worthy of notice that he
was in favour of the abolition of slavery, while humane men like his
friend Lord Sheffield, Dr Johnson and Boswell were opposed to the
anti-slavery movement.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the original quarto edition of _The Decline and
  Fall_, vol. i. appeared, as has already been stated, in 1776, vols.
  ii. and iii. in 1781 and vols. iv.-vi. (inscribed to Lord North) in
  1788. In later editions vol. i. was considerably altered by the
  author; the others hardly at all. The number of modern reprints has
  been very considerable. For many years the most important and valuable
  English edition was that of Milman (1839 and 1845), which was reissued
  with many critical additions by Dr W. Smith (8 vols. 8vo, 1854 and
  1872). This has now been superseded by the edition, with copious
  notes, by Professor J. B. Bury (7 vols. 8vo, 1896-1900). The edition
  in Bohn's British Classics (7 vols., 1853) deserves mention. See also
  the essay on Gibbon in Sir Spencer Walpole's _Essays and Biographies_
  (1907). As a curiosity of literature Bowdler's edition, "adapted to
  the use of families and young persons," by the expurgation of "the
  indecent expressions and all allusions of an improper tendency" (5
  vols. 8vo, 1825), may be noticed. The French translation of Le Clerc
  de Septchenes, continued by Demeunier, Boulard and Cantwell
  (1788-1795), has been frequently reprinted in France. It seems to be
  certain that the portion usually attributed to Septchenes was, in part
  at least, the work of his distinguished pupil, Louis XVI. A new
  edition of the complete translation, prefaced by a letter on Gibbon's
  life and character, from the pen of Suard, and annotated by Guizot,
  appeared in 1812 (and again in 1828). There are at least two German
  translations of _The Decline and Fall_, one by Wenck, Schreiter and
  Beck (1805-1807), and a second by Johann C. Sporschil (1837, new ed.
  1862). The Italian translation (alluded to by Gibbon himself) was,
  along with Spedalieri's _Confutazione_, reprinted at Milan in 1823.
  There is a Russian translation by Neviedomski (7 parts, Moscow,
  1883-1886), and an Hungarian version of cc. 1-38 by K. Hegyessy (Pest,
  1868-1869). Gibbon's _Miscellaneous Works, with Memoirs of his Life
  and Writings, composed by himself; illustrated from his Letters, with
  occasional Notes and Narrative_, published by Lord Sheffield in two
  volumes in 1796, has been often reprinted. The new edition in five
  volumes (1814) contained some previously unpublished matter, and in
  particular the fragment on the revolutions of Switzerland. A French
  translation of the _Miscellaneous Works_ by Marigne appeared at Paris
  in 1798. There is also a German translation (Leipzig, 1801). It may be
  added that a special translation of the chapter on Roman Law
  (_Gibbon's historische Ubersicht des romischen Rechts_) was published
  by Hugo at Gottingen in 1839, and has frequently been used as a
  text-book in German universities. This chapter has also appeared in
  Polish (Cracow, 1844) and Greek (Athens, 1840). The centenary of
  Gibbon's death was celebrated in 1894 under the auspices of the Royal
  Historical Society: _Proceedings of the Gibbon Commemoration_,
  1794-1894, by R. H. T. Ball (1895).     (J. B. B.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The celebrated William Law had been for some time the private
    tutor of this Edward Gibbon, who is supposed to have been the
    original of the rather clever sketch of "Flatus" in the _Serious
    Call_.

  [2] _The Journal_ for 1755 records that during that year, besides
    writing and translating a great deal in Latin and French, he had
    read, amongst other works, Cicero's _Epistolae ad familiares_, his
    _Brutus_, all his _Orations_, his dialogues _De amicitia_ and _De
    seneciute_, Terence (twice), and Pliny's _Epistles_. In January 1756
    he says: "I determined to read over the Latin authors in order, and
    read this year Virgil, Sallust, Livy, Velleius Paterculus, Valerius
    Maximus, Tacitus, Suetonius, Quintus Curtius, Justin, Florus,
    Plautus, Terence and Lucretius. I also read and meditated Locke _Upon
    the Understanding_." Again in January 1757 he writes: "I began to
    study algebra under M. de Traytorrens, went through the elements of
    algebra and geometry, and the three first books of the Marquis de
    l'Hopital's _Conic Sections_. I also read Tibullus, Catullus,
    Propertius, Horace (with Dacier's and Torrentius's notes), Virgil,
    Ovid's _Epistles_, with Meziriac's commentary, the _Ars amandi_ and
    the _Elegies_; likewise the _Augustus_ and _Tiberius_ of Suetonius,
    and a Latin translation of Dion Cassius from the death of Julius
    Caesar to the death of Augustus. I also continued my correspondence,
    begun last year, with M. Allamand of Bex, and the Professor
    Breitinger of Zurich, and opened a new one with the Professor Gesner
    of Gottingen. N.B.--Last year and this I read St John's Gospel, with
    part of Xenophon's _Cyropaedia_, the _Iliad_, and Herodotus; but,
    upon the whole, I rather neglected my Greek."

  [3] The affair, however, was not finally broken off till 1763. Mdlle
    Curchod soon afterwards became the wife of Necker, the famous
    financier; and Gibbon and the Neckers frequently afterwards met on
    terms of mutual friendship and esteem.

  [4] The _Essai_, in a good English translation, now appears in the
    _Miscellaneous Works_. Villemain finds in it "peu de vues, nulle
    originalite surtout, mais une grande passion litteraire, l'amour des
    recherches savantes et du beau langage." Sainte-Beuve's criticism is
    almost identical with Gibbon's own; but though he finds that "la
    lecture en est assez difficile et parfois obscure, la liaison des
    idees echappe souvent par trop de concision et par le desir qu'a eu
    le jeune auteur d'y faire entrer, d'y condenser la plupart de ses
    notes," he adds, "il y a, chemin faisant, des vues neuves et qui
    sentent l'historien."

  [5] Her letters to Walpole about Gibbon contain some interesting
    remarks by this "aveugle clairvoyante," as Voltaire calls her; but
    they belong to a later period (1777).

  [6] For a very full list of publications in answer to Gibbon's attack
    on Christianity reference may be made to the _Bibliographer's
    Manual_, pp. 885-886 (1858). Of these the earliest were Watson's
    _Apology_ (1776), Salisbury's _Strictures_ (1776) and Chelsum's
    (anonymous) _Remarks_ (1776). In 1778 the _Few Remarks_ by a
    Gentleman (Francis Eyre), the _Reply_ of Loftus, the _Letters_ of
    Apthorpe and the _Examination_ of Davies appeared. Gibbon's
    _Vindication_ (1779) called forth a _Reply_ by Davies (1779), and _A
    Short Appeal to the Public_ by Francis Eyre (1779). Laughton's
    polemical treatise was published in 1780, and those of Milner and
    Taylor in 1781. Chelsum returned to the attack in 1785 (_A Reply to
    Mr Gibbon's Vindication_), and Sir David Dalrymple (_An Inquiry into
    the Secondary Causes_, &c.) made his first appearance in the
    controversy in 1786, Travis's _Letters on_ I John v. 7 are dated
    1784; and Spedalieri's _Confutazione dell' esame del Cristianismo
    fatto da Gibbon_ was published at Rome (2 vols. 4to) in the same
    year. It is impossible not to concur in almost every point with
    Gibbon's own estimate of his numerous assailants. Their crude
    productions, for the most part, were conspicuous rather for insolence
    and abusiveness than for logic or learning. Those of Bishop Watson
    and Lord Hailes were the best, but simply because they contented
    themselves with a dispassionate exposition of the general argument in
    favour of Christianity. The most foolish and discreditable was
    certainly that of Davies; his unworthy attempt to depreciate the
    great historian's learning, and his captious, cavilling, acrimonious
    charges of petty inaccuracies and discreditable falsification gave
    the object of his attack an easy triumph.

  [7] In 1775 he writes to Holroyd: "I am still a mute; it is more
    tremendous than I imagined; the great speakers fill me with despair;
    the bad ones with terror."

  [8] An anonymous pamphlet, entitled _Observations on the three last
    volumes of the Roman History_, appeared in 1788; Disney's _Sermon,
    with Strictures_, in 1790; and Whitaker's _Review_, in 1791. With
    regard to the second of the above complaints, surprise will probably
    be felt that it was not extended to portions of the text as well as
    to the notes.




GIBBON, the collective title of the smaller man-like apes of the
Indo-Malay countries, all of which may be included in the single genus
_Hylobates_. Till recently these apes have been generally included in
the same family (_Simiidae_) with the chimpanzee, gorilla and
orang-utan, but they are now regarded by several naturalists as
representing a family by themselves--the _Hylobatidae_. One of the
distinctive features of this family is the presence of small naked
callosities on the buttocks; another being a difference in the number of
vertebrae and ribs as compared with those of the _Simiidae_. The extreme
length of the limbs and the absence of a tail are other features of
these small apes, which are thoroughly arboreal in their habits, and
make the woods resound with their unearthly cries at night. In agility
they are unsurpassed; in fact they are stated to be so swift in their
movements as to be able to capture birds on the wing with their paws.
When they descend to the ground--which they must often do in order to
obtain water--they frequently walk in the upright posture, either with
the hands crossed behind the neck, or with the knuckles resting on the
ground. Their usual food consists of leaves and fruits. Gibbons may be
divided into two groups, the one represented by the siamang, _Hylobates
(Symphalangus) syndactylus_, of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, and the
other by a number of closely allied species. The union of the index and
middle fingers by means of a web extending as far as the terminal joints
is the distinctive feature of the siamang, which is the largest of the
group, and black in colour with a white frontal band. Black or puce-grey
is the prevailing colour in the second group, of which the hulock (_H.
hulock_) of Assam, _H. lar_ of Arakan and Pegu, _H. entelloides_ of
Tenasserim (fig.), and _H. agilis_ of Sumatra are well-known
representatives. A female of the Hainan gibbon (_H. hainanus_) in
confinement changed from uniform sooty-black (without the white frontal
band of the black phase of the hulock) to puce-grey; but it is probable
that this was only an individual, or at most a sexual, peculiarity. The
range of the genus extends from the southern bank of the Bramaputra in
Assam to southern China, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra and Borneo.
     (R. L.*)

[Illustration: The Tenasserim Gibbon (_Hylobates entelloides_).]




GIBBONS, GRINLING (1648-1721), English wood-carver, was born in 1648,
according to some authorities of Dutch parents at Rotterdam, and
according to others of English parents at London. By the former he is
said to have come to London after the great fire in 1666. He early
displayed great cleverness and ingenuity in his art, on the strength of
which he was recommended by Evelyn to Charles II., who employed him in
the execution both of statuary and of ornamental carving in wood. In the
early part of the 18th century he worked for Sir Christopher Wren. In
statuary one of his principal works is a life-size bronze statue in the
court of Whitehall, representing James II. in the dress of a Roman
emperor, and he also designed the base of the statue of Charles I. at
Charing Cross. It is, however, chiefly as a sculptor in wood that he is
famous. He was employed to execute the ornamental carving for the chapel
at Windsor, the foliage and festoons in the choir of St Paul's, the
baptismal fonts in St James's, and an immense quantity of ornamental
work at Burleigh, Chatsworth, and other aristocratic mansions. The
finest of all his productions in this style is believed to be the
ceiling which he devised for a room at Petworth. His subjects are
chiefly birds, flowers, foliage, fruit and lace, and many of his works,
for delicacy and elaboration of details, and truthfulness of imitation,
have never been surpassed. He, however, sometimes wasted his ingenuity
on trifling subjects; many of his flowers used to move on their stems
like their natural prototypes when shaken by a breeze. In 1714 Gibbons
was appointed master carver in wood to George I. He died at London on
the 3rd of August 1721.




GIBBONS, JAMES (1834-   ), American Roman Catholic cardinal and
archbishop, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 23rd of July 1834,
and was educated at St Charles College, Ellicott City, Maryland, and St
Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, where he finished his theological training
and was ordained priest on the 30th of June 1861. After a short time
spent on the missions of Baltimore, he was called to be secretary to
Archbishop Martin J. Spalding and assistant at the cathedral. When in
1866 the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore considered the matter of
new diocesan developments, he was selected to organize the new Vicariate
Apostolic of North Carolina; and was consecrated bishop in August 1868.
During the four successful years spent in North Carolina he wrote, for
the benefit of his mission work, _The Faith of our Fathers_, a brief
presentation of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, especially
intended to reach Protestants; the books passed through more than forty
editions in America and about seventy in England, and an answer was made
to it in _Faith of our Forefathers_ (1879), by Edward J. Stearns.
Gibbons was transferred to the see of Richmond, Virginia, in 1872, and
in 1877 was made coadjutor, with the right of succession, to the
Archbishop (James R. Bayley) of Baltimore. In October of the same year
he succeeded to the archbishopric. Pope Leo XIII. in 1883 selected him
to preside over the Third Plenary Council in Baltimore (1884), and on
the 30th of June 1886 created him a cardinal priest, with the title of
Santa Maria Trastevere. His simplicity of life, foresight and prudence
made him a power in the church. Thoroughly American, and a lover of the
people, he greatly altered the attitude of the Roman Catholic Church
toward the Knights of Labor and other labour organizations, and his
public utterances displayed the true instincts of a popular leader. He
contributed frequently to periodicals, but as an author is known
principally by his works on religious subjects, including _Our Christian
Heritage_ (1889) and _The Ambassador of Christ_ (1896). For many years
an ardent advocate of the establishment of a Catholic university, at the
Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884) he saw the realization of his
desires in the establishment of the Catholic University of America at
Washington, of which he became first chancellor and president of the
board of trustees.




GIBBONS, ORLANDO (1583-1625), English musical composer, was the most
illustrious of a family of musicians all more or less able. We know of
at least three generations, for Orlando's father, William Gibbons,
having been one of the waits of Cambridge, may be assumed to have
acquired some proficiency in the art. His three sons and at least one of
his grandsons inherited and further developed his talent. The eldest,
Edward, was made bachelor of music at Cambridge, and successively held
important musical appointments at the cathedrals of Bristol and Exeter;
Ellis, the second son, was organist of Salisbury cathedral, and is the
composer of two madrigals in the collection known as the _The Triumphs
of Oriana_. Orlando Gibbons, the youngest and by far the most celebrated
of the brothers, was born at Cambridge in 1583. Where and under whom he
studied is not known, but in his twenty-first year he was sufficiently
advanced and celebrated to receive the important post of organist of the
Chapel Royal. His first published composition "Fantasies in three parts,
composed for viols," appeared in 1610. It seems to have been the first
piece of music printed in England from engraved plates, or "cut in
copper, the like not heretofore extant." In 1622 he was created doctor
of music by the university of Oxford. For this occasion he composed an
anthem for eight parts, _O clap your Hands_, still extant. In the
following year he became organist of Westminster Abbey. Orlando Gibbons
died before the beginning of the civil war, or it may be supposed that,
like his eldest brother, he would have been a staunch royalist. In a
different sense, however, he died in the cause of his master; for having
been summoned to Canterbury to produce a composition written in
celebration of Charles's marriage, he there fell a victim to smallpox on
the 5th of June 1625.

  For a full list of his compositions, see Grove's _Dictionary of
  Music_. His portrait may be found in Hawkins's well-known _History_.
  His vocal pieces, madrigals, motets, canons, &c., are admirable, and
  prove him to have been a great master of pure polyphony. We have also
  some specimens of his instrumental music, such as the six pieces for
  the virginals published in _Parthenia_, a collection of instrumental
  music produced by Gibbons in conjunction with Dr Bull and Byrd.





GIBBS, JOSIAH WILLARD (1839-1903), American mathematical physicist, the
fourth child and only son of Josiah Willard Gibbs (1790-1861), who was
professor of sacred literature in Yale Divinity School from 1824 till
his death, was born at New Haven on the 11th of February 1839. Entering
Yale College in 1854 he graduated in 1858, and continuing his studies
there was appointed tutor in 1863. He taught Latin in the first two
years, and natural philosophy in the third. He then went to Europe,
studying in Paris in 1866-1867, in Berlin in 1867 and in Heidelberg in
1868. Returning to New Haven in 1869, he was appointed professor of
mathematical physics in Yale College in 1871, and held that position
till his death, which occurred at New Haven on the 28th of April 1903.
His first contributions to mathematical physics were two papers
published in 1873 in the _Transactions_ of the Connecticut Academy on
"Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids," and "Method of
Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances
by means of Surfaces." His next and most important publication was his
famous paper "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" (in two
parts, 1876 and 1878), which, it has been said, founded a new department
of chemical science that is becoming comparable in importance to that
created by Lavoisier. This work was translated into German by W. Ostwald
(who styled its author the "founder of chemical energetics") in 1891 and
into French by H. le Chatelier in 1899. In 1881 and 1884 he printed some
notes on the elements of vector analysis for the use of his students;
these were never formally published, but they formed the basis of a
text-book on _Vector Analysis_ which was published by his pupil, E. B.
Wilson, in 1901. Between 1882 and 1889 a series of papers on certain
points in the electromagnetic theory of light and its relation to the
various elastic solid theories appeared in the _American Journal of
Science_, and his last work, _Elementary Principles in Statistical
Mechanics_, was issued in 1902. The name of Willard Gibbs, who was the
most distinguished American mathematical physicist of his day, is
especially associated with the "Phase Rule," of which some account will
be found in the article ENERGETICS. In 1901 the Copley medal of the
Royal Society of London was awarded him as being "the first to apply the
second law of thermodynamics to the exhaustive discussion of the
relation between chemical, electrical and thermal energy and capacity
for external work."

  A biographical sketch will be found in his collected _Scientific
  Papers_ (2 vols., 1906).




GIBBS, OLIVER WOLCOTT (1822-1908), American chemist, was born at New
York on the 21st of February 1822. His father, Colonel George Gibbs, was
an ardent mineralogist; the mineral gibbsite was named after him, and
his collection was finally bought by Yale College. Entering Columbia
College in 1837, Wolcott (the Oliver he dropped at an early date)
graduated in 1841, and, having assisted Robert Hare at Pennsylvania
University for several months, he next entered the College of Physicians
and Surgeons in New York, qualifying as a doctor of medicine in 1845.
Leaving America he studied in Germany with K. F. Rammelsberg, H. Rose
and J. von Liebig, and in Paris with A. Laurent, J. B. Dumas, and H. V.
Regnault, returning in 1848. In that year he became professor of
chemistry at the Free Academy, now the College of the City of New York,
and in 1863 he obtained the Rumford professorship in Harvard University,
a post retained until his retirement in 1887 as professor emeritus. He
died on the 9th of December 1908. Gibbs' researches were mainly in
analytical and inorganic chemistry, the cobaltammines, platinum metals
and complex acids being especially investigated. He was an excellent
teacher, and contributed many articles to scientific journals.

  See the Memorial Lecture by F. W. Clarke in the _J.C.S._ (1909), p.
  1299.




GIBEON, a town in Palestine whose inhabitants wrested a truce from
Joshua by a trick (Josh. ix., x.); where the champions of David fought
those of Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. ii. 12-32); where Joab murdered Amasa (ib.
xx. 8-10); and where Johanan went against Ishmael to avenge the murder
of Gedaliah (Jer. xli. 12). Here was an important high place (1 Kings
iii. 4) where for a time the tabernacle was deposited (2 Chron. i. 3).
The present name is _El-Jib_; this is a small village about 5 m. N.W. of
Jerusalem, standing on an isolated hill above a flat corn valley. The
village is famous for its springs, and the reputation seems ancient (cf.
2 Sam. ii. 13; Jer. xli. 12). The principal spring issues from under a
cliff on the south-east side of the hill, and the water runs to a
reservoir lower down. The sides of the hill are rocky, and remarkable
for the regular stratification of the limestone, which gives the hill at
a distance the appearance of being terraced. Scattered olive groves
surround the place.     (R. A. S. M.)




GIBEONITES, the inhabitants of Gibeon, an Amorite or Hivite stronghold,
the modern El-Jib, 5 m. N.W. from Jerusalem. According to Joshua xviii.
25 it was one of the cities of Benjamin. When the Israelites, under
Joshua, invaded Canaan, the Gibeonites by a crafty ruse escaped the fate
of Jericho and Ai and secured protection from the invaders (Joshua ix.).
Cheyne thinks this story the attempt of a later age to explain the long
independence of Gibeon and the use of the Gibeonites as slaves in
Solomon's temple. An attempt on the part of Saul to exterminate the clan
is mentioned in 2 Sam. xxi., and this slaughter may possibly be
identified with the massacre at Nob recorded in 1 Sam. xxii. 17-19 (see
_Ency. Bib._ col. 1717). The place is also associated with the murders
of Asahel (2 Sam. ii. 12), Amasa (2 Sam. xx. 8) and Gedaliah (Jer. xli.
12), and with the wrathful intervention of Yahweh referred to by Isaiah
(xxviii. 21), which we may identify with the memorable victory of David
over the Philistines recorded in 2 Sam. v. 25 (reading Gibeon for Geba).
Gibeon was the seat of an old Canaanitish sanctuary afterwards used by
the Israelites; it was here that Solomon, immediately after his
coronation, went to consult the oracles and had the dream in which he
chose the gift of wisdom (1 Kings iii.).




GIBRALTAR, a British fortress and crown colony at the western entrance
to the Mediterranean. The whole territory is rather less than 3 m. in
length from north to south and varies in width from 1/4 to 3/4 m.
Gibraltar is called after Tariq (or Tarik) ben Zaid, its name being a
corruption of Jebel Tariq (Mount Tariq). Tariq invaded Andalusia in A.D.
711 with an army of 12,000 Arabs and Berbers, and in the last days of
July of that year destroyed the Gothic power in a three days' fight on
the banks of the river Guadalete near where Jerez de la Frontera now
stands. In order to secure his communications with Africa he ordered the
building of a strong castle upon the Rock, known to the Romans as Mons
Calpe. This work, begun in the year of the great battle, was completed
in 742. It covered a wide area, reaching from the shores of the bay to a
point half-way up the north-western slope of the rock; here the keep, a
massive square tower, still stands and is known as the Moorish castle.

The Rock itself is about 2-1/2 m. in length, and at its northern end
rises almost perpendicularly from the strip of flat sandy ground which
connects it with the Spanish mainland. At the north end, on the crest of
the Rock 1200 ft. above sea-level, is the Rock gun, famous in the great
siege. Some six furlongs to the south is the signal station (1255 ft.),
through which the names and messages of passing ships are cabled to all
parts of the world. Rather less than 3/4 m. south of the signal station
is O'Hara's Tower (1408 ft.), the highest point of the Rock. South of
O'Hara's Tower the ground falls steeply to Windmill Hill, a fairly even
surface about 1/8 of a sq. m. in area, and sloping from 400 to 300 ft.
above the sea-level. South of Windmill Hill are Europa Flats, a
wall-like cliff 200 ft. or more in height dividing them. Europa Flats,
sloping south, end in cliffs 50 ft. high, which at and around Europa
Point plunge straight down into deep water. Europa Point is the most
southern point of the Rock, and is distant 11-1/2 nautical miles from
the opposite African coast. On Europa Point is the lighthouse in 5 deg.
21' W. and 36 deg. 6' 30" N. On the Mediterranean side the Rock is
almost as steep and inaccessible as it is from the north. Below the
signal station, at the edge of the Mediterranean, lies Catalan Bay,
where there is a little village chiefly inhabited by fishermen and
others who make their living upon the waters; but Catalan Bay can only
be approached by land from the north or by a tunnel through the Rock
from the dockyard; from Catalan Bay to Europa Point the way is barred by
impassable cliffs. On the west side of the Rock the slopes are less
steep, especially as they near the sea, and on this side lie the town,
the Alameda or public gardens, the barracks and the dockyard.

[Illustration: Gibraltar.]

  _Geology._--The rock of Gibraltar consists, for the most part, of pale
  grey limestone of compact and sometimes crystalline structure,
  generally stratified but in places apparently amorphous. Above the
  limestone are found layers of dark grey-blue shales with intercalated
  beds of grit, mudstone and limestone. Both limestone and shales are of
  the Lower Jurassic age. Professors A. C. Ramsay and James Geikie
  (_Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, London, August 1878)
  found also in the superficial formations of the Rock various features
  of interest to the students of Pleistocene geology, including massive
  accumulations of limestone breccia or agglomerate, bone breccias,
  deposits of calcareous sandstone, raised beaches and loose sands. The
  oldest of these superficial formations is the limestone breccia of
  Buena Vista, devoid of fossils and apparently formed under the stress
  of hard frosts, indicating conditions of climate of great severity. To
  account for frosts like these, it is suggested that the surface of the
  Rock must have been raised to an elevation much greater than its
  present height. In that case Europe and Africa would probably have
  been connected by an isthmus across some part of the present site of
  the Straits, and there would have been a wider area of low ground
  round the base of the Rock. The low ground at this, and probably at a
  later period, must have been clothed with a rich vegetation, necessary
  for the support of a varied mammalian fauna, whose remains have been
  found in the Genista caves. After this there would seem to have been a
  subsidence to a depth of some 700 ft. below the existing level. This
  would account for the ledges and platforms which have been formed by
  erosion of the sea high above the present sea-level, and for the
  deposits of calcareous sandstone containing sea shells of existing
  Mediterranean species. The extent of some of these eroded ledges shows
  that pauses of long duration intervened between the periods of
  depression. The Rock seems after this to have been raised to a level
  considerably above that at which it now stands; Europe and Africa
  would then again have been united. At a later date still the Rock sank
  once more to its present level.

  Many caves, some of them of great extent, penetrate the interior of
  the rock; the best known of these are the Genista and St Michael's
  caves. St Michael's cave, about 1100 ft. above sea-level at its mouth,
  slopes rapidly down and extends over 400 ft. into the Rock; its
  extreme limits have not, however, been fully explored. It consists of
  a series of five or more chambers of considerable extent, connected by
  narrow and crooked passages. The outermost cave is 70 ft. in height
  and 200 in length, with massive pillars of stalactite reaching from
  roof to floor. The second cave was named the Victoria cave by its
  discoverer Captain Brome; beyond these are three caves known as the
  Leonora caves. "Nothing," writes Captain Brome, "can exceed the beauty
  of the stalactites; they form clusters of every imaginable
  shape--statuettes, pillars, foliages, figures," and he adds that
  American visitors have admitted that even the Mammoth cave itself
  could not rival these giant stalactites in picturesque beauty.

  The mammalian remains of the Genista cave have been described by G.
  Busk ("Quaternary Fauna of Gibraltar" in _Trans. of Zool. Soc._ vol.
  x. p. 2, 1877). They were found to contain remains of a bear, probably
  _Ursus fossilis_ of Goldfuss; of a hyena, _H. crocuta_ or _spelaea_;
  of cats varying from a leopard to a wild cat in size; of a rhinoceros,
  resembling in species remains found in the Thames valley; two forms of
  ibex; the hare and rabbit. No trace has been found as yet of
  _Rhinoceros tichorinus_, of _Ursus spelaeus_ or of the reindeer; and
  of the elephant only a molar tooth of _Elephas antiquus_.

  Further details may be found in the _Quarterly Journ. of Geol. Soc._
  (James Smith of Jordanhill), vol. ii. and in vol. xxi. (_Fossil
  Contents of the Genista Cave_, G. Busk and Hugh Falconer; reprinted in
  _Palaeontological Memoirs_, H. Falconer, London, 1868).

  _Flora._--The upper part of the Rock is in summer burnt up and brown,
  but after the first autumn rains and during the winter, spring and
  early summer, it abounds in wild flowers and shrubs. In the public and
  other gardens on the lower ground, where there is a greater depth of
  soil, the vegetation is luxuriant and is only limited by the supply of
  water available for summer irrigation. Dr E. F. Kelaart (_Flora
  Calpensis_, London, 1846) enumerates more than four hundred varieties
  of plants and ferns indigenous to Gibraltar, and about fifty more
  which have been introduced from abroad. Of the former a few are said
  to be species peculiar to the Rock. The stone-pine and wild-olive are
  perhaps the only trees found growing in a natural state. In the public
  and private gardens and by the roadside may be seen the pepper tree,
  the plane, the white poplar, the acacia, the bella-sombra (_Phytolacca
  dioica_), the eucalyptus or blue gum tree, and palms of different
  species; and, of fruit trees, the orange, lemon, fig, pomegranate,
  loquat and almond. The aloe, flowering aloe and prickly pear are
  common, and on the eastern side of the Rock the palmito or dwarf palm
  (_Chamaerops humilis_) is abundant.

  _Fauna._--The fauna of Gibraltar, from want of space, is necessarily
  scanty. The Barbary apes, said to be the only wild monkeys in Europe,
  are still to be found on the upper part of the Rock, but in very
  reduced numbers; about the beginning of the 20th century four or five
  only remained, which were said to be all females; a young male,
  however, was brought from Africa. The last male of the original stock,
  an old patriarch, who had died shortly before this, is believed to
  have killed and, it is said, eaten all the young ones. A small variety
  of pigeon breeds in the steep cliffs at the north end of the Rock. A
  few red-legged partridges, some rabbits, two or three foxes and a
  badger or two will complete the list.

_Climate._--The climate of Gibraltar is pleasant and healthy, mild in
winter, and only moderately hot in summer; but the heat, though not
excessive, is lasting. The three months of June, July and August are
almost always without rain, and it is not often that rain falls in the
months of May and September. The first autumn rains, however, which
sometimes begin in September, are usually heavy. From October to May the
climate is for the most part delightful, warm sunshine prevailing,
tempered by cool breezes; the spells of bad weather, although blustering
enough at times, are seldom of more than a few days' duration. The
thermometer in summer does not often reach 90 deg. F. in the shade; from
83 deg. to 85 deg. may be taken to be the average maximum for July and
August, and these are the hottest months of the year. The average yearly
rainfall is 34.4 in., and in fifty years from 1857 to 1906 the greatest
recorded rainfall was 59.35 in., and the smallest 16.75 in. The
water-supply for drinking and cooking purposes is almost wholly derived
from rain-water stored chiefly in underground tanks; there are very few
good wells. Many of the better class of houses have their own
rain-water tanks, and there are large tanks belonging to the naval and
military authorities. Large storage tanks have been constructed by the
sanitary commissioners with specially prepared collecting areas high up
the Rock. The collecting areas cover 16 acres, and the storage tanks
have a capacity of over six million gallons. The tanks are excavated in
the solid rock, whereby the water is kept in the dark and cool. A large
quantity of brackish water for flushing purposes and baths is pumped
from the sandy flats of the north front on the Spanish side of the Rock.

_The Town._--The modern town of Gibraltar is of comparatively recent
date, nearly all the older buildings having been destroyed during the
great siege (1779-1783). The town lies, with most of its buildings
crowded together, at the north-western corner of the Rock, and covers
only about one-ninth part of the whole area; only a small part of it is
on level ground, and those of its narrow streets and lanes which are at
right angles to the line wall, or sea front, are for the most part,
except at their western ends, little more than ramps or rough stairs
formed of rubble stones, contracting in places into stone steps.

The public buildings present few, if any, features of general interest.
The "Convent" rebuilt upon the remains of an old Franciscan monastery is
the official residence of the governor. The Anglican cathedral is a poor
imitation of Moorish architecture. The garrison library has excellent
reading rooms and a large number of volumes of miscellaneous interest.
The civil hospital is a well-planned and roomy modern building. The
courthouse and exchange buildings are suited to the needs of the town.
The antiquary may here and there find the remains of a Moorish bath
forming part of a stable, or fragments of a sculptured stone gateway
bearing the arms of Castile or of Aragon built into the wall of a modern
barrack. In a small disused graveyard, near Southport gate, lie buried a
number of those who fell at Trafalgar. To the south of the town are the
Alameda parade and gardens, a lunatic asylum, the dockyard, graving
docks and the naval and military hospitals.

_Population._--The inhabitants of Gibraltar are of mixed race; after the
capture of the town by the British nearly the whole of the former
Spanish population emigrated in a body and founded, 6 m. away, the
little town of San Roque. Most of the native inhabitants are of Italian
or Genoese descent; there are also a number of Maltese, and between two
and three thousand Jews. The Jews never intermarry with other races and
form a distinct society of their own. The language of the people is
Spanish, not very correctly spoken. English is learnt as a foreign
language and is rarely, if ever, spoken by the people in their own
homes. Gibraltar being primarily a fortress and naval base, every
effort, in view of war contingencies, is made by the authorities to
prevent the natural increase of the population. Sanitary and building
regulations, modelled upon English statutes designed with quite
different objects, are administered with some ingenuity and not a little
severity. In this way the house room available for the poorer classes is
steadily reduced. The poor are thus being gradually pushed across the
frontier into the neighbouring Spanish town of La Linea de la
Concepcion, itself a mere suburb of Gibraltar, whose population,
however, is nearly double that of the parent city. A large army of
workers come daily from "the Lines" into Gibraltar, returning at "first
evening gunfire" shortly after sunset, at which time the gates are
closed and locked for the night. Aliens are not allowed to reside in
Gibraltar without a special permit, which must be renewed at short
intervals. By an order in council, taking effect from November 1900, the
like disabilities were extended to British subjects not previously
resident.

  The recorded births, marriages and deaths over a period of 23 years
  are as follows:--

    +----------------+-------+----------+-------+
    | Yearly Average.|Births.|Marriages.|Deaths.|
    +----------------+-------+----------+-------+
    | 1883-1885      |  621  |    177   |  513  |
    | 1886-1890      |  603  |    167   |  514  |
    | 1891-1895      |  626  |    186   |  460  |
    | 1896-1900      |  641  |    201   |  498  |
    | 1901-1905      |  629  |    201   |  472  |
    +----------------+-------+----------+-------+

  The numbers of the population from causes which have been referred to
  are almost stationary, showing a slight tendency to decrease. There
  are no available statistics later than those of a census taken in
  1901, from which it appeared that the population then numbered 27,460,
  of whom the garrison and its families amounted to 6595, the civil
  population, being British subjects, to 17,818, and aliens resident
  under permits to 3047. The latter are chiefly working men and domestic
  servants.

_Constitution._--Gibraltar is a crown colony. Of local government
properly so called there is none. There is a sanitary commission which
is vested with large powers of spending and with the control of
buildings and streets and other matters managed by local authorities in
England. Its members are appointed by the governor. An appeal from their
decisions, so far as they affect individuals, lies to the supreme court.
Apart from the garrison and civil officials there are comparatively few
members of the Anglican Church. The great majority of the people belong
to the Church of Rome. The Jews have four synagogues. The Protestant
dissenters have two places of worship, Presbyterian and Wesleyan.
Education is not compulsory for the civil population, but most of the
children, if not all, receive a fair education in private or private
aided schools. The number of the children on the rolls of the private
and private aided schools was in 1905: boys, 1504; girls, 1733; total
3237.

  _Commerce._--Except in respect of alcoholic liquors and tobacco
  Gibraltar has been a free port since the year 1705--a distinction due,
  it is said, to the refusal of a sultan of Morocco to allow of
  much-needed exports from Morocco to Gibraltar if full liberty of trade
  were not granted to his subjects. During the great wars of the
  beginning of the 19th century trade was most active in Gibraltar, and
  some large fortunes were made; but trade on a large scale has almost
  disappeared. At the point of contact of two continents, on the direct
  line of ocean trade with the far East, in regular steam communication
  with all the great ports of Europe and with North and South America,
  Gibraltar, by its position, is fitted to be a trade centre of the
  world, but the unrest and suspicion engendered in Morocco by the
  intrigues and designs of the European powers, and excessive protective
  duties and maladministration in Spain, have done much to extinguish
  the trade of Gibraltar. There are, however, no trustworthy statistics
  of imports and exports. Before the year 1898 wine, beer and spirits
  were the only goods which paid duty. In that year a duty of 1d. per
  lb. was for the first time put upon tobacco and produced L1444; the
  duty was, however, in force only for a part of the year; in 1899 the
  duty, at the same rate, produced L7703. In 1902 the duty on tobacco
  was raised to 2d. per lb. and produced L29,311. In 1905 this duty
  produced L24,575. The chief business of Gibraltar is the coaling of
  passing steamers; this gives work to several thousand men. Goods are
  also landed for re-export to Morocco, but the bulk of the Morocco
  trade, much of which formerly came to Gibraltar, is now done by lines
  of steamers trading to and from Morocco direct to British, German or
  French ports. Nearly all the fresh meat consumed in Gibraltar comes
  from Morocco, also large quantities of poultry and eggs. A fair amount
  of retail business is done with the passengers of ocean steamers which
  call on their way to and from the East and from North and South
  America.

  The steam-tonnage cleared annually since 1883 is shown in the
  following table:--

    +----------------+-----------+----------+-----------+
    | Yearly Average.|  British. | Foreign. |   Total.  |
    +----------------+-----------+----------+-----------+
    | 1883-1885      | 3,525,135 |  817,926 | 4,343,061 |
    | 1886-1890      | 4,507,101 |  908,419 | 5,415,520 |
    | 1891-1895      | 3,710,856 |  975,390 | 4,686,246 |
    | 1896-1900      | 3,281,165 |1,063,367 | 4,344,532 |
    | 1901-1905      | 2,810,849 |1,309,649 | 4,120,498 |
    +----------------+-----------+----------+-----------+

  The main sources of revenue are (i.) duties upon wine, spirits, malt
  liquors and tobacco; (ii.) port and harbour dues; (iii.) tavern and
  other licences; (iv.) post and telegraph; (v.) ground and other rents;
  (vi.) stamps and miscellaneous. The returns before 1898 were made in
  pesetas (5 = $1). In the following table these have been converted
  into sterling at an average of exchange 30 = L1.

    +---------------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+--------+--------+
    |Yearly Average.|   i.   |  ii.  | iii. |  iv.  |  v.  |   vi.  | Total. |
    +---------------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+--------+--------+
    |   1886-1890   |  9,692 |17,070 | 5387 | 6,805 | 6485 |  2,873 | 48,312 |
    |   1891-1895   |  9,250 |13,157 | 4275 | 7,833 | 6208 | 10,113 | 50,836 |
    |   1896-1900   | 14,071 | 8,435 | 4136 |10,016 | 5924 | 14,460 | 57,042 |
    |   1901-1905   | 35,900 | 6,028 | 3905 |12,091 | 6945 | 15,859 | 80,728 |
    |   Year 1905   | 36,554 | 5,872 | 4050 |16,551 | 7489 | 17,007 | 87,523 |
    +---------------+--------+-------+------+-------+------+--------+--------+

  The money, weights and measures in legal use are British. Before 1898
  Spanish money only was in use. The great depreciation of the Spanish
  currency during the war with the United States led in 1898 to the
  reintroduction of British currency as the legal tender money of
  Gibraltar. Notwithstanding this change the Spanish dollar still
  remains in current use; much of the retail business of the town being
  done with persons resident in Spain, the dollar fully holds its own.

_Harbour and Fortifications._--Great changes were made in the defences
of Gibraltar early in the 20th century. Guns of the newest types
replaced those of older patterns. The heavier pieces instead of being at
or near the sea-level, are now high up, many of them on the crest line
of the Rock; their lateral range and fire area has thereby been greatly
increased and their efficiency improved in combination with an elaborate
system of range finding.

With the completion of the new dockyard works the value of Gibraltar as
a naval base has greatly increased. It can now undertake all the
ordinary repairs and coaling of a large fleet. There is an enclosed
harbour in which a fleet can safely anchor secure from the attacks of
torpedo boats. A mole, at first intended for commercial purposes, closes
the north end of the new harbour. The Admiralty, however, soon found
that their needs had outgrown the first design and the so-called
Commercial Mole has been taken over for naval purposes, plans for a new
commercial mole being prepared. The funds for these extensive works were
provided by the Naval Works Loan Acts of 1895 and subsequent years.

The land space available for the purposes of dockyard extension being
very limited, a space of about 64 acres was reclaimed from the sea in
front of the Alameda and the road to Rosia; some of the land reclaimed
was as much as 40 ft. under water. The large quantity of material
required for this purpose was obtained by tunnelling the Rock from W. to
E. and from quarries above Catalan Bay village, to which access was
gained through the tunnel. The graving docks occupy the dug-out site of
the former New Mole Parade. There are three of these docks, 850, 550 and
450 ft. in length respectively. The largest dock is divisible by a
central caisson so that four ships can be docked at one time. The docks
are all 95 ft. wide at the entrance with 35-1/2 ft. of water over the
sills at low-water spring tides. The pumping machinery can empty the
largest dock, 105,000 tons of water, in five hours. There are two
workshops for the chief constructor's and chief engineer's departments,
each 407 ft. long and 322 broad. For the staff captain's department and
stores there are buildings with 250,000 ft. of floor space. At the north
end of the yard are the administrative offices, slipways for destroyers,
a slip for small craft, an ordnance wharf and a boat camber. The
reclaimed area is faced with a wharf wall of concrete blocks for an
unbroken length of 1600 ft. with 33 ft. of water alongside at low tide;
on this wharf are powerful shears and cranes.

The enclosed harbour covers 440 acres, 250 of which have a minimum depth
of 30 ft. at low water. It is closed on the S. and S.W. by the New Mole
(1400 ft.) and the New Mole extension (2700 ft.), together 4100 ft.; on
the W. by the Detached Mole (2720 ft.) and on the N. by the Commercial
Mole.

The New Mole, so called to distinguish it from the Old Mole and its
later extension the Devil's Tongue at the north end of the town, is said
to have been begun by the Spaniards in 1620. It was successfully
assaulted by landing parties from the British fleet under Sir George
Rooke at the capture of Gibraltar by the British in 1704. It was
extended at different times, and before the beginning of the new works
was 1400 ft. in length. The New Mole, with its latest extension, has a
width at top of 102 ft. It is formed of rubble stone floated into
position in barges. It has a continuous wharf wall on the harbour side
3500 ft. long, with water alongside 30 to 35 ft. deep. On the outer side
coal is stacked in sheds extending nearly the whole length of the mole.

The Detached Mole is a vertical wall formed of concrete blocks, each
block weighing 28 tons. These blocks were built together on the sloping
block system upon a rubble foundation of stone deposited by barges and
levelled by divers for the reception of the concrete blocks.

The Commercial Mole is now chiefly used by the navy as a convenient
wharf for destroyers. It encloses the harbour to the north and extends
westward from the end of the Devil's Tongue. At the end nearest the town
are large stores; there is also a small wharf on its outer side which is
used by the tenders of ocean steamers and by the small boats which ply
to Algeciras.

This mole is built of rubble, and at its western end it has an arm about
1600 ft. long running S. in the direction of the Detached Mole. Parallel
with and inside the western arm are five jetties. The jetties and
western arm have extensive coal sheds and are faced with a concrete
wharf wall of a total length of 7000 ft. with 20 to 30 ft. of water
alongside. The Devil's Tongue was an extension of the Old Mole,
constructed during the great siege 1779-1783 in order to bring a
flanking fire to bear upon part of the Spanish lines. It owes its name
to the success with which it played its destined part. (H. M.*)

_History._--Gibraltar was known to the Greek and Roman geographers as
Calpe or Alybe, the two names being probably corruptions of the same
local (perhaps Phoenician) word. The eminence on the African coast near
Ceuta which bears the modern English name of Apes' Hill was then
designated Abyla; and Calpe and Abyla, at least according to an ancient
and widely current interpretation, formed the renowned Pillars of
Hercules (_Herculis columnae_, [Greek: Hrakleous stelai]), which for
centuries were the limits of enterprise to the seafaring peoples of the
Mediterranean world. The military history of the Rock begins with its
capture and fortification by Tariq in 711. In 1309 it was retaken by
Alonzo Perez de Guzman for Ferdinand IV. of Castile and Leon, who, in
order to attract inhabitants to the spot, offered an asylum to thieves
and murderers, and promised to levy no taxes on the import or export of
goods. The attack of Ismail ben Ferez in 1315 (2nd siege) was
frustrated; but in 1333 Vasco Perez de Meyra, having allowed the
fortifications and garrison to decay, was obliged to capitulate to
Mahomet IV. (3rd siege) after a defence of five months. Alonzo's
attempts to recover possession (4th siege) were futile, though
pertinacious and heroic; but after his successful attack on Algeciras in
1344 he was encouraged to try his fortune again at Gibraltar. In 1349 he
invested the Rock, but the siege (5th siege) was brought to an untimely
close by his death in March 1350. The next or 6th siege resulted simply
in the transference of the position from the hands of the king of
Morocco to those of Yussef III. of Granada (1411), and the 7th,
undertaken by the Spanish count of Niebla, Enrique de Guzman, proved
fatal to the besieger and his forces (1435). In 1462, however, success
attended the efforts of Alonzo de Arcos (8th siege), and in August the
Rock passed once more under Christian sway. The duke of Medina Sidonia,
a powerful grandee who had assisted in its capture, was anxious to get
possession of the fortress, and though Henry IV. at first managed to
maintain the claims of the crown, the duke ultimately made good his
ambition by force of arms (9th siege), and in 1469 the king was
constrained to declare his son and his heirs perpetual governors of
Gibraltar. In 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella made the second duke marquess
of Gibraltar, and in 1492 the third duke, Don Juan, was reluctantly
allowed to retain the fortress. At length in 1502 it was formally
incorporated with the domains of the crown. Don Juan tried in 1506 to
recover possession, and added a 10th to the list of sieges. In 1540 the
garrison had to defend itself against a much more formidable attack
(11th siege)--the pirates of Algiers having determined to recover the
Rock for Mahomet and themselves. The conflict was severe, but resulted
in the repulse of the besiegers. After this the Spaniards made great
efforts to strengthen the place, and they succeeded so well that
throughout Europe Gibraltar was regarded as impregnable, the engineer
Daniel Speckle (1536-1589) being chiefly responsible for the design of
the fortifications.

Gibraltar was taken by the allied British and Dutch forces, after a
three days' siege, on the 24th of July 1704 (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR
OF THE). The capture was made, as the war was being fought, in the
interests of Charles, archduke of Austria, but Sir George Rooke (q.v.),
the British admiral, on his own responsibility caused the British flag
to be hoisted, and took possession in name of Queen Anne, whose
government ratified the occupation. A great number of the inhabitants of
the town of Gibraltar abandoned their homes rather than recognize the
authority of the invaders. The Spaniards quickly assembled an army to
recapture the place, and a new siege opened in October 1704 by troops of
France and Spain under the marquess of Villadarias. The activity of the
British admiral, Sir John Leake, and of the military governor, Prince
George of Hesse-Darmstadt (who had commanded the land forces in July),
rendered the efforts of the besiegers useless. A notable incident of
this siege was the gallant attempt made by 500 chosen volunteers to
surprise the garrison (31st of October), an attempt which, at first
successful, in the end failed disastrously. Finally, in April 1705 the
French marshal de Tesse, who had replaced Villadarias, gave up the siege
and retired. During the next twenty years there were endless
negotiations for the peaceful surrender of the fortress, varied in 1720
by an abortive attempt at a _coup de main_, which was thwarted by the
resourcefulness of the governor of Minorca (Colonel Kane), who threw
reinforcements and supplies into Gibraltar at the critical moment. In
1726 the Spaniards again appealed to arms. But the count of las Torres,
who had the chief command, succeeded no better than his predecessors.
The place had been strengthened since 1705, and the defence of the
garrison under Brigadier Clayton, the lieutenant-governor, Brigadier
Kane of Minorca, and the governor, the earl of Portmore, who arrived
with reinforcements, was so effective that the armistice of the 12th of
June practically put a close to the siege, though two years elapsed
before the general pacification ensued.


  Siege of Gibraltar (1779-1783).

Neither in the War of the Austrian Succession nor in that of 1762 did
Spain endeavour to besiege the rock, but the War of American
Independence gave her better opportunities, and the great siege of
1779-1783 is justly regarded as one of the most memorable sieges of
history. The governor, General Sir George Augustus Elliot (afterwards
Lord Heathfield), was informed from England on the 6th of July 1779 that
hostilities had begun. A short naval engagement in the straits took
place on the 11th, and General Elliot made every preparation for
resistance. It was not, however, until the month of August that the
Spaniards became threatening. The method of the besiegers appeared to be
starvation, but the interval between strained relations and war had been
well employed by the ships, and supplies were, for the time at any rate,
sufficient. While the Spanish siege batteries were being constructed the
fortress fired, and many useful artillery experiments were carried out
by the garrison at this time and subsequently throughout the siege. On
the 14th of November there took place a spirited naval action in which
the privateer "Buck," Captain Fagg, forced her way into harbour. This
was one of many such incidents, which usually arose from the attempts
made from time to time by vessels to introduce supplies from Tangier and
elsewhere. December 1779, indeed, was a month of privation for the
garrison, though of little actual fighting. In January 1780, on the
rumour of an approaching convoy, the price of foods "fell more than
two-thirds," and Admiral Sir George Rodney won a great victory over De
Langara and entered the harbour. Prince William Henry (afterwards King
William IV.) served on board the British fleet as a midshipman during
this expedition. Supplies and reinforcements were thrown into the
fortress by Rodney, and the whole affair was managed with the greatest
address both by the home government and the royal navy. "The garrison,"
in spite of the scurvy, "might now be considered in a perfect state of
defence," says Drinkwater.

On the 7th of June took place an attack by Spanish fireships, which were
successfully dealt with by the naval force in the bay under Captain
Lesley of H.M. frigate "Enterprise." Up to October the state of things
within the fortress was much what it had been after Rodney's success.
"The enemy's operations on the land side had been for many months so
unimportant as scarcely to merit our attention" (Drinkwater). Scurvy
was, however, prevalent (see Drinkwater, p. 121), and the supply
question had again become acute. Though the enemy's batteries did not
open fire, the siege works steadily progressed, in spite of the fire
from the fortress, and there were frequent small engagements at sea in
which the English were not always successful. Further, the expulsion,
with great harshness, of the English residents of Barbary territory put
an end to a service of supply and information which had been of the
greatest value to Elliot (January 1781). Three more months passed in
forced inaction, which the garrison, stinted as it was, endured calmly.
Then, on the 12th of April 1781, on the arrival of a British relieving
squadron under Admiral Darby, the whole of the Spanish batteries opened
fire. Stores were landed in the midst of a heavy bombardment, and much
damage was done both to the fortifications and military buildings and to
the town. At this time there was a good deal of indiscipline in the
garrison, with which General Elliot dealt severely. This was in the last
degree necessary, for the bombardment continued up to the 1st of June,
after which the rate of the enemy's fire decreased to 500 rounds per
day. By the 12th of July it had almost ceased. In September the firing
again became intense and the casualties increased, the working parties
suffering somewhat heavily. In October there was less expenditure of
ammunition, as both sides were now well covered, and in November the
governor secretly prepared a great counterstroke. The sortie made on the
night of the 26th-27th of November was brilliantly successful, and the
Spanish siege works were mostly destroyed. At the close of the year the
garrison was thus again in an excellent position.

Early in 1782 a new form of gun-carriage wheel, allowing of a large
angle of depression being given, was invented by an officer of the Royal
Artillery, and indeed throughout the siege many experiments (such as
would nowadays be carried out at a school of gunnery) were made with
guns, mountings, ammunition, methods of fire, &c., both in Gibraltar and
in the Spanish camp. The gun-carriage referred to enabled 93% of hits to
be obtained at 1400 yds. range. In April grates for heating shot were
constructed by order of the governor; these were destined to be famous.
At the same time it was reported that the duc de Crillon was now to
command the besiegers (French and Spaniards) with D'Arcon as his chief
engineer. The grand attack was now imminent, and preparations were made
to repel it (July 1782). The chief feature of the attack was to be, as
reported on the 26th of July, ten ships "fortified 6 or 7 ft. thick ...
with green timber bolted with iron, cork and raw hides; which were to
carry guns of heavy metal and be bombproof on the top with a descent for
the shells to slide off; that these vessels ... were to be moored within
half gunshot of the walls," &c. On the other side many of the now
existing rock galleries were made about this time. The count of Artois
and another French prince arrived in the French lines in August to
witness the culminating effort of the besiegers, and some polite
correspondence passed between Crillon and the governor (reprinted in
Drinkwater, p. 267). The garrison made a preliminary trial of the
red-hot shot on the 8th of September, and the success of the experiment
not only elated the garrison but was partly instrumental in causing
Crillon to hasten the main attack. After a preliminary bombardment the
famous battering ships took up their positions in broad daylight on the
13th and opened fire. The British solid shot seem to have failed
absolutely to penetrate the massive wooden armour on the sides and the
roofs of the battering ships, and about noon the ships had settled down
to their work and were shooting coolly and accurately. But between 1 and
2 P.M. the British artillerymen began to use the red-shot freely. All
day the artillery duel went on, the shore guns, though inferior in
number, steadily gaining the upper hand, and the battering ships were in
great distress by nightfall. The struggle continued in the dark, the
garrison now shooting rapidly and well, and one by one the ten ships
were set on fire. Before noon on the 14th the attack had come to an end
by the annihilation of the battering fleet, every ship having been blown
up or burnt to the water's edge. Upwards of 8300 rounds were expended by
the garrison though less than a hundred pieces were in action. The
enemy's bombardment was, however, resumed and partial engagements
continued up to the third naval relief of the fortress by Lord Howe, who
won a great victory at sea over the Spaniards. The long siege came to an
end on the 6th of February 1783, when the duc de Crillon informed Elliot
that the preliminaries of peace had been signed. On the 31st of March
the duke visited the fortress, and many courtesies passed between the
late enemies. Captain (afterwards Colonel) John Drinkwater (1762-1844),
the historian of the siege, first published his work in 1785. A new
edition of _A History of the Siege of Gibraltar_ was published in 1905.
The history of the four eventful years' siege is fully detailed also in
the Memoir, attached to Green's _Siege of Gibraltar_ (1784), of its
gallant defender Sir George Augustus Elliot, afterwards Lord Heathfield,
whose military skill and moral courage place him among the best soldiers
and noblest men of his time.

Since 1783 the history of Gibraltar has been comparatively uneventful.
In the beginning of 1801 there were rumours of a Spanish and French
attack, but the Spanish ships were defeated off Algeciras in June by
Admiral Saumarez. Improvements in the fortifications, maintenance of
military discipline and legislation in regard to trade and smuggling,
are the principal matters of recent interest.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--To the works which have been already mentioned may be
  added: I. L. de Ayala, _Historia de Gibraltar_ (Madrid, 1792); Jas.
  Bell, translation of Ayala's history (London, 1845); F. Carter,
  _Gibraltar to Malaga_ (London, 1777-1780); G. Cockburn, _Gibraltar,
  Cadiz, &c._ (London, 1815); O. Debeaux and G. Dautez, _Synopsis de la
  flore de Gibraltar_ (1889); E. D. Fenton, _Sorties from Gibraltar_,
  (1872); H. M. Field, _Gibraltar_ (New York, 1888); J. Galt,
  _Gibraltar, Sardinia, &c._ (London, 1813); J. Heriot, _Historical
  Sketch of Gibraltar_ (London, 1792); R. Hort, _The Rock of Gibraltar_
  (London, 1839); L. W. L. Irby, _Ornithology of the Straits_ (London,
  1875); Thos. James, _History of the Herculean Straits_ (London, 1771);
  J. H. Mann, _Gibraltar and its Sieges_ (London, 1870); Montero,
  _Historia de Gibraltar_ (Cadiz, 1860); A. M. Monti, _Historia de
  Gibraltar_ (Seville, 1851); J. Navarrete, _Las Llaves del Estrecho_
  (Madrid, 1882); M. S. Pasley, _Wild Flowers of Gibraltar_ (Portsmouth,
  1887); John Purdy, _Gibraltar and Mediterranean Sailing Directions_
  (London, 1840); H. J. M. Rey, _Essai sur la topographie medicale de
  Gibraltar_ (Paris, 1833); Captain Sayer, _History of Gibraltar_
  (London, 1862); D. Sutherland, _Gibraltar to Constantinople_ (London,
  1790); Walker, _A Year's Insect Hunting in Gibraltar_ (London, 1888).
       (C. F. A.)




GIBSON, CHARLES DANA (1867-   ), American artist and illustrator, was
born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 14th of September 1867. After a
year's study at the schools of the Art Students' League, he began with
some modest little drawings for the humorous weekly _Life_. These he
followed up with more serious work, and soon made a place for himself as
the delineator of the American girl, at various occupations,
particularly those out of doors. These obtained an enormous vogue, being
afterwards published in book form, running through many editions. The
"Gibson Girl" stood for a type of healthy, vigorous, beautiful and
refined young womanhood. Some book illustrations followed, notably for
_The Prisoner of Zenda_. He was imitated by many of the younger
draughtsmen, copied by amateurs, and his popularity was shown in his
engagement by _Collier's Weekly_ to furnish weekly for a year a double
page, receiving for the fifty-two drawings the sum of $50,000, said to
have been the largest amount ever paid to an illustrator for such a
commission. These drawings covered various local themes and were highly
successful, being drawn with pen and ink with masterly facility and
great directness and economy of line. So popular was one series, "The
Adventures of Mr Pipp," that a successful play was modelled on it. In
1906, although besieged with commissions, Gibson withdrew from
illustrative work, determining to devote himself to portraiture in oil,
in which direction he had already made some successful experiments; but
in a few years he again returned to illustration.




GIBSON, EDMUND (1669-1748), English divine and jurist, was born at
Bampton in Westmorland in 1669. In 1686 he was entered a scholar at
Queen's College, Oxford, where in 1692 he published a valuable edition
of the _Saxon Chronicle_ with a Latin translation, indices and notes.
This was followed in 1693 by an annotated edition of the _De
institutione oratoria_ of Quintilian, and in 1695 by a translation in
two volumes folio of Camden's _Britannia_, "with additions and
improvements," in the preparation of which he had been largely assisted
by William Lloyd, John Smith and other English antiquaries. Shortly
after Thomas Tenison's elevation to the see of Canterbury in 1694 Gibson
was appointed chaplain and librarian to the archbishop, and in 1703 and
1710 respectively he became rector of Lambeth and archdeacon of Surrey.
In the discussions which arose during the reigns of William and Anne
relative to the rights and privileges of the Convocation, Gibson took a
very active part, and in a series of pamphlets warmly argued for the
right of the archbishop to continue or prorogue even the lower house of
that assembly. The controversy suggested to him the idea of those
researches which resulted in the famous _Codex juris ecclesiastici
Anglicani_, published in two volumes folio in 1713,--a work which
discusses more learnedly and comprehensively than any other the legal
rights and duties of the English clergy, and the constitution, canons
and articles of the English Church. In 1716 Gibson was presented to the
see of Lincoln, whence he was in 1720 translated to that of London,
where for twenty-five years he exercised an immense influence, being
regularly consulted by Sir Robert Walpole on all ecclesiastical affairs.
While a conservative in church politics, and declaredly opposed to
methodism, he was no persecutor, and indeed broke with Walpole on the
Quakers' Relief Bill of 1736. He exercised a vigilant oversight over the
morals of his diocese; and his fearless denunciation of the licentious
masquerades which were popular at court finally lost him the royal
favour. Among the literary efforts of his later years the principal were
a series of _Pastoral Letters_ in defence of the "gospel revelation,"
against "lukewarmness" and "enthusiasm," and on various topics of the
day; also the _Preservative against Popery_, in 3 vols. folio (1738), a
compilation of numerous controversial writings of eminent Anglican
divines, dating chiefly from the period of James II. Gibson died on the
6th of September 1748.

  A second edition of the _Codex juris_, "revised and improved, with
  large additions by the author," was published at Oxford in 1761.
  Besides the works already mentioned, Gibson published a number of
  _Sermons_, and other works of a religious and devotional kind. The
  _Vita Thomae Bodleii_ with the _Historia Bibliothecae Bodleianae_ in
  the _Catalogi librorum manuscriptorum_ (Oxford, 1697), and the
  _Reliquiae Spelmannianae_ (Oxford, 1698), are also from his pen.




GIBSON, JOHN (1790-1866), English sculptor, was born near Conway in
1790, his father being a market gardener. To his mother, whom he
described as ruling his father and all the family, he owed, like many
other great men, the energy and determination which carried him over
every obstacle. When he was nine years old the family were on the point
of emigrating to America, but Mrs Gibson's determination stopped this
project on their arrival at Liverpool, and there John was sent to
school. The windows of the print shops of Liverpool riveted his
attention, and, having no means to purchase the commonest print, he
acquired the habit of committing to memory the outline of one figure
after another, drawing it on his return home. Thus early he formed the
system of observing, remembering and noting, sometimes even a month
later, scenes and momentary actions from nature. In this way he, by
degrees, transferred from the shop window to his paper at home the chief
figures from David's picture of Napoleon crossing the Alps, which, by
particular request, he copied in bright colours as a frontispiece to a
little schoolfellow's new prayer-book, for sixpence. At fourteen years
of age Gibson was apprenticed to a firm of cabinetmakers,--portrait and
miniature painters in Liverpool requiring a premium which his father
could not give. This employment so disgusted him that after a year
(being interesting and engaging then apparently as in after-life) he
persuaded his masters to change his indentures, and bind him to the
wood-carving with which their furniture was ornamented. This satisfied
him for another year, when an introduction to the foreman of some marble
works, and the sight of a small head of Bacchus, unsettled him again. He
had here caught a glimpse of his true vocation, and in his leisure hours
began to model with such success that his efforts found their way to the
notice of Mr Francis, the proprietor of the marble works. The
wood-carving now, in turn, became his aversion; and having in vain
entreated his masters to set him free, he instituted a strike. He was
every day duly at his post, but did no work. Threats, and even a blow,
moved him not. At length the offer of L70 from Francis for the
rebellious apprentice was accepted, and Gibson found himself at last
bound to a master for the art of sculpture. Francis paid the lad 6s. a
week, and received good prices for his works,--sundry early works by the
youthful sculptor, which exist in Liverpool and the neighbourhood, going
by the name of Francis to this day. It was while thus apprenticed that
Gibson attracted the notice of William Roscoe, the historian. For him
Gibson executed a basso rilievo in terra-cotta, now in the Liverpool
museum. Roscoe opened to the sculptor the treasures of his library at
Allerton, by which he became acquainted with the designs of the great
Italian masters.

A cartoon of the Fall of the Angels marked this period,--now also in the
Liverpool museum. We must pass over his studies in anatomy, pursued
gratuitously by the kindness of a medical man, and his introductions to
families of refinement and culture in Liverpool. Roscoe was an excellent
guide to the young aspirant, pointing to the Greeks as the only examples
for a sculptor. Gibson here found his true vocation. A basso rilievo of
Psyche carried by the Zephyrs was the result. He sent it to the Royal
Academy, where Flaxman, recognizing its merits, gave it an excellent
place. Again he became unsettled. The ardent young breast panted for
"the great university of Art"--Rome; and the first step to the desired
goal was to London. Here he stood between the opposite advice and
influence of Flaxman and Chantrey--the one urging him to Rome as the
highest school of sculpture in the world, the other maintaining that
London could do as much for him. It is not difficult to guess which was
Gibson's choice. He arrived in Rome in October 1817, at a comparatively
late age for a first visit. There he immediately experienced the charm
and goodness of the true Italian character in the person of Canova, to
whom he had introductions,--the Venetian putting not only his experience
in art but his purse at the English student's service. Up to this time,
though his designs show a fire and power of imagination in which no
teaching is missed, Gibson had had no instruction, and had studied at no
Academy. In Rome he first became acquainted with rules and
technicalities, in which the merest tyro was before him. Canova
introduced him into the Academy supported by Austria, and, as is natural
with a mind like Gibson's, the first sense of his deficiencies in common
matters of practice was depressing to him. He saw Italian youths already
excelling, as they all do, in the drawing of the figure. But the tables
were soon turned. His first work in marble--a "Sleeping Shepherd"
modelled from a beautiful Italian boy--has qualities of the highest
order. Gibson was soon launched, and distinguished patrons, first sent
by Canova, made their way to his studio in the Via Fontanella. His aim,
from the first day that he felt the power of the antique, was purity of
character and beauty of form. He very seldom declined into the
prettiness of Canova, and if he did not often approach the masculine
strength which redeems the faults of Thorwaldsen, he more than once
surpassed him even in that quality. We allude specially to his "Hunter
and Dog," and to the grand promise of his "Theseus and Robber," which
take rank as the highest productions of modern sculpture. He was
essentially classic in feeling and aim, but here the habit of
observation we have mentioned enabled him to snatch a grace beyond the
reach of a mere imitator. His subjects were gleaned from the free
actions of the splendid Italian people noticed in his walks, and
afterwards baptized with such mythological names as best fitted them.
Thus a girl kissing a child, with a sudden wring of the figure, over her
shoulder, became a "Nymph and Cupid"; a woman helping her child with his
foot on her hand on to her lap, a "Bacchante and Faun"; his "Amazon
thrown from her Horse," one of his most original productions, was taken
from an accident he witnessed to a female rider in a circus; and the
"Hunter holding in his Dog" was also the result of a street scene. The
prominence he gave among his favourite subjects to the little god "of
soft tribulations" was no less owing to his facilities for observing
the all but naked Italian children, in the hot summers he spent in Rome.

In monumental and portrait statues for public places, necessarily
represented in postures of dignity and repose, Gibson was very happy.
His largest effort of this class--the group of Queen Victoria supported
by Justice and Clemency, in the Houses of Parliament--was his finest
work in the round. Of noble character also in execution and expression
of thought is the statue of Huskisson with the bared arm; and no less,
in effect of aristocratic ease and refinement, the seated figure of
Dudley North. But great as he was in the round, Gibson's chief
excellence lay in basso rilievo, and in this less-disputed sphere he
obtained his greatest triumphs. His thorough knowledge of the horse, and
his constant study of the Elgin marbles--casts of which are in
Rome--resulted in the two matchless bassi rilievi, the size of life,
which belong to Lord Fitzwilliam--the "Hours leading the Horses of the
Sun," and "Phaethon driving the Chariot of the Sun." Most of his
monumental works are also in basso rilievo. Some of these are of a truly
refined and pathetic character, such as the monument to the countess of
Leicester, that to his friend Mrs Huskisson in Chichester cathedral, and
that of the Bonomi children. Passion, either indulged or repressed, was
the natural impulse of his art: repressed as in the "Hours leading the
Horses of the Sun," and as in the "Hunter and Dog"; indulged as in the
meeting of Hero and Leander, a drawing executed before he left England.
Gibson was the first to introduce colour on his statues,--first, as a
mere border to the drapery of a portrait statue of the queen, and by
degrees extended to the entire flesh, as in his so-called "tinted"
Venus, and in the "Cupid tormenting the Soul," in the Holford
collection.

Gibson's individuality was too strongly marked to be affected by any
outward circumstances. In all worldly affairs and business of daily life
he was simple and guileless in the extreme; but he was resolute in
matters of principle, determined to walk straight at any cost of
personal advantage. Unlike most artists, he was neither nervous nor
irritable in temperament. It was said of him that he made the heathen
mythology his religion; and indeed in serenity of nature, feeling for
the beautiful, and a certain philosophy of mind, he may be accepted as a
type of what a pure-minded Greek pagan, in the zenith of Greek art, may
have been. Gibson was elected R.A. in 1836, and bequeathed all his
property and the contents of his studio to the Royal Academy, where his
marbles and casts are open to the public. He died at Rome on the 27th of
January 1866.

  The letters between Gibson and Mrs Henry Sandbach, granddaughter of Mr
  Roscoe, and a sketch of his life that lady induced him to write,
  furnish the chief materials for his biography. See his _Life_, edited
  by Lady Eastlake.     (E. E.)




GIBSON, THOMAS MILNER (1806-1884), English politician, who came of a
good Suffolk family, was born in Trinidad, where his father, an officer
in the army, was serving. He went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and in
1837 was elected to parliament as Conservative member for Ipswich, but
resigned two years later, having adopted Liberal views, and became an
ardent supporter of the free-trade movement. As one of Cobden's chief
allies, he was elected for Manchester in 1841, and from 1846 to 1848 he
was vice-president of the board of trade in Lord John Russell's
ministry. Though defeated in Manchester in 1857, he found another seat
for Ashton-under-Lyne; and he sat in the cabinets from 1859 to 1866 as
president of the board of trade. He was the leading spirit in the
movement for the repeal of "taxes on knowledge," and his successful
efforts on behalf of journalism and advertising were recognized by a
public testimonial in 1862. He retired from political life in 1868, but
he and his wife, whose salon was a great Liberal centre, were for many
years very influential in society. Milner Gibson was a sportsman and a
typical man of the world, who enjoyed life and behaved liberally to
those connected with him.




GIBSON, WILLIAM HAMILTON (1850-1896), American illustrator, author and
naturalist, was born in Sandy Hook, Connecticut, on the 5th of October
1850. The failure and (in 1868) death of his father, a New York broker,
put an end to his studies in the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute and made
it necessary for him to earn his own living. From the life insurance
business, in Brooklyn, he soon turned to the study of natural history
and illustration,--he had sketched flowers and insects when he was only
eight years old, had long been interested in botany and entomology, and
had acquired great skill in making wax flowers,--and his first drawings,
of a technical character, were published in 1870. He rapidly became an
expert illustrator and a remarkably able wood-engraver, while he also
drew on stone with great success. He drew for _The American
Agriculturist_, _Hearth and Home_, and Appleton's _American
Cyclopaedia_; for _The Youth's Companion_ and _St Nicholas_; and then
for various Harper publications, especially _Harper's Monthly Magazine_,
where his illustrations first gained popularity. He died of apoplexy,
brought on by overwork, on the 16th of July 1896 at Washington,
Connecticut, where he had had a summer studio, and where in a great
boulder is inset a relief portrait of him by H. K. Bush-Brown. He was an
expert photographer, and his drawings had a nearly photographic and
almost microscopic accuracy of detail which slightly lessened their
artistic value, as a poetic and sometimes humorous quality somewhat
detracted from their scientific worth. Gibson was perfectly at home in
black-and-white, but rarely (and feebly) used colours. He was a popular
writer and lecturer on natural history; in his best-known lecture, on
"Cross-Fertilization," he used ingenious charts and models.

  Gibson illustrated S. A. Drake's _In the Heart of the White
  Mountains_, C. D. Warner's _New South_, and E. P. Roe's _Nature's
  Serial Story_; and his own books, _The Complete American Trapper_
  (1876; revised, 1880, as _Camp Life in the Woods); Pastoral Days: or,
  Memories of a New England Year_ (1880); _Highways and Byways_ (1882);
  _Happy Hunting Grounds_ (1886); _Strolls by Starlight and Sunshine_
  (1891); _Sharp Eyes: a Rambler's Calendar_ (1891); _Our Edible
  Mushrooms and Toadstools_ (1895); _Eye Spy: Afield with Nature among
  Flowers and Animate Things_ (1897); and _My Studio Neighbours_ (1898).

  See John C. Adams, _William Hamilton Gibson, Artist, Naturalist
  Author_ (New York, 1901).









*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "GERMANY" TO "GIBSON, WILLIAM" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_38539.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Gichtel, Johann" to "Glory"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Gichtel, Johann" to "Glory"

Author: Various

Release date: January 10, 2012 [eBook #38539]
                Most recently updated: January 8, 2021

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "GICHTEL, JOHANN" TO "GLORY" ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net







Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    AUTHOR LIST: "Author of Asien und Europa nach den Aegyptischen
      Denkmalern; &c." 'Aegyptischen' amended from 'Aegptischen'.

    ARTICLE GILGIT: "These basins include a system of glaciers of such
      gigantic proportions that they are probably unrivalled in any part
      of the world." 'part' amended from 'pact'.

    ARTICLE GILGIT: "... F. Younghusband, 'Journeys in the Pamirs and
      Adjacent Countries,' Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiv., 1892; Curzon,
      'Pamirs,' Jour. R.G.S. vol. viii., 1896; Leitner, Dardistan
      (1877)." 'Younghusband' amended from 'Tounghusband'.

    ARTICLE GILLRAY, JAMES: "Gillray lived with Miss (often called Mrs)
      Humphrey during all the period of his fame. It is believed that he
      several times thought of marrying her ..." 'Gillray' amended from
      'Gillary'.

    ARTICLE GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS: "... D. J. Garat, Notice sur la vie
      et les ouvrages de P. L. Ginguene, prefixed to a catalogue of his
      library (Paris, 1817)." 'Ginguene' amended from 'Guingene'.

    ARTICLE GINSENG: "Great care is taken in the preparation of the
      drug. The account given by Kaempfer of the preparation of nindsin
      ..." 'Kaempfer' amended from 'Koempfer'.

    ARTICLE GIRONDISTS: "... by A. Gramier de Cassagnac (Paris, 1860)
      led to the publication of a Protestation by J. Guadet ..."
      'publication' amended from 'publicaton'.

    ARTICLE GIUSTO DA GUANTO: "Yet there are notable divergences
      between these pictures and the 'Communion of the Apostles.'"
      'between' amended from 'betweeen'.

    ARTICLE GLACIAL PERIOD: "... the side of the hill facing the
      advancing ice being rounded and gently curved (German Stossseite),
      and the opposite side (Leeseite) steep, abrupt and much less
      smooth." 'opposite' amended from 'opposte'.

    ARTICLE GLASS: "A non-spherical form can only be produced by
      blowing the hollow bulb into a mould of the required shape. Moulds
      are used both for giving shape to vessels and also for impressing
      patterns on their surface." 'surface' amended from 'suface'.

    ARTICLE GLASS: "It must be remembered that the Romans possessed no
      fine porcelain decorated with lively colours and a beautiful glaze;
      Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery which was then
      made." 'porcelain' amended from 'procelain'.

    ARTICLE GLASS: "... a squat tumbler covered with prunts, gave rise
      to the "Krautstrunk," which is like the "Igel," but longer and
      narrow-waisted." 'Krautstrunk' amended from 'Krautsrunk'.




  THE

  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  ELEVENTH EDITION




  FIRST  edition, published in three    volumes, 1768-1771.
  SECOND    "        "        ten          "     1777-1784.
  THIRD     "        "        eighteen     "     1788-1797.
  FOURTH    "        "        twenty       "     1801-1810.
  FIFTH     "        "        twenty       "     1815-1817.
  SIXTH     "        "        twenty       "     1823-1824.
  SEVENTH   "        "        twenty-one   "     1830-1842.
  EIGHTH    "        "        twenty-two   "     1853-1860.
  NINTH     "        "        twenty-five  "     1875-1889.
  TENTH     "   ninth edition and eleven
                  supplementary volumes,         1902-1903.
  ELEVENTH  "  published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.


  COPYRIGHT

  in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention

  by

  THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
  of the
  UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE


  _All rights reserved_




  THE

  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF
  ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

  ELEVENTH EDITION

  VOLUME XII
  GICHTEL to HARMONIUM

  New York

  Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
  342 Madison Avenue


  Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
  by
  The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.


     VOLUME XII, SLICE I

  Gichtel, Johann to Glory




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG             GIRART DE ROUSSILLON
  GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED             GIRAUD, GIOVANNI
  GIDEON                            GIRDLE
  GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH ANDREAS         GIRGA
  GIEN                              GIRGENTI
  GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE      GIRISHK
  GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VON          GIRNAR
  GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG      GIRODET DE ROUSSY, ANNE LOUIS
  GIESSEN                           GIRONDE
  GIFFARD, GODFREY                  GIRONDISTS
  GIFFARD, WALTER                   GIRTIN, THOMAS
  GIFFARD, WILLIAM                  GIRVAN
  GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT                GIRY, ARTHUR
  GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN             GISBORNE
  GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON        GISLEBERT OF MONS
  GIFFORD, WILLIAM                  GISORS
  GIFT                              GISSING, GEORGE ROBERT
  GIFU                              GITSCHIN
  GIG                               GIUDICI, PAOLO EMILIANO
  GIGLIO                            GIULIO ROMANO
  GIJON                             GIUNTA PISANO
  GILAN                             GIURGEVO
  GILBART, JAMES WILLIAM            GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE
  GILBERT, ALFRED                   GIUSTINIANI
  GILBERT, ANN                      GIUSTO DA GUANTO
  GILBERT, GROVE KARL               GIVET
  GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY             GIVORS
  GILBERT, JOHN                     GJALLAR
  GILBERT, SIR JOHN                 GLABRIO
  GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY         GLACE BAY
  GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ROSANNA    GLACIAL PERIOD
  GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT   GLACIER
  GILBERT, WILLIAM                  GLACIS
  GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK      GLADBACH
  GILBERT DE LA PORREE              GLADDEN, WASHINGTON
  GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST        GLADIATORS
  GILBERT FOLIOT                    GLADIOLUS
  GILBERT ISLANDS                   GLADSHEIM
  GILBEY, SIR WALTER                GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL
  GILDAS                            GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART
  GILDER, RICHARD WATSON            GLADSTONE
  GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU       GLAGOLITIC
  GILDING                           GLAIR
  GILDS                             GLAISHER, JAMES
  GILEAD                            GLAMIS
  GILES, ST                         GLAMORGANSHIRE
  GILFILLAN, GEORGE                 GLANDERS
  GILGAL                            GLANVILL, JOSEPH
  GILGAMESH, EPIC OF                GLANVILL, RANULF DE
  GILGIT                            GLAPTHORNE, HENRY
  GILL, JOHN                        GLARUS (Swiss canton)
  GILL                              GLARUS (Swiss city)
  GILLES DE ROYE                    GLAS, GEORGE
  GILLES LI MUISIS                  GLAS, JOHN
  GILLESPIE, GEORGE                 GLASER, CHRISTOPHER
  GILLESPIE, THOMAS                 GLASGOW
  GILLIE                            GLASITES
  GILLIES, JOHN                     GLASS
  GILLINGHAM (town of Dorsetshire)  GLASS, STAINED
  GILLINGHAM (borough of Kent)      GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF
  GILLOT, CLAUDE                    GLASS CLOTH
  GILLOTT, JOSEPH                   GLASSIUS, SALOMO
  GILLOW, ROBERT                    GLASSWORT
  GILLRAY, JAMES                    GLASTONBURY
  GILLYFLOWER                       GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE
  GILMAN, DANIEL COIT               GLATZ
  GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD        GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF
  GILPIN, BERNARD                   GLAUBER'S SALT
  GILSONITE                         GLAUCHAU
  GILYAKS                           GLAUCONITE
  GIMBAL                            GLAUCOUS
  GIMLET                            GLAUCUS
  GIMLI                             GLAZING
  GIMP                              GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH
  GIN                               GLEBE
  GINDELY, ANTON                    GLEE
  GINGALL                           GLEICHEN
  GINGER                            GLEIG, GEORGE
  GINGHAM                           GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG
  GINGI                             GLEIWITZ
  GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS            GLENALMOND
  GINKEL, GODART VAN                GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF
  GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID         GLENCOE
  GINSENG                           GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS
  GIOBERTI, VINCENZO                GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF
  GIOIOSA-IONICA                    GLENDOWER, OWEN
  GIOJA, MELCHIORRE                 GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT
  GIOLITTI, GIOVANNI                GLENELG
  GIORDANO, LUCA                    GLENGARRIFF
  GIORGIONE                         GLEN GREY
  GIOTTINO                          GLENS FALLS
  GIOTTO                            GLENTILT
  GIPSIES                           GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL
  GIRAFFE                           GLIDDON, GEORGE ROBINS
  GIRALDI, GIGLIO GREGORIO          GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAEVICH
  GIRALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA        GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH
  GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS               GLINKA, SERGY NIKOLAEVICH
  GIRANDOLE                         GLOBE-FISH
  GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE             GLOBIGERINA
  GIRARD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE         GLOCKENSPIEL
  GIRARD, STEPHEN                   GLOGAU
  GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE             GLORIOSA
  GIRARDIN, EMILE DE                GLORY
  GIRARDON, FRANCOIS




INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH
THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.


  A. A. R.*
    ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

      Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the
      University of Dublin and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897.

    Grant, Robert.

  A. C. Se.
    ALBERT CHARLES SEWARD, M.A., F.R.S.

      Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Hon. Fellow of
      Emmanuel College, Cambridge. President of the Yorkshire
      Naturalists' Union, 1910.

    Gymnosperms.

  A. F. P.
    ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S.

      Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History
      in the University of London. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary
      of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Author of _England under the
      Protector Somerset_; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.

    Grindal.

  A. Go.*
    REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.

      Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

    Grynaeus, Simon;
    Haetzer,

  A. G. B.*
    HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BELL, M.INST.CE.

      Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member
      of Executive and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E.

    Guiana.

  A. H.-S.
    SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E.

      General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.

    Giilan;
    Hamadan.

  A. He.
    ARTHUR HERVEY.

      Formerly Musical Critic to _Morning Post_ and _Vanity Fair_.
      Author of _Masters of French Music_; _French Music in the XIX.
      Century_.

      Gounod.

  A. H. S.
    REV. A. H. SAYCE, D.D.

      See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H.

    Grammar;
    Gyges.

  A. J. G.
    REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D.

      Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United
      Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras
      University and Member of Mysore Educational Service.

    Haggai (_in part_).

  A. J. H.
    ALFRED JAMES HIPKINS.

      Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of Royal College of
      Music. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition,
      1885; of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition,
      1900. Author of _Musical Instruments_; _A Description and History
      of the Pianoforte_; &c.

    Harmonium (_in part_).

  A. L.
    ANDREW LANG.

      See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW.

    Gurney, Edmund.

  A. M. C.
    AGNES MARY CLERKE.

      See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M.

    Halley;
    Hansen.

  A. N.
    ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.

      See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED.

    Goatsucker;
    Godwit;
    Golden-eye;
    Goldfinch;
    Goose;
    Gos-Hawk;
    Grackle;
    Grebe;
    Greenfinch;
    Greenshank;
    Grosbeak;
    Grouse;
    Guacharo;
    Guan;
    Guillemot;
    Guinea-Fowl;
    Gull;
    Hammer-Kop.

  A. Ne.
    ALEXANDER NESBITT, F.S.A.

      Author of the _Introduction_ to _A Descriptive Catalogue of the
      Glass Vessels in South Kensington Museum_.

    Glass: _History of Manufacture (in part)_.

  A. S. C.
    ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.

      Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author
      of _Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace_; _Embroidery and Lace_;
      _Ornament in European Silks_; &c.

    Gold and Silver Thread.

  A. Sy.
    ARTHUR SYMONS.

      See the biographical article, SYMONS, A.

    Goncourt, De;
    Hardy, Thomas.

  A. W. H.*
    ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.

      Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
      Gray's Inn, 1900.

    Godfrey of Viterbo;
    Golden Bull;
    Habsburg.

  A. W. R.
    ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.

      Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of
      _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_.

    Ground Rent;
    Handwriting.

  A. W. W.
    ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LL.D., LITT.D.

      See the biographical article, WARD, A. W.

    Greene, Robert.

  C. F. A.
    CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

      Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of
      London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold
      Harbour_.

    Grand Alliance, War of the;
    Grant, Ulysses S. (_in part_);
    Great Rebellion.

  C. Gr.
    CHARLES GROSS, A.M., PH.D., LL.D. (1857-1909).

      Professor of History at Harvard University, 1888-1909. Author of
      _The Gild Merchant_; _Sources and Literature of English History_;
      &c.

    Gilds.

  C. H.*
    SIR C. HOLROYD.

      See the biographical article; HOLROYD, SIR C.

    Haden, Sir, F. C.

  C. H. C.
    CHARLES H. COOTE.

      Formerly of Map Department, British Museum.

    Hakluyt (_in part_).

  C. H. Ha.
    CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.

      Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
      City. Member of the American Historical Association.

    Gregory: _Popes_, VIII. to XII.;
    Guibert.

  C. J. L.
    SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D (Edin.)

      Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of
      King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home
      Department, 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces,
      India, 1895-1898. Author of _Translations of Ancient Arabic
      Poetry_; &c.

    Hamasa.

  C. L.*
    CHARLES LAPWORTH, M.SC., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

      Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University of
      Birmingham. Editor of _Monograph on British Graptolites_,
      Palaeontographical Society, 1900-1908.

    Graptolites.

  C. L. K.
    CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A.

      Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of
      Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_, and Stow's _Survey of
      London_.

    Glendower, Owen;
    Gloucester, Humphrey, Duke of;
    Hallam, Bishop;
    Hardyng, John.

  C. M.
    CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH.

      Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author
      of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte
      des Papstthums_; &c.

    Gregory VII.

  C. Mi.
    CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH.

      Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
      Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James',
      1895-1900 and 1902-1903.

    Gundulich.

  C. M. W.
    SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B.

      Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of
      Fortifications, 1896-1902. Served under General Gordon in the
      Soudan, 1874-1875.

    Gordon, General.

  C. Pf.
    CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES-L.

      Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of
      Honour. Author of _Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux_.

    Gregory, St, of Tours;
    Gunther of Schwarzburg.

  C. R. B.
    CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.

      Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham.
      Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
      in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
      Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_;
      _The Dawn of Modem Geography_; &c.

    Gomez;
    Hakluyt (_in part_).

  C. We.
    CECIL WEATHERLY.

      Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.

    Graffito.

  C. W. E.
    CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT.

      See the biographical article, ELIOT, C. W.

    Gray, Asa.

  D. C. To.
    REV. DUNCAN CROOKES TOVEY, M.A.

      Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &c.

    Gray, Thomas.

  D. F. T.
    DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.

      Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising The Classical
      Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analysis of many other
      classical works.

    Gluck;
    Handel.

  D. G. H.
    DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.

      Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
      College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at
      Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905;
      Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900;
      Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

    Halicarnassus.

  D. H.
    DAVID HANNAY.

      Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
      History of Royal Navy, 1217-1688_: _Life of Emilio Castelar_: &c.

      Gondomar, Count; Grand Alliance, War of the: _Naval Operations_;
    Guichen;
    Hamilton, Emma.

  D. Ll. T.
    DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS.

      Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at
      Pontypridd and Rhondda.

    Glamorganshire;
    Gower.

  D. Mn.
    REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.

      Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of
      _Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c.

    Glas, John;
    Glasites.

  D. M. W.
    SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.

      Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the
      Foreign Department of _The Times_, 1891-1899. Member of Institut
      de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction Publique of
      France. Joint-editor of new volumes (10th edition) of the
      _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the
      Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c.

    Giers;
    Gorchakov.

  E. A. F.
    EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D.

      See the biographical article, FREEMAN, E. A.

    Goths (_in part_).

  E. A. J.
    E. ALFRED JONES.

      Author of _Old English Gold Plate_; _Old Church Plate of the Isle
      of Man_; _Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant
      Churches in England_; _Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de
      Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate_; _A Private Catalogue of The
      Royal Plate at Windsor Castle_; &c.

    Golden Rose (_in part_).

  E. B.*
    ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON.

      Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of
      Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of
      the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier
      of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions historiques des
      monnaies de la republique romaine_; _Traites des monnaies grecques
      et romaines_; _Catalogue des camees de la bibliotheque nationale_.

    Hadrumetum.

  E. Br.
    ERNEST BARKER, M.A.

      Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History at St John's College,
      Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven
      Scholar, 1895.

    Godfrey of Bouillon.

  E. C. B.
    RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin).

      Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "_The Lausaic History of
      Palladius_" in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.

    Gilbert of Sempringham, St;
    Grandmontines;
    Groot.

  E. C. Sp.
    REV. EDWARD CLARKE SPICER, M.A.

      New College, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1900.

    Glacier.

  E. F. G.
    EDWIN FRANCIS GAY, PH.D.

      Professor of Economics and Dean of the Graduate School of Business
      Administration, Harvard University.

    Hanseatic League.

  E. F. S. D.
    LADY DILKE.

      See the biographical article, DILKE, SIR C. W., Bart.

    Greuze.

  E. G.
    EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

      See the biographical article, GOSSE, E.

    Gnome.

  E. H. P.
    EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A.

      See the biographical article, PALMER, E. H.

    Hafiz.

  E. J. P.
    EDWARD JOHN PAYNE, M.A. (1844-1904).

      Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of the
      _Select Works of Burke_. Author of _History of European Colonies_;
      _History of the New World called America_; _The Colonies_, in the
      "British Citizen" Series; &c.

    Grey, 2nd Earl.

  Ed. M.
    EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon), LL.D. (Chicago).

      Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author
      of _Geschichte des Alterthums_; _Geschichte des alten Aegyptens_;
      _Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme_.

    Gotarzes.

  E. M. W.
    REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A.

      Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.

    Greece: _History, Ancient, to 146 B.C._

  E. O.*
    EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.

      Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
      Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
      Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of
      Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
      Senior Students_.

    Goitre;
    Haemorrhoids.

  E. Pr.
    EDGAR PRESTAGE.

      Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of
      Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London,
      Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
      Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon
      Geographical Society, &c. Editor of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_;
      _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c.

    Goes, Damiao De;
    Gonzaga.

  E. R.
    LORD LOCHEE OF GOWRIE (Edmund Robertson), P.C., LL.D., K.C.

      Civil Lord of the Admiralty, 1892-1895. Secretary to the
      Admiralty, 1905-1908. M.P. for Dundee, 1885-1908. Fellow of Corpus
      Christi College, Oxford.

    Hallam, Henry.

  E. S. G.
    EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S.

      Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian
      Demonstrator of Comparative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford.

    Haplodrili.

  F. C. C.
    FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen).

      Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University
      College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of
      Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.

    Gregory the Illuminator.

  F. G. M. B.
    FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.

      Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

    Goths (_in part_).

  F. G. S.
    F. G. STEPHENS.

      Formerly Art Critic of the _Athenaeum_. Author of _Artists at
      Home_; _George Cruikshank_; _Memorials of W. Mulready_; _French
      and Flemish Pictures_; _Sir E. Landseer_; _T. C. Hook, R.A._; &c.

    Gilbert, Sir John.

  F. H. D.
    REV. FREDERICK HOMES DUDDEN, D.D.

      Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Theology, Lincoln College, Oxford.
      Author of _Gregory the Great, his Place in History and Thought_;
      &c.

    Gregory I.

  F. H. H.
    FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER.

      Assistant Editor of the _Century Dictionary_.

    Hancock, Winfield Scott.

  F. J. H.
    FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.

      Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
      Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author
      of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c.

    Graham's Dyke.

  F. N.
    FRIDTJOF NANSEN.

      See the biographical article, NANSEN, FRIDTJOF.

    Greenland.

  F. R. C.
    FRANK R. CANA.

      Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_.

    Gold Coast.

  F. S. P.
    FRANCIS SAMUEL PHILBRICK, A.M., PH.D.

      Formerly Scholar and Resident Fellow of Harvard University. Member
      of American Historical Association.

    Hamilton, Alexander.

  F. W. R.*
    FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.

      Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
      1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

    Gypsum;
    Haematite.

  G. A. Gr.
    GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (DUBLIN).

      Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of
      Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal
      Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic
      Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The
      Languages of India_; &c.

    Gujarati and Rajasthani.

  G. C. M.
    GEORGE CAMPBELL MACAULAY, M.A.

      Lecturer in English in the University of Cambridge. Formerly
      Professor of English Language and Literature in the University of
      Wales. Editor of the _Works_ of John Gower; &c.

    Gower, John.

  G. C. W.
    GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D.

      Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Portrait
      Miniatures_; _Life of Richard Cosway, R.A._; _George Engleheart_;
      _Portrait Drawings_; &c. Editor of new edition of Bryan's
      _Dictionary of Painters and Engravers_.

    Greco, El.

  G. F. Z.
    GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.INST.CE.

      Author of _Mechanical Handling of Material_.

    Granaries.

  G. G.
    SIR ALFRED GEORGE GREENHILL, M.A., F.R.S.

      Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College,
      Woolwich. Examiner in the University of Wales. Member of the
      Aeronautical Committee. Author of _Notes on Dynamics_;
      _Hydrostatics_; _Differential and Integral Calculus, with
      Applications_; &c.

    Gyroscope and Gyrostat.

  G. Sn.
    GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., PH.D.

      Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the
      Archaeological Institute of America. Member of American
      Philological Association. Author of _With the Professor_; _The
      Great Mother of the Gods_; &c.

    Great Mother of the Gods.

  G. S. C.
    SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S.

      Governor of Bombay. Author of _Imperial Defence_; _Russia's Great
      Sea Power_; _The Last Great Naval War_; &c.

    Greco-Turkish War, 1897.

  G. W. E. R.
    RT. HON. GEORGE WILLIAM ERSKINE RUSSELL, P.C., M.A., LL.D.

      Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 1894-1895; for
      India, 1892-1894. M.P. for Aylesbury, 1880-1885; for North Beds.,
      1892-1895. Author of _Life of W. E. Gladstone_; _Collections and
      Recollections_; &c.

    Gladstone, W. E.

  G. W. T.
    REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.

      Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
      and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

    Hajji Khalifa;
    Hamadhani;
    Handani;
    Hammad ar-Rawiya;
    Hariri.

  H. A. de C.
    HENRY ANSELM DE COLYAR, K.C.

      Author of _The Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety_; &c.

    Guarantee.

  H. B. Wo.
    HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.

      Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England
      and Wales. President, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894.
      Wollaston Medallist, 1908.

    Haidinger, W. K.

  H. Ch.
    HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.

      Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
      11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; co-editor of the
      10th edition.

    Goschen, 1st Viscount;
    Granville, 2nd Earl;
    Hamilton, Alexander (_in part_);
    Harcourt, Sir William.

  H. De.
    HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. J.

      Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications:
      _Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta sanctorum_.

    Giles, St;
    Hagiology.

  H. G. H.
    HORATIO GORDON HUTCHINSON.

      Amateur Golf Champion, 1886-1887. Author of _Hints on Golf_;
      _Golf_ (Badminton Library); _Book of Golf and Golfers_; &c.

    Golf.

  H. J. P.
    HARRY JAMES POWELL, F.C.S.

      Of Messrs James Powell & Sons, Whitefriars Glass Works, London.
      Member of Committee of six appointed by Board of Education to
      prepare the scheme for the rearrangement of the Art Collection of
      the Victoria and Albert Museum. Author of _Glass Making_; &c.

    Glass.

  H. Lb.
    HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.SC, F.R.S.

      Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly
      Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member
      of Council of Royal Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902.
      President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of
      _Hydrodynamics_; &c.

    Harmonic Analysis.

  H. L. H.
    HARRIET L. HENNESSY, L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I., M.D.(Brux.)

    Gynaecology.

  H. M. C.
    HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A.

      Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of
      _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.

    Goths: _Gothic Language_.

  H. M. Wo.
    HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.SC.

      Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University.
      Fellow of University College, London. Author of _Haemoflagellates_
      in Sir E. Ray Lankester's _Treatise of Zoology_, and of various
      scientific papers.

    Gregarines;
    Haemosporidia.

  H. R.
    HENRY REEVE, D.C.L.

      See the biographical article, REEVE, HENRY.

    Guizot (_in part_).

  H. Sw.
    HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.

      University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of
      Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of _A History
      of English Sounds since the Earliest Period_; _A Handbook of
      Phonetics_; &c.

    Grimm, J. L. C.;
    Grimm, Wilhelm Carl.

  H. S.-K.
    SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A.

      M.P. for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of _My Sporting Holidays_;
      &c.

    Gun.

  H. W. C. D.
    HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.

      Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls
      College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans
      and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_.

    Gilbert, Foliot;
    Gloucester, Robert, Earl of;
    Grosseteste.

  H. W. R.*
    REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A.

      Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior
      Kennicott Scholar, Oxford University, 1901. Author of _Hebrew
      Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology_ (in _Mansfield
      College Essays_); &c.

    Habakkuk.

  I. A.
    ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.

      Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of
      Cambridge. President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author
      of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish Life in the
      Middle Ages_.

    Graetz;
    Habdala;
    Halakha;
    Halevi;
    Haptara;
    Harizi.

  J. A. F. M.
    JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.

      Musical Critic of _The Times_. Author of _Life of Schumann_; _The
      Musician's Pilgrimage_; _Masters of German Music_; _English Music
      in the Nineteenth Century_; _The Age of Bach and Handel_. Editor
      of new edition of Grove's _Dictionary of Music_; &c.

    Grove, Sir George.

  J. A. H.
    JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC.

      Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
      Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_.

    Glacial Period;
    Greensand.

  J. A. S.
    JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D.

      See the biographical article, SYMONDS, J. A.

    Guarini.

  J. Bl.
    JAMES BLYTH, M.A., LL.D.

      Formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy, Glasgow and West of
      Scotland Technical College. Editor of Ferguson's _Electricity_.

    Graduation.

  J. Bt.
    JAMES BARTLETT.

      Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities,
      &c., King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects,
      Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity Surveyors' Association.
      Author of _Quantities_.

    Glazing.

  J. D. B.
    JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.

      King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in
      South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of
      Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order
      of St Alexander of Bulgaria.

    Greece: _Geography and History: Modern_;
    Greek Literature: III. _Modern_.

  J. E. S.*
    JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D.

      Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's
      College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of
      _History of Classical Scholarship_; &c.

    Greek Law.

  J. Fi.
    JOHN FISKE.

      See the biographical article, FISKE, J.

    Grant, Ulysses S.

  J. G. C. A.
    JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A.

      Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of
      Lincoln College. Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman,
      1893.

    Gordium.

  J. G. R.
    JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.

      Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London.
      Author of _History of German Literature_; _Schiller after a
      Century_; &c. Editor of the _Modern Language Journal_.

    Goethe;
    Grillparzer.

  J. H. F.
    JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.

      Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

    Gracchus;
    Gratian;
    Hadrian (_in part_).

  J. H. H.
    JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A.

      Author of _Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation_.

    Gloss;
    Gutenberg.

  J. H. P.
    JOHN HENRY POYNTING, D.SC., F.R.S.

      Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science in the
      University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
      Cambridge. Joint-author of _Text-Book of Physics_.

    Gravitation (_in part_).

  J. Hl. R.
    JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.

      Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
      Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
      Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
      Pitt_; &c.

    Gourgaud, Baron.

  J. L. W.
    MISS JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.

      Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_.

    Grail, The Holy;
    Guenevere.

  J. M. M.
    JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.

      Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics,
      East London College (University of London). Joint-editor of
      Grote's _History of Greece_.

    Grote;
    Hamilton, Sir William, Bart, (_in part_);
    Harem.

  J. S. F.
    JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S.

      Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
      Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
      Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
      of London.

    Glauconite;
    Gneiss;
    Granite;
    Granulite;
    Gravel;
    Greisen;
    Greywacke.

  J. T. Be.
    JOHN T. BEALBY.

      Joint author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
      _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
      _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.

    Gobi.

  J. T. S.*
    JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.

      Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

    Golden Rose (_in part_);
    Goliad;
    Guizot (_in part_).

  K. G. J.
    KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE.

      Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold
      Prizeman, 1903. Author of _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_.

    Goa.

  K. Kr.
    KARL KRUMBACHER.

      See the biographical article, KRUMBACHER, CARL.

    Greek Literature: II. _Byzantine_.

  K. S.
    MISS KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

      Editor of the _Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The
      Instruments of the Orchestra_; &c.

    Glockenspiel;
    Gong;
    Guitar;
    Guitar Fiddle;
    Gusla;
    Harmonica;
    Harmonichord;
    Harmonium (_in part_).

  L. D.*
    LOUIS DUCHESNE.

      See the biographical article, DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

    Gregory: _Popes_, II.-VI.

  L. F. D.
    LEWIS FOREMAN DAY, F.S.A. (1845-1909).

      Formerly Vice-President of the Society of Arts. Past Master of the
      Art Workers' Gild. Author of _Windows, a book about Stained
      Glass_; &c.

    Glass, Stained.

  L. F. V.-H.
    LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.INST.C.E. (1839-1907).

      Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College,
      London. Author of _Rivers and Canals_; _Harbours and Docks_;
      _Civil Engineering as applied in Construction_; &c.

    Harbour.

  L. J. S.
    LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.

      Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
      Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness
      Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.

    Goniometer;
    Gothite;
    Graphite (_in part_);
    Greenockite.

  L. R. F.
    LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., LITT.D.

      Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford; University
      Lecturer in Classical Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative
      Religion. Author of _Cults of the Greek States_; _Evolution of
      Religion_.

    Greek Religion.

  M.
    LORD MACAULAY.

      See the biographical article, MACAULAY, T. B. M., BARON.

    Goldsmith, Oliver.

  M. G.
    MOSES GASTER, PH.D.

      Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England.
      Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester
      Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and
      1891. President, Folklore Society of England. Vice-President,
      Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of _History of Rumanian Popular
      Literature_; &c.

    Gipsies.

  M. H. S.
    MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.

      Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art
      Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos
      Aires, Rome and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of
      _History of "Punch"_; _British Portrait Painting to the opening of
      the Nineteenth Century_; _Works of G. F. Watts, R.A._; _British
      Sculpture and Sculptors of Today_; _Henriette Ronner_; &c.

    Gilbert, Alfred;
    Greenaway, Kate.

  M. Ja.
    MORRIS JASTROW, JUN., PH.D.

      Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
      Author of _Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians_; &c.

    Gilgamesh, Epic of;
    Gula.

  M. M.
    MAX ARTHUR MACAULIFFE.

      Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of _The Sikh
      Religion, its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors_; &c. Editor of
      _Life of Guru Nanak_, in the Punjabi language.

    Granth.

  M. N. T.
    MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.

      Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
      Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_.

    Gythium

  M. O. B. C.
    MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.

      Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek
      at Birmingham University, 1905-1908.

    Greece: _History: 146 B.C. 1800 A.D._;
    Hamilcar Barca;
    Hannibal.

  M. P.
    MARK PATTISON.

      See the biographical article, PATTISON, MARK.

    Grotius.

  M. P.*
    LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET.

      Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of
      the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).

    Gouffier;
    Harcourt.

  O. Ba.
    OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.

      Editor of _The Ancestor_, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing
      Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage.

    Girdle.

  P. A.
    PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY.

      Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes
      Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les
      heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_.

    Gonzalo de Berceo.

  P. A. A.
    PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC. JURIS.

      New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von
      Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_.

    Gneist.

  P. C. Y.
    PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.

      Magdalen College, Oxford.

    Gunpowder Plot;
    Halifax, 1st Marquess of;
    Hamilton, 1st Duke of.

  P. G.
    PERCY GARDNER, M.A.

      See the biographical article, GARDNER, PERCY.

    Greek Art.

  P. Gi.
    PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.

      Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and
      University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of
      the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of
      Comparative Philology_.

    Greek Language;
    H.

  P. G. K.
    PAUL GEORGE KONODY.

      Art Critic of the _Observer_ and the _Daily Mail_. Formerly Editor
      of _The Artist_. Author of _The Art of Walter Crane_; _Velasquez,
      Life and Work_; &c.

    Hals, Frans.

  P. G. T.
    PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D.

      See the biographical article, TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE.

    Hamilton, Sir William Rowan.

  P. La.
    PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.

      Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge
      University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of
      _Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and Editor
      of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_.

    Greece: _Geology_.

  P. McC.
    PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S.

      Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of _Diary of a
      Working Farmer_; &c.

    Grass and Grassland.

  R. A. W.
    COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.

      Formerly H. M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served
      with Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the
      Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895.

    Hadramut.

  R. A. S. M.
    ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.

      St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
      Palestine Exploration Fund.

    Gilead;
    Gilgal;
    Goshen.

  R. C. J.
    SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, L.L.D., D.C.L.

      See the biographical article, JEBB, SIR R. C.

    Greek Literature: I. _Ancient_.

  R. J. M.
    RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.

      Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
      _St James's Gazette_, London.

    Gowrie, 3rd Earl of;
    Gratton, Henry;
    Green Ribbon Club;
    Gymnastics;
    Harcourt, 1st Viscount;
    Hardwicke, 1st Earl of.

  R. L.*
    RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

      Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
      Author of _Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in
      British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
      Africa_; &c.

    Giraffe;
    Glutton;
    Glyptodon;
    Goat;
    Gorilla;
    Hamster;
    Hare.

  R. N. B.
    ROBERT NISBET BAIN (D. 1909).

      Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
      _Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
      1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe, the
      Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1469_; &c.

    Golitsuin, Boris, Dmitry, and Vasily;
    Golovin, Count;
    Golovkin, Count;
    Gortz, Baron von;
    Griffenfeldt, Count;
    Gustavus I., and IV.;
    Gyllenstjerna;
    Hall, C. C.

  R. S. T.
    RALPH STOCKMAN TARR.

      Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University.

    Grand Canyon.

  R. We.
    RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. (Princeton).

      Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The
      Elegies of Maximianus_; &c.

    Great Awakening.

  S. A. C.
    STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

      Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and
      Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
      Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University,
      1904-1908. Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws
      of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old
      Testament History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.

    Gideon.

  S. Bl.
    SIGFUS BLONDAL.

      Librarian of the University of Copenhagen.

    Hallgrimsson.

  S. C.
    SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.

      See the biographical article, COLVIN, SIDNEY.

    Giorgione; Giotto.

  St. C.
    VISCOUNT ST. CYRES.

      See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF.

    Guyon, Madame.

  S. N.
    SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC.

      See the biographical article, NEWCOMB, SIMON.

    Gravitation (_in part_).

  T. As.
    THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.

      Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome.
      Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
      Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven
      Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the
      Roman Campagna_; &c.

    Girgenti;
    Gnatia;
    Grottaferrata;
    Grumentum;
    Gubbio;
    Hadria;
    Halaesa.

  T. A. J.
    THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A.

      Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec.,
      Royal Anthropological Institute.

    Hamitic Races (I.).

  T. Ba.
    SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.

      Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the
      Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of
      Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and
      Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

      Guerrilla.

  T. E. H.
    THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D.

      Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College,
      Oxford. Professor of International Law in the University of
      Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of _Studies in
      International Law_; _The Elements of Jurisprudence_; _Alberici
      Gentilis de jure belli_; _The Laws of War on Land_; _Neutral
      Duties in a Maritime War_; &c.

    Hall, William E.

  T. F. C.
    THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.

      Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown,
      Mass., U.S.A.

    Gregory: _Popes_, XIII--XV.

  T. H. H.*
    SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S.

      Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys,
      India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M.
      Commissioner for the Persa-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
      Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.

    Gilgit;
    Hari-Rud.

  T. K.
    THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D.

      Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c.

    Hadrian (_in part_).

  T. Se.
    THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.

      Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University
      of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant
      Editor of _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1901. Author of
      _The Age of Johnson_; &c.; Joint-author of _The Bookman History of
      English Literature_.

    Gilbert, Sir W. S.

  V. H. S.
    REV. VINCENT HENRY STANTON, M.A., D.D.

      Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of
      Ely and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _The
      Gospels as Historical Documents_; _The Jewish and the Christian
      Messiahs_; &c.

    Gospel.

  W. A. B. C.
    REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
      (Bern).

      Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
      St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide du Haut
      Dauphine_; _The Range of the Todi_; _Guide to Grindelwald_; _Guide
      to Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor
      of _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889; &c.

    Glarus;
    Goldast Ab Haiminsfeld;
    Grasse;
    Grenoble;
    Grindelwald;
    Grisons;
    Gruner. G. S.;
    Gruyere.

  W. A. P.
    WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

      Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
      John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.

    Girondists;
    Goethe: _Descendants of_;
    Greek Independence, War of.

  W. Bo.
    WILHELM BOUSSET, D.TH.

      Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of
      Gottingen. Author of _Das Wesen der Religion_; _The Antichrist
      Legend_; &c.

    Gnosticism.

  W. Bu.
    WILLIAM BURNSIDE, M.A., D.SC., LL.D., F.R.S.

      Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Hon.
      Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Author of _The Theory of
      Groups of Finite Order_.

    Groups, Theory of.

  W. F. C.
    WILLIAM FELLDEN CRAIES, M.A.

      Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's
      College, London. Author of _Craies on Statute Law_. Editor of
      Archbold's _Criminal Pleading_ (23rd edition).

    Habeas Corpus;
    Hanging.

  W. G. M.
    WALTER GEORGE MCMILLAN, F.C.S., M.I.M.E. (d. 1904).

      Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers and
      Lecturer on Metallurgy, Mason College, Birmingham. Author of _A
      Treatise on Electro-Metallurgy_.

    Graphite (_in part_).

  W. Hu.
    REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., LITT.D.

      President of Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of
      _History of English Church, 597-1906_; _The Church of England in
      the Middle Ages_; _Political History of England 1760-1801_.

    Green, J. R.

  W. H. Be.
    WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).

      Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
      London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
      in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
      Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.

    Gomer;
    Ham.

  W. H. F.*
    WILLIAM HENRY FAIRBROTHER, M.A.

      Formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of
      _Philosophy of Thomas Hill Green_.

    Green, Thomas Hill.

  W. J. F.
    WILLIAM JUSTICE FORD (d. 1904).

      Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. Headmaster of
      Leamington College.

    Grace, W. G.

  W. McD.
    WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.A.

      Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Author of
      _A Primer of Physiological Psychology_; _An Introduction to Social
      Psychology_; &c.

    Hallucination.

  W. M. M.
    W. MAX MULLER, PH.D.

      Professor of Exegesis in the R.E. Seminary, Philadelphia. Author
      of _Asien und Europa nach den Aegyptischen Denkmalern_; &c.

    Hamitic Races: II. _Languages_.

  W. M. R.
    WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

      See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE G.

    Giulio Romano;
    Gozzoli;
    Guido Reni.

  W. P. A
    LIEUT.-COLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.INST.C.E., F.R.G.S.

      Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada.
      Member of the Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of
      Canadian Society of Civil Engineers.

    Great Lakes.

  W. P. R.
    HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.

      Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High
      Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education,
      Labour and Justice, New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of _The Long
      White Cloud: a History of New Zealand_; &c.

    Grey, Sir George.

  W. R.
    WHITELAW REID, LL.D.

      See the biographical article, REID, WHITELAW.

    Greeley, Horace.

  W. Ri.
    WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.SC.

      Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton
      Reader in Classics. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College,
      Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. President of Royal
      Anthropological Institute, 1908. President of Anthropological
      Section, British Association, 1908. Author of _The Early Age of
      Greece_; &c.

    Hallstatt.

  W. Rn.
    W. ROSENHAIN, D.SC.

      Superintendent of the Metallurgical Department, National Physical
      Laboratory.

    Glass (_in part_).

  W. R. D.
    WYNDHAM ROWLAND DUNSTAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

      Director of the Imperial Institute. President of the International
      Association of Tropical Agriculture. Member of the Advisory
      Committee for Tropical Agriculture, Colonial Office.

    Gutta-Percha.

  W. R. E. H.
    WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (EDIN.), F.C.S.

      Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich.
      Formerly Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich.
      Part-author of Valentin-Hodgkinson's _Practical Chemistry_; &c.

    Gun Cotton;
    Gunpowder.

  W. R. S.
    WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

      See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

    Haggai (_in part_).

  W. R. S. R.
    WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A.

      Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum.
      Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c.

    Gogol.

  W. W. R.*
    WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.

      Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
      New York.

    Gregory XVI.




PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

  Gilding.          Gotland.                   Guillotine.
  Ginger.           Gourd.                     Guise, House of.
  Gironde.          Government.                Gum.
  Gladiators.       Grain Trade.               Gwalior.
  Glasgow.          Granada.                   Haddingtonshire.
  Glastonbury.      Grasses.                   Hair.
  Gloucestershire.  Great Salt Lake.           Haiti.
  Glove.            Griqualand East and West.  Halo.
  Glucose.          Guanches.                  Hamburg.
  Glue.             Guards.                    Hamlet.
  Glycerin.         Guatemala.                 Hampshire.
  Goat.             Guelphs and Ghibellines.   Hampton Roads.
  Gold.             Guiacum.                   Hanover.
  Goldbeating.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
    the final volume.




  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  ELEVENTH EDITION

  VOLUME XII




GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG (1638-1710), German mystic, was born at
Regensburg, where his father was a member of senate, on the 14th of
March 1638. Having acquired at school an acquaintance with Greek,
Hebrew, Syriac and even Arabic, he proceeded to Strassburg to study
theology; but finding the theological prelections of J. S. Schmidt and
P. J. Spener distasteful, he entered the faculty of law. He was admitted
an advocate, first at Spires, and then at Regensburg; but having become
acquainted with the baron Justinianus von Weltz (1621-1668), a Hungarian
nobleman who cherished schemes for the reunion of Christendom and the
conversion of the world, and having himself become acquainted with
another world in dreams and visions, he abandoned all interest in his
profession, and became an energetic promoter of the "_Christerbauliche
Jesusgesellschaft_," or Christian Edification Society of Jesus. The
movement in its beginnings provoked at least no active hostility; but
when Gichtel began to attack the teaching of the Lutheran clergy and
church, especially upon the fundamental doctrine of justification by
faith, he exposed himself to a prosecution which resulted in sentence of
banishment and confiscation (1665). After many months of wandering and
occasionally romantic adventure, he reached Holland in January 1667, and
settled at Zwolle, where he co-operated with Friedrich Breckling
(1629-1711), who shared his views and aspirations. Having become
involved in the troubles of this friend, Gichtel, after a period of
imprisonment, was banished for a term of years from Zwolle, but finally
in 1668 found a home in Amsterdam, where he made the acquaintance of
Antoinette Bourignon (1616-1680), and in a state of poverty (which,
however, never became destitution) lived out his strange life of visions
and day-dreams, of prophecy and prayer. He became an ardent disciple of
Jakob Boehme, whose works he published in 1682 (Amsterdam, 2 vols.); but
before the time of his death, on the 21st of January 1710, he had
attracted to himself a small band of followers known as Gichtelians or
Brethren of the Angels, who propagated certain views at which he had
arrived independently of Boehme. Seeking ever to hear the authoritative
voice of God within them, and endeavouring to attain to a life
altogether free from carnal desires, like that of "the angels in heaven,
who neither marry nor are given in marriage," they claimed to exercise a
priesthood "after the order of Melchizedek," appeasing the wrath of God,
and ransoming the souls of the lost by sufferings endured vicariously
after the example of Christ. While, however, Boehme "desired to remain a
faithful son of the Church," the Gichtelians became Separatists (cf. J.
A. Dorner, _History of Protestant Theology_, ii. p. 185).

  Gichtel's correspondence was published without his knowledge by
  Gottfried Arnold, a disciple, in 1701 (2 vols.), and again in 1708 (3
  vols.). It has been frequently reprinted under the title _Theosophia
  practica_. The seventh volume of the Berlin edition (1768) contains a
  notice of Gichtel's life. See also G. C. A. von Harless, _Jakob Bohme
  und die Alchimisten_ (1870, 2nd ed. 1882); article in _Allgemeine
  deutsche Biographie_.




GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED (1795-1864), American statesman, prominent in the
anti-slavery conflict, was born at Tioga Point, now Athens, Bradford
county, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of October 1795. In 1806 his parents
removed to Ashtabula county, Ohio, then sparsely settled and almost a
wilderness. The son worked on his father's farm, and, though he received
no systematic education, devoted much time to study and reading. For
several years after 1814 he was a school teacher, but in February 1821
he was admitted to the Ohio bar and soon obtained a large practice,
particularly in criminal cases. From 1831 to 1837 he was in partnership
with Benjamin F. Wade. He served in the lower house of the state
legislature in 1826-1828, and from December 1838 until March 1859 was a
member of the national House of Representatives, first as a Whig, then
as a Free-soiler, and finally as a Republican. Recognizing that slavery
was a state institution, with which the Federal government had no
authority to interfere, he contended that slavery could only exist by a
specific state enactment, that therefore slavery in the District of
Columbia and in the Territories was unlawful and should be abolished,
that the coastwise slave-trade in vessels flying the national flag, like
the international slave-trade, should be rigidly suppressed, and that
Congress had no power to pass any act which in any way could be
construed as a recognition of slavery as a national institution. His
attitude in the so-called "Creole Case" attracted particular attention.
In 1841 some slaves who were being carried in the brig "Creole" from
Hampton Roads, Virginia, to New Orleans, revolted, killed the captain,
gained possession of the vessel, and soon afterwards entered the British
port of Nassau. Thereupon, according to British law, they became free.
The minority who had taken an active part in the revolt were arrested on
a charge of murder, and the others were liberated. Efforts were made by
the United States government to recover the slaves, Daniel Webster, then
secretary of state, asserting that on an American ship they were under
the jurisdiction of the United States and that they were legally
property. On the 21st of March 1842, before the case was settled,
Giddings introduced in the House of Representatives a series of
resolutions, in which he asserted that "in resuming their natural rights
of personal liberty" the slaves "violated no law of the United States."
For offering these resolutions Giddings was attacked with rancour, and
was formally censured by the House. Thereupon he resigned, appealed to
his constituents, and was immediately re-elected by a large majority. In
1859 he was not renominated, and retired from Congress after a
continuous service of more than twenty years. From 1861 until his death,
at Montreal, on the 27th of May 1864, he was U.S. consul-general in
Canada. Giddings published a series of political essays signed
"Pacificus" (1843); _Speeches in Congress_ (1853); _The Exiles of
Florida_ (1858); and a _History of the Rebellion: Its Authors and
Causes_ (1864).

  See _The Life of Joshua R. Giddings_ (Chicago, 1892), by his
  son-in-law, George Washington Julian (1817-1899), a Free-soil leader
  and a representative in Congress in 1849-1851, a Republican
  representative in Congress in 1861-1871, a Liberal Republican in the
  campaign of 1872, and afterwards a Democrat.




GIDEON (in Hebrew, perhaps "hewer" or "warrior"), liberator, reformer
and "judge" of Israel, was the son of Joash, of the Manassite clan of
Abiezer, and had his home at Ophrah near Shechem. His name occurs in
Heb. xi. 32, in a list of those who became heroes by faith; but, except
in Judges vi.-viii., is not to be met with elsewhere in the Old
Testament. He lived at a time when the nomad tribes of the south and
east made inroads upon Israel, destroying all that they could not carry
away. Two accounts of his deeds are preserved (see JUDGES). According to
one (Judges vi. 11-24) Yahweh appeared under the holy tree which was in
the possession of Joash and summoned Gideon to undertake, in dependence
on supernatural direction and help, the work of liberating his country
from its long oppression, and, in token that he accepted the mission, he
erected in Ophrah an altar which he called "Yahweh-Shalom" (Yahweh is
peace). According to another account (vi. 25-32) Gideon was a great
reformer who was commanded by Yahweh to destroy the altar of Baal
belonging to his father and the _asherah_ or sacred post by its side.
The townsmen discovered the sacrilege and demanded his death. His
father, who, as guardian of the sacred place, was priest of Baal,
enjoined the men not to take up Baal's quarrel, for "if Baal be a god,
let him contend (_rib_) for himself." Hence Gideon received the name
Jerubbaal.[1] From this latter name appearing regularly in the older
narrative (cf. ix.), and from the varying usage in vi.-viii., it has
been held that stories of two distinct heroes (Gideon and Jerubbaal)
have been fused in the complicated account which follows.[2]

The great gathering of the Midianites and their allies on the north side
of the plain of Jezreel; the general muster first of Abiezer, then of
all Manasseh, and lastly of the neighbouring tribes of Asher, Zebulun
and Naphtali; the signs by which the wavering faith of Gideon was
steadied; the methods by which an unwieldy mob was reduced to a small
but trusty band of energetic and determined men; and the stratagem by
which the vast army of Midian was surprised and routed by the handful of
Israelites descending from "above Endor," are indicated fully in the
narratives, and need not be detailed here. The difficulties in the
account of the subsequent flight of the Midianites appear to have arisen
from the composite character of the narratives, and there are signs that
in one of them Gideon was accompanied only by his own clansmen (vi. 34).
So, when the Midianites are put to flight, according to one
representation, the Ephraimites are called out to intercept them, and
the two chiefs, Oreb ("raven") and Zeeb ("wolf"), in making for the
fords of the Jordan, are slain at "the raven's rock" and "the wolf's
press" respectively. As the sequel of this we are told that the
Ephraimites quarrelled with Gideon because their assistance had not been
invoked earlier, and their anger was only appeased by his tactful reply
(viii. 1-3; contrast xii. 1-6). The other narrative speaks of the
pursuit of the Midianite chiefs Zebah and Zalmunna[3] across the
northern end of Jordan, past Succoth and Penuel to the unidentified
place Karkor. Having taken relentless vengeance on the men of Penuel and
Succoth, who had shown a timid neutrality when the patriotic struggle
was at its crisis, Gideon puts the two chiefs to death to avenge his
brothers whom they had killed at Tabor.[4] The overthrow of Midian (cf.
Is. ix. 4, x. 26; Ps. lxxxiii. 9-12) induced "Israel" to offer Gideon
the kingdom. It was refused--out of religious scruples (viii. 22 seq.;
cf. 1 Sam. viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12, 17, 19), and the ephod idol which he
set up at Ophrah in commemoration of the victory was regarded by a later
editor (v. 27) as a cause of apostasy to the people and a snare to
Gideon and his house; see, however, Ephod. Gideon's achievements would
naturally give him a more than merely local authority, and after his
death the attempt was made by one of his sons to set himself up as chief
(see ABIMELECH).

  See further JEWS, section 1; and the literature to the book of Judges.
       (S. A. C.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] "Baal contends" (or Jeru-baal, "Baal founds," cf. Jeru-el), but
    artificially explained in the narrative to mean "let Baal contend
    against him," or "let Baal contend for himself," v. 31. In 2 Sam. xi.
    21 he is called Jerubbesheth, in accordance with the custom explained
    in the article BAAL.

  [2] See, on this, Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1719 seq.; Ed. Meyer,
    _Die Israeliten_, pp. 482 seq.

  [3] The names are vocalized to suggest the fanciful interpretations
    "victim" and "protection withheld."

  [4] As the account of this has been lost and the narrative is
    concerned not with the plain of Jezreel but rather with Shechem, it
    has been inferred that the episode implies the existence of a
    distinct story wherein Gideon's pursuit is such an act of vengeance.




GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED ANDREAS (1820-1881), German zoologist and
palaeontologist, was born on the 13th of September 1820 at Quedlinburg
in Saxony, and educated at the university of Halle, where he graduated
Ph.D. in 1845. In 1858 he became professor of zoology and director of
the museum in the university of Halle. He died at Halle on the 14th of
November 1881. His chief publications were _Palaozoologie_ (1846);
_Fauna der Vorwelt_ (1847-1856); _Deutschlands Petrefacten_ (1852);
_Odontographie_ (1855); _Lehrbuch der Zoologie_ (1857); _Thesaurus
ornithologiae_ (1872-1877);




GIEN, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Loiret, situated on the right bank of the Loire, 39 m.
E.S.E. of Orleans by rail. Pop. (1906) 6325. Gien is a picturesque and
interesting town and has many curious old houses. The Loire is here
crossed by a stone bridge of twelve arches, built by Anne de Beaujeu,
daughter of Louis XI., about the end of the 15th century. Near it stands
a statue of Vercingetorix. The principal building is the old castle used
as a law-court, constructed of brick and stone arranged in geometrical
patterns, and built in 1494 by Anne de Beaujeu. The church of St Pierre
possesses a square tower dating from the end of the 15th century.
Porcelain is manufactured.




GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE (1820-1895), Russian statesman, was born on
the 21st of May 1820. Like his predecessor, Prince Gorchakov, he was
educated at the lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, near St Petersburg, but his
career was much less rapid, because he had no influential protectors,
and was handicapped by being a Protestant of Teutonic origin. At the age
of eighteen he entered the service of the Eastern department of the
ministry of foreign affairs, and spent more than twenty years in
subordinate posts, chiefly in south-eastern Europe, until he was
promoted in 1863 to the post of minister plenipotentiary in Persia. Here
he remained for six years, and, after serving as a minister in
Switzerland and Sweden, he was appointed in 1875 director of the Eastern
department and assistant minister for foreign affairs under Prince
Gorchakov, whose niece he had married. No sooner had he entered on his
new duties than his great capacity for arduous work was put to a severe
test. Besides events in central Asia, to which he had to devote much
attention, the Herzegovinian insurrection had broken out, and he could
perceive from secret official papers that the incident had far-reaching
ramifications unknown to the general public. Soon this became apparent
to all the world. While the Austrian officials in Dalmatia, with hardly
a pretence of concealment, were assisting the insurgents, Russian
volunteers were flocking to Servia with the connivance of the Russian
and Austrian governments, and General Ignatiev, as ambassador in
Constantinople, was urging his government to take advantage of the
palpable weakness of Turkey for bringing about a radical solution of the
Eastern question. Prince Gorchakov did not want a radical solution
involving a great European war, but he was too fond of ephemeral
popularity to stem the current of popular excitement. Alexander II.,
personally averse from war, was not insensible to the patriotic
enthusiasm, and halted between two opinions. M. de Giers was one of the
few who gauged the situation accurately. As an official and a man of
non-Russian extraction he had to be extremely reticent, but to his
intimate friends he condemned severely the ignorance and light-hearted
recklessness of those around him. The event justified his sombre
previsions, but did not cure the recklessness of the so-called patriots.
They wished to defy Europe in order to maintain intact the treaty of San
Stefano, and again M. de Giers found himself in an unpopular minority.
He had to remain in the background, but all the influence he possessed
was thrown into the scale of peace. His views, energetically supported
by Count Shuvalov, finally prevailed, and the European congress
assembled at Berlin. He was not present at the congress, and
consequently escaped the popular odium for the concessions which Russia
had to make to Great Britain and Austria. From that time he was
practically minister of foreign affairs, for Prince Gorchakov was no
longer capable of continued intellectual exertion, and lived mostly
abroad. On the death of Alexander II. in 1881 it was generally expected
that M. de Giers would be dismissed as deficient in Russian nationalist
feeling, for Alexander III. was credited with strong anti-German
Slavophil tendencies. In reality the young tsar had no intention of
embarking on wild political adventures, and was fully determined not to
let his hand be forced by men less cautious than himself. What he wanted
was a minister of foreign affairs who would be at once vigilant and
prudent, active and obedient, and who would relieve him from the trouble
and worry of routine work while allowing him to control the main lines,
and occasionally the details, of the national policy. M. de Giers was
exactly what he wanted, and accordingly the tsar not only appointed him
minister of foreign affairs on the retirement of Prince Gorchakov in
1882, but retained him to the end of his reign in 1894. In accordance
with the desire of his august master, M. de Giers followed
systematically a pacific policy. Accepting as a _fait accompli_ the
existence of the triple alliance, created by Bismarck for the purpose of
resisting any aggressive action on the part of Russia and France, he
sought to establish more friendly relations with the cabinets of Berlin,
Vienna and Rome. To the advances of the French government he at first
turned a deaf ear, but when the _rapprochement_ between the two
countries was effected with little or no co-operation on his part, he
utilized it for restraining France and promoting Russian interests. He
died on the 26th of January 1895, soon after the accession of Nicholas
II.     (D. M. W.)




GIESEBRECHT, WILHELM VON (1814-1889), German historian, was a son of
Karl Giesebrecht (d. 1832), and a nephew of the poet Ludwig Giesebrecht
(1792-1873). Born in Berlin on the 5th of March 1814, he studied under
Leopold von Ranke, and his first important work, _Geschichte Ottos II._,
was contributed to Ranke's _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter dem
sachsischen Hause_ (Berlin, 1837-1840); In 1841 he published his
_Jahrbucher des Klosters Altaich_, a reconstruction of the lost _Annales
Altahenses_, a medieval source of which fragments only were known to be
extant, and these were obscured in other chronicles. The brilliance of
this performance was shown in 1867, when a copy of the original
chronicle was found, and it was seen that Giesebrecht's text was
substantially correct. In the meantime he had been appointed
_Oberlehrer_ in the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium in Berlin; had paid a visit
to Italy, and as a result of his researches there had published _De
litterarum studiis apud Italos primis medii aevi seculis_ (Berlin,
1845), a study upon the survival of culture in Italian cities during the
middle ages, and also several critical essays upon the sources for the
early history of the popes. In 1851 appeared his translation of the
_Historiae_ of Gregory of Tours, which is the standard German
translation. Four years later appeared the first volume of his great
work, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, the fifth volume of which
was published in 1888. This work was the first in which the results of
the scientific methods of research were thrown open to the world at
large. Largeness of style and brilliance of portrayal were joined to an
absolute mastery of the sources in a way hitherto unachieved by any
German historian. Yet later German historians have severely criticized
his glorification of the imperial era with its Italian entanglements, in
which the interests of Germany were sacrificed for idle glory.
Giesebrecht's history, however, appeared when the new German empire was
in the making, and became popular owing both to its patriotic tone and
its intrinsic merits. In 1857 he went to Konigsberg as professor
ordinarius, and in 1862 succeeded H. von Sybel as professor of history
in the university of Munich. The Bavarian government honoured him in
various ways, and he died at Munich on the 17th of December 1889. In
addition to the works already mentioned, Giesebrecht published a good
monograph on Arnold of Brescia (Munich, 1873), a collection of essays
under the title _Deutsche Reden_ (Munich, 1871), and was an active
member of the group of scholars who took over the direction of the
_Monumenta Germaniae historica_ in 1875. In 1895 B. von Simson added a
sixth volume to the _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, thus bringing
the work down to the death of the emperor Frederick I. in 1190.

  See S. Riezler, _Gedachtnisrede auf Wilhelm von Giesebrecht_ (Munich,
  1891); and Lord Acton in the _English Historical Review_, vol. v.
  (London, 1890).




GIESELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG (1792-1854), German writer on church
history, was born on the 3rd of March 1792 at Petershagen, near Minden,
where his father, Georg Christof Friedrich, was preacher. In his tenth
year he entered the orphanage at Halle, whence he duly passed to the
university, his studies being interrupted, however, from October 1813
till the peace of 1815 by a period of military service, during which he
was enrolled as a volunteer in a regiment of chasseurs. On the
conclusion of peace (1815) he returned to Halle, and, having in 1817
taken his degree in philosophy, he in the same year became assistant
head master (_Conrector_) in the Minden gymnasium, and in 1818 was
appointed director of the gymnasium at Cleves. Here he published his
earliest work (_Historisch-kritischer Versuch uber die Entstehung u. die
fruhesten Schicksale der schriftlichen Evangelien_), a treatise which
had considerable influence on subsequent investigations as to the origin
of the gospels. In 1819 Gieseler was appointed a professor ordinarius in
theology in the newly founded university of Bonn, where, besides
lecturing on church history, he made important contributions to the
literature of that subject in Ernst Rosenmuller's _Repertorium_, K. F.
Staudlin and H. G. Tschirner's _Archiv_, and in various university
"programs." The first part of the first volume of his well-known _Church
History_ appeared in 1824. In 1831 he accepted a call to Gottingen as
successor to J. G. Planck. He lectured on church history, the history of
dogma, and dogmatic theology. In 1837 he was appointed a
_Consistorialrath_, and shortly afterwards was created a knight of the
Guelphic order. He died on the 8th of July 1854. The fourth and fifth
volumes of the _Kirchengeschichte_, embracing the period subsequent to
1814, were published posthumously in 1855 by E. R. Redepenning
(1810-1883); and they were followed in 1856 by a _Dogmengeschichte_,
which is sometimes reckoned as the sixth volume of the _Church History_.
Among church historians Gieseler continues to hold a high place. Less
vivid and picturesque in style than Karl Hase, conspicuously deficient
in Neander's deep and sympathetic insight into the more spiritual forces
by which church life is pervaded, he excels these and all other
contemporaries in the fulness and accuracy of his information. His
_Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte_, with its copious references to
original authorities, is of great value to the student: "Gieseler wished
that each age should speak for itself, since only by this means can the
peculiarity of its ideas be fully appreciated" (Otto Pfleiderer,
_Development of Theology_, p. 284). The work, which has passed through
several editions in Germany, has partially appeared also in two English
translations. That published in New York (_Text Book of Ecclesiastical
History_, 5 vols.) brings the work down to the peace of Westphalia,
while that published in "Clark's Theological Library" (_Compendium of
Ecclesiastical History_, Edinburgh, 5 vols.) closes with the beginning
of the Reformation. Gieseler was not only a devoted student but also an
energetic man of business. He frequently held the office of pro-rector
of the university, and did much useful work as a member of several of
its committees.




GIESSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the province of Upper Hesse, in
the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is situated in a beautiful and
fruitful valley at the confluence of the Wieseck with the Lahn, 41 m.
N.N.W. of Frankfort-on-Main on the railway to Cassel; and at the
junction of important lines to Cologne and Coblenz. Pop. (1885) 18,836;
(1905) 29,149. In the old part of the town the streets are narrow and
irregular. Besides the university, the principal buildings are the
Stadtkirche, the provincial government offices, comprising a portion of
the old castle dating from the 12th century, the arsenal (now barracks)
and the town-hall (containing an historical collection). The university,
founded in 1607 by Louis V, landgrave of Hesse, has a large and valuable
library, a botanic garden, an observatory, medical schools, a museum of
natural history, a chemical laboratory which was directed by Justus von
Liebig, professor here from 1824 to 1852, and an agricultural college.
The industries include the manufacture of woollen and cotton cloth of
various kinds, machines, leather, candles, tobacco and beer.

Giessen, the name of which is probably derived from the streams which
pour (_giessen_) their waters here into the Lahn, was formed in the 12th
century out of the villages Selters, Aster and Kroppach, for whose
protection Count William of Gleiberg built the castle of Giessen.
Through marriage the town came, in 1203, into the possession of the
count palatine, Rudolph of Tubingen, who sold it in 1265 to the
landgrave Henry of Hesse. It was surrounded with fortifications in 1530,
which were demolished in 1547, but rebuilt in 1560. In 1805 they were
finally pulled down, and their site converted into promenades.

  See O. Buchner, _Fuhrer fur Giessen und das Lahntal_ (1891); and _Aus
  Glessens Vergangenheit_ (1885).




GIFFARD, GODFREY (c. 1235-1302); chancellor of England and bishop of
Worcester, was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton, Wiltshire. Having
entered the church he speedily obtained valuable preferments owing to
the influence of his brother Walter, who became chancellor of England in
1265. In 1266 Godfrey became chancellor of the exchequer, succeeding
Walter as chancellor of England when, in the same year, the latter was
made archbishop of York. In 1268 he was chosen bishop of Worcester,
resigning the chancellorship shortly afterwards; and both before and
after 1279, when he inherited the valuable property of his brother the
archbishop, he was employed on public business by Edward I. His main
energies, however, were devoted to the affairs of his see. He had one
long dispute with the monks of Worcester, another with the abbot of
Westminster, and was vigilant in guarding his material interests. The
bishop died on the 26th of January 1302, and was buried in his
cathedral. Giffard, although inclined to nepotism, was a benefactor to
his cathedral, and completed and fortified the episcopal castle at
Hartlebury.

  See W. Thomas, _Survey of Worcester Cathedral_; _Episcopal Registers_;
  _Register of Bishop Godfrey Giffard_, edited by J. W. Willis-Bund
  (Oxford, 1898-1899); and the Annals of Worcester in the _Annales
  monastici_, vol. iv., edited by H. R. Luard (London, 1869).




GIFFARD, WALTER (d. 1279), chancellor of England and archbishop of York,
was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton, Wiltshire, and after serving as
canon and archdeacon of Wells, was chosen bishop of Bath and Wells in
May 1264. In August 1265 Henry III. appointed him chancellor of England,
and he was one of the arbitrators who drew up the _dictum de Kenilworth_
in 1266. Later in this year Pope Clement IV. named him archbishop of
York, and having resigned the chancellorship he was an able and diligent
ruler of his see, although in spite of his great wealth he was
frequently in pecuniary difficulties. When Henry III. died in November
1272 the archbishopric of Canterbury was vacant, and consequently the
great seal was delivered to the archbishop of York, who was the chief of
the three regents who successfully governed the kingdom until the return
of Edward I. in August 1274. Having again acted in this capacity during
the king's absence in 1275, Giffard died in April 1279, and was buried
in his cathedral.

  See _Fasti Eboracenses_, edited by J. Raine (London, 1863). Giffard's
  _Register_ from 1266 to 1279 has been edited for the Surtees Society
  by W. Brown.




GIFFARD, WILLIAM (d. 1129), bishop of Winchester, was chancellor of
William II. and received his see, in succession to Bishop Walkelin, from
Henry I. (1100). He was one of the bishops elect whom Anselm refused to
consecrate (1101) as having been nominated and invested by the lay
power. During the investitures dispute Giffard was on friendly terms
with Anselm, and drew upon himself a sentence of banishment through
declining to accept consecration from the archbishop of York (1103). He
was, however, one of the bishops who pressed Anselm, in 1106, to give
way to the king. He was consecrated after the settlement of 1107. He
became a close friend of Anselm, aided the first Cistercians to settle
in England, and restored Winchester cathedral with great magnificence.

  See Eadmer, _Historia novorum_, edited by M. Rule (London, 1884); and
  S. H. Cass, _Bishops of Winchester_ (London, 1827).




GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT (1837-1910), British statistician and economist, was
born at Strathaven, Lanarkshire. He entered a solicitor's office in
Glasgow, and while in that city attended courses at the university. He
drifted into journalism, and after working for the _Stirling Journal_ he
went to London in 1862 and joined the staff of the _Globe_. He also
assisted Mr John (afterwards Lord) Morley, when the latter edited the
_Fortnightly Review_. In 1868 he became Walter Bagehot's
assistant-editor on the _Economist_; and his services were also secured
in 1873 as city-editor of the _Daily News_, and later of _The Times_.
His high reputation as a financial journalist and statistician, gained
in these years, led to his appointment in 1876 as head of the
statistical department in the Board of Trade, and subsequently he became
assistant secretary (1882) and finally controller-general (1892),
retiring in 1897. In connexion with his position as chief statistical
adviser to the government, he was constantly employed in drawing up
reports, giving evidence before commissions of inquiry, and acting as a
government auditor, besides publishing a number of important essays on
financial subjects. His principal publications were _Essays on Finance_
(1879 and 1884), _The Progress of the Working Classes_ (1884), _The
Growth of Capital_ (1890), _The Case against Bimetallism_ (1892), and
_Economic Inquiries and Studies_ (1904). He was president of the
Statistical Society (1882-1884); and after being made a C.B. in 1891 was
created K.C.B. in 1895. In 1892 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society. Sir Robert Giffen continued in later years to take a leading
part in all public controversies connected with finance and taxation,
and his high authority and practical experience were universally
recognized. He died somewhat suddenly in Scotland on the 12th of April
1910.




GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN (1840-1905), American marine and landscape
painter, was born on Naushon Island, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of
December 1840. He studied art with the Dutch marine painter Albert van
Beest, who had a studio in New Bedford, and in 1864 he opened a studio
for himself in Boston, subsequently settling in New York, where he was
elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1867 and an
academician in 1878. He was also a charter member of the American Water
Color Society and the Society of American Artists. From 1878 until 1896
he was teacher of painting and chief master of the Woman's Art School of
Cooper Union, New York, and from 1896 until his death he was director.
Gifford painted longshore views, sand dunes and landscapes generally,
with charm and poetry. He was an etcher of considerable reputation, a
member of the Society of American Etchers, and an honorary member of the
Society of Painter-Etchers of London. He died in New York on the 13th of
January 1905.




GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON (1823-1880), American landscape painter, was
born at Greenfield, New York, on the 10th of July 1823. He studied
(1842-1845) at Brown University, then went to New York, and entered the
art schools of the National Academy of Design, of which organization he
was elected an associate in 1851, and an academician in 1854.
Subsequently he studied in Paris and Rome. He was one of the best known
of the Hudson River school group, though it was at Lake George that he
found most of his themes. In his day he enjoyed an enormous popularity,
and his canvases are in many well-known American collections. He died in
New York City on the 29th of August 1880.




GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826), English publicist and man of letters, was
born at Ashburton, Devon, in April 1756. His father was a glazier of
indifferent character, and before he was thirteen William had lost both
parents. The business was seized by his godfather, on whom William and
his brother, a child of two, became entirely dependent. For about three
months William was allowed to remain at the free school of the town. He
was then put to follow the plough, but after a day's trial he proved
unequal to the task, and was sent to sea with the Brixham fishermen.
After a year at sea his godfather, driven by the opinion of the
townsfolk, put the boy to school once more. He made rapid progress,
especially in mathematics, and began to assist the master. In 1772 he
was apprenticed to a shoemaker, and when he wished to pursue his
mathematical studies, he was obliged to work his problems with an awl on
beaten leather. By the kindness of an Ashburton surgeon, William
Cooksley, a subscription was raised to enable him to return to school.
Ultimately he proceeded in his twenty-third year to Oxford, where he was
appointed a Bible clerk in Exeter College. Leaving the university
shortly after graduation in 1782, he found a generous patron in the
first Earl Grosvenor, who undertook to provide for him, and sent him on
two prolonged continental tours in the capacity of tutor to his son,
Lord Belgrave. Settling in London, Gifford published in 1794 his first
work, a clever satirical piece, after Persius, entitled the _Baviad_,
aimed at a coterie of second-rate writers at Florence, then popularly
known as the Della Cruscans, of which Mrs Piozzi was the leader. A
second satire of a similar description, the _Maeviad_, directed against
the corruptions of the drama, appeared in 1795. About this time Gifford
became acquainted with Canning, with whose help he in August 1797
originated a weekly newspaper of Conservative politics entitled the
_Anti-Jacobin_, which, however, in the following year ceased to be
published. An English version of Juvenal, on which he had been for many
years engaged, appeared in 1802; to this an autobiographical notice of
the translator, reproduced in Nichol's _Illustrations of Literature_,
was prefixed. Two years afterwards Gifford published an annotated
edition of the plays of Massinger; and in 1809, when the _Quarterly
Review_ was projected, he was made editor. The success which attended
the _Quarterly_ from the outset was due in no small degree to the
ability and tact with which Gifford discharged his editorial duties. He
took, however, considerable liberties with the articles he inserted, and
Southey, who was one of his regular contributors, said that Gifford
looked on authors as Izaak Walton did on worms. His bitter opposition to
Radicals and his onslaughts on new writers, conspicuous among which was
the article on Keats's _Endymion_, called forth Hazlitt's _Letter to W.
Gifford_ in 1819. His connexion with the _Review_ continued until within
about two years of his death, which took place in London on the 31st of
December 1826. Besides numerous contributions to the _Quarterly_ during
the last fifteen years of his life, he wrote a metrical translation of
Persius, which appeared in 1821. Gifford also edited the dramas of Ben
Jonson in 1816, and his edition of Ford appeared posthumously in 1827.
His notes on Shirley were incorporated in Dyce's edition in 1833. His
political services were acknowledged by the appointments of commissioner
of the lottery and paymaster of the gentleman pensioners. He left a
considerable fortune, the bulk of which went to the son of his first
benefactor, William Cooksley.




GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _die Gift_, gift, _das Gift_,
poison, formed from the Teut. stem _gab-_, to give, cf. Dutch _geven_,
Ger. _geben_; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural
of later English is due to Scandinavian influence), a general English
term for a present or thing bestowed, i.e. an alienation of property
otherwise than for a legal consideration, although in law it is often
used to signify alienation with or without consideration. By analogy the
terms "gift" and "gifted" are also used to signify the natural endowment
of some special ability, or a miraculous power, in a person, as being
not acquired in the ordinary way. The legal effect of a gratuitous gift
only need be considered here. Formerly in English law property in land
could be conveyed by one person to another by a verbal gift of the
estate accompanied by delivery of possession. The Statute of Frauds
required all such conveyances to be in writing, and a later statute (8 &
9 Vict. c. 106) requires them to be by deed. Personal property may be
effectually transferred from one person to another by a simple verbal
gift accompanied by delivery. If A delivers a chattel to B, saying or
signifying that he does so by way of gift, the property passes, and the
chattel belongs to B. But unless the actual thing is bodily handed over
to the donee, the mere verbal expression of the donor's desire or
intention has no legal effect whatever. The persons are in the position
of parties to an agreement which is void as being without consideration.
When the nature of the thing is such that it cannot be bodily handed
over, it will be sufficient to put the donee in such a position as to
enable him to deal with it as the owner. For example, when goods are in
a warehouse, the delivery of the key will make a verbal gift of them
effectual; but it seems that part delivery of goods which are capable of
actual delivery will not validate a verbal gift of the part undelivered.
So when goods are in the possession of a warehouseman, the handing over
of a delivery order might, by special custom (but not otherwise, it
appears), be sufficient to pass the property in the goods, although
delivery of a bill of lading for goods at sea is equivalent to an actual
delivery of the goods themselves.




GIFU (IMAIZUMI), a city of Japan, capital of the _ken_ (government) of
Central Nippon, which comprises the two provinces of Mino and Hida. Pop.
about 41,000. It lies E. by N. of Lake Biwa, on the Central railway, on
a tributary of the river Kiso, which flows to the Bay of Miya Uro.
Manufactures of silk and paper goods are carried on. The _ken_ has an
area of about 4000 sq. m. and is thickly peopled, the population
exceeding 1,000,000. The whole district is subject to frequent
earthquakes.




GIG, apparently an onomatopoeic word for any light whirling object, and
so used of a top, as in Shakespeare's _Love's Labour's Lost_, v. i. 70
("Goe whip thy gigge"), or of a revolving lure made of feathers for
snaring birds. The word is now chiefly used of a light two-wheeled cart
or carriage for one horse, and of a narrow, light, ship's boat for oars
or sails, and also of a clinker-built rowing-boat used for rowing on the
Thames. "Gig" is further applied, in mining, to a wooden chamber or box
divided in the centre and used to draw miners up and down a pit or
shaft, and to a textile machine, the "gig-mill" or "gigging machine,"
which raises the nap on cloth by means of teazels. A "gig" or "fish-gig"
(properly "fiz-gig," possibly an adaptation of Span. _fisga_, harpoon)
is an instrument used for spearing fish.




GIGLIO (anc. _Igilium_), an island of Italy, off the S.W. coast of
Italy, in the province of Grosseto, 11 m. to the W. of Monte Argentario,
the nearest point on the coast. It measures about 5 m. by 3 and its
highest point is 1634 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2062. It is
partly composed of granite, which was quarried here by the Romans, and
is still used; the island is fertile, and produces wine and fruit, the
cultivation of which has taken the place of the forests of which
Rutilius spoke (_Itin._ i. 325, "eminus Igilii silvosa cacumina miror").
Julius Caesar mentions its sailors in the fleet of Domitius Ahenobarbus.
In Rutilius's time it served as a place of refuge from the barbarian
invaders. Charlemagne gave it to the abbey of Tre Fontane at Rome. In
the 14th century it belonged to Pisa, then to Florence, ~~6 Antonio
Piccolomini, nephew of Pius II. In 1558 it was sold to the wife of
Cosimo I. of Florence.

  See Archduke Ludwig Salvator, _Die Insel Giglio_ (Prague, 1900).




GIJON, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the
Bay of Biscay, and at the terminus of railways from Aviles, Oviedo and
Langreo. Pop. (1900) 47,544. The older parts of Gijon, which are partly
enclosed by ancient walls, occupy the upper slopes of a peninsular
headland, Santa Catalina Point; while its more modern suburbs extend
along the shore to Cape Torres, on the west, and Cape San Lorenzo, on
the east. These suburbs contain the town-hall, theatre, markets, and a
bull-ring with seats for 12,000 spectators. Few of the buildings of
Gijon are noteworthy for any architectural merit, except perhaps the
15th-century parish church of San Pedro, which has a triple raw of
aisles on each side, the palace of the marquesses of Revillajigedo (or
Revilla Gigedo), and the Asturian Institute or Jovellanos Institute. The
last named has a very fine collection of drawings by Spanish and other
artists, a good library and classes for instruction in seamanship,
mathematics and languages. It was founded in 1797 by the poet and
statesman Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744-1811). Jovellanos, a native
of Gijon, is buried in San Pedro.

The Bay of Gijon is the most important roadstead on the Spanish coast
between Ferrol and Santander. Its first quay was constructed by means of
a grant from Charles V. in 1552-1554; and its arsenal, added in the
reign of Philip II. (1556-1598), was used in 1588 as a repairing station
for the surviving ships of the Invincible Armada. A new quay was built
in 1766-1768, and extended in 1859; the harbour was further improved in
1864, and after 1892, when the Musel harbour of refuge was created at
the extremity of the bay. It was, however, the establishment of railway
communication in 1884 which brought the town its modern prosperity, by
rendering it the chief port of shipment for the products of Langreo and
other mining centres in Oviedo. A rapid commercial development followed.
Besides large tobacco, glass and porcelain factories, Gijon possesses
iron foundries and petroleum refineries; while its minor industries
include fisheries, and the manufacture of preserved foods, soap,
chocolate, candles and liqueurs. In 1903 the harbour accommodated 2189
vessels of 358,375 tons. In the same year the imports, consisting
chiefly of machinery, iron, wood and food-stuffs, were valued at
L660,889; while the exports, comprising zinc, copper, iron and other
minerals, with fish, nuts and farm produce, were valued at L100,941.

Gijon is usually identified with the _Gigia_ of the Romans, which,
however, occupied the site of the adjoining suburb of Cima de Villa.
Early in the 8th century Gijon was captured and strengthened by the
Moors, who used the stones of the Roman city for their fortifications,
but were expelled by King Pelayo (720-737). In 844 Gijon successfully
resisted a Norman raid; in 1395 it was burned down; but thenceforward it
gradually rose to commercial importance.




GILAN (GHILAN, GUILAN), one of the three small but important Caspian
provinces of Persia, lying along the south-western shore of the Caspian
Sea between 48 deg. 50' and 50 deg. 30' E. with a breadth varying from
15 to 50 m. It has an area of about 5000 sq. m. and a population of
about 250,000. It is separated from Russia by the little river Astara,
which flows into the Caspian, and bounded W. by Azerbaijan, S. by Kazvin
and E. by Mazandaran. The greater portion of the province is a lowland
region extending inland from the sea to the base of the mountains of the
Elburz range and, though the Sefid Rud (White river), which is called
Kizil Uzain in its upper course and has its principal sources in the
hills of Persian Kurdistan, is the only river of any size, the province
is abundantly watered by many streams and an exceptionally great
rainfall (in some years 50 in.).

The vegetation is very much like that of southern Europe, but in
consequence of the great humidity and the mild climate almost tropically
luxuriant, and the forests from the shore of the sea up to an altitude
of nearly 5000 ft. on the mountain slopes facing the sea are as dense as
an Indian jungle. The prevailing types of trees are the oak, maple,
hornbeam, beech, ash and elm. The box tree comes to rare perfection, but
in consequence of indiscriminate cutting for export during many years,
is now becoming scarce. Of fruit trees the apple, pear, plum, cherry,
medlar, pomegranate, fig, quince, as well as two kinds of vine, grow
wild; oranges, sweet and bitter, and other Aurantiaceae thrive well in
gardens and plantations. The fauna also is well represented, but tigers
which once were frequently seen are now very scarce; panther, hyena,
jackal, wild boar, deer (_Cervus maral_) are common; pheasant, woodcock,
ducks, teal, geese and various waterfowl abound; the fisheries are very
productive and are leased to a Russian firm. The ordinary cattle of the
province is the small humped kind, _Bos indicus_, and forms an article
of export to Russia, the humps, smoked, being much in demand as a
delicacy. Rice of a kind not much appreciated in Persia, but much
esteemed in Gilan and Russia, is largely cultivated and a quantity
valued at about L120,000 was exported to Russia during 1904-1905. Tea
plantations, with seeds and plants from Assam, Ceylon and the Himalayas,
were started in the early part of 1900 on the slopes of the hills south
of Resht at an altitude of about 1000 ft. The results were excellent and
very good tea was produced in 1904 and 1905, but the Persian government
gave no support and the enterprise was neglected. The olive thrives well
at Rudbar and Manjil in the Sefid Rud valley and the oil extracted from
it by a Provencal for some years until 1896, when he was murdered, was
of very good quality and found a ready market at Baku. Since then the
oil has been, as before, only used for the manufacture of soap. Tobacco
from Turkish seed, cultivated since 1875, grows well, and a considerable
quantity of it is exported. The most valuable produce of the province is
silk. In 1866 it was valued at L743,000 and about two-thirds of it was
exported. The silkworm disease appeared in 1864 and the crops decreased
in consequence until 1893 when the value of the silk exported was no
more than L6500. Since then there has been a steady improvement, and in
1905-1906 the value of the produce was estimated at L300,000 and that of
the quantity exported at L200,000. The eggs of the silk-worms, formerly
obtained from Japan, are now imported principally from Brusa by Greeks
under French protection and from France.

There is only one good road in the province, that from Enzeli to Kazvin
by way of Resht; in other parts communication is by narrow and
frequently impassable lanes through the thick forest, or by intricate
pathways through the dense undergrowth.

The province is divided into the following administrative districts:
Resht (with the capital and its immediate neighbourhood), Fumen (with
Tulam and Mesula, where are iron mines), Gesker, Talish (with
Shandarman, Kerganrud, Asalim, Gil-Dulab, Talish-Dulab), Enzeli (the
port of Resht), Sheft, Manjil (with Rahmetabad and Amarlu), Lahijan
(with Langarud, Rudsar and Ranehkuh), Dilman and Lashtnisha. The revenue
derived from taxes and customs is about L80,000. The crown lands have
been much neglected and the revenue from them amounts to hardly L3000
per annum. The value of the exports and imports from and into Gilan,
much of them in transit, is close upon L2,000,000.

Gilan was an independent khanate until 1567 when Khan Ahmed, the last of
the Kargia dynasty, which had reigned 205 years, was deposed by Tahmasp
I., the second Safawid shah of Persia (1524-1576). It was occupied by a
Russian force in the early part of 1723; and Tahmasp III., the tenth
Safawid shah (1722-1731); then without a throne and his country occupied
by the Afghans, ceded it, together with Mazandaran and Astarabad, to
Peter the Great by a treaty of the 12th of September of the same year.
Russian troops remained in Gilan until 1734, when they were compelled to
evacuate it.

The derivation of the name Gilan from the modern Persian word _gil_
meaning mud (hence "land of mud") is incorrect. It probably means "land
of the Gil," an ancient tribe which classical writers mention as the
Gelae.     (A. H.-S.)




GILBART, JAMES WILLIAM (1794-1863), English writer on banking, was born
in London on the 21st of March 1794. From 1813 to 1825 he was clerk in
a London bank. After a two years' residence in Birmingham, he was
appointed manager of the Kilkenny branch of the Provincial Bank of
Ireland, and in 1829 he was promoted to the Waterford branch. In 1834 he
became manager of the London and Westminster Bank; and he did much to
develop the system of joint-stock banking. On more than one occasion he
rendered valuable services to the joint-stock banks by his evidence
before committees of the House of Commons; and, on the renewal of the
bank charter in 1844, he procured the insertion of a clause granting to
joint-stock banks the power of suing by their public officer, and also
the right of accepting bills at less than six months' date. In 1846 he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He died in London on the 8th
of August 1863. The Gilbart lectures on banking at King's College are
called after him.

  The following are his principal works on banking, most of which have
  passed through more than one edition: _Practical Treatise on Banking_
  (1827); _The History and Principles of Banking_ (1834); _The History
  of Banking in America_ (1837); _Lectures on the History and Principles
  of Ancient Commerce_ (1847); _Logic for the Million_ (1851); and
  _Logic of Banking_ (1857).




GILBERT, ALFRED (1854-   ), British sculptor and goldsmith, born in
London, was the son of Alfred Gilbert, musician. He received his
education mainly in Paris (Ecole des Beaux-Arts, under Cavelier), and
studied in Rome and Florence where the significance of the Renaissance
made a lasting impression upon him and his art. He also worked in the
studio of Sir J. Edgar Boehm, R.A. His first work of importance was the
charming group of the "Mother and Child," then "The Kiss of Victory,"
followed by "Perseus Arming" (1883), produced directly under the
influence of the Florentine masterpieces he had studied. Its success was
great, and Lord Leighton forthwith commissioned "Icarus," which was
exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1884, along with a remarkable "Study
of a Head," and was received with general applause. Then followed "The
Enchanted Chair," which, along with many other works deemed by the
artist incomplete or unworthy of his powers, was ultimately broken by
the sculptor's own hand. The next year Mr Gilbert was occupied with the
Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain, in Piccadilly, London, a work of great
originality and beauty, yet shorn of some of the intended effect through
restrictions put upon the artist. In 1888 was produced the statue of
H.M. Queen Victoria, set up at Winchester, in its main design and in the
details of its ornamentation the most remarkable work of its kind
produced in Great Britain, and perhaps, it may be added, in any other
country in modern times. Other statues of great beauty, at once novel in
treatment and fine in design, are those set up to Lord Reay in Bombay,
and John Howard at Bedford (1898); the highly original pedestal of which
did much to direct into a better channel what are apt to be the
eccentricities of what is called the "New Art" School. The sculptor rose
to the full height of his powers in his "Memorial to the Duke of
Clarence," and his fast developing fancy and imagination, which are the
main characteristics of all his work, are seen in his "Memorial
Candelabrum to Lord Arthur Russell" and "Memorial Font to the son of the
4th Marquess of Bath." Gilbert's sense of decoration is paramount in all
he does, and although in addition to the work already cited he produced
busts of extraordinary excellence of Cyril Flower, John R. Clayton
(since broken up by the artist--the fate of much of his admirable work),
G. F. Watts, Sir Henry Tate, Sir George Birdwood, Sir Richard Owen, Sir
George Grove and various others, it is on his goldsmithery that the
artist would rest his reputation; on his mayoral chain for Preston, the
epergne for Queen Victoria, the figurines of "Victory" (a statuette
designed for the orb in the hand of the Winchester statue), "St Michael"
and "St George," as well as smaller objects such as seals, keys and the
like. Mr Gilbert was chosen associate of the Royal Academy in 1887, full
member in 1892 (resigned 1909), and professor of sculpture (afterwards
resigned) in 1900. In 1889 he won the _Grand Prix_ at the Paris
International Exhibition. He was created a member of the Victorian Order
in 1897. (See SCULPTURE.)

  See _The Life and Work of Alfred Gilbert, R.A., M.V.O., D.C.L._, by
  Joseph Hatton (_Art Journal_ Office, 1903).     (M. H. S.)




GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904), American actress, was born at Rochdale,
Lancashire, on the 21st of October 1821, her maiden name being Hartley.
At fifteen she was a pupil at the ballet school connected with the
Haymarket theatre, conducted by Paul Taglioni, and became a dancer on
the stage. In 1846 she married George H. Gilbert (d. 1866), a performer
in the company of which she was a member. Together they filled many
engagements in English theatres, moving to America in 1849. Mrs
Gilbert's first success in a speaking part was in 1857 as Wichavenda in
Brougham's _Pocahontas_. In 1869 she joined Daly's company, playing for
many years wives to James Lewis's husbands, and old women's parts, in
which she had no equal. Mrs. Gilbert held a unique position on the
American stage, on account of the admiration, esteem and affection which
she enjoyed both in front and behind the footlights. She died at Chicago
on the 2nd of December 1904.

  See _Mrs Gilbert's Stage Reminiscences_ (1901).




GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843-   ), American geologist, was born at
Rochester, N.Y., on the 6th of May 1843. In 1869 he was attached to the
Geological Survey of Ohio and in 1879 he became a member of the United
States Geological Survey, being engaged on parts of the Rocky Mountains,
in Nevada, Utah, California and Arizona. He is distinguished for his
researches on mountain-structure and on the Great Lakes, as well as on
glacial phenomena, recent earth movements, and on topographic features
generally. His report on the _Geology of the Henry Mountains_ (1877), in
which the volcanic structure known as a laccolite was first described;
his _History of the Niagara River_ (1890) and _Lake Bonneville_
(1891--the first of the Monographs issued by the United States
Geological Survey) are specially important. He was awarded the Wollaston
medal by the Geological Society of London in 1900.




GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583), English soldier, navigator and
pioneer colonist in America, was the second son of Otho Gilbert, of
Compton, near Dartmouth, Devon, and step-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh.
He was educated at Eton and Oxford; intended for the law; introduced at
court by Raleigh's aunt, Catherine Ashley, and appointed (July 1566)
captain in the army of Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. In April 1566 he
had already joined with Antony Jenkinson in a petition to Elizabeth for
the discovery of the North-East Passage; in November following he
presented an independent petition for the "discovering of a passage by
the north to go to Cataia." In October 1569 he became governor of
Munster; on the 1st of January 1570 he was knighted; in 1571 he was
returned M.P. for Plymouth; in 1572 he campaigned in the Netherlands
against Spain without much success; from 1573 to 1578 he lived in
retirement at Limehouse, devoting himself especially to the advocacy of a
North-West Passage (his famous _Discourse_ on this subject was published
in 1576). Gilbert's arguments, widely circulated even before 1575, were
apparently of weight in promoting the Frobisher enterprises of 1576-1578.
On the 11th of June 1578, Sir Humphrey obtained his long-coveted charter
for North-Western discovery and colonization, authorizing him, his heirs
and assigns, to discover, occupy and possess such remote "heathen lands
not actually possessed of any Christian prince or people, as should seem
good to him or them." Disposing not only of his patrimony but also of the
estates in Kent which he had through his wife, daughter of John Aucher of
Ollerden, he fitted out an expedition which left Dartmouth on the 23rd of
September 1578, and returned in May 1579, having accomplished nothing. In
1579 Gilbert aided the government in Ireland; and in 1583, after many
struggles--illustrated by his appeal to Walsingham on the 11th of July
1582, for the payment of moneys due to him from government, and by his
agreement with the Southampton venturers--he succeeded in equipping
another fleet for "Western Planting." On the 11th of June 1583, he sailed
from Plymouth with five ships and the queen's blessing; on the 13th of
July the "Ark Raleigh," built and manned at his brother's expense,
deserted the fleet; on the 30th of July he was off the north coast of
Newfoundland; on the 3rd of August he arrived off the present St John's,
and selected this site as the centre of his operations; on the 5th of
August he began the plantation of the first English colony in North
America. Proceeding southwards with three vessels, exploring and
prospecting, he lost the largest near Cape Breton (29th of August);
immediately after (31st of August) he started to return to England with
the "Golden Hind" and the "Squirrel," of forty and ten tons respectively.
Obstinately refusing to leave the "frigate" and sail in his "great ship,"
he shared the former's fate in a tempest off the Azores. "Monday the 9th
of September," reports Hayes, the captain of the "Hind," "the frigate was
near cast away, ... yet at that time recovered; and, giving forth signs
of joy, the general, sitting abaft with a book in his hand, cried out
unto us in the 'Hind,' 'We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.'....
The same Monday night, about twelve, the frigate being ahead of us in the
'Golden Hind,' suddenly her lights were out, ... in that moment the
frigate was devoured and swallowed up of the sea."

  See Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_ (1599); vol. iii. pp. 135-181;
  Gilbert's _Discourse of a Discovery for a New Passage to Cataia_,
  published by George Gascoigne in 1576, with additions, probably
  without Gilbert's authority; Hooker's _Supplement_ to Holinshed's
  _Irish Chronicle_; Roger Williams, _The Actions of the Low Countries_
  (1618); _State Papers, Domestic_ (1577-1583); Wood's _Athenae
  Oxonienses_; _North British Review_, No. 45; Fox Bourne's _English
  Seamen under the Tudors_; Carlos Slafter, _Sir H. Gylberte and his
  Enterprise_ (Boston, 1903), with all important documents. Gilbert's
  interesting writings on the need of a university for London,
  anticipating in many ways not only the modern London University but
  also the British Museum library and its compulsory sustenance through
  the provisions of the Copyright Act, have been printed by Furnivall
  (_Queen Elizabeth's Achademy_) in the Early English Text Society
  Publications, extra series, No. viii.




GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889); American actor, whose real name was Gibbs,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of February 1810, and
made his first appearance there as Jaffier in _Venice Preserved_. He
soon found that his true vein was in comedy, particularly in old-men
parts. When in London in 1847 he was well received both by press and
public, and played with Macready. He was the leading actor at Wallack's
from 1861-1888. He died on the 17th of June 1889.

  See William Winter's _Life of John Gilbert_ (New York, 1890).




GILBERT, SIR JOHN (1817-1897), English painter and illustrator, one of
the eight children of George Felix Gilbert, a member of a Derbyshire
family, was born at Blackheath on the 21st of July 1817. He went to
school there, and even in childhood displayed an extraordinary fondness
for drawing and painting. Nevertheless, his father's lack of means
compelled him to accept employment for the boy in the office of Messrs
Dickson & Bell, estate agents, in Charlotte Row, London. Yielding,
however, to his natural bent, his parents agreed that he should take up
art in his own way, which included but little advice from others, his
only teacher being Haydon's pupil, George Lance, the fruit painter. This
artist gave him brief instructions in the use of colour. In 1836 Gilbert
appeared in public for the first time. This was at the gallery of the
Society of British Artists, where he sent drawings, the subjects of
which were characteristic, being "The Arrest of Lord Hastings," from
Shakespeare, and "Abbot Boniface," from _The Monastery_ of Scott. "Inez
de Castro" was in the same gallery in the next year; it was the first of
a long series of works in the same medium, representing similar themes,
and was accompanied, from 1837, by a still greater number of works in
oil which were exhibited at the British Institution. These included "Don
Quixote giving advice to Sancho Panza," 1841; "Brunette and Phillis,"
from _The Spectator_, 1844; "The King's Artillery at Marston Moor,"
1860; and "Don Quixote comes back for the last time to his Home and
Family," 1867. In that year the Institution was finally closed. Gilbert
exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1838, beginning with the "Portrait
of a Gentleman," and continuing, except between 1851 and 1867, till his
death to exhibit there many of his best and more ambitious works. These
included such capital instances as "Holbein painting the Portrait of
Anne Boleyn," "Don Quixote's first Interview with the Duke and Duchess,"
1842, "Charlemagne visiting the Schools," 1846. "Touchstone and the
Shepherd," and "Rembrandt," a very fine piece, were both there in 1867;
and in 1873 "Naseby," one of his finest and most picturesque designs,
was also at the Royal Academy. Gilbert was elected A.R.A. 29th January
1872, and R.A. 29th June 1876. Besides these mostly large and powerful
works, the artist's true arena of display was undoubtedly the gallery of
the Old Water Colour Society, to which from 1852, when he was elected an
Associate exhibitor, till he died forty-five years later, he contributed
not fewer than 270 drawings, most of them admirable because of the
largeness of their style, massive coloration, broad chiaroscuro, and the
surpassing vigour of their designs. These qualities induced the leading
critics to claim for him opportunities for painting mural pictures of
great historic themes as decorations of national buildings. "The
Trumpeter," "The Standard-Bearer," "Richard II. resigning his Crown"
(now at Liverpool), "The Drug Bazaar at Constantinople," "The Merchant
of Venice" and "The Turkish Water-Carrier" are but examples of that
wealth of art which added to the attractions of the gallery in Pall
Mall. There Gilbert was elected a full Member in 1855, and president of
the Society in 1871, shortly after which he was knighted. As an
illustrator of books, magazines and periodicals of every kind he was
most prolific. To the success of the _Illustrated London News_ his
designs lent powerful aid, and he was eminently serviceable in
illustrating the _Shakespeare_ of Mr Howard Staunton. He died on the 6th
of October 1897.     (F. G. S.)




GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901); English chemist, was born at Hull
on the 1st of August 1817. He studied chemistry first at Glasgow under
Thomas Thomson; then at University College, London, in the laboratory of
A. T. Thomson (1778-1849), the professor of medical jurisprudence, also
attending Thomas Graham's lectures; and finally at Giessen under Liebig.
On his return to England from Germany he acted for a year or so as
assistant to his old master A. T. Thomson at University College, and in
1843, after spending a short time in the study of calico dyeing and
printing near Manchester, accepted the directorship of the chemical
laboratory at the famous experimental station established by Sir J. B.
Lawes at Rothamsted, near St Albans, for the systematic and scientific
study of agriculture. This position he held for fifty-eight years, until
his death on the 23rd of December 1901. The work which he carried out
during that long period in collaboration with Lawes was of a most
comprehensive character, involving the application of many branches of
science, such as chemistry, meteorology, botany, animal and vegetable
physiology, and geology; and its influence in improving the methods of
practical agriculture extended all over the civilized world. Gilbert was
chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in 1860, and in 1867 was awarded a
royal medal jointly with Lawes. In 1880 he presided over the Chemical
Section of the British Association at its meeting at Swansea, and in
1882 he was president of the London Chemical Society, of which he had
been a member almost from its foundation in 1841. For six years from
1884 he filled the Sibthorpian chair of rural economy at Oxford, and he
was also an honorary professor at the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester. He was knighted in 1893, the year in which the jubilee of
the Rothamsted experiments was celebrated.




GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA ["LOLA MONTEZ"] (1818-1861), dancer
and adventuress, the daughter of a British army officer, was born at
Limerick, Ireland, in 1818. Her father dying in India when she was seven
years old, and her mother marrying again, the child was sent to Europe
to be educated, subsequently joining her mother at Bath. In 1837 she
made a runaway match with a Captain James of the Indian army, and
accompanied him to India. In 1842 she returned to England, and shortly
afterwards her husband obtained a decree _nisi_ for divorce. She then
studied dancing, making an unsuccessful first appearance at Her
Majesty's theatre, London, in 1843, billed as "Lola Montez, Spanish
dancer." Subsequently she appeared with considerable success in
Germany, Poland and Russia. Thence she went to Paris, and in 1847
appeared at Munich, where she became the mistress of the old king of
Bavaria, Ludwig I.; she was naturalized, created comtesse de Landsfeld,
and given an income of L2000 a year. She soon proved herself the real
ruler of Bavaria, adopting a liberal and anti-Jesuit policy. Her
political opponents proved, however, too strong for her, and in 1848 she
was banished. In 1849 she came to England, and in the same year was
married to George Heald, a young officer in the Guards. Her husband's
guardian instituted a prosecution for bigamy against her on the ground
that her divorce from Captain James had not been made absolute, and she
fled with Heald to Spain. In 1851 she appeared at the Broadway theatre,
New York, and in the following year at the Walnut Street theatre,
Philadelphia. In 1853 Heald was drowned at Lisbon, and in the same year
she married the proprietor of a San Francisco newspaper, but did not
live long with him. Subsequently she appeared in Australia, but
returned, in 1857, to act in America, and to lecture on gallantry. Her
health having broken down, she devoted the rest of her life to visiting
the outcasts of her own sex in New York, where, stricken with paralysis,
she died on the 17th of January 1861.

  See E. B. D'Auvergne, _Lola Montez_ (New York, 1909).




GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751-1780), French poet, was born at
Fontenay-le-Chateau in Lorraine in 1751. Having completed his education
at the college of Dole, he devoted himself for a time to a
half-scholastic, half-literary life at Nancy, but in 1774 he found his
way to the capital. As an opponent of the Encyclopaedists and a
panegyrist of Louis XV., he received considerable pensions. He died in
Paris on the 12th of November 1780 from the results of a fall from his
horse. The satiric force of one or two of his pieces, as _Mon Apologie_
(1778) and _Le Dix-huitieme Siecle_ (1775), would alone be sufficient to
preserve his reputation, which has been further increased by modern
writers, who, like Alfred de Vigny in his _Stello_ (chaps. 7-13),
considered him a victim to the spite of his philosophic opponents. His
best-known verses are the _Ode imitee de plusieurs psaumes_, usually
entitled Adieux a la vie.

  Among his other works may be mentioned _Les Familles de Darius et
  d'Eridame, histoire persane_ (1770), _Le Carnaval des auteurs_ (1773),
  _Odes nouvelles et patriotiques_ (1775). Gilbert's _Oeuvres completes_
  were first published in 1788, and they have since been edited by
  Mastrella (Paris, 1823), by Charles Nodier (1817 or 1825), and by M.
  de Lescure (1882).




GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603), the most distinguished man
of science in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and the
father of electric and magnetic science, was a member of an ancient
Suffolk family, long resident in Clare, and was born on the 24th of May
1544 at Colchester, where his father, Hierome Gilbert, became recorder.
Educated at Colchester school, he entered St John's College, Cambridge,
in 1558, and after taking the degrees of B.A. and M.A. in due course,
graduated M.D. in 1569, in which year he was elected a senior fellow of
his college. Soon afterwards he left Cambridge, and after spending three
years in Italy and other parts of Europe, settled in 1573 in London,
where he practised as a physician with "great success and applause." He
was admitted to the College of Physicians probably about 1576, and from
1581 to 1590 was one of the censors. In 1587 he became treasurer,
holding the office till 1592, and in 1589 he was one of the committee
appointed to superintend the preparation of the _Pharmacopoeia
Londinensis_ which the college in that year decided to issue, but which
did not actually appear till 1618. In 1597 he was again chosen
treasurer, becoming at the same time consiliarius, and in 1599 he
succeeded to the presidency. Two years later he was appointed physician
to Queen Elizabeth, with the usual emolument of L100 a year. After this
time he seems to have removed to the court, vacating his residence,
Wingfield House, which was on Peter's Hill, between Upper Thames Street
and Little Knightrider Street, and close to the house of the College of
Physicians. On the death of the queen in 1603 he was reappointed by her
successor; but he did not long enjoy the honour, for he died, probably
of the plague, on the 30th of November (10th of December, N.S.) 1603,
either in London or in Colchester. He was buried in the latter town, in
the chancel of Holy Trinity church, where a monument was erected to his
memory. To the College of Physicians he left his books, globes,
instruments and minerals, but they were destroyed in the great fire of
London.

Gilbert's principal work is his treatise on magnetism, entitled _De
magnete, magneticisque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure_ (London,
1600; later editions--Stettin, 1628, 1633; Frankfort, 1629, 1638). This
work, which embodied the results of many years' research, was
distinguished by its strict adherence to the scientific method of
investigation by experiment, and by the originality of its matter,
containing, as it does, an account of the author's experiments on
magnets and magnetical bodies and on electrical attractions, and also
his great conception that the earth is nothing but a large magnet, and
that it is this which explains, not only the direction of the magnetic
needle north and south, but also the variation and dipping or
inclination of the needle. Gilbert's is therefore not merely the first,
but the most important, systematic contribution to the sciences of
electricity and magnetism. A posthumous work of Gilbert's was edited by
his brother, also called William, from two MSS. in the possession of Sir
William Boswell; its title is _De mundo nostro sublunari philosophia
nova_ (Amsterdam, 1651). He is the reputed inventor besides of two
instruments to enable sailors "to find out the latitude without seeing
of sun, moon or stars," an account of which is given in Thomas
Blondeville's _Theoriques of the Planets_ (London, 1602). He was also
the first advocate of Copernican views in England, and he concluded that
the fixed stars are not all at the same distance from the earth.

It is a matter of great regret for the historian of chemistry that
Gilbert left nothing on that branch of science, to which he was deeply
devoted, "attaining to great exactness therein." So at least says Thomas
Fuller, who in his _Worthies of England_ prophesied truly how he would
be afterwards known: "Mahomet's tomb at Mecca," he says, "is said
strangely to hang up, attracted by some invisible loadstone; but the
memory of this doctor will never fall to the ground, which his
incomparable book _De magnete_ will support to eternity."

  An English translation of the _De magnete_ was published by P. F.
  Mottelay in 1893, and another, with notes by S. P. Thompson, was
  issued by the Gilbert Club of London in 1900.




GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836-   ), English playwright and
humorist, son of William Gilbert (a descendant of Sir Humphrey Gilbert),
was born in London on the 18th of November 1836. His father was the
author of a number of novels, the best-known of which were _Shirley Hall
Asylum_ (1863) and _Dr Austin's Guests_ (1866). Several of these
novels--which were characterized by a singular acuteness and lucidity of
style, by a dry, subacid humour, by a fund of humanitarian feeling and
by a considerable medical knowledge, especially in regard to the
psychology of lunatics and monomaniacs--were illustrated by his son, who
developed a talent for whimsical draughtsmanship. W. S. Gilbert was
educated at Boulogne, at Ealing and at King's College, graduating B.A.
from the university of London in 1856. The termination of the Crimean
War was fatal to his project of competing for a commission in the Royal
Artillery, but he obtained a post in the education department of the
privy council office (1857-1861). Disliking the routine work, he left
the Civil Service, entered the Inner Temple, was called to the bar in
November 1864, and joined the northern circuit. His practice was
inconsiderable, and his military and legal ambitions were eventually
satisfied by a captaincy in the volunteers and appointment as a
magistrate for Middlesex (June 1891). In 1861 the comic journal _Fun_
was started by H. J. Byron, and Gilbert became from the first a valued
contributor. Failing to obtain an _entree to Punch_, he continued
sending excellent comic verse to _Fun_, with humorous illustrations, the
work of his own pen, over the signature of "Bab." A collection of these
lyrics, in which deft craftsmanship unites a titillating satire on the
deceptiveness of appearances with the irrepressible nonsense of a Lewis
Carroll, was issued separately in 1869 under the title of _Bab Ballads_,
and was followed by _More Bab Ballads_. The two collections and _Songs
of a Savoyard_ were united in a volume issued in 1898, with many new
illustrations. The best of the old cuts, such as those depicting the
"Bishop of Rum-ti-Foo" and the "Discontented Sugar Broker," were
preserved intact.

While remaining a staunch supporter of _Fun_, Gilbert was soon immersed
in other journalistic work, and his position as dramatic critic to the
_Illustrated Times_ turned his attention to the stage. He had not to
wait long for an opportunity. Early in December 1866 T. W. Robertson was
asked by Miss Herbert, lessee of the St James's theatre, to find some
one who could turn out a bright Christmas piece in a fortnight, and
suggested Gilbert; the latter promptly produced _Dulcamara_, a burlesque
of _L'Elisire d'amore_, written in ten days, rehearsed in a week, and
duly performed at Christmas. He sold the piece outright for L30, a piece
of rashness which he had cause to regret, for it turned out a commercial
success. In 1870 he was commissioned by Buckstone to write a blank verse
fairy comedy, based upon _Le Palais de la verite_, the novel by Madame
de Genlis. The result was _The Palace of Truth_, a fairy drama, poor in
structure but clever in workmanship, which served the purpose of Mr and
Mrs Kendal in 1870 at the Haymarket. This was followed in 1871 by
_Pygmalion and Galatea_, another three-act "mythological comedy," a
clever and effective but artificial piece. Another fairy comedy, _The
Wicked World_, written for Buckstone and the Kendals, was followed in
March 1873 by a burlesque version, in collaboration with Gilbert a
Beckett, entitled _The Happy Land_. Gilbert's next dramatic ventures
inclined more to the conventional pattern, combining sentiment and a
cynical humour in a manner strongly reminiscent of his father's style.
Of these pieces, _Sweethearts_ was given at the Prince of Wales's
theatre, 7th November 1874; _Tom Cobb_ at the St James's, 24th April
1875; _Broken Hearts_ at the Court, 9th December 1875; _Dan'l Druce_ (a
drama in darker vein, suggested to some extent by _Silas Marner_) at the
Haymarket, 11th September 1876; and _Engaged_ at the Haymarket, 3rd
October 1877. The first and last of these proved decidedly popular.
_Gretchen_, a verse drama in four acts, appeared in 1879. A one-act
piece, called _Comedy and Tragedy_, was produced at the Lyceum, 26th
January, 1884. Two dramatic trifles of later date were _Foggerty's
Fairy_ and _Rozenkrantz and Guildenstern_, a travesty of _Hamlet_,
performed at the Vaudeville in June 1891. Several of these dramas were
based upon short stories by Gilbert, a number of which had appeared from
time to time in the Christmas numbers of various periodicals. The best
of them have been collected in the volume entitled _Foggerty's Fairy,
and other Stories_. In the autumn of 1871 Gilbert commenced his
memorable collaboration (which lasted over twenty years) with Sir Arthur
Sullivan. The first two comic operas, _Thespis; or The Gods grown Old_
(26th September 1871) and _Trial by Jury_ (Royalty, 25th March 1875)
were merely essays. Like one or two of their successors, they were, as
regards plot, little more than extended "Bab Ballads." Later (especially
in the _Yeomen of the Guard_), much more elaboration was attempted. The
next piece was produced at the Opera Comique (17th November 1877) as
_The Sorcerer_. At the same theatre were successfully given _H.M.S.
Pinafore_ (25th May 1878), _The Pirates of Penzance; or The Slave of
Duty_ (3rd April 1880), and _Patience; or Bunthorne's Bride_ (23rd April
1881). In October 1881 the successful _Patience_ was removed to a new
theatre, the Savoy, specially built for the Gilbert and Sullivan operas
by Richard D'Oyly Carte. _Patience_ was followed, on 25th November 1882,
by _Iolanthe; or The Peer and the Peri_; and then came, on 5th January
1884, _Princess Ida; or Castle Adamant_, a re-cast of a charming and
witty fantasia which Gilbert had written some years previously, and had
then described as a "respectful perversion of Mr. Tennyson's exquisite
poem." The impulse reached its fullest development in the operas that
followed next in order--_The Mikado; or The Town of Titipu_ (14th March
1885); _Ruddigore_ (22nd January 1887); _The Yeomen of the Guard_ (3rd
October 1888); and _The Gondoliers_ (7th December 1889). After the
appearance of _The Gondoliers_ a coolness occurred between the composer
and librettist, owing to Gilbert's considering that Sullivan had not
supported him in a business disagreement with D'Oyly Carte. But the
estrangement was only temporary. Gilbert wrote several more librettos,
and of these _Utopia Limited_ (1893) and the exceptionally witty _Grand
Duke_ (1896) were written in conjunction with Sullivan. As a master of
metre Gilbert had shown himself consummate, as a dealer in quips and
paradoxes and ludicrous dilemmas, unrivalled. Even for the music of the
operas he deserves some credit, for the rhythms were frequently his own
(as in "I have a Song to Sing, O"), and the metres were in many cases
invented by himself. One or two of his librettos, such as that of
_Patience_, are virtually flawless. Enthusiasts are divided only as to
the comparative merit of the operas. _Princess Ida_ and _Patience_ are
in some respects the daintiest. There is a genuine vein of poetry in
_The Yeomen of the Guard_. Some of the drollest songs are in _Pinafore_
and _Ruddigore_. _The Gondoliers_ shows the most charming lightness of
touch, while with the general public _The Mikado_ proved the favourite.
The enduring popularity of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas was
abundantly proved by later revivals. Among the birthday honours in June
1907 Gilbert was given a knighthood. In 1909 his _Fallen Fairies_ (music
by Edward German) was produced at the Savoy.     (T. Se.)




GILBERT DE LA PORREE, frequently known as Gilbertus Porretanus or
Pictaviensis (1070-1154); scholastic logician and theologian, was born
at Poitiers. He was educated under Bernard of Chartres and Anselm of
Laon. After teaching for about twenty years in Chartres, he lectured on
dialectics and theology in Paris (from 1137), and in 1141 returned to
Poitiers, being elected bishop in the following year. His heterodox
opinions regarding the doctrine of the Trinity drew upon his works the
condemnation of the church. The synod of Reims in 1148 procured papal
sanction for four propositions opposed to certain of Gilbert's tenets,
and his works were condemned until they should be corrected in
accordance with the principles of the church. Gilbert seems to have
submitted quietly to this judgment; he yielded assent to the four
propositions, and remained on friendly terms with his antagonists till
his death on the 4th of September 1154. Gilbert is almost the only
logician of the 12th century who is quoted by the greater scholastics of
the succeeding age. His chief logical work, the treatise _De sex
principiis_, was regarded with a reverence almost equal to that paid to
Aristotle, and furnished matter for numerous commentators, amongst them
Albertus Magnus. Owing to the fame of this work, he is mentioned by
Dante as the _Magister sex principiorum_. The treatise itself is a
discussion of the Aristotelian categories, specially of the six
subordinate modes. Gilbert distinguishes in the ten categories two
classes, one essential, the other derivative. Essential or inhering
(_formae inhaerentes_) in the objects themselves are only _substance_,
_quantity_, _quality_ and _relation_ in the stricter sense of that term.
The remaining six, _when_, _where_, _action_, _passion_, _position_ and
_habit_, are relative and subordinate (_formae assistentes_). This
suggestion has some interest, but is of no great value, either in logic
or in the theory of knowledge. More important in the history of
scholasticism are the theological consequences to which Gilbert's
realism led him. In the commentary on the treatise _De Trinitate_
(erroneously attributed to Boetius) he proceeds from the metaphysical
notion that pure or abstract being is prior in nature to that which is.
This pure being is God, and must be distinguished from the triune God as
known to us. God is incomprehensible, and the categories cannot be
applied to determine his existence. In God there is no distinction or
difference, whereas in all substances or things there is duality,
arising from the element of matter. Between pure being and substances
stand the ideas or forms, which subsist, though they are not substances.
These forms, when materialized, are called _formae substantiales_ or
_formae nativae_; they are the essences of things, and in themselves
have no relation to the accidents of things. Things are temporal, the
ideas perpetual, God eternal. The pure form of existence, that by which
God is God, must be distinguished from the three persons who are God by
participation in this form. The form or essence is one, the persons or
substances three. It was this distinction between Deitas or Divinitas
and Deus that led to the condemnation of Gilbert's doctrine.

  _De sex principiis_ and commentary on the _De Trinitate_ in Migne,
  _Patrologia Latina_, lxiv. 1255 and clxxxviii. 1257; see also Abbe
  Berthaud, _Gilbert de la Porree_ (Poitiers, 1892); B. Haureau, _De la
  philosophie scolastique_, pp. 294-318; R. Schmid's article "Gilbert
  Porretanus" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk. f. protest. Theol._ (vol. 6,
  1899); Prantl, _Geschichte d. Logik_, ii. 215; Bach,
  _Dogmengeschichte_, ii. 133; article SCHOLASTICISM.




GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM, ST, founder of the Gilbertines, the only
religious order of English origin, was born at Sempringham in
Lincolnshire, c. 1083-1089. He was educated in France, and ordained in
1123, being presented by his father to the living of Sempringham. About
1135 he established there a convent for nuns; and to perform the heavy
work and cultivate the fields he formed a number of labourers into a
society of lay brothers attached to the convent. Similar establishments
were founded elsewhere, and in 1147 Gilbert tried to get them
incorporated in the Cistercian order. Failing in this, he proceeded to
form communities of priests and clerics to perform the spiritual
ministrations needed by the nuns. The women lived according to the
Benedictine rule as interpreted by the Cistercians; the men according to
the rule of St Augustine, and were canons regular. The special
constitutions of the order were largely taken from those of the
Premonstratensian canons and of the Cistercians. Like Fontevrault (q.v.)
it was a double order, the communities of men and women living side by
side; but, though the property all belonged to the nuns, the superior of
the canons was the head of the whole establishment, and the general
superior was a canon, called "Master of Sempringham." The general
chapter was a mixed assembly composed of two canons and two nuns from
each house; the nuns had to travel to the chapter in closed carts. The
office was celebrated together in the church, a high stone screen
separating the two choirs of canons and nuns. The order received papal
approbation in 1148. By Gilbert's death (1189) there were nine double
monasteries and four of canons only, containing about 700 canons and
1000 nuns in all. At the dissolution there were some 25 monasteries,
whereof 4 ranked among the greater monasteries (see list in F. A.
Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_). The order never spread beyond
England. The habit of the Gilbertines was black, with a white cloak.

  See Bollandists' _Acta Sanctorum_ (4th of Feb.); William Dugdale,
  _Monasticon_ (1846); Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714); ii.
  c. 29. The best modern account is _St Gilbert of Sempringham, and the
  Gilbertines_, by Rose Graham (1901). The art. in _Dictionary of
  National Biography_ gives abundant information on St Gilbert, but is
  unsatisfactory on the order, as it might easily convey the impression
  that the canons and nuns lived together, whereas they were most
  carefully separated; and altogether undue prominence is given to a
  single scandal. Miss Graham declares that the reputation of the order
  was good until the end.     (E. C. B.)




GILBERT FOLIOT (d. 1187), bishop of Hereford, and of London, is first
mentioned as a monk of Cluny, whence he was called in 1136 to plead the
cause of the empress Matilda against Stephen at the Roman court. Shortly
afterwards he became prior of Cluny; then prior of Abbeville, a house
dependent upon Cluny. In 1139 he was elected abbot of Gloucester. The
appointment was confirmed by Stephen, and from the ecclesiastical point
of view was unexceptionable. But the new abbot proved himself a valuable
ally of the empress, and her ablest controversialist. Gilbert's
reputation grew rapidly. He was respected at Rome; and he acted as the
representative of the primate, Theobald, in the supervision of the Welsh
church. In 1148, on being nominated by the pope to the see of Hereford,
Gilbert with characteristic wariness sought confirmation both from Henry
of Anjou and from Stephen. But he was an Angevin at heart, and after
1154 was treated by Henry II. with every mark of consideration. He was
Becket's rival for the primacy, and the only bishop who protested
against the king's choice. Becket, with rare forbearance, endeavoured to
win his friendship by procuring for him the see of London (1163). But
Gilbert evaded the customary profession of obedience to the primate, and
apparently aspired to make his see independent of Canterbury. On the
questions raised by the Constitutions of Clarendon he sided with the
king, whose confessor he had now become. He urged Becket to yield, and,
when this advice was rejected, encouraged his fellow-bishops to
repudiate the authority of the archbishop. In the years of controversy
which followed Becket's flight the king depended much upon the bishop's
skill as a disputant and diplomatist. Gilbert was twice excommunicated
by Becket, but both on these and on other occasions he showed great
dexterity in detaching the pope from the cause of the exile. To him it
was chiefly due that Henry avoided an open conflict with Rome of the
kind which John afterwards provoked. Gilbert was one of the bishops
whose excommunication in 1170 provoked the king's knights to murder
Becket; but he cannot be reproached with any share in the crime. His
later years were uneventful, though he enjoyed great influence with the
king and among his fellow bishops. Scholarly, dignified, ascetic in his
private life, devoted to the service of the Church, he was nevertheless
more respected than loved. His nature was cold; he made few friends; and
the taint of a calculating ambition runs through his whole career. He
died in the spring of 1187.

  See Gilbert's _Letters_, ed. J. A. Giles (Oxford, 1845); _Materials
  for the History of Thomas Becket_, ed. J. C. Robertson (Rolls series,
  1875-1885); and Miss K. Norgate's _England under the Angevin Kings_
  (1887).     (H. W. C. D.)




GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS, an extensive archipelago belonging to Great
Britain in the mid-western Pacific Ocean, lying N. and S. of the
equator, and between 170 deg. and 180 deg. E. There are sixteen islands,
all coral reefs or atolls, extending in crescent form over about five
degrees of latitude. The principal is Taputenea or Drummond Island. The
soil, mostly of coral sand, is productive of little else than the
coco-nut palm, and the chief source of food supply is the sea. The
population of these islands presents a remarkable phenomenon; in spite
of adverse conditions of environment and complete barbarism it is
exceedingly dense, in strong contradistinction to that of many other
more favoured islands. The land area of the group is only 166 m., yet
the population is about 30,000. The Gilbert islanders are a dark and
coarse type of the Polynesian race, and show signs of much crossing.
They are tall and stout, with an average height of 5 ft. 8 in., and are
of a vigorous, energetic temperament. They are nearly always naked, but
wear a conical hat of pandanus leaf. In war they have an armour of
plaited coco-nut fibres. They are fierce fighters, their chief weapon
being a sword armed with sharks' teeth. Their canoes are well made of
coco-nut wood boards sewn neatly together and fastened on frames.
British and American missionary work has been prosecuted with some
success. The large population led to the introduction of natives from
these islands into Hawaii as labourers in 1878-1884, but they were not
found satisfactory. The islands were discovered by John Byron in 1765
(one of them bearing his name); Captains Gilbert and Marshall visited
them in 1788; and they were annexed by Great Britain in 1892.




GILBEY, SIR WALTER, 1ST BART. (1831-   ), English wine-merchant, was
born at Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire, in 1831. His father, the owner
and frequently the driver of the daily coach between Bishop Stortford
and London, died when he was eleven years old, and young Gilbey was
shortly afterwards placed in the office of an estate agent at Tring,
subsequently obtaining a clerkship in a firm of parliamentary agents in
London. On the outbreak of the Crimean War, Walter Gilbey and his
younger brother, Alfred, volunteered for civilian service at the front,
and were employed at a convalescent hospital on the Dardanelles.
Returning to London on the declaration of peace, Walter and Alfred
Gilbey, on the advice of their eldest brother, Henry Gilbey, a wholesale
wine-merchant, started in the retail wine and spirit trade. The heavy
duty then levied by the British government on French, Portuguese and
Spanish wines was prohibitive of a sale among the English middle
classes, and especially lower middle classes, whose usual alcoholic
beverage was accordingly beer. Henry Gilbey was of opinion that these
classes would gladly drink wine if they could get it at a moderate
price, and by his advice Walter and Alfred determined to push the sales
of colonial, and particularly of Cape, wines, on which the duty was
comparatively light. Backed by capital obtained through Henry Gilbey,
they accordingly opened in 1857 a small retail business in a basement in
Oxford Street, London. The Cape wines proved popular, and within three
years the brothers had 20,000 customers on their books. The creation of
the off-licence system by Mr Gladstone, then chancellor of the
exchequer, in 1860, followed by the large reduction in the duty on
French wines effected by the commercial treaty between England and
France in 1861, revolutionized their trade and laid the foundation of
their fortunes. Three provincial grocers, who had been granted the new
off-licence, applied to be appointed the Gilbeys' agents in their
respective districts, and many similar applications followed. These were
granted, and before very long a leading local grocer was acting as the
firm's agents in every district in England. The grocer who dealt in the
Gilbeys' wines and spirits was not allowed to sell those of any other
firm, and the Gilbeys in return handed over to him all their existing
customers in his district. This arrangement was of mutual advantage, and
the Gilbeys' business increased so rapidly that in 1864 Henry Gilbey
abandoned his own undertaking to join his brothers. In 1867 the three
brothers secured the old Pantheon theatre and concert hall in Oxford
Street for their headquarters. In 1875 the firm purchased a large
claret-producing estate in Medoc, on the banks of the Gironde, and
became also the proprietors of two large whisky-distilleries in
Scotland. In 1893 the business was converted, for family reasons, into a
private limited liability company, of which Walter Gilbey, who in the
same year was created a baronet, was chairman. Sir Walter Gilbey also
became well known as a breeder of shire horses, and he did much to
improve the breed of English horses (other than race-horses) generally,
and wrote extensively on the subject. He became president of the Shire
Horse Society, of the Hackney Horse Society, and of the Hunters'
Improvement Society, and he was the founder and chairman of the London
Cart Horse Parade Society. He was also a practical agriculturist, and
president of the Royal Agricultural Society.




GILDAS, or GILDUS (c. 516-570), the earliest of British historians (see
CELT: _Literature_, "Welsh"), surnamed by some Sapiens, and by others
Badonicus, seems to have been born in the year 516. Regarding him little
certain is known, beyond some isolated particulars that may be gathered
from hints dropped in the course of his work. Two short treatises exist,
purporting to be lives of Gildas, and ascribed respectively to the 11th
and 12th centuries; but the writers of both are believed to have
confounded two, if not more, persons that had borne the name. It is from
an incidental remark of his own, namely, that the year of the siege of
Mount Badon--one of the battles fought between the Saxons and the
Britons--was also the year of his own nativity, that the date of his
birth has been derived; the place, however, is not mentioned. His
assertion that he was moved to undertake his task mainly by "zeal for
God's house and for His holy law," and the very free use he has made of
quotations from the Bible, leave scarcely a doubt that he was an
ecclesiastic of some order or other. In addition, we learn that he went
abroad, probably to France, in his thirty-fourth year, where, after 10
years of hesitation and preparation, he composed, about 560, the work
bearing his name. His materials, he tells us, were collected from
foreign rather than native sources, the latter of which had been put
beyond his reach by circumstances. The _Cambrian Annals_ give 570 as the
year of his death.

The writings of Gildas have come down to us under the title of _Gildae
Sapientis de excidio Britanniae liber querulus_. Though at first written
consecutively, the work is now usually divided into three portions,--a
preface, the history proper, and an epistle,--the last, which is largely
made up of passages and texts of Scripture brought together for the
purpose of condemning the vices of his countrymen and their rulers,
being the least important, though by far the longest of the three. In
the second he passes in brief review the history of Britain from its
invasion by the Romans till his own times. Among other matters reference
is made to the introduction of Christianity in the reign of Tiberius;
the persecution under Diocletian; the spread of the Arian heresy; the
election of Maximus as emperor by the legions in Britain, and his
subsequent death at Aquileia; the incursions of the Picts and Scots into
the southern part of the island; the temporary assistance rendered to
the harassed Britons by the Romans; the final abandonment of the island
by the latter; the coming of the Saxons and their reception by
Guortigern (Vortigern); and, finally, the conflicts between the Britons,
led by a noble Roman, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the new invaders.
Unfortunately, on almost every point on which he touches, the statements
of Gildas are vague and obscure. With one exception already alluded to,
no dates are given, and events are not always taken up in the order of
their occurrence. These faults are of less importance during the period
when Greek and Roman writers notice the affairs of Britain; but they
become more serious when, as is the case from nearly the beginning of
the 5th century to the date of his death, Gildas's brief narrative is
our only authority for most of what passes current as the history of our
island during those years. Thus it is on his sole, though in this
instance perhaps trustworthy, testimony that the famous letter rests,
said to have been sent to Rome in 446 by the despairing Britons,
commencing:--"To Agitius (Aetius), consul for the third time, the groans
of the Britons."

  Gildas's treatise was first published in 1525 by Polydore Vergil, but
  with many avowed alterations and omissions. In 1568 John Josseline,
  secretary to Archbishop Parker, issued a new edition of it more in
  conformity with manuscript authority; and in 1691 a still more
  carefully revised edition appeared at Oxford by Thomas Gale. It was
  frequently reprinted on the Continent during the 16th century, and
  once or twice since. The next English edition, described by Potthast
  as _editio pessima_, was that published by the English Historical
  Society in 1838, and edited by the Rev. J. Stevenson. The text of
  Gildas founded on Gale's edition collated with two other MSS., with
  elaborate introductions, is included in the _Monumenta historica
  Britannica_, edited by Petrie and Sharpe (London, 1848). Another
  edition is in A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, _Councils and Eccles.
  Documents_ relating to Great Britain (Oxford, 1869); the latest
  edition is that by Theodor Mommsen in _Monum. Germ. hist. auct.
  antiq._ xiii. (Chronica min. iii.), 1894.




GILDER, RICHARD WATSON (1844-1909), American editor and poet, was born
in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 8th of February 1844, a brother of
William Henry Gilder (1838-1900), the Arctic explorer. He was educated
at Bellevue Seminary, an institution conducted by his father, the Rev.
William Henry Gilder (1812-1864), in Flushing, Long Island. After three
years (1865-1868) on the Newark, New Jersey, _Daily Advertiser_, he
founded, with Newton Crane, the Newark _Morning Register_. In 1869 he
became editor of _Hours at Home_, and in 1870 assistant editor of
_Scribner's Monthly_ (eleven years later re-named _The Century
Magazine_), of which he became editor in 1881. He was one of the
founders of the Free Art League, of the International Copyright League,
and of the Authors' Club; was chairman of the New York Tenement House
Commission in 1894; and was a prominent member of the National Institute
of Arts and Letters, of the Council of the National Civil Service Reform
League, and of the executive committee of the Citizens' Union of New
York City. His poems, which are essentially lyrical, have been collected
in various volumes, including _Five Books of Song_ (1894), _In Palestine
and other Poems_ (1898), _Poems and Inscriptions_ (1901), and _In the
Heights_ (1905). A complete edition of his poems was published in 1908.
He also edited _"Sonnets from the Portuguese" and other Poems by
Elizabeth Barrett Browning_; _"One Word More" and other Poems by Robert
Browning_ (1905). He died in New York on the 18th of November 1909. His
wife, Helena de Kay, a grand-daughter of Joseph Rodman Drake, assisted,
with Saint Gaudens and others, in founding the Society of American
Artists, now merged in the National Academy, and the Art Students'
League of New York. She translated Sensier's biography of Millet, and
painted, before her marriage in 1874, studies in flowers and ideal
heads, much admired for their feeling and delicate colouring.




GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU (1831-   ), American classical scholar, was
born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23rd of October 1831, son of
Benjamin Gildersleeve (1791-1875), a Presbyterian evangelist, and editor
of the Charleston _Christian Observer_ in 1826-1845, of the Richmond
(Va.) _Watchman and Observer_ in 1845-1856, and of _The Central
Presbyterian_ in 1856-1860. The son graduated at Princeton in 1849,
studied under Franz in Berlin, under Friedrich Ritschl at Bonn and under
Schneidewin at Gottingen, where he received his doctor's degree in 1853.
From 1856 to 1876 he was professor of Greek in the University of
Virginia, holding the chair of Latin also in 1861-1866; and in 1876 he
became professor of Greek in the newly founded Johns Hopkins University.
In 1880 _The American Journal of Philology_, a quarterly published by
the Johns Hopkins University, was established under his editorial
charge, and his strong personality was expressed in the department of
the _Journal_ headed "Brief Report" or "Lanx Satura," and in the
earliest years of its publication every petty detail was in his hands.
His style in it, as elsewhere, is in striking contrast to that of the
typical classical scholar, and accords with his conviction that the true
aim of scholarship is "that which is." He published a _Latin Grammar_
(1867; revised with the co-operation of Gonzalez B. Lodge, 1894 and
1899) and a Latin Series for use in secondary schools (1875), both
marked by lucidity of order and mastery of grammatical theory and
methods. His edition of _Persius_ (1875) is of great value. But his bent
was rather toward Greek than Latin. His special interest in Christian
Greek was partly the cause of his editing in 1877 _The Apologies of
Justin Martyr_, "which" (to use his own words) "I used unblushingly as a
repository for my syntactical formulae." Gildersleeve's studies under
Franz had no doubt quickened his interest in Greek syntax, and his
logic, untrammelled by previous categories, and his marvellous sympathy
with the language were displayed in this most unlikely of places. His
_Syntax of Classic Greek_ (Part I., 1900, with C. W. E. Miller) collects
these formulae. Gildersleeve edited in 1885 _The Olympian and Pythian
Odes of Pindar_, with a brilliant and valuable introduction. His views
on the function of grammar were summarized in a paper on _The Spiritual
Rights of Minute Research_ delivered at Bryn Mawr on the 16th of June
1895. His collected contributions to literary periodicals appeared in
1890 under the title _Essays and Studies Educational and Literary_.




GILDING, the art of spreading gold, either by mechanical or by chemical
means, over the surface of a body for the purpose of ornament. The art
of gilding was known to the ancients. According to Herodotus, the
Egyptians were accustomed to gild wood and metals; and gilding by means
of gold plates is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. Pliny
informs us that the first gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction
of Carthage, under the censorship of Lucius Mummius, when the Romans
began to gild the ceilings of their temples and palaces, the Capitol
being the first place on which this enrichment was bestowed. But he adds
that luxury advanced on them so rapidly that in a little time you might
see all, even private and poor persons, gild the walls, vaults, and
other parts of their dwellings. Owing to the comparative thickness of
the gold-leaf used in ancient gilding, the traces of it which yet remain
are remarkably brilliant and solid. Gilding has in all times occupied an
important place in the ornamental arts of Oriental countries; and the
native processes pursued in India at the present day may be taken as
typical of the arts as practised from the earliest periods. For the
gilding of copper, employed in the decoration of temple domes and other
large works, the following is an outline of the processes employed. The
metal surface is thoroughly scraped, cleaned and polished, and next
heated in a fire sufficiently to remove any traces of grease or other
impurity which may remain from the operation of polishing. It is then
dipped in an acid solution prepared from dried unripe apricots, and
rubbed with pumice or brick powder. Next, the surface is rubbed over
with mercury which forms a superficial amalgam with the copper, after
which it is left some hours in clean water, again washed with the acid
solution, and dried. It is now ready for receiving the gold, which is
laid on in leaf, and, on adhering, assumes a grey appearance from
combining with the mercury, but on the application of heat the latter
metal volatilizes, leaving the gold a dull greyish hue. The colour is
brought up by means of rubbing with agate burnishers. The weight of
mercury used in this process is double that of the gold laid on, and
the thickness of the gilding is regulated by the circumstances or
necessities of the case. For the gilding of iron or steel, the surface
is first scratched over with chequered lines, then washed in a hot
solution of green apricots, dried and heated just short of red-heat. The
gold-leaf is then laid on, and rubbed in with agate burnishers, when it
adheres by catching into the prepared scratched surface.

Modern gilding is applied to numerous and diverse surfaces and by
various distinct processes, so that the art is prosecuted in many ways,
and is part of widely different ornamental and useful arts. It forms an
important and essential part of frame-making (see CARVING AND GILDING);
it is largely employed in connexion with cabinet-work, decorative
painting and house ornamentation; and it also bulks largely in
bookbinding and ornamental leather work. Further, gilding is much
employed for coating baser metals, as in button-making, in the gilt toy
trade, in electro-gilt reproductions and in electro-plating; and it is
also a characteristic feature in the decoration of pottery, porcelain
and glass. The various processes fall under one or other of two
heads--mechanical gilding and gilding by chemical agency.

  _Mechanical Gilding_ embraces all the operations by which gold-leaf is
  prepared (see GOLDBEATING), and the several processes by which it is
  mechanically attached to the surfaces it is intended to cover. It thus
  embraces the burnish or water-gilding and the oil-gilding of the
  carver and gilder, and the gilding operations of the house decorator,
  the sign-painter, the bookbinder, the paper-stainer and several
  others. Polished iron, steel and other metals are gilt mechanically by
  applying gold-leaf to the metallic surface at a temperature just under
  red-heat, pressing the leaf on with a burnisher and reheating, when
  additional leaf may be laid on. The process is completed by cold
  burnishing.

  _Chemical Gilding_ embraces those processes in which the gold used is
  at some stage in a state of chemical combination. Of these the
  following are the principal:--

  _Cold Gilding._--In this process the gold is obtained in a state of
  extremely fine division, and applied by mechanical means. Cold gilding
  on silver is performed by a solution of gold in aqua-regia, applied by
  dipping a linen rag into the solution, burning it, and rubbing the
  black and heavy ashes on the silver with the finger or a piece of
  leather or cork. _Wet gilding_ is effected by means of a dilute
  solution of chloride of gold with twice its quantity of ether. The
  liquids are agitated and allowed to rest, when the ether separates and
  floats on the surface of the acid. The whole mixture is then poured
  into a funnel with a small aperture, and allowed to rest for some
  time, when the acid is run off and the ether separated. The ether will
  be found to have taken up all the gold from the acid, and may be used
  for gilding iron or steel, for which purpose the metal is polished
  with the finest emery and spirits of wine. The ether is then applied
  with a small brush, and as it evaporates it deposits the gold, which
  can now be heated and polished. For small delicate figures a pen or a
  fine brush may be used for laying on the ether solution.
  _Fire-gilding_ or _Wash-gilding_ is a process by which an amalgam of
  gold is applied to metallic surfaces, the mercury being subsequently
  volatilized, leaving a film of gold or an amalgam containing from 13
  to 16% of mercury. In the preparation of the amalgam the gold must
  first be reduced to thin plates or grains, which are heated red hot,
  and thrown into mercury previously heated, till it begins to smoke.
  Upon stirring the mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally
  disappears. The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as six or
  eight to one. When the amalgam is cold it is squeezed through chamois
  leather for the purpose of separating the superfluous mercury; the
  gold, with about twice its weight of mercury, remains behind, forming
  a yellowish silvery mass of the consistence of butter. When the metal
  to be gilt is wrought or chased, it ought to be covered with mercury
  before the amalgam is applied, that this may be more easily spread;
  but when the surface of the metal is plain, the amalgam may be applied
  to it direct. When no such preparation is applied, the surface to be
  gilded is simply bitten and cleaned with nitric acid. A deposit of
  mercury is obtained on a metallic surface by means of "quicksilver
  water," a solution of nitrate of mercury,--the nitric acid attacking
  the metal to which it is applied, and thus leaving a film of free
  metallic mercury. The amalgam being equally spread over the prepared
  surface of the metal, the mercury is then sublimed by a heat just
  sufficient for that purpose; for, if it is too great, part of the gold
  may be driven off, or it may run together and leave some of the
  surface of the metal bare. When the mercury has evaporated, which is
  known by the surface having entirely become of a dull yellow colour,
  the metal must undergo other operations, by which the fine gold colour
  is given to it. First, the gilded surface is rubbed with a scratch
  brush of brass wire, until its surface be smooth; then it is covered
  over with a composition called "gilding wax," and again exposed to the
  fire until the wax is burnt off. This wax is composed of beeswax mixed
  with some of the following substances, viz. red ochre, verdigris,
  copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax. By this operation the colour of
  the gilding is heightened; and the effect seems to be produced by a
  perfect dissipation of some mercury remaining after the former
  operation. The dissipation is well effected by this equable
  application of heat. The gilt surface is then covered over with nitre,
  alum or other salts, ground together, and mixed up into a paste with
  water or weak ammonia. The piece of metal thus covered is exposed to a
  certain degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this method its
  colour is further improved and brought nearer to that of gold,
  probably by removing any particles of copper that may have been on the
  gilt surface. This process, when skilfully carried out, produces
  gilding of great solidity and beauty; but owing to the exposure of the
  workmen to mercurial fumes, it is very unhealthy, and further there is
  much loss of mercury. Numerous contrivances have been introduced to
  obviate these serious evils. Gilt brass buttons used for uniforms are
  gilt by this process, and there is an act of parliament (1796) yet
  unrepealed which prescribes 5 grains of gold as the smallest quantity
  that may be used for the gilding of 12 dozen of buttons 1 in. in
  diameter.

_Gilding of Pottery and Porcelain._--The quantity of gold consumed for
these purposes is very large. The gold used is dissolved in aqua-regia,
and the acid is driven off by heat, or the gold may be precipitated by
means of sulphate of iron. In this pulverulent state the gold is mixed
with 1/12th of its weight of oxide of bismuth, together with a small
quantity of borax and gum water. The mixture is applied to the articles
with a camel's hair pencil, and after passing through the fire the gold
is of a dingy colour, but the lustre is brought out by burnishing with
agate and bloodstone, and afterwards cleaning with vinegar or
white-lead.




GILDS, or GUILDS. Medieval gilds were voluntary associations formed for
the mutual aid and protection of their members. Among the gildsmen there
was a strong spirit of fraternal co-operation or Christian brotherhood,
with a mixture of worldly and religious ideals--the support of the body
and the salvation of the soul. Early meanings of the root _gild_ or
_geld_ were expiation, penalty, sacrifice or worship, feast or banquet,
and contribution or payment; it is difficult to determine which is the
earliest meaning, and we are not certain whether the gildsmen were
originally those who contributed to a common fund or those who
worshipped or feasted together. Their fraternities or societies may be
divided into three classes: religious or benevolent, merchant and craft
gilds. The last two categories, which do not become prominent anywhere
in Europe until the 12th century, had, like all gilds, a religious
tinge, but their aims were primarily worldly, and their functions were
mainly of an economic character.

1. _Origin._--Various theories have been advanced concerning the origin
of gilds. Some writers regard them as a continuation of the Roman
_collegia_ and _sodalitates_, but there is little evidence to prove the
unbroken continuity of existence of the Roman and Germanic fraternities.
A more widely accepted theory derives gilds wholly or in part from the
early Germanic or Scandinavian sacrificial banquets. Much influence is
ascribed to this heathen element by Lujo Brentano, Karl Hegel, W. E.
Wilda and other writers. This view does not seem to be tenable, for the
old sacrificial carousals lack two of the essential elements of the
gilds, namely corporative solidarity or permanent association and the
spirit of Christian brotherhood. Dr Max Pappenheim has ascribed the
origin of Germanic gilds to the northern "foster-brotherhood" or
"sworn-brotherhood," which was an artificial bond of union between two
or more persons. After intermingling their blood in the earth and
performing other peculiar ceremonies, the two contracting parties with
grasped hands swore to avenge any injury done to either of them. The
objections to this theory are fully stated by Hegel (_Stadte und
Gilden_, i. 250-253). The foster-brotherhood seems to have been unknown
to the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, the nations in which medieval gilds
first appear; and hence Dr Pappenheim's conclusions, if tenable at all,
apply only to Denmark or Scandinavia.

No theory on this subject can be satisfactory which wholly ignores the
influence of the Christian church. Imbued with the idea of the
brotherhood of man, the church naturally fostered the early growth of
gilds and tried to make them displace the old heathen banquets. The work
of the church was, however, directive rather than creative. Gilds were a
natural manifestation of the associative spirit which is inherent in
mankind. The same needs produce in different ages associations which
have striking resemblances, but those of each age have peculiarities
which indicate a spontaneous growth. It is not necessary to seek the
germ of gilds in any antecedent age or institution. When the old
kin-bond or _maegth_ was beginning to weaken or dissolve, and the state
did not yet afford adequate protection to its citizens, individuals
naturally united for mutual help.

Gilds are first mentioned in the Carolingian capitularies of 779 and
789, and in the enactments made by the synod of Nantes early in the 9th
century, the text of which has been preserved in the ecclesiastical
ordinances of Hincmar of Rheims (A.D. 852). The capitularies of 805 and
821 also contain vague references to sworn unions of some sort, and a
capitulary of 884 prohibits villeins from forming associations "vulgarly
called gilds" against those who have despoiled them. The Carolingians
evidently regarded such "conjurations" as "conspirations" dangerous to
the state. The gilds of Norway, Denmark and Sweden are first mentioned
in the 11th, 12th and 14th centuries respectively; those of France and
the Netherlands in the 11th.

Many writers believe that the earliest references to gilds come from
England. The laws of Ine speak of _gegildan_ who help each other pay the
_wergeld_, but it is not entirely certain that they were members of gild
fraternities in the later sense. These are more clearly referred to in
England in the second half of the 9th century, though we have little
information concerning them before the 11th century. To the first half
of that century belong the statutes of the fraternities of Cambridge,
Abbotsbury and Exeter. They are important because they form the oldest
body of gild ordinances extant in Europe. The thanes' gild at Cambridge
afforded help in blood-feuds, and provided for the payment of the
_wergeld_ in case a member killed any one. The religious element was
more prominent in Orcy's gild at Abbotsbury and in the fraternity at
Exeter; their ordinances exhibit much solicitude for the salvation of
the brethren's souls. The Exeter gild also gave assistance when property
was destroyed by fire. Prayers for the dead, attendance at funerals of
gildsmen, periodical banquets, the solemn entrance oath, fines for
neglect of duty and for improper conduct, contributions to a common
purse, mutual assistance in distress, periodical meetings in the
gildhall,--in short, all the characteristic features of the later gilds
already appear in the statutes of these Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Some
continental writers, in dealing with the origin of municipal government
throughout western Europe, have, however, ascribed too much importance
to the Anglo-Saxon gilds, exaggerating their prevalence and contending
that they form the germ of medieval municipal government. This view
rests almost entirely on conjecture; there is no good evidence to show
that there was any organic connexion between gilds and municipal
government in England before the coming of the Normans. It should also
be noted that there is no trace of the existence of either craft or
merchant gilds in England before the Norman Conquest. Commerce and
industry were not yet sufficiently developed to call for the creation of
such associations.

2. _Religious Gilds after the Norman Conquest._--Though we have not much
information concerning the religious gilds in the 12th century, they
doubtless flourished under the Anglo-Norman kings, and we know that they
were numerous, especially in the boroughs, from the 13th century onward.
In 1388 parliament ordered that every sheriff in England should call
upon the masters and wardens of all gilds and brotherhoods to send to
the king's council in Chancery, before the 2nd of February 1389, full
returns regarding their foundation, ordinances and property. Many of
these returns were edited by J. Toulmin Smith (1816-1869), and they
throw much light on the functions of the gilds. Their ordinances are
similar to those of the above-mentioned Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Each
member took an oath of admission, paid an entrance-fee, and made a small
annual contribution to the common fund. The brethren were aided in old
age, sickness and poverty, often also in cases of loss by robbery,
shipwreck and conflagration; for example, any member of the gild of St
Catherine, Aldersgate, was to be assisted if he "fall into poverty or be
injured through age, or through fire or water, thieves or sickness."
Alms were often given even to non-gildsmen; lights were supported at
certain altars; feasts and processions were held periodically; the
funerals of brethren were attended; and masses for the dead were
provided from the common purse or from special contributions made by the
gildsmen. Some of the religious gilds supported schools, or helped to
maintain roads, bridges and town-walls, or even came, in course of time,
to be closely connected with the government of the borough; but, as a
rule, they were simply private societies with a limited sphere of
activity. They are important because they played a prominent role in the
social life of England, especially as eleemosynary institutions, down to
the time of their suppression in 1547. Religious gilds, closely
resembling those of England, also flourished on the continent during the
middle ages.

3. _The Gild Merchant._--The merchant and craft fraternities are
particularly interesting to students of economic and municipal history.
The gild merchant came into existence in England soon after the Norman
Conquest, as a result of the increasing importance of trade, and it may
have been transplanted from Normandy. Until clearer evidence of foreign
influence is found, it may, however, be safer to regard it simply as a
new application of the old gild principle, though this new application
may have been stimulated by continental example. The evidence seems to
indicate the pre-existence of the gild merchant in Normandy, but it is
not mentioned anywhere on the continent before the 11th century. It
spread rapidly in England, and from the reign of John onward we have
evidence of its existence in many English boroughs. But in some
prominent towns, notably London, Colchester, Norwich and the Cinque
Ports, it seems never to have been adopted. In fact it played a more
conspicuous role in the small boroughs than in the large ones. It was
regarded by the townsmen as one of their most important privileges. Its
chief function was to regulate the trade monopoly conveyed to the
borough by the royal grant of _gilda mercatoria_. A grant of this sort
implied that the gildsmen had the right to trade freely in the town, and
to impose payments and restrictions upon others who desired to exercise
that privilege. The ordinances of a gild merchant thus aim to protect
the brethren from the commercial competition of strangers or
non-gildsmen. More freedom of trade was allowed at all times in the
selling of wares by wholesale, and also in retail dealings during the
time of markets and fairs. The ordinances were enforced by an alderman
with the assistance of two or more deputies, or by one or two masters,
wardens or keepers. The _Morwenspeches_ were periodical meetings at
which the brethren feasted, revised their ordinances, admitted new
members, elected officers and transacted other business.

It has often been asserted that the gild merchant and the borough were
identical, and that the former was the basis of the whole municipal
constitution. But recent research has discredited this theory both in
England and on the continent. Much evidence has been produced to show
that gild and borough, gildsmen and burgesses, were originally distinct
conceptions, and that they continued to be discriminated in most towns
throughout the middle ages. Admission to the gild was not restricted to
burgesses; nor did the brethren form an aristocratic body having control
over the whole municipal polity. No good evidence has, moreover, been
advanced to prove that this or any other kind of gild was the germ of
the municipal constitution. On the other hand, the gild merchant was
certainly an official organ or department of the borough administration,
and it exerted considerable influence upon the economic and corporative
growth of the English municipalities.

Historians have expressed divergent views regarding the early relations
of the craftsmen and their fraternities to the gild merchant. One of the
main questions in dispute is whether artisans were excluded from the
gild merchant. Many of them seem to have been admitted to membership.
They were regarded as merchants, for they bought raw material and sold
the manufactured commodity; no sharp line of demarcation was drawn
between the two classes in the 12th and 13th centuries. Separate
societies of craftsmen were formed in England soon after the gild
merchant came into existence; but at first they were few in number. The
gild merchant did not give birth to craft fraternities or have anything
to do with their origin; nor did it delegate its authority to them. In
fact, there seems to have been little or no organic connexion between
the two classes of gilds. As has already been intimated, however, many
artisans probably belonged both to their own craft fraternity and to the
gild merchant, and the latter, owing to its great power in the town, may
have exercised some sort of supervision over the craftsmen and their
societies. When the king bestowed upon the tanners or weavers or any
other body of artisans the right to have a gild, they secured the
monopoly of working and trading in their branch of industry. Thus with
every creation of a craft fraternity the gild merchant was weakened and
its sphere of activity was diminished, though the new bodies were
subsidiary to the older and larger fraternity. The greater the
commercial and industrial prosperity of a town, the more rapid was the
multiplication of craft gilds, which was a natural result of the
ever-increasing division of labour. The old gild merchant remained
longest intact and powerful in the smaller boroughs, in which, owing to
the predominance of agriculture, few or no craft gilds were formed. In
some of the larger towns the crafts were prominent already in the 13th
century, but they became much more prominent in the first half of the
14th century. Their increase in number and power was particularly rapid
in the time of Edward III., whose reign marks an era of industrial
progress. Many master craftsmen now became wealthy employers of labour,
dealing extensively in the wares which they produced. The class of
dealers or merchants, as distinguished from trading artisans, also
greatly increased and established separate fraternities. When these
various unions of dealers and of craftsmen embraced all the trades and
branches of production in the town, little or no vitality remained in
the old gild merchant; it ceased to have an independent sphere of
activity. The tendency was for the single organization, with a general
monopoly of trade, to be replaced by a number of separate organizations
representing the various trades and handicrafts. In short, the function
of guarding and supervising the trade monopoly split up into various
fragments, the aggregate of the crafts superseding the old general gild
merchant. This transference of the authority of the latter to a number
of distinct bodies and the consequent disintegration of the old
organization was a gradual spontaneous movement,--a process of slow
displacement, or natural growth and decay, due to the play of economic
forces,--which, generally speaking, may be assigned to the 14th and 15th
centuries, the very period in which the craft gilds attained the zenith
of their power. While in most towns the name and the old organization of
the gild merchant thus disappeared and the institution was displaced by
the aggregate of the crafts towards the close of the middle ages, in
some places it survived long after the 15th century either as a
religious fraternity, shorn of its old functions, or as a periodical
feast, or as a vague term applied to the whole municipal corporation.

On the continent of Europe the medieval gild merchant played a less
important role than in England. In Germany, France and the Netherlands
it occupies a less prominent place in the town charters and in the
municipal polity, and often corresponds to the later fraternities of
English dealers established either to carry on foreign commerce or to
regulate a particular part of the local trade monopoly.

4. _Craft Gilds._--A craft gild usually comprised all the artisans in a
single branch of industry in a particular town. Such a fraternity was
commonly called a "mistery" or "company" in the 15th and 16th centuries,
though the old term "gild" was not yet obsolete. "Gild" was also a
common designation in north Germany, while the corresponding term in
south Germany was _Zunft_, and in France _metier_. These societies are
not clearly visible in England or on the continent before the early part
of the 12th century. With the expansion of trade and industry the number
of artisans increased, and they banded together for mutual protection.
Some German writers have maintained that these craft organizations
emanated from manorial groups of workmen, but strong arguments have
been advanced against the validity of this theory (notably by F.
Keutgen). It is unnecessary to elaborate any profound theory regarding
the origin of the craft gilds. The union of men of the same occupation
was a natural tendency of the age. In the 13th century the trade of
England continued to expand and the number of craft gilds increased. In
the 14th century they were fully developed and in a flourishing
condition; by that time each branch of industry in every large town had
its gild. The development of these societies was even more rapid on the
continent than in England.

Their organization and aims were in general the same throughout western
Europe. Officers, commonly called wardens in England, were elected by
the members, and their chief function was to supervise the quality of
the wares produced, so as to secure good and honest workmanship.
Therefore, ordinances were made regulating the hours of labour and the
terms of admission to the gild, including apprenticeship. Other
ordinances required members to make periodical payments to a common
fund, and to participate in certain common religious observances,
festivities and pageants. But the regulation of industry was always
paramount to social and religious aims; the chief object of the craft
gild was to supervise the processes of manufacture and to control the
monopoly of working and dealing in a particular branch of industry.

We have already called attention to the gradual displacement of the gild
merchant by the craft organizations. The relations of the former to the
latter must now be considered more in detail. There was at no time a
general struggle in England between the gild merchant and the craft
gilds, though in a few towns there seems to have been some friction
between merchants and artisans. There is no exact parallel in England to
the conflict between these two classes in Scotland in the 16th century,
or to the great continental revolution of the 13th and 14th centuries,
by which the crafts threw off the yoke of patrician government and
secured more independence in the management of their own affairs and
more participation in the civic administration. The main causes of these
conflicts on the continent were the monopoly of power by the patricians,
acts of violence committed by them, their bad management of the finances
and their partisan administration of justice. In some towns the victory
of the artisans in the 14th century was so complete that the whole civic
constitution was remodelled with the craft fraternities as a basis. A
widespread movement of this sort would scarcely be found in England,
where trade and industry were less developed than on the continent, and
where the motives of a class conflict between merchants and craftsmen
were less potent. Moreover, borough government in England seems to have
been mainly democratic until the 14th or 15th century; there was no
oligarchy to be depressed or suppressed. Even if there had been motives
for uprisings of artisans such as took place in Germany and the
Netherlands, the English kings would probably have intervened. True,
there were popular uprisings in England, but they were usually conflicts
between the poor and the rich; the crafts as such seldom took part in
these tumults. While many continental municipalities were becoming more
democratic in the 14th century, those of England were drifting towards
oligarchy, towards government by a close "select body." As a rule the
craft gilds secured no dominant influence in the boroughs of England,
but remained subordinate to the town government. Whatever power they did
secure, whether as potent subsidiary organs of the municipal polity for
the regulation of trade, or as the chief or sole medium for the
acquisition of citizenship, or as integral parts of the common council,
was, generally speaking, the logical sequence of a gradual economic
development, and not the outgrowth of a revolutionary movement by which
oppressed craftsmen endeavoured to throw off the yoke of an arrogant
patrician gild merchant.

Two new kinds of craft fraternities appear in the 14th century and
become more prominent In the 15th, namely, the merchants' and the
journeymen's companies. The misteries or companies of merchants traded
in one or more kinds of wares. They were pre-eminently dealers, who
sold what others produced. Hence they should not be confused with the
old gild merchant, which originally comprised both merchants and
artisans, and had the whole monopoly of the trade of the town. In most
cases, the company of merchants was merely one of the craft
organizations which superseded the gild merchant.

In the 14th century the journeymen or yeomen began to set up
fraternities in defence of their rights. The formation of these
societies marks a cleft within the ranks of some particular class of
artisans--a conflict between employers, or master artisans, and workmen.
The journeymen combined to protect their special interests, notably as
regards hours of work and rates of wages, and they fought with the
masters over the labour question in all its aspects. The resulting
struggle of organized bodies of masters and journeymen was widespread
throughout western Europe, but it was more prominent in Germany than in
France or England. This conflict was indeed one of the main features of
German industrial life in the 15th century. In England the fraternities
of journeymen, after struggling a while for complete independence, seem
to have fallen under the supervision and control of the masters' gilds;
in other words, they became subsidiary or affiliated organs of the older
craft fraternities.

An interesting phenomenon in connexion with the organization of crafts
is their tendency to amalgamate, which is occasionally visible in
England in the 15th century, and more frequently in the 16th and 17th. A
similar tendency is visible in the Netherlands and in some other parts
of the continent already in the 14th century. Several fraternities--old
gilds or new companies, with their respective cognate or heterogeneous
branches of industry and trade--were fused into one body. In some towns
all the crafts were thus consolidated into a single fraternity; in this
case a body was reproduced which regulated the whole trade monopoly of
the borough, and hence bore some resemblance to the old gild merchant.

In dealing briefly with the modern history of craft gilds, we may
confine our attention to England. In the Tudor period the policy of the
crown was to bring them under public or national control. Laws were
passed, for example in 1503, requiring that new ordinances of
"fellowships of crafts or misteries" should be approved by the royal
justices or by other crown officers; and the authority of the companies
to fix the price of wares was thus restricted. The statute of 5
Elizabeth, c. 4, also curtailed their jurisdiction over journeymen and
apprentices (see APPRENTICESHIP).

The craft fraternities were not suppressed by the statute of 1547 (1
Edward VI.). They were indeed expressly exempted from its general
operation. Such portions of their revenues as were devoted to definite
religious observances were, however, appropriated by the crown. The
revenues confiscated were those used for "the finding, maintaining or
sustentation of any priest or of any anniversary, or obit, lamp, light
or other such things." This has been aptly called "the disendowment of
the religion of the misteries." Edward VI.'s statute marks no break of
continuity in the life of the craft organizations. Even before the
Reformation, however, signs of decay had already begun to appear, and
these multiplied in the 16th and 17th centuries. The old gild system was
breaking down under the action of new economic forces. Its dissolution
was due especially to the introduction of new industries, organized on a
more modern basis, and to the extension of the domestic system of
manufacture. Thus the companies gradually lost control over the
regulation of industry, though they still retained their old monopoly in
the 17th century, and in many cases even in the 18th. In fact, many
craft fraternities still survived in the second half of the 18th
century, but their usefulness had disappeared. The medieval form of
association was incompatible with the new ideas of individual liberty
and free competition, with the greater separation of capital and
industry, employers and workmen, and with the introduction of the
factory system. Intent only on promoting their own interests and
disregarding the welfare of the community, the old companies had become
an unmitigated evil. Attempts have been made to find in them the
progenitors of the trades unions, but there seems to be no immediate
connexion between the latter and the craft gilds. The privileges of the
old fraternities were not formally abolished until 1835; and the
substantial remains or spectral forms of some are still visible in other
towns besides London.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W. E. Wilda, _Das Gildenwesen im Mittelalter_ (Halle,
  1831); E. Levasseur; _Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France_ (2
  vols., Paris, 1859, new ed. 1900); Gustav von Schonberg, "Zur
  wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung des deutschen Zunftwesens im Mittelalter,"
  in _Jahrbucher fur Nationalokonomie und Statistik_, ed. B. Hildebrand,
  vol. ix. pp. 1-72, 97-169 (Jena, 1867); Joshua Toulmin Smith, _English
  Gilds_, with Lujo Brentano's introductory essay on the _History and
  Development of Gilds_ (London, 1870); Max Pappenheim, _Die
  altdanischen Schutzgilden_ (Breslau, 1885); W. J. Ashley,
  _Introduction to English Economic History_ (2 vols., London,
  1888-1893; 3rd ed. of vol. i., 1894); C. Gross, _The Gild Merchant_ (2
  vols., Oxford, 1890); Karl Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden der germanischen
  Volker_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891); J. Malet Lambert, _Two Thousand
  Years of Gild Life_ (Hull, 1891); Alfred Doren, _Untersuchungen zur
  Geschichte der Kaufmannsgilden_ (Leipzig, 1893); H. Vander Linden,
  _Les Gildes marchandes dans les Pays-Bas au moyen age_ (Ghent, 1896);
  E. Martin Saint-Leon, _Histoire des corporations de metiers_ (Paris,
  1897); C. Nyrop, _Danmarks Gilde- og Lavsskraaer fra middelalderen_ (2
  vols., Copenhagen, 1899-1904); F. Keutgen, _Amter und Zunfte_ (Jena,
  1903); George Unwin, _Industrial Organization in the Sixteenth and
  Seventeenth Centuries_ (Oxford, 1904). For bibliographies of gilds,
  see H. Blanc, _Bibliographie des corporations ouvrieres_ (Paris,
  1885); G. Gonetta, _Bibliografia delle corporazioni d' arti e
  mestieri_ (Rome, 1891); C. Gross, _Bibliography of British Municipal
  History_, including Gilds (New York, 1897); W. Stieda, in
  _Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, ed. J. Conrad (2nd ed.,
  Jena, 1901, under "Zunftwesen").     (C. Gr.)




GILEAD (i.e. "hard" or "rugged," a name sometimes used, both in earlier
and in later writers, to denote the whole of the territory occupied by
the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending from the Arnon to the
southern base of Hermon (Deut. xxxiv. 1; Judg. xx. 1; Jos. _Ant._ xii.
8. 3, 4). More precisely, however, it was the usual name of that
picturesque hill country which is bounded on the N. by the Hieromax
(Yarmuk), on the W. by the Jordan, on the S. by the Arnon, and on the E.
by a line which may be said to follow the meridian of Amman
(Philadelphia or Rabbath-Ammon). It thus lies wholly within 31 deg. 25'
and 32 deg. 42' N. lat. and 35 deg. 34' and 36 deg. E. long., and is cut
in two by the Jabbok. Excluding the narrow strip of low-lying plain
along the Jordan, it has an average elevation of 2500 ft. above the
Mediterranean; but, as seen from the west, the relative height is very
much increased by the depression of the Jordan valley. The range from
the same point of view presents a singularly uniform outline, having the
appearance of an unbroken wall; in reality, however, it is traversed by
a number of deep ravines (wadis), of which the most important are the
Yabis, the Ajlun, the Rajib, the Zerka (Jabbok), the Hesban, and the
Zerka Ma'in. The great mass of the Gilead range is formed of Jura
limestone, the base slopes being sandstone partly covered by white
marls. The eastern slopes are comparatively bare of trees; but the
western are well supplied with oak, terebinth and pine. The pastures are
everywhere luxuriant, and the wooded heights and winding glens, in which
the tangled shrubbery is here and there broken up by open glades and
flat meadows of green turf, exhibit a beauty of vegetation such as is
hardly to be seen in any other district of Palestine.

The first biblical mention of "Mount Gilead" occurs in connexion with
the reconcilement of Jacob and Laban (Genesis xxxi.). The composite
nature of the story makes an identification of the exact site difficult,
but one of the narrators (E) seems to have in mind the ridge of what is
now known as Jebel Ajlun, probably not far from Mahneh (Mahanaim), near
the head of the wadi Yabis. Some investigators incline to Suf, or to the
Jebel Kafkafa. At the period of the Israelite conquest the portion of
Gilead northward of the Jabbok (Zerka) belonged to the dominions of Og,
king of Bashan, while the southern half was ruled by Sihon, king of the
Amorites, having been at an earlier date wrested from Moab (Numb. xxi.
24; Deut. iii. 12-16). These two sections were allotted respectively to
Manasseh and to Reuben and Gad, both districts being peculiarly suited
to the pastoral and nomadic character of these tribes. A somewhat wild
Bedouin disposition, fostered by their surroundings, was retained by the
Israelite inhabitants of Gilead to a late period of their history, and
seems to be to some extent discernible in what we read alike of
Jephthah, of David's Gadites, and of the prophet Elijah. As the eastern
frontier of Palestine, Gilead bore the first brunt of Syrian and
Assyrian attacks.

After the close of the Old Testament history the word Gilead seldom
occurs. It seems to have soon passed out of use as a precise
geographical designation; for though occasionally mentioned by
Apocryphal writers, by Josephus, and by Eusebius, the allusions are all
vague, and show that those who made them had no definite knowledge of
Gilead proper. In Josephus and the New Testament the name Peraea or
[Greek: peran tou Iordanou] is most frequently used; and the country is
sometimes spoken of by Josephus as divided into small provinces called
after the capitals in which Greek colonists had established themselves
during the reign of the Seleucidae. At present Gilead south of the
Jabbok alone is known by the name of Jebel Jilad (Mount Gilead), the
northern portion between the Jabbok and the Yarmuk being called Jebel
Ajlun. Jebel Jilad includes Jebel Osha, and has for its capital the town
of Es-Salt. The cities of Gilead expressly mentioned in the Old
Testament are Ramoth, Jabesh and Jazer. The first of these has been
variously identified with Es-Salt, with Reimun, with Jerash or Gerasa,
with er-Remtha, and with Salhad. Opinions are also divided on the
question of its identity with Mizpeh-Gilead (see _Encyc. Biblica_, art.
"Ramoth-Gilead"). Jabesh is perhaps to be found at Meriamin, less
probably at ed-Deir; Jazer, at Yajuz near Jogbehah, rather than at Sar.
The city named Gilead (Judg. x. 17, xii. 7; Hos. vi. 8, xii. 11) has
hardly been satisfactorily explained; perhaps the text has suffered.

The "balm" (Heb. _sori_) for which Gilead was so noted (Gen. xlvii. 11;
Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. 11; Ezek. xxvii. 17), is probably to be identified
with mastic (Gen. xxxvii. 25, R.V. marg.) i.e. the resin yielded by the
_Pistachia Lentiscus_. The modern "balm of Gilead" or "Mecca balsam," an
aromatic gum produced by the _Balsamodendron opobalsamum_, is more
likely the Hebrew _mor_, which the English Bible wrongly renders
"myrrh."

  See G. A. Smith, _Hist. Geog._ xxiv. foll.     (R. A. S. M.)




GILES (GIL, GILLES), ST, the name given to an abbot whose festival is
celebrated on the 1st of September. According to the legend, he was an
Athenian ([Greek: Aigidios], Aegidius) of royal descent. After the death
of his parents he distributed his possessions among the poor, took ship,
and landed at Marseilles. Thence he went to Arles, where he remained for
two years with St Caesarius. He then retired into a neighbouring desert,
where he lived upon herbs and upon the milk of a hind which came to him
at stated hours. He was discovered there one day by Flavius, the king of
the Goths, who built a monastery on the place, of which he was the first
abbot. Scholars are very much divided as to the date of his life, some
holding that he lived in the 6th century, others in the 7th or 8th. It
may be regarded as certain that St Giles was buried in the hermitage
which he had founded in a spot which was afterwards the town of
St-Gilles (diocese of Nimes, department of Gard). His reputation for
sanctity attracted many pilgrims. Important gifts were made to the
church which contained his body, and a monastery grew up hard by. It is
probable that the Visigothic princes who were in possession of the
country protected and enriched this monastery, and that it was destroyed
by the Saracens at the time of their invasion in 721. But there are no
authentic data before the 9th century concerning his history. In 808
Charlemagne took the abbey of St-Gilles under his protection, and it is
mentioned among the monasteries from which only prayers for the prince
and the state were due. In the 12th century the pilgrimages to St-Gilles
are cited as among the most celebrated of the time. The cult of the
saint, who came to be regarded as the special patron of lepers, beggars
and cripples, spread very extensively over Europe, especially in
England, Scotland, France, Belgium and Germany. The church of St Giles,
Cripplegate, London, was built about 1090, while the hospital for lepers
at St Giles-in-the-Fields (near New Oxford Street) was founded by Queen
Matilda in 1117. In England alone there are about 150 churches dedicated
to this saint. In Edinburgh the church of St Giles could boast the
possession of an arm-bone of its patron. Representations of St Giles are
very frequently met with in early French and German art, but are much
less common in Italy and Spain.

  See _Acta Sanctorum_ (September), i. 284-299; Devic and Vaissete,
  _Histoire generale de Languedoc_, pp. 514-522 (Toulouse, 1876); E.
  Rembry, _Saint Gilles, sa vie, ses reliques, son culte en Belgique et
  dans le nord de la France_ (Bruges, 1881); F. Arnold-Forster, _Studies
  in Church Dedications, or England's Patron Saints_, ii. 46-51, iii.
  15, 363-365 (1899); A. Jameson, _Sacred and Legendary Art_, 768-770
  (1896); A. Bell, _Lives and Legends of the English Bishops and Kings,
  Medieval Monks, and other later Saints_, pp. 61, 70, 74-78, 84, 197
  (1904).     (H. De.)




GILFILLAN, GEORGE (1813-1878), Scottish author, was born on the 30th of
January 1813, at Comrie, Perthshire, where his father, the Rev. Samuel
Gilfillan, the author of some theological works, was for many years
minister of a Secession congregation. After an education at Glasgow
University, in March 1836 he was ordained pastor of a Secession
congregation in Dundee. He published a volume of his discourses in 1839,
and shortly afterwards another sermon on "Hades," which brought him
under the scrutiny of his co-presbyters, and was ultimately withdrawn
from circulation. Gilfillan next contributed a series of sketches of
celebrated contemporary authors to the _Dumfries Herald_, then edited by
Thomas Aird; and these, with several new ones, formed his first _Gallery
of Literary Portraits_, which appeared in 1846, and had a wide
circulation. It was quickly followed by a _Second_ and a _Third
Gallery_. In 1851 his most successful work, the _Bards of the Bible_,
appeared. His aim was that it should be "a poem on the Bible"; and it
was far more rhapsodical than critical. His _Martyrs and Heroes of the
Scottish Covenant_ appeared in 1832, and in 1856 he produced a partly
autobiographical, partly fabulous, _History of a Man_. For thirty years
he was engaged upon a long poem, on _Night_, which was published in
1867, but its theme was too vast, vague and unmanageable, and the result
was a failure. He also edited an edition of the _British Poets_. As a
lecturer and as a preacher he drew large crowds, but his literary
reputation has not proved permanent. He died on the 13th of August 1878.
He had just finished a new life of Burns designed to accompany a new
edition of the works of that poet.




GILGAL (Heb. for "circle" of sacred stones), the name of several places
in Palestine, mentioned in the Old Testament. The name is not found east
of the Jordan.

1. The first and most important was situated "in the east border of
Jericho" (Josh. iv. 19), on the border between Judah and Benjamin (Josh.
xv. 7). Josephus (Ant. v. 1. 4) places it 50 stadia from Jordan and 10
from Jericho (the New Testament site). Jerome (_Onomasticon_, s.v.
"Galgal") places Gilgal 2 Roman miles from Jericho, and speaks of it as
a deserted place held in wonderful veneration ("miro cultu") by the
natives. This site, which in the middle ages appears to have been
lost--Gilgal being shown farther north--was in 1865 recovered by a
German traveller (Hermann Zschokke), and fixed by the English survey
party, though not beyond dispute. It is about 2 m. east of the site of
Byzantine Jericho, and 1 m. from modern er-Riha. A fine tamarisk, traces
of a church (which is mentioned in the 8th century), and a large
reservoir, now filled up with mud, remain. The place is called
Jiljulieh, and its position north of the valley of Achor (Wadi Kelt) and
east of Jericho agrees well with the biblical indications above
mentioned. A tradition connected with the fall of Jericho is attached to
the site (see C. R. Conder, _Tent Work_, 203 ff.). This sanctuary and
camp of Israel held a high place in the national regard, and is often
mentioned in Judges and Samuel. But whether this is the Gilgal spoken of
by Amos and Hosea in connexion with Bethel is by no means certain [see
(3) below].

2. Gilgal, mentioned in Josh. xii. 23 in connexion with Dor, appears to
have been situated in the maritime plain. Jerome (_Onomasticon_, s.v.
"Gelgel") speaks of a town of the name 6 Roman miles north of
Antipatris (Ras el 'Ain). This is apparently the modern Kalkilia, but
about 4 m. north of Antipatris is a large village called Jiljulieh,
which is more probably the biblical town.

3. The third Gilgal (2 Kings iv. 38) was in the mountains (compare 1
Sam. vii. 16, 2 Kings ii. 1-3) near Bethel. Jerome mentions this place
also (_Onomasticon_, s.v. "Galgala"). It appears to be the present
village of Jiljilia, about 7 English miles north of Beitin (Bethel). It
may have absorbed the old shrine of Shiloh and been the sanctuary famous
in the days of Amos and Hosea.

4. Deut. xi. 30 seems to imply a Gilgal near Gerizim, and there is still
a place called Juleijil on the plain of Makhna, 2-1/2 m. S.E. of Shechem.
This may have been Amos's Gilgal and was almost certainly that of 1
Macc. ix. 2.

5. The Gilgal described in Josh. xv. 7 is the same as the Beth-Gilgal of
Neh. xii. 29; its site is not known.     (R. A. S. M.)




GILGAMESH, EPIC OF, the title given to one of the most important
literary products of Babylonia, from the name of the chief personage in
the series of tales of which it is composed.

Though the Gilgamesh Epic is known to us chiefly from the fragments
found in the royal collection of tablets made by Assur-bani-pal, the
king of Assyria (668-626 B.C.) for his palace at Nineveh, internal
evidence points to the high antiquity of at least some portions of it,
and the discovery of a fragment of the epic in the older form of the
Babylonian script, which can be dated as 2000 B.C., confirms this view.
Equally certain is a second observation of a general character that the
epic originating as the greater portion of the literature in
Assur-bani-pal's collection in Babylonia is a composite product, that is
to say, it consists of a number of independent stories or myths
originating at different times, and united to form a continuous
narrative with Gilgamesh as the central figure. This view naturally
raises the question whether the independent stories were all told of
Gilgamesh or, as almost always happens in the case of ancient tales,
were transferred to Gilgamesh as a favourite popular hero. Internal
evidence again comes to our aid to lend its weight to the latter theory.

While the existence of such a personage as Gilgamesh may be admitted, he
belongs to an age that could only have preserved a dim recollection of
his achievements and adventures through oral traditions. The name[1] is
not Babylonian, and what evidence as to his origin there is points to
his having come from Elam, to the east of Babylonia. He may have
belonged to the people known as the Kassites who at the beginning of the
18th century B.C. entered Babylonia from Elam, and obtained control of
the Euphrates valley. Why and how he came to be a popular hero in
Babylonia cannot with our present material be determined, but the epic
indicates that he came as a conqueror and established himself at Erech.
In so far we have embodied in the first part of the epic dim
recollections of actual events, but we soon leave the solid ground of
fact and find ourselves soaring to the heights of genuine myth.
Gilgamesh becomes a god, and in certain portions of the epic clearly
plays the part of the sun-god of the spring-time, taking the place
apparently of Tammuz or Adonis, the youthful sun-god, though the story
shows traits that differentiate it from the ordinary Tammuz myths. A
separate stratum in the Gilgamesh epic is formed by the story of
Eabani--introduced as the friend of Gilgamesh, who joins him in his
adventures. There can be no doubt that Eabani, who symbolizes primeval
man, was a figure originally entirely independent of Gilgamesh, but his
story was incorporated into the epic by that natural process to be
observed in the national epics of other peoples, which tends to connect
the favourite hero with all kinds of tales that for one reason or the
other become embedded in the popular mind. Another stratum is
represented by the story of a favourite of the gods known as
Ut-Napishtim, who is saved from a destructive storm and flood that
destroys his fellow-citizens of Shurippak. Gilgamesh is artificially
brought into contact with Ut-Napishtim, to whom he pays a visit for the
purpose of learning the secret of immortal life and perpetual youth
which he enjoys. During the visit Ut-Napishtim tells Gilgamesh the story
of the flood and of his miraculous escape. Nature myths have been
entwined with other episodes in the epic and finally the theologians
took up the combined stories and made them the medium for illustrating
the truth and force of certain doctrines of the Babylonian religion. In
its final form, the outcome of an extended and complicated literary
process, the Gilgamesh Epic covered twelve tablets, each tablet devoted
to one adventure in which the hero plays a direct or indirect part, and
the whole covering according to the most plausible estimate about 3000
lines. Of all twelve tablets portions have been found among the remains
of Assur-bani-pal's library, but some of the tablets are so incomplete
as to leave even their general contents in some doubt. The fragments do
not all belong to one copy. Of some tablets portions of two, and of some
tablets portions of as many as four, copies have turned up, pointing
therefore to the great popularity of the production. The best preserved
are Tablets VI. and XI., and of the total about 1500 lines are now
known, wholly or in part, while of those partially preserved quite a
number can be restored. A brief summary of the contents of the twelve
may be indicated as follows:

In the 1st tablet, after a general survey of the adventures of
Gilgamesh, his rule at Erech is described, where he enlists the services
of all the young able-bodied men in the building of the great wall of
the city. The people sigh under the burden imposed, and call upon the
goddess Aruru to create a being who might act as a rival to Gilgamesh,
curb his strength, and dispute his tyrannous control. The goddess
consents, and creates Eabani, who is described as a wild man, living
with the gazelles and the beasts of the field. Eabani, whose name,
signifying "Ea creates," points to the tradition which made Ea (q.v.)
the creator of humanity, symbolizes primeval man. Through a hunter,
Eabani and Gilgamesh are brought together, but instead of becoming
rivals, they are joined in friendship. Eabani is induced by the snares
of a maiden to abandon his life with the animals and to proceed to
Erech, where Gilgamesh, who has been told in several dreams of the
coming of Eabani, awaits him. Together they proceed upon several
adventures, which are related in the following four tablets. At first,
indeed, Eabani curses the fate which led him away from his former life,
and Gilgamesh is represented as bewailing Eabani's dissatisfaction. The
sun-god Shamash calls upon Eabani to remain with Gilgamesh, who pays him
all honours in his palace at Erech. With the decision of the two friends
to proceed to the forest of cedars in which the goddess Irnina--a form
of Ishtar--dwells, and which is guarded by Khumbaba, the 2nd tablet
ends. In the 3rd tablet, very imperfectly preserved, Gilgamesh appeals
through a Shamash priestess Rimat-Belit to the sun-god Shamash for his
aid in the proposed undertaking. The 4th tablet contains a description
of the formidable Khumbaba, the guardian of the cedar forest. In the 5th
tablet Gilgamesh and Eabani reach the forest. Encouraged by dreams, they
proceed against Khumbaba, and despatch him near a specially high cedar
over which he held guard. This adventure against Khumbaba belongs to the
Eabani stratum of the epic, into which Gilgamesh is artificially
introduced. The basis of the 6th tablet is the familiar nature-myth of
the change of seasons, in which Gilgamesh plays the part of the youthful
solar god of the springtime, who is wooed by the goddess of fertility,
Ishtar. Gilgamesh, recalling to the goddess the sad fate of those who
fall a victim to her charms, rejects the offer. In the course of his
recital snatches of other myths are referred to, including he famous
Tammuz-Adonis tale, in which Tammuz, the youthful bridegroom, is slain
by his consort Ishtar. The goddess, enraged at the insult, asks her
father Anu to avenge her. A divine bull is sent to wage a contest
against Gilgamesh, who is assisted by his friend Eabani. This scene of
the fight with the bull is often depicted on seal cylinders. The two
friends by their united force succeed in killing the bull, and then
after performing certain votive and purification rites return to Erech,
where they are hailed with joy. In this adventure it is clearly Eabani
who is artificially introduced in order to maintain the association with
Gilgamesh. The 7th tablet continues the Eabani stratum. The hero is
smitten with sore disease, but the fragmentary condition of this and the
succeeding tablet is such as to envelop in doubt the accompanying
circumstances, including the cause and nature of his disease. The 8th
tablet records the death of Eabani. The 9th and 10th tablets,
exclusively devoted to Gilgamesh, describe his wanderings in quest of
Ut-Napishtim, from whom he hopes to learn how he may escape the fate
that has overtaken his friend Eabani. He goes through mountain passes
and encounters lions. At the entrance to the mountain Mashu,
scorpion-men stand guard, from one of whom he receives advice as to how
to pass through the Mashu district. He succeeds in doing so, and finds
himself in a wonderful park, which lies along the sea coast. In the 10th
tablet the goddess Sabitu, who, as guardian of the sea, first bolts her
gate against Gilgamesh, after learning of his quest, helps him to pass
in a ship across the sea to the "waters of death." The ferry-man of
Ut-Napishtim brings him safely through these waters, despite the
difficulties and dangers of the voyage, and at last the hero finds
himself face to face with Ut-Napishtim. In the 11th tablet, Ut-Napishtim
tells the famous story of the Babylonian flood, which is so patently
attached to Gilgamesh in a most artificial manner. Ut-Napishtim and his
wife are anxious to help Gilgamesh to new life. He is sent to a place
where he washes himself clean from impurity. He is told of a weed which
restores youth to the one grown old. Scarcely has he obtained the weed
when it is snatched away from him, and the tablet closes somewhat
obscurely with the prediction of the destruction of Erech. In the 12th
tablet Gilgamesh succeeds in obtaining a view of Eabani's shade, and
learns through him of the sad fate endured by the dead. With this
description, in which care of the dead is inculcated as the only means
of making their existence in Aralu, where the dead are gathered,
bearable, the epic, so far as we have it, closes.

The reason why the flood episode and the interview with the dead Eabani
are introduced is quite clear. Both are intended as illustrations of
doctrines taught in the schools of Babylonia; the former to explain that
only the favourites of the gods can hope under exceptional circumstances
to enjoy life everlasting; the latter to emphasize the impossibility for
ordinary mortals to escape from the inactive shadowy existence led by
the dead, and to inculcate the duty of proper care for the dead. That
the astro-theological system is also introduced into the epic is clear
from the division into twelve tablets, which correspond to the yearly
course of the sun, while throughout there are indications that all the
adventures of Gilgamesh and Eabani, including those which have an
historical background, have been submitted to the influence of this
system and projected on to the heavens. This interpretation of the
popular tales, according to which the career of the hero can be followed
in its entirety and in detail in the movements in the heavens, in time,
with the growing predominance of the astral-mythological system,
overshadowed the other factors involved, and it is in this form, as an
astral myth, that it passes through the ancient world and leaves its
traces in the folk-tales and myths of Hebrews, Phoenicians, Syrians,
Greeks and Romans throughout Asia Minor and even in India.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The complete edition of the Gilgamesh Epic by Paul
  Haupt under the title _Das babylonische Nimrodepos_ (Leipzig,
  1884-1891), with the 12th tablet in the _Beitrage zur Assyriologie_,
  i. 48-79; German translation by Peter Jensen in vol. vi. of Schrader's
  _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_ (Berlin, 1900), pp. 116-273. See also
  the same author's comprehensive work, _Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der
  Weltliteratur_ (vol. i. 1906, vol. ii. to follow). An English
  translation of the chief portions in Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia
  and Assyria_ (Boston, 1898), ch. xxiii.     (M. Ja.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The name of the hero, written always ideographically, was for a
    long time provisionally read _Izdubar_; but a tablet discovered by T.
    G. Pinches gave the equivalent _Gilgamesh_ (see Jastrow, _Religion of
    Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 468).




GILGIT, an outlying province in the extreme north-west of India, over
which Kashmir has reasserted her sovereignty. Only a part of the basin
of the river Gilgit is included within its political boundaries. There
is an intervening width of mountainous country, represented chiefly by
glaciers and ice-fields, and intersected by narrow sterile valleys,
measuring some 100 to 150 m. in width, to the north and north-east,
which separates the province of Gilgit from the Chinese frontier beyond
the Muztagh and Karakoram. This part of the Kashmir borderland includes
Kanjut (or Hunza) and Ladakh. To the north-west, beyond the sources of
the Yasin and Ghazar in the Shandur range (the two most westerly
tributaries of the Gilgit river) is the deep valley of the Yarkhun or
Chitral. Since the formation of the North-West Frontier Province in
1901, the political charge of Chitral, Dir and Swat, which was formerly
included within the Gilgit agency, has been transferred to the chief
commissioner of the new province, with his capital at Peshawar. Gilgit
proper now forms a _wazarat_ of the Kashmir state, administered by a
_wazir_. Gilgit is also the headquarters of a British political agent,
who exercises some supervision over the _wazir_, and is directly
responsible to the government of India for the administration of the
outlying districts or petty states of Hunza, Nagar, Ashkuman, Yasin and
Ghizar, the little republic of Chilas, &c. These states acknowledge the
suzerainty of Kashmir, paying an annual tribute in gold or grain, but
they form no part of its territory.

Within the wider limits of the former Gilgit agency are many mixed
races, speaking different languages, which have all been usually classed
together under the name Dard. The Dard, however, is unknown beyond the
limits of the Kohistan district of the Indus valley to the south of the
Hindu Koh, the rest of the inhabitants of the Indus valley belonging to
Shin republics, or Chilas. The great mass of the Chitral population are
Kho (speaking Khowar), and they may be accepted as representing the
aboriginal population of the Chitral valley. (See HINDU KUSH.) Between
Chitral and the Indus the "Dards" of Dardistan are chiefly Yeshkuns and
Shins, and it would appear from the proportions in which these people
occupy the country that they must have primarily moved up from the
valley of the Indus in successive waves of conquest, first the Yeshkuns,
and then the Shins. No one can put a date to these invasions, but
Biddulph is inclined to class the Yeshkuns with the Yuechi who conquered
the Bactrian kingdom about 120 B.C. The Shins are obviously a Hindu race
(as is testified by their veneration for the cow), who spread themselves
northwards and eastwards as far as Baltistan, where they collided with
the aboriginal Tatar of the Asiatic highlands. But the ethnography of
"Dardistan," or the Gilgit agency (for the two are, roughly speaking,
synonymous), requires further investigation, and it would be premature
to attempt to frame anything like an ethnographical history of these
regions until the neighbouring provinces of Tangir and Darel have been
more fully examined. The _wazarat_ of Gilgit contains a population
(1901) of 60,885, all Mahommedans, mostly of the Shiah sect, but not
fanatical. The dominant race is that of the Shins, whose language is
universally spoken. This is one of the so-called Pisacha languages, an
archaic Aryan group intermediate between the Iranian and the Sanskritic.

In general appearance and dress all the mountain-bred peoples extending
through these northern districts are very similar. Thick felt coats
reaching below the knee, loose "pyjamas" with cloth "putties" and boots
(often of English make) are almost universal, the distinguishing feature
in their costume being the felt cap worn close to the head and rolled up
round the edges. They are on the whole a light-hearted, cheerful race of
people, but it has been observed that their temperament varies much with
their habitat--those who live on the shadowed sides of mountains being
distinctly more morose and more serious in disposition than the dwellers
in valleys which catch the winter sunlight. They are, at the same time,
bloodthirsty and treacherous to a degree which would appear incredible
to a casual observer of their happy and genial manners, exhibiting a
strange combination (as has been observed by a careful student of their
ways) of "the monkey and the tiger." Addicted to sport of every kind,
they pursue no manufacturing industries whatsoever, but they are
excellent agriculturists, and show great ingenuity in their local
irrigation works and in their efforts to bring every available acre of
cultivable soil within the irrigated area. Gold washing is more or less
carried on in most of the valleys north of the river Gilgit, and gold
dust (contained in small packets formed with the petals of a cup-shaped
flower) is an invariable item in their official presents and offerings.
Gold dust still constitutes part of the annual tribute which, strangely
enough, is paid by Hunza to China, as well as to Kashmir.

  _Routes in the Gilgit Agency._--One of the oldest recorded routes
  through this country is that which connects Mastuj in the Chitral
  valley with Gilgit, passing across the Shandur range (12,250). It now
  forms the high-road between Gilgit and Chitral, and has been
  engineered into a passable route. From the north three great
  glacier-bred affluents make their way to the river of Gilgit, joining
  it at almost equal intervals, and each of them affords opportunity for
  a rough passage northwards. (1) The Yasin river, which follows a
  fairly straight course from north to south for about 40 m. from the
  foot of the Darkot pass across the Shandur range (15,000) to its
  junction with the river Gilgit, close to the little fort of Gupis, on
  the Gilgit-Mastuj road. Much of this valley is cultivated and
  extremely picturesque. At the head of it is a grand group of glaciers,
  one of which leads up to the well-known pass of Darkot. (2) 25 m. (by
  map measurement) below Gupis the Gilgit receives the Ashkuman affluent
  from the north. The little Lake of Karumbar is held to be its source,
  as it lies at the head of the river. The same lake is sometimes called
  the source of the river Yarkhun or Chitral; and it seems possible that
  a part of its waters may be deflected in each direction. The Karumbar,
  or Ashkuman, is nearly twice the length of the Yasin, and the upper
  half of the valley is encompassed by glaciers, rendering the route
  along it uncertain and difficult. (3) 40 m. or so below the Ashkuman
  junction, and nearly opposite the little station of Gilgit, the river
  receives certain further contributions from the north which are
  collected in the Hunza and Nagar basins. These basins include a system
  of glaciers of such gigantic proportions that they are probably
  unrivalled in any part of the world. The glacial head of the Hunza is
  not far from that of the Karumbar, and, like the Karumbar, the river
  commences with a wide sweep eastwards, following a course roughly
  parallel to the crest of the Hindu Kush (under whose southern slopes
  it lies close) for about 40 m. Then striking south for another 40 m.,
  it twists amidst the barren feet of gigantic rock-bound spurs which
  reach upwards to the Muztagh peaks on the east and to a mass of
  glaciers and snow-fields on the west, hidden amidst the upper folds of
  mountains towering to an average of 25,000 ft. The next great bend is
  again to the west for 30 m., before a final change of direction to the
  south at the historical position of Chalt and a comparatively straight
  run of 25 m. to a junction with the Gilgit. The valley of Hunza lies
  some 10 m. from the point of this westerly bend, and 20 (as the crow
  flies) from Chalt. Much has been written of the magnificence of Hunza
  valley scenery, surrounded as it is by a stupendous ring of
  snow-capped peaks and brightened with all the radiant beauty that
  cultivation adds to these mountain valleys; but such scenery must be
  regarded as exceptional in these northern regions.

  _Glaciers and Mountains._--Conway and Godwin Austen have described the
  glaciers of Nagar which, enclosed between the Muztagh spurs on the
  north-east and the frontier peaks of Kashmir (terminating with
  Rakapushi) on the south-west, and massing themselves in an almost
  uninterrupted series from the Hunza valley to the base of those
  gigantic peaks which stand about Mount Godwin Austen, seem to be set
  like an ice-sea to define the farthest bounds of the Himalaya. From
  its uttermost head to the foot of the Hispar, overhanging the valley
  above Nagar, the length of the glacial ice-bed known under the name of
  Biafo is said to measure about 90 m. Throughout the mountain region of
  Kanjut (or Hunza) and Nagar the valleys are deeply sunk between
  mountain ranges, which are nowhere less than 15,000 ft. in altitude,
  and which must average above 20,000 ft. As a rule, these valleys are
  bare of vegetation. Where the summits of the loftier ranges are not
  buried beneath snow and ice they are bare, bleak and splintered, and
  the nakedness of the rock scenery extends down their rugged spurs to
  the very base of them. On the lower slopes of tumbled debris the sun
  in summer beats with an intensity which is unmitigated by the cloud
  drifts which form in the moister atmosphere of the monsoon-swept
  summits of the Himalaya. Sun-baked in summer and frost-riven in
  winter, the mountain sides are but immense ramps of loose rock debris,
  only awaiting the yearly melting of the upper snow-fields, or the
  advent of a casual rainstorm, to be swept downwards in an avalanche of
  mud and stones into the gorges below. Here it becomes piled and massed
  together, till the pressure of accumulation forces it out into the
  main valleys, where it spreads in alluvial fans and silts up the
  plains. This formation is especially marked throughout the high level
  valleys of the Gilgit basin.

  _Passes._--Each of these northern affluents of the main stream is
  headed by a pass, or a group of passes, leading either to the Pamir
  region direct, or into the upper Yarkhun valley from which a Pamir
  route diverges. The Yasin valley is headed by the Darkot pass (15,000
  ft.), which drops into the Yarkhun not far from the foot of the
  Baroghil group over the main Hindu Kush watershed. The Ashkuman is
  headed by the Gazar and Kora Bohrt passes, leading to the valley of
  the Ab-i-Punja; and the Hunza by the Kilik and Mintaka, the connecting
  links between the Taghdumbash Pamir and the Gilgit basin. They are all
  about the same height--15,000 ft. All are passable at certain times of
  the year to small parties, and all are uncertain. In no case do they
  present insuperable difficulties in themselves, glaciers and
  snow-fields and mountain staircases being common to all; but the
  gorges and precipices which distinguish the approaches to them from
  the south, the slippery sides of shelving spurs whose feet are washed
  by raging torrents, the perpetual weary monotony of ascent and descent
  over successive ridges multiplying the gradient indefinitely--these
  form the real obstacles blocking the way to these northern passes.

  _Gilgit Station._--The pretty little station of Gilgit (4890 ft. above
  sea) spreads itself in terraces above the right bank of the river
  nearly opposite the opening leading to Hunza, almost nestling under
  the cliffs of the Hindu Koh, which separates it on the south from the
  savage mountain wilderness of Darel and Kohistan. It includes a
  residency for the British political officer, with about half a dozen
  homes for the accommodation of officials, barracks suitable for a
  battalion of Kashmir troops, and a hospital. Evidences of Buddhist
  occupation are not wanting in Gilgit, though they are few and
  unimportant. Such as they are, they appear to prove that Gilgit was
  once a Buddhist centre, and that the old Buddhist route between Gilgit
  and the Peshawar plain passed through the gorges and clefts of the
  unexplored Darel valley to Thakot under the northern spurs of the
  Black Mountain.

  _Connexion with India._--The Gilgit river joins the Indus a few miles
  above the little post of Bunji, where an excellent suspension bridge
  spans the river. The valley is low and hot, and the scenery between
  Gilgit and Bunji is monotonous; but the road is now maintained in
  excellent condition. A little below Bunji the Astor river joins the
  Indus from the south-east, and this deep pine-clad valley indicates
  the continuation of the highroad from Gilgit to Kashmir via the
  Tragbal and Burzil passes. Another well-known route connecting Gilgit
  with the Abbottabad frontier of the Punjab lies across the Babusar
  pass (13,000 ft.), linking the lovely Hazara valley of Kaghan to
  Chilas; Chilas (4150 ft.) being on the Indus, some 50 m. below Bunji.
  This is a more direct connexion between Gilgit and the plains of the
  Punjab than that afforded by the Kashmir route via Gurais and Astor,
  which latter route involves two considerable passes--the Tragbal
  (11,400) and the Burzil (13,500); but the intervening strip of
  absolutely independent territory (independent alike of Kashmir and the
  Punjab), which includes the hills bordering the road from the Babusar
  pass to Chilas, renders it a risky route for travellers unprotected by
  a military escort. Like the Kashmir route, it is now defined by a good
  military road.

_History._--The Dards are located by Ptolemy with surprising accuracy
(_Daradae_) on the west of the Upper Indus, beyond the head-waters of
the Swat river (_Soastus_), and north of the _Gandarae_, i.e. the
Gandharis, who occupied Peshawar and the country north of it. The
_Dardas_ and _Chinas_ also appear in many of the old Pauranic lists of
peoples, the latter probably representing the _Shin_ branch of the
Dards. This region was traversed by two of the Chinese pilgrims of the
early centuries of our era, who have left records of their journeys,
viz. Fahien, coming from the north, c. 400, and Hsuan Tsang, ascending
from Swat, c. 631. The latter says: "Perilous were the roads, and dark
the gorges. Sometimes the pilgrim had to pass by loose cords, sometimes
by light stretched iron chains. Here there were ledges hanging in
mid-air; there flying bridges across abysses; elsewhere paths cut with
the chisel, or footings to climb by." Yet even in these inaccessible
regions were found great convents, and miraculous images of Buddha. How
old the name of _Gilgit_ is we do not know, but it occurs in the
writings of the great Mahommedan savant al-Biruni, in his notices of
Indian geography. Speaking of Kashmir, he says: "Leaving the ravine by
which you enter Kashmir and entering the plateau, then you have for a
march of two more days on your left the mountains of Bolor and Shamilan,
Turkish tribes who are called _Bhattavaryan_. Their king has the title
Bhatta-Shah. Their towns are _Gilgit_, Aswira and Shiltash, and their
language is the Turkish. Kashmir suffers much from their inroads" (Trs.
Sachau, i. 207). There are difficult matters for discussion here. It is
impossible to say what ground the writer had for calling the people
_Turks_. But it is curious that the _Shins_ say they are all of the same
race as the Moguls of India, whatever they may mean by that. Gilgit, as
far back as tradition goes, was ruled by rajas of a family called
Trakane. When this family became extinct the valley was desolated by
successive invasions of neighbouring rajas, and in the 20 or 30 years
ending with 1842 there had been five dynastic revolutions. The most
prominent character in the history was a certain Gaur Rahman or Gauhar
Aman, chief of Yasin, a cruel savage and man-seller, of whom many evil
deeds are told. Being remonstrated with for selling a _mullah_, he said,
"Why not? The Koran, the word of God, is sold; why not sell the
expounder thereof?" The Sikhs entered Gilgit about 1842, and kept a
garrison there. When Kashmir was made over to Maharaja Gulab Singh of
Jammu in 1846, by Lord Hardinge, the Gilgit claims were transferred with
it. And when a commission was sent to lay down boundaries of the tracts
made over, Mr Vans Agnew (afterwards murdered at Multan) and Lieut.
Ralph Young of the Engineers visited Gilgit, the first Englishmen who
did so. The Dogras (Gulab Singh's race) had much ado to hold their
ground, and in 1852 a catastrophe occurred, parallel on a smaller scale
to that of the English troops at Kabul. Nearly 2000 men of theirs were
exterminated by Gaur Rahman and a combination of the Dards; only one
person, a soldier's wife, escaped, and the Dogras were driven away for
eight years. Gulab Singh would not again cross the Indus, but after his
death (in 1857) Maharaja Ranbir Singh longed to recover lost prestige.
In 1860 he sent a force into Gilgit. Gaur Rahman just then died, and
there was little resistance. The Dogras after that took Yasin twice, but
did not hold it. They also, in 1866, invaded Darel, one of the most
secluded Dard states, to the south of the Gilgit basin, but withdrew
again. In 1889, in order to guard against the advance of Russia, the
British government, acting as the suzerain power of Kashmir, established
the Gilgit agency; in 1901, on the formation of the North-West Frontier
province, the rearrangement was made as stated above.

  AUTHORITIES.--Biddulph, _The Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta,
  1880); W. Lawrence, _The Kashmir Valley_ (London, 1895); Tanner, "Our
  Present Knowledge of the Himalaya," _Proc. R.G.S._ vol. xiii., 1891;
  Durand, _Making a Frontier_ (London, 1899); _Report of Lockhart's
  Mission_ (Calcutta, 1886); E. F. Knight, _Where Three Empires Meet_
  (London, 1892); F. Younghusband, "Journeys in the Pamirs and Adjacent
  Countries," _Proc. R.G.S._ vol. xiv., 1892; Curzon, "Pamirs," _Jour.
  R.G.S._ vol. viii., 1896; Leitner, _Dardistan_ (1877).     (T. H. H.*)




GILL, JOHN (1697-1771), English Nonconformist divine, was born at
Kettering, Northamptonshire. His parents were poor and he owed his
education chiefly to his own perseverance. In November 1716 he was
baptized and began to preach at Higham Ferrers and Kettering, until the
beginning of 1719, when he became pastor of the Baptist congregation at
Horsleydown in Southwark. There he continued till 1757, when he removed
to a chapel near London Bridge. From 1729 to 1756 he was Wednesday
evening lecturer in Great Eastcheap. In 1748 he received the degree of
D.D. from the university of Aberdeen. He died at Camberwell on the 14th
of October 1771. Gill was a great Hebrew scholar, and in his theology a
sturdy Calvinist.

  His principal works are _Exposition of the Song of Solomon_ (1728);
  _The Prophecies of the Old Testament respecting the Messiah_ (1728);
  _The Doctrine of the Trinity_ (1731); _The Cause of God and Truth_ (4
  vols., 1731); _Exposition of the Bible_, in 10 vols. (1746-1766), in
  preparing which he formed a large collection of Hebrew and Rabbinical
  books and MSS.; _The Antiquity of the Hebrew Language--Letters, Vowel
  Points, and Accents_ (1767); _A Body of Doctrinal Divinity_ (1767); _A
  Body of Practical Divinity_ (1770); and _Sermons and Tracts_, with a
  memoir of his life (1773). An edition of his _Exposition of the Bible_
  appeared in 1816 with a memoir by John Rippon, which has also appeared
  separately.




GILL. (1) One of the _branchiae_ which form the breathing apparatus of
fishes and other animals that live in the water. The word is also
applied to the _branchiae_ of some kinds of worm and arachnids, and by
transference to objects resembling the _branchiae_ of fishes, such as
the wattles of a fowl, or the radiating films on the under side of
fungi. The word is of obscure origin. Danish has _giaelle_, and Swedish
_gal_ with the same meaning. The root which appears in "yawn," "chasm,"
has been suggested. If this be correct, the word will be in origin the
same as "gill," often spelled "ghyll," meaning a glen or ravine, common
in northern English dialects and also in Kent and Surrey. The _g_ in
both these words is hard. (2) A liquid measure usually holding
one-fourth of a pint. The word comes through the O. Fr. _gelle_, from
Low Lat. _gello_ or _gillo_, a measure for wine. It is thus connected
with "gallon." The _g_ is soft. (3) An abbreviation of the feminine name
Gillian, also often spelled Jill, as it is pronounced. Like Jack for a
boy, with which it is often coupled, as in the nursery rhyme, it is used
as a homely generic name for a girl.




GILLES DE ROYE, or EGIDIUS DE ROYA (d. 1478), Flemish chronicler, was
born probably at Montdidier, and became a Cistercian monk. He was
afterwards professor of theology in Paris and abbot of the monastery of
Royaumont at Asnieres-sur-Oise, retiring about 1458 to the convent of
Notre Dame des Dunes, near Furnes, and devoting his time to study.
Gilles wrote the _Chronicon Dunense_ or _Annales Belgici_, a resume and
continuation of the work of another monk, Jean Brandon (d. 1428), which
deals with the history of Flanders, and also with events in Germany,
Italy and England from 792 to 1478.

  The Chronicle was published by F. R. Sweert in the _Rerum Belgicarum
  annales_ (Frankfort, 1620); and the earlier part of it by C. B. Kervyn
  de Lettenhove in the _Chroniques relatives a l'histoire de la
  Belgique_ (Brussels, 1870).




GILLES LI MUISIS, or LE MUISET (c. 1272-1352), French chronicler, was
born probably at Tournai, and in 1289 entered the Benedictine abbey of
St Martin in his native city, becoming prior of this house in 1327, and
abbot four years later. He only secured the latter position after a
contest with a competitor, but he appears to have been a wise ruler of
the abbey. Gilles wrote two Latin chronicles, _Chronicon majus_ and
_Chronicon minus_, dealing with the history of the world from the
creation until 1349. This work, which was continued by another writer to
1352, is valuable for the history of northern France, and Flanders
during the first half of the 14th century. It is published by J. J. de
Senet in the _Corpus chronicorum Flandriae_, tome ii. (Brussels, 1841);
Gilles also wrote some French poems, and these _Poesies de Gilles li
Muisis_ have been published by Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove (Louvain,
1882).

  See A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_, tome iii.
  (Paris, 1903).




GILLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-1648), Scottish divine, was born at Kirkcaldy,
where his father, John Gillespie, was parish minister, on the 21st of
January 1613, and entered the university of St Andrews as a "presbytery
bursar" in 1629. On the completion of a brilliant student career, he
became domestic chaplain to John Gordon, 1st Viscount Kenmure (d. 1634),
and afterwards to John Kennedy, earl of Cassillis, his conscience not
permitting him to accept the episcopal ordination which was at that time
in Scotland an indispensable condition of induction to a parish. While
with the earl of Cassillis he wrote his first work, _A Dispute against
the English Popish Ceremonies obtruded upon the Church of Scotland_,
which, opportunely published shortly after the "Jenny Geddes" incident
(but without the author's name) in the summer of 1637, attracted
considerable attention, and within a few months had been found by the
privy council to be so damaging that by their orders all available
copies were called in and burnt. In April 1638, soon after the authority
of the bishops had been set aside by the nation, Gillespie was ordained
minister of Wemyss (Fife) by the presbytery of Kirkcaldy, and in the
same year was a member of the famous Glasgow Assembly, before which he
preached (November 21st) a sermon against royal interference in matters
ecclesiastical so pronounced, as to call for some remonstrance on the
part of Argyll, the lord high commissioner. In 1642 Gillespie was
translated to Edinburgh; but the brief remainder of his life was chiefly
spent in the conduct of public business in London. Already, in 1640, he
had accompanied the commissioners of the peace to England as one of
their chaplains; and in 1643 he was appointed by the Scottish Church one
of the four commissioners to the Westminster Assembly. Here, though the
youngest member of the Assembly, he took a prominent part in almost all
the protracted discussions on church government, discipline and worship,
supporting Presbyterianism by numerous controversial writings, as well
as by an unusual fluency and readiness in debate. Tradition long
preserved and probably enhanced the record of his victories in debate,
and especially of his encounter, with John Selden on Matt. xviii.
15-17. In 1645 he returned to Scotland, and is said to have drawn the
act of assembly sanctioning the directory of public worship. On his
return to London he had a hand in drafting the Westminster confession of
faith, especially chap. i. Gillespie was elected moderator of the
Assembly in 1648, but the laborious duties of that office (the court
continued to sit from the 12th of July to the 12th of August) told
fatally on an overtaxed constitution; he fell into consumption, and,
after many weeks of great weakness, he died at Kirkcaldy on the 17th of
December 1648. In acknowledgment of his great public services, a sum of
L1000 Scots was voted, though destined never to be paid, to his widow
and children by the committee of estates. A simple tombstone, which had
been erected to his memory in Kirkcaldy parish church, was in 1661
publicly broken at the cross by the hand of the common hangman, but was
restored in 1746.

  His principal publications were controversial and chiefly against
  Erastianism: Three sermons against Thomas Coleman; _A Sermon before
  the House of Lords_ (August 27th), on Matt. iii. 2, _Nihil Respondem_
  and _Male Audis_; _Aaron's Rod Blossoming, or the Divine Ordinance of
  Church-government vindicated_ (1646), which is deservedly regarded as
  a really able statement of the case for an exclusive spiritual
  jurisdiction in the church; _One Hundred and Eleven Propositions
  concerning the Ministry and Government of the Church_ (Edinburgh,
  1647). The following were posthumously published by his brother: _A
  Treatise of Miscellany Questions_ (1649); _The Ark of the New
  Testament_ (2 vols., 1661-1667); _Notes of Debates and Proceedings of
  the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, from February 1644 to January
  1645_. See _Works_, with memoir, published by Hetherington (Edinburgh,
  1843-1846).




GILLESPIE, THOMAS (1708-1774), Scottish divine, was born at Clearburn,
in the parish of Duddingston, Midlothian, in 1708. He was educated at
the university of Edinburgh, and studied divinity first at a small
theological seminary at Perth, and afterwards for a brief period under
Philip Doddridge at Northampton, where he received ordination in January
1741. In September of the same year he was admitted minister of the
parish of Carnock, Fife, the presbytery of Dunfermline agreeing not only
to sustain as valid the ordination he had received in England, but also
to allow a qualification of his subscription to the church's doctrinal
symbol, so far as it had reference to the sphere of the civil magistrate
in matters of religion. Having on conscientious grounds persistently
absented himself from the meetings of presbytery held for the purpose of
ordaining one Andrew Richardson, an unacceptable presentee, as minister
of Inverkeithing, he was, after an unobtrusive but useful ministry of
ten years, deposed by the Assembly of 1752 for maintaining that the
refusal of the local presbytery to act in this case was justified. He
continued, however, to preach, first at Carnock, and afterwards in
Dunfermline, where a large congregation gathered round him. His conduct
under the sentence of deposition produced a reaction in his favour, and
an effort was made to have him reinstated; this he declined unless the
policy of the church were reversed. In 1761, in conjunction with Thomas
Boston of Jedburgh and Collier of Colinsburgh, he formed a distinct
communion under the name of "The Presbytery of Relief,"--relief, that is
to say, "from the yoke of patronage and the tyranny of the church
courts." The Relief Church eventually became one of the communions
combining to form the United Presbyterian Church. He died on the 19th of
January 1774. His only literary efforts were an _Essay on the
Continuation of Immediate Revelations in the Church, and a Practical
Treatise on Temptation_. Both works appeared posthumously (1774). In the
former he argues that immediate revelations are no longer vouchsafed to
the church, in the latter he traces temptation to the work of a personal
devil.

  See Lindsay's _Life and Times of the Rev. Thomas Gillespie_;
  Smithers's _History of the Relief Church_; for the Relief Church see
  UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.




GILLIE (from the Gael. _gille_, Irish _gille_ or _giolla_, a servant or
boy), an attendant on a Gaelic chieftain; in this sense its use, save
historically, is rare. The name is now applied in the Highlands of
Scotland to the man-servant who attends a sportsman in shooting or
fishing. A _gillie-wetfoot_, a term now obsolete (a translation of
_gillie-casfliuch_, from the Gaelic _cas_, foot, and _fliuch_, wet),
was the gillie whose duty it was to carry his master over streams. It
became a term of contempt among the Lowlanders for the "tail" (as his
attendants were called) of a Highland chief.




GILLIES, JOHN (1747-1836), Scottish historian and classical scholar, was
born at Brechin, in Forfarshire, on the 18th of January 1747. He was
educated at Glasgow University, where, at the age of twenty, he acted
for a short time as substitute for the professor of Greek. In 1784 he
completed his _History of Ancient Greece, its Colonies and Conquests_
(published 1786). This work, valuable at a time when the study of Greek
history was in its infancy, and translated into French and German, was
written from a strong Whig bias, and is now entirely superseded (see
GREECE: _Ancient History_, "Authorities"). On the death of William
Robertson (1721-1793), Gillies was appointed historiographer-royal for
Scotland. In his old age he retired to Clapham, where he died on the
15th of February 1836.

  Of his other works, none of which are much read, the principal are:
  _View of the Reign of Frederic II. of Prussia, with a Parallel between
  that Prince and Philip II. of Macedon_ (1789), rather a panegyric than
  a critical history; translations of Aristotle's _Rhetoric_ (1823) and
  _Ethics and Politics_ (1786-1797); of the _Orations_ of Lysias and
  Isocrates (1778); and _History of the World from Alexander to
  Augustus_ (1807), which, although deficient in style, was commended
  for its learning and research.




GILLINGHAM, a market town in the northern parliamentary division of
Dorsetshire, England, 105 m. W.S.W. from London by the London &
South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3380. The church of St Mary the
Virgin has a Decorated chancel. There is a large agricultural trade, and
manufactures of bricks and tiles, cord, sacking and silk, brewing and
bacon-curing are carried on. The rich undulating district in which
Gillingham is situated was a forest preserved by King John and his
successors, and the site of their lodge is traceable near the town.




GILLINGHAM, a municipal borough of Kent, England, in the parliamentary
borough of Chatham and the mid-division of the county, on the Medway
immediately east of Chatham, on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1891) 27,809; (1901) 42,530. Its population is largely industrial,
employed in the Chatham dockyards, and in cement and brick works in the
neighbourhood. The church of St Mary Magdalene ranges in date from Early
English to Perpendicular, retaining also traces of Norman work and some
early brasses. A great battle between Edmund Ironside and Canute, c.
1016, is placed here; and there was formerly a palace of the archbishops
of Canterbury. Gillingham was incorporated in 1903, and is governed by a
mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. The borough includes the populous
districts of Brompton and New Brompton. Area, 4355 acres.




GILLOT, CLAUDE (1673-1722), French painter, best known as the master of
Watteau and Lancret, was born at Langres. His sportive mythological
landscape pieces, with such titles as "Feast of Pan" and "Feast of
Bacchus," opened the Academy of Painting at Paris to him in 1715; and he
then adapted his art to the fashionable tastes of the day, and
introduced the decorative _fetes champetres_, in which he was afterwards
surpassed by his pupils. He was also closely connected with the opera
and theatre as a designer of scenery and costumes.




GILLOTT, JOSEPH (1799-1873); English pen-maker, was born at Sheffield on
the 11th of October 1799. For some time he was a working cutler there,
but in 1821 removed to Birmingham, where he found employment in the
"steel toy" trade, the technical name for the manufacture of steel
buckles, chains and light ornamental steel-work generally. About 1830 he
turned his attention to the manufacture of steel pens by machinery, and
in 1831 patented a process for placing elongated points on the nibs of
pens. Subsequently he invented other improvements, getting rid of the
hardness and lack of flexibility, which had been a serious defect in
nibs, by cutting, in addition to the centre slit, side slits, and cross
grinding the points. By 1859 he had built up a very large business.
Gillott was a liberal art-patron, and one of the first to recognize the
merits of J. M. W. Turner. He died at Birmingham on the 5th of January
1873. His collection of pictures, sold after his death, realized
L170,000.




GILLOW, ROBERT (d. 1773), the founder at Lancaster of a distinguished
firm of English cabinet-makers and furniture designers whose books begin
in 1731. He was succeeded by his eldest son Richard (1734-1811), who
after being educated at the Roman Catholic seminary at Douai was taken
into partnership about 1757, when the firm became Gillow & Barton, and
his younger sons Robert and Thomas, and the business was continued by
his grandson Richard (1778-1866). In its early days the firm of Gillow
were architects as well as cabinet-makers, and the first Richard Gillow
designed the classical Custom House at Lancaster. In the middle of the
18th century the business was extended to London, and about 1761
premises were opened in Oxford Street on a site which was continuously
occupied until 1906. For a long period the Gillows were the best-known
makers of English furniture--Sheraton and Heppelwhite both designed for
them, and replicas are still made of pieces from the drawings of Robert
Adam. Between 1760 and 1770 they invented the original form of the
billiard-table; they were the patentees (about 1800) of the telescopic
dining-table which has long been universal in English houses; for a
Captain Davenport they made, if they did not invent, the first
writing-table of that name. Their vogue is indicated by references to
them in the works of Jane Austen, Thackeray and the first Lord Lytton,
and more recently in one of Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operas.




GILLRAY, JAMES (1757-1815), English caricaturist, was born at Chelsea in
1757. His father, a native of Lanark, had served as a soldier, losing an
arm at Fontenoy, and was admitted first as an inmate, and afterwards as
an outdoor pensioner, at Chelsea hospital. Gillray commenced life by
learning letter-engraving, in which he soon became an adept. This
employment, however, proving irksome, he wandered about for a time with
a company of strolling players. After a very checkered experience he
returned to London, and was admitted a student in the Royal Academy,
supporting himself by engraving, and probably issuing a considerable
number of caricatures under fictitious names. Hogarth's works were the
delight and study of his early years. "Paddy on Horseback," which
appeared in 1779, is the first caricature which is certainly his. Two
caricatures on Rodney's naval victory, issued in 1782, were among the
first of the memorable series of his political sketches. The name of
Gillray's publisher and printseller, Miss Humphrey--whose shop was first
at 227 Strand, then in New Bond Street, then in Old Bond Street, and
finally in St James's Street--is inextricably associated with that of
the caricaturist. Gillray lived with Miss (often called Mrs) Humphrey
during all the period of his fame. It is believed that he several times
thought of marrying her, and that on one occasion the pair were on their
way to the church, when Gillray said: "This is a foolish affair,
methinks, Miss Humphrey. We live very comfortably together; we had
better let well alone." There is no evidence, however, to support the
stories which scandalmongers invented about their relations. Gillray's
plates were exposed in Humphrey's shop window, where eager crowds
examined them. A number of his most trenchant satires are directed
against George III., who, after examining some of Gillray's sketches,
said, with characteristic ignorance and blindness to merit, "I don't
understand these caricatures." Gillray revenged himself for this
utterance by his splendid caricature entitled, "A Connoisseur Examining
a Cooper," which he is doing by means of a candle on a "save-all"; so
that the sketch satirizes at once the king's pretensions to knowledge of
art and his miserly habits.

The excesses of the French Revolution made Gillray conservative; and he
issued caricature after caricature, ridiculing the French and Napoleon,
and glorifying John Bull. He is not, however, to be thought of as a keen
political adherent of either the Whig or the Tory party; he dealt his
blows pretty freely all round. His last work, from a design by Bunbury,
is entitled "Interior of a Barber's Shop in Assize Time," and is dated
1811. While he was engaged on it he became mad, although he had
occasional intervals of sanity, which he employed on his last work. The
approach of madness must have been hastened by his intemperate habits.
Gillray died on the 1st of June 1815, and was buried in St James's
churchyard, Piccadilly.

The times in which Gillray lived were peculiarly favourable to the
growth of a great school of caricature. Party warfare was carried on
with great vigour and not a little bitterness; and personalities were
freely indulged in on both sides. Gillray's incomparable wit and humour,
knowledge of life, fertility of resource, keen sense of the ludicrous,
and beauty of execution, at once gave him the first place among
caricaturists. He is honourably distinguished in the history of
caricature by the fact that his sketches are real works of art. The
ideas embodied in some of them are sublime and poetically magnificent in
their intensity of meaning; while the coarseness by which others are
disfigured is to be explained by the general freedom of treatment common
in all intellectual departments in the 18th century. The historical
value of Gillray's work has been recognized by accurate students of
history. As has been well remarked: "Lord Stanhope has turned Gillray to
account as a veracious reporter of speeches, as well as a suggestive
illustrator of events." His contemporary political influence is borne
witness to in a letter from Lord Bateman, dated November 3, 1798. "The
Opposition," he writes to Gillray, "are as low as we can wish them. You
have been of infinite service in lowering them, and making them
ridiculous." Gillray's extraordinary industry may be inferred from the
fact that nearly 1000 caricatures have been attributed to him; while
some consider him the author of 1600 or 1700. He is invaluable to the
student of English manners as well as to the political student. He
attacks the social follies of the time with scathing satire; and nothing
escapes his notice, not even a trifling change of fashion in dress. The
great tact Gillray displays in hitting on the ludicrous side of any
subject is only equalled by the exquisite finish of his sketches--the
finest of which reach an epic grandeur and Miltonic sublimity of
conception.

  Gillray's caricatures are divided into two classes, the political
  series and the social. The political caricatures form really the best
  history extant of the latter part of the reign of George III. They
  were circulated not only over Britain but throughout Europe, and
  exerted a powerful influence. In this series, George III., the queen,
  the prince of Wales, Fox, Pitt, Burke and Napoleon are the most
  prominent figures. In 1788 appeared two fine caricatures by Gillray.
  "Blood on Thunder fording the Red Sea" represents Lord Thurlow
  carrying Warren Hastings through a sea of gore: Hastings looks very
  comfortable, and is carrying two large bags of money. "Market-Day"
  pictures the ministerialists of the time as horned cattle for sale.
  Among Gillray's best satires on the king are: "Farmer George and his
  Wife," two companion plates, in one of which the king is toasting
  muffins for breakfast, and in the other the queen is frying sprats;
  "The Anti-Saccharites," where the royal pair propose to dispense with
  sugar, to the great horror of the family; "A Connoisseur Examining a
  Cooper"; "Temperance enjoying a Frugal Meal"; "Royal Affability"; "A
  Lesson in Apple Dumplings"; and "The Pigs Possessed." Among his other
  political caricatures may be mentioned: "Britannia between Scylla and
  Charybdis," a picture in which Pitt, so often Gillray's butt, figures
  in a favourable light; "The Bridal Night"; "The Apotheosis of Hoche,"
  which concentrates the excesses of the French Revolution in one view;
  "The Nursery with Britannia reposing in Peace"; "The First Kiss these
  Ten Years" (1803), another satire on the peace, which is said to have
  greatly amused Napoleon; "The Handwriting upon the Wall"; "The
  Confederated Coalition," a fling at the coalition which superseded the
  Addington ministry; "Uncorking Old Sherry"; "The Plum-Pudding in
  Danger"; "Making Decent," i.e. "Broad-bottomites getting into the
  Grand Costume"; "Comforts of a Bed of Roses"; "View of the Hustings in
  Covent Garden"; "Phaethon Alarmed"; and "Pandora opening her Box." The
  miscellaneous series of caricatures, although they have scarcely the
  historical importance of the political series, are more readily
  intelligible, and are even more amusing. Among the finest are:
  "Shakespeare Sacrificed"; "Flemish Characters" (two plates); "Twopenny
  Whist"; "Oh! that this too solid flesh would melt"; "Sandwich
  Carrots"; "The Gout"; "Comfort to the Corns"; "Begone Dull Care"; "The
  Cow-Pock," which gives humorous expression to the popular dread of
  vaccination; "Dilletanti Theatricals"; and "Harmony before Matrimony"
  and "Matrimonial Harmonics"--two exceedingly good sketches in violent
  contrast to each other.

  A selection of Gillray's works appeared in parts in 1818; but the
  first good edition was Thomas M'Lean's, which was published, with a
  key, in 1830. A somewhat bitter attack, not only on Gillray's
  character, but even on his genius, appeared in the _Athenaeum_ for
  October 1, 1831, which was successfully refuted by J. Landseer in the
  _Athenaeum_ a fortnight later. In 1851 Henry G. Bohn put out an
  edition, from the original plates, in a handsome folio, the coarser
  sketches being published in a separate volume. For this edition Thomas
  Wright and R. H. Evans wrote a valuable commentary, which is a good
  history of the times embraced by the caricatures. The next edition,
  entitled _The Works of James Gillray, the Caricaturist: with the Story
  of his Life and Times_ (Chatto & Windus, 1874), was the work of Thomas
  Wright, and, by its popular exposition and narrative, introduced
  Gillray to a very large circle formerly ignorant of him. This edition,
  which is complete in one volume, contains two portraits of Gillray,
  and upwards of 400 illustrations. Mr J. J. Cartwright, in a letter to
  the _Academy_ (Feb. 28, 1874), drew attention to the existence of a
  MS. volume, in the British Museum, containing letters to and from
  Gillray, and other illustrative documents. The extracts he gave were
  used in a valuable article in the _Quarterly Review_ for April 1874.
  See also the _Academy_ for Feb. 21 and May 16, 1874.

  There is a good account of Gillray in Wright's _History of Caricature
  and Grotesque in Literature and Art_ (1865); See also the article
  CARICATURE.




GILLYFLOWER, a popular name applied to various flowers, but principally
to the clove, _Dianthus Caryophyllus_, of which the carnation is a
cultivated variety, and to the stock, _Matthiola incana_, a well-known
garden favourite. The word is sometimes written gilliflower or
gilloflower, and is reputedly a corruption of July-flower, "so called
from the month they blow in." Henry Phillips (1775-1838); in his _Flora
historica_, remarks that Turner (1568) "calls it gelouer, to which he
adds the word stock, as we would say gelouers that grow on a stem or
stock, to distinguish them from the clove-gelouers and the
wall-gelouers. Gerard, who succeeded Turner, and after him Parkinson,
calls it gilloflower, and thus it travelled from its original
orthography until it was called July-flower by those who knew not whence
it was derived." Dr Prior, in his useful volume on the _Popular Names of
British Plants_, very distinctly shows the origin of the name. He
remarks that it was "formerly spelt gyllofer and gilofre with the _o_
long, from the French _giroflee_, Italian _garofalo_ (M. Lat.
_gariofilum_), corrupted from the Latin _Caryophyllum_, and referring to
the spicy odour of the flower, which seems to have been used in
flavouring wine and other liquors to replace the more costly clove of
India. The name was originally given in Italy to plants of the pink
tribe, especially the carnation, but has in England been transferred of
late years to several cruciferous plants." The gillyflower of Chaucer
and Spenser and Shakespeare was, as in Italy, _Dianthus Caryophyllus_;
that of later writers and of gardeners, _Matthiola_. Much of the
confusion in the names of plants has doubtless arisen from the vague use
of the French terms _giroflee_, _oeillet_ and _violette_, which were all
applied to flowers of the pink tribe, but in England were subsequently
extended and finally restricted to very different plants. The use made
of the flowers to impart a spicy flavour to ale and wine is alluded to
by Chaucer, who writes:

  "And many a clove gilofre
   To put in ale";

also by Spenser, who refers to them by the name of sops in wine, which
was applied in consequence of their being steeped in the liquor. In both
these cases, however, it is the clove-gillyflower which is intended, as
it is also in the passage from Gerard, in which he states that the
conserve made of the flowers with sugar "is exceeding cordiall, and
wonderfully above measure doth comfort the heart, being eaten now and
then." The principal other plants which bear the name are the
wallflower, _Cheiranthus Cheiri_, called wall-gillyflower in old books;
the dame's violet, _Hesperis matronalis_, called variously the queen's,
the rogue's and the winter gillyflower; the ragged-robin, _Lychnis
Flos-cuculi_, called marsh-gillyflower and cuckoo-gillyflower; the
water-violet, _Hottonia palustris_, called water-gillyflower; and the
thrift, _Armeria vulgaris_, called sea-gillyflower. As a separate
designation it is nowadays usually applied to the wallflower.




GILMAN, DANIEL COIT (1831-1908), American educationist, was born in
Norwich, Connecticut, on the 6th of July 1831. He graduated at Yale in
1852, studied in Berlin, was assistant librarian of Yale in 1856-1858
and librarian in 1858-1865, and was professor of physical and political
geography in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University and a
member of the Governing Board of this School in 1863-1872. From 1856 to
1860 he was a member of the school board of New Haven, and from August
1865 to January 1867 secretary of the Connecticut Board of Education. In
1872 he became president of the University of California at Berkeley. On
the 30th of December 1874 he was elected first president of Johns
Hopkins University (q.v.) at Baltimore. He entered upon his duties on
the 1st of May 1875, and was formally inaugurated on the 22nd of
February 1876. This post he filled until 1901. From 1901 to 1904 he was
the first president of the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C. He
died at Norwich, Conn., on the 13th of October 1908. He received the
honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard, St John's, Columbia, Yale, North
Carolina, Princeton, Toronto, Wisconsin and Clark Universities, and
William and Mary College. His influence upon higher education in America
was great, especially at Johns Hopkins, where many wise details of
administration, the plan of bringing to the university as lecturers for
a part of the year scholars from other colleges, the choice of a
singularly brilliant and able faculty, and the marked willingness to
recognize workers in new branches of science were all largely due to
him. To the organization of the Johns Hopkins hospital, of which he was
made director in 1889, he contributed greatly. He was a singularly good
judge of men and an able administrator, and under him Johns Hopkins had
an immense influence, especially in the promotion of original and
productive research. He was always deeply interested in the researches
of the professors at Johns Hopkins, and it has been said of him that his
attention as president was turned inside and not outside the university.
He was instrumental in determining the policy of the Sheffield
Scientific School of Yale University while he was a member of its
governing board; on the 28th of October 1897 he delivered at New Haven a
semi-centennial discourse on the school, which appears in his
_University Problems_. He was a prominent member of the American
Archaeological Society and of the American Oriental Society; was one of
the original trustees of the John F. Slater Fund (for a time he was
secretary, and from 1893 until his death was president of the board);
from 1891 until his death was a trustee of the Peabody Educational Fund
(being the vice-president of the board); and was an original member of
the General Education Board (1902) and a trustee of the Russell Sage
Foundation for Social Betterment (1907). In 1896-1897 he served on the
Venezuela Boundary Commission appointed by President Cleveland. In 1901
he succeeded Carl Schurz as president of the National Civil Service
Reform League and served until 1907. Some of his papers and addresses
are collected in a volume entitled _University Problems in the United
States_ (1888). He wrote, besides, _James Monroe_ (1883), in the
American Statesmen Series; a _Life of James D. Dana_, the geologist
(1899); _Science and Letters at Yale_ (1901), and _The Launching of a
University_ (1906), an account of the early years of Johns Hopkins.




GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD (1829-1892), American bandmaster, was born in
Ireland, and settled in America about 1850. He had been in the band of
an Irish regiment, and he had great success as leader of a military band
at Salem, Massachusetts, and subsequently (1859) in Boston. He increased
his reputation during the Civil War, particularly by organizing a
monster orchestra of massed bands for a festival at New Orleans in 1864;
and at Boston in 1869 and 1872 he gave similar performances. He was
enormously popular as a bandmaster, and composed or arranged a large
variety of pieces for orchestra. He died at St Louis on the 24th of
September 1892.




GILPIN, BERNARD (1517-1583), the "Apostle of the North," was descended
from a Westmorland family, and was born at Kentmere in 1517. He was
educated at Queen's College, Oxford, graduating B.A. in 1540, M.A. in
1542 and B.D. in 1549. He was elected fellow of Queen's and ordained in
1542; subsequently he was elected student of Christ Church. At Oxford he
first adhered to the conservative side, and defended the doctrines of
the church against Hooper; but his confidence was somewhat shaken by
another public disputation which he had with Peter Martyr. In 1552 he
preached before King Edward VI. a sermon on sacrilege, which was duly
published, and displays the high ideal which even then he had formed of
the clerical office; and about the same time he was presented to the
vicarage of Norton, in the diocese of Durham, and obtained a licence,
through William Cecil, as a general preacher throughout the kingdom as
long as the king lived. On Mary's accession he went abroad to pursue his
theological investigations at Louvain, Antwerp and Paris; and from a
letter of his own, dated Louvain, 1554, we get a glimpse of the quiet
student rejoicing in an "excellent library belonging to a monastery of
Minorites." Returning to England towards the close of Queen Mary's
reign, he was invested by his mother's uncle, Tunstall, bishop of
Durham, with the archdeaconry of Durham, to which the rectory of
Easington was annexed. The freedom of his attacks on the vices, and
especially the clerical vices, of his times excited hostility against
him, and he was formally brought before the bishop on a charge
consisting of thirteen articles. Tunstall, however, not only dismissed
the case, but presented the offender with the rich living of
Houghton-le-Spring; and when the accusation was again brought forward,
he again protected him. Enraged at this defeat, Gilpin's enemies laid
their complaint before Bonner, bishop of London, who secured a royal
warrant for his apprehension. Upon this Gilpin prepared for martyrdom;
and, having ordered his house-steward to provide him with a long
garment, that he might "goe the more comely to the stake," he set out
for London. Fortunately, however, for him, he broke his leg on the
journey, and his arrival was thus delayed till the news of Queen Mary's
death freed him from further danger. He at once returned to Houghton,
and there he continued to labour till his death on the 4th of March
1583. When the Roman Catholic bishops were deprived he was offered the
see of Carlisle; but he declined this honour and also the provostship of
Queen's, which was offered him in 1560. At Houghton his course of life
was a ceaseless round of benevolent activity. In June 1560 he
entertained Cecil and Dr Nicholas Wotton on their way to Edinburgh. His
hospitable manner of living was the admiration of all. His living was a
comparatively rich one, his house was better than many bishops' palaces,
and his position was that of a clerical magnate. In his household he
spent "every fortnight 40 bushels of corn, 20 bushels of malt and an ox,
besides a proportional quantity of other kinds of provisions." Strangers
and travellers found a ready reception; and even their horses were
treated with so much care that it was humorously said that, if one were
turned loose in any part of the country, it would immediately make its
way to the rector of Houghton. Every Sunday from Michaelmas till Easter
was a public day with Gilpin. For the reception of his parishioners he
had three tables well covered--one for gentlemen, the second for
husbandmen, the third for day-labourers; and this piece of hospitality
he never omitted, even when losses or scarcity made its continuance
difficult. He built and endowed a grammar-school at a cost of upwards of
L500, educated and maintained a large number of poor children at his own
charge, and provided the more promising pupils with means of studying at
the universities. So many young people, indeed, flocked to his school
that there was not accommodation for them in Houghton, and he had to fit
up part of his house as a boarding establishment. Grieved at the
ignorance and superstition which the remissness of the clergy permitted
to flourish in the neighbouring parishes, he used every year to visit
the most neglected parts of Northumberland, Yorkshire, Cheshire,
Westmorland and Cumberland; and that his own flock might not suffer, he
was at the expense of a constant assistant. Among his parishioners he
was looked up to as a judge, and did great service in preventing
law-suits amongst them. If an industrious man suffered a loss, he
delighted to make it good; if the harvest was bad, he was liberal in the
remission of tithes. The boldness which he could display at need is well
illustrated by his action in regard to duelling. Finding one day a
challenge-glove stuck up on the door of a church where he was to preach,
he took it down with his own hand, and proceeded to the pulpit to
inveigh against the unchristian custom. His theological position was not
in accord with any of the religious parties of his age, and Gladstone
thought that the catholicity of the Anglican Church was better
exemplified in his career than in those of more prominent ecclesiastics
(pref. to A. W. Hutton's edition of S. R. Maitland's _Essays on the
Reformation_). He was not satisfied with the Elizabethan settlement, had
great respect for the Fathers, and was with difficulty induced to
subscribe. Archbishop Sandys' views on the Eucharist horrified him; but
on the other hand he maintained friendly relations with Bishop
Pilkington and Thomas Lever, and the Puritans had some hope of his
support.

  A life of Bernard Gilpin, written by George Carleton, bishop of
  Chichester, who had been a pupil of Gilpin's at Houghton, will be
  found in Bates's _Vitae selectorum aliquot virorum_, &c. (London,
  1681). A translation of this sketch by William Freake, minister, was
  published at London, 1629; and in 1852 it was reprinted in Glasgow,
  with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. It forms one of the lives
  in Christopher Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical Biography_ (vol. iii., 4th
  ed.), having been compared with Carleton's Latin text. Another
  biography of Gilpin, which, however, adds little to Bishop Carleton's,
  was written by William Gilpin, M.A., prebendary of Ailsbury (London,
  1753 and 1854). See also _Dict. Nat. Biog._




GILSONITE (so named after S. H. Gilson of Salt Lake City), or UINTAHITE,
or UINTAITE, a description of asphalt occurring in masses several inches
in diameter in the Uinta (or Uintah) valley, near Fort Duchesne, Utah.
It is of black colour; its fracture is conchoidal, and it has a lustrous
surface. When warmed it becomes plastic, and on further beating fuses
perfectly. It has a specific gravity of 1.065 to 1.070. It dissolves
freely in hot oil of turpentine. The output amounted to 10,916 short
tons for the year 1905, and the value was $4.51 per ton.




GILYAKS, a hybrid people, originally widespread throughout the Lower
Amur district, but now confined to the Amur delta and the north of
Sakhalin. They have been affiliated by some authorities to the Ainu of
Sakhalin and Yezo; but they are more probably a mongrel people, and Dr
A. Anuchin states that there are two types, a Mongoloid with sparse
beard, high cheek-bones and flat face, and a Caucasic with bushy beard
and more regular features. The Chinese call them _Yupitatse_,
"Fish-skin-clad people," from their wearing a peculiar dress made from
salmon skin.

  See E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (1861); Dr A.
  Anuchin, _Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc._ xx., Supplement (Moscow, 1877); H.
  von Siebold, _Uber die Aino_ (Berlin, 1881); J. Deniker in Revue
  d'ethnographie (Paris, 1884); L. Schrenck, _Die Volker des Amurlandes_
  (St Petersburg, 1891).




GIMBAL, a mechanical device for hanging some object so that it should
keep a horizontal and constant position, while the body from which it is
suspended is in free motion, so that the motion of the supporting body
is not communicated to it. It is thus used particularly for the
suspension of compasses or chronometers and lamps at sea, and usually
consists of a ring freely moving on an axis, within which the object
swings on an axis at right angles to the ring.

The word is derived from the O. Fr. _gemel_, from Lat. _gemellus_,
diminutive of _geminus_, a twin, and appears also in _gimmel_ or
_jimbel_ and as _gemel_, especially as a term for a ring formed of two
hoops linked together and capable of separation, used in the 16th and
17th centuries as betrothal and keepsake rings. They sometimes were made
of three or more hoops linked together.




GIMLET (from the O. Fr. _guimbelet_, probably a diminutive of the O.E.
_wimble_, and the Scandinavian _wammle_, to bore or twist; the modern
French is _gibelet_), a tool used for boring small holes. It is made of
steel, with a shaft having a hollow side, and a screw at the end for
boring the wood; the handle of wood is fixed transversely to the shaft.
A gimlet is always a small tool. A similar tool of large size is called
an "auger" (see TOOL).




GIMLI, in Scandinavian mythology, the great hall of heaven whither the
righteous will go to spend eternity.




GIMP, or GYMP. (1) (Of somewhat doubtful origin, but probably a nasal
form of the Fr. _guipure_, from _guiper_, to cover or "whip" a cord over
with silk), a stiff trimming made of silk or cotton woven around a firm
cord, often further ornamented by a metal cord running through it. It is
also sometimes covered with bugles, beads or other glistening ornaments.
The trimming employed by upholsterers to edge curtains, draperies, the
seats of chairs, &c., is also called gimp; and in lace work it is the
firmer or coarser thread which outlines the pattern and strengthens the
material. (2) A shortened form of gimple (the O.E. _wimple_), the
kerchief worn by a nun around her throat, sometimes also applied to a
nun's stomacher.




GIN, an aromatized or compounded potable spirit, the characteristic
flavour of which is derived from the juniper berry. The word "gin" is an
abbreviation of Geneva, both being primarily derived from the Fr.
_genievre_ (juniper). The use of the juniper for flavouring alcoholic
beverages may be traced to the invention, or perfecting, by Count de
Morret, son of Henry IV. of France, of juniper wine. It was the custom
in the early days of the spirit industry, in distilling spirit from
fermented liquors, to add in the working some aromatic ingredients, such
as ginger, grains of paradise, &c., to take off the nauseous flavour of
the crude spirits then made. The invention of juniper wine, no doubt,
led some one to try the juniper berry for this purpose, and as this
flavouring agent was found not only to yield an agreeable beverage, but
also to impart a valuable medicinal quality to the spirit, it was
generally made use of by makers of aromatized spirits thereafter. It is
probable that the use of grains of paradise, pepper and so on, in the
early days of spirit manufacture, for the object mentioned above,
indirectly gave rise to the statements which are still found in current
text-books and works of reference as to the use of Cayenne pepper,
_cocculus indicus_, sulphuric acid and so on, for the purpose of
adulterating spirits. It is quite certain that such materials are not
used nowadays, and it would indeed, in view of modern conditions of
manufacture and of public taste, be hard to find a reason for their use.
The same applies to the suggestions that such substances as acetate of
lead, alum or sulphate of zinc are employed for the fining of gin.

There are two distinct types of gin, namely, the Dutch _geneva_ or
_hollands_ and the British gin. Each of these types exists in the shape
of numerous sub-varieties. Broadly speaking, British gin is prepared
with a highly rectified spirit, whereas in the manufacture of Dutch gin
a preliminary rectification is not an integral part of the process. The
old-fashioned Hollands is prepared much after the following fashion. A
mash consisting of about one-third of malted barley or bere and
two-thirds rye-meal is prepared, and infused at a somewhat high
temperature. After cooling, the whole is set to ferment with a small
quantity of yeast. After two to three days the attenuation is complete,
and the wash so obtained is distilled, and the resulting distillate (the
low wines) is redistilled, with the addition of the flavouring matter
(juniper berries, &c.) and a little salt. Originally the juniper berries
were ground with the malt, but this practice no longer obtains, but some
distillers, it is believed, still mix the juniper berries with the wort
and subject the whole to fermentation. When the redistillation over
juniper is repeated, the product is termed _double_ (_geneva_, &c.).
There are numerous variations in the process described, wheat being
frequently employed in lieu of rye. In the manufacture of British
gin,[1] a highly rectified spirit (see SPIRITS) is redistilled in the
presence of the flavouring matter (principally juniper and coriander),
and frequently this operation is repeated several times. The product so
obtained constitutes the "dry" gin of commerce. Sweetened or cordialized
gin is obtained by adding sugar and flavouring matter (juniper,
coriander, angelica, &c.) to the dry variety. Inferior qualities of gin
are made by simply adding essential oils to plain spirit, the
distillation process being omitted. The essential oil of juniper is a
powerful diuretic, and gin is frequently prescribed in affections of the
urinary organs.


FOOTNOTE:

    [1] The precise origin of the term "Old Tom," as applied to
    unsweetened gin, appears to be somewhat obscure. In the English case
    of _Boord & Son_ v. _Huddart_ (1903), in which the plaintiffs
    established their right to the "Cat Brand" trade-mark, it was proved
    before Mr Justice Swinfen Eady that this firm had first adopted about
    1849 the punning association of the picture of a Tom cat on a barrel
    with the name of "Old Tom"; and it was at one time supposed that this
    was due to a tradition that a cat had fallen into one of the vats,
    the gin from which was highly esteemed. But the term "Old Tom" had
    been known before that, and Messrs Boord & Son inform us that
    previously "Old Tom" had been a man, namely "old Thomas Chamberlain
    of Hodge's distillery"; an old label book in their possession (1909)
    shows a label and bill-head with a picture of "Old Tom" the man on
    it, and another label shows a picture of a sailor lad on shipboard
    described as "Young Tom."




GINDELY, ANTON (1829-1892), German historian, was the son of a German
father and a Slavonic mother, and was born at Prague on the 3rd of
September 1829. He studied at Prague and at Olmutz, and, after
travelling extensively in search of historical material, became
professor of history at the university of Prague and archivist for
Bohemia in 1862. He died at Prague on the 24th of October 1892.
Gindely's chief work is his _Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges_
(Prague, 1869-1880), which has been translated into English (New York,
1884); and his historical work is mainly concerned with the period of
the Thirty Years' War. Perhaps the most important of his numerous other
works are: _Geschichte der bohmischen Bruder_ (Prague, 1857-1858);
_Rudolf II. und seine Zeit_ (1862-1868), and a criticism of Wallenstein,
_Waldstein wahrend seines ersten Generalats_ (1886). He wrote a history
of Bethlen Gabor in Hungarian, and edited the _Monumenta historiae
Bohemica_. Gindely's posthumous work, _Geschichte der Gegenreformation
in Bohmen_, was edited by T. Tupetz (1894).

  See the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band 49 (Leipzig, 1904).




GINGALL, or JINGAL (Hindostani _janjal_), a gun used by the natives
throughout the East, usually a light piece mounted on a swivel; it
sometimes takes the form of a heavy musket fired from a rest.




GINGER (Fr. _gingembre_, Ger. _Ingwer_), the rhizome or underground stem
of _Zingiber officinale_ (nat. ord. Zingiberaceae), a perennial
reed-like plant growing from 3 to 4 ft. high. The flowers and leaves are
borne on separate stems, those of the former being shorter than those of
the latter, and averaging from 6 to 12 in. The flowers themselves are
borne at the apex of the stems in dense ovate-oblong cone-like spikes
from 2 to 3 in. long, composed of obtuse strongly-imbricated bracts with
membranous margins, each bract enclosing a single small sessile flower.
The leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows, bright green, smooth,
tapering at both ends, with very short stalks and long sheaths which
stand away from the stem and end in two small rounded auricles. The
plant rarely flowers and the fruit is unknown. Though not found in a
wild state, it is considered with very good reason to be a native of the
warmer parts of Asia, over which it has been cultivated from an early
period and the rhizome imported into England. From Asia the plant has
spread into the West Indies, South America, western tropical Africa, and
Australia. It is commonly grown in botanic gardens in Britain.

The use of ginger as a spice has been known from very early times; it
was supposed by the Greeks and Romans to be a product of southern
Arabia, and was received by them by way of the Red Sea; in India it has
also been known from a very remote period, the Greek and Latin names
being derived from the Sanskrit. Fluckiger and Hanbury, in their
_Pharmacographia_, give the following notes on the history of ginger. On
the authority of Vincent's _Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients_, it
is stated that in the list of imports from the Red Sea into Alexandria,
which in the second century of our era were there liable to the Roman
fiscal duty, ginger occurs among other Indian spices. So frequent is the
mention of ginger in similar lists during the middle ages, that it
evidently constituted an important item in the commerce between Europe
and the East. It thus appears in the tariff of duties levied at Acre in
Palestine about 1173, in that of Barcelona in 1221, Marseilles in 1228
and Paris in 1296. Ginger seems to have been well known in England even
before the Norman Conquest, being often referred to in the Anglo-Saxon
leech-books of the 11th century. It was very common in the 13th and 14th
centuries, ranking next in value to pepper, which was then the commonest
of all spices, and costing on an average about 1s. 7d. per lb. Three
kinds of ginger were known among the merchants of Italy about the middle
of the 14th century: (1) _Belledi_ or _Baladi_, an Arabic name, which,
as applied to ginger, would signify country or wild, and denotes common
ginger; (2) _Colombino_, which refers to Columbum, Kolam or Quilon, a
port in Travancore, frequently mentioned in the middle ages; and (3)
_Micchino_, a name which denoted that the spice had been brought from or
by way of Mecca. Marco Polo seems to have seen the ginger plant both in
India and China between 1280 and 1290. John of Montecorvino, a
missionary friar who visited India about 1292, gives a description of
the plant, and refers to the fact of the root being dug up and
transported. Nicolo di Conto, a Venetian merchant in the early part of
the 15th century, also describes the plant and the collection of the
root, as seen by him in India. Though the Venetians received ginger by
way of Egypt, some of the superior kinds were taken from India overland
by the Black Sea. The spice is said to have been introduced into America
by Francisco de Mendoca, who took it from the East Indies to New Spain.
It seems to have been shipped for commercial purposes from San Domingo
as early as 1585, and from Barbados in 1654; so early as 1547
considerable quantities were sent from the West Indies to Spain.

[Illustration: From Bentley & Trimen's _Medicinal Plants_, by permission
of J. & A. Churchill.

Ginger (_Zingiber officinale_), about 1/2 nat. size, with leafy and
flowering stem; the former cut off short.

  1.  Flower.
  2.  Flower in vertical section.
  3.  Fertile stamen, enveloping the style which projects above it.
  4.  Piece of leafy stem. 1-3 enlarged.
  s,  Sepals.
  p,  Petals.l,  Labellum, representing two barren stamens.
  st, Fertile stamen.
  y,  Staminode.
  x,  Tip of style bearing the stigma.
  z,  Style.
  gl, Honey-secreting glands.]

Ginger is known in commerce in two distinct forms, termed respectively
coated and uncoated ginger, as having or wanting the epidermis. For the
first, the pieces, which are called "races" or "hands," from their
irregular palmate form, are washed and simply dried in the sun. In this
form ginger presents a brown, more or less irregularly wrinkled or
striated surface, and when broken shows a dark brownish fracture, hard,
and sometimes horny and resinous. To produce uncoated ginger the
rhizomes are washed, scraped and sun-dried, and are often subjected to a
system of bleaching, either from the fumes of burning sulphur or by
immersion for a short time in a solution of chlorinated lime. The
whitewashed appearance that much of the ginger has, as seen in the
shops, is due to the fact of its being washed in whiting and water, or
even coated with sulphate of lime. This artificial coating is supposed
by some to give the ginger a better appearance; it often, however,
covers an inferior quality, and can readily be detected by the ease with
which it rubs off, or by its leaving a white powdery substance at the
bottom of the jar in which it is contained. Uncoated ginger, as seen in
trade, varies from single joints an inch or less in length to flattish
irregularly branched pieces of several joints, the "races" or "hands,"
and from 3 to 4 in. long; each branch has a depression at its summit
showing the former attachment of a leafy stem. The colour, when not
whitewashed, is a pale buff; it is somewhat rough or fibrous, breaking
with a short mealy fracture, and presenting on the surfaces of the
broken parts numerous short bristly fibres.

  The principal constituents of ginger are starch, volatile oil (to
  which the characteristic odour of the spice is due) and resin (to
  which is attributed its pungency). Its chief use is as a condiment or
  spice, but as an aromatic and stomachic medicine it is also used
  internally. "The stimulant, aromatic and carminative properties render
  it of much value in atonic dyspepsia, especially if accompanied with
  much flatulence, and as an adjunct to purgative medicines to correct
  griping." Externally applied as a rubefacient, it has been found to
  relieve headache and toothache. The rhizomes, collected in a young
  green state, washed, scraped and preserved in syrup, form a delicious
  preserve, which is largely exported both from the West Indies and from
  China. Cut up into pieces like lozenges and preserved in sugar, ginger
  also forms a very agreeable sweetmeat.




GINGHAM, a cotton or linen cloth, for the name of which several origins
are suggested. It is said to have been made at Guingamp, a town in
Brittany; the _New English Dictionary_ derives the word from Malay
_ging-gang_, meaning "striped." The cloth is now of a light or medium
weight, and woven of dyed or white yarns either in a single colour or
different colours, and in stripes, checks or plaids. It is made in
Lancashire and in Glasgow, and also to a large extent in the United
States. Imitations of it are obtained by calico-printing. It is used for
dresses, &c.




GINGI, or GINGEE, a rock fortress of southern India, in the South Arcot
district of Madras. It consists of three hills, connected by walls
enclosing an area of 7 sq. m., and practically impregnable to assault.
The origin of the fortress is shrouded in legend. When occupied by the
Mahrattas at the end of the 17th century, it withstood a siege of eight
years against the armies of Aurangzeb. In 1750 it was captured by the
French, who held it with a strong force for eleven years. It surrendered
to the English in 1761, in the words of Orme, "terminated the long
hostilities between the two rival European powers in Coromandel, and
left not a single ensign of the French nation avowed by the authority of
its government in any part of India."




GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS (1748-1815), French author, was born on the 27th
of April 1748 at Rennes, in Brittany. He was educated at a Jesuit
college in his native town, and came to Paris in 1772. He wrote
criticisms for the _Mercure de France_, and composed a comic opera,
_Pomponin_ (1777). _The Satire des satires_ (1778) and the _Confession
de Zulme_ (1779) followed. _The Confession_ was claimed by six or seven
different authors, and though the value of the piece is not very great,
it obtained great success. His defence of Piccini against the partisans
of Gluck made him still more widely known. He hailed the first symptoms
of the Revolution, joined Giuseppe Cerutti, the author of the _Memoire
pour le peuple francais_ (1788), and others in producing the _Feuille
villageoise_, a weekly paper addressed to the villages of France. He
also celebrated in an indifferent ode the opening of the states-general.
In his _Lettres sur les confessions de J.-J. Rousseau_ (1791) he
defended the life and principles of his author. He was imprisoned during
the Terror, and only escaped with life by the downfall of Robespierre.
Some time after his release he assisted, as director-general of the
"commission executive de l'instruction publique," in reorganizing the
system of public instruction, and he was an original member of the
Institute of France. In 1797 the directory appointed him minister
plenipotentiary to the king of Sardinia. After fulfilling his duties for
seven months, very little to the satisfaction of his employers, Ginguene
retired for a time to his country house of St Prix, in the valley of
Montmorency. He was appointed a member of the tribunate, but Napoleon,
finding that he was not sufficiently tractable, had him expelled at the
first "purge," and Ginguene returned to his literary pursuits. He was
one of the commission charged to continue the _Histoire litteraire de la
France_, and he contributed to the volumes of this series which appeared
in 1814, 1817 and 1820. Ginguene's most important work is the _Histoire
litteraire d'Italie_ (14 vols., 1811-1835). He was putting the finishing
touches to the eighth and ninth volumes when he died on the 11th of
November 1815. The last five volumes were written by Francesco Salfi and
revised by Pierre Daunou.

In the composition of his history of Italian literature he was guided
for the most part by the great work of Girolamo Tiraboschi, but he
avoids the prejudices and party views of his model.

  Ginguene edited the _Decade philosophique, politique et litteraire_
  till it was suppressed by Napoleon in 1807. He contributed largely to
  the _Biographie universelle_, the _Mercure de France_ and the
  _Encyclopedie methodique_; and he edited the works of Chamfort and of
  Lebrun. Among his minor productions are an opera, _Pomponin ou le
  tuteur mystifie_ (1777); _La Satire des satires_ (1778); _De
  l'autorite de Rabelais dans la revolution presente_ (1791); _De M.
  Neckar_ (1795); _Fables nouvelles_ (1810); _Fables inedites_ (1814).
  See "Eloge de Ginguene" by Dacier, in the _Memoires de l'institut_,
  tom. vii.; "Discours" by M. Daunou, prefixed to the 2nd ed. of the
  _Hist. litt. d'Italie_; D. J. Garat, _Notice sur la vie et les
  ouvrages de P. L. Ginguene_, prefixed to a catalogue of his library
  (Paris, 1817).




GINKEL, GODART VAN (1630-1703); 1st earl of Athlone, Dutch general in
the service of England, was born at Utrecht in 1630. He came of a noble
family, and bore the title of Baron van Reede, being the eldest son of
Godart Adrian van Reede, Baron Ginkel. In his youth he entered the Dutch
army, and in 1688 he followed William, prince of Orange, in his
expedition to England. In the following year he distinguished himself by
a memorable exploit--the pursuit, defeat and capture of a Scottish
regiment which had mutinied at Ipswich, and was marching northward
across the fens. It was the alarm excited by this mutiny that
facilitated the passing of the first Mutiny Act. In 1690 Ginkel
accompanied William III. to Ireland, and commanded a body of Dutch
cavalry at the battle of the Boyne. On the king's return to England
General Ginkel was entrusted with the conduct of the war. He took the
field in the spring of 1691, and established his headquarters at
Mullingar. Among those who held a command under him was the marquis of
Ruvigny, the recognized chief of the Huguenot refugees. Early in June
Ginkel took the fortress of Ballymore, capturing the whole garrison of
1000 men. The English lost only 8 men. After reconstructing the
fortifications of Ballymore the army marched to Athlone, then one of the
most important of the fortified towns of Ireland. The Irish defenders of
the place were commanded by a distinguished French general, Saint-Ruth.
The firing began on June 19th, and on the 30th the town was stormed, the
Irish army retreating towards Galway, and taking up their position at
Aughrim. Having strengthened the fortifications of Athlone and left a
garrison there, Ginkel led the English, on July 12th, to Aughrim. An
immediate attack was resolved on, and, after a severe and at one time
doubtful contest, the crisis was precipitated by the fall of Saint-Ruth,
and the disorganized Irish were defeated and fled. A horrible slaughter
of the Irish followed the struggle, and 4000 corpses were left unburied
on the field, besides a multitude of others that lay along the line of
the retreat. Galway next capitulated, its garrison being permitted to
retire to Limerick. There the viceroy Tyrconnel was in command of a
large force, but his sudden death early in August left the command in
the hands of General Sarsfield and the Frenchman D'Usson. The English
came in sight of the town on the day of Tyrconnel's death, and the
bombardment was immediately begun. Ginkel, by a bold device, crossed the
Shannon and captured the camp of the Irish cavalry. A few days later he
stormed the fort on Thomond Bridge, and after difficult negotiations a
capitulation was signed, the terms of which were divided into a civil
and a military treaty. Thus was completed the conquest or pacification
of Ireland, and the services of the Dutch general were amply recognized
and rewarded. He received the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and
was created by the king 1st earl of Athlone and baron of Aughrim. The
immense forfeited estates of the earl of Limerick were given to him, but
the grant was a few years later revoked by the English parliament. The
earl continued to serve in the English army, and accompanied the king to
the continent in 1693. He fought at the sieges of Namur and the battle
of Neerwinden, and assisted in destroying the French magazine at Givet.
In 1702, waiving his own claims to the position of commander-in-chief,
he commanded the Dutch serving under the duke of Marlborough. He died at
Utrecht on the 11th of February 1703, and was succeeded by his son the
2nd earl (1668-1719), a distinguished soldier in the reigns of William
III. and Anne. On the death of the 9th earl without issue in 1844, the
title became extinct.




GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID (1831-   ), Hebrew scholar, was born at Warsaw
on the 25th of December 1831. Coming to England shortly after the
completion of his education in the Rabbinic College at Warsaw, Dr
Ginsburg continued his study of the Hebrew Scriptures, with special
attention to the Megilloth. The first result of these studies was a
translation of the Song of Songs, with a commentary historical and
critical, published in 1857. A similar translation of Ecclesiastes,
followed by treatises on the Karaites, on the Essenes and on the
Kabbala, kept the author prominently before biblical students while he
was preparing the first sections of his _magnum opus_, the critical
study of the Massorah. Beginning in 1867 with the publication of Jacob
ben Chajim's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, Hebrew and English,
with notices, and the Massoreth Ha-Massoreth of Elias Levita, in Hebrew,
with translation and commentary, Dr Ginsburg took rank as an eminent
Hebrew scholar. In 1870 he was appointed one of the first members of the
committee for the revision of the English version of the Old Testament.
His life-work culminated in the publication of the Massorah, in three
volumes folio (1880-1886), followed by the Masoretico-critical edition
of the Hebrew Bible (1894), and the elaborate introduction to it (1897).
Dr Ginsburg had one predecessor in the field, the learned Jacob ben
Chajim, who in 1524-1525 published the second Rabbinic Bible, containing
what has ever since been known as the Massorah; but neither were the
materials available nor was criticism sufficiently advanced for a
complete edition. Dr Ginsburg took up the subject almost where it was
left by those early pioneers, and collected portions of the Massorah
from the countless MSS. scattered throughout Europe and the East. More
recently Dr Ginsburg has published _Facsimiles of Manuscripts of the
Hebrew Bible_ (1897 and 1898), and _The Text of the Hebrew Bible in
Abbreviations_ (1903), in addition to a critical treatise "on the
relationship of the so-called Codex Babylonicus of A.D. 916 to the
Eastern Recension of the Hebrew Text" (1899, for private circulation).
In the last-mentioned work he seeks to prove that the St Petersburg
Codex, for so many years accepted as the genuine text of the Babylonian
school, is in reality a Palestinian text carefully altered so as to
render it conformable to the Babylonian recension. He subsequently
undertook the preparation of a new edition of the Hebrew Bible for the
British and Foreign Bible Society. He also contributed many articles to
J. Kitto's _Encyclopaedia_, W. Smith's _Dictionary of Christian
Biography_ and the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.




GINSENG, the root of a species of _Panax_ (_P. Ginseng_), native of
Manchuria and Korea, belonging to the natural order Araliaceae, used in
China as a medicine. Other roots are substituted for it, notably that of
_Panax quinquefolium_, distinguished as American ginseng, and imported
from the United States. At one time the ginseng obtained from Manchuria
was considered to be the finest quality, and in consequence became so
scarce that an imperial edict was issued prohibiting its collection.
That prepared in Korea is now the most esteemed variety. The root of the
wild plant is preferred to that of cultivated ginseng, and the older the
plant the better is the quality of the root considered to be. Great care
is taken in the preparation of the drug. The account given by Kaempfer
of the preparation of nindsin, the root of _Sium ninsi_, in Korea, will
give a good idea of the preparation of ginseng, ninsi being a similar
drug of supposed weaker virtue, obtained from a different plant, and
often confounded with ginseng. "In the beginning of winter nearly all
the population of Sjansai turn out to collect the root, and make
preparations for sleeping in the fields. The root, when collected, is
macerated for three days in fresh water, or water in which rice has been
boiled twice; it is then suspended in a closed vessel over the fire, and
afterwards dried, until from the base to the middle it assumes a hard,
resinous and translucent appearance, which is considered a proof of its
good quality."

Ginseng of good quality generally occurs in hard, rather brittle,
translucent pieces, about the size of the little finger, and varying in
length from 2 to 4 in. The taste is mucilaginous, sweetish and slightly
bitter and aromatic. The root is frequently forked, and it is probably
owing to this circumstance that medicinal properties were in the first
place attributed to it, its resemblance to the body of a man being
supposed to indicate that it could restore virile power to the aged and
impotent. In price it varies from 6 or 12 dollars to the enormous sum of
300 or 400 dollars an ounce.

  Lockhart gives a graphic description of a visit to a ginseng merchant.
  Opening the outer box, the merchant removed several paper parcels
  which appeared to fill the box, but under them was a second box, or
  perhaps two small boxes, which, when taken out, showed the bottom of
  the large box and all the intervening space filled with more paper
  parcels. These parcels, he said, "contained quicklime, for the purpose
  of absorbing any moisture and keeping the boxes quite dry, the lime
  being packed in paper for the sake of cleanliness. The smaller box,
  which held the ginseng, was lined with sheet-lead; the ginseng further
  enclosed in silk wrappers was kept in little silken-covered boxes.
  Taking up a piece, he would request his visitor not to breathe upon
  it, nor handle it; he would dilate upon the many merits of the drug
  and the cures it had effected. The cover of the root, according to its
  quality, was silk, either embroidered or plain, cotton cloth or
  paper." In China the ginseng is often sent to friends as a valuable
  present; in such cases, "accompanying the medicine is usually given a
  small, beautifully-finished double kettle, in which the ginseng is
  prepared as follows. The inner kettle is made of silver, and between
  this and the outside vessel, which is a copper jacket, is a small
  space for holding water. The silver kettle, which fits on a ring near
  the top of the outer covering, has a cup-like cover in which rice is
  placed with a little water; the ginseng is put in the inner vessel
  with water, a cover is placed over the whole, and the apparatus is put
  on the fire. When the rice in the cover is sufficiently cooked, the
  medicine is ready, and is then eaten by the patient, who drinks the
  ginseng tea at the same time." The dose of the root is from 60 to 90
  grains. During the use of the drug tea-drinking is forbidden for at
  least a month, but no other change is made in the diet. It is taken in
  the morning before breakfast, from three to eight days together, and
  sometimes it is taken in the evening before going to bed.

  The action of the drug appears to be entirely psychic, and comparable
  to that of the mandrake of the Hebrews. There is no evidence that it
  possesses any pharmacological or therapeutic properties.

  See Porter Smith, _Chinese Materia Medica_, p. 103; _Reports on Trade
  at the Treaty Ports of China_ (1868), p. 63; Lockhart, _Med.
  Missionary in China_ (2nd ed.), p. 107; _Bull. de la Societe Imperiale
  de Nat. de Moscou_ (1865), No. 1, pp. 70-76; _Pharmaceutical Journal_
  (2), vol. iii. pp. 197, 333, (2), vol. ix. p. 77; Lewis, _Materia
  Medica_, p. 324; Geoffroy, _Tract. de matiere medicale_, t. ii. p.
  112; Kaempfer, _Amoenitates exoticae_, p. 824.




GIOBERTI, VINCENZO (1801-1852), Italian philosopher, publicist and
politician, was born in Turin on the 5th of April 1801. He was educated
by the fathers of the Oratory with a view to the priesthood and ordained
in 1825. At first he led a very retired life; but gradually took more
and more interest in the affairs of his country and the new political
ideas as well as in the literature of the day. Partly under the
influence of Mazzini, the freedom of Italy became his ruling motive in
life,--its emancipation, not only from foreign masters, but from modes
of thought alien to its genius, and detrimental to its European
authority. This authority was in his mind connected with papal
supremacy, though in a way quite novel--intellectual rather than
political. This must be remembered in considering nearly all his
writings, and also in estimating his position, both in relation to the
ruling clerical party--the Jesuits--and also to the politics of the
court of Piedmont after the accession of Charles Albert in 1831. He was
now noticed by the king and made one of his chaplains. His popularity
and private influence, however, were reasons enough for the court party
to mark him for exile; he was not one of them, and could not be
depended on. Knowing this, he resigned his office in 1833, but was
suddenly arrested on a charge of conspiracy, and, after an imprisonment
of four months, was banished without a trial. Gioberti first went to
Paris, and, a year later, to Brussels, where he remained till 1845,
teaching philosophy, and assisting a friend in the work of a private
school. He nevertheless found time to write many works of philosophical
importance, with special reference to his country and its position. An
amnesty having been declared by Charles Albert in 1846, Gioberti (who
was again in Paris) was at liberty to return to Italy, but refused to do
so till the end of 1847. On his entrance into Turin on the 29th of April
1848 he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. He refused the
dignity of senator offered him by Charles Albert, preferring to
represent his native town in the Chamber of Deputies, of which he was
soon elected president. At the close of the same year, a new ministry
was formed, headed by Gioberti; but with the accession of Victor
Emmanuel in March 1849, his active life came to an end. For a short time
indeed he held a seat in the cabinet, though without a portfolio; but an
irreconcilable disagreement soon followed, and his removal from Turin
was accomplished by his appointment on a mission to Paris, whence he
never returned. There, refusing the pension which had been offered him
and all ecclesiastical preferment, he lived frugally, and spent his days
and nights as at Brussels in literary labour. He died suddenly, of
apoplexy, on the 26th of October 1852.

  Gioberti's writings are more important than his political career. In
  the general history of European philosophy they stand apart. As the
  speculations of Rosmini-Serbati, against which he wrote, have been
  called the last link added to medieval thought, so the system of
  Gioberti, known as "Ontologism," more especially in his greater and
  earlier works, is unrelated to other modern schools of thought. It
  shows a harmony with the Roman Catholic faith which caused Cousin to
  declare that "Italian philosophy was still in the bonds of theology,"
  and that Gioberti was no philosopher. Method is with him a synthetic,
  subjective and psychological instrument. He reconstructs, as he
  declares, ontology, and begins with the "ideal formula," "the _Ens_
  creates _ex nihilo_ the existent." God is the only being (Ens); all
  other things are merely existences. God is the origin of all human
  knowledge (called _l'idea_, thought), which is one and so to say
  identical with God himself. It is directly beheld (intuited) by
  reason, but in order to be of use it has to be reflected on, and this
  by means of language. A knowledge of being and existences (concrete,
  not abstract) and their mutual relations, is necessary as the
  beginning of philosophy. Gioberti is in some respects a Platonist. He
  identifies religion with civilization, and in his treatise _Del
  primato morale e civile degli Italiani_ arrives at the conclusion that
  the church is the axis on which the well-being of human life revolves.
  In it he affirms the idea of the supremacy of Italy, brought about by
  the restoration of the papacy as a moral dominion, founded on religion
  and public opinion. In his later works, the _Rinnovamento_ and the
  _Protologia_, he is thought by some to have shifted his ground under
  the influence of events. His first work, written when he was
  thirty-seven, had a personal reason for its existence. A young
  fellow-exile and friend, Paolo Pallia, having many doubts and
  misgivings as to the reality of revelation and a future life, Gioberti
  at once set to work with _La Teorica del sovrannaturale_, which was
  his first publication (1838). After this, philosophical treatises
  followed in rapid succession. The _Teorica_ was followed by
  _Introduzione allo studio della filosofia_ in three volumes
  (1839-1840). In this work he states his reasons for requiring a new
  method and new terminology. Here he brings out the doctrine that
  religion is the direct expression of the _idea_ in this life, and is
  one with true civilization in history. Civilization is a conditioned
  mediate tendency to perfection, to which religion is the final
  completion if carried out; it is the end of the second cycle expressed
  by the second formula, the Ens redeems existences. Essays (not
  published till 1846) on the lighter and more popular subjects, _Del
  bello_ and _Del buono_, followed the _Introduzione_. _Del primato
  morale e civile degli Italiani_ and the _Prolegomeni_ to the same, and
  soon afterwards his triumphant exposure of the Jesuits, Il Gesuita
  moderno, no doubt hastened the transfer of rule from clerical to civil
  hands. It was the popularity of these semi-political works, increased
  by other occasional political articles, and his _Rinnovamento civile
  d'Italia_, that caused Gioberti to be welcomed with such enthusiasm on
  his return to his native country. All these works were perfectly
  orthodox, and aided in drawing the liberal clergy into the movement
  which has resulted since his time in the unification of Italy. The
  Jesuits, however, closed round the pope more firmly after his return
  to Rome, and in the end Gioberti's writings were placed on the _Index_
  (see J. Kleutgen, _Uber die Verurtheilung des Ontologismus durch den
  heiligen Stuhl_, 1867). The remainder of his works, especially _La
  Filosofia della Rivelazione_ and the _Protologia_, give his mature
  views on many points. The entire writings of Gioberti, including
  those left in manuscript, have been edited by Giuseppe Massari (Turin,
  1856-1861).

  See Massari, _Vita de V. Gioberti_ (Florence, 1848); A.
  Rosmini-Serbati, _V. Gioberti e il panteismo_ (Milan, 1848); C. B.
  Smyth, _Christian Metaphysics_ (1851); B. Spaventa, _La Filosofia di
  Gioberti_ (Naples, 1854); A. Mauri, _Della vita e delle opere di V.
  Gioberti_ (Genoa, 1853); G. Prisco, _Gioberti e l' ontologismo_
  (Naples, 1867); P. Luciani, _Gioberti e la filosofia nuova italiana_
  (Naples, 1866-1872); D. Berti, _Di V. Gioberti_ (Florence, 1881); see
  also L. Ferri, _L'Histoire de la philosophie en Italie au XIX^e
  siecle_ (Paris, 1869); C. Werner, _Die italienische Philosophie des
  19. Jahrhunderts_, ii. (1885); appendix to Ueberweg's _Hist. of
  Philosophy_ (Eng. tr.); art. in _Brownson's Quarterly Review_ (Boston,
  Mass.), xxi.; R. Mariano, _La Philosophie contemporaine en Italie_
  (1866); R. Seydel's exhaustive article in Ersch and Gruber's
  _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_. The centenary of Gioberti called forth
  several monographs in Italy.




GIOIOSA-IONICA, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Reggio
Calabria, from which it is 65 m. N.E. by rail, and 38 m. direct, 492 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 9072; commune, 11,200. Near the
station, which is on the E. coast of Calabria 3 m. below the town to the
S.E., the remains of a theatre belonging to the Roman period were
discovered in 1883; the orchestra was 46 ft. in diameter (_Notizie degli
scavi_, 1883, p. 423). The ruins of an ancient building called the
Naviglio, the nature of which does not seem clear, are described (ib.
1884, p. 252).




GIOJA, MELCHIORRE (1767-1829), Italian writer on philosophy and
political economy, was born at Piacenza, on the 20th of September 1767.
Originally intended for the church, he took orders, but renounced them
in 1796 and went to Milan, where he devoted himself to the study of
political economy. Having obtained the prize for an essay on "the kind
of free government best adapted to Italy" he decided upon the career of
a publicist. The arrival of Napoleon in Italy drew him into public life.
He advocated a republic under the dominion of the French in a pamphlet
_I Tedeschi, i Francesi, ed i Russi in Lombardia_, and under the
Cisalpine Republic he was named historiographer and director of
statistics. He was several times imprisoned, once for eight months in
1820 on a charge of being implicated in a conspiracy with the Carbonari.
After the fall of Napoleon he retired into private life, and does not
appear to have held office again. He died on the 2nd of January 1829.
Gioja's fundamental idea is the value of statistics or the collection of
facts. Philosophy itself is with him classification and consideration of
ideas. Logic he regarded as a practical art, and his _Esercizioni
logici_ has the further title, _Art of deriving benefit from
ill-constructed books_. In ethics Gioja follows Bentham generally, and
his large treatise _Del merito e delle recompense_ (1818) is a clear and
systematic view of social ethics from the utilitarian principle. In
political economy this avidity for facts produced better fruits. The
_Nuovo Prospetto delle scienze economiche_ (1815-1817), although long to
excess, and overburdened with classifications and tables, contains much
valuable material. The author prefers large properties and large
commercial undertakings to small ones, and strongly favours association
as a means of production. He defends a restrictive policy and insists on
the necessity of the action of the state as a regulating power in the
industrial world. He was an opponent of ecclesiastical domination. He
must be credited with the finest and most original treatment of division
of labour since the _Wealth of Nations_. Much of what Babbage taught
later on the subject of combined work is anticipated by Gioja. His
theory of production is also deserving of attention from the fact that
it takes into account and gives due prominence to immaterial goods.
Throughout the work there is continuous opposition to Adam Smith.
Gioja's latest work _Filosofia della statistica_ (2 vols., 1826; 4
vols., 1829-1830) contains in brief compass the essence of his ideas on
human life, and affords the clearest insight into his aim and method in
philosophy both theoretical and practical.

  See monographs by G. D. Romagnosi (1829), F. Falco (1866); G. Pecchio,
  _Storia dell' economia pubblica in Italia_ (1829), and article in
  Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; for Gioja's philosophy,
  L. Ferri, _Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en Italie au XIX^e
  siecle_ (1869); Ueberweg's _Hist. of Philosophy_ (Eng. tr., appendix
  ii.); A. Rosmini-Serbati, _Opuscoli filosofici_, iii. (1844)
  (containing an attack on Gioja's "sensualism"); for his political
  economy, list of works in J. Conrad's _Handworterbuch der
  Staatswissenschaften_ (1892); L. Cossa, _Introd. to Pol. Econ._ (Eng.
  trans., p. 488). Gioja's complete works were published at Lugano
  (1832-1849). He was one of the founders of the _Annali universali di
  statistica_.




GIOLITTI, GIOVANNI (1842-   ), Italian statesman, was born at Mondovi on
the 27th of October 1842. After a rapid career in the financial
administration he was, in 1882, appointed councillor of state and
elected to parliament. As deputy he chiefly acquired prominence by
attacks on Magliani, treasury minister in the Depretis cabinet, and on
the 9th of March 1889 was himself selected as treasury minister by
Crispi. On the fall of the Rudini cabinet in May 1892, Giolitti, with
the help of a court clique, succeeded to the premiership. His term of
office was marked by misfortune and misgovernment. The building crisis
and the commercial rupture with France had impaired the situation of the
state banks, of which one, the Banca Romana, had been further undermined
by maladministration. A bank law, passed by Giolitti failed to effect an
improvement. Moreover, he irritated public opinion by raising to
senatorial rank the director-general of the Banca Romana, Signor
Tanlongo, whose irregular practices had become a byword. The senate
declined to admit Tanlongo, whom Giolitti, in consequence of an
interpellation in parliament upon the condition of the Banca Romana, was
obliged to arrest and prosecute. During the prosecution Giolitti abused
his position as premier to abstract documents bearing on the case.
Simultaneously a parliamentary commission of inquiry investigated the
condition of the state banks. Its report, though acquitting Giolitti of
personal dishonesty, proved disastrous to his political position, and
obliged him to resign. His fall left the finances of the state
disorganized, the pensions fund depleted, diplomatic relations with
France strained in consequence of the massacre of Italian workmen at
Aigues-Mortes, and Sicily and the Lunigiana in a state of revolt, which
he had proved impotent to suppress. After his resignation he was
impeached for abuse of power as minister, but the supreme court quashed
the impeachment by denying the competence of the ordinary tribunals to
judge ministerial acts. For several years he was compelled to play a
passive part, having lost all credit. But by keeping in the background
and giving public opinion time to forget his past, as well as by
parliamentary intrigue, he gradually regained much of his former
influence. He made capital of the Socialist agitation and of the
repression to which other statesmen resorted, and gave the agitators to
understand that were he premier they would be allowed a free hand. Thus
he gained their favour, and on the fall of the Pelloux cabinet he became
minister of the Interior in Zanardelli's administration, of which he was
the real head. His policy of never interfering in strikes and leaving
even violent demonstrations undisturbed at first proved successful, but
indiscipline and disorder grew to such a pitch that Zanardelli, already
in bad health, resigned, and Giolitti succeeded him as prime minister
(November 1903). But during his tenure of office he, too, had to resort
to strong measures in repressing some serious disorders in various parts
of Italy, and thus he lost the favour of the Socialists. In March 1905,
feeling himself no longer secure, he resigned, indicating Fortis as his
successor. When Sonnino became premier in February 1906, Giolitti did
not openly oppose him, but his followers did, and Sonnino was defeated
in May, Giolitti becoming prime minister once more.




GIORDANO, LUCA (1632-1705), Italian painter, was born in Naples, son of
a very indifferent painter, Antonio, who imparted to him the first
rudiments of drawing. Nature predestined him for the art, and at the age
of eight he painted a cherub into one of his father's pictures, a feat
which was at once noised abroad, and induced the viceroy of Naples to
recommend the child to Ribera. His father afterwards took him to Rome,
to study under Pietro da Cortona. He acquired the nickname of Luca
Fa-presto (Luke Work-fast). One might suppose this nickname to be
derived merely from the almost miraculous celerity with which from an
early age and throughout his life he handled the brush; but it is said
to have had a more express origin. The father, we are told,
poverty-stricken and greedy of gain, was perpetually urging his boy to
exertion with the phrase, "Luca, fa presto." The youth obeyed his parent
to the letter, and would actually not so much as pause to snatch a hasty
meal, but received into his mouth, while he still worked on, the food
which his father's hand supplied. He copied nearly twenty times the
"Battle of Constantine" by Julio Romano, and with proportionate
frequency several of the great works of Raphael and Michelangelo. His
rapidity, which belonged as much to invention as to mere handiwork, and
his versatility, which enabled him to imitate other painters
deceptively, earned for him two other epithets, "The Thunderbolt"
(Fulmine), and "The Proteus," of Painting. He shortly visited all the
main seats of the Italian school of art, and formed for himself a style
combining in a certain measure the ornamental pomp of Paul Veronese and
the contrasting compositions and large schemes of chiaroscuro of Pietro
da Cortona. He was noted also for lively and showy colour. Returning to
Naples, and accepting every sort of commission by which money was to be
made, he practised his art with so much applause that Charles II. of
Spain towards 1687 invited him over to Madrid, where he remained
thirteen years. Giordano was very popular at the Spanish court, being a
sprightly talker along with his other marvellously facile gifts, and the
king created him a cavaliere. One anecdote of his rapidity of work is
that the queen of Spain having one day made some inquiry about his wife,
he at once showed Her Majesty what the lady was like by painting her
portrait into the picture on which he was engaged. Soon after the death
of Charles in 1700 Giordano, gorged with wealth, returned to Naples. He
spent large sums in acts of munificence, and was particularly liberal to
his poorer brethren of the art. He again visited various parts of Italy,
and died in Naples on the 12th of January 1705, his last words being "O
Napoli, sospiro mio" (O Naples, my heart's love!). One of his maxims was
that the good painter is the one whom the public like, and that the
public are attracted more by colour than by design.

Giordano had an astonishing readiness and facility, in spite of the
general commonness and superficiality of his performances. He left many
works in Rome, and far more in Naples. Of the latter one of the most
renowned is "Christ expelling the Traders from the Temple," in the
church of the Padri Girolamini, a colossal work, full of expressive
lazzaroni; also the frescoes of S. Martino, and those in the Tesoro
della Certosa, including the subject of "Moses and the Brazen Serpent";
and the cupola-paintings in the Church of S. Brigida, which contains the
artist's own tomb. In Spain he executed a surprising number of
works,--continuing in the Escorial the series commenced by Cambiasi, and
painting frescoes of the "Triumphs of the Church," the "Genealogy and
Life of the Madonna," the stories of Moses, Gideon, David and Solomon,
and the "Celebrated Women of Scripture," all works of large dimensions.
His pupils, Aniello Rossi and Matteo Pacelli, assisted him in Spain. In
Madrid he worked more in oil-colour, a Nativity there being one of his
best productions. Other superior examples are the "Judgment of Paris" in
the Berlin Museum, and "Christ with the Doctors in the Temple," in the
Corsini Gallery of Rome. In Florence, in his closing days, he painted
the Cappella Corsini, the Galleria Riccardi and other works. In youth he
etched with considerable skill some of his own paintings, such as the
"Slaughter of the Priests of Baal." He also painted much on the crystal
borderings of looking-glasses, cabinets, &c., seen in many Italian
palaces, and was, in this form of art, the master of Pietro Garofolo.
His best pupil, in painting of the ordinary kind, was Paolo de Matteis.

  Bellori, in his _Vite de' pittori moderni_, is a leading authority
  regarding Luca Giordano. P. Benvenuto (1882) has written a work on the
  Riccardi paintings.




GIORGIONE (1477-1510), Italian painter, was born at Castelfranco in
1477. In contemporary documents he is always called (according to the
Venetian manner of pronunciation and spelling) Zorzi, Zorzo or Zorzon of
Castelfranco. A tradition, having its origin in the 17th century,
represented him as the natural son of some member of the great local
family of the Barbarelli, by a peasant girl of the neighbouring village
of Vedelago; consequently he is commonly referred to in histories and
catalogues under the name of Giorgio Barbarelli or Barbarella. This
tradition has, however, on close examination been proved baseless. On
the other hand mention has been found in a contemporary document of an
earlier Zorzon, a native of Vedelago, living in Castelfranco in 1460.
Vasari, who wrote before the Barbarella legend had sprung up, says that
Giorgione was of very humble origin. It seems probable that he was
simply the son or grandson of the afore-mentioned Zorzon the elder; that
the after-claim of the Barbarelli to kindred with him was a mere piece
of family vanity, very likely suggested by the analogous case of
Leonardo da Vinci; and that, this claim once put abroad, the
peasant-mother of Vedelago was invented on the ground of some dim
knowledge that his real progenitors came from that village.

Of the facts of his life we are almost as meagrely informed as of the
circumstances of his birth. The little city, or large fortified village,
for it is scarcely more, of Castelfranco in the Trevisan stands in the
midst of a rich and broken plain at some distance from the last spurs of
the Venetian Alps. From the natural surroundings of Giorgione's
childhood was no doubt derived his ideal of pastoral scenery, the
country of pleasant copses, glades, brooks and hills amid which his
personages love to wander or recline with lute and pipe. How early in
boyhood he went to Venice we do not know, but internal evidence supports
the statement of Ridolfi that he served his apprenticeship there under
Giovanni Bellini; and there he made his fame and had his home. That his
gifts were early recognized we know from the facts, recorded in
contemporary documents, that in 1500, when he was only twenty-three
(that is if Vasari gives rightly the age at which he died), he was
chosen to paint portraits of the Doge Agostino Barberigo and the
condottiere Consalvo Ferrante; that in 1504 he was commissioned to paint
an altarpiece in memory of Matteo Costanzo in the cathedral of his
native town, Castelfranco; that in 1507 he received at the order of the
Council of Ten part payment for a picture (subject not mentioned) on
which he was engaged for the Hall of the Audience in the ducal palace;
and that in 1507-1508 he was employed, with other artists of his own
generation, to decorate with frescoes the exterior of the newly rebuilt
Fondaco dei Tedeschi or German merchants' hall at Venice, having already
done similar work on the exterior of the Casa Soranzo, the Casa Grimani
alii Servi and other Venetian palaces. Vasari gives also as an important
event in Giorgione's life, and one which had influence on his work, his
meeting with Leonardo da Vinci on the occasion of the Tuscan master's
visit to Venice in 1500. In September or October 1510 he died of the
plague then raging in the city, and within a few days of his death we
find the great art-patroness and amateur, Isabella d'Este, writing from
Mantua and trying in vain to secure for her collection a night-piece by
his hand of which the fame had reached her.

All accounts agree in representing Giorgione as a personage of
distinguished and romantic charm, a great lover, a great musician, made
to enjoy in life and to express in art to the uttermost the delight, the
splendour, the sensuous and imaginative grace and fulness, not untinged
with poetic melancholy, of the Venetian existence of his time. They
represent him further as having made in Venetian painting an advance
analogous to that made in Tuscan painting by Leonardo more than twenty
years before; that is as having released the art from the last shackles
of archaic rigidity and placed it in possession of full freedom and the
full mastery of its means. He also introduced a new range of subjects.
Besides altarpieces and portraits he painted pictures that told no
story, whether biblical or classical, or if they professed to tell such,
neglected the action and simply embodied in form and colour moods of
lyrical or romantic feeling, much as a musician might embody them in
sounds. Innovating with the courage and felicity of genius, he had for a
time an overwhelming influence on his contemporaries and immediate
successors in the Venetian school, including Titian, Sebastian del
Piombo, the elder Palma, Cariani and the two Campagnolas, and not a
little even on seniors of long-standing fame such as Giovanni Bellini.
His name and work have exercised, and continue to exercise, no less a
spell on posterity. But to identify and define, among the relics of his
age and school, precisely what that work is, and to distinguish it from
the kindred work of other men whom his influence inspired, is a very
difficult matter. There are inclusive critics who still claim for
Giorgione nearly every painting of the time that at all resembles his
manner, and there are exclusive critics who pare down to some ten or a
dozen the list of extant pictures which they will admit to be actually
his.

To name first those which are either certain or command the most general
acceptance, placing them in something like an approximate and probable
order of date. In the Uffizi at Florence are two companion pieces of the
"Trial of Moses" and the "Judgment of Solomon," the latter the finer and
better preserved of the two, which pass, no doubt justly, as typical
works of Giorgione's youth, and exhibit, though not yet ripely, his
special qualities of colour-richness and landscape romance, the peculiar
facial types of his predilection, with the pure form of forehead, fine
oval of cheek, and somewhat close-set eyes and eyebrows, and the
intensity of that still and brooding sentiment with which, rather than
with dramatic life and movement, he instinctively invests his figures.
Probably the earliest of the portraits by common consent called his is
the beautiful one of a young man at Berlin. His earliest devotional
picture would seem to be the highly finished "Christ bearing his Cross"
(the head and shoulders only, with a peculiarly serene and high-bred
cast of features) formerly at Vicenza and now in the collection of Mrs
Gardner at Boston. Other versions of this picture exist, and it has been
claimed that one in private possession at Vienna is the true original:
erroneously in the judgment of the present writer. Another "Christ
bearing the Cross," with a Jew dragging at the rope round his neck, in
the church of San Rocco at Venice, is a ruined but genuine work, quoted
by Vasari and Ridolfi, and copied with the name of Giorgione appended,
by Van Dyck in that master's Chatsworth sketch-book. (Vasari gives it to
Giorgione in his first and to Titian in his second edition.) The
composition of a lost early picture of the birth of Paris is preserved
in an engraving of the "Teniers Gallery" series, and an old copy of part
of the same picture is at Budapest. In the Giovanelli Palace at Venice
is that fascinating and enigmatical mythology or allegory, known to the
Anonimo Morelliano, who saw it in 1530 in the house of Gabriel
Vendramin, simply as "the small landscape with the storm, the gipsy
woman and the soldier"; the picture is conjecturally interpreted by
modern authorities as illustrating a passage in Statius which describes
the meeting of Adrastus with Hypsipyle when she was serving as nurse
with the king of Nemea. Still belonging to the earlier part of the
painter's brief career is a beautiful, virginally pensive Judith at St
Petersburg, which passed under various alien names, as Raphael, Moretto,
&c., until its kindred with the unquestioned work of Giorgione was in
late years firmly established. The great Castelfranco altarpiece, still,
in spite of many restorations, one of the most classically pure and
radiantly impressive works of Renaissance painting, may be taken as
closing the earlier phase of the young master's work (1504). It shows
the Virgin loftily enthroned on a plain, sparely draped stone structure
with St Francis and a warrior saint (St Liberale) standing in attitudes
of great simplicity on either side of the foot of the throne, a high
parapet behind them, and a beautiful landscape of the master's usual
type seen above it. Nearly akin to this masterpiece, not in shape or
composition but by the type of the Virgin and the very Bellinesque St
Francis, is the altarpiece of the Madonna with St Francis and St Roch at
Madrid. Of the master's fully ripened time is the fine and again
enigmatical picture formerly in the house of Taddeo Contarini at Venice,
described by contemporary witnesses as the "Three Philosophers," and
now, on slender enough grounds, supposed to represent Evander showing
Aeneas the site of Troy as narrated in the eighth Aeneid. The portrait
of a knight of Malta in the Uffizi at Florence has more power and
authority, if less sentiment, than the earlier example at Berlin, and
may be taken to be of the master's middle time. Most entirely central
and typical of all Giorgione's extant works is the Sleeping Venus at
Dresden, first recognized by Morelli, and now universally accepted, as
being the same as the picture seen by the Anonimo and later by Ridolfi
in the Casa Marcello at Venice. An exquisitely pure and severe rhythm of
line and contour chastens the sensuous richness of the presentment: the
sweep of white drapery on which the goddess lies, and of glowing
landscape that fills the space behind her, most harmoniously frame her
divinity. It is recorded that the master left this piece unfinished and
that the landscape, with a Cupid which subsequent restoration has
removed, were completed after his death by Titian. The picture is the
prototype of Titian's own Venus at the Uffizi and of many more by other
painters of the school; but none of them attained the quality of the
first exemplar. Of such small scenes of mixed classical mythology and
landscape as early writers attribute in considerable number to
Giorgione, there have survived at least two which bear strong evidences
of his handiwork, though the action is in both of unwonted liveliness,
namely the Apollo and Daphne of the Seminario at Venice and the Orpheus
and Eurydice of Bergamo. The portrait of Antonio Grocardo at Budapest
represents his fullest and most penetrating power in that branch of art.
In his last years the purity and relative slenderness of form which mark
his earlier female nudes, including the Dresden Venus, gave way to
ideals of ampler mould, more nearly approaching those of Titian and his
successors in Venetian art; as is proved by those last remaining
fragments of the frescoes on the Grand Canal front of the Fondaco dei
Tedeschi which were seen and engraved by Zanetti in 1760, but have now
totally disappeared. Such change of ideal is apparent enough in the
famous "Concert" or "Pastoral Symphony" of the Louvre, probably the
latest, and certainly one of the most characteristic and harmoniously
splendid, of Giorgione's creations that has come down to us, and has
caused some critics too hastily to doubt its authenticity.

We pass now to pictures for which some affirm and others deny the right
to bear Giorgione's name. As youthful in style as the two early pictures
in the Uffizi, and closely allied to them in feeling, though less so in
colour, is an unexplained subject in the National Gallery, sometimes
called for want of a better title the "Golden Age"; this is officially
and by many critics given only to the "school of" Giorgione, but may not
unreasonably be claimed for his own work (No. 1173). There is also in
England a group of three paintings which are certainly by one hand, and
that a hand very closely related to Giorgione if not actually his own,
namely the small oblong "Adoration of the Magi" in the National Gallery
(No. 1160), the "Adoration of the Shepherds" belonging to Lord Allendale
(with its somewhat inferior but still attractive replica at Vienna), and
the small "Holy Family" in the collection of Mr R. H. Benson. The type
of the Madonna in all these three pieces is different from that
customary with the master, but there seems no reason why he should not
at some particular moment have changed his model. The sentiment and
gestures of the figures, the cast of draperies, the technical handling,
and especially, in Lord Allendale's picture, the romantic richness of
the landscape, all incline us to accept the group as original,
notwithstanding the deviation of type already mentioned and certain
weaknesses of drawing and proportion which we should have hardly looked
for. Better known to European students in general are the two fine
pictures commonly given to the master at the Pitti gallery in Florence,
namely the "Three Ages" and the "Concert." Both are very Giorgionesque,
the "Three Ages" leaning rather towards the early manner of Lorenzo
Lotto, to whom by some critics it is actually given. The "Concert" is
held on technical grounds by some of the best judges rather to bear the
character of Titian at the moment when the inspiration of Giorgione was
strongest on him, at least so far as concerns the extremely beautiful
and expressive central figure of the monk playing on the clavichord with
reverted head, a very incarnation of musical rapture and yearning--the
other figures are too much injured to judge.

There are at least two famous single portraits as to which critics will
probably never agree whether they are among the later works of Giorgione
or among the earliest of Titian under his influence: these are the
jovial and splendid half-length of Catherine Cornaro (or a stout lady
much resembling her) with a bas-relief, in the collection of Signor
Crespi at Milan, and the so-called "Ariosto" from Lord Darnley's
collection acquired for the National Gallery in 1904. Ancient and
half-effaced inscriptions, of which there is no cause to doubt the
genuineness, ascribe them both to Titian; both, to the mind of the
present writer at least, are more nearly akin to such undoubted early
Titians as the "Man with the Book" at Hampton Court and the "Man with
the Glove" at the Louvre than to any authenticated work of Giorgione. At
the same time it should be remembered that Giorgione is known to have
actually enjoyed the patronage of Catherine Cornaro and to have painted
her portrait. The Giorgionesque influence and feeling, to a degree
almost of sentimental exaggeration, encounter us again in another
beautiful Venetian portrait at the National Gallery which has sometimes
been claimed for him, that of a man in crimson velvet with white pleated
shirt and a background of bays, long attributed to the elder Palma (No.
636). The same qualities are present with more virility in a very
striking portrait of a young man at Temple Newsam, which stands indeed
nearer than any other extant example to the Brocardo portrait at
Budapest. The full-face portrait of a woman in the Borghese gallery at
Rome has the marks of the master's design and inspiration, but in its
present sadly damaged condition can hardly be claimed for his handiwork.
The head of a boy with a pipe at Hampton Court, a little over life size,
has been enthusiastically claimed as Giorgione's workmanship, but is
surely too slack and soft in handling to be anything more than an early
copy of a lost work, analogous to, though better than, the similar copy
at Vienna of a young man with an arrow, a subject he is known to have
painted. The early records prove indeed that not a few such copies of
Giorgione's more admired works were produced in his own time or shortly
afterwards. One of the most interesting and unmistakable such copies
still extant is the picture formerly in the Manfrin collection at
Venice, afterwards in that of Mr Barker in London, and now at Dresden,
which is commonly called "The Horoscope," and represents a woman seated
near a classic ruin with a young child at her feet, an armed youth
standing looking down at them, and a turbaned sage seated near with
compasses, disk and book. Of important subject pictures belonging to the
debatable borderland between Giorgione and his imitators are the large
and interesting unfinished "Judgment of Solomon" at Kingston Lacy, which
must certainly be the same that Ridolfi saw and attributed to him in the
Casa Grimani at Venice, but has weaknesses of design and drawing
sufficiently baffling to criticism; and the "Woman taken in Adultery" in
the public gallery at Glasgow, a picture truly Giorgionesque in richness
of colour, but betraying in its awkward composition, the relative
coarseness of its types and the insincere, mechanical animation of its
movements, the hand of some lesser master of the school, almost
certainly (by comparison with his existing engravings and woodcuts) that
of Domenico Campagnola. It seems unnecessary to refer, in the present
notice, to any of the numerous other and inferior works which have been
claimed for Giorgione by a criticism unable to distinguish between a
living voice and its echoes.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Morelli, _Notizie_, &c. (ed. Frizzoni, 1884): Vasari
  (ed. Milanesi), vol. iv.; Ridolfi, _Le Maraviglie dell' arte_, vol.
  i.; Zanetti, _Varie Pitture_ (1760); Crowe-Cavalcaselle, _History of
  Painting in North Italy_; Morelli, _Kunstkritische Studien_; Gronau,
  _Zorzon da Castelfranco, la sua origine_, &c. (1894); Herbert Cook,
  _Giorgione_ (in "Great Masters" series, 1900); Ugo Monneret de
  Villard, _Giorgione da Castelfranco_ (1905). The two last-named works
  are critically far too inclusive, but useful as going over the whole
  ground of discussion, with full references to earlier authorities, &c.
       (S. C.)




GIOTTINO (1324-1357), an early Florentine painter. Vasari is the
principal authority in regard to this artist; but it is not by any means
easy to bring the details of his narrative into harmony with such facts
as can now be verified. It would appear that there was a painter of the
name of Tommaso (or Maso) di Stefano termed Giottino; and the Giottino
of Vasari is said to have been born in 1324, and to have died early, of
consumption, in 1357,--dates which must be regarded as open to
considerable doubt. Stefano, the father of Tommaso, was himself a
celebrated painter in the early revival of art; his naturalism was
indeed so highly appreciated by contemporaries as to earn him the
appellation of "Scimia della Natura" (ape of nature). He, it seems,
instructed his son, who, however, applied himself with greater
predilection to studying the works of the great Giotto, formed his style
on these, and hence was called Giottino. It is even said that Giottino
was really the son (others say the great-grandson) of Giotto. To this
statement little or no importance can be attached. To Maso di Stefano,
or Giottino, Vasari and Ghiberti attribute the frescoes in the chapel of
S. Silvestro (or of the Bardi family) in the Florentine church of S.
Croce; these represent the miracles of Pope S. Silvestro as narrated in
the "Golden Legend," one conspicuous subject being the sealing of the
lips of a malignant dragon. These works are animated and firm in
drawing, with naturalism carried further than by Giotto. From the
evidence of style, some modern connoisseurs assign to the same hand the
paintings in the funeral vault of the Strozzi family, below the Cappella
degli Spagnuoli in the church of S. Maria Novella, representing the
crucifixion and other subjects. Vasari ascribes also to his Giottino the
frescoes of the life of St Nicholas in the lower church of Assisi. This
series, however, is not really in that part of the church which Vasari
designates, but is in the chapel of the Sacrament; and the works in that
chapel are understood to be by Giotto di Stefano, who worked in the
second half of the 14th century--very excellent productions of their
period. They are much damaged, and the style is hardly similar to that
of the Sylvester frescoes. It might hence be inferred that two different
men produced the works which are unitedly fathered upon the
half-legendary "Giottino," the consumptive youth, solitary and
melancholic, but passionately devoted to his art. A large number of
other works have been attributed to the same hand; we need only mention
an "Apparition of the Virgin to St Bernard," in the Florentine Academy;
a lost painting, very popular in its day, commemorating the expulsion,
which took place in 1343, of the duke of Athens from Florence; and a
marble statue erected on the Florentine campanile. Vasari particularly
praises Giottino for well-blended chiaroscuro.




GIOTTO [GIOTTO DI BONDONE[1]] (1267?-1337), Italian painter, was born at
Vespignano in the Mugello, a few miles north of Florence, according to
one account in 1276, and according to another, which from the few known
circumstances of his life seems more likely to be correct, in 1266 or
1267. His father was a landowner at Colle in the commune of Vespignano,
described in a contemporary document as _vir praeclarus_, but by
biographers both early and late as a poor peasant; probably therefore a
peasant proprietor of no large possessions but of reputable stock and
descent. It is impossible to tell whether there is any truth in the
legend of Giotto's boyhood which relates how he first showed his
disposition for art, and attracted the attention of Cimabue, by being
found drawing one of his father's sheep with a sharp stone on the face
of a smooth stone or slate. With his father's consent, the story goes
on, Cimabue carried off the boy to be his apprentice, and it was under
Cimabue's tuition that Giotto took his first steps in the art of which
he was afterwards to be the great emancipator and renovator. The place
where these early steps can still, according to tradition, be traced, is
in the first and second, reckoning downwards, of the three courses of
frescoes which adorn the walls of the nave in the Upper Church of St
Francis at Assisi. These frescoes represent subjects of the Old and New
Testament, and great labour, too probably futile, has been spent in
trying to pick out those in which the youthful handiwork of Giotto can
be discerned, as it is imagined, among that of Cimabue and his other
pupils. But the truth is that the figure of Cimabue himself, in spite of
Dante's testimony to his having been the foremost painter of Italy until
Giotto arose, has under the search-light of modern criticism melted into
almost mythical vagueness. His accepted position as Giotto's instructor
and the pioneer of reform in his art has been attacked from several
sides as a mere invention of Florentine writers for the glorification of
their own city. One group of critics maintain that the real advance in
Tuscan painting before Giotto was the work of the Sienese school and not
of the Florentine. Another group contend that the best painting done in
Italy down to the last decade of the 13th century was not done by Tuscan
hands at all, but by Roman craftsmen trained in the inherited principles
of Italo-Byzantine decoration in mosaic and fresco, and that from such
Roman craftsmen alone could Giotto have learnt anything worth his
learning. The debate thus opened is far from closed, and considering how
scanty, ambiguous and often defaced are the materials existing for
discussion, it is perhaps never likely to be closed. But there is no
debate as to the general nature of the reform effected by the genius of
Giotto himself. He was the great humanizer of painting; it is his glory
to have been the first among his countrymen to breathe life into
wall-pictures and altar-pieces, and to quicken the dead conventionalism
of inherited practice with the fire of natural action and natural
feeling. Upon yet another point there is no question; and that is that
the reform thus effected by Giotto in painting had been anticipated in
the sister art of sculpture by nearly a whole generation. About the
middle of the 13th century Nicola Pisano had renewed that art, first by
strict imitation of classical models, and later by infusing into his
work a fresh spirit of nature and humanity, perhaps partly caught from
the Gothic schools of France. His son Giovanni had carried the same
re-vitalising of sculpture a great deal further; and hence to some
critics it would seem that the real inspirer and precursor of Giotto was
Giovanni Pisano the sculptor, and not any painter or wall-decorator,
whether of Florence, Siena or Rome.

In this division of opinion it is safer to regard the revival of
painting in Giotto's hands simply as part of the general awakening of
the time, and to remember that, as of all Italian communities Florence
was the keenest in every form of activity both intellectual and
practical, so it was natural that a son of Florence should be the chief
agent in such an awakening. And in considering his career the question
of his possible participation in the primitive frescoes of the upper
courses at Assisi is best left out of account, the more so because of
the deplorable condition in which they now exist. But with reference to
the lowest course of paintings on the same walls, those illustrating the
life of St Francis according to the narrative of St Bonaventura, no one
has any doubt, at least in regard to nineteen or twenty of the
twenty-eight subjects which compose the series, that Giotto himself was
their designer and chief executant. In these, sadly as they too have
suffered from time and wholesale repair, there can nevertheless be
discerned the unmistakable spirit of the young Florentine master as we
know him in his other works--his shrewd realistic and dramatic vigour,
the deep sincerity and humanity of feeling which he knows how to express
in every gesture of his figures without breaking up the harmony of their
grouping or the grandeur of their linear design, qualities inherited
from the earlier schools of impressive but lifeless hieratic decoration.
The "Renunciation of the Saint by his Father," the "Pope's Dream of the
Saint upholding the tottering Church," the "Saint before the Sultan,"
the "Miracle of the Spring of Water," the "Death of the Nobleman of
Celano," the "Saint preaching before Pope Honorius"--these are some of
the most noted and best preserved examples of the painter's power in
this series. Where doubt begins again is as to the relations of date and
sequence which the series bears to other works by the master executed at
Assisi and at Rome in the same early period of his career, that is,
probably between 1295 and 1300. Giotto's remaining undisputed works at
Assisi are the four celebrated allegorical compositions in honour of St
Francis in the vaulting of the Lower Church,--the "Marriage of St
Francis to Poverty," the "Allegory of Chastity," the "Allegory of
Obedience" and the "Vision of St Francis in Glory." These works are
scarcely at all retouched, and relatively little dimmed by time; they
are of a singular beauty, at once severe and tender, both in colour and
design; the compositions, especially the first three, fitted with
admirable art into the cramped spaces of the vaulting, the subjects, no
doubt in the main dictated to the artist by his Franciscan employers,
treated in no cold or mechanical spirit but with a full measure of vital
humanity and original feeling. Had the career and influence of St
Francis had no other of their vast and far-reaching effects in the world
than that of inspiring these noble works of art, they would still have
been entitled to no small gratitude from mankind. Other works at Assisi
which most modern critics, but not all, attribute to Giotto himself are
three miracles of St Francis and portions of a group of frescoes
illustrating the history of Mary Magdalene, both in the Lower Church;
and again, in one of the transepts of the same Lower Church, a series of
ten frescoes of the Life of the Virgin and Christ, concluding with the
Crucifixion. It is to be remarked as to this transept series that
several of the frescoes present not only the same subjects, but with a
certain degree of variation the same compositions, as are found in the
master's great series executed in the Arena chapel at Padua in the
fullness of his powers about 1306; and that the versions in the Assisi
transept show a relatively greater degree of technical accomplishment
than the Paduan versions, with a more attractive charm and more
abundance of accessory ornament, but a proportionately less degree of
that simple grandeur in composition and direct strength of human motive
which are the special notes of Giotto's style. Therefore a minority of
critics refuse to accept the modern attribution of this transept series
to Giotto himself, and see in it later work by an accomplished pupil
softening and refining upon his master's original creations at Padua.
Others, insisting that these unquestionably beautiful works must be by
the hand of Giotto and none but Giotto, maintain that in comparison with
the Paduan examples they illustrate a gradual progress, which can be
traced in other of his extant works, from the relatively ornate and soft
to the austerely grand and simple. This argument is enforced by
comparison with early work of the master's at Rome as to the date of
which we have positive evidence. In 1298 Giotto completed for Cardinal
Stefaneschi for the price of 2200 gold ducats a mosaic of Christ saving
St Peter from the waves (the celebrated "Navicella"); this is still to
be seen, but in a completely restored and transformed state, in the
vestibule of St Peter's. For the same patron he executed, probably just
before the "Navicella," an elaborate ciborium or altar-piece for the
high altar of St Peter's, for which he received 800 ducats. It
represents on the principal face a colossal Christ enthroned with
adoring angels beside him and a kneeling donor at his feet, and the
martyrdoms of St Peter and St Paul on separate panels to right and left;
on the reverse is St Peter attended by St George and other saints,
receiving from the donor a model of his gift, with stately full-length
figures of two apostles to right and two to left, besides various
accessory scenes and figures in the predellas and the margins. The
separated parts of this altar-piece are still to be seen, in a quite
genuine though somewhat tarnished condition, in the sacristy of St
Peter's. A third work by the master at Rome is a repainted fragment at
the Lateran of a fresco of Pope Boniface VIII. proclaiming the jubilee
of 1300. The "Navicella" and the Lateran fragment are too much ruined to
argue from; but the ciborium panels, it is contended, combine with the
aspects of majesty and strength a quality of ornate charm and suavity
such as is remarked in the transept frescoes of Assisi. The sequence
proposed for these several works is accordingly, first the St Peter's
ciborium, next the allegories in the vaulting of the Lower Church, next
the three frescoes of St Francis' miracles in the north transept, next
the St Francis series in the Upper Church; and last, perhaps after an
interval and with the help of pupils, the scenes from the life of Mary
Magdalene in her chapel in the Lower Church. This involves a complete
reversal of the prevailing view, which regards the unequal and sometimes
clumsy compositions of this St Francis series as the earliest
independent work of the master. It must be admitted that there is
something paradoxical in the idea of a progress from the manner of the
Lower Church transept series of the life of Christ to the much ruder
manner of the Upper Church series of St Francis.

A kindred obscurity and little less conflict of opinion await the
inquirer at almost all stages of Giotto's career. In 1841 there were
partially recovered from the whitewash that had overlain them a series
of frescoes executed in the chapel of the Magdalene, in the Bargello or
Palace of the Podesta at Florence, to celebrate (as was supposed) a
pacification between the Black and White parties in the state effected
by the Cardinal d'Acquasparta as delegate of the pope in 1302. In them
are depicted a series of Bible scenes, besides great compositions of
Hell and Paradise, and in the Paradise are introduced portraits of
Dante, Brunetto Latini and Corso Donato. These recovered fragments,
freely "restored" as soon as they were disclosed, were acclaimed as the
work of Giotto and long held in especial regard for the sake of the
portrait of Dante. Latterly it has been shown that if Giotto ever
executed them at all, which is doubtful, it must have been at a later
date than the supposed pacification, and that they must have suffered
grievous injury in the fire which destroyed a great part of the building
in 1332, and been afterwards repainted by some well-trained follower of
the school. To about 1302 or 1303 would belong, if there is truth in it,
the familiar story of Giotto's O. Pope Benedict XI., the successor of
Boniface VIII., sent, as the tale runs, a messenger to bring him proofs
of the painter's powers. Giotto would give no other sample of his talent
than an O drawn with a free sweep of the brush from the elbow; but the
pope was satisfied and engaged him at a great salary to go and adorn
with frescoes the papal residence at Avignon. Benedict, however, dying
at this time (1305), nothing came of this commission; and the remains of
Italian 14th-century frescoes still to be seen at Avignon are now
recognized as the work, not, as was long supposed, of Giotto, but of the
Sienese Simone Martini and his school.

At this point in Giotto's life we come to the greatest by far of his
undestroyed and undisputed enterprises, and one which can with some
certainty be dated. This is the series of frescoes with which he
decorated the entire internal walls of the chapel built at Padua in
honour of the Virgin of the Annunciation by a rich citizen of the town,
Enrico Scrovegni, perhaps in order to atone for the sins of his father,
a notorious usurer whom Dante places in the seventh circle of hell. The
building is on the site of an ancient amphitheatre, and is therefore
generally called the chapel of the Arena. Since it is recorded that
Dante was Giotto's guest at Padua, and since we know that it was in 1306
that the poet came from Bologna to that city, we may conclude that to
the same year, 1306, belongs the beginning of Giotto's great undertaking
in the Arena chapel. The scheme includes a Saviour in Glory over the
altar, a Last Judgment, full of various and impressive incident,
occupying the whole of the entrance wall, with a series of subjects from
the Old and New Testament and the apocryphal Life of Christ painted in
three tiers on either side wall, and lowest of all a fourth tier with
emblematic Virtues and Vices in monochrome; the Virtues being on the
side of the chapel next the incidents of redemption in the entrance
fresco of the Last Judgment, the Vices on the side next the incidents of
perdition. A not improbable tradition asserts that Giotto was helped by
Dante in the choice and disposition of the subjects. The frescoes,
though not free from injury and retouching, are upon the whole in good
condition, and nowhere else can the highest powers of the Italian mind
and hand at the beginning of the 14th century be so well studied as
here. At the close of the middle ages we find Giotto laying the
foundation upon which all the progress of the Renaissance was afterwards
securely based. In his day the knowledge possessed by painters of the
human frame and its structure rested only upon general observation and
not upon detailed or scientific study; while to facts other than those
of humanity their observation had never been closely directed. Of linear
perspective they possessed but elementary and empirical ideas, and their
endeavours to express aerial perspective and deal with the problems of
light and shade were rare and partial. As far as painting could possibly
be carried under these conditions, it was carried by Giotto. In its
choice of subjects, his art is entirely subservient to the religious
spirit of his age. Even in its mode of conceiving and arranging those
subjects it is in part still trammelled by the rules and consecrated
traditions of the past. Many of those truths of nature to which the
painters of succeeding generations learned to give accurate and complete
expression, Giotto was only able to express by way oL imperfect symbol
and suggestion. But among the elements of art over which he has control
he maintains so just a balance that his work produces in the spectator
less sense of imperfection than that of many later and more accomplished
masters. In some particulars his mature painting, as we see it in the
Arena chapel, has never been surpassed--in mastery of concise and
expressive generalized line and of inventive and harmonious decorative
tint; in the judicious division of the field and massing and scattering
of groups; in the combination of high gravity with complete frankness in
conception, and the union of noble dignity in the types with direct and
vital truth in the gestures of the personages.

The frescoes of the Arena chapel must have been a labour of years, and
of the date of their termination we have no proof. Of many other works
said to have been executed by Giotto at Padua, all that remains consists
of some scarce recognizable traces in the chapter-house of the great
Franciscan church of St Antonio. For twenty years or more we lose all
authentic data as to Giotto's doings and movements. Vasari, indeed,
sends him on a giddy but in the main evidently fabulous round of
travels, including a sojourn in France, which it is certain he never
made. Besides Padua, he is said to have resided and left great works at
Ferrara, Ravenna, Urbino, Rimini, Faenza, Lucca and other cities; in
some of them paintings of his school are still shown, but nothing which
can fairly be claimed to be by his hand. It is recorded also that he was
much employed in his native city of Florence; but the vandalism of later
generations has effaced nearly all that he did there. Among works
whitewashed over by posterity were the frescoes with which he covered no
less than five chapels in the church of Santa Croce. Two of these, the
chapels of the Bardi and the Peruzzi families, were scraped in the early
part of the 19th century, and very important remains were uncovered and
immediately subjected to a process of restoration which has robbed them
of half their authenticity. But through the ruins of time we can trace
in some of these Santa Croce frescoes all the qualities of Giotto's work
at an even higher and more mature development than in the best examples
at Assisi or Padua. The frescoes of the Bardi chapel tell again the
story of St Francis, to which so much of his best power had already been
devoted; those of the Peruzzi chapel deal with the lives of St John the
Baptist and St John the Evangelist. Such scenes as the Funeral of St
Francis, the Dance of Herodias's Daughter, and the Resurrection of St
John the Evangelist, which have to some extent escaped the
disfigurements of the restorer, are among acknowledged classics of the
world's art. The only clues to the dates of any of these works are to be
found in the facts that among the figures in the Bardi chapel occurs
that of St Louis of Toulouse, who was not canonized till 1317, therefore
the painting must be subsequent to that year, and that the "Dance of
Salome" must have been painted before 1331, when it was copied by the
Lorenzetti at Siena. The only other extant works of Giotto at Florence
are a fine "Crucifix," not undisputed, at San Marco, and the majestic
but somewhat heavy altar-piece of the Madonna, probably an early work,
which is placed in the Academy beside a more primitive Madonna supposed
to be the work of Cimabue.

Towards the end of Giotto's life we escape again from confused legend,
and from the tantalizing record of works which have not survived for us
to verify, into the region of authentic document and fact. It appears
that Giotto had come under the notice of Duke Charles of Calabria, son
of King Robert of Naples, during the visits of the duke to Florence
which took place between 1326 and 1328, in which year he died. Soon
afterwards Giotto must have gone to King Robert's court at Naples, where
he was enrolled as an honoured guest and member of the household by a
royal decree dated the 20th of January 1330. Another document shows him
to have been still at Naples two years later. Tradition says much about
the friendship of the king for the painter and the freedom of speech and
jest allowed him; much also of the works he carried out at Naples in the
Castel Nuovo, the Castel dell' Uovo, and the church and convent of Sta
Chiara. Not a trace of these works remains; and others which later
criticism have claimed for him in a hall which formerly belonged to the
convent of Sta Chiara have been proved not to be his.

Meantime Giotto had been advancing, not only in years and worldly fame,
but in prosperity. He was married young, and had, so far as is recorded,
three sons, Francesco, Niccola and Donato, and three daughters, Bice,
Caterina and Lucia. He had added by successive purchases to the plot of
land inherited from his father at Vespignano. His fellow-citizens of all
occupations and degrees delighted to honour him. And now, in his
sixty-eighth year (if we accept the birth-date 1266/7), on his return
from Naples by way of Gaeta, he received the final and official
testimony to the esteem in which he was held at Florence. By a solemn
decree of the _Priori_ on the 12th of April 1334, he was appointed
master of the works of the cathedral of Sta Reparata (later and better
known as Sta Maria del Fiore) and official architect of the city walls
and the towns within her territory. What training as a practical
architect his earlier career had afforded him we do not know, but his
interest in the art from the beginning is made clear by the carefully
studied architectural backgrounds of many of his frescoes. Dying on the
8th of January 1336 (old style 1337), Giotto only enjoyed his new
dignities for two years. But in the course of them he had found time not
only to make an excursion to Milan, on the invitation of Azzo Visconti
and with the sanction of his own government, but to plan two great
architectural works at Florence and superintend the beginning of their
execution, namely the west front of the cathedral and its detached
campanile or bell-tower. The unfinished enrichments of the cathedral
front were stripped away in a later age. The foundation-stone of the
Campanile was laid with solemn ceremony in the presence of a great
concourse of magistrates and people on the 18th of July 1334. Its lower
courses seem to have been completed from Giotto's design, and the first
course of its sculptured ornaments (the famous series of primitive Arts
and Industries) actually by his own hand, before his death. It is not
clear what modifications of his design were made by Andrea Pisano, who
was appointed to succeed him, or again by Francesco Talenti, to whom the
work was next entrusted; but the incomparable structure as we now see it
stands justly in the world's esteem as the most fitting monument to the
genius who first conceived and directed it.

The art of painting, as re-created by Giotto, was carried on throughout
Italy by his pupils and successors with little change or development for
nearly a hundred years, until a new impulse was given to art by the
combined influences of naturalism and classicism in the hands of men
like Donatello and Masaccio. Most of the anecdotes related of the master
are probably inaccurate in detail, but the general character both as
artist and man which tradition has agreed in giving him can never be
assailed. He was from the first a kind of popular hero. He is celebrated
by the poet Petrarch and by the historian Villani. He is made the
subject of tales and anecdotes by Boccaccio and by Franco Sacchetti.
From these notices, as well as from Vasari, we gain a distinct picture
of the man, as one whose nature was in keeping with his country origin;
whose sturdy frame and plain features corresponded to a character rather
distinguished for shrewd and genial strength than for sublimer or more
ascetic qualities; a master craftsman, to whose strong combining and
inventing powers nothing came amiss; conscious of his own deserts, never
at a loss either in the things of art or in the things of life, and
equally ready and efficient whether he has to design the scheme of some
great spiritual allegory in colour or imperishable monument in stone, or
whether he has to show his wit in the encounter of practical jest and
repartee. From his own hand we have a contribution to literature which
helps to substantiate this conception of his character. A large part of
Giotto's fame as painter was won in the service of the Franciscans, and
in the pictorial celebration of the life and ordinances of their
founder. As is well known, it was a part of the ordinances of Francis
that his disciples should follow his own example in worshipping and
being wedded to poverty,--poverty idealized and personified as a
spiritual bride and mistress. Giotto, having on the commission of the
order given the noblest pictorial embodiment to this and other aspects
of the Franciscan doctrine, presently wrote an ode in which his own
views on poverty are expressed; and in this he shows that, if on the one
hand his genius was at the service of the ideals of his time, and his
imagination open to their significance, on the other hand his judgment
was shrewdly and humorously awake to their practical dangers and
exaggerations.

  AUTHORITIES.--Ghiberti, _Commentari_; Vasari, _Le Vite_, vol. i.;
  Crowe-Cavalcaselle, _History of Painting in Italy_, ed. Langton
  Douglas (1903); H. Thode, _Giotto_ (1899); M. G. Zimmermann, _Giotto
  und die Kunst Italiens im Mittelalter_ (1899); B. Berenson,
  _Florentine Painters of the Renaissance_; F. Mason Perkin, _Giotto_
  (in "Great Masters" series) (1902); Basil de Selincourt, _Giotto_
  (1905).     (S. C.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Not to be confused with Giotto di Buondone, a contemporary
    citizen and politician of Siena.




GIPSIES, or GYPSIES, a wandering folk scattered through every European
land, over the greater part of western Asia and Siberia; found also in
Egypt and the northern coast of Africa, in America and even in
Australia. No correct estimate of their numbers outside of Europe can be
given, and even in Europe the information derived from official
statistics is often contradictory and unreliable. The only country in
which the figures have been given correctly is Hungary. In 1893 there
were 274,940 in Transleithania, of whom 243,432 were settled, 20,406
only partly settled and 8938 nomads. Of these 91,603 spoke the Gipsy
language in 1890, but the rest had already been assimilated. Next in
numbers stands Rumania, the number varying between 250,000 and 200,000
(1895). Turkey in Europe counted 117,000 (1903), of whom 51,000 were in
Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, 22,000 in the vilayet of Adrianople and
2500 in the vilayet of Kossovo. In Asiatic Turkey the estimates vary
between 67,000 and 200,000. Servia has 41,000; Bosnia and Herzegovina,
18,000; Greece, 10,000; Austria (Cisleithania), 16,000, of whom 13,500
are in Bohemia and Moravia; Germany, 2000; France, 2000 (5000?); Basque
Provinces, 500 to 700; Italy, 32,000; Spain, 40,000; Russia, 58,000;
Poland, 15,000; Sweden and Norway, 1500; Denmark and Holland, 5000;
Persia, 15,000; Transcaucasia, 3000. The rest is mere guesswork. For
Africa, America and Australia the numbers are estimated between 135,000
and 166,000. The estimate given by Miklosich (1878) of 700,000 fairly
agrees with the above statistics. No statistics are forthcoming for the
number in the British Isles. Some estimate their number at 12,000.

The Gipsies are known principally by two names, which have been modified
by the nations with whom they came in contact, but which can easily be
traced to either the one or the other of these two distinct stems. The
one group, embracing the majority of Gipsies in Europe, the compact
masses living in the Balkan Peninsula, Rumania and Transylvania and
extending also as far as Germany and Italy, are known by the name
_Atzigan_ or _Atsigan_, which becomes in time Tshingian (Turkey and
Greece), Tsigan (Bulgarian, Servian, Rumanian), Czigany (Hungarian),
Zigeuner (Germany), Zingari (Italian), and it is not unlikely that the
English word Tinker or Tinkler (the latter no doubt due to a popular
etymology connecting the gaudy gipsy with the tinkling coins or the
metal wares which he carried on his back as a smith and tinker) may be a
local transformation of the German _Zigeuner_. The second name, partly
known in the East, where the word, however, is used as an expression of
contempt, whilst Zigan is not felt by the gipsies as an insult, is
_Egyptian_; in England, Gipsy; in some German documents of the 16th
century _Aegypter_; Spanish _Gitano_; modern Greek _Gyphtos_. They are
also known by the parallel expressions _Faraon_ (Rumanian) and _Pharao
Nephka_ (Hungarian) or Pharaoh's people, which are only variations
connected with the Egyptian origin. In France they are known as
_Bohemiens_, a word the importance of which will appear later. To the
same category belong other names bestowed upon them, such as Walachi,
Saraceni, Agareni, Nubiani, &c. They were also known by the name of
Tartars, given to them in Germany, or as "Heathen," _Heydens_. All these
latter must be considered as nicknames without thereby denoting their
probable origin. The same may have now been the ease with the first name
with which they appear in history, _Atzigan_. Much ingenuity has been
displayed in attempts to explain the name, for it was felt that a true
explanation might help to settle the question of their origin and the
date of their arrival in Europe. Here again two extreme theories have
been propounded, the one supported by Bataillard, who connected them
with the Sigynnoi of Herodotus and identified them with the Komodromoi
of the later Byzantine writers, known already in the 6th century. Others
bring them to Europe as late as the 14th century; and the name has also
been explained by de Goeje from the Persian _Chang_, a kind of harp or
zither, or the Persian _Zang_, black, swarthy. Rienzi (1832) and Trumpp
(1872) have connected the name with the Changars of North-East India,
but all have omitted to notice that the real form was Atzigan or (more
correct) Atzingan and not Tsigan. The best explanation remains that
suggested by Miklosich, who derives the word from the Athinganoi, a name
originally belonging to a peculiar heretical sect living in Asia Minor
near Phrygia and Lycaonia, known also as the Melki-Zedekites. The
members of this sect observed very strict rules of purity, as they were
afraid to be defiled by the touch of other people whom they considered
unclean. They therefore acquired the name of Athinganoi (i.e.
"Touch-me-nots").

Miklosich has collected seven passages where the Byzantine historians of
the 9th century describe the Athinganoi as soothsayers, magicians and
serpent-charmers. From these descriptions nothing definite can be proved
as to the identity of the Athinganoi with the Gipsies, or the reason why
this name was given to soothsayers, charmers, &c. But the inner history
of the Byzantine empire of that period may easily give a clue to it and
explain how it came about that such a nickname was given to a new sect
or to a new race which suddenly appeared in the Greek Empire at that
period. In the history of the Church we find them mentioned in one
breath with the Paulicians and other heretical sects which were
transplanted in their tens of thousands from Asia Minor to the Greek
empire and settled especially in Rumelia, near Adrianople and
Philippopolis. The Greeks called these heretical sects by all kinds of
names, derived from ancient Church traditions, and gave to each sect
such names as first struck them, on the scantiest of imaginary
similarities. One sect was called Paulician, another Melki-Zedekite; so
also these were called Athinganoi, probably being considered the
descendants of the outcast Samer, who, according to ancient tradition,
was a goldsmith and the maker of the Golden Calf in the desert. For this
sin Samer was banished and compelled to live apart from human beings and
even to avoid their touch (Athinganos: "Touch-me-not"). Travelling from
East to West these heretical sects obtained different names in different
countries, in accordance with the local traditions or to imaginary
origins. The Bogomils and Patarenes became Bulgarians in France, and so
the gypsies Bohemiens, a name which was also connected with the
heretical sect of the Bohemian brothers (_Bohmische Bruder_). Curiously
enough the Kutzo-Vlachs living in Macedonia (q.v.) and Rumelia are also
known by the nickname Tsintsari, a word that has not yet been explained.
Very likely it stands in close connexion with Zingari, the name having
been transferred from one people to the other without the justification
of any common ethnical origin, except that the Kutzo-Vlachs, like the
Zingari, differed from their Greek neighbours in race, as in language,
habits and customs; while they probably followed similar pursuits to
those of the Zingari, as smiths, &c. As to the other name, Egyptians,
this is derived from a peculiar tale which the gipsies spread when
appearing in the west of Europe. They alleged that they had come from a
country of their own called Little Egypt, either a confusion between
Little Armenia and Egypt or the Peloponnesus.

Attention may be drawn to a remarkable passage in the Syriac version of
the apocryphal Book of Adam, known as the _Cave of Treasures_ and
compiled probably in the 6th century: "And of the seed of Canaan were
as I said the Aegyptians; and, lo, they were scattered all over the
earth and served as slaves of slaves" (ed. Bezold, German translation,
p. 25). No reference to such a scattering and serfdom of the Egyptians
is mentioned anywhere else. This must have been a legend, current in
Asia Minor, and hence probably transferred to the swarthy Gipsies.

A new explanation may now be ventured upon as to the name which the
Gipsies of Europe give to themselves, which, it must be emphasized, is
not known to the Gipsies outside of Europe. Only those who starting from
the ancient Byzantine empire have travelled westwards and spread over
Europe, America and Australia call themselves by the name of Rom, the
woman being Romni and a stranger Gazi. Many etymologies have been
suggested for the word Rom. Paspati derived it from the word Droma
(Indian), and Miklosich had identified it with Doma or Domba, a "low
caste musician," rather an extraordinary name for a nation to call
itself by. Having no home and no country of their own and no political
traditions and no literature, they would naturally try to identify
themselves with the people in whose midst they lived, and would call
themselves by the same name as other inhabitants of the Greek empire,
known also as the Empire of New Rom, or of the Romaioi, Romeliots,
Romanoi, as the Byzantines used to call themselves before they assumed
the prouder name of Hellenes. The Gipsies would therefore call
themselves also Rom, a much more natural name, more flattering to their
vanity, and geographically and politically more correct than if they
called themselves "low caste musicians." This Greek origin of the name
would explain why it is limited to the European Gipsies, and why it is
not found among that stock of Gipsies which has migrated from Asia Minor
southwards and taken a different route to reach Egypt and North Africa.

_Appearance in Europe._--Leaving aside the doubtful passages in the
Byzantine writers where the Athinganoi are mentioned, the first
appearance of Gipsies in Europe cannot be traced positively further back
than the beginning of the 14th century. Some have hitherto believed that
a passage in what was erroneously called the Rhymed Version of Genesis
of Vienna, but which turns out to be the work of a writer before the
year 1122, and found only in the Klagenfurt manuscript (edited by
Ditmar, 1862), referred to the Gipsies. It runs as follows: Gen. xiii.
15--"Hagar had a son from whom were born the Chaltsmide. When Hagar had
that child, she named it Ismael, from whom the Ismaelites descend who
journey through the land, and we call them Chaltsmide, may evil befall
them! They sell only things with blemishes, and for whatever they sell
they always ask more than its real value. They cheat the people to whom
they sell. They have no home, no country, they are satisfied to live in
tents, they wander over the country, they deceive the people, they cheat
men but rob no one noisily."

This reference to the Chaltsmide (not goldsmiths, but very likely
ironworkers, smiths) has wrongly been applied to the Gipsies. For it is
important to note that at least three centuries before historical
evidence proves the immigration of the genuine Gipsy, there had been
wayfaring smiths, travelling from country to country, and practically
paving the way for their successors, the Gipsies, who not only took up
their crafts but who probably have also assimilated a good proportion of
these vagrants of the west of Europe. The name given to the former, who
probably were Oriental or Greek smiths and pedlars, was then transferred
to the new-comers. The Komodromoi mentioned by Theophanes (758-818), who
speaks under the date 554 of one hailing from Italy, and by other
Byzantine writers, are no doubt the same as the Chaltsmide of the German
writer of the 12th century translated by Ducange as _Chaudroneurs_. We
are on surer ground in the 14th century. Hopf has proved the existence
of Gipsies in Corfu before 1326. Before 1346 the empress Catherine de
Valois granted to the governor of Corfu authority to reduce to vassalage
certain vagrants who came from the mainland; and in 1386, under the
Venetians, they formed the Feudum Acindanorum, which lasted for many
centuries. About 1378 the Venetian governor of Nauplia confirmed to the
"Acingani" of that colony the privileges granted by his predecessor to
their leader John. It is even possible to identify the people described
by Friar Simon in his _Itinerarium_, who, speaking of his stay in Crete
in 1322, says: "We saw there a people outside the city who declare
themselves to be of the race of Ham and who worship according to the
Greek rite. They wander like a cursed people from place to place, not
stopping at all or rarely in one place longer than thirty days; they
live in tents like the Arabs, a little oblong black tent." But their
name is not mentioned, and although the similarity is great between
these "children of Ham" and the Gipsies, the identification has only the
value of an hypothesis. By the end of the 15th century they must have
been settled for a sufficiently long time in the Balkan Peninsula and
the countries north of the Danube, such as Transylvania and Walachia, to
have been reduced to the same state of serfdom as they evidently
occupied in Corfu in the second half of the 14th century. The voivode
Mircea I. of Walachia confirms the grant made by his uncle Vladislav
Voivode to the monastery of St Anthony of Voditsa as to forty families
of "Atsigane," for whom no taxes should be paid to the prince. They were
considered crown property. The same gift is renewed in the year 1424 by
the voivode Dan, who repeats the very same words (i Acigane, m, celiudi.
da su slobodni ot vstkih rabot i dankov) (Hajdau, _Arhiva_, i. 20). At
that time there must already have been in Walachia settled Gipsies
treated as serfs, and migrating Gipsies plying their trade as smiths,
musicians, dancers, soothsayers, horse-dealers, &c., for we find the
voivode Alexander of Moldavia granting these Gipsies in the year 1478
"freedom of air and soil to wander about and free fire and iron for
their smithy." But a certain portion, probably the largest, became
serfs, who could be sold, exchanged, bartered and inherited. It may be
mentioned here that in the 17th century a family when sold fetched forty
Hungarian florins, and in the 18th century the price was sometimes as
high as 700 Rumanian piastres, about L8, 10s. As late as 1845 an auction
of 200 families of Gipsies took place in Bucharest, where they were sold
in batches of no less than 5 families and offered at a "ducat" cheaper
per head than elsewhere. The Gipsies followed at least four distinct
pursuits in Rumania and Transylvania, where they lived in large masses.
A goodly proportion of them were tied to the soil; in consequence their
position was different from that of the Gipsies who had started
westwards and who are nowhere found to have obtained a permanent abode
for any length of time, or to have been treated, except for a very short
period, with any consideration of humanity.

Their appearance in the West is first noted by chroniclers early in the
15th century. In 1414 they are said to have already arrived in Hesse.
This date is contested, but for 1417 the reports are unanimous of their
appearance in Germany. Some count their number to have been as high as
1400, which of course is exaggeration. In 1418 they reached Hamburg,
1419 Augsburg, 1428 Switzerland. In 1427 they had already entered France
(Provence). A troupe is said to have reached Bologna in 1422, whence
they are said to have gone to Rome, on a pilgrimage alleged to have been
undertaken for some act of apostasy. After this first immigration a
second and larger one seems to have followed in its wake, led by Zumbel.
The Gipsies spread over Germany, Italy and France between the years 1438
and 1512. About 1500 they must have reached England. On the 5th of July
1505 James IV. of Scotland gave to "Antonius Gaginae," count of Little
Egypt, letters of recommendation to the king of Denmark; and special
privileges were granted by James V. on the 15th of February 1540 to
"oure louit johnne Faw Lord and Erle of Litill Egypt," to whose son and
successor he granted authority to hang and punish all Egyptians within
the realm (May 26, 1540).

It is interesting to hear what the first writers who witnessed their
appearance have to tell us; for ever since the Gipsies have remained the
same. Albert Krantzius (Krantz), in his _Saxonia_ (xi. 2), was the first
to give a full description, which was afterwards repeated by Munster in
his _Cosmographia_ (iii. 5). He says that in the year 1417 there
appeared for the first time in Germany a people uncouth, black, dirty,
barbarous, called in Italian "Ciani," who indulge specially in thieving
and cheating. They had among them a count and a few knights well
dressed, others followed afoot. The women and children travelled in
carts. They also carried with them letters of safe-conduct from the
emperor Sigismund and other princes, and they professed that they were
engaged on a pilgrimage of expiation for some act of apostasy.

The guilt of the Gipsies varies in the different versions of the story,
but all agree that the Gipsies asserted that they came from their own
country called "Litill Egypt," and they had to go to Rome, to obtain
pardon for that alleged sin of their forefathers. According to one
account it was because they had not shown mercy to Joseph and Mary when
they had sought refuge in Egypt from the persecution of Herod (_Basel
Chronicle_). According to another, because they had forsaken the
Christian faith for a while (_Rhaetia_, 1656), &c. But these were
fables, no doubt connected with the legend of Cartaphylus or the
Wandering Jew.

Krantz's narrative continues as follows: This people have no country and
travel through the land. They live like dogs and have no religion
although they allow themselves to be baptized in the Christian faith.
They live without care and gather unto themselves also other vagrants,
men and women. Their old women practise fortune-telling, and whilst they
are telling men of their future they pick their pockets. Thus far
Krantz. It is curious that he should use the name by which these people
were called in Italy, "Ciani." Similarly Crusius, the author of the
_Annales Suevici_, knows their Italian name _Zigani_ and the French
_Bohemiens_. Not one of these oldest writers mentions them as
coppersmiths or farriers or musicians. The immunity which they enjoyed
during their first appearance in western Europe is due to the letter of
safe-conduct of the emperor. As it is of extreme importance for the
history of civilization as well as the history of the Gipsies, it may
find a place here. It is taken from the compilation of Felix Oefelius,
_Rerum Boicarum scriptores_ (Augsburg, 1763), ii. 15, who reproduces the
"Diarium sexennale" of "Andreas Presbyter," the contemporary of the
first appearance of the Gipsies in Germany.

"Sigismundus Dei gratia Romanorum Rex semper Augustus, ac Hungariae,
Bohemiae, Dalmatiae, Croatiae, &c. Rex Fidelibus nostris universis
Nobilibus, Militibus, Castellanis, Officialibus, Tributariis,
civitatibus liberis, opidis et eorum iudicibus in Regno et sub domino
nostro constitutis ex existentibus salutem cum dilectione. Fideles
nostri adierunt in praesentiam personaliter Ladislaus Wayuoda Ciganorum
cum aliis ad ipsum spectantibus, nobis humilimas porrexerunt
supplicationes, huc in sepus in nostra praesentia supplicationum precum
cum instantia, ut ipsis gratia nostra uberiori providere dignaremur.
Unde nos illorum supplicatione illecti eisdem hanc libertatem duximus
concedendam, qua re quandocunque idem Ladislaus Wayuoda et sua gens ad
dicta nostra dominia videlicet civitates vel oppida pervenerint, ex tunc
vestris fidelitatibus praesentibus firmiter committimus et mandamus ut
eosdem Ladislaum Wayuodam et Ciganos sibi subiectos omni sine
impedimento ac perturbatione aliquali fovere ac conservare debeatis,
immo ab omnibus impetitionibus seu offensionibus tueri velitis: Si autem
inter ipsos aliqua Zizania seu perturbatio evenerit ex parte,
quorumcunque ex tunc non vos nec aliquis alter vestrum, sed idem
Ladislaus Wayuoda iudicandi et liberandi habeat facultatem. Praesentes
autem post earum lecturam semper reddi iubemus praesentanti.

"Datum in Sepus Dominica die ante festum St Georgii Martyris Anno Domini
MCCCCXXIII., Regnorum nostrorum anno Hungar. XXXVI., Romanorum vero
XII., Bohemiae tertio."

Freely translated this reads: "We Sigismund by the grace of God emperor
of Rome, king of Hungary, Bohemia, &c. unto all true and loyal subjects,
noble soldiers, commanders, castellans, open districts, free towns and
their judges in our kingdom established and under our sovereignty, kind
greetings. Our faithful voivode of the Tsigani with others belonging to
him has humbly requested us that we might graciously grant them our
abundant favour. We grant them their supplication, we have vouchsafed
unto them this liberty. Whenever therefore this voivode Ladislaus and
his people should come to any part of our realm in any town, village or
place, we commit them by these presents, strongly to your loyalty and we
command you to protect in every way the same voivode Ladislaus and the
Tsigani his subjects without hindrance, and you should show kindness
unto them and you should protect them from every trouble and
persecution. But should any trouble or discord happen among them from
whichever side it may be, then none of you nor anyone else belonging to
you should interfere, but this voivode Ladislaus alone should have the
right of punishing and pardoning. And we moreover command you to return
these presents always after having read them. Given in our court on
Sunday the day before the Feast of St George in the year of our Lord
1423. The 36th year of our kingdom of Hungary, the 12th of our being
emperor of Rome and the 3rd of our being king of Bohemia."

There is no reason to doubt the authenticity of this document, which is
in no way remarkable considering that at that time the Gipsies must have
formed a very considerable portion of the inhabitants of Hungary, whose
king Sigismund was. They may have presented the emperor's grant of
favours to Alexander prince of Moldavia in 1472, and obtained from him
safe-conduct and protection, as mentioned above.

No one has yet attempted to explain the reason why the Gipsies should
have started in the 14th and especially in the first half of the 15th
century on their march westwards. But if, as has been assumed above, the
Gipsies had lived for some length of time in Rumelia, and afterwards
spread thence across the Danube and the plains of Transylvania, the
incursion of the Turks into Europe, their successive occupation of those
very provinces, the overthrow of the Servian and Bulgarian kingdoms and
the dislocation of the native population, would account to a remarkable
degree for the movement of the Gipsies: and this movement increases in
volume with the greater successes of the Turks and with the peopling of
the country by immigrants from Asia Minor. The first to be driven from
their homes would no doubt be the nomadic element, which felt itself ill
at ease in its new surroundings, and found it more profitable first to
settle in larger numbers in Walachia and Transylvania and thence to
spread to the western countries of Europe. But their immunity from
persecution did not last long.

_Later History._--Less than fifty years from the time that they emerge
out of Hungary, or even from the date of the Charter of the emperor
Sigismund, they found themselves exposed to the fury and the prejudices
of the people whose good faith they had abused, whose purses they had
lightened, whose barns they had emptied, and on whose credulity they had
lived with ease and comfort. Their inborn tendency to roaming made them
the terror of the peasantry and the despair of every legislator who
tried to settle them on the land. Their foreign appearance, their
unknown tongue and their unscrupulous habits forced the legislators of
many countries to class them with rogues and vagabonds, to declare them
outlaws and felons and to treat them with extreme severity. More than
one judicial murder has been committed against them. In some places they
were suspected as Turkish spies and treated accordingly, and the
murderer of a Gipsy was often regarded as innocent of any crime.

Weissenbruch describes the wholesale murder of a group of Gipsies, of
whom five men were broken on the wheel, nine perished on the gallows,
and three men and eight women were decapitated. This took place on the
14th and 15th of November 1726. Acts and edicts were issued in many
countries from the end of the 15th century onwards sentencing the
"Egyptians" to exile under pain of death. Nor was this an empty threat.
In Edinburgh four "Faas" were hanged in 1611 "for abyding within the
kingdome, they being Egiptienis," and in 1636 at Haddington the
Egyptians were ordered "the men to be hangied and the weomen to be
drowned, and suche of the weomen as hes children to be scourgit throw
the burg and burnt in the cheeks." The burning on the cheek or on the
back was a common penalty. In 1692 four Estremadura Gipsies caught by
the Inquisition were charged with cannibalism and made to own that they
had eaten a friar, a pilgrim and even a woman of their own tribe, for
which they suffered the penalty of death. And as late as 1782, 45
Hungarian Gipsies were charged with a similar monstrous crime, and when
the supposed victims of a supposed murder could not be found on the spot
indicated by the Gipsies, they owned under torture and said on the rack,
"We ate them." Of course they were forthwith beheaded or hanged. The
emperor Joseph II., who was also the author of one of the first edicts
in favour of the Gipsies, and who abolished serfdom throughout the
Empire, ordered an inquiry into the incident; it was then discovered
that no murder had been committed, except that of the victims of this
monstrous accusation.

The history of the legal status of the Gipsies, of their treatment in
various countries and of the penalties and inflictions to which they
have been subjected, would form a remarkable chapter in the history of
modern civilization. The materials are slowly accumulating, and it is
interesting to note as one of the latest instances, that not further
back than the year 1907 a "drive" was undertaken in Germany against the
Gipsies, which fact may account for the appearance of some German
Gipsies in England in that year, and that in 1904 the Prussian Landtag
adopted unanimously a proposition to examine anew the question of
granting peddling licences to German Gipsies; that on the 17th of
February 1906 the Prussian minister issued special instructions to
combat the Gipsy nuisance; and that in various parts of Germany and
Austria a special register is kept for the tracing of the genealogy of
vagrant and sedentary Gipsy families.

Different has been the history of the Gipsies in what originally formed
the Turkish empire of Europe, notably in Rumania, i.e. Walachia and
Moldavia, and a careful search in the archives of Rumania would offer
rich materials for the history of the Gipsies in a country where they
enjoyed exceptional treatment almost from the beginning of their
settlement. They were divided mainly into two classes, (1) _Robi_ or
Serfs, who were settled on the land and deprived of all individual
liberty, being the property of the nobles and of churches or monastic
establishments, and (2) the Nomadic vagrants. They were subdivided into
four classes according to their occupation, such as the Lingurari
(woodcarvers; lit. "spoonmakers"), Caldarari (tinkers, coppersmiths and
ironworkers), Ursari (lit. "bear drivers") and Rudari (miners), also
called Aurari (gold-washers), who used formerly to wash the gold out of
the auriferous river-sands of Walachia. A separate and smaller class
consisted of the Gipsy _Laeshi_ or _Vatrashi_ (settled on a homestead or
"having a fireplace" of their own). Each _shatra_ or Gipsy community was
placed under the authority of a judge or leader, known in Rumania as
_jude_, in Hungary as _aga_; these officials were subordinate to the
_bulubasha_ or _voivod_, who was himself under the direct control of the
_yuzbasha_ (or governor appointed by the prince from among his nobles).
The _yuzbasha_ was responsible for the regular income to be derived from
the vagrant Gipsies, who were considered and treated as the prince's
property. These voivodi or yuzbashi who were not Gipsies by origin often
treated the Gipsies with great tyranny. In Hungary down to 1648 they
belonged to the aristocracy. The last Polish _Krolestvo cyganskie_ or
Gipsy king died in 1790. The _Robi_ could be bought and sold, freely
exchanged and inherited, and were treated as the negroes in America down
to 1856, when their final freedom in Moldavia was proclaimed. In Hungary
and in Transylvania the abolition of servitude in 1781-1782 carried with
it the freedom of the Gipsies. In the 18th and 19th centuries many
attempts were made to settle and to educate the roaming Gipsies; in
Austria this was undertaken by the empress Maria Theresa and the emperor
Francis II. (1761-1783), in Spain by Charles III. (1788). In Poland
(1791) the attempt succeeded. In England (1827) and in Germany (1830)
societies were formed for the reclamation of the Gipsies, but nothing
was accomplished in either case. In other countries, however, definite
progress was made. Since 1866 the Gipsies have become Rumanian citizens,
and the latest official statistics no longer distinguish between the
Rumanians and the Gipsies, who are becoming thoroughly assimilated,
forgetting their language, and being slowly absorbed by the native
population. In Bulgaria the Gipsies were declared citizens, enjoying
equal political rights in accordance with the treaty of Berlin in 1878,
but through an arbitrary interpretation they were deprived of that
right, and on the 6th of January 1906 the first Gipsy Congress was held
in Sofia, for the purpose of claiming political rights for the Turkish
Gipsies or Gopti as they call themselves. Ramadan Alief, the
_tzari-bashi_ (i.e. the head of the Gipsies in Sofia), addressed the
Gipsies assembled; they decided to protest and subsequently sent a
petition to the Sobranye, demanding the recognition of their political
rights. A curious reawakening, and an interesting chapter in the history
of this peculiar race.

_Origin and Language of the Gipsies._--The real key to their origin is,
however, the Gipsy language. The scientific study of that language began
in the middle of the 19th century with the work of Pott, and was brought
to a high state of perfection by Miklosich. From that time on monographs
have multiplied and minute researches have been carried on in many parts
of the world, all tending to elucidate the true origin of the Gipsy
language. It must remain for the time being an open question whether the
Gipsies were originally a pure race. Many a strange element has
contributed to swell their ranks and to introduce discordant elements
into their vocabulary. Ruediger (1782), Grellmann (1783) and Marsden
(1783) almost simultaneously and independently of one another came to
the same conclusion, that the language of the Gipsies, until then
considered a thieves' jargon, was in reality a language closely allied
with some Indian speech. Since then the two principal problems to be
solved have been, firstly, to which of the languages of India the
original Gipsy speech was most closely allied, and secondly, by which
route the people speaking that language had reached Europe and then
spread westwards. Despite the rapid increase in our knowledge of Indian
languages, no solution has yet been found to the first problem, nor is
it likely to be found. For the language of the Gipsies, as shown now by
recent studies of the Armenian Gipsies, has undergone such a profound
change and involves so many difficulties, that it is impossible to
compare the modern Gipsy with any modern Indian dialect owing to the
inner developments which the Gipsy language has undergone in the course
of centuries. All that is known, moreover, of the Gipsy language, and
all that rests on reliable texts, is quite modern, scarcely earlier than
the middle of the 19th century. Followed up in the various dialects into
which that language has split, it shows such a thorough change from
dialect to dialect, that except as regards general outlines and
principles of inflexion, nothing would be more misleading than to draw
conclusions from apparent similarities between Gipsy, or any Gipsy
dialect, and any Indian language; especially as the Gipsies must have
been separated from the Indian races for a much longer period than has
elapsed since their arrival in Europe and since the formation of their
European dialects. It must also be borne in mind that the Indian
languages have also undergone profound changes of their own, under
influences totally different from those to which the Gipsy language has
been subjected. The problem would stand differently if by any chance an
ancient vocabulary were discovered representing the oldest form of the
common stock from which the European dialects have sprung; for there can
be no doubt of the unity of the language of the European Gipsies. The
question whether Gipsy stands close to Sanskrit or Prakrit, or shows
forms more akin to Hindi dialects, specially those of the North-West
frontier, or Dardestan and Kafiristan, to which may be added now the
dialects of the Pisaca language (Grierson, 1906), is affected by the
fact established by Fink that the dialect of the Armenian Gipsies shows
much closer resemblance to Prakrit than the language of the European
Gipsies, and that the dialects of Gipsy spoken throughout Syria and Asia
Minor differ profoundly in every respect from the European Gipsy, taken
as a whole spoken. The only explanation possible is that the European
Gipsy represents the first wave of the Westward movement of an Indian
tribe or caste which, dislocated at a certain period by political
disturbances, had travelled through Persia, making a very short stay
there, thence to Armenia staying there a little longer, and then
possibly to the Byzantine Empire at an indefinite period between 1100
and 1200; and that another clan had followed in their wake, passing
through Persia, settling in Armenia and then going farther down to
Syria, Egypt and North Africa. These two tribes though of a common
remote Indian origin must, however, be kept strictly apart from one
another in our investigation, for they stand to each other in the same
relation as they stand to the various dialects in India. The linguistic
proof of origin can therefore now not go further than to establish the
fact that the Gipsy language is in its very essence an originally Indian
dialect, enriched in its vocabulary from the languages of the peoples
among whom the Gipsies had sojourned, whilst in its grammatical
inflection it has slowly been modified, to such an extent that in some
cases, like the English or the Servian, barely a skeleton has remained.

Notwithstanding the statements to the contrary, a Gipsy from Greece or
Rumania could no longer understand a Gipsy of England or Germany, so
profound is the difference. But the words which have entered into the
Gipsy language, borrowed as they were from the Greeks, Hungarians,
Rumanians, &c., are not only an indication of the route taken--and this
is the only use that has hitherto been made of the vocabulary--but they
are of the highest importance for fixing the time when the Gipsies had
come in contact with these languages. The absence of Arabic is a
positive proof that not only did the Gipsies not come via Arabia (as
maintained by De Goeje) before they reached Europe, but that they could
not even have been living for any length of time in Persia after the
Mahommedan conquest, or at any rate that they could not have come in
contact with such elements of the population as had already adopted
Arabic in addition to Persian. But the form of the Persian words found
among European Gipsies, and similarly the form of the Armenian words
found in that language, are a clear indication that the Gipsies could
not have come in contact with these languages before Persian had assumed
its modern form and before Armenian had been changed from the old to the
modern form of language. Still more strong and clear is the evidence in
the case of the Greek and Rumanian words. If the Gipsies had lived in
Greece, as some contend, from very ancient times, some at least of the
old Greek words would be found in their language, and similarly the
Slavonic words would be of an archaic character, whilst on the contrary
we find medieval Byzantine forms, nay, modern Greek forms, among the
Gipsy vocabulary collected from Gipsies in Germany or Italy, England or
France; a proof positive that they could not have been in Europe much
earlier than the approximate date given above of the 11th or 12th
century. We then find from a grammatical point of view the same
deterioration, say among the English or Spanish Gipsies, as has been
noticed in the Gipsy dialect of Armenia. It is no longer Gipsy, but a
corrupt English or Spanish adapted to some remnants of Gipsy
inflections. The purest form has been preserved among the Greek Gipsies
and to a certain extent among the Rumanian. Notably through Miklosich's
researches and comparative studies, it is possible to follow the slow
change step by step and to prove, at any rate, that, as far as Europe is
concerned, the language of these Gipsies was one and the same, and that
it was slowly split up into a number of dialects (13 Miklosich, 14
Colocci) which shade off into one another, and which by their
transitional forms mark the way in which the Gipsies have travelled, as
also proved by historical evidence. The Welsh dialect, known by few, has
retained, through its isolation, some of the ancient forms.

_Religion, Habits and Customs._--Those who have lived among the Gipsies
will readily testify that their religious views are a strange medley of
the local faith, which they everywhere embrace, and some old-world
superstitions which they have in common with many nations. Among the
Greeks they belong to the Greek Church, among the Mahommedans they are
Mahommedans, in Rumania they belong to the National Church. In Hungary
they are mostly Catholics, according to the faith of the inhabitants of
that country. They have no ethical principles and they do not recognize
the obligations of the Ten Commandments. There is extreme moral laxity
in the relation of the two sexes, and on the whole they take life
easily, and are complete fatalists. At the same time they are great
cowards, and they play the role of the fool or the jester in the popular
anecdotes of eastern Europe. There the poltroon is always a Gipsy, but
he is good-humoured and not so malicious as those Gipsies who had
endured the hardships of outlawry in the west of Europe.

There is nothing specifically of an Oriental origin in their religious
vocabulary, and the words _Devla_ (God), _Bang_ (devil) or _Trushul_
(Cross), in spite of some remote similarity, must be taken as later
adaptations, and not as remnants of an old Sky-worship or
Serpent-worship. In general their beliefs, customs, tales, &c. belong to
the common stock of general folklore, and many of their symbolical
expressions find their exact counterpart in Rumanian and modern Greek,
and often read as if they were direct translations from these languages.
Although they love their children, it sometimes happens that a Gipsy
mother will hold her child by the legs and beat the father with it. In
Rumania and Turkey among the settled Gipsies a good number are carriers
and bricklayers; and the women take their full share in every kind of
work, no matter how hard it may be. The nomadic Gipsies carry on the
ancient craft of coppersmiths, or workers in metal; they also make
sieves and traps, but in the East they are seldom farriers or
horse-dealers. They are far-famed for their music, in which art they are
unsurpassed. The Gipsy musicians belong mostly to the class who
originally were serfs. They were retained at the courts of the boyars
for their special talent in reciting old ballads and love songs and
their deftness in playing, notably the guitar and the fiddle. The former
was used as an accompaniment to the singing of either love ditties and
popular songs or more especially in recital or heroic ballads and epic
songs; the latter for dances and other amusements. They were the
troubadours and minstrels of eastern Europe; the largest collection of
Rumanian popular ballads and songs was gathered by G. Dem. Teodorescu
from a Gipsy minstrel, Petre Sholkan; and not a few of the songs of the
guslars among the Servians and other Slavonic nations in the Balkans
come also from the Gipsies. They have also retained the ancient tunes
and airs, from the dreamy "doina" of the Rumanian to the fiery "czardas"
of the Hungarian or the stately "hora" of the Bulgarian. Liszt went so
far as to ascribe to the Gipsies the origin of the Hungarian national
music. This is an exaggeration, as seen by the comparison of the Gipsy
music in other parts of south-east Europe; but they undoubtedly have
given the most faithful expression to the national temperament. Equally
famous is the Gipsy woman for her knowledge of occult practices. She is
the real witch; she knows charms to injure the enemy or to help a
friend. She can break the charm if made by others. But neither in the
one case nor in the other, and in fact as little as in their songs, do
they use the Gipsy language. It is either the local language of the
natives as in the case of charms, or a slightly Romanized form of Greek,
Rumanian or Slavonic. The old Gipsy woman is also known for her skill in
palmistry and fortune-telling by means of a special set of cards, the
well-known Tarok of the Gipsies. They have also a large stock of fairy
tales resembling in each country the local fairy tales, in Greece
agreeing with the Greek, and in Rumania with the Rumanian fairy tales.
It is doubtful, however, whether they have contributed to the
dissemination of these tales throughout Europe, for a large number of
Gipsy tales can be shown to have been known in Europe long before the
appearance of the Gipsies, and others are so much like those of other
nations that the borrowing may be by the Gipsy from the Greek, Slav or
Rumanian. It is, however, possible that playing-cards might have been
introduced to Europe through the Gipsies. The oldest reference to cards
is found in the Chronicle of Nicolaus of Cavellazzo, who says that the
cards were first brought into Viterbo in 1379 from the land of the
Saracens, probably from Asia Minor or the Balkans. They spread very
quickly, but no one has been able as yet to trace definitely the source
whence they were first brought. Without entering here into the history
of the playing-cards and of the different forms of the faces and of the
symbolical meaning of the different designs, one may assume safely that
the cards, before they were used for mere pastime or for gambling, may
originally have had a mystical meaning and been used as _sortes_ in
various combinations. To this very day the oldest form is known by the
hitherto unexplained name of Tarock, played in Bologna at the beginning
of the 15th century and retained by the French under the form Tarot,
connected direct with the Gipsies, "Le Tarot des Bohemiens." It was
noted above that the oldest chronicler (Presbyter) who describes the
appearance of the Gipsies in 1416 in Germany knows them by their Italian
name "Cianos," so evidently he must have known of their existence in
Italy previous to any date recorded hitherto anywhere, and it is
therefore not impossible that coming from Italy they brought with them
also their book of divination.

_Physical Characteristics._--As a race they are of small stature varying
in colour from the dark tan of the Arab to the whitish hue of the
Servian and the Pole. In fact there are some white-coloured Gipsies,
especially in Servia and Dalmatia, and these are often not easily
distinguishable from the native peoples, except that they are more lithe
and sinewy, better proportioned and more agile in their movements than
the thick-set Slavs and the mixed race of the Rumanians. By one feature,
however, they are easily distinguishable and recognize one another, viz.
by the lustre of their eyes and the whiteness of their teeth. Some are
well built; others have the features of a mongrel race, due no doubt to
intermarriage with outcasts of other races. The women age very quickly
and the mortality among the Gipsies is great, especially among children;
among adults it is chiefly due to pulmonary diseases. They love display
and Oriental showiness, bright-coloured dresses, ornaments, bangles,
&c.; red and green are the colours mostly favoured by the Gipsies in the
East. Along with a showy handkerchief or some shining gold coins round
their necks, they will wear torn petticoats and no covering on their
feet. And even after they have been assimilated and have forgotten their
own language they still retain some of the prominent features of their
character, such as the love of inordinate display and gorgeous dress;
and their moral defects not only remain for a long time as glaring as
among those who live the life of vagrants, but even become more
pronounced. The Gipsy of to-day is no longer what his forefathers have
been. The assimilation with the nations in the near East and the steps
taken for the suppression of vagrancy in the West, combine to
denationalize the Gipsy and to make "Romani Chib" a thing of the past.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The scientific study of the Gipsy language and its
  origin, as well as the critical history of the Gipsy race, dates (with
  the notable exception of Grellmann) almost entirely from Pott's
  researches in 1844.

  I. _Collections of Documents, &c._--Lists of older publications
  appeared in the books of Pott, Miklosich and the archduke Joseph; Pott
  adds a critical appreciation of the scientific value of the books
  enumerated. See also _Verzeichnis von Werken und Aufsatzen ... uber
  die Geschichte und Sprache der Zigeuner, &c._, 248 entries (Leipzig,
  1886); J. Tipray, "Adalekok a cziganyokrol szolo irodalomhoz," in
  _Magyar Konyvszemle_ (Budapest, 1877); Ch. G. Leland, _A Collection of
  Cuttings ... relating to Gypsies_ (1874-1891), bequeathed by him to
  the British Museum. See also the _Orientalischer Jahresbericht_, ed.
  Muller (Berlin, 1887 ff.).

  II. _History._--(a) The first appearance of the Gipsies in Europe.
  Sources: A. F. Oefelius, _Rerum Boicarum scriptores, &c._ (Augsburg,
  1763); M. Freher, _Andreae Presbyteri ... chronicon de ducibus
  Bavariae ..._ (1602); S. Munster, _Cosmographia ... &c._ (Basel,
  1545); J. Thurmaier, _Annalium Boiorum libri septem_, ed. T. Zieglerus
  (Ingolstad, 1554); M. Crusius, _Annales Suevici, &c._ (Frankfurt,
  1595-1596), _Schwabische Chronik ..._ (Frankfurt, 1733); A. Krantz,
  _Saxonia_ (Cologne, 1520); Simon Simeon, _Itineraria, &c._, ed. J.
  Nasmith (Cambridge, 1778). (b) Origin and spread of the Gipsies: H. M.
  G. Grellmann, _Die Zigeuner, &c._ (1st ed., Dessau and Leipzig, 1783;
  2nd ed., Gottingen, 1787); English by M. Roper (London, 1787; 2nd ed.,
  London, 1807), entitled _Dissertation on the Gipsies, &c._; Carl von
  Heister, _Ethnographische ... Notizen uber die Zigeuner_ (Konigsberg,
  1842), a third and greatly improved edition of Grellmann and the best
  book of its kind up to that date; A. F. Pott, _Die Zigeuner in Europa
  und Asien_ (2 vols., Halle, 1844-1845), the first scholarly work with
  complete and critical bibliography, detailed grammar, etymological
  dictionary and important texts; C. Hopf, _Die Einwanderung der
  Zigeuner in Europa_ (Gotha, 1870); F. von Miklosich, "Beitrage zur
  Kenntnis der Zigeuner-Mundarten," i.-iv., in _Sitzungsber. d. Wiener
  Akad. d. Wissenschaften_ (Vienna, 1874-1878), "Uber die Mundarten und
  die Wanderungen der Zigeuner Europas," i.-xii., in _Denkschriften d.
  Wiener Akad. d. Wissenschaften_ (1872-1880); M. J. de Goeje, _Bijdrage
  tot de geschiedenis der Zigeuners_ (Amsterdam, 1875), English
  translation by MacRitchie, _Account of the Gipsies of India_ (London,
  1886); Zedler, _Universal-Lexicon_, vol. lxii., s.v. "Zigeuner," pp.
  520-544 containing a rich bibliography; many publications of P.
  Bataillard from 1844 to 1885; A. Colocci, _Storia d' un popolo
  errante_, with illustrations, map and Gipsy-Ital. and Ital.-Gipsy
  glossaries (Turin, 1889); F. H. Groome, "The Gypsies," in E.
  Magnusson, _National Life and Thought_ (1891), and art. "Gipsies" in
  _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (9th ed., 1879); C. Amero, _Bohemiens,
  Tsiganes et Gypsies_ (Paris, 1895); M. Kogalnitschan, _Esquisse sur
  l'histoire, les moeurs et la langue des Cigains_ (Berlin, 1837; German
  trans., Stuttgart, 1840)--valuable more for the historical part than
  for the linguistic; J. Czacki, _Dziela_, vol. iii. (1844-1845)--for
  historic data about Gipsies in Poland; I. Kopernicki and J. Moyer,
  _Charakterystyka fizyczna ludrosci galicyjskiej_ (1876)--for the
  history and customs of Galician gipsies; _Ungarische statistische
  Mitteilungen_, vol. ix. (Budapest, 1895), containing the best
  statistical information on the Gipsies; V. Dittrich, A _nagy-idai
  cziganyok_ (Budapest, 1898); T. H. Schwicker, "Die Zigeuner in Ungarn
  u. Siebenburgen," in vol. xii. of _Die Volker Osterreich-Ungarns_
  (Vienna, 1883), and in _Mitteilungen d. K. K. geographischen
  Gesellschaft_ (Vienna, 1896); Dr J. Polek, _Die Zigeuner in der
  Bukowina_ (Czernowitz, 1908); Ficker, "Die Zigeuner der Bukowina," in
  _Statist. Monatschrift_, v. 6, _Hundert Jahre 1775-1875: Zigeuner in
  d. Bukowina_ (Vienna, 1875), _Die Volkerstamme der osterr.-ungar.
  Monarchie, &c._ (Vienna, 1869); V. S. Morwood, _Our Gipsies_ (London,
  1885); D. MacRitchie, _Scottish Gypsies under the Stewarts_
  (Edinburgh, 1894); F. A. Coelho, "Os Ciganos de Portugal," in _Bol.
  Soc. Geog._ (Lisbon, 1892); A. Dumbarton, _Gypsy Life in the Mysore
  Jungle_ (London, 1902).

  III. _Linguistic._--[Armenia], F. N. Finck, "Die Sprache der
  armenischen Zigeuner," in _Memoires de l'Acad. Imp. des Sciences_,
  viii. (St Petersburg, 1907). [Austria-Hungary], R. von Sowa, _Die
  Mundart der slovakischen Zigeuner_ (Gottingen, 1887), and _Die
  mahrische Mundart der Romsprache_ (Vienna, 1893); A. J. Puchmayer,
  _Romani Cib_ (Prague, 1821); P. Josef Jesina, _Romani Cib_ (in Czech,
  1880; in German, 1886); G. Ihnatko, _Czigany nyelvtan_ (Losoncon,
  1877); A. Kalina, _La Langue des Tsiganes slovaques_ (Posen, 1882);
  the archduke Joseph, _Czigany nyelvtan_ (Budapest, 1888); H. von
  Wlislocki, _Die Sprache der transsilvanischen Zigeuner_ (Leipzig,
  1884). [Brazil], A. T. de Mello Moraes, _Os ciganos no Brazil_ (Rio de
  Janeiro, 1886). [France, the Basques], A. Baudrimont, _Vocabulaire de
  la langue des Bohemiens habitant les pays basques-francais_ (Bordeaux,
  1862). [Germany], R. Pischel, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis der deutschen
  Zigeuner_ (Halle, 1894); R. von Sowa, "Worterbuch des Dialekts der
  deutschen Zigeuner," in _Abhandlungen f. d. Kunde d. Morgenlandes_,
  xi. 1, very valuable (Leipzig, 1898); F. N. Finck, _Lehrbuch des
  Dialekts der deutschen Zigeuner_--very valuable (Marburg, 1903).
  [Great Britain, &c.], Ch. G. Leland, _The English Gipsies and their
  Language_ (London and New York, 1873; 2nd ed., 1874), _The Gipsies of
  Russia, Austria, England, America, &c._ (London, 1882)--the validity
  of Leland's conclusions is often doubtful; B. C. Smart and H. J.
  Crofton, _The Dialect of the English Gypsies_ (2nd ed., London, 1875);
  G. Borrow, _Romano lavo-lil_ (London, 1874, 1905), _Lavengro_, ed. F.
  H. Groome (London, 1899). [Rumania], B. Constantinescu, _Probe de
  Limba si literatura Tiganilor din Romania_ (Bucharest, 1878). [Russia,
  Bessarabia], O. Boethlingk, _Uber die Sprache der Zigeuner in
  Russland_ (St Petersburg, 1852; supplement, 1854). [Russia, Caucasus],
  K. Badganian, _Cygany. Neskoliko slovu o narecijahu zakavkazskihu
  cyganu_ (St Petersburg, 1887); Istomin, _Ciganskij Jazyku_ (1900).
  [Spain], G. H. Borrow, _The Zincali, or an Account of the Gipsies of
  Spain_ (London, 1841, and numerous later editions); R. Campuzano,
  _Origen ... de los Gitanos, y diccionario de su dialecto_ (2nd ed.,
  Madrid, 1857); A. de C., _Diccionario del dialecto gitano, &c._
  (Barcelona, 1851); M. de Sales y Guindale, _Historia, costumbres y
  dialecto de los Gitanos_ (Madrid, 1870); M. de Sales, _El Gitanismo_
  (Madrid, 1870); J. Tineo Rebolledo, _"A Chipicalli" la lengua gitana:
  diccionario gitano-espanol_ (Granada, 1900). [Turkey], A. G. Paspati,
  _Etudes sur les Tchinghianes, ou Bohemiens de l'empire ottoman_
  (Constantinople, 1870), with grammar, vocabulary, tales and French
  glossary; very important. [General], John Sampson, "Gypsy Language and
  Origin," in _Journ. Gypsy Lore Soc._ vol. i. (2nd ser., Liverpool,
  1907); J. A. Decourdemanche, _Grammaire du Tchingane, &c._ (Paris,
  1908)--fantastic in some of its philology; F. Kluge, _Rotwelsche
  Quellen_ (Strassburg, 1901); L. Gunther, _Das Rotwelsch des deutschen
  Gauners_ (Leipzig, 1905), for the influence of Gipsy on argot; L.
  Besses, _Diccionario de argot espanol_ (Barcelona); G. A. Grierson,
  _The Pi'saca Languages of North-Western India_ (London, 1906), for
  parallels in Indian dialects; G. Borrow, _Criscote e majaro Lucas ...
  El evangelio segun S. Lucas ..._ (London, 1837; 2nd ed., 1872)--this
  is the only complete translation of any one of the gospels into Gipsy.
  For older fragments of such translations, see Pott ii. 464-521.

  IV. _Folklore, Tales, Songs, &c._--Many songs and tales are found in
  the books enumerated above, where they are mostly accompanied by
  literal translations. See also Ch. G. Leland, E. H. Palmer and T.
  Tuckey, _English Gipsy Songs in Romany, with Metrical English
  Translation_ (London, 1875); G. Smith, _Gipsy Life, &c._ (London,
  1880); M. Rosenfeld, _Lieder der Zigeuner_ (1882); Ch. G. Leland, _The
  Gypsies_ (Boston, Mass., 1882), _Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune-Telling_
  (London, 1891); H. von Wlislocki, _Marchen und Sagen der
  transsilvanischen Zigeuner_ (Berlin, 1886)--containing 63 tales, very
  freely translated; _Volksdichtungen der siebenburgischen und
  sudungarischen Zigeuner_ (Vienna, 1890)--songs, ballads, charms,
  proverbs and 100 tales; _Vom wandernden Zigeunervolke_ (Hamburg,
  1890); _Wesen und Wirkungskreis der Zauberfrauen bei den
  siebenburgischen Zigeuner_ (1891); "Aus dem inneren Leben der
  Zigeuner," in _Ethnologische Mitteilungen_ (Berlin, 1892); R. Pischel,
  _Bericht uber Wlislocki vom wandernden Zigeunervolke_ (Gottingen,
  1890)--a strong criticism of Wlislocki's method, &c.; F. H. Groome,
  _Gypsy Folk-Tales_ (London, 1899), with historical introduction and a
  complete and trustworthy collection of 76 gipsy tales from many
  countries; Katada, _Contes gitanos_ (Logrono, 1907); M. Gaster,
  _Zigeunermarchen aus Rumanien_ (1881); "Tiganii, &c.," in _Revista
  pentru Istorie, &c._, i. p. 469 ff. (Bucharest, 1883); "Gypsy
  Fairy-Tales" in _Folklore_. The _Journal of the Gipsy-Lore Society_
  (Edinburgh, 1888-1892) was revived in Liverpool in 1907.

  V. _Legal Status._--A few of the books in which the legal status of
  the Gipsies (either alone or in conjunction with "vagrants") is
  treated from a juridical point of view are here mentioned, also the
  history of the trial in 1726. J. B. Weissenbruch, _Ausfuhrliche
  Relation von der famosen Zigeuner-Diebes-Mord und Rauber_ (Frankfurt
  and Leipzig, 1727); A. Ch. Thomasius, _Tractatio juridica de
  vagabundo, &c._ (Leipzig, 1731); F. Ch. B. Ave-Lallemant, _Das
  deutsche Gaunertum, &c._ (Leipzig, 1858-1862); V. de Rochas, _Les
  Parias de France et d'Espagne_ (Paris, 1876); P. Chuchul, _Zum Kampfe
  gegen Landstreicher und Bettler_ (Kassel, 1881); R. Breithaupt, _Die
  Zigeuner und der deutsche Staat_ (Wurzburg, 1907); G. Steinhausen,
  _Geschichte der deutschen Kultur_ (Leipzig and Vienna, 1904).
       (M. G.)




GIRAFFE, a corruption of _Zarafah_, the Arabic name for the tallest of
all mammals, and the typical representative of the family _Giraffidae_,
the distinctive characters of which are given in the article PECORA,
where the systematic position of the group is indicated. The classic
term "camelopard," probably introduced when these animals were brought
from North Africa to the Roman amphitheatre, has fallen into complete
disuse.

In common with the okapi, giraffes have skin-covered horns on the head,
but in these animals, which form the genus _Giraffa_, these appendages
are present in both sexes; and there is often an unpaired one in advance
of the pair on the forehead. Among other characteristics of these
animals may be noticed the great length of the neck and limbs, the
complete absence of lateral toes and the long and tufted tail. The
tongue is remarkable for its great length, measuring about 17 in. in the
dead animal, and for its great elasticity and power of muscular
contraction while living. It is covered with numerous large papillae,
and forms, like the trunk of the elephant, an admirable organ for the
examination and prehension of food. Giraffes are inhabitants of open
country, and owing to their length of neck and long flexible tongues are
enabled to browse on tall trees, mimosas being favourites. To drink or
graze they are obliged to straddle the fore-legs apart; but they seldom
feed on grass and are capable of going long without water. When standing
among mimosas they so harmonize with their surroundings that they are
difficult of detection. Formerly giraffes were found in large herds, but
persecution has reduced their number and led to their extermination from
many districts. Although in late Tertiary times widely spread over
southern Europe and India, giraffes are now confined to Africa south of
the Sahara.

Apart from the distinct Somali giraffe (_Giraffa reticulata_),
characterized by its deep liver-red colour marked with a very coarse
network of fine white lines, there are numerous local forms of the
ordinary giraffe (_Giraffa camelopardalis_). The northern races, such as
the Nubian _G. c. typica_ and the Kordofan _G. c. antiquorum_, are
characterized by the large frontal horn of the bulls, the white legs,
the network type of coloration and the pale tint. The latter feature is
specially developed in the Nigerian _G. c. peralta_, which is likewise
of the northern type. The Baringo _G. c. rothschildi_ also has a large
frontal horn and white legs, but the spots in the bulls are very dark
and those of the females jagged. In the Kilimanjaro _G. c.
tippelskirchi_ the frontal horn is often developed in the bulls, but
the legs are frequently spotted to the fetlocks. Farther south the
frontal horn tends to disappear more or less completely, as in the
Angola _G. c. angolensis_, the Transvaal _G. c. wardi_ and the Cape _G.
c. capensis_, while the legs are fully spotted and the colour-pattern on
the body (especially in the last-named) is more of a blotched type, that
is to say, consists of dark blotches on a fawn ground, instead of a
network of light lines on a dark ground.

[Illustration: The North African or Nubian Giraffe (_Giraffa
camelopardalis_).]

  For details, see a paper on the subspecies of _Giraffa
  camelopardalis_, by R. Lydekker in the _Proceedings of the Zoological
  Society of London_ for 1904.     (R. L.*)




GIRALDI, GIGLIO GREGORIO [LILIUS GREGORIUS GYRALDUS] (1479-1552),
Italian scholar and poet, was born on the 14th of June 1479, at Ferrara,
where he early distinguished himself by his talents and acquirements. On
the completion of his literary course he removed to Naples, where he
lived on familiar terms with Jovianus Pontanus and Sannazaro; and
subsequently to Lombardy, where he enjoyed the favour of the Mirandola
family. At Milan in 1507 he studied Greek under Chalcondylas; and
shortly afterwards, at Modena, he became tutor to Ercole (afterwards
Cardinal) Rangone. About the year 1514 he removed to Rome, where, under
Clement VII., he held the office of apostolic protonotary; but having in
the sack of that city (1527), which almost coincided with the death of
his patron Cardinal Rangone, lost all his property, he returned in
poverty once more to Mirandola, whence again he was driven by the
troubles consequent on the assassination of the reigning prince in 1533.
The rest of his life was one long struggle with ill-health, poverty and
neglect; and he is alluded to with sorrowful regret by Montaigne in one
of his _Essais_ (i. 34), as having, like Sebastian Castalio, ended his
days in utter destitution. He died at Ferrara in February 1552; and his
epitaph makes touching and graceful allusion to the sadness of his end.
Giraldi was a man of very extensive erudition; and numerous testimonies
to his profundity and accuracy have been given both by contemporary and
by later scholars. His _Historia de diis gentium_ marked a distinctly
forward step in the systematic study of classical mythology; and by his
treatises _De annis et mensibus_, and on the _Calendarium Romanum et
Graecum_, he contributed to bring about the reform of the calendar,
which was ultimately effected by Pope Gregory XIII. His _Progymnasma
adversus literas et literatos_ deserves mention at least among the
curiosities of literature; and among his other works to which reference
is still occasionally made are _Historiae poetarum Graecorum ac
Latinorum_; _De poetis suorum temporum_; and _De sepultura ac vario
sepeliendi ritu_. Giraldi was also an elegant Latin poet.

  His _Opera omnia_ were published at Leiden in 1696.




GIRALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1504-1573), surnamed CYNTHIUS, CINTHIO or
CINTIO, Italian novelist and poet, born at Ferrara in November 1504, was
educated at the university of his native town, where in 1525 he became
professor of natural philosophy, and, twelve years afterwards, succeeded
Celio Calcagnini in the chair of belles-lettres. Between 1542 and 1560
he acted as private secretary, first to Ercole II. and afterwards to
Alphonso II. of Este; but having, in connexion with a literary quarrel
in which he had got involved, lost the favour of his patron in the
latter year, he removed to Mondovi, where he remained as a teacher of
literature till 1568. Subsequently, on the invitation of the senate of
Milan, he occupied the chair of rhetoric at Pavia till 1573, when, in
search of health, he returned to his native town, where on the 30th of
December he died. Besides an epic entitled _Ercole_ (1557), in
twenty-six cantos, Giraldi wrote nine tragedies, the best known of
which, _Orbecche_, was produced in 1541. The sanguinary and disgusting
character of the plot of this play, and the general poverty of its
style, are, in the opinion of many of its critics, almost fully redeemed
by occasional bursts of genuine and impassioned poetry; of one scene in
the third act in particular it has even been affirmed that, if it alone
were sufficient to decide the question, the _Orbecche_ would be the
finest play in the world. Of the prose works of Giraldi the most
important is the _Hecatommithi_ or _Ecatomiti_, a collection of tales
told somewhat after the manner of Boccaccio, but still more closely
resembling the novels of Giraldi's contemporary Bandello, only much
inferior in workmanship to the productions of either author in vigour,
liveliness and local colour. Something, but not much, however, may be
said in favour of their professed claim to represent a higher standard
of morality. Originally published at Monteregale, Sicily, in 1565, they
were frequently reprinted in Italy, while a French translation by
Chappuys appeared in 1583 and one in Spanish in 1590. They have a
peculiar interest to students of English literature, as having
furnished, whether directly or indirectly, the plots of _Measure for
Measure_ and _Othello_. That of the latter, which is to be found in the
_Hecatommithi_ (iii. 7), is conjectured to have reached Shakespeare
through the French translation; while that of the former (_Hecat._ viii.
5) is probably to be traced to Whetstone's _Promos and Cassandra_
(1578), an adaptation of Cinthio's story, and to his _Heptamerone_
(1582), which contains a direct English translation. To Giraldi also
must be attributed the plot of Beaumont and Fletcher's _Custom of the
Country_.




GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS (1146?-1220), medieval historian, also called GERALD
DE BARRI, was born in Pembrokeshire. He was the son of William de Barri
and Augharat, a daughter of Gerald, the ancestors of the Fitzgeralds and
the Welsh princess, Nesta, formerly mistress of King Henry I. Falling
under the influence of his uncle, David Fitzgerald, bishop of St
David's, he determined to enter the church. He studied at Paris, and his
works show that he had applied himself closely to the study of the Latin
poets. In 1172 he was appointed to collect tithe in Wales, and showed
such vigour that he was made archdeacon. In 1176 an attempt was made to
elect him bishop of St David's, but Henry II. was unwilling to see any
one with powerful native connexions a bishop in Wales. In 1180, after
another visit to Paris, he was appointed commissiary to the bishop of St
David's, who had ceased to reside. But Giraldus threw up his post,
indignant at the indifference of the bishop to the welfare of his see.
In 1184 he was made one of the king's chaplains, and was elected to
accompany Prince John on his voyage to Ireland. While there he wrote a
_Topographia Hibernica_, which is full of information, and a strongly
prejudiced history of the conquest, the _Expugnatio Hibernica_. In 1186
he read his work with great applause before the masters and scholars of
Oxford. In 1188 he was sent into Wales with the primate Baldwin to
preach the Third Crusade. Giraldus declares that the mission was highly
successful; in any case it gave him the material for his _Itinerarium
Cambrense_, which is, after the _Expugnatio_, his best known work. He
accompanied the archbishop, who intended him to be the historian of the
Crusade, to the continent, with the intention of going to the Holy Land.
But in 1189 he was sent back to Wales by the king, who knew his
influence was great, to keep order among his countrymen. Soon after he
was absolved from his crusading vow. According to his own statements,
which often tend to exaggeration, he was offered both the sees of Bangor
and Llandaff, but refused them. From 1192 to 1198 he lived in retirement
at Lincoln and devoted himself to literature. It is probably during this
period that he wrote the _Gemma ecclesiastica_ (discussing disputed
points of doctrine, ritual, &c.) and the _Vita S. Remigii_. In 1198 he
was elected bishop of St David's. But Hubert Walter, the archbishop of
Canterbury, was determined to have in that position no Welshman who
would dispute the metropolitan pretensions of the English primates. The
king, for political reasons, supported Hubert Walter. For four years
Giraldus exerted himself to get his election confirmed, and to vindicate
the independence of St David's from Canterbury. He went three times to
Rome. He wrote the _De jure Meneviensis ecclesiae_ in support of the
claims of his diocese. He made alliances with the princes of North and
South Wales. He called a general synod of his diocese. He was accused of
stirring up rebellion among the Welsh, and the justiciar proceeded
against him. At length in 1202 the pope annulled all previous elections,
and ordered a new one. The prior of Llanthony was finally elected.
Gerald was immediately reconciled to the king and archbishop; the utmost
favour was shown to him; even the expenses of his unsuccessful election
were paid. He spent the rest of his life in retirement, though there was
some talk of his being made a cardinal. He certainly survived John.

The works of Giraldus are partly polemical and partly historical. His
value as a historian is marred by his violent party spirit; some of his
historical tracts, such as the _Liber de instructione principum_ and the
_Vita Galfridi Archiepiscopi Eborecensis_, seem to have been designed as
political pamphlets. Henry II., Hubert Walter and William Longchamp, the
chancellor of Richard I., are the objects of his worst invectives. His
own pretensions to the see of St David are the motive of many of his
misrepresentations. But he is one of the most vivid and witty of our
medieval historians.

  See the Rolls edition of his works, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimock and
  G. F. Warner in 8 vols. (London, 1861-1891), some of which have
  valuable introductions.




GIRANDOLE (from the Ital. _girandola_), an ornamental branched
candlestick of several lights. It came into use about the second half of
the 17th century, and was commonly made and used in pairs. It has always
been, comparatively speaking, a luxurious appliance for lighting, and in
the great 18th-century period of French house decoration the famous
_ciseleurs_ designed some exceedingly beautiful examples. A great
variety of metals has been used for the purpose--sometimes, as in the
case of the candlestick, girandoles have been made in hard woods. Gilded
bronze has been a very frequent medium, but for table purposes silver is
still the favourite material.




GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE [known as "Le Pere Girard" or "Le Pere Gregoire"]
(1765-1850), French-Swiss educationalist, was born at Fribourg and
educated for the priesthood at Lucerne. He was the fifth child in a
family of fourteen, and his gift for teaching was early shown at home in
helping his mother with the younger children; and after passing through
his noviciate he spent some time as an instructor in convents, notably
at Wurzburg (1785-1788). Then for ten years he was busy with religious
duty. In 1798, full of Kantian ideas, he published an essay outlining a
scheme of national Swiss education; and in 1804 he began his career as a
public teacher, first in the elementary school at Fribourg (1805-1823),
then (being driven away by Jesuit hostility) in the gymnasium at Lucerne
till 1834, when he retired to Fribourg and devoted himself with the
production of his books on education, _De l'enseignement regulier de la
langue maternelle_ (1834, 9th ed. 1894; Eng. trans. by Lord Ebrington,
_The Mother Tongue_, 1847), and _Cours educatif_ (1844-1846). Father
Girard's reputation and influence as an enthusiast in the cause of
education became potent not only in Switzerland, where he was hailed as
a second Pestalozzi, but in other countries. He had a genius for
teaching, his method of stimulating the intelligence of the children at
Fribourg and interesting them actively in learning, and not merely
cramming them with rules and facts, being warmly praised by the Swiss
educationalist Francois Naville (1784-1846) in his treatise on public
education (1832). His undogmatic method and his Liberal Christianity
brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, but his aim was, in all his
teaching, to introduce the moral idea into the minds of his pupils by
familiarizing them with the right or wrong working of the facts he
brought to their attention, and thus to elevate character all through
the educational curriculum.




GIRARD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE (1775-1845), French mechanician, was born at
Lourmarin, Vaucluse, on the 1st of February 1775. He is chiefly known in
connexion with flax-spinning machinery. Napoleon having in 1810 decreed
a reward of one million francs to the inventor of the best machine for
spinning flax, Girard succeeded in producing what was required. But he
never received the promised reward, although in 1853, after his death, a
comparatively small pension was voted to his heirs, and having relied on
the money to pay the expenses of his invention he got into serious
financial difficulties. He was obliged, in 1815, to abandon the flax
mills he had established in France, and at the invitation of the emperor
of Austria founded a flax mill and a factory for his machines at
Hirtenberg. In 1825, at the invitation of the emperor Alexander I. of
Russia, he went to Poland, and erected near Warsaw a flax manufactory,
round which grew up a village which received the name of Girardow. In
1818 he built a steamer to run on the Danube. He did not return to Paris
till 1844, where he still found some of his old creditors ready to press
their claims, and he died in that city on the 26th of August 1845. He
was also the author of numerous minor inventions.




GIRARD, STEPHEN (1750-1831), American financier and philanthropist,
founder of Girard College in Philadelphia, was born in a suburb of
Bordeaux, France, on the 20th of May 1750. He lost the sight of his
right eye at the age of eight and had little education. His father was a
sea captain, and the son cruised to the West Indies and back during
1764-1773, was licensed captain in 1773, visited New York in 1774, and
thence with the assistance of a New York merchant began to trade to and
from New Orleans and Port au Prince. In May 1776 he was driven into the
port of Philadelphia by a British fleet and settled there as a merchant;
in June of the next year he married Mary (Polly) Lum, daughter of a
shipbuilder, who, two years later, after Girard's becoming a citizen of
Pennsylvania (1778), built for him the "Water Witch," the first of a
fleet trading with New Orleans and the West Indies--most of Girard's
ships being named after his favourite French authors, such as
"Rousseau," "Voltaire," "Helvetius" and "Montesquieu." His beautiful
young wife became insane and spent the years from 1790 to her death in
1815 in the Pennsylvania Hospital. In 1810 Girard used about a million
dollars deposited by him with the Barings of London for the purchase of
shares of the much depreciated stock of the Bank of the United States--a
purchase of great assistance to the United States government in
bolstering European confidence in its securities. When the Bank was not
rechartered the building and the cashier's house in Philadelphia were
purchased at a third of the original cost by Girard, who in May 1812
established the Bank of Stephen Girard. He subscribed in 1814 for about
95% of the government's war loan of $5,000,000, of which only $20,000
besides had been taken, and he generously offered at par shares which
upon his purchase had gone to a premium. He pursued his business
vigorously in person until the 12th of February 1830, when he was
injured in the street by a truck; he died on the 26th of December 1831.
His public spirit had been shown during his life not only financially
but personally; in 1793, during the plague of yellow fever in
Philadelphia, he volunteered to act as manager of the wretched hospital
at Bush Hill, and with the assistance of Peter Helm had the hospital
cleansed and its work systematized; again during the yellow fever
epidemic of 1797-1798 he took the lead in relieving the poor and caring
for the sick. Even more was his philanthropy shown in his disposition by
will of his estate, which was valued at about $7,500,000, and doubtless
the greatest fortune accumulated by any individual in America up to that
time. Of his fortune he bequeathed $116,000 to various Philadelphia
charities, $500,000 to the same city for the improvement of the Delaware
water front, $300,000 to Pennsylvania for internal improvements, and the
bulk of his estate to Philadelphia, to be used in founding a school or
college, in providing a better police system, and in making municipal
improvements and lessening taxation. Most of his bequest to the city was
to be used for building and maintaining a school "to provide for such a
number of poor male white orphan children ... a better education as well
as a more comfortable maintenance than they usually receive from the
application of the public funds." His will planned most minutely for the
erection of this school, giving details as to the windows, doors, walls,
&c.; and it contained the following phrase: "I enjoin and require that
no ecclesiastic, missionary or minister of any sect whatsoever, shall
ever hold or exercise any duty whatsoever in the said college; nor shall
any such person ever be admitted for any purpose, or as a visitor,
within the premises appropriated to the purposes of the said college....
I desire to keep the tender minds of orphans ... free from the
excitements which clashing doctrines and sectarian controversy are so
apt to produce." Girard's heirs-at-law contested the will in 1836, and
they were greatly helped by a public prejudice aroused by the clause
cited; in the Supreme Court of the United States in 1844 Daniel Webster,
appearing for the heirs, made a famous plea for the Christian religion,
but Justice Joseph Story handed down an opinion adverse to the heirs
(_Vidals_ v. _Girard's Executors_). Webster was opposed in this suit by
John Sergeant and Horace Binney. Girard specified that those admitted to
the college must be white male orphans, of legitimate birth and good
character, between the ages of six and ten; that no boy was to be
permitted to stay after his eighteenth year; and that as regards
admissions preference was to be shown, first to orphans born in
Philadelphia, second to orphans born in any other part of Pennsylvania,
third to orphans born in New York City, and fourth to orphans born in
New Orleans. Work upon the buildings was begun in 1833, and the college
was opened on the 1st of January 1848, a technical point of law making
instruction conditioned upon the completion of the five buildings, of
which the principal one, planned by Thomas Ustick Walter (1804-1887),
has been called "the most perfect Greek temple in existence." To a
sarcophagus in this main building the remains of Stephen Girard were
removed in 1851. In the 40 acres of the college grounds there were in
1909 18 buildings (valued at $3,350,000), 1513 pupils, and a total
"population," including students, teachers and all employes, of 1907.
The value of the Girard estate in the year 1907 was $35,000,000, of
which $550,000 was devoted to other charities than Girard College. The
control of the college was under a board chosen by the city councils
until 1869, when by act of the legislature it was transferred to
trustees appointed by the Common Pleas judges of the city of
Philadelphia. The course of training is partly industrial--for a long
time graduates were indentured till they came of age--but it is also
preparatory to college entrance.

  See H. A. Ingram, _The Life and Character of Stephen Girard_
  (Philadelphia, 1884), and George P. Rupp, "Stephen Girard--Merchant
  and Mariner," in _1848-1898: Semi-Centennial of Girard College_
  (Philadelphia, 1898).




GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE (1804-1855), French author, was born at
Aix-la-Chapelle on the 26th of January 1804. Her mother, the well-known
Madame Sophie Gay, brought her up in the midst of a brilliant literary
society. She published two volumes of miscellaneous pieces, _Essais
poetiques_ (1824) and _Nouveaux Essais poetiques_ (1825). A visit to
Italy in 1827, during which she was enthusiastically welcomed by the
literati of Rome and even crowned in the capitol, was productive of
various poems, of which the most ambitious was _Napoline_ (1833). Her
marriage in 1831 to Emile de Girardin (see below) opened up a new
literary career. The contemporary sketches which she contributed from
1836 to 1839 to the feuilleton of _La Presse_, under the _nom de plume_
of Charles de Launay, were collected under the title of _Lettres
parisiennes_ (1843), and obtained a brilliant success. _Contes d'une
vieille fille a ses neveux_ (1832), _La Canne de Monsieur de Balzac_
(1836) and _Il ne faut pas jouer avec la douleur_ (1853) are among the
best-known of her romances; and her dramatic pieces in prose and verse
include _L'Ecole des journalistes_ (1840), _Judith_ (1843), _Cleopatre_
(1847), _Lady Tartufe_ (1853), and the one-act comedies, _C'est la faute
du mari_ (1851), _La Joie fait peur_ (1854), _Le Chapeau d'un horloger_
(1854) and _Une Femme qui deteste son mari_, which did not appear till
after the author's death. In the literary society of her time Madame
Girardin exercised no small personal influence, and among the
frequenters of her drawing-room were Theophile Gautier and Balzac,
Alfred de Musset and Victor Hugo. She died on the 29th of June 1855. Her
collected works were published in six volumes (1860-1861).

  See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. iii.; G. de Molenes, "Les
  Femmes poetes," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (July 1842); Taxile Delord,
  _Les Matinees litteraires_ (1860); _L'Esprit de Madame Girardin, avec
  une preface par M. Lamartine_ (1862); G. d'Heilly, _Madame de
  Girardin, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1868); Imbert de Saint Amand, _Mme
  de Girardin_ (1875).




GIRARDIN, EMILE DE (1802-1881), French publicist, was born, not in
Switzerland in 1806 of unknown parents, but (as was recognized in 1837)
in Paris in 1802, the son of General Alexandre de Girardin and of Madame
Dupuy, wife of a Parisian advocate. His first publication was a novel,
_Emile_, dealing with his birth and early life, and appeared under the
name of Girardin in 1827. He became inspector of fine arts under the
Martignac ministry just before the revolution of 1830, and was an
energetic and passionate journalist. Besides his work on the daily press
he issued miscellaneous publications which attained an enormous
circulation. His _Journal des connaissances utiles_ had 120,000
subscribers, and the initial edition of his _Almanach de France_ (1834)
ran to a million copies. In 1836 he inaugurated cheap journalism in a
popular Conservative organ, _La Presse_, the subscription to which was
only forty francs a year. This undertaking involved him in a duel with
Armand Carrel, the fatal result of which made him refuse satisfaction to
later opponents. In 1839 he was excluded from the Chamber of Deputies,
to which he had been four times elected, on the plea of his foreign
birth, but was admitted in 1842. He resigned early in February 1847, and
on the 24th of February 1848 sent a note to Louis Philippe demanding his
resignation and the regency of the duchess of Orleans. In the
Legislative Assembly he voted with the Mountain. He pressed eagerly in
his paper for the election of Prince Louis Napoleon, of whom he
afterwards became one of the most violent opponents. In 1856 he sold _La
Presse_, only to resume it in 1862, but its vogue was over, and Girardin
started a new journal, _La Liberte_, the sale of which was forbidden in
the public streets. He supported Emile Ollivier and the Liberal Empire,
but plunged into vehement journalism again to advocate war against
Prussia. Of his many subsequent enterprises the most successful was the
purchase of _Le Petit Journal_, which served to advocate the policy of
Thiers, though he himself did not contribute. The crisis of the 16th of
May 1877, when Jules Simon fell from power, made him resume his pen to
attack MacMahon and the party of reaction in _La France_ and in _Le
Petit Journal_. Emile de Girardin married in 1831 Delphine Gay (see
above), and after her death in 1855 Guillemette Josephine Brunold,
countess von Tieffenbach, widow of Prince Frederick of Nassau. He was
divorced from his second wife in 1872.

  The long list of his social and political writings includes: _De la
  presse periodique au XIX^e, siecle_ (1837); _De l'instruction
  publique_ (1838); _Etudes politiques_ (1838); _De la liberte de la
  presse et du journalisme_ (1842); _Le Droit au travail au Luxembourg
  et a l'Assemblee Nationale_ (2 vols., 1848); _Les Cinquante-deux_
  (1849, &c.), a series of articles on current parliamentary questions;
  _La Politique universelle, decrets de l'avenir_ (Brussels, 1852); _Le
  Condamne du 6 mars_ (1867), an account of his own differences with the
  government in 1867 when he was fined 5000 fr. for an article in _La
  Liberte; Le Dossier de la guerre_ (1877), a collection of official
  documents; _Questions de mon temps, 1836 a 1856_, articles extracted
  from the daily and weekly press (12 vols., 1858).




GIRARDON, FRANCOIS (1628-1715), French sculptor, was born at Troyes on
the 17th of March 1628. As a boy he had for master a joiner and
wood-carver of his native town, named Baudesson, under whom he is said
to have worked at the chateau of Liebault, where he attracted the notice
of Chancellor Seguier. By the chancellor's influence Girardon was first
removed to Paris and placed in the studio of Francois Anguier, and
afterwards sent to Rome. In 1652 he was back in France, and seems at
once to have addressed himself with something like ignoble subserviency
to the task of conciliating the court painter Charles Le Brun. Girardon
is reported to have declared himself incapable of composing a group,
whether with truth or from motives of policy it is impossible to say.
This much is certain, that a very large proportion of his work was
carried out from designs by Le Brun, and shows the merits and defects of
Le Brun's manner--a great command of ceremonial pomp in presenting his
subject, coupled with a large treatment of forms which if it were more
expressive might be imposing. The court which Girardon paid to the
"premier peintre du roi" was rewarded. An immense quantity of work at
Versailles was entrusted to him, and in recognition of the successful
execution of four figures for the Bains d'Apollon, Le Brun induced the
king to present his protege personally with a purse of 300 louis, as a
distinguishing mark of royal favour. In 1650 Girardon was made member of
the Academy, in 1659 professor, in 1674 "adjoint au recteur," and
finally in 1695 chancellor. Five years before (1690), on the death of Le
Brun, he had also been appointed "inspecteur general des ouvrages de
sculpture"--a place of power and profit. In 1699 he completed the bronze
equestrian statue of Louis XIV., erected by the town of Paris on the
Place Louis le Grand. This statue was melted down during the Revolution,
and is known to us only by a small bronze model (Louvre) finished by
Girardon himself. His Tomb of Richelieu (church of the Sorbonne) was
saved from destruction by Alexandre Lenoir, who received a bayonet
thrust in protecting the head of the cardinal from mutilation. It is a
capital example of Girardon's work, and the theatrical pomp of its style
is typical of the funeral sculpture of the reigns of Louis XIV. and
Louis XV.; but amongst other important specimens yet remaining may also
be cited the Tomb of Louvois (St Eustache), that of Bignon, the king's
librarian, executed in 1656 (St Nicolas du Chardonneret), and decorative
sculptures in the Galerie d'Apollon and Chambre du roi in the Louvre.
Mention should not be omitted of the group, signed and dated 1699, "The
Rape of Proserpine" at Versailles, which also contains the "Bull of
Apollo." Although chiefly occupied at Paris Girardon never forgot his
native Troyes, the museum of which town contains some of his best works,
including the marble busts of Louis XIV. and Maria Theresa. In the hotel
de ville is still shown a medallion of Louis XIV., and in the church of
St Remy a bronze crucifix of some importance--both works by his hand. He
died in Paris in 1715.

  See Corrard de Breban, _Notice sur la vie et les oeuvres de Girardon_
  (1850).




GIRART DE ROUSSILLON, an epic figure of the Carolingian cycle of
romance. In the genealogy of romance he is a son of Doon de Mayence, and
he appears in different and irreconcilable circumstances in many of the
_chansons de geste_. The legend of Girart de Roussillon is contained in
a _Vita Girardi de Roussillon_ (ed. P. Meyer, in _Romania_, 1878),
dating from the beginning of the 12th century and written probably by a
monk of the abbey of Pothieres or of Vezelai, both of which were founded
in 860 by Girart; in _Girart de Roussillon, a chanson de geste_ written
early in the 12th century in a dialect midway between French and
Provencal, and apparently based on an earlier Burgundian poem; in a 14th
century romance in alexandrines (ed. T. J. A. P. Mignard, Paris and
Dijon, 1878); and in a prose romance by Jehan Wauquelin in 1447 (ed. L.
de Montille, Paris, 1880). The historical Girard, son of Leuthard and
Grimildis, was a Burgundian chief who was count of Paris in 837, and
embraced the cause of Lothair against Charles the Bald. He fought at
Fontenay in 841, and doubtless followed Lothair to Aix. In 855 he became
governor of Provence for Lothair's son Charles, king of Provence (d.
863). His wife Bertha defended Vienne unsuccessfully against Charles the
Bald in 870, and Girard, who had perhaps aspired to be the titular ruler
of the northern part of Provence, which he had continued to administer
under Lothair II. until that prince's death in 869, retired with his
wife to Avignon, where he died probably in 877, certainly before 879.
The tradition of his piety, of the heroism of his wife Bertha, and of
his wars with Charles passed into romance; but the historical facts are
so distorted that in _Girart de Roussillon_ the _trouvere_ makes him the
opponent of Charles Martel, to whom he stands in the relation of
brother-in-law. He is nowhere described in authentic historic sources as
of Roussillon. The title is derived from his castle built on Mount
Lassois, near Chatillon-sur-Seine. Southern traditions concerning Count
Girart, in which he is made the son of Garin de Monglane, are embodied
in _Girart de Viane_ (13th century) by Bertrand de Bar-sur-l'Aube, and
in the _Aspramonte_ of Andrea da Barberino, based on the French _chanson
of Aspremont_, where he figures as Girart de Frete or de Fratte.[1]
_Girart de Viane_ is the recital of a siege of Vienne by Charlemagne,
and in _Aspramonte_ Girart de Fratte leads an army of infidels against
Charlemagne. _Girart de Roussillon_ was long held to be of Provencal
origin, and to be a proof of the existence of an independent Provencal
epic, but its Burgundian origin may be taken as proved.

  See F. Michel, _Gerard de Rossillon ... publie en francais et en
  provencal d'apres les MSS. de Paris et de Londres_ (Paris, 1856); P.
  Meyer, _Girart de Roussillon_ (1884), a translation in modern French
  with a comprehensive introduction. For _Girart de Viane_ (ed. P.
  Tarbe, Reims, 1850) see L. Gautier, _Epopees francaises_, vol. iv.; F.
  A. Wulff, _Notice sur les sagas de Magus et de Geirard_ (Lund, 1874).


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] It is of interest to note that Freta was the old name for the
    town of Saint Remy, and that it is close to the site of the ancient
    town of Glanum, the name of which is possibly preserved in Garin de
    Monglane, the ancestor of the heroes of the cycle of Guillaume
    d'Orange.




GIRAUD, GIOVANNI, Count (1776-1834), Italian dramatist, of French
origin, was born at Rome, and showed a precocious passion for the
theatre. His first play, _L'Onesta non si vince_, was successfully
produced in 1798. He took part in politics as an active supporter of
Pius VI., but was mainly occupied with the production of his plays, and
in 1809 became director-general of the Italian theatres. He died at
Naples in 1834. Count Giraud's comedies, the best of which are _Gelosie
per equivoco_ (1807) and _L'Ajonell' imbarazzo_ (1824), were bright and
amusing on the stage, but of no particular literary quality.

  His collected comedies were published in 1823 and his _Teatro
  domestico_ in 1825.




GIRDLE (O. Eng. _gyrdel_, from _gyrdan_, to gird; cf. Ger. _Gurtel_,
Dutch _gordel_, from _gurten_ and _gorden_; "gird" and its doublet
"girth" together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by
some to the root _ghar_--to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. [Greek: cheir],
hand, Lat. _hortus_, garden, and also English yard, garden, garth, &c.),
a band of leather or other material worn round the waist, either to
confine the loose and flowing outer robes so as to allow freedom of
movement, or to fasten and support the garments of the wearer. Among the
Romans it was used to confine the _tunica_, and it formed part of the
dress of the soldier; when a man quitted military service he was said,
_cingulum deponere_, to lay aside the girdle. Money being carried in
the girdle, _zonam perdere_ signified to lose one's purse, and, among
the Greeks, to cut the girdle was to rob a man of his money.

Girdles and girdle-buckles are not often found in Gallo-Roman graves,
but in the graves of Franks and Burgundians they are constantly present,
often ornamented with bosses of silver or bronze, chased or inlaid.
Sidonius Apollinaris speaks of the Franks as belted round the waist, and
Gregory of Tours in the 6th century says that a dagger was carried in
the Frankish girdle.

In the Anglo-Saxon dress the girdle makes an unimportant figure, and the
Norman knights, as a rule, wore their belts under their hauberks. After
the Conquest, however, the artificers gave more attention to a piece
whose buckle and tongue invited the work of the goldsmith. Girdles of
varying richness are seen on most of the western medieval effigies. That
of Queen Berengaria lets the long pendant hang below the knee, following
a fashion which frequently reappears.

In the latter part of the 13th century the knight's surcoat is girdled
with a narrow cord at the waist, while the great belt, which had become
the pride of the well-equipped cavalier, loops across the hips carrying
the heavy sword aslant over the thighs or somewhat to the left of the
wearer.

But it is in the second half of the following century that the knightly
belt takes its most splendid form. Under the year 1356 the continuator
of the chronicle of Nangis notes that the increase of jewelled belts had
mightily enhanced the price of pearls. The belt is then worn, as a rule,
girdling the hips at some distance below the waist, being probably
supported by hooks as is the belt of a modern infantry soldier. The end
of the belt, after being drawn through the buckle, is knotted or caught
up after the fashion of the tang of the Garter. The waist girdle either
disappears from sight or as a narrow and ornamented strap is worn
diagonally to help in the support of the belt. A mass of beautiful
ornament covers the whole belt, commonly seen as an unbroken line of
bosses enriched with curiously worked roundels or lozenges which, when
the loose strap-end is abandoned, meet in a splendid morse or clasp on
which the enameller and jeweller had wrought their best. About 1420 this
fashion tends to disappear, the loose tabards worn over armour in the
jousting-yard hindering its display. The belt never regains its
importance as an ornament, and, at the beginning of the 16th century,
sword and dagger are sometimes seen hanging at the knight's sides
without visible support.

In civil dress the magnificent belt of the 14th century is worn by men
of rank over the hips of the tight short-skirted coat, and in that
century and in the 15th and 16th there are sumptuary laws to cheek the
extravagance of rich girdles worn by men and women whose humble station
made them unseemly. Even priests must be rebuked for their silver
girdles with baselards hanging from them. Purses, daggers, keys, penners
and inkhorns, beads and even books, dangled from girdles in the 15th and
early 16th centuries. Afterwards the girdle goes on as a mere strap for
holding up the clothing or as a sword-belt. At the Restoration men
contrasted the fashion of the court, a light rapier hung from a broad
shoulder-belt, with the fashion of the countryside, where a heavy weapon
was supported by a narrow waistbelt. Soon afterwards both fashions
disappeared. Sword-hangers were concealed by the skirt, and the belt,
save in certain military and sporting costumes, has no more been in
sight in England. Even as a support for breeches or trousers, the use of
braces has gradually supplanted the girdle during the past century.

In most of those parts of the Continent--Brittany, for example--where
the peasantry maintains old fashions in clothing, the belt or girdle is
still an important part of the clothing. Italian non-commissioned
officers find that the Sicilian recruit's main objection to the first
bath of his life-time lies in the fact that he must lay down the
cherished belt which carries his few valuables. With the Circassian the
belt still buckles on an arsenal of pistols and knives.

Folklore and ancient custom are much concerned with the girdle.
Bankrupts at one time put it off in open court; French law refused
courtesans the right to wear it; Saint Guthlac casts out devils by
buckling his girdle round a possessed man; an earl is "a belted earl"
since the days when the putting on of a girdle was part of the ceremony
of his creation; and fairy tales of half the nations deal with girdles
which give invisibility to the wearer.     (O. Ba.)




GIRGA, or GIRGEH, a town of Upper Egypt on the W. bank of the Nile, 313
m. S.S.E. of Cairo by rail and about 10 m. N.N.E. of the ruins of
Abydos. Pop. (1907) 19,893, of whom about one-third are Copts. The town
presents a picturesque appearance from the Nile, which at this point
makes a sharp bend. A ruined mosque with a tall minaret stands by the
river-brink. Many of the houses are of brick decorated with glazed
tiles. The town is noted for the excellence of its pottery. Girga is the
seat of a Coptic bishop. It also possesses a Roman Catholic monastery,
considered the most ancient in the country. As lately as the middle of
the 18th century the town stood a quarter of a mile from the river, but
is now on the bank, the intervening space having been washed away,
together with a large part of the town, by the stream continually
encroaching on its left bank.




GIRGENTI (anc. _Agrigentum_, q.v.), a town of Sicily, capital of the
province which bears its name, and an episcopal see, on the south coast,
58 m. S. by E. of Palermo direct and 84-1/2 m. by rail. Population
(1901) 25,024. The town is built on the western summit of the ridge
which formed the northern portion of the ancient site; the main street
runs from E. to W. on the level, but the side streets are steep and
narrow. The cathedral occupies the highest point in the town; it was not
founded till the 13th century, taking the place of the so-called temple
of Concord. The campanile still preserves portions of its original
architecture, but the interior has been modernized. In the chapter-house
a famous sarcophagus, with scenes illustrating the myth of Hippolytus,
is preserved. There are other scattered remains of 13th-century
architecture in the town, while, in the centre of the ancient city,
close to the so-called oratory of Phalaris, is the Norman church of S.
Nicolo. A small museum in the town contains vases, terra-cottas, a few
sculptures, &c. The port of Girgenti, 5-1/2 m. S.W. by rail, now known
as Porto Empedocle (population in 1901, 11,529), as the principal place
of shipment for sulphur, the mining district beginning immediately north
of Girgenti.     (T. As.)




GIRISHK, a village and fort of Afghanistan. It stands on the right bank
of the Helmund 78 m. W. of Kandahar on the road to Herat; 3641 ft. above
the sea. The fort, which is garrisoned from Kandahar and is the
residence of the governor of the district (Pusht-i-Rud), has little
military value. It commands the fords of the Helmund and the road to
Seistan, from which it is about 190 m. distant; and it is the centre of
a rich agricultural district. Girishk was occupied by the British during
the first Afghan War; and a small garrison of sepoys, under a native
officer, successfully withstood a siege of nine months by an
overwhelming Afghan force. The Dasht-i-Bakwa stretches beyond Girishk
towards Farah, a level plain of considerable width, which tradition
assigns as the field of the final contest for supremacy between Russia
and England.




GIRNAR, a sacred hill in Western India, in the peninsula of Kathiawar,
10 m. E. of Junagarh town. It consists of five peaks, rising about 3500
ft. above the sea, on which are numerous old Jain temples, much
frequented by pilgrims. At the foot of the hill is a rock, with an
inscription of Asoka (2nd century B.C.), and also two other inscriptions
(dated 150 and 455 A.D.) of great historical importance.




GIRODET DE ROUSSY, ANNE LOUIS (1767-1824), French painter, better known
as Girodet-Trioson, was born at Montargis on the 5th of January 1767. He
lost his parents in early youth, and the care of his fortune and
education fell to the lot of his guardian, M. Trioson, "medecin de
mesdames," by whom he was in later life adopted. After some preliminary
studies under a painter named Luquin, Girodet entered the school of
David, and at the age of twenty-two he successfully competed for the
Prix de Rome. At Rome he executed his "Hippocrate refusant les presents
d'Artaxerxes" and "Endymion dormant" (Louvre), a work which was hailed
with acclamation at the Salon of 1792. The peculiarities which mark
Girodet's position as the herald of the romantic movement are already
evident in his "Endymion." The firm-set forms, the grey cold colour, the
hardness of the execution are proper to one trained in the school of
David, but these characteristics harmonize ill with the literary,
sentimental and picturesque suggestions which the painter has sought to
render. The same incongruity marks Girodet's "Danae" and his "Quatre
Saisons," executed for the king of Spain (repeated for Compiegne), and
shows itself to a ludicrous extent in his "Fingal" (St Petersburg,
Leuchtenberg collection), executed for Napoleon I. in 1802. This work
unites the defects of the classic and romantic schools, for Girodet's
imagination ardently and exclusively pursued the ideas excited by varied
reading both of classic and of modern literature, and the impressions
which he received from the external world afforded him little stimulus
or check; he consequently retained the mannerisms of his master's
practice whilst rejecting all restraint on choice of subject. The credit
lost by "Fingal" Girodet regained in 1806, when he exhibited "Scene de
Deluge" (Louvre), to which (in competition with the "Sabines" of David)
was awarded the decennial prize. This success was followed up in 1808 by
the production of the "Reddition de Vienne" and "Atala au Tombeau"--a
work which went far to deserve its immense popularity, by a happy choice
of subject, and remarkable freedom from the theatricality of Girodet's
usual manner, which, however, soon came to the front again in his
"Revolte de Caire" (1810). His powers now began to fail, and his habit
of working at night and other excesses told upon his constitution; in
the Salon of 1812 he exhibited only a "Tete de Vierge"; in 1819
"Pygmalion et Galatee" showed a still further decline of strength; and
in 1824--the year in which he produced his portraits of Cathelineau and
Bonchamps--Girodet died on the 9th of December.

  He executed a vast quantity of illustrations, amongst which may be
  cited those to the Didot _Virgil_ (1798) and to the Louvre _Racine_
  (1801-1805). Fifty-four of his designs for _Anacreon_ were engraved by
  M. Chatillon. Girodet wasted much time on literary composition, his
  poem _Le Peintre_ (a string of commonplaces), together with poor
  imitations of classical poets, and essays on _Le Genie_ and _La
  Grace_, were published after his death (1829), with a biographical
  notice by his friend M. Coupin de la Couperie; and M. Delecluze, in
  his _Louis David et son temps_, has also a brief life of Girodet.




GIRONDE, a maritime department of south-western France, formed from four
divisions of the old province of Guyenne, viz. Bordelais, Bazadais, and
parts of Perigord and Agenais. Area, 4140 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 823,925. It
is bounded N. by the department of Charente-Inferieure, E. by those of
Dordogne and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by that of Landes, and W. by the Bay of
Biscay. It takes its name from the river or estuary of the Gironde
formed by the union of the Garonne and Dordogne. The department divides
itself naturally into a western and an eastern portion. The former,
which is termed the _Landes_ (q.v.), occupies more than a third of the
department, and consists chiefly of morass or sandy plain, thickly
planted with pines and divided from the sea by a long line of dunes.
These dunes are planted with pines, which, by binding the sand together
with their roots, prevent it from drifting inland and afford a barrier
against the sea. On the east the dunes are fringed for some distance by
two extensive lakes, Carcans and Lacanau, communicating with each other
and with the Bay of Arcachon, near the southern extremity of the
department. The Bay of Arcachon contains numerous islands, and on the
land side forms a vast shallow lagoon, a considerable portion of which,
however, has been drained and converted into arable land. The eastern
portion of the department consists chiefly of a succession of hill and
dale, and, especially in the valley of the Gironde, is very fertile. The
estuary of the Gironde is about 45 m. in length, and varies in breadth
from 2 to 6 m. It presents a succession of islands and mud banks which
divide it into two channels and render navigation somewhat difficult. It
is, however, well buoyed and lighted, and has a mean depth of 21 ft.
There are extensive marshes on the right bank to the north of Blaye, and
the shores on the left are characterized, especially towards the mouth,
by low-lying polders protected by dikes and composed of fertile salt
marshes. At the mouth of the Gironde stands the famous tower of
Cordouan, one of the finest lighthouses of the French coast. It was
built between the years 1585 and 1611 by the architect and engineer
Louis de Foix, and added to towards the end of the 18th century. The
principal affluent of the Dordogne in this department is the Isle. The
feeders of the Garonne are, with the exception of the Dropt, all small.
West of the Garonne the only river of importance is the Leyre, which
flows into the Bay of Arcachon. The climate is humid and mild and very
hot in summer. Wheat, rye, maize, oats and tobacco are grown to a
considerable extent. The corn produced, however, does not meet the wants
of the inhabitants. The culture of the vine is by far the most important
branch of industry carried on (see Wine), the vineyards occupying about
one-seventh of the surface of the department. The wine-growing districts
are the Medoc, Graves, Cotes, Palus, Entre-deux-Mers and Sauternes. The
Medoc is a region of 50 m. in length by about 6 m. in breadth, bordering
the left banks of the Garonne and the Gironde between Bordeaux and the
sea. The Graves country forms a zone 30 m. in extent, stretching along
the left bank of the Garonne from the neighbourhood of Bordeaux to
Barsac. The Sauternes country lies to the S.E. of the Graves. The Cotes
lie on the right bank of the Dordogne and Gironde, between it and the
Garonne, and on the left bank of the Garonne. The produce of the Palus,
the alluvial land of the valleys, and of the Entre-deux-Mers, situated
on the left bank of the Dordogne, is inferior. Fruits and vegetables are
extensively cultivated, the peaches and pears being especially fine.
Cattle are extensively raised, the Bazadais breed of oxen and the
Bordelais breed of milch-cows being well known. Oyster-breeding is
carried on on a large scale in the Bay of Arcachon. Large supplies of
resin, pitch and turpentine are obtained from the pine woods, which also
supply vine-props, and there are well-known quarries of limestone. The
manufactures are various, and, with the general trade, are chiefly
carried on at Bordeaux (q.v.), the chief town and third port in France.
Pauillac, Blaye, Libourne and Arcachon are minor ports. Gironde is
divided into the arrondissements of Bordeaux, Blaye, Lesparre, Libourne,
Bazas and La Reole, with 49 cantons and 554 communes. The department is
served by five railways, the chief of which are those of the Orleans and
Southern companies. It forms part of the circumscription of the
archbishopric, the appeal-court and the _academie_ (educational
division) of Bordeaux, and of the region of the XVIII. army corps, the
headquarters of which are at that city. Besides Bordeaux, Libourne, La
Reole, Bazas, Blaye, Arcachon, St Emilion and St Macaire are the most
noteworthy towns and receive separate treatment. Among the other places
of interest the chief are Cadillac, on the right bank of the Garonne,
where there is a castle of the 16th century, surrounded by
fortifications of the 14th century; Labrede, with a feudal chateau in
which Montesquieu was born and lived; Villandraut, where there is a
ruined castle of the 13th century; Uzeste, which has a church begun in
1310 by Pope Clement V.; Mazeres with an imposing castle of the 14th
century; La Sauve, which has a church (11th and 12th centuries) and
other remains of a Benedictine abbey; and Ste Foy-la-Grande, a bastide
created in 1255 and afterwards a centre of Protestantism, which is still
strong there. La Teste (pop. in 1906, 5699) was the capital in the
middle ages of the famous lords of Buch.




GIRONDISTS (Fr. _Girondins_), the name given to a political party in the
Legislative Assembly and National Convention during the French
Revolution (1791-1793). The Girondists were, indeed, rather a group of
individuals holding certain opinions and principles in common than an
organized political party, and the name was at first somewhat loosely
applied to them owing to the fact that the most brilliant exponents of
their point of view were deputies from the Gironde. These deputies were
twelve in number, six of whom--the lawyers Vergniaud, Guadet, Gensonne,
Grangeneuve and Jay, and the tradesman Jean Francois Ducos--sat both in
the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention. In the Legislative
Assembly these represented a compact body of opinion which, though not
as yet definitely republican, was considerably more advanced than the
moderate royalism of the majority of the Parisian deputies. Associated
with these views was a group of deputies from other parts of France, of
whom the most notable were Condorcet, Fauchet, Lasource, Isnard,
Kersaint, Henri Lariviere, and, above all, Jacques Pierre Brissot,
Roland and Petion, elected mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly on the
16th of November 1791. On the spirit and policy of the Girondists Madame
Roland, whose _salon_ became their gathering-place, exercised a powerful
influence (see ROLAND); but such party cohesion as they possessed they
owed to the energy of Brissot (q.v.), who came to be regarded as their
mouthpiece in the Assembly and the Jacobin Club. Hence the name
_Brissotins_, coined by Camille Desmoulins, which was sometimes
substituted for that of _Girondins_, sometimes closely coupled with it.
As strictly party designations these first came into use after the
assembling of the National Convention (September 20th, 1792), to which a
large proportion of the deputies from the Gironde who had sat in the
Legislative Assembly were returned. Both were used as terms of
opprobrium by the orators of the Jacobin Club, who freely denounced "the
Royalists, the Federalists, the Brissotins, the Girondins and all the
enemies of the democracy" (F. Aulard, _Soc. des Jacobins_, vi. 531).

In the Legislative Assembly the Girondists represented the principle of
democratic revolution within and of patriotic defiance to the European
powers without. They were all-powerful in the Jacobin Club (see
JACOBINS), where Brissot's influence had not yet been ousted by
Robespierre, and they did not hesitate to use this advantage to stir up
popular passion and intimidate those who sought to stay the progress of
the Revolution. They compelled the king in 1792 to choose a ministry
composed of their partisans--among them Roland, Dumouriez, Claviere and
Servan; and it was they who forced the declaration of war against
Austria. In all this there was no apparent line of cleavage between "La
Gironde" and the Mountain. _Montagnards_ and Girondists alike were
fundamentally opposed to the monarchy; both were democrats as well as
republicans; both were prepared to appeal to force in order to realize
their ideals; in spite of the accusation of "federalism" freely brought
against them, the Girondists desired as little as the Montagnards to
break up the unity of France. Yet from the first the leaders of the two
parties stood in avowed opposition, in the Jacobin Club as in the
Assembly. It was largely a question of temperament. The Girondists were
idealists, doctrinaires and theorists rather than men of action; they
encouraged, it is true, the "armed petitions" which resulted, to their
dismay, in the _emeute_ of the 20th of June; but Roland, turning the
ministry of the interior into a publishing office for tracts on the
civic virtues, while in the provinces riotous mobs were burning the
chateaux unchecked, is more typical of their spirit. With the ferocious
fanaticism or the ruthless opportunism of the future organizers of the
Terror they had nothing in common. As the Revolution developed they
trembled at the anarchic forces they had helped to unchain, and tried in
vain to curb them. The overthrow of the monarchy on the 10th of August
and the massacres of September were not their work, though they claimed
credit for the results achieved.

The crisis of their fate was not slow in coming. It was they who
proposed the suspension of the king and the summoning of the National
Convention; but they had only consented to overthrow the kingship when
they found that Louis XVI. was impervious to their counsels, and, the
republic once established, they were anxious to arrest the revolutionary
movement which they had helped to set in motion. As Daunou shrewdly
observes in his _Memoires_, they were too cultivated and too polished to
retain their popularity long in times of disturbance, and were therefore
the more inclined to work for the establishment of order, which would
mean the guarantee of their own power.[1] Thus the Girondists, who had
been the Radicals of the Legislative Assembly, became the Conservatives
of the Convention. But they were soon to have practical experience of
the fate that overtakes those who attempt to arrest in mid-career a
revolution they themselves have set in motion. The ignorant populace,
for whom the promised social millennium had by no means dawned, saw in
an attitude seemingly so inconsistent obvious proof of corrupt motives,
and there were plenty of prophets of misrule to encourage the
delusion--orators of the clubs and the street corners, for whom the
restoration of order would have meant well-deserved obscurity. Moreover,
the _Septembriseurs_--Robespierre, Danton, Marat and their lesser
satellites--realized that not only their influence but their safety
depended on keeping the Revolution alive. Robespierre, who hated the
Girondists, whose lustre had so long obscured his own, had proposed to
include them in the proscription lists of September; the Mountain to a
man desired their overthrow.

The crisis came in March 1793. The Girondists, who had a majority in the
Convention, controlled the executive council and filled the ministry,
believed themselves invincible. Their orators had no serious rivals in
the hostile camp; their system was established in the purest reason. But
the Montagnards made up by their fanatical, or desperate, energy and
boldness for what they lacked in talent or in numbers. They had behind
them the revolutionary Commune, the Sections and the National Guard of
Paris, and they had gained control of the Jacobin club, where Brissot,
absorbed in departmental work, had been superseded by Robespierre. And
as the motive power of this formidable mechanism of force they could
rely on the native suspiciousness of the Parisian populace, exaggerated
now into madness by famine and the menace of foreign invasion. The
Girondists played into their hands. At the trial of Louis XVI. the bulk
of them had voted for the "appeal to the people," and so laid themselves
open to the charge of "royalism"; they denounced the domination of Paris
and summoned provincial levies to their aid, and so fell under suspicion
of "federalism," though they rejected Buzot's proposal to transfer the
Convention to Versailles. They strengthened the revolutionary Commune by
decreeing its abolition, and then withdrawing the decree at the first
sign of popular opposition; they increased the prestige of Marat by
prosecuting him before the Revolutionary Tribunal, where his acquittal
was a foregone conclusion. In the suspicious temper of the times this
vacillating policy was doubly fatal. Marat never ceased his
denunciations of the "_faction des hommes d'Etat_," by which France was
being betrayed to her ruin, and his parrot cry of "_Nous sommes
trahis!_" was re-echoed from group to group in the streets of Paris. The
Girondists, for all their fine phrases, were sold to the enemy, as
Lafayette, Dumouriez and a hundred others--once popular favourites--had
been sold.

The hostility of Paris to the Girondists received a fateful
advertisement by the election, on the 15th of February 1793, of the
ex-Girondist Jean Nicolas Pache (1746-1823) to the mayoralty. Pache had
twice been minister of war in the Girondist government; but his
incompetence had laid him open to strong criticism, and on the 4th of
February he had been superseded by a vote of the Convention. This was
enough to secure him the suffrages of the Paris electors ten days later,
and the Mountain was strengthened by the accession of an ally whose one
idea was to use his new power to revenge himself on his former
colleagues. Pache, with Chaumette, _procureur_ of the Commune, and
Hebert, deputy _procureur_, controlled the armed organization of the
Paris Sections, and prepared to turn this against the Convention. The
abortive _emeute_ of the 10th of March warned the Girondists of their
danger, but the Commission of Twelve appointed on the 18th of May, the
arrest of Marat and Hebert, and other precautionary measures, were
defeated by the popular risings of the 27th and 31st of May, and,
finally, on the 2nd of June, Hanriot with the National Guards purged
the Convention of the Girondists. Isnard's threat, uttered on the 25th
of May, to march France upon Paris had been met by Paris marching upon
the Convention.

The list drawn up by Hanriot, and endorsed by a decree of the
intimidated Convention, included twenty-two Girondist deputies and ten
members of the Commission of Twelve, who were ordered to be detained at
their lodgings "under the safeguard of the people." Some submitted,
among them Gensonne, Guadet, Vergniaud, Petion, Birotteau and
Boyer-Fonfrede. Others, including Brissot, Louvet, Buzot, Lasource,
Grangeneuve, Lariviere and Bergoing, escaped from Paris and, joined
later by Guadet, Petion and Birotteau, set to work to organize a
movement of the provinces against the capital. This attempt to stir up
civil war determined the wavering and frightened Convention. On the 13th
of June it voted that the city of Paris had deserved well of the
country, and ordered the imprisonment of the detained deputies, the
filling up of their places in the Assembly by their _suppleants_, and
the initiation of vigorous measures against the movement in the
provinces. The excuse for the Terror that followed was the imminent
peril of France, menaced on the east by the advance of the armies of the
Coalition, on the west by the Royalist insurrection of La Vendee, and
the need for preventing at all costs the outbreak of another civil war.
The assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (q.v.) only served to
increase the unpopularity of the Girondists and to seal their fate. On
the 28th of July a decree of the Convention proscribed, as traitors and
enemies of their country, twenty-one deputies, the final list of those
sent for trial comprising the names of Antiboul, Boilleau the younger,
Boyer-Fonfrede, Brissot, Carra, Duchastel, the younger Ducos, Dufriche
de Valaze, Duprat, Fauchet, Gardien, Gensonne, Lacaze, Lasource,
Lauze-Deperret, Lehardi, Lesterpt-Beauvais, the elder Minvielle,
Sillery, Vergniaud and Viger, of whom five were deputies from the
Gironde. The names of thirty-nine others were included in the final
_acte d'accusation_, accepted by the Convention on the 24th of October,
which stated the crimes for which they were to be tried as their
perfidious ambition, their hatred of Paris, their "federalism" and,
above all, their responsibility for the attempt of their escaped
colleagues to provoke civil war.

The trial of the twenty-one, which began before the Revolutionary
Tribunal on the 24th of October, was a mere farce, the verdict a
foregone conclusion. On the 31st they were borne to the guillotine in
five tumbrils, the corpse of Dufriche de Valaze--who had killed
himself--being carried with them. They met death with great courage,
singing the refrain "_Plutot la mort que l'esclavage!_" Of those who
escaped to the provinces the greater number, after wandering about
singly or in groups, were either captured and executed or committed
suicide, among them Barbaroux, Buzot, Condorcet, Grangeneuve, Guadet,
Kersaint, Petion, Rabaut de Saint-Etienne and Rebecqui. Roland had
killed himself at Rouen on the 15th of November, a week after the
execution of his wife. Among the very few who finally escaped was Jean
Baptiste Louvet, whose _Memoires_ give a thrilling picture of the
sufferings of the fugitives. Incidentally they prove, too, that the
sentiment of France was for the time against the Girondists, who were
proscribed even in their chief centre, the city of Bordeaux. The
survivors of the party made an effort to re-enter the Convention after
the fall of Robespierre, but it was not until the 5th of March 1795 that
they were formally reinstated. On the 3rd of October of the same year
(11 Vendemiaire, year III.) a solemn fete in honour of the Girondist
"martyrs of liberty" was celebrated in the Convention. See also the
article FRENCH REVOLUTION and separate biographies.

  Of the special works on the Girondists Lamartine's _Histoire des
  Girondins_ (2 vols., Paris, 1847, new ed. 1902, in 6 vols.) is
  rhetoric rather than history and is untrustworthy; the _Histoire des
  Girondins_, by A. Gramier de Cassagnac (Paris, 1860) led to the
  publication of a _Protestation_ by J. Guadet, a nephew of the
  Girondist orator, which was followed by his _Les Girondins, leur vie
  privee, leur vie publique, leur proscription et leur mort_ (2 vols.,
  Paris, 1861, new ed. 1890); with which cf. Alary, _Les Girondins par
  Guadet_ (Bordeaux, 1863); also Charles Vatel, _Charlotte de Corday et
  les Girondins: pieces classees et annotees_ (3 vols., Paris,
  1864-1872); _Recherches historiques sur les Girondins_ (2 vols.,
  ib. 1873); Ducos, _Les Trois Girondines_ (Madame Roland, Charlotte
  Corday, Madame Bouquey) _et les Girondins_ (ib. 1896); Edmond Bire,
  _La Legende des Girondins_ (Paris, 1881, new ed. 1896); also Helen
  Maria Williams, _State of Manners and Opinions in the French Republic
  towards the close of the 18th Century_ (2 vols., London, 1801).
  Memoirs or fragments of memoirs also exist by particular Girondists,
  e.g. Barbaroux, Petion, Louvet, Madame Roland. See, further, the
  bibliography to the article FRENCH REVOLUTION.     (W. A. P.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Daunou, "Memoires pour servir a l'hist. de la Convention
    Nationale," p. 409, vol. xii. of M. Fr. Barriere, _Bibl. des mem. rel
    a l'hist. de la France_, &c. (Paris, 1863).




GIRTIN, THOMAS (1775-1802), English painter and etcher, was the son of a
well-to-do cordage maker in Southwark, London. His father died while
Thomas was a child, and his widow married Mr Vaughan, a
pattern-draughtsman. Girtin learnt drawing as a boy, and was apprenticed
to Edward Doyes (1763-1804), the mezzotint engraver, and he soon made J.
M. W. Turner's acquaintance. His architectural and topographical
sketches and drawings soon established his reputation, his use of
water-colour for landscapes being such as to give him the credit of
having created modern water-colour painting, as opposed to mere
"tinting." His etchings also were characteristic of his artistic genius.
His early death from consumption (9th of November 1802) led indeed to
Turner saying that "had Tom Girtin lived I should have starved." From
1794 to his death he was an exhibitor at the Royal Academy; and some
fine examples of his work have been bequeathed by private owners to the
British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum.




GIRVAN, a police burgh, market and fishing town of Ayrshire, Scotland,
at the mouth of the Girvan, 21 m. S.W. of Ayr, and 63 m. S.W. of Glasgow
by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4024. The principal
industry was weaving, but the substitution of the power-loom for the
hand-loom nearly put an end to it. The herring fishery has developed to
considerable proportions, the harbour having been enlarged and protected
by piers and a breakwater. Moreover, the town has grown in repute as a
health and holiday resort, its situation being one of the finest in the
west of Scotland. There is excellent sea-bathing, and a good
golf-course. The vale of Girvan, one of the most fertile tracts in the
shire, is made so by the Water of Girvan, which rises in the loch of
Girvan Eye, pursues a very tortuous course of 36 m. and empties into the
sea. Girvan is the point of communication with Ailsa Craig. About 13 m.
S.W. at the mouth of the Stinchar is the fishing village of Ballantrae
(pop. 511).




GIRY (JEAN MARIE JOSEPH), ARTHUR (1848-1899), French historian, was born
at Trevoux (Ain) on the 29th of February 1848. After rapidly completing
his classical studies at the _lycee_ at Chartres, he spent some time in
the administrative service and in journalism. He then entered the Ecole
des Chartes, where, under the influence of J. Quicherat, he developed a
strong inclination to the study of the middle ages. The lectures at the
Ecole des Hautes Etudes, which he attended from its foundation in 1868,
revealed his true bent; and henceforth he devoted himself almost
entirely to scholarship. He began modestly by the study of the municipal
charters of St Omer. Having been appointed assistant lecturer and
afterwards full lecturer at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, it was to the
town of St Omer that he devoted his first lectures and his first
important work, _Histoire de la ville de Saint-Omer et de ses
institutions jusqu'au XIV^e siecle_ (1877). He, however, soon realized
that the charters of one town can only be understood by comparing them
with those of other towns, and he was gradually led to continue the work
which Augustin Thierry had broadly outlined in his studies on the _Tiers
Etat_. A minute knowledge of printed books and a methodical examination
of departmental and communal archives furnished him with material for a
long course of successful lectures, which gave rise to some important
works on municipal history and led to a great revival of interest in the
origins and significance of the urban communities in France. Giry
himself published _Les Etablissements de Rouen_ (1883-1885), a study,
based on very minute researches, of the charter granted to the capital
of Normandy by Henry II., king of England, and of the diffusion of
similar charters throughout the French dominions of the Plantagenets; a
collection of _Documents sur les relations de la royaute avec les
villes de France de 1180 a 1314_ (1885); and _Etude sur les origines de
la commune de Saint-Quentin_ (1887).

About this time personal considerations induced Giry to devote the
greater part of his activity to the study of diplomatic, which had been
much neglected at the Ecole des Chartes, but had made great strides in
Germany. As assistant (1883) and successor (1885) to Louis de Mas
Latrie, Giry restored the study of diplomatic, which had been founded in
France by Dom Jean Mabillon, to its legitimate importance. In 1894 he
published his _Manuel de diplomatique_, a monument of lucid and
well-arranged erudition, which contained the fruits of his long
experience of archives, original documents and textual criticism; and
his pupils, especially those at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, soon caught
his enthusiasm. With their collaboration he undertook the preparation of
an inventory and, subsequently, of a critical edition of the Carolingian
diplomas. By arrangement with E. Muhlbacher and the editors of the
_Monumenta Germaniae historica_, this part of the joint work was
reserved for Giry. Simultaneously with this work he carried on the
publication of the annals of the Carolingian epoch on the model of the
German _Jahrbucher_, reserving for himself the reign of Charles the
Bald. Of this series his pupils produced in his lifetime _Les Derniers
Carolingiens_ (by F. Lot, 1891), _Eudes, comte de Paris et roi de
France_ (by E. Favre, 1893), and _Charles le Simple_ (by Eckel, 1899).
The biographies of Louis IV. and Hugh Capet and the history of the
kingdom of Provence were not published until after his death, and his
own unfinished history of Charles the Bald was left to be completed by
his pupils. The preliminary work on the Carolingian diplomas involved
such lengthy and costly researches that the Academie des Inscriptions et
Belles-Lettres took over the expenses after Giry's death.

In the midst of these multifarious labours Giry found time for extensive
archaeological researches, and made a special study of the medieval
treatises dealing with the technical processes employed in the arts and
industries. He prepared a new edition of the monk Theophilus's
celebrated treatise, _Diversarum artium schedula_, and for several years
devoted his Saturday mornings to laboratory research with the chemist
Aime Girard at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, the results of
which were utilized by Marcellin Berthelot in the first volume (1894) of
his _Chimie au moyen age_. Giry took an energetic part in the
_Collection de textes relatifs a l'histoire du moyen age_, which was due
in great measure to his initiative. He was appointed director of the
section of French history in _La Grande Encyclopedie_, and contributed
more than a hundred articles, many of which, e.g. "Archives" and
"Diplomatique," were original works. In collaboration with his pupil
Andre Reville, he wrote the chapters on "L'Emancipation des villes, les
communes et les bourgeoisies" and "Le Commerce et l'industrie au moyen
age" for the _Histoire generale_ of Lavisse and Rambaud. Giry took a
keen interest in politics, joining the republican party and writing
numerous articles in the republican newspapers, mainly on historical
subjects. He was intensely interested in the Dreyfus case, but his
robust constitution was undermined by the anxieties and disappointments
occasioned by the Zola trial and the Rennes court-martial, and he died
in Paris on the 13th of November 1899.

  For details of Giry's life and works see the funeral orations
  published in the _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, and afterwards
  in a pamphlet (1899). See also the biography by Ferdinand Lot in the
  _Annuaire de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes_ for 1901; and the bibliography
  of his works by Henry Maistre in the _Correspondance historique et
  archeologique_ (1899 and 1900).




GISBORNE, a seaport of New Zealand, in Cook county, provincial district
of Auckland, on Poverty Bay of the east coast of North Island. Pop.
(1901) 2733; (1906) 5664. Wool, frozen mutton and agricultural produce
are exported from the rich district surrounding. Petroleum has been
discovered in the neighbourhood, and about 40 m. from the town there are
warm medicinal springs. Near the site of Gisborne Captain Cook landed in
1769, and gave Poverty Bay its name from his inability to obtain
supplies owing to the hostility of the natives. Young Nick's Head, the
southern horn of the bay, was named from Nicholas Young, his ship's boy,
who first observed it.




GISLEBERT (or GILBERT) OF MONS (c. 1150-1225), Flemish chronicler,
became a clerk, and obtained the positions of provost of the churches of
St Germanus at Mons and St Alban at Namur, in addition to several other
ecclesiastical appointments. In official documents he is described as
chaplain, chancellor or notary, of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut (d.
1195), who employed him on important business. After 1200 Gislebert
wrote the _Chronicon Hanoniense_, a history of Hainaut and the
neighbouring lands from about 1050 to 1195, which is specially valuable
for the latter part of the 12th century, and for the life and times of
Baldwin V.

  The chronicle is published in Band xxi. of the _Monumenta Germaniae
  historica_ (Hanover, 1826 fol.); and separately with introduction by
  W. Arndt (Hanover, 1869). Another edition has been published by L.
  Vanderkindere in the _Recueil de textes pour servir a l'etude de
  l'histoire de Belgique_ (Brussels, 1904); and there is a French
  translation by G. Menilglaise (Tournai, 1874).

  See W. Meyer, _Das Werk des Kanzlers Gislebert von Mons als
  verfassungsgeschichtliche Quelle_ (Konigsberg, 1888); K. Huygens, _Sur
  la valeur historique de la chronique Gislebert de Mons_ (Ghent, 1889);
  and W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band ii. (Berlin,
  1894).




GISORS, a town of France, in the department of Eure, situated in the
pleasant valley of the Epte, 44. m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to
Dieppe. Pop. (1906) 4345. Gisors is dominated by a feudal stronghold
built chiefly by the kings of England in the 11th and 12th centuries.
The outer enceinte, to which is attached a cylindrical donjon erected by
Philip Augustus, king of France, embraces an area of over 7 acres. On a
mound in the centre of this space rises an older donjon, octagonal in
shape, protected by another enceinte. The outer ramparts and the ground
they enclose have been converted into promenades. The church of St
Gervais dates in its oldest parts--the central tower, the choir and
parts of the aisles--from the middle of the 13th century, when it was
founded by Blanche of Castile. The rest of the church belongs to the
Renaissance period. The Gothic and Renaissance styles mingle in the west
facade, which, like the interior of the building, is adorned with a
profusion of sculptures; the fine carving on the wooden doors of the
north and west portals is particularly noticeable. The less interesting
buildings of the town include a wooden house of the Renaissance era, an
old convent now used as an hotel de ville, and a handsome modern
hospital. There is a statue of General de Blanmont, born at Gisors in
1770. Among the industries of Gisors are felt manufacture, bleaching,
dyeing and leather-dressing.

In the middle ages Gisors was capital of the Vexin. Its position on the
frontier of Normandy caused its possession to be hotly contested by the
kings of England and France during the 12th century, at the end of which
it and the dependent fortresses of Neaufles and Dangu were ceded by
Richard Coeur de Lion to Philip Augustus. During the wars of religion of
the 16th century it was occupied by the duke of Mayenne on behalf of the
League, and in the 17th century, during the Fronde, by the duke of
Longueville. Gisors was given to Charles Auguste Fouquet in 1718 in
exchange for Belle-Ile-en-Mer and made a duchy in 1742. It afterwards
came into the possession of the count of Eu and the duke of Penthievre.




GISSING, GEORGE ROBERT (1857-1903), English novelist, was born at
Wakefield on the 22nd of November 1857. He was educated at the Quaker
boarding-school of Alderley Edge and at Owens College, Manchester. His
life, especially its earlier period, was spent in great poverty, mainly
in London, though he was for a time also in the United States,
supporting himself chiefly by private teaching. He published his first
novel, _Workers in the Dawn_, in 1880. _The Unclassed_ (1884) and
_Isabel Clarendon_ (1886) followed. _Demos_ (1886), a novel dealing with
socialistic ideas, was, however, the first to attract attention. It was
followed by a series of novels remarkable for their pictures of lower
middle class life. Gissing's own experiences had preoccupied him with
poverty and its brutalizing effects on character. He made no attempt at
popular writing, and for a long time the sincerity of his work was
appreciated only by a limited public. Among his more characteristic
novels were: _Thyrza_ (1887), _A Life's Morning_ (1888), _The Nether
World_ (1889), _New Grub Street_ (1891), _Born in Exile_ (1892), _The
Odd Women_ (1893), _In the Year of Jubilee_ (1894), _The Whirlpool_
(1897). Others, e.g. _The Town Traveller_ (1901), indicate a humorous
faculty, but the prevailing note of his novels is that of the struggling
life of the shabby-genteel and lower classes and the conflict between
education and circumstances. The quasi-autobiographical _Private Papers
of Henry Ryecroft_ (1903) reflects throughout Gissing's studious and
retiring tastes. He was a good classical scholar and had a minute
acquaintance with the late Latin historians, and with Italian
antiquities; and his posthumous _Veranilda_ (1904), a historical romance
of Italy in the time of Theodoric the Goth, was the outcome of his
favourite studies. Gissing's powers as a literary critic are shown in
his admirable study on Charles Dickens (1898). A book of travel, _By the
Ionian Sea_, appeared in 1901. He died at St Jean de Luz in the Pyrenees
on the 28th of December 1903.

  See also the introductory essay by T. Seccombe to _The House of
  Cobwebs_ (1906), a posthumous volume of Gissing's short stories.




GITSCHIN (Czech _Jicin_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 65 m. N.E. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9790, mostly Czech. The parish church was
begun by Wallenstein after the model of the pilgrims' church of Santiago
de Compostela in Spain, but not completed till 1655. The castle, which
stands next to the church, was built by Wallenstein and finished in
1630. It was here that the emperor Francis I. of Austria signed the
treaty of 1813 by which he threw in his lot with the Allies against
Napoleon. Wallenstein was interred at the neighbouring Carthusian
monastery, but in 1639 the head and right hand were taken by General
Baner to Sweden, and in 1702 the other remains were removed by Count
Vincent of Waldstein to his hereditary burying ground at Munchengratz.
Gitschin was originally the village of Zidineves and received its
present name when it was raised to the dignity of a town by Wenceslaus
II. in 1302. The place belonged to various noble Bohemian families, and
in the 17th century came into the hands of Wallenstein, who made it the
capital of the duchy of Friedland and did much to improve and extend it.
His murder, and the miseries of the Thirty Years' War, brought it very
low; and it passed through several hands before it was bought by Prince
Trauttmannsdorf, to whose family it still belongs. On the 29th of June
1866 the Prussians gained here a great victory over the Austrians. This
victory made possible the junction of the first and second Prussian army
corps, and had as an ultimate result the Austrian defeat at Koniggratz.




GIUDICI, PAOLO EMILIANO (1812-1872), Italian writer, was born in Sicily.
His _History of Italian Literature_ (1844) brought him to the front, and
in 1848 he became professor of Italian literature at Pisa, but after a
few months was deprived of the chair on account of his liberal views in
politics. On the re-establishment of the Italian kingdom he became
professor of aesthetics (resigning 1862) and secretary of the Academy of
Fine Arts at Florence, and in 1867 was elected to the chamber of
deputies. He held a prominent place as an historian, his works including
a _Storia del teatro_ (1860), and _Storia dei comuni italiani_ (1861),
besides a translation of Macaulay's _History of England_ (1856). He died
at Tonbridge in England, on the 8th of September 1872.

  A _Life_ appeared at Florence in 1874.




GIULIO ROMANO, or GIULIO PIPPI (c. 1492-1546), the head of the Roman
school of painting in succession to Raphael. This prolific painter,
modeller, architect and engineer receives his common appellation from
the place of his birth--Rome, in the Macello de' Corbi. His name in full
was Giulio di Pietro de Filippo de' Giannuzzi--Giannuzzi being the true
family name, and Pippi (which has practically superseded Giannuzzi)
being an abbreviation from the name of his grandfather Filippo. The date
of Giulio's birth is a little uncertain. Vasari (who knew him
personally) speaks of him as fifty-four years old at the date of his
death, 1st November 1546; thus he would have been born in 1492. Other
accounts assign 1498 as the date of birth. This would make Giulio young
indeed in the early and in such case most precocious stages of his
artistic career, and would show him as dying, after an infinity of hard
work, at the comparatively early age of forty-eight.

Giulio must at all events have been quite youthful when he first became
the pupil of Raphael, and at Raphael's death in 1520 he was at the
utmost twenty-eight years of age. Raphael had loved him as a son, and
had employed him in some leading works, especially in the Loggie of the
Vatican; the series there popularly termed "Raphael's Bible" is done in
large measure by Giulio,--as for instance the subjects of the "Creation
of Adam and Eve," "Noah's Ark," and "Moses in the Bulrushes." In the
saloon of the "Incendio del Borgo," also, the figures of "Benefactors of
the Church" (Charlemagne, &c.) are Giulio's handiwork. It would appear
that in subjects of this kind Raphael simply furnished the design, and
committed the execution of it to some assistant, such as Giulio,--taking
heed, however, to bring it up, by final retouching, to his own standard
of style and type. Giulio at a later date followed out exactly the same
plan; so that in both instances inferiorities of method, in the general
blocking-out and even in the details of the work, are not to be
precisely charged upon the _caposcuola_. Amid the multitude of Raphael's
pupils, Giulio was eminent in pursuing his style, and showed universal
aptitude; he did, among other things, a large amount of architectural
planning for his chief. Raphael bequeathed to Giulio, and to his
fellow-pupil Gianfrancesco Penni ("Il Fattore"), his implements and
works of art; and upon them it devolved to bring to completion the vast
fresco-work of the "Hall of Constantine" in the Vatican--consisting,
along with much minor matter, of the four large subjects, the "Battle of
Constantine," the "Apparition of the Cross," the "Baptism of
Constantine" and the "Donation of Rome to the Pope." The two former
compositions were executed by Pippi, the two latter by Penni. The whole
of this onerous undertaking was completed within a period of only three
years,--which is the more remarkable as, during some part of the
interval since Raphael's decease, the Fleming, Adrian VI., had been
pope, and his anti-aesthetic pontificate had left art and artists almost
in a state of inanition. Clement VII. had now, however, succeeded to the
popedom. By this time Giulio was regarded as the first painter in Rome;
but his Roman career was fated to have no further sequel.

Towards the end of 1524 his friend the celebrated writer Baldassar
Castiglione seconded with success the urgent request of the duke of
Mantua, Federigo Gonzaga, that Giulio should migrate to that city, and
enter the duke's service for the purpose of carrying out his projects in
architecture and pictorial decoration. These projects were already
considerable, and under Giulio's management they became far more
extensive still. The duke treated his painter munificently as to house,
table, horses and whatever was in request; and soon a very cordial
attachment sprang up between them. In Pippi's multifarious work in
Mantua three principal undertakings should be noted. (1) In the Castello
he painted the "History of Troy," along with other subjects. (2) In the
suburban ducal residence named the Palazzo del Te (this designation
being apparently derived from the form of the roads which led towards
the edifice) he rapidly carried out a rebuilding on a vastly enlarged
scale,--the materials being brick and terra-cotta, as there is no local
stone,--and decorated the rooms with his most celebrated works in oil
and fresco painting--the story of Psyche, Icarus, the fall of the
Titans, and the portraits of the ducal horses and hounds. The foreground
figures of Titans are from 12 to 14 ft. high; the room, even in its
structural details, is made to subserve the general artistic purpose,
and many of its architectural features are distorted accordingly.
Greatly admired though these pre-eminent works have always been, and at
most times even more than can now be fully ratified, they have suffered
severely at the hands of restorers, and modern eyes see them only
through a dull and deadening fog of renovation. The whole of the work on
the Palazzo del Te, which is of the Doric order of architecture,
occupied about five years. (3) Pippi recast and almost rebuilt the
cathedral of Mantua; erected his own mansion, replete with numerous
antiques and other articles of vertu; reconstructed the street
architecture to a very large extent, and made the city, sapped as it is
by the shallows of the Mincio, comparatively healthy; and at Marmiruolo,
some 5 m. distant from Mantua, he worked out other important buildings
and paintings. He was in fact, for nearly a quarter of a century, a sort
of Demiurgus of the arts of design in the Mantuan territory.

Giulio's activity was interrupted but not terminated by the death of
Duke Federigo. The duke's brother, a cardinal who became regent,
retained him in full employment. For a while he went to Bologna, and
constructed the facade of the church of S. Petronio in that city. He was
afterwards invited to succeed Antonio Sangallo as architect of St
Peter's in Rome,--a splendid appointment, which, notwithstanding the
strenuous opposition of his wife and of the cardinal regent, he had
almost resolved to accept, when a fever overtook him, and, acting upon a
constitution somewhat enfeebled by worry and labour, caused his death on
the 1st of November 1546. He was buried in the church of S. Barnaba in
Mantua. At the time of his death Giulio enjoyed an annual income of more
than 1000 ducats, accruing from the liberalities of his patrons. He left
a widow, and a son and daughter. The son, named Raffaello, studied
painting, but died before he could produce any work of importance; the
daughter, Virginia, married Ercole Malatesta.

Wide and solid knowledge of design, combined with a promptitude of
composition that was never at fault, formed the chief motive power and
merit of Giulio Romano's art. Whatever was wanted, he produced it at
once, throwing off, as Vasari says, a large design in an hour; and he
may in that sense, though not equally so when an imaginative or ideal
test is applied, be called a great inventor. It would be difficult to
name any other artist who, working as an architect, and as the plastic
and pictorial embellisher of his architecture, produced a total of work
so fully and homogeneously his own; hence he has been named "the prince
of decorators." He had great knowledge of the human frame, and
represented it with force and truth, though sometimes with an excess of
movement; he was also learned in other matters, especially in medals,
and in the plans of ancient buildings. In design he was more strong and
emphatic than graceful, and worked a great deal from his accumulated
stores of knowledge, without consulting nature direct. As a general
rule, his designs are finer and freer than his paintings, whether in
fresco or in oil--his easel pictures being comparatively few, and some
of them the reverse of decent; his colouring is marked by an excess of
blackish and heavy tints.

Giulio Romano introduced the style of Raphael into Mantua, and
established there a considerable school of art, which surpassed in
development that of his predecessor Mantegna, and almost rivalled that
of Rome. Very many engravings--more than three hundred are
mentioned--were made contemporaneously from his works; and this not only
in Italy, but in France and Flanders as well. His plan of entrusting
principally to assistants the pictorial execution of his cartoons has
already been referred to; Primaticcio was one of the leading coadjutors.
Rinaldo Mantovano, a man of great ability who died young, was the chief
executant of the "Fall of the Giants"; he also co-operated with
Benedetto Pagni da Pescia in painting the remarkable series of horses
and hounds, and the story of Psyche. Another pupil was Fermo Guisoni,
who remained settled in Mantua. The oil pictures of Giulio Romano are
not generally of high importance; two leading ones are the "Martyrdom of
Stephen," in the church of that saint in Genoa, and a "Holy Family" in
the Dresden Gallery. Among his architectural works not already mentioned
is the Villa Madama in Rome, with a fresco of Polyphemus, and boys and
satyrs; the Ionic facade of this building may have been sketched out by
Raphael.

Vasari gives a pleasing impression of the character of Giulio. He was
very loving to his friends, genial, affable, well-bred, temperate in the
pleasures of the table, but liking fine apparel and a handsome scale of
living. He was good-looking, of middle height, with black curly hair and
dark eyes, and an ample beard; his portrait, painted by himself, is in
the Louvre.

  Besides Vasari, Lanzi and other historians of art, the following works
  may be mentioned: C. D. Arco, _Vita di G. Pippi_ (1828); G. C. von
  Murr, _Notice sur les estampes gravees apres dessins de Jules Romain_
  (1865); R. Sanzio, two works on _Etchings and Paintings_ (1800, 1836).
       (W. M. R.)




GIUNTA PISANO, the earliest Italian painter whose name is found
inscribed on an extant work. He is said to have exercised his art from
1202 to 1236. He may perhaps have been born towards 1180 in Pisa, and
died in or soon after 1236; but other accounts give 1202 as the date of
his birth, and 1258 or thereabouts for his death. There is some ground
for thinking that his family name was Capiteno. The inscribed work above
referred to, one of his earliest, is a "Crucifix," long in the kitchen
of the convent of St Anne in Pisa. Other Pisan works of like date are
very barbarous, and some of them may be also from the hand of Giunta. It
is said that he painted in the upper church of Assisi,--in especial a
"Crucifixion" dated 1236, with a figure of Father Elias, the general of
the Franciscans, embracing the foot of the cross. In the sacristy is a
portrait of St Francis, also ascribed to Giunta; but it more probably
belongs to the close of the 13th century. He was in the practice of
painting upon cloth stretched on wood, and prepared with plaster.




GIURGEVO (_Giurgiu_), the capital of the department of Vlashca, Rumania;
situated amid mud-flats and marshes on the left bank of the Danube. Pop.
(1900) 13,977. Three small islands face the town, and a larger one
shelters its port, Smarda, 2-1/2 m. E. The rich corn-lands on the north
are traversed by a railway to Bucharest, the first line opened in
Rumania, which was built in 1869 and afterwards extended to Smarda.
Steamers ply to Rustchuk, 2-1/2 m. S.W. on the Bulgarian shore, linking
the Rumanian railway system to the chief Bulgarian line north of the
Balkans (Rustchuk-Varna). Thus Giurgevo, besides having a considerable
trade with the home ports lower down the Danube, is the headquarters of
commerce between Bulgaria and Rumania. It exports timber, grain, salt
and petroleum; importing coal, iron and textiles. There are also large
saw-mills.

Giurgevo occupies the site of Theodorapolis, a city built by the Roman
emperor Justinian (A.D. 483-565). It was founded in the 14th century by
Genoese merchant adventurers, who established a bank, and a trade in
silks and velvets. They called the town, after the patron saint of
Genoa, San Giorgio (St George); and hence comes its present name. As a
fortified town, Giurgevo figured often in the wars for the conquest of
the lower Danube; especially in the struggle of Michael the Brave
(1593-1601) against the Turks, and in the later Russo-Turkish Wars. It
was burned in 1659. In 1829, its fortifications were finally razed, the
only defence left being a castle on the island of Slobosia, united to
the shore by a bridge.




GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE (1809-1850), Tuscan satirical poet, was born at
Monsummano, a small village of the Valdinievole, on the 12th of May
1809. His father, a cultivated and rich man, accustomed his son from
childhood to study, and himself taught him, among other subjects, the
first rudiments of music. Afterwards, in order to curb his too vivacious
disposition, he placed the boy under the charge of a priest near the
village, whose severity did perhaps more evil than good. At twelve
Giusti was sent to school at Florence, and afterwards to Pistoia and to
Lucca; and during those years he wrote his first verses. In 1826 he went
to study law at Pisa; but, disliking the study, he spent eight years in
the course, instead of the customary four. He lived gaily, however,
though his father kept him short of money, and learned to know the
world, seeing the vices of society, and the folly of certain laws and
customs from which his country was suffering. The experience thus gained
he turned to good account in the use he made of it in his satire.

His father had in the meantime changed his place of abode to Pescia; but
Giuseppe did worse there, and in November 1832, his father having paid
his debts, he returned to study at Pisa, seriously enamoured of a woman
whom he could not marry, but now commencing to write in real earnest in
behalf of his country. With the poem called _La Ghigliottina_ (the
guillotine), Giusti began to strike out a path for himself, and thus
revealed his great genius. From this time he showed himself the Italian
Beranger, and even surpassed the Frenchman in richness of language,
refinement of humour and depth of satirical conception. In Beranger
there is more feeling for what is needed for popular poetry. His poetry
is less studied, its vivacity perhaps more boisterous, more spontaneous;
but Giusti, in both manner and conception, is perhaps more elegant, more
refined, more penetrating. In 1834 Giusti, having at last entered the
legal profession, left Pisa to go to Florence, nominally to practise
with the advocate Capoquadri, but really to enjoy life in the capital of
Tuscany. He fell seriously in love a second time, and as before was
abandoned by his love. It was then he wrote his finest verses, by means
of which, although his poetry was not yet collected in a volume, but for
some years passed from hand to hand, his name gradually became famous.
The greater part of his poems were published clandestinely at Lugano, at
no little risk, as the work was destined to undermine the Austrian rule
in Italy. After the publication of a volume of verses at Bastia, Giusti
thoroughly established his fame by his _Gingillino_, the best in moral
tone as well as the most vigorous and effective of his poems. The poet
sets himself to represent the vileness of the treasury officials, and
the base means they used to conceal the necessities of the state. The
_Gingillino_ has all the character of a classic satire. When first
issued in Tuscany, it struck all as too impassioned and personal. Giusti
entered heart and soul into the political movements of 1847 and 1848,
served in the national guard, sat in the parliament for Tuscany; but
finding that there was more talk than action, that to the tyranny of
princes had succeeded the tyranny of demagogues, he began to fear, and
to express the fear, that for Italy evil rather than good had resulted.
He fell, in consequence, from the high position he had held in public
estimation, and in 1848 was regarded as a reactionary. His friendship
for the marquis Gino Capponi, who had taken him into his house during
the last years of his life, and who published after Giusti's death a
volume of illustrated proverbs, was enough to compromise him in the eyes
of such men as Guerrazzi, Montanelli and Niccolini. On the 31st of May
1850 he died at Florence in the palace of his friend.

The poetry of Giusti, under a light trivial aspect, has a lofty
civilizing significance. The type of his satire is entirely original,
and it had also the great merit of appearing at the right moment, of
wounding judiciously, of sustaining the part of the comedy that
"castigat ridendo mores." Hence his verse, apparently jovial, was
received by the scholars and politicians of Italy in all seriousness.
Alexander Manzoni in some of his letters showed a hearty admiration of
the genius of Giusti; and the weak Austrian and Bourbon governments
regarded them as of the gravest importance.

  His poems have often been reprinted, the best editions being those of
  Le Monnier, Carducci (1859; 3rd ed., 1879), Fioretti (1876) and Bragi
  (1890). Besides the poems and the proverbs already mentioned, we have
  a volume of select letters, full of vigour and written in the best
  Tuscan language, and a fine critical discourse on Giuseppe Parini, the
  satirical poet. In some of his compositions the elegiac rather than
  the satirical poet is seen. Many of his verses have been excellently
  translated into German by Paul Heyse. Good English translations were
  published in the _Athenaeum_ by Mrs T. A. Trollope, and some by W. D.
  Howells are in his _Modern Italian Poets_ (1887).




GIUSTINIANI, the name of a prominent Italian family which originally
belonged to Venice, but established itself subsequently in Genoa also,
and at various times had representatives in Naples, Corsica and several
of the islands of the Archipelago.

In the Venetian line the following are most worthy of mention:--

1. LORENZO (1380-1465), the Laurentius Justinianus of the Roman
calendar, at an early age entered the congregation of the canons of St
George in Alga, and in 1433 became general of that order. About the same
time he was made by Eugenius IV. bishop of Venice; and his episcopate
was marked by considerable activity in church extension and reform. On
the removal of the patriarchate from Grado to Venice by Nicholas V. in
1451, Giustiniani was promoted to that dignity, which he held for
fourteen years. He died on January 8, 1465, was canonized by Pope
Alexander VIII., his festival (semi-duplex) being fixed by Innocent
XII. for September 5th, the anniversary of his elevation to the
bishopric. His works, consisting of sermons, letters and ascetic
treatises, have been frequently reprinted,--the best edition being that
of the Benedictine P. N. A. Giustiniani, published at Venice in 2 vols.
folio, 1751. They are wholly devoid of literary merit. His life has been
written by Bernard Giustiniani, by Maffei and also by the Bollandists.

2. LEONARDO (1388-1446), brother of the preceding, was for some years a
senator of Venice, and in 1443 was chosen procurator of St Mark. He
translated into Italian Plutarch's _Lives of Cinna and Lucullus_, and was
the author of some poetical pieces, amatory and religious--_strambotti_
and _canzonetti_--as well as of rhetorical prose compositions. Some of
the popular songs set to music by him became known as _Giustiniani_.

3. BERNARDO (1408-1489), son of Leonardo, was a pupil of Guarino and of
George of Trebizond, and entered the Venetian senate at an early age. He
served on several important diplomatic missions both to France and Rome,
and about 1485 became one of the council of ten. His orations and
letters were published in 1492; but his title to any measure of fame he
possesses rests upon his history of Venice, _De origine urbis Venetiarum
rebusque ab ipsa gestis historia_ (1492), which was translated into
Italian by Domenichi in 1545, and which at the time of its appearance
was undoubtedly the best work upon the subject of which it treated. It
is to be found in vol. i. of the _Thesaurus_ of Graevius.

4. PIETRO, also a senator, lived in the 16th century, and wrote on
_Historia rerum Venetarum_ in continuation of that of Bernardo. He was
also the author of chronicles _De gestis Petri Mocenigi_ and _De bello
Venetorum cum Carolo VIII._ The latter has been reprinted in the
_Script. rer. Ital._ vol. xxi.

Of the Genoese branch of the family the most prominent members were the
following:--

5. PAOLO, DI MONIGLIA (1444-1502), a member of the order of Dominicans,
was, from a comparatively early age, prior of their convent at Genoa. As
a preacher he was very successful, and his talents were fully recognized
by successive popes, by whom he was made master of the sacred palace,
inquisitor-general for all the Genoese dominions, and ultimately bishop
of Scio and Hungarian legate. He was the author of a number of Biblical
commentaries (no longer extant), which are said to have been
characterized by great erudition.

6. AGOSTINO (1470-1536) was born at Genoa, and spent some wild years in
Valencia, Spain. Having in 1487 joined the Dominican order, he gave
himself with great energy to the study of Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee and
Arabic, and in 1514 began the preparation of a polyglot edition of the
Bible. As bishop of Nebbio in Corsica, he took part in some of the
earlier sittings of the Lateran council (1516-1517), but, in consequence
of party complications, withdrew to his diocese, and ultimately to
France, where he became a pensioner of Francis I., and was the first to
occupy a chair of Hebrew and Arabic in the university of Paris. After an
absence from Corsica for a period of five years, during which he visited
England and the Low Countries, and became acquainted with Erasmus and
More, he returned to Nebbio, about 1522, and there remained, with
comparatively little intermission, till in 1536, when, while returning
from a visit to Genoa, he perished in a storm at sea. He was the
possessor of a very fine library, which he bequeathed to the republic of
Genoa. Of his projected polyglot only the Psalter was published
(_Psalterium Hebraeum, Graecum, Arabicum, et Chaldaicum_, Genoa, 1616).
Besides the Hebrew text, the LXX. translation, the Chaldee paraphrase,
and an Arabic version, it contains the Vulgate translation, a new Latin
translation by the editor, a Latin translation of the Chaldee, and a
collection of scholia. Giustiniani printed 2000 copies at his own
expense, including fifty in vellum for presentation to the sovereigns of
Europe and Asia; but the sale of the work did not encourage him to
proceed with the New Testament, which he had also prepared for the
press. Besides an edition of the book of Job, containing the original
text, the Vulgate, and a new translation, he published a Latin version
of the _Moreh Nevochim_ of Maimonides (_Director dubitantium aut
perplexorum_, 1520), and also edited in Latin the _Aureus libellus_ of
Aeneas Platonicus, and the _Timaeus_ of Chalcidius. His annals of Genoa
(_Castigatissimi annali di Genova_) were published posthumously in 1537.

The following are also noteworthy:--

7. POMPEIO (1569-1616), a native of Corsica, who served under Alessandro
Farnese and the marquis of Spinola in the Low Countries, where he lost
an arm, and, from the artificial substitute which he wore, came to be
known by the sobriquet Bras de Fer. He also defended Crete against the
Turks; and subsequently was killed in a reconnaissance at Friuli. He
left in Italian a personal narrative of the war in Flanders, which has
been repeatedly published in a Latin translation (_Bellum Belgicum_,
Antwerp, 1609).

8. GIOVANNI (1513-1556), born in Candia, translator of Terence's
_Andria_ and _Eunuchus_, of Cicero's _In Verrem_, and of Virgil's
_Aeneid_, viii.

9. ORSATTO (1538-1603), Venetian senator, translator of the _Oedipus
Tyrannus_ of Sophocles and author of a collection of _Rime_, in
imitation of Petrarch. He is regarded as one of the latest
representatives of the classic Italian school.

10. GERONIMO, a Genoese, flourished during the latter half of the 16th
century. He translated the _Alcestis_ of Euripides and three of the
plays of Sophocles; and wrote two original tragedies, _Jephte_ and
_Christo in Passione_.

11. VINCENZO, who in the beginning of the 17th century built the Roman
palace and made the art collection which are still associated with his
name (see _Galleria Giustiniana_, Rome, 1631). The collection was
removed in 1807 to Paris, where it was to some extent broken up. In 1815
all that remained of it, about 170 pictures, was purchased by the king
of Prussia and removed to Berlin, where it forms a portion of the royal
museum.




GIUSTO DA GUANTO [JODOCUS, or JUSTUS, OF GHENT] (fl. 1465-1475), Flemish
painter. The public records of the city of Ghent have been diligently
searched, but in vain, for a clue to the history of Justus or Jodocus,
whom Vasari and Guicciardini called Giusto da Guanto. Flemish annalists
of the 16th century have enlarged upon the scanty statements of Vasari,
and described Jodocus as a pupil of Hubert Van Eyck. But there is no
source to which this fable can be traced. The registers of St Luke's
gild at Ghent comprise six masters of the name of Joos or Jodocus who
practised at Ghent in the 15th century. But none of the works of these
masters has been preserved, and it is impossible to compare their style
with that of Giusto. It was between 1465 and 1474 that this artist
executed the "Communion of the Apostles" which Vasari has described, and
modern critics now see to the best advantage in the museum of Urbino. It
was painted for the brotherhood of Corpus Christi at the bidding of
Frederick of Montefeltro, who was introduced into the picture as the
companion of Caterino Zeno, a Persian envoy at that time on a mission to
the court of Urbino. From this curious production it may be seen that
Giusto, far from being a pupil of Hubert Van Eyck, was merely a disciple
of a later and less gifted master, who took to Italy some of the
peculiarities of his native schools, and forthwith commingled them with
those of his adopted country. As a composer and draughtsman Giusto
compares unfavourably with the better-known painters of Flanders; though
his portraits are good, his ideal figures are not remarkable for
elevation of type or for subtlety of character and expression. His work
is technically on a level with that of Gerard of St John, whose pictures
are preserved in the Belvedere at Vienna. Vespasian, a Florentine
bookseller who contributed much to form the antiquarian taste of
Frederick of Montefeltro, states that this duke sent to the Netherlands
for a capable artist to paint a series of "ancient worthies" for a
library recently erected in the palace of Urbino. It has been
conjectured that the author of these "worthies," which are still in
existence at the Louvre and in the Barberini palace at Rome, was Giusto.
Yet there are notable divergences between these pictures and the
"Communion of the Apostles." Still, it is not beyond the range of
probability that Giusto should have been able, after a certain time, to
temper his Flemish style by studying the masterpieces of Santi and
_Melozzo_, and so to acquire the mixed manner of the Flemings and
Italians which these portraits of worthies display. Such an
assimilation, if it really took place, might justify the Flemings in the
indulgence of a certain pride, considering that Raphael not only admired
these worthies, but copied them in the sketch-book which is now the
ornament of the Venetian Academy. There is no ground for presuming that
Giusto ad Guanto is identical with Justus d'Allamagna who painted the
"Annunciation" (1451) in the cloisters of Santa Maria di Castello at
Genoa. The drawing and colouring of this wall painting shows that Justus
d'Allamagna was as surely a native of south Germany as his homonym at
Urbino was a born Netherlander.




GIVET, a town of northern France, in the department of Ardennes, 40 m.
N. by E. of Mezieres on the Eastern railway between the town and Namur.
Pop. (1906) town, 5110; commune, 7468. Givet lies on the Meuse about 1
m. from the Belgian frontier, and was formerly a fortress of
considerable importance. It is divided into three portions--the citadel
called Charlemont and Grand Givet on the left bank of the river, and on
the opposite bank Petit Givet, connected with Grand Givet by a stone
bridge of five arches. The fortress of Charlemont, situated at the top
of a precipitous rock 705 ft. high, was founded by the emperor Charles
V. in the 16th century, and further fortified by Vauban at the end of
the 17th century; it is the only survival of the fortifications of the
town, the rest of which were destroyed in 1892. In Grand Givet there are
a church and a town-hall built by Vauban, and a statue of the composer
Etienne Mehul stands in the fine square named after him. Petit Givet,
the industrial quarter, is traversed by a small tributary of the Meuse,
the Houille, which is bordered by tanneries and glue factories. Pencils
and tobacco-pipes are also manufactured. The town has considerable river
traffic, consisting chiefly of coal, copper and stone. There is a
chamber of arts and manufactures.




GIVORS, a manufacturing town of south-eastern France, in the department
of Rhone, on the railway between Lyons and St Etienne, 14 m. S. of Lyon.
Pop. (1906) 11,444. It is situated on the right bank of the Rhone, here
crossed by a suspension bridge, at its confluence with the Gier and the
canal of Givors, which starts at Grand Croix on the Gier, some 13 m.
distant. The chief industries are metal-working, engineering-construction
and glass-working. There are coal mines in the vicinity. On the hill
overlooking the town are the ruins of the chateau of St Gerald and of the
convent of St Ferreol, remains of the old town destroyed in 1594.




GJALLAR, in Scandinavian mythology, the horn of Heimdall, the guardian
of the rainbow bridge by which the gods pass and repass between earth
and heaven. This horn had to be blown whenever a stranger approached the
bridge.




GLABRIO. 1. MANIUS ACILIUS GLABRIO, Roman statesman and general, member
of a plebeian family. When consul in 191 B.C. he defeated Antiochus the
Great of Syria at Thermopylae, and compelled him to leave Greece. He
then turned his attention to the Aetolians, who had persuaded Antiochus
to declare war against Rome, and was only prevented from crushing them
by the intercession of T. Quinctius Flamininus. In 189 Glabrio was a
candidate for the censorship, but was bitterly opposed by the nobles. He
was accused by the tribunes of having concealed a portion of the Syrian
spoils in his own house; his legate gave evidence against him, and he
withdrew his candidature. It is probable that he was the author of the
law which left it to the discretion of the pontiffs to insert or omit
the intercalary month of the year.

  Censorinus, _De die natali_, xx.; Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i. 13;
  index to Livy; Appian, _Syr._ 17-21.

2. MANIUS ACILIUS GLABRIO, Roman statesman and general, grandson of the
famous jurist P. Mucius Scaevola. When praetor urbanus (70 B.C.) he
presided at the trial of Verres. According to Dio Cassius (xxxvi. 38),
in conjunction with L. Calpurnius Piso, his colleague in the consulship
(67), he brought forward a severe law (Lex Acilia Calpurnia) against
illegal canvassing at elections. In the same year he was appointed to
supersede L. Lucullus in the government of Cilicia and the command of
the war against Mithradates, but as he did absolutely nothing and was
unable to control the soldiery, he was in turn superseded by Pompey
according to the provisions of the Manilian law. Little else is known of
him except that he declared in favour of the death punishment for the
Catilinarian conspirators.

  Dio Cassius xxxvi. 14, 16. 24; Cicero, _Pro lege Manilia_, 2. 9;
  Appian, _Mithrid_. 90.




GLACE BAY, a city and port of entry of Cape Breton county, Nova Scotia,
Canada, on the Atlantic Ocean, 14 m. E. of Sydney, with which it is
connected both by steam and electric railway. It is the centre of the
properties of the Dominion Coal Company (founded 1893), which produce
most of the coal of Nova Scotia. Though it has a fair harbour, most of
the shipping is done from Sydney in summer and from Louisburg in winter.
Pop. (1892) 2000; (1901) 6945; (1906) 13,000.




GLACIAL PERIOD, in geology, the name usually given, by English and
American writers, to that comparatively recent time when all parts of
the world suffered a marked lowering of temperature, accompanied in
northern Europe and North America by glacial conditions, not unlike
those which now characterize the Polar regions. This period, which is
also known as the "Great Ice Age" (German _Die Eiszeit_), is synchronous
with the Pleistocene period, the earlier of the Post-Tertiary or
Quaternary divisions of geological time. Although "Glacial period" and
"Pleistocene" (q.v.) are often used synonymously it is convenient to
consider them separately, inasmuch as not a few Pleistocene formations
have no causal relationship with conditions of glaciation. Not until the
beginning of the 19th century did the deposits now generally recognized
as the result of ice action receive serious attention; the tendency was
to regard such superficial and irregular material as mere rubbish. Early
ideas upon the subject usually assigned floods as the formative agency,
and this view is still not without its supporters (see Sir H. H.
Howorth, _The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood_). Doubtless this attitude
was in part due to the comparative rarity of glaciers and ice-fields
where the work of ice could be directly observed. It was natural
therefore that the first scientific references to glacial action should
have been stimulated by the Alpine regions of Switzerland, which called
forth the writings of J. J. Scheuchzer, B. F. Kuhn, H. B. de Saussure,
F. G. Hugi, and particularly those of J. Venetz, J. G. von Charpentier
and L. Aggasiz. Canon Rendu, J. Forbes and others had studied the cause
of motion of glaciers, while keen observers, notably Sir James Hall, A.
Brongniart and J. Playfair, had noted the occurrence of travelled and
scratched stones.

The result of these efforts was the conception of great ice-sheets
flowing over the land, grinding the rock surfaces and transporting rock
debris in the manner to be observed in the existing glaciers. However,
before this view had become established Sir C. Lyell evolved the "drift
theory" to explain the widely spread phenomenon of transported blocks,
boulder clay and the allied deposits; in this he was supported by Sir H.
de la Beche, Charles Darwin, Sir R. I. Murchison and many others.
According to the drift theory, the transport and distribution of
"erratic blocks," &c., had been effected by floating icebergs; this view
naturally involved a considerable and widespread submergence of the
land, an assumption which appeared to receive support from the
occasional presence of marine shells at high levels in the "drift"
deposits. So great was the influence of those who favoured the drift
theory that even to-day it cannot be said to have lost complete hold; we
still speak of "drift" deposits in England and America, and the belief
in one or more great submergences during the Glacial period is still
held more firmly by certain geologists than the evidence would seem to
warrant. The case against the drift theory was most clearly expressed by
Sir A. C. Ramsay for England and Scotland, and by the Swedish scientist
Otto Torell. Since then the labours of Professor James Geikie, Sir
Archibald Geikie, Professor P. Kendall and others in England; von
Verendt, H. Credner, de Geer, E. Geinitz, A. Helland, Jentzsch, K.
Keilhack, A. Penck, H. Schroder, F. Wahnschaffe in Scandinavia and
Germany; T. C. Chamberlin, W. Upham, G. F. Wright in North America, have
all tended to confirm the view that it is to the movement of glaciers
and ice-sheets that we must look as the predominant agent of transport
and abrasion in this period. The three stages through which our
knowledge of glacial work has advanced may thus be summarized: (1) the
diluvial hypothesis, deposits formed by floods; (2) the drift
hypothesis, deposits formed mainly by icebergs and floating ice; (3) the
ice-sheet hypothesis, deposits formed directly or indirectly through the
agency of flowing ice.

_Evidences._--The evidence relied upon by geologists for the former
existence of the great ice-sheets which traversed the northern regions
of Europe and America is mainly of two kinds: (1) the peculiar erosion
of the older rocks by ice and ice-borne stones, and (2) the nature and
disposition of ice-borne rock debris. After having established the
criteria by which the work of moving ice is to be recognized in regions
of active glaciation, the task of identifying the results of earlier
glaciation elsewhere has been carried on with unabated energy.

[Illustration: Glacial period.]

1. _Ice Erosion._--Although there are certain points of difference
between the work of glaciers and broad ice-sheets, the former being more
or less restricted laterally by the valleys in which they flow, the
general results of their passage over the rocky floor are essentially
similar. Smooth rounded outlines are imparted to the rocks, markedly
contrasting with the pinnacled and irregular surfaces produced by
ordinary weathering; where these rounded surfaces have been formed on a
minor scale the well-known features of _roches moutonnees_ (German
_Rundhocker_) are created; on a larger scale we have the erosion-form
known as "crag and tail," when the ice-sheet has overridden ground with
more pronounced contours, the side of the hill facing the advancing ice
being rounded and gently curved (German _Stossseite_), and the opposite
side (_Leeseite_) steep, abrupt and much less smooth. Such features are
never associated with the erosion of water. The rounding of rock
surfaces is regularly accompanied by grooving and striation (German
_Schrammen, Schliffe_) caused by the grinding action of stones and
boulders embedded in the moving ice. These "glacial striae" are of great
value in determining the latest path of the vanished ice-sheets (see
map). Several other erosion-features are generally associated with ice
action; such are the circular-headed valleys, "cirques" or "corries"
(German _Zirkus_) of mountain districts; the pot-holes, giants' kettles
(_Strudellocher_, _Riesentopfe_), familiarly exemplified in the
Gletschergarten near Lucerne; the "rock-basins" (_Felsseebecken_) of
mountainous regions are also believed to be assignable to this cause on
account of their frequent association with other glacial phenomena, but
it is more than probable that the action of running water (waterfalls,
&c.)--influenced no doubt by the disposition of the ice--has had much
to do with these forms of erosion. As regards rock-basins, geologists
are still divided in opinion: Sir A. C. Ramsay, J. Geikie, Tyndall,
Helland, H. Hess, A. Penck, and others have expressed themselves in
favour of a glacial origin; while A. Heim, F. Stapff, T. Kjerulf, L.
Rutimeyer and many others have strongly opposed this view.

2. Glacial deposits may be roughly classified in two groups: those that
have been formed directly by the action of the ice, and those formed
through the agency of water flowing under, upon, and from the
ice-sheets, or in streams and lakes modified by the presence of the ice.
To differentiate in practice between the results of these two agencies
is a matter of some difficulty in the case of unstratified deposits; but
the boulder clay may be taken as the typical formation of the glacier or
ice-sheet, whether it has been left as a _terminal moraine_ at the limit
of glaciation or as a _ground moraine_ beneath the ice. A stratified
form of boulder clay, which not infrequently rests upon, and is
therefore younger than, the more typical variety, is usually regarded as
a deposit formed by water from the material (_englacial_, _innenmoran_)
held in suspension within the ice, and set free during the process of
melting. Besides the innumerable boulders, large and small, embedded in
the boulder clay, isolated masses of rock, often of enormous size, have
been borne by ice-sheets far from their original home and stranded when
the ice melted. These "erratic blocks," "perched blocks" (German
_Findlinge_) are familiar objects in the Alpine glacier districts, where
they have frequently received individual names, but they are just as
easily recognized in regions from which the glaciers that brought them
there have long since been banished. Not only did the ice transport
blocks of hard rock, granite and the like, but huge masses of stratified
rock were torn from their bed by the same agency; the masses of chalk in
the cliffs near Cromer are well known; near Berlin, at Firkenwald, there
is a transported mass of chalk estimated to be at least 2,000,000 cubic
metres in bulk, which has travelled probably 15 kilometres from its
original site; a block of Lincolnshire oolite is recorded by C.
Fox-Strangways near Melton in Leicestershire, which is 300 yds. long and
100 yds. broad if no more; and instances of a similar kind might be
multiplied.

When we turn to the "fluvio-glacial" deposits we find a bewildering
variety of stratified and partially bedded deposits of gravel, sand and
clay, occurring separately or in every conceivable condition of
association. Some of these deposits have received distinctive names;
such are the "Kames" of Scotland, which are represented in Ireland by
"Eskers," and in Scandinavia by "Asar." Another type of hillocky deposit
is exemplified by the "drums" or "drumlins." Everywhere beyond the
margin of the advancing or retreating ice-sheets these deposits were
being formed; streams bore away coarse and fine materials and spread
them out upon alluvial plains or upon the floors of innumerable lakes,
many of which were directly caused by the damming of the ordinary
water-courses by the ice. As the level of such lakes was changed new
beach-lines were produced, such as are still evident in the great lake
region of North America, in the parallel roads of Glen Roy, and the
"Strandlinien" of many parts of northern Europe.

Viewed in relation to man's position on the earth, no geological changes
have had a more profound importance than those of the Glacial period.
The whole of the glaciated region bears evidence of remarkable
modification of topographic features; in parts of Scotland or Norway or
Canada the old rocks are bared of soil, rounded and smoothed as far as
the eye can see. The old soil and subsoil, the product of ages of
ordinary weathering, were removed from vast areas to be deposited and
concentrated in others. Old valleys were filled--often to a great depth,
300-400 ft.; rivers were diverted from their old courses, never to
return; lakes of vast size were caused by the damming of old outlets
(Lake Lahontan, Lake Agassiz, &c., in North America), while an infinite
number of shifting lakelets--with their deposits--played an important
part along the ice-front at all stages of its career. The influence of
this period upon the present distribution of plant and animal life in
northern latitudes can hardly be overestimated.

Much stress has been laid upon supposed great changes in the level of
the land in northern regions during the Glacial period. The occurrence
of marine shells at an elevation of 1350 ft. at Moel Tryfaen in north
Wales, and at 1200 ft. near Macclesfield in Cheshire, has been cited as
evidence of profound submergence by some geologists, though others see
in these and similar occurrences only the transporting action of
ice-sheets that have traversed the floor of the adjoining seas. Marine
shells in stratified materials have been found on the coast of Scotland
at 100 ft. and over, in S. Scandinavia at 600 to 800 ft., and in the
"Champlain" deposits of North America at various heights. The dead
shells of the "Yoldia clay" cover wide areas at the bottom of the North
Atlantic at depths from 500 to 1300 fathoms, though the same mollusc is
now found living in Arctic seas at the depth of 5 to 15 fathoms. This
has been looked upon as a proof that in the N.W. European region the
lithosphere stood about 2600 ft. higher than it does now (Brogger,
Nansen, &c.), and it has been suggested that a union of the mainland of
Europe with that of North America--forming a northern continental mass,
"Prosarctis"--may have been achieved by way of Iceland, Jan Mayen Land
and Greenland. The pre-glacial valleys and fjords of Norway and
Scotland, with their deeply submerged seaward ends, are regarded as
proofs of former elevation. The great depth of alluvium in some places
(236 metres at Bremen) points in the same direction. Evidences of
changes of level occur in early, middle and late Pleistocene formations,
and the nature of the evidence is such that it is on the whole safer to
assume the existence only of the more moderate degree of change.

_The Cause of the Glacial Period._--Many attempts have been made to
formulate a satisfactory hypothesis that shall conform with the known
facts and explain the great change in climatic conditions which set in
towards the close of the Tertiary era, and culminated during the Glacial
period. Some of the more prominent hypotheses may be mentioned, but
space will not permit of a detailed analysis of theories, most of which
rest upon somewhat unsubstantial ground. The principal facts to be taken
into consideration are (1) the great lowering of temperature over the
whole earth; (2) the localization of extreme glaciation in north-west
Europe and north-east America; and (3) the local retrogression of the
ice-sheets, once or more times repeated.

Some have suggested the simple solution of a change in the earth's axis,
and have indicated that the pole may have travelled through some 15 deg.
to 20 deg. of latitude; thus, the polar glaciation, as it now exists,
might have been in this way transferred to include north-west Europe and
North America; but modern views on the rigidity of the earth's body,
together with the lack of any evidence of the correlative movement of
climatic zones in other parts of the world, render this hypothesis quite
untenable. On similar grounds a change in the earth's centre of gravity
is unthinkable. Theories based upon the variations in the obliquity of
the ecliptic or eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or on the passage of
the solar system through cold regions of space, or upon the known
variations in the heat emitted by the sun, are all insecure and
unsatisfactory. The hypothesis elaborated by James Croll (_Phil. Mag._,
1864, 28, p. 121; _Climate and Time_, 1875; and _Discussion on Climate
and Cosmology_, 1889) was founded upon the assumption that with the
earth's eccentricity at its maximum and winter in the north at aphelion,
there would be a tendency in northern latitudes for the accumulation of
snow and ice, which would be accentuated indirectly by the formation of
fogs and a modification of the trade winds. The shifting of the thermal
equator, and with it the direction of the trade winds, would divert some
of the warm ocean currents from the cold regions, and this effect was
greatly enhanced, he considered, by the configuration of the Atlantic
Ocean. Croll's hypothesis was supported by Sir R. Ball (_The Cause of
the Great Ice Age_, 1893), and it met with very general acceptance; but
it has been destructively criticized by Professor S. Newcomb (_Phil.
Mag._, 1876, 1883, 1884) and by E. P. Culverwell (_Phil. Mag._, 1894,
p. 541, and _Geol. Mag._, 1895, pp. 3 and 55). The difficulties in the
way of Croll's theory are: (1) the fundamental assumption, that
midwinter and midsummer temperatures are directly proportional to the
sun's heat at those periods, is not in accordance with observed facts;
(2) the glacial periods would be limited in duration to an appropriate
fraction of the precessional period (21,000 years), which appears to be
too short a time for the work that was actually done by ice agency; and
(3) Croll's glacial periods would alternate between the northern and
southern hemispheres, affecting first one then the other. Sir C. Lyell
and others have advocated the view that great elevation of the land in
polar regions would be conducive to glacial conditions; this is
doubtless true, but the evidence that the Glacial period was primarily
due to this cause is not well established. Other writers have
endeavoured to support the elevation theory by combining with it various
astronomical and meteorological agencies. More recently several
hypotheses have been advanced to explain the glacial period as the
result of changes in the atmosphere; F. W. Harmer ("The Influence of
Winds upon the Climate during the Pleistocene Epoch," _Q.J.G.S._, 1901,
57, p. 405) has shown the importance of the influence of winds in
certain circumstances; Marsden Manson ("The Evolution of Climate,"
_American Geologist_, 1899, 24, p. 93) has laid stress upon the
influence of clouds; but neither of these theories grapples successfully
with the fundamental difficulties. Others again have requisitioned the
variability in the amount of the carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere--hypotheses which depend upon the efficiency of this gas as a
thermal absorbent. The supply of carbon dioxide may be increased from
time to time, as by the emanations from volcanoes (S. Arrhenius and A.
G. Hogbom), or it may be decreased by absorption into sea-water, and by
the carbonation of rocks. Professor T. C. Chamberlin based a theory of
glaciation on the depletion of the carbon dioxide of the air ("An
Attempt to frame a Working Hypothesis of the cause of Glacial Periods on
an Atmospheric Basis," _Jl. Geol._, 1899, vii. 752-771; see also
Chamberlin and Salisbury, _Geology_, 1906, ii. 674 and iii. 432). The
outline of this hypothesis is as follows: The general conditions for
glaciation were (1) that the oceanic circulation was interrupted by the
existence of land; (2) that vertical circulation of the atmosphere was
accelerated by continental and other influences; (3) that the thermal
blanketing of the earth was reduced by a depletion of the moisture and
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and that hence the average temperature
of the surface of the earth and of the body of the ocean was reduced,
and diversity in the distribution of heat and moisture introduced. The
localization of glaciation is assignable to the two great areas of
permanent atmospheric depression that have their present centres near
Greenland and the Aleutian Islands respectively. The periodicity of
glacial advances and retreats, demanded by those who believe in the
validity of so-called "interglacial" epochs, is explained by a series of
complicated processes involving the alternate depletion and completion
of the normal charge of carbon dioxide in the air.

Whatever may be the ultimate verdict upon this difficult subject, it is
tolerably clear that no simple cause of glacial conditions is likely to
be discovered, but rather it will appear that these conditions resulted
from the interaction of a complicated series of factors; and further,
until a greater degree of unanimity can be approached in the
interpretation of observed facts, particularly as regards the
substantiality of interglacial epochs, the very foundations of a sound
working hypothesis are wanting.

_Classification of Glacial Deposits--Interglacial Epochs._--Had the
deposits of glaciated regions consisted solely of boulder clay little
difficulty might have been experienced in dealing with their
classification. But there are intercalated in the boulder clays those
irregular stratified and partially stratified masses of sand, gravel and
loam, frequently containing marine or freshwater shells and layers of
peat with plant remains, which have given rise to the conception of
"interglacial epochs"--pauses in the rigorous conditions of glaciation,
when the ice-sheets dwindled almost entirely away, while plants and
animals re-established themselves on the newly exposed soil. Glacialists
may be ranged in two schools: those who believe that one or more phases
of milder climatic conditions broke up the whole Glacial period into
alternating epochs of glaciation and "deglaciation"; and those who
believe that the intercalated deposits represent rather the _localized_
recessional movements of the ice-sheets within one single period of
glaciation. In addition to the stratified deposits and their contents,
important evidence in favour of interglacial epochs occurs in the
presence of weathered surfaces on the top of older boulder clays, which
are themselves covered by younger glacial deposits.

  The cause of the interglacial hypothesis has been most ardently
  championed in England by Professor James Geikie; who has endeavoured
  to show that there were in Europe six distinct glacial epochs within
  the Glacial period, separated by five epochs of more moderate
  temperature. These are enumerated below:

  6th Glacial epoch, Upper Turbarian, indicated by the deposits of peat
  which underlie the lower raised beaches.

  5th _Interglacial epoch, Upper Forestian_.

  5th Glacial epoch, Lower Turbarian, indicated by peat deposits
  overlying the lower forest-bed, by the raised beaches and carse-clays
  of Scotland, and in part by the _Littorina_-clays of Scandinavia.

  4th _Interglacial epoch, Lower Forestian_, the lower forests under
  peat beds, the _Ancylus_-beds of the great freshwater Baltic lake and
  the _Littorina_-clays of Scandinavia.

  4th Glacial epoch, Mecklenburgian, represented by the moraines of the
  last great Baltic glacier, which reach their southern limit in
  Mecklenburg; the 100-ft. terrace of Scotland and the _Yoldia_-beds of
  Scandinavia.

  3rd _Interglacial epoch, Neudeckian_, intercalations of marine and
  freshwater deposits in the boulder clays of the southern Baltic
  coasts.

  3rd Glacial epoch, Polandian, glacial and fluvio-glacial formations of
  the minor Scandinavian ice-sheet; and the "upper boulder clay" of
  northern and western Europe.

  2nd _Interglacial epoch, Helvetian_, interglacial beds of Britain and
  lignites of Switzerland.

  2nd Glacial epoch, Saxonian, deposits of the period of maximum
  glaciation when the northern ice-sheet reached the low ground of
  Saxony, and the Alpine glaciers formed the outermost moraines.

  1st _Interglacial epoch, Norfolkian_, the forest-bed series of
  Norfolk.

  1st Glacial epoch, Scanian, represented only in the south of Sweden,
  which was overridden by a large Baltic glacier. The Chillesford clay
  and Weybourne crag of Norfolk and the oldest moraines and
  fluvio-glacial gravels of the Arctic lands may belong to this epoch.

  In a similar manner Professor Chamberlin and other American geologists
  have recognized the following stages in the glaciation of North
  America:

    The Champlain, marine substage.
    The Glacio-lacustrine substage.
    The later Wisconsin (6th glacial).
    _The fifth interglacial._
    The earlier Wisconsin (5th glacial)
    _The Peorian (4th interglacial)._
    The Iowan (4th glacial).
    _The Sangamon (3rd interglacial)._
    The Illinoian (3rd glacial).
    _The Yarmouth or Buchanan (2nd interglacial)._
    The Kansan (2nd glacial).
    _The Aftonian (1st interglacial)._
    The sub-Aftonian or Jerseyan (1st glacial).

  Although it is admitted that no strict correlation of the European and
  North American stages is possible, it has been suggested that the
  Aftonian may be the equivalent of the Helvetian; the Kansan may
  represent the Saxonian; the Iowan, the Polandian; the Jerseyan, the
  Scanian; the early Wisconsin, the Mecklenburgian. But considering how
  fragmentary is much of the evidence in favour of these stages both in
  Europe and America, the value of such attempts at correlation must be
  infinitesimal. This is the more evident when it is observed that there
  are other geologists of equal eminence who are unable to accept so
  large a number of epochs after a close study of the local
  circumstances; thus, in the subjoined scheme for north Germany, after
  H. W. Munthe, there are three glacial and two interglacial epochs.

                        / The _Mya_ time       = beech-time.
    Post-Glacial epoch <  The _Littorina_ time = oak-time.
                        \ The _Ancylus_ time   = pine- and birch-time.

                        / Including the upper boulder clay,
                        |   "younger Baltic moraine" with the
    3rd Glacial    "   <    _Yoldia_ or _Dryas_ phase in the
                        \   retrogressive stage.

    2nd _Interglacial_ epoch including the _Cyprina_-clay.
    2nd Glacial epoch, the maximum glaciation.
    1st _Interglacial epoch_.
    1st Glacial epoch, "older boulder clay."

  Again, in the Alps four interglacial epochs have been recognized;
  while in England there are many who are willing to concede one such
  epoch, though even for this the evidence is not enough to satisfy all
  glacialists (G. W. Lamplugh, Address, Section C, _Brit. Assoc._, York,
  1906).

  This great diversity of opinion is eloquent of the difficulties of the
  subject; it is impossible not to see that the discovery of
  interglacial epochs bears a close relationship to the origin of
  certain hypotheses of the cause of glaciation; while it is significant
  that those who have had to do the actual mapping of glacial deposits
  have usually greater difficulty in finding good evidence of such
  definite ameliorations of climate, than those who have founded their
  views upon the examination of numerous but isolated areas.

  _Extent of Glacial Deposits._--From evidence of the kind cited above,
  it appears that during the glacial period a series of great ice-sheets
  covered enormous areas in North America and north-west Europe. The
  area covered during the maximum extension of the ice has been reckoned
  at 20 million square kilometres (nearly 8 million sq. m.) in North
  America and 6-1/2 million square kilometres (about 2-1/2 million sq.
  m.) in Europe.

  In Europe three great centres existed from which the ice-streams
  radiated; foremost in importance was the region of Fennoscandia (the
  name for Scandinavia with Finland as a single geological region); from
  this centre the ice spread out far into Germany and Russia and
  westward, across the North Sea, to the shores of Britain. The southern
  boundary of the ice extended from the estuary of the Rhine in an
  irregular series of lobes along the Schiefergebirge, Harz,
  Thuringerwald, Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge, and the northern flanks
  of the Carpathians towards Cracow. Down the valley of the Dnieper a
  lobe of the ice-sheet projected as far as 40 deg. 50' N.; another lobe
  extended down the Don valley as far as 48 deg. N.; thence the boundary
  runs north-easterly towards the Urals and the Kara Sea. The British
  Islands constituted the centre second in importance; Scotland, Ireland
  and all but the southern part of England were covered by a moving
  ice-cap. On the west the ice-sheets reached out to sea; on the east
  they were conterminous with those from Scandinavia. The third European
  centre was the Alpine region; it is abundantly clear from the masses
  of morainic detritus and perched blocks that here, in the time of
  maximum glaciation, the ice-covered area was enormously in excess of
  the shrivelled remnants, which still remain in the existing glaciers.
  All the valleys were filled with moving ice; thus the Rhone glacier at
  its maximum filled Lake Geneva and the plain between the Bernese
  Oberland and the Jura; it even overrode the latter and advanced
  towards Besancon. Extensive glaciation was not limited to the
  aforesaid regions, for all the areas of high ground had their
  independent glaciers strongly developed; the Pyrenees, the central
  highlands of France, the Vosges, Black Forest, Apennines and Caucasus
  were centres of minor but still important glaciation.

  The greatest expansion of ice-sheets was located on the North American
  continent; here, too, there were three principal centres of outflow:
  the "Cordilleran" ice-sheet in the N.W., the "Keewatin" sheet,
  radiating from the central Canadian plains, and the eastern "Labrador"
  or "Laurentide" sheet. From each of these centres the ice poured
  outwards in every direction, but the principal flow in each case was
  towards the south-west. The southern boundary of the glaciated area
  runs as an irregular line along the 49 deg. parallel in the western
  part of the continent, thence it follows the Mississippi valley down
  to its junction with the Ohio (southern limit 37 deg. 30' N.),
  eastward it follows the direction of that river and turns
  north-eastward in the direction of New Jersey. As in Europe, the
  mountainous regions of North America produced their own local
  glaciers; in the Rockies, the Olympics and Sierras, the Bighorn
  Mountains of Wyoming, the Uinta Mountains of Utah, &c. Although it was
  in the northern hemisphere that the most extensive glaciation took
  place, the effects of a general lowering of temperature seem to have
  been felt in the mountainous regions of all parts; thus in South
  America, New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania glaciers reached down the
  valleys far below the existing limits, and even where none are now to
  be found. In Asia the evidences of a former extension of glaciation
  are traceable in the Himalayas, and northward in the high ranges of
  China and Eastern Siberia. The same is true of parts of Turkestan and
  Lebanon. In Africa also, in British East Africa moraines are
  discovered 5400 ft. below their modern limit. In Iceland and
  Greenland, and even in the Antarctic, there appears to be evidence of
  a former greater extension of the ice. It is of interest to note that
  Alaska seems to be free from excessive glaciation, and that a
  remarkable "driftless" area lies in Wisconsin. The maximum glaciation
  of the Glacial period was clearly centred around the North Atlantic.

  _Glacial Epochs in the Older Geological Periods._--Since Ramsay drew
  attention to the subject in 1855 ("On the occurrence of angular,
  subangular, polished and striated fragments and boulders in the
  Permian Breccia of Shropshire, Worcestershire, &c., and on the
  probable existence of glaciers and icebergs in the Permian epoch,"
  _Q.J.G.S._, 1855, pp. 185-205), a good deal of attention has been paid
  to such formations. It is now generally acknowledged that the
  Permo-carboniferous conglomerates with striated boulders and polished
  rock surfaces, such as are found in the Karoo formation of South
  Africa, the Talkir conglomerate of the Salt Range in India, and the
  corresponding formations in Australia, represent undeniable glacial
  conditions at that period on the great Indo-Australian continent. A
  glacial origin has been suggested for numerous other conglomeratic
  formations, such as the Pre-Cambrian Torridonian of Scotland, and
  "Geisaschichten" of Norway; the basal Carboniferous conglomerate of
  parts of England; the Permian breccias of England and parts of Europe;
  the Trias of Devonshire; the coarse conglomerates in the Tertiary
  Flysch in central Europe; and the Miocene conglomerates of the
  Ligurian Apennines. In regard to the glacial nature of all these
  formations there is, however, great divergence of opinion (see A.
  Heim, "Zur Frage der exotischen Blocke in Flysch," _Eclogae geologicae
  Helvetiae_, vol. ix. No. 3, 1907, pp. 413-424).

  AUTHORITIES.--The literature dealing directly with the Glacial period
  has reached enormous dimensions; in addition to the works already
  mentioned the following may be taken as a guide to the general outline
  of the subject: J. Geikie, _The Great Ice Age_ (3rd ed., London,
  1904), also _Earth Sculpture_ (1898); G. F. Wright, _The Ice Age in
  North America_ (4th ed., New York, 1905) and _Man and the Glacial
  Period_ (1892); F. E. Geinitz, _Die Eiszeit_ (Braunschweig, 1906); A.
  Penck and E. Bruckner, _Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter_ (Leipzig,
  1901-1906, uncompleted). Many references to the literature will be
  found in Sir A. Geikie's _Textbook of Geology_, vol. ii. (4th ed.,
  1903); Chamberlin and Salisbury, _Geology_, vol. iii. (1906). As an
  example of glacial theories carried beyond the usual limits, see M.
  Gugenhan, _Die Ergletscherung der Erde von Pol zu Pol_ (Berlin, 1906).
  See also _Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde_ (Berlin, 1906 and onwards
  quarterly); Sir H. H. Howorth (opposing accepted glacial theories),
  _The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood_, i., ii. (London, 1893), _Ice
  and Water_, i., ii. (London, 1905), _The Mammoth and the Flood_
  (London, 1887).     (J. A. H.)




GLACIER (adopted from the French; from _glace_, ice, Lat. _glacies_), a
mass of compacted ice originating in a snow-field. Glaciers are formed
on any portion of the earth's surface that is permanently above the
snow-line. This line varies locally in the same latitudes, being in some
places higher than in others, but in the main it may be described as an
elliptical shell surrounding the earth with its longest diameter in the
tropics and its shortest in the polar regions, where it touches
sea-level. From the extreme regions of the Arctic and Antarctic circles
this cold shell swells upwards into a broad dome, from 15,000 to 18,000
ft. high over the tropics, truncating, as it rises, a number of peaks
and mountain ranges whose upper portions like all regions above this
thermal shell receive all their moisture in the form of snow. Since the
temperature above the snow-line is below freezing point evaporation is
very slight, and as the snow is solid it tends to accumulate in
snow-fields, where the snow of one year is covered by that of the next,
and these are wrapped over many deeper layers that have fallen in
previous years. If these piles of snow were rigid and immovable they
would increase in height until the whole field rose above the zone of
ordinary atmospheric precipitation, and the polar ice-caps would add a
load to these regions that would produce far-reaching results. The
mountain regions also would rise some miles in height, and all their
features would be buried in domes of snow some miles in thickness. When,
however, there is sufficient weight the mass yields to pressure and
flows outwards and downwards. Thus a balance of weight and height is
established, and the ice-field is disintegrated principally at the
edges, the surplus in polar regions being carried off in the form of
icebergs, and in mountain regions by streams that flow from the melting
ends of the glaciers.

_Formation._--The formation of glaciers is in all cases due to similar
causes, namely, to periodical and intermittent falls of snow. After a
snow-fall there is a period of rest during which the snow becomes
compacted by pressure and assumes the well-known granular character seen
in banks and patches of ordinary snow that lie longest upon the ground
when the snow is melting. This is the _firn_ or _neve_. The next fall of
snow covers and conceals the neve, but the light fresh crystals of this
new snow in turn become compacted to the coarsely crystalline granular
form of the underlying layer and become neve in turn. The process goes
on continually; the lower layers become subject to greater and greater
pressure, and in consequence become gradually compacted into dense clear
ice, which, however, retains its granular crystalline texture
throughout. The upper layers of neve are usually stratified, owing to
some individual peculiarity in the fall, or to the accumulation of dust
or debris upon the surface before it is covered by fresh snow. This
stratification is often visible on the emerging glacier, though it is
to be distinguished from the foliation planes caused by shearing
movement in the body of the glacier ice.

_Types._--The snow-field upon which a glacier depends is always formed
when snow-fall is greater than snow-waste. This occurs under varying
conditions with a differently resulting type of glacier. There are
limited fields of snow in many mountain regions giving rise to long
tongues of ice moving slowly down the valleys and therefore called
"valley glaciers." The greater part of Greenland is covered by an
ice-cap extending over nearly 400,000 sq. m., forming a kind of enormous
continuous glacier on its lower slopes. The Antarctic ice region is
believed to extend over more than 3,000,000 sq. m. Each of these
continental fields, besides producing block as distinguished from tongue
glaciers, sends into the sea a great number of icebergs during the
summer season. These ice-caps covering great regions are by far the most
important types. Between these "polar" or "continental glaciers" and the
"alpine" type there are many grades. Smaller detached ice-caps may rest
upon high plateaus as in Iceland, or several tongues of ice coming down
neighbouring valleys may splay out into convergent lobes on lower ground
and form a "piedmont glacier" such as the Malaspina Glacier in Alaska.
When the snow-field lies in a small depression the glacier may remain
suspended in the hollow and advance no farther than the edge of the
snow-field. This is called a "cliff-glacier," and is not uncommon in
mountain regions. The end of a larger glacier, or the edge of an
ice-sheet, may reach a precipitous cliff, where the ice will break from
the edge of the advancing mass and fall in blocks to the lower ground,
where a "reconstructed glacier" will be formed from the fragments and
advance farther down the slope.

When a glacier originates upon a dome-shaped or a level surface the ice
will deploy radially in all directions. When a snow-field is formed
above steep valleys separated by high ridges the ice will flow downwards
in long streams. If the valleys under the snow-fields are wide and
shallow the resultant glaciers will broaden out and partially fill them,
and in all cases, since the conditions of glacier formation are similar,
the resultant form and the direction of motion will depend upon the
amount of ice and the form of the surface over which the glacier flows.
A glacier flowing down a narrow gorge to an open valley, or on to a
plain, will spread at its foot into a fan-shaped lobe as the ice spreads
outwards while moving downwards. An ice-cap is in the main thickest at
the centre, and thins out at the edges. A valley glacier is thickest at
some point between its source and its end, but nearer to its source than
to its termination, but its thickness at various portions will depend
upon the contour of the valley floor over which the glacier rides, and
may reach many hundreds of feet. At its centre the Greenland ice-cap is
estimated to be over 5000 ft. thick. In all cases the glacier ends where
the waste of ice is greater than the supply, and since the relationship
varies in different years, or cycles of years, the end of a glacier may
advance or retreat in harmony with greater or less snow-fall or with
cooler or hotter summers. There seems to be a cycle of inclusive
contraction and expansion of from 35 to 40 or 50 years. At present the
ends of the Swiss glaciers are cradled in a mass of moraine-stuff due to
former extension of the glaciers, and investigations in India show that
in some parts of the Himalayas the glaciers are retreating as they are
in North America and even in the southern hemisphere (_Nature_, January
2, 1908, p. 201).

_Movement._--The fact that a glacier moves is easily demonstrated; the
cause of the movement is pressure upon a yielding mass; the nature of
the movement is still under discussion. Rows of stakes or stones placed
in line across a glacier are found to change their position with respect
to objects on the bank and also with regard to each other. The posts in
the centre of the ice-stream gradually move away from those at the side,
proving that the centre moves faster than the sides. It has also been
proved that the surface portions move more rapidly than the deeper
layers and that the motion is slowest at the sides and bottom where
friction is greatest.

The rate of motion past the same spot is not uniform. Heat accelerates
it, cold arrests it, and the pressure of a large amount of water
stimulates the flow. The rate of flow under the same conditions varies
at different parts of the glacier directly as the thickness of ice, the
steepness of slope and the smoothness of rocky floor. Generally
speaking, the rate of motion depends upon the amount of ice that forms
the "head" pressure, the slope of the under surface and of the upper
surface, the nature of the floor, the temperature and the amount of
water present in the ice. The ordinary rate of motion is very slow. In
Switzerland it is from 1 or 2 in. to 4 ft. per day, in Alaska 7 ft., in
Greenland 50 to 60 ft., and occasionally 100 ft. per day in the height
of summer under exceptional conditions of quantity of ice and of water
and slope. Measurements of Swiss glaciers show that near the ice foot
where wastage is great there is very little movement, and observations
upon the inland border of Greenland ice show that it is almost
stationary over long distances. In many aspects the motion of a body of
ice resembles that of a body of water, and an alpine glacier is often
called an ice-river, since like a river it moves faster in the centre
than at the sides and at the top faster than at the bottom. A glacier
follows a curve in the same way as a river, and there appear to be ice
swirls and eddies as well as an upward creep on shelving curves
recalling many features of stream action. The rate of motion of both
ice-stream and river is accelerated by quantity and steepness of slope
and retarded by roughness of bed, but here the comparison ends, for
temperature does not affect the rate of water motion, nor will a liquid
crack into crevasses as a glacier does, or move upwards over an adverse
slope as a glacier always does when there is sufficient "head" of ice
above it. So that although in many respects ice behaves as a viscous
fluid the comparison with such a fluid is not perfect. The cause of
glacier motion must be based upon some more or less complex
considerations. The flakes of snow are gradually transformed into
granules because the points and angles of the original flakes melt and
evaporate more readily than the more solid central portions, which
become aggregated round some master flake that continues to grow in the
neve at the expense of its smaller neighbours, and increases in size
until finally the glacier ice is composed of a mass of interlocked
crystalline granules, some as large as a walnut, closely compacted under
pressure with the principal crystalline axes in various directions. In
the upper portions of the glacier movement due to pressure probably
takes place by the gliding of one granule over another. In this
connexion it must be noted that pressure lowers the melting point of ice
while tension raises it, and at all points of pressure there is
therefore a tendency to momentary melting, and also to some evaporation
due to the heat caused by pressure, and at the intermediate tension
spaces between the points of pressure this resultant liquid and vapour
will be at once re-frozen and become solid. The granular movement is
thus greatly facilitated, while the body of ice remains in a crystalline
solid condition. In this connexion it is well to remember that the
pressure of the glacier upon its floor will have the same result, but
the effect here is a mass-effect and facilitates the gliding of the ice
over obstacles, since the friction produces heat and the pressure lowers
the melting point, so that the two causes tend to liquefy the portion
where pressure is greatest and so to "lubricate" the prominences and
enable the glacier to slide more easily over them, while the liquid thus
produced is re-frozen when the pressure is removed.

In polar regions of very low temperature a very considerable amount of
pressure must be necessary before the ice granules yield to momentary
liquefaction at the points of pressure, and this probably accounts for
the extreme thickness of the Arctic and Antarctic ice-caps where the
slopes are moderate, for although equally low temperatures are found in
high Alpine snow-fields the slopes there are exceedingly steep and
motion is therefore more easily produced.

Observations made upon the Greenland glaciers indicate a considerable
amount of "shearing" movement in the lower portions of a glacier. Where
obstacles in the bed of the glacier arrest the movement of the ice
immediately above it, or where the lower portion of the glacier is
choked by debris, the upper ice glides over the lower in shearing planes
that are sometimes strongly marked by debris caught and pushed forwards
along these planes of foliation. It must be remembered that there is a
solid push from behind upon the lower portion of a glacier, quite
different from the pressure of a body of water upon any point, for the
pressure of a fluid is equal in all directions, and also that this push
will tend to set the crystalline granules in positions in which their
crystalline axes are parallel along the gliding planes. The production
of gliding planes is in some cases facilitated by the descent into the
glacier of water melted during summer, where it expands in freezing and
pushes the adjacent ice away from it, forming a surface along which
movement is readily established.

If under all circumstances the glacier melted under pressure at the
bottom, glacial abrasion would be nearly impossible, since every small
stone and fragment of rock would rotate in a liquid shell as the ice
moved forward, but since the pressure is not always sufficient to
produce melting, the glacier sometimes remains dry at its base; rock
fragments are held firmly; and a dry glacier may thus become a graving
tool of enormous power. Whatever views may be adopted as to the causes
of glacier motion, the peculiar character of glacier ice as distinct
from homogeneous river or pond ice must be kept in view, as well as the
characteristic tendency of water to expand in freezing, the lowering of
the melting point of ice under pressure, the raising of the melting
point under tension, the production of gliding or shearing planes under
pressure from above, the presence in summer of a considerable quantity
of water in the lower portions of the glacier which are thus loosened,
the cracking of ice (as into crevasses), under sudden strain, and the
regelation of ice in contact. A result of this last process is that
fissures are not permanent, but having been produced by the passage of
ice over an obstruction, they subsequently become healed when the ice
proceeds over a flatter bed. Finally it must be remembered that although
glacier ice behaves in some sense like a viscous fluid its condition is
totally different, since "a glacier is a crystalline rock of the purest
and simplest type, and it never has other than the crystalline state."

_Characteristics._--The general appearance of a glacier varies according
to its environment of position and temperature. The upper portion is
hidden by neve and often by freshly fallen snow, and is smooth and
unbroken. During the summer, when little snow falls, the body of the
glacier moves away from the snow-field and a gaping crevasse of great
depth is usually established called the _bergschrund_, which is
sometimes taken as the upper limit of the glacier. The glacier as it
moves down the valley may become "loaded" in various ways. Rock-falls
send periodical showers of stones upon it from the heights, and these
are spread out into long lines at the glacier sides as the ice moves
downwards carrying the rock fragments with it. These are the "lateral
moraines." When two or more glaciers descending adjacent valleys
converge into one glacier one or more sides of the higher valleys
disappear, and the ice that was contained in several valleys is now
carried by one. In the simplest case where two valleys converge into one
the two inner lateral moraines meet and continue to stream down the
larger valley as one "median moraine." Where several valleys meet there
are several such parallel median moraines, and so long as the ice
remains unbroken these will be carried upon the surface of the glacier
and finally tipped over the end. There is, however, differential heating
of rock and ice, and if the stones carried are thin they tend to sink
into the ice because they absorb heat readily and melt the ice under
them. Dust has the same effect and produces "dust wells" that honeycomb
the upper surface of the ice with holes into which the dust sinks. If
the moraine rocks are thick they prevent the ice under them from melting
in sunlight, and isolated blocks often remain supported upon ice-pillars
in the form of ice tables, which finally collapse, so that such rocks
may be scattered out of the line of the moraine. As the glacier descends
into the lower valleys it is more strongly heated, and surface streams
are established in consequence that flow into channels caused by unequal
melting of the ice and finally plunge into crevasses. These crevasses
are formed by strains established as the central parts drag away from
the sides of the glacier and the upper surface from the lower, and more
markedly by the tension due to a sudden bend in the glacier caused by an
inequality in its bed which must be over-ridden. These crevasses are
developed at right angles to the strain and often produce intersecting
fissures in several directions. The morainic material is gradually
dispersed by the inequalities produced, and is further distributed by
the action of superficial streams until the whole surface is strewn with
stones and debris, and presents, as in the lower portions of the Mer de
Glace, an exceedingly dirty appearance. Many blocks of stone fall into
the gaping crevasses and much loose rock is carried down as "englacial
material" in the body of the glacier. Some of it reaches the bottom and
becomes part of the "ground moraine" which underlies the glacier, at
least from the _bergschrund_ to the "snout," where much of it is carried
away by the issuing stream and spread finally on to the plains below. It
appears that a very considerable amount of degradation is caused under
the _bergschrund_ by the mass of ice "plucking" and dragging great
blocks of rock from the side of the mountain valley where the great head
of ice rests in winter and whence it begins to move in summer. These
blocks and many smaller fragments are carried downwards wedged in the
ice and cause powerful abrasion upon the rocky floor, rasping and
scoring the channel, producing conspicuous striae, polishing and
rounding the rock surfaces, and grinding the contained fragments as well
as the surface over which it passes into small fragments and fine
powder, from which "boulder clay" or "till" is finally produced.
Emerging, then, from the snow-field as pure granular ice the glacier
gradually becomes strewn and filled with foreign material, not only from
above but also, as is very evident in some Greenland glaciers,
occasionally from below by masses of fragments that move upwards along
gliding planes, or are forced upwards by slow swirls in the ice itself.

As a glacier is a very brittle body any abrupt change in gradient will
produce a number of crevasses, and these, together with those produced
by dragging strains, will frequently wedge the glacier into a mass of
pinnacles or _seracs_ that may be partially healed but are usually
evident when the melting end of the glacier emerges suddenly from a
steep valley. Here the streams widen the weaker portions and the moraine
rocks fall from the end to produce the "terminal" moraine, which usually
lies in a crescentic heap encircling the glacier snout, whence it can
only be moved by a further advance of the glacier or by the ordinary
slow process of atmospheric denudation.

In cases where no rock falls upon the surface there is a considerable
amount of englacial material due to upturning either over accumulated
ground debris or over structural inequalities in the rock floor. This is
well seen at the steep sides and ends of Greenland glaciers, where
material frequently comes to the surface of the melting ice and produces
median and lateral moraines, besides appearing in enormous "eyes"
surrounded in the glacial body by contorted and foliated ice and
sometimes producing heaps and embankments as it is pushed out at the end
of the melting ice.

The environment of temperature requires consideration. At the upper or
dorsal portion of the glacier there is a zone of variable (winter and
summer) temperature, beneath which, if the ice is thick enough, there is
a zone of constant temperature which will be about the mean annual
temperature of the region of the snow-field. Underlying this there is a
more or less constant ventral or ground temperature, depending mainly
upon the internal heat of the earth, which is conducted to the under
surface of the glacier where it slowly melts the ice, the more readily
because the pressure lowers the melting point considerably, so that
streams of water run constantly from beneath many glaciers, adding their
volume to the springs which issue from the rock. The middle zone of
constant temperature is wedge-shaped in "alpine" glaciers, the apex
pointing downwards to the zone of waste. The upper zone of variable
temperature is thinnest in the snow-field where the mean temperature is
lowest, and entirely dominant in the snout end of the glacier where the
zone of constant temperature disappears. Two temperature wedges are thus
superposed base to point, the one being thickest where the other is
thinnest, and both these lie upon the basal film of temperature where
the escaping earth-heat is strengthened by that due to friction and
pressure. The cold wave of winter may pass right through a thin glacier,
or the constant temperature may be too low to permit of the ice melting
at the base, in which cases the glacier is "dry" and has great eroding
power. But in the lower warmer portions water running through crevasses
will raise the temperature, and increase the strength of the downward
heat wave, while the mean annual temperature being there higher, the
combined result will be that the glacier will gradually become "wet" at
the base and have little eroding power, and it will become more and more
wet as it moves down the lower valley zone of ice-waste, until at last
the balance is reached between waste and supply and the glacier finally
disappears.

If the mean annual temperature be 20 deg. F., and the mean winter
temperature be -12 deg. F., as in parts of Greenland, all the ice must
be considerably below the melting point, since the pressure of ice a
mile in depth lowers the melting point only to 30 deg. F., and the
earth-heat is only sufficient to melt 1/4 in. of ice in a year.
Therefore in these regions, and in snow-fields and high glaciers with an
equal or lower mean temperature than 20 deg. F., the glacier will be
"dry" throughout, which may account for the great eroding power stated
to exist near the _bergschrund_ in glaciers of an alpine type, which
usually have their origin on precipitous slopes.

A considerable amount of ice-waste takes place by water-drainage, though
much is the result of constant evaporation from the ice surface. The
lower end of a glacier is in summer flooded by streams of water that
pour along cracks and plunge into crevasses, often forming "pot-holes"
or _moulins_ where stones are swirled round in a glacial "mill" and wear
holes in the solid rock below. Some of these streams issue in a spout
half way up the glacier's end wall, but the majority find their way
through it and join the water running along the glacier floor and
emerging where the glacier ends in a large glacial stream.

_Results of Glacial Action._--A glacier is a degrading and an aggrading
agent. Much difference of opinion exists as to the potency of a glacier
to alter surface features, some maintaining that it is extraordinarily
effective, and considering that a valley glacier forms a pronounced
_cirque_ at the region of its origin and that the cirque is gradually
cut backward until a long and deep valley is formed (which becomes
evident, as in the Rocky Mountains, in an upper valley with "reversed
grade" when the glacier disappears), and also that the end of a glacier
plunging into a valley or a fjord will gouge a deep basin at its region
of impact. The Alaskan and Norwegian fjords and the rock basins of the
Scottish lochs are adduced as examples. Other writers maintain that a
glacier is only a modifying and not a dominant agent in its effects upon
the land-surface, considering, for example, that a glacier coming down a
lateral valley will preserve the valley from the atmospheric denudation
which has produced the main valley over which the lateral valley
"hangs," a result which the believers in strong glacial action hold to
be due to the more powerful action of the main glacier as contrasted
with the weaker action of that in the lateral valley. Both the advocates
and the opponents of strenuous ice action agree that a V-shaped valley
of stream erosion is converted to a U-shaped valley of glacial
modification, and that rock surfaces are rounded into _roches
moutonnees_, and are grooved and striated by the passage of ice shod
with fragments of rock, while the subglacial material is ground into
finer and finer fragments until it becomes mud and "rock-flour" as the
glacier proceeds. In any case striking results are manifest in any
formerly glaciated region. The high peaks rise into pinnacles, and
ridges with "house-roof" structure, above the former glacier, while
below it the contours are all rounded and typically subdued. A landscape
that was formerly completely covered by a moving ice-cap has none but
these rounded features of dome-shaped hills and U-shaped valleys that at
least bear evidence to the great modifying power that a glacier has upon
a landscape.

There is no conflict of opinion with regard to glacial aggradation and
the distribution of superglacial, englacial and subglacial material,
which during the active existence of a glacier is finally distributed by
glacial streams that produce very considerable alluviation. In many
regions which were covered by the Pleistocene ice-sheet the work of the
glacier was arrested by melting before it was half done. Great deposits
of till and boulder clay that lay beneath the glaciers were abandoned
_in situ_, and remain as an unsorted mixture of large boulders, pebbles
and mingled fragments, embedded in clay or sand. The lateral, median and
terminal moraines were stranded where they sank as the ice disappeared,
and together with perched blocks (_roches perchees_) remain as a
permanent record of former conditions which are now found to have
existed temporarily in much earlier geological times. In glaciated North
America lateral moraines are found that are 500 to 1000 ft. high and in
northern Italy 1500 to 2000 ft. high. The surface of the ground in all
these places is modified into the characteristic glaciated landscape,
and many formerly deep valleys are choked with glacial debris either
completely changing the local drainage systems, or compelling the
reappearing streams to cut new channels in a superposed drainage system.
Kames also and eskers (q.v.) are left under certain conditions, with
many puzzling deposits that are clearly due to some features of ice-work
not thoroughly understood.

  See L. Agassiz, _Etudes sur les glaciers_ (Neuchatel, 1840) and
  _Nouvelles Etudes ..._ (Paris, 1847); N. S. Shaler and W. M. Davis,
  _Glaciers_ (Boston, 1881); A. Penck, _Die Begletscherung der deutschen
  Alpen_ (Leipzig, 1882); J. Tyndall, _The Glaciers of the Alps_
  (London, 1896); T. G. Bonney, _Ice-Work, Past and Present_ (London,
  1896); I. C. Russell, _Glaciers of North America_ (Boston, 1897); E.
  Richter, _Neue Ergebnisse und Probleme der Gletscherforschung_
  (Vienna, 1899); F. Forel, _Essai sur les variations periodiques des
  glaciers_ (Geneva, 1881 and 1900); H. Hess, _Die Gletscher_
  (Brunswick, 1904).     (E. C. Sp.)




GLACIS, in military engineering (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT), an
artificial slope of earth in the front of works, so constructed as to
keep an assailant under the fire of the defenders to the last possible
moment. On the natural ground-level, troops attacking any high work
would be sheltered from its fire when close up to it; the ground
therefore is raised to form a glacis, which is swept by the fire of the
parapet. More generally, the term is used to denote any slope, natural
or artificial, which fulfils the above requirements.




GLADBACH, the name of two towns in Germany distinguished as
Bergisch-Gladbach and Munchen-Gladbach.

1. BERGISCH-GLADBACH is in Rhenish Prussia, 8 m. N.E. of Cologne by
rail. Pop. (1905) 13,410. It possesses four large paper mills and among
its other industries are paste-board, powder, percussion caps, nets and
machinery. Ironstone, peat and lime are found in the vicinity. The town
has four Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant. The
Stundenthalshohe, a popular resort, is in the neighbourhood, and near
Gladbach is Altenberg, with a remarkably fine church, built for the
Cistercian abbey at this place.

2. MUNCHEN-GLADBACH, also in Rhenish Prussia, 16 m. W.S.W. of Dusseldorf
on the main line of railway to Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. (1885) 44,230;
(1905) 60,714. It is one of the chief manufacturing places in Rhenish
Prussia, its principal industries being the spinning and weaving of
cotton, the manufacture of silks, velvet, ribbon and damasks, and dyeing
and bleaching. There are also tanneries, tobacco manufactories, machine
works and foundries. The town possesses a fine park and has statues of
the emperor William I. and of Prince Bismarck. There are ten Roman
Catholic churches here, among them being the beautiful minster, with a
Gothic choir dating from 1250, a nave dating from the beginning of the
13th century and a crypt of the 8th century. The town has two hospitals,
several schools, and is the headquarters of important insurance
societies. Gladbach existed before the time of Charlemagne, and a
Benedictine monastery was founded near it in 793. It was thus called
Munchen-Gladbach or Monks' Gladbach, to distinguish it from another town
of the same name. The monastery was suppressed in 1802. It became a town
in 1336; weaving was introduced here towards the end of the 18th
century, and having belonged for a long time to the duchy of Juliers it
came into the possession of Prussia in 1815.

  See Strauss, _Geschichte der Stadt Munchen-Gladbach_ (1895); and G.
  Eckertz, _Das Verbruderungs und Todtenbuch der Abtei Gladbach_ (1881).




GLADDEN, WASHINGTON (1836-   ), American Congregational divine, was born
in Pottsgrove, Pennsylvania, on the 11th of February 1836. He graduated
at Williams College in 1859, preached in churches in Brooklyn,
Morrisania (New York City), North Adams, Massachusetts, and Springfield,
Massachusetts, and in 1882 became pastor of the First Congregational
Church of Columbus, Ohio. He was an editor of the _Independent_ in
1871-1875, and a frequent contributor to it and other periodicals. He
consistently and earnestly urged in pulpit and press the need of
personal, civil and, particularly, social righteousness, and in
1900-1902 was a member of the city council of Columbus. Among his many
publications, which include sermons, occasional addresses, &c., are:
_Plain Thoughts on the Art of Living_ (1868); _Workingmen and their
Employers_ (1876); _The Christian Way_ (1877); _Things New and Old_
(1884); _Applied Christianity_ (1887); _Tools and the Man--Property and
Industry under the Christian Law_ (1893); _The Church and the Kingdom_
(1894), arguing against a confusion and misuse of these two terms;
_Seven Puzzling Bible Books_ (1897); _How much is Left of the Old
Doctrines_ (1899); _Social Salvation_ (1901); _Witnesses of the Light_
(1903); the William Belden Noble Lectures (Harvard), being addresses on
Dante, Michelangelo, Fichte, Hugo, Wagner and Ruskin; _The New Idolatry_
(1905); _Christianity and Socialism_ (1906), and _The Church and Modern
Life_ (1908). In 1909 he published his _Recollections_.




GLADIATORS (from Lat. _gladius_, sword), professional combatants who
fought to the death in Roman public shows. That this form of spectacle,
which is almost peculiar to Rome and the Roman provinces, was originally
borrowed from Etruria is shown by various indications. On an Etruscan
tomb discovered at Tarquinii there is a representation of gladiatorial
games; the slaves employed to carry off the dead bodies from the arena
wore masks representing the Etruscan Charon; and we learn from Isidore
of Seville (_Origines_, x.) that the name for a trainer of gladiators
(_lanista_) is an Etruscan word meaning butcher or executioner. These
gladiatorial games are evidently a survival of the practice of
immolating slaves and prisoners on the tombs of illustrious chieftains,
a practice recorded in Greek, Roman and Scandinavian legends, and
traceable even as late as the 19th century as the Indian _suttee_. Even
at Rome they were for a long time confined to funerals, and hence the
older name for gladiators was _bustuarii_; but in the later days of the
republic their original significance was forgotten, and they formed as
indispensable a part of the public amusements as the theatre and the
circus.

The first gladiators are said, on the authority of Valerius Maximus (ii.
4. 7), to have been exhibited at Rome in the Forum Boarium in 264 B.C.
by Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the funeral of their father. On this
occasion only three pairs fought, but the taste for these games spread
rapidly, and the number of combatants grew apace. In 174 Titus
Flamininus celebrated his father's obsequies by a three-days' fight, in
which 74 gladiators took part. Julius Caesar engaged such extravagant
numbers for his aedileship that his political opponents took fright and
carried a decree of the senate imposing a certain limit of numbers, but
notwithstanding this restriction he was able to exhibit no less than 300
pairs. During the later days of the republic the gladiators were a
constant element of danger to the public peace. The more turbulent
spirits among the nobility had each his band of gladiators to act as a
bodyguard, and the armed troops of Clodius, Milo and Catiline played the
same part in Roman history as the armed retainers of the feudal barons
or the condottieri of the Italian republics. Under the empire,
notwithstanding sumptuary enactments, the passion for the arena steadily
increased. Augustus, indeed, limited the shows to two a year, and
forbade a praetor to exhibit more than 120 gladiators, yet allusions in
Horace (_Sat._ ii. 3. 85) and Persius (vi. 48) show that 100 pairs was
the fashionable number for private entertainments; and in the Marmor
Ancyranum the emperor states that more than 10,000 men had fought during
his reign. The imbecile Claudius was devoted to this pastime, and would
sit from morning till night in his chair of state, descending now and
then to the arena to coax or force the reluctant gladiators to resume
their bloody work. Under Nero senators and even well-born women appeared
as combatants; and Juvenal (viii. 199) has handed down to eternal infamy
the descendant of the Gracchi who appeared without disguise as a
_retiarius_, and begged his life from the _secutor_, who blushed to
conquer one so noble and so vile.[1] Titus, whom his countrymen surnamed
the Clement, ordered a show which lasted 100 days; and Trajan, in
celebration of his triumph over Decebalus, exhibited 5000 pairs of
gladiators. Domitian at the Saturnalia of A.D. 90 arranged a battle
between dwarfs and women. Even women of high birth fought in the arena,
and it was not till A.D. 200 that the practice was forbidden by edict.
How widely the taste for these sanguinary spectacles extended throughout
the Roman provinces is attested by monuments, inscriptions and the
remains of vast amphitheatres. From Britain to Syria there was not a
town of any size that could not boast its arena and annual games. After
Italy, Gaul, North Africa and Spain were most famous for their
amphitheatres; and Greece was the only Roman province where the
institution never thoroughly took root.

Gladiators were commonly drawn either from prisoners of war, or slaves
or criminals condemned to death. Thus in the first class we read of
tattooed Britons in their war chariots, Thracians with their peculiar
bucklers and scimitars, Moors from the villages round Atlas and negroes
from central Africa, exhibited in the Colosseum. Down to the time of the
empire only greater malefactors, such as brigands and incendiaries, were
condemned to the arena; but by Caligula, Claudius and Nero this
punishment was extended to minor offences, such as fraud and peculation,
in order to supply the growing demand for victims. For the first century
of the empire it was lawful for masters to sell their slaves as
gladiators, but this was forbidden by Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius.
Besides these three regular classes, the ranks were recruited by a
considerable number of freedmen and Roman citizens who had squandered
their estates and voluntarily took the _auctoramentum gladiatorium_, by
which for a stated time they bound themselves to the _lanista_. Even men
of birth and fortune not seldom entered the lists, either for the pure
love of fighting or to gratify the whim of some dissolute emperor; and
one emperor, Commodus, actually appeared in person in the arena.

Gladiators were trained in schools (_ludi_) owned either by the state or
by private citizens, and though the trade of a _lanista_ was considered
disgraceful, to own gladiators and let them out for hire was reckoned a
legitimate branch of commerce. Thus Cicero, in his letters to Atticus,
congratulates his friend on the good bargain he had made in purchasing a
band, and urges that he might easily recoup himself by consenting to let
them out twice. Men recruited mainly from slaves and criminals, whose
lives hung on a thread, must have been more dangerous characters than
modern galley slaves or convicts; and, though highly fed and carefully
tended, they were of necessity subject to an iron discipline. In the
school of gladiators discovered at Pompeii, of the sixty-three skeletons
buried in the cells many were in irons. But hard as was the gladiators'
lot,--so hard that special precautions had to be taken to prevent
suicide,--it had its consolations. A successful gladiator enjoyed far
greater fame than any modern prize-fighter or athlete. He was presented
with broad pieces, chains and jewelled helmets, such as may be seen in
the museum at Naples; poets like Martial sang his prowess; his portrait
was multiplied on vases, lamps and gems; and high-born ladies contended
for his favours. Mixed, too, with the lowest dregs of the city, there
must have been many noble barbarians condemned to the vile trade by the
hard fate of war. There are few finer characters in Roman history than
the Thracian Spartacus, who, escaping with seventy of his comrades from
the school of Lentulus at Capua, for three years defied the legions of
Rome; and after Antony's defeat at Actium, the only part of his army
that remained faithful to his cause were the gladiators whom he had
enrolled at Cyzicus to grace his anticipated victory.

There were various classes of gladiators, distinguished by their arms or
modes of fighting. The Samnites fought with the national weapons--a
large oblong shield, a vizor, a plumed helmet and a short sword. The
Thraces had a small round buckler and a dagger curved like a scythe;
they were generally pitted against the Mirmillones, who were armed in
Gallic fashion with helmet, sword and shield, and were so called from
the fish ([Greek: mormulos] or [Greek: mormuros]) which served as the
crest of their helmet. In like manner the Retiarius was matched with the
Secutor: the former had nothing on but a short tunic or apron, and
sought to entangle his pursuer, who was fully armed, with the cast-net
(_jaculum_) that he carried in his right hand; and if successful, he
despatched him with the trident (_tridens_, _fuscina_) that he carried
in his left. We may also mention the Andabatae who are generally
believed to have fought on horseback and wore helmets with closed
vizors; the Dimachaeri of the later empire, who carried a short sword in
each hand; the Essedarii, who fought from chariots like the ancient
Britons; the Hoplomachi, who wore a complete suit of armour; and the
Laquearii, who tried to lasso their antagonists.

Gladiators also received special names according to the time or
circumstances in which they exercised their calling. The Bustuarii have
already been mentioned; the Catervarii fought, not in pairs, but in
bands; the Meridiani came forward in the middle of the day for the
entertainment of those spectators who had not left their seats; the
Ordinarii fought only in pairs, in the regular way; the Fiscales were
trained and supported at the expense of the imperial treasury; the
Paegniarii used harmless weapons, and their exhibition was a sham one;
the Postulaticii were those whose appearance was asked as a favour from
the giver of the show, in addition to those already exhibited.

The shows were announced some days before they took place by bills
affixed to the walls of houses and public buildings, copies of which
were also sold in the streets. These bills gave the names of the chief
pairs of competitors, the date of the show, the name of the giver and
the different kinds of combats. The spectacle began with a procession of
the gladiators through the arena, after which their swords were examined
by the giver of the show. The proceedings opened with a sham fight
(_praelusio_, _prolusio_) with wooden swords and javelins. The signal
for real fighting was given by the sound of the trumpet, those who
showed fear being driven on to the arena with whips and red-hot irons.
When a gladiator was wounded, the spectators shouted _Habet_ (he is
wounded); if he was at the mercy of his adversary, he lifted up his
forefinger to implore the clemency of the people, with whom (in the
later times of the republic) the giver left the decision as to his life
or death. If the spectators were in favour of mercy, they waved their
handkerchiefs; if they desired the death of the conquered gladiator,
they turned their thumbs downwards.[2] The reward of victory consisted
of branches of palm, sometimes of money. Gladiators who had exercised
their calling for a long time, or such as displayed special skill and
bravery, were presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), and discharged
from further service.

  Both the estimation in which gladiatorial games were held by Roman
  moralists, and the influence that they exercised upon the morals and
  genius of the nation, deserve notice. The Roman was essentially cruel,
  not so much from spite or vindictiveness as from callousness and
  defective sympathies. This element of inhumanity and brutality must
  have been deeply ingrained in the national character to have allowed
  the games to become popular, but there can be no doubt that it was fed
  and fostered by the savage form which their amusements took. That the
  sight of bloodshed provokes a love of bloodshed and cruelty is a
  commonplace of morals. To the horrors of the arena we may attribute in
  part, not only the brutal treatment of their slaves and prisoners, but
  the frequency of suicide among the Romans. On the other hand, we
  should be careful not to exaggerate the effects or draw too sweeping
  inferences from the prevalence of this degrading amusement. Human
  nature is happily illogical; and we know that many of the Roman
  statesmen who gave these games, and themselves enjoyed these sights of
  blood, were in every other department of life
  irreproachable--indulgent fathers, humane generals and mild rulers of
  provinces. In the present state of society it is difficult to conceive
  how a man of taste can have endured to gaze upon a scene of human
  butchery. Yet we should remember that it is not so long since
  bear-baiting was prohibited in England, and we are only now attaining
  that stage of morality in respect of cruelty to animals that was
  reached in the 5th century, by the help of Christianity, in respect of
  cruelty to men. We shall not then be greatly surprised if hardly one
  of the Roman moralists is found to raise his voice against this
  amusement, except on the score of extravagance. Cicero in a well-known
  passage commends the gladiatorial games as the best discipline against
  the fear of death and suffering that can be presented to the eye. The
  younger Pliny, who perhaps of all Romans approaches nearest to our
  ideal of a cultured gentleman, speaks approvingly of them. Marcus
  Aurelius, though he did much to mitigate their horrors, yet in his
  writings condemns the monotony rather than the cruelty. Seneca is
  indeed a splendid exception, and his letter to Lentulus is an eloquent
  protest against this inhuman sport. But it is without a parallel till
  we come to the writings of the Christian fathers, Tertullian,
  Lactantius, Cyprian and Augustine. In the _Confessions_ of the last
  there occurs a narrative which is worth quoting as a proof of the
  strange fascination which the games exercised even on a religious man
  and a Christian. He tells us how his friend Alipius was dragged
  against his will to the amphitheatre, how he strove to quiet his
  conscience by closing his eyes, how at some exciting crisis the shouts
  of the whole assembly aroused his curiosity, how he looked and was
  lost, grew drunk with the sight of blood, and returned again and
  again, knowing his guilt yet unable to abstain. The first Christian
  emperor was persuaded to issue an edict abolishing gladiatorial games
  (325), yet in 404 we read of an exhibition of gladiators to celebrate
  the triumph of Honorius over the Goths, and it is said that they were
  not totally extinct in the West till the time of Theodoric.

  Gladiators formed admirable models for the sculptor. One of the finest
  pieces of ancient sculpture that has come down to us is the "Wounded
  Gladiator" of the National Museum at Naples. The so-called "Fighting
  Gladiator" of the Borghese collection, now in the Museum of the
  Louvre, and the "Dying Gladiator" of the Capitoline Museum, which
  inspired the famous stanza of _Childe Harold_, have been pronounced by
  modern antiquaries to represent, not gladiators, but warriors. In this
  connexion we may mention the admirable picture of Gerome which bears
  the title, "Ave, Caesar, morituri te salutant."

  The attention of archaeologists has been recently directed to the
  tesserae of gladiators. These tesserae, of which about sixty exist in
  various museums, are small oblong tablets of ivory or bone, with an
  inscription on each of the four sides. The first line contains a name
  in the nominative case, presumably that of the gladiator; the second
  line a name in the genitive, that of the _patronus_ or _dominus_; the
  third line begins with the letters SP (for _spectatus_ = approved),
  which shows that the gladiator had passed his preliminary trials; this
  is followed by a day of a Roman month; and in the fourth line are the
  names of the consuls of a particular year.

  AUTHORITIES.--All needful information on the subject will be found in
  L. Friedlander's _Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms_, (part
  ii, 6th ed., 1889), and in the section by him on "The Games" in
  Marquardt's _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885) p. 554; see also
  article by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
  antiquites_. See also F. W. Ritschl, _Tesserae gladiatoriae_ (1864)
  and P. J. Meier, _De gladiatura Romana quaestiones selectae_ (1881).
  The articles by Lipsius on the _Saturnalia_ and _amphitheatrum_ in
  Graevius, _Thesaurus antiquitatum Romanarum_, ix., may still be
  consulted with advantage.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] See A. E. Housman on the passage in _Classical Review_ (November
    1904).

  [2] A different account is given by Mayor on Juvenal iii. 36, who
    says: "Those who wished the death of the conquered gladiator turned
    their thumbs towards their breasts, as a signal to his opponents to
    stab him; those who wished him to be spared, turned their thumbs
    downwards, as a signal for dropping the sword."




GLADIOLUS, a genus of monocotyledonous plants, belonging to the natural
order Iridaceae. They are herbaceous plants growing from a solid
fibrous-coated bulb (or corm), with long narrow plaited leaves and a
terminal one-sided spike of generally bright-coloured irregular flowers.
The segments of the limb of the perianth are very unequal, the perianth
tube is curved, funnel-shaped and widening upwards, the segments
equalling or exceeding the tube in length. There are about 150 known
species, a large number of which are South African, but the genus
extends into tropical Africa, forming a characteristic feature of the
mountain vegetation, and as far north as central Europe and western
Asia. One species _G. illyricus_ (sometimes regarded as a variety of _G.
communis_) is found wild in England, in the New Forest and the Isle of
Wight. Some of the species have been cultivated for a long period in
English flower-gardens, where both the introduced species and the modern
varieties bred from them are very ornamental and popular. _G. segetum_
has been cultivated since 1596, and _G. byzantinus_ since 1629, while
many additional species were introduced during the latter half of the
18th century. One of the earlier of the hybrids originated in gardens
was the beautiful _G. Colvillei_, raised in the nursery of Mr Colville
of Chelsea in 1823 from _G. tristis_ fertilized by _G. cardinalis_. In
the first decade of the 19th century, however, the Hon. and Rev. W.
Herbert had successfully crossed the showy _G. cardinalis_ with the
smaller but more free-flowering _G. blandus_, and the result was the
production of a race of great beauty and fertility. Other crosses were
made with _G. tristis_, _G. oppositiflorus_, _G. hirsutus_, _G. alatus_
and _G. psittacinus_; but it was not till after the production of _G.
gandavensis_ that the gladiolus really became a general favourite in
gardens. This fine hybrid was raised in 1837 by M. Bedinghaus, gardener
to the duc d'Aremberg, at Enghien, crossing _G. psittacinus_ and _G.
cardinalis_. There can, however, be little doubt that before the
_gandavensis_ type had become fairly fixed the services of other species
were brought into force, and the most likely of these were _G.
oppositiflorus_ (which shows in the white forms), _G. blandus_ and _G.
ramosus_. Other species may also have been used, but in any case the
_gandavensis_ gladiolus, as we now know it, is the result of much
crossing and inter-crossing between the best forms as they developed (J.
Weathers, _Practical Guide to Garden Plants_). Since that time
innumerable varieties have appeared only to sink into oblivion upon
being replaced by still finer productions.

The modern varieties of gladioli have almost completely driven the
natural species out of gardens, except in botanical collections. The
most gorgeous groups--in addition to the _gandavensis_ type--are those
known under the names of _Lemoinei_, _Childsi_, _nanceianus_ and
_brenchleyensis_. The last-named was raised by a Mr Hooker at Brenchley
in 1848, and although quite distinct in appearance from _gandavensis_,
it undoubtedly had that variety as one of its parents. Owing to the
brilliant scarlet colour of the flowers, this is always a great
favourite for planting in beds. The _Lemoinei_ forms originated at
Nancy, in France, by fertilizing _G. purpureo-auratus_ with pollen from
_G. gandavensis_, the first flower appearing in 1877, and the plants
being put into commerce in 1880. The _Childsi_ gladioli first appeared
in 1882, having been raised at Baden-Baden by Herr Max Leichtlin from
the best forms of _G. gandavensis_ and _G. Saundersi_. The flowers of
the best varieties are of great size and substance, often measuring 7 to
9 in. across, while the range of colour is marvellous, with shades of
grey, purple, scarlet, salmon, crimson, rose, white, pink, yellow, &c.,
often beautifully mottled and blotched in the throat. The plants are
vigorous in growth, often reaching a height of 4 to 5 ft. _G.
nanceianus_ was raised at Nancy by MM. Lemoine and were first put into
commerce in 1889. Next to the _Childsi_ group they are the most
beautiful, and have the blood of the best forms of _G. Saundersi_ and
_G. Lemoinei_ in their veins. The plants are quite as hardy as the
_gandavensis_ hybrids, and the colours of the flowers are almost as
brilliant and varied in hue as those of the _Childsi_ section.

  A deep and rather stiff sandy loam is the best soil for the gladiolus,
  and this should be trenched up in October and enriched with
  well-decomposed manure, consisting partly of cow dung, the manure
  being disposed altogether below the corms, a layer at the bottom of
  the upper trench, say 9 in. from the surface, and another layer at
  double that depth. The corms should be planted in succession at
  intervals of two or three weeks through the months of March, April and
  May; about 3 to 5 in. deep and at least 1 ft. apart, a little pure
  soil or sand being laid over each before the earth is closed in about
  them, an arrangement which may be advantageously followed with
  bulbous plants generally. In hot summer weather they should have a
  good mulching of well-decayed manure, and, as soon as the flower
  spikes are produced, liquid manure may occasionally be given them with
  advantage.

  The gladiolus is easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in
  March or April in pots of rich soil placed in slight heat, the pots
  being kept near the glass after they begin to grow, and the plants
  being gradually hardened to permit their being placed out-of-doors in
  a sheltered spot for the summer. Modern growers often grow the seeds
  in the open in April on a nicely prepared bed in drills about 6 in.
  apart and 1/2 in. deep, covering them with finely sifted gritty mould.
  The seed bed is then pressed down evenly and firmly, watered
  occasionally and kept free from weeds during the summer. In October
  they will have ripened off, and must be taken out of the soil, and
  stored in paper bags in a dry room secure from frost. They will have
  made little bulbs from the size of a hazel nut downwards, according to
  their vigour. In the spring they should be planted like the old bulbs,
  and the larger ones will flower during the season, while the smaller
  ones must be again harvested and planted out as before. The time
  occupied from the sowing of the seed until the plant attains its full
  strength is from three to four years. The approved sorts, which are
  identified by name, are multiplied by means of bulblets or offsets or
  "spawn," which form around the principal bulb or corm; but in this
  they vary greatly, some kinds furnishing abundant increase and soon
  becoming plentiful, while others persistently refuse to yield offsets.
  The stately habit and rich glowing colours of the modern gladioli
  render them exceedingly valuable as decorative plants during the late
  summer months. They are, moreover, very desirable and useful flowers
  for cutting for the purpose of room decoration, for while the blossoms
  themselves last fresh for some days if cut either early in the morning
  or late in the evening, the undeveloped buds open in succession, if
  the stalks are kept in water, so that a cut spike will go on blooming
  for some time.




GLADSHEIM (Old Norse _Gladsheimr_), in Scandinavian mythology, the
region of joy and home of Odin. Valhalla, the paradise whither the
heroes who fell in battle were escorted, was situated there.




GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL (1827-1902), English chemist, was born at Hackney,
London, on the 7th of March 1827. From childhood he showed great
aptitude for science; geology was his favourite subject, but since this
in his father's opinion did not afford a career of promise, he devoted
himself to chemistry, which he studied under Thomas Graham at University
College, London, and Liebig at Giessen, where he graduated as Ph.D. in
1847. In 1850 he became chemical lecturer at St Thomas's hospital, and
three years later was elected a fellow of the Royal Society at the
unusually early age of twenty-six. From 1858 to 1861 he served on the
royal commission on lighthouses, and from 1864 to 1868 was a member of
the war office committee on gun-cotton. From 1874 to 1877 he was
Fullerian professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution, in 1874 he
was chosen first president of the Physical Society, and in 1877-1879 he
was president of the Chemical Society. In 1897 the Royal Society
recognized his fifty years of scientific work by awarding him the Davy
medal. Dr Gladstone's researches were large in number and wide in range,
dealing to a great extent with problems that lie on the border-line
between physics and chemistry. Thus a number of his inquiries, and those
not the least important, were partly chemical, partly optical. He
determined the optical constants of hundreds of substances, with the
object of discovering whether any of the elements possesses more than
one atomic refraction. Again, he investigated the connexion between the
optical behaviour, density and chemical composition of ethereal oils,
and the relation between molecular magnetic rotation and the refraction
and dispersion of nitrogenous compounds. So early as 1856 he showed the
importance of the spectroscope in chemical research, and he was one of
the first to notice that the Fraunhofer spectrum at sunrise and sunset
differs from that at midday, his conclusion being that the earth's
atmosphere must be responsible for many of its absorption lines, which
indeed were subsequently traced to the oxygen and water-vapour in the
air. Another portion of his work was of an electro-chemical character.
His studies, with Alfred Tribe (1840-1885) and W. Hibbert, in the
chemistry of the storage battery, have added largely to our knowledge,
while the "copper-zinc couple," with which his name is associated
together with that of Tribe, among other things, afforded a simple means
of preparing certain organo-metallic compounds, and thus promoted
research in branches of organic chemistry where those bodies are
especially useful. Mention may also be made of his work on phosphorus,
on explosive substances, such as iodide of nitrogen, gun-cotton and the
fulminates, on the influence of mass in the process of chemical
reactions, and on the effect of carbonic acid on the germination of
plants. Dr Gladstone always took a great interest in educational
questions, and from 1873 to 1894 he was a member of the London School
Board. He was also a member of the Christian Evidence Society, and an
early supporter of the Young Men's Christian Association. His death
occurred suddenly in London on the 6th of October 1902.




GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART (1809-1898), British statesman, was born on the
29th of December 1809 at No. 62 Rodney Street, Liverpool. His
forefathers were Gledstanes of Gledstanes, in the upper ward of
Lanarkshire; or in Scottish phrase, Gledstanes of that Ilk. As years
went on their estates dwindled, and by the beginning of the 17th century
Gledstanes was sold. The adjacent property of Arthurshiel remained in
the hands of the family for nearly a hundred years longer. Then the son
of the last Gledstanes of Arthurshiel removed to Biggar, where he opened
the business of a maltster. His grandson, Thomas Gladstone (for so the
name was modified), became a corn-merchant at Leith. He happened to send
his eldest son, John, to Liverpool to sell a cargo of grain there, and
the energy and aptitude of the young man attracted the favourable notice
of a leading corn-merchant of Liverpool, who recommended him to settle
in that city. Beginning his commercial career as a clerk in his patron's
house, John Gladstone lived to become one of the merchant-princes of
Liverpool, a baronet and a member of parliament. He died in 1851 at the
age of eighty-seven. Sir John Gladstone was a pure Scotsman, a Lowlander
by birth and descent. He married Anne, daughter of Andrew Robertson of
Stornoway, sometime provost of Dingwall. Provost Robertson belonged to
the Clan Donachie, and by this marriage the robust and business-like
qualities of the Lowlander were blended with the poetic imagination, the
sensibility and fire of the Gael.


  Childhood and education.

John and Anne Gladstone had six children. The fourth son, William Ewart,
was named after a merchant of Liverpool who was his father's friend. He
seems to have been a remarkably good child, and much beloved at home. In
1818 or 1819 Mrs Gladstone, who belonged to the Evangelical school, said
in a letter to a friend, that she believed her son William had been
"truly converted to God." After some tuition at the vicarage of
Seaforth, a watering-place near Liverpool, the boy went to Eton in 1821.
His tutor was the Rev. Henry Hartopp Knapp. His brothers, Thomas and
Robertson Gladstone, were already at Eton. Thomas was in the fifth form,
and William, who was placed in the middle remove of the fourth form,
became his eldest brother's fag. He worked hard at his classical
lessons, and supplemented the ordinary business of the school by
studying mathematics in the holidays. Mr Hawtrey, afterwards headmaster,
commended a copy of his Latin verses, and "sent him up for good"; and
this experience first led the young student to associate intellectual
work with the ideas of ambition and success. He was not a fine scholar,
in that restricted sense of the term which implies a special aptitude
for turning English into Greek and Latin, or for original versification
in the classical languages. "His composition," we read, "was stiff," but
he was imbued with the substance of his authors; and a contemporary who
was in the sixth form with him recorded that "when there were thrilling
passages of Virgil or Homer, or difficult passages in the _Scriptores
Graeci_, to translate, he or Lord Arthur Hervey was generally called up
to edify the class with quotation or translation." By common consent he
was pre-eminently God-fearing, orderly and conscientious. "At Eton,"
said Bishop Hamilton of Salisbury, "I was a thoroughly idle boy, but I
was saved from some worse things by getting to know Gladstone." His most
intimate friend was Arthur Hallam, by universal acknowledgment the most
remarkable Etonian of his day; but he was not generally popular or even
widely known. He was seen to the greatest advantage, and was most
thoroughly at home, in the debates of the Eton Society, learnedly called
"The Literati," and vulgarly "Pop," and in the editorship of the _Eton
Miscellany_. He left Eton at Christmas 1827. He read for six months with
private tutors, and in October 1828 went up to Christ Church, where, in
the following year, he was nominated to a studentship.

At Oxford Gladstone read steadily, but not laboriously, till he neared
his final schools. During the latter part of his undergraduate career he
took a brief but brilliant share in the proceedings of the Union, of
which he was successively secretary and president. He made his first
speech on the 11th of February 1830. Brought up in the nurture and
admonition of Canning, he defended Roman Catholic emancipation, and
thought the duke of Wellington's government unworthy of national
confidence. He opposed the removal of Jewish disabilities, arguing, we
are told by a contemporary, "on the part of the Evangelicals," and
pleaded for the gradual extinction, in preference to the immediate
abolition, of slavery. But his great achievement was a speech against
the Whig Reform Bill. One who heard this famous discourse says: "Most of
the speakers rose, more or less, above their usual level, but when Mr
Gladstone sat down we all of us felt that an epoch in our lives had
occurred. It certainly was the finest speech of his that I ever heard."
Bishop Charles Wordsworth said that his experience of Gladstone at this
time "made me (and I doubt not others also) feel no less sure than of my
own existence that Gladstone, our then Christ Church undergraduate,
would one day rise to be prime minister of England." In December 1831
Gladstone crowned his career by taking a double first-class. Lord
Halifax (1800-1885) used to say, with reference to the increase in the
amount of reading requisite for the highest honours: "My double-first
must have been a better thing than Peel's; Gladstone's must have been
better than mine."


  Entry into parliament.

Now came the choice of a profession. Deeply anxious to make the best use
of his life, Gladstone turned his thoughts to holy orders. But his
father had determined to make him a politician. Quitting Oxford in the
spring of 1832, Gladstone spent six months in Italy, learning the
language and studying art. In the following September he was suddenly
recalled to England, to undertake his first parliamentary campaign. The
fifth duke of Newcastle was one of the chief potentates of the High Tory
party. His frank claim to "do what he liked with his own" in the
representation of Newark has given him a place in political history. But
that claim had been rudely disputed by the return of a Radical lawyer at
the election of 1831. The Duke was anxious to obtain a capable candidate
to aid him in regaining his ascendancy over the rebellious borough. His
son, Lord Lincoln, had heard Gladstone's speech against the Reform Bill
delivered in the Oxford Union, and had written home that "a man had
uprisen in Israel." At his suggestion the duke invited Gladstone to
stand for Newark in the Tory interest against Mr Serjeant Wilde,
afterwards Lord Chancellor Truro. The last of the Unreformed parliaments
was dissolved on the 3rd of December 1832. Gladstone, addressing the
electors of Newark, said that he was bound by the opinions of no man and
no party, but felt it a duty to watch and resist that growing desire for
change which threatened to produce "along with partial good a melancholy
preponderance of mischief." The first principle to which he looked for
national salvation was, that the "duties of governors are strictly and
peculiarly religious, and that legislatures, like individuals, are bound
to carry throughout their acts the spirit of the high truths they have
acknowledged." The condition of the poor demanded special attention;
labour should receive adequate remuneration; and he thought favourably
of the "allotment of cottage grounds." He regarded slavery as sanctioned
by Holy Scripture, but the slaves ought to be educated and gradually
emancipated. The contest resulted in his return at the head of the poll.


  The question of slavery.

The first Reformed parliament met on the 29th of January 1833, and the
young member for Newark took his seat for the first time in an assembly
which he was destined to adorn, delight and astonish for more than half
a century. His maiden speech was delivered on the 3rd of June in reply
to what was almost a personal challenge. The colonial secretary, Mr
Stanley, afterwards Lord Derby, brought forward a series of resolutions
in favour of the extinction of slavery in the British colonies. On the
first night of the debate Lord Howick, afterwards Lord Grey, who had
been under-secretary for the Colonies, and who opposed the resolutions
as proceeding too gradually towards abolition, cited certain occurrences
on Sir John Gladstone's plantation in Demerara to illustrate his
contention that the system of slave-labour in the West Indies was
attended by great mortality among the slaves. Gladstone in his
reply--his first speech in the House--avowed that he had a pecuniary
interest in the question, "and, if he might say so much without exciting
suspicion, a still deeper interest in it as a question of justice, of
humanity and of religion." If there had recently been a high mortality
on his father's plantation, it was due to the age of the slaves rather
than to any peculiar hardship in their lot. It was true that the
particular system of cultivation practised in Demerara was more trying
than some others; but then it might be said that no two trades were
equally conducive to health. Steel-grinding was notoriously unhealthy,
and manufacturing processes generally were less favourable to life than
agricultural. While strongly condemning cruelty, he declared himself an
advocate of emancipation, but held that it should be effected gradually,
and after due preparation. The slaves must be religiously educated, and
stimulated to profitable industry. The owners of emancipated slaves were
entitled to receive compensation from parliament, because it was
parliament that had established this description of property. "I do
not," said Gladstone, "view property as an abstract thing; it is the
creature of civil society. By the legislature it is granted, and by the
legislature it is destroyed." On the following day King William IV.
wrote to Lord Althorp: "The king rejoices that a young member has come
forward in so promising a manner as Viscount Althorp states Mr W. E.
Gladstone to have done." In the same session Gladstone spoke on the
question of bribery and corruption at Liverpool, and on the
temporalities of the Irish Church. In the session of 1834 his most
important performance was a speech in opposition to Hume's proposal to
throw the universities open to Dissenters.

On the 10th of November 1834 Lord Althorp succeeded to his father's
peerage, and thereby vacated the leadership of the House of Commons. The
prime minister, Lord Melbourne, submitted to the king a choice of names
for the chancellorship of the exchequer and leadership of the House of
Commons; but his majesty announced that, having lost the services of
Lord Althorp as leader of the House of Commons, he could feel no
confidence in the stability of Lord Melbourne's government, and that it
was his intention to send for the duke of Wellington. The duke took
temporary charge of affairs, but Peel was felt to be indispensable. He
had gone abroad after the session, and was now in Rome. As soon as he
could be brought back he formed an administration, and appointed
Gladstone to a junior lordship of the treasury. Parliament was dissolved
on the 29th of December. Gladstone was returned unopposed, this time in
conjunction with the Liberal lawyer whom he had beaten at the last
election. The new parliament met on the 19th of February 1835. The
elections had given the Liberals a considerable majority. Immediately
after the meeting of parliament Gladstone was promoted to the
under-secretaryship for the colonies, where his official chief was Lord
Aberdeen. The administration was not long-lived. On the 30th of March
Lord John Russell moved a resolution in favour of an inquiry into the
temporalities of the Irish Church, with the intention of applying the
surplus to general education without distinction of religious creed.
This was carried against ministers by a majority of thirty-three. On the
8th of April Sir Robert Peel resigned, and the under-secretary for the
colonies of course followed his chief into private life.


  Literary work.

Released from the labours of office, Gladstone, living in chambers in
the Albany, practically divided his time between his parliamentary
duties and study. Then, as always, his constant companions were Homer
and Dante, and it is recorded that he read the whole of St Augustine, in
twenty-two octavo volumes. He used to frequent the services at St
James's, Piccadilly, and Margaret chapel, since better known as All
Saints', Margaret Street. On the 20th of June 1837 King William IV.
died, and Parliament, having been prorogued by the young queen in
person, was dissolved on the 17th of the following month. Simply on the
strength of his parliamentary reputation Gladstone was nominated,
without his consent, for Manchester, and was placed at the bottom of the
poll; but, having been at the same time nominated at Newark, was again
returned. The year 1838 claims special note in a record of Gladstone's
life, because it witnessed the appearance of his famous work on _The
State in its Relations with the Church_. He had left Oxford just before
the beginning of that Catholic revival which has transfigured both the
inner spirit and the outward aspect of the Church of England. But the
revival was now in full strength. The _Tracts for the Times_ were
saturating England with new influences. The movement counted no more
enthusiastic or more valuable disciple than Gladstone. Its influence had
reached him through his friendships, notably with two Fellows of
Merton--Mr James Hope, who became Mr Hope-Scott of Abbotsford, and the
Rev. H. E. Manning, afterwards cardinal archbishop. _The State in its
Relations with the Church_ was his practical contribution to a
controversy in which his deepest convictions were involved. He contended
that the Church, as established by law, was to be "maintained for its
truth," and that this principle, if good for England, was good also for
Ireland.

On the 25th of July 1839 Gladstone was married at Hawarden to Miss
Catherine Glynne, sister, and in her issue heir, of Sir Stephen Glynne,
ninth and last baronet of that name. In 1840 he published _Church
Principles considered in their Results_.


  Enters the cabinet.

Parliament was dissolved in June 1841. Gladstone was again returned for
Newark. The general election resulted in a Tory majority of eighty. Sir
Robert Peel became prime minister, and made the member for Newark
vice-president of the Board of Trade. An inevitable change is from this
time to be traced in the topics of Gladstone's parliamentary speaking.
Instead of discoursing on the corporate conscience of the state and the
endowments of the Church, the importance of Christian education, and the
theological unfitness of the Jews to sit in parliament, he is solving
business-like problems about foreign tariffs and the exportation of
machinery; waxing eloquent over the regulation of railways, and a
graduated tax on corn; subtle on the monetary merits of half-farthings,
and great in the mysterious lore of _quassia_ and _cocculus indicus_. In
1842 he had a principal hand in the preparation of the revised tariff,
by which duties were abolished or sensibly diminished in the case of
1200 duty-paying articles. In defending the new scheme he spoke
incessantly, and amazed the House by his mastery of detail, his intimate
acquaintance with the commercial needs of the country, and his
inexhaustible power of exposition. In 1843 Gladstone, succeeding Lord
Ripon as president of the Board of Trade, became a member of the cabinet
at the age of thirty-three. He has recorded the fact that "the very
first opinion which he ever was called upon to give in cabinet" was an
opinion in favour of withdrawing the bill providing education for
children in factories, to which vehement opposition was offered by the
Dissenters, on the ground that it was too favourable to the Established
Church.


  Maynooth grant: resignation.

At the opening of the session of 1845 the government, in pursuance of a
promise made to Irish members that they would deal with the question of
academical education in Ireland, proposed to establish non-sectarian
colleges in that country and to make a large addition to the grant to
the Roman Catholic College of Maynooth. Gladstone resigned office, in
order, as he announced in the debate on the address, to form "not only
an honest, but likewise an independent and an unsuspected judgment," on
the plan to be submitted by the government with respect to Maynooth. His
subsequent defence of the proposed grant, on the ground that it would be
improper and unjust to exclude the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland from
a "more indiscriminating support" which the state might give to various
religious beliefs, was regarded by men of less sensitive conscience as
only proving that there had been no adequate cause for his resignation.
Before he resigned he completed a second revised tariff, carrying
considerably further the principles on which he had acted in the earlier
revision of 1842.


  Free trade.

In the autumn of 1845 the failure of the potato crop in Ireland
threatened a famine, and convinced Sir Robert Peel that all restrictions
on the importation of food must be at once suspended. He was supported
by only three members of the cabinet, and resigned on the 5th of
December. Lord John Russell, who had just announced his conversion to
total and immediate repeal of the Corn Laws, declined the task of
forming an administration, and on the 20th of December Sir Robert Peel
resumed office. Lord Stanley refused to re-enter the government, and his
place as secretary of state for the colonies was offered to and accepted
by Gladstone. He did not offer himself for re-election at Newark, and
remained outside the House of Commons during the great struggle of the
coming year. It was a curious irony of fate which excluded him from
parliament at this crisis, for it seems unquestionable that he was the
most advanced Free Trader in Sir Robert Peel's Cabinet. The Corn Bill
passed the House of Lords on the 28th of June 1846, and on the same day
the government were beaten in the House of Commons on an Irish Coercion
Bill. Lord John Russell became prime minister, and Gladstone retired for
a season into private life. Early in 1847 it was announced that one of
the two members for the university of Oxford intended to retire at the
general election, and Gladstone was proposed for the vacant seat. The
representation of the university had been pronounced by Canning to be
the most coveted prize of public life, and Gladstone himself confessed
that he "desired it with an almost passionate fondness." Parliament was
dissolved on the 23rd of July 1847. The nomination at Oxford took place
on the 29th of July, and at the close of the poll Sir Robert Inglis
stood at the head, with Gladstone as his colleague.


  Naple prisons.

The three years 1847, 1848, 1849 were for Gladstone a period of mental
growth, of transition, of development. A change was silently proceeding,
which was not completed for twenty years. "There have been," he wrote in
later days to Bishop Wilberforce, "two great deaths, or transmigrations
of spirit, in my political existence--one, very slow, the breaking of
ties with my original party." This was now in progress. In the winter of
1850-1851 Gladstone spent between three and four months at Naples, where
he learned that more than half the chamber of deputies, who had followed
the party of Opposition, had been banished or imprisoned; that a large
number, probably not less than 20,000, of the citizens had been
imprisoned on charges of political disaffection, and that in prison they
were subjected to the grossest cruelties. Having made careful
investigations, Gladstone, on the 7th of April 1851, addressed an open
letter to Lord Aberdeen, bringing an elaborate, detailed and horrible
indictment against the rulers of Naples, especially as regards the
arrangements of their prisons and the treatment of persons confined in
them for political offences. The publication of this letter caused a
wide sensation in England and abroad, and profoundly agitated the court
of Naples. In reply to a question in the House of Commons, Lord
Palmerston accepted and adopted Gladstone's statement, expressed keen
sympathy with the cause which he had espoused, and sent a copy of his
letter to the queen's representative at every court of Europe. A second
letter and a third followed, and their effect, though for a while
retarded, was unmistakably felt in the subsequent revolution which
created a free and united Italy.


  Gladstone and Disraeli.

In February 1852 the Whig government was defeated on a Militia Bill, and
Lord John Russell was succeeded by Lord Derby, formerly Lord Stanley,
with Mr Disraeli, who now entered office for the first time, as
chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. Mr
Disraeli introduced and carried a makeshift budget, and the government
tided over the session, and dissolved parliament on the 1st of July
1852. There was some talk of inducing Gladstone to join the Tory
government, and on the 29th of November Lord Malmesbury dubiously
remarked, "I cannot make out Gladstone, who seems to me a dark horse."
In the following month the chancellor of the exchequer produced his
second budget. The government redeemed their pledge to do something for
the relief of the agricultural interest by reducing the duty on malt.
This created a deficit, which they repaired by doubling the duty on
inhabited houses. The voices of criticism were heard simultaneously on
every side. The debate waxed fast and furious. In defending his
proposals Mr Disraeli gave full scope to his most characteristic gifts;
he pelted his opponents right and left with sarcasms, taunts and
epigrams. Gladstone delivered an unpremeditated reply, which has ever
since been celebrated. Tradition says that he "foamed at the mouth." The
speech of the chancellor of the exchequer, he said, must be answered "on
the moment." It must be "tried by the laws of decency and propriety." He
indignantly rebuked his rival's language and demeanour. He tore his
financial scheme to ribbons. It was the beginning of a duel which lasted
till death removed one of the combatants from the political arena.
"Those who had thought it impossible that any impression could be made
upon the House after the speech of Mr Disraeli had to acknowledge that a
yet greater impression was produced by the unprepared reply of Mr
Gladstone." The House divided, and the government were left in a
minority of nineteen. Lord Derby resigned.


  Chancellor of the exchequer.

The new government was a coalition of Whigs and Peelites. Lord Aberdeen
became prime minister, and Gladstone chancellor of the exchequer. Having
been returned again for the university of Oxford, he entered on the
active duties of a great office for which he was pre-eminently fitted by
an unique combination of financial, administrative and rhetorical gifts.
His first budget was introduced on the 18th of April 1853. It tended to
make life easier and cheaper for large and numerous classes; it promised
wholesale remissions of taxation; it lessened the charges on common
processes of business, on locomotion, on postal communication, and on
several articles of general consumption. The deficiency thus created was
to be met by a "succession-duty," or application of the legacy-duty to
real property; by an increase of the duty on spirits; and by the
extension of the income-tax, at 5d. in the pound, to all incomes between
L100 and L150. The speech in which these proposals were introduced held
the House spellbound. Here was an orator who could apply all the
resources of a burnished rhetoric to the elucidation of figures; who
could sweep the widest horizon of the financial future, and yet stoop to
bestow the minutest attention on the microcosm of penny stamps and
post-horses. Above all, the chancellor's mode of handling the income-tax
attracted interest and admiration. It was a searching analysis of the
financial and moral grounds on which the impost rested, and a historical
justification and eulogy of it. Yet, great as had been the services of
the tax at a time of national danger, Gladstone could not consent to
retain it as a part of the permanent and ordinary finances of the
country. It was objectionable on account of its unequal incidence, of
the harassing investigation into private affairs which it entailed, and
of the frauds to which it inevitably led. Therefore, having served its
turn, it was to be extinguished in 1860. The scheme astonished,
interested and attracted the country. The queen and Prince Albert wrote
to congratulate the chancellor of the exchequer. Public authorities and
private friends joined in the chorus of eulogy. The budget demonstrated
at once its author's absolute mastery over figures and the persuasive
force of his expository gift. It established the chancellor of the
exchequer as the paramount financier of his day, and it was only the
first of a long series of similar performances, different, of course, in
detail, but alike in their bold outlines and brilliant handling.
Looking back on a long life of strenuous exertion, Gladstone declared
that the work of preparing his proposals about the succession-duty and
carrying them through Parliament was by far the most laborious task
which he ever performed.

War between Great Britain and Russia was declared on the 27th of March
1854, and it thus fell to the lot of the most pacific of ministers, the
devotee of retrenchment, and the anxious cultivator of all industrial
arts, to prepare a war budget, and to meet as well as he might the
exigencies of a conflict which had so cruelly dislocated all the
ingenious devices of financial optimism. No amount of skill in the
manipulation of figures, no ingenuity in shifting fiscal burdens, could
prevent the addition of forty-one millions to the national debt, or
could countervail the appalling mismanagement at the seat of war.
Gladstone declared that the state of the army in the Crimea was a
"matter for weeping all day and praying all night." As soon as
parliament met in January 1855 J. A. Roebuck, the Radical member for
Sheffield, gave notice that he would move for a select committee "to
inquire into the condition of our army before Sevastopol, and into the
conduct of those departments of the government whose duty it has been to
minister to the wants of that army." On the same day Lord John Russell,
without announcing his intention to his colleagues, resigned his office
as president of the council sooner than attempt the defence of the
government. Gladstone, in defending the government against Roebuck,
rebuked in dignified and significant terms the conduct of men who,
"hoping to escape from punishment, ran away from duty." On the division
on Mr Roebuck's motion the government was beaten by the unexpected
majority of 157.

Lord Palmerston became prime minister. The Peelites joined him, and
Gladstone resumed office as chancellor of the exchequer. A shrewd
observer at the time pronounced him indispensable. "Any other chancellor
of the exchequer would be torn in bits by him." The government was
formed on the understanding that Mr Roebuck's proposed committee was to
be resisted. Lord Palmerston soon saw that further resistance was
useless; his Peelite colleagues stuck to their text, and, within three
weeks after resuming office, Gladstone, Sir James Graham and Mr Sidney
Herbert resigned. Gladstone once said of himself and his Peelite
colleagues, during the period of political isolation, that they were
like roving icebergs on which men could not land with safety, but with
which ships might come into perilous collision. He now applied himself
specially to financial criticism, and was perpetually in conflict with
the chancellor of the exchequer, Sir George Cornewall Lewis.

In 1858 Lord Palmerston was succeeded by Lord Derby at the head of a
Conservative administration, and Gladstone accepted the temporary office
of high commissioner extraordinary to the Ionian Islands. Returning to
England for the session of 1859, he found himself involved in the
controversy which arose over a mild Reform Bill introduced by the
government. They were defeated on the second reading of the bill,
Gladstone voting with them. A dissolution immediately followed, and
Gladstone was again returned unopposed for the university of Oxford. As
soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of confidence in the
ministry was moved in the House of Commons. In the critical division
which ensued Gladstone voted with the government, who were left in a
minority. Lord Derby resigned. Lord Palmerston became prime minister,
and asked Gladstone to join him as chancellor of the exchequer. To vote
confidence in an imperilled ministry, and on its defeat to take office
with the rivals who have defeated it, is a manoeuvre which invites the
reproach of tergiversation. But Gladstone risked the reproach, accepted
the office and had a sharp tussle for his seat. He emerged from the
struggle victorious, and entered on his duties with characteristic zeal.
The prince consort wrote: "Gladstone is now the real leader in the House
of Commons, and works with an energy and vigour altogether incredible."


  Budget of 1860.

The budget of 1860 was marked by two distinctive features. It asked the
sanction of parliament for the commercial treaty which Cobden had
privately arranged with the emperor Napoleon, and it proposed to abolish
the duty on paper. The French treaty was carried, but the abolition of
the paper-duty was defeated in the House of Lords. Gladstone justly
regarded the refusal to remit a duty as being in effect an act of
taxation, and therefore as an infringement of the rights of the House of
Commons. The proposal to abolish the paper-duty was revived in the
budget of 1861, the chief proposals of which, instead of being divided,
as in previous years, into several bills, were included in one. By this
device the Lords were obliged to acquiesce in the repeal of the
paper-duty.

During Lord Palmerston's last administration, which lasted from 1859 to
1865, Gladstone was by far the most brilliant and most conspicuous
figure in the cabinet. Except in finance, he was not able to accomplish
much, for he was met and thwarted at every turn by his chief's
invincible hostility to change; but the more advanced section of the
Liberal party began to look upon him as their predestined leader. In
1864, in a debate on a private member's bill for extending the suffrage,
he declared that the burden of proof lay on those "who would exclude
forty-nine fiftieths of the working-classes from the franchise." In
1865, in a debate on the condition of the Irish Church Establishment, he
declared that the Irish Church, as it then stood, was in a false
position, inasmuch as it ministered only to one-eighth or one-ninth of
the whole community. But just in proportion as Gladstone advanced in
favour with the Radical party he lost the confidence of his own
constituents. Parliament was dissolved in July 1865, and the university
elected Mr Gathorne Hardy in his place.


  Leader of House of Commons.

Gladstone at once turned his steps towards South Lancashire, where he
was returned with two Tories above him. The result of the general
election was to retain Lord Palmerston's government in power, but on the
18th of October the old prime minister died. He was succeeded by Lord
Russell, and Gladstone, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer,
became for the first time leader of the House of Commons. Lord Russell,
backed by Gladstone, persuaded his colleagues to consent to a moderate
Reform Bill, and the task of piloting this measure through the House of
Commons fell to Gladstone. The speech in which he wound up the debate on
the second reading was one of the finest, if not indeed the very finest,
which he ever delivered. But it was of no practical avail. The
government were defeated on an amendment in committee, and thereupon
resigned. Lord Derby became prime minister, with Disraeli as chancellor
of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. On the 18th of
March 1867 the Tory Reform Bill, which ended in establishing Household
Suffrage in the boroughs, was introduced, and was read a second time
without a division. After undergoing extensive alterations in committee
at the hands of the Liberals and Radicals, the bill became law in
August.


  Leader of Liberal party.

At Christmas 1867 Lord Russell announced his final retirement from
active politics, and Gladstone was recognized by acclamation as leader
of the Liberal party. Nominally he was in Opposition; but his party
formed the majority of the House of Commons, and could beat the
government whenever they chose to mass their forces. Gladstone seized
the opportunity to give effect to convictions which had long been
forming in his mind. Early in the session he brought in a bill
abolishing compulsory church-rates, and this passed into law. On the
16th of March, in a debate raised by an Irish member, he declared that
in his judgment the Irish Church, as a State Church, must cease to
exist. Immediately afterwards he embodied this opinion in a series of
resolutions concerning the Irish Church Establishment, and carried them
against the government. Encouraged by this triumph, he brought in a Bill
to prevent any fresh appointments in the Irish Church, and this also
passed the Commons, though it was defeated in the Lords. Parliament was
dissolved on the 11th of November. A single issue was placed before the
country--Was the Irish Church to be, or not to be, disestablished? The
response was an overwhelming affirmative. Gladstone, who had been doubly
nominated, was defeated in Lancashire, but was returned for Greenwich.
He chose this moment for publishing a _Chapter of Autobiography_, in
which he explained and justified his change of opinion with regard to
the Irish Church.


  Prime Minister: Irish Church disestablishment.

On the 2nd of December Disraeli, who had succeeded Lord Derby as premier
in the preceding February, announced that he and his colleagues,
recognizing their defeat, had resigned without waiting for a formal vote
of the new parliament. On the following day Gladstone was summoned to
Windsor, and commanded by the queen to form an administration. The great
task to which the new prime minister immediately addressed himself was
the disestablishment of the Irish Church. The queen wrote to Archbishop
Tait that the subject of the Irish Church "made her very anxious," but
that Mr Gladstone "showed the most conciliatory disposition." "The
government can do nothing that would tend to raise a suspicion of their
sincerity in proposing to disestablish the Irish Church, and to withdraw
all state endowments from all religious communions in Ireland; but, were
these conditions accepted, all other matters connected with the question
might, the queen thinks, become the subject of discussion and
negotiation." The bill was drawn and piloted on the lines thus
indicated, and became law on the 26th of July. In the session of 1870
Gladstone's principal work was the Irish Land Act, of which the object
was to protect the tenant against eviction as long as he paid his rent,
and to secure to him the value of any improvements which his own
industry had made. In the following session Religious Tests in the
universities were abolished, and a bill to establish secret voting was
carried through the House of Commons. This was thrown out by the Lords,
but became law a year later. The House of Lords threw out a bill to
abolish the purchase of commissions in the army. Gladstone found that
purchase existed only by royal sanction, and advised the queen to issue
a royal warrant cancelling, on and after the 1st of November following,
all regulations authorizing the purchase of commissions.


  A Dissolution of 1874.

In 1873 Gladstone set his hand to the third of three great Irish reforms
to which he had pledged himself. His scheme for the establishment of a
university which should satisfy both Roman Catholics and Protestants met
with general disapproval. The bill was thrown out by three votes, and
Gladstone resigned. The queen sent for Disraeli, who declined to take
office in a minority of the House of Commons, so Gladstone was compelled
to resume. But he and his colleagues were now, in Disraelitish phrase,
"exhausted volcanoes." Election after election went wrong. The
government had lost favour with the public, and was divided against
itself. There were resignations and rumours of resignations. When the
session of 1873 had come to an end Gladstone took the chancellorship of
the exchequer, and, as high authorities contended, vacated his seat by
doing so. The point was obviously one of vital importance; and we learn
from Lord Selborne, who was lord chancellor at the time, that Gladstone
"was sensible of the difficulty of either taking his seat in the usual
manner at the opening of the session, or letting ... the necessary
arrangements for business in the House of Commons be made in the prime
minister's absence. A dissolution was the only escape." On the 23rd of
January 1874 Gladstone announced the dissolution in an address to his
constituents, declaring that the authority of the government had now
"sunk below the point necessary for the due defence and prosecution of
the public interest." He promised that, if he were returned to power, he
would repeal the income-tax. This bid for popularity failed, the general
election resulting in a Tory majority of forty-six. Gladstone kept his
seat for Greenwich, but was only second on the poll. Following the
example of Disraeli in 1868, he resigned without meeting parliament.


  Temporary retirement.

  Midlothian campaign.

For some years he had alluded to his impending retirement from public
life, saying that he was "strong against going on in politics to the
end." He was now sixty-four, and his life had been a continuous
experience of exhausting labour. On the 12th of March 1874 he informed
Lord Granville that he could give only occasional attendance in the
House of Commons during the current session, and that he must "reserve
his entire freedom to divest himself of all the responsibilities of
leadership at no distant date." His most important intervention in the
debates of 1874 was when he opposed Archbishop Tait's Public Worship
Bill. This was read a second time without a division, but in committee
Gladstone enjoyed some signal triumphs over his late solicitor-general,
Sir William Harcourt, who had warmly espoused the cause of the
government and the bill. At the beginning of 1875 Gladstone carried into
effect the resolution which he had announced a year before, and formally
resigned the leadership of the Liberal party. He was succeeded by Lord
Hartington, afterwards duke of Devonshire. The learned leisure which
Gladstone had promised himself when released from official
responsibility was not of long duration. In the autumn of 1875 an
insurrection broke out in Bulgaria, and the suppression of it by the
Turks was marked by massacres and outrages. Public indignation was
aroused by what were known as the "Bulgarian atrocities," and Gladstone
flung himself into the agitation against Turkey with characteristic
zeal. At public meetings, in the press, and in parliament he denounced
the Turkish government and its champion, Disraeli, who had now become
Lord Beaconsfield. Lord Hartington soon found himself pushed aside from
his position of titular leadership. For four years, from 1876 to 1880,
Gladstone maintained the strife with a courage, a persistence and a
versatility which raised the enthusiasm of his followers to the highest
pitch. The county of Edinburgh, or Midlothian, which he contested
against the dominant influence of the duke of Buccleuch, was the scene
of the most astonishing exertions. As the general election approached
the only question submitted to the electors was--Do you approve or
condemn Lord Beaconsfield's foreign policy? The answer was given at
Easter 1880, when the Liberals were returned by an overwhelming majority
over Tories and Home Rulers combined. Gladstone was now member for
Midlothian, having retired from Greenwich at the dissolution.

When Lord Beaconsfield resigned, the queen sent for Lord Hartington, the
titular leader of the Liberals, but he and Lord Granville assured her
that no other chief than Gladstone would satisfy the party. Accordingly,
on the 23rd of April he became prime minister for the second time. His
second administration, of which the main achievement was the extension
of the suffrage to the agricultural labourers, was harassed by two
controversies, relating to Ireland and Egypt, which proved disastrous to
the Liberal party. Gladstone alienated considerable masses of English
opinion by his efforts to reform the tenure of Irish land, and provoked
the Irish people by his attempts to establish social order and to
repress crime. A bill to provide compensation for tenants who had been
evicted by Irish landlords passed the Commons, but was shipwrecked in
the Lords, and a ghastly record of outrage and murder stained the
following winter. A Coercion Bill and a Land Bill passed in 1881 proved
unsuccessful. On the 6th of May 1882 the newly appointed chief secretary
for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his under-secretary, Mr
Burke, were stabbed to death in the Phoenix Park at Dublin. A new Crimes
Act, courageously administered by Lord Spencer and Sir George Trevelyan,
abolished exceptional crime in Ireland, but completed the breach between
the British government and the Irish party in parliament.

The bombardment of the forts at Alexandria and the occupation of Egypt
in 1882 were viewed with great disfavour by the bulk of the Liberal
party, and were but little congenial to Gladstone himself. The
circumstances of General Gordon's untimely death awoke an outburst of
indignation against those who were, or seemed to be, responsible for it.
Frequent votes of censure were proposed by the Opposition, and on the
8th of June 1885 the government were beaten on the budget. Gladstone
resigned. The queen offered him the dignity of an earldom, which he
declined. He was succeeded by Lord Salisbury.


  First Home Rule Bill.

The general election took place in the following November. When it was
over the Liberal party was just short of the numerical strength which
was requisite to defeat the combination of Tories and Parnellites. A
startling surprise was at hand. Gladstone had for some time been
convinced of the expediency of conceding Home Rule to Ireland in the
event of the Irish constituencies giving unequivocal proof that they
desired it. His intentions were made known only to a privileged few, and
these, curiously, were not his colleagues. The general election of 1885
showed that Ireland, outside Ulster, was practically unanimous for Home
Rule. On the 17th of December an anonymous paragraph was published,
stating that if Mr Gladstone returned to office he was prepared to "deal
in a liberal spirit with the demand for Home Rule." It was clear that if
Gladstone meant what he appeared to mean, the Parnellites would support
him, and the Tories must leave office. The government seemed to accept
the situation. When parliament met they executed, for form's sake, some
confused manoeuvres, and then they were beaten on an amendment to the
address in favour of Municipal Allotments. On the 1st of February 1886
Gladstone became, for the third time, prime minister. Several of his
former colleagues declined to join him, on the ground of their absolute
hostility to the policy of Home Rule; others joined on the express
understanding that they were only pledged to consider the policy, and
did not fetter their further liberty of action. On the 8th of April
Gladstone brought in his bill for establishing Home Rule, and eight days
later the bill for buying out the Irish landlords. Meanwhile two members
of his cabinet, feeling themselves unable to support these measures,
resigned. Hostility to the bills grew apace. Gladstone was implored to
withdraw them, or substitute a resolution in favour of Irish autonomy;
but he resolved to press at least the Home Rule Bill to a second
reading. In the early morning of the 8th of June the bill was thrown out
by thirty. Gladstone immediately advised the queen to dissolve
parliament. Her Majesty strongly demurred to a second general election
within seven months; but Gladstone persisted, and she yielded.
Parliament was dissolved on the 26th of June. In spite of Gladstone's
skilful appeal to the constituencies to sanction the principle of Home
Rule, as distinct from the practical provisions of his late bill, the
general election resulted in a majority of considerably over 100 against
his policy, and Lord Salisbury resumed office. Throughout the existence
of the new parliament Gladstone never relaxed his extraordinary efforts,
though now nearer eighty than seventy, on behalf of the cause of
self-government for Ireland. The fertility of argumentative resource,
the copiousness of rhetoric, and the physical energy which he threw into
the enterprise, would have been remarkable at any stage of his public
life; continued into his eighty-fifth year they were little less than
miraculous. Two incidents of domestic interest, one happy and the other
sad, belong to that period of political storm and stress. On the 25th of
July 1889 Gladstone celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his marriage,
and on the 4th of July 1891 his eldest son, William Henry, a man of fine
character and accomplishments, died, after a lingering illness, in his
fifty-second year.


  Second Home Rule Bill.

The crowning struggle of Gladstone's political career was now
approaching its climax. Parliament was dissolved on the 28th of June
1892. The general election resulted in a majority of forty for Home
Rule, heterogeneously composed of Liberals, Labour members and Irish. As
soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of confidence in Lord
Salisbury's government was moved and carried. Lord Salisbury resigned,
and on the 15th of August 1892 Gladstone kissed hands as first lord of
the treasury. He was the first English statesman that had been four
times prime minister. Parliament reassembled in January 1893. Gladstone
brought in his new Home Rule Bill on the 13th of February. It passed the
House of Commons, but was thrown out by the House of Lords on the second
reading on the 8th of September 1893. Gladstone's political work was
now, in his own judgment, ended. He made his last speech in the House of
Commons on the 1st of March 1894, acquiescing in some amendments
introduced by the Lords into the Parish Councils Bill; and on the 3rd of
March he placed his resignation in the queen's hands. He never set foot
again in the House of Commons, though he remained a member of it till
the dissolution of 1895. He paid occasional visits to friends in
London, Scotland and the south of France; but the remainder of his life
was spent for the most part at Hawarden. He occupied his leisure by
writing a rhymed translation of the Odes of Horace, and preparing an
elaborately annotated edition of Butler's _Analogy_ and _Sermons_. He
had also contemplated some addition to the Homeric studies which he had
always loved, but this design was never carried into effect, for he was
summoned once again from his quiet life of study and devotion to the
field of public controversy. The Armenian massacres in 1894 and 1895
revived all his ancient hostility to "the governing Turk." He denounced
the massacres and their perpetrators at public meetings held at Chester
on the 6th of August 1895, and at Liverpool on the 24th of September
1896. In March 1897 he recapitulated the hideous history in an open
letter to the duke of Westminster.


  Death.

But the end, though not yet apprehended, was at hand. Since his
retirement from office Gladstone's physical vigour, up to that time
unequalled, had shown signs of impairment. Towards the end of the summer
of 1897 he began to suffer from an acute pain, which was attributed to
facial neuralgia, and in November he went to Cannes. In February 1898 he
returned to England and went to Bournemouth. There he was informed that
the pain had its origin in a disease which must soon prove fatal. He
received the information with simple thankfulness, and only asked that
he might die at home. On the 22nd of March he returned to Hawarden, and
there he died on the 19th of May 1898. During the night of the 25th of
May his body was conveyed from Hawarden to London and the coffin was
placed on a bier in Westminster Hall. Throughout the 26th and 27th a
vast train of people, officially estimated at 250,000, and drawn from
every rank and class, moved in unbroken procession past the bier. On the
28th of May the coffin, preceded by the two Houses of Parliament and
escorted by the chief magnates of the realm, was carried from
Westminster Hall to Westminster Abbey. The heir-apparent and his son,
the prime minister and the leader of the House of Commons, were among
those who bore the pall. The body was buried in the north transept of
the abbey, where, on the 19th of June 1900, Mrs Gladstone's body was
laid beside it.


  Family.

Mr and Mrs Gladstone had four sons and four daughters, of whom one died
in infancy. The eldest son, W. H. Gladstone (1840-1891), was a member of
parliament for many years, and married the daughter of Lord Blantyre,
his son William (b. 1885) inheriting the family estates. The fourth son,
Herbert John (b. 1854), sat in parliament for Leeds from 1880 to 1910,
and filled various offices, being home secretary 1905-1910; in 1910 he
was created Viscount Gladstone, on being appointed governor-general of
united South Africa. The eldest daughter, Agnes, married the Rev. E. C.
Wickham, headmaster of Wellington, 1873-1893, and later Dean of Lincoln.
Another daughter married the Rev. Harry Drew, rector of Hawarden. The
youngest, Helen, was for some years vice-principal of Newnham College,
Cambridge.


  Character.

After a careful survey of Mr Gladstone's life, enlightened by personal
observation, it is inevitable to attempt some analysis of his character.
First among his moral attributes must be placed his religiousness. From
those early days when a fond mother wrote of him as having been "truly
converted to God," down to the verge of ninety years, he lived in the
habitual contemplation of the unseen world, and regulated his private
and public action by reference to a code higher than that of mere
prudence or worldly wisdom. A second characteristic, scarcely less
prominent than the first, was his love of power. His ambition had
nothing in common with the vulgar eagerness for place and pay and social
standing. Rather it was a resolute determination to possess that control
over the machine of state which should enable him to fulfil without let
or hindrance the political mission with which he believed that
Providence had charged him. The love of power was supported by a
splendid fearlessness. No dangers were too threatening for him to face,
no obstacles too formidable, no tasks too laborious, no heights too
steep. The love of power and the supporting courage were allied with a
marked imperiousness. Of this quality there was no trace in his manner,
which was courteous, conciliatory and even deferential; nor in his
speech, which breathed an almost exaggerated humility. But the
imperiousness showed itself in the more effectual form of action; in his
sudden resolves, his invincible insistence, his recklessness of
consequences to himself and his friends, his habitual assumption that
the civilized world and all its units must agree with him, his indignant
astonishment at the bare thought of dissent or resistance, his
incapacity to believe that an overruling Providence would permit him to
be frustrated or defeated. He had by nature what he himself called a
"vulnerable temper and impetuous moods." But so absolute was his
lifelong self-mastery that he was hardly ever betrayed into saying that
which, on cooler reflection, needed to be recalled. It was easy enough
to see the "vulnerable temper" as it worked within, but it was never
suffered to find audible expression. It may seem paradoxical, but it is
true, to say that Mr Gladstone was by nature conservative. His natural
bias was to respect things as they were. In his eyes, institutions,
customs, systems, so long as they had not become actively mischievous,
were good because they were old. It is true that he was sometimes forced
by conviction or fate or political necessity to be a revolutionist on a
large scale; to destroy an established Church; to add two millions of
voters to the electorate; to attack the parliamentary union of the
kingdoms. But these changes were, in their inception, distasteful to
their author. His whole life was spent in unlearning the prejudices in
which he was educated. His love of freedom steadily developed, and he
applied its principles more and more courageously to the problems of
government. But it makes some difference to the future of a democratic
state whether its leading men are eagerly on the look-out for something
to revolutionize, or approach a constitutional change by the gradual
processes of conviction and conversion.

Great as were his eloquence, his knowledge and his financial skill,
Gladstone was accustomed to say of himself that the only quality in
which, so far as he knew, he was distinguished from his fellow-men was
his faculty of concentration. Whatever were the matter in hand, he so
concentrated himself on it, and absorbed himself in it, that nothing
else seemed to exist for him.

A word must be said about physical characteristics. In his prime
Gladstone was just six feet high, but his inches diminished as his years
increased, and in old age the unusual size of his head and breadth of
his shoulders gave him a slightly top-heavy appearance. His features
were strongly marked; the nose trenchant and hawk-like, and the mouth
severely lined. His flashing eyes were deep-set, and in colour resembled
the onyx with its double band of brown and grey. His complexion was of
an extreme pallor, and, combined with his jet-black hair, gave in
earlier life something of an Italian aspect to his face. His dark
eyebrows were singularly flexible, and they perpetually expanded and
contracted in harmony with what he was saying. He held himself
remarkably upright, and even from his school-days at Eton had been
remarked for the rapid pace at which he habitually walked. His voice was
a baritone, singularly clear and far-reaching. In the Waverley Market at
Edinburgh, which is said to hold 20,000 people, he could be heard
without difficulty; and as late as 1895 he said to the present writer:
"What difference does it make to me whether I speak to 400 or 4000
people?" His physical vigour in old age earned him the popular nickname
of the Grand Old Man.

  Lord Morley of Blackburn's _Life of Gladstone_ was published in 1903.
      (G. W. E. R.)




GLADSTONE, a seaport of Clinton county, Queensland, Australia, 328 m. by
rail N.E. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 1566. It possesses a fine,
well-sheltered harbour reputed one of the best in Queensland, at the
mouth of the river Boyne. Gold, manganese, copper and coal are found in
the neighbourhood. Gladstone, founded in 1847, became a municipality in
1863.

  See J. F. Hogan, _The Gladstone Colony_ (London, 1898).




GLAGOLITIC, an early Slavonic alphabet: also the liturgy written
therein, and the people (Dalmatians and Roman Catholic Montenegrins)
among whom it has survived by special licence of the Pope (see SLAVS for
table of letters).




GLAIR (from Fr. _glaire_, probably from Lat. _clarus_, clear, bright),
the white of an egg, and hence a term used for a preparation made of
this and used, in bookbinding and in gilding, to retain the gold and as
a varnish. The adjective "glairy" is used of substances having the
viscous and transparent consistency of the white of an egg.




GLAISHER, JAMES (1809-1903); English meteorologist and aeronaut, was
born in London on the 7th of April 1809. After serving for a few years
on the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, he acted as an assistant at the
Cambridge and Greenwich observatories successively, and when the
department of meteorology and magnetism was formed at the latter, he was
entrusted with its superintendence, which he continued to exercise for
thirty-four years, until his retirement from the public service. In 1845
he published his well-known dew-point tables, which have gone through
many editions. In 1850 he established the Meteorological Society, acting
as its secretary for many years, and in 1866 he assisted in the
foundation of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain. He was
appointed a member of the royal commission on the warming and
ventilation of dwellings in 1875, and for twelve years from 1880 acted
as chairman of the executive committee of the Palestine Exploration
Fund. But his name is best known in connexion with the series of balloon
ascents which he made between 1862 and 1866, mostly in company with
Henry Tracey Coxwell. Many of these ascents were arranged by a committee
of the British Association, of which he was a member, and were strictly
scientific in character, the object being to carry out observations on
the temperature, humidity, &c., of the atmosphere at high elevations. In
one of them, that which took place at Wolverhampton on the 5th of
September 1862, Glaisher and his companion attained the greatest height
that had been reached by a balloon carrying passengers. As no
automatically recording instruments were available, and Glaisher was
unable to read the barometer at the highest point owing to loss of
consciousness, the precise altitude can never be known, but it is
estimated at about 7 m. from the earth. He died on the 7th of February
1903 at Croydon.




GLAMIS, a village and parish of Forfarshire, Scotland, 5-3/4 m. W. by S.
of Forfar by the Caledonian railway. Pop. of parish (1901) 1351. The
name is sometimes spelled Glammis and the _i_ is mute: it is derived
from the Gaelic, _glamhus_, "a wide gap," "a vale." The chief object in
the village is the sculptured stone, traditionally supposed to be a
memorial of Malcolm II., although Fordun's statement that the king was
slain in the castle is now rejected. About a mile from the station
stands Glamis Castle, the seat of the earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne,
a fine example of the Scottish Baronial style, enriched with certain
features of the French chateau. In its present form it dates mostly from
the 17th century, but the original structure was as old as the 11th
century, for Macbeth was Thane of Glamis. Several of the early Scots
kings, especially Alexander III., used it occasionally as a residence.
Robert II. bestowed the thanedom on John Lyon, who had married the
king's second daughter by Elizabeth Mure and was thus the founder of the
existing family. Patrick Lyon became hostage to England for James I. in
1424. When, in 1537, Janet Douglas, widow of the 6th Lord Glamis, was
burned at Edinburgh as a witch, for conspiring to procure James V.'s
death, Glamis was forfeited to the crown, but it was restored to her son
six years later when her innocence had been established. The 3rd earl of
Strathmore entertained the Old Chevalier and eighty of his immediate
followers in 1715. After discharging the duties of hospitality the earl
joined the Jacobites at Sheriffmuir and fell on the battlefield. Sir
Walter Scott spent a night in the "hoary old pile" when he was about
twenty years old, and gives a striking relation of his experiences in
his _Demonology and Witchcraft_. The hall has an arched ceiling and
several historical portraits, including those of Claverhouse, Charles
II. and James II. of England. At Cossans, in the parish of Glamis, there
is a remarkable sculptured monolith, and other examples occur at the
Hunters' Hill and in the old kirkyard of Eassie.




GLAMORGANSHIRE (Welsh _Morganwg_), a maritime county occupying the
south-east corner of Wales, and bounded N.W. by Carmarthenshire, N. by
Carmarthenshire and Breconshire, E. by Monmouthshire and S. and S.W. by
the Bristol Channel and Carmarthen Bay. The contour of the county is
largely determined by the fact that it lies between the mountains of
Breconshire and the Bristol Channel. Its extreme breadth from the sea
inland is 29 m., while its greatest length from east to west is 53 m.
Its chief rivers, the Rhymney, Taff, Neath (or Nedd) and Tawe or Tawy,
have their sources in the Breconshire mountains, the two first trending
towards the south-east, while the two last trend to the south-west, so
that the main body of the county forms a sort of quarter-circle between
the Taff and the Neath. Near the apex of the angle formed by these two
rivers is the loftiest peak in the county, the great Pennant scarp of
Craig y Llyn or Carn Moesyn, 1970 ft. high, which in the Glacial period
diverted the ice-flow from the Beacons into the valley on either side of
it. To the south and south-east of this peak extend the great
coal-fields of mid-Glamorgan, their surface forming an irregular plateau
with an average elevation of 600 to 1200 ft. above sea-level, but with
numerous peaks about 1500 ft. high, or more; Mynydd y Caerau, the second
highest being 1823 ft. Out of this plateau have been carved, to the
depth of 500 to 800 ft. below its general level, three distinct series
of narrow valleys, those in each series being more or less parallel. The
rivers which give their names to these valleys include the Cynon, the
Great and Lesser Rhondda (tributaries of the Taff) and the Ely flowing
to the S.E., the Ogwr or Ogmore (with its tributaries the Garw and
Llynfi) flowing south through Bridgend, and the Avan bringing the waters
of the Corwg and Gwynfi to the south-west into Swansea Bay at Aberavon.
To the south of this central hill country, which is wet, cold and
sterile, and whose steep slopes form the southern edge of the
coal-field, there stretches out to the sea a gently undulating plain,
compendiously known as the "Vale of Glamorgan," but in fact consisting
of a succession of small vales of such fertile land and with such a mild
climate that it has been styled, not inaptly, the "Garden of Wales." To
the east of the central area referred to and divided from it by a spur
of the Brecknock mountains culminating in Carn Bugail, 1570 ft. high, is
the Rhymney, which forms the county's eastern boundary. On the west
other spurs of the Beacons divide the Neath from the Tawe (which enters
the sea at Swansea), and the Tawe from the Loughor, which, with its
tributary the Amman, separates the county on the N.W. from
Carmarthenshire, in which it rises, and falling into Carmarthen Bay
forms what is known as the Burry estuary, so called from a small stream
of that name in the Gower peninsula. The rivers are all comparatively
short, the Taff, in every respect the chief river, being only 33 m.
long.

Down to the middle of the 19th century most of the Glamorgan valleys
were famous for their beautiful scenery, but industrial operations have
since destroyed most of this beauty, except in the so-called "Vale of
Glamorgan," the Vale of Neath, the "combes" and limestone gorges of
Gower and the upper reaches of the Taff and the Tawe. The Vale of Neath
is _par excellence_ the waterfall district of South Wales, the finest
falls being the Cilhepste fall, the Sychnant and the three Clungwyns on
the Mellte and its tributaries near the Vale of Neath railway from Neath
to Hirwaun, Scwd Einon Gam and Scwd Gladys on the Pyrddin on the west
side of the valley close by, with Melin Court and Abergarwed still
nearer Neath. There are also several cascades on the Dulais, and in the
same district, though in Breconshire, is Scwd Henrhyd on the Llech near
Colbren Junction. Almost the only part of the county which is now well
timbered is the Vale of Neath. There are three small lakes, Llyn Fawr
and Llyn Fach near Craig y Llyn and Kenfig Pool amid the sand-dunes of
Margam. The rainfall of the county varies from an average of about 25
in. at Porthcawl and other parts of the Vale of Glamorgan to about 37
in. at Cardiff, 40 in. at Swansea and to upwards of 70 in. in the
northern part of the county, the fall being still higher in the
adjoining parts of Breconshire whence Cardiff, Swansea, Merthyr and a
large area near Neath draw their main supplies of water.

The county has a coast-line of about 83 m. Its two chief bays are the
Burry estuary and Swansea, one on either side of the Gower Peninsula,
which has also a number of smaller inlets with magnificent cliff
scenery. The rest of the coast is fairly regular, the chief openings
being at the mouths of the Ogmore and the Taff respectively. The most
conspicuous headlands are Whiteford Point, Worms Head and Mumbles Head
in Gower, Nash Point and Lavernock Point on the eastern half of the
coast.

  _Geology._--The Silurian rocks, the oldest in the county, form a small
  inlier about 2 sq. m. in area at Rumney and Pen-y-lan, north of
  Cardiff, and consist of mudstones and sandstones of Wenlock and Ludlow
  age; a feeble representative of the Wenlock Limestone also is present.
  They are conformably succeeded by the Old Red Sandstone which extends
  westwards as far as Cowbridge as a deeply eroded anticline largely
  concealed by Trias and Lias. The Old Red Sandstone consists in the
  lower parts of red marls and sandstones, while the upper beds are
  quartzitic and pebbly, and form bold scarps which dominate the low
  ground formed by the softer beds below. Cefn-y-bryn, another anticline
  of Old Red Sandstone (including small exposures of Silurian rocks),
  forms the prominent backbone of the Gower peninsula. The next
  formation is the Carboniferous Limestone which encircles and underlies
  the great South Wales coal-field, on the south of which, west of
  Cardiff, it forms a bold escarpment of steeply-dipping beds
  surrounding the Old Red Sandstone anticline. It shows up through the
  Trias and Lias in extensive inliers near Bridgend, while in Gower it
  dips away from the Old Red Sandstone of Cefn-y-bryn. On the north of
  the coal-field it is just reached near Merthyr Tydfil. The Millstone
  Grit, which consists of grits, sandstones and shales, crops out above
  the limestone and serves to introduce the Coal Measures, which lie in
  the form of a great trough extending east and west across the county
  and occupying most of its surface. The coal seams are most numerous in
  the lower part of the series; the Pennant Sandstone succeeds and
  occupies the inner parts of the basin, forming an elevated moorland
  region deeply trenched by the teeming valleys (e.g. the Rhondda) which
  cross the coal-field from north to south. Above the Pennant Sandstone
  still higher coals come in. Taken generally, the coals are bituminous
  in the south-east and anthracitic in the north-west.

  After the Coal Measures had been deposited, the southern part of the
  region was subjected to powerful folding; the resulting anticlines
  were worn down during a long period of detrition, and then submerged
  slowly beneath a Triassic lake in which accumulated the Keuper
  conglomerates and marls which spread over the district west of Cardiff
  and are traceable on the coast of Gower. The succeeding Rhaetic and
  Lias which form most of the coastal plain (the fertile Vale of
  Glamorgan) from Penarth to near Bridgend were laid down by the
  Jurassic sea. A well-marked raised beach is traceable in Gower.
  Sand-dunes are present locally around Swansea Bay. Moraines, chiefly
  formed of gravel and clay, occupy many of the Glamorgan valleys; and
  these, together with the striated surfaces which may be observed at
  higher levels, are clearly glacial in origin. In the Coal Measures and
  the newer Limestones and Triassic, Rhaetic and Liassic conglomerates,
  marls and shales, many interesting fossils have been disinterred:
  these include the remains of an air-breathing reptile
  (_Anthracespeton_). Bones of the cave-bear, lion, mammoth, reindeer,
  rhinoceros, along with flint weapons and tools, have been discovered
  in some caves of the Gower peninsula.

  _Agriculture._--The low-lying land on the south from Caerphilly to
  Margam is very fertile, the soil being a deep rich loam; and here the
  standard of agriculture is fairly high, and there prevails a
  well-defined tenant-right custom, supposed to be of ancient origin but
  probably dating only from the beginning of the 19th century.
  Everywhere on the Coal Measures the soil is poor, while vegetation is
  also injured by the smoke from the works, especially copper smoke.
  Leland (c. 1535) describes the lowlands as growing good corn and grass
  but little wood, while the mountains had "redde dere, kiddes plenty,
  oxen and sheep." The land even in the "Vale" seems to have been open
  and unenclosed till the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th
  century, while enclosure spread to the uplands still later. About
  one-fifth of the total area is still common land, more than half of
  which is unsuitable for cultivation. The total area under cultivation
  in 1905 was 269,271 acres or about one-half of the total area of the
  county. The chief crops raised (giving them in the order of their
  respective acreages) are oats, barley, turnips and swedes, wheat,
  potatoes and mangolds. A steady decrease of the acreage under
  grain-crops, green-crops and clover has been accompanied by an
  increase in the area of pasture. Dairying has been largely abandoned
  for stock-raising, and very little "Caerphilly cheese" is now made in
  that district. In 1905 Glamorgan had the largest number of horses in
  agriculture of any Welsh county except those of Carmarthen and
  Cardigan. Good sheep and ponies are reared in the hill-country.
  Pig-keeping is much neglected, and despite the mild climate very
  little fruit is grown. The average size of holdings in 1905 was 47.3
  acres, there being only 46 holdings above 300 acres, and 1719 between
  50 and 500 acres.

  _Mining and Manufactures._--Down to the middle of the 18th century the
  county had no industry of any importance except agriculture. The coal
  which underlies practically the whole surface of the county except the
  Vale of Glamorgan and West Gower was little worked till about 1755,
  when it began to be used instead of charcoal for the smelting of iron.
  By 1811, when there were 25 blast furnaces in the county, the demand
  for coal for this purpose had much increased, but it was in the most
  active period of railway construction that it reached its maximum.
  Down to about 1850, if not later, the chief collieries were owned by
  the ironmasters and were worked for their own requirements, but when
  the suitability of the lower seams in the district north of Cardiff
  for steam purposes was realized, an export trade sprang up and soon
  assumed enormous proportions, so that "the port of Cardiff" (including
  Barry and Penarth), from which the bulk of the steam coal was shipped,
  became the first port in the world for the shipment of coal. The
  development of the anthracite coal-field lying to the north and west
  of Swansea (from which port it is mostly shipped) dates mainly from
  the closing years of the 19th century, when the demand for this coal
  grew rapidly. There are still large areas in the Rhymney Valley on the
  east, and in the districts of Neath and Swansea on the west, whose
  development has only recently been undertaken. In connexion with the
  coal industry, patent fuel (made from small coal and tar) is largely
  manufactured at Cardiff, Port Talbot and Swansea, the shipments from
  Swansea being the largest in the kingdom. Next in importance to coal
  are the iron, steel and tin-plate industries, and in the Swansea
  district the smelting of copper and a variety of other ores.

  The manufacture of iron and steel is carried on at Dowlais, Merthyr
  Tydfil, Cardiff, Port Talbot, Briton Ferry, Pontardawe, Swansea,
  Gorseinon and Gowerton. During the last quarter of the 19th century
  the use of the native ironstone was almost wholly given up, and the
  necessary ore is now imported, mainly from Spain. As a result several
  of the older inland works, such as those of Aberdare, Ystalyfera and
  Brynaman have been abandoned, and new works have been established on
  or near the sea-board; e.g. the Dowlais company in 1891 opened large
  works at Cardiff. The tin-plate industry is mainly confined to the
  west of the county, Swansea being the chief port for the shipment of
  tin-plates, though there are works near Llantrisant and at Melin
  Griffith near Cardiff, the latter being the oldest in the county.
  Copper-smelting is carried on on a large scale in the west of the
  county, at Port Talbot, Cwmavon, Neath and Swansea, and on a small
  scale at Cardiff, the earliest works having been established at Neath
  in 1584 and at Swansea in 1717. There are nickel works at Clydach near
  Swansea, the nickel being imported in the form of "matte" from Canada.
  Swansea has almost a monopoly of the manufacture of spelter or zinc.
  Lead, silver and a number of other metals or their by-products are
  treated in or near Swansea, which is often styled the "metallurgical
  capital of Wales." Limestone and silica quarries are worked, while
  sandstone and clay are also raised. Swansea and Nantgarw were formerly
  famous for their china, coarse ware is still made chiefly at Ewenny
  and terra-cotta at Pencoed. Large numbers of people are employed in
  engineering works and in the manufacture of machines, chains,
  conveyances, tools, paper and chemicals. The textile factories are few
  and unimportant.

  _Fisheries._--Fisheries exist all along the coast; by lines,
  draught-nets, dredging, trawling, fixed nets and by hand. There is a
  fleet of trawlers at Swansea. The principal fish caught are cod,
  herring, pollock, whiting, flukes, brill, plaice, soles, turbot,
  oysters, mussels, limpets, cockles, shrimps, crabs and lobsters. There
  are good fish-markets at Swansea and Cardiff.

  _Communications._--The county has ample dock accommodation. The
  various docks of Cardiff amount to 210 acres, including timber ponds;
  Penarth has a dock and basin of 26 acres and a tidal harbour of 55
  acres. Barry docks cover 114 acres; Swansea has 147 acres, including
  its new King's Dock; and Port Talbot 90 acres. There are also docks at
  Briton Ferry and Porthcawl, but they are not capable of admitting
  deep-draft vessels.

  Besides its ports, Glamorgan has abundant means of transit in many
  railways, of which the Great Western is the chief. Its trunk line
  traversing the country between the mountains and the sea passes
  through Cardiff, Bridgend and Landore (on the outskirts of Swansea),
  and throws off numerous branches to the north. The Taff Vale railway
  serves all the valley of the Taff and its tributaries, and has also
  extensions to Barry and (through Llantrisant and Cowbridge) to
  Aberthaw. The Rhymney railway likewise serves the Rhymney Valley, and
  has a joint service with the Great Western between Cardiff and Merthyr
  Tydfil--the latter town being also the terminus of the Brecon and
  Merthyr and a branch of the North-Western from Abergavenny. The Barry
  railway visits Cardiff and then travels in a north-westerly direction
  to Pontypridd and Porth, while it sends another branch along the coast
  through Llantwit Major to Bridgend. Swansea is connected with Merthyr
  by the Great Western, with Brecon by the Midland, with Craven Arms and
  Mid-Wales generally by the London & North-Western, with the Rhondda
  Valley by the Rhondda and Swansea Bay (now worked by the Great
  Western) and with Mumbles by the Mumbles railway. The Port Talbot
  railway runs to Blaengarw, and the Neath and Brecon railway (starting
  from Neath) joins the Midland at Colbren Junction. The canals of the
  county are the Glamorgan canal from Cardiff to Merthyr Tydfil (25-1/2
  m.), with a branch (7 m.) to Aberdare, the Neath canal (13 m.) from
  Briton Ferry to Abernant, Glyn Neath (whence a tramway formerly
  connected it with Aberdare), the Tennant canal connecting the rivers
  Neath and Tawe, and the Swansea canal (16-1/2 m.), running up the
  Swansea Valley from Swansea to Abercrave in Breconshire. Comparatively
  little use is now made of these canals, excepting the lower portions
  of the Glamorgan canal.

  _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county with
  which the administrative county is conterminous is 518,863 acres, with
  a population in 1901 of 859,931 persons. In the three decades between
  1831 and 1861 it increased 35.2, 35.4 and 37.1% respectively, and in
  1881-1891, 34.4, its average increase in the other decennial periods
  subsequent to 1861 being about 25%. The county is divided into five
  parliamentary divisions (viz. Glamorganshire East, South and Middle,
  Gower and Rhondda); it also includes the Cardiff district of boroughs
  (consisting of Cardiff, Cowbridge and Llantrisant), which has one
  member; the greater part of the parliamentary borough of Merthyr
  Tydfil (which mainly consists of the county borough of Merthyr, the
  urban district of Aberdare and part of Mountain Ash), and returns two
  members; and the two divisions of Swansea District returning one
  member each, one division consisting of the major part of Swansea
  town, the other comprising the remainder of Swansea and the boroughs
  of Aberavon, Kenfig, Llwchwr and Neath. There are six municipal
  boroughs: Aberavon (pop. in 1901, 7553), Cardiff (164,333), Cowbridge
  (1202), Merthyr Tydfil (69,228), Neath (13,720) and Swansea (94,537).
  Cardiff (which in 1905 was created a city), Merthyr Tydfil and Swansea
  are county boroughs. The following are urban districts: Aberdare
  (43,365), Barry (27,030), Bridgend (6062), Briton Ferry (6973),
  Caerphilly (15,835), Glyncorrwg (6452), Maesteg (15,012), Margam
  (9014), Mountain Ash (31,093); Ogmore and Garw (19,907), Oystermouth
  (4461), Penarth (14,228), Pontypridd (32,316); Porthcawl (1872) and
  Rhondda, previously known as Ystradyfodwg (113,735). Glamorgan is in
  the S. Wales circuit, and both assizes and quarter-sessions are held
  at Cardiff and Swansea alternately. All the municipal boroughs have
  separate commissions of the peace, and Cardiff and Swansea have also
  separate courts of quarter-sessions. The county has thirteen other
  petty sessional divisions, Cardiff, the Rhondda (with Pontypridd) and
  the Merthyr and Aberdare district have stipendiary magistrates. There
  are 165 civil parishes. Excepting the districts of Gower and Kilvey,
  which are in the diocese of St David's, the whole county is in the
  diocese of Llandaff. There are 159 ecclesiastical parishes or
  districts situated wholly or partly within the county.

_History._--The earliest known traces of man within the area of the
present county are the human remains found in the famous bone-caves of
Gower, though they are scanty as compared with the huge deposits of
still earlier animal remains. To a later stage, perhaps in the Neolithic
period, belongs a number of complete skeletons discovered in 1903 in
sand-blown tumuli at the mouth of the Ogmore, where many flint
implements were also found. Considerably later, and probably belonging
to the Bronze Age (though finds of bronze implements have been scanty),
are the many cairns and tumuli, mainly on the hills, such as on Garth
Mountain near Cardiff, Crug-yr-avan and a number east of the Tawe; the
stone circles often found in association with the tumuli, that of Carn
Llecharth near Pontardawe being one of the most complete in Wales; and
the fine cromlechs of Cefn Bryn in Gower (known as Arthur's Stone), of
St Nicholas and of St Lythan's near Cardiff.

In Roman times the country from the Neath to the Wye was occupied by the
Silures, a pre-Celtic race, probably governed at that time by Brythonic
Celts. West of the Neath and along the fringe of the Brecknock Mountains
were probably remnants of the earlier Goidelic Celts, who have left
traces in the place-names of the Swansea valley (e.g. _llwch_, "a lake")
and in the illegible Ogham inscription at Loughor, the only other Ogham
stone in the county being at Kenfig, a few miles to the east of the
Neath estuary. The conquest of the Silures by the Romans was begun about
A.D. 50 by Ostorius Scapula and completed some 25 years later by Julius
Frontinus, who probably constructed the great military road, called Via
Julia Maritima, from Gloucester to St David's, with stations at Cardiff,
Bovium (variously identified with Boverton, Cowbridge and Ewenny), Nidum
(identified with Neath) and Leucarum or Loughor. The important station
of Gaer on the Usk near Brecon was connected by two branch roads, one
running from Cardiff through Gelligaer (where there was a strong hill
fort) and Merthyr Tydfil, and another from Neath through Capel Colbren.
Welsh tradition credits Glamorgan with being the first home of
Christianity, and Llandaff the earliest bishopric in Britain, the name
of three reputed missionaries of the 2nd century being preserved in the
names of parishes in south Glamorgan. What is certain, however, is that
the first two bishops of Llandaff, St Dubricius and St Teilo, lived
during the first half of the 6th century, to which period also belongs
the establishment of the great monastic settlements of Llancarvan by
Cadoc, of Llandough by Oudoceus and of Llantwit Major by Illtutus, the
last of which flourished as a seat of learning down to the 12th century.
A few moated mounds such as at Cardiff indicate that, after the
withdrawal of the Romans, the coasts were visited by sporadic bands of
Saxons, but the Scandinavians who came in the 9th and succeeding
centuries left more abundant traces both in the place-names of the coast
and in such camps as that on Sully Island, the Bulwarks at Porthkerry
and Hardings Down in Gower. Meanwhile the native tribes of the district
had regained their independence under a line of Welsh chieftains, whose
domain was consolidated into a principality known as Glywyssing, till
about the end of the 10th century when it acquired the name of Morganwg,
that is the territory of Morgan, a prince who died in A.D. 980; it then
comprised the whole country from the Neath to the Wye, practically
corresponding to the present diocese of Llandaff. Gwlad Morgan, later
softened into Glamorgan, never had much vogue and meant precisely the
same as Morganwg, though the two terms became differentiated a few
centuries later.

The Norman conquest of Morganwg was effected in the closing years of the
11th century by Robert Fitzhamon, lord of Gloucester. His followers
settled in the low-lying lands of the "Vale," which became known as the
"body" of the shire, while in the hill country, which consisted of ten
"members," corresponding to its ancient territorial divisions, the Welsh
retained their customary laws and much of their independence. Glamorgan,
whose bounds were now contracted between the Neath and the Rhymney, then
became a lordship marcher, its status and organization being that of a
county palatine; its lord possessed _jura regalia_, and his chief
official was from the first a _vice-comes_, or sheriff, who presided
over a county court composed of his lord's principal tenants. The
inhabitants of Cardiff in which, as the _caput baroniae_, this court was
held (though sometimes ambulatory), were soon granted municipal
privileges, and in time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Aberavon and
Neath also became chartered market-towns. The manorial system was
introduced throughout the "Vale," the manor in many cases becoming the
parish, and the owner building for its protection first a castle and
then a church. The church itself became Normanized, and monasteries were
established--the Cistercian abbey of Neath and Margam in 1129 and 1147
respectively, the Benedictine priory of Ewenny in 1141 and that of
Cardiff in 1147. Dominican and Franciscan houses were also founded at
Cardiff in the following century.

Gower (with Kilvey) or the country west of the morass between Neath and
Swansea had a separate history. It was conquered about 1100 by Henry de
Newburgh, 1st earl of Warwick, by whose descendants and the powerful
family of De Breos it was successively held as a marcher lordship,
organized to some extent on county lines, till 1469. Swansea (which was
the _caput baroniae_ of Gower) and Loughor received their earlier
charters from the lords of Gower (see GOWER).

For the first two centuries after Fitzhamon's time the lordship of
Glamorgan was held by the earls of Gloucester, a title conferred by
Henry I. on his natural son Robert, who acquired Glamorgan by marrying
Fitzhamon's daughter. To the 1st earl's patronage of Geoffrey of
Monmouth and other men of letters, at Cardiff Castle of which he was the
builder, is probably due the large place which Celtic romance,
especially the Arthurian cycle, won for itself in medieval literature.
The lordship passed by descent through the families of Clare (who held
it from 1217 to 1317), Despenser, Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III.,
on whose fall it escheated to the crown. From time to time, the Welsh of
the hills, often joined by their countrymen from other parts, raided
the Vale, and even Cardiff Castle was seized about 1153 by Ivor Bach,
lord of Senghenydd, who for a time held its lord a prisoner. At last
Caerphilly Castle was built to keep them in check, but this provoked an
invasion in 1270 by Prince Llewelyn ap Griffith, who besieged the castle
and refused to retire except on conditions. In 1316 Llewelyn Bren headed
a revolt in the same district, but being defeated was put to death by
Despenser, whose great unpopularity with the Welsh made Glamorgan less
safe as a retreat for Edward II. a few years later. In 1404 Glendower
swept through the county, burning castles and laying waste the
possessions of the king's supporters. By the Act of Union of 1535 the
county of Glamorgan was incorporated as it now exists, by the addition
to the old county of the lordship of Gower and Kilvey, west of the
Neath. By another act of 1542 the court of great sessions was
established, and Glamorgan, with the counties of Brecon and Radnor,
formed one of its four Welsh circuits from thence till 1830, when the
English assize system was introduced into Wales. In the same year the
county was given one parliamentary representative, increased to two in
1832 and to five in 1885. The boroughs were also given a member. In 1832
Cardiff (with Llantrisant and Cowbridge), the Swansea group of boroughs
and the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil were given one member
each, increased to two, in the case of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867. In 1885
the Swansea group was divided into two constituencies with a member
each.

The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of its quasi-regal status, was granted
by Edward VI. to William Herbert, afterwards 1st earl of Pembroke, from
whom it has descended to the present marquess of Bute.

The rule of the Tudors promoted the rapid assimilation of the
inhabitants of the county, and by the reign of Elizabeth even the
descendants of the Norman knights had largely become Welsh both in
speech and sentiment. Welsh continued to be the prevalent speech almost
throughout the county, except in the peninsular part of Gower and
perhaps Cardiff, till the last quarter of the 19th century. Since then
it has lost ground in the maritime towns and the south-east corner of
the county generally, while fairly holding its own, despite much English
migration, in the industrial districts to the north. In 1901 about 56%
of the total population above three years of age was returned as
speaking English only, 37% as speaking both English and Welsh, and about
6-1/2% as speaking Welsh only.

In common with the rest of Wales the county was mainly Royalist in the
Civil War, and indeed stood foremost in its readiness to pay ship-money,
but when Charles I. visited Cardiff in July 1645 he failed to recruit
his army there, owing to the dissatisfaction of the county, which a few
months later declared for the parliament. There was, however, a
subsequent Royalist revolt in Glamorgan in 1648, but it was signally
crushed by Colonel Horton at the battle of St Fagan's (8th of May).

The educational gap caused by final disappearance of the great
university of Llantwit Major, founded in the 6th century, and by the
dissolution of the monasteries was to some extent filled by the
foundation, by the Stradling family, of a grammar school at Cowbridge
which, refounded in 1685 by Sir Leoline Jenkins, is still carried on as
an endowed school. The only other ancient grammar school is that of
Swansea, founded by Bishop Gore in 1682, and now under the control of
the borough council. Besides the University College of South Wales and
Monmouthshire established at Cardiff in 1883, and a technical college at
Swansea, there is a Church of England theological college (St Michael's)
at Llandaff (previously at Aberdare), a training college for
school-mistresses at Swansea, schools for the blind at Cardiff and
Swansea and for the deaf at Cardiff, Swansea and Pontypridd.

_Antiquities._--The antiquities of the county not already mentioned
include an unusually large number of castles, all of which, except the
castles of Morlais (near Merthyr Tydfil), Castell Coch and Llantrisant,
are between the hill country and the sea. The finest specimen is that of
Caerphilly, but there are also more or less imposing ruins at
Oystermouth, Coity, Newcastle (at Bridgend), Llanblethian, Pennard and
Swansea. Among the restored castles, resided in by their present
owners, are St Donat's, "the latest and most complete of the structures
built for defence," Cardiff, the residence of the marquess of Bute, St
Fagan's, Dunraven, Fonmon and Penrice. Of the monastic buildings, that
of Ewenny is best preserved, Neath and Margam are mere ruins, while all
the others have disappeared. Almost all the older churches possess
towers of a somewhat military character, and most of them, except in
Gower, retain some Norman masonry. Coity, Coychurch and Ewenny (all near
Bridgend) are fine examples of cross churches with embattled towers
characteristic of the county. There are interesting monumental effigies
at St Mary's, Swansea, Oxwich, Ewenny, Llantwit Major, Llantrisant,
Coity and other churches in the Vale. There are from twenty-five to
thirty sculptured stones, of which some sixteen are both ornamented and
inscribed, five of the latter being at Margam and three at Llantwit
Major, and dating from the 9th century if not earlier.

  AUTHORITIES.--The records of the _Curia comitatus_ or County Court of
  Glamorgan are supposed to have perished, so also have the records of
  Neath. With these exceptions, the records of the county have been well
  preserved. A collection edited by G. T. Clark under the title _Cartae
  et alia munimenta quae ad dominium de Glamorgan pertinent_ was
  privately printed by him in four volumes (1885-1893). _A Descriptive
  Catalogue of the Penrice and Margam Abbey MSS. in the Possession of
  Miss Talbot of Margam_ (6 vols.) was privately issued (1893-1905)
  under the editorship of Dr de Gray Birch, who has also published
  histories of the Abbeys of Neath and Margam. The _Book of Llan Daf_
  (edited by Dr Gwenogvryn Evans, 1903) contains documents illustrative
  of the early history of the diocese of Llandaff. Cardiff has published
  its _Records_ in 5 vols., and there is a volume of Swansea charters.
  There is no complete history of the county, except a modest but useful
  one in Welsh--_Hanes Morganwg_, by D. W. Jones (Dafydd Morganwg)
  (1874); the chief contributions are Rice Merrick's _Booke of
  Glamorganshire's Antiquities_, written in 1578; _The Land of Morgan_
  (1883) (a history of the lordship of Glamorgan), by G. T. Clark, whose
  _Genealogies of Glamorgan_ (1886) and _Medieval Military Architecture_
  (1884) are also indispensable; see also T. Nicholas, _Annals and
  Antiquities of the Counties and County Families of Wales_ (2 vols.,
  1872). For Gower, see GOWER.     (D. Ll. T.)




GLANDERS, or FARCY (_Equinia_), a specific infective and contagious
disease, caused by a tissue parasite (_Bacillus mallei_), to which
certain animals, chiefly the horse, ass and mule, are liable, and which
is communicable from them to man. Glanders in the domesticated animals
is dealt with under VETERINARY SCIENCE; it is happily a rare form of
disease in man, there being evidently less affinity for its development
in the human subject than in the equine species. For the pathology see
the article PARASITIC DISEASES. It occurs chiefly among those who from
their occupation are frequently in contact with horses, such as grooms,
coachmen, cavalry soldiers, veterinary surgeons, &c.; the bacillus is
communicated from a glandered animal either through a wound or scratch
or through application to the mucous membrane of the nose or mouth. A
period of incubation, lasting from three to five days, generally follows
the introduction of the virus into the human system. This period,
however, appears sometimes to be of much longer duration, especially
where there has been no direct inoculation of the poison. The first
symptoms are a general feeling of illness, accompanied with pains in the
limbs and joints resembling those of acute rheumatism. If the disease
has been introduced by means of an abraded surface, pain is felt at that
point, and inflammatory swelling takes place there, and extends along
the neighbouring lymphatics. An ulcer is formed at the point of
inoculation which discharges an offensive ichor, and blebs appear in the
inflamed skin, along with diffuse abscesses, as in phlegmonous
erysipelas. Sometimes the disease stops short with these local
manifestations, but more commonly goes on rapidly accompanied with
symptoms of grave constitutional disturbance. Over the whole surface of
the body there appear numerous red spots or pustules, which break and
discharge a thick mucous or sanguineous fluid. Besides these there are
larger swellings lying deeper in the subcutaneous tissue, which at first
are extremely hard and painful, and to which the term farcy "buds" or
"buttons" is applied. These ultimately open and become extensive
sloughing ulcers.

The mucous membranes participate in the same lesions as are present in
the skin, and this is particularly the case with the interior of the
nose, where indeed, in many instances, the disease first of all shows
itself. This organ becomes greatly swollen and inflamed, while from one
or both nostrils there exudes a copious discharge of highly offensive
purulent or sanguineous matter. The lining membrane of the nostrils is
covered with papules similar in character to those on the skin, which
form ulcers, and may lead to the destruction of the cartilaginous and
bony textures of the nose. The diseased action extends into the throat,
mouth and eyes, while the whole face becomes swollen and erysipelatous,
and the lymphatic glands under the jaws inflame and suppurate. Not
unfrequently the bronchial tubes become affected, and cough attended
with expectoration of matter similar to that discharged from the nose is
the consequence. The general constitutional symptoms are exceedingly
severe, and advance with great rapidity, the patient passing into a
state of extreme prostration. In the acute form of the disease recovery
rarely if ever occurs, and the case generally terminates fatally in a
period varying from two or three days to as many weeks.

A chronic form of glanders and farcy is occasionally met with, in which
the symptoms, although essentially the same as those above described,
advance much more slowly, and are attended with relatively less urgent
constitutional disturbance. Cases of recovery from this form are on
record; but in general the disease ultimately proves fatal by exhaustion
of the patient, or by a sudden supervention, which is apt to occur, of
the acute form. On the other hand, acute glanders is never observed to
become chronic.

In the treatment of this malady in human beings reliance is mainly
placed on the maintenance of the patient's strength by strong
nourishment and tonic remedies. Cauterization should be resorted to if
the point of infection is early known. Abscesses may be opened and
antiseptic lotions used. In all cases of the outbreak of glanders it is
of the utmost consequence to prevent the spread of the disease by the
destruction of affected animals and the cleansing and disinfection of
infected localities.




GLANVILL (or GLANVIL), JOSEPH (1636-1680); English philosopher, was born
at Plymouth in 1636, and was educated at Exeter and Lincoln colleges,
Oxford, where he graduated as M.A. in 1658. After the Restoration he was
successively rector of Wimbush, Essex, vicar of Frome Selwood,
Somersetshire, rector of Streat and Walton. In 1666 he was appointed to
the abbey church, Bath; in 1678 he became prebendary of Worcester
Cathedral, and acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charles II. from 1672.
He died at Bath in November 1680. Glanvill's first work (a passage in
which suggested the theme of Matthew Arnold's _Scholar Gipsy_), _The
Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Confidence in Opinions, manifested in a
Discourse of the shortness and uncertainty of our Knowledge, and its
Causes, with Reflexions on Peripateticism, and an Apology for
Philosophy_ (1661), is interesting as showing one special direction in
which the new method of the Cartesian philosophy might be developed.
Pascal had already shown how philosophical scepticism might be employed
as a bulwark for faith, and Glanvill follows in the same track. The
philosophic endeavour to cognize the whole system of things by referring
all events to their causes appears to him to be from the outset doomed
to failure. For if we inquire into this causal relation we find that
though we know isolated facts, we cannot perceive any such connexion
between them as that the one should give rise to the other. In the words
of Hume, "they seem conjoined but never connected." All causes then are
but secondary, i.e. merely the occasions on which the one first cause
operates. It is singular enough that Glanvill who had not only shown,
but even exaggerated, the infirmity of human reason, himself provided an
example of its weakness; for, after having combated scientific
dogmatism, he not only yielded to vulgar superstitions, but actually
endeavoured to accredit them both in his revised edition of the _Vanity
of Dogmatizing_, published as _Scepsis scientifica_ (1665, ed. Rev. John
Owen, 1885), and in his _Philosophical Considerations concerning the
existence of Sorcerers and Sorcery_ (1666). The latter work appears to
have been based on the story of the drum which was alleged to have been
heard every night in a house in Wiltshire (Tedworth, belonging to a Mr
Mompesson), a story which made much noise in the year 1663, and which is
supposed to have furnished Addison with the idea of his comedy the
_Drummer_. At his death Glanvill left a piece entitled _Sadducismus
Triumphatus_ (printed in 1681, reprinted with some additions in 1682,
German trans. 1701). He had there collected twenty-six relations or
stories of the same description as that of the drum, in order to
establish, by a series of facts, the opinion which he had expressed in
his _Philosophical Considerations_. Glanvill supported a much more
honourable cause when he undertook the defence of the Royal Society of
London, under the title of _Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement
of Science since the time of Aristotle_ (1668), a work which shows how
thoroughly he was imbued with the ideas of the empirical method.

  Besides the works already noticed, Glanvill wrote _Lux orientalis_
  (1662); _Philosophia pia_ (1671); _Essays on Several Important
  Subjects in Philosophy and Religion_ (1676); _An Essay concerning
  Preaching; and Sermons_. See C. Remusat, _Hist. de la phil. en
  Angleterre_, bk. iii. ch. xi.; W. E. H. Lecky, _Rationalism in Europe_
  (1865), i. 120-128; Hallam's _Literature of Europe_, iii. 358-362;
  Tulloch's _Rational Theology_, ii. 443-455.




GLANVILL, RANULF DE (sometimes written GLANVIL, GLANVILLE) (d. 1190),
chief justiciar of England and reputed author of a book on English law,
was born at Stratford in Suffolk, but in what year is unknown. There is
but little information regarding his early life. He first comes to the
front as sheriff of Yorkshire from 1163 to 1170. In 1173 he became
sheriff of Lancashire and custodian of the honour of Richmond. In 1174
he was one of the English leaders at the battle of Alnwick, and it was
to him that the king of the Scots, William the Lion, surrendered. In
1175 he was reappointed sheriff of Yorkshire, in 1176 he became justice
of the king's court and a justice itinerant in the northern circuit, and
in 1180 chief justiciar of England. It was with his assistance that
Henry II. completed his judicial reforms, though the principal of them
had been carried out before he came into office. He became the king's
right-hand man, and during Henry's frequent absences was in effect
viceroy of England. After the death of Henry in 1189, Glanvill was
removed from his office by Richard I., and imprisoned till he had paid a
ransom, according to one authority, of L15,000. Shortly after obtaining
his freedom he took the cross, and he died at the siege of Acre in 1190.
At the instance, it may be, of Henry II., Glanvill wrote or
superintended the writing of the _Tractatus de legibus et
consuetudinibus regni Angliae_, which is a practical treatise on the
forms of procedure in the king's court. As the source of our knowledge
regarding the earliest form of the _curia regis_, and for the
information it affords regarding ancient customs and laws, it is of
great value to the student of English history. It is now generally
agreed that the work of Glanvill is of earlier date than the Scottish
law book known from its first words as _Regiam Majestatem_, a work which
bears a close resemblance to his.

  The treatise of Glanvill was first printed in 1554. An English
  translation, with notes and introduction by John Beames, was published
  at London in 1812. A French version is found in various MSS., but has
  not yet been printed. (See also ENGLISH LAW: _History of_.)




GLAPTHORNE, HENRY (fl. 1635-1642), English poet and dramatist, wrote in
the reign of Charles I. All that is known of him is gathered from his
own work. He published _Poems_ (1639), many of them in praise of an
unidentified "Lucinda"; a poem in honour of his friend Thomas Beedome,
whose _Poems Divine and Humane_ he edited in 1641; and _Whitehall_
(1642), dedicated to his "noble friend and gossip, Captain Richard
Lovelace." The first volume contains a poem in honour of the duke of
York, and _Whitehall_ is a review of the past glories of the English
court, containing abundant evidences of the writer's devotion to the
royal cause. _Argalus and Parthenia_ (1639) is a pastoral tragedy
founded on an episode in Sidney's _Arcadia; Albertus Wallenstein_
(1639), his only attempt at historical tragedy, represents Wallenstein
as a monster of pride and cruelty. His other plays are _The Hollander_
(written 1635; printed 1640), a romantic comedy of which the scene is
laid in Genoa; _Wit in a Constable_ (1640), which is probably a version
of an earlier play, and owes something to Shakespeare's _Much Ado about
Nothing_; and _The Ladies Priviledge_ (1640). _The Lady Mother_ (1635)
has been identified (Fleay, _Biog. Chron. of the Drama_) with _The Noble
Trial_, one of the plays destroyed by Warburton's cook, and Mr A. H.
Bullen prints it in vol. ii. of his _Old English Plays_ as most probably
Glapthorne's work. _The Paraside, or Revenge for Honour_ (1654), entered
at Stationers' Hall in 1653 as Glapthorne's, was printed in the next
year with George Chapman's name on the title-page. It should probably be
included among Glapthorne's plays, which, though they hardly rise above
the level of contemporary productions, contain many felicitous isolated
passages.

  The _Plays and Poems of Henry Glapthorne_ (1874) contains an unsigned
  memoir, which, however, gives no information about the dramatist's
  life. There is no reason for supposing that the George Glapthorne of
  whose trial details are given was a relative of the poet.




GLARUS (Fr. _Glaris_), one of the Swiss cantons, the name being taken
from that of its chief town. Its area is 266.8 sq. m., of which 173.1
sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 41 sq. m.), but it
also contains 13.9 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking as the fifth Swiss canton
in this respect. It is thus a mountain canton, the loftiest point in it
being the Todi (11,887 ft.), the highest summit that rises to the north
of the upper Aar and Vorder Rhine valleys. It is composed of the upper
valley of the Linth, that is the portion which lies to the south of a
line drawn from the Lake of Zurich to the Walensee. This river rises in
the glaciers of the Todi, and has carved out for itself a deep bed, so
that the floor of the valley is comparatively level, and therefore is
occupied by a number of considerable villages. Glacier passes only lead
from its head to the Grisons, save the rough footpath over the Kisten
Pass, while a fine new carriage road over the Klausen Pass gives access
to the canton of Uri. The upper Linth valley is sometimes called the
Grossthal (main valley) to distinguish it from its chief (or
south-eastern) tributary, the Sernf valley or Kleinthal, which joins it
at Schwanden, a little above Glarus itself. At the head of the Kleinthal
a mule track leads to the Grisons over the Panixer Pass, as also a
footpath over the Segnes Pass. Just below Glarus town, another glen
(coming from the south-west) joins the main valley, and is watered by
the Klon, while from its head the Pragel Pass (a mule path, converted
into a carriage road) leads over to the canton of Schwyz. The Klon glen
(uninhabited save in summer) is separated from the main glen by the fine
bold mass of the Glarnisch (9580 ft.), while the Sernf valley is
similarly cut off from the Grossthal by the high ridge running
northwards from the Hausstock (10,342 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9177
ft.). The principal lakes, the Klonthalersee and the Muttensee, are of a
thoroughly Alpine character, while there are several fine waterfalls
near the head of the main valley, such as those formed by the Sandbach,
the Schreienbach and the Fatschbach. The Pantenbrucke, thrown over the
narrow cleft formed by the Linth, is one of the grandest sights of the
Alps below the snow-line. There is a sulphur spring at Stachelberg, near
Linthal village, and an iron spring at Elm, while in the Sernf valley
there are the Plattenberg slate quarries, and just south of Elm those of
the Tschingelberg, whence a terrific landslip descended to Elm (11th
September 1881), destroying many houses and killing 115 persons. A
railway runs through the whole canton from north to south past Glarus to
Linthal village (16-1/4 m.), while from Schwanden there is an electric
line (opened in 1905) up to Elm (8-3/4 m.).

In 1900 the population of the canton was 32,349 (a decrease on the
33,825 of 1888, this being the only Swiss canton which shows a
decrease), of whom 31,797 were German-speaking, while there were 24,403
Protestants, 7918 Romanists (many in Nafels) and 3 Jews. After the
capital, Glarus (q.v.), the largest villages are Nafels (2557
inhabitants), Ennenda (2494 inhabitants, opposite Glarus, of which it is
practically a suburb), Netstal (2003 inhabitants), Mollis (1912
inhabitants) and Linththal (1894 inhabitants). The slate industry is
now the most important as the cotton manufacture has lately very greatly
fallen off, this being the real reason of the diminution in the number
of the population. There is little agriculture, for it is a pastoral
region (owing to its height) and contains 87 mountain pastures (though
the finest of all within the limits of the canton, the Urnerboden, or
the Glarus side of the Klausen Pass, belongs to Uri), which can support
8054 cows, and are of an estimated capital value of about L246,000. One
of the most characteristic products (though inferior qualities are
manufactured elsewhere in Switzerland) is the cheese called
_Schabzieger_, _Krauterkase_, or green cheese, made of skim milk
(_Zieger_ or _serac_), whether of goats or cows, mixed with buttermilk
and coloured with powdered _Steinklee_ (_Melilotus officinalis_) or
_blauer Honigklee_ (_Melilotus caerulea_). The curds are brought down
from the huts on the pastures, and, after being mixed with the dried
powder, are ground in a mill, then put into shapes and pressed. The
cheese thus produced is ripe in about a year, keeps a long time and is
largely exported, even to America. The ice formed on the surface of the
Klonthalersee in winter is stored up on its shore and exported. A
certain number of visitors come to the canton in the summer, either to
profit by one or other of the mineral springs mentioned above, or simply
to enjoy the beauties of nature, especially at Obstalden, above the
Walensee. The canton forms but a single administrative district and
contains 28 communes. It sends to the Federal _Standerath_ 2
representatives (elected by the _Landsgemeinde_) and 2 also to the
Federal _Nationalrath_. The canton still keeps its primitive democratic
assembly or _Landsgemeinde_ (meeting annually in the open air at Glarus
on the first Sunday in May), composed of all male citizens of 20 years
of age. It acts as the sovereign body, so that no "referendum" is
required, while any citizen can submit a proposal. It names the
executive of 6 members, besides the Landammann or president, all holding
office for three years. The communes (forming 18 electoral circles)
elect for three years the _Landrath_, a sort of standing committee
composed of members in the proportion of 1 for every 500 inhabitants or
fraction over 250. The present constitution dates from 1887.
     (W. A. B. C.)




GLARUS (Fr. _Glaris_), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name.
It is a clean, modern little town, built on the left bank of the Linth
(opposite it is the industrial suburb of Ennenda on the right bank), at
the north-eastern foot of the imposing rock peak of the Vorder Glarnisch
(7648 ft.), while on the east rises the Schild (6400 ft.). It now
contains but few houses built before 1861, for on the 10/11 May 1861
practically the whole town was destroyed by fire that was fanned by a
violent _Fohn_ or south wind, rushing down from the high mountains
through the natural funnel formed by the Linth valley. The total loss is
estimated at about half a million sterling, of which about L100,000 were
made up by subscriptions that poured in from every side. It possesses
the broad streets and usual buildings of a modern town, the parish
church being by far the most stately and well-situated building; it is
used in common by the Protestants and Romans. Zwingli, the reformer, was
parish priest here from 1506 to 1516, before he became a Protestant. The
town is 1578 ft. above the sea-level, and in 1900 had a population of
4877, almost all German-speaking, while 1248 were Romanists. For the
Linth canals (1811 and 1816) see LINTH.

The DISTRICT OF GLARUS is said to have been converted to Christianity in
the 6th century by the Irish monk, Fridolin, whose special protector was
St Hilary of Poitiers; the former was the founder, and both were
patrons, of the Benedictine nunnery of Sackingen, on the Rhine between
Constance and Basel, that about the 9th century became the owner of the
district which was then named after St Hilary. The Habsburgs, protectors
of the nunnery, gradually drew to themselves the exercise of all the
rights of the nuns, so that in 1352 Glarus joined the Swiss
Confederation. But the men of Glarus did not gain their complete freedom
till after they had driven back the Habsburgs in the glorious battle of
Nafels (1388), the complement of Sempach, so that the Habsburgers gave
up their rights in 1398, while those of Sackingen were bought up in
1395, on condition of a small annual payment. Glarus early adopted
Protestantism, but there were many struggles later on between the two
parties, as the chief family, that of Tschudi, adhered to the old faith.
At last it was arranged that, besides the common _Landsgemeinde_, each
party should have its separate _Landsgemeinde_ (1623) and tribunals
(1683), while it was not till 1798 that the Protestants agreed to accept
the Gregorian calendar. The slate-quarrying industry appeared early in
the 17th century, while cotton-spinning was introduced about 1714, and
calico-printing by 1750. In 1798, in consequence of the resistance of
Glarus to the French invaders, the canton was united to other districts
under the name of canton of the Linth, though in 1803 it was reduced to
its former limits. In 1799 it was traversed by the Russian army, under
Suworoff, coming over the Pragel Pass, but blocked by the French at
Nafels, and so driven over the Panixer to the Grisons. The old system of
government was set up again in 1814. But in 1836 by the new Liberal
constitution one single _Landsgemeinde_ was restored, despite the
resistance (1837) of the Romanist population at Nafels.

  AUTHORITIES.--J. Babler, _Die Alpwirtschaft im Kant. G._ (Soleure,
  1898); J. J. Blumer, article on the early history of the canton in
  vol. iii. (Zurich, 1844) of the _Archiv f. schweiz. Geschichte_; E.
  Buss and A. Heim, _Der Bergsturz von Elm_ (1881) (Zurich, 1881); W. A.
  B. Coolidge, _The Range of the Todi_ (London, 1894); J. G. Ebel,
  _Schilderung der Gebirgsvolker d. Schweiz_, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1798);
  Gottfried Heer, _Geschichte d. Landes Glarus_ (to 1830) (2 vols.,
  Glarus, 1898-1899), _Glarnerische Reformationsgeschichte_ (Glarus,
  1900), _Zur 500 jahrigen Gedachtnisfeier der Schlacht bei Nafels_
  (1388) (Glarus, 1888) and _Die Kirchen d. Kant. Glarus_ (Glarus,
  1890); Oswald Heer and J. J. Blumer-Heer, _Der Kant. Glarus_ (St Gall,
  1846); J. J. Hottinger, _Conrad Escher von der Linth_ (Zurich, 1852);
  _Jahrbuch_, published annually since 1865 by the Cantonal Historical
  Society; A. Jenny-Trumpy, "Handel u. Industrie d. Kant. G." (article
  in vol. xxxiii., 1899, of the _Jahrbuch_); M. Schuler, _Geschichte d.
  Landes Glarus_ (Zurich, 1836); E. Naf-Blumer, _Clubfuhrer durch die
  Glarner-Alpen_ (Schwanden, 1902); Aloys Schulte, article on the true
  and legendary early history of the Canton, published in vol. xviii.,
  1893, of the _Jahrbuch f. schweiz. Geschichte_ (Zurich); J. J. Blumer,
  _Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien_ (3 vols., St
  Gall, 1850-1859); H. Ryffel, _Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden_ (Zurich,
  1903); R. von Reding-Biberegg, _Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in
  1799_ (Stans, 1895).     (W. A. B. C.)




GLAS, GEORGE (1725-1765); Scottish seaman and merchant adventurer in
West Africa, son of John Glas the divine, was born at Dundee in 1725,
and is said to have been brought up as a surgeon. He obtained command of
a ship which traded between Brazil, the N.W. coasts of Africa and the
Canary Islands. During his voyages he discovered on the Saharan seaboard
a river navigable for some distance inland, and here he proposed to
found a trading station. The exact spot is not known with certainty, but
it is plausibly identified with Gueder, a place in about 29 deg. 10' N.,
possibly the haven where the Spaniards had in the 15th and 16th
centuries a fort called Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena. Glas made an
arrangement with the Lords of Trade whereby he was granted L15,000 if he
obtained free cession of the port he had discovered to the British
crown; the proposal was to be laid before parliament in the session of
1765. Having chartered a vessel, Glas, with his wife and daughter,
sailed for Africa in 1764, reached his destination and made a treaty
with the Moors of the district. He named his settlement Port
Hillsborough, after Wills Hill, earl of Hillsborough (afterwards marquis
of Downshire), president of the Board of Trade and Plantations,
1763-1765. In November 1764 Glas and some companions, leaving his ship
behind, went in the longboat to Lanzarote, intending to buy a small
barque suitable for the navigation of the river on which was his
settlement. From Lanzarote he forwarded to London the treaty he had
concluded for the acquisition of Port Hillsborough. A few days later he
was seized by the Spaniards, taken to Teneriffe and imprisoned at Santa
Cruz. In a letter to the Lords of Trade from Teneriffe, dated the 15th
of December 1764, Glas said he believed the reason for his detention was
the jealousy of the Spaniards at the settlement at Port Hillsborough
"because from thence in time of war the English might ruin their fishery
and effectually stop the whole commerce of the Canary Islands." The
Spaniards further looked upon the settlement as a step towards the
conquest of the islands. "They are therefore contriving how to make out
a claim to the port and will forge old manuscripts to prove their
assertion" (_Calendar of Home Office Papers_, 1760-1765). In March 1765
the ship's company at Port Hillsborough was attacked by the natives and
several members of it killed. The survivors, including Mrs and Miss
Glas, escaped to Teneriffe. In October following, through the
representations of the British government, Glas was released from
prison. With his wife and child he set sail for England on board the
barque "Earl of Sandwich." On the 30th of November Spanish and
Portuguese members of the crew, who had learned that the ship contained
much treasure, mutinied, killing the captain and passengers. Glas was
stabbed to death, and his wife and daughter thrown overboard. (The
murderers were afterwards captured and hanged at Dublin.) After the
death of Glas the British government appears to have taken no steps to
carry out his project.

  In 1764 Glas published in London _The History of the Discovery and
  Conquest of the Canary Islands_, which he had translated from the MS.
  of an Andalusian monk named Juan Abreu de Galindo, then recently
  discovered at Palma. To this Glas added a description of the islands,
  a continuation of the history and an account of the manners, customs,
  trade, &c., of the inhabitants, displaying considerable knowledge of
  the archipelago.




GLAS, JOHN (1695-1773), Scottish divine, was born at Auchtermuchty,
Fife, where his father was parish minister, on the 5th of October 1695.
He was educated at Kinclaven and the grammar school, Perth, graduated
A.M. at the university of St Andrews in 1713, and completed his
education for the ministry at Edinburgh. He was licensed as a preacher
by the presbytery of Dunkeld, and soon afterwards ordained by that of
Dundee as minister of the parish of Tealing (1719), where his effective
preaching soon secured a large congregation. Early in his ministry he
was "brought to a stand" while lecturing on the "Shorter Catechism" by
the question "How doth Christ execute the office of a king?" This led to
an examination of the New Testament foundation of the Christian Church,
and in 1725, in a letter to Francis Archibald, minister of Guthrie,
Forfarshire, he repudiated the obligation of national covenants. In the
same year his views found expression in the formation of a society
"separate from the multitude" numbering nearly a hundred, and drawn from
his own and neighbouring parishes. The members of this _ecclesiola in
ecclesia_ pledged themselves "to join together in the Christian
profession, to follow Christ the Lord as the righteousness of his
people, to walk together in brotherly love, and in the duties of it, in
subjection to Mr Glas as their overseer in the Lord, to observe the
ordinance of the Lord's Supper once every month, to submit themselves to
the Lord's law for removing offences," &c. (Matt. xviii. 15-20). From
the scriptural doctrine of the essentially spiritual nature of the
kingdom of Christ, Glas in his public teaching drew the conclusions: (1)
that there is no warrant in the New Testament for a national church; (2)
that the magistrate as such has no function in the church; (3) that
national covenants are without scriptural grounds; (4) that the true
Reformation cannot be carried out by political and secular weapons but
by the word and spirit of Christ only.

This argument is most fully exhibited in a treatise entitled _The
Testimony of the King of Martyrs_ (1729). For the promulgation of these
views, which were confessedly at variance with the doctrines of the
standards of the national church of Scotland, he was summoned (1726)
before his presbytery, where in the course of the investigations which
followed he affirmed still more explicitly his belief that "every
national church established by the laws of earthly kingdoms is
antichristian in its constitution and persecuting in its spirit," and
further declared opinions upon the subject of church government which
amounted to a repudiation of Presbyterianism and an acceptance of the
puritan type of Independency. For these opinions he was in 1728
suspended from the discharge of ministerial functions, and finally
deposed in 1730. The members of the society already referred to,
however, for the most part continued to adhere to him, thus
constituting the first "Glassite" or "Glasite" church. The seat of this
congregation was shortly afterwards transferred to Dundee (whence Glas
subsequently removed to Edinburgh), where he officiated for some time as
an "elder." He next laboured in Perth for a few years, where he was
joined by Robert Sandeman (see GLASITES), who became his son-in-law, and
eventually was recognized as the leader and principal exponent of Glas's
views; these he developed in a direction which laid them open to the
charge of antinomianism. Ultimately in 1730 Glas returned to Dundee,
where the remainder of his life was spent. He introduced in his church
the primitive custom of the "osculum pacis" and the "agape" celebrated
as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congregation was known
as the "kail kirk." In 1739 the General Assembly, without any
application from him, removed the sentence of deposition which had been
passed against him, and restored him to the character and function of a
minister of the gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the
Established Church of Scotland, declaring that he was not eligible for a
charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent with the
constitution of the church.

  A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in 1761 (4
  vols., 8vo), and again at Perth in 1782 (5 vols., 8vo). He died in
  1773.

  Glas's published works bear witness to his vigorous mind and scholarly
  attainments. His reconstruction of the _True Discourse of Celsus_
  (1753), from Origen's reply to it, is a competent and learned piece of
  work. The _Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His Kingdom_
  (1729) is a classic repudiation of erastianism and defence of the
  spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His common sense
  appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to prove that the
  Bible supplies a complete system of physical science, and his
  shrewdness in his _Notes on Scripture Texts_ (1747). He published a
  volume of Christian Songs (Perth, 1784).     (D. Mn.)




GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the 17th century, was a
native of Basel, became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi
in Paris and apothecary to Louis XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is
best known by his _Traite de la chymie_ (Paris, 1663), which went
through some ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was
translated into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was
an accomplice in the notorious poisonings carried out by the marchioness
de Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is doubtful. He
appears to have died some time before 1676. The _sal polychrestum
Glaseri_ is normal potassium sulphate which he prepared and used
medicinally.




GLASGOW, a city, county of a city, royal burgh and port of Lanarkshire,
Scotland, situated on both banks of the Clyde, 401-1/2 m. N.W. of London
by the West Coast railway route, and 47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the
North British railway. The valley of the Clyde is closely confined by
hills, and the city extends far over these, the irregularity of its site
making for picturesqueness. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the
majority of important public buildings, lies on the north bank of the
river, which traverses the city from W.S.W. to E.N.E., and is crossed by
a number of bridges. The uppermost is Dalmarnock Bridge, dating from
1891, and next below it is Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, and
superseding a structure of 1775. St Andrew's suspension bridge gives
access to the Green to the inhabitants of Hutchesontown, a district
which is approached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading
from the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and weir.
Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in 1856, taking the place of the
venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 1345, which was demolished in
1847. Then follows a suspension bridge (dating from 1853) by which
foot-passengers from the south side obtain access to St Enoch Square
and, finally, the most important bridge of all is reached, variously
known as Glasgow, Jamaica Street, or Broomielaw Bridge, built of granite
from Telford's designs and first used in 1835. Towards the close of the
century it was reconstructed, and reopened in 1899. At the busier
periods of the day it bears a very heavy traffic. The stream is spanned
between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge belonging to the Glasgow
& South-Western railway and by two bridges carrying the lines of the
Caledonian railway, one below Dalmarnock Bridge and the other a massive
work immediately west of Glasgow Bridge.

_Buildings._--George Square, in the heart of the city, is an open space
of which every possible advantage has been taken. On its eastern side
stand the municipal buildings, a palatial pile in Venetian renaissance
style, from the designs of William Young, a native of Paisley. They were
opened in 1889 and cost nearly L600,000. They form a square block four
storeys high and carry a domed turret at each end of the western facade,
from the centre of which rises a massive tower. The entrance hall and
grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting hall and reception
rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not unbecoming to the
commercial and industrial metropolis of Scotland. Several additional
blocks have been built or rented for the accommodation of the municipal
staff. Admirably equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897,
including a bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till 1810 the
town council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved to
the fine classical structure at the foot of the Saltmarket, which is now
used as court-houses. This was vacated in 1842 for the county buildings
in Wilson Street. Growth of business compelled another migration to
Ingram Street in 1875, and, fourteen years later, it occupied its
present quarters. On the southern side of George Square the chief
structure is the massive General Post Office. On the western side stand
two ornate Italian buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants'
House, the head of which (the dean of gild), along with the head of the
Trades' House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been de facto member
of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised with a view to
adjusting the frequent disputes between the two gilds. The Royal
Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine portico of columns in two
rows, is an admired example of the work of David Hamilton (1768-1843), a
native of Glasgow, who designed several of the public buildings and
churches, and gained the second prize for a design for the Houses of
Parliament. The news-room of the exchange is a vast apartment, 130 ft.
long, 60 ft. wide, 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported
by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important and handsome
street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange, the Western Club House
(by David Hamilton) and the offices of the _Glasgow Herald_. In
Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art Institute and the former Corporation
Art Gallery. Argyll Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied
with shops, leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are
now carefully preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning the
pavement, stands the Tron Steeple, a stunted spire dating from 1637. It
is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was burned down in 1793
during the revels of a notorious body known as the Hell Fire Club. On
the opposite side, at the corner of High Street, stood the ancient
tolbooth, or prison, a turreted building, five storeys high, with a fine
Jacobean crown tower. The only remnant of the structure is the tower
known as the Cross Steeple.


  St Mungo's Cathedral.

Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have been swept
away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation. It stands in the
north-eastern quarter of the city at a height of 104 ft. above the level
of the Clyde. It is a beautiful example of Early English work,
impressive in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, with
imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft., and its
width 63 ft.; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the nave 85 ft.
At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal spire, 225 ft.
high. The choir, locally known as the High Church, serves as one of the
city churches, and the extreme east end of it forms the Lady chapel. The
rich western doorway is French in design but English in details. The
chapter-house projects from the north-eastern corner and somewhat mars
the harmony of the effect. It was built in the 15th century and has a
groined roof supported by a pillar 20 ft. high. Many citizens have
contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass, executed at
Munich, the government providing the eastern window in recognition of
their enterprise. The crypt beneath the choir is not the least
remarkable part of the edifice, being without equal in Scotland. It is
borne on 65 pillars and lighted by 41 windows. The sculpture of the
capitals of the columns and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite
and the whole is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not
a crypt, but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right
bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named from the
constant dropping of water from the roof. St Mungo's Well in the
south-eastern corner was considered to possess therapeutic virtues, and
in the crypt a recumbent effigy, headless and handless, is faithfully
accepted as the tomb of Kentigern. The cathedral contains few monuments
of exceptional merit, but the surrounding graveyard is almost completely
paved with tombstones. In 1115 an investigation was ordered by David,
prince of Cumbria, into the lands and churches belonging to the
bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is clear that at that date
a cathedral had already been endowed. When David ascended the throne in
1124 he gave to the see of Glasgow the lands of Partick, besides
restoring many possessions of which it had been deprived. Jocelin (d.
1199), made bishop in 1174, was the first great bishop, and is memorable
for his efforts to replace the cathedral built in 1136 by Bishop John
Achaius, which had been destroyed by fire. The crypt is his work, and he
began the choir, Lady chapel, and central tower. The new structure was
sufficiently advanced to be dedicated in 1197. Other famous bishops were
Robert Wishart (d. 1316), appointed in 1272, who was among the first to
join in the revolt of Wallace, and received Robert Bruce when he lay
under the ban of the church for the murder of Comyn; John Cameron (d.
1446), appointed in 1428, under whom the building as it stands was
completed; and William Turnbull (d. 1454), appointed in 1447, who
founded the university in 1450. James Beaton or Bethune (1517-1603) was
the last Roman Catholic archbishop. He fled to France at the reformation
in 1560, and took with him the treasures and records of the see,
including the Red Book of Glasgow dating from the reign of Robert III.
The documents were deposited in the Scots College in Paris, were sent at
the outbreak of the Revolution for safety to St Omer, and were never
recovered. This loss explains the paucity of the earlier annals of the
city. The zeal of the Reformers led them to threaten to mutilate the
cathedral, but the building was saved by the prompt action of the
craftsmen, who mustered in force and dispersed the fanatics.

[Illustration: Map of Glasgow and Environs.]


  Churches.

Excepting the cathedral, none of the Glasgow churches possesses
historical interest; and, speaking generally, it is only the buildings
that have been erected since the beginning of the 19th century that have
pronounced architectural merit. This was due largely to the long
survival of the severe sentiment of the Covenanters, who discouraged, if
they did not actually forbid, the raising of temples of beautiful
design. Representative examples of later work are found in the United
Free churches in Vincent Street, in Caledonia Road and at Queen's Park,
designed by Alexander Thomson (1817-1875), an architect of distinct
originality; St George's church, in West George Street, a remarkable
work by William Stark, erected in the beginning of the 19th century; St
Andrew's church in St Andrew's Square off the Saltmarket, modelled after
St Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, with a fine Roman portico; some of
the older parish churches, such as St Enoch's, dating from 1780, with a
good spire (the saint's name is said to be a corruption of Tanew, mother
of Kentigern); the episcopal church of St Mary (1870), in Great Western
Road, by Sir G. G. Scott; the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Andrew, on
the river-bank between Victoria and Broomielaw bridges; the Barony
church, replacing the older kirk in which Norman Macleod ministered; and
several admirable structures, well situated, on the eastern confines of
Kelvingrove Park.

The principal burying-ground is the Necropolis, occupying Fir Park, a
hill about 300 ft. high in the northern part of the city. It provides a
not inappropriate background to the cathedral, from which it is
approached by a bridge, known as the "Bridge of Sighs," over the
Molendinar ravine. The ground, which once formed portion of the estate
of Wester Craigs, belongs to the Merchants' House, which purchased it in
1650 from Sir Ludovic Stewart of Minto. A Doric column to the memory of
Knox, surmounted by a colossal statue of the reformer, was erected by
public subscription on the crown of the height in 1824, and a few years
later the idea arose of utilizing the land as a cemetery. The Jews have
reserved for their own people a detached area in the north-western
corner of the cemetery.


  Glasgow University.

_Education._--The university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Turnbull under a
bull of Pope Nicholas V., survived in its old quarters till far in the
19th century. The _paedagogium_, or college of arts, was at first housed
in Rottenrow, but was moved in 1460 to a site in High Street, where Sir
James Hamilton of Cadzow, first Lord Hamilton (d. 1479), gave it four
acres of land and some buildings. Queen Mary bestowed upon it thirteen
acres of contiguous ground, and her son granted it a new charter and
enlarged the endowments. Prior to the Revolution its fortunes
fluctuated, but in the 18th century it became very famous. By the middle
of the 19th century, however, its surroundings had deteriorated, and in
1860 it was decided to rebuild it elsewhere. The ground had enormously
increased in value and a railway company purchased it for L100,000. In
1864 the university bought the Gilmore Hill estate for L65,000, the
adjacent property of Dowan Hill for L16,000 and the property of
Clayslaps for L17,400. Sir G. G. Scott was appointed architect and
selected as the site of the university buildings the ridge of Gilmore
Hill--the finest situation in Glasgow. The design is Early English with
a suggestion in parts of the Scots-French style of a much later period.
The main structure is 540 ft. long and 300 ft. broad. The principal
front faces southwards and consists of a lofty central tower with spire
and corner blocks with turrets, between which are buildings of lower
height. Behind the tower lies the Bute hall, built on cloisters, binding
together the various departments and smaller halls, and dividing the
massive edifice into an eastern and western quadrangle, on two sides of
which are ranged the class-rooms in two storeys. The northern facade
comprises two corner blocks, besides the museum, the library and, in the
centre, the students' reading-room on one floor and the Hunterian museum
on the floor above. On the south the ground falls in terraces towards
Kelvingrove Park and the Kelvin. On the west, but apart from the main
structure, stand the houses of the principal and professors. The
foundation stone was laid in 1868 and the opening ceremony was held in
1870. The total cost of the university buildings amounted to L500,000,
towards which government contributed L120,000 and public subscription
L250,000. The third marquess of Bute (1847-1900) gave L40,000 to provide
the Bute or common hall, a room of fine proportions fitted in Gothic
style and divided by a beautiful Gothic screen from the Randolph hall,
named after another benefactor, Charles Randolph (1809-1878), a native
of Stirling, who had prospered as shipbuilder and marine engineer and
left L60,000 to the university. The graceful spire surmounting the tower
was provided from the bequest of L5000 by Mr A. Cunningham, deputy
town-clerk, and Dr John M'Intyre erected the Students' Union at a cost
of L5000, while other donors completed the equipment so generously that
the senate was enabled to carry on its work, for the first time in its
history, in almost ideal circumstances. The library includes the
collection of Sir William Hamilton, and the Hunterian museum, bequeathed
by William Hunter, the anatomist, is particularly rich in coins, medals,
black-letter books and anatomical preparations. The observatory on Dowan
Hill is attached to the chair of astronomy. An interesting link with the
past are the exhibitions founded by John Snell (1629-1679), a native of
Colmonell in Ayrshire, for the purpose of enabling students of
distinction to continue their career at Balliol College, Oxford. Amongst
distinguished exhibitioners have been Adam Smith, John Gibson Lockhart,
John Wilson ("Christopher North"), Archbishop Tait, Sir William Hamilton
and Professor Shairp. The curriculum of the university embraces the
faculties of arts, divinity, medicine, law and science. The governing
body includes the chancellor, elected for life by the general council,
the principal, also elected for life, and the lord rector elected
triennially by the students voting in "nations" according to their
birthplace (_Glottiana_, natives of Lanarkshire; _Transforthana_, of
Scotland north of the Forth; _Rothseiana_, of the shires of Bute,
Renfrew and Ayr; and _Loudonia_, all others). There are a large number
of well-endowed chairs and lectureships and the normal number of
students exceeds 2000. The universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen unite to
return one member to parliament. Queen Margaret College for women,
established in 1883, occupies a handsome building close to the botanic
gardens, has an endowment of upwards of L25,000, and was incorporated
with the university in 1893. Muirhead College is another institution for
women.


    Schools and colleges.

  Elementary instruction is supplied at numerous board schools. Higher,
  secondary and technical education is provided at several well-known
  institutions. There are two educational endowments boards which apply
  a revenue of about L10,000 a year mainly to the foundation of
  bursaries. Anderson College in George Street perpetuates the memory of
  its founder, John Anderson (1726-1796), professor of natural
  philosophy in the university, who opened a class in physics for
  working men, which he conducted to the end of his life. By his will he
  provided for an institution for the instruction of artisans and others
  unable to attend the university. The college which bears his name
  began in 1796 with lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry by
  Thomas Garnett (1766-1802). Two years later mathematics and geography
  were added. In 1799 Dr George Birkbeck (1776-1841) succeeded Garnett
  and began those lectures on mechanics and applied science which,
  continued elsewhere, ultimately led to the foundation of mechanics'
  institutes in many towns. In later years the college was further
  endowed and its curriculum enlarged by the inclusion of literature and
  languages, but ultimately it was determined to limit the scope of its
  work to medicine (comprising, however, physics, chemistry and botany
  also). The lectures of its medical school, incorporated in 1887 and
  situated near the Western Infirmary, are accepted by Glasgow and other
  universities. The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College,
  formed in 1886 out of a combination of the arts side of Anderson
  College, the College of Science and Arts, Allan Glen's Institution and
  the Atkinson Institution, is subsidized by the corporation and the
  endowments board, and is especially concerned with students desirous
  of following an industrial career. St Mungo's College, which has
  developed from an extra-mural school in connexion with the Royal
  Infirmary, was incorporated in 1889, with faculties of medicine and
  law. The United Free Church College, finely situated near Kelvingrove
  Park, the School of Art and Design, and the normal schools for the
  training of teachers, are institutions with distinctly specialized
  objects.

  The High school in Elmbank is the successor of the grammar school
  (long housed in John Street) which was founded in the 14th century as
  an appanage of the cathedral. It was placed under the jurisdiction of
  the school board in 1873. Other secondary schools include Glasgow
  Academy, Kelvinside Academy and the girls' and boys' schools endowed
  by the Hutcheson trust. Several of the schools under the board are
  furnished with secondary departments or equipped as science schools,
  and the Roman Catholics maintain elementary schools and advanced
  academies.

  _Art Galleries, Libraries and Museums._--Glasgow merchants and
  manufacturers alike have been constant patrons of art, and their
  liberality may have had some influence on the younger painters who,
  towards the close of the 19th century, broke away from tradition and,
  stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known as the
  "Glasgow school." The art gallery and museum in Kelvingrove Park,
  which was built at a cost of L250,000 (partly derived from the profits
  of the exhibitions held in the park in 1888 and 1901), is
  exceptionally well appointed. The collection originated in 1854 in the
  purchase of the works of art belonging to Archibald M'Lellan, and was
  supplemented from time to time by numerous bequests of important
  pictures. It was housed for many years in the Corporation galleries in
  Sauchiehall Street. The Institute of Fine Arts, in Sauchiehall Street,
  is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of modern art. There are
  also pictures on exhibition in the People's Palace on Glasgow Green,
  which was built by the corporation in 1898 and combines an art gallery
  and museum with a conservatory and winter garden, and in the museum at
  Camphill, situated within the bounds of Queen's Park. The library and
  Hunterian museum in the university are mostly reserved for the use of
  students. The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which
  is housed in their hall, an Italian Renaissance building, in West
  George Street. In Bath Street there are the Mechanics' and the
  Philosophical Society's libraries, and the Physicians' is in St
  Vincent Street. Miller Street contains the headquarters of the public
  libraries. The premises once occupied by the water commission have
  been converted to house the Mitchell library, which grew out of a
  bequest of L70,000 by Stephen Mitchell, largely reinforced by further
  gifts of libraries and funds, and now contains upwards of 100,000
  volumes. It is governed by the city council and has been in use since
  1877. Another building in this street accommodates both the Stirling
  and Baillie libraries. The Stirling, with some 50,000 volumes, is
  particularly rich in tracts of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the
  Baillie was endowed by George Baillie, a solicitor who, in 1863, gave
  L18,000 for educational objects. The Athenaeum in St George's Place,
  an institution largely concerned with evening classes in various
  subjects, contains an excellent library and reading-room.

  _Charities._--The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam and
  opened in 1794, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of the
  archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was removed towards
  the close of the 18th century. The chief architectural feature of the
  infirmary is the central dome forming the roof of the operating
  theatre. On the northern side are the buildings of the medical school
  attached to the institution. The new infirmary commemorates the
  Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. A little farther north, in Castle
  Street, is the blind asylum. The Western Infirmary is to some extent
  used for the purposes of clinical instruction in connexion with the
  university, to which it stands in immediate proximity. Near it is the
  Royal hospital for sick children. To the south of Queen's Park is
  Victoria Infirmary, and close to it the deaf and dumb institution. On
  the bank of the river, not far from the south-eastern boundary of the
  city, is the Belvedere hospital for infectious diseases, and at
  Ruchill, in the north, is another hospital of the same character
  opened in 1900. The Royal asylum at Gartnavel is situated near
  Jordanhill station, and the District asylum at Gartloch (with a branch
  at West Muckroft) lies in the parish of Cadder beyond the
  north-eastern boundary. There are numerous hospitals exclusively
  devoted to the treatment of special diseases, and several nursing
  institutions and homes. Hutcheson's Hospital, designed by David
  Hamilton and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in
  Ingram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has
  become a very wealthy body. George Hutcheson (1580-1639), a lawyer in
  the Trongate near the tolbooth, who afterwards lived in the Bishop's
  castle, which stood close to the spot where the Kelvin enters the
  Clyde, founded the hospital for poor old men. His brother Thomas
  (1589-1641) established in connexion with it a school for the lodging
  and education of orphan boys, the sons of burgesses. The trust,
  through the growth of its funds, has been enabled to extend its
  educational scope and to subsidize schools apart from the charity.

  _Monuments._--Most of the statues have been erected in George Square.
  They are grouped around a fluted pillar 80 ft. high, surmounted by a
  colossal statue of Sir Walter Scott by John Ritchie (1809-1850),
  erected in 1837, and include Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort
  (both equestrian) by Baron Marochetti; James Watt by Chantrey; Sir
  Robert Peel, Thomas Campbell the poet, who was born in Glasgow, and
  David Livingstone, all by John Mossman; Sir John Moore, a native of
  Glasgow, by Flaxman, erected in 1819; James Oswald, the first member
  returned to parliament for the city after the Reform Act of 1832; Lord
  Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell), also a native, by Foley, erected in 1868;
  Dr Thomas Graham, master of the mint, another native, by Brodie;
  Robert Burns by G. E. Ewing, erected in 1877, subscribed for in
  shillings by the working men of Scotland; and William Ewart Gladstone
  by Hamo Thornycroft, unveiled by Lord Rosebery in 1902. In front of
  the Royal Exchange stands the equestrian monument of the duke of
  Wellington. In Cathedral Square are the statues of Norman Macleod,
  James White and James Arthur, and in front of the Royal infirmary is
  that of Sir James Lumsden, lord provost and benefactor. Nelson is
  commemorated by an obelisk 143 ft. high on the Green, which was
  erected in 1806 and is said to be a copy of that in the Piazza del
  Popolo at Rome. One of the most familiar statues is the equestrian
  figure of William III. in the Trongate, which was presented to the
  town in 1735 by James Macrae (1677-1744), a poor Ayrshire lad who had
  amassed a fortune in India, where he was governor of Madras from 1725
  to 1730.

  _Recreations._--Of the theatres the chief are the King's in Bath
  Street, the Royal and the Grand in Cowcaddens, the Royalty and Gaiety
  in Sauchiehall Street, and the Princess's in Main Street. Variety
  theatres, headed by the Empire in Sauchiehall Street, are found in
  various parts of the town. There is a circus in Waterloo Street, a
  hippodrome in Sauchiehall Street and a zoological garden in New City
  Road. The principal concert halls are the great hall of the St
  Andrew's Halls, a group of rooms belonging to the corporation; the
  City Hall in Candleriggs, the People's Palace on the Green, and
  Queen's Rooms close to Kelvingrove Park. Throughout winter enormous
  crowds throng the football grounds of the Queen's Park, the leading
  amateur club, and the Celtic, the Rangers, the Third Lanark and other
  prominent professional clubs.

  _Parks and Open Spaces._--The oldest open space is the Green (140
  acres), on the right bank of the river, adjoining a densely-populated
  district. It once extended farther west, but a portion was built over
  at a time when public rights were not vigilantly guarded. It is a
  favourite area for popular demonstrations, and sections have been
  reserved for recreation or laid out in flower-beds. Kelvingrove Park,
  in the west end, has exceptional advantages, for the Kelvin burn flows
  through it and the ground is naturally terraced, while the situation
  is beautified by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with the university on its
  summit. The park was laid out under the direction of Sir Joseph
  Paxton, and contains the Stewart fountain, erected to commemorate the
  labours of Lord Provost Stewart and his colleagues in the promotion of
  the Loch Katrine water scheme. The other parks on the right bank are,
  in the north, Ruchill (53 acres), acquired in 1891, and Springburn
  (53-1/4 acres), acquired in 1892, and, in the east, Alexandra Park (120
  acres), in which is laid down a nine-hole golf-course, and Tollcross
  (82-3/4 acres), beyond the municipal boundary, acquired in 1897. On the
  left bank Queen's Park (130 acres), occupying a commanding site, was
  laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, and considerably enlarged in 1894 by
  the enclosure of the grounds of Camphill. The other southern parks are
  Richmond (44 acres), acquired in 1898, and named after Lord Provost
  Sir David Richmond, who opened it in 1899; Maxwell, which was taken
  over on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; Bellahouston (176
  acres), acquired in 1895; and Cathkin Braes (50 acres), 3-1/2m. beyond
  the south-eastern boundary, presented to the city in 1886 by James
  Dick, a manufacturer, containing "Queen Mary's stone," a point which
  commands a view of the lower valley of the Clyde. In the north-western
  district of the town 40 acres between Great Western Road and the
  Kelvin are devoted to the Royal Botanic Gardens, which became public
  property in 1891. They are beautifully laid out, and contain a great
  range of hothouses. The gardens owed much to Sir William Hooker, who
  was regius professor of botany in Glasgow University before his
  appointment to the directorship of Kew Gardens.

  _Communications._--The North British railway terminus is situated in
  Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line) and a
  low-level station, used in connexion with the City & District line,
  largely underground, serving the northern side of the town, opened in
  1886. The Great Northern and North-Eastern railways use the high-level
  line of the N.B.R., the three companies forming the East Coast Joint
  Service. The Central terminus of the Caledonian railway in Gordon
  Street, served by the West Coast system (in which the London &
  North-Western railway shares), also comprises a high-level station for
  the main line traffic and a low-level station for the Cathcart
  District railway, completed in 1886 and made circular for the southern
  side and suburbs in 1894, and also for the connexion between Maryhill
  and Rutherglen, which is mostly underground. Both the underground
  lines communicate with certain branches of the main line, either
  directly or by change of carriage. The older terminus of the
  Caledonian railway in Buchanan Street now takes the northern and
  eastern traffic. The terminus of the Glasgow & South-Western railway
  company in St Enoch Square serves the country indicated in its title,
  and also gives the Midland railway of England access to the west coast
  and Glasgow. The Glasgow Subway--an underground cable passenger line,
  6-1/2 m. long, worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde
  twice--was opened in 1896. Since no more bridge-building will be
  sanctioned west of the railway bridge at the Broomielaw, there are at
  certain points steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying
  vehicles across the harbour, and at Stobcross there is a subway for
  foot and wheeled traffic. Steamers, carrying both goods and
  passengers, constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and
  ports on the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of
  Argyllshire. The city is admirably served by tramways which penetrate
  every populous district and cross the river by Glasgow and Albert
  bridges.

  _Trade._--Natural causes, such as proximity to the richest field of
  coal and ironstone in Scotland and the vicinity of hill streams of
  pure water, account for much of the great development of trade in
  Glasgow. It was in textiles that the city showed its earliest
  predominance, which, however, has not been maintained, owing, it is
  alleged, to the shortage of female labour. Several cotton mills are
  still worked, but the leading feature in the trade has always been the
  manufacture of such light textures as plain, striped and figured
  muslins, ginghams and fancy fabrics. Thread is made on a considerable
  scale, but jute and silk are of comparatively little importance. The
  principal varieties of carpets are woven. Some factories are
  exclusively devoted to the making of lace curtains. The allied
  industries of bleaching, printing and dyeing, on the other hand, have
  never declined. The use of chlorine in bleaching was first introduced
  in Great Britain at Glasgow in 1787, on the suggestion of James Watt,
  whose father-in-law was a bleacher; and it was a Glasgow bleacher,
  Charles Tennant, who first discovered and made bleaching powder
  (chloride of lime). Turkey-red dyeing was begun at Glasgow by David
  Dale and George M'Intosh, and the colour was long known locally as
  Dale's red. A large quantity of grey cloth continues to be sent from
  Lancashire and other mills to be bleached and printed in Scottish
  works. These industries gave a powerful impetus to the manufacture of
  chemicals, and the works at St Rollox developed rapidly. Among
  prominent chemical industries are to be reckoned the alkali
  trades--including soda, bleaching powder and soap-making--the
  preparation of alum and prussiates of potash, bichromate of potash,
  white lead and other pigments, dynamite and gunpowder. Glass-making
  and paper-making are also carried on, and there are several breweries
  and distilleries, besides factories for the making of aerated waters,
  starch, dextrine and matches. Many miscellaneous trades flourish, such
  as clothing, confectionery, cabinet-making, bread and biscuit making,
  boot and shoe making, flour mills and saw mills, pottery and
  india-rubber. Since the days of the brothers Robert Foulis (1705-1776)
  and Andrew Foulis (1712-1775), printing, both letterpress and colour,
  has been identified with Glasgow, though in a lesser degree than with
  Edinburgh. The tobacco trade still flourishes, though much lessened.
  But the great industry is iron-founding. The discovery of the value of
  blackband ironstone, till then regarded as useless "wild coal," by
  David Mushet (1772-1847), and Neilson's invention of the hot-air blast
  threw the control of the Scottish iron trade into the hands of Glasgow
  ironmasters, although the furnaces themselves were mostly erected in
  Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. The expansion of the industry was such that,
  in 1859, one-third of the total output in the United Kingdom was
  Scottish. During the following years, however, the trade seemed to
  have lost its elasticity, the annual production averaging about one
  million tons of pig-iron. Mild steel is manufactured extensively, and
  some crucible cast steel is made. In addition to brass foundries there
  are works for the extraction of copper and the smelting of lead and
  zinc. With such resources every branch of engineering is well
  represented. Locomotive engines are built for every country where
  railways are employed, and all kinds of builder's ironwork is forged
  in enormous quantities, and the sewing-machine factories in the
  neighbourhood are important. Boiler-making and marine engine works, in
  many cases in direct connexion with the shipbuilding yards, are
  numerous. Shipbuilding, indeed, is the greatest of the industries of
  Glasgow, and in some years more than half of the total tonnage in the
  United Kingdom has been launched on the Clyde, the yards of which
  extend from the harbour to Dumbarton on one side and Greenock on the
  other side of the river and firth. Excepting a trifling proportion of
  wooden ships, the Clyde-built vessels are of iron and steel, the trade
  having owed its immense expansion to the prompt adoption of this
  material. Every variety of craft is turned out, from battleships and
  great liners to dredging-plant and hopper barges.

  _The Port._--The harbour extends from Glasgow Bridge to the point
  where the Kelvin joins the Clyde, and occupies 206 acres. For the most
  part it is lined by quays and wharves, which have a total length of
  8-1/4 m., and from the harbour to the sea vessels drawing 26 ft. can
  go up or down on one tide. It is curious to remember that in the
  middle of the 18th century the river was fordable on foot at Dumbuck,
  12 m. below Glasgow and 1-1/2 m. S.E. of Dumbarton. Even within the
  limits of the present harbour Smeaton reported to the town council in
  1740 that at Pointhouse ford, just east of the mouth of the Kelvin,
  the depth at low water was only 15 in. and at high water 39 in. The
  transformation effected within a century and a half is due to the
  energy and enterprise of the Clyde Navigation Trust. The earliest
  shipping-port of Glasgow was Irvine in Ayrshire, but lighterage was
  tedious and land carriage costly, and in 1658 the civic authorities
  endeavoured to purchase a site for a spacious harbour at Dumbarton.
  Being thwarted by the magistrates of that burgh, however, in 1662 they
  secured 13 acres on the southern bank at a spot some 2 m. above
  Greenock, which became known as Port Glasgow, where they built
  harbours and constructed the first graving dock in Scotland. Sixteen
  years later the Broomielaw quay was built, but it was not until the
  tobacco merchants appreciated the necessity of bringing their wares
  into the heart of the city that serious consideration was paid to
  schemes for deepening the waterway. Smeaton's suggestion of a lock and
  dam 4 m. below the Broomielaw was happily not accepted. In 1768 John
  Golborne advised the narrowing of the river and the increasing of the
  scour by the construction of rubble jetties and the dredging of
  sandbanks and shoals. After James Watt's report in 1769 on the ford at
  Dumbuck, Golborne succeeded in 1775 in deepening the ford to 6 ft. at
  low water with a width of 300 ft. By Rennie's advice in 1799,
  following up Golborne's recommendation, as many as 200 jetties were
  built between Glasgow and Bowling, some old ones were shortened and
  low rubble walls carried from point to point of the jetties, and thus
  the channel was made more uniform and much land reclaimed. By 1836
  there was a depth of 7 or 8 ft. at the Broomielaw at low water, and in
  1840 the whole duty of improving the navigation was devolved upon the
  Navigation Trust. Steam dredgers were kept constantly at work, shoals
  were removed and rocks blasted away. Two million cubic yards of matter
  are lifted every year and dumped in Loch Long. By 1900 the channel had
  been deepened to a minimum of 22 ft., and, as already indicated, the
  largest vessels make the open sea in one tide, whereas in 1840 it took
  ships drawing only 15 ft. two and even three tides to reach the sea.
  The debt of the Trust amounts to L6,000,000, and the annual revenue to
  L450,000. Long before these great results had been achieved, however,
  the shipping trade had been revolutionized by the application of steam
  to navigation, and later by the use of iron for wood in shipbuilding,
  in both respects enormously enhancing the industry and commerce of
  Glasgow. From 1812 to 1820 Henry Bell's "Comet," 30 tons, driven by an
  engine of 3 horse-power, plied between Glasgow and Greenock, until she
  was wrecked, being the first steamer to run regularly on any river in
  the Old World. Thus since the appearance of that primitive vessel
  phenomenal changes had taken place on the Clyde. When the quays and
  wharves ceased to be able to accommodate the growing traffic, the
  construction of docks became imperative. In 1867 Kingston Dock on the
  south side, of 5-1/3 acres, was opened, but soon proved inadequate,
  and in 1880 Queen's Dock (two basins) at Stobcross, on the north side,
  of 30 acres, was completed. Although this could accommodate one
  million tons of shipping, more dock space was speedily called for, and
  in 1897 Prince's Dock (three basins) on the opposite side, of 72
  acres, was opened, fully equipped with hydraulic and steam cranes and
  all the other latest appliances. There are, besides, three graving
  docks, the longest of which (880 ft.) can be made at will into two
  docks of 417 ft. and 457 ft. in length. The Caledonian and Glasgow &
  South-Western railways have access to the harbour for goods and
  minerals at Terminus Quay to the west of Kingston Dock, and a mineral
  dock has been constructed by the Trust at Clydebank, about 3-1/2 m.
  below the harbour. The shipping attains to colossal proportions. The
  imports consist chiefly of flour, fruit, timber, iron ore, live stock
  and wheat; and the exports principally of cotton manufactures,
  manufactured iron and steel, machinery, whisky, cotton yarn, linen
  fabrics, coal, jute, jam and foods, and woollen manufactures.

  _Government._--By the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 the city
  was placed entirely in the county of Lanark, the districts then
  transferred having previously belonged to the shires of Dumbarton and
  Renfrew. In 1891 the boundaries were enlarged to include six suburban
  burghs and a number of suburban districts, the area being increased
  from 6111 acres to 11,861 acres. The total area of the city and the
  conterminous burghs of Govan, Partick and Kinning Park--which, though
  they successfully resisted annexation in 1891, are practically part of
  the city--is 15,659 acres. The extreme length from north to south and
  from east to west is about 5 m. each way, and the circumference
  measures 27 m. In 1893 the municipal burgh was constituted a county of
  a city. Glasgow is governed by a corporation consisting of 77 members,
  including 14 bailies and the lord provost. In 1895 all the powers
  which the town council exercised as police commissioners and trustees
  for parks, markets, water and the like were consolidated and conferred
  upon the corporation. Three years later the two parish councils of the
  city and barony, which administered the poor law over the greater part
  of the city north of the Clyde, were amalgamated as the parish council
  of Glasgow, with 31 members. As a county of a city Glasgow has a
  lieutenancy (successive lords provost holding the office) and a court
  of quarter sessions, which is the appeal court from the magistrates
  sitting as licensing authority. Under the corporation municipal
  ownership has reached a remarkable development, the corporation owning
  the supplies of water, gas and electric power, tramways and municipal
  lodging-houses. The enterprise of the corporation has brought its work
  prominently into notice, not only in the United Kingdom, but in the
  United States of America and elsewhere. In 1859 water was conveyed by
  aqueducts and tunnels from Loch Katrine (364 ft. above sea-level,
  giving a pressure of 70 or 80 ft. above the highest point in the city)
  to the reservoir at Mugdock (with a capacity of 500,000,000 gallons),
  a distance of 27 m., whence after filtration it was distributed by
  pipes to Glasgow, a further distance of 7 m., or 34 m. in all. During
  the next quarter of a century it became evident that this supply would
  require to be augmented, and powers were accordingly obtained in 1895
  to raise Loch Katrine 5 ft. and to connect with it by tunnel Loch
  Arklet (455 ft. above the sea), with storage for 2,050,000,000
  gallons, the two lochs together possessing a capacity of twelve
  thousand million gallons. The entire works between the loch and the
  city were duplicated over a distance of 23-1/2 m., and an additional
  reservoir, holding 694,000,000 gallons, was constructed, increasing
  the supply held in reserve from 12-1/2 days' to 30-1/2 days'. In 1909
  the building of a dam was undertaken 1-1/4 m. west of the lower end of
  Loch Arklet, designed to create a sheet of water 2-1/2 m. long and to
  increase the water-supply of the city by ten million gallons a day.
  The water committee supplies hydraulic power to manufacturers and
  merchants. In 1869 the corporation acquired the gasworks, the
  productive capacity of which exceeds 70 million cub. ft. a day. In
  1893 the supply of electric light was also undertaken, and since that
  date the city has been partly lighted by electricity. The corporation
  also laid down the tramways, which were leased by a company for
  twenty-three years at a rental of L150 a mile per annum. When the
  lease expired in 1894 the town council took over the working of the
  cars, substituting overhead electric traction for horse-power. One of
  the most difficult problems that the corporation has had to deal with
  was the housing of the poor. By the lapse of time and the congestion
  of population, certain quarters of the city, in old Glasgow
  especially, had become slums and rookeries of the worst description.
  The condition of the town was rapidly growing into a byword, when the
  municipality obtained parliamentary powers in 1866 enabling it to
  condemn for purchase over-crowded districts, to borrow money and levy
  rates. The scheme of reform contemplated the demolition of 10,000
  insanitary dwellings occupied by 50,000 persons, but the corporation
  was required to provide accommodation for the dislodged whenever the
  numbers exceeded 500. In point of fact they never needed to build, as
  private enterprise more than kept pace with the operations of the
  improvement. The work was carried out promptly and effectually, and
  when the act expired in 1881 whole localities had been recreated and
  nearly 40,000 persons properly housed. Under the amending act of 1881
  the corporation began in 1888 to build tenement houses in which the
  poor could rent one or more rooms at the most moderate rentals;
  lodging-houses for men and women followed, and in 1896 a home was
  erected for the accommodation of families in certain circumstances.
  The powers of the improvement trustees were practically exhausted in
  1896, when it appeared that during twenty-nine years L1,955,550 had
  been spent in buying and improving land and buildings, and L231,500 in
  building tenements and lodging-houses; while, on the other side,
  ground had been sold for L1,072,000, and the trustees owned heritable
  property valued at L692,000, showing a deficiency of L423,050.
  Assessment of ratepayers for the purposes of the trust had yielded
  L593,000, and it was estimated that these operations, beneficial to
  the city in a variety of ways, had cost the citizens L24,000 a year.
  In 1897 an act was obtained for dealing in similar fashion with
  insanitary and congested areas in the centre of the city, and on the
  south side of the river, and for acquiring not more than 25 acres of
  land, within or without the city, for dwellings for the poorest
  classes. Along with these later improvements the drainage system was
  entirely remodelled, the area being divided into three sections, each
  distinct, with separate works for the disposal of its own sewage. One
  section (authorized in 1891 and doubled in 1901) comprises 11 sq.
  m.--one-half within the city north of the river, and the other in the
  district in Lanarkshire--with works at Dalmarnock; another section
  (authorized in 1896) includes the area on the north bank not provided
  for in 1891, as well as the burghs of Partick and Clydebank and
  intervening portions of the shires of Renfrew and Dumbarton, the total
  area consisting of 14 sq. m., with works at Dalmuir, 7 m. below
  Glasgow; and the third section (authorized in 1898) embraces the whole
  municipal area on the south side of the river, the burghs of
  Rutherglen, Pollokshaws, Kinning Park and Govan, and certain districts
  in the counties of Renfrew and Lanark--14 sq. m. in all, which may be
  extended by the inclusion of the burghs of Renfrew and Paisley--with
  works at Braehead, 1 m. east of Renfrew. Among other works in which it
  has interests there may be mentioned its representation on the board
  of the Clyde Navigation Trust and the governing body of the West of
  Scotland Technical College. In respect of parliamentary representation
  the Reform Act of 1832 gave two members to Glasgow, a third was added
  in 1868 (though each elector had only two votes), and in 1885 the city
  was split up into seven divisions, each returning one member.

  _Population._--Throughout the 19th century the population grew
  prodigiously. Only 77,385 in 1801, it was nearly doubled in twenty
  years, being 147,043 in 1821, already outstripping Edinburgh. It had
  become 395,503 in 1861, and in 1881 it was 511,415. In 1891, prior to
  extension of the boundary, it was 565,839, and, after extension,
  658,198, and in 1901 it stood at 761,709. The birth-rate averages 33,
  and the death-rate 21 per 1000, but the mortality before the city
  improvement scheme was carried out was as high as 33 per 1000. Owing
  to its being convenient of access from the Highlands, a very
  considerable number of Gaelic-speaking persons live in Glasgow, while
  the great industries attract an enormous number of persons from other
  parts of Scotland. The valuation of the city, which in 1878-1879 was
  L3,420,697, now exceeds L5,000,000.

_History._--There are several theories as to the origin of the name of
Glasgow. One holds that it comes from Gaelic words meaning "dark glen,"
descriptive of the narrow ravine through which the Molendinar flowed to
the Clyde. But the more generally accepted version is that the word is
the Celtic _Cleschu_, afterwards written Glesco or Glasghu, meaning
"dear green spot" (_glas_, green; _cu_ or _ghu_, dear), which is
supposed to have been the name of the settlement that Kentigern found
here when he came to convert the Britons of Strathclyde. Mungo became
the patron-saint of Glasgow, and the motto and arms of the city are
wholly identified with him--"Let Glasgow Flourish by the Preaching of
the Word," usually shortened to "Let Glasgow Flourish." It is not till
the 12th century, however, that the history of the city becomes clear.
About 1178 William the Lion made the town by charter a burgh of barony,
and gave it a market with freedom and customs. Amongst more or less
isolated episodes of which record has been preserved may be mentioned
the battle of the Bell o' the Brae, on the site of High Street, in which
Wallace routed the English under Percy in 1300; the betrayal of Wallace
to the English in 1305 in a barn situated, according to tradition, in
Robroyston, just beyond the north-eastern boundary of the city; the
ravages of the plague in 1350 and thirty years later; the regent Arran's
siege, in 1544, of the bishop's castle, garrisoned by the earl of
Glencairn, and the subsequent fight at the Butts (now the Gallowgate)
when the terms of surrender were dishonoured, in which the regent's men
gained the day. Most of the inhabitants were opposed to Queen Mary and
many actively supported Murray in the battle of Langside--the site of
which is now occupied by the Queen's Park--on the 13th of May 1568, in
which she lost crown and kingdom. A memorial of the conflict was erected
on the site in 1887. Under James VI. the town became a royal burgh in
1636, with freedom of the river from the Broomielaw to the Cloch. But
the efforts to establish episcopacy aroused the fervent anti-prelatical
sentiment of the people, who made common cause with the Covenanters to
the end of their long struggle. Montrose mulcted the citizens heavily
after the battle of Kilsyth in 1645, and three years later the provost
and bailies were deposed for contumacy to their sovereign lord. Plague
and famine devastated the town in 1649, and in 1652 a conflagration laid
a third of the burgh in ashes. Even after the restoration its sufferings
were acute. It was the headquarters of the Whiggamores of the west and
its prisons were constantly filled with rebels for conscience' sake. The
government scourged the townsfolk with an army of Highlanders, whose
brutality only served to strengthen the resistance at the battles of
Drumclog and Bothwell Brig. With the Union, hotly resented as it was at
the time, the dawn of almost unbroken prosperity arose. By the treaty of
Union Scottish ports were placed, in respect of trade, on the same
footing as English ports, and the situation of Glasgow enabled it to
acquire a full share of the ever-increasing Atlantic trade. Its commerce
was already considerable and in population it was now the second town in
Scotland. It enjoyed a practical monopoly of the sale of raw and refined
sugars, had the right to distil spirits from molasses free of duty,
dealt largely in cured herring and salmon, sent hides to English tanners
and manufactured soap and linen. It challenged the supremacy of Bristol
in the tobacco trade--fetching cargoes from Virginia, Maryland and
Carolina in its own fleet--so that by 1772 its importations of tobacco
amounted to more than half of the whole quantity brought into the United
Kingdom. The tobacco merchants built handsome mansions and the town
rapidly extended westwards. With the surplus profits new industries were
created, which helped the city through the period of the American War.
Most, though not all, of the manufactures in which Glasgow has always
held a foremost place date from this period. It was in 1764 that James
Watt succeeded in repairing a hitherto unworkable model of Newcomen's
fire (steam) engine in his small workshop within the college precincts.
Shipbuilding on a colossal scale and the enormous developments in the
iron industries and engineering were practically the growth of the 19th
century. The failure of the Western bank in 1857, the Civil War in the
United States, the collapse of the City of Glasgow bank in 1878, among
other disasters, involved heavy losses and distress, but recovery was
always rapid.

  AUTHORITIES.--J. Cleland, _Annals of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1816); Duncan,
  _Literary History of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1886); _Registrum Episcopatus
  Glasgow_ (Maitland Club, 1843); Pagan, _Sketch of the History of
  Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1847); Sir J. D. Marwick, _Extracts from the Burgh
  Records of Glasgow_ (Burgh Records Society); _Charters relating to
  Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1891); _River Clyde and Harbour of Glasgow_
  (Glasgow, 1898); _Glasgow Past and Present_ (Glasgow, 1884);
  _Munimenta Universitatis Glasgow_ (Maitland Club, 1854); J. Strang,
  _Glasgow and its Clubs_ (Glasgow, 1864); Reid ("Senex"), _Old
  Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1864); A. Macgeorge, _Old Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1888);
  Deas, _The River Clyde_ (Glasgow, 1881); Gale, _Loch Katrine
  Waterworks_ (Glasgow, 1883); Mason, _Public and Private Libraries of
  Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1885); J. Nicol, _Vital, Social and Economic
  Statistics of Glasgow_ (1881); J. B. Russell, _Life in One Room_
  (Glasgow, 1888); _Ticketed Houses_ (Glasgow, 1889); T. Somerville,
  _George Square_ (Glasgow, 1891); J. A. Kilpatrick, _Literary Landmarks
  of Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1898); J. K. M'Dowall, _People's History of
  Glasgow_ (Glasgow, 1899); Sir J. Bell and J. Paton, _Glasgow: Its
  Municipal Organization and Administration_ (Glasgow, 1896); Sir D.
  Richmond, _Notes on Municipal Work_ (Glasgow, 1899); J. M. Lang,
  _Glasgow and the Barony_ (Glasgow, 1895); _Old Glasgow_ (Glasgow,
  1896); J. H. Muir, _Glasgow in 1901_.




GLASITES, or SANDEMANIANS,[1] a Christian sect, founded in Scotland by
John Glas (q.v.). It spread into England and America, but is now
practically extinct. Glas dissented from the Westminster Confession only
in his views as to the spiritual nature of the church and the functions
of the civil magistrate. But his son-in-law Robert Sandeman added a
distinctive doctrine as to the nature of faith which is thus stated on
his tombstone: "That the bare death of Jesus Christ without a thought or
deed on the part of man, is sufficient to present the chief of sinners
spotless before God." In a series of letters to James Hervey, the author
of _Theron and Aspasia_, he maintained that justifying faith is a simple
assent to the divine testimony concerning Jesus Christ, differing in no
way in its character from belief in any ordinary testimony. In their
practice the Glasite churches aimed at a strict conformity with the
primitive type of Christianity as understood by them. Each congregation
had a plurality of elders, pastors or bishops, who were chosen according
to what were believed to be the instructions of Paul, without regard to
previous education or present occupation, and who enjoy a perfect
equality in office. To have been married a second time disqualified for
ordination, or for continued tenure of the office of bishop. In all the
action of the church unanimity was considered to be necessary; if any
member differed in opinion from the rest, he must either surrender his
judgment to that of the church, or be shut out from its communion. To
join in prayer with any one not a member of the denomination was
regarded as unlawful, and even to eat or drink with one who had been
excommunicated was held to be wrong. The Lord's Supper was observed
weekly; and between forenoon and afternoon service every Sunday a love
feast was held at which every member was required to be present. Mutual
exhortation was practised at all the meetings for divine service, when
any member who had the gift of speech ([Greek: charisma]) was allowed to
speak. The practice of washing one another's feet was at one time
observed; and it was for a long time customary for each brother and
sister to receive new members, on admission, with a holy kiss. "Things
strangled" and "blood" were rigorously abstained from; the lot was
regarded as sacred; the accumulation of wealth they held to be
unscriptural and improper, and each member considered his property as
liable to be called upon at any time to meet the wants of the poor and
the necessities of the church. Churches of this order were founded in
Paisley, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leith, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen,
Dunkeld, Cupar, Galashiels, Liverpool and London, where Michael Faraday
was long an elder. Their exclusiveness in practice, neglect of education
for the ministry, and the antinomian tendency of their doctrine
contributed to their dissolution. Many Glasites joined the general body
of Scottish Congregationalists, and the sect may now be considered
extinct. The last of the Sandemanian churches in America ceased to exist
in 1890.

  See James Ross, _History of Congregational Independency in Scotland_
  (Glasgow, 1900).     (D. Mn.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The name Glasites or Glassites was generally used in Scotland; in
    England and America the name Sandemanians was more common.




GLASS (O. E. _glaes_, cf. Ger. _Glas_, perhaps derived from an old
Teutonic root _gla-_, a variant of _glo-_, having the general sense of
shining, cf. "glare," "glow"), a hard substance, usually transparent or
translucent, which from a fluid condition at a high temperature has
passed to a solid condition with sufficient rapidity to prevent the
formation of visible crystals. There are many varieties of glass
differing widely in chemical composition and in physical qualities. Most
varieties, however, have certain qualities in common. They pass through
a viscous stage in cooling from a state of fluidity; they develop
effects of colour when the glass mixtures are fused with certain
metallic oxides; they are, when cold, bad conductors both of electricity
and heat, they are easily fractured by a blow or shock and show a
conchoidal fracture; they are but slightly affected by ordinary
solvents, but are readily attacked by hydrofluoric acid.

The structure of glass has been the subject of repeated investigations.
The theory most widely accepted at present is that glass is a quickly
solidified solution, in which silica, silicates, borates, phosphates and
aluminates may be either solvents or solutes, and metallic oxides and
metals may be held either in solution or in suspension. Long experience
has fixed the mixtures, so far as ordinary furnace temperatures are
concerned, which produce the varieties of glass in common use. The
essential materials of which these mixtures are made are, for English
flint glass, sand, carbonate of potash and red lead; for plate and sheet
glass, sand, carbonate or sulphate of soda and carbonate of lime; and
for Bohemian glass, sand, carbonate of potash and carbonate of lime. It
is convenient to treat these glasses as "normal" glasses, but they are
in reality mixtures of silicates, and cannot rightly be regarded as
definite chemical compounds or represented by definite chemical
formulae.

The knowledge of the chemistry of glass-making has been considerably
widened by Dr F. O. Schott's experiments at the Jena glass-works. The
commercial success of these works has demonstrated the value of pure
science to manufactures.

The recent large increase in the number of varieties of glass has been
chiefly due to developments in the manufacture of optical glass. Glasses
possessing special qualities have been required, and have been supplied
by the introduction of new combinations of materials. The range of the
specific gravity of glasses from 2.5 to 5.0 illustrates the effect of
modified compositions. In the same way glass can be rendered more or
less fusible, and its stability can be increased both in relation to
extremes of temperature and to the chemical action of solvents.

The fluidity of glass at a high temperature renders possible the
processes of ladelling, pouring, casting and stirring. A mass of glass
in a viscous state can be rolled with an iron roller like dough; can be
rendered hollow by the pressure of the human breath or by compressed
air; can be forced by air pressure, or by a mechanically driven plunger,
to take the shape and impression of a mould; and can be almost
indefinitely extended as solid rod or as hollow tube. So extensible is
viscous glass that it can be drawn out into a filament sufficiently fine
and elastic to be woven into a fabric.

Glasses are generally transparent but may be translucent or opaque.
Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced in many glasses by
maintaining them for a long period at a temperature just insufficient to
cause fusion. In this way is produced the crystalline, devitrified
material, known as Reaumur's porcelain. Semi-opacity and opacity are
usually produced by the addition to the glass-mixtures of materials
which will remain in suspension in the glass, such as oxide of tin,
oxide of arsenic, phosphate of lime, cryolite or a mixture of felspar
and fluorspar.

Little is known about the actual cause of colour in glass beyond the
fact that certain materials added to and melted with certain
glass-mixtures will in favourable circumstances produce effects of
colour. The colouring agents are generally metallic oxides. The same
oxide may produce different colours with different glass-mixtures, and
different oxides of the same metal may produce different colours. The
purple-blue of cobalt, the chrome green or yellow of chromium, the
dichroic canary-colour of uranium and the violet of manganese, are
constant. Ferrous oxide produces an olive green or a pale blue according
to the glass with which it is mixed. Ferric oxide gives a yellow colour,
but requires the presence of an oxidizing agent to prevent reduction to
the ferrous state. Lead gives a pale yellow colour. Silver oxide, mixed
as a paint and spread on the surface of a piece of glass and heated,
gives a permanent yellow stain. Finely divided vegetable charcoal added
to a soda-lime glass gives a yellow colour. It has been suggested that
the colour is due to sulphur, but the effect can be produced with a
glass mixture containing no sulphur, free or combined, and by increasing
the proportion of charcoal the intensity of the colour can be increased
until it reaches black opacity. Selenites and selenates give a pale pink
or pinkish yellow. Tellurium appears to give a pale pink tint. Nickel
with a potash-lead glass gives a violet colour, and a brown colour with
a soda-lime glass. Copper gives a peacock-blue which becomes green if
the proportion of the copper oxide is increased. If oxide of copper is
added to a glass mixture containing a strong reducing agent, a glass is
produced which when first taken from the crucible is colourless but on
being reheated develops a deep crimson-ruby colour. A similar glass, if
its cooling is greatly retarded, produces throughout its substance
minute crystals of metallic copper, and closely resembles the mineral
called avanturine. There is also an intermediate stage in which the
glass has a rusty red colour by reflected light, and a purple-blue
colour by transmitted light. Glass containing gold behaves in almost
precisely the same way, but the ruby glass is less crimson than copper
ruby glass. J. E. C. Maxwell Garnett, who has studied the optical
properties of these glasses, has suggested that the changes in colour
correspond with changes effected in the structure of the metals as they
pass gradually from solution in the glass to a state of crystallization.

Owing to impurities contained in the materials from which glasses are
made, accidental coloration or discoloration is often produced. For this
reason chemical agents are added to glass mixtures to remove or
neutralize accidental colour. Ferrous oxide is the usual cause of
discoloration. By converting ferrous into ferric oxide the green tint is
changed to yellow, which is less noticeable. Oxidation may be effected
by the addition to the glass mixture of a substance which gives up
oxygen at a high temperature, such as manganese dioxide or arsenic
trioxide. With the same object, red lead and saltpetre are used in the
mixture for potash-lead glass. Manganese dioxide not only acts as a
source of oxygen, but develops a pink tint in the glass, which is
complementary to and neutralizes the green colour due to ferrous oxide.

Glass is a bad conductor of heat. When boiling water is poured into a
glass vessel, the vessel frequently breaks, on account of the unequal
expansion of the inner and outer layers. If in the process of glass
manufacture a glass vessel is suddenly cooled, the constituent particles
are unable to arrange themselves and the vessel remains in a state of
extreme tension. The surface of the vessel may be hard, but the vessel
is liable to fracture on receiving a trifling shock. M. de la Bastie's
process of "toughening" glass consisted in dipping glass, raised to a
temperature slightly below the melting-point, into molten tallow. The
surface of the glass was hardened, but the inner layers remained in
unstable equilibrium. Directly the crust was pierced the whole mass was
shattered into minute fragments. In all branches of glass manufacture
the process of "annealing," i.e. cooling the manufactured objects
sufficiently slowly to allow the constituent particles to settle into a
condition of equilibrium, is of vital importance. The desired result is
obtained either by moving the manufactured goods gradually away from a
constant source of heat, or by placing them in a heated kiln and
allowing the heat gradually to die out.

[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Siemens's Continuous Tank Furnace.]

The furnaces (fig. 15) employed for melting glass are usually heated
with gas on the "Siemens," or some similar system of regenerative
heating. In the United States natural gas is used wherever it is
available. In some English works coal is still employed for direct
heating with various forms of mechanical stokers. Crude petroleum and a
thin tar, resulting from the process of enriching water-gas with
petroleum, have been used both with compressed air and with steam with
considerable success. Electrical furnaces have not as yet been employed
for ordinary glass-making on a commercial scale, but the electrical
plants which have been erected for melting and moulding quartz suggest
the possibility of electric heating being employed for the manufacture
of glass. Many forms of apparatus have been tried for ascertaining the
temperature of glass furnaces. It is usually essential that some parts
of the apparatus shall be made to acquire a temperature identical with
the temperature to be measured. Owing to the physical changes produced
in the material exposed prolonged observations of temperature are
impossible. In the Fery radiation pyrometer this difficulty is obviated,
as the instrument may be placed at a considerable distance from the
furnace. The radiation passing out from an opening in the furnace falls
upon a concave mirror in a telescope and is focused upon a
thermoelectric couple. The hotter the furnace the greater is the rise of
temperature of the couple. The electromotive force thus generated is
measured by a galvanometer, the scale of which is divided and figured so
that the temperature may be directly read. (See THERMOMETRY.)

In dealing with the manufacture of glass it is convenient to group the
various branches in the following manner:

                       _Manufactured Glass._

                         I. Optical Glass
                                 |
                         II. Blown Glass
                                 |
        +----------------+-------+--------+-------------+
        |                |                |             |
  A. Table glass.     B. Tube.        C. Sheet     D. Bottles.
                   Special glasses     and crown
                   for thermometers,   glass.
                   and other special
                   glasses.

                 III. Mechanically Pressed Glass
                                 |
                +----------------+-----------------+
                |                                  |
   A. Plate and rolled plate glass.    B. Pressed table glass.

I. OPTICAL GLASS.--As regards both mode of production and essential
properties optical glass differs widely from all other varieties. These
differences arise primarily from the fact that glass for optical uses is
required in comparatively large and thick pieces, while for most other
purposes glass is used in the form of comparatively thin sheets; when,
therefore, as a consequence of Dollond's invention of achromatic
telescope objectives in 1757, a demand first arose for optical glass,
the industry was unable to furnish suitable material. Flint glass
particularly, which appeared quite satisfactory when viewed in small
pieces, was found to be so far from homogeneous as to be useless for
lens construction. The first step towards overcoming this vital defect
in optical glass was taken by P. L. Guinand, towards the end of the 18th
century, by introducing the process of stirring the molten glass by
means of a cylinder of fireclay. Guinand was induced to migrate from his
home in Switzerland to Bavaria, where he worked at the production of
homogeneous flint glass, first with Joseph von Utzschneider and then
with J. Fraunhofer; the latter ultimately attained considerable success
and produced telescope disks up to 28 centimetres (11 in.) diameter.
Fraunhofer further initiated the specification of refraction and
dispersion in terms of certain lines of the spectrum, and even attempted
an investigation of the effect of chemical composition on the relative
dispersion produced by glasses in different parts of the spectrum.
Guinand's process was further developed in France by Guinand's sons and
subsequently by Bontemps and E. Feil. In 1848 Bontemps was obliged to
leave France for political reasons and came to England, where he
initiated the optical glass manufacture at Chance's glass works near
Birmingham, and this firm ultimately attained a considerable reputation
in the production of optical glass, especially of large disks for
telescope objectives. Efforts at improving optical glass had, however,
not been confined to the descendants and successors of Guinand and
Fraunhofer. In 1824 the Royal Astronomical Society of London appointed a
committee on the subject, the experimental work being carried out by
Faraday. Faraday independently recognized the necessity for mechanical
agitation of the molten glass in order to ensure homogeneity, and to
facilitate his manipulations he worked with dense lead borate glasses
which are very fusible, but have proved too unstable for ordinary
optical purposes. Later Maes of Clichy (France) exhibited some "zinc
crown" glass in small plates of optical quality at the London Exhibition
of 1851; and another French glass-maker, Lamy, produced a dense thallium
glass in 1867. In 1834 W. V. Harcourt began experiments in glass-making,
in which he was subsequently joined by G. G. Stokes. Their object was to
pursue the inquiry begun by Fraunhofer as to the effect of chemical
composition on the distribution of dispersion. The specific effect of
boric acid in this respect was correctly ascertained by Stokes and
Harcourt, but they mistook the effect of titanic acid. J. Hopkinson,
working at Chance's glass works, subsequently made an attempt to produce
a titanium silicate glass, but nothing further resulted.

The next and most important forward step in the progress of optical
glass manufacture was initiated by Ernst Abbe and carried out jointly by
him and O. Schott at Jena in Germany. Aided by grants from the Prussian
government, these workers systematically investigated the effect of
introducing a large number of different chemical substances (oxides)
into vitreous fluxes. As a result a whole series of glasses of novel
composition and optical properties were produced. A certain number of
the most promising of these, from the purely optical point of view, had
unfortunately to be abandoned for practical use owing to their chemical
instability, and the problem of Fraunhofer, viz. the production of pairs
of glasses of widely differing refraction and dispersion, but having a
similar distribution of dispersion in the various regions of the
spectrum, was not in the first instance solved. On the other hand, while
in the older crown and flint glasses the relation between refraction and
dispersion had been practically fixed, dispersion and refraction
increasing regularly with the density of the glass, in some of the new
glasses introduced by Abbe and Schott this relation is altered and a
relatively low refractive index is accompanied by a relatively high
dispersion, while in others a high refractive index is associated with
low dispersive power.

The initiative of Abbe and Schott, which was greatly aided by the
resources for scientific investigation available at the Physikalische
Reichsanstalt (Imperial Physical Laboratory), led to such important
developments that similar work was undertaken in France by the firm of
Mantois, the successors of Feil, and somewhat later by Chance in
England. The manufacture of the new varieties of glass, originally known
as "Jena" glasses, is now carried out extensively and with a
considerable degree of commercial success in France, and also to a less
extent in England, but none of the other makers of optical glass has as
yet contributed to the progress of the industry to anything like the
same extent as the Jena firm.

The older optical glasses, now generally known as the "ordinary" crown
and flint glasses, are all of the nature of pure silicates, the basic
constituents being, in the case of crown glasses, lime and soda or lime
and potash, or a mixture of both, and in the case of flint glasses, lead
and either (or both) soda and potash. With the exception of the heavier
flint (lead) glasses, these can be produced so as to be free both from
noticeable colour and from such defects as bubbles, opaque inclusions or
"striae," but extreme care in the choice of all the raw materials and in
all the manipulations is required to ensure this result. Further, these
glasses, when made from properly proportioned materials, possess a very
considerable degree of chemical stability, which is amply sufficient for
most optical purposes. The newer glasses, on the other hand, contain a
much wider variety of chemical constituents, the most important being
the oxides of barium, magnesium, aluminium and zinc, used either with or
without the addition of the bases already named in reference to the
older glasses, and--among acid bodies--boric anhydride (B2O3) which
replaces the silica of the older glasses to a varying extent. It must be
admitted that, by the aid of certain of these new constituents, glasses
can be produced which, as regards purity of colour, freedom from defects
and chemical stability are equal or even superior to the best of the
"ordinary" glasses, but it is a remarkable fact that when this is the
case the optical properties of the new glass do not fall very widely
outside the limits set by the older glasses. On the other hand, the more
extreme the optical properties of these new glasses, i.e. the further
they depart from the ratio of refractive index to dispersive power found
in the older glasses, the greater the difficulty found in obtaining them
of either sufficient purity or stability to be of practical use. It is,
in fact, admitted that some of the glasses, most useful optically, the
dense barium crown glasses, which are so widely used in modern
photographic lenses, cannot be produced entirely free either from
noticeable colour or from numerous small bubbles, while the chemical
nature of these glasses is so sensitive that considerable care is
required to protect the surfaces of lenses made from them if serious
tarnishing is to be avoided. In practice, however, it is not found that
the presence either of a decidedly greenish-yellow colour or of numerous
small bubbles interferes at all seriously with the successful use of the
lenses for the majority of purposes, so that it is preferable to
sacrifice the perfection of the glass in order to secure valuable
optical properties.

It is a further striking fact, not unconnected with those just
enumerated, that the extreme range of optical properties covered even by
the relatively large number of optical glasses now available is in
reality very small. The refractive indices of all glasses at present
available lie between 1.46 and 1.90, whereas transparent minerals are
known having refractive indices lying considerably outside these limits;
at least one of these, fluorite (calcium fluoride), is actually used by
opticians in the construction of certain lenses, so that probably
progress is to be looked for in a considerable widening of the limits of
available optical materials; possibly such progress may lie in the
direction of the artificial production of large mineral crystals.

The qualities required in optical glasses have already been partly
referred to, but may now be summarized:--

  1. _Transparency and Freedom from Colour._--These qualities can be
  readily judged by inspection of the glass in pieces of considerable
  thickness, and they may be quantitatively measured by means of the
  spectro-photometer.

  2. _Homogeneity._--The optical desideratum is uniformity of refractive
  index and dispersive power throughout the mass of the glass. This is
  probably never completely attained, variations in the sixth
  significant figure of the refractive index being observed in
  different parts of single large blocks of the most perfect glass.
  While such minute and gradual variations are harmless for most optical
  purposes, sudden variations which generally take the form of striae or
  veins are fatal defects in all optical glass. In their coarsest forms
  such striae are readily visible to the unaided eye, but finer ones
  escape detection unless special means are taken for rendering them
  visible; such special means conveniently take the form of an apparatus
  for examining the glass in a beam of parallel light, when the striae
  scatter the light and appear as either dark or bright lines according
  to the position of the eye. Plate glass of the usual quality, which
  appears to be perfectly homogeneous when looked at in the ordinary
  way, is seen to be a mass of fine striae, when a considerable
  thickness is examined in parallel light. Plate glass is, nevertheless,
  considerably used for the cheaper forms of lenses, where the
  scattering of the light and loss of definition arising from these fine
  striae is not readily recognized.

  Bubbles and enclosures of opaque matter, although more readily
  observed, do not constitute such serious defects; their presence in a
  lens, to a moderate extent, does not interfere with its performance
  (see above).

  3. _Hardness and Chemical Stability._--These properties contribute to
  the durability of lenses, and are specially desirable in the outer
  members of lens combinations which are likely to be subjected to
  frequent handling or are exposed to the weather. As a general rule, to
  which, however, there are important exceptions, both these qualities
  are found to a greater degree, the lower the refractive index of the
  glass. The chemical stability, i.e. the power of resisting the
  disintegrating effects of atmospheric moisture and carbonic acid,
  depends largely upon the quantity of alkalis contained in the glass
  and their proportion to the lead, lime or barium present, the
  stability being generally less the higher the proportion of alkali. A
  high silica-content tends towards both hardness and chemical
  stability, and this can be further increased by the addition of small
  proportions of boric acid; in larger quantities, however, the latter
  constituent produces the opposite effect.

  4. _Absence of Internal Strain._--Internal strain in glass arises from
  the unequal contraction of the outer and inner portions of masses of
  glass during cooling. Processes of annealing, or very gradual cooling,
  are intended to relieve these strains, but such processes are only
  completely effective when the cooling, particularly through those
  ranges of temperature where the glass is just losing the last traces
  of plasticity, is extremely gradual, a rate measured in hours per
  degree Centigrade being required. The existence of internal strains in
  glass can be readily recognized by examination in polarized light, any
  signs of double refraction indicating the existence of strain. If the
  glass is very badly annealed, the lenses made from it may fly to
  pieces during or after manufacture, but apart from such extreme cases
  the optical effects of internal strain are not readily observed except
  in large optical apparatus. Very perfectly annealed optical glass is
  now, however, readily obtainable.

  5. _Refraction and Dispersion._--The purely optical properties of
  refraction and dispersion, although of the greatest importance, cannot
  be dealt with in any detail here; for an account of the optical
  properties required in glasses for various forms of lenses see the
  articles LENS and ABERRATION: II. _In Optical Systems_. As typical of
  the range of modern optical glasses Table I. is given, which
  constituted the list of optical glasses exhibited by Messrs Chance at
  the Optical Convention in London in 1905. In this table n is the
  refractive index of the glass for sodium light (the D line of the
  solar spectrum), while the letters C, F and G' refer to lines in the
  hydrogen spectrum by which dispersion is now generally specified. The
  symbol [nu] represents the inverse of the dispersive power, its value
  being (n_D - 1)/(C - F). The very much longer lists of German and
  French firms contain only a few types not represented in this table.

    Table I.--_Optical Properties._

    +--------+---------------+--------+------+--------+-----------------------------------------+
    |        |               |        |      |        |          Partial and Relative           |
    |        |               |        |      | Medium |          Partial Dispersions.           |
    | Factory|               |        |      | Disper-+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+
    | Number.|     Name.     |  n_D.  | [nu].| sion.  |       | C-D |       | D-F |       | F-G'|
    |        |               |        |      | C-F.   |  C-D. | --- |  D-F. | --- | F-G'. | --- |
    |        |               |        |      |        |       | C-F |       | C-F |       | C-F.|
    +--------+---------------+--------+------+--------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+
    | C. 644 | Extra Hard    |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Crown        | 1.4959 | 64.4 | .00770 |.00228 |.296 |.00542 |.704 |.00431 |.560 |
    | B. 646 | Boro-silicate |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Crown        | 1.5096 | 63.3 | .00803 |.00236 |.294 |.00562 |.700 |.00446 |.555 |
    | A. 605 | Hard Crown    | 1.5175 | 60.5 | .00856 |.00252 |.294 |.00604 |.706 |.00484 |.554 |
    | C. 577 | Medium Barium |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Crown        | 1.5738 | 57.9 | .00990 |.00293 |.296 |.00697 |.704 |.00552 |.557 |
    | C. 579 | Densest Barium|        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Crown        | 1.6065 | 57.9 | .01046 |.00308 |.294 |.00738 |.705 |.00589 |.563 |
    | A. 569 | Soft Crown.   | 1.5152 | 56.9 | .00906 |.00264 |.291 |.00642 |.708 |.00517 |.570 |
    | B. 563 | Medium Barium |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Crown        | 1.5660 | 56.3 | .01006 |.00297 |.295 |.00709 |.704 |.00576 |.572 |
    | B. 535 | Barium Light  |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        | Flint         | 1.5452 | 53.5 | .01020 |.00298 |.292 |.00722 |.701 |.00582 |.570 |
    | A. 490 | Extra Light   |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Flint        | 1.5316 | 49.0 | .01085 |.00313 |.288 |.00772 |.711 |.00630 |.580 |
    | A. 485 | Extra Light   |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Flint        | 1.5333 | 48.5 | .01099 |.00322 |.293 |.00777 |.707 |.00643 |.582 |
    | C. 474 | Boro-silicate |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Flint        | 1.5623 | 47.4 | .01187 |.00343 |.289 |.00844 |.711 |.00693 |.584 |
    | B. 466 | Barium Light  |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Flint        | 1.5833 | 46.6 | .01251 |.00362 |.288 |.00889 |.711 |.00721 |.576 |
    | B. 458 | Soda Flint    | 1.5482 | 45.8 | .01195 |.00343 |.287 |.00852 |.713 |.00690 |.577 |
    | A. 458 | Light Flint   | 1.5472 | 45.8 | .01196 |.00348 |.291 |.00848 |.709 |.00707 |.591 |
    | A. 432 | Light Flint   | 1.5610 | 43.2 | .01299 |.00372 |.287 |.00927 |.713 |.00770 |.593 |
    | A. 410 | Light Flint   | 1.5760 | 41.0 | .01404 |.00402 |.286 |.01002 |.713 |.00840 |.598 |
    | B. 407 | Light Flint   | 1.5787 | 40.7 | .01420 |.00404 |.284 |.01016 |.715 |.00840 |.591 |
    | A. 370 | Dense Flint.  | 1.6118 | 36.9 | .01657 |.00470 |.284 |.01187 |.716 |.01004 |.606 |
    | A. 361 | Dense Flint.  | 1.6214 | 36.1 | .01722 |.00491 |.285 |.01231 |.715 |.01046 |.608 |
    | A. 360 | Dense Flint.  | 1.6225 | 36.0 | .01729 |.00493 |.286 |.01236 |.715 |.01054 |.609 |
    | A. 337 | Extra Dense   |        |      |        |       |     |       |     |       |     |
    |        |  Flint        | 1.6469 | 33.7 | .01917 |.00541 |.285 |.01376 |.720 |.01170 |.655 |
    | A. 299 | Densest Flint | 1.7129 | 29.9 | .02384 |.00670 |.281 |.01714 |.789 |.01661 |.678 |
    +--------+---------------+--------+------+--------+-------+-----+-------+-----+-------+-----+

_Manufacture of Optical Glass._--In its earlier stages, the process for
the production of optical glass closely resembles that used in the
production of any other glass of the highest quality. The raw materials
are selected with great care to assure chemical purity, but whereas in
most glasses the only impurities to be dreaded are those that are either
infusible or produce a colouring effect upon the glass, for optical
purposes the admixture of other glass-forming bodies than those which
are intended to be present must be avoided on account of their effect in
modifying the optical constants of the glass. Constancy of composition
of the raw materials and their careful and thorough admixture in
constant proportions are therefore essential to the production of the
required glasses. The materials are generally used in the form either of
oxides (lead, zinc, silica, &c.) or of salts readily decomposed by heat,
such as the nitrates or carbonates. Fragments of glass of the same
composition as that aimed at are generally incorporated to a limited
extent with the mixed raw materials to facilitate their fusion. The
crucibles or pots used for the production of optical glass very closely
resemble those used in the manufacture of flint glass for other
purposes; they are "covered" and the molten materials are thus protected
from the action of the furnace gases by the interposition of a wall of
fireclay, but as crucibles for optical glass are used for only one
fusion and are then broken up, they are not made so thick and heavy as
those used in flint-glass making, since the latter remain in the furnace
for many weeks. On the other hand, the chemical and physical nature of
the fireclays used in the manufacture of such crucibles requires careful
attention in order to secure the best results. The furnace used for the
production of optical glass is generally constructed to take one
crucible only, so that the heat of the furnace may be accurately
adjusted to the requirements of the particular glass under treatment.
These small furnaces are frequently arranged for direct coal firing, but
regenerative gas-fired furnaces are also employed. The empty crucible,
having first been gradually dried and heated to a bright red heat in a
subsidiary furnace, is taken up by means of massive iron tongs and
introduced into the previously heated furnace, the temperature of which
is then gradually raised. When a suitable temperature for the fusion of
the particular glass in question has been attained, the mixture of raw
materials is introduced in comparatively small quantities at a time. In
this way the crucible is gradually filled with a mass of molten glass,
which is, however, full of bubbles of all sizes. These bubbles arise
partly from the air enclosed between the particles of raw materials and
partly from the gaseous decomposition products of the materials
themselves. In the next stage of the process, the glass is raised to a
high temperature in order to render it sufficiently fluid to allow of
the complete elimination of these bubbles; the actual temperature
required varies with the chemical composition of the glass, a bright red
heat sufficing for the most fusible glasses, while with others the
utmost capacity of the best furnaces is required to attain the necessary
temperature. With these latter glasses there is, of course, considerable
risk that the partial fusion and consequent contraction of the fireclay
of the crucible may result in its destruction and the entire loss of the
glass. The stages of the process so far described generally occupy from
36 to 60 hours, and during this time the constant care and watchfulness
of those attending the furnace is required. This is still more the case
in the next stage. The examination of small test-pieces of the glass
withdrawn from the crucible by means of an iron rod having shown that
the molten mass is free from bubbles, the stirring process may be begun,
the object of this manipulation being to render the glass as homogeneous
as possible and to secure the absence of veins or striae in the product.
For this purpose a cylinder of fireclay, provided with a square axial
hole at the upper end, is heated in a small subsidiary furnace and is
then introduced into the molten glass. Into the square axial hole fits
the square end of a hooked iron bar which projects several yards beyond
the mouth of the furnace; by means of this bar a workman moves the
fireclay cylinder about in the glass with a steady circular sweep.
Although the weight of the iron bar is carried by a support, such as an
overhead chain or a swivel roller, this operation is very laborious and
trying, more especially during the earlier stages when the heat radiated
from the open mouth of the crucible is intense. The men who manipulate
the stirring bars are therefore changed at short intervals, while the
bars themselves have also to be changed at somewhat longer intervals, as
they rapidly become oxidized, and accumulated scale would tend to fail
off them, thus contaminating the glass below. The stirring process is
begun when the glass is perfectly fluid at a temperature little short of
the highest attained in its fusion, but as the stirring proceeds the
glass is allowed to cool gradually and thus becomes more and more
viscous until finally the stirring cylinder can scarcely be moved. When
the glass has acquired this degree of consistency it is supposed that no
fresh movements can occur within its mass, so that if homogeneity has
been attained the glass will preserve it permanently. The stirring is
therefore discontinued and the clay cylinder is either left embedded in
the glass, or by the exercise of considerable force it may be gradually
withdrawn. The crucible with the semi-solid glass which it contains is
now allowed to cool considerably in the melting furnace, or it may be
removed to another slightly heated furnace. When the glass has cooled so
far as to become hard and solid, the furnace is hermetically sealed up
and allowed to cool very gradually to the ordinary temperature. If the
cooling is very gradual--occupying several weeks--it sometimes happens
that the entire contents of a large crucible, weighing perhaps 1000 lb.,
are found intact as a single mass of glass, but more frequently the mass
is found broken up into a number of fragments of various sizes. From the
large masses great lenses and mirrors may be produced, while the smaller
pieces are used for the production of the disks and slabs of moderate
size, in which the optical glass of commerce is usually supplied. In
order to allow of the removal of the glass, the cold crucible is broken
up and the glass carefully separated from the fragments of fireclay. The
pieces of glass are then examined for the detection of the grosser
defects, and obviously defective pieces are rejected. As the fractured
surfaces of the glass in this condition are unsuitable for delicate
examination a good deal of glass that passes this inspection has yet
ultimately to be rejected. The next stage in the preparation of the
glass is the process of moulding and annealing. Lumps of glass of
approximately the right weight are chosen, and are heated to a
temperature just sufficient to soften the glass, when the lumps are
caused to assume the shape of moulds made of iron or fireclay either by
the natural flow of the softened glass under gravity, or by pressure
from suitable tools or presses. The glass, now in its approximate form,
is placed in a heated chamber where it is allowed to cool very
gradually--the minimum time of cooling from a dull red heat being six
days, while for "fine annealing" a much longer period is required (see
above). At the end of the annealing process the glass issues in the
shape of disks or slabs slightly larger than required by the optician in
each case. The glass is, however, by no means ready for delivery, since
it has yet to be examined with scrupulous care, and all defective pieces
must be rejected entirely or at least the defective part must be cut out
and the slab remoulded or ground down to a smaller size. For the purpose
of rendering this minute examination possible, opposite plane surfaces
of the glass are ground approximately flat and polished, the faces to be
polished being so chosen as to allow of a view through the greatest
possible thickness of glass; thus in slabs the narrow edges are
polished.

It will be readily understood from the above account of the process of
production that optical glass, relatively to other kinds of glass, is
very expensive, the actual price varying from 3s. to 30s. per lb. in
small slabs or disks. The price, however, rapidly increases with the
total bulk of perfect glass required in one piece, so that large disks
of glass suitable for telescope objectives of wide aperture, or blocks
for large prisms, become exceedingly costly. The reason for this high
cost is to be found partly in the fact that the yield of optically
perfect glass even in large and successful meltings rarely exceeds 20%
of the total weight of glass melted. Further, all the subsequent
processes of cutting, moulding and annealing become increasingly
difficult, owing to the greatly increased risk of breakage arising from
either external injury or internal strain, as the dimensions of the
individual piece of glass increase. Nevertheless, disks of optical
glass, both crown and flint, have been produced up to 39 in. in
diameter.

II. BLOWN GLASS. (A) _Table-ware and Vases._--The varieties of glass
used for the manufacture of table-ware and vases are the potash-lead
glass, the soda-lime glass and the potash-lime glass. These glasses may
be colourless or coloured. Venetian glass is a soda-lime glass; Bohemian
glass is a potash-lime glass. The potash-lead glass, which was first
used on a commercial scale in England for the manufacture of table-ware,
and which is known as "flint" glass or "crystal," is also largely used
in France, Germany and the United States. Table II. shows the typical
composition of these glasses.

  TABLE II.

  +------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+
  |                              |       |       |       |       |       |      | Fe2O3  |
  |                              | SiO2. |  K2O. |  PbO. | Na2O. |  CaO. | MgO. |  and   |
  |                              |       |       |       |       |       |      | Al2O3. |
  +------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+
  | Potash-lead (flint) glass    | 53.17 | 13.88 | 32.95 |   ..  |   ..  |  ..  |   ..   |
  | Soda-lime (Venetian) glass   | 73.40 |   ..  |   ..  | 18.58 |  5.06 |  ..  |  2.48  |
  | Potash-lime (Bohemian) glass | 71.70 | 12.70 |   ..  |  2.50 | 10.30 |  ..  |  0.90  |
  +------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+

For melting the leadless glasses, open, bowl-shaped crucibles are used,
ranging from 12 to 40 in. in diameter. Glass mixtures containing lead
are melted in covered, beehive-shaped crucibles holding from 12 to 18
cwt. of glass. They have a hooded opening on one side near the top. This
opening serves for the introduction of the glass-mixture, for the
removal of the melted glass and as a source of heat for the processes of
manipulation.

The Venetian furnaces in the island of Murano are small low structures
heated with wood. The heat passes from the melting furnace into the
annealing kiln. In Germany, Austria and the United States, gas furnaces
are generally used. In England directly-heated coal furnaces are still
in common use, which in many cases are stoked by mechanical feeders.
There are two systems of annealing. The manufactured goods are either
removed gradually from a constant source of heat by means of a train of
small iron trucks drawn along a tramway by an endless chain, or are
placed in a heated kiln in which the fire is allowed gradually to die
out. The second system is especially used for annealing large and heavy
objects. The manufacture of table-ware is carried on by small gangs of
men and boys. In England each "gang" or "chair" consists of three men
and one boy. In works, however, in which most of the goods are moulded,
and where less skilled labour is required, the proportion of boy labour
is increased. There are generally two shifts of workmen, each shift
working six hours, and the work is carried on continuously from Monday
morning until Friday morning. Directly work is suspended the glass
remaining in the crucibles is ladled into water, drained and dried. It
is then mixed with the glass mixture and broken glass ("cullet"), and
replaced in the crucibles. The furnaces are driven to a white heat in
order to fuse the mixture and expel bubbles of gas and air. Before work
begins the temperature is lowered sufficiently to render the glass
viscous. In the viscous state a mass of glass can be coiled upon the
heated end of an iron rod, and if the rod is hollow can be blown into a
hollow bulb. The tools used are extremely primitive--hollow iron
blowing-rods, solid rods for holding vessels during manipulation, spring
tools, resembling sugar-tongs in shape, with steel or wooden blades for
fashioning the viscous glass, callipers, measure-sticks, and a variety
of moulds of wood, carbon, cast iron, gun-metal and plaster of Paris
(figs. 16 and 17). The most important tool, however, is the bench or
"chair" on which the workman sits, which serves as his lathe. He sits
between two rigid parallel arms, projecting forwards and backwards and
sloping slightly from back to front. Across the arms he balances the
iron rod to which the glass bulb adheres, and rolling it backwards and
forwards with the fingers of his left hand fashions the glass between
the blades of his sugar-tongs tool, grasped in his right hand. The
hollow bulb is worked into the shape it is intended to assume, partly by
blowing, partly by gravitation, and partly by the workman's tool. If the
blowing iron is held vertically with the bulb uppermost the bulb becomes
flattened and shallow, if the bulb is allowed to hang downwards it
becomes elongated and reduced in diameter, and if the end of the bulb is
pierced and the iron is held horizontally and sharply trundled, as a mop
is trundled, the bulb opens out into a flattened disk.

[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Pontils and Blowing Iron. a, Puntee; b, spring
puntee; c, blowing iron.]

[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Shaping and Measuring Tools.

  d, "Sugar-tongs" tool with wooden ends.
  e,e, "Sugar-tongs" tools with cutting edges.
  f, Pincers.
  g, Scissors.
  h, Battledore.
  i, Marking compass.]

During the process of manipulation, whether on the chair or whilst the
glass is being reheated, the rod must be constantly and gently trundled
to prevent the collapse of the bulb or vessel. Every natural development
of the spherical form can be obtained by blowing and fashioning by hand.
A non-spherical form can only be produced by blowing the hollow bulb
into a mould of the required shape. Moulds are used both for giving
shape to vessels and also for impressing patterns on their surface.
Although spherical forms can be obtained without the use of moulds,
moulds are now largely used for even the simplest kinds of table-ware in
order to economize time and skilled labour. In France, Germany and the
United States it is rare to find a piece of table-ware which has not
received its shape in a mould. The old and the new systems of making a
wine-glass illustrate almost all the ordinary processes of glass
working. Sufficient glass is first "gathered" on the end of a blowing
iron to form the bowl of the wine-glass. The mere act of coiling an
exact weight of molten glass round the end of a rod 4 ft. in length
requires considerable skill. The mass of glass is rolled on a polished
slab of iron, the "marvor," to solidify it, and it is then slightly
hollowed by blowing. Under the old system the form of the bowl is
gradually developed by blowing and by shaping the bulb with the
sugar-tongs tool. The leg is either pulled out from the substance of the
base of the bowl, or from a small lump of glass added to the base. The
foot starts as a small independent bulb on a separate blowing iron. One
extremity of this bulb is made to adhere to the end of the leg, and the
other extremity is broken away from its blowing iron. The fractured end
is heated, and by the combined action of heat and centrifugal force
opens out into a flat foot. The bowl is now severed from its blowing
iron and the unfinished wine-glass is supported by its foot, which is
attached to the end of a working rod by a metal clip or by a seal of
glass. The fractured edge of the bowl is heated, trimmed with scissors
and melted so as to be perfectly smooth and even, and the bowl itself
receives its final form from the sugar-tongs tool.

Under the new system the bowl is fashioned by blowing the slightly
hollowed mass of glass into a mould. The leg is formed and a small lump
of molten glass is attached to its extremity to form the foot. The
blowing iron is constantly trundled, and the small lump of glass is
squeezed and flattened into the shape of a foot, either between two
slabs of wood hinged together, or by pressure against an upright board.
The bowl is severed from the blowing iron, and the wine-glass is sent to
the annealing oven with a bowl, longer than that of the finished glass,
and with a rough fractured edge. When the glass is cold the surplus is
removed either by grinding, or by applying heat to a line scratched with
a diamond round the bowl. The fractured edge is smoothed by the impact
of a gas flame.

In the manufacture of a wine-glass the ductility of glass is illustrated
on a small scale by the process of pulling out the leg. It is more
strikingly illustrated in the manufacture of glass cane and tube. Cane
is produced from a solid mass of molten glass, tube from a mass hollowed
by blowing. One workman holds the blowing iron with the mass of glass
attached to it, and another fixes an iron rod by means of a seal of
glass to the extremity of the mass. The two workmen face each other and
walk backwards. The diameter of the cane or tube is regulated by the
weight of glass carried, and by the distance covered by the two workmen.
It is a curious property of viscous glass that whatever form is given to
the mass of glass before it is drawn out is retained by the finished
cane or tube, however small its section may be. Owing to this property,
tubes or canes can be produced with a square, oblong, oval or triangular
section. Exceedingly fine canes of milk-white glass play an important
part in the masterpieces produced by the Venetian glass-makers of the
16th century. Vases and drinking cups were produced of extreme
lightness, in the walls of which were embedded patterns rivalling
lace-work in fineness and intricacy. The canes from which the patterns
are formed are either simple or complex. The latter are made by dipping
a small mass of molten colourless glass into an iron cup around the
inner wall of which short lengths of white cane have been arranged at
regular intervals. The canes adhere to the molten glass, and the mass
is first twisted and then drawn out into fine cane, which contains white
threads arranged in endless spirals. The process can be almost
indefinitely repeated and canes formed of extreme complexity. A vase
decorated with these simple or complex canes is produced by embedding
short lengths of the cane on the surface of a mass of molten glass and
blowing and fashioning the mass into the required shape.

Table-ware and vases may be wholly coloured or merely decorated with
colour. Touches of colour may be added to vessels in course of
manufacture by means of seals of molten glass, applied like sealing-wax;
or by causing vessels to wrap themselves round with threads or coils of
coloured glass. By the application of a pointed iron hook, while the
glass is still ductile, the parallel coils can be distorted into bends,
loops or zigzags. The surface of vessels may be spangled with gold or
platinum by rolling the hot glass on metallic leaf, or iridescent, by
the deposition of metallic tin, or by the corrosion caused by the
chemical action of acid fumes. Gilding and enamel decoration are applied
to vessels when cold, and fixed by heat.

_Cutting_ and _engraving_ are mechanical processes for producing
decorative effects by abrading the surface of the glass when cold. The
abrasion is effected by pressing the glass against the edge of wheels,
or disks, of hard material revolving on horizontal spindles. The
spindles of cutting wheels are driven by steam or electric power. The
wheels for making deep cuts are made of iron, and are fed with sand and
water. The wheels range in diameter from 18 in. to 3 in. Wheels of
carborundum are also used. Wheels of fine sandstone fed with water are
used for making slighter cuts and for smoothing the rough surface left
by the iron wheels. Polishing is effected by wooden wheels fed with wet
pumice-powder and rottenstone and by brushes fed with moistened
putty-powder. Patterns are produced by combining straight and curved
cuts. Cutting brings out the brilliancy of glass, which is one of its
intrinsic qualities. At the end of the 18th century English cut glass
was unrivalled for design and beauty. Gradually, however, the process
was applied without restraint and the products lost all artistic
quality. At the present time cut glass is steadily regaining favour.

_Engraving_ is a process of drawing on glass by means of small copper
wheels. The wheels range from 1/2 in. to 2 in. in diameter, and are fed
with a mixture of fine emery and oil. The spindles to which the wheels
are attached revolve in a lathe worked by a foot treadle. The true use
of engraving is to add interest to vessels by means of coats of arms,
crests, monograms, inscriptions and graceful outlines. The improper use
of engraving is to hide defective material. There are two other
processes of marking patterns on glass, but they possess no artistic
value. In the "sandblast" process the surface of the glass is exposed to
a stream of sharp sand driven by compressed air. The parts of the
surface which are not to be blasted are covered by adhesive paper. In
the "etching" process the surface of the glass is etched by the chemical
action of hydrofluoric acid, the parts which are not to be attacked
being covered with a resinous paint. The glass is first dipped in this
protective liquid, and when the paint has set the pattern is scratched
through it with a sharp point. The glass is then exposed to the acid.

_Glass stoppers_ are fitted to bottles by grinding. The mouth of the
bottle is ground by a revolving iron cone, or mandrel, fed with sand and
water and driven by steam. The head of the stopper is fastened in a
chuck and the peg is ground to the size of the mouth of the bottle by
means of sand and water pressed against the glass by bent strips of thin
sheet iron. The mouth of the bottle is then pressed by hand on the peg
of the stopper, and the mouth and peg are ground together with a medium
of very fine emery and water until an air-tight joint is secured.

The revival in recent years of the craft of glass-blowing in England
must be attributed to William Morris and T.G. Jackson, R.A. (Pl. II.
figs. 11 and 12). They, at any rate, seem to have been the first to
grasp the idea that a wine-glass is not merely a bowl, a stem and a
foot, but that, whilst retaining simplicity of form, it may nevertheless
possess decorative effect. They, moreover, suggested the introduction
for the manufacture of table-glass of a material similar in texture to
that used by the Venetians, both colourless and tinted.

The colours previously available for English table-glass were ruby,
canary-yellow, emerald-green, dark peacock-green, light peacock-blue,
dark purple-blue and a dark purple. About 1870 the "Jackson" table-glass
was made in a light, dull green glass. The dull green was followed
successively by amber, white opal, blue opal, straw opal, sea-green,
horn colour and various pale tints of soda-lime glass, ranging from
yellow to blue. Experiments were also tried with a violet-coloured
glass, a violet opal, a transparent black and with glasses shading from
red to blue, red to amber and blue to green.

In the Paris Exhibition of 1900 surface decoration was the prominent
feature of all the exhibits of table-glass. The carved or "cameo" glass,
introduced by Thomas Webb of Stourbridge in 1878, had been copied with
varying success by glass-makers of all nations. In many specimens there
were three or more layers of differently coloured glass, and curious
effects of blended colour were obtained by cutting through, or partly
through, the different layers. The surface of the glass had usually been
treated with hydrofluoric acid so as to have a satin-like gloss. Some
vases of this character, shown by Emile Galle and Daum Freres of Nancy,
possessed considerable beauty. The "Favrile" glass of Louis C. Tiffany
of New York (Pl. II. fig. 13) owes its effect entirely to surface colour
and lustre. The happiest specimens of this glass almost rival the wings
of butterflies in the brilliancy of their iridescent colours. The vases
of Karl Koepping of Berlin are so fantastic and so fragile that they
appear to be creations of the lamp rather than of the furnace. An
illustration is also given of some of Powell's "Whitefriars" glass,
shown at the St Louis Exhibition, 1904 (Pl. II. fig. 14). The specimens
of "pate de verre" exhibited by A. L. Dammouse, of Sevres, in the Musee
des Arts decoratifs in Paris, and at the London Franco-British
Exhibition in 1908, deserve attention. They have a semi-opaque body with
an "egg-shell" surface and are delicately tinted with colour. The shapes
are exceedingly simple, but some of the pieces possess great beauty. The
material and technique suggest a close relationship to porcelain.

(B) _Tube._--The process of making tube has already been described.
Although the bore of the thermometer-tube is exceedingly small, it is
made in the same way as ordinary tube. The white line of enamel, which
is seen in some thermometers behind the bore, is introduced before the
mass of glass is pulled out. A flattened cake of viscous glass-enamel is
welded on to one side of the mass of glass after it has been hollowed by
blowing. The mass, with the enamel attached, is dipped into the crucible
and covered with a layer of transparent glass; the whole mass is then
pulled out into tube. If the section of the finished tube is to be a
triangle, with the enamel and bore at the base, the molten mass is
pressed into a V-shaped mould before it is pulled out.

In modern thermometry instruments of extreme accuracy are required, and
researches have been made, especially in Germany and France, to
ascertain the causes of variability in mercurial thermometers, and how
such variability is to be removed or reduced. In all mercurial
thermometers there is a slight depression of the ice-point after
exposure to high temperatures; it is also not uncommon to find that the
readings of two thermometers between the ice- and boiling-points fail to
agree at any intermediate temperature, although the ice- and
boiling-points of both have been determined together with perfect
accuracy, and the intervening spaces have been equally divided. It has
been proved that these variations depend to a great extent on the
chemical nature of the glass of which the thermometer is made. Special
glasses have therefore been produced by Tonnelot in France and at the
Jena glass-works in Germany expressly for the manufacture of
thermometers for accurate physical measurements; the analyses of these
are shown in Table III.

  TABLE III.

  +-------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+------------+
  |             |       |       |      |      |       |      |      |     | Depression |
  |             | SiO2. | Na2O. | K2O. | CaO. | Al2O3.| MgO. | B2O3.| ZnO.|     of     |
  |             |       |       |      |      |       |      |      |     | Ice-point. |
  +-------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+------------+
  | Tonnelot's  |       |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |            |
  |  "Verre dur"| 70.96 | 12.02 | 0.56 |14.40 |  1.44 | 0.40 |  ..  |  .. |    0.07    |
  | Jena glass--|       |       |      |      |       |      |      |     |            |
  |   XVI.-111  | 67.5  | 14.0  |  ..  |  7.0 |  2.5  |  ..  |  2.0 | 7.0 |    0.05    |
  |     59-111  | 72.0  | 11.0  |  ..  |  5.0 |  5.0  |  ..  | 12.0 |  .. |    0.02    |
  +-------------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-----+------------+

Since the discovery of the Rontgen rays, experiments have been made to
ascertain the effects of the different constituents of glass on the
transparency of glass to X-rays. The oxides of lead, barium, zinc and
antimony are found perceptibly to retard the rays. The glass tubes,
therefore, from which the X-ray bulbs are to be fashioned, must not
contain any of these oxides, whereas the glass used for making the
funnel-shaped shields, which direct the rays upon the patient and at the
same time protect the hands of the operator from the action of the rays,
must contain a large proportion of lead.

Among the many developments of the Jena Works, not the least important
are the glasses made in the form of a tube, from which gas-chimneys,
gauge-glasses and chemical apparatus are fashioned, specially adapted to
resist sudden changes of temperature. One method is to form the tube of
two layers of glass, one being considerably more expansible than the
other.

(C) _Sheet and Crown-glass._--Sheet-glass is almost wholly a
soda-lime-silicate glass, containing only small quantities of iron,
alumina and other impurities. The raw materials used in this manufacture
are chosen with considerable care, since the requirements as to the
colour of the product are somewhat stringent. The materials ordinarily
employed are the following: sand, of good quality, uniform in grain and
free from any notable quantity of iron oxide; carbonate of lime,
generally in the form of a pure variety of powdered limestone; and
sulphate of soda. A certain proportion of soda ash (carbonate of soda)
is also used in some works in sheet-glass mixtures, while "decolorizers"
(substances intended to remove or reduce the colour of the glass) are
also sometimes added, those most generally used being manganese dioxide
and arsenic. Another essential ingredient of all glass mixtures
containing sulphate of soda is some form of carbon, which is added
either as coke, charcoal or anthracite coal; the carbon so introduced
aids the reducing substances contained in the atmosphere of the furnace
in bringing about the reduction of the sulphate of soda to a condition
in which it combines more readily with the silicic acid of the sand. The
proportions in which these ingredients are mixed vary according to the
exact quality of glass required and with the form and temperature of the
melting furnace employed. A good quality of sheet-glass should show, on
analysis, a composition approximating to the following: silica (SiO2),
72%; lime (CaO), 13%; soda (Na2O), 14%; and iron and alumina (Fe2O3,
Al2O3), 1%. The actual composition, however, of a mixture that will give
a glass of this composition cannot be directly calculated from these
figures and the known composition of the raw materials, owing to the
fact that considerable losses, particularly of alkali, occur during
melting.

The fusion of sheet-glass is now generally carried out in gas-fired
regenerative tank furnaces. The glass in process of fusion is contained
in a basin or tank built up of large blocks of fire-clay and is heated
by one or more powerful gas flames which enter the upper part of the
furnace chamber through suitable apertures or "ports." In Europe the gas
burnt in these furnaces is derived from special gas-producers, while in
some parts of America natural gas is utilized. With producer gas it is
necessary to pre-heat both the gas and the air which is supplied for its
combustion by passing both through heated regenerators (for an account
of the principles of the regenerative furnace see article FURNACE). In
many respects the glass-melting tank resembles the open-hearth steel
furnace, but there are certain interesting differences. Thus the
dimensions of the largest glass tanks greatly exceed those of the
largest steel furnaces; glass furnaces containing up to 250 tons of
molten glass have been successfully operated, and owing to the
relatively low density of glass this involves very large dimensions. The
temperature required in the fusion of sheet-glass and of other glasses
produced in tank furnaces is much lower than that attained in steel
furnaces, and it is consequently possible to work glass-tanks
continuously for many months together; on the other hand, glass is not
readily freed from foreign bodies that may become admixed with it, so
that the absence of detachable particles is much more essential in glass
than in steel melting. Finally, fluid steel can be run or poured off,
since it is perfectly fluid, while glass cannot be thus treated, but is
withdrawn from the furnace by means of either a ladle or a gatherer's
pipe, and the temperature required for this purpose is much lower than
that at which the glass is melted. In a sheet-glass tank there is
therefore a gradient of temperature and a continuous passage of material
from the hotter end of the furnace where the raw materials are
introduced to the cooler end where the glass, free from bubbles and raw
material, is withdrawn by the gatherers. For the purpose of the removal
of the glass, the cooler end of the furnace is provided with a number of
suitable openings, provided with movable covers or shades. The
"gatherer" approaches one of these openings, removes the shade and
introduces his previously heated "pipe." This instrument is an iron
tube, some 5 ft. long, provided at one end with an enlarged butt and at
the other with a wooden covering acting as handle and mouthpiece. The
gatherer dips the butt of the pipe into the molten "metal" and withdraws
upon it a small ball of viscous glass, which he allows to cool in the
air while constantly rotating it so as to keep the mass as nearly
spherical in shape as he can. When the first ball or "gathering" has
cooled sufficiently, the whole is again dipped into the molten glass and
a further layer adheres to the pipe-end, thus forming a larger ball.
This process is repeated, with slight modifications, until the gathering
is of the proper size and weight to yield the sheet which is to be
blown. When this is the case the gathering is carried to a block or
half-open mould in which it is rolled and blown until it acquires,
roughly, the shape of a hemisphere, the flat side being towards the pipe
and the convexity away from it; the diameter of this hemisphere is so
regulated as to be approximately that of the cylinder which is next to
be formed of the viscous mass. From the hemispherical shape the mass of
glass is now gradually blown into the form of a short cylinder, and then
the pipe with the adherent mass of glass is handed over to the blower
proper. This workman stands upon a platform in front of special furnaces
which, from their shape and purpose, are called "blowing holes." The
blower repeatedly heats the lower part of the mass of glass and keeps it
distended by blowing while he swings it over a deep trench which is
provided next to his working platform. In this way the glass is extended
into the form of a long cylinder closed at the lower end. The size of
cylinder which can be produced in this way depends chiefly upon the
dimensions of the working platform and the weight which a man is able to
handle freely. The lower end of the cylinder is opened, in the case of
small and thin cylinders, by the blower holding his thumb over the
mouthpiece of the pipe and simultaneously warming the end of the
cylinder in the furnace, the expansion of the imprisoned air and the
softening of the glass causing the end of the cylinder to burst open.
The blower then heats the end of the cylinder again and rapidly spins
the pipe about its axis; the centrifugal effect is sufficient to spread
the soft glass at the end to a radius equal to that of the rest of the
cylinder. In the case of large and thick cylinders, however, another
process of opening the ends is generally employed: an assistant attaches
a small lump of hot glass to the domed end, and the heat of this added
glass softens the cylinder sufficiently to enable the assistant to cut
the end open with a pair of shears; subsequently the open end is spun
out to the diameter of the whole as described above. The finished
cylinder is next carried to a rack and the pipe detached from it by
applying a cold iron to the neck of thick hot glass which connects
pipe-butt and cylinder, the neck cracking at the touch. Next, the rest
of the connecting neck is detached from the cylinder by the application
of a heated iron to the chilled glass. This leaves a cylinder with
roughly parallel ends; these ends are cut by the use of a diamond
applied internally and then the cylinder is split longitudinally by the
same means. The split cylinder is passed to the flattening furnace,
where it is exposed to a red heat, sufficient to soften the glass; when
soft the cylinder is laid upon a smooth flat slab and flattened down
upon it by the careful application of pressure with some form of rubbing
implement, which frequently takes the form of a block of charred wood.
When flattened, the sheet is moved away from the working opening of the
furnace, and pushed to a system of movable grids, by means of which it
is slowly moved along a tunnel, away from a source of heat nearly equal
in temperature to that of the flattening chamber. The glass thus cools
gradually as it passes down the tunnel and is thereby adequately
annealed.

The process of sheet-glass manufacture described above is typical of
that in use in a large number of works, but many modifications are to be
found, particularly in the furnaces in which the glass is melted. In
some works, the older method of melting the glass in large pots or
crucibles is still adhered to, although the old-fashioned coal-fired
furnaces have nearly everywhere given place to the use of producer gas
and regenerators. For the production of coloured sheet-glass, however,
the employment of pot furnaces is still almost universal, probably
because the quantities of glass required of any one tint are
insufficient to employ even a small tank furnace continuously; the exact
control of the colour is also more readily attained with the smaller
bulk of glass which has to be dealt with in pots. The general nature of
the colouring ingredients employed, and the colour effects produced by
them, have already been mentioned. In coloured sheet-glass, two distinct
kinds are to be recognized; in one kind the colouring matter is
contained in the body of the glass itself, while in the other the
coloured sheet consists of ordinary white glass covered upon one side
with a thin coating of intensely coloured glass. The latter kind is
known as "flashed," and is universally employed in the case of colouring
matters whose effect is so intense that in any usual thickness of glass
they would cause almost entire opacity. Flashed glass is produced by
taking either the first or the last gathering in the production of a
cylinder out of a crucible containing the coloured "metal," the other
gatherings being taken out of ordinary white sheet-glass. It is
important that the thermal expansion of the two materials which are thus
incorporated should be nearly alike, as otherwise warping of the
finished sheet is liable to result.

_Mechanical Processes for the Production of Sheet-glass._--The
complicated and indirect process of sheet-glass manufacture has led to
numerous inventions aiming at a direct method of production by more or
less mechanical means. All the earlier attempts in this direction failed
on account of the difficulty of bringing the glass to the machines
without introducing air-bells, which are always formed in molten glass
when it is ladled or poured from one vessel into another. More modern
inventors have therefore adopted the plan of drawing the glass direct
from the furnace. In an American process the glass is drawn direct from
the molten mass in the tank in a cylindrical form by means of an iron
ring previously immersed in the glass, and is kept in shape by means of
special devices for cooling it rapidly as it leaves the molten bath. In
this process, however, the entire operations of splitting and flattening
are retained, and although the mechanical process is said to be in
successful commercial operation, it has not as yet made itself felt as a
formidable rival to hand-made sheet-glass. An effort at a more direct
mechanical process is embodied in the inventions of Foucault which are
at present being developed in Germany and Belgium; in this process the
glass is drawn from the molten bath in the shape of flat sheets, by the
aid of a bar of iron, previously immersed in the glass, the glass
receiving its form by being drawn through slots in large fire-bricks,
and being kept in shape by rapid chilling produced by the action of
air-blasts. The mechanical operation is quite successful for thick
sheets, but it is not as yet available for the thinner sheets required
for the ordinary purposes of sheet-glass, since with these excessive
breakage occurs, while the sheets generally show grooves or lines
derived from small irregularities of the drawing orifice. For the
production of thick sheets which are subsequently to be polished the
process may thus claim considerable success, but it is not as yet
possible to produce satisfactory sheet-glass by such means.

_Crown-glass_ has at the present day almost disappeared from the market,
and it has been superseded by sheet-glass, the more modern processes
described above being capable of producing much larger sheets of glass,
free from the knob or "bullion" which may still be seen in old
crown-glass windows. For a few isolated purposes, however, it is
desirable to use a glass which has not been touched upon either surface
and thus preserves the lustre of its "fire polish" undiminished; this
can be attained in crown-glass but not in sheet, since one side of the
latter is always more or less marked by the rubber used in the process
of flattening. One of the few uses of crown-glass of this kind is the
glass slides upon which microscopic specimens are mounted, as well as
the thin glass slips with which such preparations are covered. A full
account of the process of blowing crown-glass will be found in all older
books and articles on the subject, so that it need only be mentioned
here that the glass, instead of being blown into a cylinder, is blown
into a flattened sphere, which is caused to burst at the point opposite
the pipe and is then, by the rapid spinning of the glass in front of a
very hot furnace-opening, caused to expand into a flat disk of large
diameter. This only requires to be annealed and is then ready for
cutting up, but the lump of glass by which the original globe was
attached to the pipe remains as the bullion in the centre of the disk of
glass.

_Coloured Glass for Mosaic Windows._--The production of coloured glass
for "mosaic" windows has become a separate branch of glass-making.
Charles Winston, after prolonged study of the coloured windows of the
13th, 14th and 15th centuries, convinced himself that no approach to the
colour effect of these windows could be made with glass which is thin
and even in section, homogeneous in texture, and made and coloured with
highly refined materials. To obtain the effect it was necessary to
reproduce as far as possible the conditions under which the early
craftsmen worked, and to create scientifically glass which is impure in
colour, irregular in section, and non-homogeneous in texture. The glass
is made in cylinders and in "crowns" or circles. The cylinders measure
about 14 in. in length by 8 in. in diameter, and vary in thickness from
1/8 to 3/8 in. The crowns are about 15 in. in diameter, and vary in
thickness from 1/8 to 1/2 in., the centre being the thickest. These
cylinders and crowns may be either solid colour or flashed. Great
variety of colour may be obtained by flashing one colour upon another,
such as blue on green, and ruby on blue, green or yellow.

E. J. Prior has introduced an ingenious method of making small oblong
and square sheets of coloured glass, which are thick in the centre and
taper towards the edges, and which have one surface slightly roughened
and one brilliantly polished. Glass is blown into an oblong box-shaped
iron mould, about 12 in. in depth and 6 in. across. A hollow rectangular
bottle is formed, the base and sides of which are converted into sheets.
The outer surface of these sheets is slightly roughened by contact with
the iron mould.

(D) _Bottles and mechanically blown Glass._--The manufacture of bottles
has become an industry of vast proportions. The demand constantly
increases, and, owing to constant improvements in material in the moulds
and in the methods of working, the supply fully keeps pace with the
demand. Except for making bottles of special colours, gas-heated tank
furnaces are in general use. Melting and working are carried on
continuously. The essential qualities of a bottle are strength and power
to resist chemical corrosion. The materials are selected with a view to
secure these qualities. For the highest quality of bottles, which are
practically colourless, sand, limestone and sulphate and carbonate of
soda are used. The following is a typical analysis of high quality
bottle-glass: SiO2, 69.15%; Na2O, 13.00%; CaO, 15.00%; Al2O3, 2.20%; and
Fe2O3, 0.65%. For the commoner grades of dark-coloured bottles the glass
mixture is cheapened by substituting common salt for part of the
sulphate of soda, and by the addition of felspar, granite, granulite,
furnace slag and other substances fusible at a high temperature. Bottle
moulds are made of cast iron, either in two pieces, hinged together at
the base or at one side, or in three pieces, one forming the body and
two pieces forming the neck.

[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Tool for moulding the inside and outside of the
neck of a bottle.

  C, Bottle.

  A, Conical piece of iron to form the inside of the neck.

  B, B, Shaped pieces of iron, which can be pressed upon the outside of
  the neck by the spring-handle H.]

A bottle gang or "shop" consists of five persons. The "gatherer" gathers
the glass from the tank furnace on the end of the blowing-iron, rolls it
on a slab of iron or stone, slightly expands the glass by blowing, and
hands the blowing iron and glass to the "blower." The blower places the
glass in the mould, closes the mould by pressing a lever with his foot,
and either blows down the blowing iron or attaches it to a tube
connected with a supply of compressed air. When the air has forced the
glass to take the form of the mould, the mould is opened and the blower
gives the blowing iron with the bottle attached to it to the "wetter
off." The wetter off touches the top of the neck of the bottle with a
moistened piece of iron and by tapping the blowing iron detaches the
bottle and drops it into a wooden trough. He then grips the body of the
bottle with a four-pronged clip, attached to an iron rod, and passes it
to the "bottle maker." The bottle maker heats the fractured neck of the
bottle, binds a band of molten glass round the end of it and
simultaneously shapes the inside and the outside of the neck by using
the tool shown in fig. 18. The finished bottle is taken by the "taker
in" to the annealing furnace. The bottles are stacked in iron trucks,
which, when full, are moved slowly away from a constant source of heat.

The processes of manipulation which have been described, although in
practice they are very rapidly performed, are destined to be replaced by
the automatic working of a machine. Bottle-making machines, based on
Ashley's original patent, are already being largely used. They ensure
absolute regularity in form and save both time and labour. A
bottle-making machine combines the process of pressing with a plunger
with that of blowing by compressed air. The neck of the bottle is first
formed by the plunger, and the body is subsequently blown by compressed
air admitted through the plunger. A sufficient weight of molten glass to
form a bottle is gathered and placed in a funnel-shaped vessel which
serves as a measure, and gives access to the mould which shapes the
outside of the neck. A plunger is forced upwards into the glass in the
neck-mould and forms the neck. The funnel is removed, and the plunger,
neck-mould and the mass of molten glass attached to the neck are
inverted. A bottle mould rises and envelops the mass of molten glass.
Compressed air admitted through the plunger forces the molten glass to
take the form of the bottle mould and completes the bottle.

In the case of the machine patented by Michael Owens of Toledo, U.S.A.,
for making tumblers, lamp-chimneys, and other goods of similar
character, the manual operations required are (1) gathering the molten
glass at the end of a blowing iron; (2) placing the blowing iron with
the glass attached to it in the machine; (3) removing the blowing iron
with the blown vessel attached. Each machine (fig. 19) consists of a
revolving table carrying five or six moulds. The moulds are opened and
closed by cams actuated by compressed air. As soon as a blowing iron is
in connexion with an air jet, the sections of the mould close upon the
molten glass, and the compressed air forces the glass to take the form
of the mould. After removal from the machine, the tumbler is severed
from the blowing iron, and its fractured edge is trimmed.

[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Owens's Glass-blowing Machine. g,g,g,
Blowing-irons.]

Compressed air or steam is also used for fashioning very large vessels,
baths, dishes and reservoirs by the "Sievert" process. Molten glass is
spread upon a large iron plate of the required shape and dimensions. The
flattened mass of glass is held by a rim, connected to the edge of the
plate. The plate with the glass attached to it is inverted, and
compressed air or steam is introduced through openings in the plate. The
mass of glass, yielding to its own weight and the pressure of air or
steam, sinks downwards and adapts itself to any mould or receptacle
beneath it.

The processes employed in the manufacture of the glass bulbs for
incandescent electric lamps, are similar to the old-fashioned processes
of bottle making. The mould is in two pieces hinged together; it is
heated and the inner surface is rubbed over with finely powdered
plumbago. When the glass is being blown in the mould the blowing iron is
twisted round and round so that the finished bulb may not be marked by
the joint of the mould.

III. MECHANICALLY PRESSED GLASS. (A) _Plate-glass._--The glass popularly
known as "plate-glass" is made by casting and rolling. The following are
typical analyses:

  +---------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
  |         | SiO2. |  CaO. | Na2O. | Al2O3. | Fe2O3. |
  +---------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+
  | French. | 71.80 | 15.70 | 11.10 |  1.26  |  0.14% |
  | English.| 70.64 | 16.27 | 11.47 |  0.70  |  0.49% |
  +---------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+

The raw materials for the production of plate-glass are chosen with
great care so as to secure a product as free from colour as possible,
since the relatively great thickness of the sheets would render even a
faint tint conspicuous. The substances employed are the same as those
used for the manufacture of sheet-glass, viz. pure sand, a pure form of
carbonate of lime, and sulphate of soda, with the addition of a suitable
proportion of carbon in the form of coke, charcoal or anthracite coal.

The glass to be used for the production of plate is universally melted
in pots or crucibles and not in open tank furnaces. When the glass is
completely melted and "fine," i.e. free from bubbles, it is allowed to
cool down to a certain extent so as to become viscous or pasty. The
whole pot, with its contents of viscous glass, is then removed bodily
from the furnace by means of huge tongs and is transported to a crane,
which grips the pot, raises it, and ultimately tips it over so as to
pour the glass upon the slab of the rolling-table. In most modern works
the greater part of these operations, as well as the actual rolling of
the glass, is carried out by mechanical means, steam power and
subsequently electrical power having been successfully applied to this
purpose; the handling of the great weights of glass required for the
largest sheets of plate-glass which are produced at the present time
would, indeed, be impossible without the aid of machinery. The
casting-table usually consists of a perfectly smooth cast-iron slab,
frequently built up of a number of pieces carefully fitted together,
mounted upon a low, massive truck running upon rails, so that it can be
readily moved to any desired position in the casting-room. The viscous
mass having been thrown on the casting-table, a large and heavy roller
passes over it and spreads it out into a sheet. Rollers up to 5 tons in
weight are employed and are now generally driven by power. The width of
the sheet or plate is regulated by moving guides which are placed in
front of the roller and are pushed along by it, while its thickness is
regulated by raising or lowering the roller relatively to the surface of
the table. Since the surfaces produced by rolling have subsequently to
be ground and polished, it is essential that the glass should leave the
rolling-table with as smooth a surface as possible, so that great care
is required in this part of the process. It is, however, equally
important that the glass as a whole should be flat and remains flat
during the process of gradual cooling (annealing), otherwise great
thicknesses of glass would have to be ground away at the projecting
parts of the sheet. The annealing process is therefore carried out in a
manner differing essentially from that in use for any other variety of
flat glass and nearly resembling that used for optical glass. The rolled
sheet is left on the casting-table until it has set sufficiently to be
pushed over a flat iron plate without risk of distortion; meanwhile the
table has been placed in front of the opening of one of the large
annealing kilns and the slab of glass is carefully pushed into the kiln.
The annealing kilns are large fire-brick chambers of small height but
with sufficient floor area to accommodate four or six large slabs, and
the slabs are placed directly upon the floor of the kiln, which is built
up of carefully dressed blocks of burnt fireclay resting upon a bed of
sand; in order to avoid any risk of working or buckling in this floor
these blocks are set slightly apart and thus have room to expand freely
when heated. Before the glass is introduced, the annealing kiln is
heated to dull red by means of coal fires in grates which are provided
at the ends or sides of the kiln for that purpose. When the floor of the
kiln has been covered with slabs of glass the opening is carefully built
up and luted with fire-bricks and fire-clay, and the whole is then
allowed to cool. In the walls and floor of the kiln special cooling
channels or air passages are provided and by gradually opening these to
atmospheric circulation the cooling is considerably accelerated while a
very even distribution of temperature is obtained; by these means even
the largest slabs can now be cooled in three or four days and are
nevertheless sufficiently well annealed to be free from any serious
internal stress. From the annealing kiln the slabs of glass are
transported to the cutting room, where they are cut square, defective
slabs being rejected or cut down to smaller sizes. The glass at this
stage has a comparatively dull surface and this must now be replaced by
that brilliant and perfectly polished surface which is the chief beauty
of this variety of glass. The first step in this process is that of
grinding the surface down until all projections are removed and a close
approximation to a perfect plane is obtained. This operation, like all
the subsequent steps in the polishing of the glass, is carried out by
powerful machinery. By means of a rotating table either two surfaces of
glass, or one surface of glass and one of cast iron, are rubbed together
with the interposition of a powerful abrasive such as sand, emery or
carborundum. The machinery by which this is done has undergone numerous
modifications and improvements, all tending to produce more perfectly
plane glass, to reduce the risk of breakage, and to lessen the
expenditure of time and power required per sq. yd. of glass to be
worked. It is impossible to describe this machinery within the limits of
this article, but it is notable that the principal difficulties to be
overcome arise from the necessity of providing the glass with a
perfectly continuous and unyielding support to which it can be firmly
attached but from which it can be detached without undue difficulty.

When the surface of the glass has been ground down to a plane, the
surface itself is still "grey," i.e. deeply pitted with the marks of the
abrasive used in grinding it down; these marks are removed by the
process of smoothing, in which the surface is successively ground with
abrasives of gradually increasing fineness, leaving ultimately a very
smooth and very minutely pitted "grey" surface. This smooth surface is
then brilliantly polished by the aid of friction with a rubbing tool
covered with a soft substance like leather or felt and fed with a
polishing material, such as rouge. A few strokes of such a rubber are
sufficient to produce a decidedly "polished" appearance, but prolonged
rubbing under considerable pressure and the use of a polishing paste of
a proper consistency are required in order to remove the last trace of
pitting from the surface. This entire process must, obviously, be
applied in turn to each of the two surfaces of the slab of glass.
Plate-glass is manufactured in this manner in thicknesses varying from
3/16 in. to 1 in. or even more, while single sheets are produced
measuring more than 27 ft. by 13 ft.

_"Rolled Plate" and figured "Rolled Plate."_--Glass for this purpose,
with perhaps the exception of the best white and tinted varieties, is
now universally produced in tank-furnaces, similar in a general way to
those used for sheet-glass, except that the furnaces used for "rolled
plate" glass of the roughest kinds do not need such minutely careful
attention and do not work at so high a temperature. The composition of
these glasses is very similar to that of sheet-glass, but for the
ordinary kinds of rolled plate much less scrupulous selection need be
made in the choice of raw materials, especially of the sand.

The glass is taken from the furnace in large iron ladles, which are
carried upon slings running on overhead rails; from the ladle the glass
is thrown upon the cast-iron bed of a rolling-table, and is rolled into
sheet by an iron roller, the process being similar to that employed in
making plate-glass, but on a smaller scale. The sheet thus rolled is
roughly trimmed while hot and soft, so as to remove those portions of
glass which have been spoilt by immediate contact with the ladle, and
the sheet, still soft, is pushed into the open mouth of an annealing
tunnel or "lear," down which it is carried by a system of moving grids.

The surface of the glass produced in this way may be modified by
altering the surface of the rolling-table; if the table has a smooth
surface, the glass will also be more or less smooth, but much dented and
buckled on the surface and far from having the smooth face of blown
sheet. If the table has a pattern engraved upon it the glass will show
the same pattern in relief, the most frequent pattern of the kind being
either small parallel ridges or larger ribs crossing to form a lozenge
pattern.

The more elaborate patterns found on what is known as "figure rolled
plate" are produced in a somewhat different manner; the glass used for
this purpose is considerably whiter in colour and much softer than
ordinary rolled plate, and instead of being rolled out on a table it is
produced by rolling between two moving rollers from which the sheet
issues. The pattern is impressed upon the soft sheet by a printing
roller which is brought down upon the glass as it leaves the main rolls.
This glass shows a pattern in high relief and gives a very brilliant
effect.

The various varieties of rolled plate-glass are now produced for some
purposes with a reinforcement of wire netting which is embedded in the
mass of the glass. The wire gives the glass great advantages in the
event of fracture from a blow or from fire, but owing to the difference
in thermal expansion between wire and glass, there is a strong tendency
for such "wired glass" to crack spontaneously.

_Patent Plate-glass._--This term is applied to blown sheet-glass, whose
surface has been rendered plane and brilliant by a process of grinding
and polishing. The name "patent plate" arose from the fact that certain
patented devices originated by James Chance of Birmingham first made it
possible to polish comparatively thin glass in this way.

[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Modern American Glass-Press.]

(B) _Pressed Glass._--The technical difference between pressed and
moulded glass is that moulded glass-ware has taken its form from a mould
under the pressure of a workman's breath, or of compressed air, whereas
pressed glass-ware has taken its form from a mould under the pressure of
a plunger. Moulded glass receives the form of the mould on its interior
as well as on its exterior surface. In pressed glass the exterior
surface is modelled by the mould, whilst the interior surface is
modelled by the plunger (fig. 20).

The process of pressing glass was introduced to meet the demand for
cheap table-ware. Pressed glass, which is necessarily thick and
serviceable, has well met this legitimate demand, but it also caters for
the less legitimate taste for cheap imitations of hand-cut glass. An
American writer has expressed his satisfaction that the day-labourer can
now have on his table at a nominal price glass dishes of elaborate
design, which only an expert can distinguish from hand-cut crystal. The
deceptive effect is in some cases heightened by cutting over and
polishing by hand the pressed surface.

The glass for pressed ware must be colourless, and, when molten, must be
sufficiently fluid to adapt itself readily to the intricacies of the
moulds, which are often exceedingly complex. The materials employed are
sand, sulphate of soda, nitrate of soda, calcspar and in some works
carbonate of barium. The following is an analysis of a specimen of
English pressed glass; SiO2, 70.68%; Na2O, 18.38%; CaO, 5.45%; BaO,
4.17%; Al2O3, 0.33%; and Fe2O3, 0.20%. Tanks and pots are both used for
melting the glass. The moulds are made of cast iron. They are usually in
two main pieces, a base and an upper part or collar of hinged sections.
The plunger is generally worked by a hand lever. The operator knows by
touch when the plunger has pressed the glass far enough to exactly fill
the mould. Although the moulds are heated, the surface of the glass is
always slightly ruffled by contact with the mould. For this reason every
piece of pressed glass-ware, as soon as it is liberated from the mould,
is exposed to a sharp heat in a small subsidiary furnace in order that
the ruffled surface may be removed by melting. These small furnaces are
usually heated by an oil spray under the pressure of steam or compressed
air.

  See Antonio Neri, _Ars vitraria, cum Merritti observationibus_
  (Amsterdam, 1668) (Neri's work was translated into English by C.
  Merritt in 1662, and the translation, _The Art of making Glass_, was
  privately reprinted by Sir T. Phillipps, Bart., in 1826); Johann
  Kunkel, _Vollstandige Glasmacher-Kunst_ (Nuremberg, 1785); Apsley
  Pellatt, _Curiosities of Glass-making_ (London, 1849); A. Sauzay,
  _Marvels of Glass-making_ (from the French) (London, 1869); G.
  Bontemps, _Guide du verrier_ (Paris, 1868); E. Peligot, _Le Verre, son
  histoire, sa fabrication_ (Paris, 1878); W. Stein, "Die
  Glasfabrikation," in Bolley's _Technologie_, vol. iii. (Brunswick,
  1862); H. E. Benrath, _Die Glasfabrikation_ (Brunswick, 1875); J.
  Falck and L. Lobmeyr, _Die Glasindustrie_ (Vienna, 1875); D. H.
  Hovestadt, _Jenaer Glas_ (Jena, 1900; Eng. trans. by J. D. and A.
  Everett, Macmillan, 1907); J. Henrivaux, _Le Verre et le cristal_
  (Paris, 1887), and _La Verrerie au XX^e siecle_ (1903); Chance, Harris
  and Powell, _Principles of Glass-making_ (London, 1883); Moritz V.
  Rohr, _Theorie und Geschichte der photographischen Objektive_ (Berlin,
  1899); C. E. Guillaume, _Traite pratique de la thermometrie de
  precision_ (Paris, 1889); Louis Coffignal, _Verres et emaux_ (Paris,
  1900); R. Gerner, _Die Glasfabrikation_ (Vienna, 1897); C. Wetzel,
  _Herstellung grosser Glaskorper_ (Vienna, 1900); C. Wetzel,
  _Bearbeitung von Glaskorpern_ (Vienna, 1901); E. Tscheuschner,
  _Handbuch der Glasfabrikation_ (Weimar, 1885); R. Dralle, _Anlage und
  Betrieb der Glasfabriken_ (Leipzig, 1886); G. Tammann,
  _Kristallisieren und Schmelzen_ (Leipzig, 1903); W. Rosenhain, "Some
  Properties of Glass," _Trans. Optical Society_ (London, 1903),
  "Possible Directions of Progress in Optical Glass," _Proc. Optical
  Convention_ (London, 1905) and _Glass Manufacture_ (London, 1908);
  Introduction to section 1, _Catalogue of the Optical Convention_
  (London, 1905).     (H. J. P.; W. Rn.)


_History of Glass Manufacture._

The great similarity in form, technique and decoration of the earliest
known specimens of glass-ware suggests that the craft of glass-making
originated from a single centre. It has been generally assumed that
Egypt was the birthplace of the glass industry. It is true that many
conditions existed in Egypt favourable to the development of the craft.
The Nile supplied a waterway for the conveyance of fuel and for the
distribution of the finished wares. Materials were available providing
the essential ingredients of glass. The Egyptian potteries afforded
experience in dealing with vitreous glazes and vitreous colours, and
from Egyptian alabaster-quarries veined vessels were wrought, which may
well have suggested the decorative arrangement of zigzag lines (see
Plate I. figs, 1, 2, 4 d) so frequently found on early specimens of
glass-ware. In Egypt, however, no traces have at present been found of
the industry in a rudimentary condition, and the vases which have been
classified as "primitive" bear witness to an elaboration of technique
far in advance of the experimental period. The earliest specimens of
glass-ware which can be definitely claimed as Egyptian productions, and
the glass manufactory discovered by Dr Flinders Petrie at Tell el
Amarna, belong to the period of the XVIIIth dynasty. The comparative
lateness of this period makes it difficult to account for the wall
painting at Beni Hasan, which accurately represents the process of
glass-blowing, and which is attributed to the period of the XIth
dynasty. Dr Petrie surmounts the difficulty by saying that the process
depicted is not glass-blowing, but some metallurgical process in which
reeds were used tipped with lumps of clay. It is possible that the
picture does not represent Egyptian glass-blowers, but is a traveller's
record of the process of glass-blowing seen in some foreign or subject
country. The scarcity of specimens of early glass-ware actually found in
Egypt, and the advanced technique of those which have been found, lead
to the supposition that glass-making was exotic and not a native
industry. The tradition, recorded by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 65),
assigns the discovery of glass to Syria, and the geographical position
of that country, its forests as a source of fuel, and its deposits of
sand add probability to the tradition. The story that Phoenician
merchants found a glass-like substance under their cooking pots, which
had been supported on blocks of natron, need not be discarded as pure
fiction. The fire may well have caused the natron, an impure form of
carbonate of soda, to combine with the surrounding sand to form silicate
of soda, which, although not a permanent glass, is sufficiently
glass-like to suggest the possibility of creating a permanent
transparent material. Moreover, Pliny (xxxvi. 66) actually records the
discovery which effected the conversion of deliquescent silicate of soda
into permanent glass. The words are "Coeptus addi magnes lapis." There
have been many conjectures as to the meaning of the words "magnes
lapis." The material has been considered by some to be magnetic iron ore
and by others oxide of manganese. Oxides of iron and manganese can only
be used in glass manufacture in comparatively small quantities for the
purpose of colouring or neutralizing colour in glass, and their
introduction would not be a matter of sufficient importance to be
specially recorded. In chapter 25 of the same book Pliny describes five
varieties of "magnes lapis." One of these he says is found in magnesia,
is white in colour, does not attract iron and is like pumice stone. This
variety must certainly be magnesian limestone. Magnesian limestone mixed
and fused with sand and an alkaline carbonate produces a permanent
glass. The scene of the discovery of glass is placed by Pliny on the
banks of the little river Belus, under the heights of Mount Carmel,
where sand suitable for glass-making exists and wood for fuel is
abundant. In this neighbourhood fragments and lumps of glass are still
constantly being dug up, and analysis proves that the glass contains a
considerable proportion of magnesia. The district was a glass-making
centre in Roman times, and it is probable that the Romans inherited and
perfected an indigenous industry of remote antiquity. Pliny has so
accurately recorded the stages by which a permanent glass was developed
that it may be assumed that he had good reason for claiming for Syria
the discovery of glass. Between Egypt and Syria there was frequent
intercourse both of conquest and commerce. It was customary for the
victor after a successful raid to carry off skilled artisans as
captives. It is recorded that Tahutmes III. sent Syrian artisans to
Egypt. Glass-blowers may have been amongst their captive craftsmen, and
may have started the industry in Egypt. The claims of Syria and Egypt
are at the present time so equally balanced that it is advisable to
regard the question of the birthplace of the glass industry as one that
has still to be settled.

The "primitive" vessels which have been found in Egypt are small in size
and consist of columnar stibium jars, flattened bottles and amphorae,
all decorated with zigzag lines, tiny wide-mouthed vases on feet and
minute jugs. The vessels of later date which have been found in
considerable quantities, principally in the coast towns and islands of
the Mediterranean, are amphorae and alabastra, also decorated with
zigzag lines. The amphorae (Plate I. figs. 1 and 2) terminate with a
point, or with an unfinished extension from the terminal point, or with
a knob. The alabastra have short necks, are slightly wider at the base
than at the shoulder and have rounded bases. Dr Petrie has called
attention to two technical peculiarities to be found in almost every
specimen of early glass-ware. The inner surface is roughened (Plate I.
fig. 4 c), and has particles of sand adhering to it, as if the vessel
had been filled with sand and subjected to heat, and the inside of the
neck has the impression of a metal rod (Plate I. fig. 4 a), which
appears to have been extracted from the neck with difficulty. From this
evidence Dr Petrie has assumed that the vessels were not blown, but
formed upon a core of sandy paste, modelled upon a copper rod, the rod
being the core of the neck (see EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_). The
evidence, however, hardly warrants the abandonment of the simple process
of blowing in favour of a process which is so difficult that it may
almost be said to be impossible, and of which there is no record or
tradition except in connexion with the manufacture of small beads. The
technical difficulties to which Dr Petrie has called attention seem to
admit of a somewhat less heroic explanation. A modern glass-blower, when
making an amphora-shaped vase, finishes the base first, fixes an iron
rod to the finished base with a seal of glass, severs the vase from the
blowing iron, and finishes the mouth, whilst he holds the vase by the
iron attached to its base. The "primitive" glass-worker reversed this
process. Having blown the body of the vase, he finished the mouth and
neck part, and fixed a small, probably hollow, copper rod inside the
finished neck by pressing the neck upon the rod (Plate I. fig. 4 b).
Having severed the body of the vase from the blowing iron, he heated and
closed the fractured base, whilst holding the vase by means of the rod
fixed in the neck. Nearly every specimen shows traces of the pressure of
a tool on the outside of the neck, as well as signs of the base having
been closed by melting. Occasionally a knob or excrescence, formed by
the residue of the glass beyond the point at which the base has been
pinched together, remains as a silent witness of the process.

If glass-blowing had been a perfectly new invention of Graeco-Egyptian
or Roman times, some specimens illustrating the transition from
core-moulding to blowing must have been discovered. The absence of
traces of the transition strengthens the supposition that the revolution
in technique merely consisted in the discovery that it was more
convenient to finish the base of a vessel before its mouth, and such a
revolution would leave no trace behind. The roughened inner surface and
the adhering particles of sand may also be accounted for. The vessels,
especially those in which many differently coloured glasses were
incorporated, required prolonged annealing. It is probable that when the
metal rod was withdrawn the vessel was filled with sand, to prevent
collapse, and buried in heated ashes to anneal. The greater the heat of
the ashes the more would the sand adhere to and impress the inner
surface of the vessels. The decoration of zigzag lines was probably
applied directly after the body of the vase had been blown. Threads of
coloured molten glass were spirally coiled round the body, and, whilst
still viscid, were dragged into zigzags with a metal hook.

_Egypt_.--The glass industry flourished in Egypt in Graeco-Egyptian and
Roman times. All kinds of vessels were blown, both with and without
moulds, and both moulding and cutting were used as methods of
decoration. The great variety of these vessels is well shown in the
illustrated catalogue of Graeco-Egyptian glass in the Cairo museum,
edited by C. C. Edgar.

Another species of glass manufacture in which the Egyptians would appear
to have been peculiarly skilled is the so-called mosaic glass, formed by
the union of rods of various colours in such a manner as to form a
pattern; the rod so formed was then reheated and drawn out until reduced
to a very small size, 1 sq. in. or less, and divided into tablets by
being cut transversely, each of these tablets presenting the pattern
traversing its substance and visible on each face. This process was no
doubt first practised in Egypt, and is never seen in such perfection as
in objects of a decidedly Egyptian character. Very beautiful pieces of
ornament of an architectural character are met with, which probably once
served as decorations of caskets or other small pieces of furniture or
of trinkets; also tragic masks, human faces and birds. Some of the
last-named are represented with such truth of colouring and delicacy of
detail that even the separate feathers of the wings and tail are well
distinguished, although, as in an example in the British Museum, a
human-headed hawk, the piece which contains the figure may not exceed
3/4 in. in its largest dimension. Works of this description probably
belong to the period when Egypt passed under Roman domination, as
similar objects, though of inferior delicacy, appear to have been made
in Rome.

_Assyria_.--Early Assyrian glass is represented in the British Museum by
a vase of transparent greenish glass found in the north-west palace of
Nineveh. On one side of this a lion is engraved, and also a line of
cuneiform characters, in which is the name of Sargon, king of Assyria,
722 B.C. Fragments of coloured glasses were also found there, but our
materials are too scanty to enable us to form any decided opinion as to
the degree of perfection to which the art was carried in Assyria. Many
of the specimens discovered by Layard at Nineveh have all the appearance
of being Roman, and were no doubt derived from the Roman colony, Niniva
Claudiopolis, which occupied the same site.

[Illustration: PLATE I.

  FIG. 1.
  FIG. 2.
  FIG. 3.
  FIG. 4.
  FIG. 5.
  FIG. 6.
  FIG. 7.
  FIG. 8.
  FIG. 9.
  FIG. 10.]

[Illustration: PLATE II.

  FIG. 11.
  FIG. 12.
  FIG. 13.
  FIG. 14.]

_Roman Glass_.--In the first centuries of our era the art of
glass-making was developed at Rome and other cities under Roman rule in
a most remarkable manner, and it reached a point of excellence which in
some respects has never been excelled or even perhaps equalled. It may
appear a somewhat exaggerated assertion that glass was used for more
purposes, and in one sense more extensively, by the Romans of the
imperial period than by ourselves in the present day; but it is one
which can be borne out by evidence. It is true that the use of glass for
windows was only gradually extending itself at the time when Roman
civilization sank under the torrent of German and Hunnish barbarism, and
that its employment for optical instruments was only known in a
rudimentary stage; but for domestic purposes, for architectural
decoration and for personal ornaments glass was unquestionably much more
used than at the present day. It must be remembered that the Romans
possessed no fine porcelain decorated with lively colours and a
beautiful glaze; Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery
which was then made. Coloured and ornamental glass held among them much
the same place for table services, vessels for toilet use and the like,
as that held among us by porcelain. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 26, 67)
tells us that for drinking vessels it was even preferred to gold and
silver.

Glass was largely used in pavements, and in thin plates as a coating for
walls. It was used in windows, though by no means exclusively, mica,
alabaster and shells having been also employed. Glass, in flat pieces,
such as might be employed for windows, has been found in the ruins of
Roman houses, both in England and in Italy, and in the house of the faun
at Pompeii a small pane in a bronze frame remains. Most of the pieces
have evidently been made by casting, but the discovery of fragments of
sheet-glass at Silchester proves that the process of making sheet-glass
was known to the Romans. When the window openings were large, as was the
case in basilicas and other public buildings, and even in houses, the
pieces of glass were, doubtless, fixed in pierced slabs of marble or in
frames of wood or bronze. The Roman glass-blowers were masters of all
the ordinary methods of manipulation and decoration. Their craftsmanship
is proved by the large cinerary urns, by the jugs with wide, deeply
ribbed, scientifically fixed handles, and by vessels and vases as
elegant in form and light in weight as any that have been since produced
at Murano. Their moulds, both for blowing hollow vessels and for
pressing ornaments, were as perfect for the purposes for which they were
intended as those of the present time. Their decorative cutting (Plate
I. figs. 5 and 6), which took the form of simple, incised lines, or
bands of shallow oval or hexagonal hollows, was more suited to the
material than the deep prismatic cutting of comparatively recent times.

The Romans had at their command, of transparent colours, blue, green,
purple or amethystine, amber, brown and rose; of opaque colours, white,
black, red, blue, yellow, green and orange. There are many shades of
transparent blue and of opaque blue, yellow and green. In any large
collection of fragments it would be easy to find eight or ten varieties
of opaque blue, ranging from lapis lazuli to turquoise or to lavender
and six or seven of opaque green. Of red the varieties are fewer; the
finest is a crimson red of very beautiful tint, and there are various
gradations from this to a dull brick red. One variety forms the ground
of a very good imitation of porphyry; and there is a dull
semi-transparent red which, when light is passed through it, appears to
be of a dull green hue. With these colours the Roman _vitrarius_ worked,
either using them singly or blending them in almost every conceivable
combination, sometimes, it must be owned, with a rather gaudy and
inharmonious effect.

The glasses to which the Venetians gave the name "mille fiori" were
formed by arranging side by side sections of glass cane, the canes
themselves being built up of differently coloured rods of glass, and
binding them together by heat. A vast quantity of small cups and paterae
were made by this means in patterns which bear considerable resemblance
to the surfaces of madrepores. In these every colour and every shade of
colour seem to have been tried in great variety of combination with
effects more or less pleasing, but transparent violet or purple appears
to have been the most common ground colour. Although most of the vessels
of this mille fiori glass were small, some were made as large as 20 in.
in diameter. Imitations of natural stones were made by stirring together
in a crucible glasses of different colours, or by incorporating
fragments of differently coloured glasses into a mass of molten glass by
rolling. One variety is that in which transparent brown glass is so
mixed with opaque white and blue as to resemble onyx. This was sometimes
done with great success, and very perfect imitations of the natural
stone were produced. Sometimes purple glass is used in place of brown,
probably with the design of imitating the precious murrhine. Imitations
of porphyry, of serpentine, and of granite are also met with, but these
were used chiefly in pavements, and for the decoration of walls, for
which purposes the onyx-glass was likewise employed.

The famous cameo glass was formed by covering a mass of molten glass
with one or more coatings of a differently coloured glass. The usual
process was to gather, first, a small quantity of opaque white glass; to
coat this with a thick layer of translucent blue glass; and, finally, to
cover the blue glass with a coating of the white glass. The outer coat
was then removed from that portion which was to constitute the ground,
leaving the white for the figures, foliage or other ornamentation; these
were then sculptured by means of the gem-engraver's tools. Pliny no
doubt means to refer to this when he says (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 26. 66),
"aliud argenti modo caelatur," contrasting it with the process of
cutting glass by the help of a wheel, to which he refers in the words
immediately preceding, "aliud torno teritur."

The Portland or Barberini vase in the British Museum is the finest
example of this kind of work which has come down to us, and was entire
until it was broken into some hundred pieces by a madman. The pieces,
however, were joined together by Mr Doubleday with extraordinary skill,
and the beauty of design and execution may still be appreciated. The two
other most remarkable examples of this cameo glass are an amphora at
Naples and the Auldjo vase. The amphora measures 1 ft. 5/8 in. in
height, 1 ft. 7-1/2 in. in circumference; it is shaped like the earthern
amphoras with a foot far too small to support it, and must no doubt have
had a stand, probably of gold; the greater part is covered with a most
exquisite design of garlands and vines, and two groups of boys gathering
and treading grapes and playing on various instruments of music; below
these is a line of sheep and goats in varied attitudes. The ground is
blue and the figures white. It was found in a house in the Street of
Tombs at Pompeii in the year 1839, and is now in the Royal Museum at
Naples. It is well engraved in Richardson's _Studies of Ornamental
Design_. The Auldjo vase, in the British Museum, is an oenochoe about 9
in. high; the ornament consists mainly of a most beautiful band of
foliage, chiefly of the vine, with bunches of grapes; the ground is blue
and the ornaments white; it was found at Pompeii in the house of the
faun. It also has been engraved by Richardson. The same process was used
in producing large tablets, employed, no doubt, for various decorative
purposes. In the South Kensington Museum is a fragment of such a tablet
or slab; the figure, a portion of which remains, could not have been
less than about 14 in. high. The ground of these cameo glasses is most
commonly transparent blue, but sometimes opaque blue, purple or dark
brown. The superimposed layer, which is sculptured, is generally opaque
white. A very few specimens have been met with in which several colours
are employed.

At a long interval after these beautiful objects come those vessels
which were ornamented either by means of coarse threads trailed over
their surfaces and forming rude patterns, or by coloured enamels merely
placed on them in lumps; and these, doubtless, were cheap and common
wares. But a modification of the first-named process was in use in the
4th and succeeding centuries, showing great ingenuity and manual
dexterity,--that, namely, in which the added portions of glass are
united to the body of the cup, not throughout, but only at points, and
then shaped either by the wheel or by the hand (Plate I. fig. 3). The
attached portions form in some instances inscriptions, as on a cup
found at Strassburg, which bears the name of the emperor Maximian (A.D.
286-310), on another in the Vereinigte Sammlungen at Munich, and on a
third in the Trivulzi collection at Milan, where the cup is white, the
inscription green and the network blue. Probably, however, the finest
example is a situla, 10-1/2 in. high by 8 in. wide at the top and 4 in.
at the bottom, preserved in the treasury of St Mark at Venice. This is
of glass of a greenish hue; on the upper part is represented, in relief,
the chase of a lion by two men on horseback accompanied by dogs; the
costume appears to be Byzantine rather than Roman, and the style is very
bad. The figures are very much undercut. The lower part has four rows of
circles united to the vessel at those points alone where the circles
touch each other. All the other examples have the lower portion covered
in like manner by a network of circles standing nearly a quarter of an
inch from the body of the cup. An example connected with the specimens
just described is the cup belonging to Baron Lionel de Rothschild;
though externally of an opaque greenish colour, it is by transmitted
light of a deep red. On the outside, in very high relief, are figures of
Bacchus with vines and panthers, some portions being hollow from within,
others fixed on the exterior. The changeability of colour may remind us
of the "calices versicolores" which Hadrian sent to Servianus.

So few examples of glass vessels of this period which have been painted
in enamel have come down to us that it has been questioned whether that
art was then practised; but several specimens have been described which
can leave no doubt on the point; decisive examples are afforded by two
cups found at Vaspelev, in Denmark, engravings of which are published in
the _Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndeghed_ for 1861, p. 305. These are small
cups, 3 in. and 2-1/2 in. high, 3-3/4 in. and 3 in. wide, with feet and
straight sides; on the larger are a lion and a bull, on the smaller two
birds with grapes, and on each some smaller ornaments. On the latter are
the letters DVB. R. The colours are vitrified and slightly in relief;
green, blue and brown may be distinguished. They are found with Roman
bronze vessels and other articles.

The art of glass-making no doubt, like all other art, deteriorated
during the decline of the Roman empire, but it is probable that it
continued to be practised, though with constantly decreasing skill, not
only in Rome but in the provinces. Roman technique was to be found in
Byzantium and Alexandria, in Syria, in Spain, in Germany, France and
Britain.

_Early Christian and Byzantine Glass_.--The process of embedding gold
and silver leaf between two layers of glass originated as early as the
1st century, probably in Alexandria. The process consisted in spreading
the leaf on a thin film of blown glass and pressing molten glass on to
the leaf so that the molten glass cohered with the film of glass through
the pores of the metallic leaf. If before this application of the molten
glass the metallic leaf, whilst resting on the thin film of blown glass,
was etched with a sharp point, patterns, emblems, inscriptions and
pictures could be embedded and rendered permanent by the double coating
of glass. The plaques thus formed could be reheated and fashioned into
the bases of bowls and drinking vessels. In this way the so-called
"fondi d'oro" of the catacombs in Rome were made. They are the broken
bases of drinking vessels containing inscriptions, emblems, domestic
scenes and portraits etched in gold leaf. Very few have any reference to
Christianity, but they served as indestructible marks for indicating the
position of interments in the catacombs. The fondi d'oro suggested the
manufacture of plaques of gold which could be broken up into tesserae
for use in mosaics.

Some of the Roman artificers in glass no doubt migrated to
Constantinople, and it is certain that the art was practised there to a
very great extent during the middle ages. One of the gates near the port
took its name from the adjacent glass houses. St Sofia when erected by
Justinian had vaults covered with mosaics and immense windows filled
with plates of glass fitted into pierced marble frames; some of the
plates, 7 to 8 in. wide and 9 to 10 in. high, not blown but cast, which
are in the windows may possibly date from the building of the church.
It is also recorded that pierced silver disks were suspended by chains
and supported glass lamps "wrought by fire." Glass for mosaics was also
largely made and exported. In the 8th century, when peace was made
between the caliph Walid and the emperor Justinian II., the former
stipulated for a quantity of mosaic for the decoration of the new mosque
at Damascus, and in the 10th century the materials for the decoration of
the niche of the kibla at Cordova were furnished by Romanus II. In the
11th century Desiderius, abbot of Monte Casino, sent to Constantinople
for workers in mosaic.

We have in the work of the monk Theophilus, _Diversarum artium
schedula_, and in the probably earlier work of Eraclius, about the 11th
century, instructions as to the art of glass-making in general, and also
as to the production of coloured and enamelled vessels, which these
writers speak of as being practised by the Greeks. The only entire
enamelled vessel which we can confidently attribute to Byzantine art is
a small vase preserved in the treasury of St Mark's at Venice. This is
decorated with circles of rosettes of blue, green and red enamel, each
surrounded by lines of gold; within the circles are little figures
evidently suggested by antique originals, and precisely like similar
figures found on carved ivory boxes of Byzantine origin dating from the
11th or 12th century. Two inscriptions in Cufic characters surround the
vase, but they, it would seem, are merely ornamental and destitute of
meaning. The presence of these inscriptions may perhaps lead to the
inference that the vase was made in Sicily, but by Byzantine workmen.
The double-handled blue-glass vase in the British Museum, dating from
the 5th century, is probably a chalice, as it closely resembles the
chalices represented on early Christian monuments.

Of uncoloured glass brought from Constantinople several examples exist
in the treasury of St Mark's at Venice, part of the plunder of the
imperial city when taken by the crusaders in 1204. The glass in all is
greenish, very thick, with many bubbles, and has been cut with the
wheel; in some instances circles and cones, and in one the outlines of
the figure of a leopard, have been left standing up, the rest of the
surface having been laboriously cut away. The intention would seem to
have been to imitate vessels of rock crystal. The so-called "Hedwig"
glasses may also have originated in Constantinople. These are small cups
deeply and rudely cut with conventional representations of eagles, lions
and griffins. Only nine specimens are known. The specimen in the Rijks
Museum at Amsterdam has an eagle and two lions. The specimen in the
Germanic Museum at Nuremberg has two lions and a griffin.

_Saracenic Glass._--The Saracenic invasion of Syria and Egypt did not
destroy the industry of glass-making. The craft survived and flourished
under the Saracenic regime in Alexandria, Cairo, Tripoli, Tyre, Aleppo
and Damascus. In inventories of the 14th century both in England and in
France mention may frequently be found of glass vessels of the
manufacture of Damascus. A writer in the early part of the 15th century
states that "glass-making is an important industry at Haleb (Aleppo)."
Edward Dillon (_Glass_, 1902) has very properly laid stress on the
importance of the enamelled Saracenic glass of the 13th, 14th and 15th
centuries, pointing out that, whereas the Romans and Byzantine Greeks
made some crude and ineffectual experiments in enamelling, it was under
Saracenic influence that the processes of enamelling and gilding on
glass vessels were perfected. An analysis of the glass of a Cairene
mosque lamp shows that it is a soda-lime glass and contains as much as
4% of magnesia. This large proportion of magnesia undoubtedly supplied
the stability required to withstand the process of enamelling. The
enamelled Saracenic glasses take the form of flasks, vases, goblets,
beakers and mosque lamps. The enamelled decoration on the lamps is
restricted to lettering, scrolls and conventional foliage; on other
objects figure-subjects of all descriptions are freely used. C. H. Read
has pointed out a curious feature in the construction of the enamelled
beakers. The base is double but the inner lining has an opening in the
centre. Dillon has suggested that this central recess may have served to
support a wick. It is possible however, that it served no useful
purpose, but that the construction is a survival from the manufacture of
vessels with fondi d'oro. The bases containing the embedded gold leaf
must have been welded to the vessels to which they belonged, in the same
way as the bases are welded to the Saracenic beakers. The enamelling
process was probably introduced in the early part of the 13th century;
most of the enamelled mosque lamps belong to the 14th century.

_Venetian Glass_.--Whether refugees from Padua, Aquileia or other
Italian cities carried the art to the lagoons of Venice in the 5th
century, or whether it was learnt from the Greeks of Constantinople at a
much later date, has been a disputed question. It would appear not
improbable that the former was the case, for it must be remembered that
articles formed of glass were in the later days of Roman civilization in
constant daily use, and that the making of glass was carried on, not as
now in large establishments, but by artisans working on a small scale.
It seems certain that some knowledge of the art was preserved in France,
in Germany and in Spain, and it seems improbable that it should have
been lost in that archipelago, where the traditions of ancient
civilization must have been better preserved than in almost any other
place. In 523 Cassiodorus writes of the "innumerosa navigia" belonging
to Venice, and where trade is active there is always a probability that
manufactures will flourish. However this may be, the earliest positive
evidence of the existence at Venice of a worker in glass would seem to
be the mention of Petrus Flavianus, phiolarius, in the ducale of Vitale
Falier in the year 1090. In 1224 twenty-nine persons are mentioned as
friolari (i.e. phiolari), and in the same century "mariegole," or codes
of trade regulations, were drawn up (_Monografia della vetraria
Veneziana e Muranese_, p. 219). The manufacture had then no doubt
attained considerable proportions: in 1268 the glass-workers became an
incorporated body; in their processions they exhibited decanters,
scent-bottles and the like; in 1279 they made, among other things,
weights and measures. In the latter part of this century the
glass-houses were almost entirely transferred to Murano. Thenceforward
the manufacture continued to grow in importance; glass vessels were made
in large quantities, as well as glass for windows. The earliest example
which has as yet been described--a cup of blue glass, enamelled and
gilt--is, however, not earlier than about 1440. A good many other
examples have been preserved which may be assigned to the same century:
the earlier of these bear a resemblance in form to the vessels of silver
made in the west of Europe; in the later an imitation of classical forms
becomes apparent. Enamel and gilding were freely used, in imitation no
doubt of the much-admired vessels brought from Damascus. Dillon has
pointed out that the process of enamelling had probably been derived
from Syria, with which country Venice had considerable commercial
intercourse. Many of the ornamental processes which we admire in
Venetian glass were already in use in this century, as that of mille
fiori, and the beautiful kind of glass known as "vitro di trina" or lace
glass. An elaborate account of the processes of making the vitro di
trina and the vasi a reticelli (Plate I., fig. 7) is given in Bontemps's
_Guide du verrier_, pp. 602-612. Many of the examples of these processes
exhibit surprising skill and taste, and are among the most beautiful
objects produced at the Venetian furnaces. That peculiar kind of glass
usually called schmelz, an imperfect imitation of calcedony, was also
made at Venice in the 15th century. Avanturine glass, that in which
numerous small particles of copper are diffused through a transparent
yellowish or brownish mass, was not invented until about 1600.

The peculiar merits of the Venetian manufacture are the elegance of form
and the surprising lightness and thinness of the substance of the
vessels produced. The highest perfection with regard both to form and
decoration was reached in the 16th century; subsequently the Venetian
workmen somewhat abused their skill by giving extravagant forms to
vessels, making drinking glasses in the forms of ships, lions, birds,
whales and the like.

Besides the making of vessels of all kinds the factories of Murano had
for a long period almost an entire monopoly of two other branches of the
art--the making of mirrors and of beads. Attempts to make mirrors of
glass were made as early as A.D. 1317, but even in the 16th century
mirrors of steel were still in use. To make a really good mirror of
glass two things are required--a plate free from bubbles and striae, and
a method of applying a film of metal with a uniform bright surface free
from defects. The principle of applying metallic films to glass seems to
have been known to the Romans and even to the Egyptians, and is
mentioned by Alexander Neckam in the 12th century, but it would appear
that it was not until the 16th century that the process of "silvering"
mirrors by the use of an amalgam of tin and mercury had been perfected.
During the 16th and 17th centuries Venice exported a prodigious quantity
of mirrors, but France and England gradually acquired knowledge and
skill in the art, and in 1772 only one glass-house at Murano continued
to make mirrors.

The making of beads was probably practised at Venice from a very early
period, but the earliest documentary evidence bearing on the subject
does not appear to be of earlier date than the 14th century, when
prohibitions were directed against those who made of glass such objects
as were usually made of crystal or other hard stones. In the 16th
century it had become a trade of great importance, and about 1764
twenty-two furnaces were employed in the production of beads. Towards
the end of the same century from 600 to 1000 workmen were, it is stated,
employed on one branch of the art, that of ornamenting beads by the help
of the blow-pipe. A very great variety of patterns was produced; a
tariff of the year 1800 contains an enumeration of 562 species and a
vast number of sub-species.

The efforts made in France, Germany and England, in the 17th and 18th
centuries, to improve the manufacture of glass in those countries had a
very injurious effect on the industry of Murano. The invention of
colourless Bohemian glass brought in its train the practice of cutting
glass, a method of ornamentation for which Venetian glass, from its
thinness, was ill adapted. One remarkable man, Giuseppe Briati, exerted
himself, with much success, both in working in the old Venetian method
and also in imitating the new fashions invented in Bohemia. He was
especially successful in making vases and circular dishes of vitro di
trina; one of the latter in the Correr collection at Venice, believed to
have been made in his glass-house, measures 55 centimetres (nearly 23
in.) in diameter. The vases made by him are as elegant in form as the
best of the Cinquecento period, but may perhaps be distinguished by the
superior purity and brilliancy of the glass. He also made with great
taste and skill large lustres and mirrors with frames of glass
ornamented either in intaglio or with foliage of various colours. He
obtained a knowledge of the methods of working practised in Bohemia by
disguising himself as a porter, and thus worked for three years in a
Bohemian glass-house. In 1736 he obtained a patent at Venice to
manufacture glass in the Bohemian manner. He died in 1772.

The fall of the republic was accompanied by interruption of trade and
decay of manufacture, and in the last years of the 18th and beginning of
the 19th century the glass-making of Murano was at a very low ebb. In
the year 1838 Signor Bussolin revived several of the ancient processes
of glass-working, and this revival was carried on by C. Pietro Biguglia
in 1845, and by others, and later by Salviati, to whose successful
efforts the modern renaissance of Venetian art glass is principally due.

The fame of Venice in glass-making so completely eclipsed that of other
Italian cities that it is difficult to learn much respecting their
progress in the art. Hartshorne and Dillon have drawn attention to the
important part played by the little Ligurian town, Altare, as a centre
from which glass-workers migrated to all parts of Europe. It is said
that the glass industry was established at Altare, in the 11th century,
by French craftsmen. In the 14th century Muranese glass-workers settled
there and developed the industry. It appears that as early as 1295
furnaces had been established at Treviso, Vicenza, Padua, Mantua,
Ferrara, Ravenna and Bologna. In 1634 there were two glass-houses in
Rome and one in Florence; but whether any of these produced ornamented
vessels, or only articles of common use and window glass, would not
appear to have as yet been ascertained.

_Germany_--Glass-making in Germany during the Roman period seems to have
been carried on extensively in the neighbourhood of Cologne. The Cologne
museum contains many specimens of Roman glass, some of which are
remarkable for their cut decoration. The craft survived the downfall of
the Roman power, and a native industry was developed. This industry must
have won some reputation, for in 758 the abbot of Jarrow appealed to the
bishop of Mainz to send him a worker in glass. There are few records of
glass manufacture in Germany before the beginning of the 16th century.
The positions of the factories were determined by the supply of wood for
fuel, and subsequently, when the craft of glass-cutting was introduced,
by the accessibility of water-power. The vessels produced by the
16th-century glass-workers in Germany, Holland and the Low Countries are
closely allied in form and decoration. The glass is coloured (generally
green) and the decoration consists of glass threads and glass studs, or
prunts ("Nuppen"). The use of threads and prunts is illustrated by the
development of the "Roemer," so popular as a drinking-glass, and as a
feature in Dutch studies of still life. The "Igel," a squat tumbler
covered with prunts, gave rise to the "Krautstrunk," which is like the
"Igel," but longer and narrow-waisted. The "Roemer" itself consists of a
cup, a short waist studded with prunts and a foot. The foot at first was
formed by coiling a thread of glass round the base of the waist; but,
subsequently, an open glass cone was joined to the base of the waist,
and a glass thread was coiled upon the surface of the cone. The
"Passglas," another popular drinking-glass, is cylindrical in form and
marked with horizontal rings of glass, placed at regular intervals, to
indicate the quantity of liquor to be taken at a draught.

In the edition of 1581 of the _De re metallica_ by Georg Agricola, there
is a woodcut showing the interior of a German glass factory, and glass
vessels both finished and unfinished.

In 1428 a Muranese glass-worker set up a furnace in Vienna, and another
furnace was built in the same town by an Italian in 1486. In 1531 the
town council of Nuremberg granted a subsidy to attract teachers of
Venetian technique. Many specimens exist of German winged and enamelled
glasses of Venetian character. The Venetian influence, however, was
indirect rather than direct. The native glass-workers adopted the
process of enamelling, but applied it to a form of decoration
characteristically German. On tall, roomy, cylindrical glasses they
painted portraits of the emperor and electors of Germany, or the
imperial eagle bearing on its wings the arms of the states composing the
empire. The earliest-known example of these enamelled glasses bears the
date 1553. They were immensely popular and the fashion for them lasted
into the 18th century. Some of the later specimens have views of cities,
battle scenes and processions painted in grisaille.

A more important outcome, however, of Italian influence was the
production, in emulation of Venetian glass, of a glass made of refined
potash, lime and sand, which was more colourless than the material it
was intended to imitate. This colourless potash-lime glass has always
been known as Bohemian glass. It was well adapted for receiving cut and
engraved decoration, and in these processes the German craftsmen proved
themselves to be exceptionally skilful. At the end of the 16th century
Rudolph II. brought Italian rock-crystal cutters from Milan to take
control of the crystal and glass-cutting works he had established at
Prague. It was at Prague that Caspar Lehmann and Zachary Belzer learnt
the craft of cutting glass. George Schwanhart, a pupil of Caspar
Lehmann, started glass-cutting at Ratisbon, and about 1690 Stephen
Schmidt and Hermann Schwinger introduced the crafts of cutting and
engraving glass in Nuremberg. To the Germans must be credited the
discovery, or development, of colourless potash-lime glass, the
reintroduction of the crafts of cutting and engraving on glass, the
invention by H. Schwanhart of the process of etching on glass by means
of hydrofluoric acid, and the rediscovery by J. Kunkel, who was director
of the glass-houses at Potsdam in 1679, of the method of making
copper-ruby glass.

_Low Countries and the United Provinces._--The glass industry of the Low
Countries was chiefly influenced by Italy and Spain, whereas German
influence and technique predominated in the United Provinces. The
history of glass-making in the provinces is almost identical with that
of Germany. In the 17th and 18th centuries the processes of scratching,
engraving and etching were brought to great perfection.

The earliest record of glass-making in the Low Countries consists in an
account of payments made in 1453-1454 on behalf of Philip the Good of
Burgundy to "Gossiun de Vieuglise, Maitre Vorrier de Lille" for a glass
fountain and four glass plateaus. Schuermans has traced Italian
glass-workers to Antwerp, Liege, Brussels and Namur. Antwerp appears to
have been the headquarters of the Muranese, and Liege the headquarters
of the Altarists. Guicciardini in his description of the Netherlands, in
1563, mentions glass as among the chief articles of export to England.

In 1599 the privilege of making "Voires de cristal a la faschon Venise,"
was granted to Philippe de Gridolphi of Antwerp. In 1623 Anthony Miotti,
a Muranese, addressed a petition to Philip IV. of Spain for permission
to make glasses, vases and cups of fine crystal, equal to those of
Venice, but to be sold at one-third less than Venetian glasses. In 1642
Jean Savonetti "gentilhomme Verrier de Murano" obtained a patent for
making glass in Brussels. The Low Country glasses are closely copied
from Venetian models, but generally are heavier and less elegant. Owing
to the fashion of Dutch and Flemish painters introducing glass vases and
drinking-glasses into their paintings of still life, interiors and
scenes of conviviality, Holland and Belgium at the present day possess
more accurate records of the products of their ancient glass factories
than any other countries.

_Spain._--During the Roman occupation Pliny states that glass was made
"per Hispanias" (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 26. 66). Traces of Roman glass
manufactories have been found in Valencia and Murcia, in the valleys
which run down to the coast of Catalonia, and near the mouth of the
Ebro. Little is known about the condition of glass-making in Spain
between the Roman period and the 13th century. In the 13th century the
craft of glass-making was practised by the Moors in Almeria, and was
probably a survival from Roman times. The system of decorating vases and
vessels by means of strands of glass trailed upon the surface in knots,
zigzags and trellis work, was adopted by the Moors and is characteristic
of Roman craftsmanship. Glass-making was continued at Pinar de la
Vidriera and at Al Castril de la Pena into the 17th century. The objects
produced show no sign of Venetian influence, but are distinctly Oriental
in form. Many of the vessels have four or as many as eight handles, and
are decorated with serrated ornamentation, and with the trailed strands
of glass already referred to. The glass is generally of a dark-green
colour.

Barcelona has a long record as a centre of the glass industry. In 1324 a
municipal edict was issued forbidding the erection of glass-furnaces
within the city. In 1455 the glass-makers of Barcelona were permitted to
form a gild. Jeronimo Paulo, writing in 1491, says that glass vessels of
various sorts were sent thence to many places, and even to Rome.
Marineus Siculus, writing early in the 16th century, says that the best
glass was made at Barcelona; and Gaspar Baneiros, in his
_Chronographia_, published in 1562, states that the glass made at
Barcelona was almost equal to that of Venice and that large quantities
were exported.

The author of the _Atlante espanol_, writing at the end of the 18th
century, says that excellent glass was still made at Barcelona on
Venetian models. The Italian influence was strongly felt in Spain, but
Spanish writers have given no precise information as to when it was
introduced or whence it came. Schuermans has, however, discovered the
names of more than twenty Italians who found their way into Spain, in
some cases by way of Flanders, either from Altare or from Venice. The
Spanish glass-makers were very successful in imitating the Venetian
style, and many specimens supposed to have originated from Murano are
really Spanish. In addition to the works at Barcelona, the works which
chiefly affected Venetian methods were those of Cadalso in the province
of Toledo, founded in the 16th century, and the works established in
1680 at San Martin de Valdeiglesias in Avila. There were also works at
Valdemaqueda and at Villafranca. In 1680 the works in Barcelona,
Valdemaqueda and Villafranca are named in a royal schedule giving the
prices at which glass was to be sold in Madrid. In 1772 important glass
works were established at Recuenco in the province of Cuenca, mainly to
supply Madrid. The royal glass manufactory of La Granja de San Ildefonso
was founded about 1725; in the first instance for the manufacture of
mirror plates, but subsequently for the production of vases and
table-ware in the French style. The objects produced are mostly of white
clear glass, cut, engraved and gilded. Engraved flowers, views and
devices are often combined with decorative cutting. Don Sigismundo Brun
is credited with the invention of permanent gilding fixed by heat.
Spanish glass is well represented in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

_France._--Pliny states that glass was made in Gaul, and there is reason
to believe that it was made in many parts of the country and on a
considerable scale. There were glass-making districts both in Normandy
and in Poitou.

Little information can be gathered concerning the glass industry between
the Roman period and the 14th century. It is recorded that in the 7th
century the abbot of Wearmouth in England obtained artificers in glass
from France; and there is a tradition that in the 11th century
glass-workers migrated from Normandy and Brittany and set up works at
Altare near Genoa.

In 1302 window glass, probably crown-glass, was made at Beza le Foret in
the department of the Eure. In 1416 these works were in the hands of
Robin and Leban Guichard, but passed subsequently to the Le Vaillants.

In 1338 Humbert, the dauphin, granted a part of the forest of Chamborant
to a glass-worker named Guionet on the condition that Guionet should
supply him with vessels of glass.

In 1466 the abbess of St Croix of Poitiers received a gross of glasses
from the glass-works of La Ferriere, for the privilege of gathering fern
for the manufacture of potash.

In France, as in other countries, efforts were made to introduce Italian
methods of glass-working. Schuermans in his researches discovered that
during the 15th and 16th centuries many glass-workers left Altare and
settled in France,--the Saroldi migrated to Poitou, the Ferri to
Provence, the Massari to Lorraine and the Bormioli to Normandy. In 1551
Henry II. of France established at St Germain en Laye an Italian named
Mutio; he was a native of Bologna, but of Altare origin. In 1598 Henry
IV. permitted two "gentil hommes verriers" from Mantua to settle at
Rouen in order to make "verres de cristal, verres doree emaul et autres
ouvrages qui se font en Venise."

France assimilated the craft of glass-making, and her craftsmen acquired
a wide reputation. Lorraine and Normandy appear to have been the most
important centres. To Lorraine belong the well-known names Hennezel, de
Thietry, du Thisac, de Houx; and to Normandy the names de Bongar, de
Cacqueray le Vaillant and de Brossard.

In the 17th century the manufacture of mirror glass became an important
branch of the industry. In 1665 a manufactory was established in the
Faubourg St Antoine in Paris, and another at Tour-la-Ville near
Cherbourg.

Louis Lucas de Nehou, who succeeded de Cacqueray at the works at
Tour-la-Ville, moved in 1675 to the works in Paris. Here, in 1688, in
conjunction with A. Thevart, he succeeded in perfecting the process of
casting plate-glass. Mirror plates previous to the invention had been
made from blown "sheet" glass, and were consequently very limited in
size. De Nehou's process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table
rendered the manufacture of very large plates possible.

The Manufactoire Royale des Glaces was removed in 1693 to the Chateau de
St Gobain.

In the 18th century the manufacture of _vases de verre_ had become so
neglected that the Academy of Sciences in 1759 offered a prize for an
essay on the means by which the industry might be revived (Labarte,
_Histoire des arts industriels_).

The famous Baccarat works, for making crystal glass, were founded in
1818 by d'Artigues.

_English Glass._--The records of glass-making in England are exceedingly
meagre. There is reason to believe that during the Roman occupation the
craft was carried on in several parts of the country. Remains of a Roman
glass manufactory of considerable extent were discovered near the
Manchester Ship Canal at Warrington. Wherever the Romans settled glass
vessels and fragments of glass have been found. There is no evidence to
prove that the industry survived the withdrawal of the Roman garrison.

It is probable that the glass drinking-vessels, which have been found in
pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon tombs, were introduced from Germany. Some are
elaborate in design and bear witness to advanced technique of Roman
character. In 675 Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, was obliged to
obtain glass-workers from France, and in 758 Cuthbert, abbot of Jarrow,
appealed to the bishop of Mainz to send him artisans to manufacture
"windows and vessels of glass, because the English were ignorant and
helpless." Except for the statement in Bede that the French artisans,
sent by Benedict Biscop, taught their craft to the English, there is at
present no evidence of glass having been made in England between the
Roman period and the 13th century. In some deeds relating to the parish
of Chiddingfold, in Surrey, of a date not later than 1230, a grant is
recorded of twenty acres of land to Lawrence "vitrearius," and in
another deed, of about 1280, the "ovenhusveld" is mentioned as a
boundary. This field has been identified, and pieces of crucible and
fragments of glass have been dug up. There is another deed, dated 1300,
which mentions one William "le verir" of Chiddingfold.

About 1350 considerable quantities of colourless flat glass were
supplied by John Alemayn of Chiddingfold for glazing the windows in St
George's chapel, Windsor, and in the chapel of St Stephen, Westminster.
The name Alemayn (Aleman) suggests a foreign origin. In 1380 John
Glasewryth, a Staffordshire glass-worker, came to work at Shuerewode,
Kirdford, and there made brode-glas and vessels for Joan, widow of John
Shertere.

There were two kinds of flat glass, known respectively as "brode-glas"
and "Normandy" glass. The former was made, as described by Theophilus,
from cylinders, which were split, reheated and flattened into square
sheets. It was known as Lorraine glass, and subsequently as "German
sheet" or sheet-glass. Normandy glass was made from glass circles or
disks. When, in after years, the process was perfected, the glass was
known as "crown" glass. In 1447 English flat glass is mentioned in the
contract for the windows of the Beauchamp chapel at Warwick, but
disparagingly, as the contractor binds himself not to use it. In 1486,
however, it is referred to in such a way as to suggest that it was
superior to "Dutch, Venice or Normandy glass." The industry does not
seem to have prospered, for when in 1567 an inquiry was made as to its
condition, it was ascertained that only small rough goods were being
made.

In the 16th century the fashion for using glass vessels of ornamental
character spread from Italy into France and England. Henry VIII. had a
large collection of glass drinking-vessels chiefly of Venetian
manufacture. The increasing demand for Venetian drinking-glasses
suggested the possibility of making similar glass in England, and
various attempts were made to introduce Venetian workmen and Venetian
methods of manufacture. In 1550 eight Muranese glass-blowers were
working in or near the Tower of London. They had left Murano owing to
slackness of trade, but had been recalled, and appealed to the Council
of Ten in Venice to be allowed to complete their contract in London.
Seven of these glass-workers left London in the following year, but one,
Josepho Casselari, remained and joined Thomas Cavato, a Dutchman. In
1574 Jacob Verzellini, a fugitive Venetian, residing in Antwerp,
obtained a patent for making drinking-glasses in London "such as are
made in Murano." He established works in Crutched Friars, and to him is
probably due the introduction of the use of soda-ash, made from seaweed
and seaside plants, in place of the crude potash made from fern and wood
ashes. His manufactory was burnt down in 1575, but was rebuilt. He
afterwards moved his works to Winchester House, Broad Street. There is a
small goblet (Pl. I., fig. 8) in the British Museum which is attributed
to Verzellini. It is Venetian in character, of a brownish tint, with two
white enamel rings round the body. It is decorated with diamond or
steel-point etching, and bears on one side the date 1586, and on the
opposite side the words "In God is al mi trust." Verzellini died in 1606
and was buried at Down in Kent. In 1592 the Broad Street works had been
taken over by Jerome Bowes. They afterwards passed into the hands of Sir
R. Mansel, and in 1618 James Howell, author of _Epistolae Ho-elianae_,
was acting as steward. The works continued in operation until 1641.
During excavations in Broad Street in 1874 many fragments of glass were
found; amongst them were part of a wine-glass, a square scent-bottle and
a wine-glass stem containing a spiral thread of white enamel.

A greater and more lasting influence on English glass-making came from
France and the Low Countries. In 1567 James Carre of Antwerp stated that
he had erected two glass-houses at "Fernefol" (Fernfold Wood in Sussex)
for Normandy and Lorraine glass for windows, and had brought over
workmen. From this period began the records in England of the great
glass-making families of Hennezel, de Thietry, du Thisac and du Houx
from Lorraine, and of de Bongar and de Cacqueray from Normandy. About
this time glass-works were established at Ewhurst and Alford in Surrey,
Loxwood, Kirdford, Wisborough and Petworth in Sussex, and Sevenoaks and
Penshurst in Kent. Beginning in Sussex, Surrey and Kent, where wood for
fuel was plentiful, the foreign glass-workers and their descendants
migrated from place to place, always driven by the fuel-hunger of their
furnaces. They gradually made their way into Hampshire, Wiltshire,
Gloucestershire, Staffordshire, Northumberland, Scotland and Ireland.
They can be traced by cullet heaps and broken-down furnaces, and by
their names, often mutilated, recorded in parish registers.

In 1610 a patent was granted to Sir W. Slingsby for burning coal in
furnaces, and coal appears to have been used in the Broad Street works.
In 1615 all patents for glass-making were revoked and a new patent
issued for making glass with coal as fuel, in the names of Mansel,
Zouch, Thelwall, Kellaway and Percival. To the last is credited the
first introduction of covered crucibles to protect the molten glass from
the products of burning coal.

Simultaneously with the issue of this patent the use of wood for melting
glass was prohibited, and it was made illegal to import glass from
abroad. About 1617 Sir R. Mansel, vice-admiral and treasurer of the
navy, acquired the sole rights of making glass in England. These rights
he retained for over thirty years.

During the protectorate all patent rights virtually lapsed, and mirrors
and drinking-glasses were once more imported from Venice. In 1663 the
duke of Buckingham, although unable to obtain a renewal of the monopoly
of glass-making, secured the prohibition of the importation of glass for
mirrors, coach plates, spectacles, tubes and lenses, and contributed to
the revival of the glass industry in all its branches. Evelyn notes in
his _Diary_ a visit in 1673 to the Italian glass-house at Greenwich,
"where glass was blown of finer metal than that of Murano," and a visit
in 1677 to the duke of Buckingham's glass-works, where they made huge
"vases of mettal as cleare, ponderous and thick as chrystal; also
looking-glasses far larger and better than any that came from Venice."

Some light is thrown on the condition of the industry at the end of the
17th century by the Houghton letters on the improvement of trade and
commerce, which appeared in 1696. A few of these letters deal with the
glass trade, and in one a list is given of the glass-works then in
operation. There were 88 glass factories in England which are thus
classified:

  Bottles                   39
  Looking-glass plates       2
  Crown and plate-glass      5
  Window glass              15
  Flint and ordinary glass  27
                            --
                            88

It is probable that the flint-glass of that date was very different from
the flint-glass of to-day. The term flint-glass is now understood to
mean a glass composed of the silicates of potash and lead. It is the
most brilliant and the most colourless of all glasses, and was
undoubtedly first perfected in England. Hartshorne has attributed its
discovery to a London merchant named Tilson, who in 1663 obtained a
patent for making "crystal glass." E. W. Hulme, however, who has
carefully investigated the subject, is of opinion that flint-glass in
its present form was introduced about 1730. The use of oxide of lead in
glass-making was no new thing; it had been used, mainly as a flux, both
by Romans and Venetians. The invention, if it may be regarded as one,
consisted in eliminating lime from the glass mixture, substituting
refined potash for soda, and using a very large proportion of lead
oxide. It is probable that flint-glass was not invented, but gradually
evolved, that potash-lead glasses were in use during the latter part of
the 17th century, but that the mixture was not perfected until the
middle of the following century.

The 18th century saw a great development in all branches of
glass-making. Collectors of glass are chiefly concerned with the
drinking-glasses which were produced in great profusion and adapted for
every description of beverage. The most noted are the glasses with stout
cylindrical legs (Plate I. fig. 9), containing spiral threads of air, or
of white or coloured enamel. To this type of glass belong many of the
Jacobite glasses which commemorate the old or the young Pretender.

In 1746 the industry was in a sufficiently prosperous condition to tempt
the government to impose an excise duty. The report of the commission of
excise, dealing with glass, published in 1835 is curious and interesting
reading. So burdensome was the duty and so vexatious were the
restrictions that it is a matter for wonder that the industry survived.
In this respect England was more fortunate than Ireland. Before 1825,
when the excise duty was introduced into Ireland, there were flourishing
glass-works in Belfast, Cork, Dublin and Waterford. By 1850 the Irish
glass industry had been practically destroyed. Injurious as the excise
duty undoubtedly was to the glass trade generally, and especially to the
flint-glass industry, it is possible that it may have helped to develop
the art of decorative glass-cutting. The duty on flint-glass was imposed
on the molten glass in the crucibles and on the unfinished goods. The
manufacturer had, therefore, a strong inducement to enhance by every
means in his power the selling value of his glass after it had escaped
the exciseman's clutches. He therefore employed the best available art
and skill in improving the craft of glass-cutting. It is the development
of this craft in connexion with the perfecting of flint-glass that makes
the 18th century the most important period in the history of English
glass-making. Glass-cutting was a craft imported from Germany, but the
English material so greatly surpassed Bohemian glass in brilliance that
the Bohemian cut-glass was eclipsed. Glass-cutting was carried on at
works in Birmingham, Bristol, Belfast, Cork, Dublin, Glasgow, London,
Newcastle, Stourbridge, Whittington and Waterford. The most important
centres of the craft were London, Bristol, Birmingham and Waterford (see
Plate I., fig. 10, for oval cut-glass Waterford bowl). The finest
specimens of cut-glass belong to the period between 1780 and 1810. Owing
to the sacrifice of form to prismatic brilliance, cut-glass gradually
lost its artistic value. Towards the middle of the 19th century it
became the fashion to regard all cut-glass as barbarous, and services of
even the best period were neglected and dispersed. At the present time
scarcely anything is known about the origin of the few specimens of
18th-century English cut-glass which have been preserved in public
collections. It is strange that so little interest has been taken in a
craft in which for some thirty years England surpassed all competitors,
creating a wave of fashion which influenced the glass industry
throughout the whole of Europe.

In the report of the Excise Commission a list is given of the glass
manufactories which paid the excise duty in 1833. There were 105
factories in England, 10 in Scotland and 10 in Ireland. In England the
chief centres of the industry were Bristol, Birmingham, London,
Manchester, Newcastle, Stourbridge and York. Plate-glass was made by
Messrs Cookson of Newcastle, and by the British Plate Glass Company of
Ravenhead. Crown and German sheet-glass were made by Messrs Chance &
Hartley of Birmingham. The London glass-works were those of Apsley
Pellatt of Blackfriars, Christie of Stangate, and William Holmes of
Whitefriars. In Scotland there were works in Glasgow, Leith and
Portobello. In Ireland there were works in Belfast, Cork, Dublin and
Waterford. The famous Waterford works were in the hands of Gatchell &
Co.

_India._--Pliny states (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 26, 66) that no glass was to
be compared to the Indian, and gives as a reason that it was made from
broken crystal; and in another passage (xii. 19, 42) he says that the
Troglodytes brought to Ocelis (Ghella near Bab-el-Mandeb) objects of
glass. We have, however, very little knowledge of Indian glass of any
considerable antiquity. A few small vessels have been found in the
"topes," as in that at Manikiala in the Punjab, which probably dates
from about the Christian era; but they exhibit no remarkable character,
and fragments found at Brahmanabad are hardly distinguishable from Roman
glass of the imperial period. The chronicle of the Sinhalese kings, the
_Mahavamsa_, however, asserts that mirrors of glittering glass were
carried in procession in 306 B.C., and beads like gems, and windows with
ornaments like jewels, are also mentioned at about the same date. If
there really was an important manufacture of glass in Ceylon at this
early time, that island perhaps furnished the Indian glass of Pliny. In
the later part of the 17th century some glass decorated with enamel was
made at Delhi. A specimen is in the Indian section of the South
Kensington Museum. Glass is made in several parts of India--as Patna and
Mysore--by very simple and primitive methods, and the results are
correspondingly defective. Black, green, red, blue and yellow glasses
are made, which contain a large proportion of alkali and are readily
fusible. The greater part is worked into bangles, but some small bottles
are blown (Buchanan, _Journey through Mysore_, i. 147, iii. 369).

_Persia._--No very remarkable specimens of Persian glass are known in
Europe, with the exception of some vessels of blue glass richly
decorated with gold. These probably date from the 17th century, for
Chardin tells us that the windows of the tomb of Shah Abbas II. (ob.
1666), at Kum, were "de cristal peint d'or et d'azur." At the present
day bottles and drinking-vessels are made in Persia which in texture and
quality differ little from ordinary Venetian glass of the 16th or 17th
centuries, while in form they exactly resemble those which may be seen
in the engravings in Chardin's _Travels_.

_China._--The history of the manufacture of glass in China is obscure,
but the common opinion that it was learnt from the Europeans in the 17th
century seems to be erroneous. A writer in the _Memoires concernant les
Chinois_ (ii. 46) states on the authority of the annals of the Han
dynasty that the emperor Wu-ti (140 B.C.) had a manufactory of the kind
of glass called "lieou-li" (probably a form of opaque glass), that in
the beginning of the 3rd century of our era the emperor Tsaou-tsaou
received from the West a considerable present of glasses of all colours,
and that soon after a glass-maker came into the country who taught the
art to the natives.

The Wei dynasty, to which Tsaou-tsaou belonged, reigned in northern
China, and at this day a considerable manufacture of glass is carried on
at Po-shan-hien in Shantung, which it would seem has existed for a long
period. The Rev. A. Williamson (_Journeys in North China_, i. 131) says
that the glass is extremely pure, and is made from the rocks in the
neighbourhood. The rocks are probably of quartz, i.e. rock crystal, a
correspondence with Pliny's statement respecting Indian glass which
seems deserving of attention.

Whether the making of glass in China was an original discovery of that
ingenious people, or was derived via Ceylon from Egypt, cannot perhaps
be now ascertained; the manufacture has, however, never greatly extended
itself in China. The case has been the converse of that of the Romans;
the latter had no fine pottery, and therefore employed glass as the
material for vessels of an ornamental kind, for table services and the
like. The Chinese, on the contrary, having from an early period had
excellent porcelain, have been careless about the manufacture of glass.
A Chinese writer, however, mentions the manufacture of a huge vase in
A.D. 627, and in 1154 Edrisi (first climate, tenth section) mentions
Chinese glass. A glass vase about a foot high is preserved at Nara in
Japan, and is alleged to have been placed there in the 8th century. It
seems probable that this is of Chinese manufacture. A writer in the
_Memoires concernant les Chinois_ (ii. 463 and 477), writing about 1770,
says that there was then a glass-house at Peking, where every year a
good number of vases were made, some requiring great labour because
nothing was blown (rien n'est souffle), meaning no doubt that the
ornamentation was produced not by blowing and moulding, but by cutting.
This factory was, however, merely an appendage to the imperial
magnificence. The earliest articles of Chinese glass the date of which
has been ascertained, which have been noticed, are some bearing the name
of the emperor Kienlung (1735-1795), one of which is in the Victoria and
Albert Museum.

In the manufacture of ornamental glass the leading idea in China seems
to be the imitation of natural stones. The coloured glass is usually not
of one bright colour throughout, but semi-transparent and marbled; the
colours in many instances are singularly fine and harmonious. As in
1770, carving or cutting is the chief method by which ornament is
produced, the vessels being blown very solid.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Georg Agricola, _De re metallica_ (Basel, 1556); Percy
  Bate, _English Table Glass_ (n.d.); G. Bontemps, _Guide du verrier_
  (Paris, 1868); Edward Dillon, _Glass_ (London, 1907); C. C. Edgar,
  "Graeco-Egyptian Glass," _Catalogue du Musee du Caire_ (1905); Sir A.
  W. Franks, _Guide to Glass Room in British Museum_ (1888); Rev. A.
  Hallen, "Glass-making in Sussex," _Scottish Antiquary_, No. 28 (1893);
  Albert Hartshorne, _Old English Glasses_ (London); E. W. Hulme,
  "English Glass-making in XVI. and XVII. Centuries," _The Antiquary_,
  Nos. 59, 60, 63, 64, 65; Alexander Nesbitt, "Glass," _Art Handbook_,
  Victoria and Albert Museum; E. Peligot, _Le Verre, son histoire, sa
  fabrication_ (Paris, 1878); Apsley Pellatt, _Curiosities of
  Glass-making_ (London, 1849); F. Petrie, _Tell-el-Amarna_, Egypt
  Exploration Fund (1894); "Egypt," sect. _Art_; H. J. Powell, "Cut
  Glass," _Journal Society of Arts_, No. 2795; C. H. Read, "Saracenic
  Glass," _Archaeologia_, vol. 58, part 1.; Juan F. Riano, "Spanish
  Arts," _Art Handbook_, Victoria and Albert Museum; H. Schuermans,
  "Muranese and Altarist Glass Workers," eleven letters: _Bulletins des
  commissions royales_ (Brussels, 1883, 1891). For the United States,
  see vol. x. of _Reports of the 12th Census_, pp. 949-1000, and
  _Special Report of Census of Manufactures_ (1905), Part III., pp.
  837-935.     (A. Ne.; H. J. P.)




GLASS, STAINED. All coloured glass is, strictly speaking, "stained" by
some metallic oxide added to it in the process of manufacture. But the
term "stained glass" is popularly, as well as technically, used in a
more limited sense, and is understood to refer to stained glass windows.
Still the words "stained glass" do not fully describe what is meant; for
the glass in coloured windows is for the most part not only stained but
painted. Such painting was, however, until comparatively modern times,
used only to give details of drawing and to define _form_. The _colour_
in a stained glass window was not painted on the glass but incorporated
in it, mixed with it in the making--whence the term "pot-metal" by which
self-coloured glass is known, i.e. glass coloured in the melting pot.

A medieval window was consequently a patchwork of variously coloured
pieces. And the earlier its date the more surely was it a mosaic, not in
the form of tesserae, but in the manner known as "opus sectile." Shaped
pieces of coloured glass were, that is to say, put together like the
parts of a puzzle. The nearest approach to an exception to this rule is
a fragment at the Victoria and Albert Museum, in which actual tesserae
are fused together into a solid slab of many-coloured glass, in effect a
window panel, through which the light shines with all the brilliancy of
an Early Gothic window. But apart from the fact that the design proves
in this case to be even more effective with the light upon it, the use
of gold leaf in the tesserae confirms the presumption that this work,
which (supposing it to be genuine) would be Byzantine, centuries earlier
than any coloured windows that we know of, and entirely different from
them in technique, is rather a specimen of fused mosaic that happens to
be translucent than part of a window designedly executed in tesserae.

The Eastern (and possibly the earlier) practice was to set chips of
coloured glass in a heavy fretwork of stone or to imbed them in plaster.
In a medieval window they were held together by strips of lead, in
section something like the letter H, the upright strokes of which
represent the "tapes" extending on either side well over the edges of
the glass, and the crossbar the connecting "core" between them. The
leading was soldered together at the points of junction, cement or putty
was rubbed into the crevices between glass and lead, and the window was
attached (by means of copper wires soldered on to the leads) to iron
saddle-bars let into the masonry.

Stained glass was primarily the art of the glazier; but the painter,
called in to help, asserted himself more and more, and eventually took
it almost entirely into his own hands. Between the period when it was
glazier's work eked out by painting and when it was painter's work with
the aid of the glazier lies the entire development of stained and
painted window-making. With the eventual endeavour of the glass painter
to do without the glazier, and to get the colour by painting in
translucent _enamel_ upon colourless glass, we have the beginning of a
form of art no longer monumental and comparatively trivial.

This evolution of the painted window from a patchwork of little pieces
of coloured glass explains itself when it is remembered that coloured
glass was originally not made in the big sheets produced nowadays, but
at first in jewels to look as much as possible like rubies, sapphires,
emeralds and other precious stones, and afterwards in rounds and sheets
of small dimensions. Though some of the earliest windows were in the
form of pure glazing ("leaded-lights"), the addition of painting seems
to have been customary from the very first. It was a means of rendering
detail not to be got in lead. Glazing affords by itself scope for
beautiful pattern work; but the old glaziers never carried their art as
far as they might have done in the direction of ornament; their aim was
always in the direction of picture; the idea was to make windows serve
the purpose of coloured story books. That was beyond the art of the
glazier. It was easy enough to represent the drapery of a saint by red
glass, the ground on which he stood by green, the sky above by blue, his
crown by yellow, the scroll in his hand by white, and his flesh by
brownish pink; but when it came to showing the folds of red drapery,
blades of green grass, details of goldsmith's work, lettering on the
scroll, the features of the face--the only possible way of doing it was
by painting. The use of paint was confined at first to an opaque brown,
used, not as colour, but only as a means of stopping out light, and in
that way defining comparatively delicate details within the lead lines.
These themselves outlined and defined the main forms of the design. The
pigment used by the glass painter was of course vitreous: it consisted
of powdered glass and sundry metallic oxides (copper, iron, manganese,
&c.), so that, when the pieces of painted glass were made red hot in the
kiln, the powdered glass became fused to the surface, and with it the
dense colouring matter also. When the pieces of painted glass were
afterwards glazed together and seen against the light, the design
appeared in the brilliant colour of the glass, its forms drawn in the
uniform black into which, at a little distance, leadwork and painting
lines became merged.

It needed solid painting to stop out the light entirely: thin paint only
obscured it. And, even in early glass, thin paint was used, whether to
subdue crude colour or to indicate what little shading a 13th-century
draughtsman might desire. In the present state of old glass, the surface
often quite disintegrated, it is difficult to determine to what extent
thin paint was used for either purpose. There must always have been the
temptation to make tint do instead of solid lines; but the more
workmanlike practice, and the usual one, was to get difference of tint,
as a pen-draughtsman does, by lines of solid opaque colour. In
comparatively colourless glass (_grisaille_) the pattern was often made
to stand out by cross-hatching the background; and another common
practice was to coat the glass with paint all over, and scrape the
design out of it. The effect of either proceeding was to lower the tone
of the glass without dirtying the colour, as a smear of thin paint would
do.

Towards the 14th century, when Gothic design took a more naturalistic
direction, the desire to get something like modelling made it necessary
to carry painting farther, and they got rid to some extent of the ill
effect of shading-colour smeared on the glass by stippling it. This not
only softened the tint and allowed of gradation according to the amount
of stippling, but let some light through, where the bristles of the
stippling-tool took up the pigment. Shading of this kind enforced by
touches of strong brushwork, cross-hatching and some scratching out of
high lights was the method of glass painting adopted in the 14th
century.

Glass was never at the best a pleasant surface to paint on; and glass
painting, following the line of least resistance, developed in the later
Gothic and early Renaissance periods into something unlike any other
form of painting. The outlines continued to be traced upon the glass and
fixed in the fire; but, after that, the process of painting consisted
mainly in the removal of paint. The entire surface of the glass was
coated with an even "matt" of pale brown; this was allowed to dry; and
then the high lights were rubbed off, and the modelling was got by
scrubbing away the paint with a dry hog-hair brush, more or less,
according to the gradations required. Perfect modelling was got by
repeating the operation--how often depended upon the dexterity of the
painter. A painter's method is partly the outcome of his individuality.
One man would float on his colour and manipulate it to some extent in
the moist state; another would work entirely upon the dry matt. Great
use was made of the pointed stick with which sharp lines of light were
easily scraped out; and in the 16th century Swiss glass painters,
working upon a relatively small scale, got their modelling entirely with
a needle-point, scraping away the paint just as an etcher scratches away
the varnish from his etching plate. The practice of the two craftsmen
is, indeed, identical, though the one scratches out what are to be black
lines and the other lines of light. In the end, then, though a painter
would always use touches of the brush to get crisp lines of dark, the
manipulation of glass painting consisted more in erasing lights than in
painting shadows, more in rubbing out or scraping off paint than in
putting it on in brush strokes.

So far there was no thought of getting colour by means of paint. The
colour was in the glass itself, permeating the mass ("pot-metal"). There
was only one exception to this--ruby glass, the colour of which was so
dense that red glass thick enough for its purpose would have been
practically obscure; and so they made a colourless pot-metal coated on
one side only with red glass. This led to a practice which forms an
exception to the rule that in "pot-metal" glass every change of colour,
or from colour to white, is got by the use of a separate piece of glass.
It was possible in the ease of this "flashed" ruby to grind away
portions of the surface and thus obtain white on red or red on white.
Eventually they made coated glass of blue and other colours, with a view
to producing similar effects by abrasion. (The same result is arrived at
nowadays by means of etching. The skin of coloured glass, in old days
laboriously ground or cut away, is now easily eaten off by fluoric
acid.) One other exceptional expedient in colouring had very
considerable effect upon the development of glass design from about the
beginning of the 14th century. The discovery that a solution of silver
applied to glass would under the action of the fire stain it yellow
enabled the glass painter to get yellow upon colourless glass, green
upon grey-blue, and (by staining only the abraded portions) yellow upon
blue or ruby. This yellow was neither enamel nor pot-metal colour, but
stain--the only staining actually done by the glass painter as distinct
from the glass maker. It varied in colour from pale lemon to deep
orange, and was singularly pure in quality. As what is called "white"
glass became purer and was employed in greater quantities it was
lavishly used; so much so that a brilliant effect of silvery white and
golden yellow is characteristic of later Gothic windows.

The last stage of glass painting was the employment of enamel not for
stopping out light but to get colour. It began to be used in the early
part of the 16th century--at first only in the form of a flesh tint; but
it was not long before other colours were introduced. This use of colour
no longer _in_ the glass but _upon_ it marks quite a new departure in
technique. Enamel colour was finely powdered coloured glass mixed with
gum or some such substance into a pigment which could be applied with a
brush. When the glass painted with it was brought to a red heat in the
oven, the powdered glass melted and was fused to it, just like the
opaque brown employed from the very beginning of glass-painting.

This process of enamelling was hardly called for in the interests of
art. Even the red flesh-colour (borrowed from the Limoges enamellers
upon copper) did not in the least give the quality of flesh, though it
enabled the painter to suggest by contrast the whiteness of a man's
beard. As for the brighter enamel colours, they had nothing like the
depth or richness of "stained" glass. What enamel really did was to make
easy much that had been impossible in mosaic, as, for example, to
represent upon the very smallest shield of arms any number of "charges"
all in the correct tinctures. It encouraged the minute workmanship
characteristic of Swiss glass painting; and, though this was not
altogether inappropriate to domestic window panes, the painter was
tempted by it to depart from the simplicity and breadth of design
inseparable from the earlier mosaic practice. In the end he introduced
coloured glass only where he could hardly help it, and glazed the great
part of his window in rectangular panes of clear glass, upon which he
preferred to paint his picture in opaque brown and translucent enamel
colours.

Enamel upon glass has not stood the test of time. Its presence is
usually to be detected in old windows by specks of light shining through
the colour. This is where the enamel has crumbled off. There is a very
good reason for that. Enamel must melt at a temperature at which the
glass it is painted on keeps its shape. The lower the melting point of
the powdered glass the more easily it is fused. The painter is
consequently inclined to use enamel of which the contraction and
expansion is much greater than that of his glass--with the result that,
under the action of the weather, the colour is apt to work itself free
and expose the bare white glass beneath. The only enamel which has held
its own is that of the Swiss glass-painters of the 16th and 17th
centuries. The domestic window panes they painted may not in all cases
have been tried by the sudden changes of atmosphere to which church
windows are subject; but credit must be given them for exceptionally
skilful and conscientious workmanship.

The story of stained glass is bound up with the history of architecture,
to which it was subsidiary, and of the church, which was its patron. Its
only possible course of development was in the wake of church building.
From its very inception it was Gothic and ecclesiastical. And, though it
survived the upheaval of the Renaissance and was turned to civil and
domestic use, it is to church windows that we must go to see what
stained glass really was--or is; for time has been kind to it. The charm
of medieval glass lies to a great extent in the material, and especially
in the inequality of it. Chemically impure and mechanically imperfect,
it was rarely crude in tint or even in texture. It shaded off from light
to dark according to its thickness; it was speckled with air bubbles; it
was streaked and clouded; and all these imperfections of manufacture
went to perfection of colour. And age has improved it: the want of
homogeneousness in the material has led to the disintegration of its
surface; soft particles in it have been dissolved away by the action of
the weather, and the surface, pitted like an oyster-shell, refracts the
light in a way which adds greatly to the effect; at the same time there
is roothold for the lichen which (like the curtains of black cobwebs)
veils and gives mystery to the colour. An appreciable part of the beauty
of old glass is the result of age and accident. In that respect no new
glass can compare with it. There is, however, no such thing as "the lost
secret" of glass-making. It is no secret that age mellows.

Stained and painted glass is commonly apportioned to its "period,"
Gothic or Renaissance, and further to the particular phase of the style
to which it belongs. C. Winston, who was the first to inquire thoroughly
into English glass, adopting T. Rickman's classification, divided Gothic
windows into Early English (to c. 1280), Decorated (to c. 1380) and
Perpendicular (to c. 1530). These dates will do. But the transition from
one phase of design to another is never so sudden, nor so easily
defined, as any table of dates would lead us to suppose. The old style
lingered in one district long after the new fashion was flourishing in
another. Besides, the English periods do not quite coincide with those
of other countries. France, Germany and the Low Countries count for much
in the history of stained glass; and in no two places was the pace of
progress quite the same. There was, for example, scarcely any
13th-century Gothic in Germany, where the "geometric" style, equivalent
to our Decorated, was preceded by the Romanesque period; in France the
Flamboyant took the place of our Perpendicular; and in Italy Gothic
never properly took root at all. All these considered, a rather rough
and ready division presents the least difficulty to the student of old
glass; and it will be found convenient to think of Gothic glass as (1)
Early, (2) Middle and (3) Late, and of the subsequent windows as (1)
Renaissance and (2) Late Renaissance. The three periods of Gothic
correspond approximately to the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The
limits of the two periods of the Renaissance are not so easily defined.
In the first part of the 16th century (in Italy long before that) the
Renaissance and Gothic periods overlapped; in the latter part of it,
glass painting was already on the decline; and in the 17th and 18th
centuries it sank to deeper depths of degradation.

The likeness of early windows to translucent enamel (which is also
glass) is obvious. The lines of lead glazing correspond absolutely to
the "cloisons" of Byzantine goldsmith's work. Moreover, the extreme
minuteness of the leading (not always either mechanically necessary or
architecturally desirable) suggests that the starting point of all this
gorgeous illumination was the idea of reproducing on a grandiose scale
the jewelled effect produced in small by cloisonne enamellers. In other
respects the earliest glass shows the influence of Byzantine tradition.
It is mainly according to the more or less Byzantine character of its
design and draughtsmanship that archaeologists ascribe certain remains
of old glass to the 12th or the 11th century. Apart from documentary or
direct historic evidence, it is not possible to determine the precise
date of any particular fragment. In the "restored" windows at St Denis
there are remnants of glass belonging to the year 1108. Elsewhere in
France (Reims, Anger, Le Mans, Chartres, &c.) there is to be found very
early glass, some of it probably not much later than the end of the 10th
century, which is the date confidently ascribed to certain windows at St
Remi (Reims) and at Tegernsee. The rarer the specimen the greater may be
its technical and antiquarian interest. But, even if we could be quite
sure of its date, there is not enough of this very early work, and it
does not sufficiently distinguish itself from what followed, to count
artistically for much. The glory of early glass belongs to the 13th
century.

The design of windows was influenced, of course, by the conditions of
the workshop, by the nature of glass, the difficulty of shaping it, the
way it could be painted, and the necessity of lead glazing. The place of
glass in the scheme of church decoration led to a certain severity in
the treatment of it. The growing desire to get more and more light into
the churches, and the consequent manufacture of purer and more
transparent glass, affected the glazier's colour scheme. For all that,
the fashion of a window was, _mutatis mutandis_, that of the painting,
carving, embroidery, goldsmith's work, enamel and other craftsmanship of
the period. The design of an ivory triptych is very much that of a
three-light window. There is a little enamelled shrine of German
workmanship in the Victoria and Albert Museum which might almost have
been designed for glass; and the famous painted ceiling at Hildesheim is
planned precisely on the lines of a medallion window of the 13th
century. By that time glass had fallen into ways of its own, and there
were already various types of design which we now recognize as
characteristic of the first great period, in some respects the greatest
of all.

Pre-eminently typical of the first period is the "medallion window."
Glaziers began by naively accepting the iron bars across the light as
the basis of their composition, and planned a window as a series of
panels, one above the other, between the horizontal crossbars and the
upright lines of the border round it. The next step was to mitigate the
extreme severity of this composition by the introduction of a circular
or other medallion within the square boundary lines. Eventually these
were abandoned altogether, the iron bars were shaped according to the
pattern, and there was evolved the "medallion window," in which the main
divisions of the design are emphasized by the strong bands of iron round
them. Medallions were invariably devoted to picturing scenes from Bible
history or from the lives of the saints, set forth in the simplest and
most straightforward manner, the figures all on one plane, and as far as
possible clear-cut against a sapphire-blue or ruby-red ground. Scenery
was not so much depicted as suggested. An arch or two did duty for
architecture, any scrap of foliated ornament for landscape. Simplicity
of silhouette was absolutely essential to the readableness of pictures
on the small scale allowed by the medallion. As it is, they are so
difficult to decipher, so confused and broken in effect, as to give rise
(the radiating shape of "rose windows" aiding) to the misconception that
the design of early glass is kaleidoscopic--which it is not. The
intervals between subject medallions were filled in England (Canterbury)
with scrollwork, in France (Chartres) more often with geometric diaper,
in which last sometimes the red and blue merge into an unpleasant
purple. Design on this small scale was obviously unsuited to distant
windows. Clerestory lights were occupied by figures, sometimes on a
gigantic scale, entirely occupying the window, except for the border and
perhaps the slightest pretence of a niche. This arrangement lent itself
to broad effects of colour. The drawing may be rude; at times the
figures are grotesque; but the general impression is one of mysterious
grandeur and solemnity.

The depth and intensity of colour in the windows so far described comes
chiefly from the quality of the glass, but partly also from the fact
that very little white or pale-coloured glass was used. It was not the
custom at this period to dilute the colour of a rich window with white.
If light was wanted they worked in white, enlivened, it might be, by
colour. Strictly speaking, 13th-century glass was never colourless, but
of a greenish tint, due to impurities in the sand, potash or other
ingredients; it was of a horny consistency, too; but it is convenient to
speak of all would-be-clear glass as "white." The greyish windows in
which it prevails are technically described as "in grisaille." There are
examples (Salisbury, Chalons, Bonlieu, Angers) of "plain glazing" in
grisaille, in which the lead lines make very ingenious and beautiful
pattern. In the more usual case of painted grisaille the lead lines
still formed the groundwork of the design, though supplemented by
foliated or other detail, boldly outlined in strong brown and emphasized
by a background of cross-hatching. French grisaille was frequently all
in white (Reims, St Jean-aux-Bois, Sens), English work was usually
enlivened by bands and bosses of colour (Salisbury); but the general
effect of the window was still grey and silvery, even though there might
be distributed about it (the "five sisters," York minster) a fair amount
of coloured glass. The use of grisaille is sufficiently accounted for by
considerations of economy and the desire to get light; but it was also
in some sort a protest (witness the Cistercian interdict of 1134)
against undue indulgence in the luxury of colour. At this stage of its
development it was confined strictly to patternwork; figure subjects
were always in colour. For all that, some of the most restful and
entirely satisfying work of the 13th century was in grisaille
(Salisbury, Chartres, Reims, &c.).

The second or Middle period of Gothic glass marks a stage between the
work of the Early Gothic artist who thought out his design as glazing,
and that of the later draughtsman who conceived it as something to be
painted. It represents to many the period of greatest interest--probably
because of its departure from the severity of Early work. It was the
period of more naturalistic design; and a touch of nature is more easily
appreciated than architectural fitness. Middle Gothic glass, halting as
it does between the relatively rude mosaic of early times and the
painter-like accomplishment of fully-developed glass painting, has not
the salient merits of either. In the matter of tone also it is
intermediate between the deep, rich, sober harmonies of Early windows
and the lighter, brighter, gayer colouring of later glass. Now for the
first time grisaille ornament and coloured figurework were introduced
into the same window. And this was done in a very judicious way, in
alternate bands of white and deep rich colour, binding together the long
lights into which windows were by this time divided (chapter-house, York
minster). A similar horizontal tendency of design is noticeable in
windows in which the figures are enshrined under canopies, henceforth a
feature in glass design. The pinnaclework falls into pronounced bands of
brassy yellow between the tiers of figures (nave, York minster) and
serves to correct the vertical lines of the masonry. Canopywork grew
sometimes to such dimensions as quite to overpower the figure it was
supposed to frame; but, then, the sense of scale was never a directing
factor in Decorated design. A more interesting form of ornament is to be
found in Germany, where it was a pleasing custom (Regensburg) to fill
windows with conventional foliage without figurework. There is abundance
of Middle Gothic glass in England (York, Wells, Ely, Oxford), but the
best of it, such as the great East window at Gloucester cathedral, has
features more characteristic of the 15th than of the 14th century.

The keynote of Late Gothic glass is brilliancy. It had a silvery
quality. The 15th century was the period of white glass, which
approached at last to colourlessness, and was employed in great
profusion. Canopywork, more universal than ever, was represented almost
entirely in white touched with yellow stain, but not in sufficient
quantities to impair its silveriness. Whatever the banality of the idea
of imitation stonework in glass, the effect of thus framing coloured
pictures in delicate white is admirable: at last we have white and
colour in perfect combination. Fifteenth-century figurework contains
usually a large proportion of white glass; flesh tint is represented by
white; there is white in the drapery; in short, there is always white
enough in the figures to connect them with the canopywork and make the
whole effect one. The preponderance of white will be better appreciated
when it is stated that very often not a fifth or sixth part of the glass
is coloured. It is no uncommon thing to find figures draped entirely in
white with only a little colour in the background; and figurework all in
grisaille upon a ground of white latticework is quite characteristic of
Perpendicular glass.

One of the most typical forms of Late English Gothic canopy is where
(York minster) its slender pinnacles fill the upper part of the window,
and its solid base frames a picture in small of some episode in the
history of the personage depicted as large as life above. A much less
satisfactory continental practice was to enrich only the lower half of
the window with stained glass and to make shift above (Munich) with
"roundels" of plain white glass, the German equivalent for diamond
latticework.

[Illustration: PLATE I.

  I. EARLY GLAZING. From S. Serge, Angers, Grisaille, with colour
  introduced in the small circles.

  II. AN EARLY BORDER. From S. Kunibert, Cologne.

  III. PORTION OF AN EARLY MEDALLION WINDOW. From Canterbury, showing
  the plan of the design and the ornamental details.

  IV. AN EARLY FIGUREJFROM LYONS. Showing the leading of the eyes, hair,
  nimbus, and drapery.

  V. DECORATED LIGHTS. From S. Urbain, Troyes, showing both the
  influence of the early period in the figures, and the beginning of the
  architectural canopy.

  VI. TYPICAL DECORATED CANOPY. From Exeter.

  Nos. I., II., III., IV., VI. are taken from illustrations in Lewis F.
  Day, _Windows_, by permission of B. T. Batsford.]

[Illustration: PLATE II.

  I. A TYPICAL PERPENDICULAR CANOPY (from Lewis F. Day, _Windows_, by
  permission of B. T. Batsford).

  II. A WINDOW FROM AUCH. Illustrating the transition from Perpendicular
  to Renaissance.

  III. A SIXTEENTH-CENTURY JESSE WINDOW. From Beauvais (source as in
  Fig. I.).

  IV. PORTION OF A RENAISSANCE WINDOW. From Montmorency, showing the
  perfection of glass painting.

  From Lutien Magne, _Oeuvre des Peintres Verriers Francais_, by
  permission of Firmin-Didot et C^ie.]

A sign of later times is the way pictures spread beyond the confines of
a single light. This happened by degrees. At first the connexion between
the figures in separate window openings was only in idea, as when a
central figure of the crucified Christ was flanked by the Virgin and St
John in the side lights. Then the arms of the cross would be carried
through, or as it were behind, the mullions. The expansion to a picture
right across the window was only a question of time. Not that the artist
ventured as yet to disregard the architectural setting of his
picture--that happened later on--but that he often composed it with such
cunning reference to intervening stonework that it did not interfere
with it. It has been argued that each separate light of a window ought
to be complete in itself. On the other hand it has proved possible to
make due acknowledgment of architectural conditions without cramping
design in that way. There can be no doubt as to the variety and breadth
of treatment gained by accepting the whole window as field for a design.
And, when a number of lights go to make a window, it is the window, and
no separate part of it, which is the main consideration.

By the end of the Gothic period, glass painters proceeded on an entirely
different method from that of the 13th century. The designer of early
days began with glazing: he thought in mosaic and leadwork; the lines he
first drew were the lines of glazing; painting was only a supplementary
process, enabling him to get what lead lines would not give. The Late
Gothic draughtsman began with the idea of painting; glazing was to him
of secondary importance; he reached a stage (Creation window, Great
Malvern) where it is clear that he first sketched out his design, and
then bethought him how to glaze it in such wise that the leadwork (which
once boldly outlined everything) should not interfere with the picture.
The artful way in which he would introduce little bits of colour into a
window almost entirely white, makes it certain that he had always at the
back of his mind the consideration of the glazing to come. So long as he
thought of that, and did not resent it, all was fairly well with glass
painting, but there came a point where he found it difficult, if not
impossible, to reconcile the extreme delicacy of his painting upon white
glass with the comparatively brutal strength of his lead lines. It is
here that the conditions of painting and glazing clash at last.

It must not be supposed that Late Gothic windows were never by any
chance rich in colour. Local conservatism and personal predilection
prevented anything like monotonous progress in a single direction. There
is (St Sebald, Nuremberg) Middle Gothic glass as dense in colour as any
13th-century work, and Late Gothic (Troyes cathedral) which, from its
colour, one might take at first to be a century earlier than it is. In
Italy (Florence) and to some extent in Spain (Seville) it was the custom
to make canopywork so rich in colour that it was more like part of the
picture than a frame to it. But that was by exception. The tendency was
towards lighter windows. Glass itself was less deeply stained when
painters depended more upon their power of deepening it by paint. It was
the seeking after delicate effects of painting, quite as much as the
desire to let light into the church, which determined the tone of later
windows. The clearer the glass the more scope it gave for painting.

It is convenient to draw a line between Gothic art and Renaissance.
Nothing is easier than to say that windows in which crocketed canopywork
occurs are Gothic, and that those with arabesque are Renaissance. But
that is an arbitrary distinction, which does not really distinguish.
Some of the most beautiful work in glass, such for example as that at
Auch, is so plainly intermediate between two styles that it is
impossible to describe it as anything but "transitional." And, apart
from particular instances, we have only to look at the best Late Gothic
work to see that it is informed by the new spirit, and at fine
Renaissance glass to observe how it conforms to Gothic traditions of
workmanship. The new idea gave a spurt to Gothic art; and it was Gothic
impetus which carried Renaissance glass painting to the summit of
accomplishment reached in the first half of the 16th century. When that
subsided, and the pictorial spirit of the age at last prevailed, the
bright days of glass were at an end. If we have to refer to the early
Renaissance as the culminating period of glass painting, it is because
the technique of an earlier period found in it freer and fuller
expression. With the Renaissance, design broke free from the restraints
of tradition.

An interesting development of Renaissance design was the framing of
pictures in golden-yellow arabesque ornament, scarcely architectural
enough to be called canopywork, and reminiscent rather of beaten
goldsmith's work than of stone carving. This did for the glass picture
what a gilt frame does for a painting in oil. Very often framework of
any kind was dispensed with. The primitive idea of accepting bars and
mullions as boundaries of design, and filling the compartments formed by
them with a medley of little subjects, lingered on. The result was
delightfully broken colour, but inevitable confusion; for iron and
masonry do not effectively separate glass pictures. There was no longer
in late glass any pretence of preserving the plane of the window. It was
commonly designed to suggest that one saw out of it. Throughout the
period of the Renaissance, architectural and landscape backgrounds play
an important part in design. An extremely beautiful feature in early
16th-century French glass pictures (Rouen, &c.) is the little peep of
distant country delicately painted upon the pale-blue glass which
represents the sky. In larger work landscape and architecture were
commonly painted upon white (King's College, Cambridge). The landscape
effect was always happiest when one or other of these conventions was
adopted. Canopywork never went quite out of fashion. For a long while
the plan was still to frame coloured pictures in white. Theoretically
this is no less effectually to be done by Italian than by Gothic
shrinework. Practically the architectural setting assumed in the 16th
century more and more the aspect of background to the figures, and, in
order that it should take its place in the picture, they painted it so
heavily that it no longer told as white. Already in van Orley's
magnificent transept windows at St Gudule, Brussels, the great triumphal
arch behind the kneeling donors and their patron saints (in late glass
donors take more and more the place of holy personages) tells dark
against the clear ground. There came a time, towards the end of the
century, when, as in the wonderful windows at Gouda, the very quality of
white glass is lost in heavily painted shadow.

The pictorial ambition of the glass painter, active from the first, was
kept for centuries within the bounds of decoration. Medallion subjects
were framed in ornament, standing figures in canopywork, and pictures
were conceived with regard to the window and its place in architecture.
Severity of treatment in design may have been due more to the
limitations of technique than to restraint on the part of the painter.
The point is that it led to unsurpassed results. It was by absolute
reliance upon the depth and brilliancy of self-coloured glass that all
the beautiful effects of early glass were obtained. We need not compare
early mosaic with later painted glass; each was in its way admirable;
but the early manner is the more peculiar to glass, if not the more
proper to it. The ruder and more archaic design gives in fullest measure
the glory of glass--for the loss of which no quality of painting ever
got in glass quite makes amends. The pictorial effects compatible with
glass design are those which go with pure, brilliant and translucent
colour. The ideal of a "primitive" Italian painter was more or less to
be realized in glass: that of a Dutch realist was not. It is astonishing
what glass painters did in the way of light and shade. But the fact
remains that heavy painting obscured the glass, that shadows rendered in
opaque surface-colour lacked translucency, and that in seeking before
all things the effects of shadow and relief, glass painters of the 17th
century fell short of the qualities on the one hand of glass and on the
other of painting.

The course of glass painting was not so even as this general survey of
its progress might seem to imply. It was quickened here, impeded there,
by historic events. The art made a splendid start in France; but its
development was stayed by the disasters of war, just when in England it
was thriving under the Plantagenets. It revived again under Francis I.
In Germany it was with the prosperity of the free cities of the Empire
that glass painting prospered. In the Netherlands it blossomed out under
the favour of Charles V. In the Swiss Confederacy its direction was
determined by civil and domestic instead of church patronage. In most
countries there were in different districts local schools of glass
painting, each with some character of its own. To what extent design was
affected by national temperament it is not easy to say. The marked
divergence of the Flemish from the French treatment of glass in the
16th century is not entirely due to a preference on the one part for
colour and on the other for light and shade, but is partly owing to the
circumstance that, whilst in France design remained in the hands of
craftsmen, whose trade was glass painting, in the Netherlands it was
entrusted by the emperor to his court painter, who concerned himself as
little as possible with a technique of which he knew nothing. If in
France we come also upon the names of well-known artists, they seem,
like Jean Cousin, to have been closely connected with glass painting:
they designed so like glass painters that they might have begun their
artistic career in the workshop.

The attribution of fine windows to famous artists should not be too
readily accepted; for, though it is a foible of modern times to father
whatever is noteworthy upon some great name, the masterpieces of
medieval art are due to unknown craftsmen. In Italy, where glass
painting was not much practised, and it seems to have been the custom
either to import glass painters as they were wanted or to get work done
abroad, it may well be that designs were supplied by artists more or
less distinguished. Ghiberti and Donatello may have had a hand in the
cartoons for the windows of the Duomo at Florence; but it is not to any
sculptor that we can give the entire credit of design so absolutely in
the spirit of colour decoration. The employment of artists not connected
with glass design would go far to explain the great difference of
Italian glass from that of other countries. The 14th-century work at
Assisi is more correctly described as "Trecento" than as Gothic, and the
"Quattrocento" windows at Florence are as different as could be from
Perpendicular work. One compares them instinctively with Italian
paintings, not with glass elsewhere. And so with the 15th-century
Italian glass. The superb 16th-century windows of William of Marseilles
at Arezzo, in which painting is carried to the furthest point possible
short of sacrificing the pure quality of glass, are more according to
contemporary French technique. Both French and Italian influence may be
traced in Spanish glass (Avila, Barcelona, Burgos, Granada, Leon,
Seville, Toledo). Some of it is said to have been executed in France. If
so it must have been done to Spanish order. The coarse effectiveness of
the design, the strength of the colour, the general robustness of the
art, are characteristically Spanish; and nowhere this side of the
Pyrenees do we find detail on a scale so enormous.

We have passed by, in following the progressive course of craftsmanship,
some forms of design, peculiar to no one period but very characteristic
of glass. The "quarry window," barely referred to, its diamond-shaped or
oblong panes painted, richly bordered, relieved by bosses of coloured
ornament often heraldic, is of constant occurrence. Entire windows, too,
were from first to last given up to heraldry. The "Jesse window" occurs
in every style. According to the fashion of the time the "Stem of Jesse"
burst out into conventional foliage, vine branches or arbitrary
scrollwork. It appealed to the designer by the scope it gave for freedom
of design. He found vent, again, for fantastic imagination in the
representation of the "Last Judgment," to which the west window was
commonly devoted. And there are other schemes in which he delighted; but
this is not the place to dwell upon them.

The glass of the 17th century does not count for much. Some of the best
in England is the work of the Dutch van Linge family (Wadham and Balliol
Colleges, Oxford). What glass painting came to in the 18th century is
nowhere better to be seen than in the great west window of the
ante-chapel at New College, Oxford. That is all Sir Joshua Reynolds and
the best china painter of his day could do between them. The very idea
of employing a china painter shows how entirely the art of the glass
painter had died out.

It re-awoke in England with the Gothic revival of the 19th century; and
the Gothic revival determined the direction modern glass should take.
Early Victorian doings are interesting only as marking the steps of
recovery (cf. the work of T. Willement in the choir of the Temple
church; of Ward and Nixon, lately removed from the south transept of
Westminster Abbey; of Wailes). Better things begin with the windows at
Westminster inspired by A. C. Pugin, who exercised considerable
influence over his contemporaries. John Powell (Hardman & Co.) was an
able artist content to walk, even after that master's death, reverently
in his footsteps. Charles Winston, whose _Hints on Glass Painting_ was
the first real contribution towards the understanding of Gothic glass,
and who, by the aid of the Powells (of Whitefriars) succeeded in getting
something very like the texture and colour of old glass, was more
learned in ancient ways of workmanship than appreciative of the art
resulting from them. (He is responsible for the Munich glass in Glasgow
cathedral.) So it was that, except for here and there a window entrusted
by exception to W. Dyce, E. Poynter, D. G. Rossetti, Ford Madox Brown or
E. Burne-Jones, glass, from the beginning of its recovery, fell into the
hands of men with a strong bias towards archaeology. The architects
foremost in the Gothic revival (W. Butterfield, Sir G. Scott, G. E.
Street, &c.) were all inclined that way; and, as they had the placing of
commissions for windows, they controlled the policy of glass painters.
Designers were constrained to work in the pedantically archaeological
manner prescribed by architectural fashion. Unwillingly as it may have
been, they made mock-medieval windows, the interest in which died with
the popular illusion about a Gothic revival. But they knew their trade;
and when an artist like John Clayton (master of a whole school of later
glass painters) took a window in hand (St Augustine's, Kilburn; Truro
cathedral; King's College Chapel, Cambridge) the result was a work of
art from which, tradework as it may in a sense be, we may gather what
such men might have done had they been left free to follow their own
artistic impulse. It is necessary to refer to this because it is
generally supposed that whatever is best in recent glass is due to the
romantic movement. The charms of Burne-Jones's design and of William
Morris's colour, place the windows done by them among the triumphs of
modern decorative art; but Morris was neither foremost in the reaction,
nor quite such a master of the material he was working in as he showed
himself in less exacting crafts. Other artists to be mentioned in
connexion with glass design are: Clement Heaton, Bayne, N. H. J.
Westlake and Henry Holiday, not to speak of a younger generation of able
men.

Foreign work shows, as compared with English, a less just appreciation
of glass, though the foremost draughtsmen of their day were enlisted for
its design. In Germany, King Louis of Bavaria employed P. von Cornelius
and W. von Kaulbach (Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Glasgow); in France the
Bourbons employed J. A. D. Ingres, F. V. E. Delacroix, Vernet and J. H.
Flandrin (Dreux); and the execution of their designs was entrusted to
the most expert painters to be procured at Munich and Sevres; but all to
little effect. They either used pot-metal glass of poor quality, or
relied upon enamel--with the result that their colour lacks the
qualities of glass. Where it is not heavy with paint it is thin and
crude. In Belgium happier results were obtained. In the chapel of the
Holy Sacrament at Brussels there is one window by J. B. Capronnier not
unworthy of the fine series by B. van Orley which it supplements. At the
best, however, foreign artists failed to appreciate the quality of
glass; they put better draughtsmanship into their windows than English
designers of the mid-Victorian era, and painted them better; but they
missed the glory of translucent colour.

Modern facilities of manufacture make possible many things which were
hitherto out of the question. Enamel colours are richer; their range is
extended; and it may be possible, with the improved kilns and greater
chemical knowledge we possess, to make them hold permanently fast. It
was years ago demonstrated at Sevres how a picture may be painted in
colours upon a sheet of plate-glass measuring 4 ft. by 2-1/2 ft. We are
now no doubt in a position to produce windows painted on much larger
sheets. But the results achieved, technically wonderful as they are,
hardly warrant the waste of time and labour upon work so costly, so
fragile, so lacking in the qualities of a picture on the one hand and of
glass on the other.

In America, John la Farge, finding European material not dense enough,
produced pot-metal more heavily charged with colour. This was wilfully
streaked, mottled and quasi-accidentally varied; some of it was
opalescent; much of it was more like agate or onyx than jewels. Other
forms of American enterprise were: the making of glass in lumps, to be
chipped into flakes; the ruckling it; the shaping it in a molten state,
or the pulling it out of shape. It takes an artist of some reserve to
make judicious use of glass like this. La Farge and L. C. Tiffany have
turned it to beautiful account; but even they have put it to purposes
more pictorial than it can properly fulfil. The design it calls for is a
severely abstract form of ornament verging upon the barbaric.

  _Examples of Important Historical Stained Glass._

  There are remains of the earliest known glass: in France--at Le Mans,
  Chartres, Chalons-sur-Marne, Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey
  church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims: in England--at York minster
  (fragments): in Germany--at Augsburg and Strassburg cathedrals: in
  Austria--in the cloisters of Heiligen Kreuz.

  The following is a classified list of some of the most characteristic
  and important windows, omitting for the most part isolated examples,
  and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair
  amount of glass remaining; the country in which at each period the art
  throve best is put first.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
  EARLY GOTHIC

          _France._                     _England._

  Chartres \                    Canterbury \
  Le Mans  |                    Salisbury   > cathedrals.
  Bourges   > cathedrals.       Lincoln    /
  Reims    |                    York minster.
  Auxerre  /
  Ste Chapelle, Paris.
  Church of St Jean-aux-Bois.

                   _Germany._

  Church of St Kunibert, Cologne (Romanesque).
  Cologne cathedral.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
  MIDDLE GOTHIC

     _England._                         _Germany._

  York minster.                 Church of St Sebald, Nuremberg.
  Ely cathedral.                Strassburg \
  Wells cathedral.              Regensburg |
  Tewkesbury abbey.             Augsburg    > cathedrals.
                                Erfurt     |
                                Freiburg   /
                                Church of Nieder Haslach.

             _France._                              _Italy._

  Evreux cathedral.                      Church of St Francis, Assisi.
  Church of St Pierre, Chartres.         Church of Or San Michele,
  Cathedral and church of St Urbain,       Florence.
    Troyes.                              Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.
  Church of Ste Radegonde, Poitiers.
  Cathedral and church of St Ouen, Rouen.

      _Spain._

  Toledo cathedral.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
  LATE GOTHIC

            _England._                              _France._

  New College, Oxford.                    Bourges \ cathedrals.
  Gloucester cathedral.                   Troyes  /
  York, minster and other churches.       Church of Notre Dame, Alencon.
  Great Malvern abbey.
  Church of St Mary, Shrewsbury.
  Fairford church.

        _Italy._                                    _Germany._

  The Duomo, Florence.                   Cologne \
                                         Ulm      > cathedrals.
        _Spain._                         Munich  /
                                         Church of St Lorenz, Nuremberg.
  Toledo cathedral.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
  TRANSITION PERIOD

  The choir of the cathedral at Auch.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
  RENAISSANCE

           _France._                           _Netherlands._

  St Vincent \                           Brussels cathedral.
  St Patrice  > Rouen.                   Church of St Jacques \
  St Godard  /                           Church of St Martin   > Liege.
  Church of St Foy, Conches.             Cathedral            /
  Church of St Gervais, Paris.
  Church of St Etienne-du-Mont, Paris.         _Switzerland._
  Church of St Martin, Montmorency.
  Church of Ecouen.                      Lucerne and most of the other
  Church of St Etienne, Beauvais.          principal museums.
  Church of St Nizier, Troyes.
  Church of Brou, Bourg-en-Bresse.
  The Chateau de Chantilly.

            _Italy._                             _England._

  Arezzo \ cathedrals.               King's College chapel, Cambridge.
  Milan  /                           Lichfield cathedral.
  Certosa di Pavia.                  St George's church, Hanover Square,
  Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.      London.
  Church of Sta Maria Novella,       St Margaret's church, Westminster.
    Florence.

          _Germany._                       _Spain._

  Freiburg cathedral.                Granada \ cathedrals.
                                     Seville /

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
  LATE RENAISSANCE

        _Netherlands._                          _France._

  Groote Kirk, Gouda.             Church of St Martin-es-Vignes, Troyes.
  Choir of Brussels cathedral.    Nave and transepts of Auch cathedral.
  Antwerp cathedral.

  _England._                           _Switzerland._

  Wadham  \                             Most museums.
  Balliol  > colleges, Oxford.
  New     /

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------

Of late years each country has been learning so much from the others
that the newest effort is very much in one direction. It seems to be
agreed that the art of the window-maker begins with glazing, that the
all-needful thing is beautiful glass, that painting may be reduced to a
minimum, and on occasion (thanks to new developments in the making of
glass) dispensed with altogether. A tendency has developed itself in the
direction not merely of mosaic, but of carrying the glazier's art
farther than has been done before and rendering landscapes and even
figure subjects in unpainted glass. When, however, it comes to the
representation of the human face, the limitations of simple lead-glazing
are at once apparent. A possible way out of the difficulty was shown at
the Paris Exhibition of 1900 by M. Tournel, who, by fusing together
coloured tesserae on to larger pieces of colourless glass, anticipated
the discovery of the already mentioned fragment of Byzantine mosaic now
in the Victoria and Albert Museum. He may have seen or heard Of
something of the sort. There would be no advantage in building up whole
windows in this way; but for the rendering of the flesh and sundry
minute details in a window for the most part heavily leaded, this fusing
together of tesserae, and even of little pieces of glass cut carefully
to shape, seems to supply the want of something more in keeping with
severe mosaic glazing than painted flesh proves to be.

Glass painters are allowed to-day a freer hand than formerly. They are
no longer exclusively engaged upon ecclesiastical work; domestic glass
is an important industry; and a workman once comparatively exempt from
pedantic control is not so easily restrained from self-expression.
Moreover, the recognition of the artistic position of craftsmen in
general makes it possible for a man to devote himself to glass without
sinking to the rank of a mechanic; and artists begin to realize the
scope glass offers them. What they lack as yet is experience in their
craft, and perhaps due workmanlike respect for traditional ways of
workmanship. When the old methods come to be superseded it will be only
by new ones evolved out of them. At present the conditions of glass
painting remain very much what they were. The supreme beauty of glass is
still in the purity, the brilliancy, the translucency of its colour. To
make the most of this the designer must be master of his trade. The test
of window design is, now as ever, that it should have nothing to lose
and everything to gain by execution in stained glass.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Theophilus, _Arts of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1847);
  Charles Winston, _An Inquiry into the Difference of Style observable
  in Ancient Glass Painting, especially in England_ (Oxford, 1847), and
  _Memoirs illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting_ (London, 1865); N.
  H. J. Westlake, _A History of Design in Painted Glass_ (4 vols.,
  London, 1881-1894); L. F. Day, _Windows, A Book about Stained and
  Painted Glass_ (London, 1909), and _Stained Glass_ (London, 1903); A.
  W. Franks, _A Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries_ (London, 1849); _A
  Booke of Sundry Draughtes, principaly serving for Glasiers_ (London,
  1615, reproduced 1900); F. G. Joyce, _The Fairford Windows_ (coloured
  plates) (London, 1870); _Divers Works of Early Masters in
  Ecclesiastical Decoration_, edited by John Weale (2 vols., London,
  1846); Ferdinand de Lasteyrie, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre
  d'apres ses monuments en France_ (2 vols., Paris, 1852), and _Quelques
  mots sur la theorie de la peinture sur verre_ (Paris, 1853); L. Magne,
  _Oeuvre des peintres verriers francais_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885);
  Viollet le Duc, "Vitrail," vol. ix. of the _Dictionnaire raisonne de
  l'architecture_ (Paris, 1868); O. Merson, "Les Vitraux," _Bibliotheque
  de l'enseignement des beaux-arts_ (Paris, 1895); E. Levy and J. B.
  Capronnier, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre_ (coloured plates)
  (Brussels, 1860); Ottin, _Le Vitrail, son histoire a travers les ages_
  (Paris); Pierre le Vieil, _L'Art de la peinture sur verre et de la
  vitrerie_ (Paris, 1774); C. Cahier and A. Martin, _Vitraux peints de
  Bourges du XIII^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1841-1844); S. Clement and
  A. Guitard, _Vitraux du XIII^e siecle de la cathedrale de Bourges_
  (Bourges, 1900): M. A. Gessert, _Geschichte der Glasmalerei in
  Deutschland und den Niederlanden, Frankreich, England, &c., von ihrem
  Ursprung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Tubingen and Stuttgart, 1839; also
  an English translation, London, 1851); F. Geiges, _Der alte
  Fensterschmuck des Freiburger Munsters_, 5 parts (Freiburg im
  Breisgau, 1902, &c.); A. Hafner, _Chefs-d'oeuvre de la peinture suisse
  sur verre_ (Berlin).     (L. F. D.)




GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF (1810-1876), German humorist and satirist, was born
at Berlin on the 27th of March 1810. After being for a short time in a
merchant's office, he took to journalism, and in 1831 edited _Don
Quixote_, a periodical which was suppressed in 1833 owing to its
revolutionary tendencies. He next, under the pseudonym _Adolf
Brennglas_, published a series of pictures of Berlin life, under the
titles _Berlin wie es ist und--trinkt_ (30 parts, with illustrations,
1833-1849), and _Buntes Berlin_ (14 parts, with illustrations, Berlin,
1837-1858), and thus became the founder of a popular satirical
literature associated with modern Berlin. In 1840 he married the actress
Adele Peroni (1813-1895), and removed in the following year to
Neustrelitz, where his wife had obtained an engagement at the Grand
ducal theatre. In 1848 Glassbrenner entered the political arena and
became the leader of the democratic party in Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
Expelled from that country in 1850, he settled in Hamburg, where he
remained until 1858; and then he became editor of the _Montagszeitung_
in Berlin, where he died on the 25th of September 1876.

  Among Glassbrenner's other humorous and satirical writings may be
  mentioned: _Leben und Treiben der feinen Welt_ (1834); _Bilder und
  Traume aus Wien_ (2 vols., 1836); Gedichte (1851, 5th ed. 1870); the
  comic epics, _Neuer Reineke Fuchs_ (1846, 4th ed. 1870) and _Die
  verkehrte Welt_ (1857, 6th ed. 1873); also _Berliner Volksleben_ (3
  vols., illustrated; Leipzig, 1847-1851). Glassbrenner has published
  some charming books for children, notably _Lachende Kinder_ (14th ed.,
  1884), and _Sprechende Tiere_ (20th ed., Hamburg, 1899).

  See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, "Adolf Glassbrenner," in _Unsere Zeit_ (1881).




GLASS CLOTH, a textile material, the name of which indicates the use for
which it was originally intended. The cloths are in general woven with
the plain weave, and the fabric may be all white, striped or cheeked
with red, blue or other coloured threads; the checked cloths are the
most common. The real article should be all linen, but a large quantity
is made with cotton warp and tow weft, and in some cases they are
composed entirely of cotton. The short fibres of the cheaper kind are
easily detached from the cloth, and hence they are not so satisfactory
for the purpose for which they are intended.




GLASSIUS, SALOMO (1593-1656), theologian and biblical critic, was born
at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, on
the 20th of May 1593. In 1612 he entered the university of Jena. In
1615, with the idea of studying law, he moved to Wittenberg. In
consequence of an illness, however, he returned to Jena after a year.
Here, as a student of theology under Johann Gerhard, he directed his
attention especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was
made an "adjunctus" of the philosophical faculty, and some time
afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of Hebrew. From 1625
to 1638 he was superintendent in Sondershausen; but shortly after the
death of Gerhard (1637) he was, in accordance with Gerhard's last wish,
appointed to succeed him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest
invitation of Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court
preacher and general superintendent in the execution of important
reforms which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational
establishments of the duchy. The delicate duties attached to this office
he discharged with tact and energy; and in the "syncretistic"
controversy, by which Protestant Germany was so long vexed, he showed an
unusual combination of firmness with liberality, of loyalty to the past
with a just regard to the demands of the present and the future. He died
on the 27th of July 1656.

  His principal work, _Philologia sacra_ (1623), marks the transition
  from the earlier views on questions of biblical criticism to those of
  the school of Spener. It was more than once reprinted during his
  lifetime, and appeared in a new and revised form, edited by J. A.
  Dathe (1731-1791) and G. L. Bauer at Leipzig. Glassius succeeded
  Gerhard as editor of the Weimar _Bibelwerk_, and wrote the commentary
  on the poetical books of the Old Testament for that publication. A
  volume of his _Opuscula_ was printed at Leiden in 1700.

  See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.




GLASSWORT, a name given to _Salicornia herbacea_ (also known as marsh
samphire), a salt-marsh herb with succulent, jointed, leafless stems, in
reference to its former use in glass-making, when it was burnt for
barilla. _Salsola Kali_, an allied plant with rigid, fleshy,
spinous-pointed leaves, which was used for the same purpose, was known
as prickly glasswort. Both plants are members of the natural order
Chenopodiaceae.




GLASTONBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Eastern
parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, on the main road from
London to Exeter, 37 m. S.W. of Bath by the Somerset & Dorset railway.
Pop. (1901) 4016. The town lies in the midst of orchards and
water-meadows, reclaimed from the fens which encircled Glastonbury Tor,
a conical height once an island, but now, with the surrounding flats, a
peninsula washed on three sides by the river Brue.

The town is famous for its abbey, the ruins of which are fragmentary,
and as the work of destruction has in many places descended to the very
foundations it is impossible to make out the details of the plan. Of the
vast range of buildings for the accommodation of the monks hardly any
part remains except the abbot's kitchen, noteworthy for its octagonal
interior (the exterior plan being square, with the four corners filled
in with fireplaces and chimneys), the porter's lodge and the abbey barn.
Considerable portions are standing of the so-called chapel of St Joseph
at the west end, which has been identified with the Lady chapel,
occupying the site of the earliest church. This chapel, which is the
finest part of the ruins, is Transitional work of the 12th century. It
measures about 66 ft. from east to west and about 36 from north to
south. Below the chapel is a crypt of the 15th century inserted beneath
a building which had no previous crypt. Between the chapel and the great
church is an Early English building which appears to have served as a
Galilee porch. The church itself was a cruciform structure with a choir,
nave and transepts, and a tower surmounting the centre of intersection.
From east to west the length was 410 ft. and the breadth of the nave was
about 80 ft. The nave had ten bays and the choir six. Of the nave three
bays of the south side are still standing, and the windows have pointed
arches externally and semicircular arches internally. Two of the tower
piers and a part of one arch give some indication of the grandeur of the
building. The foundations of the Edgar chapel, discovered in 1908, make
the whole church the longest of cathedral or monastic churches in the
country. The old clock, presented to the abbey by Adam de Sodbury
(1322-1335), and noteworthy as an early example of a clock striking the
hours automatically with a count-wheel, was once in Wells cathedral, but
is now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

The Glastonbury thorn, planted, according to the legend, by Joseph of
Arimathea, has been the object of considerable comment. It is said to be
a distinct variety, flowering twice a year. The actual thorn visited by
the pilgrims was destroyed about the Reformation time, but specimens of
the same variety are still extant in various parts of the country.

The chief buildings, apart from the abbey, are the church of St John
Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some 15th-century
monuments; St Benedict's, dating from 1493-1524; St John's hospital,
founded 1246; and the George Inn, built in the time of Henry VII. or
VIII. The present stone cross replaced a far finer one of great age,
which had fallen into decay. The Antiquarian Museum contains an
excellent collection, including remains from a prehistoric village of
the marshes, discovered in 1892, and consisting of sixty mounds within a
space of five acres. There is a Roman Catholic missionaries' college. In
the 16th century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of
Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the 18th century.
Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of boots and sheep-skin
rugs are practised. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 5000 acres.

The lake-village discovered in 1892 proves that there was a Celtic
settlement about 300-200 B.C. on an island in the midst of swamps, and
therefore easily defensible. British earthworks and Roman roads and
relics prove later occupation. The name of Glastonbury, however, is of
much later origin, being a corruption of the Saxon _Glaestyngabyrig_. By
the Britons the spot seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized
as Avallonia) or Ynysvitrin (see AVALON), and it became the local
habitation of various fragments of Celtic romance. According to the
legends which grew up under the care of the monks, the first church of
Glastonbury was a little wattled building erected by Joseph of Arimathea
as the leader of the twelve apostles sent over to Britain from Gaul by
St Philip. About a hundred years later, according to the same
authorities, the two missionaries, Phaganus and Deruvianus, who came to
king Lucius from Pope Eleutherius, established a fraternity of
anchorites on the spot, and after three hundred years more St Patrick
introduced among them a regular monastic life. The British monastery
founded about 601 was succeeded by a Saxon abbey built by Ine in 708.
From the decadent state into which Glastonbury was brought by the Danish
invasions it was recovered by Dunstan, who had been educated within its
walls and was appointed its abbot about 946. The church and other
buildings of his erection remained till the installation, in 1082, of
the first Norman abbot, who inaugurated the new epoch by commencing a
new church. His successor Herlewin (1101-1120), however, pulled it down
to make way for a finer structure. Henry of Blois (1126-1172) added
greatly to the extent of the monastery. In 1184 (on 25th May) the whole
of the buildings were laid in ruins by fire; but Henry II. of England,
in whose hands the monastery then was, entrusted his chamberlain
Rudolphus with the work of restoration, and caused it to be carried out
with much magnificence. The great church of which the ruins still remain
was then erected. In the end of the 12th century, and on into the
following, Glastonbury was distracted by a strange dispute, caused by
the attempt of Savaric, the ambitious bishop of Bath, to make himself
master of the abbey. The conflict was closed by the decision of Innocent
III., that the abbacy should be merged in the new see of Bath and
Glastonbury, and that Savaric should have a fourth of the property. On
Savaric's death his successor gave up the joint bishopric and allowed
the monks to elect their own abbot. From this date to the Reformation
the monastery, one of the chief Benedictine abbeys in England, continued
to flourish, the chief events in its history being connected with the
maintenance of its claims to the possession of the bodies or tombs of
King Arthur and St Dunstan. From early times through the middle ages it
was a place of pilgrimage. As early at least as the beginning of the
11th century the tradition that Arthur was buried at Glastonbury appears
to have taken shape; and in the reign of Henry II., according to
Giraldus Cambrensis and others, the abbot Henry de Blois, causing search
to be made, discovered at the depth of 16 ft. a massive oak trunk with
an inscription "Hic jacet sepultus inclitus rex Arthurus in insula
Avalonia." After the fire of 1184 the monks asserted that they were in
possession of the remains of St Dunstan, which had been abstracted from
Canterbury after the Danish sack of 1011 and kept in concealment ever
since. The Canterbury monks naturally denied the assertion, and the
contest continued for centuries. In 1508 Warham and Goldston having
examined the Canterbury shrine reported that it contained all the
principal bones of the saint, but the abbot of Glastonbury in reply as
stoutly maintained that this was impossible. The day of such disputes
was, however, drawing to a close. In 1539 the last and 60th abbot of
Glastonbury, Robert Whyting, was lodged in the Tower on account of
"divers and sundry treasons." "The 'account' or 'book' of his treasons
... seems to be lost, and the nature of the charges ... can only be a
matter of speculation" (Gairdner, _Cal. Pap._ on Hen. VIII., xiv. ii.
_pref._ xxxii). He was removed to Wells, where he was "arraigned and
next day put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church." The
execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was quartered and his
head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker passage does not occur in the
annals of the English Reformation than this murder of an able and
high-spirited man, whose worst offence was that he defended as best he
could from the hand of the spoiler the property in his charge.

In 1907, the site of the abbey with the remains of the buildings, which
had been in private hands since the granting of the estate to Sir Peter
Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought by Mr Ernest Jardine for the
purpose of transferring it to the Church of England. Bishop Kennion of
Bath and Wells entered into an agreement to raise a sum of L31,000, the
cost of the purchase; this was completed, and the site and buildings
were formally transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to the
Diocesan Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and manage the
property according to a deed of trust. This deed provided for the
appointment of an advisory council, consisting of the archbishop of
Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and four other bishops, each
with power to nominate one clerical and one lay member. The council has
the duty of deciding the purpose for which the property is to be used
"in connexion with and for the benefit of the Church of England." To
give time for further collection of funds and deliberation, the property
was re-let for five years to the original purchaser.

In the 8th century Glastonbury was already a borough owned by the abbey,
which continued to be overlord till the Dissolution. The abbey obtained
charters in the 7th century, but the town received its first charter
from Henry II., who exempted the men of Glastonbury from the
jurisdiction of royal officials and freed them from certain tolls. This
was confirmed by Henry III. in 1227, by Edward I. in 1278, by Edward II.
in 1313 and by Henry VI. in 1447. The borough was incorporated by Anne
in 1706, and the corporation was reformed by the act of 1835. In 1319
Glastonbury received a writ of summons to parliament, but made no
return, and has not since been represented. A fair on the 8th of
September was granted in 1127; another on the 29th of May was held under
a charter of 1282. Fairs known as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now
held on the second Mondays in September and October and are chiefly
important for the sale of horses and cattle. The market day every other
Monday is noted for the sale of cheese. Glastonbury owed its medieval
importance to its connexion with the abbey. At the Dissolution the
introduction of woollen manufacture checked the decay of the town. The
cloth trade flourished for a century and was replaced by silk-weaving,
stocking-knitting and glove-making, all of which have died out.

  See Abbot Gasquet. _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_ (1906),
  and _The Last Abbot of Glastonbury_ (1895 and 1908); William of
  Malmesbury, "De antiq. Glastoniensis ecclesiae," in _Rerum Anglicarum
  script. vet._ tom. i. (1684) (also printed by Hearne and Migne); John
  of Glastonbury, _Chronica sive de hist. de rebus Glast._, ed. by
  Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1726); Adam of Domerham, _De rebus gestis
  Glast._, ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1727); _Hist. and Antiq. of
  Glast._ (London, 1807); _Avalonian Guide to the Town of Glastonbury_
  (8th ed., 1839); Warner, _Hist. of the Abbey and Town_ (Bath, 1826);
  Rev. F. Warre, "Glastonbury Abbey," in _Proc. of Somersetshire_
  _Archaeol. and Nat. Hist. Soc._, 1849; Rev. F. Warre, "Notice of
  Ruins of Glastonbury Abbey," ib. 1859; Rev. W. A. Jones, "On the
  Reputed Discovery of King Arthur's Remains at Glastonbury," ib. 1859;
  Rev. J. R. Green, "Dunstan at Glastonbury" and "Giso and Savaric," ib.
  1863; Rev. Canon Jackson, "Savaric, Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury,"
  ib. 1862, 1863; E. A. Freeman, "King Ine," ib. 1872 and 1874; Dr W.
  Beattie, in _Journ. of Brit. Archaeol. Ass._ vol. xii., 1856; Rev. R.
  Willis, _Architectural History of Glastonbury Abbey_ (1866); W. H. P.
  Greswell, _Chapters on the Early History of Glastonbury Abbey_ (1909);
  Views and plans of the abbey building will be found in Dugdale's
  _Monasticon_ (1655); Stevens's _Monasticon_ (1720); Stukeley,
  _Itinerarium curiosum_ (1724); Grose, _Antiquities_ (1754); Carter,
  _Ancient Architecture_ (1800); Storer, _Antiq. and Topogr. Cabinet_,
  ii., iv., v. (1807), &c.; Britton's _Architectural Antiquities_, iv.
  (1813); _Vetusta monumenta_, iv. (1815); and _New Monasticon_, i.
  (1817).




GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE (1830-1873), French poet, was born at
Lillebonne (Seine Inferieure) on the 21st of May 1839. His father, who
was a carpenter and afterwards a gendarme, removed in 1844 to Bernay,
where Albert received an elementary education. Soon after leaving school
he was apprenticed to a printer at Pont Audemer, where he produced a
three-act play at the local theatre. He then joined a travelling company
of actors to whom he acted as prompter. Inspired primarily by the study
of Theodore de Banville, he published his _Vignes folles_ in 1857; his
best collection of lyrics, _Les Fleches d'or_, appeared in 1864; and a
third volume, _Gilles et pasquins_, in 1872. After Glatigny settled in
Paris he improvised at cafe concerts and wrote several one-act plays. On
an expedition to Corsica with a travelling company he was on one
occasion arrested and put in irons for a week through being mistaken by
the police for a notorious criminal. His marriage with Emma Dennie
brought him great happiness, but the hardships of his life weakened his
health and he died at Sevres on the 16th of April 1873.

  See Catulle Mendes, _Legende du Parnasse contemporain_ (1884), and
  _Glatigny, drame funambulesque_ (1906).




GLATZ (Slav. _Kladsko_), a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Silesia, in a narrow valley on the left bank of the Neisse,
not far from the Austrian frontier, 58 m. S.W. from Breslau by rail.
Pop. (1905) 16,051. The town with its narrow streets winds up the
fortified hill which is crowned by the old citadel. Across the river, on
the Schaferberg, lies a more modern fortress built by the Prussians
about 1750. Before the town on both banks of the river there is a
fortified camp by which bombardment from the neighbouring heights can be
hindered and which affords accommodation for 10,000 men. The inner
ceinture of walls was razed in 1891 and their site is now occupied by
new streets. There are a Lutheran and two Roman Catholic churches, one
of which, the parish church, contains the monuments of seven Silesian
dukes. Among the other buildings the principal are the Royal Catholic
gymnasium and the military hospital. The industries include machine
shops, breweries, and the manufacture of spirits, linen, damask, cloth,
hosiery, beads and leather.

Glatz existed as early as the 10th century, and received German settlers
about 1250. It was besieged several times during the Thirty Years' War
and during the Seven Years' War and came into the possession of Prussia
in 1742. In 1821 and 1883 great devastation was caused here by floods.
The county of Glatz was long contended for by the kingdoms of Poland and
of Bohemia. Eventually it became part of the latter country, and in 1534
was sold to the house of Habsburg, from whom it was taken by Frederick
the Great during his attack on Silesia.

  See Ludwig, _Die Grafschaft Glatz in Wort und Bild_ (Breslau, 1897);
  Kutzen, _Die Grafschaft Glatz_ (Glogau, 1873); and _Geschichtsquellen
  der Grafschaft Glatz_, edited by F. Volkmer and Hohaus (1883-1891).




GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF (1604-1668), German chemist, was born at
Karlstadt, Bavaria, in 1604 and died at Amsterdam in 1668. Little more
is known of his life than that he resided successively in Vienna,
Salzburg, Frankfurt and Cologne before settling in Holland, where he
made his living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal
preparations. Though his writings abound in universal solvents and other
devices of the alchemists, he made some real contributions to chemical
knowledge. Thus he clearly described the preparation of hydrochloric
acid by the action of oil of vitriol on common salt, the manifold
virtues of sodium sulphate--_sal mirabile_, Glauber's salt--formed in
the process being one of the chief themes of his _Miraculum mundi_; and
he noticed that nitric acid was formed when nitre was substituted for
the common salt. Further he prepared a large number of substances,
including the chlorides and other salts of lead, tin, iron, zinc,
copper, antimony and arsenic, and he even noted some of the phenomena of
double decomposition. He was always anxious to turn his knowledge to
practical account, whether in preparing medicines, or in furthering
industrial arts such as dyeing, or in increasing the fertility of the
soil by artificial manures. One of his most notable works was his
_Teutschlands Wohlfarth_ in which he urged that the natural resources of
Germany should be developed for the profit of the country and gave
various instances of how this might be done.

  His treatises, about 30 in number, were collected and published at
  Frankfort in 1658-1659, at Amsterdam in 1661, and, in an English
  translation by Packe, at London in 1689.




GLAUBER'S SALT, decahydrated sodium sulphate, Na2SO4, 10H2O. It is said
by J. Kunkel to have been known as an _arcanum_ or secret medicine to
the electoral house of Saxony in the middle of the 16th century, but it
was first described by J. R. Glauber (_De natura salium_, 1658), who
prepared it by the action of oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid on common
salt, and, ascribing to it many medicinal virtues, termed it _sal
mirabile Glauberi_. As the mineral thenardite or mirabilite, which
crystallizes in the rhombic system, it occurs in many parts of the
world, as in Spain, the western states of North America and the Russian
Caucasus; in the last-named region, about 25 m. E. of Tiflis, there is a
thick bed of the pure salt about 5 ft. below the surface, and at
Balalpashinsk there are lakes or ponds the waters of which are an almost
pure solution. The substance is the active principle of many mineral
waters, e.g. Frederickshall; it occurs in sea-water and it is a constant
constituent of the blood. In combination with calcium sulphate, it
constitutes the mineral glauberite or brongniartite, Na2SO4.CaSO4, which
assumes forms belonging to the monoclinic system and occurs in Spain and
Austria. It has a bitter, saline, but not acrid taste. At ordinary
temperatures it crystallizes from aqueous solutions in large colourless
monoclinic prisms, which effloresce in dry air, and at 35 deg.C. melt in
their water of crystallization. At 100 deg. they lose all their water,
and on further heating fuse at 843 deg. Its maximum solubility in water
is at 34 deg.; above that temperature it ceases to exist in the solution
as a decahydrate, but changes to the anhydrous salt, the solubility of
which decreases with rise of temperature. Glauber's salt readily forms
supersaturated solutions, in which crystallization takes place suddenly
when a crystal of the salt is thrown in; the same effect is obtained by
exposure to the air or by touching the solution with a glass rod. In
medicine it is employed as an aperient, and is one of the safest and
most innocuous known. For children it may be mixed with common salt and
the two be used with the food without the child being conscious of any
difference. Its simulation of the taste of common salt also renders it
suitable for administration to insane patients and others who refuse to
take any drug. If, however, its presence is recognized sodium phosphate
may be substituted.




GLAUCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the right bank
of the Mulde, 7 m. N. of Zwickau and 17 W. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop.
(1875) 21,743; (1905) 24,556. It has important manufactures of woollen
and half-woollen goods, in regard to which it occupies a high position
in Germany. There are also dye-works, print-works, and manufactories of
paper, linen, thread and machinery. Glauchau possesses a high grade
school, elementary schools, a weaving school, an orphanage and an
infirmary. Some portions of the extensive old castle date from the 12th
century, and the Gottesacker church contains interesting antiquarian
relics. Glauchau was founded by a colony of Sorbs and Wends, and
belonged to the lords of Schonburg as early as the 12th century.

  See R. Hofmann, _Ruckblick uber die Geschichte der Stadt Glauchau_
  (1897).





GLAUCONITE, a mineral, green in colour, and chemically a hydrous
silicate of iron and potassium. It especially occurs in the green sands
and muds which are gathering at the present time on the sea bottom at
many different places. The wide extension of these sands and muds was
first made known by the naturalists of the "Challenger," and it is now
found that they occur in the Mediterranean as well as in the open ocean,
but they have not been found in the Black Sea or in any fresh-water
lakes. These deposits are not in a true sense abyssal, but are of
terrigenous origin, the mud and sand being derived from the wear of the
continents, transported by marine currents. The greater part of the mass
consists in all cases of minerals such as quartz, felspar (often
labradorite), mica, chlorite, with more or less calcite which is
probably always derived from shells or other organic sources. Many
accessory minerals such as tourmaline and zircon have been identified
also, while augite, hornblende and other volcanic minerals occur in
varying proportion as in all the sediments of the open sea. The depth in
which they accumulate varies a good deal, viz. from 200 up to 2000
fathoms, but as a rule is less than 1000 fathoms, and it is believed
that the most common situations are where the continental shores slope
rather steeply into moderate depths of water. Many of the blue muds,
which owe their colour to fine particles of sulphide of iron, contain
also a small quantity of glauconite; in Globigerina oozes this substance
has also been found, and in fact there exists every gradation between
the glauconitic deposits and the other types of sands and muds which are
found at similar depths.

The colouring matter is believed in every case to be glauconite. Other
ingredients, such as lime, alumina and magnesia are usually shown to be
present by the analyses, but may perhaps be regarded as non-essential:
it is impossible to isolate this substance in a pure state as it occurs
only in fine aggregates, mixed with other minerals. The glauconite,
though crystalline, never occurs well crystallized but only as dense
clusters of very minute particles which react feebly on polarized light.
They have one well-marked characteristic inasmuch as they often form
rounded lumps. In many cases it is certain that these are casts, which
fill up the interior of empty shells of Foraminifera. They may be seen
occupying these shells, and when the shell is dissolved away perfect
casts of glauconite are set free. Apparently in some manner not
understood, the decaying organic matter in the shell of the dead
organism initiated or favoured the chemical reactions by which the
glauconite was formed. That the mineral originated on the sea bottom
among the sand and mud is quite certainly established by these facts;
moreover, since it is so soft and friable that it is easily powdered up
by pressure with the fingers, it cannot have been transported from any
great distance by currents. Small rounded glauconite lumps, which are
common on the sands but show no trace of having filled the chambers of
Foraminifera, may have arisen by a re-deposit of broken-down casts such
as have been described; probably slight movement of the deposits,
occasioned by currents, may have broken up the glauconite casts and
scattered the soft material through the water. Films or stains of
glauconite on shells, sand grains and phosphate nodules are explained by
a similar deposit of fragmental glauconite.

In a small number of Tertiary and older rocks glauconite occurs as an
essential component. It is found in the Pliocene sands of Holland, the
Eocene sands of Paris and the "Molasse" of Switzerland, but is much more
abundant in the Lower Cretaceous rocks of N. Europe, especially in the
subdivision known as the Greensand. Rounded lumps and casts like those
of the green sands of the present day are plentiful in these rocks, and
it is obvious that the mode of formation was in all respects the same.
The green sand when weathered is brown or rusty coloured, the glauconite
being oxidized to limonite. Calcareous sands or impure limestones with
glauconite are also by no means rare, an example being the well-known
Kentish Rag. In the Chalk-rock and Chalk-marl of some parts of England
glauconite is rather frequent, and glauconitic chalk is known also in
the north of France. Among the oldest rocks which contain this mineral
are the Lower Silurian of the St Petersburg district, but it is very
rare in the Palaeozoic formations, possibly because it undergoes
crystalline change and is also liable to be oxidized and converted into
other ferruginous minerals. It has been suggested that certain deposits
of iron ores may owe their origin to deposits of glauconite, as for
example those of the Mesabi range, Minnesota, U.S.A.     (J. S. F.)




GLAUCOUS (Gr. [Greek: glaukos], bright, gleaming), a word meaning of a
sea-green colour, in botany covered with bloom, like a plum or a
cabbage-leaf.




GLAUCUS ("bright"), the name of several figures in Greek mythology, the
most important of which are the following:

1. GLAUCUS, surnamed _Pontius_, a sea divinity. Originally a fisherman
and diver of Anthedon in Boeotia, having eaten of a certain magical herb
sown by Cronus, he leapt into the sea, where he was changed into a god,
and endowed with the gift of unerring prophecy. According to others he
sprang into the sea for love of the sea-god Melicertes, with whom he was
often identified (Athenaeus vii. 296). He was worshipped not only at
Anthedon, but on the coasts of Greece, Sicily and Spain, where fishermen
and sailors at certain seasons watched for his arrival during the night
in order to consult him (Pausanias ix. 22). In art he is depicted as a
vigorous old man with long hair and beard, his body terminating in a
scaly tail, his breast covered with shells and seaweed. He was said to
have been the builder and pilot of the Argo, and to have been changed
into a god after the fight between the Argonauts and Tyrrhenians. He
assisted the expedition in various ways (Athenaeus, loc. cit.; see also
Ovid, _Metam._ xiii. 904). Glaucus was the subject of a satyric drama by
Aeschylus. He was famous for his amours, especially those with Scylla
and Circe.

  See the exhaustive monograph by R. Gaedechens, _Glaukos der Meergott_
  (1860), and article by the same in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_;
  and for Glaucus and Scylla, E. Vinet in _Annali dell' Instituto di
  Correspondenza archeologica_, xv. (1843).

2. GLAUCUS, usually surnamed _Potnieus_, from Potniae near Thebes, son
of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon. According to the legend
he was torn to pieces by his own mares (Virgil, _Georgics_, iii. 267;
Hyginus, _Fab._ 250, 273). On the isthmus of Corinth, and also at
Olympia and Nemea, he was worshipped as Taraxippus ("terrifier of
horses"), his ghost being said to appear and frighten the horses at the
games (Pausanias vi. 20). He is closely akin to Glaucus Pontius, the
frantic horses of the one probably representing the stormy waves, the
other the sea in its calmer mood. He also was the subject of a lost
drama of Aeschylus.

3. GLAUCUS, the son of Minos and Pasiphae. When a child, while playing
at ball or pursuing a mouse, he fell into a jar of honey and was
smothered. His father, after a vain search for him, consulted the
oracle, and was referred to the person who should suggest the aptest
comparison for one of the cows of Minos which had the power of assuming
three different colours. Polyidus of Argos, who had likened it to a
mulberry (or bramble), which changes from white to red and then to
black, soon afterwards discovered the child; but on his confessing his
inability to restore him to life, he was shut up in a vault with the
corpse. Here he killed a serpent which was revived by a companion, which
laid a certain herb upon it. With the same herb Polyidus brought the
dead Glaucus back to life. According to others, he owed his recovery to
Aesculapius. The story was the subject of plays by the three great Greek
tragedians, and was often represented in mimic dances.

  See Hyginus, _Fab._ 136; Apollodorus iii. 3. 10; C. Hock, _Kreta_,
  iii. 1829; C. Eckermann, _Melampus_, 1840.

4. GLAUCUS, son of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophon, mythical
progenitor of the kings of Ionia. He was a Lycian prince who, along with
his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Priam in the Trojan War. When he found
himself opposed to Diomedes, with whom he was connected by ties of
hospitality, they ceased fighting and exchanged armour. Since the
equipment of Glaucus was golden and that of Diomedes brazen, the
expression "golden for brazen" (_Iliad_, vi. 236) came to be used
proverbially for a bad exchange. Glaucus was afterwards slain by Ajax.

  All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch and
  Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_.





GLAZING.--The business of the glazier may be confined to the mere
fitting and setting of glass (q.v.), even the cutting up of the plates
into squares being generally an independent art, requiring a degree of
tact and judgment not necessarily possessed by the building artificer.
The tools generally used by the glazier are the diamond for cutting,
laths or straight edges, tee square, measuring rule, glazing knife,
hacking knife and hammer, duster, sash tool, two-foot rule and a
glazier's cradle for carrying the glass. Glaziers' materials are glass,
putty, priming or paint, springs, wash-leather or india-rubber for door
panels, size, black. The glass is supplied by the manufacturer and cut
to the sizes required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is
made of whiting and linseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs of
1/2 or 1 cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over, and when
found to be getting hard in the keg a little oil should be put on it to
keep it moist. Priming is a thin coat of paint with a small amount of
red lead in it. In the majority of cases after the sashes for the
windows are fitted they are sent to the glazier's and primed and glazed,
and then returned to the job and hung in their proper positions. When
priming sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed,
else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted requires
before being primed to have the knots coated with knotting. When the
priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted into its place; each pane
should fit easily with about 1/16th in. play all round. The glazier runs
the putty round the rebates with his hands, and then beds the glass in
it, pushing it down tight, and then further secures it by knocking in
small nails, called glaziers' sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims
up the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on the
rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife. The sash is then ready
for painting. Large squares and plate glass are usually inserted when
the sashes are hung to avoid risks of breakage. For inside work the
panes of glass are generally secured with beads (not with putty), and in
the best work these beads are fixed with brass screws and caps to allow
of easy removal without breaking the beads and damaging the paint, &c.
In the case of glass in door panels where there is much vibration and
slamming, the glass is bedded in wash-leather or india-rubber and
secured with beads as before mentioned.


  Varieties of glass.

The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet in varying
thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz. per sq. ft. This can be
had in several qualities of English or foreign manufacture. But there
are many other varieties--obscured, fluted, enamelled, coloured and
ornamental, rolled and rough plate, British polished plate, patent
plate, fluted rolled, quarry rolled, chequered rough, and a variety of
figured rolled, and stained glass, and crown-glass with bulls'-eyes in
the centre.

Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares of glass,
which are held together by reticulations of lead; these are secured by
means of copper wire to iron saddle bars, which are let into mortices in
the wood frames or stone jambs. This is formed with strips of lead,
soldered at the angles; the glass is placed between the strips and the
lead flattened over the edges of glass to secure it. This is much used
in public buildings and private residences. In Weldon's method the
saddle bars are bedded in the centre of the strips of lead, thus
strengthening the frame of lead strips and giving a better appearance.

_Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate_, usually 1/4 in. thick, has
wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling in the
case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern and
skylights, screens and doors on the staircases of public and warehouse
buildings, in accordance with the London Building Act. It is also used
for the decks of ships and for port and cabin lights, as it is much
stronger than plain glass, and if fractured is held together by the
wire.

Patent prismatic rolled glass, or "refrax" (fig. 1), consists of an
effectual application of the well-known properties of the prism; it
absorbs all the light that strikes the window opening, and diffuses it
in the most efficient manner possible in the darkest portions of the
apartment. It can be fixed in the ordinary way or placed over the
existing glass.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Prism Window Glass.]

Pavement lights (fig. 2) and stallboard lights are constructed with iron
frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic glass, and are
used to light basements. They are placed on the pavement and under shop
fronts in the portion called the stallboard, and are also inserted in
iron coal plates.

Great skill has of late years been displayed in the ornamentation of
glass such as is seen in public saloons, restaurants, &c., as, for
instance, in bevelling the edges, silvering, brilliant cutting,
embossing, bending, cutting shelving to fancy shapes and polishing, and
in glass ventilators.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section through Prism Pavement Light, the
direction of light rays being indicated by arrows.]


    Roof glazing.

  There are several patent methods of roof glazing, such as are applied
  to railway stations, studios and printing and other factories
  requiring light. Some of the first patents of this kind were erected
  with wood glazing bars; these were unsightly, since they required to
  be of large sectional area when spanning a distance of 7 or 8 ft., and
  also required to be constantly painted. This was a source of trouble;
  the roof was constantly leaking and, moreover, it was not
  fire-resisting.

  Of subsequent patents one includes the use of steel T-bars, in which
  the glass is bedded and covered with a capping of copper or zinc
  secured with bolts and nuts. Another employs steel bars covered with
  lead; and this is a very good method, as the bars are of small
  section, require no painting, and are also fire-resisting. There is
  one reason for preferring wood to steel, namely, that wood does not
  expand and contract like steel does. After the sun has been on steel
  bars, especially those in long lengths, they tend to buckle and then
  when cold contract, thus getting out of shape; there is also the
  possibility that when expanding they may break the glass. This is more
  noticeable in the case of iron ventilating frames in this glazing,
  which after having weathered for a year or two will begin to get out
  of shape and so give trouble in opening and closing.

  Care should be taken not to fit the glass in iron bars tightly, but a
  good 1/8th in. play all round should be allowed. A few of the systems
  of patent roof glazing will be described in the following pages,
  together with illustrations.

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--"British Challenge" Glazing.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Mellowes' Glazing.]

  The system of glazing known as the "British Challenge" (fig. 3), with
  steel bars encased with a sheeting of 4-lb. lead, is very simple and
  durable, needs no painting, and can be fixed at as much as 8 ft. clear
  bearings, with the bars spaced 2 ft. apart. The ends of the bars rest
  on the wood or steel purlins or plates, and are either notched and
  screwed down, or simply fitted with a bracket which is screwed. The
  bar is of T section with condensation grooves, and the lead wings on
  top are turned down on to the glass after fitting. This lead-covered
  steel bar is a great improvement on the plain steel bar as it is
  entirely unaffected by smoke, acids or exhaust fumes from steam
  engines; this is important in the case of a railway station, where the
  fumes would otherwise eat the steel away and so weaken the bars that
  in time they would snap. Another somewhat similar system is known as
  "Mellowes' Eclipse Roof Glazing" (fig. 4). It consists of steel T-bars
  having lead wings on top to turn on to the glass in a similar manner
  to the last, the top wings being double and the underside of the bar
  having an additional wing to catch the condensation. The Heywood
  combination system (fig. 5) is composed of galvanized steel T-bars,
  sometimes encased in lead and sometimes partly encased. It has a
  capping and condensation gutters of lead, and the glass is bedded on
  asbestos packing to get a better bearing edge, so as to be held more
  securely. Hope's glazing is very similar, but the bars are either T or
  cross according to the span. The "Perfection" glazing used by Messrs
  Helliwell & Co. (fig. 6) is composed of steel shaped T bars with
  copper capping, secured with bolts and nuts and having asbestos
  packing on top of the glass under the edges of the capping.
  Pennycook's glazing is composed of steel shaped T bars encased with
  lead and lead wings. Rendle's "Invincible" glazing (fig. 7) is
  composed of steel T bars with specially shaped copper water and
  condensation channels, all formed in the one piece and resting on top
  of the T steel; the glass rests on the zinc channel, and a copper
  capping is fixed over the edges of the glass and secured with bolts
  and nuts. Deard's glazing is very similar, and is composed of T steel
  encased with lead; it claims to save all drilling for fixing to iron
  roofs. There are also other systems composed of wood bars with
  condensation gutter and capping of copper secured with bolts and nuts,
  and asbestos packing with slight differences in some minor matters,
  but these systems are but little used.

  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Heywood's Glazing.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Helliwell's "Perfection" Glazing.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Rendle's "Invincible" Glazing.]

  Cloisonne glass is a patent ornamental glass formed by placing two
  pieces flat against each other enclosing a species of glass mosaic.
  Designs are worked and shaped in gilt wire and placed on one sheet of
  glass; the space between the wire is then filled in with coloured
  beads, and another sheet of glass is placed on top of it to keep them
  in position, and the edges of the glass are bound with linen, &c., to
  keep them firmly together.


  Use in building.

Glass is now used for decorative purposes, such as wall tiling and
ceilings; it is coloured and decorated in almost any shade and presents
a very effective appearance. An invention has been patented for building
houses entirely of glass; the walls are constructed of blocks or bricks
of opaque glass, the several walls being varied in thickness according
to the constructional requirements.

It is certainly true that daylight has much to do with the sanitary
condition of all buildings, and this being so the proper distribution of
daylight to a building is of the greatest possible importance, and must
be effected by an ample provision of windows judiciously arranged. The
heads of all windows should be kept as near the ceiling as possible, as
well to obtain easy ventilation as to ensure good lighting. As far as is
practicable a building should be planned so that each room receives the
sun's rays for some part of the day. This is rarely an easy matter,
especially in towns where the aspect of the building is out of the
architect's hands. The best sites for light are found in streets running
north and south and east and west, and lighting areas or courts in
buildings should always if possible be arranged on these lines. The task
of adequately lighting lofty city buildings has been greatly minimized
by the introduction of many forms of reflecting and intensifying
contrivances, which are used to deflect light into those apartments into
which daylight does not directly penetrate, and which would otherwise
require the use of artificial light to render them of any use; the most
useful of these inventions are the various forms of prism glass already
referred to and illustrated in this article.

  See L. F. Day, _Stained and Painted Class_; and W. Eckstein, _Interior
  Lighting_.     (J. Bt.)




GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH (1865-   ), Russian musical composer,
was born in St Petersburg on the 10th of August 1865, his father being a
publisher and bookseller. He showed an early talent for music, and
studied for a year or so with Rimsky-Korsakov. At the age of sixteen he
composed a symphony (afterwards elaborated and published as _op._ 5),
but his _opus_ 1 was a quartet in D, followed by a pianoforte suite on
_S-a-c-h-a_, the diminutive of his name Alexander. In 1884 he was taken
up by Liszt, and soon became known as a composer. His first symphony was
played that year at Weimar, and he appeared as a conductor at the Paris
exhibition in 1889. In 1897 his fourth and fifth symphonies were
performed in London under his own conducting. In 1900 he became
professor at the St Petersburg conservatoire. His separate works,
including orchestral symphonies, dance music and songs, make a long
list. Glazunov is a leading representative of the modern Russian school,
and a master of orchestration; his tendency as compared with
contemporary Russian composers is towards classical form, and he was
much influenced by Brahms, though in "programme music" he is represented
by such works as his symphonic poems _The Forest_, _Stenka Razin_, _The
Kremlin_ and his suite _Aus dem Mittelalter_. His ballet music, as in
_Raymonda_, achieved much popularity.




GLEBE (Lat. _glaeba_, _gleba_, clod or lump of earth, hence soil, land),
in ecclesiastical law the land devoted to the maintenance of the
incumbent of a church. Burn (_Ecclesiastical Law, s.v._ "Glebe Lands")
says: "Every church of common right is entitled to house and glebe, and
the assigning of them at the first was of such absolute necessity that
without them no church could be regularly consecrated. The house and
glebe are both comprehended under the word _manse_, of which the rule of
the canon law is, _sancitum est ut unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus
integer absque ullo servitio tribuatur_." In the technical language of
English law the fee-simple of the glebe is said to be in _abeyance_,
that is, it exists "only in the remembrance, expectation and intendment
of the law." But the freehold is in the parson, although at common law
he could alienate the same only with proper consent,--that is, in his
case, with the consent of the bishop. The disabling statutes of
Elizabeth (Alienation by Bishops, 1559, and Dilapidations, &c., 1571)
made void all alienations by ecclesiastical persons, except leases for
the term of twenty-one years or three lives. By an act of 1842 (5 & 6
Vict. c. 27, Ecclesiastical Leases) glebe land and buildings may be let
on lease for farming purposes for fourteen years or on an improving
lease for twenty years. But the parsonage house and ten acres of glebe
situate most conveniently for occupation must not be leased. By the
Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 108) and 1858 glebe
lands may be let on building leases for not more than ninety-nine years
and on mining leases for not more than sixty years. The Tithe Act 1842,
the Glebe Lands Act 1888 and various other acts make provision for the
sale, purchase, exchange and gift of glebe lands. In Scots
ecclesiastical law, the manse now signifies the minister's
dwelling-house, the glebe being the land to which he is entitled in
addition to his stipend. All parish ministers appear to be entitled to a
glebe, except the ministers in royal burghs proper, who cannot claim a
glebe unless there be a landowner's district annexed; and even in that
case, when there are two ministers, it is only the first who has a
claim.

  See Phillimore, _Ecclesiastical Law_ (2nd ed.); Cripps, _Law of Church
  and Clergy_; Leach, _Tithe Acts_ (6th ed.); Dart, _Vendors and
  Purchasers_ (7th ed.).




GLEE, a musical term for a part-song of a particular kind. The word, as
well as the thing, is essentially confined to England. The technical
meaning has been explained in different ways; but there is little doubt
of its derivation through the ordinary sense of the word (i.e.
merriment, entertainment) from the A.S. _gleov_, _gleo_, corresponding
to Lat. _gaudium_, _delectamentum_, hence _ludus musicus_; on the other
hand, a musical "glee" is by no means necessarily a merry composition.
Gleeman (A.S. "gleo-man") is translated simply as "musicus" or "cantor,"
to which the less distinguished titles of "mimus, jocista, scurra," are
frequently added in old dictionaries. The accomplishments and social
position of the gleeman seem to have been as varied as those of the
Provencal "joglar." There are early examples of the word "glee" being
used as synonymous with harmony or concerted music. The former
explanation, for instance, is given in the _Promptorium parvulorum_, a
work of the 15th century. Glee in its present meaning signifies, broadly
speaking, a piece of concerted vocal music, generally unaccompanied, and
for male voices, though exceptions are found to the last two
restrictions. The number of voices ought not to be less than three. As
regards musical form, the glee is little distinguished from the
catch,--the two terms being often used indiscriminately for the same
song; but there is a distinct difference between it and the
madrigal--one of the earliest forms of concerted music known in England.
While the madrigal does not show a distinction of contrasted movements,
this feature is absolutely necessary in the glee. In the madrigal the
movement of the voices is strictly contrapuntal, while the more modern
form allows of freer treatment and more compact harmonies. Differences
of tonality are fully explained by the development of the art, for while
the madrigal reached its acme in Queen Elizabeth's time, the glee proper
was little known before the Commonwealth; and its most famous
representatives belong to the 18th century and the first quarter of the
19th. Among the numerous collections of the innumerable pieces of this
kind, only one of the earliest and most famous may be mentioned, _Catch
that Catch can, a Choice Collection of Catches, Rounds and Canons, for
three and four voices_, published by John Hilton in 1652. The name
"glee," however, appears for the first time in John Playford's _Musical
Companion_, published twenty-one years afterwards, and reprinted again
and again, with additions by later composers--Henry Purcell, William
Croft and John Blow among the number. The originator of the glee in its
modern form was Dr Arne, born in 1710. Among later English musicians
famous for their glees, catches and part-songs, the following may be
mentioned:--Attwood, Boyce, Bishop, Crotch, Callcott, Shield, Stevens,
Horsley, Webb and Knyvett. The convivial character of the glee led, in
the 18th century, to the formation of various societies, which offered
prizes and medals for the best compositions of the kind and assembled
for social and artistic purposes. The most famous amongst these--The
Glee Club--was founded in 1787, and at first used to meet at the house
of Mr Robert Smith, in St Paul's churchyard. This club was dissolved in
1857. A similar society--The Catch Club--was formed in 1761 and is still
in existence.




GLEICHEN, two groups of castles in Germany, thus named from their
resemblance to each other (Ger. _gleich_ = like, or resembling). The
first is a group of three, each situated on a hill in Thuringia between
Gotha and Erfurt. One of these called Gleichen, the Wanderslebener
Gleiche (1221 ft. above the sea), was besieged unsuccessfully by the
emperor Henry IV. in 1088. It was the seat of a line of counts, one of
whom, Ernest III., a crusader, is the subject of a romantic legend.
Having been captured, he was released from his imprisonment by a Turkish
woman, who returned with him to Germany and became his wife, a papal
dispensation allowing him to live with two wives at the same time (see
Reineck, _Die Sage von der Doppelehe eines Grafen von Gleichen_, 1891).
After belonging to the elector of Mainz the castle became the property
of Prussia in 1803. The second castle is called Muhlburg (1309 ft. above
the sea). This existed as early as 704 and was besieged by Henry IV. in
1087. It came into the hands of Prussia in 1803. The third castle,
Wachsenburg (1358 ft.), is still inhabited and contains a collection of
weapons and pictures belonging to its owner, the duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose family obtained possession of it in 1368. It
was built about 935 (see Beyer, _Die drei Gleichen_, Erfurt, 1898). The
other group consists of two castles, Neuen-Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen.
Both are in ruins and crown two hills about 2 m. S.E. from Gottingen.

The name of Gleichen is taken by the family descended from Prince Victor
of Hohenlohe-Langenburg through his marriage with Miss Laura Seymour,
daughter of Admiral Sir George Francis Seymour, a branch of the
Hohenlohe family having at one time owned part of the county of
Gleichen.




GLEIG, GEORGE (1753-1840), Scottish divine, was born at Boghall,
Kincardineshire, on the 12th of May 1753, the son of a farmer. At the
age of thirteen he entered King's College, Aberdeen, where the first
prize in mathematics and physical and moral sciences fell to him. In his
twenty-first year he took orders in the Scottish Episcopal Church, and
was ordained to the pastoral charge of a congregation at Pittenweem,
Fife, whence he removed in 1790 to Stirling. He became a frequent
contributor to the _Monthly Review_, the _Gentleman's Magazine_, the
_Anti-Jacobin Review_ and the _British Critic_. He also wrote several
articles for the third edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and
on the death of the editor, Colin Macfarquhar, in 1793, was engaged to
edit the remaining volumes. Among his principal contributions to this
work were articles on "Instinct," "Theology" and "Metaphysics." The two
supplementary volumes were mainly his own work. He was twice chosen
bishop of Dunkeld, but the opposition of Bishop Skinner, afterwards
primus, rendered the election on both occasions ineffectual. In 1808 he
was consecrated assistant and successor to the bishop of Brechin, in
1810 was preferred to the sole charge, and in 1816 was elected primus of
the Episcopal Church of Scotland, in which capacity he greatly aided in
the introduction of many useful reforms, in fostering a more catholic
and tolerant spirit, and in cementing a firm alliance with the sister
church of England. He died at Stirling on the 9th of March 1840.

  Besides various sermons, Gleig was the author of _Directions for the
  Study of Theology_, in a series of letters from a bishop to his son on
  his admission to holy orders (1827); an edition of _Stackhouse's
  History of the Bible_ (1817); and a life of Robertson the historian,
  prefixed to an edition of his works. See _Life of Bishop Gleig_, by
  the Rev. W. Walker (1879). Letters to Henderson of Edinburgh and John
  Douglas, bishop of Salisbury, are in the British Museum.

His third and only surviving son, GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG (1796-1888), was
educated at Glasgow University, whence he passed with a Snell exhibition
to Balliol College, Oxford. He abandoned his scholastic studies to enter
the army, and served with distinction in the Peninsular War (1813-14),
and in the American War, in which he was thrice wounded. Resuming his
work at Oxford, he proceeded B.A. in 1818, M.A. in 1821, and, having
been ordained in 1820, held successively curacies at Westwell in Kent
and Ash (to the latter the rectory of Ivy Church was added in 1822). He
was subsequently appointed chaplain of Chelsea hospital (1824),
chaplain-general of the forces (1844-1875) and inspector-general of
military schools (1846-1857). From 1848 till his death on the 9th of
July 1888 he was prebend of Willesden in St Paul's cathedral. During the
last sixty years of his life he was a prolific, if not very scientific,
writer; he wrote for _Blackwood's Magazine_ and _Fraser's Magazine_, and
produced a large number of historical works.

  Among the latter were (besides histories of the campaigns in which he
  served), _Life of Sir Thomas Munro_ (3 vols., 1830); _History of
  India_ (4 vols., 1830-1835); _The Leipsic Campaign and Lives of
  Military Commanders_ (1831); _Story of the Battle of Waterloo_ (1847);
  _Sketch of the Military History of Great Britain_ (1845); _Sale's
  Brigade in Afghanistan_ (1847); biographies of Lord Clive (1848), the
  duke of Wellington (1862), and Warren Hastings (1848; the subject of
  Macaulay's essay, in which it is described as "three big bad volumes
  full of undigested correspondence and undiscerning panegyric").




GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG (1719-1803), German poet, was born on the
2nd of April 1719 at Ermsleben, near Halberstadt. Having studied law at
the university of Halle he became secretary to Prince William of
Brandenburg-Schwedt at Berlin, where he made the acquaintance of Ewald
von Kleist, whose devoted friend he became. When the prince fell at the
battle of Prague, Gleim became secretary to Prince Leopold of Dessau;
but he soon gave up his position, not being able to bear the roughness
of the "Old Dessauer." After residing a few years in Berlin he was
appointed, in 1747, secretary of the cathedral chapter at Halberstadt.
"Father Gleim" was the title accorded to him throughout all literary
Germany on account of his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and
undiscriminating patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the
period. He wrote a large number of feeble imitations of Anacreon, Horace
and the minnesingers, a dull didactic poem entitled _Halladat oder das
rote Buch_ (1774), and collections of fables and romances. Of higher
merit are his _Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier_ (1758).
These, which were inspired by the campaigns of Frederick II., are often
distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of expression. They
are also noteworthy as being the first of that long series of noble
political songs in which later German literature is so rich. With this
exception, Gleim's writings are for the most part tamely commonplace in
thought and expression. He died at Halberstadt on the 18th of February
1803.

  Gleim's _Samtliche Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. in the years 1811-1813;
  a reprint of the _Lieder eines Grenadiers_ was published by A. Sauer
  in 1882. A good selection of Gleim's poetry will be found in F.
  Muncker, _Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker_ (1894).
  See W. Korte, _Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen und Schriften_ (1811).
  His correspondence with Heinse was published in 2 vols. (1894-1896);
  with Uz (1889), in both cases edited by C. Schuddekopf.




GLEIWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the
Klodnitz, and the railway between Oppeln and Cracow, 40 m. S.E. of the
former town. Pop. (1875) 14,156; (1905) 61,324. It possesses two
Protestant and four Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining
school, a convent, a hospital, two orphanages, and barracks. Gleiwitz is
the centre of the mining industry of Upper Silesia. Besides the royal
foundry, with which are connected machine manufactories and
boiler-works, there are other foundries, meal mills and manufactories of
wire, gas pipes, cement and paper.

  See B. Nietsche, _Geschichte der Stadt Gleiwitz_ (1886); and Seidel,
  _Die konigliche Eisengiesserei zu Gleiwitz_ (Berlin, 1896).




GLENALMOND, a glen of Perthshire, Scotland, situated to the S.E. of Loch
Tay. It comprises the upper two-thirds of the course of the Almond, or a
distance of 20 m. For the greater part it follows a direction east by
south, but at Newton Bridge it inclines sharply to the south-east for 3
m., and narrows to such a degree that this portion is known as the Small
(or Sma') Glen. At the end of this pass the glen expands and runs
eastwards as far as the well-known public school of Trinity College,
where it may be considered to terminate. The most interesting spot in
the glen is that traditionally known as the grave of Ossian. The
district east of Buchanty, near which are the remains of a Roman camp,
is said to be the Drumtochty of Ian Maclaren's stories. The mountainous
region at the head of the glen is dominated by Ben y Hone or Ben Chonzie
(3048 ft. high).




GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF. The 1st earl of Glencairn in the Scottish peerage
was ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM (d. 1488), a son of Sir Robert Cunningham of
Kilmaurs in Ayrshire. Made a lord of the Scottish parliament as Lord
Kilmaurs not later than 1469, Cunningham was created earl of Glencairn
in 1488; and a few weeks later he was killed at the battle of
Sauchieburn whilst fighting for King James III. against his rebellious
son, afterwards James IV. His son and successor, ROBERT (d. c. 1490),
was deprived of his earldom by James IV., but before 1505 this had been
revived in favour of Robert's son, CUTHBERT (d. c. 1540), who became 3rd
earl of Glencairn, and whose son WILLIAM (c. 1490-1547) was the 4th
earl. This noble, an early adherent of the Reformation, was during his
public life frequently in the pay and service of England, although he
fought on the Scottish side at the battle of Solway Moss (1542), where
he was taken prisoner. Upon his release early in 1543 he promised to
adhere to Henry VIII., who was anxious to bring Scotland under his rule,
and in 1544 he entered into other engagements with Henry, undertaking
_inter alia_ to deliver Mary queen of Scots to the English king.
However, he was defeated by James Hamilton, earl of Arran, and the
project failed; Glencairn then deserted his fellow-conspirator, Matthew
Stewart, earl of Lennox, and came to terms with the queen-mother, Mary
of Guise, and her party.

William's son, ALEXANDER, the 5th earl (d. 1574), was a more pronounced
reformer than his father, whose English sympathies he shared, and was
among the intimate friends of John Knox. In March 1557 he signed the
letter asking Knox to return to Scotland; in the following December he
subscribed the first "band" of the Scottish reformers; and he
anticipated Lord James Stewart, afterwards the regent Murray, in taking
up arms against the regent, Mary of Guise, in 1558. Then, joined by
Stewart and the lords of the congregation, he fought, against the
regent, and took part in the attendant negotiations with Elizabeth of
England, whom he visited in London in December 1560. When in August 1561
Mary queen of Scots returned to Scotland, Glencairn was made a member of
her council; he remained loyal to her after she had been deserted by
Murray, but in a few weeks rejoined Murray and the other Protestant
lords, returning to Mary's side in 1566. After the queen had married the
earl of Bothwell she was again forsaken by Glencairn, who fought against
her at Carberry Hill and at Langside. The earl, who was always to the
fore in destroying churches, abbeys and other "monuments of idolatry,"
died on the 23rd of November 1574. His short satirical poem against the
Grey Friars is printed by Knox in his _History of the Reformation_.

JAMES, the 7th earl (d. c. 1622), took part in the seizure of James VI.,
called the raid of Ruthven in 1582. WILLIAM, the 9th earl (c.
1610-1664), a somewhat lukewarm Royalist during the Civil War, was a
party to the "engagement" between the king and the Scots in 1647; for
this proceeding the Scottish parliament deprived him of his office as
lord justice-general, and nominally of his earldom. In March 1653
Charles II. commissioned the earl to command the Royalist forces in
Scotland, pending the arrival of General John Middleton, and the
insurrection of this year is generally known as Glencairn's rising.
After its failure he was betrayed and imprisoned, but although excepted
from pardon he was not executed; and when Charles II. was restored he
became lord chancellor of Scotland. After a dispute with his former
friend, James Sharp, archbishop of St Andrews, he died at Belton in
Haddingtonshire on the 30th of May 1664. This earl's son JOHN (d. 1703),
who followed his brother Alexander as 11th earl in 1670, was a supporter
of the Revolution of 1688. His descendant, JAMES, the 14th earl
(1749-1791), is known as the friend and patron of Robert Burns. He
performed several useful services for the poet; and when he died on the
30th of January 1791 Burns wrote a _Lament_ beginning, "The wind blew
hollow frae the hills," and ending with the lines, "But I'll remember
thee, Glencairn, and a' that thou hast done for me." The 14th earl was
never married, and when his brother and successor, John, died childless
in September 1796 the earldom became extinct, although it was claimed by
Sir Adam Fergusson, Bart., a descendant of the 10th earl.




GLENCOE, a glen in Scotland, situated in the north of Argyllshire.
Beginning at the north-eastern base of Buchaille Etive, it takes a
gentle north-westerly trend for 10 m. to its mouth on Loch Leven, a
salt-water arm of Loch Linnhe. On both sides it is shut in by wild and
precipitous mountains and its bed is swept by the Coe--Ossian's "dark
Cona,"--which rises in the hills at its eastern end. About half-way down
the glen the stream forms the tiny Loch Triochatan. Towards Invercoe the
landscape acquires a softer beauty. Here Lord Strathcona, who, in 1894,
purchased the heritage of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, built his stately
mansion of Mount Royal. The principal mountains on the south side are
the various peaks of Buachaille Etive, Stob Dearg (3345 ft.), Bidean nam
Bian (3756 ft.) and Meall Mor (2215 ft.), and on the northern side the
Pap of Glencoe (2430 ft.), Sgor nam Fiannaidh (3168 ft.) and Meall Dearg
(3118 ft.). Points of interest are the Devil's Staircase, a steep,
boulder-strewn "cut" (1754 ft. high) across the hills to Fort William;
the Study; the cave of Ossian, where tradition says that he was born,
and the Iona cross erected in 1883 by a Macdonald in memory of his
clansmen who perished in the massacre of 1692. About 1 m. beyond the
head of the glen is Kingshouse, a relic of the old coaching days, when
it was customary for tourists to drive from Ballachulish via Tyndrum to
Loch Lomond. Now the Glencoe excursion is usually made from Oban--by
rail to Achnacloich, steamer up Loch Etive, coach up Glen Etive and down
Glencoe and steamer at Ballachulish to Oban. One mile to the west of the
Glen lies the village of BALLACHULISH (pop. 1143). It is celebrated for
its slate quarries, which have been worked since 1760. The industry
provides employment for 600 men and the annual output averages 30,000
tons. The slate is of excellent quality and is used throughout the
United Kingdom. Ballachulish is a station on the Callander and Oban
extension line to Fort William (Caledonian railway). The pier and ferry
are some 2 m. W. of the village.




GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS, Lord (1810-1891), Scottish judge, son of a
minister, was born at Edinburgh on the 21st of August 1810. From Glasgow
University he went to Balliol College, Oxford. He was admitted a member
of the Faculty of Advocates, and soon became known as an eloquent and
successful pleader. In 1852 he was made solicitor-general for Scotland
in Lord Derby's first ministry, three months later becoming Lord
Advocate. In 1858 he resumed this office in Lord Derby's second
administration, being returned to the House of Commons as member for
Stamford. He was responsible for the Universities of Scotland Act of
1858, and in the same year he was elevated to the bench as lord justice
clerk. In 1867 he was made lord justice general of Scotland and lord
president of the court of session, taking the title of Lord Glencorse.
Outside his judicial duties he was responsible for much useful public
work, particularly in the department of higher education. In 1869 he was
elected chancellor of Edinburgh University, having already been rector
of the university of Glasgow. He died on the 20th August 1891.




GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF, a mountain glen of Co. Wicklow, Ireland,
celebrated and frequently visited both on account of its scenic beauty
and, more especially, because of the collection of ecclesiastical
remains situated in it. Fortunately for its appearance, it is not
approached by any railway, but services of cars are maintained to
several points, of which Rathdrum, 8-1/2 m. S.E., is the nearest railway
station, on the Dublin & South-Eastern. The glen is traversed by the
stream of Glenealo, a tributary of the Avonmore, expanding into small
loughs, the Upper and the Lower. The former of these is walled by the
abrupt heights of Camaderry (2296 ft.) and Lugduff (2176 ft.), and here
the extreme narrowness of the valley adds to its grandeur; while lower
down, where it widens, the romantic character of the scenery is enhanced
by the scattered ruins of the former monastic settlement. These ruins
have the collective name of the "Seven Churches." The settlement owed
its foundation to the hermit St Kevin, who is reputed to have died on
the 3rd of June 618; and it rapidly became a seat of learning of wide
fame, but suffered much at the hands of the Danes and the Anglo-Normans.
In close proximity to an hotel, and to one another, in an enclosure, are
a round tower, one of the finest in Ireland, 110 ft. high and 52 in
circumference; St Kevin's kitchen or church (closely resembling the
house of St Columba at Kells), which measures 25 ft. by 15, with a
high-pitched roof and round belfry--supposed to be the earliest example
of its type; and the cathedral, about 73 ft. in total length by 51 in
width. This possesses a good square-headed doorway, and an east window
of ornate character (the chancel being of later date than the nave), and
there are also some early tombs, but the whole is in a decayed
condition. In the enclosure are also a Lady chapel, chiefly remarkable
for its doorway of wrought granite, in a style of architecture
resembling Greek; a priest's house (restored), and slight remains of St
Chiaran's church. Here is also St Kevin's cross, a granite monolith
never completed; and the enclosure is entered by a fine though
dilapidated gateway. Other neighbouring remains are Trinity or the Ivy
Church, towards Laragh, with beautiful detailed work; St Saviour's
monastery, carefully restored under the direction of the Board of Works,
with a chancel arch of three orders (re-erected); while on the shores of
the upper lough are Reefert Church, the burial-place of the O'Toole
family, and Teampull-na-skellig, the church of the rock. St Kevin's bed
is a cave approachable with difficulty, above the lough, probably a
natural cavity artificially enlarged, to which attaches the legend of St
Kevin's hermitage. Along the valley there are a number of monuments and
stone crosses of various sizes and styles. The whole collection forms,
with the possible exception of Clonmacnoise in King's county, the most
striking monument of monasticism in Ireland.




GLENDOWER, OWEN (c. 1359-1415), the last to claim the title of an
independent prince of Wales, more correctly described as Owain ab
Gruffydd, lord of Glyndyvrdwy in Merioneth, was a man of good family,
with two great houses, Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy in the north, besides
smaller estates in south Wales. His father was called Gruffydd Vychan,
and his mother Helen; on both sides he had pretensions to be descended
from the old Welsh princes. Owen was probably born about 1359, studied
law at Westminster, was squire to the earl of Arundel, and a witness for
Grosvenor in the famous Scrope and Grosvenor lawsuit in 1386. Afterwards
he was in the service of Henry of Bolingbroke, the future king, though
by an error it has been commonly stated that he was squire to Richard
II. Welsh sympathies were, however, on Richard's side, and combined with
a personal quarrel to make Owen the leader of a national revolt.

The lords of Glyndyvrdwy had an ancient feud with their English
neighbours, the Greys of Ruthin. Reginald Grey neglected to summon Owen,
as was his duty, for the Scottish expedition of 1400, and then charged
him with treason for failing to appear. Owen thereupon took up arms, and
when Henry IV. returned from Scotland in September he found north Wales
ablaze. A hurried campaign under the king's personal command was
ineffectual. Owen's estates were declared forfeit and vigorous measures
threatened by the English government. Still the revolt gathered
strength. In the spring of 1401 Owen was raiding in south Wales, and
credited with the intention of invading England. A second campaign by
the king in the autumn was defeated, like that of the previous year,
through bad weather and the Fabian tactics of the Welsh. Owen had
already been intriguing with Henry Percy (Hotspur), who during 1401 held
command in north Wales, and with Percy's brother-in-law, Sir Edmund
Mortimer. During the winter of 1401-1402 his plans were further extended
to negotiations with the rebel Irish, the Scots and the French. In the
spring he had grown so strong that he attacked Ruthin, and took Grey
prisoner. In the summer he defeated the men of Hereford under Edmund
Mortimer at Pilleth, near Brynglas, in Radnorshire. Mortimer was taken
prisoner and treated with such friendliness as to make the English doubt
his loyalty; within a few months he married Owen's daughter. In the
autumn the English king was for the third time driven "bootless home and
weather-beaten back." The few English strongholds left in Wales were now
hard pressed, and Owen boasted that he would meet his enemy in the
field. Nevertheless, in May 1403 Henry of Monmouth was allowed to sack
Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy unopposed. Owen had a greater plot in hand. The
Percies were to rise in arms, and meeting Owen at Shrewsbury, overwhelm
the prince before help could arrive. But Owen's share in the undertaking
miscarried through his own defeat near Carmarthen on the 12th of July,
and Percy was crushed at Shrewsbury ten days later. Still the Welsh
revolt was never so formidable. Owen styled himself openly prince of
Wales, established a regular government, and called a parliament at
Machynlleth. As a result of a formal alliance the French sent troops to
his aid, and in the course of 1404 the great castles of Harlech and
Aberystwith fell into his hands.

In the spring of 1405 Owen was at the height of his power; but the tide
turned suddenly. Prince Henry defeated the Welsh at Grosmont in March,
and twice again in May, when Owen's son Griffith and his chancellor were
made prisoners. Scrope's rebellion in the North prevented the English
from following up their success. The earl of Northumberland took refuge
in Wales, and the tripartite alliance of Owen with Percy and Mortimer
(transferred by Shakespeare to an earlier occasion) threatened a renewal
of danger. But Northumberland's plots and the active help of the French
proved ineffective. The English under Prince Henry gained ground
steadily, and the recovery of Aberystwith, after a long siege, in the
autumn of 1408 marked the end of serious warfare. In February 1409
Harlech was also recaptured, and Owen's wife, daughter and grandchildren
were taken prisoners. Owen himself still held out and even continued to
intrigue with the French. In July 1415 Gilbert Talbot had power to treat
with Owen and his supporters and admit them to pardon. Owen's name does
not occur in the document renewing Talbot's powers in February 1416;
according to Adam of Usk he died in 1415. Later English writers allege
that he died of starvation in the mountains; but Welsh legend represents
him as spending a peaceful old age with his sons-in-law at Ewyas and
Monington in Herefordshire, till his death and burial at the latter
place. The dream of an independent and united Wales was never nearer
realization than under Owen's leadership. The disturbed state of England
helped him, but he was indeed a remarkable personality, and has not
undeservedly become a national hero. Sentiment and tradition have
magnified his achievements, and confused his career with tales of
portents and magical powers. Owen left many bastard children; his
legitimate representative in 1433 was his daughter Alice, wife of Sir
John Scudamore of Ewyas.

  The facts of Owen's life must be pieced together from scattered
  references in contemporary chronicles and documents; perhaps the most
  important are Adam of Usk's _Chronicle_ and Ellis's _Original
  Letters_. On the Welsh side something is given by the bards Iolo Goch
  and Lewis Glyn Cothi. For modern accounts consult J. H. Wylie's
  _History of England under Henry IV._ (4 vols., 1884-1898); A. C.
  Bradley's popular biography; and Professor Tout's article in the
  _Dictionary of National Biography_.     (C. L. K.)




GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT, BARON (1778-1866), eldest son of Charles Grant
(q.v.), chairman of the directors of the East India Company, was born in
India on the 26th of October 1778, and was educated at Magdalene
College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1802. Called to the
bar in 1807, he was elected member of parliament for the Inverness
burghs in 1807, and having gained some reputation as a speaker in the
House of Commons, he was made a lord of the treasury in December 1813,
an office which he held until August 1819, when he became secretary to
the lord-lieutenant of Ireland and a privy councillor. In 1823 he was
appointed vice-president of the board of trade; from September 1827 to
June 1828 he was president of the board and treasurer of the navy; then
joining the Whigs, he was president of the board of control under Earl
Grey and Lord Melbourne from November 1830 to November 1834. At the
board of control Grant was primarily responsible for the act of 1833,
which altered the constitution of the government of India. In April 1835
he became secretary for war and the colonies, and was created Baron
Glenelg. His term of office was a stormy one. His differences with Sir
Benjamin d'Urban (q.v.), governor of Cape Colony, were serious; but more
so were those with King William IV. and others over the administration
of Canada. He was still secretary when the Canadian rebellion broke out
in 1837; his wavering and feeble policy was fiercely attacked in
parliament; he became involved in disputes with the earl of Durham, and
the movement for his supercession found supporters even among his
colleagues in the cabinet. In February 1839 he resigned, receiving
consolation in the shape of a pension of L2000 a year. From 1818 until
he was made a peer Grant represented the county of Inverness in
parliament, and he has been called "the last of the Canningites." Living
mainly abroad during the concluding years of his life, he died unmarried
at Cannes on the 23rd of April 1866 when his title became extinct.

Glenelg's brother, SIR ROBERT GRANT (1779-1838), who was third wrangler
in 1801, was, like his brother, a fellow of Magdalene College,
Cambridge, and a barrister. From 1818 to 1834 he represented various
constituencies in parliament, where he was chiefly prominent for his
persistent efforts to relieve the disabilities of the Jews.[1] In June
1834 he was appointed governor of Bombay, and he died in India on the
9th of July 1838. Grant wrote a _Sketch of the History of the East India
Co._ (1813), and is also known as a writer of hymns.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Sir S. Walpole (_History of England_, vol. v.) is wrong in
    stating that Charles Grant introduced bills to remove Jewish
    disabilities in 1833 and 1834. They were introduced by his brother
    Robert.




GLENELG, a municipal town and watering place of Adelaide county, South
Australia, on Holdfast Bay, 6-1/2 m. by rail S.S.W. of the city of
Adelaide. Pop. (1901) 3949. It is a popular summer resort, connected
with Adelaide by two lines of railway. In the vicinity is the "Old Gum
Tree" under which South Australia was proclaimed British territory by
Governor Hindmarsh in 1836.




GLENGARRIFF, or GLENGARIFF ("Rough Glen"), a celebrated resort of
tourists in summer and invalids in winter, in the west riding of county
Cork, Ireland, on Glengarriff Harbour, an inlet on the northern side of
Bantry Bay, 11 m. by coach road from Bantry on the Cork, Bandon & South
Coast railway. Beyond its hotels, Glengarriff is only a small village,
but the island-studded harbour, the narrow glen at its head and the
surrounding of mountains, afford most attractive views, and its
situation on the "Prince-of Wales'" route travelled by King Edward VII.
in 1848, and on a fine mountain coach road from Macroom, brings it into
the knowledge of many travellers to Killarney. Thackeray wrote
enthusiastically of the harbour. The glaciated rocks of the glen are
clothed with vegetation of peculiar luxuriance, flourishing in the mild
climate which has given Glengarriff its high reputation as a health
resort for those suffering from pulmonary complaints.




GLEN GREY, a division of the Cape province south of the Stormberg,
adjoining on the east the Transkeian Territories. Pop. (1904) 55,107.
Chief town Lady Frere, 32 m. N.E. of Queenstown. The district is well
watered and fertile, and large quantities of cereals are grown. Over 96%
of the inhabitants are of the Zulu-Xosa (Kaffir) race, and a
considerable part of the district was settled during the Kaffir wars of
Cape Colony by Tembu (Tambookies) who were granted a location by the
colonial government in recognition of their loyalty to the British. Act
No. 25 of 1894 of the Cape parliament, passed at the instance of Cecil
Rhodes, which laid down the basis upon which is effected the change of
land tenure by natives from communal to individual holdings, and also
dealt with native local self-government and the labour question, applied
in the first instance to this division, and is known as the Glen Grey
Act (see CAPE COLONY: _History_). The provisions of the act respecting
individual land tenure and local self-government were in 1898 applied,
with certain modifications, to the Transkeian Territories. The division
is named after Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony 1854-1861.




GLENS FALLS, a village of Warren county, New York, U.S.A., 55 m. N. of
Troy, on the Hudson river. Pop. (1890) 9509; (1900) 12,613, of whom 1762
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 15,243. Glens Falls is served by the
Delaware & Hudson and the Hudson Valley (electric) railways. The village
contains a state armoury, the Crandall free public library, a Y.M.C.A.
building, the Park hospital, an old ladies' home, and St Mary's (Roman
Catholic) and Glens Falls (non-sectarian) academies. There are two
private parks, open to the public, and a waterworks system is maintained
by the village. An iron bridge crosses the river just below the falls,
connecting Glens Falls and South Glens Falls (pop. in 1910, 2247). The
falls of the Hudson here furnish a fine water-power, which is utilized,
in connexion with steam and electricity, in the manufacture of lumber,
paper and wood pulp, women's clothing, shirts, collars and cuffs, &c. In
1905 the village's factory products were valued at $4,780,331. About 12
m. above Glens Falls, on the Hudson, a massive stone dam has been
erected; here electric power, distributed to a large area, is generated.
In the neighbourhood of Glens Falls are valuable quarries of black
marble and limestone, and lime, plaster and Portland cement works. Glens
Falls was settled about the close of the French and Indian War (1763),
and was incorporated as a village in 1839.




GLENTILT, a glen in the extreme north of Perthshire, Scotland. Beginning
at the confines of Aberdeenshire, it follows a north-westerly direction
excepting for the last 4 m., when it runs due S. to Blair Atholl. It is
watered throughout by the Tilt, which enters the Garry after a course of
14 m., and receives on its right the Tarff, which forms some beautiful
falls just above the confluence, and on the left the Fender, which has
some fine falls also. The attempt of the 6th duke of Atholl (1814-1864)
to close the glen to the public was successfully contested by the
Scottish Rights of Way Society. The group of mountains--Carn nan Gabhar
(3505 ft.), Ben y Gloe (3671) and Carn Liath (3193)--on its left side
dominate the lower half of the glen. Marble of good quality is
occasionally quarried in the glen, and the rock formation has attracted
the attention of geologists from the time of James Hutton.




GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL (1806-1874), French painter, of Swiss
origin, was born at Chevilly in the canton of Vaud on the 2nd of May
1806. His father and mother died while he was yet a boy of some eight or
nine years of age; and he was brought up by an uncle at Lyons, who sent
him to the industrial school of that city. Going up to Paris a lad of
seventeen or nineteen, he spent four years in close artistic study--in
Hersent's studio, in Suisse's academy, in the galleries of the Louvre.
To this period of laborious application succeeded four years of
meditative inactivity in Italy, where he became acquainted with Horace
Vernet and Leopold Robert; and six years more were consumed in
adventurous wanderings in Greece, Egypt, Nubia and Syria. At Cairo he
was attacked with ophthalmia, and in the Lebanon he was struck down by
fever; and he returned to Lyons in shattered health. On his recovery he
proceeded to Paris, and, fixing his modest studio in the rue de
Universite, began carefully to work out the conceptions which had been
slowly shaping themselves in his mind. Mention is made of two decorative
panels--"Diana leaving the Bath," and a "Young Nubian"--as almost the
first fruits of his genius; but these did not attract public attention
till long after, and the painting by which he practically opened his
artistic career was the "Apocalyptic Vision of St John," sent to the
Salon of 1840. This was followed in 1843 by "Evening," which at the time
received a medal of the second class, and afterwards became widely
popular under the title of the Lost Illusions. It represents a poet
seated on the bank of a river, with drooping head and wearied frame,
letting his lyre slip from a careless hand, and gazing sadly at a bright
company of maidens whose song is slowly dying from his ear as their boat
is borne slowly from his sight.

In spite of the success which attended these first ventures, Gleyre
retired from public competition, and spent the rest of his life in quiet
devotion to his own artistic ideals, neither seeking the easy applause
of the crowd, nor turning his art into a means of aggrandizement and
wealth. After 1845, when he exhibited the "Separation of the Apostles,"
he contributed nothing to the Salon except the "Dance of the Bacchantes"
in 1849. Yet he laboured steadily and was abundantly productive. He had
an "infinite capacity of taking pains," and when asked by what method he
attained to such marvellous perfection of workmanship, he would reply,
"En y pensant toujours." A long series of years often intervened between
the first conception of a piece and its embodiment, and years not
unfrequently between the first and the final stage of the embodiment
itself. A landscape was apparently finished; even his fellow artists
would consider it done; Gleyre alone was conscious that he had not
"found his sky." Happily for French art this high-toned laboriousness
became influential on a large number of Gleyre's younger contemporaries;
for when Delaroche gave up his studio of instruction he recommended his
pupils to apply to Gleyre, who at once agreed to give them lessons twice
a week, and characteristically refused to take any fee or reward. By
instinct and principle he was a confirmed celibate: "Fortune, talent,
health,--he had everything; but he was married," was his lamentation
over a friend. Though he lived in almost complete retirement from public
life, he took a keen interest in politics, and was a voracious reader of
political journals. For a time, indeed, under Louis Philippe, his studio
had been the rendezvous of a sort of liberal club. To the last--amid all
the disasters that befell his country--he was hopeful of the future, "la
raison finira bien par avoir raison." It was while on a visit to the
Retrospective Exhibition, opened on behalf of the exiles from Alsace and
Lorraine, that he died suddenly on the 5th of May 1874. He left
unfinished the "Earthly Paradise," a noble picture, which Taine has
described as "a dream of innocence, of happiness and of beauty--Adam and
Eve standing in the sublime and joyous landscape of a paradise enclosed
in mountains,"--a worthy counterpart to the "Evening." Among the other
productions of his genius are the "Deluge," which represents two angels
speeding above the desolate earth, from which the destroying waters have
just begun to retire, leaving visible behind them the ruin they have
wrought; the "Battle of the Lemanus," a piece of elaborate design,
crowded but not cumbered with figures, and giving fine expression to the
movements of the various bands of combatants and fugitives; the
"Prodigal Son," in which the artist has ventured to add to the parable
the new element of mother's love, greeting the repentant youth with a
welcome that shows that the mother's heart thinks less of the repentance
than of the return; "Ruth and Boaz"; "Ulysses and Nausicaa"; "Hercules
at the feet of Omphale"; the "Young Athenian," or, as it is popularly
called, "Sappho"; "Minerva and the Nymphs"; "Venus [Greek: pandemos]";
"Daphnis and Chloe"; and "Love and the Parcae." Nor must it be omitted
that he left a considerable number of drawings and water-colours, and
that we are indebted to him for a number of portraits, among which is
the sad face of Heine, engraved in the _Revue des deux mondes_ for April
1852. In Clement's catalogue of his works there are 683 entries,
including sketches and studies.

  See Fritz Berthoud in _Bibliotheque universelle de Geneve_ (1874);
  Albert de Montet, _Dict. biographique des Genevois et des Vaudois_
  (1877); and _Vie de Charles Gleyre_ (1877), written by his friend,
  Charles Clement, and illustrated by 30 plates from his works.




GLIDDON, GEORGE ROBINS (1809-1857), British Egyptologist, was born in
Devonshire in 1809. His father, a merchant, was United States consul at
Alexandria, and there Gliddon was taken at an early age. He became
United States vice-consul, and took a great interest in Egyptian
antiquities. Subsequently he lectured in the United States and succeeded
in rousing considerable attention to the subject of Egyptology
generally. He died at Panama in 1857. His chief work was _Ancient Egypt_
(1850, ed. 1853). He wrote also _Memoir on the Cotton of Egypt_ (1841);
_Appeal to the Antiquaries of Europe on the Destruction of the Monuments
of Egypt_ (1841); _Discourses on Egyptian Archaeology_ (1841); _Types of
Mankind_ (1854), in conjunction with J. C. Nott and others; _Indigenous
Races of the Earth_ (1857), also in conjunction with Nott and others.




GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAEVICH (1788-1849); Russian poet and author, was born
at Smolensk in 1788, and was specially educated for the army. In 1803 he
obtained a commission as an officer, and two years later took part in
the Austrian campaign. His tastes for literary pursuits, however, soon
induced him to leave the service, whereupon he withdrew to his estates
in the government of Smolensk, and subsequently devoted most of his time
to study or travelling about Russia. Upon the invasion of the French in
1812, he re-entered the Russian army, and remained in active service
until the end of the campaign in 1814. Upon the elevation of Count
Milarodovich to the military governorship of St Petersburg, Glinka was
appointed colonel under his command. On account of his suspected
revolutionary tendencies he was, in 1826, banished to Petrozavodsk, but
he nevertheless retained his honorary post of president of the Society
of the Friends of Russian Literature, and was after a time allowed to
return to St Petersburg. Soon afterwards he retired completely from
public life, and died on his estates in 1849.

  Glinka's martial songs have special reference to the Russian military
  campaigns of his time. He is known also as the author of the
  descriptive poem _Kareliya_, &c. (_Carelia, or the Captivity of Martha
  Joanovna_) (1830), and of a metrical paraphrase of the book of Job.
  His fame as a military author is chiefly due to his _Pisma Russkago
  Ofitsera_ (_Letters of a Russian Officer_) (8 vols., 1815-1816).




GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1803-1857), Russian musical composer, was
born at Novospassky, a village in the Smolensk government, on the 2nd of
June 1803. His early life he spent at home, but at the age of thirteen
we find him at the Blagorodrey Pension, St Petersburg, where he studied
music under Carl Maier and John Field, the Irish composer and pianist,
who had settled in Russia. We are told that in his seventeenth year he
had already begun to compose romances and other minor vocal pieces; but
of these nothing now is known. His thorough musical training did not
begin till the year 1830, when he went abroad and stayed for three years
in Italy, to study the works of old and modern Italian masters. His
thorough knowledge of the requirements of the voice may be connected
with this course of study. His training as a composer was finished under
the contrapuntist Dehn, with whom Glinka stayed for several months at
Berlin. In 1833 he returned to Russia, and devoted himself to operatic
composition. On the 27th of September (9th of October) 1836, took place
the first representation of his opera _Life for the Tsar_ (the libretto
by Baron de Rosen). This was the turning-point in Glinka's life,--for
the work was not only a great success, but in a manner became the origin
and basis of a Russian school of national music. The story is taken from
the invasion of Russia by the Poles early in the 17th century, and the
hero is a peasant who sacrifices his life for the tsar. Glinka has
wedded this patriotic theme to inspiring music. His melodies, moreover,
show distinct affinity to the popular songs of the Russians, so that the
term "national" may justly be applied to them. His appointment as
imperial chapelmaster and conductor of the opera of St Petersburg was
the reward of his dramatic successes. His second opera _Russlan and
Lyudmila_, founded on Pushkin's poem, did not appear till 1842; it was
an advance upon _Life for the Tsar_ in its musical aspect, but made no
impression upon the public. In the meantime Glinka wrote an overture and
four entre-actes to Kukolnik's drama _Prince Kholmsky_. In 1844 he went
to Paris, and his _Jota Arragonesa_ (1847), and the symphonic work on
Spanish themes, _Une Nuit a Madrid_, reflect the musical results of two
years' sojourn in Spain. On his return to St Petersburg he wrote and
arranged several pieces for the orchestra, amongst which the so-called
_Kamarinskaya_ achieved popularity beyond the limits of Russia. He also
composed numerous songs and romances. In 1857 he went abroad for the
third time; he now wrote his autobiography, orchestrated Weber's
_Invitation a la valse_, and began to consider a plan for a musical
version of Gogol's _Tarass-Boulba_. Abandoning the idea and becoming
absorbed in a passion for ecclesiastical music he went to Berlin to
study the ancient church modes. Here he died suddenly on the 2nd of
February 1857.




GLINKA, SERGY NIKOLAEVICH (1774-1847), Russian author, the elder brother
of Fedor N. Glinka, was born at Smolensk in 1774. In 1796 he entered the
Russian army, but after three years' service retired with the rank of
major. He afterwards employed himself in the education of youth and in
literary pursuits, first in the Ukraine, and subsequently at Moscow,
where he died in 1847. His poems are spirited and patriotic; he wrote
also several dramatic pieces, and translated Young's _Night Thoughts_.

  Among his numerous prose works the most important from an historical
  point of view are: _Russkoe Chtenie_ (_Russian Reading: Historical
  Memorials of Russia in the 18th and 19th Centuries_) (2 vols., 1845);
  _Istoriya Rossii_, &c. (_History of Russia for the use of Youth_) (10
  vols., 1817-1819, 2nd ed. 1822, 3rd ed. 1824); _Istoriya Armyan_, &c.
  (_History of the Migration of the Armenians of Azerbijan from Turkey
  to Russia_) (1831); and his contributions to the _Russky Vyestnik
  (Russian Messenger)_, a monthly periodical, edited by him from 1808 to
  1820.




GLOBE-FISH, or SEA-HEDGEHOG, the names by which some sea-fishes are
known, which have the remarkable faculty of inflating their stomachs
with air. They belong to the families Diodontidae and Tetrodontidae.
Their jaws resemble the sharp beak of a parrot, the bones and teeth
being coalesced into one mass with a sharp edge. In the Diodonts there
is no mesial division of the jaws, whilst in the Tetrodonts such a
division exists, so that they appear to have two teeth above and two
below. By means of these jaws they are able to break off branches of
corals, and to masticate other hard substances on which they feed.
Usually they are of a short, thick, cylindrical shape, with powerful
fins (fig. 1). Their body is covered with thick skin, without scales,
but provided with variously formed spines, the size and extent of which
vary in the different species. When they inflate their capacious
stomachs with air, they assume a globular form, and the spines protrude,
forming a more or less formidable defensive armour (fig. 2). A fish thus
blown out turns over and floats belly upwards, driving before the wind
and waves. Many of these fishes are highly poisonous when eaten, and
fatal accidents have occurred from this cause. It appears that they
acquire poisonous qualities from their food, which frequently consists
of decomposing or poisonous animal matter, such as would impart, and
often does impart, similar deleterious qualities to other fish. They are
most numerous between the tropics and in the seas contiguous to them,
but a few species live in large rivers, as, for instance, the _Tetrodon
fahaka_, a fish well known to all travellers on the Nile. Nearly 100
different species are known.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diodon maculatus.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Diodon maculatus_ (inflated).]




GLOBIGERINA, A. d'Orbigny, a genus of Perforate Foraminifera (q.v.) of
pelagic habit, and formed of a conical spiral aggregate of spheroidal
chambers with a crescentic mouth. The shells accumulate at the bottom of
moderately deep seas to form "Globigerina ooze" and are preserved thus
in the chalk. _Hastigerina_ only differs in the "flat" or nautiloid
spiral.




GLOCKENSPIEL, or ORCHESTRAL BELLS (Fr. _carillon_; Ger. _Glockenspiel_,
_Stahlharmonika_; Ital. _campanelli_; Med. Lat. _tintinnabulum_,
_cymbalum_, _bombulum_), an instrument of percussion of definite musical
pitch, used in the orchestra, and made in two or three different styles.
The oldest form of glockenspiel, seen in illuminated MSS. of the middle
ages, consists of a set of bells mounted on a frame and played by one
performer by means of steel hammers. The name "bell" is now generally a
misnomer, other forms of metal or wood having been found more
convenient. The pyramid-shaped glockenspiel, formerly used in the
orchestra for simple rhythmical effects, consists of an octave of
semitone, hemispherical bells, placed one above the other and fastened
to an iron rod which passes through the centre of each, the bells being
of graduated sizes and diminishing in diameter as the pitch rises. The
lyre-shaped glockenspiel, or steel harmonica (_Stahlharmonika_), is a
newer model, which has instead of bells twelve or more bars of steel,
graduating in size according to their pitch. These bars are fastened
horizontally across two bars of steel set perpendicularly in a steel
frame in the shape of a lyre. The bars are struck by little steel
hammers attached to whalebone sticks.

  Wagner has used the glockenspiel with exquisite judgment in the fire
  scene of the last act of _Die Walkure_ and in the peasants' waltz in
  the last scene of _Die Meistersinger_. When chords are written for the
  glockenspiel, as in Mozart's _Magic Flute_, the keyed harmonica[1] is
  used. It consists of a keyboard having a little hammer attached to
  each key, which strikes a bar of glass or steel when the key is
  depressed. The performer, being able to use both hands, can play a
  melody with full harmonies, scale and arpeggio passages in single and
  double notes. A peal of hemispherical bells was specially constructed
  for Sir Arthur Sullivan's _Golden Legend_. It consists of four bells
  constructed of bell-metal about 1 in. thick, the largest measuring 27
  in. in diameter, the smallest 23. They are fixed on a stand one above
  the other, with a clearance of about 3/4 in. between them; the rim of
  the lowest and largest bell is 15 in. from the foot of the stand. The
  bells are struck by mallets, which are of two kinds--a pair of hard
  wood for forte passages, and a pair covered with wash-leather for
  piano effects. The peal was unique at the time it was made for the
  _Golden Legend_, but a smaller bell of the same shape, 1/4 in. thick,
  with a diameter measuring about 16 in., specially made for the
  performance of Liszt's _St Elizabeth_, when conducted by the composer
  in London, evidently suggested the idea for the peal.     (K. S.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] See "The Keyed Harmonica improved by H. Klein of Pressburg,"
    article in the _Allg. musik. Ztg._, Bd. i. pp. 675-699 (Leipzig,
    1798); also Becker, p. 254, _Bartel_.




GLOGAU, a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, 59 m. N.W. from Breslau, on the railway to Frankfort-on-Oder.
Pop. (1905) 23,461. It is built partly on an island and partly on the
left bank of the Oder; and owing to the fortified enceinte having been
pushed farther afield, new quarters have been opened up. Among its most
important buildings are the cathedral, in the Gothic, and a castle (now
used as a courthouse), in the Renaissance style, two other Roman
Catholic and three Protestant churches, a new town-hall, a synagogue, a
military hospital, two classical schools (_Gymnasien_) and several
libraries. Owing to its situation on a navigable river and at the
junction of several lines of railway, Glogau carries on an extensive
trade, which is fostered by a variety of local industries, embracing
machinery-building, tobacco, beer, oil, sugar and vinegar. It has also
extensive lithographic works, and its wool market is celebrated.

In the beginning of the 11th century Glogau, even then a populous and
fortified town, was able to withstand a regular siege by the emperor
Henry V.; but in 1157 the duke of Silesia, finding he could not hold out
against Frederick Barbarossa, set it on fire. In 1252 the town, which
had been raised from its ashes by Henry I., the Bearded, became the
capital of a principality of Glogau, and in 1482 town and district were
united to the Bohemian crown. In the course of the Thirty Years' War
Glogau suffered greatly. The inhabitants, who had become Protestants
soon after the Reformation, were dragooned into conformity by
Wallenstein's soldiery; and the Jesuits received permission to build
themselves a church and a college. Captured by the Protestants in 1632,
and recovered by the Imperialists in 1633, the town was again captured
by the Swedes in 1642, and continued in Protestant hands till the peace
of Westphalia in 1648, when the emperor recovered it. In 1741 the
Prussians took the place by storm, and during the Seven Years' War it
formed an important centre of operations for the Prussian forces. After
the battle of Jena (1806) it fell into the hands of the French; and was
gallantly held by Laplane, against the Russian and Prussian besiegers,
after the battle of Katzbach in August 1813 until the 17th of the
following April.

  See Minsberg, _Geschichte der Stadt und Festung Glogau's_ (2 vols.,
  Glogau, 1853); and H. von Below, _Zur Geschichte des Jahres_ 1806.
  _Glogau's Belagerung und Verteidigung_ (Berlin, 1893).




GLORIOSA, in botany, a small genus of plants belonging to the natural
order Liliaceae, native of tropical Asia and Africa. They are bulbous
plants, the slender stems of which support themselves by tendril-like
prolongations of the tips of some of the narrow generally lanceolate
leaves. The flowers, which are borne in the leaf-axils at the ends of
the stem, are very handsome, the six, generally narrow, petals are bent
back and stand erect, and are a rich orange yellow or red in colour; the
six stamens project more or less horizontally from the place of
insertion of the petals. They are generally grown in cultivation as
stove-plants.




GLORY (through the O. Fr. _glorie_, modern _gloire_, from Lat. _gloria_,
cognate with Gr. [Greek: kleos, kluein]), a synonym for fame, renown,
honour, and thus used of anything which reflects honour and renown on
its possessor. In the phrase "glory of God" the word implies both the
honour due to the Creator, and His majesty and effulgence. In liturgies
of the Christian Church are the _Gloria Patri_, the doxology beginning
"Glory be to the Father," the response _Gloria tibi, Domine_, "Glory be
to Thee, O Lord," sung or said after the giving out of the Gospel for
the day, and the _Gloria in excelsis_, "Glory be to God on high," sung
during the Mass and Communion service. A "glory" is the term often used
as synonymous with halo, nimbus or aureola (q.v.) for the ring of light
encircling the head or figure in a pictorial or other representation of
sacred persons.








*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "GICHTEL, JOHANN" TO "GLORY" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_40641.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Kite-Flying" to "Kyshtym"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Kite-Flying" to "Kyshtym"

Author: Various

Release date: September 1, 2012 [eBook #40641]
                Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "KITE-FLYING" TO "KYSHTYM" ***

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE KIU-KIANG FU: "Unfortunately, however, it stands above
      instead of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and this has
      proved to be a decided drawback to its success as a commercial
      port." ''commercial'' amended from ''commerical''.

    ARTICLE KLONDIKE: "Gold is practically the only economic product of
      the Klondike, though small amounts of tin ore occur, and lignite
      coal has been mined lower down on the Yukon." ''practically''
      amended from ''practially''.

    ARTICLE KNARESBOROUGH: "In 1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding
      the castle of Knaresborough for Thomas duke of Lancaster against
      the king, surrendered under conditions to William de Ros of Hamelak
      ..." ''Knaresborough'' amended from ''Knaresburgh''.

    ARTICLE KNUTSFORD: "... on the Cheshire Lines and London &
      North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5172."
      ''Cheshire'' amended from ''Chesire''.

    ARTICLE KOREA: "Buddhism, a forceful civilizing element, reached
      Hiaksai in A.D. 384, and from it the sutras and images of northern
      Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and
      ethics." ''Buddhism'' amended from ''Buddism''.

    ARTICLE KUEN-LUN: "... have the appearance of comparatively gentle
      swellings of the earth's surface rather than of well-defined
      mountain ranges." ''surface'' amended from ''service''.

    ARTICLE KURDISTAN: "... like another Saladin, the bey ruled in
      patriarchal state, surrounded by an hereditary nobility, regarded
      by his clansmen with reverence and affection, and attended by a
      bodyguard of young Kurdish warriors ..." ''patriarchal'' amended
      from ''partriarchal''..




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


            VOLUME XV, SLICE VIII

           Kite-Flying to Kyshtym




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  KITE-FLYING                      KOSTER, LAURENS
  KIT-FOX                          KOSTROMA (government of Russia)
  KITTO, JOHN                      KOSTROMA (town of Russia)
  KITTUR                           KÖSZEG
  KITZINGEN                        KOTAH
  KIU-KIANG FU                     KOTAS
  KIUSTENDIL                       KOTKA
  KIVU                             KOTRI
  KIWI                             KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH VON
  KIZILBASHES                      KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON
  KIZIL IRMAK                      KOUMISS
  KIZLYAR                          KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS
  KIZYL-KUM                        KOUSSO
  KJERULF, HALFDAN                 KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE
  KJERULF, THEODOR                 KOVNO (government of Russia)
  KLADNO                           KOVNO (town of Russia)
  KLAFSKY, KATHARINA               KOVROV
  KLAGENFURT                       KOWTOW
  KLAJ, JOHANN                     KOZLOV
  KLAMATH                          KRAAL
  KLAPKA, GEORG                    KRAFFT, ADAM
  KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS        KRAGUYEVATS
  KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH        KRAKATOA
  KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE            KRAKEN
  KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD            KRALYEVO
  KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH VON       KRANTZ, ALBERT
  KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON      KRASNOVODSK
  KLERKSDORP                       KRASNOYARSK
  KLESL, MELCHIOR                  KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS
  KLINGER, FRIEDRICH VON           KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH
  KLINGER, MAX                     KRAWANG
  KLIPSPRINGER                     KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL
  KLONDIKE                         KREMENCHUG
  KLOPP, ONNO                      KREMENETS
  KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH    KREMS
  KLOSTERNEUBURG                   KREMSIER
  KLOTZ, REINHOLD                  KREUTZER, KONRADIN
  KNARESBOROUGH                    KREUTZER, RUDOLPH
  KNAVE                            KREUZBURG
  KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON          KREUZNACH
  KNEE                             KRIEGSPIEL
  KNELLER, SIR GODFREY             KRIEMHILD
  KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN     KRILOFF, IVAN ANDREEVICH
  KNIFE                            KRISHNA
  KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH    KRISHNAGAR
  KNIGHT, CHARLES                  KRISTIANSTAD
  KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY           KRIVOY ROG
  KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON              KROCHMAL, NAHMAN
  KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY          KRONENBERG
  KNIGHT-SERVICE                   KRONSTADT
  KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE     KROONSTAD
  KNIPPERDOLLINCK, BERNT           KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH
  KNITTING                         KROTOSCHIN
  KNOBKERRIE                       KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA
  KNOLLES, RICHARD                 KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT
  KNOLLES, SIR ROBERT              KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS
  KNOLLYS                          KRUGERSDORP
  KNOT (bird)                      KRUMAU
  KNOT (loop of rope)              KRUMBACHER, CARL
  KNOUT                            KRUMEN
  KNOWLES, SIR JAMES               KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF
  KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN          KRUPP, ALFRED
  KNOW NOTHING PARTY               KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN
  KNOX, HENRY                      KRUSHEVATS
  KNOX, JOHN                       KSHATTRIYA
  KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE            KUBAN (river of Russia)
  KNOXVILLE                        KUBAÑ (province of Russia)
  KNUCKLE                          KUBELIK, JAN
  KNUCKLEBONES                     KUBERA
  KNUTSFORD                        KUBLAI KHAN
  KOALA                            KUBUS
  KOBDO                            KUCHAN
  KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ     KUCH BEHAR
  KOCH, ROBERT                     KUDU
  KOCH (tribe)                     KUENEN, ABRAHAM
  KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE            KUEN-LUN
  KODAIKANAL                       KUFA
  KODAMA, GENTARO                  KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT
  KODUNGALUR                       KÜHNE, WILLY
  KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD   KUKA
  KOESFELD                         KU KLUX KLAN
  KOHAT                            KUKU KHOTO
  KOHAT PASS                       KULJA
  KOHISTAN                         KULM
  KOHL                             KULMBACH
  KOHLHASE, HANS                   KULMSEE
  KOKOMO                           KULP
  KOKO-NOR                         KULU
  KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAÍ VON           KUM
  KOKSTAD                          KUMAIT IBN ZAID
  KOLA                             KUMAON
  KOLABA                           KUMASI
  KOLAR                            KUMISHAH
  KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN   KUMQUAT
  KOLBERG                          KUMTA
  KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ                 KUMYKS
  KOLDING                          KUNAR
  KOLGUEV                          KUNBIS
  KOLHAPUR                         KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD
  KOLIN                            KUNDUZ
  KOLIS                            KUNENE
  KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON     KUNERSDORF
  KOLLONTAJ, HUGO                  KUNGRAD
  KOLOMEA                          KUNGUR
  KOLOMNA                          KUNKEL VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN
  KOLOZSVÁR                        KUNLONG
  KOLPINO                          KUNZITE
  KOLS                             KUOPIO (province of Finland)
  KOLYVAÑ                          KUOPIO (city of Finland)
  KOMÁROM                          KUPRILI
  KOMATI                           KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH
  KOMOTAU                          KURBASH
  KOMURA, JUTARO                   KURDISTAN (country)
  KONARAK                          KURDISTAN (province of Persia)
  KONG                             KURGAN
  KONGSBERG                        KURIA MURIA ISLANDS
  KONIA                            KURILES
  KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS         KURISCHES HAFF
  KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH              KURNOOL
  KÖNIGGRÄTZ                       KUROKI, ITEI
  KÖNIGINHOF                       KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH
  KÖNIGSBERG                       KURO SIWO
  KÖNIGSBORN                       KURRAM
  KÖNIGSHÜTTE                      KURSEONG
  KÖNIGSLUTTER                     KURSK (government of Russia)
  KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA         KURSK (town of Russia)
  KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH    KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH
  KÖNIGSSEE                        KURUMAN
  KÖNIGSTEIN                       KURUMBAS and KURUBAS
  KÖNIGSWINTER                     KURUNEGALA
  KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE    KURUNTWAD
  KONINCK, PHILIP DE               KURZ, HERMANN
  KONITZ                           KUSAN
  KONKAN                           KUSHALGARH
  KONTAGORA                        KUSHK
  KOORINGA                         KUSTANAISK
  KÖPENICK                         KÜSTENLAND
  KOPISCH, AUGUST                  KUTAIAH
  KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ       KUTAIS (government of Russia)
  KOPRÜLÜ                          KUTAIS (town of Russia)
  KORA                             KUT-EL-AMARA
  KORAN                            KUTENAI
  KORAT                            KUTTALAM
  KORDOFAN                         KUTTENBERG
  KOREA (country)                  KUTUSOV, MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH
  KOREA (Indian tributary state)   KUWET
  KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE           KUZNETSK
  KORIN, OGATA                     KVASS
  KORKUS                           KWAKIUTL
  KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA                     KWANGCHOW BAY
  KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR             KWANG-SI
  KORNEUBURG                       KWANG-TUNG
  KOROCHA                          KWANZA
  KORSÖR                           KWEI-CHOW
  KORTCHA                          KYAUKPYU
  KORYAKS                          KYAUKSE
  KOSCIUSCO                        KYD, THOMAS
  KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ BONAWENTURA  KYFFHÄUSER
  KÖSEN                            KYNASTON, EDWARD
  KOSHER                           KYNETON
  KÖSLIN                           KYOSAI, SHO-FU
  KOSSOVO                          KYRIE
  KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS      KYRLE, JOHN
  KOSSUTH, LAJOS                   KYSHTYM




KITE-FLYING, the art of sending up into the air, by means of the wind,
light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or cloth (called
kites, after the bird--in German _Drache_, dragon), which are attached
to long cords or wires held in the hand or wound on a drum. When made in
the common diamond form, or triangular with a semicircular head, kites
usually have a pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The
tradition is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four
centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use among
Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New Zealand from
time immemorial. Kite-flying has always been a national pastime of the
Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkinese, Annamese, Malays and East
Indians. It is less popular among the peoples of Europe. The origin of
the sport, although obscure, is usually ascribed to religion. With the
Maoris it still retains a distinctly religious character, and the ascent
of the kite is accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans
attribute its origin to a general, who, hundreds of years ago,
inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached,
which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of divine
succour. Another Korean general is said to have been the first to put
the kite to mechanical uses by employing one to span a stream with a
cord, which was then fastened to a cable and formed the nucleus of a
bridge. In Korea, Japan and China, and indeed throughout Eastern Asia,
even the tradespeople may be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting
for customers. Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as
birds, dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as
much as 7 ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bamboo strips
covered with rice paper or very thin silk. In China the ninth day of the
ninth month is "Kites' Day," when men and boys of all classes betake
themselves to neighbouring eminences and fly their kites. Kite-fighting
is a feature of the pastime in Eastern Asia. The cord near the kite is
usually stiffened with a mixture of glue and crushed glass or porcelain.
The kite-flyer manoeuvres to get his kite to windward of that of his
adversary, then allows his cord to drift against his enemy's, and by a
sudden jerk to cut it through and bring its kite to grief. The Malays
possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan of
Johor sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a collection
of fifteen different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear one or more
perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive sound that can be
heard for great distances. The ignorant, believing that these kites
frighten away evil spirits, often keep them flying all night over their
houses.

There are various metaphorical uses of the term "kite-flying," such as
in commercial slang, when "flying a kite" means raising money on credit
(cf. "raising the wind"), or in political slang for seeing "how the wind
blows." And "flying-kites," in nautical language, are the topmost sails.

Kite-flying for scientific purposes began in the middle of the 18th
century. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin made his memorable kite experiment,
by which he attracted electricity from the air and demonstrated the
electrical nature of lightning. A more systematic use of kites for
scientific purposes may, however, be said to date from the experiments
made in the last quarter of the 19th century.     (E. B.)

_Meteorological Use._--Many European and American meteorological
services employ kites regularly, and obtain information not only of the
temperature, but also of the humidity and velocity of the air above. The
kites used are mostly modifications of the so-called box-kites, invented
by L. Hargrave. Roughly these kites may be said to resemble an ordinary
box with the two ends removed, and also the middle part of each of the
four sides. The original Hargrave kite, the form generally used, has a
rectangular section; in Russia a semicircular section with the curved
part facing the wind is most in favour; in England the diamond-shaped
section is preferred for meteorological purposes owing to its simplicity
of construction. Stability depends on a multitude of small details of
construction, and long practice and experience are required to make a
really good kite. The sizes most in use have from 30 to 80 sq. ft. of
sail area. There is no difficulty about raising a kite to a vertical
height of one or even two miles on suitable days, but heights exceeding
three miles are seldom reached. On the 29th of November 1905 at
Lindenberg, the Prussian Aeronautical Observatory, the upper one of a
train of six kites attained an altitude of just four miles. The total
lifting surface of these six kites was nearly 300 sq. ft., and the
length of wire a little over nine miles. The kites are invariably flown
on a steel wire line, for the hindrance to obtaining great heights is
not due so much to the weight of the line as to the wind pressure upon
it, and thus it becomes of great importance to use a material that
possesses the greatest possible strength, combined with the smallest
possible size. Steel piano wire meets this requirement, for a wire of
1/32 in. diameter will weigh about 16 lb. to the mile, and stand a
strain of some 250-280 lb. before it breaks. Some stations prefer to use
one long piece of wire of the same gauge throughout without a join,
others prefer to start with a thin wire and join on thicker and thicker
wire as more kites are added. The process of kite-flying is as follows.
The first kite is started either with the self-recording instruments
secured in it, or hanging from the wire a short distance below it. Wire
is then paid out, whether quickly or slowly depends on the strength of
the wind, but the usual rate is from two to three miles per hour. The
quantity that one kite will take depends on the kite and on the wind,
but roughly speaking it may be said that each 10 sq. ft. of lifting
surface on the kite should carry 1000 ft. of 1/32 in. wire without
difficulty. When as much wire as can be carried comfortably has run out
another kite is attached to the line, and the paying out is continued;
after a time a third is added, and so on. Each kite increases the strain
upon the wire, and moreover adds to the height and makes it more
uncertain what kind of wind the upper kites will encounter; it also adds
to the time that is necessary to haul in the kites. In each way the risk
of their breaking away is increased, for the wind is very uncertain and
is liable to alter in strength. Since to attain an exceptional height
the wire must be strained nearly to its breaking point, and under such
conditions a small increase in the strength of the wind will break the
wire, it follows that great heights can only be attained by those who
are willing to risk the trouble and expense of frequently having their
wire and train of kites break away. The weather is the essential factor
in kite-flying. In the S.E. of England in winter it is possible on about
two days out of three, and in summer on about one day out of three. The
usual cause of failure is want of wind, but there are a few days when
the wind is too strong. (For meteorological results, &c., see
METEOROLOGY.)     (W. H. Di.)

_Military Use._--A kite forms so extremely simple a method of lifting
anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been suggested as
being suitable for various military purposes, such as signalling to a
long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or semaphores. Kites have
been used both in the army and in the navy for floating torpedoes on
hostile positions. As much as two miles of line have been paid out. For
purposes of photography a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable
height may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which a
bird's-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric
wire, or slow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs have been
thus obtained in England and America.

The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by a captive
balloon is a still more important one. The chief military advantages to
be gained are: (1) less transport is required; (2) they can be used in a
strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to damage, either from the
enemy's fire or from trees, &c., and are easier to mend; (4) they can be
brought into use more quickly; (5) they are very much cheaper, both in
construction and in maintenance, not requiring any costly gas.

Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June 1894
constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36 ft. high, with which he
successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He afterwards improved
the contrivance, using five or six smaller kites attached together in
preference to one large one. With this arrangement he frequently
ascended as high as 100 ft. The kites were hexagonal, being 12 ft. high
and 12 ft. across. The apparatus, which could be packed in a few minutes
into a simple roll, weighed in all about 1 cwt. This appliance was
proved to be capable of raising a man even during a dead calm, the
retaining line being fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut. H. D. Wise
made some trials in America in 1897 with some large kites of the
Hargrave pattern (Hargrave having previously himself ascended in
Australia), and succeeded in lifting a man 40 ft. above the ground. In
the Russian army a military kite apparatus has also been tried, and was
in evidence at the manoeuvres in 1898. Experiments have also been
carried out by most of the European powers.     (B. F. S. B.-P.)




KIT-FOX (_Canis [Vulpes] velox_), a small fox, from north-western
America, measuring less than a yard in length, with a tail of nearly a
third this length. There is a good deal of variation in the colour of
the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. A specimen in the Zoological
Gardens of London had the back and tail dark grey, the tail tipped with
black, and a rufous wash on the cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer
surface of the limbs, with the under surface white. The specific name
was given on account of the extraordinary swiftness of the animal. (See
CARNIVORA.)




KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was the son of a
mason at Plymouth, where he was born on the 4th of December 1804. An
accident brought on deafness, and in November 1819 he was sent to the
workhouse, where he was employed in making list shoes. In 1823 a fund
was raised on his behalf, and he was sent to board with the clerk of the
guardians, having his time at his own disposal, and the privilege of
making use of a public library. After preparing a small volume of
miscellanies, which was published by subscription, he studied dentistry
with Anthony Norris Groves in Exeter. In 1825 he obtained congenial
employment in the printing office of the Church Missionary Society at
Islington, and in 1827 was transferred to the same society's
establishment at Malta. There he remained for eighteen months, but
shortly after his return to England he accompanied Groves and other
friends on a private missionary enterprise to Bagdad, where he obtained
personal knowledge of Oriental life and habits which he afterwards
applied with tact and skill in the illustration of biblical scenes and
incidents. Plague broke out, the missionary establishment was broken up,
and in 1832 Kitto returned to England. On arriving in London he was
engaged in the preparation of various serial publications of the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, the most important of which were
the _Pictorial History of Palestine_ and the _Pictorial Bible_. The
_Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature_, edited under his superintendence,
appeared in two volumes in 1843-1845 and passed through three editions.
His _Daily Bible Illustrations_ (8 vols. 1849-1853) received an
appreciation which is not yet extinct. In 1850 he received an annuity of
£100 from the civil list. In August 1854 he went to Germany for the
waters of Cannstatt on the Neckar, where on the 25th of November he
died.

  See Kitto's own work, _The Lost Senses_ (1845); J. E. Ryland's
  _Memoirs of Kitto_ (1856); and John Eadie's _Life of Kitto_ (1857).




KITTUR, a village of British India, in the Belgaum district of Bombay;
pop. (1901), 4922. It contains a ruined fort, formerly the residence of
a Mahratta chief. In connexion with a disputed succession to this
chiefship in 1824, St John Thackeray, an uncle of the novelist, was
killed when approaching the fort under a flag of truce; and a nephew of
Sir Thomas Munro, governor of Madras, fell subsequently when the fort
was stormed.




KITZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Main, 95
m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main by rail, at the junction of the main-lines
to Passau, Würzburg and Schweinfurt. Pop. (1900), 8489. A bridge, 300
yards long, connects it with its suburb Etwashausen on the left bank of
the river. A railway bridge also spans the Main at this point. Kitzingen
is still surrounded by its old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches, two municipal museums, a town-hall, a
grammar school, a richly endowed hospital and two old convents. Its
chief industries are brewing, cask-making and the manufacture of cement
and colours. Considerable trade in wine, fruit, grain and timber is
carried on by boats on the Main. Kitzingen possessed a Benedictine abbey
in the 8th century, and later belonged to the bishopric of Würzburg.

  See F. Bernbeck, _Kitzinger Chronik 745-1565_ (Kitzingen, 1899).




KIU-KIANG FU, a prefecture and prefectural city in the province of
Kiang-si, China. The city, which is situated on the south bank of the
Yangtsze-kiang, 15 m. above the point where the Kan Kiang flows into
that river from the Po-yang lake, stands in 29° 42´ N. and 116° 8´ E.
The north face of the city is separated from the river by only the width
of a roadway, and two large lakes lie on its west and south fronts. The
walls are from 5 to 6 m. in circumference, and are more than usually
strong and broad. As is generally the case with old cities in China,
Kiu-Kiang has repeatedly changed its name. Under the Tsin dynasty (A.D.
265-420), it was known as Sin-Yang, under the Liang dynasty (502-557) as
Kiang Chow, under the Suy dynasty (589-618) as Kiu-Kiang, under the Sung
dynasty (960-1127) as Ting-Kiang, and under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
it assumed the name it at present bears. Kiu-Kiang has played its part
in the history of the empire, and has been repeatedly besieged and
sometimes taken, the last time being in February 1853, when the
T'ai-p'ing rebels gained possession of the city. After their manner they
looted and utterly destroyed it, leaving only the remains of a single
street to represent the once flourishing town. The position of Kiu-Kiang
on the Yangtsze-kiang and its proximity to the channels of internal
communication through the Po-yang lake, more especially to those leading
to the green-tea-producing districts of the provinces of Kiang-si and
Ngan-hui, induced Lord Elgin to choose it as one of the treaty ports to
be opened under the terms of his treaty (1861). Unfortunately, however,
it stands above instead of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and
this has proved to be a decided drawback to its success as a commercial
port. The immediate effect of opening the town to foreign trade was to
raise the population in one year from 10,000 to 40,000. The population
in 1908, exclusive of foreigners, was officially estimated at 36,000.
The foreign settlement extends westward from the city, along the bank of
the Yangtsze-kiang, and is bounded on its extreme west by the P'un
river, which there runs into the Yangtsze. The bund, which is 500 yards
long, was erected by the foreign community. The climate is good, and
though hot in the summer months is invariably cold and bracing in the
winter. According to the customs returns the value of the trade of the
port amounted in 1902 to £2,854,704, and in 1904 to £3,489,816, of which
£1,726,506 were imports and £1,763,310 exports. In 1904 322,266 lb. of
opium were imported.




KIUSTENDIL, the chief town of a department in Bulgaria, situated in a
mountainous country, on a small affluent of the Struma, 43 m. S.W. of
Sofia by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,353. The streets are narrow and uneven,
and the majority of the houses are of clay or wood. The town is chiefly
notable for its hot mineral springs, in connexion with which there are
nine bathing establishments. Small quantities of gold and silver are
obtained from mines near Kiustendil, and vines, tobacco and fruit are
largely cultivated. Some remains survive of the Roman period, when the
town was known as Pautalia, Ulpia Pautalia, and Pautalia Aurelii. In the
10th century it became the seat of a bishopric, being then and during
the later middle ages known by the Slavonic name of Velbuzhd. After the
overthrow of the Servian kingdom it came into the possession of
Constantine, brother of the despot Yovan Dragash, who ruled over
northern Macedonia. Constantine was expelled and killed by the Turks in
1394. In the 15th century Kiustendil was known as Velbushka Banya, and
more commonly as Konstantinova Banya (Constantine's Bath), from which
has developed the Turkish name Kiustendil.




KIVU, a considerable lake lying in the Central African (or Albertine)
rift-valley, about 60 m. N. of Tanganyika, into which it discharges its
waters by the Rusizi River. On the north it is separated from the basin
of the Nile by a line of volcanic peaks. The length of the lake is about
55 m., and its greatest breadth over 30, giving an area, including
islands, of about 1100 sq. m. It is about 4830 ft. above sea-level and
is roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to the west.
The coast-line is much broken, especially on the south-east, where the
indentations present a fjord-like character. The lake is deep, and the
shores are everywhere high, rising in places in bold precipitous cliffs
of volcanic rock. A large island, Kwijwi or Kwichwi, oblong in shape and
traversed by a hilly ridge, runs in the direction of the major axis of
the lake, south-west of the centre, and there are many smaller islands.
The lake has many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South of Kivu
the rift-valley is blocked by huge ridges, through which the Rusizi now
breaks its way in a succession of steep gorges, emerging from the lake
in a foaming torrent, and descending 2000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at
the head of Tanganyika. The lake fauna is a typically fresh-water one,
presenting no affinities with the marine or "halolimnic" fauna of
Tanganyika and other Central African lakes, but is similar to that shown
by fossils to have once existed in the more northern parts of the
rift-valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction seems to
have been blocked in recent geological times by the elevation of the
volcanic peaks which dammed back the water, causing it finally to
overflow to the south. This volcanic region is of great interest and has
various names, that most used being Mfumbiro (q.v.), though this name is
sometimes restricted to a single peak. Kivu and Mfumbiro were first
heard of by J. H. Speke in 1861, but not visited by a European until
1894, when Count von Götzen passed through the country on his journey
across the continent. The lake and its vicinity were subsequently
explored by Dr R. Kandt, Captain Bethe, E. S. Grogan, J. E. S. Moore,
and Major St Hill Gibbons. The ownership of Kivu and its neighbourhood
was claimed by the Congo Free State and by Germany, the dispute being
settled in 1910, after Belgium had taken over the Congo State. The
frontier agreed upon was the west bank of the Rusizi, and the west shore
of the lake. The island of Kwijwi also fell to Belgium.

  See R. Kandt, _Caput Nili_ (Berlin, 1904), and _Karte des Kivusees_,
  1: 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelmann (Berlin, 1902); E. S. Grogan
  and A. H. Sharpe, _From the Cape to Cairo_ (London, 1900); J. E. S.
  Moore, _To the Mountains of the Moon_ (London, 1901); A. St H.
  Gibbons, _Africa from South to North_, ii. (London, 1904).




KIWI, or KIWI-KIWI, the Maori name--first apparently introduced to
zoological literature by Lesson in 1828 (_Man. d'Ornithologie_, ii.
210, or _Voy. de la "Coquille," zoologie_, p. 418), and now very
generally adopted in English--of one of the most characteristic forms of
New Zealand birds, the _Apteryx_ of scientific writers. This remarkable
bird was unknown till George Shaw described and figured it in 1813
(_Nat. Miscellany_, pls. 1057, 1058) from a specimen brought to him from
the southern coast of that country by Captain Barcley of the ship
"Providence." At Shaw's death, in the same year, it passed into the
possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th earl of Derby, and president
of the Zoological Society, and it is now with the rest of his collection
in the Liverpool Museum. Considering the state of systematic ornithology
at the time, Shaw's assignment of a position to this new and strange
bird, of which he had but the skin, does him great credit, for he said
it seemed "to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous
tribes than to any other." And his credit is still greater when we find
the venerable John Latham, who is said to have examined the specimen
with Shaw, placing it some years later among the penguins (_Gen. Hist.
Birds_, x. 394), being apparently led to that conclusion through its
functionless wings and the backward situation of its legs. In this false
allocation, James Francis Stephens also in 1826 acquiesced (_Gen.
Zoology_, xiii. 70). Meanwhile in 1820 K. J. Temminck, who had never
seen a specimen, had assorted it with the dodo in an order to which he
applied the name of _Inertes_ (_Man. d'Ornithologie_, i. cxiv.). In 1831
R. P. Lesson, who had previously (_loc. cit._) made some blunders about
it, placed it (_Traité d'Ornithologie_, p. 12), though only, as he says,
"par analogie et _a priori_," in his first division of birds, "Oiseaux
Anomaux," which is equivalent to what we now call _Ratitae_, making of
it a separate family "Nullipennes." At that time no second example was
known, and some doubt was felt, especially on the Continent, as to the
very existence of such a bird [1]--though Lesson had himself when in the
Bay of Islands in April 1824 (_Voy. "Coquille," ut supra_) heard of it;
and a few years later J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville had seen its skin, which
the naturalists of his expedition procured, worn as a tippet by a Maori
chief at Tolaga Bay (Houa-houa),[2] and in 1830 gave what proves to be
on the whole very accurate information concerning it (_Voy.
"Astrolabe,"_ ii. 107). To put all suspicion at rest, Lord Derby sent
his unique specimen for exhibition at a meeting of the Zoological
Society, on the 12th of February 1833 (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1833, p.
24), and a few months later (_tom. cit._, p. 80) William Yarrell
communicated to that body a complete description of it, which was
afterwards published in full with an excellent portrait (_Trans. Zool.
Society_, vol. i. p. 71, pl. 10). Herein the systematic place of the
species, as akin to the Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and
the author called upon all interested in zoology to aid in further
research as to this singular form. In consequence of this appeal a
legless skin was within two years sent to the society (_Proceedings_,
1835, p. 61) obtained by W. Yate of Waimate, who said it was the second
he had seen, and that he had kept the bird alive for nearly a fortnight,
while in less than another couple of years additional information (_op.
cit._, 1837, p. 24) came from T. K. Short to the effect that he had seen
two living, and that all Yarrell had said was substantially correct,
except underrating its progressive powers. Not long afterwards Lord
Derby received and in March 1838 transmitted to the same society the
trunk and viscera of an _Apteryx_, which, being entrusted to Sir R.
Owen, furnished that eminent anatomist, in conjunction with other
specimens of the same kind received from Drs Lyon and George Bennett,
with the materials of the masterly monograph laid before the society in
instalments, and ultimately printed in its _Transactions_ (ii. 257; iii.
277). From this time the whole structure of the kiwi has certainly been
far better known than that of nearly any other bird, and by degrees
other examples found their way to England, some of which were
distributed to the various museums of the Continent and of America.[3]

[Illustration: Kiwi.]

In 1847 much interest was excited by the reported discovery of another
species of the genus (_Proceedings_, 1847, p. 51); and though the story
was not confirmed, a second species was really soon after made known by
John Gould (_tom. cit._, p. 93; _Transactions_, vol. iii, p. 379, pl.
57) under the name of _Apteryx oweni_--a just tribute to the great
master who had so minutely explained the anatomy of the group. Three
years later A. D. Bartlett drew attention to the manifest difference
existing among certain examples, all of which had hitherto been regarded
as specimens of _A. australis_, and the examination of a large series
led him to conclude that under that name two distinct species were
confounded. To the second of these, the third of the genus (according to
his views), he gave the name of _A. mantelli_ (_Proceedings_, 1850, p.
274), and it soon turned out that to this new form the majority of the
specimens already obtained belonged. In 1851 the first kiwi known to
have reached England alive was presented to the Zoological Society by
Eyre, then lieutenant-governor of New Zealand. This was found to belong
to the newly described _A. mantelli_, and some careful observations on
its habits in captivity were published by John Wolley and another
(_Zoologist_, pp. 3409, 3605).[4] Subsequently the society has received
several other live examples of this form, besides one of the real _A.
australis_ (_Proceedings_, 1872, p. 861), some of _A. oweni_, and one of
a supposed fourth species, _A. haasti_, characterized in 1871 by Potts
(_Ibis_, 1872, p. 35; _Trans. N. Zeal. Institute_, iv. 204; v. 195).[5]

The kiwis form a group of the subclass _Ratitae_ to which the rank of an
order may fitly be assigned, as they differ in many important
particulars from any of the other existing forms of Ratite birds. The
most obvious feature the _Apteryges_ afford is the presence of a back
toe, while the extremely aborted condition of the wings, the position of
the nostrils--almost at the tip of the maxilla--and the absence of an
after-shaft in the feathers, are characters nearly as manifest, and
others not less determinative, though more recondite, will be found on
examination. The kiwis are peculiar to New Zealand, and it is believed
that _A. mantelli_ is the representative in the North Island of the
southern _A. australis_, both being of a dark reddish-brown,
longitudinally striped with light yellowish-brown, while _A. oweni_, of
a light greyish-brown transversely barred with black, is said to occur
in both islands. About the size of a large domestic fowl, they are birds
of nocturnal habit, sleeping, or at least inactive, by day, feeding
mostly on earth-worms, but occasionally swallowing berries, though in
captivity they will eat flesh suitably minced. Sir Walter Buller writes
(_B. of New Zealand_, p. 362):--

  "The kiwi is in some measure compensated for the absence of wings by
  its swiftness of foot. When running it makes wide strides and carries
  the body in an oblique position, with the neck stretched to its full
  extent and inclined forwards. In the twilight it moves about
  cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at this time
  it bears some outward resemblance. In a quiescent posture, the body
  generally assumes a perfectly rotund appearance; and it sometimes, but
  only rarely, supports itself by resting the point of its bill on the
  ground. It often yawns when disturbed in the daytime, gaping its
  mandibles in a very grotesque manner. When provoked it erects the
  body, and, raising the foot to the breast, strikes downwards with
  considerable force and rapidity, thus using its sharp and powerful
  claws as weapons of defence.... While hunting for its food the bird
  makes a continual sniffing sound through the nostrils, which are
  placed at the extremity of the upper mandible. Whether it is guided as
  much by touch as by smell I cannot safely say; but it appears to me
  that both senses are used in the action. That the sense of touch is
  highly developed seems quite certain, because the bird, although it
  may not be audibly sniffing, will always first touch an object with
  the point of its bill, whether in the act of feeding or of surveying
  the ground; and when shut up in a cage or confined in a room it may be
  heard, all through the night, tapping softly at the walls.... It is
  interesting to watch the bird, in a state of freedom, foraging for
  worms, which constitute its principal food: it moves about with a slow
  action of the body; and the long, flexible bill is driven into the
  soft ground, generally home to the very root, and is either
  immediately withdrawn with a worm held at the extreme tip of the
  mandibles, or it is gently moved to and fro, by an action of the head
  and neck, the body of the bird being perfectly steady. It is amusing
  to observe the extreme care and deliberation with which the bird draws
  the worm from its hiding-place, coaxing it out as it were by degrees,
  instead of pulling roughly or breaking it. On getting the worm fairly
  out of the ground, it throws up its head with a jerk, and swallows it
  whole."

The foregoing extract refers to _A. mantelli_, but there is little doubt
of the remarks being equally applicable to _A. australis_, and probably
also to _A. oweni_, though the different proportion of the bill in the
last points to some diversity in the mode of feeding.     (A. N.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Cuvier in the second edition of his _Règne Animal_ only referred
    to it in a footnote (i. 498).

  [2] Cruise in 1822 (_Journ. Residence in New Zealand_, p. 313) had
    spoken of an "emeu" found in that island, which must of course have
    been an _Apteryx_.

  [3] In 1842, according to Broderip (_Penny Cyclopaedia_, xxiii. 146),
    two had been presented to the Zoological Society by the New Zealand
    Company, and two more obtained by Lord Derby, one of which he had
    given to Gould. In 1844 the British Museum possessed three, and the
    sale catalogue of the Rivoli Collection, which passed in 1846 to the
    Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, includes a single
    specimen--probably the first taken to America.

  [4] This bird in 1859 laid an egg, and afterwards continued to lay
    one or two more every year. In 1865 a male of the same species was
    introduced, but though a strong disposition to breed was shown on the
    part of both, and the eggs, after the custom of the _Ratitae_, were
    incubated by him, no progeny was hatched (_Proceedings_, 1868, p.
    329).

  [5] A fine series of figures of all these supposed species is given
    by Rowley (_Orn. Miscellany_, vol. i. pls. 1-6). Some others, as _A.
    maxima_, _A. mollis_, and _A. fusca_ have also been indicated, but
    proof of their validity has yet to be adduced.




KIZILBASHES (Turkish, "Red-Heads"), the nickname given by the Orthodox
Turks to the Shiitic Turkish immigrants from Persia, who are found
chiefly in the plains from Kara-Hissar along Tokat and Amasia to Angora.
During the wars with Persia the Turkish sultans settled them in these
districts. They are strictly speaking persianized Turks, and speak pure
Persian. There are many Kizilbashes in Afghanistan. Their immigration
dates only from the time of Nadir Shah (1737). They are an industrious
honest folk, chiefly engaged in trade and as physicians, scribes, and so
on. They form the bulk of the amir's cavalry. Their name seems to have
been first used in Persia of the Shiites in allusion to their red caps.

  See Ernest Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans l'Asie
  occidentale_ (Lyons, 1895).




KIZIL IRMAK, i.e. "Red River" (anc. _Halys_), the largest river in Asia
Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of 6500 ft., and running
south-west past Zara to Sivas. Below Sivas it flows south to the
latitude of Kaisarieh, and then curves gradually round to the north.
Finally, after a course of about 600 m., it discharges its waters into
the Black Sea between Sinope and Samsun, where it forms a large delta.
The only important tributaries are the Delije Irmak on the right and the
Geuk Irmak on the left bank.




KIZLYAR (KIZLIAR, or KIZLAR), a town of Russia, in Caucasia, in the
province of Terek, 120 m. N.E. of Vladikavkaz, in the low-lying delta of
the river Terek, about 35 m. from the Caspian. The population decreased
from 8309 in 1861 to 7353 in 1897. The town lies to the left of the main
stream between two of the larger secondary branches, and is subject to
flooding. The town proper, which spreads out round the citadel, has
Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarters. The public buildings include the
Greek cathedral, dating from 1786; a Greek nunnery, founded by the
Georgian chief Daniel in 1736; the Armenian church of SS Peter and Paul,
remarkable for its size and wealth. The population is mainly supported
by the gardens and vineyards irrigated by canals from the river. A
government vineyard and school of viticulture are situated 3½ m. from
the town. About 1,200,000 gallons of Kizlyar wine are sold annually at
the fair of Nizhniy-Novgorod. Silk and cotton are woven. Kizlyar is
mentioned as early as 1616, but the most notable accession of
inhabitants (Armenians, Georgians and Persians) took place in 1715. Its
importance as a fortress dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer
kept in repair.




KIZYL-KUM, a desert of Western Asia, stretching S.E. of the Aral Lake
between the river Syr-darya on the N.E. and the river Amu-darya on the
S.W. It measures some 370 by 220 m., and is in part covered with
drift-sand or dunes, many of which are advancing slowly but steadily
towards the S.W. In character they resemble those of the neighbouring
Kara-kum desert (see KARA-KUM). On the whole the Kizyl-kum slopes S.W.
towards the Aral Lake, where its altitude is only about 160 ft. as
compared with 2000 in the S.E. In the vicinity of that lake the surface
is covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the S.E., as it ascends
towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it is braided with deep
accumulations of fertile loess.




KJERULF, HALFDAN (1815-1868), Norwegian musical composer, the son of a
high government official, was born at Christiania on the 15th of
September 1815. His early education was at Christiania University, for a
legal career, and not till he was nearly 26--on the death of his
father--was he able to devote himself entirely to music. As a fact, he
actually started on his career as a music teacher and composer of songs
before ever having seriously studied music at all, and not for ten years
did he attract any particular notice. Then, however, his Government paid
for a year's instruction for him at Leipzig. For many years after his
return to Norway Kjerulf tried in vain to establish serial classical
concerts, while he himself was working with Björnson and other writers
at the composition of lyrical songs. His fame rests almost entirely on
his beautiful and manly national part-songs and solos; but his
pianoforte music is equally charming and simple. Kjerulf died at
Grefsen, on the 11th of August 1868.




KJERULF, THEODOR (1825-1888), Norwegian geologist, was born at
Christiania on the 30th of March 1825. He was educated in the university
at Christiania, and subsequently studied at Heidelberg, working in
Bunsen's laboratory. In 1858 he became professor of geology in the
university of his native city, and he was afterwards placed in charge of
the geological survey of the country, then established mainly through
his influence. His contributions to the geology of Norway were numerous
and important, especially in reference to the southern portion of the
country, and to the structure and relations of the Archaean and
Palaeozoic rocks, and the glacial phenomena. His principal results were
embodied in his work _Udsigt over det sydlige Norges Geologi_ (1879). He
was author also of some poetical works. He died at Christiania on the
25th of October 1888.




KLADNO, a mining town of Bohemia, Austria, 18 m. W.N.W. of Prague by
rail. Pop. (1900), 18,600, mostly Czech. It is situated in a region very
rich in iron-mines and coal-fields and possesses some of the largest
iron and steel works in Bohemia. Near it is the mining town of
Buschtehrad (pop. 3510), situated in the centre of very extensive
coal-fields. Buschtehrad was originally the name of the castle only.
This was from the 15th century to 1630 the property of the lords of
Kolovrat, and came by devious inheritance through the grand-dukes of
Tuscany, to the emperor Francis Joseph. The name Buschtehrad was first
given to the railway, and then to the town, which had been called Buckow
since its foundation in 1700. There is another castle of Buschtehrad
near Horic. Kladno, which for centuries had been a village of no
importance, was sold in 1705 by the grand-duchess Anna Maria of Tuscany
to the cloister in Brewnow, to which it still belongs. The mining
industry began in 1842.




KLAFSKY, KATHARINA (1855-1896), Hungarian operatic singer, was born at
Szt János, Wieselburg, of humble parents. Being employed at Vienna as a
nurserymaid, her fine soprano voice led to her being engaged as a chorus
singer, and she was given good lessons in music. By 1882 she became
well-known in Wagnerian rôles at the Leipzig theatre, and she increased
her reputation at other German musical centres. In 1892 she appeared in
London, and had a great success in Wagner's operas, notably as
Brünnhilde and as Isolde, her dramatic as well as vocal gifts being of
an exceptional order. She sang in America in 1895, but died of brain
disease in 1896.

  A _Life_, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig).




KLAGENFURT (Slovene, _Celovec_), the capital of the Austrian duchy of
Carinthia, 212 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 24,314. It is
picturesquely situated on the river Glan, which is in communication with
the Wörther-see by the 3 m. long Lend canal. Among the more noteworthy
buildings are the parish church of St Ægidius (1709), with a tower 298
ft. in height; the cathedral of SS Peter and Paul (1582-1593, burnt
1723, restored 1725); the churches of the Benedictines (1613), of the
Capuchins (1646), and of the order of St Elizabeth (1710). To these must
be added the palace of the prince-bishop of Gurk, the _burg_ or castle,
existing in its present form since 1777; and the _Landhaus_ or house of
assembly, dating from the end of the 14th century, and containing a
museum of natural history, and collection of minerals, antiquities,
seals, paintings and sculptures. The most interesting public monument is
the great _Lindwurm_ or Dragon, standing in the principal square (1590).
The industrial establishments comprise white lead factories, machine and
iron foundries, and commerce is active, especially in the mineral
products of the region.

Upon the Zollfeld to the north of the city once stood the ancient Roman
town of Virunum. During the Middle Ages Klagenfurt became the property
of the crown, but by a patent of Maximilian I. of the 24th of April
1518, it was conceded to the Carinthian estates, and has since then
taken the place of St Veit as capital of Carinthia. In 1535, 1636, 1723
and 1796 Klagenfurt suffered from destructive fires, and in 1690 from
the effects of an earthquake. On the 29th of March 1797 the French took
the city, and upon the following day it was occupied by Napoleon as his
headquarters.




KLAJ (latinized CLAJUS), JOHANN (1616-1656), German poet, was born at
Meissen in Saxony. After studying theology at Wittenberg he went to
Nuremberg as a "candidate for holy orders," and there, in conjunction
with Georg Philipp Harsdörffer, founded in 1644 the literary society
known as the Pegnitz order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master
in the Sebaldus school in Nuremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at
Kitzingen, where he died in 1656. Klaj's poems consist of dramas,
written in stilted language and redundant with adventures, among which
are _Höllen- und Himmelfahrt Christi_ (Nuremberg, 1644), and _Herodes,
der Kindermörder_ (Nuremberg, 1645), and a poem, written jointly with
Harsdörffer, _Pegnesische Schäfergedicht_ (1644), which gives in
allegorical form the story of his settlement in Nuremberg.

  See Tittmann, _Die Nürnberger Dichterschule_ (Göttingen, 1847).




KLAMATH, a small tribe of North American Indians of Lutuamian stock.
They ranged around the Klamath river and lakes, and are now on the
Klamath reservation, southern Oregon.

  See A. S. Gatschet, "Klamath Indians of Oregon," _Contributions to
  North American Ethnology_, vol. ii. (Washington, 1890).




KLAPKA, GEORG (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was born at Temesvár on
the 7th of April 1820, and entered the Austrian army in 1838. He was
still a subaltern when the Hungarian revolution of 1848 broke out, and
he offered his services to the patriot party. He served in important
staff appointments during the earlier part of the war which followed;
then, early in 1849, he was ordered to replace General Mészáros, who had
been defeated at Kaschau, and as general commanding an army corps he
had a conspicuous share in the victories of Kapólna, Isaszeg, Waitzen,
Nagy Sarlo and Komárom. Then, as the fortune of war turned against the
Hungarians, Klapka, after serving for a short time as minister of war,
took command at Komárom, from which fortress he conducted a number of
successful expeditions until the capitulation of Világos in August put
an end to the war in the open field. He then brilliantly defended
Komárom for two months, and finally surrendered on honourable terms.
Klapka left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years
in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefly in Switzerland. He
continued by every means in his power to work for the independence of
Hungary, especially at moments of European war, such as 1854, 1859 and
1866, at which an appeal to arms seemed to him to promise success. After
the war of 1866 (in which as a Prussian major-general he organized a
Hungarian corps in Silesia) Klapka was permitted by the Austrian
government to return to his native country, and in 1867 was elected a
member of the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, in which he belonged to the
Deák party. In 1877 he made an attempt to reorganize the Turkish army in
view of the war with Russia. General Klapka died at Budapest on the 17th
of May 1892. A memorial was erected to his memory at Komárom in 1896.

  He wrote _Memoiren_ (Leipzig, 1850); _Der Nationalkrieg in Ungarn_,
  &c. (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, _Der Krieg im
  Orient ... bis Ende Juli 1855_ (Geneva, 1855); and _Aus meinen
  Erinnerungen_ (translated from the Hungarian, Zürich, 1887).




KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835), German Orientalist and traveller,
was born in Berlin on the 11th of October 1783, the son of the chemist
Martin Heinrich Klaproth (q.v.). He devoted his energies in quite early
life to the study of Asiatic languages, and published in 1802 his
_Asiatisches Magazin_ (Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called
to St Petersburg and given an appointment in the academy there. In 1805
he was a member of Count Golovkin's embassy to China. On his return he
was despatched by the academy to the Caucasus on an ethnographical and
linguistic exploration (1807-1808), and was afterwards employed for
several years in connexion with the academy's Oriental publications. In
1812 he moved to Berlin; but in 1815 he settled in Paris, and in 1816
Humboldt procured him from the king of Prussia the title and salary of
professor of Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain
in Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works. He
died in that city on the 28th of August 1835.

  The principal feature of Klaproth's erudition was the vastness of the
  field which it embraced. His great work _Asia polyglotta_ (Paris, 1823
  and 1831, with _Sprachatlas_) not only served as a _résumé_ of all
  that was known on the subject, but formed a new departure for the
  classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the
  Russian Empire. To a great extent, however, his work is now
  superseded. The _Itinerary of a Chinese Traveller_ (1821), a series of
  documents in the military archives of St Petersburg purporting to be
  the travels of George Ludwig von ----, and a similar series obtained
  from him in the London foreign office, are all regarded as spurious.

  Klaproth's other works include: _Reise in den Kaukasus und Georgien in
  den Jahren 1807 und 1808_ (Halle, 1812-1814; French translation,
  Paris, 1823); _Geographisch-historische Beschreibung des östlichen
  Kaukasus_ (Weimar, 1814); _Tableaux historiques de l'Asie_ (Paris,
  1826); _Mémoires relatifs à l'Asie_ (Paris, 1824-1828); _Tableau
  historique, geographique, ethnographique et politique de Caucase_
  (Paris, 1827); and _Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue géorgienne_
  (Paris, 1827).




KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817), German chemist, was born at
Wernigerode on the 1st of December 1743. During a large portion of his
life he followed the profession of an apothecary. After acting as
assistant in pharmacies at Quedlinburg, Hanover, Berlin and Danzig
successively he came to Berlin on the death of Valentin Rose the elder
in 1771 as manager of his business, and in 1780 he started an
establishment on his own account in the same city, where from 1782 he
was pharmaceutical assessor of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 he
was appointed lecturer in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when the
university was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of
chemistry. He died in Berlin on the 1st of January 1817. Klaproth was
the leading chemist of his time in Germany. An exact and conscientious
worker, he did much to improve and systematize the processes of
analytical chemistry and mineralogy, and his appreciation of the value
of quantitative methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents
of the Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. He was the first to
discover uranium, zirconium and titanium, and to characterize them as
distinct elements, though he did not obtain any of them in the pure
metallic state; and he elucidated the composition of numerous substances
till then imperfectly known, including compounds of the then newly
recognized elements: tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium.

  His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself in _Beiträge
  zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkörper_ (5 vols., 1795-1810) and
  _Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts_ (1815). He also published
  a _Chemisches Wörterbuch_ (1807-1810), and edited a revised edition of
  F. A. C. Gren's _Handbuch der Chemie_ (1806).




KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1753-1800), French general, was born on the 9th
of March 1753, at Strassburg, where his father was a builder. He was
trained, partly at Paris, for the profession of architect, but his
opportune assistance to two German nobles in a tavern brawl obtained for
him a nomination to the military school of Munich. Thence he obtained a
commission in the Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783 on finding his
humble birth in the way of his promotion. On returning to France he was
appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he studied
fortification and military science. In 1792 he enlisted in the Haut-Rhin
volunteers, and was from his military knowledge at once elected adjutant
and soon afterwards lieutenant-colonel. At the defence of Mainz he so
distinguished himself that though disgraced along with the rest of the
garrison and imprisoned, he was promptly reinstated, and in August 1793
promoted general of brigade. He won considerable distinction in the
Vendéan war, and two months later was made a general of division. In
these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he defeated
the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. For openly expressing his opinion
that lenient measures ought to be pursued towards the Vendéans he was
recalled; but in April 1794 he was once more reinstated and sent to the
Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse. He displayed his skill and bravery in the
numerous actions around Charleroi, and especially in the crowning
victory of Fleurus, after which in the winter of 1794-95 he besieged
Mainz. In 1795 and again in 1796 he held the chief command of an army
temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as commander-in-chief.
On the 13th of October 1795 he fought a brilliant rearguard action at
the bridge of Neuwied, and in the offensive campaign of 1796 he was
Jourdan's most active and successful lieutenant. Having, after the
retreat to the Rhine (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), declined the chief
command, he withdrew into private life early in 1798. He accepted a
division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but was wounded in
the head at Alexandria in the first engagement, which prevented his
taking any further part in the campaign of the Pyramids, and caused him
to be appointed governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign of 1799,
however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza and Jaffa, and
won the great victory of Mount Tabor on the 15th of April 1799. When
Napoleon returned to France towards the end of 1799 he left Kléber in
command of the French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of
bringing his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests, he
made the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith, the British
admiral, refused to ratify the terms, he attacked the Turks at
Heliopolis, though with but 10,000 men against 60,000, and utterly
defeated them on the 20th of March 1800. He then retook Cairo, which had
revolted from the French. Shortly after these victories he was
assassinated at Cairo by a fanatic on the 14th of June 1800, the same
day on which his friend and comrade Desaix fell at Marengo. Kléber was
undoubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary
epoch. Though he distrusted his powers and declined the responsibility
of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to show that he would
have been unequal to it. As a second in command he was not excelled by
any general of his time. His conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when
the treasury was empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay,
shows that his powers as an administrator were little--if at
all--inferior to those he possessed as a general.

  Ernouf, the grandson of Jourdan's chief of staff, published in 1867 a
  valuable biography of Kléber. See also Reynaud, _Life of Merlin de
  Thionville_; Ney, Memoirs; Dumas, _Souvenirs_; Las Casas, _Memorial de
  Ste Hélène_; J. Charavaray, _Les Généraux morts pour la patrie_;
  General Pajol, _Kléber_; lives of Marceau and Desaix; M. F. Rousseau,
  _Kléber et Menou en Egypte_ (Paris, 1900).




KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810-1876), German writer of Jewish origin, was
born at Miskolcz, in Hungary. He was educated at the gymnasium in Pest,
and studied medicine in Vienna and Berlin. After travelling in Italy and
Greece, he settled as a man of letters in Berlin, where he remained
until his death on the 2nd of August 1876. He was the author of many
dramatic works, among others the historical tragedies _Maria von Medici_
(1841); _Luines_ (1842); _Zenobia_ (1847); _Moreto_ (1859); _Maria_
(1860); _Strafford_ (1862) and _Heliodora_ (1867); and the comedies _Die
Herzogin_ (1848); _Ein Schützling_ (1850); and _Voltaire_ (1862). The
tendency of Klein as a dramatist was to become bombastic and obscure,
but many of his characters are vigorously conceived, and in nearly all
his tragedies there are passages of brilliant rhetoric. He is chiefly
known as the author of the elaborate though uncompleted _Geschichte des
Dramas_ (1865-1876), in which he undertook to record the history of the
drama from the earliest times. He died when about to enter upon the
Elizabethan period, to the treatment of which he had looked forward as
the chief part of his task. The work, which is in thirteen bulky
volumes, gives proof of immense learning, but is marred by
eccentricities of style and judgment.

  Klein's _Dramatische Werke_ were collected in 7 vols. (1871-1872).




KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH WILHELM VON (1777-1811), German poet, dramatist
and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on-Oder on the 18th of October 1777.
After a scanty education, he entered the Prussian army in 1792, served
in the Rhine campaign of 1796 and retired from the service in 1799 with
the rank of lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy at the
university of Frankfort-on-Oder, and in 1800 received a subordinate post
in the ministry of finance at Berlin. In the following year his roving,
restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a lengthened leave
of absence he visited Paris and then settled in Switzerland. Here he
found congenial friends in Heinrich Zschokke (q.v.) and Ludwig Friedrich
August Wieland (1777-1819), son of the poet; and to them he read his
first drama, a gloomy tragedy, _Die Familie Schroffenstein_ (1803),
originally entitled _Die Familie Ghonorez_. In the autumn of 1802 Kleist
returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in Weimar,
stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again proceeded to Paris, and
returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was transferred to the
_Domänenkammer_ (department for the administration of crown lands) at
Königsberg. On a journey to Dresden in 1807 Kleist was arrested by the
French as a spy, and being sent to France was kept for six months a
close prisoner at Châlons-sur-Marne. On regaining his liberty he
proceeded to Dresden, where in conjunction with Adam Heinrich Müller
(1779-1829) he published in 1808 the journal _Phöbus_. In 1809 he went
to Prague, and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-1811)
the _Berliner Abendblätter_. Captivated by the intellectual and musical
accomplishments of a certain Frau Henriette Vogel, Kleist, who was
himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed to do her
bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution by first shooting
the lady and then himself on the shore of the Wannsee near Potsdam, on
the 21st of November 1811. Kleist's whole life was filled by a restless
striving after ideal and illusory happiness, and this is largely
reflected in his work. He was by far the most important North German
dramatist of the Romantic movement, and no other of the Romanticists
approaches him in the energy with which he expresses patriotic
indignation.

  His first tragedy, _Die Familie Schroffenstein_, has been already
  referred to; the material for the second, _Penthesilea_ (1808), queen
  of the Amazons, is taken from a Greek source and presents a picture of
  wild passion. More successful than either of these was his romantic
  play, _Das Käthchen von Heilbronn, oder Die Feuerprobe_ (1808), a
  poetic drama full of medieval bustle and mystery, which has retained
  its popularity. In comedy, Kleist made a name with _Der zerbrochene
  Krug_ (1811), while _Amphitryon_ (1808), an adaptation of Molière's
  comedy, is of less importance. Of Kleist's other dramas, _Die
  Hermannschlacht_ (1809) is a dramatic treatment of an historical
  subject and is full of references to the political conditions of his
  own times. In it he gives vent to his hatred of his country's
  oppressors. This, together with the drama _Prinz Friedrich von
  Homburg_, the latter accounted Kleist's best work, was first published
  by Ludwig Tieck in _Kleists hinterlassene Schriften_ (1821). _Robert
  Guiskard_, a drama conceived on a grand plan, was left a fragment.
  Kleist was also a master in the art of narrative, and of his
  _Gesammelte Erzählungen_ (1810-1811), _Michael Kohlhaas_, in which the
  famous Brandenburg horse dealer in Luther's day (see KOHLHASE) is
  immortalized, is one of the best German stories of its time. He also
  wrote some patriotic lyrics. His _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published
  by Ludwig Tieck (3 vols. 1826) and by Julian Schmidt (new ed. 1874);
  also by F. Muncker (4 vols. 1882); by T. Zolling (4 vols. 1885); by K.
  Siegen, (4 vols. 1895); and in a critical edition by E. Schmidt (5
  vols. 1904-1905). His _Ausgewählte Dramen_ were published by K. Siegen
  (Leipzig, 1877); and his letters were first published by E. von Bülow,
  _Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Briefe_ (1848).

  See further A. Wilbrandt, _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1863); O. Brahm,
  _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1884); R. Bonafous, _Henri de Kleist, sa vie et
  ses oeuvres_ (1894); H. Conrad, _Heinrich von Kleist als Mensch und
  Dichter_ (1896); G. Minde-Pouet, _Heinrich von Kleist, seine Sprache
  und sein Stil_ (1897); R. Steig, _Heinrich von Kleists Berliner
  Kämpfe_ (1901); F. Servaes, _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1902); S.
  Wukadinowic, _Kleist-Studien_ (1904); S. Rahmer, _H. von Kleist als
  Mensch und Dichter_ (1909).




KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON (1715-1759), German poet, was born at
Zeblin, near Köslin in Pomerania, on the 7th of March 1715. After
attending the Jesuit school in Deutschkrona and the gymnasium in Danzig,
he proceeded in 1731 to the university of Königsberg, where he studied
law and mathematics. On the completion of his studies, he entered the
Danish army, in which he became an officer in 1736. Recalled to Prussia
by Frederick II. in 1740, he was appointed lieutenant in a regiment
stationed at Potsdam, where he became acquainted with J. W. L. Gleim
(q.v.), who interested him in poetry. After distinguishing himself at
the battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741) and the siege of Neisse (1741),
he was promoted captain in 1749 and major in 1756. Quartered during the
winter of 1757-1758 in Leipzig, he found relief from his irksome
military duties in the society of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (q.v.).
Shortly afterwards in the battle of Kunersdorf, on the 12th of August
1759, he was mortally wounded while leading the attack, and died at
Frankfort-on-Oder on the 24th of August following.

Kleist's chief work is a poem in hexameters, _Der Frühling_ (1749), for
which Thomson's _Seasons_ largely supplied ideas. In his description of
the beauties of nature Kleist shows real poetical genius, an almost
modern sentiment and fine taste. He also wrote some charming odes,
idylls and elegies, and a small epic poem _Cissides und Paches_ (1759),
the subject being two Thessalian friends who die an heroic death for
their country in a battle against the Athenians.

  Kleist published in 1756 the first collection of his _Gedichte_, which
  was followed by a second in 1758. After his death his friend Karl
  Wilhelm Ramler (q.v.) published an edition of _Kleists sämtliche
  Werke_ in 2 vols. (1760). A critical edition was published by A.
  Sauer, in 3 vols. (1880-1882). Cf. further, A. Chuquet, _De Ewaldi
  Kleistii vita et scriptis_ (Paris, 1887), and H. Pröhle, _Friedrich
  der Grosse und die deutsche Literatur_ (1872).




KLERKSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 118 m. S.W. of Johannesburg and 192
m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop. (1904), 4276 of whom 2203 were
whites. The town, built on the banks of the Schoonspruit 10 m. above its
junction with the Vaal, possesses several fine public buildings. In the
neighbourhood are gold-mines, the reef appearing to form the western
boundary of the Witwatersrand basin. Diamonds (green in colour) and coal
are also found in the district. Klerksdorp was one of the villages
founded by the first Boers who crossed the Vaal, dating from 1838. The
modern town, which is on the side of the _spruit_ opposite the old
village, was founded in 1888.




KLESL (or KHLESL), MELCHIOR (1552-1630), Austrian statesman and
ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was born in Vienna.
Under the influence of the Jesuits he was converted to Roman
Catholicism, and having finished his education at the universities of
Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chancellor of the university of
Vienna; and as official and vicar-general of the bishop of Passau he
exhibited the zeal of a convert in forwarding the progress of the
counter-reformation in Austria. He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but
more important was his association with the archduke Matthias which
began about the same time. Both before and after 1612, when Matthias
succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klesl was the originator
and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed the concessions
to the Hungarian Protestants in 1606. He assisted to secure the election
of Matthias to the imperial throne, and sought, but without success, to
strengthen the new emperor's position by making peace between the
Catholics and the Protestants. When during the short reign of Matthias
the question of the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the
bishop, although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire
in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the Roman
Catholic Church, advised that this question should be shelved until some
arrangement with the Protestant princes had been reached. This counsel
was displeasing to the archduke Maximilian and to Ferdinand, afterwards
the emperor Ferdinand II. who believed that Klesl was hostile to the
candidature of the latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake
his influence with the emperor; and in June 1618, a few months before
the death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and
imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had been a cardinal
since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope Gregory XV., and
was released from imprisonment. In 1627 Ferdinand II. allowed him to
return to his episcopal duties in Vienna, where he died on the 18th of
September 1630.

  See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, _Khlesls Leben_ (Vienna,
  1847-1851); A. Kerschbaumer, _Kardinal Klesl_ (Vienna, 1865); and
  _Klesls Briefe an Rudolfs II. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von
  Dietrichstein_, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900).




KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON (1752-1831), German dramatist and
novelist, was born of humble parentage at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 17th
of February 1752. His father died when he was a child, and his early
years were a hard struggle. He was enabled, however, in 1774 to enter
the university of Giessen, where he studied law; and Goethe, with whom
he had been acquainted since childhood, helped him in many ways. In 1775
Klinger gained with his tragedy _Die Zwillinge_ a prize offered by the
Hamburg theatre, under the auspices of the actress Sophie Charlotte
Ackermann (1714-1792) and her son the famous actor and playwright,
Friedrich Ludwig Schröder (1744-1816). In 1776 Klinger was appointed
_Theaterdichter_ to the "Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft" and held
this post for two years. In 1778 he entered the Austrian military
service and took part in the Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went
to St Petersburg, became an officer in the Russian army, was ennobled
and attached to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to
Italy and France. In 1785 he was appointed director of the corps of
cadets, and having married a natural daughter of the empress Catharine,
was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799. In 1803 Klinger was
nominated by the emperor Alexander curator of the university of Dorpat,
an office he held until 1817; in 1811 he became lieutenant-general. He
then gradually gave up his official posts, and after living for many
years in honourable retirement, died at Dorpat on the 25th of February
1831.

Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of fine feeling,
though the bitter experiences and deprivations of his youth are largely
reflected in his dramas. It was one of his earliest works, _Sturm und
Drang_ (1776), which gave its name to this literary epoch. In addition
to this tragedy and _Die Zwillinge_ (1776), the chief plays of his early
period of passionate fervour and restless "storm and stress" are _Die
neue Arria_ (1776), _Simsone Grisaldo_ (1776) and _Stilpo und seine
Kinder_ (1780). To a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of
_Medea in Korinth_ and _Medea auf dem Kaukasos_ (1791). In Russia he
devoted himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of
which the best known are _Fausts Leben, Taten und Höllenfahrt_ (1791),
_Geschichte Giafars des Barmeciden_ (1792) and _Geschichte Raphaels de
Aquillas_ (1793). This series was closed in 1803 with _Betrachtungen und
Gedanken über verschiedene Gegenstände der Welt und der Literatur_. In
these works Klinger gives calm and dignified expression to the leading
ideas which the period of _Sturm und Drang_ had bequeathed to German
classical literature.

  Klinger's works were published in twelve volumes (1809-1815), also
  1832-1833 and 1842. The most recent edition is in eight volumes
  (1878-1880); but none of these is complete. A selection will be found
  in A. Sauer, _Stürmer und Dränger_, vol. i. (1883). See E. Schmidt,
  _Lenz und Klinger_ (1878); M. Rieger, _Klinger in der Sturm- und
  Drangperiode_ (1880); and _Klinger in seiner Reife_ (1896).




KLINGER, MAX (1857-   ), German painter, etcher and sculptor, was born at
Plagwitz near Leipzig. He attended the classes at the Carlsruhe art
school in 1874, and went in the following year to Berlin, where in 1878
he created a sensation at the Academy exhibition with two series of
pen-and-ink drawings--the "Series upon the Theme of Christ" and
"Fantasies upon the Finding of a Glove." The daring originality of these
imaginative and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and
the artist was voted insane; nevertheless the "Glove" series was bought
by the Berlin National Gallery. His painting of "The Judgment of Paris"
caused a similar storm of indignant protest in 1887, owing to its
rejection of all conventional attributes and the naïve directness of the
conception. His vivid and somewhat morbid imagination, with its leaning
towards the gruesome and disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his
mind, found their best expression in his "cycles" of etchings:
"Deliverances of Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid," "A Brahms Phantasy,"
"Eve and the Future," "A Life," and "Of Death"; but in his use of the
needle he does not aim at the technical excellence of the great masters;
it supplies him merely with means of expressing his ideas. After 1886
Klinger devoted himself more exclusively to painting and sculpture. In
his painting he aims neither at classic beauty nor modern truth, but at
grim impressiveness not without a touch of mysticism. His "Pietà" at the
Dresden Gallery, the frescoes at the Leipzig University, and the "Christ
in Olympus," at the Modern Gallery in Vienna, are characteristic
examples of his art. The Leipzig Museum contains his sculptured "Salome"
and "Cassandra." In sculpture he favours the use of varicoloured
materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine sculpture. His
"Beethoven" is a notable instance of his work in this direction.




KLIPSPRINGER, the Boer name of a small African mountain-antelope
(_Oreotragus saltator_), ranging from the Cape through East Africa to
Somaliland and Abyssinia, and characterized by its blunt rounded hoofs,
thick pithy hair and gold-spangled colouring. The klipspringer
represents a genus by itself, the various local forms not being worthy
of more than racial distinction. The activity of these antelopes is
marvellous.




KLONDIKE, a district in Yukon Territory, north-western Canada,
approximately in 64° N. and 140° W. The limits are rather indefinite,
but the district includes the country to the south of the Klondike
River, which comes into the Yukon from the east and has several
tributaries, as well as Indian River, a second branch of the Yukon,
flowing into it some distance above the Klondike. The richer
gold-bearing gravels are found along the creeks tributary to these two
rivers within an area of about 800 sq. m. The Klondike district is a
dissected peneplain with low ridges of rounded forms rising to 4250 ft.
above the sea at the Dome which forms its centre. All of the
gold-bearing creeks rise not far from the Dome and radiate in various
directions toward the Klondike and Indian rivers, the most productive
being Bonanza with its tributary Eldorado, Hunker, Dominion and Gold
Run. Of these, Eldorado, for the two or three miles in which it was
gold-bearing, was much the richest, and for its length probably
surpassed any other known placer deposit. Rich gravel was discovered on
Bonanza Creek in 1896, and a wild rush to this almost inaccessible
region followed, a population of 30,000 coming in within the next three
or four years with a rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1900
the climax of $22,000,000. Since then the production has steadily
declined, until in 1906 it fell to $5,600,000. The richest gravels were
worked out before 1910, and most of the population had left the Klondike
for Alaska and other regions; so that Dawson, which for a time was a
bustling city of more than 10,000, dwindled to about 3000 inhabitants.
As the ground was almost all frozen, the mines were worked by a thawing
process, first by setting fires, afterwards by using steam, new methods
being introduced to meet the unusual conditions. Later dredges and
hydraulic mining were resorted to with success.

The Klondike, in spite of its isolated position, brought together miners
and adventurers from all parts of the world, and it is greatly to the
credit of the Canadian government and of the mounted police, who were
entrusted with the keeping of order, that life and property were as safe
as elsewhere and that no lawless methods were adopted by the miners as
in placer mining camps in the western United States. The region was at
first difficult of access, but can now be reached with perfect comfort
in summer, travelling by well-appointed steamers on the Pacific and the
Yukon River. Owing to its perpetually frozen soil, summer roads were
excessively bad in earlier days, but good wagon roads have since been
constructed to all the important mining centres. Dawson itself has all
the resources of a civilized city in spite of being founded on a frozen
peat-bog; and is supplied with ordinary market vegetables from farms
just across the river. During the winter, when for some time the sun
does not appear above the hills, the cold is intense, though usually
without wind, but the well-chinked log houses can be kept comfortably
warm. When winter travel is necessary dog teams and sledges are
generally made use of, except on the stage route south to White Horse,
where horses are used. A telegraph line connects Dawson with British
Columbia, but the difficulties in keeping it in order are so great over
the long intervening wilderness that communication is often broken. Gold
is practically the only economic product of the Klondike, though small
amounts of tin ore occur, and lignite coal has been mined lower down on
the Yukon. The source of the gold seems to have been small stringers of
quartz in the siliceous and sericitic schists which form the bed rock of
much of the region, and no important quartz veins have been discovered;
so that unlike most other placer regions the Klondike has not developed
lode mines to continue the production of gold when the gravels are
exhausted.




KLOPP, ONNO (1822-1903), German historian, was born at Leer on the 9th
of October 1822, and was educated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin
and Göttingen. For a few years he was a teacher at Leer and at
Osnabrück; but in 1858 he settled at Hanover, where he became intimate
with King George V., who made him his _Archivrat_. Thoroughly disliking
Prussia, he was in hearty accord with George in resisting her aggressive
policy; and after the annexation of Hanover in 1866 he accompanied the
exiled king to Hietzing. He became a Roman Catholic in 1874. He died at
Penzing, near Vienna, on the 9th of August 1903. Klopp is best known as
the author of _Der Fall des Hauses Stuart_ (Vienna, 1875-1888), the
fullest existing account of the later Stuarts.

  His _Der König Friedrich II. und seine Politik_ (Schaffhausen, 1867)
  and _Geschichte Ostfrieslands_ (Hanover, 1854-1858) show his dislike
  of Prussia. His other works include _Der dreissigjährige Krieg bis zum
  Tode Gustav Adolfs_ (Paderborn, 1891-1896); a revised edition of his
  _Tilly im dreissigjährigen Kriege_ (Stuttgart, 1861); a life of George
  V., _König Georg V._ (Hanover, 1878); _Phillipp Melanchthon_ (Berlin,
  1897). He edited _Corrispondenza epistolare tra Leopoldo I. imperatore
  ed il P. Marco l'Aviano capuccino_ (Gratz, 1888). Klopp also wrote
  much in defence of George V. and his claim to Hanover, including the
  _Offizieller Bericht über die Kriegsereignisse zwischen Hannover und
  Preussen im Juni 1866_ (Vienna, 1867), and he edited the works of
  Leibnitz in eleven volumes (1861-1884).

  See W. Klopp, _Onno Klopp: ein Lebenslauf_ (Wehberg, 1907).




KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH (1724-1803), German poet, was born at
Quedlinburg, on the 2nd of July 1724, the eldest son of a lawyer, a man
of sterling character and of a deeply religious mind. Both in his
birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father
later rented, young Klopstock passed a happy childhood; and more
attention having been given to his physical than to his mental
development he grew up a strong healthy boy and was an excellent horseman
and skater. In his thirteenth year Klopstock returned to Quedlinburg
where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739 proceeded to the famous
classical school of Schulpforta. Here he soon became an adept in Greek
and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in
German. His original intention of making the emperor Henry I. ("The
Fowler") the hero of an epic, was, under the influence of Milton's
_Paradise Lost_, with which he became acquainted through Bodmer's
translation, abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at
school, he had already drafted the plan of _Der Messias_, upon which his
fame mainly rests. On the 21st of September 1745 he delivered on quitting
school a remarkable "leaving oration" on epic poetry--_Abschiedsrede über
die epische Poesie, kultur- und literargeschichtlich erläutert_--and next
proceeded to Jena as a student of theology, where he elaborated the first
three cantos of the _Messias_ in prose. The life at this university being
uncongenial to him, he removed in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, and here
joined the circle of young men of letters who contributed to the _Bremer
Beiträge_. In this periodical the first three cantos of the _Messias_ in
hexameters were anonymously published in 1748. A new era in German
literature had commenced, and the name of the author soon became known.
In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is _An
meine Freunde_ (1747), afterwards recast as _Wingolf_ (1767). He left the
university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative
at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin (the "Fanny" of his
odes) disturbed his peace of mind. Gladly therefore he accepted in 1750
an invitation from Jakob Bodmer (q.v.), the translator of _Paradise
Lost_, to visit him in Zürich. Here Klopstock was at first treated with
every kindness and respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer,
however, was disappointed to find in the young poet of the _Messias_ a
man of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between the two
friends.

At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V. of Denmark, on the
recommendation of his minister Count von Bernstorff (1712-1772), an
invitation to settle at Copenhagen, with an annuity of 400 talers, with
a view to the completion of the _Messias_. The offer was accepted; on
his way to the Danish capital Klopstock met at Hamburg the lady who in
1754 became his wife, Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the "Cidli" of his
odes), an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short;
she died in 1758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief at her
loss finds pathetic expression in the 15th canto of the _Messias_. The
poet subsequently published his wife's writings, _Hinterlassene Werke
von Margareta Klopstock_ (1759), which give evidence of a tender,
sensitive and deeply religious spirit. Klopstock now relapsed into
melancholy; new ideas failed him, and his poetry became more and more
vague and unintelligible. He still continued to live and work at
Copenhagen, and next, following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (q.v.),
turned his attention to northern mythology, which he conceived should
replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In 1770, on
the dismissal by King Christian VII. of Count Bernstorff from office, he
retired with the latter to Hamburg, but retained his pension together
with the rank of councillor of legation. Here, in 1773, he issued the
last five cantos of the _Messias_. In the following year he published
his strange scheme for the regeneration of German letters, _Die
Gelehrtenrepublik_ (1774). In 1775 he travelled south, and making the
acquaintance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the
margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title of
_Hofrat_ and a pension from the margrave, which he retained together
with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to Hamburg where he
spent the remainder of his life. His latter years he passed, as had
always been his inclination, in retirement, only occasionally relieved
by association with his most intimate friends, busied with philological
studies, and hardly interesting himself in the new developments of
German literature. The American War of Independence and the Revolution
in France aroused him, however, to enthusiasm. The French Republic sent
him the diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at the terrible
scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of liberty, he returned
it. When 67 years of age he contracted a second marriage with Johanna
Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for
many years had been one of his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg
on the 14th of March 1803, mourned by all Germany, and was buried with
great pomp and ceremony by the side of his first wife in the churchyard
of the village of Ottensen.

  Klopstock's nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and in it his
  deep, noble character found its truest expression. He was less suited
  for epic and dramatic representation; for, wrapt up in himself, a
  stranger to the outer world, without historical culture, and without
  even any interest in the events of his time, he was lacking in the art
  of plastic representation such as a great epic requires. Thus the
  _Messias_, despite the magnificent passages which especially the
  earlier cantos contain, cannot satisfy the demands such a theme must
  necessarily make. The subject matter, the Redemption, presented
  serious difficulties to adequate epic treatment. The Gospel story was
  too scanty, and what might have been imported from without and
  interwoven with it was rejected by the author as profane. He had
  accordingly to resort to Christian mythology; and here again,
  circumscribed by the dogmas of the Church, he was in danger of
  trespassing on the fundamental truths of the Christian faith. The
  personality of Christ could scarcely be treated in an individual form,
  still less could angels and devils--and in the case of God Himself it
  was impossible. The result was that, despite the groundwork--the
  Gospels, the _Acts of the Apostles_, the _Revelation of St John_, and
  the model ready to hand in Milton's _Paradise Lost_--material elements
  are largely wanting and the actors in the poem, Divine and human, lack
  plastic form. That the poem took twenty-five years to complete could
  not but be detrimental to its unity of design; the original enthusiasm
  was not sustained until the end, and the earlier cantos are far
  superior to the later. Thus the intense public interest the work
  aroused in its commencement had almost vanished before its completion.
  It was translated into seventeen languages and led to numerous
  imitations. In his odes Klopstock had more scope for his peculiar
  talent. Among the best are _An Fanny_; _Der Zürchersee_; _Die tote
  Klarissa_; _An Cidli_; _Die beiden Musen_; _Der Rheinwein_; _Die
  frühen Gräber_; _Mein Vaterland_. His religious odes mostly take the
  form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is _Die Frühlingsfeier_.
  His dramas, in some of which, notably _Hermanns Schlacht_ (1769) and
  _Hermann und die Fürsten_ (1784), he celebrated the deeds of the
  ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, _Der Tod Adams_ (1757)
  and _Salomo_ (1764), took his materials from the Old Testament, are
  essentially lyrical in character and deficient in action. In addition
  to _Die Gelehrtenrepublik_, he was also the author of _Fragmente über
  Sprache und Dichtkunst_ (1779) and _Grammatische Gespräche_ (1794),
  works in which he made important contributions to philology and to the
  history of German poetry.

  Klopstock's _Werke_ first appeared in seven quarto volumes
  (1798-1809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo
  volumes was published (1798-1817), to which six additional volumes
  were added in 1830. More recent editions were published in 1844-1845,
  1854-1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxberger), 1884 (ed. by R. Hamel) and 1893
  (a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of the _Odes_
  was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a commentary on
  these by H. Düntzer (1860; 2nd ed., 1878). For Klopstock's
  correspondence see K. Schmidt, _Klopstock und seine Freunde_ (1810);
  C. A. H. Clodius, _Klopstocks Nachlass_ (1821); J. M. Lappenberg,
  _Briefe von und an Klopstock_ (1867). Cf. further K. F. Cramer,
  _Klopstock, er und über ihn_ (1780-1792); J. G. Gruber, _Klopstocks
  Leben_ (1832); R. Hamel, _Klopstock-Studien_ (1879-1880); F. Muncker,
  _F. G. Klopstock_, the most authoritative biography, (1888); E.
  Bailly, _Étude sur la vie et les oeuvres de Klopstock_ (Paris, 1888).




KLOSTERNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 5-½ m. N.W. of
Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,595. It is situated on the right bank of
the Danube, at the foot of the Kahlenberg, and is divided by a small
stream into an upper and a lower town. As an important pioneer station
Klosterneuburg has various military buildings and stores, and among the
schools it possesses an academy of wine and fruit cultivation.

On a hill rising directly from the banks of the Danube stand the
magnificent buildings (erected 1730-1834) of the Augustine canonry,
founded in 1106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. This foundation is the
oldest and richest of the kind in Austria; it owns much of the land
upon which the north-western suburbs of Vienna stand. Among the points
of interest within it are the old chapel of 1318, with Leopold's tomb
and the altar of Verdun, dating from the 12th century, the treasury and
relic-chamber, the library with 30,000 volumes and many MSS., the
picture gallery, the collection of coins, the theological hall, and the
wine-cellar, containing an immense tun like that at Heidelberg. The
inhabitants of Klosterneuburg are mainly occupied in making wine, of
excellent quality. There is a large cement factory outside the town. In
Roman times the castle of Citium stood in the region of Klosterneuburg.
The town was founded by Charlemagne, and received its charter as a town
in 1298.




KLOTZ, REINHOLD (1807-1870), German classical scholar, was born near
Chemnitz in Saxony on the 13th of March 1807. In 1849 he was appointed
professor in the university of Leipzig in succession to Gottfried
Hermann, and held this post till his death on the 10th of August 1870.
Klotz was a man of unwearied industry, and devoted special attention to
Latin literature.

  He was the author of editions of several classical authors, of which
  the most important were: the complete works of Cicero (2nd ed.,
  1869-1874); Clement of Alexandria (1831-1834); Euripides (1841-1867),
  in continuation of Pflugk's edition, but unfinished; Terence
  (1838-1840), with the commentaries of Donatus and Eugraphius. Mention
  should also be made of: _Handwörterbuch der lateinischen Sprache_ (5th
  ed., 1874); _Römische Litteraturgeschichte_ (1847), of which only the
  introductory volume appeared; an edition of the treatise _De Graecae
  linguae particulis_ (1835-1842) of Matthaeus Deverius (Devares), a
  learned Corfiote (c. 1500-1570), and corrector of the Greek MSS. in
  the Vatican; the posthumous _Index Ciceronianus_ (1872) and _Handbuch
  der lateinischen Stilistik_ (1874). From 1831-1855 Klotz was editor of
  the _Neue Jahrbücher für Philologie_ (Leipzig). During the troubled
  times of 1848 and the following years he showed himself a strong
  conservative.

  A memoir by his son Richard will be found in the _Jahrbücher_ for
  1871, pp. 154-163.




KNARESBOROUGH, a market town in the Ripon parliamentary division of the
West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16½ m. W. by N. from York by a branch
of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4979. Its
situation is most picturesque, on the steep left bank of the river Nidd,
which here follows a well-wooded valley, hemmed in by limestone cliffs.
The church of St John the Baptist is Early English, but has numerous
Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a cruciform building
containing several interesting monuments. Knaresborough Castle was
probably founded in 1070 by Serlo de Burgh. Its remains, however, are of
the 14th century, and include a massive keep rising finely from a cliff
above the Nidd. After the battle of Marston Moor it was taken by
Fairfax, and in 1648 it was ordered to be dismantled. To the south of
the castle is St Robert's chapel, an excavation in the rock constructed
into an ecclesiastical edifice in the reign of Richard I. Several of the
excavations in the limestone, which is extensively quarried, are
incorporated in dwelling-houses. A little farther down the river is St
Robert's cave, which is supposed to have been the residence of the
hermit, and in 1744 was the scene of the murder of Daniel Clarke by
Eugene Aram, whose story is told in Lytton's well-known novel. Opposite
the castle is the Dropping Well, the waters of which are impregnated
with lime and have petrifying power, this action causing the curious and
beautiful incrustations formed where the water falls over a slight
cliff. The Knaresborough free grammar school was founded in 1616. There
is a large agricultural trade, and linen and leather manufactures and
the quarries also employ a considerable number of persons.

Knaresborough (_Canardesburg_, _Cnarreburc_, _Cknareburg_), which
belonged to the Crown before the Conquest, formed part of William the
Conqueror's grant to his follower Serlo de Burgh. Being forfeited by his
grandson Eustace FitzJohn in the reign of Stephen, Knaresborough was
granted to Robert de Stuteville, from whose descendants it passed
through marriage to Hugh de Morville, one of the murderers of Thomas
Becket, who with his three accomplices remained in hiding in the castle
for a whole year. During the 13th and 14th centuries the castle and
lordship changed hands very frequently; they were granted successively
to Hubert de Burgh, whose son forfeited them after the battle of
Evesham, to Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died without
issue; to Piers Gaveston, and lastly to John of Gaunt, duke of
Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy of Lancaster. In
1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding the castle of Knaresborough for
Thomas duke of Lancaster against the king, surrendered under conditions
to William de Ros of Hamelak, but before leaving the castle managed to
destroy all the records of the liberties and privileges of the town
which were kept in the castle. In 1368 an inquisition was taken to
ascertain these privileges, and the jurors found that the burgesses held
"all the soil of their borough yielding 7s. 4d. yearly and doing suit at
the king's court." In the reign of Henry VIII. Knaresborough is said by
Leland to be "no great thing and meanely builded but the market there is
quik." During the civil wars Knaresborough was held for some time by the
Royalists, but they were obliged to surrender, and the castle was among
those ordered to be destroyed by parliament in 1646. A market on
Wednesday and a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St
Mark to that of St Andrew are claimed under a charter of Charles II.
confirming earlier charters. Lead ore was found and worked on
Knaresborough Common in the 16th century. From 1555 to 1867 the town
returned two members to parliament, but in the latter year the number
was reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in that of
the West Riding.




KNAVE (O.E. _cnafa_, cognate with Ger. _Knabe_, boy), originally a male
child, a boy (Chaucer, _Canterbury Tales_: "Clerk's Tale," I. 388). Like
Lat. _puer_, the word was early used as a name for any boy or lad
employed as a servant, and so of male servants in general (Chaucer:
"Pardoner's Tale," 1. 204). The current use of the word for a man who is
dishonest and crafty, a rogue, was however an early usage, and is found
in Layamon (c. 1205). In playing-cards the lowest court card of each
suit, the "jack," representing a medieval servant, is called the
"knave." (See also VALET.)




KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON (1744-1834), German poet and translator, was
born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia on the 30th of November
1744. After having studied law for a short while at Halle, he entered
the regiment of the crown prince of Prussia in Potsdam and was attached
to it as officer for ten years. Disappointed in his military career,
owing to the slowness of promotion, he retired in 1774, and accepting
the post of tutor to Prince Konstantin of Weimar, accompanied him and
his elder brother, the hereditary prince, on a tour to Paris. On this
journey he visited Goethe in Frankfort-on-Main, and introduced him to
the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus. This meeting is memorable as
being the immediate cause of Goethe's later intimate connexion with the
Weimar court. After Knebel's return and the premature death of his pupil
he was pensioned, receiving the rank of major. In 1798 he married the
singer Luise von Rudorf, and retired to Ilmenau; but in 1805 he removed
to Jena, where he lived until his death on the 23rd of February 1834.
Knebel's _Sammlung kleiner Gedichte_ (1815), issued anonymously, and
_Distichen_ (1827) contain many graceful sonnets, but it is as a
translator that he is best known. His translation of the elegies of
Propertius, _Elegien des Properz_ (1798), and that of Lucretius' _De
rerum natura_ (2 vols., 1831) are deservedly praised. Since their first
acquaintance Knebel and Goethe were intimate friends, and not the least
interesting of Knebel's writings is his correspondence with the eminent
poet, _Briefwechsel mit Goethe_ (ed. G. E. Guhrauer, 2 vols., 1851).

  Knebel's _Literarischer Nachlass und Briefwechsel_ was edited by K. A.
  Varnhagen von Ense and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; 2nd ed., 1840). See
  Hugo von Knebel-Döberitz, _Karl Ludwig von Knebel_ (1890).




KNEE (O.E. _cnéow_, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger.
_Knie_, Fr. _genou_, Span, _hinojo_, Lat. _genu_, Gr. [Greek: gonu],
Sansk. _janu_), in human anatomy, the articulation of the upper and
lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur and the tibia (see
JOINTS). The word is also used of articulation resembling the knee-joint
in shape or position in other animals; it thus is applied to the carpal
articulation of the fore leg of a horse, answering to the ankle in man,
or to the tarsal articulation or heel of a bird's foot.




KNELLER, SIR GODFREY (1648-1723), a portrait painter whose celebrity
belongs chiefly to England, was born in Lübeck in the duchy of Holstein,
of an ancient family, on the 8th of August 1648. He was at first
intended for the army, and was sent to Leyden to learn mathematics and
fortification. Showing, however, a marked preference for the fine arts,
he studied in the school of Rembrandt, and under Ferdinand Bol in
Amsterdam. In 1672 he removed to Italy, directing his chief attention to
Titian and the Caracci; Carlo Maratta gave him some guidance and
encouragement. In Rome, and more especially in Venice, Kneller earned
considerable reputation by historical paintings as well as portraits. He
next went to Hamburg, painting with still increasing success. In 1674 he
came to England at the invitation of the duke of Monmouth, was
introduced to Charles II., and painted that sovereign, much to his
satisfaction, several times. Charles also sent him to Paris, to take the
portrait of Louis XIV. When Sir Peter Lely died in 1680, Kneller, who
produced in England little or nothing in the historical department,
remained without a rival in the ranks of portrait painting; there was no
native-born competition worth speaking of. Charles appointed him court
painter; and he continued to hold the same post into the days of George
I. Under William III. (1692) he was made a knight, under George I.
(1715) a baronet, and by order of the emperor Leopold I. a knight of the
Roman Empire. Not only his court favour but his general fame likewise
was large: he was lauded by Dryden, Addison, Steele, Prior, Tickell and
Pope. Kneller's gains also were very considerable; aided by habits of
frugality which approached stinginess, he left property yielding an
annual income of £2000. His industry was maintained till the last. His
studio had at first been in Covent Garden, but in his closing years he
lived in Kneller Hall, Twickenham. He died of fever, the date being
generally given as the 7th of November 1723, though some accounts say
1726. He was buried in Twickenham church, and has a monument in
Westminster Abbey. An elder brother, John Zachary Kneller, an ornamental
painter, had accompanied Godfrey to England, and had died in 1702. The
style of Sir Godfrey Kneller as a portrait painter represented the
decline of that art as practised by Vandyck; Lely marks the first grade
of descent, and Kneller the second. His works have much freedom, and are
well drawn and coloured; but they are mostly slight in manner, and to a
great extent monotonous, this arising partly from the habit which he had
of lengthening the oval of all his heads. The colouring may be called
brilliant rather than true. He indulged much in the common-places of
allegory; and, though he had a quality of dignified elegance not
unallied with simplicity, genuine simple nature is seldom to be traced
in his works. His fame has greatly declined, and could not but do so
after the advent of Reynolds. Among Kneller's principal paintings are
the "Forty-three Celebrities of the Kit-Cat Club," and the "Ten Beauties
of the Court of William III.," now at Hampton Court; these were painted
by order of the queen; they match, but match unequally, the "Beauties of
the Court of Charles II.," painted by Lely. He executed altogether the
likenesses of ten sovereigns, and fourteen of his works appear in the
National Portrait Gallery. It is said that Kneller's own favourite
performance was the portrait of the "Converted Chinese" in Windsor
Castle. His later works are confined almost entirely to England, not
more than two or three specimens having gone abroad after he had settled
here.     (W. M. R.)




KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN (c. 1650-c. 1720), Dutch colonist of New
Netherland (New York), was a native of Wyhe (Wie), Overyssel, Holland.
Before 1683 he settled near what is now Albany, New York, and there in
1704 he bought through Harme Gansevoort one-fourth of the land in
Dutchess county near Red Hook, which had been patented in 1688 to Peter
Schuyler, who in 1722 deeded seven (of thirteen) lots in the upper
fourth of his patent to the seven children of Knickerbocker. The eldest
of these children, Johannes Harmensen, received from the common council
of the city of Albany a grant of 50 acres of meadow and 10 acres of
upland on the south side of Schaghticoke Creek. This Schaghticoke estate
was held by Johannes Harmensen's son Johannes (1723-1802), a colonel in
the Continental Army in the War of Independence, and by his son Harmen
(1779-1855), a lawyer, a federalist representative in Congress in
1809-1811, a member of the New York Assembly in 1816, and a famous
gentleman of the old school, who for his courtly hospitality in his
manor was called "the prince of Schaghticoke" and whose name was
borrowed by Washington Irving for use in his (Diedrich) _Knickerbocker's
History of New York_ (1809). Largely owing to this book, the name
"Knickerbockers" has passed into current use as a designation of the
early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants. The son of
Johannes, David Buel Knickerbacker (1833-1894), who returned to the
earlier spelling of the family name, graduated at Trinity College in
1853 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1856, was a rector for
many years at Minneapolis, Minnesota, and in 1883 was consecrated
Protestant Episcopal bishop of Indiana.

  See the series of articles by W. B. Van Alstyne on "The Knickerbocker
  Family," beginning in vol. xxix., No. 1 (Jan. 1908) of the _New York
  Genealogical and Biographical Record_.




KNIFE (O.E. _cníf_, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic
languages, cf. Du. _knijf_, Ger. _Kneif_, a shoemaker's knife, Swed.
_knif_; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the
root of "nip," formerly "knip"; Fr. _canif_ is also of Teutonic origin),
a small cutting instrument, with the blade either fixed to the handle or
fastened with a hinge so as to clasp into the handle (see CUTLERY). For
the knives chipped from flint by prehistoric man see ARCHAEOLOGY and
FLINT IMPLEMENTS.




KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON (1752-1796), German author,
was born on the family estate of Bredenbeck near Hanover on the 16th of
October 1752. After studying law at Göttingen he was attached
successively to the courts of Hesse-Cassel and Weimar as
gentleman-in-waiting. Retiring from court service in 1777, he lived a
private life with his family in Frankfort-on-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg and
Hanover until 1791, when he was appointed _Oberhauptmann_ (civil
administrator) in Bremen, where he died on the 6th of May 1796. Knigge,
under the name "Philo," was one of the most active members of the
_Illuminati_, a mutual moral and intellectual improvement society
founded by Adam Weishaupt (1748-1830) at Ingolstadt, and which later
became affiliated to the Freemasons. Knigge is known as the author of
several novels, among which _Der Roman meines Lebens_ (1781-1787; new
ed., 1805) and _Die Reise nach Braunschweig_ (1792), the latter a rather
coarsely comic story, are best remembered. His chief literary
achievement was, however, _Über den Umgang mit Menschen_ (1788), in
which he lays down rules to be observed for a peaceful, happy and useful
life; it has been often reprinted.

  Knigge's _Schriften_ were published in 12 volumes (1804-1806). See K.
  Goedeke, _Adolf, Freiherr von Knigge_ (1844); and H. Klencke, _Aus
  einer alten Kiste_ (_Briefe, Handschriften und Dokumente aus dem
  Nachlasse Knigges_) (1853).




KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873), English publisher and author, the son of a
bookseller and printer at Windsor, was born on the 15th of March 1791.
He was apprenticed to his father, but on the completion of his
indentures he took up journalism and interested himself in several
newspaper speculations. In 1823, in conjunction with friends he had made
as publisher (1820-1821) of _The Etonian_, he started _Knight's
Quarterly Magazine_, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge and
Macaulay contributed. The venture was brought to a close with its sixth
number, but it initiated for Knight a career as publisher and author
which extended over forty years. In 1827 Knight was compelled to give up
his publishing business, and became the superintendent of the
publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for
which he projected and edited _The British Almanack and Companion_,
begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business on his own account with the
publication of _The Library of Entertaining Knowledge_, writing several
volumes of the series himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started _The Penny
Magazine_ and _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, both of which had a large
circulation. _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, however, on account of the heavy
excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a great pecuniary sacrifice.
Besides many illustrated editions of standard works, including in 1842
_The Pictorial Shakespeare_, which had appeared in parts (1838-1841),
Knight published a variety of illustrated works, such as _Old England_
and _The Land we Live in_. He also undertook the series known as _Weekly
Volumes_. He himself contributed the first volume, a biography of
William Caxton. Many famous books, Miss Martineau's _Tales_, Mrs
Jameson's _Early Italian Painters_ and G. H. Lewes's _Biographical
History of Philosophy_, appeared for the first time in this series. In
1853 he became editor of _The English Cyclopaedia_, which was
practically only a revision of _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, and at about the
same time he began his _Popular History of England_ (8 vols.,
1856-1862). In 1864 he withdrew from the business of publisher, but he
continued to write nearly to the close of his long life, publishing _The
Shadows of the Old Booksellers_ (1865), an autobiography under the title
_Passages of a Working Life during Half a Century_ (2 vols., 1864-1865),
and an historical novel, _Begg'd at Court_ (1867). He died at
Addlestone, Surrey, on the 9th of March 1873.

  See A. A. Clowes, _Knight, a Sketch_ (1892); and F. Espinasse, in _The
  Critic_ (May 1860).




KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845-   ), American artist, was born at
Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the École des
Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked in the private studio
of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in France, having a house and studio
at Poissy on the Seine. He painted peasant women out of doors with great
popular success. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the Legion
of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was made a knight of
the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria, Munich, 1893, receiving the
gold medal of honour from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts,
Philadelphia, 1893. His son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape
painter.




KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843-1908), English landscape painter, was born at
Sevenoaks, Kent; he started as a schoolmaster, but painting was his
hobby, and he subsequently devoted himself to it. In 1861 he had his
first picture hung at the Academy. He was essentially an open-air
painter, constantly going on sketching tours in the most picturesque
spots of England, and all his pictures were painted out of doors. He
died at Dover on the 2nd of January 1908. The Chantrey trustees bought
his "December's Bareness Everywhere" for the nation in the following
month. Most of his best pictures had passed into the collection of Mr
Iceton of Putney (including "White Walls of Old England" and "Hereford
Cathedral"), Mr Walter Briggs of Burley in Wharfedale (especially
"Pinner"), and Mr S. M. Phillips of Wrotham (especially two
water-colours of Richmond Bridge).




KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY. These two words, which are nearly but not quite
synonymous, designate a single subject of inquiry, which presents itself
under three different although connected and in a measure intermingled
aspects. It may be regarded in the first place as a mode or variety of
feudal tenure, in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity,
and in the third place as a scheme of manners or social arrangements.
The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings FEUDALISM and
KNIGHT SERVICE: we are concerned here only with the second and third.
For the more important religious as distinguished from the military
orders of knighthood or chivalry the reader is referred to the headings
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; TEUTONIC KNIGHTS; and TEMPLARS.

"The growth of knighthood" (writes Stubbs) "is a subject on which the
greatest obscurity prevails": and, though J. H. Round has done much to
explain the introduction of the system into England,[1] its actual
origin on the continent of Europe is still obscure in many of its most
important details.

The words _knight_ and _knighthood_ are merely the modern forms of the
Anglo-Saxon or Old English _cniht_ and _cnihthád_. Of these the primary
signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of the second that
period of life which intervenes between childhood and manhood. But some
time before the middle of the 12th century they had acquired the meaning
they still retain of the French _chevalier_ and _chevalerie_. In a
secondary sense _cniht_ meant a servant or attendant answering to the
German _Knecht_, and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple is described
as a _leorning cniht_. In a tertiary sense the word appears to have been
occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin _miles_--usually
translated by _thegn_--which in the earlier middle ages was used as the
designation of the domestic as well as of the martial officers or
retainers of sovereigns and princes or great personages.[2] Sharon
Turner suggests that _cniht_ from meaning an attendant simply may have
come to mean more especially a military attendant, and that in this
sense it may have gradually superseded the word thegn.[3] But the word
thegn itself, that is, when it was used as the description of an
attendant of the king, appears to have meant more especially a military
attendant. As Stubbs says "the thegn seems to be primarily the warrior
gesith"--the gesithas forming the chosen band of companions (_comites_)
of the German chiefs (_principes_) noticed by Tacitus--"he is probably
the gesith who had a particular military duty in his master's service";
and he adds that from the reign of Athelstan "the gesith is lost sight
of except very occasionally, the more important class having become
thegns, and the lesser sort sinking into the rank of mere servants of
the king."[4] It is pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could
never have superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military
attendant, at all events of the king. But besides the king, the
ealdormen, bishops and king's thegns themselves had their thegns, and to
these it is more than probable that the name of _cniht_ was applied.

Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a crowd of retainers and
dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there is evidence enough to
show that among them were some called _cnihtas_ who were not always the
humblest or least considerable of their number.[5] The testimony of
Domesday also establishes the existence in the reign of Edward the
Confessor of what Stubbs describes as a "large class" of landholders who
had commended themselves to some lord, and he regards it as doubtful
whether their tenure had not already assumed a really feudal character.
But in any event it is manifest that their condition was in many
respects similar to that of a vast number of unquestionably feudal and
military tenants who made their appearance after the Norman Conquest. If
consequently the former were called _cnihtas_ under the Anglo-Saxon
régime, it seems sufficiently probable that the appellation should have
been continued to the latter--practically their successors--under the
Anglo-Norman régime. And if the designation of knights was first applied
to the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons--who although
they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services to the
king--the extension of that designation to the whole body of military
tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged process.
Assuming, however, that _knight_ was originally used to describe the
military tenant of a noble person, as _cniht_ had sometimes been used to
describe the thegn of a noble person, it would, to begin with, have
defined rather his social status than the nature of his services. But
those whom the English called _knights_ the Normans called _chevaliers_,
by which term the nature of their services was defined, while their
social status was left out of consideration. And at first _chevalier_ in
its general and honorary signification seems to have been rendered not
by _knight_ but by _rider_, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, wherein it is recorded under the year 1085 that William the
Conqueror "dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere."[6] But, as E. A. Freeman
says, "no such title is heard of in the earlier days of England. The
thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself, fought on foot; the horse might
bear him to the field, but when the fighting itself came he stood on
his native earth to receive the onslaught of her enemies."[7] In this
perhaps we may behold one of the most ancient of British insular
prejudices, for on the Continent the importance of cavalry in warfare
was already abundantly understood. It was by means of their horsemen
that the Austrasian Franks established their superiority over their
neighbours, and in time created the Western Empire anew, while from the
word _caballarius_, which occurs in the _Capitularies_ in the reign of
Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the Romance languages.[8]
In Germany the chevalier was called _Ritter_, but neither _rider_ nor
_chevalier_ prevailed against _knight_ in England. And it was long after
_knighthood_ had acquired its present meaning with us that _chivalry_
was incorporated into our language. It may be remarked too in passing
that in official Latin, not only in England but all over Europe, the
word _miles_ held its own against both _eques_ and _caballarius_.


  Origin of Medieval Knighthood.

Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed in the
middle ages--implying as it did a formal assumption of and initiation
into the profession of arms--nothing beyond more or less probable
conjecture is possible. The medieval knights had nothing to do in the
way of derivation with the "equites" of Rome, the knights of King
Arthur's Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne. But there are
grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of chivalry are to be
detected in early Teutonic customs, and that they may have made some
advance among the Franks of Gaul. We know from Tacitus that the German
tribes in his day were wont to celebrate the admission of their young
men into the ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and
ceremony. The people of the district to which the candidate belonged
were called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be
conferred upon him were inquired into; and, if he were deemed fitted and
worthy to receive them, his chief, his father, or one of his near
kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance. Again, among the Franks
we find Charlemagne girding his son Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious
girding his son Charles the Bald with the sword, when they arrived at
manhood.[9] It seems certain here that some ceremony was observed which
was deemed worthy of record not for its novelty, but as a thing of
recognized importance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony
extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and emperors.
But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied in the first
instance to the mounted warriors who formed the most formidable portion
of the warlike array of the Franks. It was among the Franks indeed, and
possibly through their experiences in war with the Saracens, that
cavalry first acquired the pre-eminent place which it long maintained in
every European country. In early society, where the army is not a paid
force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist of the
noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman observes,[10]
will be the same. Since then we discover in the _Capitularies_ of
Charlemagne actual mention of "caballarii" as a class of warriors, it
may reasonably be concluded that formal investiture with arms applied to
the "caballarii" if it was a usage extending beyond the sovereign and
his heir-apparent. "But," as Hallam says, "he who fought on horseback
and had been invested with peculiar arms in a solemn manner wanted
nothing more to render him a knight;" and so he concludes, in view of
the verbal identity of "chevalier" and "caballarius," that "we may refer
chivalry in a general sense to the age of Charlemagne."[11] Yet, if the
"caballarii" of the _Capitularies_ are really the precursors of the
later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin name for a knight
is "miles," although "caballarius" became in various forms the
vernacular designation.


  Knighthood in England.

Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of Croyland is
really a fiction of the 13th or 14th century, the knighting of Heward or
Hereward by Brand, abbot of Burgh (now Peterborough), was accepted from
Selden to Hallam as an historical fact, and knighthood was supposed, not
only to have been known among the Anglo-Saxons, but to have had a
distinctively religious character which was contemned by the Norman
invaders. The genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to
support this view. When William of Malmesbury describes the knighting of
Athelstan by his grandfather Alfred the Great, that is, his investiture
"with a purple garment set with gems and a Saxon sword with a golden
sheath," there is no hint of any religious observance. In spite of the
silence of our records, Dr Stubbs thinks that kings so well acquainted
with foreign usages as Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could
hardly have failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry
then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is supported in
this opinion by the circumstance that it is nowhere mentioned as a
Norman innovation. Yet the fact that Harold received knighthood from
William of Normandy makes it clear either that Harold was not yet a
knight, which in the case of so tried a warrior would imply that
"dubbing to knighthood" was not yet known in England even under Edward
the Confessor, or, as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the 11th
century the custom had grown in Normandy into "something of a more
special meaning" than it bore in England.

Regarded as a method of military organization, the feudal system of
tenures was always far better adapted to the purposes of defensive than
of offensive warfare. Against invasion it furnished a permanent
provision both in men-at-arms and strongholds; nor was it unsuited for
the campaigns of neighbouring counts and barons which lasted for only a
few weeks, and extended over only a few leagues. But when kings and
kingdoms were in conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions became
necessary, it was speedily discovered that the unassisted resources of
feudalism were altogether inadequate. It became therefore the manifest
interest of both parties that personal services should be commuted into
pecuniary payments. Then there grew up all over Europe a system of
fining the knights who failed to respond to the sovereign's call or to
stay their full time in the field; and in England this fine developed,
from the reign of Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a regular
war-tax called _escuage_ or _scutage_ (q.v.). In this way funds for war
were placed at the free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the
feudatories and their retainers still formed the most considerable
portion of their armies, the conditions under which they served were
altogether changed. Their military service was now far more the result
of special agreement. In the reign of Edward I., whose warlike
enterprises after he was king were confined within the four seas, this
alteration does not seem to have proceeded very far, and Scotland and
Wales were subjugated by what was in the main, if not exclusively, a
feudal militia raised as of old by writ to the earls and barons and the
sheriffs.[12] But the armies of Edward III., Henry V. and Henry VI.
during the century of intermittent warfare between England and France
were recruited and sustained to a very great extent on the principle of
contract.[13] On the Continent the systematic employment of mercenaries
was both an early and a common practice.


  The Crusades.

Besides consideration for the mutual convenience of sovereigns and their
feudatories, there were other causes which materially contributed
towards bringing about those changes in the military system of Europe
which were finally accomplished in the 13th and 14th centuries. During
the Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights and
obligations had no place, and it was seen that the volunteers who
flocked to the standards of the various commanders were not less but
even more efficient in the field than the vassals they had hitherto been
accustomed to lead. It was thus established that pay, the love of
enterprise and the prospect of plunder--if we leave zeal for the sacred
cause which they had espoused for the moment out of sight--were quite as
useful for the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as
the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty. Moreover,
the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers of an expedition
to Palestine were seasoned and experienced although frequently
impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to hire themselves to the
highest bidder, and well worth the wages they received. Again, it was
owing to the crusades that the church took the profession of arms under
her peculiar protection, and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation
into it assumed a religious as well as a martial character.


  Knighthood independent of Feudalism.

To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits of
knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they did not
possess a sufficient property qualification--of which perhaps they had
denuded themselves in order to their equipment for the Holy War. And
thus the conception of knighthood as of something distinct from
feudalism both as a social condition and a personal dignity arose and
rapidly gained ground. It was then that the analogy was first detected
between the order of knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an
actual union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the establishment
of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars and the Knights
Hospitallers were the most eminent examples. As comprehensive in their
polity as the Benedictines or Franciscans, they gathered their members
from, and soon scattered their possessions over, every country in
Europe. And in their indifference to the distinctions of race and
nationality they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had
become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognized, like the
church, as a universal institution which knit together the whole warrior
caste of Christendom into one great fraternity irrespective alike of
feudal subordination and territorial boundaries. Somewhat later the
adoption of hereditary surnames and armorial bearings marked the
existence of a large and noble class who either from the subdivision of
fiefs or from the effects of the custom of primogeniture were very
insufficiently provided for. To them only two callings were generally
open, that of the churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a
rule offered greater attractions than the former in an era of much
licence and little learning. Hence the favourite expedient for men of
birth, although not of fortune, was to attach themselves to some prince
or magnate in whose military service they were sure of an adequate
maintenance and might hope for even a rich reward in the shape of booty
or of ransom.[14] It is probably to this period and these circumstances
that we must look for at all events the rudimentary beginnings of the
military as well as the religious orders of chivalry. Of the existence
of any regularly constituted companionships of the first kind there is
no trustworthy evidence until between two and three centuries after
fraternities of the second kind had been organized. Soon after the
greater crusading societies had been formed similar orders, such as
those of St James of Compostella, Calatrava and Alcantara, were
established to fight the Moors in Spain instead of the Saracens in the
Holy Land. But the members of these orders were not less monks than
knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the cloister, and they
were bound by the ecclesiastical vows of celibacy, poverty and
obedience. From a very early stage in the development of chivalry,
however, we meet with the singular institution of brotherhood in arms;
and from it the ultimate origin if not of the religious fraternities at
any rate of the military companionships is usually derived.[15] By this
institution a relation was created between two or more monks by
voluntary agreement, which was regarded as of far more intimacy and
stringency than any which the mere accident of consanguinity implied.
Brothers in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the
affections of their "lady-loves." They shared in every danger and in
every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honour of another
as promptly and zealously as his own. The plot of the medieval romance
of _Amis and Amiles_ is built entirely on such a brotherhood. Their
engagements usually lasted through life, but sometimes only for a
specified period or during the continuance of specified circumstances,
and they were always ratified by oath, occasionally reduced to writing
in the shape of a solemn bond and often sanctified by their reception of
the Eucharist together. Romance and tradition speak of strange
rites--the mingling and even the drinking of blood--as having in remote
and rude ages marked the inception of these martial and fraternal
associations.[16] But in later and less barbarous times they were
generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal and reciprocal exchange
of weapons and armour. In warfare it was customary for knights who were
thus allied to appear similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or
cognisances, to the end that their enemies might not know with which of
them they were in conflict, and that their friends might be unable to
accord more applause to one than to the other for his prowess in the
field. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow up bodies
of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity, although free
from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or livery, and naming
themselves after some special symbol or some patron saint of their
adoption. And such bodies placed under the command of a sovereign or
grand master, regulated by statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical
endowments would have been precisely what in after times such orders as
the Garter in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in
Savoy and the St Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually were.[17]


  Grades of Knighthood.

During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat earlier and
later, the general arrangements of a European army were always and
everywhere pretty much the same.[18] Under the sovereign the constable
and the marshal or marshals held the chief commands, their authority
being partly joint and partly several. Attendant on them were the
heralds, who were the officers of their military court, wherein offences
committed in the camp and field were tried and adjudged, and among whose
duties it was to carry orders and messages, to deliver challenges and
call truces, and to identify and number the wounded and the slain. The
main divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other
principal standards, smaller divisions under the banners of some of the
greater nobility or of knights banneret, and smaller divisions still
under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction from knights banneret
they came to be called, knights bachelors. All knights whether bachelors
or bannerets were escorted by their squires. But the banner of the
banneret always implied a more or less extensive command, while every
knight was entitled to bear a pennon and every squire a pencel. All
three flags were of such a size as to be conveniently attached to and
carried on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion of
the bearings of their owners. But while the banner was square the
pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was either pointed or
forked at its extremity, and the pencel, which was considerably less
than the others, always terminated in a single tail or streamer.[19]

If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination from another
point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into four than
into three stages, of which two may be called provisional and two final.
The bachelor and the banneret were both equally knights, only the one
was of greater distinction and authority than the other. In like manner
the squire and the page were both in training for knighthood, but the
first had advanced further in the process than the second. It is true
that the squire was a combatant while the page was not, and that many
squires voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the
insufficiency of their fortunes to support the costs and charges of
knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous education the
successive conditions of page and squire were passed through in boyhood
and youth, and the condition of knighthood was reached in early manhood.
Every feudal court and castle was in fact a school of chivalry, and
although princes and great personages were rarely actually pages or
squires, the moral and physical discipline through which they passed was
not in any important particular different from that to which less
exalted candidates for knighthood were subjected.[20] The page, or, as
he was more anciently and more correctly called, the "valet" or
"damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he was between
seven and eight years old, and the initial phase continued for seven or
eight years longer. He acted as the constant personal attendant of both
his master and mistress. He waited on them in their hall and accompanied
them in the chase, served the lady in her bower and followed the lord to
the camp.[21] From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he
learnt the rudiments of religion, of rectitude and of love,[22] from his
master and his squires the elements of military exercise, to cast a
spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured tread
of a soldier; and from his master and his huntsmen and falconers the
"mysteries of the woods and rivers," or in other words the rules and
practices of hunting and hawking. When he was between fifteen and
sixteen he became a squire. But no sudden or great alteration was made
in his mode of life. He continued to wait at dinner with the pages,
although in a manner more dignified according to the notions of the age.
He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered the first
or principal cup of wine to his master and his guests, and carried to
them the basin, ewer or napkin when they washed their hands before and
after meat. He assisted in clearing the hall for dancing or minstrelsy,
and laid the tables for chess or draughts, and he also shared in the
pastimes for which he had made preparation. He brought his master the
"vin de coucher" at night, and made his early refection ready for him in
the morning. But his military exercises and athletic sports occupied an
always increasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself to ride the
"great horse," to tilt at the quintain, to wield the sword and
battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and to bear the weight
and overcome the embarrassments of armour. He inured himself to the
vicissitudes of heat and cold, and voluntarily suffered the pains or
inconveniences of hunger and thirst, fatigue and sleeplessness. It was
then too that he chose his "lady-love," whom he was expected to regard
with an adoration at once earnest, respectful, and the more meritorious
if concealed. And when it was considered that he had made sufficient
advancement in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the
priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to
him.[23] Afterwards he either remained with his early master, relegating
most of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he entered the
service of some valiant and adventurous lord or knight of his own
selection. He now became a "squire of the body," and truly an "armiger"
or "scutifer," for he bore the shield and armour of his leader to the
field, and, what was a task of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and
secured him in his panoply of war before assisting him to mount his
courser or charger. It was his function also to display and guard in
battle the banner of the baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight
he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to supply
him with another or his own horse if his was disabled or killed, to
receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to fight by his side if he
was unequally matched, to rescue him if captured, to bear him to a place
of safety if wounded, and to bury him honourably when dead. And after he
had worthily and bravely, borne himself for six or seven years as a
squire, the time came when it was fitting that he should be made a
knight. This, at least, was the current theory; but it is specially
dangerous in medieval history to assume too much correspondence between
theory and fact. In many castles, and perhaps in most, the discipline
followed simply a natural and unwritten code of "fagging" and seniority,
as in public schools or on board men-of-war some hundred years or so
ago.


  Modes of conferring Knighthood.

Two modes of conferring knighthood appear to have prevailed from a very
early period in all countries where chivalry was known. In both of them
the essential portion seems to have been the accolade or stroke of the
sword. But while in the one the accolade constituted the whole or nearly
the whole of the ceremony, in the other it was surrounded with many
additional observances. The former and simpler of these modes was
naturally that used in war: the candidate knelt before "the chief of the
army or some valiant knight," who struck him thrice with the flat of a
sword, pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation which
varied at the creator's will.[24]

In this form a number of knights were made before and after almost every
battle between the 11th and the 16th centuries, and its advantages on
the score of both convenience and economy gradually led to its general
adoption both in time of peace and time of war. On extraordinary
occasions indeed the more elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But
recourse was had to it so rarely that in England about the beginning of
the 15th century it came to be exclusively appropriated to a special
king of knighthood. When Segar, garter king of arms, wrote in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, this had been accomplished with such completeness
that he does not even mention that there were two ways of creating
knights bachelors. "He that is to be made a knight," he says, "is
striken by the prince with a sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the
prince saying, 'Soys Chevalier,' and in times past was added 'Saint
George.' And when the knight rises the prince sayeth 'Avencez.' This is
the manner of dubbing knights at this present, and that term 'dubbing'
was the old term in this point, not 'creating.' This sort of knights are
by the heralds called knights bachelors." In our days when a knight is
personally made he kneels before the sovereign, who lays a sword drawn,
ordinarily the sword of state, on either of his shoulders and says,
"Rise," calling him by his Christian name with the addition of "Sir"
before it.

Very different were the solemnities which attended the creation of a
knight when the complete procedure was observed. "The ceremonies and
circumstances at the giving this dignity," says Selden, "in the elder
time were of two kinds especially, which we may call courtly and sacred.
The courtly were the feasts held at the creation, giving of robes, arms,
spurs and the like. The sacred were the holy devotions and what else was
used in the church at or before the receiving of the dignity."[25] But
the leading authority on the subject is an ancient tract written in
French, which will be found at length either in the original or
translated by Segar, Dugdale, Byshe and Nicolas, among other English
writers.[26] Daniel explains his reasons for transcribing it, "tant à
cause du detail que de la naïveté du stile et encore plus de la
bisarrerie des ceremonies que se faisoient pourtant alors fort
sérieusement," while he adds that these ceremonies were essentially
identical in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy.

  The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by the
  placing of the candidate under the care of two "esquires of honour
  grave and well seen in courtship and nurture and also in the feats of
  chivalry," who were to be "governors in all things relating to him."
  Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut his
  hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber, where a
  bath was prepared hung within and without with linen and covered with
  rich cloths, into which after they had undressed him he entered. While
  he was in the bath two "ancient and grave knights" attended him "to
  inform, instruct and counsel him touching the order and feats of
  chivalry," and when they had fulfilled their mission they poured some
  of the water of the bath over his shoulders, signing the left shoulder
  with the cross, and retired. He was then taken from the bath and put
  into a plain bed without hangings, in which he remained until his body
  was dry, when the two esquires put on him a white shirt and over that
  "a robe of russet with long sleeves having a hood thereto like unto
  that of an hermit." Then the "two ancient and grave knights" returned
  and led him to the chapel, the esquires going before them "sporting
  and dancing" with "the minstrels making melody." And when they had
  been served with wines and spices they went away leaving only the
  candidate, the esquires, "the priest, the chandler and the watch," who
  kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, the candidate passing the night
  "bestowing himself in orisons and prayers." At daybreak he confessed
  to the priest, heard matins, and communicated in the mass, offering a
  taper and a piece of money stuck in it as near the lighted end as
  possible, the first "to the honour of God" and the second "to the
  honour of the person that makes him a knight." Afterwards he was taken
  back to his chamber, and remained in bed until the knights, esquires
  and minstrels went to him and aroused him. The knights then dressed
  him in distinctive garments, and they then mounted their horses and
  rode to the hall where the candidate was to receive knighthood; his
  future squire was to ride before him bareheaded bearing his sword by
  the point in its scabbard with his spurs hanging from its hilt. And
  when everything was prepared the prince or subject who was to knight
  him came into the hall, and, the candidate's sword and spurs having
  been presented to him, he delivered the right spur to the "most noble
  and gentle" knight present, and directed him to fasten it on the
  candidate's right heel, which he kneeling on one knee and putting the
  candidate's right foot on his knee accordingly did, signing the
  candidate's knee with the cross, and in like manner by another "noble
  and gentle" knight the left spur was fastened to his left heel. And
  then he who was to create the knight took the sword and girded him
  with it, and then embracing him he lifted his right hand and smote him
  on the neck or shoulder, saying, "Be thou a good knight," and kissed
  him. When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music,
  and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar promised to
  support and defend the church, and ungirding his sword offered it on
  the altar. And as he came out from the chapel the master cook awaited
  him at the door and claimed his spurs as his fee, and said, "If you
  do anything contrary to the order of chivalry (which God forbid), I
  shall hack the spurs from your heels."[27]

The full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have been so
largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing or giving the
accolade alone that in England it became at last restricted to such
knights as were made at coronations and some other occasions of state.
And to them the particular name of Knights of the Bath was assigned,
while knights made in the ordinary way were called in distinction from
them knights of the sword, as they were also called knights bachelors in
distinction from knights banneret.[28] It is usually supposed that the
first creation of knights of the Bath under that designation was at the
coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of the Bath as a
companionship or capitular body was instituted the last creation of them
was at the coronation of Charles II. But all knights were also knights
of the spur or "equites aurati," because their spurs were golden or
gilt,--the spurs of squires being of silver or white metal,--and these
became their peculiar badge in popular estimation and proverbial speech.
In the form of their solemn inauguration too, as we have noticed, the
spurs together with the sword were always employed as the leading and
most characteristic ensigns of knighthood.[29]

With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been entertained
as to both the nature of their dignity and the qualifications they were
required to possess for receiving it at different periods and in
different countries. On the Continent the distinction which is commonly
but incorrectly made between the nobility and the gentry has never
arisen, and it was unknown here while chivalry existed and heraldry was
understood. Here, as elsewhere in the old time, a nobleman and a
gentleman meant the same thing, namely, a man who under certain
conditions of descent was entitled to armorial bearings. Hence Du Cange
divides the medieval nobility of France and Spain into three classes:
first, barons or ricos hombres; secondly, chevaliers or caballeros; and
thirdly, écuyers or infanzons; and to the first, who with their several
special titles constituted the greater nobility of either country, he
limits the designation of banneret and the right of leading their
followers to war under a banner, otherwise a "drapeau quarré" or square
flag.[30] Selden shows especially from the parliament rolls that the
term banneret has been occasionally employed in England as equivalent to
baron.[31] In Scotland, even as late as the reign of James VI., lords of
parliament were always created bannerets as well as barons at their
investiture, "part of the ceremony consisting in the display of a
banner, and such 'barones majores' were thereby entitled to the
privilege of having one borne by a retainer before them to the field of
a quadrilateral form."[32] In Scotland, too, lords of parliament and
bannerets were also called bannerents, banrents or baronets, and in
England banneret was often corrupted to baronet. "Even in a patent
passed to Sir Ralph Fane, knight under Edward VI., he is called
'baronettus' for 'bannerettus.'"[33] In this manner it is not improbable
that the title of baronet may have been suggested to the advisers of
James I. when the order of Baronets was originally created by him, for
it was a question whether the recipients of the new dignity should be
designated by that or some other name.[34] But there is no doubt that as
previously used it was merely a corrupt synonym for banneret, and not
the name of any separate dignity. On the Continent, however, there are
several recorded examples of bannerets who had an hereditary claim to
that honour and its attendant privileges on the ground of the nature of
their feudal tenure.[35] And generally, at any rate to commence with, it
seems probable that bannerets were in every country merely the more
important class of feudatories, the "ricos hombres" in contrast to the
knights bachelors, who in France in the time of St Louis were known as
"pauvres hommes." In England all the barons or greater nobility were
entitled to bear banners, and therefore Du Cange's observations would
apply to them as well as to the barons or greater nobility of France and
Spain. But it is clear that from a comparatively early period bannerets
whose claims were founded on personal distinction rather than on feudal
tenure gradually came to the front, and much the same process of
substitution appears to have gone on in their case as that which we have
marked in the case of simple knights. According to the _Sallade_ and the
_Division du Monde_, as cited by Selden, bannerets were clearly in the
beginning feudal tenants of a certain magnitude and importance and
nothing more, and different forms for their creation are given in time
of peace and in time of war.[36] But in the French _Gesta Romanorum_ the
warlike form alone is given, and it is quoted by both Selden and Du
Cange. From the latter a more modern version of it is given by Daniel as
the only one generally in force.

[Illustration: PLATE I.

INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY
GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY
KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND
COMMAND.

THE ORDER OF THE GARTER.

(i.) THE GARTER; (ii) THE COLLAR AND GEORGE; (iii.) THE LESSER GEORGE
AND RIBBON; (iv.) STAR.

_Drawn by William Gibb._

_Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]

The knight bachelor whose services and landed possessions entitled him
to promotion would apply formally to the commander in the field for the
title of banneret. If this were granted, the heralds were called to cut
publicly the tails from his pennon: or the commander, as a special
honour, might cut them off with his own hands.[37] The earliest
contemporary mention of knights banneret is in France, Daniel says, in
the reign of Philip Augustus, and in England, Selden says in the reign
of Edward I. But in neither case is reference made to them in such a
manner as to suggest that the dignity was then regarded as new or even
uncommon, and it seems pretty certain that its existence on one side
could not have long preceded its existence on the other side of the
Channel. Sir Alan Plokenet, Sir Ralph Daubeney and Sir Philip Daubeney
are entered as bannerets on the roll of the garrison of Caermarthen
Castle in 1282, and the roll of Carlaverock records the names and arms
of eighty-five bannerets who accompanied Edward I. in his expedition
into Scotland in 1300.

What the exact contingent was which bannerets were expected to supply to
the royal host is doubtful.[38] But, however this may be, in the reign
of Edward III. and afterwards bannerets appear as the commanders of a
military force raised by themselves and marshalled under their banners:
their status and their relations both to the crown and to their
followers were mainly the consequences of voluntary contract not of
feudal tenure. It is from the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. also
that the two best descriptions we possess of the actual creation of a
banneret have been transmitted to us.[39] Sir Thomas Smith, writing
towards the end of the 16th century, says, after noticing the conditions
to be observed in the creation of bannerets, "but this order is almost
grown out of use in England";[40] and, during the controversy which
arose between the new order of baronets and the crown early in the 17th
century respecting their precedence, it was alleged without
contradiction in an argument on behalf of the baronets before the privy
council that "there are not bannerets now in being, peradventure never
shall be."[41] Sir Ralph Fane, Sir Francis Bryan and Sir Ralph Sadler
were created bannerets by the Lord Protector Somerset after the battle
of Pinkie in 1547, and the better opinion is that this was the last
occasion on which the dignity was conferred. It has been stated indeed
that Charles I. created Sir John Smith a banneret after the battle of
Edgehill in 1642 for having rescued the royal standard from the enemy.
But of this there is no sufficient proof. It was also supposed that
George III. had created several naval officers bannerets towards the end
of the last century, because he knighted them on board ship under the
royal standard displayed. This, however, is unquestionably an error.[42]


  Existing Orders of Knighthood.

On the continent of Europe the degree of knight bachelor disappeared
with the military system which had given rise to it. It is now therefore
peculiar to the British Empire, where, although very frequently
conferred by letters patent, it is yet the only dignity which is still
even occasionally created--as every dignity was formerly created--by
means of a ceremony in which the sovereign and the subject personally
take part. Everywhere else dubbing or the accolade seems to have become
obsolete, and no other species of knighthood, if knighthood it can be
called, is known except that which is dependent on admission to some
particular order. It is a common error to suppose that baronets are
hereditary knights. Baronets are not knights unless they are knighted
like anybody else; and, so far from being knights because they are
baronets, one of the privileges granted to them shortly after the
institution of their dignity was that they, not being knights, and their
successors and their eldest sons and heirs-apparent should, when they
attained their majority, be entitled if they desired to receive
knighthood.[43] It is a maxim of the law indeed that, as Coke says, "the
knight is by creation and not by descent," and, although we hear of such
designations as the "knight of Kerry" or the "knight of Glin," they are
no more than traditional nicknames, and do not by any means imply that
the persons to whom they are applied are knights in a legitimate sense.
Notwithstanding, however, that simple knighthood has gone out of use
abroad, there are innumerable grand crosses, commanders and companions
of a formidable assortment of orders in almost every part of the
world.[44] (See the section on "Orders of Knighthood" below.)

The United Kingdom has eight orders of knighthood--the Garter, the
Thistle, St Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India, St Michael and St
George, the Indian Empire and the Royal Victorian Order; and, while the
first is undoubtedly the oldest as well as the most illustrious anywhere
existing, a fictitious antiquity has been claimed and is even still
frequently conceded to the second and fourth, although the third,
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth appear to be as contentedly as they
are unquestionably recent.


  Order of the Garter.

It is, however, certain that the "most noble" Order of the Garter at
least was instituted in the middle of the 14th century, when English
chivalry was outwardly brightest and the court most magnificent. But in
what particular year this event occurred is and has been the subject of
much difference of opinion. All the original records of the order until
after 1416 have perished, and consequently the question depends for its
settlement not on direct testimony but on inference from circumstances.
The dates which have been selected vary from 1344 (given by Froissart,
but almost certainly mistaken) to 1351. The evidence may be examined at
length in Nicolas and Beltz; it is indisputable that in the wardrobe
account from September 1347 to January 1349, the 21st and 23rd Edward
III., the issue of certain habits with garters and the motto embroidered
on them is marked for St George's Day; that the letters patent relating
to the preparation of the royal chapel of Windsor are dated in August
1348; and that in the treasury accounts of the prince of Wales there is
an entry in November 1348 of the gift by him of "twenty-four garters to
the knights of the Society of the Garter."[45] But that the order,
although from this manifestly already fully constituted in the autumn of
1348, was not in existence before the summer of 1346 Sir Harris Nicolas
proves pretty conclusively by pointing out that nobody who was not a
knight could under its statutes have been admitted to it, and that
neither the prince of Wales nor several others of the original
companions were knighted until the middle of that year.

Regarding the occasion there has been almost as much controversy as
regarding the date of its foundation. The "vulgar and more general
story," as Ashmole calls it, is that of the countess of Salisbury's
garter. But commentators are not at one as to which countess of
Salisbury was the heroine of the adventure, whether she was Katherine
Montacute or Joan the Fair Maid of Kent, while Heylyn rejects the legend
as "a vain and idle romance derogatory both to the founder and the
order, first published by Polydor Vergil, a stranger to the affairs of
England, and by him taken upon no better ground than fama vulgi, the
tradition of the common people, too trifling a foundation for so great a
building."[46]

Another legend is that contained in the preface to the Register or Black
Book of the order, compiled in the reign of Henry VIII., by what
authority supported is unknown, that Richard I., while his forces were
employed against Cyprus and Acre, had been inspired through the
instrumentality of St George with renewed courage and the means of
animating his fatigued soldiers by the device of tying about the legs of
a chosen number of knights a leathern thong or garter, to the end that
being thereby reminded of the honour of their enterprise they might be
encouraged to redoubled efforts for victory. This was supposed to have
been in the mind of Edward III. when he fixed on the garter as the
emblem of the order, and it was stated so to have been by Taylor, master
of the rolls, in his address to Francis I. of France on his investiture
in 1527.[47] According to Ashmole the true account of the matter is that
"King Edward having given forth his own garter as the signal for a
battle which sped fortunately (which with Du Chesne we conceive to be
that of Crécy), the victory, we say, being happily gained, he thence
took occasion to institute this order, and gave the garter (assumed by
him for the symbol of unity and society) preeminence among the ensigns
of it." But, as Sir Harris Nicolas points out--although Ashmole is not
open to the correction--this hypothesis rests for its plausibility on
the assumption that the order was established before the invasion of
France in 1346. And he further observes that "a great variety of
devices and mottoes were used by Edward III.; they were chosen from the
most trivial causes and were of an amorous rather than of a military
character. Nothing," he adds, "is more likely than that in a crowded
assembly a lady should accidentally have dropped her garter; that the
circumstance should have caused a smile in the bystanders; and that on
its being taken up by Edward he should have reproved the levity of his
courtiers by so happy and chivalrous an exclamation, placing the garter
at the same time on his own knee, as 'Dishonoured be he who thinks ill
of it.' Such a circumstance occurring at a time of general festivity,
when devices, mottoes and conceits of all kinds were adopted as
ornaments or badges of the habits worn at jousts and tournaments, would
naturally have been commemorated as other royal expressions seem to have
been by its conversion into a device and motto for the dresses at an
approaching hastilude."[48] Moreover, Sir Harris Nicolas contends that
the order had no loftier immediate origin than a joust or tournament. It
consisted of the king and the Black Prince, and 24 knights divided into
two bands of 12 like the tilters in a hastilude----at the head of the
one being the first, and of the other the second; and to the companions
belonging to each, when the order had superseded the Round Table and had
become a permanent institution, were assigned stalls either on the
sovereign's or the prince's side of St George's Chapel. That Sir Harris
Nicolas is accurate in this conjecture seems probable from the selection
which was made of the "founder knights." As Beltz observes, the fame of
Sir Reginald Cobham, Sir Walter Manny and the earls of Northampton,
Hereford and Suffolk was already established by their warlike exploits,
and they would certainly have been among the original companions had the
order been then regarded as the reward of military merit only. But,
although these eminent warriors were subsequently elected as vacancies
occurred, their admission was postponed to that of several very young
and in actual warfare comparatively unknown knights, whose claims to the
honour may be most rationally explained on the assumption that they had
excelled in the particular feats of arms which preceded the institution
of the order. The original companionship had consisted of the sovereign
and 25 knights, and no change was made in this respect until 1786, when
the sons of George III. and his successors were made eligible
notwithstanding that the chapter might be complete. In 1805 another
alteration was effected by the provision that the lineal descendants of
George II. should be eligible in the same manner, except the Prince of
Wales for the time being, who was declared to be "a constituent part of
the original institution"; and again in 1831 it was further ordained
that the privilege accorded to the lineal descendants of George II.
should extend to the lineal descendants of George I. Although, as Sir
Harris Nicolas observes, nothing is now known of the form of admitting
ladies into the order, the description applied to them in the records
during the 14th and 15th centuries leaves no doubt that they were
regularly received into it. The queen consort, the wives and daughters
of knights, and some other women of exalted position, were designated
"Dames de la Fraternité de St George," and entries of the delivery of
robes and garters to them are found at intervals in the Wardrobe
Accounts from the 50th Edward III. (1376) to the 10th of Henry VII.
(1495), the first being Isabel, countess of Bedford, the daughter of the
one king, and the last being Margaret and Elizabeth, the daughters of
the other king. The effigies of Margaret Byron, wife of Sir Robert
Harcourt, K.G., at Stanton Harcourt, and of Alice Chaucer, wife of
William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, K.G., at Ewelme, which date from
the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV., have garters on their left arms.
(See further under "Orders of Knighthood" below.)


  Persons empowered to confer Knighthood.

It has been the general opinion, as expressed by Sainte Palaye and
Mills, that formerly all knights were qualified to confer
knighthood.[49] But it may be questioned whether the privilege was thus
indiscriminately enjoyed even in the earlier days of chivalry. It is
true that as much might be inferred from the testimony of the romance
writers; historical evidence, however, tends to limit the proposition,
and the sounder conclusion appears to be, as Sir Harris Nicolas says,
that the right was always restricted in operation to sovereign princes,
to those acting under their authority or sanction, and to a few other
personages of exalted rank and station.[50] In several of the writs for
distraint of knighthood from Henry III. to Edward III. a distinction is
drawn between those who are to be knighted by the king himself or by the
sheriffs of counties respectively, and bishops and abbots could make
knights in the 11th and 12th centuries.[51] At all periods the
commanders of the royal armies had the power of conferring knighthood;
as late as the reign of Elizabeth it was exercised among others by Sir
Henry Sidney in 1583, and Robert, earl of Essex, in 1595, while under
James I. an ordinance of 1622, confirmed by a proclamation of 1623, for
the registration of knights in the college of arms, is rendered
applicable to all who should receive knighthood from either the king or
any of his lieutenants.[52] Many sovereigns, too, both of England and of
France, have been knighted after their accession to the throne by their
own subjects, as, for instance, Edward III. by Henry, earl of Lancaster,
Edward VI. by the lord protector Somerset, Louis XI. by Philip, duke of
Burgundy, and Francis I. by the Chevalier Bayard. But when in 1543 Henry
VIII. appointed Sir John Wallop to be captain of Guisnes, it was
considered necessary that he should be authorized in express terms to
confer knighthood, which was also done by Edward VI. in his own case
when he received knighthood from the duke of Somerset.[53] But at
present the only subject to whom the right of conferring knighthood
belongs is the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and to him it belongs merely
by long usage and established custom. But, by whomsoever conferred,
knighthood at one time endowed the recipient with the same status and
attributes in every country wherein chivalry was recognized. In the
middle ages it was a common practice for sovereigns and princes to dub
each other knights much as they were afterwards, and are now, in the
habit of exchanging the stars and ribbons of their orders. Henry II. was
knighted by his great-uncle David I. of Scotland, Alexander III. of
Scotland by Henry III., Edward I. when he was prince by Alphonso X. of
Castile, and Ferdinand of Portugal by Edmund of Langley, earl of
Cambridge.[54] And, long after the military importance of knighthood had
practically disappeared, what may be called its cosmopolitan character
was maintained: a knight's title was recognized in all European
countries, and not only in that country in which he had received it. In
modern times, however, by certain regulations, made in 1823, and
repeated and enlarged in 1855, not only is it provided that the
sovereign's permission by royal warrant shall be necessary for the
reception by a British subject of any foreign order of knighthood, but
further that such permission shall not authorize "the assumption of any
style, appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege appertaining to a
knight bachelor of the United Kingdom."[55]


  Degradation.

Since knighthood was accorded either by actual investiture or its
equivalent, a counter process of degradation was regarded as necessary
for the purpose of depriving anybody who had once received it of the
rank and condition it implied.[56] The cases in which a knight has been
formally degraded in England are exceedingly few, so few indeed that two
only are mentioned by Segar, writing in 1602, and Dallaway says that
only three were on record in the College of Arms when he wrote in 1793.
The last case was that of Sir Francis Michell in 1621, whose spurs were
hacked from his heels, his sword-belt cut, and his sword broken over his
head by the heralds in Westminster Hall.[57]

Roughly speaking, the age of chivalry properly so called may be said to
have extended from the beginning of the crusades to the end of the Wars
of the Roses. Even in the way of pageantry and martial exercise it did
not long survive the middle ages. In England tilts and tourneys, in
which her father had so much excelled, were patronized to the last by
Queen Elizabeth, and were even occasionally held until after the death
of Henry, prince of Wales. But on the Continent they were discredited by
the fatal accident which befell Henry II. of France in 1559. The golden
age of chivalry has been variously located. Most writers would place it
in the early 13th century, but Gautier would remove it two or three
generations further back. It may be true that, in the comparative
scarcity of historical evidence, 12th-century romances present a more
favourable picture of chivalry at that earlier time; but even such
historical evidence as we possess, when carefully scrutinized, is enough
to dispel the illusion that there was any period of the middle ages in
which the unselfish championship of "God and the ladies" was anything
but a rare exception.

It is difficult to describe the true spirit and moral influence of
knighthood, if only because the ages in which it flourished differed so
widely from our own. At its very best, it was always hampered by the
limitations of medieval society. Moreover, many of the noblest precepts
of the knightly code were a legacy from earlier ages, and have survived
the decay of knighthood just as they will survive all transitory human
institutions, forming part of the eternal heritage of the race. Indeed,
the most important of these precepts did not even attain to their
highest development in the middle ages. As a conscious effort to bring
religion into daily life, chivalry was less successful than later
puritanism; while the educated classes of our own day far surpass the
average medieval knight in discipline, self-control and outward or
inward refinement. Freeman's estimate comes far nearer to the historical
facts than Burke's: "The chivalrous spirit is above all things a class
spirit. The good knight is bound to endless fantastic courtesies towards
men and still more towards women of a certain rank; he may treat all
below that rank with any decree of scorn and cruelty. The spirit of
chivalry implies the arbitrary choice of one or two virtues to be
practised in such an exaggerated degree as to become vices, while the
ordinary laws of right and wrong are forgotten. The false code of honour
supplants the laws of the commonwealth, the law of God and the eternal
principles of right. Chivalry again in its military aspect not only
encourages the love of war for its own sake without regard to the cause
for which war is waged, it encourages also an extravagant regard for a
fantastic show of personal daring which cannot in any way advance the
objects of the siege or campaign which is going on. Chivalry in short is
in morals very much what feudalism is in law: each substitutes purely
personal obligations devised in the interests of an exclusive class, for
the more homely duties of an honest man and a good citizen" (_Norman
Conquest_, v. 482). The chivalry from which Burke drew his ideas was, so
far as it existed at all, the product of a far later age. In its own
age, chivalry rested practically, like the highest civilization of
ancient Greece and Rome, on slave labour;[58] and if many of its most
brilliant outward attractions have now faded for ever, this is only
because modern civilization tends so strongly to remove social barriers.
The knightly ages will always enjoy the glory of having formulated a
code of honour which aimed at rendering the upper classes worthy of
their exceptional privileges; yet we must judge chivalry not only by its
formal code but also by its practical fruits. The ideal is well summed
up by F. W. Cornish: "Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble
service willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in
obedience to rule, it consecrated military prowess to the service of the
Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfishness
and courtesy, and above all, courtesy to women. Against these may be set
the vices of pride, ostentation, love of bloodshed, contempt of
inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an imperfect discipline, but
it was a discipline, and one fit for the times. It may have existed in
the world too long: it did not come into existence too early; and with
all its shortcomings it exercised a great and wholesome influence in
raising the medieval world from barbarism to civilization" (p. 27). This
was the ideal, but to give the reader a clear view of the actual
features of knightly society in their contrast with that of our own day,
it is necessary to bring out one or two very significant shadows.

Far too much has been made of the extent to which the knightly code, and
the reverence paid to the Virgin Mary, raised the position of women
(e.g. Gautier, p. 360). As Gautier himself admits, the feudal system
made it difficult to separate the woman's person from her fief: instead
of the freedom of Christian marriage on which the Church in theory
insisted, lands and women were handed over together, as a business
bargain, by parents or guardians. In theory, the knight was the defender
of widows and orphans; but in practice wardships and marriages were
bought and sold as a matter of everyday routine like stocks and shares
in the modern market. Lord Thomas de Berkeley (1245-1321) counted on
this as a regular and considerable source of income (Smyth, _Lives_, i.
157). Late in the 15th century, in spite of the somewhat greater liberty
of that age, we find Stephen Scrope writing nakedly to a familiar
correspondent "for very need [of poverty], I was fain to sell a little
daughter I have for much less than I should have done by possibility,"
i.e. than the fair market price (Gairdner, _Paston Letters_,
Introduction, p. clxxvi; cf. ccclxxi). Startling as such words are, it
is perhaps still more startling to find how frequently and naturally, in
the highest society, ladies were degraded by personal violence. The
proofs of this which Schultz and Gautier adduce from the _Chansons de
Geste_ might be multiplied indefinitely. The Knight of La Tour-Landry
(1372) relates, by way of warning to his daughters, a tale of a lady who
so irritated her husband by scolding him in company, that he struck her
to the earth with his fist and kicked her in the face, breaking her
nose. Upon this the good knight moralizes: "And this she had for her
euelle and gret langage, that she was wont to saie to her husbonde. And
therfor the wiff aught to suffre and lete her husbonde haue the wordes,
and to be maister, for that is her worshippe; for it is shame to here
striff betwene hem, and in especial before folke. But y saie not but
whanne thei be allone, but she may tolle hym with goodly wordes, and
counsaile hym to amende yef he do amys" (La Tour, chap. xviii.; cf.
xvii. and xix.). The right of wife-beating was formally recognized by
more than one code of laws, and it was already a forward step when, in
the 13th century, the _Coutumes du Beauvoisis_ provided "que le mari ne
doit battre sa femme que _raisonnablement_" (Gautier, p. 349). This was
a natural consequence not only of the want of self-control which we see
everywhere in the middle ages, but also of the custom of contracting
child-marriages for unsentimental considerations. Between 1288 and 1500
five marriages are recorded in the direct line of the Berkeley family in
which the ten contracting parties averaged less than eleven years of
age: the marriage contract of another Lord Berkeley was drawn up before
he was six years old. Moreover, the same business considerations which
dictated those early marriages clashed equally with the strict theory of
knighthood. In the same Berkeley family, the lord Maurice IV. was
knighted in 1338 at the age of seven to avoid the possible evils of
wardship, and Thomas V. for the same reason in 1476 at the age of five.
Smyth's record of this great family shows that, from the middle of the
13th century onwards, the lords were not only statesmen and warriors,
but still more distinguished as gentlemen-farmers on a great scale, even
selling fruit from the castle gardens, while their ladies would go round
on tours of inspection from dairy to dairy. The lord Thomas III.
(1326-1361), who was noted as a special lover of tournaments, spent in
two years only £90, or an average of about £15 per tournament; yet he
was then laying money by at the rate of £450 a year, and, a few years
later, at the rate of £1150, or nearly half his income! Indeed, economic
causes contributed much to the decay of romantic chivalry. The old
families had lost heavily from generation to generation, partly by
personal extravagances, but also by gradual alienations of land to the
Church and by the enormous expenses of the crusades. Already, in the
13th century, they were hard pressed by the growing wealth of the
burghers, and even the greatest nobles could scarcely keep up their
state without careful business management. It is not surprising
therefore, to find that at least as early as the middle of the 13th
century the commercial side of knighthood became very prominent.
Although by the code of chivalry no candidate could be knighted before
the age of twenty-one, we have seen how great nobles like the Berkeleys
obtained that honour for their infant heirs in order to avoid possible
pecuniary loss; and French writers of the 14th century complained of
this knighting of infants as a common and serious abuse.[59] Moreover,
after the knight's liability to personal service in war had been
modified in the 12th century by the scutage system, it became necessary
in the first quarter of the 13th to compel landowners to take up the
knighthood which in theory they should have coveted as an honour--a
compulsion which was soon systematically enforced (_Distraint of
Knighthood_, 1278), and became a recognized source of royal income. An
indirect effect of this system[60] was to break down another rule of the
chivalrous code--that none could be dubbed who was not of gentle
birth.[61] This rule, however, had often been broken before; even the
romances of chivalry speak not infrequently of the knighting of serfs or
_jongleurs_;[62] and other causes besides distraint of knighthood tended
to level the old distinctions. While knighthood was avoided by poor
nobles, it was coveted by rich citizens. It is recorded in 1298 as "an
immemorial custom" in Provence that rich burghers enjoyed the honour of
knighthood; and less than a century later we find Sacchetti complaining
that the dignity is open to any rich upstart, however disreputable his
antecedents.[63] Similar causes contributed to the decay of knightly
ideas in warfare. Even in the 12th century, when war was still rather
the pastime of kings and knights than a national effort, the strict
code of chivalry was more honoured in the breach than in the
observance.[64] But when the Hundred Years' War brought a real national
conflict between England and France, when archery became of supreme
importance, and a large proportion even of the cavalry were mercenary
soldiers, then the exigencies of serious warfare swept away much of that
outward display and those class-conventions on which chivalry had always
rested. Siméon Luce (chap. vi.) has shown how much the English successes
in this war were due to strict business methods. Several of the best
commanders (e.g. Sir Robert Knolles and Sir Thomas Dagworth) were of
obscure birth, while on the French side even Du Guesclin had to wait
long for his knighthood because he belonged only to the lesser nobility.
The tournament again, which for two centuries had been under the ban of
the Church, was often almost as definitely discouraged by Edward III. as
it was encouraged by John of France; and while John's father opened the
Crécy campaign by sending Edward a challenge in due form of chivalry,
Edward took advantage of this formal delay to amuse the French king with
negotiations while he withdrew his army by a rapid march from an almost
hopeless position. A couple of quotations from Froissart will illustrate
the extent to which war had now become a mere business. Much as he
admired the French chivalry, he recognized their impotence at Crécy.
"The sharp arrows ran into the men of arms and into their horses, and
many fell, horse and men.... And also among the Englishmen there were
certain rascals that went afoot with great knives, and they went in
among the men of arms, and slew and murdered many as they lay on the
ground, both earls, barons, knights and squires, whereof the king of
England was after displeased, for he had rather they had been taken
prisoners." How far Edward's solicitude was disinterested may be gauged
from Froissart's parallel remark about the battle of Aljubarrota, where,
as at Agincourt, the handful of victors were obliged by a sudden panic
to slay their prisoners. "Lo, behold the great evil adventure that fell
that Saturday. For they slew as many good prisoners as would well have
been worth, one with another, four hundred thousand franks." In 1402
Lord Thomas de Berkeley bought, as a speculation, 24 Scottish prisoners.
Similar practical considerations forced the nobles of other European
countries either to conform to less sentimental methods of warfare and
to growing conceptions of nationality, or to become mere Ishmaels of the
type which outlived the middle ages in Götz von Berlichingen and his
compeers.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Froissart is perhaps the source from which we may
  gather most of chivalry in its double aspect, good and bad. The
  brilliant side comes out most clearly in Joinville, the _Chronique de
  Du Guesclin_, and the _Histoire de Bayart_; the darker side appears in
  the earlier chronicles of the crusades, and is especially emphasized
  by preachers and moralists like Jacques de Vitry, Étienne de Bourbon,
  Nicole Bozon and John Gower. John Smyth's _Lives of the Berkeleys_
  (Bristol and Gloucs. Archaeol. Soc, 2 vols.) and the _Book of the
  Knight of La Tour-Landry_ (ed. A. de Montaiglon, or in the old English
  trans. published by the Early English Text Soc.) throw a very vivid
  light on the inner life of noble families. Of modern books, besides
  those quoted by their full titles in the notes, the best are A.
  Schultz, _Höfisches Leben z. Zeit der Minnesänger_ (Leipzig, 1879); S.
  Luce, _Hist. de Du Guesclin et de son Époque_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1882),
  masterly but unfortunately unfinished at the author's death; Léon
  Gautier, _La Chevalerie_ (Paris, 1883), written with a strong
  apologetic bias, but full and correct in its references; and F. W.
  Cornish, _Chivalry_ (London, 1901), too little reference to the more
  prosaic historical documents, but candid and without intentional
  partiality.     (G. G. Co.)


ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD

When orders ceased to be fraternities and became more and more marks of
favour and a means of recognizing meritorious services to the Crown and
country, the term "orders" became loosely applied to the insignia and
decorations themselves. Thus "orders," irrespective of the title or
other specific designation they confer, fall in Great Britain generally
into three main categories, according as the recipients are made
"knights grand cross," "knights commander," or "companions." In some
orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal Victorian, for
instance, which has five, numerous foreign orders a like number, some
six, while the Chinese "Dragon" boasts no less than eleven degrees.
Generally speaking, the insignia of the "knights grand cross" consist of
a star worn on the left breast and a badge, usually some form either of
the cross _patée_ or of the Maltese cross, worn suspended from a ribbon
over the shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial from
a collar. The "commanders" wear the badge from a ribbon round the neck,
and the star on the breast; the "companions" have no star and wear the
badge from a narrow ribbon at the button-hole.

Orders may, again, be grouped according as they are (1) PRIME ORDERS OF
CHRISTENDOM, conferred upon an exclusive class only. Here belong, _inter
alia_, the well-known orders of the _Garter_ (England), _Golden Fleece_
(Austria and Spain), _Annunziata_ (Italy), _Black Eagle_ (Prussia), _St
Andrew_ (Russia), _Elephant_ (Denmark) and _Seraphim_ (Sweden). Of these
the first three only, which are usually held to rank _inter se_ in the
order given, are historically identified with chivalry. (2) FAMILY
ORDERS, bestowed upon members of the royal or princely class, or upon
humbler individuals according to classes, in respect of "personal"
services rendered to the family. To this category belong such orders as
the Royal Victorian and the Hohenzollern (Prussia). (3) ORDERS OF MERIT,
whether military, civil or joint orders. Such have, as a rule, at least
three, oftener five classes, and here belong such as the _Order of the
Bath_ (British), _Red Eagle_ (Prussia), _Legion of Honour_ (France).
There are also certain orders, such as the recently instituted _Order of
Merit_ (British), and the _Pour le Mérite_ (Prussia), which have but one
class, all members being on an equality of rank within the order.

Of the three great military and religious orders, branches survive of
two, the Teutonic Order (_Der hohe deutsche Ritter Orden_ or _Marianen
Orden_) and the Knights of St John of Jerusalem (_Johanniter Orden_,
_Malteser Orden_), for the history of which and the present state see
TEUTONIC ORDER and ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF.

_Great Britain._--The history and constitution of the "most noble"
_Order of the Garter_ has been treated above. The officers of the order
are five--the prelate, chancellor, registrar, king of arms and
usher--the first, third and fifth having been attached to it from the
commencement, while the fourth was added by Henry V. and the second by
Edward IV. The prelate has always been the bishop of Winchester; the
chancellor was formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but is now the bishop
of Oxford; the registrarship and the deanery of Windsor have been united
since the reign of Charles I.; the king of arms, whose duties were in
the beginning discharged by Windsor herald, is Garter Principal King of
Arms; and the usher is the gentleman usher of the Black Rod. The chapel
of the order is St George's Chapel, Windsor. The insignia of the order
are illustrated on Plate I.

The "most ancient" _Order of the Thistle_, was founded by James II. in
1687, and dedicated to St Andrew. It consisted of the sovereign and
eight knights companions, and fell into abeyance at the Revolution of
1688. In 1703 it was revived by Queen Anne, when it was ordained to
consist of the sovereign and 12 knights companions, the number being
increased to 16 by statute in 1827. The officers of the order are the
dean, the secretary, Lyon King of Arms and the gentleman usher of the
Green Rod. The chapel, in St Giles's, Edinburgh, was begun in 1909. The
star, badge and ribbon of the order are illustrated on Plate II., figs.
5 and 6. The collar is formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of
rue, and the motto is _Nemo me impune lacessit_.

[Illustration: PLATE II.

THE BATH. (i) STAR; (ii.) GRAND CROSS (Mil.); (iii) STAR; (iv.) GRAND
CROSS (Civ.); THE THISTLE. (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE. THE ST. PATRICK.
(vii.) BADGE; (viii.) STAR. THE ST. MICHAEL AND ST. GEORGE. (ix.) STAR;
(x.) GRAND CROSS.

_Drawn by William Gibb._

_Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]

The "most illustrious" _Order of St Patrick_ was instituted by George
III. in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the lord lieutenant of
Ireland as grand master and 15 knights companions, enlarged to 22 in
1833. The chancellor of the order is the chief secretary to the lord
lieutenant of Ireland, and the king of arms is Ulster King of Arms;
Black Rod is the usher. The chapel is in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin.
The star, badge and ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 7 and 8.
The collar is formed of alternate roses with red and white leaves, and
gold harps linked by gold knots; the badge is suspended from a harp
surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown. The motto is _Quis separabit_?

The "most honourable" _Order of the Bath_ was established by George I.
in 1725, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master and 36 knights
companions. This was a pretended revival of an order supposed to have
been created by Henry IV. at his coronation in 1399. But, as has been
shown in the preceding section, no such order existed. Knights of the
Bath, although they were allowed precedence before knights bachelors,
were merely knights bachelors who were knighted with more elaborate
ceremonies than others and on certain great occasions. In 1815 the order
was instituted, in three classes, "to commemorate the auspicious
termination of the long and arduous contest in which the Empire has been
engaged"; and in 1847 the civil knights commanders and companions were
added. Exclusive of the sovereign, royal princes and distinguished
foreigners, the order is limited to 55 military and 27 civil knights
grand cross, 145 military and 108 civil knights commanders, and 705
military and 298 civil companions. The officers of the order are the
dean (the dean of Westminster), Bath King of Arms, the registrar, and
the usher of the Scarlet Rod. The ribbon and badges of the knights grand
cross (civil and military) and the stars are illustrated on Plate II.,
figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4.

The "most distinguished" _Order of St Michael and St George_ was founded
by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in 1818, in commemoration
of the British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, "for natives of the
Ionian Islands and of the island of Malta and its dependencies, and for
such other subjects of his majesty as may hold high and confidential
situations in the Mediterranean." By statute of 1832 the lord high
commissioner of the Ionian Islands was to be the grand master, and the
order was directed to consist of 15 knights grand crosses, 20 knights
commanders and 25 cavaliers or companions. After the repudiation of the
British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, the order was placed on a
new basis, and by letters patent of 1868 and 1877 it was extended and
provided for such of "the natural born subjects of the Crown of the
United Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential
offices within her majesty's colonial possessions, and in reward for
services rendered to the crown in relation to the foreign affairs of the
Empire." It is now (by the enlargement of 1902) limited to 100 knights
grand cross, of whom the first or principal is grand master, exclusive
of extra and honorary members, of 300 knights commanders and 600
companions. The officers are the prelate, chancellor, registrar,
secretary and officer of arms. The chapel of the order, in St Paul's
Cathedral, was dedicated in 1906. The badge of the knights grand cross
and the ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 9 and 10. The star of
the knights grand cross is a seven-rayed star of silver with a small ray
of gold between each, in the centre is a red St George's cross bearing a
medallion of St Michael encountering Satan, surrounded by a blue fillet
with the motto _Auspicium melioris aevi_.

The _Order of St Michael and St George_ ranks between the "most exalted"
_Order of the Star of India_ and the "most eminent" _Order of the Indian
Empire_, of both of which the viceroy of India for the time being is _ex
officio_ grand master. Of these the first was instituted in 1861 and
enlarged in 1876, 1897 and 1903, in three classes, knights grand
commanders, knights commanders and companions, and the second was
established (for "companions" only) in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, 1892,
1897 and 1903, also in the same three classes, in commemoration of
Queen Victoria's assumption of the imperial style and title of the
Empress of India. The badges, stars and ribbons of the knights grand
commanders of the two orders are illustrated on Plate III., figs. 3, 4,
5 and 6. The collar of the _Star of India_ is composed of alternate
links of the lotus flower, red and white roses and palm branches
enamelled on gold, with an imperial crown in the centre; that of the
_Indian Empire_ is composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses.

The _Royal Victorian Order_ was instituted by Queen Victoria on the 25th
of April 1896, and conferred for personal services rendered to her
majesty and her successors on the throne. It consists of the sovereign,
chancellor, secretary and five classes--knights grand commanders,
knights commanders, commanders and members of the fourth and fifth
classes, the distinction between these last divisions lying in the badge
and in the precedence enjoyed by the members. The knights of this order
rank in their respective classes immediately after those of the _Indian
Empire_, and its numbers are unlimited. The badge, star and ribbon of
the knights grand cross are illustrated on Plate III., figs. 1 and 2.

To the class of orders without the titular appellation "knight" belongs
the _Order of Merit_, founded by King Edward VII. on the occasion of his
coronation. The order is founded on the lines of the Prussian _Ordre
pour le mérite_ (see below), yet more comprehensive, including those who
have gained distinction in the military and naval services of the
Empire, and such as have made themselves a great name in the fields of
science, art and literature. The number of British members has been
fixed at twenty-four, with the addition of such foreign persons as the
sovereign shall appoint. The names of the first recipients were: Earl
Roberts, Viscount Wolseley, Viscount Kitchener, Sir Henry Keppel, Sir
Edward Seymour, Lord Lister, Lord Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, John Morley, W.
E. H. Lecky, G. F. Watts and Sir William Huggins. The only foreign
recipients up to 1910 were Field Marshals Yamagata and Oyama and Admiral
Togo. A lady, Miss Florence Nightingale, received the order in 1907. The
badge is a cross of red and blue enamel surmounted by an imperial crown;
the central blue medallion bears the inscription "For Merit" in gold,
and is surrounded by a wreath of laurel. The badge of the military and
naval members bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The
ribbon is garter blue and crimson and is worn round the neck.

  The _Distinguished Service Order_, an order of military merit, was
  founded on the 6th of September 1886 by Queen Victoria, its object
  being to recognize the special services of officers in the army and
  navy. Its numbers are unlimited, and its designation the letters
  D.S.O. It consists of one class only, who take precedence immediately
  after the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge is a white
  and gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial crown surrounded
  by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red edged with blue. The _Imperial
  Service Order_ was likewise instituted on the 26th of June 1902, and
  finally revised in 1908, to commemorate King Edward's coronation, and
  is specially designed as a recognition of faithful and meritorious
  services rendered to the British Crown by the administrative members
  of the civil service in various parts of the Empire, and is to consist
  of companions only. The numbers are limited to 475, of whom 250 belong
  to the home and 225 to the civil services of the colonies and
  protectorates (Royal Warrant, June 1909). Women as well as men are
  eligible. The members of the order have the distinction of adding the
  letters I.S.O. after their names. In precedence the order ranks after
  the _Distinguished Service Order_. The badge is a gold medallion
  bearing the royal cipher and the words "For Faithful Service" in blue;
  for men it rests on a silver star, for women it is surrounded by a
  silver wreath. The ribbon is one blue between two crimson stripes.

  In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined to
  ladies. The _Royal Order of Victoria and Albert_, which was instituted
  in 1862, is a purely court distinction. It consists of four classes,
  and it has as designation the letters V.A. The _Imperial Order of the
  Crown of India_ is conferred for like purposes as the Order of the
  Indian Empire. Its primary object is to recognize the services of
  ladies connected with the court of India. The letters C.I. are its
  designation.

  The sovereign's permission by royal warrant is necessary before a
  British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For other
  decorations, see under MEDALS.

_The Golden Fleece_ (_La Toison d'Or_) ranks historically and in
distinction as one of the great knightly orders of Europe. It is now
divided into two branches, of Austria and Spain. It was founded on the
10th of January, 1429/30 by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, on the
day of his marriage with Isabella of Portugal at Bruges, in her honour
and dedicated to the Virgin and St Andrew. No certain origin can be
given for the name. It seems to have been in dispute even in the early
history of the order. Four different sources have been suggested; the
classical myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts for the golden
fleece, the scriptural story of Gideon, the staple trade of Flanders in
wool, and the fleece of golden hair of Marie de Rambrugge, the duke's
mistress. Motley (_Rise of Dutch Rep._, i. 48) says: "What could be more
practical and more devout than the conception? Did not the Lamb of God,
suspended at each knight's heart, symbolize at once the woollen fabrics
to which so much of Flemish wealth and Burgundian power was owing, and
the gentle humility of Christ which was ever to characterize the order?"
At its constitution the number of the knights was limited to 24,
exclusive of the grand master, the sovereign. The members were to be
_gentilshommes de nom et d'armes et sans reproche_, not knights of any
other order, and vowed to join their sovereign in the defence of the
Catholic faith, the protection of Holy Church, and the upholding of
virtue and good morals. The sovereign undertook to consult the knights
before embarking on a war, all disputes between the knights were to be
settled by the order, at each chapter the deeds of each knight were held
in review, and punishments and admonitions were dealt out to offenders;
to this the sovereign was expressly subject. Thus we find that the
emperor Charles V. accepted humbly the criticism of the knights of the
Fleece on his over-centralization of the government and the wasteful
personal attention to details (E. A. Armstrong, _Charles V._, 1902, ii.
373). The knights could claim as of right to be tried by their fellows
on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and Charles V. conferred on
the order exclusive jurisdiction over all crimes committed by the
knights. The arrest of the offender had to be by warrant signed by at
least six knights, and during the process of charge and trial he
remained not in prison but _dans l'aimable compagnie du dit ordre_. It
was in defiance of this right that Alva refused the claim of Counts
Egmont and Horn to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. During
the 16th century the order frequently acted as a consultative body in
the state; thus in 1539 and 1540 Charles summons the knights with the
council of state and the privy council to decide what steps should be
taken in face of the revolt of Ghent (Armstrong, _op. cit._, i. 302), in
1562 Margaret of Parma, the regent, summons them to Brussels to debate
the dangerous condition of the provinces (Motley, i. 48), and they were
present at the abdication of Charles in the great hall at Brussels in
1555. The history of the order and its subsequent division into the two
branches of Austria and Spain may be briefly summarized. By the marriage
of Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy to Maximilian,
archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand mastership of the order came to the
house of Habsburg and, with the Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504
on the accession of Philip, Maximilian's son, to Castile. On the
extinction of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain by the death of Charles II.
in 1700 the grand-mastership, which had been filled by the kings of
Spain after the loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the emperor
Charles VI., and he instituted the order in Vienna in 1713. Protests
were made at various times by Philip V., but the question has never been
finally decided by treaty, and the Austrian and Spanish branches have
continued as independent orders ever since as the principal order of
knighthood in the respective states. It may be noticed that while the
Austrian branch excludes any other than Roman Catholics from the order,
the Spanish Fleece may be granted to Protestants. The badges of the two
branches vary slightly in detail, more particularly in the attachment of
fire-stones (_fusils_ or _furisons_) and steels by which the fleece is
attached to the ribbon of the collar. The Spanish form is given on Plate
IV., fig. 2. The collar is composed of alternate links of furisons and
double steels interlaced to form the letter B for Burgundy. A
magnificent exhibition of relics, portraits of knights and other
objects connected with the order of the Golden Fleece was held at Bruges
in 1907.

  The chief history of the order is Baron de Reiffenberg's _Histoire de
  l'Ordre de la Toison d'Or_ (1830); see also an article by Sir J.
  Balfour Paul, Lyon King of Arms, in the _Scottish Historical Review_
  (July 1908).

  _Austria-Hungary._--The following are the principal orders other than
  that of the Golden Fleece (_supra_). _The Order of St Stephen of
  Hungary_, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress
  Maria Theresa, consists of the grand master (the sovereign), 20
  knights grand cross, 30 knights commanders and 50 knights. The badge
  is a green enamelled cross with gold borders, suspended from the
  Hungarian crown; the red enamelled medallion in the centre of the
  cross bears a white patriarchal cross issuing from a coroneted green
  mound; on either side of the cross are the letters M.T. in gold, and
  the whole is surrounded by a white fillet with the legend _Publicum
  Meritorum Praemium_. The ribbon is green with a crimson central
  stripe. The collar, only worn by the knights grand cross, is of gold,
  and consists of Hungarian crowns linked together alternately by the
  monograms of St Stephen, S.S., and the foundress, M.T.; the centre of
  the collar is formed by a flying lark encircled by the motto _Stringit
  amore_. An illustration of the star of the grand cross is given on
  Plate V. fig. 4. _The Order of Leopold_, for civil and military
  service, was founded in 1808 by the emperor Francis I. in memory of
  his father Leopold II. The three classes take precedence next after
  the corresponding classes of the order of St Stephen. The badge is a
  red enamelled cross bordered with white and gold and surmounted by the
  imperial crown; the red medallion in the centre bears the letters
  F.I.A., and on the encircling white fillet is the inscription
  _Integritati et Merito_. When conferred for service in war the cross
  rests on a green laurel wreath. The ribbon is scarlet with two white
  stripes. The collar consists of imperial crowns, the initials F. and
  L. and oak wreaths. _The Order of the Iron Crown_, i.e. of Lombardy,
  was founded by Napoleon as king of Italy in 1809, and refounded as an
  Austrian order of civil and military merit in 1816 by the emperor
  Francis I.; the number of knights is limited to 100--20 grand cross,
  30 commanders, 50 knights. The badge consists of the double-headed
  imperial eagle with sword and orb; below it is the jewelled iron crown
  of Lombardy, and above the imperial crown; on the breast of the eagle
  is a gold-bordered blue shield with the letter F. in gold. The
  military decoration for war service also bears two green laurel
  branches. The ribbon is yellow edged with narrow blue stripes. The
  collar is formed of Lombard crowns, oak wreaths and the monogram F. P.
  (_Franciscus Primus_). _The Order of Francis Joseph_, for personal
  merit of every kind, was founded in 1849 by the emperor Francis Joseph
  I. It is of the three usual classes and is unlimited in numbers. The
  badge is a black and gold imperial eagle surmounted by the imperial
  crown. The eagle bears a red cross with a white medallion, containing
  the letters F. J., and to the beaks of the two heads of the eagle is
  attached a chain on which is the legend _Viribus Unitis_. The ribbon
  is deep red. The _Order of Maria Theresa_ was founded by the empress
  Maria Theresa in 1757. It is a purely military order and is given to
  officers for personal distinguished conduct in the field. There are
  three classes. There were originally only two, grand cross and
  knights. The emperor Joseph II. added a commanders' class in 1765. The
  badge is a white cross with gold edge, in the centre a red medallion
  with a white gold-edged _fesse_, surrounded by a fillet with the
  inscription _Fortitudini_. The ribbon is red with a white central
  stripe. The _Order of Elizabeth Theresa_, also a military order for
  officers, was founded in 1750 by the will of Elizabeth Christina,
  widow of the emperor Charles VI. It was renovated in 1771 by her
  daughter, the empress Maria Theresa. The order is limited to 21
  knights in three divisions. The badge is an oval star with eight
  points, enamelled half red and white, dependent from a gold imperial
  crown. The central medallion bears the initials of the founders, with
  the encircling inscription _M. Theresa parentis gratiam perennem
  voluit_. The ribbon is black. The _Order of the Starry Cross_, for
  high-born ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devote themselves to
  good works, spiritual and temporal, was founded in 1668 by the empress
  Eleanor, widow of the emperor Ferdinand III. and mother of Leopold I.,
  to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross from a
  dangerous fire in the imperial palace at Vienna. The relic was
  supposed to have been peculiarly treasured by the emperor Maximilian
  I. and the emperor Frederick III. The patroness of the order must be a
  princess of the imperial Austrian house. The badge is the black
  double-headed eagle surrounded by a blue-enamelled ornamented border,
  with the inscription _Salus et Gloria_ on a white fillet; the eagle
  bears a red Greek cross with gold and blue borders. The _Order of
  Elizabeth_, also for ladies, was founded in 1898.

  [Illustration: PLATE III.

  ROYAL VICTORIAN ORDER. (i.) GRAND CROSS; (ii.) STAR. ORDER OF THE
  INDIAN EMPIRE. (iii.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER; (iv.) STAR. THE
  STAR OF INDIA. (v.) STAR; (vi.) BADGE OF KNIGHT GRAND COMMANDER.

  _Drawn by William Gibb._

  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]

  _Belgium._--The _Order of Leopold_, for civil and military merit, was
  founded in 1832 by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth being added
  in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders and
  balls, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green laurel and
  oak wreath. In the centre a medallion, surrounded by a red fillet with
  the motto of the order, _L'union fait la force_, bears a golden
  Belgian lion on a black field. The ribbon is watered red. The _Order
  of the Iron Cross_, the badge of which is a black cross with gold
  borders, with a gold centre bearing a lion, was instituted by Leopold
  II. in 1867 as an order of civil merit. The military cross was
  instituted in 1885. There are also the following orders instituted by
  Leopold II. for service in the Congo State: the _Order of the African
  Star_ (1888), the _Royal Order of the Lion_ (1891) and the _Congo
  Star_ (1889).

  _Bulgaria._--The _Order of SS Cyril and Methodius_ was instituted in
  1909 by King Ferdinand to commemorate the elevation of the
  principality to the position of an independent kingdom. It now takes
  precedence of the _Order of St Alexander_, which was founded by Prince
  Alexander in 1881, and reconstituted by Prince Ferdinand in 1888.
  There are six classes. The plain white cross, suspended from the
  Bulgarian crown, bears the name of the patron saint in old Cyrillic
  letters in the centre.

  _Denmark._--The _Order of the Elephant_, one of the chief European
  orders of knighthood, was, it is said, founded by Christian I. in
  1462; a still earlier origin has been assigned to it, but its regular
  institution was that of Christian V. in 1693. The order, exclusive of
  the sovereign and his sons, is limited to 30 knights, who must be of
  the Protestant religion. The badge of the order is illustrated on
  Plate IV. fig. 5. The ribbon is light watered blue, the collar of
  alternate gold elephants with blue housings and towers, the star of
  silver with a purple medallion bearing a silver or brilliant cross
  surrounded by a silver laurel wreath. The motto is _Magnanime
  pretium_. The _Order of the Dannebrog_ is, according to Danish
  tradition, of miraculous origin, and was founded by Valdemar II. in
  1219 as a memorial of a victory over the Esthonians, won by the
  appearance in the sky of a red banner bearing a white cross.
  Historically the order dates from the foundation in 1671 by Christian
  V. at the birth of his son Frederick, the statutes being published in
  1693. Originally restricted to 50 knights and granted as a family or
  court decoration, it was reconstituted as an unlimited order of merit
  in 1808 by Frederick VI.; alterations have been made in 1811 and 1864.
  It now consists of three classes--grand cross, commander (two grades),
  knight, and of one rank of ordinary members (_Dannebrogs maender_).
  The badge of the order is, with variations for the different classes,
  a white enamelled Danish cross with red and gold borders, bearing in
  the centre the letter W (V) and on the four arms the inscription _Gud
  og Kongen_ (For God and King). The ribbon is white with red edging.

_France._--_The Legion of Honour_, the only order of France, and one
which in its higher grades ranks in estimation with the highest European
orders, was instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte on the 19th of May 1802 (29
Floreal of the year X.) as a general military and civil order of merit.
All soldiers on whom "swords of honour" had been already conferred were
declared _legionaries ipso facto_, and all citizens after 25 years'
service were declared eligible, whatever their birth, rank or religion.
On admission all were to swear to co-operate so far as in them lay for
the assertion of the principles of liberty and equality. The
organization as laid down by Napoleon in 1804 was as follows: Napoleon
was grand master; a grand council of 7 grand officers administered the
order; the order was divided into 15 "cohorts" of 7 grand officers, 20
commanders, 30 officers and 350 legionaries, and at the headquarters of
the cohorts, for which the territory of France was separated into 15
divisions, were maintained hospitals for the support of the sick and
infirm legionaries. Salaries (_traitements_) varying in each rank were
attached to the order. In 1805 the rank of "Grand Eagle" (now Grand
Cross, or _Grand Cordon_) was instituted, taking precedence of the grand
officers. At the Restoration many changes were made, the old military
and religious orders were restored, and the _Legion of Honour_, now
_Ordre Royale de la Légion d'Honneur_, took the lowest rank. The
revolution of July 1830 restored the order to its unique place. The
constitution of the order now rests on the decrees of the 16th of March
and 24th of November 1852, the law of the 25th of July 1873, the decree
of the 29th of December 1892, and the laws of the 16th of April 1895 and
the 28th of January 1897, and a decree of the 26th of June 1900. The
president of the republic is the grand master of the order; the
administration is in the hands of a grand chancellor, who has a council
of the order nominated by the grand master. The chancellery is housed in
the _Palais de la Légion de l'Honneur_, which, burnt during the Commune,
was rebuilt in 1878. The order consists of the five classes of grand
cross (limited to 80), grand officer (200), commander (1000), officers
(4000), and chevalier or knight, in which the number is unlimited. These
limitations in number do not affect the foreign recipients of the order.
Salaries (_traitements_) are attached to the military and naval
recipients of the order when on the active list, viz. 3000 francs for
grand cross, 2000 francs for grand officers, 1000 francs for commanders,
250 francs for chevaliers. The numbers of the recipients of the order
_sans traitement_ are limited through all classes. In ordinary
circumstances twenty years of military, naval or civil service must have
been performed before a candidate can be eligible for the rank of
chevalier, and promotions can only be made after definite service in the
lower rank. Extraordinary service in time of war and extraordinary
services in civil life admit to any rank. Women have been decorated,
notably Rosa Bonheur, Madame Curie and Madame Bartet. The Napoleonic
form of the grand cross and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV, fig. 6;
the cross from which the drawing was made was given to King Edward VII.
when prince of Wales in 1863. In the present order of the French
Republic the symbolical head of the Republic appears in the centre, and
a laurel wreath replaces the imperial crown; the inscription round the
medallion is _République française_. Since 1805 there has existed an
institution, _Maison d'éducation de la Legion d'Honneur_, for the
education of the daughters, granddaughters, sisters and nieces of
members of the Legion of Honour. There are three houses, at Saint Denis,
at Écouen and Les Loges (see _Dictionnaire de l'administration
française_, by M. Block and E. Magnéro, 1905, _s.v._ "Decorations").

  Among the orders swept away at the French Revolution, restored in part
  at the Restoration, and finally abolished at the revolution of July
  1830 were the following: The _Order of St Michael_ was founded by
  Louis XI. in 1469 for a limited number of knights of noble birth.
  Later the numbers were so much increased under Charles IX. that it
  became known as _Le Collier à toutes bêtes_. In 1816 the order was
  granted for services in art and science. In view of the low esteem
  into which the _Order of St Michael_ had fallen, Henry III. founded in
  1578 the _Order of the Holy Ghost_ (_St Esprit_). The badge of the
  order was a white Maltese cross decorated in gold, with the gold
  lilies of France at the angles, in the centre a white dove with wings
  outstretched, the ribbon was sky blue (_cordon bleu_). The motto of
  the order was _Duce et auspice_. The _Order of St Louis_ was founded
  by Louis XIV. in 1693 for military merit, and the _Order of Military
  Merit_ by Louis XV. in 1759, originally for Protestant officers.

  _Germany._--i. _Anhalt._ The _Order of Albert the Bear_, a family
  order or _Hausorden_, was founded in 1836 by the dukes Henry of
  Anhalt-Köthen, Leopold Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Alexander
  Charles of Anhalt-Bernburg. Changes in the constitution have been made
  at various dates. It now consists of five classes, grand cross,
  commander (2 classes) and knights (2 classes). The badge is a gold
  oval bearing in gold a crowned and collared bear on a crenellated
  wall; below the ring by which the badge is attached to the ribbon is a
  shield with the arms of the house of Anhalt, on the reverse those of
  the house of Ascania. Round the oval is the motto _Fürchte Gott und
  folge seine Befehle_. The ribbon is green with two red stripes. The
  grand master alone wears a collar.

  ii. _Baden._ The _Order of Fidelity or Loyalty_ (_Hausorden der
  Treue_) was instituted by William, margrave of Baden-Durlach in 1715,
  and reconstituted in 1803 by the elector Charles Frederick. There is
  now only one class, for princes of the reigning house, foreign
  sovereigns and eminent men of the state. The badge is a red enamelled
  cross with gold borders and double C's interlaced in the angles; in
  the centre a white medallion with red monogram over a green mound
  surmounted by the word _Fidelitas_ in black; the cross is suspended
  from a ducal crown. The ribbon is orange with silver edging. The
  military _Order of Charles Frederick_ was founded in 1807. There are
  three classes. The badge is a white cross resting on a green laurel
  wreath, the ribbon is red with a yellow stripe bordered with white.
  The order is conferred for long and meritorious military service. The
  _Order of the Zähringen Lion_ was founded in 1812 in commemoration of
  the descent of the reigning house of Baden from the dukes of
  Zähringen. It has been reconstituted in 1840 and 1877. It now consists
  of five classes. The badge is a green enamel cross with gold clasps in
  the angles; in the central medallion an enamelled representation of
  the ruined castle of Zähringen. The ribbon is green with two orange
  stripes. Since 1896 the _Order of Berthold I._ has been a distinct
  order; it was founded in 1877 as a higher class of the _Zähringen
  Lion_.

  iii. _Bavaria._ The _Order of St Hubert_, one of the oldest and most
  distinguished knightly orders, was founded in 1444 by duke Gerhard V.
  of Jülich-Berg in honour of a victory over Count Arnold of Egmont at
  Ravensberg on the 3rd of November, St Hubert's day. The knights wore a
  collar of golden hunting horns, whence the order was also known as the
  _Order of the Horn_. Statutes were granted in 1476, but the order fell
  into abeyance at the extinction of the dynasty in 1609. It was revived
  in 1708 by the elector palatine, John William of Neuberg, and its
  constitution was altered at various times, its final form being given
  by the elector Maximilian Joseph, first king of Bavaria, in 1808.
  Exclusive of the sovereign and princes of the blood, and foreign
  sovereigns and princes, it consists of twelve capitular knights of the
  rank of count or _Freiherr_. The badge of the order and the ribbon are
  illustrated in Plate V. fig. 3. The central medallion represents the
  conversion of St Hubert. The collar is composed of gold and blue
  enamel figures of the conversion linked by the Gothic monogram I.T.V.,
  _In Trau Vast_, the motto of the order, alternately red and green. The
  _Order of St George_, said to have been founded in the 12th century as
  a crusading order and revived by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1494,
  dates historically from its institution in 1729 by the elector Charles
  Albert, afterwards the emperor Charles VII. It was confirmed by the
  elector Charles Theodore in 1778 and by the elector Maximilian Joseph
  IV. as the second Bavarian order. Various new statutes have been
  granted from 1827 to 1875. The order is divided into two branches, "of
  German and foreign languages," and it also has a "spiritual class."
  The members of the order must be Roman Catholics. The badge is a blue
  enamelled cross with white and gold edging suspended from the mouth of
  a gold lion's head; in the angles of the cross are blue lozenges
  containing the letters V.I.B.I., _Virgini Immaculatae Bavaria
  Immaculata_. The central medallion contains a figure of the Immaculate
  Conception. The medallion on the reverse contains a figure of St
  George and the Dragon and the corresponding initials J.U.P.F., _Justus
  ut Palma Florebit_, the motto of the order. Besides the above Bavaria
  possesses the _Military Order of Maximilian Joseph_, 1806, and the
  _Civil Orders of Merit of St Michael_, 1693, and of the _Bavarian
  Crown_, 1808, and other minor orders and decorations, civil and
  military. There are also the two illustrious orders for ladies, the
  _Order of Elizabeth_, founded in 1766, and the _Order of Theresa_, in
  1827. The foundations of _St Anne of Munich_ and of _St Anne of
  Würzburg_ for ladies are not properly orders.

  iv. _Brunswick._ The _Order of Henry the Lion_, for military and civil
  merit, was founded by Duke William in 1834. There are five classes,
  and a cross of merit of two classes. The badge is a blue enamelled
  cross dependent from a lion surmounted by the ducal crown; the angles
  of the cross are filled by crowned W's and the centre bears the arms
  of Brunswick, a crowned pillar and a white horse, between two sickles.
  The ribbon is deep red bordered with yellow.

  v. _Hanover._ The _Order of St George_ (one class only) was instituted
  by King Ernest Augustus I. in 1839 as the family order of the house of
  Hanover; the _Royal Guelphic Order_ (three classes) by George, prince
  regent, afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and the
  _Order of Ernest Augustus_ by George V. of Hanover in 1865. These
  orders have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover ceased to be a
  kingdom, and the _Royal Guelphic Order_, which from its institution
  was more British than Hanoverian, not since the death of William IV.
  in 1837. The last British grand cross was the late duke of Cambridge.

  vi. _Hesse._ Of the various orders founded by the houses of
  Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt the following are still bestowed in
  the grand duchy of Hesse. The _Order of Louis_, founded by the grand
  duke Louis I. of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1807; there are five classes; the
  black, red and gold bordered cross bears the initial L. in the centre,
  the ribbon is black with red borders; the _Order of Philip the
  Magnanimous_, founded by the grand duke Louis II. in 1840 has five
  classes; the white cross of the badge bears the effigy of Philip
  surrounded by the motto _Si Deus vobiscum quis contra nos_. The _Order
  of the Golden Lion_ was founded in 1770 by the landgrave Frederick II.
  of Hesse-Cassel, the knights are 41 in number and take precedence of
  the members of the two former orders. The badge is an open oval of
  gold with the Hessian lion in the centre. The ribbon is crimson.

  vii. _Mecklenburg._ The grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and
  Mecklenburg-Strelitz possess jointly the _Order of the Wendish Crown_,
  founded in 1864 by the grand dukes Frederick Francis II. of Schwerin
  and Frederick William of Strelitz; there are four classes, with two
  divisions of the grand cross, and also an affiliated cross of merit;
  the grand cross can be granted to ladies. The badge is a white cross
  bearing on a blue centre the Wendish crown, surrounded by the motto,
  for the Schwerin knights, _Per aspera ad astra_, for the Strelitz
  knights, _Avito viret honore_. The _Order of the Griffin_, founded in
  1884 by Frederick Francis III. of Schwerin, was made common to the
  duchies in 1904.

  viii. _Oldenberg._ The _Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis_, a family
  order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke Paul Frederick
  Augustus in memory of his father in 1838. It has two divisions, each
  of five classes, of capitular knights and honorary members. The badge
  is a white gold bordered cross suspended from a crown, in the centre
  the crowned monogram P.F.L. surrounded by the motto _Ein Gott, Ein
  Recht, Eine Wahrheit_; the ribbon is dark blue bordered with red.

  ix. _Prussia._ The _Order of the Black Eagle_, one of the most
  distinguished of European orders, was founded in 1701 by the elector
  of Brandenburg, Frederick I., in memory of his coronation as king of
  Prussia. The order consists of one class only and the original
  statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal
  house and foreign members, to 30. But the number has been exceeded. It
  is only conferred on those of royal lineage and upon high officers of
  state. It confers the nobiliary particle _von_. Only those who have
  received the _Order of the Red Eagle_ are eligible. An illustration of
  the badge of the order with ribbon is given on Plate IV. fig. 3. The
  star of silver bears the black eagle on an orange ground surrounded by
  a silver fillet on which is the motto of the order _Suum Cuique_. The
  collar is formed of alternate black eagles and a circular medallion
  with the motto on a white centre surrounded by the initials F.R.
  repeated in green, the whole in a circle of blue with four gold crowns
  on the exterior rim. The _Order of the Red Eagle_, the second of the
  Prussian orders, was founded originally as the _Order of Sincerity_
  (_L'Ordre de la Sincerité_) in 1705 by George William, hereditary
  prince of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The original constitution and insignia
  are now entirely changed, with the exception of the red eagle which
  formed the centre of the cross of the badge. The order had almost
  fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734 by the margrave
  George Frederick Charles as the _Order of the Brandenburg Red Eagle_.
  It consisted of 30 nobly born knights. The numbers were increased and
  a grand cross class added in 1759. On the cession of the principality
  to Prussia in 1791 the order was transferred and King Frederick
  William raised it to that place in Prussian orders which it has since
  maintained. The order was divided into four classes in 1810 and there
  are now five classes with numerous subdivisions. It is an order of
  civil and military merit. The grand cross resembles the badge of the
  Black Eagle, but is white and the eagles in the corners red, the
  central medallion bearing the initials W.R. (those of William I.)
  surrounded by a blue fillet with the motto _Sincere et Constanter_.
  The numerous classes and subdivisions have exceedingly complicated
  distinguishing marks, some bearing crossed swords, a crown, or an
  oak-leaf surmounting the cross. The ribbon is white with two orange
  stripes.

  The _Order for Merit_ (_Ordre pour le Mérite_), one of the most highly
  prized of European orders of merit, has now two divisions, military
  and for science and art. It was originally founded by the electoral
  prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1667 as the
  _Order of Generosity_; it was given its present name and granted for
  civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740. In 1810
  the order was made one for military merit against the enemy in the
  field exclusively. In 1840 the class for distinction for science and
  art, or peace class (_Friedensklasse_) was founded by Frederick
  William IV., for those "who have gained an illustrious name by wide
  recognition in the spheres of science and art." The number is limited
  to 30 German and 30 foreign members. The _Academy of Sciences and
  Arts_ on a vacancy nominates three candidates, from which one is
  selected by the king. It is interesting to note that this was the only
  distinction which Thomas Carlyle would accept. The badge of the
  military order is a blue cross with gold uncrowned eagles in the
  angles; on the topmost arm is the initial F., with a crown; on the
  other arms the inscription _Pour le Mérite_. The ribbon is black with
  a silver stripe at the edges. In 1866 a special grand cross was
  instituted for the crown prince (afterwards Frederick III.) and Prince
  Frederick Charles. It was in 1879 granted to Count von Moltke as a
  special distinction. The badge of the class for science or art is a
  circular medallion of white, with a gold eagle in the centre
  surrounded by a blue border with the inscription _Pour le Mérite_; on
  the white field the letters [reverse F]F. II. four times repeated, and
  four crowns in gold projecting from the rim. The ribbon is the same as
  for the military class. The _Order of the Crown_, founded by William
  I. in 1861, ranks with the Red Eagle. There are four classes, with
  many subdivisions. Other Prussian orders are the _Order of William_,
  instituted by William II. in 1896; a Prussian branch of the knights of
  St John of Jerusalem, _Johanniter Orden_, in its present form dating
  from 1893; and the family _Order of the House of Hohenzollern_,
  founded in 1851 by Frederick William IV. There are two divisions,
  military and civil, divided into four classes. The military badge is a
  white cross with black and gold edging, resting on a green oak and
  laurel wreath; the central medallion bears the Prussian Eagle with the
  arms of Hohenzollern, and is surrounded by a blue fillet with the
  motto _Vom Fels zum Meer_; the civil badge is a black eagle, with the
  head encircled with a blue fillet with the motto. There are also for
  ladies the _Order of Service_, founded in 1814 by Frederick William
  III., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and in 1865. The decoration
  of merit for ladies (_Verdienst-kreuz_), founded in 1870, was raised
  to an order in 1907. For the famous military decoration, the _Iron
  Cross_, see MEDALS.

  x. _Saxony._--The _Order of the Crown of Rue_ (_Rauten Krone_) was
  founded as a family order by Frederick Augustus I. in 1807. It is of
  one class only, and the sons and nephews of the sovereign are born
  knights of the order. It is granted to foreign ruling princes and
  subjects of high rank. The badge is a pale green enamelled cross
  resting on a gold crown with eight rue leaves, the centre is white
  with the crowned monogram of the founder surrounded by a green circlet
  of rue; the star bears in its centre the motto _Providentiae Memor_.
  The ribbon is green. Other Saxon orders are the military _Order of St
  Henry_, for distinguished service in the field, founded in 1736 in one
  class; since 1829 it has had four classes; the ribbon is sky blue with
  two yellow stripes, the gold cross bears in the centre the effigy of
  the emperor Henry II.; the _Order of Albert_, for civil and military
  merit, founded in 1850 by Frederick Augustus II. in memory of Duke
  Albert the Bold, the founder of the Albertine line of Saxony, has six
  classes; the _Order of Civil Merit_, was founded in 1815. For ladies
  there are the _Order of Sidonia_, 1870, in memory of the wife of
  Albert the Bold, the mother (_Stamm-Mutter_) of the Albertine line;
  and the _Maria Anna Order_, 1906.

  [Illustration: PLATE IV.

  (i.) THE ST. ANDREW (Russia). (ii.) THE GOLDEN FLEECE (Spain). (iii.)
  THE BLACK EAGLE (Prussia). (iv.) THE TOWER AND SWORD (Portugal). (v.)
  THE ELEPHANT (Denmark). (vi.) THE LEGION OF HONOUR
  (France-Napoleonic). (vii.) THE ANNUNZIATA (Italy).

  _Drawn by William Gibb._

  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]

  xi. The duchies of _Saxe Altenburg_, _Saxe Coburg Gotha_ and _Saxe
  Meiningen_ have in common the family _Order of Ernest_, founded in
  1833 in memory of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe Gotha and as a revival
  of the _Order of German Integrity_ (_Orden der deutschen Redlichkeit_)
  founded in 1690. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen have also
  separate crosses of merit in science and art.

  xii. _Saxe Weimar._--The _Order of the White Falcon_ or _of Vigilance_
  was founded in 1732 and renewed in 1815.

  xiii. _Württemberg._--The _Order of the Crown of Württemberg_ was
  founded in 1818, uniting the former _Order of the Golden Eagle_ and an
  order of civil merit. It has five classes. The badge is a white cross
  surmounted by the royal crown, in the centre the initial F surrounded
  by a crimson fillet on which is the motto _Furchtlos und Treu_; in the
  angles of the cross are four golden leopards; the ribbon is crimson
  with two black stripes. Besides the military _Order of Merit_ founded
  in 1759, and the silver cross of merit, 1900, Württemberg has also the
  _Order of Frederick_, 1830, and the _Order of Olga_, 1871, which is
  granted to ladies as well as men.

  _Greece._--The _Order of the Redeemer_ was founded as such in 1833 by
  King Otto, being a conversion of a decoration of honour instituted in
  1829 by the National Assembly at Argos. There are five classes, the
  numbers being regulated for each. An illustration of the badge and
  ribbon of the grand cross is given on Plate V. fig. 1.

  _Holland._--The _Order of William_, for military merit, was founded in
  1815 by William I.; there are four classes; the badge is a white cross
  resting on a green laurel Burgundian cross, in the centre the
  Burgundian flint-steel, as in the order of the Golden Fleece. The
  motto _Voer Moed, Belied, Trouw_ (For Valour, Devotion, Loyalty),
  appears on the arms of the cross. The cross is surmounted by a
  jewelled crown; the ribbon is orange with dark blue edging. The _Order
  of the Netherlands Lion_, for civil merit, was founded in 1818; there
  are four classes. The family _Order of the Golden Lion of Nassau_
  passed in 1890 to the grand duchy of Luxembourg (see under LUXEMBURG).
  In 1892 Queen Wilhelmina instituted the _Order of Orange-Nassau_ with
  five classes. The _Teutonic Order_ (q.v.), surviving in the Ballarde
  (Bailiwick) of Utrecht, was officially established in the Netherlands
  by the States General in 1580. It was abolished by Napoleon in 1811
  and was restored in 1815.

  _Italy._--The _Order of the Annunziata_, the highest order of
  knighthood of the Italian kingdom, was instituted in 1362 by Amadeus
  VI., count of Savoy, as the Order of the Collare or Collar, from the
  silver collar made up of love-knots and roses, which was its badge, in
  honour of the fifteen joys of the Virgin; hence the number of the
  knights was restricted to fifteen, the fifteen chaplains recited
  fifteen masses each day, and the clauses of the original statute of
  the order were fifteen (Amadeus VIII. added five others in 1434).
  Charles III. decreed that the order should be called the Annunziata,
  and made some other alterations in 1518. His son and successor,
  Emmanuel Philibert, made further modifications in the statute and the
  costume. The church of the order was originally the Carthusian
  monastery of Pierre-châtel in the district of Bugey, but after Charles
  Emmanuel I. had given Bugey and Bresse to France in 1601 the church of
  the order was transferred to the Camaldolese monastery near Turin.
  That religious order having been suppressed at the time of the French
  Revolution, King Charles Albert decreed in 1840 that the Carthusian
  church of Collegno should be the chapel of the order. The knights of
  the Annunziata have the title of "cousins of the king," and enjoy
  precedence over all the other officials of the state. The costume of
  the order is of white satin embroidered in silk, with a purple velvet
  cloak adorned with roses and gold embroidery, but it is now never
  worn; in the collar the motto _Fert_ is inserted, on the meaning of
  which there is great uncertainty,[65] and from it hangs a pendant
  enclosing a medallion representing the Annunciation (see Plate IV.
  fig. 7). An account of the order is given in Count Luigi Cibrario's
  _Ordini Cavallereschi_ (Turin, 1846) with coloured plates of the
  costume and badges.

  The _Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus_ (SS Maurizio e Lazzaro), is a
  combination of two ancient orders. The Order of St Maurice was
  originally founded by Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, in 1434, when he
  retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, and consisted of a group of
  half-a-dozen councillors who were to advise him on such affairs of
  state as he continued to control. When he became pope as Felix V. the
  order practically ceased to exist. It was re-established at the
  instance of Emmanuel Philibert by Pope Pius V. in 1572 as a military
  and religious order, and the following year it was united to that of
  St Lazarus by Gregory XIII. The latter order had been founded as a
  military and religious community at the time of the Latin kingdom of
  Jerusalem with the object of assisting lepers, many of whom were among
  its members. Popes, princes and nobles endowed it with estates and
  privileges, including that of administering and succeeding to the
  property of lepers, which eventually led to grave abuses. With the
  advance of the Saracens the knights of St Lazarus, when driven from
  the Holy Land and Egypt, migrated to France (1291) and Naples (1311),
  where they founded leper hospitals. The order in Naples, which alone
  was afterwards recognized as the legitimate descendant of the
  Jerusalem community, was empowered to seize and confine anyone
  suspected of leprosy, a permission which led to the establishment of a
  regular inquisitorial system of blackmail. In the 15th and 16th
  centuries dissensions broke out among the knights, and the order
  declined in credit and wealth, until finally the grand master,
  Giannotto Castiglioni, resigned his position in favour of Emmanuel
  Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1571. Two years later the orders of St
  Lazarus and St Maurice were incorporated into one community, the
  members of which were to devote themselves to the defence of the Holy
  See and to fight its enemies as well as to continue assisting lepers.
  The galleys of the order subsequently took part in various expeditions
  against the Turks and the Barbary pirates. Leprosy, which had almost
  disappeared in the 17th century, broke out once more in the 18th, and
  in 1773 a hospital was established by the order at Aosta, made famous
  by Xavier de Maistre's tale, _Le Lépreux de la cité d'Aoste_. The
  statutes were published in 1816, by which date the order had lost its
  military character; it was reformed first by Charles Albert (1831),
  and later by Victor Emmanuel II., king of Italy (1868). The knighthood
  of St Maurice and St Lazarus is now a dignity conferred by the king of
  Italy (the grand master) on persons distinguished in the public
  service, science, art and letters, trade, and above all in charitable
  works, to which its income is devoted. There are five classes. The
  badge of the combined order is composed of the white cross with
  trefoil termination of St Lazarus resting on the green cross of St
  Maurice; both crosses are bordered gold. The first four classes wear
  the badge suspended from a royal crown. The ribbon is dark green.

  See L. Cibrario, _Descrizione storica degli Ordini Cavallereschi_,
  vol. i. (Turin, 1846); _Calendario Reale_, an annual publication
  issued in Rome.

  The military _Order of Savoy_ was founded in 1815 by Victor Emmanuel
  of Sardinia; badge modified 1855 and 1857. It has now five classes.
  The badge is a white cross, the arms of which expand and terminate in
  an obtuse angle; round the cross is a green laurel and oak wreath; the
  central medallion is red, bearing in gold two crossed swords, the
  initials of the founder and the date 1855. The ribbon is red with a
  central stripe of blue. The _Civil Order of Savoy_, founded in 1831 by
  Charles Albert of Sardinia, is of one class, and in statutes of 1868
  is limited to 60 members. The badge is the plain Savoy cross in blue,
  with silver medallion, the ribbon is blue with white borders. The
  _Order of the Crown of Italy_ was founded in 1868 by Victor Emmanuel
  II. in commemoration of the union of Italy into a kingdom. There are
  five classes.

  _Luxemburg._--The _Order of the Golden Lion_ was founded as a family
  order of the house of Nassau by William III. of the Netherlands and
  Adolphus of Nassau jointly. On the death of William in 1890 it passed
  to the grand duke of Luxemburg; it has only one class. The _Order of
  Adolphus of Nassau_, for civil and military merit, in four classes,
  was founded in 1858, and the _Order of the Oak Crown_ as a general
  order of merit, in five classes, in 1841, modified 1858.

  _Monaco._--The _Order of St Charles_, five classes, was founded in
  1858 by Prince Charles III. and remodelled in 1863. It is a general
  order of merit.

  _Montenegro._--The _Order of St Peter_, founded in 1852, is a family
  order, in one class, and only given to members of the princely family;
  the _Order of Danilo_, or of the _Independence of Montenegro_, is a
  general order of merit, in four classes, with subdivisions, also
  founded in 1852.

  _Norway._--The _Order of St Olaf_ was founded in 1847 by Oscar I. in
  honour of St Olaf, the founder of Christianity in Norway, as a general
  order of merit, military and civil. There are three classes, the last
  two being, in 1873 and 1890, subdivided into two grades each. The
  badge and ribbon is illustrated on Plate V, fig. 5. The reverse bears
  the motto _Ret og Sandhed_ (Right and Truth). The _Order of the
  Norwegian Lion_, founded in 1904 by Oscar II., has only one class;
  foreigners on whom the order is conferred must be sovereigns or heads
  of states or members of reigning houses.

  _Papal._--The arrangement and constitution of the papal orders was
  remodelled by a brief of Pius X. in 1905. The _Order of Christ_, the
  supreme pontifical order, is of one class only; for the history of
  this ancient order see _Portugal_ (_infra_). The badge and ribbon is
  the same as the older Portuguese form. The _Order of Pius_ was founded
  in 1847 by Pius IX.; there are now three classes; the badge is an
  eight-pointed blue star with golden flames between the rays, a white
  centre bears the founder's name; the ribbon is blue with two red
  stripes at each border. The _Order of St Gregory the Great_, founded
  in 1831, is in two divisions, civil and military, each having three
  classes. The _Order of St Sylvester_ was originally founded as the
  _Order of the Golden Spur_ by Paul IV. in 1559 as a military body,
  though tradition assigns it to Constantine the Great and Pope
  Sylvester. It was reorganized as an order of merit by Gregory XVI. in
  1841. In 1905 the order was divided into three classes, and a separate
  order, that of the _Golden Spur_ or _Golden Legion_ (_Militia Aurata_)
  was established, in one class, with the numbers limited to a hundred.
  The cross _Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice_, instituted by Leo XIII. in
  1888 is a decoration, not an order. There remains the venerable _Order
  of the Holy Sepulchre_, of which tradition assigns the foundation to
  Godfrey de Bouillon. It was, however, probably founded as a military
  order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre by Alexander VI. in
  1496. The right to nominate to the order was shared with the pope as
  grand master by the guardian of the _Patres Minores_ in Jerusalem,
  later by the Franciscans, and then by the Latin patriarch in
  Jerusalem. In 1905 the latter was nominated grand master, but the pope
  reserves the joint right of nomination. The badge of the order is a
  red Jerusalem cross with red Latin crosses in the angles.

  _Portugal._--The _Order of Christ_ was founded on the abolition of the
  Templars by Dionysius or Diniz of Portugal and in 1318 in conjunction
  with Pope John XXII., both having the right to nominate to the order.
  The papal branch survives as a distinct order. In 1522 it was formed
  as a distinct Portuguese order and the grand mastership vested in the
  crown of Portugal. In 1789 its original religious aspect was
  abandoned, and with the exception that its members must be of the
  Roman Catholic faith, it is entirely secularized. There are three
  classes. The original badge of the order was a long red cross with
  expanded flat ends bearing a small cross in white; the ribbon is red.
  The modern badge is a blue enamelled cross resting on a green laurel
  wreath; the central medallion, in white, contains the old red and
  white cross. The older form is worn with the collar by the
  grand-crosses. The _Order of the Tower and Sword_ was founded in 1808
  in Brazil by the regent, afterwards king John VI. of Portugal, as a
  revival of the old _Order of the Sword_, said to have been founded by
  Alfonso V. in 1459. It was remodelled in 1832 under its present name
  and constitution as a general order of military and civil merit. There
  are five classes. The badge of the order and ribbon is illustrated on
  Plate IV. fig 4. The _Order of St Benedict of Aviz_ (earlier of
  _Evora_), founded in 1162 as a religious military order, was
  secularized in 1789 as an order of military merit, in four classes.
  The badge is a green cross _fleury_; the ribbon is green. The _Order
  of St James of the Sword_, or James of Compostella, is a branch of the
  Spanish order of that name (see under SPAIN). It also was secularized
  in 1789, and in 1862 was constituted an order of merit for science,
  literature and art, in five classes. The badge is the lily-hilted
  sword of St James, enamelled red with gold borders; the ribbon is
  violet. In 1789 these three orders were granted a common badge uniting
  the three separate crosses in a gold medallion; the joint ribbon is
  red, green and violet, and to the separate crosses was added a red
  sacred heart and small white cross. There are also the _Order of Our
  Lady of Villa Viçosa_ (1819), for both sexes, and the _Order of St
  Isabella_, 1801, for ladies.

  _Rumania._--The _Order of the Star of Rumania_ was founded in 1877,
  and the _Order of the Crown of Rumania_ in 1881, both in five classes,
  for civil and military merit; the ribbon of the first is red with blue
  borders, of the second light blue with two silver stripes.

  _Russia._--The _Order of St Andrew_ was founded in 1698 by Peter the
  Great. It is the chief order of the empire, and admission carries with
  it according to the statutes of 1720 the orders of _St Anne_,
  _Alexander Nevsky_, and the _White Eagle_; there is only one class.
  The badge and ribbon is illustrated in Plate IV. fig 5. The collar is
  composed of three members alternately, the imperial eagle bearing on a
  red medallion a figure of St George slaying the Dragon, the badge of
  the grand duchy of Moskow, the cipher of the emperor Paul I. in gold
  on a blue ground, surmounted by the imperial crown, and surrounded by
  a trophy of weapons and green and white flags, and a circular red and
  gold star with a blue St Andrew's cross. The _Order of St Catherine_,
  for ladies, ranks next to the St Andrew. It was founded under the name
  of the _Order of Rescue_ by Peter the Great in 1714 in honour of the
  empress Catherine and the part she had taken in rescuing him at the
  battle of the Pruth in 1711. There are two classes. The grand cross is
  only for members of the imperial house and ladies of the highest
  nobility. The second class was added in 1797. The badge of the order
  is a cross of diamonds bearing in a medallion the effigy of St
  Catherine. The ribbon is red with the motto _For Love and Fatherland_
  in silver letters. The _Order of St Alexander Nevsky_ was founded in
  1725 by the empress Catherine I. There is only one class. The badge is
  a red enamelled cross with gold eagles in the angles, bearing in a
  medallion the mounted effigy of St Alexander Nevsky. The ribbon is
  red. The _Order of the White Eagle_ was founded in 1713 by Augustus
  II. of Poland and was adopted as a Russian order in 1831; there is one
  class. The _Order of St Anne_ was founded by Charles Frederick, duke
  of Holstein-Gottorp in 1735 in honour of his wife, Anna Petrovna,
  daughter of Peter the Great. It was adopted as a Russian order in 1797
  by their grandson, the emperor Paul. There are four classes. Other
  orders are those of _St Vladimir_, founded by Catherine II., 1782,
  four classes, and of _St Stanislaus_, founded originally as a Polish
  order by Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski in 1765, and adopted as a
  Russian order in 1831.

  The military _Order of St George_ was founded by the empress Catherine
  II. in 1769 for military service on land and sea, with four classes; a
  fifth class for non-commissioned officers and men, the _St George's
  Cross_, was added in 1807. The badge is a white cross with gold
  borders, with a red central medallion on which is the figure of St
  George slaying the dragon. The ribbon is orange with three black
  stripes.

  _Servia._--The _Order of the White Eagle_, the principal order, was
  founded by Milan I. in 1882, statutes 1883, in five classes; the
  ribbon is blue and red; the _Order of St Sava_, founded 1883, also in
  five classes, is an order of merit for science and art; the _Order of
  the Star of Karageorgevitch_, four classes, was founded by Peter I. in
  1904. The orders of _Milosch the Great_, founded by Alexander I. in
  1898 and of _Takovo_, founded originally by Michael Obrenovitch in
  1863, reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903
  no longer bestowed. The _Order of St Lazarus_ is not a general order,
  the cross and collar being only worn by the king.

  _Spain._--The Spanish branch of the _Order of the Golden Fleece_ has
  been treated above. The three most ancient orders of Spain--of _St
  James of Compostella_, or _St James of the Sword_, of _Alcantara_ and
  of _Calatrava_--still exist as orders of merit, the first in three
  classes, the last two as orders of military merit in one class. They
  were all originally founded as military religious orders, like the
  crusading Templars and the Hospitallers, but to fight for the true
  faith against the Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders
  represent the crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That of
  St James of Compostella is the red lily-hilted sword of St James; the
  ribbon is also red. The other two orders wear the cross
  _fleury_--_Alcantara_ red, _Calatrava_ green, with corresponding
  ribbons. A short history of these orders may be here given. Tradition
  gives the foundation of the _Order of Knights of St James of
  Compostella_ to Ramiro II., king of Leon, in the 10th century, to
  commemorate a victory over the Moors, but, historically the order
  dates from the confirmation in 1175 by Pope Alexander III. It gained
  great reputation in the wars against the Moors and became very
  wealthy. In 1493 the grand-mastership was annexed by Ferdinand the
  Catholic, and was vested permanently in the crown of Spain by Pope
  Adrian VI. in 1522.

  The _Order of Knights of Alcantara_, instituted about 1156 by the
  brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for protection against
  the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order of
  knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until about
  1213 they were known as the Knights of San Julian del Pereyro; but
  when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from the Moors by
  Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they took their name
  from that city. For a considerable time they were in some degree
  subject to the grand master of the kindred order of Calatrava.
  Ultimately, however, they asserted their independence by electing a
  grand master of their own, the first holder of the office being Don
  Diego Sanche. During the rule of thirty-seven successive grand
  masters, similarly chosen, the influence and wealth of the order
  gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were almost as
  powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-1495 Juan de Zuñiga was prevailed
  upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand, who thereupon vested
  it in his own person as king; and this arrangement was ratified by a
  bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared permanent by Pope Adrian
  VI. in 1523. The yearly income of Zuñiga at the time of his
  resignation amounted to 150,000 ducats. In 1540 Pope Paul III.
  released the knights from the strictness of Benedictine rule by giving
  them permission to marry, though second marriage was forbidden. The
  three vows were henceforth _obedientia_, _castitas conjugalis_ and
  _conversio morum_. In modern times the history of the order has been
  somewhat chequered. When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in
  1808, he deprived the knights of their revenues, which were only
  partially recovered on the restoration of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The
  order ceased to exist as a spiritual body in 1835.

  The _Order of Knights of Calatrava_ was founded in 1158 by Don Sancho
  III. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava, newly wrested
  from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexander III. granted
  confirmation as a religious military order under Cistercian rule. In
  1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the Moors and the order removed
  to the castle of Salvatierra, but recovered their town in 1212. In
  1489 Ferdinand seized the grand-mastership, and it was finally vested
  in the crown of Spain in 1523. The order became a military order of
  merit in 1808 and was reorganized in 1874. The _Royal and Illustrious
  Order of Charles III._ was founded in 1771 by Charles III., in two
  classes; altered in 1804, it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in
  1809, together with all the Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece,
  and the _Royal Order of the Knights of Spain_ was established. In 1814
  Ferdinand VII. revived the order, and in 1847 it received its present
  constitution, viz. of three classes (the commanders in two divisions).
  The badge of the order is a blue and white cross suspended from a
  green laurel wreath, in the angles are golden lilies, and the oval
  centre bears a figure of the Virgin in a golden glory. The ribbon is
  blue and white. The _Order of Isabella the Catholic_ was founded in
  1815 under the patronage of St Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal;
  originally instituted to reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish
  possessions in America, it is now a general order of merit, in three
  classes. The badge is a red rayed cross with gold rays in the angles,
  in the centre a representation of the pillars of Hercules; the cross
  is attached to the yellow and white ribbon by a green laurel wreath.
  Other Spanish orders are the _Maria Louisa_, 1792, for noble ladies;
  the military and naval orders of merit of _St Ferdinand_, founded by
  the Cortes in 1811, five classes; of _St Ermenegild_ (_Hermenegildo_),
  1814, three classes, of _Military Merit_ and _Naval Merit_, 1866, and
  of _Maria Christina_, 1890; the _Order of Beneficencia_ for civil
  merit, 1856; that of _Alfonso XII._ for merit in science, literature
  and art, 1902, and the _Civil Order of Alfonso XII._, 1902.

  [Illustration: PLATE V.

  (i) THE REDEEMER (Greece). (ii) THE ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN
  OF JERUSALEM (English Branch, Badge of the Sovereign and Patron).
  (iii) THE ST. HUBERT (Bavaria). (iv) THE ST. STEPHEN (Hungary). (v).
  THE ST. OLAF (Norway). (vi). THE SERAPHIM (Sweden).

  _Drawn by William Gibb._

  _Niagara Litho. Co., Buffalo, N. Y._]

  _Sweden._--The _Order of the Seraphim_ (the "Blue Ribbon"). Tradition
  attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knighthood
  to Magnus I. in 1280, more certainty attaches to the fact that the
  order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order dates
  from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I., modified by statutes
  of 1798 and 1814. Exclusive of the sovereign and the princes of the
  blood, the order is limited to 23 Swedish and 8 foreign members. The
  native members must be already members of the _Order of the Sword_ or
  the _Pole Star_. There is a prelate of the order which is administered
  by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in the Riddar Holmskyrka at
  Stockholm. The badge and ribbon of the grand cross is illustrated on
  Plate V. fig. 6. The collar is formed of alternate gold seraphim and
  blue enamelled patriarchal crosses. The motto is _Iesus Hominum
  Salvator_. The _Order of the Sword_ (the "Yellow Ribbon"), the
  principal Swedish military order, was founded, it is said, by Gustavus
  I. Vasa in 1522, and was re-established by Frederick I., with the
  _Seraphim_ and the _Pole Star_ in 1748; modifications have been made
  in 1798, 1814 and 1889. There are five classes, with subdivisions. The
  badge is a white cross, in the angles gold crowns, the points of the
  cross joined by gold swords entwined with gold and blue belts, in the
  blue centre an upright sword with the three crowns in gold, the whole
  surmounted by the royal crown. The ribbon is yellow with blue edging.
  The _Order of the Pole Star_ (_Polar Star_, _North Star_, the "Black
  Ribbon"), founded in 1748 for civil merit, has since 1844 three
  classes. The white cross bears a five-pointed silver star on a blue
  medallion. The ribbon is black. The _Order of Vasa_ (the "Green
  Ribbon"), founded by Gustavus III. in 1772 as an order of merit for
  services rendered to the national industries and manufactures, has
  three classes, with subdivisions. The white cross badge bears on a
  blue centre the charge of the house of Vasa, a gold sheaf shaped like
  a vase with two handles. The ribbon is green. The _Order of Charles
  XIII._, founded in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree. It
  is thus quite unique.

  _Turkey._--The _Nischan-i-Imtiaz_, or _Order of Privilege_, was
  founded by Abdul Hamid II. in 1879 as a general order of merit in one
  class; the _Nischan-el-Iftikhar_, or _Order of Glory_, also one class,
  founded 1831 by Mahmoud II.; the _Nischan-i-Mejidi_, the _Mejidieh_,
  was founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul
  Medjid. There are five classes; the badge is a silver sun of seven
  clustered rays, with crescent and star between each cluster; on a gold
  centre is the sultan's name in black Turkish lettering, surrounded by
  a red fillet inscribed with the words _Zeal_, _Devotion_, _Loyalty_;
  it is suspended from a red crescent and star; the ribbon is red with
  green borders. The khedive of Egypt has authority, delegated by the
  sultan, to grant this order. The _Nischan-i-Osmanie_, the _Osmanieh_,
  for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 1862; it
  has four classes. The badge is a gold sun with seven gold-bordered
  green rays; the red centre bears the crescent, and it is also
  suspended from a gold crescent and star; the ribbon is green bordered
  with red. The _Nischan-i-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence_, was
  instituted for ladies, in three classes, in 1878 by the sultan in
  honour of the work done for the non-combatant victims of the
  Russo-Turkish war of 1877 in connexion with the Turkish Compassionate
  Fund started by the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. She was one of the
  first to receive the order. There are also the family order, for
  Turkish princes, the _Hanédani-Ali-Osman_, founded in 1893, and the
  _Ertogroul_, in 1903.

  _Non-European Orders._--Of the various states of Central and South
  America, Nicaragua has the _American Order of San Juan_ or _Grey
  Town_, founded in 1857, in three classes; and Venezuela that of the
  _Bust of Bolivar_, 1854, five classes; the ribbon is yellow, blue and
  red. Mexico has abolished its former orders, the _Mexican Eagle_,
  1865, and _Our Lady of Guadalupe_, 1853; as has Brazil those of the
  _Southern Cross_, 1822, _Dom Pedro I._, 1826, _the Rose_, 1829, and
  the Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of _Christ_, _St
  Benedict of Aviz_ and _St James_. The republican _Order of Columbus_,
  founded in 1890, was abolished in 1891.

  _China._--There are no orders for natives, and such distinctions as
  are conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins, the
  grades indicated by the number of peacocks' feathers, the gift of the
  yellow jacket and the like, are rather insignia of rank or personal
  marks of honour than orders, whether of knighthood or merit, in the
  European sense. For foreigners, however, the emperor in 1882
  established the sole order, that of the _Imperial Double Dragon_, in
  five classes, the first three of which are further divided into three
  grades each, making eleven grades in all. The recipients eligible for
  the various classes are graded, from the first grade of the first
  class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants
  and manufacturers. The insignia of the order are unique in shape and
  decoration. Of the three grades of the first class the badge is a
  rectangular gold and yellow enamel plaque, decorated with two upright
  blue dragons, with details in green and white, between the heads for
  the first grade a pearl, for the second a ruby, for the third a coral,
  set in green, white and gold circles. The size of the plaque varies
  for the different classes. The badges of the other four classes are
  round plaques, the first three with indented edges, the last plain; in
  the second class the dragons are in silver on a yellow and gold
  ground, the jewel is a cut coral; the grades differ in the colour,
  shape, &c., of the borders and indentations; in the third class the
  dragons are gold, the ground green, the jewel a sapphire; in the
  fourth the silver dragons are on a blue ground, the jewel a lapis
  lazuli; in the fifth green dragons on a silver ground, the jewel a
  pearl. The ribbons, decorated with embroidered dragons, differ for the
  various grades and classes.

  _Japan._--The Japanese orders have all been instituted by the emperor
  Mutsu Hito. In design and workmanship the insignia of the orders are
  beautiful examples of the art of the native enamellers. The _Order of
  the Chrysanthemum_ (_Kikkwa Daijasho_), founded in 1877, has only one
  class. It is but rarely conferred on others than members of the royal
  house or foreign rulers or princes. The badge of the order may be
  described as follows: From a centre of red enamel representing the sun
  issue 32 white gold-bordered rays in four sharply projecting groups,
  between the angles of which are four yellow conventional chrysanthemum
  flowers with green leaves forming a circle on which the rays rest; the
  whole is suspended from a larger yellow chrysanthemum. The ribbon is
  deep red bordered with purple. The collar, which may be granted with
  the order or later, is composed of four members repeated, two gold
  chrysanthemums, one with green leaves, the other surrounded by a
  wreath of palm, and two elaborate arabesque designs. The _Order of the
  Paulownia Sun_ (_Tokwa Daijasho_), founded in 1888, in one class, may
  be in a sense regarded as the highest class of the _Rising Sun_
  (_Kiokujitsasho_) founded in eight classes, in 1875. The badge of both
  orders is essentially the same, viz. the red sun with white and gold
  rays; in the former the lilac flowers of the Paulownia tree, the
  flower of the Tycoon's arms, take a prominent part. The ribbon of the
  first order is deep red with white edging, of the second scarlet with
  white central stripe. The last two classes of the _Rising Sun_ wear a
  decoration formed of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The _Order of
  the Mirror_ or _Happy Sacred Treasure_ (_Zaihosho_) was founded in
  1888, with eight classes. The cross of white and gold clustered rays
  bears in a blue centre a silver star-shaped mirror. The ribbon is pale
  blue with orange stripes. There is also an order for ladies, that of
  the _Crown_, founded in five classes in 1888. The military order of
  Japan is the _Order of the Golden Kite_, founded in 1890, in seven
  classes. The badge has an elaborate design; it consists of a star of
  purple, red, yellow, gold and silver rays, on which are displayed old
  Japanese weapons, banners and shields in various coloured enamels, the
  whole surmounted by a golden kite with outstretched wings. The ribbon
  is green with white stripes.

  _Persia._--The _Order of the Sun and Lion_, founded by Fath 'Ali Shah
  in 1808, has five classes. There is also the _Nischan-i-Aftab_, for
  ladies, founded in 1873.

  _Siam._--The _Sacred Order_, or the _Nine Precious Stones_, was
  founded in 1869, in one class only, for the Buddhist princes of the
  royal house. The _Order of the White Elephant_, founded in 1861, is in
  five classes. This is the principal general order. The badge is a
  striking example of Oriental design adapted to a European conventional
  form. The circular plaque is formed of a triple circle of lotus leaves
  in gold, red and green, within a blue circlet with pearls a richly
  caparisoned white elephant on a gold ground, the whole surmounted by
  the jewelled gold pagoda crown of Siam; the collar is formed of
  alternate white elephants, red, blue and white royal monograms and
  gold pagoda crowns. The ribbon is red with green borders and small
  blue and white stripes. Other orders are the _Siamese Crown_ (_Mongkut
  Siam_), five classes, founded 1869; the family _Order of
  Chulah-Chon-Clao_, three classes, 1873; and the _Maha Charkrkri_,
  1884, only for princes and princesses of the reigning family.
       (C. We.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Feudal England_, pp. 225 sqq.

  [2] Du Cange, _Gloss._, _s.v._ "Miles."

  [3] _History of England_, iii. 12.

  [4] Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, i. 156.

  [5] _Ibid._ i. 156, 366; Turner, iii. 125-129.

  [6] Ingram's edition, p. 290.

  [7] _Comparative Politics_, p. 74.

  [8] Baluze, _Capitularia Regum Francorum_, ii. 794, 1069.

  [9] Du Cange, _Gloss._, _s.v._ "Arma."

  [10] Freeman, _Comparative Politics_, p. 73.

  [11] Hallam, _Middle Ages_, iii. 392.

  [12] Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ii. 278; also compare Grosse, _Military
    Antiquities_, i. 65 seq.

  [13] There has been a general tendency to ignore the extent to which
    the armies of Edward III. were raised by compulsory levies even after
    the system of raising troops by free contract had begun. Luce (ch.
    vi.) points out how much England relied at this time on what would
    now be called conscription: and his remarks are entirely borne out by
    the Norwich documents published by Mr W. Hudson (Norf, and Norwich
    Archaeological Soc. xiv. 263 sqq.), by a Lynn corporation document of
    18th Edw. III. (Hist. MSS. Commission Report XI. Appendix pt. iii. p.
    189), and by Smyth's _Lives of the Berkeleys_, i. 312, 319, 320.

  [14] J. B. de Lacurne de Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires sur l'Ancienne
    Chevalerie_, i. 363, 364 (ed. 1781).

  [15] Du Cange, _Dissertation sur Joinville_, xxi.; Sainte Palaye,
    _Mémoires_, i. 272; G. F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Order of the
    Garter_ (1841,) p. xxvii.

  [16] Du Cange, _Dissertation_, xxi., and _Lancelot du Lac_, among
    other romances.

  [17] Anstis, _Register of the Order of the Garter_, i. 63.

  [18] Grose, _Military Antiq._ i. 207 seq.; Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ii.
    276 seq., and iii. 278 seq.

  [19] Grose's _Military Antiquities_, ii. 256.

  [20] Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires_, i. 36; Froissart, bk. iii. ch. 9.

  [21] Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires_, pt. i. and Mills, _History of
    Chivalry_, vol. i. ch. 2.

  [22] See the long sermon in the romance of _Petit Jehan de Saintré_,
    pt. i. ch. v., and compare the theory there set forth with the actual
    behaviour of the chief personages. Even Gautier, while he contends
    that chivalry did much to refine morality, is compelled to admit the
    prevailing immorality to which medieval romances testify, and the
    extraordinary free behaviour of the unmarried ladies. No doubt these
    romances, taken alone, might give as unfair an idea as modern French
    novels give of Parisian morals, but we have abundant other evidence
    for placing the moral standard of the age of chivalry definitely
    below that of educated society in the present day.

  [23] Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires_, i. 11 seq.: "C'est peut-être à cette
    cérémonie et non à celles de la chevalerie qu'on doit rapporter ce
    qui se lit dans nos historiens de la première et de la seconde race
    au sujet des premières armes que les Rois et les Princes remettoient
    avec solemnité au ieunes Princes leurs enfans."

  [24] There are several obscure points as to the relation of the
    longer and shorter ceremonies, as well as the origin and original
    relation of their several parts. There is nothing to show whence came
    "dubbing" or the "accolade." It seems certain that the word "dub"
    means to strike, and the usage is as old as the knighting of Henry by
    William the Conqueror (_supra_, pp. 851, 852). So, too, in the Empire
    a dubbed knight is "ritter geschlagen." The "accolade" may
    etymologically refer to the embrace, accompanied by a blow with the
    hand, characteristic of the longer form of knighting. The derivation
    of "adouber," corresponding to "dub," from "adoptare," which is given
    by Du Cange, and would connect the ceremony with "adoptio per arma,"
    is certainly inaccurate. The investiture with arms, which formed a
    part of the longer form of knighting, and which we have seen to rest
    on very ancient usage, may originally have had a distinct meaning. We
    have observed that Lanfranc invested Henry I. with arms, while
    William "dubbed him to rider." If there was a difference in the
    meaning of the two ceremonies, the difficulty as to the knighting of
    Earl Harold (_supra_, p. 852) is at least partly removed.

  [25] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, 639.

  [26] Daniel, _Histoire de la Milice Françoise_, i. 99-104; Byshe's
    Upton, _De Studio Militari_, pp. 21-24; Dugdale, _Warwickshire_, ii.
    708-710; Segar, Honor _Civil and Military_, pp. 69 seq. and Nicolas,
    _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. ii. (_Order of the Bath_) pp. 19 seq....
    It is given as "the order and manner of creating Knights of the Bath
    in time of peace according to the custom of England," and
    consequently dates from a period when the full ceremony of creating
    knights bachelors generally had gone out of fashion. But as Ashmole,
    speaking of Knights of the Bath, says, "if the ceremonies and
    circumstances of their creation be well considered, it will appear
    that this king [Henry IV.] did not institute but rather restore the
    ancient manner of making knights, and consequently that the Knights
    of the Bath are in truth no other than knights bachelors, that is to
    say, such as are created with those ceremonies wherewith knights
    bachelors were formerly created." (Ashmole, _Order of the Garter_, p.
    15). See also Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 678, and the
    _Archæological Journal_, v. 258 seq.

  [27] As may be gathered from Selden, Favyn, La Colombiers, Menestrier
    and Sainte Palaye, there were several differences of detail in the
    ceremony at different times and in different places. But in the main
    it was everywhere the same both in its military and its
    ecclesiastical elements. In the _Pontificale Romanum_, the old _Ordo
    Romanus_ and the manual or Common Prayer Book in use in England
    before the Reformation forms for the blessing or consecration of new
    knights are included, and of these the first and the last are quoted
    by Selden.

  [28] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 678; Ashmole, _Order of the
    Garter_, p. 15; Favyn, _Théâtre d'Honneur_, ii. 1035.

  [29] "If we sum up the principal ensigns of knighthood, ancient and
    modern, we shall find they have been or are a horse, gold ring,
    shield and lance, a belt and sword, gilt spurs and a gold chain or
    collar."--Ashmole, _Order of the Garter_, pp. 12, 13.

  [30] On the banner see Grose, _Military Antiquities_, ii. 257; and
    Nicolas, _British Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. xxxvii.

  [31] _Titles of Honor_, pp. 356 and 608. See also Hallam, _Middle
    Ages_, iii. 126 seq. and Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ iii. 440 seq.

  [32] Riddell's _Law and Practice in Scottish Peerages_, p. 578; also
    Nisbet's _System of Heraldry_, ii. 49 and Selden's _Titles of Honor_,
    p. 702.

  [33] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, pp. 608 and 657.

  [34] See "Project concerninge the conferinge of the title of vidom,"
    wherein it is said that "the title of vidom (vicedominus) was an
    ancient title used in this kingdom of England both before and since
    the Norman Conquest" (_State Papers_, James I. Domestic Series,
    lxiii. 150 B, probable date April 1611).

  [35] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, pp. 452 seq.

  [36] _Ibid._ pp. 449 seq.

  [37] Du Cange, _Dissertation_, ix.; Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p.
    452; Daniel, _Milice Françoise_, i. 86 (Paris, 1721).

  [38] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 656; Grose, _Military
    Antiquities_, ii. 206.

  [39] Froissart, Bk. I. ch. 241 and Bk. II. ch. 53. The recipients
    were Sir John Chandos and Sir Thos. Trivet.

  [40] _Commonwealth of England_ (ed. 1640), p. 48.

  [41] _State Papers_, Domestic Series, James the First, lxvii. 119.

  [42] "Thursday, June 24th: His Majesty was pleased to confer the
    honour of knights banneret on the following flag officers and
    commanders under the royal standard, who kneeling kissed hands on the
    occasion: Admirals Pye and Sprye; Captains Knight, Bickerton and
    Vernon," _Gentleman's Magazine_ (1773) xliii. 299. Sir Harris Nicolas
    remarks on these and the other cases (_British Orders of Knighthood_,
    vol. xliii.) and Sir William Fitzherbert published anonymously a
    pamphlet on the subject, _A Short Inquiry into the Nature of the
    Titles conferred at Portsmouth_, &c., which is very scarce, but is to
    be found under the name of "Fitzherbert" in the catalogue of the
    British Museum Library.

  [43] "Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet, was indicted by the name of Sir
    Henry Ferrers, Knight, for the murther of one Stone whom one
    Nightingale feloniously murthered, and that the said Sir Henry was
    present aiding and abetting, &c. Upon this indictment Sir Henry
    Ferrers being arraigned said he never was knighted, which being
    confessed, the indictment was held not to be sufficient, wherefore he
    was indicted de novo by the name of Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet."
    Brydall, _Jus Imaginis apud Anglos, or the Law of England relating to
    the Nobility and Gentry_ (London, 1675), p. 20. Cf. _Patent Rolls_,
    10 Jac. I., pt. x. No. 18; Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 687.

  [44] Louis XIV. introduced the practice of dividing the members of
    military orders into several degrees when he established the order of
    St Louis in 1693.

  [45] G. F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_
    (1841), p. 385.

  [46] Heylyn, _Cosmographie and History of the Whole World_, bk. i. p.
    286.

  [47] Beltz, _Memorials_, p. xlvi.

  [48] _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. lxxxiii.

  [49] Mémoires, i. 67, i. 22; _History of Chivalry_; Gibbon, _Decline
    and Fall_, vii. 200.

  [50] _Orders of Knighthood_, vol. i. p. xi.

  [51] Selden, _Titles of Honor_, p. 638.

  [52] Harleian MS. 6063; Hargrave MS. 325.

  [53] _Patent Rolls_, 35th Hen. VIII., pt. xvi., No. 24; Burnet,
    _Hist. of Reformation_, i. 15.

  [54] Spelman, "De milite dissertatio," _Posthumous Works_, p. 181.

  [55] _London Gazette_, December 6, 1823, and May 15, 1855.

  [56] On the Continent very elaborate ceremonies, partly heraldic and
    partly religious, were observed in the degradation of a knight, which
    are described by Sainte Palaye, _Mémoires_, i. 316 seq., and after
    him by Mills, _History of Chivalry_, i. 60 seq. Cf. _Titles of
    Honor_, p. 653.

  [57] Dallaway's _Heraldry_, p. 303.

  [58] Even in 13th century England more than half the population were
    serfs, and as such had no claim to the privileges of Magna Carta;
    disputes between a serf and his lord were decided in the latter's
    court, although the king's courts attempted to protect the serf's
    life and limb and necessary implements of work. By French feudal law,
    the villein had no appeal from his lord save to God (Pierre de
    Fontaines, _Conseil_, ch. xxi. art. 8); and, though common sense and
    natural good feeling set bounds in most cases to the tyranny of the
    nobles, yet there was scarcely any injustice too gross to be
    possible. "How mad are they who exult when sons are born to their
    lords!" wrote Cardinal Jacques de Vitry early in the 13th century
    (_Exempla_, p. 64, Folk Lore Soc. 1890).

  [59] Sainte Palaye, ii. 90.

  [60] Medley, _English Constitutional History_ (2nd ed., pp. 291,
    466), suggests that Edward might have deliberately calculated this
    degradation of the older feudal ideal.

  [61] Being made to "ride the barriers" was the penalty for anybody
    who attempted to take part in a tournament without the qualification
    of name and arms. Guillim (_Display of Heraldry_, p. 66) and Nisbet
    (_System of Heraldry_, ii. 147) speak of this subject as concerning
    England and Scotland. See also Ashmole's _Order of the Garter_, p.
    284. But in England knighthood has always been conferred to a great
    extent independently of these considerations. At almost every period
    there have been men of obscure and illegitimate birth who have been
    knighted. Ashmole cites authorities for the contention that
    knighthood ennobles, insomuch that whosoever is a knight it
    necessarily follows that he is also a gentleman; "for, when a king
    gives the dignity to an ignoble person whose merit he would thereby
    recompense, he is understood to have conferred whatsoever is
    requisite for the completing of that which he bestows." By the common
    law, if a villein were made a knight he was thereby enfranchised and
    accounted a gentleman, and if a person under age and in wardship were
    knighted both his minority and wardship terminated. (_Order of the
    Garter_, p. 43; Nicolas, _British Orders of Knighthood_, i. 5.)

  [62] Gautier, pp. 21, 249.

  [63] Du Cange, _s.v. miles_ (ed. Didot, t. iv. p. 402); Sacchetti,
    _Novella_, cliii. All the medieval _orders_ of knighthood, however,
    insisted in their statutes on the noble birth of the candidate.

  [64] Lecoy de la Marche (_Chaire française au moyen âge_, 2nd ed., p.
    387) gives many instances to prove that "al chevalerie, au xiii^e
    siècle, est déjà sur son déclin." But already about 1160 Peter of
    Blois had written, "The so-called order of knighthood is nowadays
    mere disorder" (_ordo militum nunc est, ordinem non tenere_. Ep.
    xciv.: the whole letter should be read); and, half a century earlier
    still, Guibert of Nogent gives an equally unflattering picture of
    contemporary chivalry in his _De vita sua_ (Migne, _Pat. Lat._, tom.
    clvi.).

  [65] It has been taken as the Latin word meaning "he bears" or as
    representing the initials of the legend _Fortitudo Ejus Rhodum
    Tenuit_, with an allusion to a defence of the island of Rhodes by an
    ancient count of Savoy.




KNIGHT-SERVICE, the dominant and distinctive tenure of land under the
feudal system. It is associated in its origin with that development in
warfare which made the mailed horseman, armed with lance and sword, the
most important factor in battle. Till within recent years it was
believed that knight-service was developed out of the liability, under
the English system, of every five hides to provide one soldier in war.
It is now held that, on the contrary, it was a novel system which was
introduced after the Conquest by the Normans, who relied essentially on
their mounted knights, while the English fought on foot. They were
already familiar with the principle of knight-service, the knight's fee,
as it came to be termed in England, being represented in Normandy by the
_fief du haubert_, so termed from the hauberk or coat of mail (_lorica_)
which was worn by the knight. Allusion is made to this in the coronation
charter of Henry I. (1100), which speaks of those holding by
knight-service as _milites qui per loricam terras suas deserviunt_.

The Conqueror, it is now held, divided the lay lands of England among
his followers, to be held by the service of a fixed number of knights in
his host, and imposed the same service on most of the great
ecclesiastical bodies which retained their landed endowments. No record
evidence exists of this action on his part, and the quota of
knight-service exacted was not determined by the area or value of the
lands granted (or retained), but was based upon the _unit_ of the feudal
host, the _constabularia_ of ten knights. Of the tenants-in-chief or
barons (i.e. those who held directly of the crown), the principal were
called on to find one or more of these units, while of the lesser ones
some were called on for five knights, that is, half a _constabularia_.
The same system was adopted in Ireland when that country was conquered
under Henry II. The baron who had been enfeoffed by his sovereign on
these terms could provide the knights required either by hiring them for
pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly represented by land, by
a process of subenfeoffment, analogous to that by which he himself had
been enfeoffed. That is to say, he could assign to an under-tenant a
certain portion of his fief to be held by the service of finding one or
more knights. The land so held would then be described as consisting of
one or more knights' fees, but the knight's fee had not, as was formerly
supposed, any fixed area. This process could be carried farther till
there was a chain of mesne lords between the tenant-in-chief and the
actual holder of the land; but the liability for performance of the
knight-service was always carefully defined.

The primary obligation incumbent on every knight was service in the
field, when called upon, for forty days a year, with specified armour
and arms. There was, however, a standing dispute as to whether he could
be called upon to perform this service outside the realm, nor was the
question of his expenses free from difficulty. In addition to this
primary duty he had, in numerous cases at least, to perform that of
"castle ward" at his lord's chief castle for a fixed number of days in
the year. On certain baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing
knights for the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, Rockingham and
Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service had also the
same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his lord to the king.
These consisted of (1) "relief," which he paid on succeeding to his
lands; (2) "wardship," that is, the profits from his lands during a
minority; (3) "marriage," that is, the right of giving in marriage,
unless bought off, his heiress, his heir (if a minor) and his widow; and
also of the three "aids" (see Aids).

The chief sources of information for the extent and development of
knight-service are the returns (_cartae_) of the barons (i.e. the
tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the king, at his request, of the
names of their tenants by knight-service with the number of fees they
held, supplemented by the payments for "scutage" (see SCUTAGE) recorded
on the pipe rolls, by the later returns printed in the _Testa de
Nevill_, and by the still later ones collected in _Feudal Aids_. In the
returns made in 1166 some of the barons appear as having enfeoffed more
and some less than the number of knights they had to find. In the latter
case they described the balance as being chargeable on their "demesne,"
that is, on the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands.
These returns further prove that lands had already been granted for the
service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in practice
already commuted for a proportionate money payment; and they show that
the total number of knights with which land held by military service was
charged was not, as was formerly supposed, sixty thousand, but,
probably, somewhere between five and six thousand. Similar returns were
made for Normandy, and are valuable for the light they throw on its
system of knight-service.

The principle of commuting for money the obligation of military service
struck at the root of the whole system, and so complete was the change
of conception that "tenure by knight-service of a mesne lord becomes,
first in fact and then in law, tenure by escuage (i.e. scutage)." By the
time of Henry III., as Bracton states, the test of tenure was scutage;
liability, however small, to scutage payment made the tenure military.

The disintegration of the system was carried farther in the latter half
of the 13th century as a consequence of changes in warfare, which were
increasing the importance of foot soldiers and making the service of a
knight for forty days of less value to the king. The barons, instead of
paying scutage, compounded for their service by the payment of lump
sums, and, by a process which is still obscure, the nominal quotas of
knight-service due from each had, by the time of Edward I., been largely
reduced. The knight's fee, however, remained a knight's fee, and the
pecuniary incidents of military tenure, especially wardship, marriage,
and fines on alienation, long continued to be a source of revenue to the
crown. But at the Restoration (1660) tenure by knight-service was
abolished by law (12 Car. II. c. 24), and with it these vexatious
exactions were abolished.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The returns of 1166 are preserved in the _Liber Niger_
  (13th cent.), edited by Hearne, and the _Liber Rubeus_ or _Red Book of
  the Exchequer_ (13 cent.), edited by H. Hall for the Rolls Series in
  1896. The later returns are in _Testa de Nevill_ (Record Commission,
  1807) and in the Record Office volumes of _Feudal Aids_, arranged
  under counties. For the financial side of knight-service the early
  pipe rolls have been printed by the Record Commission and the Pipe
  Roll Society, and abstracts of later ones will be found in _The Red
  Book of the Exchequer_, which may be studied on the whole question;
  but the editor's view must be received with caution and checked by J.
  H. Round's _Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer_ (for private
  circulation). The _Baronia Anglica_ of Madox may also be consulted.
  The existing theory on knight-service was enunciated by Mr Round in
  _English Historical Review_, vi., vii., and reissued by him in his
  _Feudal England_ (1895). It is accepted by Pollock and Maitland
  (_History of English Law_), who discuss the question at length; by Mr
  J. F. Baldwin in his _Scutage and Knight-service in England_
  (University of Chicago Press, 1897), a valuable monograph with
  bibliography; and by Petit-Dutaillis, in his _Studies supplementary to
  Stubbs' Constitutional History_ (Manchester University Series, 1908).
       (J. H. R.)




KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE, a semi-military secret society in the
United States in the Middle West, 1861-1864, the purpose of which was to
bring the Civil War to a close and restore the "Union as it was." There
is some evidence that before the Civil War there was a Democratic secret
organization of the same name, with its principal membership in the
Southern States. After the outbreak of the Civil War many of the
Democrats of the Middle West, who were opposed to the war policy of the
Republicans, organized the Knights of the Golden Circle, pledging
themselves to exert their influence to bring about peace. In 1863, owing
to the disclosure of some of its secrets, the organization took the name
of Order of American Knights, and in 1864 this became the Sons of
Liberty. The total membership of this order probably reached 250,000 to
300,000, principally in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin,
Kentucky and south-western Pennsylvania. Fernando Wood of New York seems
to have been the chief officer and in 1864 Clement L. Vallandigham
became the second in command. The great importance of the Knights of the
Golden Circle and its successors was due to its opposition to the war
policy of the Republican administration. The plan was to overthrow the
Lincoln government in the elections and give to the Democrats the
control of the state and Federal governments, which would then make
peace and invite the Southern States to come back into the Union on the
old footing. In order to obstruct and embarrass the Republican
administration the members of the order held peace meetings to influence
public opinion against the continuance of the war; purchased arms to be
used in uprisings, which were to place the peace party in control of the
Federal government, or failing in that to establish a north-western
confederacy; and took measures to set free the Confederate prisoners in
the north and bring the war to a forced close. All these plans failed at
the critical moment, and the most effective work done by the order was
in encouraging desertion from the Federal armies, preventing
enlistments, and resisting the draft. Wholesale arrests of leaders and
numerous seizures of arms by the United States authorities resulted in a
general collapse of the order late in 1864. Three of the leaders were
sentenced to death by military commissions, but sentence was suspended
until 1866, when they were released under the decision of the United
States Supreme Court in the famous case _Ex parte Milligan_.

  AUTHORITIES.--_An Authentic Exposition of the Knights of the Golden
  Circle_ (Indianapolis, 1863); J. F. Rhodes, _History of the United
  States from the Compromise of 1850_ (New York, 1905) vol. v.; E.
  McPherson, _Political History of the Rebellion_ (Washington, 1876);
  and W. D. Foulke, _Life of O. P. Morton_ (2 vols., New York, 1899).
       (W. L. F.)




KNIPPERDOLLINCK (or KNIPPERDOLLING), BERNT (BEREND or BERNHARDT) (c.
1490-1536), German divine, was a prosperous cloth-merchant at Münster
when in 1524 he joined Melchior Rinck and Melchior Hofman in a business
journey to Stockholm, which developed into an abortive religious errand.
Knipperdollinck, a man of fine presence and glib tongue, noted from his
youth for eccentricity, had the ear of the Münster populace when in 1527
he helped to break the prison of Tonies Kruse, in the teeth of the
bishop and the civic authorities. For this he made his peace with the
latter; but, venturing on another business journey, he was arrested,
imprisoned for a year, and released on payment of a high fine--in regard
of which treatment he began an action before the Imperial Chamber.
Though his aims were political rather than religious, he attached
himself to the reforming movement of Bernhardt Rothmann, once (1529)
chaplain of St Mauritz, outside Münster, now (1532) pastor of the city
church of St Lamberti. A new bishop directed a mandate (April 17, 1532)
against Rothmann, which had the effect of alienating the moderates in
Münster from the democrats. Knipperdollinck was a leader of the latter
in the surprise (December 26, 1532) which made prisoners of the
negotiating nobles at Telgte, in the territory of Münster. In the end,
Münster was by charter from Philip of Hesse (February 14, 1533)
constituted an evangelical city. Knipperdollinck was made a burgomaster
in February 1534. Anabaptism had already (September 8, 1533) been
proclaimed at Münster by a journeyman smith; and, before this, Heinrich
Roll, a refugee, had brought Rothmann (May 1533) to a rejection of
infant baptism. From the 1st of January 1534 Roll preached Anabaptist
doctrines in a city pulpit; a few days later, two Dutch emissaries of
Jan Matthysz, or Matthyssen, the master-baker and Anabaptist prophet of
Haarlem, came on a mission to Münster. They were followed (January 13)
by Jan Beukelsz (or Bockelszoon, or Buchholdt), better known as John of
Leiden. It was his second visit to Münster; he came now as an apostle of
Matthysz. He was twenty-five, with a winning personality, great gifts as
an organizer, and plenty of ambition. Knipperdollinck, whose daughter
Clara was ultimately enrolled among the wives of John of Leiden, came
under his influence. Matthysz himself came to Münster (1534) and lived
in Knipperdollinck's house, which became the centre of the new movement
to substitute Münster for Strassburg (Melchior Hofmann's choice) as the
New Jerusalem. On the death of Matthysz, in a foolish raid (April 5,
1534), John became supreme. Knipperdollinck, with one attempt at revolt,
when he claimed the kingship for himself, was his subservient henchman,
wheedling the Münster democracy into subjection to the fantastic rule of
the "king of the earth." He was made second in command, and executioner
of the refractory. He fell in with the polygamy innovation, the protest
of his wife being visited with a penance. In the military measures for
resisting the siege of Münster he took no leading part. On the fall of
the city (June 25, 1535) he hid in a dwelling in the city wall, but was
betrayed by his landlady. After six months' incarceration, his trial,
along with his comrades, took place on the 19th of January, and his
execution, with fearful tortures, on the 22nd of January 1536.
Knipperdollinck attempted to strangle himself, but was forced to endure
the worst. His body, like those of the others, was hung in a cage on the
tower of St Lamberti, where the cages are still to be seen. An alleged
portrait, from an engraving of 1607, is reproduced in the appendix to A.
Ross's Pansebeia, 1655.

  See L. Keller, _Geschichte der Wiedertäufer und ihres Reichs zu
  Münster_ (1880); C. A. Cornelius, _Historische Arbeiten_ (1899); E.
  Belfort Bax, _Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists_ (1903).     (A. Go.*)




KNITTING (from O.E. _cnyttan_, to knit; cf. Ger. _Knütten_; the root is
seen in "knot"), the art of forming a single thread or strand of yarn
into a texture or fabric of a loop structure, by employing needles or
wires. "Crochet" work is an analogous art in its simplest form. It
consists of forming a single thread into a single chain of loops. All
warp knit fabrics are built on this structure. Knitting may be said to
be divided into two principles, viz. (1) hand knitting and (2)
frame-work knitting (see HOSIERY). In hand knitting, the wires, pins or
needles used are of different lengths or gauges, according to the class
of work wanted to be produced. They are made of steel, bone, wood or
ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping over the ends.
Flat or selvedged work can only be produced on them. Others are pointed
at both ends, and by employing three or more a circular or
circular-shaped fabric can be made. In hand knitting each loop is formed
and thrown off individually and in rotation and is left hanging on the
new loop formed. The cotton, wool and silk fibres are the principal
materials from which knitting yarns are manufactured, wool being the
most important and most largely used. "Lamb's-wool," "wheeling,"
"fingering" and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but
may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely used
in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is to-day
principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of the remote parts
of Scotland and Ireland it is prosecuted as an industry to some extent.
In the Shetland Islands the wool of the native sheep is spun, and used
in its natural colour, being manufactured into shawls, scarfs, ladies'
jackets, &c. The principal trade of other districts is hose and
half-hose, made from the wool of the sheep native to the district. The
formation of the stitches in knitting may be varied in a great many
ways, by "purling" (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib
form), "slipping" loops, taking up and casting off and working in
various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, &c. The articles may
be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and yarns are
manipulated.




KNOBKERRIE (from the Taal or South African Dutch, _knopkirie_, derived
from Du. _knop_, a knob or button, and _kerrie_, a Bushman or Hottentot
word for stick), a strong, short stick with a rounded knob or head used
by the natives of South Africa in warfare and the chase. It is employed
at close quarters, or as a missile, and in time of peace serves as a
walking-stick. The name has been extended to similar weapons used by the
natives of Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places.




KNOLLES, RICHARD (c. 1545-1610), English historian, was a native of
Northamptonshire, and was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford. He became
a fellow of his college, and at some date subsequent to 1571 left Oxford
to become master of a school at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610.
In 1603 Knolles published his _Generall Historie of the Turkes_, of
which several editions subsequently appeared, among them a good one
edited by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down to 1699.
It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed himself largely
of Jean Jacques Boissard's _Vitae et Icones Sultanorum Turcicorum_
(Frankfort, 1596). Although now entirely superseded, it has considerable
merits as regards style and arrangement. Knolles published a translation
of J. Bodin's _De Republica_ in 1606, but the _Grammatica Latina, Graeca
et Hebraica_, attributed to him by Anthony Wood and others, is the work
of the Rev. Hanserd Knollys (c. 1599-1691), a Baptist minister.

  See the _Athenaeum_, August 6, 1881.




KNOLLES (or KNOLLYS), SIR ROBERT (c. 1325-1407), English soldier,
belonged to a Cheshire family. In early life he served in Brittany, and
he was one of the English survivors who were taken prisoners by the
French after the famous "combat of the thirty" in March 1351. He was,
however, quickly released and was among the soldiers of fortune who took
advantage of the distracted state of Brittany, at this time the scene of
a savage civil war, to win fame and wealth at the expense of the
wretched inhabitants. After a time he transferred his operations to
Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England and of
Charles II. of Navarre. He led the "great company" in their work of
devastation along the valley of the Loire, fighting at this time for his
own hand and for booty, and winning a terrible reputation by his
ravages. After the conclusion of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360 Knolles
returned to Brittany and took part in the struggle for the possession of
the duchy between John of Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois,
gaining great fame by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September
1364), where Du Guesclin was captured and Charles of Blois was slain.
In 1367 he marched with the Black Prince into Spain and fought at the
battle of Nájera; in 1369 he was with the prince in Aquitaine. In 1370
he was placed by Edward III. at the head of an expedition which invaded
France and marched on Paris, but after exacting large sums of money as
ransom a mutiny broke up the army, and its leader was forced to take
refuge in his Breton castle of Derval and to appease the disappointed
English king with a large monetary gift. Emerging from his retreat
Knolles again assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as
John's representative; later he led a force into Aquitaine, and he was
one of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In
1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of
Gloucester, distinguishing himself by his valour at the siege of Nantes;
and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He
died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk on the 15th of August 1407. Sir Robert
devoted much of his great wealth to charitable objects. He built a
college and an almshouse at Pontefract, his wife's birthplace, where the
almshouse still exists; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and
Harpley; and he helped to found an English hospital in Rome. Knolles won
an immense reputation by his skill and valour in the field, and ranks as
one of the foremost captains of his age. French writers call him
Canolles, or Canole.




KNOLLYS, the name of an English family descended from Sir Thomas Knollys
(d. 1435), lord mayor of London. The first distinguished member of the
family was Sir Francis Knollys (c. 1514-1596), English statesman, son of
Robert Knollys, or Knolles (d. 1521), a courtier in the service and
favour of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Robert had also a younger son,
Henry, who took part in public life during the reign of Elizabeth and
who died in 1583.

Francis Knollys, who entered the service of Henry VIII. before 1540,
became a member of parliament in 1542 and was knighted in 1547 while
serving with the English army in Scotland. A strong and somewhat
aggressive supporter of the reformed doctrines, he retired to Germany
soon after Mary became queen, returning to England to become a privy
councillor, vice-chamberlain of the royal household and a member of
parliament under Queen Elizabeth, whose cousin Catherine (d. 1569),
daughter of William Carey and niece of Anne Boleyn, was his wife. After
serving as governor of Plymouth, Knollys was sent in 1566 to Ireland,
his mission being to obtain for the queen confidential reports about the
conduct of the lord-deputy Sir Henry Sidney. Approving of Sidney's
actions he came back to England, and in 1568 was sent to Carlisle to
take charge of Mary Queen of Scots, who had just fled from Scotland;
afterwards he was in charge of the queen at Bolton Castle and then at
Tutbury Castle. He discussed religious questions with his prisoner,
although the extreme Protestant views which he put before her did not
meet with Elizabeth's approval, and he gave up the position of guardian
just after his wife's death in January 1569. In 1584 he introduced into
the House of Commons, where since 1572 he had represented Oxfordshire,
the bill legalizing the national association for Elizabeth's defence,
and he was treasurer of the royal household from 1572 until his death on
the 19th of July 1596. His monument may still be seen in the church of
Rotherfield Grays, Oxfordshire. Knollys was repeatedly free and frank in
his objections to Elizabeth's tortuous foreign policy; but, possibly
owing to his relationship to the queen, he did not lose her favour, and
he was one of her commissioners on such important occasions as the
trials of Mary Queen of Scots, of Philip Howard earl of Arundel, and of
Anthony Babington. An active and lifelong Puritan, his attacks on the
bishops were not lacking in vigour, and he was also very hostile to
heretics. He received many grants of land from the queen, and was chief
steward of the city of Oxford and a knight of the garter.

Sir Francis's eldest son Henry (d. 1583), and his sons Edward (d. c.
1580), Robert (d. 1625), Richard (d. 1596), Francis (d. c. 1648), and
Thomas, were all courtiers and served the queen in parliament or in the
field. His daughter Lettice (1540-1634) married Walter Devereux, earl of
Essex, and then Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester; she was the mother of
Elizabeth's favourite, the 2nd earl of Essex.

  Some of Knollys's letters are in T. Wright's _Queen Elizabeth and her
  Times_ (1838) and the _Burghley Papers_, edited by S. Haynes (1740);
  and a few of his manuscripts are still in existence. A speech which
  Knollys delivered in parliament against some claims made by the
  bishops was printed in 1608 and again in W. Stoughton's _Assertion for
  True and Christian Church Policie_ (London, 1642).

Sir Francis Knollys's second son William (c. 1547-1632) served as a
member of parliament and a soldier during the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
being knighted in 1586. His eldest brother Henry, having died without
sons in 1583, William inherited his father's estates in Oxfordshire,
becoming in 1596 a privy councillor and comptroller of the royal
household; in 1602 he was made treasurer of the household. Sir William
enjoyed the favour of the new king James I., whom he had visited in
Scotland in 1585, and was made Baron Knollys in 1603 and Viscount
Wallingford in 1616. But in this latter year his fortunes suffered a
temporary reverse. Through his second wife Elizabeth (1586-1658),
daughter of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, Knollys was related to
Frances, countess of Somerset, and when this lady was tried for the
murder of Sir Thomas Overbury her relatives were regarded with
suspicion; consequently Lord Wallingford resigned the treasurership of
the household and two years later the mastership of the court of wards,
an office which he had held since 1614. However, he regained the royal
favour, and was created earl of Banbury in 1626. He died in London on
the 25th of May 1632.

His wife, who was nearly forty years her husband's junior, was the
mother of two sons, Edward (1627-1645) and Nicholas (1631-1674), whose
paternity has given rise to much dispute. Neither is mentioned in the
earl's will, but in 1641 the law courts decided that Edward was earl of
Banbury, and when he was killed in June 1645 his brother Nicholas took
the title. In the Convention Parliament of 1660 some objection was taken
to the earl sitting in the House of Lords, and in 1661 he was not
summoned to parliament; he had not succeeded in obtaining his writ of
summons when he died on the 14th of March 1674.

Nicholas's son Charles (1662-1740), the 4th earl, had not been summoned
to parliament when in 1692 he killed Captain Philip Lawson in a duel.
This raised the question of his rank in a new form. Was he, or was he
not, entitled to trial by the peers? The House of Lords declared that he
was not a peer and therefore not so entitled, but the court of king's
bench released him from his imprisonment on the ground that he was the
earl of Banbury and not Charles Knollys a commoner. Nevertheless the
House of Lords refused to move from its position, and Knollys had not
received a writ of summons when he died in April 1740. His son Charles
(1703-1771), vicar of Burford, Oxfordshire, and his grandsons, William
(1726-1776) and Thomas Woods (1727-1793), were successively titular
earls of Banbury, but they took no steps to prove their title. However,
in 1806 Thomas Woods's son William (1763-1824), who attained the rank of
general in the British army, asked for a writ of summons as earl of
Banbury, but in 1813 the House of Lords decided against the claim.
Several peers, including the great Lord Erskine, protested against this
decision, but General Knollys himself accepted it and ceased to call
himself earl of Banbury. He died in Paris on the 20th of March 1834. His
eldest son, Sir William Thomas Knollys (1797-1883), entered the army and
served with the Guards during the Peninsular War. Remaining in the army
after the conclusion of the peace of 1815 he won a good reputation and
rose high in his profession. From 1855 to 1860 he was in charge of the
military camp at Aldershot, then in its infancy, and in 1861 he was made
president of the council of military education. From 1862 to 1877 he was
comptroller of the household of the prince of Wales, afterwards King
Edward VII. From 1877 until his death on the 23rd of June 1883 he was
gentleman usher of the black rod; he was also a privy councillor and
colonel of the Scots Guards. His son Francis (b. 1837), private
secretary to Edward VII. and George V., was created Baron Knollys in
1902; another son, Sir Henry Knollys (b. 1840), became private secretary
to King Edward's daughter Maud, queen of Norway.

  See Sir N. H. Nicolas, _Treatise on the Law of Adulterine Bastardy_
  1833); and G. E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887), vol. i.




KNOT, a Limicoline bird very abundant at certain seasons on the shores
of Britain and many countries of the northern hemisphere. Camden in the
edition of his _Britannia_ published in 1607 (p. 408) inserted a passage
not found in the earlier issues of that work, connecting the name with
that of King Canute, and this account of its origin has been usually
received. But no other evidence in its favour is forthcoming, and
Camden's statement is merely the expression of an opinion,[1] so that
there is perhaps ground for believing him to have been mistaken, and
that the clue afforded by Sir Thomas Browne, who (c. 1672) wrote the
name "Gnatts or Knots," may be the true one.[2] Still the statement was
so determinedly repeated by successive authors that Linnaeus followed
them in calling the species _Tringa canutus_, and so it remains with
nearly all modern ornithologists.[3] Rather larger than a snipe, but
with a shorter bill and legs, the knot visits the coasts of some parts
of Europe, Asia and North America at times in vast flocks; and, though
in temperate climates a good many remain throughout the winter, these
are nothing in proportion to those that arrive towards the end of
spring, in England generally about the 15th of May, and after staying a
few days pass northward to their summer quarters, while early in autumn
the young of the year throng to the same places in still greater
numbers, being followed a little later by their parents. In winter the
plumage is ashy-grey above (save the rump, which is white) and white
beneath. In summer the feathers of the back are black, broadly margined
with light orange-red, mixed with white, those of the rump white, more
or less tinged with red, and the lower parts are of a nearly uniform
deep bay or chestnut. The birds which winter in temperate climates
seldom attain the brilliancy of colour exhibited by those which arrive
from the south; the luxuriance generated by the heat of a tropical sun
seems needed to develop the full richness of hue. The young when they
come from their birthplace are clothed in ashy-grey above, each feather
banded with dull black and ochreous, while the breast is more or less
deeply tinged with warm buff. Much curiosity has long existed among
zoologists as to the egg of the knot, of which not a single identified
or authenticated specimen is known to exist in collections. The species
was found breeding abundantly on the North Georgian (now commonly called
the Parry) Islands by Parry's Arctic expedition, as well as soon after
on Melville Peninsula by Captain Lyons, and again during the voyage of
Sir George Nares on the northern coast of Grinnell Land and the shores
of Smith Sound, where Major Feilden obtained examples of the newly
hatched young (_Ibis_, 1877, p. 407), and observed that the parents fed
largely on the buds of _Saxifraga oppositifolia_. These are the only
localities in which this species is known to breed, for on none of the
arctic lands lying to the north of Europe or Asia has it been
unquestionably observed.[4] In winter its wanderings are very extensive,
as it is recorded from Surinam, Brazil, Walfisch Bay in South Africa,
China, Queensland and New Zealand. Formerly this species was extensively
netted in England, and the birds fattened for the table, where they were
esteemed a great delicacy, as witness the entries in the Northumberland
and Le Strange Household Books; and the British Museum contains an old
treatise on the subject: "The maner of kepyng of knotts, after Sir
William Askew and my Lady, given to my Lord Darcy, 25 Hen. VIII." (_MSS.
Sloane_, 1592, 8 _cat._ 663).     (A. N.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] His words are simply "_Knotts_, i. _Canuti aues_, vt opinor e
    Dania enim aduolare creduntur." In the margin the name is spelt
    "Cnotts," and he possibly thought it had to do with a well-known
    story of that king. Knots undoubtedly frequent the sea-shore, where
    Canute is said on one occasion to have taken up his station, but they
    generally retreat, and that nimbly, before the advancing surf, which
    he is said in the story not to have done.

  [2] In this connexion we may compare the French _maringouin_,
    ordinarily a gnat or mosquito, but also, among the French Creoles of
    America, a small shore-bird, either a _Tringa_ or an _Aegialitis_,
    according to Descourtilz (_Voyage_, ii. 249). See also Littré's
    _Dictionnaire_, _s.v._

  [3] There are few of the _Limicolae_, to which group the knot
    belongs, that present greater changes of plumage according to age or
    season, and hence before these phases were understood the species
    became encumbered with many synonyms, as _Tringa cinerea_,
    _ferruginea_, _grisea_, _islandica_, _naevia_ and so forth. The
    confusion thus caused was mainly cleared away by Montagu and
    Temminck.

  [4] The _Tringa canutus_ of Payer's expedition seems more likely to
    have been _T. maritima_, which species is not named among the birds
    of Franz Josef Land, though it can hardly fail to occur there.




KNOT (O.E. _cnotta_, from a Teutonic stem _knutt_; cf. "knit," and Ger.
_knoten_), an intertwined loop of rope, cord, string or other flexible
material, used to fasten two such ropes, &c., to one another, or to
another object. (For the various forms which such "knots" may take see
below.) The word is also used for the distance-marks on a log-line, and
hence as the equivalent of a nautical mile (see LOG), and for any hard
mass, resembling a knot drawn tight, especially one formed in the trunk
of a tree at the place of insertion of a branch. Knots in wood are the
remains of dead branches which have become buried in the wood of the
trunk or branch on which they were borne. When a branch dies down or is
broken off, the dead stump becomes grown over by a healing tissue, and,
as the stem which bears it increases in thickness, gradually buried in
the newer wood. When a section is made of the stem the dead stump
appears in the section as a knot; thus in a board it forms a circular
piece of wood, liable to fall out and leave a "knot-hole." "Knot" or
"knob" is an architectural term for a bunch of flowers, leaves or other
ornamentation carved on a corbel or on a boss. The word is also applied
figuratively to any intricate problem, hard to disentangle, a use
stereotyped in the proverbial "Gordian knot," which, according to the
tradition, was cut by Alexander the Great (see GORDIUM).

[Illustration: FIG 1.]

[Illustration: FIG 2.]

Knots, Bends, Hitches, Splices and Seizings are all ways of fastening
cords or ropes, either to some other object such as a spar, or a ring,
or to one another. The "knot" is formed to make a knob on a rope,
generally at the extremity, and by untwisting the strands at the end and
weaving them together. But it may be made by turning the rope on itself
through a loop, as for instance, the "overhand knot" (fig. 1). A "bend"
(from the same root as "bind"), and a "hitch" (an O.E. word), are ways
of fastening or tying ropes together, as in the "Carrick bend" (fig.
21), or round spars as the Studding Sail Halyard Bend (fig. 19), and the
Timber Hitch (fig. 20). A "splice" (from the same root as "split") is
made by untwisting two rope ends and weaving them together. A "seizing"
(Fr. _saisir_) is made by fastening two spars to one another by a rope,
or two ropes by a third, or by using one rope to make a loop on
another--as for example the Racking Seizing (fig. 41), the Round Seizing
(fig. 40), and the Midshipman's Hitch (fig. 29). The use of the words is
often arbitrary. There is, for instance, no difference in principle
between the Fisherman's Bend (fig. 18) and the Timber Hitch (fig. 20).
Speaking generally, the Knot and the Seizing are meant to be permanent,
and must be unwoven in order to be unfastened, while the Bend and Hitch
can be undone at once by pulling the ropes in the reverse direction from
that in which they are meant to hold. Yet the Reef Knot (figs. 3 and 4)
can be cast loose with ease, and is wholly different in principle, for
instance, from the Diamond Knot (figs. 42 and 43). These various forms
of fastening are employed in many kinds of industry, as for example in
scaffolding, as well as in seamanship. The governing principle is that
the strain which pulls against them shall draw them tighter. The
ordinary "knots and splices" are described in every book on seamanship.

  _Overhand Knot_ (fig. 1).--Used at the end of ropes to prevent their
  unreeving and as the commencement of other knots. Take the end _a_
  round the end _b_.

  _Figure-of-Eight Knot_ (fig. 2).--Used only to prevent ropes from
  unreeving; it forms a large knob.

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]

  _Reef Knot_ (figs. 3, 4).--Form an overhand knot as above. Then take
  the end _a_ over the end _b_ and through the bight. If the end _a_
  were taken under the end _b_, a _granny_ would be formed. This knot is
  so named from being used in tying the reef-points of a sail.

  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]

  _Bowline_ (figs. 5-7).--Lay the end _a_ of a rope over the standing
  part _b_. Form with _b_ a bight _c_ over _a_. Take _a_ round behind
  _b_ and down through the bight _c_. This is a most useful knot
  employed to form a loop which will not slip. _Running bowlines_ are
  formed by making a bowline round its own standing part above _b_. It
  is the most common and convenient temporary running noose.

  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]

  _Bowline on a Bight_ (figs. 8, 9).--The first part is made similar to
  the above with the double part of the rope; then the bight _a_ is
  pulled through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past _d_ and
  come up in the position shown in fig. 9. It makes a more comfortable
  sling for a man than a single bight.

  _Half-Hitch_ (fig. 10).--Pass the end _a_ of the rope round the
  standing part _b_ and through the bight.

  _Two Half-Hitches_ (fig. 11).--The half-hitch repeated; this is
  commonly used, and is capable of resisting to the full strength of the
  rope. A stop from _a_ to the standing part will prevent it jamming.

  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 13.]

  _Clove Hitch_ (figs. 12, 13).--Pass the end _a_ round a spar and cross
  it over _b_. Pass it round the spar again and put the end _a_ through
  the second bight.

  _Blackwall Hitch_ (fig. 14).--Form a bight at the end of a rope, and
  put the hook of a tackle through the bight so that the end of the rope
  may be jammed between the standing part and the back of the hook.

  _Double Blackwall Hitch_ (fig. 15).--Pass the end _a_ twice round the
  hook and under the standing part _b_ at the last cross.

  [Illustration: FIG. 14.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 15.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 16.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 17.]

  _Cat's-paw_ (fig. 16).--Twist up two parts of a lanyard in opposite
  directions and hook the tackle in the eyes _i_, _i_. A piece of wood
  should be placed between the parts at _g_. A large lanyard should be
  clove-hitched round a large toggle and a strap passed round it below
  the toggle.

  _Marling-spike Hitch_ (fig. 17).--Lay the end _a_ over _c_; fold the
  loop over on the standing part _b_; then pass the marline-spike
  through, over both parts of the bight and under the part _b_. Used for
  tightening each turn of a seizing.

  [Illustration: FIG. 18.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 19.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 20.]

  _Fisherman's Bend_ (fig. 18).--Take two turns round a spar, then a
  half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and the turns,
  lastly a half-hitch round the standing part.

  _Studding-sail Halyard Bend_ (fig. 19).--Similar to the above, except
  that the end is tucked under the first round turn; this is more snug.
  A _magnus hitch_ has two round turns and one on the other side of the
  standing part with the end through the bight.

  _Timber Hitch_ (fig. 20).--Take the end _a_ of a rope round a spar,
  then round the standing part _b_, then several times round its own
  part _c_, against the lay of the rope.

  [Illustration: FIG. 21.]

  _Carrick Bend_ (fig. 21).--Lay the end of one hawser over its own part
  to form a bight as _e_´, _b_; pass the end of another hawser up
  through that bight near _b_, going out over the first end at _c_,
  crossing under the first long part and over its end at _d_, then under
  both long parts, forming the loops, and above the first short part at
  _b_, terminating at the end _e_´´, in the opposite direction
  vertically and horizontally to the other end. The ends should be
  securely stopped to their respective standing parts, and also a stop
  put on the becket or extreme end to prevent it catching a pipe or
  chock; in that form this is the best quick means of uniting two large
  hawsers, since they cannot jam. When large hawsers have to work
  through small pipes, good security may be obtained either by passing
  ten or twelve taut racking turns with a suitable strand and securing
  each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking half as many
  round turns taut, crossing the ends between the hawsers over the
  seizing and reef-knotting the ends. This should be repeated in three
  places and the extreme ends well stopped. Connecting hawsers by
  bowline knots is very objectionable, as the bend is large and the
  knots jam.

  _Sheet Bend_ (fig. 22).--Pass the end of one rope through the bight of
  another, round both parts of the other, and under its own standing
  part. Used for bending small sheets to the clews of sails, which
  present bights ready for the hitch. An ordinary net is composed of a
  series of sheet bends. A _weaver's knot_ is made like a sheet bend.

  _Single Wall Knot_ (fig. 23).--Unlay the end of a rope, and with the
  strand a form a bight. Take the next strand _b_ round the end of _a_.
  Take the last strand _c_ round the end of _b_ and through the bight
  made by _a_. Haul the ends taut.

  _Single Wall Crowned_ (fig. 24).--Form a single wall, and lay one of
  the ends, _a_, over the knot. Lay _b_ over _a_, and _c_ over _b_ and
  through the bight of _a_. Haul the ends taut.

  [Illustration: FIG. 22.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 23.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 24.]

  _Double Wall and Double Crown_ (fig. 25).--Form a single wall crowned;
  then let the ends follow their own parts round until all the parts
  appear double. Put the ends down through the knot.

  _Matthew Walker_ (figs. 26, 27).--Unlay the end of a rope. Take the
  first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the second
  strand round the rope, through the bight of the first, and through its
  own bight; the third through all three bights. Haul the ends taut.

  [Illustration: FIG. 25.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 26.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 27.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 28.]

  _Inside Clinch_ (fig. 28).--The end is bent close round the standing
  part till it forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at
  _a_, _b_ and _c_, thus making a running eye; when taut round anything
  it jams the end. It is used for securing hemp cables to anchors, the
  standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many other purposes. If the
  eye were formed outside the bight an _outside clinch_ would be made,
  depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for slipping.

  _Midshipman's Hitch_ (fig. 29).--Take two round turns inside the
  bight, the same as a half-hitch repeated; stop up the end or let
  another half-hitch be taken or held by hand. Used for hooking a tackle
  for a temporary purpose.

  [Illustration: FIG. 29.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 30.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 31.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 32.]

  _Turk's Head_ (fig. 30).--With fine line (very dry) make a clove hitch
  round the rope; cross the bights twice, passing an end the reverse way
  (up or down) each time; then keeping the whole spread flat, let each
  end follow its own part round and round till it is too tight to
  receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes and
  foot-ropes of jibbooms. It may also be made with three ends, two
  formed by the same piece of line secured through the rope and one
  single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end crossed
  over its neighbour follows its own part as above.

  _Spanish Windlass_ (fig. 31).--An iron bar and two marling-spikes are
  taken; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat's-paw (fig. 16),
  passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In
  heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken with
  a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed between
  the parts of a long lashing or frapping and hove round, we have what
  is also called a Spanish windlass.

  _Slings_ (fig. 32).--This is simply the bight of a rope turned up over
  its own part; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up)
  takes the place of the bight at _s_ and another at _y_, connecting the
  two ends with the part which goes round the mast-head. Used to sling
  lower yards. For boat's yards it should be a grummet with a thimble
  seized in at _y_. As the tendency of all yards is to cant forward with
  the weight of the sail, the part marked by an arrow should be the
  fore-side--easily illustrated by a round ruler and a piece of twine.

  _Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot_ (fig. 33).--This knot consists of a double
  wall and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six
  strands, with the ends turned down. Used formerly in the clews of
  sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed
  at _s_ and a lanyard round the head at _l_.

  [Illustration: FIG. 33.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 34.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 35.]

  _Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion_ (fig. 34).--A bend is made
  in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together with a bar
  and strand; two or three seizings diminishing in size (one round and
  one or two either round or flat) are hove on taut and snug, the end
  being at the side of the fellow part. The dead-eye is put in and the
  eye driven down with a commander.

  _Turning in a Dead-Eye end up_ (fig. 35).--The shroud is measured
  round the dead-eye and marked where a throat-seizing is hove on; the
  dead-eye is then forced into its place, or it may be put in first. The
  end beyond _a_ is taken up taut and secured with a round seizing;
  higher still the end is secured by another seizing. As it is important
  that the lay should always be kept in the rope as much as possible,
  these eyes should be formed conformably, either right-handed or
  left-handed. It is easily seen which way a rope would naturally kink
  by putting a little extra twist into it. A shroud whose dead-eye is
  turned in end up will bear a fairer strain, but is more dependent on
  the seizings; the under turns of the throat are the first to break and
  the others the first to slip. With the cutter-stay fashion the
  standing part of the shroud gives way under the nip of the eye. A rope
  will afford the greatest resistance to strain when secured round large
  thimbles with a straight end and a sufficient number of flat or
  racking seizings. To splice shrouds round dead-eyes is objectionable
  on account of opening the strands and admitting water, thus hastening
  decay. In small vessels, especially yachts, it is admissible on the
  score of neatness; in that case a round seizing is placed between the
  dead-eye and the splice. The dead-eyes should be in diameter 1½ times
  the circumference of a hemp shroud and thrice that of wire; the
  lanyard should be half the nominal size of hemp and the same size as
  wire: thus, hemp-shroud 12 in., wire 6 in., dead-eye 18 in., lanyard 6
  in.

  [Illustration: FIG. 36.]

  _Short Splice_ (fig. 36).--The most common description of splice is
  when a rope is lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly so.
  Fig. 36 represents a splice of this kind: the strands have been
  unlaid, married and passed through with the assistance of a
  marling-spike, over one strand and under the next, twice each way. The
  ends are then cut off close. To render the splice neater the strands
  should have been halved before turning them in a second time, the
  upper half of each strand only being turned in; then all are cut off
  smooth. _Eye Splice._--Unlay the strands and place them upon the same
  rope spread at such a distance as to give the size of the eye; enter
  the centre strand (unlaid) under a strand of the rope (as above), and
  the other two in a similar manner on their respective sides of the
  first; taper each end and pass them through again. If neatness is
  desired, reduce the ends and pass them through once more; cut off
  smooth and serve the part disturbed tightly with suitable hard line.
  Uses too numerous to mention. _Cut Splice._--Made in a similar manner
  to an eye splice, but of two pieces of rope, therefore with two
  splices. Used for mast-head pendants, jib-guys, breast backstays, and
  even odd shrouds, to keep the eyes of the rigging lower by one part.
  It is not so strong as two separate eyes. _Horseshoe Splice._--Made
  similar to the above, but one part much shorter than the other, or
  another piece of rope is spliced across an eye, forming a horseshoe
  with two long legs. Used for back-ropes on dolphin striker, back stays
  (one on each side) and cutter's runner pendants. _Long Splice._--The
  strands must be unlaid about three times as much as for a short splice
  and married--care being taken to preserve the lay or shape of each.
  Unlay one of the strands still further and follow up the vacant space
  with the corresponding strand of the other part, fitting it firmly
  into the rope till only a few inches remain. Treat the other side in a
  similar manner. There will then appear two long strands in the centre
  and a long and a short one on each side. The splice is practically
  divided into three distinct parts; at each the strands are divided and
  the corresponding halves knotted (as shown on the top of fig. 38) and
  turned in twice. The half strand may, if desired, be still further
  reduced before the halves are turned in for the second time. This and
  all other splices should be well stretched and hammered into shape
  before the ends are cut off. The long splice alone is adapted to
  running ropes.

  [Illustration: FIG. 37.]

  _Shroud Knot_ (fig. 37).--Pass a stop at such distance from each end
  of the broken shroud as to afford sufficient length of strands, when
  it is unlaid, to form a single wall knot on each side after the parts
  have been married; it will then appear as represented in the figure,
  the strands having been well tarred and hove taut separately. The part
  _a_ provides the knot on the opposite side and the ends _b_, _b_; the
  part _c_ provides the knot and the ends _d_, _d_. After the knot has
  been well stretched the ends are tapered, laid smoothly between the
  strands of the shroud, and firmly served over. This knot is used when
  shrouds or stays are broken. _French Shroud Knot._--Marry the parts
  with a similar amount of and as before; stop one set of strands taut
  up on the shroud (to keep the parts together), and turn the ends back
  on their own part, forming bights. Make a single wall knot with the
  other three strands round the said bights and shroud; haul the knot
  taut first and stretch the whole; then heave down the bights close: it
  will look like the ordinary shroud knot. It is very liable to slip. If
  the ends by which the wall knot is made after being hove were passed
  through the bights, it would make the knot stronger. The ends would be
  tapered and served.

  [Illustration: FIG. 38.]

  _Flemish Eye_ (fig. 38).--Secure a spar or toggle twice the
  circumference of the rope intended to be rove through the eye; unlay
  the rope which is to form the eye about three times its circumference,
  at which part place a strong whipping. Point the rope vertically under
  the eye, and bind it taut up by the core if it is four-stranded rope,
  otherwise by a few yarns. While doing so arrange six or twelve pieces
  of spun-yarn at equal distances on the wood and exactly halve the
  number of yarns that have been unlaid. If it is a small rope, select
  two or three yarns from each side near the centre; cross them over the
  top at _a_, and half-knot them tightly. So continue till all are
  expended and drawn down tightly on the opposite side to that from
  which they came, being thoroughly intermixed. Tie the pieces of
  spun-yarn which were placed under the eye tightly round various parts,
  to keep the eye in shape when taken off the spar, till they are
  replaced by turns of marline hove on as taut as possible, the hitches
  forming a central line outside the eye. Heave on a good seizing of
  spun-yarn close below the spar, and another between six and twelve
  inches below the first; it may then be parcelled and served; the eye
  is served over twice, and well tarred each time. As large ropes are
  composed of so many yarns, a greater number must be knotted over the
  toggle each time; a 4-in. rope has 132 yarns, which would require 22
  knottings of six each time; a 10-in. rope has 834 yarns, therefore, if
  ten are taken from each side every time, about twice that number of
  hitches will be required; sometimes only half the yarns are hitched,
  the others being merely passed over. The chief use of these eyes has
  been to form the collars of stays, the whole stay in each case having
  to be rove through it--a very inconvenient device. It is almost
  superseded for that purpose by a leg spliced in the stay and lashing
  eyes abaft the mast, for which it is commonly used at present. This
  eye is not always called by the same name, but the weight of evidence
  is in favour of calling it a Flemish eye. _Ropemaker's Eye_, which
  also has alternative names, is formed by taking out of a rope one
  strand longer by 6 in. or a foot than the required eye, then placing
  the ends of the two strands a similar distance below the disturbance
  of the one strand, that is, at the size of the eye; the single strand
  is led back through the vacant space it left till it arrives at the
  neck of the eye, with a similar length of spare end to the other two
  strands. They are all seized together, scraped, tapered, marled and
  served. The principal merit is neatness. _Mouse on a Stay._--Formed by
  turns of coarse spun-yarn hove taut round the stay, over parcelling at
  the requisite distance from the eye to form the collar; assistance is
  given by a padding of short yarns distributed equally round the rope,
  which, after being firmly secured, especially at what is to be the
  under part, are turned back over the first layer and seized down
  again, thus making a shoulder; sometimes it is formed with parcelling
  only. In either case it is finished by marling, followed by serving or
  grafting. The use is to prevent the Flemish eye in the end of the stay
  from slipping up any farther.

  _Rolling Hitch_ (fig. 39).--Two round turns are taken round a spar or
  large rope in the direction in which it is to be hauled and one
  half-hitch on the other side of the hauling part. This is very
  useful, as it can be put on and off quickly.

  [Illustration: FIG. 39.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 40.]

  _Round Seizing_ (fig. 40).--So named when the rope it secures does not
  cross another and there are three sets of turns. The size of the
  seizing line is about one-sixth (nominal) that of the ropes to be
  secured, but varies according to the number of turns to be taken. An
  eye is spliced in the line and the end rove through it, embracing both
  parts. If either part is to be spread open, commence farthest from
  that part; place tarred canvas under the seizing; pass the line round
  as many times (with much slack) as it is intended to have under-turns;
  and pass the end back through them all and through the eye. Secure the
  eye from rendering round by the ends of its splice; heave the turns on
  with a marling-spike (see fig. 17), perhaps seven or nine; haul the
  end through taut, and commence again the riding turns in the hollows
  of the first. If the end is not taken back through the eye, but pushed
  up between the last two turns (as is sometimes recommended), the
  riders must be passed the opposite way in order to follow the
  direction of the under-turns, which are always one more in number than
  the riders. When the riders are complete, the end is forced between
  the last lower turns and two cross turns are taken, the end coming up
  where it went down, when a wall knot is made with the strands and the
  ends cut close; or the end may be taken once round the shroud. _Throat
  Seizing._--Two ropes or parts of ropes are laid on each other parallel
  and receive a seizing similar to that shown in figure 35--that is with
  upper and riding but no cross turns. As the two parts of rope are
  intended to turn up at right angles to the direction in which they
  were secured, the seizing should be of stouter line and short, not
  exceeding seven lower and six riding turns. The end is better secured
  with a turn round the standing part. Used for turning in dead-eyes and
  variously. _Flat Seizing._--Commenced similarly to the above, but it
  has neither riding nor cross turns.

  [Illustration: FIG. 41.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 42.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 43.]

  _Racking Seizing_ (fig. 41).--A running eye having been spliced round
  one part of the rope, the line is passed entirely round the other
  part, crossed back round the first part, and so on for ten to twenty
  turns, according to the expected strain, every turn being hove as
  tight as possible; after which round turns are passed to fill the
  spaces at the back of each rope, by taking the end _a_ over both parts
  into the hollow at _b_, returning at _c_, and going over to _d_. When
  it reaches e a turn may be taken round that rope only, the end rove
  under it, and a half-hitch taken, which will form a clove-hitch; knot
  the end and cut it close. When the shrouds are wire (which is half the
  size of hemp) and the end turned up round a dead-eye of any kind, wire
  seizings are preferable. It appears very undesirable to have wire
  rigging combined with plates or screws for setting it up, as in case
  of accident--such as that of the mast going over the side, a shot or
  collision breaking the ironwork--the seamen are powerless.

  _Diamond Knot_ (figs. 42, 43).--The rope must be unlaid as far as the
  centre if the knot is required there, and the strands handled with
  great care to keep the lay in them. Three bights are turned up as in
  fig. 42, and the end of _a_ is taken over _b_ and up the bight _c_.
  The end of _b_ is taken over _c_ and up through _a_. The end _c_ is
  taken over a and through _b_. When hauled taut and the strands are
  laid up again it will appear as in fig. 43. Any number of knots may be
  made on the same rope. They were used on man-ropes, the foot-ropes on
  the jibboom, and similar places, where it was necessary to give a good
  hold for the hands or feet. Turk's heads are now generally used.
  _Double Diamond._--Made by the ends of a single diamond following
  their own part till the knot is repeated. Used at the upper end of a
  side rope as an ornamental stopper-knot.

  _Stropping-Blocks._--There are various modes of securing blocks to
  ropes; the most simple is to splice an eye at the end of the rope a
  little longer than the block and pass a round seizing to keep it in
  place; such is the case with jib-pendants. As a general rule, the
  parts of a strop combined should possess greater strength than the
  parts of the fall which act against it. The shell of an ordinary block
  should be about three times the circumference of the rope which is to
  reeve through it, as a 9-in. block for a 3-in. rope; but small ropes
  require larger blocks in proportion, as a 4-in. block for a 1-in.
  rope. When the work to be done is very important the blocks are much
  larger: brace-blocks are more than five times the nominal size of the
  brace. Leading-blocks and sheaves in racks are generally smaller than
  the blocks through which the ropes pass farther away, which appears to
  be a mistake, as more power is lost by friction. A clump-block should
  be double the nominal size of the rope. A single strop may be made by
  joining the ends of a rope of sufficient length to go round the block
  and thimble by a common short splice, which rests on the crown of the
  block (the opposite end to the thimble) and is stretched into place by
  a jigger; a strand is then passed twice round the space between the
  block and the thimble and hove taut by a Spanish windlass to cramp the
  parts together ready for the reception of a small round seizing. The
  cramping or pinching into shape is sometimes done by machinery
  invented by a rigger in Portsmouth dockyard. The strop may be made the
  required length by a long splice, but it would not possess any
  advantage.

  [Illustration: FIG. 44.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 45.]

  _Grummet-Strop_ (fig. 44).--Made by unlaying a piece of rope of the
  desired size about a foot more than three times the length required
  for the strop. Place the centre of the rope round the block and
  thimble; mark with chalk where the parts cross; take one strand out of
  the rope; bring the two chalk marks together; and cross the strand in
  the lay on both sides, continuing round and round till the two ends
  meet the third time; they are then halved, and the upper halves
  half-knotted and passed over and under the next strands, exactly as
  one part of a long splice. A piece of worn or well-stretched rope will
  better retain its shape, upon which success entirely depends. The
  object is neatness, and if three or multiples of three strops are to
  be made it is economical.

  _Double Strop_ (fig. 45).--Made with one piece of rope, the splice
  being brought as usual to the crown of the block _t_, the bights
  fitting into scores some inches apart, converging to the upper part,
  above which the thimble receives the bights _a_, _a_; and the four
  parts of the strop are secured at _s_, _s_ by a round seizing doubly
  crossed. If the block be not then on the right slew (the shell
  horizontal or vertical) a union thimble is used with another strop,
  which produces the desired effect; thus the fore and main
  brace-blocks, being very large and thin, are required (for appearance)
  to lie horizontally; a single strop round the yard vertically has a
  union thimble between it and the double strop round the block. The
  double strop is used for large blocks; it gives more support to the
  shell than the single strop and admits of smaller rope being used.
  Wire rope is much used for block-strops; the fitting is similar. Metal
  blocks are also used in fixed positions; durability is their chief
  recommendation. Great care should be taken that they do not chafe the
  ropes which pass by them as well as those which reeve through.

  _Selvagee Strop._--Twine, rope-yarn or rope is warped round two or
  more pegs placed at the desired distance apart, till it assumes the
  requisite size and strength; the two ends are then knotted or spliced.
  Temporary firm seizings are applied in several places to bind the
  parts together before the rope or twine is removed from the pegs,
  after which it is marled with suitable material. A large strop should
  be warped round four or six pegs in order to give it the shape in
  which it is to be used. This description of strop is much stronger and
  more supple than rope of similar size. Twine strops (covered with
  duck) are used for boats' blocks and in similar places requiring
  neatness. Rope-yarn and spun-yarn strops are used for attaching
  luff-tackles to shrouds and for many similar purposes. To bring to a
  shroud or hawser, the centre of the strop is passed round the rope and
  each part crossed three or four times before hooking the "luff"; a
  spun-yarn stop above the centre will prevent slipping and is very
  necessary with wire rope. As an instance of a large selvagee
  block-strop being used--when the "Melville" was hove down at Chusan
  (China), the main-purchase-block was double stropped with a selvagee
  containing 28 parts of 3-in. rope; that would produce 112 parts in
  the neck, equal to a breaking strain of 280 tons, which is more than
  four parts of a 19-in cable. The estimated strain it bore was 80 tons.

  _Stoppers_ for ordinary running ropes are made by splicing a piece of
  rope to a bolt or to a hook and thimble, unlaying 3 or 4 ft., tapering
  it by cutting away some of the yarns, and marling it down securely,
  with a good whipping also on the end. It is used by taking a
  half-hitch round the rope which is to be hauled upon, dogging the end
  up in the lay and holding it by hand. The rope can come through it
  when hauled, but cannot go back.

  [Illustration: FIG. 46.]

  _Whipping and Pointing._--The end of every working rope should at
  least be whipped to prevent it fagging out; in ships of war and yachts
  they are invariably pointed. Whipping is done by placing the end of a
  piece of twine or knittle-stuff on a rope about an inch from the end,
  taking three or four turns taut over it (working towards the end); the
  twine is then laid on the rope again lengthways contrary to the first,
  leaving a slack bight of twine; and taut turns are repeatedly passed
  round the rope, over the first end and over the bight, till there are
  in all six to ten turns; then haul the bight taut through between the
  turns and cut it close. To point a rope, place a good whipping a few
  inches from the end, according to size; open out the end entirely;
  select all the outer yarns and twist them into knittles either singly
  or two or three together; scrape down and taper the central part,
  marling it firmly. Turn every alternate knittle and secure the
  remainder down by a turn of twine or a smooth yarn hitched close up,
  which acts as the weft in weaving. The knittles are then reversed and
  another turn of the weft taken, and this is continued till far enough
  to look well. At the last turn the ends of the knittles which are laid
  back are led forward over and under the weft and hauled through
  tightly, making it present a circle of small bights, level with which
  the core is cut off smoothly. Hawsers and large ropes have a becket
  formed in their ends during the process of pointing. A piece of 1 to
  1½ in. rope about 1½ to 2 ft. long is spliced into the core by each
  end while it is open: from four to seven yarns (equal to a strand) are
  taken at a time and twisted up; open the ends of the becket only
  sufficient to marry them close in; turn in the twisted yarns between
  the strands (as splicing) three times, and stop it above and below.
  Both ends are treated alike; when the pointing is completed a loop a
  few inches in length will protrude from the end of the rope, which is
  very useful for reeving it. A hauling line or reeving line should only
  be rove through the becket as a fair lead. _Grafting_ is very similar
  to pointing, and frequently done the whole length of a rope, as a
  side-rope. Pieces of white line more than double the length of the
  rope, sufficient in number to encircle it, are made up in hanks called
  foxes; the centre of each is made fast by twine and the weaving
  process continued as in pointing. Block-strops are sometimes so
  covered; but, as it causes decay, a small wove mat which can be taken
  off occasionally is preferable.

  _Sheep-Shank_ (fig. 46).--Formed by making a long bight in a
  topgallant back-stay, or any rope which it is desirable to shorten,
  and taking a half-hitch near each bend, as at _a_, _a_. Rope-yarn
  stops at _b_, _b_ are desirable to keep it in place till the strain is
  brought on it. Wire rope cannot be so treated, and it is injurious to
  hemp rope that is large and stiff.

  _Knotting Yarns_ (fig. 47).--This operation becomes necessary when, a
  comparatively short piece of junk is to be made into spun-yarn, or
  large rope into small, which is called twice laid. The end of each
  yarn is divided, rubbed smooth and married (as for splicing). Two of
  the divided parts, as _c_, _c_ and _d_, _d_, are passed in opposite
  directions round all the other parts and knotted. The ends e and f
  remain passive. The figure is drawn open, but the forks of A and B
  should be pressed close together, the knot hauled taut and the ends
  cut off.

  [Illustration: FIG. 47.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 48.]

  _Butt Slings_ (fig. 48).--Made of 4-in. rope, each pair being 26 ft.
  in length, with an eye spliced in one end, through which the other is
  rove before being placed over one end of the cask; the rope is then
  passed round the opposite side of the cask and two half-hitches made
  with the end, forming another running eye, both of which are beaten
  down taut as the tackle receives the weight. Slings for smaller casks
  requiring care should be of this description, though of smaller rope,
  as the cask cannot possibly slip out. _Bale Slings_ are made by
  splicing the ends of about 3 fathoms of 3-in. rope together, which
  then looks like a long strop, similar to the double strop represented
  in fig. 45--the bights _t_ being placed under the cask or bale and one
  of the bights _a_, _a_ rove through the other and attached to the
  whip or tackle.

  For a complete treatise on the subject the reader may be referred to
  _The Book of Knots, being a Complete Treatise on the Art of Cordage,
  illustrated by 172 Diagrams, showing the Manner of making every Knot,
  Tie and Splice_, by Tom Bowling (London, 1890).


_Mathematical Theory of Knots._

In the scientific sense a knot is an endless physical line which cannot
be deformed into a circle. A physical line is flexible and inextensible,
and cannot be cut--so that no lap of it can be drawn through another.

The founder of the theory of knots is undoubtedly Johann Benedict
Listing (1808-1882). In his "Vorstudien zur Topologie" (_Göttinger
Studien_, 1847), a work in many respects of startling originality, a few
pages only are devoted to the subject.[1] He treats knots from the
elementary notion of twisting one physical line (or thread) round
another, and shows that from the projection of a knot on a surface we
can thus obtain a notion of the relative situation of its coils. He
distinguishes "reduced" from "reducible" forms, the number of crossings
in the reduced knot being the smallest possible. The simplest form of
reduced knot is of two species, as in figs. 49 and 50. Listing points
out that these are formed, the first by right-handed the second by
left-handed twisting. In fact, if three half-twists be given to a long
strip of paper, and the ends be then pasted together, the two edges
become one line, which is the knot in question. We may free it by
slitting the paper along its middle line; and then we have the juggler's
trick of putting a knot on an endless unknotted band. One of the above
forms cannot be deformed into the other. The one is, in Listing's
language, the "perversion" of the other, i.e. its image in a plane
mirror. He gives a method of symbolizing reduced knots, but shows that
in this method the same knot may, in certain cases, be represented by
different symbols. It is clear that the brief notice he published
contains a mere sketch of his investigations.

The most extensive dissertation on the properties of knots is that of
Peter Guthrie Tait (_Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._, xxviii. 145, where the
substance of a number of papers in the _Proceedings_ of the same society
is reproduced). It was for the most part written in ignorance of the
work of Listing, and was suggested by an inquiry concerning vortex
atoms.

[Illustration: FIG. 49.]

[Illustration: FIG. 50.]

[Illustration: FIG. 51.]

[Illustration: FIG. 52.]

  Tait starts with the almost self-evident proposition that, if any
  plane closed curve have double points only, in passing continuously
  along the curve from one of these to the same again an even number of
  double points has been passed through. Hence the crossings may be
  taken alternately over and under. On this he bases a scheme for the
  representation of knots of every kind, and employs it to find all the
  distinct forms of knots which have, in their simplest projections, 3,
  4, 5, 6 and 7 crossings only. Their numbers are shown to be 1, 1, 2, 4
  and 8. The unique knot of three crossings has been already given as
  drawn by Listing. The unique knot of four crossings merits a few
  words, because its properties lead to a very singular conclusion. It
  can be deformed into any of the four forms--figs. 51 and 52 and their
  perversions. Knots which can be deformed into their own perversion
  Tait calls "amphicheiral" (from the Greek [Greek: amphi], on both
  sides, around, [Greek: cheir], hand), and he has shown that there is
  at least one knot of this kind for every even number of crossings. He
  shows also that "links" (in which two endless physical lines are
  linked together) possess a similar property; and he then points out
  that there is a third mode of making a complex figure of endless
  physical lines, without either knotting or linking. This may be called
  "lacing" or "locking." Its nature is obvious from fig. 53, in which it
  will be seen that no one of the three lines is knotted, no two are
  linked, and yet the three are inseparably fastened together.

  The rest of Tait's paper deals chiefly with numerical characteristics
  of knots, such as their "knottiness," "beknottedness" and
  "knotfulness." He also shows that any knot, however complex, can be
  fully represented by three closed plane curves, none of which has
  double points and no two of which intersect. It may be stated here
  that the notion of beknottedness is founded on a remark of Gauss, who
  in 1833 considered the problem of the number of inter-linkings of two
  closed circuits, and expressed it by the electro-dynamic measure of
  the work required to carry a unit magnetic pole round one of the
  interlinked curves, while a unit electric current is kept circulating
  in the other. This original suggestion has been developed at
  considerable length by Otto Boeddicker (_Erweiterung der Gauss'schen
  Theorie der Verschlingungen_ (Stuttgart, 1876). This author treats
  also of the connexion of knots with Riemann's surfaces.

  [Illustration: FIG. 53.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 54.]

  It is to be noticed that, although every knot in which the crossings
  are alternately over and under is irreducible, the converse is not
  generally true. This is obvious at once from fig. 54, which is merely
  the three-crossing knot with a doubled string--what Listing calls
  "paradromic."

  Christian Felix Klein, in the _Mathematische Annalen_, ix. 478, has
  proved the remarkable proposition that knots cannot exist in space of
  four dimensions.     (P. G. T.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] See P. G. Tait "On Listing's _Topologie_," _Phil. Mag._, xvii.
    30.




KNOUT (from the French transliteration of a Russian word of Scandinavian
origin; cf. A.-S. _cnotta_, Eng. knot), the whip used in Russia for
flogging criminals and political offenders. It is said to have been
introduced under Ivan III. (1462-1505). The knout had different forms.
One was a lash of raw hide, 16 in. long, attached to a wooden handle, 9
in. long. The lash ended in a metal ring, to which was attached a second
lash as long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few
inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind
consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with wire,
ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o'-nine tails. The victim was
tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the
specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of 100 or 120 lashes
was equivalent to a death sentence; but few lived to receive so many.
The executioner was usually a criminal who had to pass through a
probation and regular training; being let off his own penalties in
return for his services. Peter the Great is traditionally accused of
knouting his son Alexis to death, and there is little doubt that the boy
was actually beaten till he died, whoever was the executioner. The
emperor Nicholas I. abolished the earlier forms of knout and substituted
the pleti, a three-thonged lash. Ostensibly the knout has been abolished
throughout Russia and reserved for the penal settlements.




KNOWLES, SIR JAMES (1831-1908), English architect and editor, was born
in London in 1831, and was educated, with a view to following his
father's profession, as an architect at University College and in Italy.
His literary tastes also brought him at an early age into the field of
authorship. In 1860 he published _The Story of King Arthur_. In 1867 he
was introduced to Tennyson, whose house, Aldworth, on Blackdown, he
designed; this led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting Tennyson in
business matters, and among other things helping to design scenery for
_The Cup_, when Irving produced that play in 1880. Knowles became
intimate with a number of the most interesting men of the day, and in
1869, with Tennyson's co-operation, he started the Metaphysical Society,
the object of which was to attempt some intellectual _rapprochement_
between religion and science by getting the leading representatives of
faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views.

  The members from first to last were as follows: Dean Stanley, Seeley,
  Roden Noel, Martineau, W. B. Carpenter, Hinton, Huxley, Pritchard,
  Hutton, Ward, Bagehot, Froude, Tennyson, Tyndall, Alfred Barry, Lord
  Arthur Russell, Gladstone, Manning, Knowles, Lord Avebury, Dean
  Alford, Alex. Grant, Bishop Thirlwall, F. Harrison, Father Dalgairns,
  Sir G. Grove, Shadworth Hodgson, H. Sidgwick, E. Lushington, Bishop
  Ellicott, Mark Pattison, duke of Argyll, Ruskin, Robert Lowe, Grant
  Duff, Greg, A. C. Fraser, Henry Acland, Maurice, Archbishop Thomson,
  Mozley, Dean Church, Bishop Magee, Croom Robertson, FitzJames Stephen,
  Sylvester, J. C. Bucknill, Andrew Clark, W. K. Clifford, St George
  Mivart, M. Boulton, Lord Selborne, John Morley, Leslie Stephen, F.
  Pollock, Gasquet, C. B. Upton, William Gull, Robert Clarke, A. J.
  Balfour, James Sully and A. Barratt.

Papers were read and discussed at the various meetings on such subjects
as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective and moral sciences,
the immortality of the soul, &c. An interesting description of one of
the meetings was given by Magee (then bishop of Peterborough) in a
letter of 13th of February 1873:--

  "Archbishop Manning in the chair was flanked by two Protestant bishops
  right and left; on my right was Hutton, editor of the _Spectator_, an
  Arian; then came Father Dalgairns, a very able Roman Catholic priest;
  opposite him Lord A. Russell, a Deist; then two Scotch metaphysical
  writers, Freethinkers; then Knowles, the very broad editor of the
  _Contemporary_; then, dressed as a layman and looking like a country
  squire, was Ward, formerly Rev. Ward, and earliest of the perverts to
  Rome; then Greg, author of _The Creed of Christendom_, a Deist; then
  Froude, the historian, once a deacon in our Church, now a Deist; then
  Roden Noel, an actual Atheist and red republican, and looking very
  like one! Lastly Ruskin, who read a paper on miracles, which we
  discussed for an hour and a half! Nothing could be calmer, fairer, or
  even, on the whole, more reverent then the discussion. In my opinion,
  we, the Christians, had much the best of it. Dalgairns, the priest,
  was very masterly; Manning, clever and precise and weighty; Froude,
  very acute, and so was Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Mahommedan to
  make our Religious Museum complete" (_Life_, i. 284).

The last meeting of the society was held on 16th May 1880. Huxley said
that it died "of too much love"; Tennyson, "because after ten years of
strenuous effort no one had succeeded in even defining metaphysics."
According to Dean Stanley, "We all meant the same thing if we only knew
it." The society formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of
contributors who supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor. In 1870
he became editor of the _Contemporary Review_, but left it in 1877 and
founded the _Nineteenth Century_ (to the title of which, in 1901, were
added the words _And After_). Both periodicals became very influential
under him, and formed the type of the new sort of monthly review which
came to occupy the place formerly held by the quarterlies. In 1904 he
received the honour of knighthood. He died at Brighton on the 13th of
February 1908.




KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN (1784-1862), Irish dramatist and actor, was born
in Cork, on the 12th of May 1784. His father was the lexicographer,
James Knowles (1759-1840), cousin-german of Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
The family removed to London in 1793, and at the age of fourteen Knowles
published a ballad entitled _The Welsh Harper_, which, set to music, was
very popular. The boy's talents secured him the friendship of Hazlitt,
who introduced him to Lamb and Coleridge. He served for some time in the
Wiltshire and afterwards in the Tower Hamlets militia, leaving the
service to become pupil of Dr Robert Willan (1757-1812). He obtained the
degree of M.D., and was appointed vaccinator to the Jennerian Society.
Although, however, Dr Willan generously offered him a share in his
practice, he resolved to forsake medicine for the stage, making his
first appearance probably at Bath, and playing Hamlet at the Crow
Theatre, Dublin. At Wexford he married, in October 1809, Maria
Charteris, an actress from the Edinburgh Theatre. In 1810 he wrote
_Leo_, in which Edmund Kean acted with great success; another play,
_Brian Boroihme_, written for the Belfast Theatre in the next year, also
drew crowded houses, but his earnings were so small that he was obliged
to become assistant to his father at the Belfast Academical Institution.
In 1817 he removed from Belfast to Glasgow, where, besides conducting a
flourishing school, he continued to write for the stage. His first
important success was _Caius Gracchus_, produced at Belfast in 1815; and
his _Virginius_, written for Edmund Kean, was first performed in 1820 at
Covent Garden. In _William Tell_ (1825) Macready found one of his
favourite parts. His best-known play, _The Hunchback_, was produced at
Covent Garden in 1832; _The Wife_ was brought out at the same theatre in
1833; and _The Love Chase_ in 1837. In his later years he forsook the
stage for the pulpit, and as a Baptist preacher attracted large
audiences at Exeter Hall and elsewhere. He published two polemical
works--the _Rock of Rome_ and the _Idol Demolished by its own
Priests_--in both of which he combated the special doctrines of the
Roman Catholic Church. Knowles was for some years in the receipt of an
annual pension of £200, bestowed by Sir Robert Peel. He died at Torquay
on the 30th of November 1862.

  A full list of the works of Knowles and of the various notices of him
  will be found in the _Life_ (1872), privately printed by his son,
  Richard Brinsley Knowles (1820-1882), who was well known as a
  journalist.




KNOW NOTHING (or AMERICAN) PARTY, in United States history, a political
party of great importance in the decade before 1860. Its principle was
political proscription of naturalized citizens and of Roman Catholics.
Distrust of alien immigrants, because of presumptive attachment to
European institutions, has always been more or less widely diffused, and
race antagonisms have been recurrently of political moment; while
anti-Catholic sentiment went back to colonial sectarianism. These were
the elements of the political "nativism"--i.e. hostility to foreign
influence in politics--of 1830-1860. In these years Irish immigration
became increasingly preponderant; and that of Catholics was even more
so. The geographical segregation and the clannishness of foreign voters
in the cities gave them a power that Whigs and Democrats alike (the
latter more successfully) strove to control, to the great aggravation of
naturalization and election frauds. "No one can deny that ignorant
foreign suffrage had grown to be an evil of immense proportions" (J. F.
Rhodes). In labour disputes, political feuds and social clannishness,
the alien elements--especially the Irish and German--displayed their
power, and at times gave offence by their hostile criticism of American
institutions.[1] In immigration centres like Boston, Philadelphia and
New York, the Catholic Church, very largely foreign in membership and
proclaiming a foreign allegiance of disputed extent, was really "the
symbol and strength of foreign influence" (Scisco); many regarded it as
a transplanted foreign institution, un-American in organization and
ideas.[2] Thus it became involved in politics. The decade 1830-1840 was
marked by anti-Catholic (anti-Irish) riots in various cities and by
party organization of nativists in many places in local elections. Thus
arose the American-Republican (later the Native-American) Party, whose
national career begun practically in 1845, and which in Louisiana in
1841 first received a state organization. New York City in 1844 and
Boston in 1845 were carried by the nativists, but their success was due
to Whig support, which was not continued,[3] and the national
organization was by 1847--in which year it endorsed the Whig nominee for
the presidency--practically dead. Though some Whig leaders had strong
nativist leanings, and though the party secured a few representatives in
Congress, it accomplished little at this time in national politics. In
the early 'fifties nativism was revivified by an unparalleled inflow of
aliens. Catholics, moreover, had combated the Native-Americans
defiantly. In 1852 both Whigs and Democrats were forced to defend their
presidential nominees against charges of anti-Catholic sentiment. In
1853-1854 there was a wide-spread "anti-popery" propaganda and riots
against Catholics in various cities. Meanwhile the Know Nothing Party
had sprung from nativist secret societies, whose relations remain
obscure.[4] Its organization was secret; and hence its name--for a
member, when interrogated, always answered that he knew nothing about
it. Selecting candidates secretly from among those nominated by the
other parties, and giving them no public endorsement, the Know Nothings,
as soon as they gained the balance of power, could shatter at will Whig
and Democratic calculations. Their power was evident by 1852--from which
time, accordingly, "Know Nothingism" is most properly dated. The charges
they brought against naturalization abuses were only too well founded;
and those against election frauds not less so--though, unfortunately,
the Know Nothings themselves followed scandalous election methods in
some cities. The proposed proscription of the foreign-born knew no
exceptions: many wished never to concede to them all the rights of
natives, nor to their children unless educated in the public schools. As
for Catholics, the real animus of Know Nothingism was against
_political_ Romanism; therefore, secondarily, against papal allegiance
and episcopal church administration (in place of administration by lay
trustees, as was earlier common practice in the United States); and,
primarily, against public aid to Catholic schools, and the alleged greed
(i.e. the power and success) of the Irish in politics. The times were
propitious for the success of an aggressive third party; for the Whigs
were broken by the death of Clay and Webster and the crushing defeat of
1852, and both the Whig and Democratic parties were disintegrating on
the slavery issue. But the Know Nothings lacked aggression. In entering
national politics the party abandoned its mysteries, without making
compensatory gains; when it was compelled to publish a platform of
principles, factions arose in its ranks; moreover, to draw recruits the
faster from Whigs and Democrats, it "straddled" the slavery question,
and this, although a temporary success, ultimately meant ruin. In 1854,
however, Know Nothing gains were remarkable.[5] Thereafter the
organization spread like wildfire in the South, in which section there
were almost no aliens, and the Whig dissolution was far advanced. The
Virginia election of May 1855 proved conclusively, however, that Know
Nothingism was no stronger against the Democrats than was the Whig party
it had absorbed; it was the same organization under a new name. In the
North it was even clearer that slavery must be faced. Know Nothing
evasion probably helped the South,[6] but neither Republicans nor
Democrats would endure the evasion; Douglas and Seward, and later
(1855-1856) their parties, denounced it. In the North-West the Know
Nothings were swept into the anti-slavery movement in 1854 without
retaining their organization. In the state campaigns of 1855 professions
were measured to the latitude. The national platform of 1856 (adopted by
a secret grand council), besides including anti-alien and anti-Catholic
planks, offered sops to the North, the South and the "doughfaces" on the
slavery issue. Millard Fillmore was nominated for the presidency. The
anti-slavery delegates of eight Northern states bolted the convention,
and eight months later the Republican wave swept the Know Nothings out
of the North.[7] The national field being thus lost, the state councils
became supreme, and local opportunism fostered variation and weakness.
By 1859 the party was confined almost entirely to the border states. The
Constitutional Union--the "Do Nothing"--Party of 1860 was mainly
composed of Know Nothing remnants.[8] The year 1860 practically marked,
also, the disappearance of the party as a local power.[9]

Except in city politics nativism had no vitality; in state and national
politics it really had no excuse. Race antipathies gave it local
cohesive power in the North; various causes, already mentioned, advanced
it in the South; and as a device to win offices it was of wide-spread
attraction. Its only real contribution to government was the proof that
nativism is not Americanism. Public opinion has never accepted its
estimate of the alien nor of Catholic citizens. Some of its anti-Church
principles, however--as the non-support of denominational schools--have
been generally accepted; others--as the refusal to exclude the
(Protestant) Bible from public schools--have been generally rejected;
others--as the taxation of all Church property--remain disputed.

  See L. D. Scisco, _Political Nativism in New York State_ (doctoral
  thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1901); L. F. Schmeckebier,
  _Know Nothing Party in Maryland_ (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
  1899); G. H. Haynes, "A Know Nothing Legislature" (Mass., 1855), in
  _American Historical Assoc. Report_, pt. 1 (1896); J. B. McMaster,
  _With the Fathers_, including "The Riotous Career of the Know
  Nothings" (New York, 1896); H. F. Desmond, _The Know Nothing Party_
  (Washington, 1905).


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] E.g. for some extraordinary "reform" programmes among German
    immigrants see Schmeckebier (as below), pp. 48-50.

  [2] "The actual offence of the Catholic Church was its non-conformity
    to American methods of church administration and popular education"
    (Scisco).

  [3] The Whigs bargained aid in New York city for "American" support
    in the state, and charged that the latter was not given. Millard
    Fillmore attributed the Whig loss of the state (see LIBERTY PARTY) to
    the disaffection of Catholic Whigs angered by the alliance with the
    nativists.

  [4] The Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star Spangled
    Banner, established in New York respectively in 1845 and 1850, were
    the most important sources of its membership.

  [5] This year "American Party" became the official name. Its strength
    in Congress was almost thirty-fold that of 1852. It elected
    governors, legislatures, or both, in four New England states, and in
    Maryland, Kentucky and California; minor officers elsewhere; and
    almost won six Southern states.

  [6] For it delayed anti-slavery organization in the North, and
    presumably discouraged immigration, which was a source of strength to
    the North rather than to the South.

  [7] They carried only Maryland. The popular vote in the North was
    under one-seventh, in the South above three-sevenths, of the total
    vote cast.

  [8] Note the presidential vote. Seward's loss of the Republican
    nomination was partly due to Know Nothing hostility.

  [9] Its firmest hold was in Maryland. Its rule in Baltimore
    (1854-1860) was marked by disgraceful riots and abuses.




KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806), American general, was born in Boston,
Massachusetts, of Scottish-Irish parentage, on the 25th of July 1750. He
was prominent in the colonial militia and tried to keep the Boston crowd
and the British soldiers from the clash known as the Boston massacre
(1770). In 1771 he opened the "London Book-Store" in Boston. He had read
much of tactics and strategy, joined the American army at the outbreak
of the War of Independence, and fought at Bunker Hill, planned the
defences of the camps of the army before Boston, and brought from Lake
George and border forts much-needed artillery. At Trenton he crossed the
river before the main body, and in the attack rendered such good service
that he was made brigadier-general and chief of artillery in the
Continental army on the following day. He was present at Princeton; was
chiefly responsible for the mistake in attacking the "Chew House" at
Germantown; urged New York as the objective of the campaign of 1778;
served with efficiency at Monmouth and at Yorktown; and after the
surrender of Cornwallis was promoted major-general, and served as a
commissioner on the exchange of prisoners. His services throughout the
war were of great value to the American cause; he was one of General
Washington's most trusted advisers, and he brought the artillery to a
high degree of efficiency. From December 1783 until June 1784 he was the
senior officer of the United States army. In April 1783 he had drafted a
scheme of a society to be formed by the American officers and the French
officers who had served in America during the war, and to be called the
"Cincinnati"; of this society he was the first secretary-general
(1783-1799) and in 1805 became vice-president-general. In 1785-1794 Knox
was secretary of war, being the first man to hold this position after
the organization of the Federal government in 1789. He urged
ineffectually a national militia system, to enroll all citizens over 18
and under 60 in the "advanced corps," the "main corps" or the "reserve,"
and for this and his close friendship with Washington was bitterly
assailed by the Republicans. In 1793 he had begun to build his house,
Montpelier, at Thomaston, Maine, where he speculated unsuccessfully in
the holdings of the Eastern Land Association; and he lived there until
his death on the 25th of October 1806.

  See F. S. Drake, _Memoir of General Henry Knox_ (Boston, 1873); and
  Noah Brooks, _Henry Knox_ (New York, 1900) in the "American Men of
  Energy" series.




KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505-1572), Scottish reformer and historian. Of his early
life very little is certainly known, in spite of the fact that his
_History of the Reformation_ and his private letters, especially the
latter, are often vividly autobiographical. Even the year of his birth,
usually given as 1505, is matter of dispute. Beza, in his _Icones_,
published in 1580, makes it 1515; Sir Peter Young (tutor to James VI. of
Scotland), writing to Beza from Edinburgh in 1579, says 1513; and a
strong case has been made out for holding that the generally accepted
date is due to an error in transcription (see Dr Hay Fleming in the
_Bookman_, Sept. 1905). But Knox seems to have been reticent about his
early life, even to his contemporaries. What is known is that he was a
son of William Knox, who lived in or near the town of Haddington, that
his mother's name was Sinclair, and that his forefathers on both sides
had fought under the banner of the Bothwells. William Knox was "simple,"
not "gentle"--perhaps a prosperous East Lothian peasant. But he sent his
son John to school (no doubt the well-known grammar school of
Haddington), and thereafter to the university, where, like his
contemporary George Buchanan, he sat "at the feet" of John Major. Major
was a native of Haddington, who had recently returned to Scotland from
Paris with a great academical reputation. He retained to the last, as
his _History of Greater Britain_ shows, the repugnance characteristic of
the university of Paris to the tyranny of kings and nobles; but like it,
he was now alarmed by the revolt of Luther, and ceased to urge its
ancient protest against the supremacy of the pope. He exchanged his
"regency" or professorship in Glasgow University for one in that of St
Andrews in 1523. If Knox's college time was later than that date (as it
must have been, if he was born near 1515), it was no doubt spent, as
Beza narrates, at St Andrews, and probably exclusively there. But in
Major's last Glasgow session a "Joannes Knox" (not an uncommon name,
however, at that time in the west of Scotland) matriculated there; and
if this were the future reformer, he may thereafter either have followed
his master to St Andrews or returned from Glasgow straight to
Haddington. But till twenty years after that date his career has not
been again traced. Then he reappears in his native district as a priest
without a university degree (Sir John Knox) and a notary of the diocese
of St Andrews. In 1543 he certainly signed himself "minister of the
sacred altar" under the archbishop of St Andrews. But in 1546 he was
carrying a two-handed sword in defence of the reformer George Wishart,
on the day when the latter was arrested by the archbishop's order. Knox
would have resisted, though the arrest was by his feudal superior, Lord
Bothwell; but Wishart himself commanded his submission, with the words
"One is sufficient for a sacrifice," and was handed over for trial at St
Andrews. And next year the archbishop himself had been murdered, and
Knox was preaching in St Andrews a fully developed Protestantism.

Knox gives us no information as to how this startling change in himself
was brought about. During those twenty years Scotland had been slowly
tending to freedom in religious profession, and to friendship with
England rather than with France. The Scottish hierarchy, by this time
corrupt and even profligate, saw the twofold danger and met it firmly.
James V., the "Commons' King" had put himself into the hands of the
Beatons, who in 1528 burned Patrick Hamilton. On James's death there was
a slight reaction, but the cardinal-archbishop took possession of the
weak regent Arran, and in 1546 burned George Wishart. England had by
this time rejected the pope's supremacy. In Scotland by a recent statute
it was death even to argue against it; and Knox after Wishart's
execution was fleeing from place to place, when, hearing that certain
gentlemen of Fife had slain the cardinal and were in possession of his
castle of St Andrews, he gladly joined himself to them. In St Andrews he
taught "John's Gospel" and a certain catechism--probably that which
Wishart had got from "Helvetia" and translated; but his teaching was
supposed to be private and tutorial and for the benefit of his friends'
"bairns." The men about him however--among them Sir David Lindsay of the
Mount, "Lyon King" and poet--saw his capacity for greater things, and,
on his at first refusing "to run where God had not called him," planned
a solemn appeal to Knox from the pulpit to accept "the public office and
charge of preaching." At the close of it the speaker (in Knox's own
narrative) "said to those that were present, 'Was not this your charge
to me? And do ye not approve this vocation?' They answered, 'It was, and
we approve it.' Whereat the said Johnne, abashed, burst forth in most
abundant tears and withdrew himself to his chamber," remaining there in
"heaviness" for days, until he came forth resolved and prepared. Knox is
probably not wrong in regarding this strange incident as the spring of
his own public life. The St Andrews invitation was really one to danger
and death; John Rough, who spoke it, died a few years after in the
flames at Smithfield. But it was a call which many in that ardent dawn
were ready to accept, and it had now at length found, or made, a
statesman and leader of men. For what to the others was chiefly a
promise of personal salvation became for the indomitable will of Knox an
assurance also of victory, even in this world, over embattled forces of
ancient wrong. It is certain at least that from this date he never
changed and scarcely even varied his public course. And looking back
upon that course afterwards, he records with much complacency how his
earliest St Andrews sermon built up a whole fabric of aggressive
Protestantism upon Puritan theory, so that his startled hearers
muttered, "Others sned (snipped) the branches; this man strikes at the
root."

Meantime the system attacked was safe for other thirteen years. In June
1547 St Andrews yielded to the French fleet, and the prisoners,
including Knox, were thrown into the galleys on the Loire, to remain in
irons and under the lash for at least nineteen months. Released at last
(apparently through the influence of the young English king, Edward
VI.), Knox was appointed one of the licensed preachers of the new faith
for England, and stationed in the great garrison of Berwick, and
afterwards at Newcastle. In 1551 he seems to have been made a royal
chaplain; in 1552 he was certainly offered an English bishopric, which
he declined; and during most of this year he used his influence, as
preacher at court and in London, to make the new English settlement more
Protestant. To him at least is due the Prayer-book rubric which explains
that, when kneeling at the sacrament is ordered, "no adoration is
intended or ought to be done." While in Northumberland Knox had been
betrothed to Margaret Bowes, one of the fifteen children of Richard
Bowes, the captain of Norham Castle. Her mother, Elizabeth, co-heiress
of Aske in Yorkshire, was the earliest of that little band of
women-friends whose correspondence with Knox on religious matters throws
an unexpected light on his discriminating tenderness of heart. But now
Mary Tudor succeeded her brother, and Knox in March 1554 escaped into
five years' exile abroad, leaving Mrs. Bowes a fine treatise on
"Affliction," and sending back to England two editions of a more acrid
"Faithful Admonition" on the crisis there. He first drifted to
Frankfort, where the English congregation divided as English Protestants
have always done, and the party opposed to Knox got rid of him at last
by a complaint to the authorities of treason against the emperor Charles
V. as well as Philip and Mary. At Geneva he found a more congenial
pastorate. Christopher Goodman (c. 1520-1603) and he, with other exiles,
began there the Puritan tradition, and prepared the earlier English
version of the Bible, "the household book of the English-speaking
nations" during the great age of Elizabeth. Here, and afterwards at
Dieppe (where he preached in French), Knox kept in communication with
the other Reformers, studied Greek and Hebrew in the interest of
theology, and having brought his wife and her mother from England in
1555 lived for years a peaceful life.

But even here Knox was preparing for Scotland, and facing the
difficulties of the future, theoretical as well as practical. In his
first year abroad he consulted Calvin and Bullinger as to the right of
the civil "authority" to prescribe religion to his subjects--in
particular, whether the godly should obey "a magistrate who enforces
idolatry and condemns true religion," and whom should they join "in the
case of a religious nobility resisting an idolatrous sovereign." In
August 1555 be visited his native country and found the queen-mother,
Mary of Lorraine, acting as regent in place of the real "sovereign," the
youthful and better-known Mary, now being brought up at the court of
France. Scripture-reading and the new views had spread widely, and the
regent was disposed to wink at this in the case of the "religious
nobility." Knox was accordingly allowed to preach privately for six
months throughout the south of Scotland, and was listened to with an
enthusiasm which made him break out, "O sweet were the death which
should follow such forty days in Edinburgh as here I have had three!"
Before leaving he even addressed a letter to the regent, urging her to
favour the Evangel. She accepted it jocularly as a "pasquil," and Knox
on his departure was condemned and burned in effigy. But he left behind
him a "Wholesome Counsel" to Scottish heads of families, reminding them
that within their own houses they were "bishop and kings," and
recommending the institution of something like the early apostolic
worship in private congregations. Of the Protestant barons Knox, though
in exile, seems to have been henceforward the chief adviser; and before
the end of 1557 they, under the name of the "Lords of the Congregation,"
had entered into the first of the religious "bands" or "covenants"
afterwards famous in Scotland. In 1558 he published his "Appellation" to
the nobles, estates and commonalty against the sentence of death
recently pronounced upon him, and along with it a stirring appeal "To
his beloved brethren, the Commonalty of Scotland," urging that the care
of religion fell to them also as being "God's creatures, created and
formed in His own image," and having a right to defend their conscience
against persecution. About this time, indeed, there was in Scotland a
remarkable approximation to that solution of the toleration difficulty
which later ages have approved; for the regent was understood to favour
the demand of the "congregation" that at least the penal statutes
against heretics "be suspended and abrogated," and "that it be lawful to
us to use ourselves in matters of religion and conscience as we must
answer to God." It was a consummation too ideal for that early date; and
next year the regent, whose daughter was now queen of France and there
mixed up with the persecuting policy of the Guises, forbade the reformed
preaching in Scotland. A rupture ensued at once, and Knox appeared in
Edinburgh on the 2nd of May 1559 "even in the brunt of the battle." He
was promptly "blown to the horn" at the Cross there as an outlaw, but
escaped to Dundee, and commenced public preaching in the chief towns of
central Scotland. At Perth and at St Andrews his sermons were followed
by the destruction of the monasteries, institutions disliked in that age
in Scotland alike by the devout and the profane. But while he notes that
in Perth the act was that of "the rascal multitude," he was glad to
claim in St Andrews the support of the civic "authority"; and indeed the
burghs, which were throughout Europe generally in favour of freedom,
soon became in Scotland a main support of the Reformation. Edinburgh was
still doubtful, and the queen regent held the castle; but a truce
between her and the lords for six months to the 1st of January 1560 was
arranged on the footing that every man there "may have freedom to use
his own conscience to the day foresaid"--a freedom interpreted to let
Knox and his brethren preach publicly and incessantly.

Scotland, like its capital, was divided. Both parties lapsed from the
freedom-of-conscience solution to which each when unsuccessful appealed;
both betook themselves to arms; and the immediate future of the little
kingdom was to be decided by its external alliances. Knox now took a
leading part in the great transaction by which the friendship of France
was exchanged for that of England. He had one serious difficulty. Before
Elizabeth's accession to the English crown, and after the queen mother
in Scotland had disappointed his hopes, he had published a treatise
against what he called "The Monstrous Regiment (regimen or government)
of Women"; though the despotism of that despotic age was scarcely
appreciably worse when it happened to be in female hands. Elizabeth
never forgave him; but Cecil corresponded with the Scottish lords, and
their answer in July 1559, in Knox's handwriting, assures England not
only of their own constancy, but of "a charge and commandment to our
posterity, that the amity and league between you and us, contracted and
begun in Christ Jesus, may by them be kept inviolated for ever." The
league was promised by England; but the army of France was first in the
field, and towards the end of the year drove the forces of the
"congregation" from Leith into Edinburgh, and then out of it in a
midnight rout to Stirling--"that dark and dolorous night," as Knox long
afterwards said, "wherein all ye, my lords, with shame and fear left
this town," and from which only a memorable sermon by their great
preacher roused the despairing multitude into new hope. Their leaders
renounced allegiance to the regent; she ended her not unkindly, but as
Knox calls it "unhappy," life in the castle of Edinburgh; the English
troops, after the usual Elizabethan delays and evasions, joined their
Scots allies; and the French embarked from Leith. On the 6th of July
1560 a treaty was at last made, nominally between Elizabeth and the
queen of France and Scotland; while Cecil instructed his mistress's
plenipotentiaries to agree "that the government of Scotland be granted
to the nation of the land." The revolution was in the meantime complete;
and Knox, who takes credit for having done much to end the enmity with
England which was so long thought necessary for Scotland's independence,
was strangely enough destined, beyond all other men, to leave the stamp
of a more inward independence upon his country and its history.

At the first meeting of the Estates, in August 1560, the Protestants
were invited to present a confession of their faith. Knox and three
others drafted it, and were present when it was offered and read to the
parliament. The statute-book says it was "by the estates of Scotland
ratified and approved, as wholesome and sound doctrine grounded upon the
infallible truth of God's word." The Scots confession, though of course
drawn up independently, is in substantial accord with the others then
springing up in the countries of the Reformation, but is Calvinist
rather than Lutheran. It remained for two centuries the authorized
Scottish creed, though in the first instance the faith of only a
fragment of the people. Yet its approval became the basis for three acts
passed a week later; the first of which, abolishing the pope's authority
and jurisdiction in Scotland, may perhaps have been consistent with
toleration, as the second, rescinding old statutes which had established
and enforced that and other catholic tenets, undoubtedly was. But the
third, inflicting heavy penalties, with death on a third conviction, on
those who should celebrate mass or even be present at it, showed that
the reformer and his friends had crossed the line, and that their
position could no longer be described as, in Knox's words, "requiring
nothing but the liberty of conscience, and our religion and fact to be
tried by the word of God." He was prepared indeed to fall back upon
that, in the event of the Estates at any time refusing sanction to
either church or creed, as their sovereign in Paris promptly refused it.
But the parliament of 1560 gave no express sanction to the Reformed
Church, and Knox did not wait until it should do so. Already "in our
towns and places reformed," as the Confession puts it, there were local
or "particular kirks," and these grew and spread and were provincially
united, till, in the last month of this memorable year, the first
General Assembly of their representatives met, and became the "universal
kirk," or "the whole church convened." It had before it the plan for
church government and maintenance, drafted in August at the same time
with the Confession, under the name of _The Book of Discipline_, and by
the same framers. Knox was even more clearly in this case the chief
author, and he had by this time come to desire a much more rigid
Presbyterianism than he had sketched in his "Wholesome Counsel" of 1555.
In planning it he seems to have used his acquaintance with the
"Ordonnances" of the Genevan Church under Calvin, and with the "Forma"
of the German Church in London under John Laski (or A. Lasco). Starting
with "truth" contained in Scripture as the church's foundation, and the
Word and Sacraments as means of building it up, it provides ministers
and elders to be elected by the congregations, with a subordinate class
of "readers," and by their means sermons and prayers each "Sunday" in
every parish. In large towns these were to be also on other days, with a
weekly meeting for conference or "prophesying." The "plantation" of new
churches is to go on everywhere under the guidance of higher church
officers called superintendents. All are to help their brethren, "for no
man may be permitted to live as best pleaseth him within the Church of
God." And above all things the young and the ignorant are to be
instructed, the former by a regular gradation or ladder of parish or
elementary schools, secondary schools and universities. Even the poor
were to be fed by the Church's hands; and behind its moral influence,
and a discipline over both poor and rich, was to be not only the
coercive authority of the civil power but its money. Knox had from the
first proclaimed that "the teinds (tithes of yearly fruits) by God's law
do not appertain of necessity to the kirkmen." And this book now demands
that out of them "must not only the ministers be sustained, but also the
poor and schools." But Knox broadens his plan so as to claim also the
property which had been really gifted to the Church by princes and
nobles--given by them indeed, as he held, without any moral right and to
the injury of the people, yet so as to be Church patrimony. From all
such property, whether land or the sheaves and fruits of land, and also
from the personal property of burghers in the towns, Knox now held that
the state should authorize the kirk to claim the salaries of the
ministers, and the salaries of teachers in the schools and universities,
but above all, the relief of the poor--not only of the absolutely
"indigent" but of "your poor brethren, the labourers and handworkers of
the ground." For the danger now was that some gentlemen were already
cruel in exactions of their tenants, "requiring of them whatever before
they paid to the Church, so that the papistical tyranny shall only be
changed into the tyranny of the lords or of the laird." The danger
foreseen alike to the new Church, and to the commonalty and poor, began
to be fulfilled a month later, when the lords, some of whom had already
acquired, as others were about to acquire, much of the Church property,
declined to make any of it over for Knox's magnificent scheme. It was,
they said, "a devout imagination." Seven years afterwards, however, when
the contest with the Crown was ended, the kirk was expressly
acknowledged as the only Church in Scotland, and jurisdiction given it
over all who should attempt to be outsiders; while the preaching of the
Evangel and the planting of congregations went on in all the accessible
parts of Scotland. Gradually too stipends for most Scottish parishes
were assigned to the ministers out of the yearly _teinds_; and the
Church received--what it retained even down to recent times--the
administration both of the public schools and of the Poor Law of
Scotland. But the victorious rush of 1560 was already somewhat stayed,
and the very next year raised the question whether the transfer of
intolerance to the side of the new faith was as wise as it had at first
seemed to be successful.

Mary Queen of Scots had been for a short time also queen of France, and
in 1561 returned to her native land, a young widow on whom the eyes of
Europe were fixed. Knox's objections to the "regiment of women" were
theoretical, and in the present case he hoped at first for the best,
favouring rather his queen's marriage with the heir of the house of
Hamilton. Mary had put herself into the hands of her half-brother, Lord
James Stuart afterwards earl of Moray, the only man who could perhaps
have pulled her through. A proclamation now continued the "state of
religion" begun the previous year; but mass was celebrated in the
queen's household, and Lord James himself defended it with his sword
against Protestant intrusion. Knox publicly protested; and Moray, who
probably understood and liked both parties, brought the preacher to the
presence of his queen. There is nothing revealed to us by "the broad
clear light of that wonderful book,"[1] _The History of the Reformation
in Scotland_, more remarkable than the four Dialogues or interviews,
which, though recorded only by Knox, bear the strongest stamp of truth,
and do almost more justice to his opponent than to himself. Mary took
the aggressive and very soon raised the real question. "Ye have taught
the people to receive another religion than their princes can allow; and
how can that doctrine be of God, seeing that God commands subjects to
obey their princes?" The point was made keener by the fact that Knox's
own Confession of Faith (like all those of that age, in which an
unbalanced monarchical power culminated) had held kings to be appointed
"for maintenance of the true religion," and suppression of the false;
and the reformer now fell back on his more fundamental principle, that
"right religion took neither original nor authority from worldly
princes, but from the Eternal God alone." All through this dialogue too,
as in another at Lochleven two years afterwards, Knox was driven to
axioms, not of religion but of constitutionalism, which Buchanan and he
may have learned from their teacher Major, but which were not to be
accepted till a later age. "'Think ye,' quoth she, 'that subjects,
having power, may resist their princes?' 'If their princes exceed their
bounds, Madam, they may be resisted and even deposed,'" Knox replied.
But these dialectics, creditable to both parties, had little effect upon
the general situation. Knox had gone too far in intolerance, and Moray
and Maitland of Lethington gradually withdrew their support. The court
and parliament, guided by them, declined to press the queen or to pass
the Book of Discipline; and meantime the negotiations as to the queen's
marriage with a Spanish, a French or an Austrian prince revealed the
real difficulty and peril of the situation. Her marriage to a great
Catholic prince would be ruinous to Scotland, probably also to England,
and perhaps to all Protestantism. Knox had already by letter formally
broken with the earl of Moray, "committing you to your own wit, and to
the conducting of those who better please you"; and now, in one of his
greatest sermons before the assembled lords, he drove at the heart of
the situation--the risk of a Catholic marriage. The queen sent for him
for the last time and burst into passionate tears as she asked, "What
have you to do with my marriage? Or what are you within this
commonwealth?" "A subject born within the same," was the answer of the
son of the East Lothian peasant; and the Scottish nobility, while
thinking him overbold, refused to find him guilty of any crime, even
when, later on, he had "convocated the lieges" to Edinburgh to meet a
crown prosecution. In 1564 a change came. Mary had wearied of her
guiding statesmen, Moray and the more pliant Maitland; the Italian
secretary David Rizzio, through whom she had corresponded with the pope,
now more and more usurped their place; and a weak fancy for her handsome
cousin, Henry Darnley, brought about a sudden marriage in 1565 and swept
the opposing Protestant lords into exile. Darnley, though a Catholic,
thought it well to go to Knox's preaching; but was so unfortunate as to
hear a very long sermon, with allusions not only to "babes and women" as
rulers, but to Ahab who did not control his strong-minded wife. Mary and
the lords still in her council ordered Knox not to preach while she was
in Edinburgh, and he was absent or silent during the weeks in which the
queen's growing distaste for her husband, and advancement of Rizzio over
the nobility remaining in Edinburgh, brought about the conspiracy by
Darnley, Morton and Ruthven. Knox does not seem to have known beforehand
of Rizzio's "slaughter," which had been intended to be a semi-judicial
act; but soon after it he records that "that vile knave Davie was justly
punished, for abusing of the commonwealth, and for other villainy which
we list not to express." The immediate effect however of what Knox thus
approved was to bring his cause to its lowest ebb, and on the very day
when Mary rode from Holyrood to her army, he sat down and penned the
prayer, "Lord Jesus, put an end to this my miserable life, for justice
and truth are not to be found among the sons of men!" He added a short
autobiographic fragment, whose mingled self-abasement and exultation are
not unworthy of its striking title--"John Knox, with deliberate mind, to
his God." During the rest of the year he was hidden in Ayrshire or
elsewhere, and throughout 1566 he was forbidden to preach when the court
was in Edinburgh. But he was influential at the December Assembly in the
capital where a greater tragedy was now preparing, for Mary's
infatuation for Bothwell was visible to all. At the Assembly's request,
however, Knox undertook a long visit to England, where his two sons by
his first wife were being educated, and were afterwards to be Fellows of
St John's, Cambridge, the younger becoming a parish clergyman. It was
thus during the reformer's absence that the murder of Darnley, the
abduction and subsequent marriage of Mary, the flight of Bothwell, and
the imprisonment in Lochleven of the queen, unrolled themselves before
the eyes of Scotland. Knox returned in time to guide the Assembly which
sat on the 25th of June 1567 in dealing with this unparalleled crisis,
and to wind up the revolution by preaching at Stirling on the 9th of
July 1567, after Mary's abdication, at the coronation of the infant
king.

His main work was now really done; for the parliament of 1567 made Moray
regent, and Knox was only too glad to have his old friend back in power,
though they seem to have differed on the question whether the queen
should be allowed to pass into retirement without trial for her
husband's death, as they had differed all along on the question of
tolerating her private religion. Knox's victory had not come too early,
for his physical strength soon began to fail. But Mary's escape in 1568
resulted only in her defeat at Langside, and in a long imprisonment and
death in England. In Scotland the regent's assassination in 1570 opened
a miserable civil war, but it made no permanent change. The massacre of
St Bartholomew rather united English and Scottish Protestantism; and
Knox in St Giles' pulpit, challenging the French ambassador to report
his words, denounced God's vengeance on the crowned murderer and his
posterity. When open war broke out between Edinburgh Castle, held by
Mary's friends, and the town, held for her son, both parties agreed that
the reformer, who had already had a stroke of paralysis, should remove
to St Andrews. While there he wrote his will, and published his last
book, in the preface to which he says, "I heartily take my good-night of
the faithful of both realms ... for as the world is weary of me, so am I
of it." And when he now merely signs his name, it is "John Knox, with my
dead hand and glad heart." In the autumn of 1572 he returned to
Edinburgh to die, probably in the picturesque house in the "throat of
the Bow," which for generations has been called by his name. With him
were his wife and three young daughters; for though he had lost Margaret
Bowes at the close of his year of triumph 1560, he had four years after
married Margaret Stewart, a daughter of his friend Lord Ochiltree. She
was a bride of only seventeen and was related to the royal house; yet,
as his Catholic biographer put it, "by sorcery and witchcraft he did so
allure that poor gentlewoman that she could not live without him." But
lords, ladies and burghers also crowded around his bed, and his
colleague and his servant have severally transmitted to us the words in
which his weakness daily strove with pain, rising on the day before his
death into a solemn exultation--yet characteristically, not so much on
his own account as for "the troubled Church of God." He died on the 24th
of November 1572, and at his funeral in St Giles' Churchyard the new
Regent Morton, speaking under the hostile guns of the castle, expressed
the first surprise of those around as they looked back on that stormy
life, that one who had "neither flattered nor feared any flesh" had now
"ended his days in peace and honour." Knox himself had a short time
before put in writing a larger claim for the historic future, "What I
have been to my country, though this unthankful age will not know, yet
the ages to come will be compelled to bear witness to the truth."

Knox was a rather small man, with a well-knit body; he had a powerful
face, with dark blue eyes under a ridge of eyebrow, high cheek-bones,
and a long black beard which latterly turned grey. This description,
taken from a letter in 1579 by his junior contemporary Sir Peter Young,
is very like Beza's fine engraving of him in the _Icones_--an engraving
probably founded on a portrait which was to be sent by Young to Beza
along with the letter. The portrait, which was unfortunately adopted by
Carlyle, has neither pedigree nor probability. After his two years in
the French galleys, if not before, Knox suffered permanently from gravel
and dyspepsia, and he confesses that his nature "was for the most part
oppressed with melancholy." Yet he was always a hard worker; as sole
minister of Edinburgh studying for two sermons on Sunday and three
during the week, besides having innumerable cares of churches at home
and abroad. He was undoubtedly sincere in his religious faith, and most
disinterested in his devotion to it and to the good of his countrymen.
But like too many of them, he was self-conscious, self-willed and
dogmatic; and his transformation in middle life, while it immensely
enriched his sympathies as well as his energies, left him unable to put
himself in the place of those who retained the views which he had
himself held. All his training too, university, priestly and in foreign
parts, tended to make him logical overmuch. But this was mitigated by a
strong sense of humour (not always sarcastic, though sometimes savagely
so), and by tenderness, best seen in his epistolary friendships with
women; and it was quite overborne by an instinct and passion for great
practical affairs. Hence it was that Knox as a statesman so often struck
successfully at the centre of the complex motives of his time, leaving
it to later critics to reconcile his theories of action. But hence too
he more than once took doubtful shortcuts to some of his most important
ends; giving the ministry within the new Church more power over laymen
than Protestant principles would suggest, and binding the masses outside
who were not members of it, equally with their countrymen who were, to
join in its worship, submit to its jurisdiction, and contribute to its
support. And hence also his style (which contemporaries called
anglicized and modern), though it occasionally rises into liturgical
beauty, and often flashes into vivid historical portraiture, is
generally kept close to the harsh necessities of the few years in which
he had to work for the future. That work was indeed chiefly done by the
living voice; and in speaking, this "one man," as Elizabeth's very
critical ambassador wrote from Edinburgh, was "able in one hour to put
more life in us than five hundred trumpets continually blustering in our
ears." But even his eloquence was constraining and constructive--a
personal call for immediate and universal co-operation; and that
personal influence survives to this day in the institutions of his
people, and perhaps still more in their character. His countrymen indeed
have always believed that to Knox more than to any other man Scotland
owes her political and religious individuality. And since his 19th
century biography by Dr Thomas McCrie, or at least since his recognition
in the following generation by Thomas Carlyle, the same view has taken
its place in literature.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Knox's books, pamphlets, public documents and letters
  are collected into the great edition in six volumes of _Knox's Works_,
  by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1846-1864), with introductions, appendices
  and notes. Of his books the chief are the following: 1.--_The History
  of the Reformation in Scotland_, incorporating the Confession and the
  Book of Discipline. Begun by Knox as a party manifesto in 1560, it was
  continued and revised by himself in 1566 as so to form four books,
  with a fifth book apparently written after his death from materials
  left by him. It was partly printed in London in 1586 by Vautrollier,
  but was suppressed by authority and published by David Buchanan, with
  a _Life_, in 1664. 2.--_On Predestination: an Answer to an Anabaptist_
  (London, 1591). 3.--_On Prayer_ (1554). 4.--_On Affliction_ (1556).
  5.--_Epistles_, and _Admonition_, both to English Brethren in 1554.
  6.--_The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of
  Women_ (1558). 7.--_An Answer to a Scottish Jesuit_ (1572).

  Knox's life is more or less touched upon by all the Scottish histories
  and Church histories which include his period, as well as in the mass
  of literature as to Queen Mary. Dr Laing's edition of the _Works_
  contains important biographical material. But among the many express
  biographies two especially should be consulted--those by Thomas McCrie
  (Edinburgh, 1811; revised and enlarged in 1813, the later editions
  containing valuable notes by the author); and by P. Hume Brown
  (Edinburgh, 1895). _John Knox and the Reformation_, by Andrew Lang
  (London, 1905), is not so much a biography as a collection of
  materials, bearing upon many parts of the life, but nearly all on the
  unfavourable side.     (A. T. I.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] John Hill Burton (_Hist. of Scotland_, iii. 339). Mr Burton's
    view (differing from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the
    dialogues--the earlier of them at least--must have been spoken in the
    French tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year.




KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853-   ), American lawyer and political leader,
was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of May 1853. He
graduated from Mount Union College (Ohio) in 1872, and was admitted to
the Pennsylvania bar in 1875. He settled in Pittsburg, where he
continued in private practice, with the exception of two years' service
(1876-1877) as assistant United States district attorney, acquiring a
large practice as a corporation lawyer. In April 1901 he became
attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President
McKinley, and retained this position after the accession of President
Roosevelt until June 1904, when he was appointed by Governor Pennypacker
of Pennsylvania to fill the unexpired term of Matthew S. Quay in the
United States Senate; in 1905 he was re-elected to the Senate for the
full term. In March 1909 he became secretary of state in the cabinet of
President Taft.




KNOXVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Tennessee, U.S.A.,
in the E. part of the state, 160 m. E. of Nashville, and about 190 m.
S.E. of Louisville, Kentucky, on the right bank of the Tennessee river,
4 m. below the point where it is formed by the junction of the French
Broad and Holston Rivers. Pop. (1880), 9693; (1890), 22,535; (1900),
32,637, of whom 7359 were negroes and 895 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 36,346. It is served by the main line and by branches of the
Louisville & Nashville and the Southern railways, by the Knoxville &
Bristol railway (Morristown to Knoxville, 58 m.), by the short Knoxville
& Augusta railroad (Knoxville to Walland, 26 m.), and by passenger and
freight steamboat lines on the Tennessee river, which is here navigable
for the greater part of the year. A steel and concrete street-car bridge
crosses the Tennessee at Knoxville. Knoxville is picturesquely situated
at an elevation of from 850 to 1000 ft. in the valley between the Smoky
Mountains and the Cumberland Mountains, and is one of the healthiest
cities in the United States. There are several beautiful parks, of which
Chilhowie and Fountain City are the largest, and among the public
buildings are a city-hall, Federal building, court-house, the Knoxville
general hospital, the Lincoln memorial hospital, the Margaret McClung
industrial home, a Young Men's Christian Association building and the
Lawson-McGhee public library. A monument to John Sevier stands on the
site of the blockhouse first built there. Knoxville is the seat of
Knoxville College (United Presbyterian, 1875) for negroes, East
Tennessee institute, a secondary school for girls, the Baker-Himel
school for boys, Tennessee Medical College (1889), two commercial
schools and the university of Tennessee. The last, a state
co-educational institution, was chartered as Blount College in 1794 and
as East Tennessee College in 1807, but not opened until 1820--the
present name was adopted in 1879. It had in 1907-1908 106 instructors,
755 students (536 in academic departments), and a library of 25,000
volumes. With the university is combined the state college of
agriculture and engineering; and a large summer school for teachers is
maintained. At Knoxville are the Eastern State insane asylum, state
asylums for the deaf and dumb (for both white and negro), and a national
cemetery in which more than 3200 soldiers are buried. Knoxville is an
important commercial and industrial centre and does a large jobbing
business. It is near hardwood forests and is an important market for
hardwood mantels. Coal-mines in the vicinity produce more than 2,000,000
tons annually, and neighbouring quarries furnish the famous Tennessee
marble, which is largely exported. Excellent building and pottery clays
are found near Knoxville. Among the city's industrial establishments are
flour and grist mills, cotton and woollen mills, furniture, desk, office
supplies and sash, door, and blind factories, meat-packing
establishments, clothing factories, iron, steel and boiler works,
foundries and machine shops, stove works and brick and cement works. The
value of the factory product increased from $6,201,840 in 1900 to
$12,432,880 in 1905, or 100.5%, in 1905 the value of the flour and grist
mill products alone being $2,048,509. Just outside the city the Southern
railway maintains large car and repair shops. Knoxville was settled in
1786 by James White (1737-1815), a North Carolina pioneer, and was first
known as "White's Fort"; it was laid out as a town in 1791, and named in
honour of General Henry Knox, then secretary of war in Washington's
cabinet. In 1791 the _Knoxville Gazette_, the first newspaper in
Tennessee (the early issue, printed at Rogersville) began publication.
From 1792 to 1796 Knoxville was the capital of the "Territory South of
the Ohio," and until 1811 and again in 1817 it was the capital of the
state. In 1796 the convention which framed the constitution of the new
state of Tennessee met here, and here later in the same year the first
state legislature was convened. Knoxville was chartered as a city in
1815. In its early years it was several times attacked by the Indians,
but was never captured. During the Civil War there was considerable
Union sentiment in East Tennessee, and in the summer of 1863 the Federal
authorities determined to take possession of Knoxville as well as
Chattanooga and to interrupt railway communications between the
Confederates of the East and West through this region. As the
Confederates had erected only slight defences for the protection of the
city, Burnside, with about 12,000 men, easily gained possession on the
2nd of September 1863. Fortifications were immediately begun for its
defence, and on the 4th of November, Bragg, thinking his position at
Chattanooga impregnable against Grant, Sherman, Thomas and Hooker,
despatched a force of 20,000 men under Longstreet to engage Burnside.
Longstreet arrived in the vicinity on the 16th of November, and on the
following day began a siege, which was continued with numerous assaults
until the 28th, when a desperate but unsuccessful attack was made on
Fort Sanders, and upon the approach of a relief force under Sherman,
Longstreet withdrew on the night of the 4th of December. The Confederate
losses during the siege were 182 killed, 768 wounded and 192 captured or
missing; the Union losses were 92 killed, 394 wounded and 207 captured
or missing. West Knoxville (incorporated in 1888) and North Knoxville
(incorporated in 1889) were annexed to Knoxville in 1898.

  See the sketch by Joshua W. Caldwell in _Historic Towns of the
  Southern States_, edited by L. P. Powell (New York, 1900); and W.
  Rule, G. F. Mellen and J. Wooldridge, _Standard History of Knoxville_
  (Chicago, 1900).




KNUCKLE (apparently the diminutive of a word for "bone," found in Ger.
_Knochen_), the joint of a finger, which, when the hand is shut, is
brought into prominence. In mechanical use the word is applied to the
round projecting part of a hinge through which the pin is run, and in
ship-building to an acute angle on some of the timbers. A
"knuckle-duster," said to have originally come from the criminal slang
of the United States, is a brass or metal instrument fitting on to the
hand across the knuckles, with projecting studs and used for inflicting
a brutal blow.




KNUCKLEBONES (HUCKLEBONES, DIBS, JACKSTONES, CHUCK-STONES, FIVE-STONES),
a game of very ancient origin, played with five small objects,
originally the knucklebones of a sheep, which are thrown up and caught
in various ways. Modern "knucklebones" consist of six points, or knobs,
proceeding from a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is
he who first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws,
which, while of the same general character, differ widely in detail. The
simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the _jack_, and picking up
one or more from the table while it is in the air; and so on until all
five stones have been picked up. Another consists in tossing up first
one stone, then two, then three and so on, and catching them on the back
of the hand. Different throws have received distinctive names, such as
"riding the elephant," "peas in the pod," and "horses in the stable."

The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of dice, of
which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless Asiatic.
Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of draughts and
knucklebones (_astragaloi_) to Palamedes, who taught them to his Greek
countrymen during the Trojan War. Both the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_
contain allusions to games similar in character to knucklebones, and the
Palamedes tradition, as flattering to the national pride, was generally
accepted throughout Greece, as is indicated by numerous literary and
plastic evidences. Thus Pausanias (_Corinth_ xx.) mentions a temple of
Fortune in which Palamedes made an offering of his newly invented game.
According to a still more ancient tradition, Zeus, perceiving that
Ganymede longed for his playmates upon Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a
companion and golden dibs with which to play, and even condescended
sometimes to join in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however,
that both Herodotus and Plato ascribe to the game a foreign origin.
Plato (_Phaedrus_) names the Egyptian god Theuth as its inventor, while
Herodotus relates that the Lydians, during a period of famine in the
days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed almost all other
games except chess. There were two methods of playing in ancient times.
The first, and probably the primitive method, consisted in tossing up
and catching the bones on the back of the hand, very much as the game
is played to-day. In the Museum of Naples may be seen a painting
excavated at Pompeii, which represents the goddesses Latona, Niobe,
Phoebe, Aglaia and Hileaera, the last two being engaged in playing at
Knucklebones (see GREEK ART, fig. 42). According to an epigram of
Asclepiodotus, astragals were given as prizes to school-children, and we
are reminded of Plutarch's anecdote of the youthful Alcibiades, who,
when a teamster threatened to drive over some of his knucklebones that
had fallen into the wagon-ruts, boldly threw himself in front of the
advancing team. This simple form of the game was generally played only
by women and children, and was called _pentalitha_ or five-stones. There
were several varieties of it besides the usual toss and catch, one being
called _tropa_, or hole-game, the object having been to toss the bones
into a hole in the earth. Another was the simple and primitive game of
"odd or even."

The second, probably derivative, form of the game was one of pure
chance, the stones being thrown upon a table, either with the hand or
from a cup, and the values of the sides upon which they fell counted. In
this game the shape of the pastern-bones used for astralagoi, as well as
for the _tali_ of the Romans, with whom knucklebones was also popular,
determined the manner of counting. The pastern-bone of a sheep, goat or
calf has, besides two rounded ends upon which it cannot stand, two broad
and two narrow sides, one of each pair being concave and one convex. The
convex narrow side, called _chios_ or "the dog" counted 1; the convex
broad side 3; the concave broad side 4; and the concave narrow side 6.
Four astragals were used and 35 different scores were possible at a
single throw, many receiving distinctive names such as Aphrodite, Midas,
Solon, Alexander, and, among the Romans, Venus, King, Vulture, &c. The
highest throw in Greece, counting 40, was the Euripides, and was
probably a combination throw, since more than four sixes could not be
thrown at one time. The lowest throw, both in Greece and Rome, was the
Dog.

  See _Cassell's Book of Sports and Pastimes_ (London, 1896); _Games and
  Songs of American Children_, by W. W. Newell (1893); and _The Young
  Folks' Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports_ (New York, 1899), for the
  modern children's game. For the history see _Les Jeux des Anciens_, by
  L. Becq de Fouquières (Paris, 1869); _Das Knochelspiel der Alten_, by
  Bolle (Wismar, 1886); _Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer_, by W.
  Richter (Leipzig, 1887).




KNUTSFORD, a market town in the Knutsford parliamentary division of
Cheshire, England; on the London & North-Western and Great Central
railways, 24 m. E.N.E. of Chester, on the Cheshire Lines and London &
North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5172. It is
pleasantly situated on an elevated ridge, with the fine domains of
Tatton Park and Tabley respectively north and west of it. The meres in
these domains are especially picturesque. Knutsford is noted in modern
times as the scene of Mrs Gaskell's novel _Cranford_. Among several
ancient houses the most interesting are a cottage with the date 1411
carved on its woodwork, and the Rose and Crown tavern, dated 1641. A
number of curious old customs linger in the town, such as the practice
of working designs in coloured sand, when a wedding takes place, before
the bride's house. In what is probably the oldest Unitarian graveyard in
the kingdom Mrs Gaskell lies buried; and in a churchyard a mile from the
town stood the ancient church, which, though partially rebuilt in the
time of Henry VIII., fell into ruin in 1741. The church of St John,
built in 1744, and enlarged in 1879, was supplemented, in 1880, by St
Cross Church, in Perpendicular style. The town has a grammar school,
founded before the reign of Henry VIII., but reorganized in 1885. Lord
Egerton built the Egerton schools in 1893. The industries comprise
cotton, worsted and leather manufactures; but Knutsford is mainly a
residential town, as many Manchester merchants have settled here,
attracted by the fine climate and surroundings. Knutsford was the
birthplace of Sir Henry Holland, Physician Extraordinary to Queen
Victoria (1788-1873); and his son, the second Sir Henry, who was
secretary of state for the colonies (1887-1892), was raised to the
peerage in 1888 with the title of Baron Knutsford.

The name Knutsford (_Cunetesford_, _Knotesford_) is said to signify
Cnut's ford, but there is no evidence of a settlement here previous to
Domesday. In 1086 Erthebrand held Knutsford immediately of William
FitzNigel, baron of Halton, who was himself a mesne lord of Hugh Lupus
earl of Chester. In 1292 William de Tabley, lord of both Over and Nether
Knutsford, granted free burgage to his burgesses in both Knutsfords.
This charter is the only one which gives Knutsford a claim to the title
of borough. It provided that the burgesses might elect a bailiff from
amongst themselves every year. The office however carried little real
power with it, and soon lapsed. In the same year as the charter to
Knutsford the king granted to William de Tabley a market every Saturday
at Nether Knutsford, and a three days' fair at the Feast of St Peter and
St Paul. When this charter was confirmed by Edward III. another market
(Friday) and another three days' fair (Feast of St Simon and St Jude)
were added. The Friday market was certainly dropped by 1592, if it was
ever held. May-day revels are still kept up here and attract large
crowds from the neighbourhood. A silk mill was erected here in 1770, and
there was also an attempt to foster the cotton trade, but the lack of
means of communication made the undertaking impossible.

  See Henry Green, _History of Knutsford_ (1859).




KOALA (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), a stoutly built marsupial, of the
family _Phascolmyidae_, which also contains the wombats. This animal,
which inhabits the south-eastern parts of the Australian continent, is
about 2 ft. in length, and of an ash-grey colour, an excellent climber,
residing generally in lofty eucalyptus trees, the buds and tender shoots
of which form its principal food, though occasionally it descends to the
ground in the night in search of roots. From its shape the koala is
called by the colonists the "native bear"; the term "native sloth" being
also applied to it, from its arboreal habits and slow deliberate
movements. The flesh is highly prized by the natives, and is palatable
to Europeans. The skins are largely imported into England, for the
manufacture of articles in which a cheap and durable fur is required.




KOBDO, a town of the Chinese Empire, in north-west Mongolia, at the
northern foot of the Mongolian Altai, on the right bank of the Buyantu
River, 13 m. from its entrance into Lake Khara-usu; 500 m. E.S.E. of
Biysk (Russian), and 470 m. W. of Ulyasutai. It is situated amidst a
dreary plain, and consists of a fortress, the residence of the governor
of the Kobdo district, and a small trading town, chiefly peopled by
Chinese and a few Mongols. It is, however, an important centre for trade
between the cattle-breeding nomads and Peking. It was founded by the
Chinese in 1731, and pillaged by the Mussulmans in 1872. The district of
Kobdo occupies the north-western corner of Mongolia, and is peopled
chiefly by Mongols, and also by Kirghiz and a few Soyotes, Uryankhes and
Khotons. It is governed by a Chinese commissioner, who has under him a
special Mongol functionary (Mongol, _dzurgan_). The chief monastery is
at Ulangom. Considerable numbers of sheep (about 1,000,000), sheepskins,
sheep and camel wool are exported to China, while Chinese cottons, brick
tea and various small goods are imported. Leather, velveteen, cotton,
iron and copper goods boxes, &c., are imported from Russia in exchange
for cattle, furs and wool. The absence of a cart road to Biysk hinders
the development of this trade.




KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ, BARON VON (1803-1882), German
mineralogist, was born at Munich on the 19th of July 1803. He studied
chemistry and mineralogy at Landshut (1820-1823), and in 1826 became
professor of mineralogy in the university of Munich. He introduced some
new methods of mineral analyses, and in 1835 invented the stauroscope
for the study of the optical properties of crystals. He contributed
numerous papers to scientific journals, and described many new minerals.
He died at Munich on the 11th of November, 1882.

  PUBLICATIONS.--_Charakteristik der Mineralien_ (2 vols. 1830-1831);
  _Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien_ &c. (1833; and later editions,
  ed. 12, by K. Oebbeke, 1884); _Grundzüge der Mineralogie_ (1838);
  _Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860_ (1864).




KOCH, ROBERT (1843-1910), German bacteriologist, was born at Klausthal,
Hanover, on the 11th of December 1843. He studied medicine at Göttingen,
and it was while he was practising as a physician at Wollstein that he
began those bacteriological researches that made his name famous. In
1876 he obtained a pure culture of the bacillus of anthrax, announcing a
method of preventive inoculation against that disease seven years later.
He became a member of the Sanitary Commission at Berlin and a professor
at the School of Medicine in 1880, and five years later he was appointed
to a chair in Berlin University and director of the Institute of Health.
In 1882, largely as the result of the improved methods of
bacteriological investigation he was able to elaborate, he discovered
the bacillus of tuberculosis; and in the following year, having been
sent on an official mission to Egypt and India to study the aetiology of
Asiatic cholera, he identified the comma bacillus as the specific
organism of that malady. In 1890 great hopes were aroused by the
announcement that in tuberculin he had prepared an agent which exercised
an inimical influence on the growth of the tubercle bacillus, but the
expectations that were formed of it as a remedy for consumption were not
fulfilled, though it came into considerable vogue as a means of
diagnosing the existence of tuberculosis in animals intended for food.
At the Congress on Tuberculosis held in London in 1901 he maintained
that tuberculosis in man and in cattle is not the same disease, the
practical inference being that the danger to men of infection from milk
and meat is less than from other human subjects suffering from the
disease. This statement, however, was not regarded as properly proved,
and one of its results was the appointment of a British Royal Commission
to study the question. Dr Koch also investigated the nature of
rinderpest in South Africa in 1896, and found means of combating the
disease. In 1897 he went to Bombay at the head of a commission formed to
investigate the bubonic plague, and he subsequently undertook extensive
travels in pursuit of his studies on the origin and treatment of
malaria. He was summoned to South Africa a second time in 1903 to give
expert advice on other cattle diseases, and on his return was elected a
member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1906-1907 he spent eighteen
months in East Africa, investigating sleeping-sickness. He died at
Baden-Baden of heart-disease on the 28th of May 1910. Koch was
undoubtedly one of the greatest bacteriologists ever known, and a great
benefactor of humanity by his discoveries. Honours were showered upon
him, and in 1905 he was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine.

  Among his works may be mentioned: _Weitere Mitteilungen über ein
  Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose_ (Leipzig, 1891); and _Reiseberichte über
  Rinderpest, Bubonenpest in Indien und Afrika, Tsetse- oder
  Surra-Krankheit, Texasfieber, tropische Malaria, Schwarzwasserfieber_
  (Berlin, 1898). From 1886 onwards he edited, with Dr Karl Flügge, the
  _Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten_ (published at
  Leipzig). See Loeffler, "Robert Koch, zum 60ten Geburtstage" in _Deut.
  Medizin. Wochenschr._ (No. 50, 1903).




KOCH, a tribe of north-eastern India, which has given its name to the
state of Kuch Behar (q.v.). They are probably of Mongolian stock, akin
to the Mech, Kachari, Garo and Tippera tribes, and originally spoke,
like these, a language of the Bodo group. But since one of their chiefs
established a powerful kingdom at Kuch Behar in the 16th century they
have gradually become Hinduized, and now adopt the name of Rajbansi (=
"of royal blood"). In 1901 the number in Eastern Bengal and Assam was
returned at nearly 2½ millions.




KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE (1793-1871), French novelist, was born at Passy on
the 21st of May 1793. He was a posthumous child, his father, a banker of
Dutch extraction, having been a victim of the Terror. Paul de Kock began
life as a banker's clerk. For the most part he resided on the Boulevard
St Martin, and was one of the most inveterate of Parisians. He died in
Paris on the 27th of April 1871. He began to write for the stage very
early, and composed many operatic libretti. His first novel, _L'Enfant
de ma femme_ (1811), was published at his own expense. In 1820 he began
his long and successful series of novels dealing with Parisian life with
_Georgette, ou la mère du Tabellion_. His period of greatest and most
successful activity was the Restoration and the early days of Louis
Philippe. He was relatively less popular in France itself than abroad,
where he was considered as the special painter of life in Paris. Major
Pendennis's remark that he had read nothing of the novel kind for thirty
years except Paul de Kock, "who certainly made him laugh," is likely to
remain one of the most durable of his testimonials, and may be classed
with the legendary question of a foreign sovereign to a Frenchman who
was paying his respects, "Vous venez de Paris et vous devez savoir des
nouvelles. Comment se porte Paul de Kock?" The disappearance of the
_grisette_ and of the cheap dissipation described by Henri Murger
practically made Paul de Kock obsolete. But to the student of manners
his portraiture of low and middle class life in the first half of the
19th century at Paris still has its value.

The works of Paul de Kock are very numerous. With the exception of a few
not very felicitous excursions into historical romance and some
miscellaneous works of which his share in _La Grande ville, Paris_
(1842), is the chief, they are all stories of middle-class Parisian
life, of _guinguettes_ and _cabarets_ and equivocal adventures of one
sort or another. The most famous are _André le Savoyard_ (1825) and _Le
Barbier de Paris_ (1826).

  His _Mémoires_ were published in 1873. See also Th. Trimm, _La Vie de
  Charles Paul de Kock_ (1873).




KODAIKANAL, a sanatorium of southern India, in the Madura district of
Madras, situated in the Palni hills, about 7000 ft. above sea-level;
pop. (1901), 1912, but the number in the hot season would be much
larger. It is difficult of access, being 44 m. from a railway station,
and the last 11 m. are impracticable for wheeled vehicles. It contains a
government observatory, the appliances of which are specially adapted
for the study of terrestrial magnetism, seismology and solar physics.




KODAMA, GENTARO, COUNT (1852-1907), Japanese general, was born in
Choshu. He studied military science in Germany, and was appointed
vice-minister of war in 1892. He became governor-general of Formosa in
1900, holding at the same time the portfolio of war. When the conflict
with Russia became imminent in 1903, he gave up his portfolio to become
vice-chief of the general staff, a sacrifice which elicited much public
applause. Throughout the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) he served as chief
of staff to Field Marshal Oyama, and it was well understood that his
genius guided the strategy of the whole campaign, as that of General
Kawakami had done in the war with China ten years previously. General
Kodama was raised in rapid succession to the ranks of baron, viscount
and count, and his death in 1907 was regarded as a national calamity.




KODUNGALUR (or CRANGANUR), a town of southern India, in Cochin state,
within the presidency of Madras. Though now a place of little
importance, its historical interest is considerable. Tradition assigns
to it the double honour of having been the first field of St Thomas's
labours (A.D. 52) in India and the seat of Cheraman Perumal's
government. The visit of St Thomas is generally considered mythical; but
it is certain that the Syrian Church was firmly established here before
the 9th century (Burnell), and probably the Jews' settlement was still
earlier. The latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated A.D. 378. The
cruelty of the Portuguese drove most of the Jews to Cochin. Up to 1314,
when the Vypin harbour was formed, the only opening in the Cochin
backwater, and outlet for the Periyar, was at Kodungalur, which must
then have been the best harbour on the coast. In 1502 the Syrian
Christians invoked the protection of the Portuguese. In 1523 the latter
built their first fort there, and in 1565 enlarged it. In 1661 the Dutch
took the fort, the possession of which for the next forty years was
contested between this nation, the zamorin, and the raja of Kodungalur.
In 1776 Tippoo seized the stronghold. The Dutch recaptured it two years
later, and, having ceded it to Tippoo in 1784, sold it to the Travancore
raja, and again in 1789 to Tippoo, who destroyed it in the following
year. The country round Kodungalur now forms an autonomous principality,
tributary to the raja of Cochin.




KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD (1774-1851), German palaeontologist, was
born at Brunswick in 1774, and was educated at Göttingen. In 1807 he
became assistant keeper, and in 1813 he was appointed keeper, of the
department of natural history in the British Museum, and afterwards of
geology and mineralogy, retaining the post until the close of his life.
He described many fossils in the British Museum in a classic work
entitled _Icones fossilium sectiles_ (1820-1825). He died in London on
the 6th of September 1851.




KOESFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on
the Berkel, 38 m. by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1905), 8449. It has
three Roman Catholic churches, one of which--the Gymnasial Kirche--is
used by the Protestant community. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri
Castle, formerly the residence of the bishops of Münster, and also the
castle of Varlar, the residence of the princes of Salm-Horstmar. The
leading industries include the making of linen goods and machinery.




KOHAT, a town and district of British India, in the Peshawar division of
the North-West Frontier Province. The town is 37 m. south of Peshawar by
the Kohat Pass, along which a military road was opened in 1901. The
population in 1901 was 30,762, including 12,670 in the cantonment, which
is garrisoned by artillery, cavalry and infantry. In the Tirah campaign
of 1897-98 Kohat was the starting-point of Sir William Lockhart's
expedition against the Orakzais and Afridis. It is the military base for
the southern Afridi frontier as Peshawar is for the northern frontier of
the same tribe, and it lies in the heart of the Pathan country.

The DISTRICT OF KOHAT has an area of 2973 sq. m. It consists chiefly of
a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus, deeply scored
with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few scattered patches of
cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak country especially comprises
a perfect labyrinth of ranges, which fall, however, into two principal
groups, to the north and south of the Teri Toi river. The Miranzai
valley, in the extreme west, appears by comparison a rich and fertile
tract. In its small but carefully tilled glens, the plane, palm, fig and
many orchard trees flourish luxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild
olive, mimosa and other thorny bushes clothes the rugged ravines upon
the upper slopes. Occasional grassy glades upon their sides form
favourite pasture grounds for the Waziri tribes. The Teri Toi, rising on
the eastern limit of Upper Miranzai, runs due eastward to the Indus,
which it joins 12 m. N. of Makhad, dividing the district into two main
portions. The drainage from the northern half flows southward into the
Teri Toi itself, and northward into the parallel stream of the Kohat
Toi. That of the southern tract falls northwards also into the Teri Toi,
and southwards towards the Kurram and the Indus. The frontier mountains,
continuations of the Safed Koh system, attain in places a considerable
elevation, the two principal peaks, Dupa Sir and Mazi Garh, just beyond
the British frontier, being 8260 and 7940 ft. above the sea
respectively. The Waziri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge
between the boundaries of Bannu and Kohat, with a general elevation of
less than 4000 ft. The salt-mines are situated in the low line of hills
crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both banks of
that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a mile, with a
thickness of 1000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 200 ft. in height,
almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may probably rank as
one of the largest veins of its kind in the world. The most extensive
exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, on the south bank of the Teri Toi. The
annual output is about 16,000 tons, yielding a revenue of £40,000.
Petroleum springs exude from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat; and
sulphur abounds in the northern range. In 1901 the population was
217,865, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The frontier tribes
on the Kohat border are the Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhts and Turis. All
these are described under their separate names. A railway runs from
Kushalgarh through Kohat to Thal, and the river Indus has been bridged
at Kushalgarh.




KOHAT PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier Province of
India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar. From the north side the defile
commences at 4½ m. S.W. of Fort Mackeson, whence it is about 12 or 13 m.
to the Kohat entrance. The pass varies from 400 yds. to 1¼ m. in width,
and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain. It is inhabited
by the Adam Khel Afridis, and nearly all British relations with that
tribe have been concerned with this pass, which is the only connexion
between two British districts without crossing and recrossing the Indus
(see AFRIDI). It is now traversed by a cart-road.




KOHISTAN, a tract of country on the Peshawar border of the North-West
Frontier Province of India. Kohistan means the "country of the hills"
and corresponds to the English word highlands; but it is specially
applied to a district, which is very little known, to the south and west
of Chilas, between the Kagan valley and the river Indus. It comprises an
area of over 1000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the river Indus,
on the N.E. by Chilas, and on the S. by Kagan, the Chor Glen and Allai.
It consists roughly of two main valleys running east and west, and
separated from each other by a mountain range over 16,000 ft. high. Like
the mountains of Chilas, those in Kohistan are snow-bound and rocky
wastes from their crests downwards to 12,000 ft. Below this the hills
are covered with fine forest and grass to 5000 or 6000 ft., and in the
valleys, especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under
cultivation. The Kohistanis are Mahommedans, but not of Pathan race, and
appear to be closely allied to the Chilasis. They are a well-built,
brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with British districts, and
have never given the government much trouble. There is little doubt that
the Kohistanis are, like the Kafirs of Kafiristan, the remnants of old
races driven by Mahommedan invasions from the valleys and plains into
the higher mountains. The majority have been converted to Islam within
the last 200 years. The total population is about 16,000.

An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north of Kabul
in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. The Kohistani Tajiks proved
to be the most powerful and the best organized clans that opposed the
British occupation of Kabul in 1879-80. Part of their country is highly
cultivated, abounding in fruit, and includes many important villages. It
is here that the remains of an ancient city have been lately discovered
by the amir's officials, which may prove to be the great city of
Alexander's founding, known to be to the north of Kabul, but which had
hitherto escaped identification.

The name of Kohistan is also applied to a tract of barren and hilly
country on the east border of Karachi district, Sind.




KOHL. (1) The name of the cosmetic used from the earliest times in the
East by women to darken the eyelids, in order to increase the lustre of
the eyes. It is usually composed of finely powdered antimony, but smoke
black obtained from burnt almond-shells or frankincense is also used.
The Arabic word _kohl_, from which has been derived "alcohol," is
derived from _kahala_, to stain. (2) "Kohl" or "kohl-rabi" (cole-rape,
from Lat. _caulis_, cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (q.v.), with a
turnip-shaped top, cultivated chiefly as food for cattle.




KOHLHASE, HANS, a German historical figure about whose personality some
controversy exists. He is chiefly known as the hero of Heinrich von
Kleist's novel, _Michael Kohlhaas_. He was a merchant, and not, as some
have supposed, a horsedealer, and he lived at Kölln in Brandenburg. In
October 1532, so the story runs, whilst proceeding to the fair at
Leipzig, he was attacked and his horses were taken from him by the
servants of a Saxon nobleman, one Günter von Zaschwitz. In consequence
of the delay the merchant suffered some loss of business at the fair and
on his return he refused to pay the small sum which Zaschwitz demanded
as a condition of returning the horses. Instead Kohlhase asked for a
substantial amount of money as compensation for his loss, and failing to
secure this he invoked the aid of his sovereign, the elector of
Brandenburg. Finding however that it was impossible to recover his
horses, he paid Zaschwitz the sum required for them, but reserved to
himself the right to take further action. Then unable to obtain redress
in the courts of law, the merchant, in a _Fehdebrief_, threw down a
challenge, not only to his aggressor, but to the whole of Saxony. Acts
of lawlessness were soon attributed to him, and after an attempt to
settle the feud had failed, the elector of Saxony, John Frederick I.,
set a price upon the head of the angry merchant. Kohlhase now sought
revenge in earnest. Gathering around him a band of criminals and of
desperadoes he spread terror throughout the whole of Saxony; travellers
were robbed, villages were burned and towns were plundered. For some
time the authorities were practically powerless to stop these outrages,
but in March 1540 Kohlhase and his principal associate, Georg
Nagelschmidt, were seized, and on the 22nd of the month they were broken
on the wheel in Berlin.

  The life and fate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas. See
  Burkhardt, _Der historische Hans Kohlhase und H. von Kleists Michael
  Kohlhaas_ (Leipzig, 1864).




KOKOMO, a city and the county-seat of Howard county, Indiana, U.S.A., on
the Wildcat River, about 50 m. N. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890), 8261;
(1900), 10,609 of whom 499 were foreign-born and 359 negroes; (1910
census), 17,010. It is served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Pittsburg
Cincinnati Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo St Louis & Western
railways, and by two interurban electric lines. Kokomo is a centre of
trade in agricultural products, and has various manufactures, including
flint, plate and opalescent glass, &c. The total value of the factory
product increased from $2,062,156 in 1900 to $3,651,105 in 1905, or
77.1%; and in 1905 the glass product was valued at $864,567, or 23.7% of
the total. Kokomo was settled about 1840 and became a city (under a
state law) in 1865.




KOKO-NOR (or KUKU-NOR) (_Tsing-hai_ of the Chinese, and _Tso-ngombo_ of
the Tanguts), a lake of Central Asia, situated at an altitude of 9975
ft., in the extreme N.E. of Tibet, 30 m. from the W. frontier of the
Chinese province of Kan-suh, in 100° E. and 37° N. It lies amongst the
eastern ranges of the Kuen-lun, having the Nan-shan Mountains to the
north, and the southern Koko-nor range (10,000 ft.) on the south. It
measures 66 m. by 40 m., and contains half a dozen islands, on one of
which is a Buddhist (i.e. Lamaist) monastery, to which pilgrims resort.
The water is salt, though an abundance of fish live in it, and it often
remains frozen for three months together in winter. The surface is at
times subject to considerable variations of level. The lake is entered
on the west by the river Buhain-gol. The nomads who dwell round its
shores are Tanguts.




KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAÍ IVANOVICH VON (1818-1893), Russian mineralogist and
major-general in the Russian army, was born at Ust-Kamenogork in Tomsk,
on the 5th of December 1818 (O.S.). He was educated at the military
school of mines in St Petersburg. At the age of twenty-two he was
selected to accompany R. I. Murchison and De Verneuil, and afterwards De
Keyserling, in their geological survey of the Russian Empire.
Subsequently he devoted his attention mainly to the study of mineralogy
and mining, and was appointed director of the Institute of Mines. In
1865 he became director of the Imperial Mineralogical Society of St
Petersburg. He contributed numerous papers on euclase, zircon, epidote,
orthite, monazite and other mineralogical subjects to the St Petersburg
and Vienna academies of science, to Poggendorf's _Annalen_, Leonhard and
Brown's _Jahrbuch_, &c. He also issued as separate works _Materialen zur
Mineralogie Russlands_ (10 vols., 1853-1891), and _Vorlesungen über
Mineralogie_ (1865). He died in St Petersburg on the 3rd of January 1893
(O.S.).




KOKSTAD, a town of South Africa, the capital of Griqualand East, 236 m.
by rail S.W. of Durban, 110 m. N. by W. of Port Shepstone, and 150 m. N.
of Port St John, Pondoland. Pop. (1904), 2903, of whom a third were
Griquas. The town is built on the outer slopes of the Drakensberg and is
4270 ft. above the sea. Behind it Mount Currie rises to a height of 7297
ft. An excellent water supply is derived from the mountains. The town is
well laid out, and possesses several handsome public buildings. It is
the centre of a thriving agricultural district and has a considerable
trade in wool, grain, cattle and horses with Basutoland, Pondoland and
the neighbouring regions of Natal. The town is named after the Griqua
chief Adam Kok, who founded it in 1869. In 1879 it came into the
possession of Cape Colony and was granted municipal government in 1893.
It is the residence of the Headman of the Griqua nation. (See KAFFRARIA
and GRIQUALAND.)




KOLA, a peninsula of northern Russia, lying between the Arctic Ocean on
the N. and the White Sea on the S. It forms part of the region of
Lapland and belongs administratively to the government of Archangel. The
Arctic coast, known as the Murman coast (Murman being a corruption of
Norman), is 260 m. long, and being subject to the influence of the North
Atlantic drift, is free from ice all the year round. It is a rocky
coast, built of granite, and rising to 650 ft., and is broken by several
excellent bays. On one of these, Kola Bay, the Russian government
founded in 1895 the naval harbour of Alexandrovsk. From May to August a
productive fishery is carried on along this coast. Inland the peninsula
rises up to a plateau, 1000 ft. in general elevation, and crossed by
several ranges of low mountains, which go up to over 3000 ft. in
altitude. The lower slopes of these mountains are clothed with forest up
to 1300 ft., and in places thickly studded with lakes, some of them of
very considerable extent, e.g. Imandra (330 sq. m.), Ump-jaur,
Nuorti-järvi, Guolle-jaur or Kola Lake, and Lu-jaur. From these issue
streams of appreciable magnitude, such as the Tuloma, Voronya, Yovkyok
or Yokanka, and Ponoi, all flowing into the Arctic, and the Varsuga and
Umba, into the White Sea. The area of the peninsula is estimated at
50,000 sq. m.

  See A. O. Kihlmann and Palmén, _Die Expedition nach der Halbinsel
  Kola_ (1887-1892) (Helsingfors); A. O. Kihlmann, _Bericht einer
  naturwissenschaftlichen Reise durch Russisch-Lappland_ (Helsingfors,
  1890); and W. Ramsay, _Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Halbinsel
  Kola_ (Helsingfors, 1899).




KOLABA (or COLABA), a district of British India, in the southern
division of Bombay. Area, 2131 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 605,566, showing an
increase of 2% in the decade. The headquarters are at Alibagh. Lying
between the Western Ghats and the sea, Kolaba district abounds in hills,
some being spurs running at right angles to the main range, while others
are isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges. The sea frontage, of about
20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed by a belt of
coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt lies a stretch of flat
country devoted to rice cultivation. In many places along the banks of
the salt-water creeks there are extensive tracts of salt marshland, some
of them reclaimed, some still subject to tidal inundation, and others
set apart for the manufacture of salt. The district is traversed by a
few small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the principal are the Nagothna
on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the Bankot creek in the
south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming highways for a brisk trade in
rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish. Near the coast especially, the
district is well supplied with reservoirs. The Western Ghats have two
remarkable peaks--Raigarh, where Sivaji built his capital, and
Miradongar. There are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value
of which is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian
Peninsula railway crosses part of the district, and communication with
Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Owing to its nearness to that
city, the district has suffered severely from plague. Kolaba district
takes its name from a little island off Alibagh, which was one of the
strongholds of Angria, the Mahratta pirate of the 18th century. The same
island has given its name to Kolaba Point, the spur of Bombay Island
running south that protects the entrance to the harbour. On Kolaba Point
are the terminus of the Bombay & Baroda railway, barracks for a European
regiment, lunatic asylum and observatory.




KOLAR, a town and district of India, in the state of Mysore. The town is
43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901), 12,210. Although of ancient
foundation, it has been almost completely modernized. Industries include
the weaving of blankets and the breeding of turkeys for export.

The DISTRICT OF KOLAR has an area of 3180 sq. m. It occupies the portion
of the Mysore table-land immediately bordering the Eastern Ghats. The
principal watershed lies in the north-west, around the hill of Nandidrug
(4810 ft.), from which rivers radiate in all directions; and the whole
country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers are the
Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini, and the
Papagani, which are industriously utilized for irrigation by means of
anicuts and tanks. The rocks of the district are mostly syenite or
granite, with a small admixture of mica and feldspar. The soil in the
valleys consists of a fertile loam; and in the higher levels sand and
gravel are found. The hills are covered with scrub, jungle and
brushwood. In 1901 the population was 723,600, showing an increase of
22% in the decade. The district is traversed by the Bangalore line of
the Madras railway, with a branch 10 m. long, known as the Kolar
Goldfields railway. Gold prospecting in this region began in 1876, and
the industry is now settled on a secure basis. Here are situated the
mines of the Mysore, Champion Reef, Ooregum, and Nandidrug companies. To
the end of 1904 the total value of gold produced was 21 millions
sterling, and there had been paid in dividends 9 millions, and in
royalty to the Mysore state one million. The municipality called the
Kolar Gold Fields had in 1901 a population of 38,204; it has suffered
severely from plague. Electricity from the falls of the Cauvery (93 m.
distant) is utilized as the motive power in the mines. Sugar manufacture
and silk and cotton weaving are the other principal industries in the
district. The chief historical interest of modern times centres round
the hill fort of Nandidrug, which was stormed by the British in 1791,
after a bombardment of 21 days.




KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN (1818-1884), German chemist, was born on
the 27th of September 1818 at Elliehausen, near Göttingen, where in 1838
he began to study chemistry under F. Wöhler. In 1842 he became assistant
to R. W. von Bunsen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon Playfair
at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at Brunswick in editing the
_Dictionary of Chemistry_ started by Liebig, but in the latter year he
went to Marburg as successor to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In
1865 he was called to Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that
city on the 25th of November 1884. Kolbe had an important share in the
great development of chemical theory that occurred about the middle of
the 19th century, especially in regard to the constitution of organic
compounds, which he viewed as derivatives of inorganic ones, formed from
the latter--in some cases directly--by simple processes of substitution.
Unable to accept Berzelius's doctrine of the unalterability of organic
radicals, he also gave a new interpretation to the meaning of copulae
under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland's conception
of definite atomic saturation-capacities, and thus contributed in an
important degree to the subsequent establishment of the structure
theory. Kolbe was a very successful teacher, a ready and vigorous
writer, and a brilliant experimentalist whose work revealed the nature
of many compounds the composition of which had not previously been
understood. He published a _Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie_ in 1854,
smaller textbooks of organic and inorganic chemistry in 1877-1883, and
_Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der theoretischen Chemie_ in 1881. From
1870 he was editor of the _Journal für praktische Chemie_, in which many
trenchant criticisms of contemporary chemists and their doctrines
appeared from his pen.




KOLBERG (or COLBERG), a town of Germany, and seaport of the Prussian
province of Pomerania, on the right bank of the Persante, which falls
into the Baltic about a mile below the town, and at the junction of the
railway lines to Belgard and Gollnow. Pop. (1905), 22,804. It has a
handsome market-place with a statue of Frederick William III.; and there
are extensive suburbs, of which the most important is Münde. The
principal buildings are the huge red-brick church of St Mary, with five
aisles, one of the most remarkable churches in Pomerania, dating from
the 14th century; the council-house (Rathaus), erected after the plans
of Ernst F. Zwirner; and the citadel. Kolberg also possesses four other
churches, a theatre, a gymnasium, a school of navigation, and an
exchange. Its bathing establishments are largely frequented and attract
a considerable number of summer visitors. It has a harbour at the mouth
of the Persante, where there is a lighthouse. Woollen cloth, machinery
and spirits are manufactured; there is an extensive salt-mine in the
neighbouring Zillenberg; the salmon and lamprey fisheries are important;
and a fair amount of commercial activity is maintained. In 1903 a
monument was erected to the memory of Gneisenau and the patriot, Joachim
Christian Nettelbeck (1738-1824), through whose efforts the town was
saved from the French in 1806-7.

Originally a Slavonic fort, Kolberg is one of the oldest places of
Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat of a bishop, and although
it soon lost this distinction it obtained municipal privileges in 1255.
From about 1276 it ranked as the most important place in the episcopal
principality of Kamin, and from 1284 it was a member of the Hanseatic
League. During the Thirty Years' War it was captured by the Swedes in
1631, passing by the treaty of Westphalia to the elector of Brandenburg,
Frederick William I., who strengthened its fortifications. The town was
a centre of conflict during the Seven Years' War. In 1758 and again in
1760 the Russians besieged Kolberg in vain, but in 1762 they succeeded
in capturing it. Soon restored to Brandenburg, it was vigorously
attacked by the French in 1806 and 1807, but it was saved by the long
resistance of its inhabitants. In 1887 the fortifications of the town
were razed, and it has since become a fashionable watering-place,
receiving annually nearly 15,000 visitors.

  See Riemann, _Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg_ (Kolberg, 1873); Stoewer,
  _Geschichte der Stadt Kolberg_ (Kolberg, 1897); Schönlein, _Geschichte
  der Belagerungen Kolbergs in den Jahren 1758, 1760, 1761 und 1807_
  (Kolberg, 1878); and Kempin, _Führer durch Bad Kolberg_ (Kolberg,
  1899).




KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ (1790-1838), Hungarian poet, critic and orator, was
born at Szodemeter, in Transylvania, on the 8th of August 1790. In his
fifteenth year he made the acquaintance of Kazinczy and zealously
adopted his linguistic reforms. In 1809 Kölcsey went to Pest and became
a "notary to the royal board." Law proved distasteful, and at Cseke in
Szatmár county he devoted his time to aesthetical study, poetry,
criticism, and the defence of the theories of Kazinczy. Kölcsey's early
metrical pieces contributed to the _Transylvanian Museum_ did not
attract much attention, whilst his severe criticisms of Csokonai, Kis,
and especially Berzsenyi, published in 1817, rendered him very
unpopular. From 1821 to 1826 he published many separate poems of great
beauty in the _Aurora_, _Hebe_, _Aspasia_, and other magazines of polite
literature. He joined Paul Szemere in a new periodical, styled _Élet és
literatura_ ("Life and Literature"), which appeared from 1826 to 1829,
in 4 vols., and gained for Kölcsey the highest reputation as a critical
writer. From 1832 to 1835 he sat in the Hungarian Diet, where his
extreme liberal views and his singular eloquence soon rendered him
famous as a parliamentary leader. Elected on the 17th of November 1830 a
member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he took part in its first
grand meeting; in 1832, he delivered his famous oration on Kazinczy, and
in 1836 that on his former opponent Daniel Berzsenyi. When in 1838 Baron
Wesselényi was unjustly thrown into prison upon a charge of treason,
Kölcsey eloquently though unsuccessfully conducted his defence; and he
died about a week afterwards (August 24) from internal inflammation. His
collected works, in 6 vols., were published at Pest, 1840-1848, and his
journal of the diet of 1832-1836 appeared in 1848. A monument erected to
the memory of Kölcsey was unveiled at Szatmár-Németi on the 25th of
September 1864.

  See G. Steinacker, _Ungarische Lyriker_ (Leipzig, and Pest, 1874); F.
  Toldy, _Magyar Költök élete_ (2 vols., Pest, 1871); J. Ferenczy and J.
  Danielik, _Magyar Irók_ (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858).




KOLDING, a town of Denmark in the _amt_ (county) of Vejle, on the east
coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet of the Little Belt, 9
m. N. of the German frontier. Pop. (1901), 12,516. It is on the Eastern
railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout has a depth of over 20 ft. A
little to the north-west is the splendid remnant of the royal castle
Koldinghuus, formerly called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by
Duke Abel in 1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was
built by Christian IV. (1588-1648), and was surmounted by colossal
statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an antiquarian and
historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding occurs in the 10th
century, but its earliest known town-rights date from 1321. In 1644 it
was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes, and on the 22nd of
April 1849 of a Danish defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. A
comprehensive view of the Little Belt with its islands, and over the
mainland, is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 8½ m.
S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to preserve
the Danish language in Schleswig.




KOLGUEV, KOLGUEFF or KALGUYEV, an island off the north-west of Russia in
Europe, belonging to the government of Archangel. It lies about 50 m.
from the nearest point of the mainland, and is of roughly oval form, 54
m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W. and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies
in a shallow sea, and is quite low, the highest point being 250 ft.
above the sea. Peat-bogs and grass lands cover the greater part of the
surface; there are several considerable streams and a large number of
small lakes. The island is of recent geological formation; it consists
almost wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the
north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses of
granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears, foxes and other Arctic
animals, geese, swans, &c., provide means of livelihood for a few
Samoyed hunters.




KOLHAPUR, a native state of India, within the Deccan division of Bombay.
It is the fourth in importance of the Mahratta principalities, the other
three being Baroda, Gwalior and Indore; and it is the principal state
under the political control of the government of Bombay. Together with
its _jagirs_ or feudatories, it covers an area of 3165 sq. m. In 1901
the population was 910,011. The estimated revenue is £300,000. Kolhapur
stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the plain
of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the Ghats lie wild
and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing little but timber,
and till recently covered with rich forests. The centre of the state is
crossed by several lines of low hills running at right angles from the
main range. In the east the country becomes more open and presents the
unpicturesque uniformity of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken
only by an occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient
Mahratta strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna. The
rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons burthen,
are all fordable during the hot months. Iron ore is found in the hills,
and smelting was formerly carried on to a considerable extent; but now
the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete with that imported from Europe.
There are several good stone quarries. The principal agricultural
products are rice, millets, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and
vegetables.

The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a younger son
of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta power. The prevalence
of piracy caused the British government to send expeditions against
Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in the early years of the 19th century
the misgovernment of the chief compelled the British to resort to
military operations, and ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the
state. In recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed,
on the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatrapati,
G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was born in 1874, and
ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption. The principal
institutions are the Rajaram college, the high school, a technical
school, an agricultural school, and training-schools for both masters
and mistresses. The state railway from Miraj junction to Kolhapur town
is worked by the Southern Mahratta company. In recent years the state
has suffered from both famine and plague.

The town of KOLHAPUR, or KARVIR, is the terminus of a branch of the
Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line. Pop. (1901),
54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern public buildings, the town
has many evidences of antiquity. Originally it appears to have been an
important religious centre, and numerous Buddhist remains have been
discovered in the neighbourhood.




KOLIN, or NEU-KOLIN (also _Kollin_; Czech, _Nový Kolín_), a town of
Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,025,
mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and amongst its noteworthy
buildings may be specially mentioned the beautiful early Gothic church
of St Bartholomew, erected during the latter half of the 14th century.
The industries of the town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing,
and the manufacture of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The
neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vegetables.
Kolin is chiefly famous on account of the battle here on the 18th of
June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick the Great were defeated by
the Austrians under Daun (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). The result was the
raising of the siege of Prague and the evacuation of Bohemia by the
Prussians. Kolin was colonized in the 13th century by German settlers
and made a royal city. In 1421 it was captured by the men of Prague, and
the German inhabitants who refused to accept "the four articles" were
expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was besieged by
Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon conditions at the close of
the year.




KOLIS, a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin. Possibly
the name is derived from the Turki _kuleh_ a slave; and, according to
one theory, this name has been passed on to the familiar word "cooly"
for an agricultural labourer. They form the main part of the inferior
agricultural population of Gujarat, where they were formerly notorious
as robbers; but they also extend into the Konkan and the Deccan. In 1901
the number of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 3¾ millions; but
this total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in
northern India.




KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON (1817-1905), Swiss anatomist and
physiologist, was born at Zürich on the 6th of July 1817. His father and
his mother were both Zürich people, and he in due time married a lady
from Aargau, so that Switzerland can claim him as wholly her own, though
he lived the greater part of his life in Germany. His early education
was carried on in Zürich, and he entered the university there in 1836.
After two years, however, he moved to the university of Bonn, and later
to that of Berlin, becoming at the latter place the pupil of Johannes
Müller and of F. G. J. Henle. He graduated in philosophy at Zürich in
1841, and in medicine at Heidelberg in 1842. The first academic post
which he held was that of prosector of anatomy under Henle; but his
tenure of this office was brief, for in 1844 his native city called him
back to its university to occupy a chair as professor extraordinary of
physiology and comparative anatomy. His stay here too, however, was
brief, for in 1847 the university of Würzburg, attracted by his rising
fame, offered him the post of professor of physiology and of
microscopical and comparative anatomy. He accepted the appointment, and
at Würzburg he remained thenceforth, refusing all offers tempting him to
leave the quiet academic life of the Bavarian town, where he died on the
2nd of November 1905.

Kölliker's name will ever be associated with that of the tool with which
during his long life he so assiduously and successfully worked, the
microscope. The time at which he began his studies coincided with that
of the revival of the microscopic investigation of living beings. Two
centuries earlier the great Italian Malpighi had started, and with his
own hand had carried far the study by the help of the microscope of the
minute structure of animals and plants. After Malpighi this branch of
knowledge, though continually progressing, made no remarkable bounds
forward until the second quarter of the 19th century, when the
improvement of the compound microscope on the one hand, and the
promulgation by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden of the "cell
theory" on the other, inaugurated a new era of microscopic
investigation. Into this new learning Kölliker threw himself with all
the zeal of youth, wisely initiated into it by his great teacher Henle,
whose sober and exact mode of inquiry went far at the time to give the
new learning a right direction and to counteract the somewhat fantastic
views which, under the name of the cell theory, were tending to be
prominent. Henle's labours were for the most part limited to the
microscopic investigation of the minute structure of the tissues of man
and of the higher animals, the latter being studied by him mainly with
the view of illustrating the former. But Kölliker had another teacher
besides Henle, the even greater Johannes Müller, whose active mind was
sweeping over the whole animal kingdom, striving to pierce the secrets
of the structure of living creatures of all sorts, and keeping steadily
in view the wide biological problems of function and of origin, which
the facts of structure might serve to solve. We may probably trace to
the influence of these two great teachers, strengthened by the spirit of
the times, the threefold character of Kölliker's long-continued and
varied labours. In all of them, or in almost all of them, the microscope
was the instrument of inquiry, but the problem to be solved by means of
the instrument belonged now to one branch of biology, now to another.

At Zürich, and afterwards at Würzburg, the title of the chair which he
held laid upon him the duty of teaching comparative anatomy, and very
many of the numerous memoirs which he published, including the very
first paper which he wrote, and which appeared in 1841 before he
graduated, "On the Nature of the so-called Seminal Animalcules," were
directed towards elucidating, by help of the microscope, the structure
of animals of the most varied kinds--that is to say, were zoological in
character. Notable among these were his papers on the Medusae and allied
creatures. His activity in this direction led him to make zoological
excursions to the Mediterranean Sea and to the coasts of Scotland, as
well as to undertake, conjointly with his friend C. T. E. von Siebold,
the editorship of the _Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie_,
which, founded in 1848, continued under his hands to be one of the most
important zoological periodicals.

At the time when Kölliker was beginning his career the influence of Karl
Ernst von Baer's embryological teaching was already being widely felt,
men were learning to recognize the importance to morphological and
zoological studies of a knowledge of the development of animals; and
Kölliker plunged with enthusiasm into the relatively new line of
inquiry. His earlier efforts were directed to the invertebrata, and his
memoir on the development of cephalopods, which appeared in 1844, is a
classical work; but he soon passed on to the vertebrata, and studied not
only the amphibian embryo and the chick, but also the mammalian embryo.
He was among the first, if not the very first, to introduce into this
branch of biological inquiry the newer microscopic technique--the
methods of hardening, section-cutting and staining. By doing so, not
only was he enabled to make rapid progress himself, but he also placed
in the hands of others the means of a like advance. The remarkable
strides forward which embryology made during the middle and during the
latter half of the 19th century will always be associated with his name.
His _Lectures on Development_, published in 1861, at once became a
standard work.

But neither zoology nor embryology furnished Kölliker's chief claim to
fame. If he did much for these branches of science, he did still more
for histology, the knowledge of the minute structure of the animal
tissues. This he made emphatically his own. It may indeed be said that
there is no fragment of the body of man and of the higher animals on
which he did not leave his mark, and in more places than one his mark
was a mark of fundamental importance. Among his earlier results may be
mentioned the demonstration in 1847 that smooth or unstriated muscle is
made up of distinct units, of nucleated muscle-cells. In this work he
followed in the footsteps of his master Henle. A few years before this
men were doubting whether arteries were muscular, and no solid
histological basis as yet existed for those views as to the action of
the nervous system on the circulation, which were soon to be put
forward, and which had such a great influence on the progress of
physiology. By the above discovery Kölliker completed that basis.

Even to enumerate, certainly to dwell on, all his contributions to
histology would be impossible here: smooth muscle, striated muscle,
skin, bone, teeth, blood-vessels and viscera were all investigated by
him; and he touched none of them without striking out some new truths.
The results at which he arrived were recorded partly in separate
memoirs, partly in his great textbook on microscopical anatomy, which
first saw the light in 1850, and by which he advanced histology no less
than by his own researches. In the case of almost every tissue our
present knowledge contains something great or small which we owe to
Kölliker; but it is on the nervous system that his name is written in
largest letters. So early as 1845, while still at Zürich, he supplied
what was as yet still lacking, the clear proof that nerve-fibres are
continuous with nerve-cells, and so furnished the absolutely necessary
basis for all sound speculations as to the actions of the central
nervous system. From that time onward he continually laboured, and
always fruitfully, at the histology of the nervous system, and more
especially at the difficult problems presented by the intricate patterns
in which fibres and cells are woven together in the brain and spinal
cord. In his old age, at a time when he had fully earned the right to
fold his arms, and to rest and be thankful, he still enriched
neurological science with results of the highest value. From his early
days a master of method, he saw at a glance the value of the new Golgi
method for the investigation of the central nervous system, and, to the
great benefit of science, took up once more in his old age, with the aid
of a new means, the studies for which he had done so much in his youth.
It may truly be said that much of that exact knowledge of the inner
structure of the brain, which is rendering possible new and faithful
conceptions of its working, came from his hands.

Lastly, Kölliker was in his earlier years professor of physiology as
well as of anatomy; and not only did his histological labours almost
always carry physiological lessons, but he also enriched physiology with
the results of direct researches of an experimental kind, notably those
on curare and some other poisons. In fact, we have to go back to the
science of centuries ago to find a man of science of so many-sided an
activity as he. His life constituted in a certain sense a protest
against that specialized differentiation which, however much it may
under certain aspects be regretted, seems to be one of the necessities
of modern development. In Johannes Müller's days no one thought of
parting anatomy and physiology; nowadays no one thinks of joining them
together. Kölliker did in his work join them together, and indeed said
himself that he thought they ought never to be kept apart.

Naturally a man of so much accomplishment was not left without honours.
Formerly known simply as Kölliker, the title "von" was added to his
name. He was made a member of the learned societies of many countries;
in England, which he visited more than once, and where he became well
known, the Royal Society made him a fellow in 1860, and in 1897 gave him
its highest token of esteem, the Copley medal.     (M. F.)




KOLLONTAJ, HUGO (1750-1812), Polish politician and writer, was born in
1750 at Niecislawice in Sandomir, and educated at Pinczow and Cracow.
After taking orders he went (1770) to Rome, where he obtained the degree
of doctor of theology and common law, and devoted himself
enthusiastically to the study of the fine arts, especially of
architecture and painting. At Rome too he obtained a canonry attached to
Cracow cathedral, and on his return to Poland in 1755 threw himself
heart and soul into the question of educational reform. His efforts were
impeded by the obstruction of the clergy of Cracow, who regarded him as
an adventurer; but he succeeded in reforming the university after his
own mind, and was its rector for three years (1782-1785). Kollontaj next
turned his attention to politics. In 1786 he was appointed
_referendarius_ of Lithuania, and during the Four Years' Diet
(1788-1792) displayed an amazing and many-sided activity as one of the
reformers of the constitution. He grouped around him all the leading
writers, publicists and progressive young men of the day; declaimed
against prejudices; stimulated the timid; inspired the lukewarm with
enthusiasm; and never rested till the constitution of the 3rd of May
1791 had been carried through. In June 1791 Kollontaj was appointed
vice-chancellor. On the triumph of the reactionaries and the fall of the
national party, he secretly placed in the king's hands his adhesion to
the triumphant Confederation of Targowica, a false step, much blamed at
the time, but due not to personal ambition but to a desire to save
something from the wreck of the constitution. He then emigrated to
Dresden. On the outbreak of Kosciuszko's insurrection he returned to
Poland, and as member of the national government and minister of finance
took a leading part in affairs. But his radicalism had now become of a
disruptive quality, and he quarrelled with and even thwarted Kosciuszko
because the dictator would not admit that the Polish republic could only
be saved by the methods of Jacobinism. On the other hand, the more
conservative section of the Poles regarded Kollontaj as "a second
Robespierre," and he is even suspected of complicity in the outrages of
the 17th and 18th of June 1794, when the Warsaw mob massacred the
political prisoners. On the collapse of the insurrection Kollontaj
emigrated to Austria, where from 1795 to 1802 he was detained as a
prisoner. He was finally released through the mediation of Prince Adam
Czartoryski, and returned to Poland utterly discredited. The remainder
of his life was a ceaseless struggle against privation and prejudice. He
died at Warsaw on the 28th of February 1812.

  Of his numerous works the most notable are: _Political Speeches as
  Vice-Chancellor_ (Pol.) (in 6 vols., Warsaw, 1791); _On the Erection
  and Fall of the Constitution of May_ (Pol.) (Leipzig, 1793; Paris,
  1868); _Correspondence with T. Czacki_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1854); _Letters
  written during Emigration, 1792-1794_ (Pol.) (Posen, 1872).

  See Ignacz Badeni, _Necrology of Hugo Kollontaj_ (Pol.) (Cracow,
  1819); Henryk Schmitt, _Review of the Life and Works of Kollontaj_
  (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1860); Wojciek Grochowski, "Life of Kollontaj" (Pol.)
  in _Tygod Illus._ (Warsaw, 1861).     (R. N. B.)




KOLOMEA (Polish, _Kolomyja_), a town of Austria, in Galicia, 122 m. S.
of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 34,188, of which half were Jews. It is
situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade in agricultural products.
To the N.E. of Kolomea, near the Dniester, lies the village of
Czernelica, with ruins of a strongly fortified castle, which served as
the residence of John Sobieski during his campaigns against the Turks.
Kolomea is a very old town and is mentioned already in 1240, but the
assertion that it was a Roman settlement under the name of _Colonia_ is
not proved. It was the principal town of the Polish province of Pokutia,
and it suffered severely during the 15th and 16th centuries from the
attacks of the Moldavians and the Tatars.




KOLOMNA, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow, situated on the
railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72 m. S.E. of Moscow, at the
confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolomenka. Pop. (1897), 20,970.
It is an old town, mentioned in the annals in 1177, and until the 14th
century was the capital of the Ryazan principality. It suffered greatly
from the invasions of the Tatars in the 13th century, who destroyed it
four times, as well as from the wars of the 17th century; but it always
recovered and has never lost its commercial importance. During the 19th
century it became a centre for the manufacture of silks, cottons, ropes
and leather. Here too are railway workshops, where locomotives and
wagons are made. Kolomna carries on an active trade in grain, cattle,
tallow, skins, salt and timber. It has several old churches of great
archaeological interest, including two of the 14th century, one being
the cathedral. One gate (restored in 1895) of the fortifications of the
Kreml still survives.




KOLOZSVÁR (Ger. _Klausenburg_; Rum. _Cluj_), a town of Hungary, in
Transylvania, the capital of the county of Kolozs, and formerly the
capital of the whole of Transylvania, 248 m. E.S.E. of Budapest by rail.
Pop. (1900), 46,670. It is situated in a picturesque valley on the banks
of the Little Szamos, and comprises the inner town (formerly surrounded
with walls) and five suburbs. The greater part of the town lies on the
right bank of the river, while on the other side is the so-called Bridge
Suburb and the citadel (erected in 1715). Upon the slopes of the citadel
hill there is a gipsy quarter. With the exception of the old quarter,
Kolozsvár is generally well laid out, and contains many broad and fine
streets, several of which diverge at right angles from the principal
square. In this square is situated the Gothic church of St Michael
(1396-1432); in front is a bronze equestrian statue of King Matthias
Corvinus by the Hungarian sculptor Fadrusz (1902). Other noteworthy
buildings are the Reformed church, built by Matthias Corvinus in 1486
and ceded to the Calvinists by Bethlen Gabor in 1622; the house in which
Matthias Corvinus was born (1443), which contains an ethnographical
museum; the county and town halls, a museum, and the university
buildings. A feature of Kolozsvár is the large number of handsome
mansions belonging to the Transylvanian nobles, who reside here during
the winter. It is the seat of a Unitarian bishop, and of the
superintendent of the Calvinists for the Transylvanian circle. Kolozsvár
is the literary and scientific centre of Transylvania, and is the seat
of numerous literary and scientific associations. It contains a
university (founded in 1872), with four faculties--theology, philosophy,
law and medicine--frequented by about 1900 students in 1905; and amongst
its other educational establishments are a seminary for Unitarian
priests, an agricultural college, two training schools for teachers, a
commercial academy, and several secondary schools for boys and girls.
The industry comprises establishments for the manufacture of woollen and
linen cloth, paper, sugar, candles, soap, earthenwares, as well as
breweries and distilleries.

Kolozsvár is believed to occupy the site of a Roman settlement named
_Napoca_. Colonized by Saxons in 1178, it then received its German name
of _Klausenburg_, from the old word Klause, signifying a "mountain
pass." Between the years 1545 and 1570 large numbers of the Saxon
population left the town in consequence of the introduction of Unitarian
doctrines. In 1798 the town was to a great extent destroyed by fire. As
capital of Transylvania and the seat of the Transylvanian diets,
Kolozsvár from 1830 to 1848 became the centre of the Hungarian national
movement in the grand principality; and in December 1848 it was taken
and garrisoned by the Hungarians under General Bem.




KOLPINO, one of the chief iron-works of the crown in Russia, in the
government of St Petersburg, 16 m. S.E. of the city of St Petersburg, on
the railway to Moscow, and on the Izhora river. Pop. (1897), 8076. A
sacred image of St Nicholas in the Trinity church is visited by numerous
pilgrims on the 22nd of May every year. Here is an iron-foundry of the
Russian admiralty.




KOLS, a generic name applied by Hindus to the Munda, Ho and Oraon tribes
of Bengal. The Mundas are an aboriginal tribe of Dravidian physical
type, inhabiting the Chota Nagpur division, and numbering 438,000 in
1901. The majority of them are animists in religion, but Christianity is
making rapid strides among them. The village community in its primitive
form still exists among the Mundas; the discontent due to the oppression
of their landlords led to the Munda rising of 1899, and to the remedy of
the alleged grievances by a new settlement of the district. The Hos, who
are closely akin to the Mundas, also inhabit the Chota Nagpur division;
in 1901 they numbered 386,000. They were formerly a very pugnacious
race, who successfully defended their territory against all comers until
they were subdued by the British in the early part of the 19th century,
being known as the Larka (or fighting) Kols. They are still great
sportsmen, using the bow and arrow. Like the Mundas they are animists,
but they show little inclination for Christianity. Both Mundas and Hos
speak dialects of the obscure linguistic family known as Munda or Kol.

  See _Imp. Gazetteer of India_, vols. xiii., xviii. (Oxford, 1908).




KOLYVAÑ. (1) A town of West Siberia, in the government of Tomsk, on the
Chaus river, 5 m. from the Ob and 120 m. S.S.W. of the city of Tomsk. It
is a wealthy town, the merchants carrying on a considerable export trade
in cattle, hides, tallow, corn and fish. It was founded in 1713 under
the name of Chausky Ostrog, and has grown rapidly. Pop. (1897), 11,703.
(2) KOLYVAÑSKIY ZAVOD, another town of the same government, in the
district of Biysk, Altai region, on the Byelaya river, 192 m. S.E. of
Barnaul; altitude, 1290 ft. It is renowned for its stone-cutting
factory, where marble, jasper, various porphyries and breccias are
worked into vases, columns, &c. Pop., 5000. (3) Old name of Reval
(q.v.).




KOMÁROM (Ger., _Komorn_), the capital of the county of Komárom, Hungary,
65 m. W.N.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 16,816. It is situated at
the eastern extremity of the island Csallóköz or Grosse Schütt, at the
confluence of the Waag with the Danube. Just below Komárom the two arms
into which the Danube separates below Pressburg, forming the Grosse
Schütt island, unite again. Since 1896 the market-town of Uj-Szöny,
which lies on the opposite bank of the Danube, has been incorporated
with Komárom. The town is celebrated chiefly for its fortifications,
which form the centre of the inland fortifications of the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A brisk trade in cereals, timber, wine and
fish is carried on. Komárom is one of the oldest towns of Hungary,
having received its charter in 1265. The fortifications were begun by
Matthias Corvinus, and were enlarged and strengthened during the Turkish
wars (1526-64). New forts were constructed in 1663 and were greatly
enlarged between 1805 and 1809. In 1543, 1594, 1598 and 1663 it was
beleaguered by the Turks. It was raised to the dignity of a royal free
town in 1751. During the revolutionary war of 1848-49 Komárom was a
principal point of military operations, and was long unsuccessfully
besieged by the Austrians, who on the 11th of July 1849 were defeated
there by General Görgei, and on the 3rd of August by General Klapka. On
the 27th of September the fortress capitulated to the Austrians upon
honourable terms, and on the 3rd and 4th of October was evacuated by the
Hungarian troops. The treasure of the Austrian national bank was removed
here from Vienna in 1866, when that city was threatened by the
Prussians.




KOMATI, a river of south-eastern Africa. It rises at an elevation of
about 5000 ft. in the Ermelo district of the Transvaal, 11 m. W. of the
source of the Vaal, and flowing in a general N. and E. direction reaches
the Indian Ocean at Delagoa Bay, after a course of some 500 miles. In
its upper valley near Steynsdorp are gold-fields, but the reefs are
almost entirely of low grade ore. The river descends the Drakensberg by
a pass 30 m. S. of Barberton, and at the eastern border of Swaziland is
deflected northward, keeping a course parallel to the Lebombo mountains.
Just W. of 32° E. and in 25° 25´ S. it is joined by one of the many
rivers of South Africa named Crocodile. This tributary rises, as the
Elands river, in the Bergendal (6437 ft.) near the upper waters of the
Komati, and flows E. across the high veld, being turned northward as it
reaches the Drakensberg escarpment. The fall to the low veld is over
2000 ft. in 30 m., and across the country between the Drakensberg and
the Lebombo (100 m.) there is a further fall of 3000 ft. A mile below
the junction of the Crocodile and Komati, the united stream, which from
this point is also known as the Manhissa, passes to the coast plain
through a cleft 626 ft. high in the Lebombo known as Komati Poort, where
are some picturesque falls. At Komati Poort, which marks the frontier
between British and Portuguese territory, the river is less than 60 m.
from its mouth in a direct line, but in crossing the plain it makes a
wide sweep of 200 m., first N. and then S., forming lagoon-like expanses
and backwaters and receiving from the north several tributaries. In
flood time there is a connexion northward through the swamps with the
basin of the Limpopo. The Komati enters the sea 15 m. N. of Lourenço
Marques. It is navigable from its mouth, where the water is from 12 to
18 ft. deep, to the foot of the Lebombo.

The railway from Lourenço Marques to Pretoria traverses the plain in a
direct line, and at mile 45 reaches the Komati. It follows the south
bank of the river and enters the high country at Komati Poort. At a
small town with the same name, 2 m. W. of the Poort, on the 23rd of
September 1900, during the war with England, 3000 Boers crossed the
frontier and surrendered to the Portuguese authorities. From the Poort
westward the railway skirts the south bank of the Crocodile river
throughout its length.




KOMOTAU (Czech, _Chomútov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria 79 m. N.N.W. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,925, almost exclusively German. It has
an old Gothic church, and its town-hall was formerly a commandery of the
Teutonic knights. The industrial establishments comprise manufactories
of woollen cloth, linen and paper, dyeing houses, breweries,
distilleries, vinegar works and the central workshops of the Buschtehrad
railway. Lignite is worked in the neighbourhood. Komotau was originally
a Czech market-place, but in 1252 it came into the possession of the
Teutonic Order and was completely Germanized. In 1396 it received a town
charter; and in 1416 the knights sold both town and lordship to
Wenceslaus IV. On the 16th of March 1421, the town was stormed by the
Taborites, sacked and burned. After several changes of ownership,
Komotau came in 1588 to Popel of Lobkovic, who established the Jesuits
here, which led to trouble between the Protestant burghers and the
over-lord. In 1594 the lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the town
purchased its freedom and was created a royal city.




KOMURA, JUTARO, COUNT (1855-   ), Japanese statesman, was born in Hiuga.
He graduated at Harvard in 1877, and entered the foreign office in Tokyo
in 1884. He served as chargé d'affaires in Peking, as Japanese minister
in Seoul, in Washington, in St Petersburg, and in Peking (during the
Boxer trouble), earning in every post a high reputation for diplomatic
ability. In 1901 he received the portfolio of foreign affairs, and held
it throughout the course of the negotiations with Russia and the
subsequent war (1904-5), being finally appointed by his sovereign to
meet the Russian plenipotentiaries at Portsmouth, and subsequently the
Chinese representatives in Peking, on which occasions the Portsmouth
treaty of September 1905 and the Peking treaty of November in the same
year were concluded. For these services, and for negotiating the second
Anglo-Japanese alliance, he received the Japanese title of count and was
made a K.C.B. by King Edward VII. He resigned his portfolio in 1906 and
became privy councillor, from which post he was transferred to the
embassy in London, but he returned to Tokyo in 1908 and resumed the
portfolio of foreign affairs in the second Katsura cabinet.




KONARAK or KANARAK, a ruined temple in India, in the Puri district of
Orissa, which has been described as for its size "the most richly
ornamented building--externally at least--in the whole world." It was
erected in the middle of the 13th century, and was dedicated to the
sun-god. It consisted of a tower, probably once over 180 ft. high, with
a porch in front 140 ft. high, sculptured with figures of lions,
elephants, horses, &c.




KONG, the name of a town, district and range of hills in the N.W. of the
Ivory Coast colony, French West Africa. The hills are part of the band
of high ground separating the inner plains of West Africa from the coast
regions. In maps of the first half of the 19th century the range is
shown as part of a great mountain chain supposed to run east and west
across Africa, and is thus made to appear a continuation of the
Mountains of the Moon, or the snow-clad heights of Ruwenzori. The
culminating point of the Kong system is the Pic des Kommono, 4757 ft.
high. In general the summits of the hills are below 2000 ft. and not
more than 700 ft. above the level of the country. The "circle of Kong,"
one of the administrative divisions of the Ivory Coast colony, covers
46,000 sq. m. and has a population of some 400,000. The inhabitants are
negroes, chiefly Bambara and Mandingo. About a fourth of the population
profess Mahommedanism; the remainder are spirit worshippers. The town of
Kong, situated in 9° N., 4° 20´ W., is not now of great importance.
Probably René Caillié, who spent some time in the western part of the
country in 1827, was the first European to visit Kong. In 1888 Captain
L. G. Binger induced the native chiefs to place themselves under the
protection of France, and in 1893 the protectorate was attached to the
Ivory Coast colony. For a time Kong was overrun by the armies of Samory
(see SENEGAL), but the capture of that chief in 1898 was followed by the
peaceful development of the district by France (see IVORY COAST).




KONGSBERG, a mining town of Norway in Buskerud _amt_ (county), on the
Laagen, 500 ft. above the sea, and 61 m. W.S.W. of Christiania by rail.
Pop. (1900), 5585. With the exception of the church and the town-house,
the buildings are mostly of wood. The origin and whole industry of the
town are connected with the government silver-mines in the
neighbourhood. Their first discovery was made by a peasant in 1623,
since which time they have been worked with varying success. During the
18th century Kongsberg was more important than now, and contained double
its present population. Within the town are situated the smelting-works,
the mint, and a Government weapon factory. Three miles below the Laagen
forms a fine fall of 140 ft. (Labrofos). The neighbouring Jonksnut (2950
ft.) commands extensive views of the Telemark. A driving-road from
Kongsberg follows a favourite route for travellers through this
district, connecting with routes to Sand and Odde on the west coast.




KONIA. (1) A vilayet in Asia Minor which includes the whole, or parts
of, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Cilicia and Cappadocia. It
was formed in 1864 by adding to the old eyalet of Karamania the western
half of Adana, and part of south-eastern Anadoli. It is divided into
five sanjaks: Adalia, Buldur, Hamid-abad, Konia and Nigdeh. The
population (990,000 Moslems and 80,000 Christians) is for the most part
agricultural and pastoral. The only industries are carpet-weaving and
the manufacture of cotton and silk stuffs. There are mines of chrome,
mercury, cinnabar, argentiferous lead and rock salt. The principal
exports are salt, minerals, opium, cotton, cereals, wool and livestock;
and the imports cloth-goods, coffee, rice and petroleum. The vilayet is
now traversed by the Anatolian railway, and contains the railhead of the
Ottoman line from Smyrna.

(2) The chief town [anc. _Iconium_ (q.v.)], altitude 3320 ft., situated
at the S.W. edge of the vast central plain of Asia Minor, amidst
luxuriant orchards famous in the middle ages for their yellow plums and
apricots and watered by streams from the hills. Pop. 45,000, including
5000 Christians. There are interesting remains of Seljuk buildings, all
showing strong traces of Persian influence in their decorative details.
The principal ruin is that of the palace of Kilij Arslan II., which
contained a famous hall. The most important mosques are the great
_Tekke_, which contains the tomb of the poet Mevlana Jelal ed-din Rumi,
a mystic (sufi) poet, founder of the order of Mevlevi (whirling)
dervishes, and those of his successors, the "Golden" mosque and those of
Ala ed-Din and Sultan Selim. The walls, largely the work of Ala ed-Din
I., are preserved in great part and notable for the number of ancient
inscriptions built into them. They once had twelve gates and were 30
ells in height. The climate is good--hot in summer and cold, with snow,
in winter. Konia is connected by railway with Constantinople and is the
starting-point of the extension towards Bagdad. After the capture of
Nicaea by the Crusaders (1097), Konia became the capital of the Seljuk
Sultans of Rum (see SELJUKS and TURKS). It was temporarily occupied by
Godfrey, and again by Frederick Barbarossa, but this scarcely affected
its prosperity. During the reign of Ala ed-Din I. (1219-1236) the city
was thronged with artists, poets, historians, jurists and dervishes,
driven westwards from Persia and Bokhara by the advance of the Mongols,
and there was a brief period of great splendour. After the break up of
the empire of Rum, Konia became a secondary city of the amirate of
Karamania and in part fell to ruin. In 1472 it was annexed to the
Osmanli empire by Mahommed II. In 1832 it was occupied by Ibrahim Pasha
who defeated and captured the Turkish general, Reshid Pasha, not far
from the walls. It had come to fill only part of its ancient circuit,
but of recent years it has revived considerably, and, since the railway
reached it, has acquired a semi-European quarter, with a German hotel,
cafés and Greek shops, &c.

  See W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ (1890); _St
  Paul the Traveller_ (1895); G. Le Strange, _Lands of the E. Caliphate_
  (1905).     (D. G. H.)




KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS (1591-1646), Polish soldier, was the most
illustrious member of an ancient Polish family which rendered great
services to the Republic. Educated at the academy of Cracow, he learned
the science of war under the great Jan Chodkiewicz, whom he accompanied
on his Muscovite campaigns, and under the equally great Stanislaus
Zolkiewski, whose daughter Catherine he married. On the death of his
first wife he wedded, in 1619, Christina Lubomirska. In 1619 he took
part in the expedition against the Turks which terminated so
disastrously at Cecora, and after a valiant resistance was captured and
sent to Constantinople, where he remained a close prisoner for three
years. On his return he was appointed commander of all the forces of the
Republic, and at the head of an army of 25,000 men routed 60,000 Tatars
at Martynow, following up this success with fresh victories, for which
he received the thanks of the diet and the palatinate of Sandomeria from
the king. In 1625 he was appointed guardian of the Ukraine against the
Tatars, but in 1626 was transferred to Prussia to check the victorious
advance of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish historians have too often ignored
the fact that Koniecpolski's superior strategy neutralized all the
efforts of the Swedish king, whom he defeated again and again, notably
at Homerstein (April 1627) and at Trzciand (April 1629). But for the
most part the fatal parsimony of his country compelled Koniecpolski to
confine himself to the harassing guerrilla warfare in which he was an
expert. In 1632 he was appointed to the long vacant post of _hetman
wielki koronny_, or commander in chief of Poland, and in that capacity
routed the Tatars at Sasowy Rogi (April 1633) and at Paniawce (April and
October 1633), and the Turks, with terrific loss, at Abazd Basha. To
keep the Cossacks of the Ukraine in order he also built the fortress of
Kudak. As one of the largest proprietors in the Ukraine he suffered
severely from Cossack depredations and offered many concessions to them.
Only after years of conflict, however, did he succeed in reducing these
unruly desperadoes to something like obedience. In 1644 he once more
routed the Tatars at Ockmatow, and again in 1646 at Brody. This was his
last exploit, for he died the same year, to the great grief of
Wladislaus IV., who had already concerted with him the plan for a
campaign on a grand scale against the Turks, and relied principally upon
the Grand Hetman for its success. Though less famous than his
contemporaries Zolkiehwski and Chodkiewicz, Koniecpolski was fully their
equal as a general, and his inexorable severity made him an ideal
lord-marcher.

  See an unfinished biography in the _Tyg. Illus. of Warsaw_ for 1863;
  Stanislaw Przylenski, _Memorials of the Koniecpolskis_ (Pol.)
  (Lemberg, 1842).     (R. N. B.)




KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH (1832-1901), German physicist, was born at
Königsberg (Prussia) on the 26th of November 1832, and studied at the
university of his native town, taking the degree of Ph.D. About 1852 he
went to Paris, and became apprentice to the famous violin-maker, J. B.
Vuillaume, and some six years later he started business on his own
account. He called himself a "maker of musical instruments," but the
instruments for which his name is best known are tuning-forks, which
speedily gained a high reputation among physicists for their accuracy
and general excellence. From this business König derived his livelihood
for the rest of his life. He was, however, very far from being a mere
tradesman, and even as a manufacturer he regarded the quality of the
articles that left his workshop as a matter of greater solicitude than
the profits they yielded. Acoustical research was his real interest, and
to that he devoted all the time and money he could spare from his
business. An exhibit which he sent to the London Exhibition of 1862
gained a gold medal, and at the Philadelphia Exposition at 1876 great
admiration was expressed for a tonometric apparatus of his manufacture.
This consisted of about 670 tuning-forks, of as many different pitches,
extending over four octaves, and it afforded a perfect means for
testing, by enumeration of the beats, the number of vibrations producing
any given note and for accurately tuning any musical instrument. An
attempt was made to secure this apparatus for the university of
Pennsylvania, and König was induced to leave it behind him in America on
the assurance that it would be purchased; but, ultimately, the money not
being forthcoming, the arrangement fell through, to his great
disappointment and pecuniary loss. Some of the forks he disposed of to
the university of Toronto and the remainder he used as a nucleus for
the construction of a still more elaborate tonometer. While the range of
the old apparatus was only between 128 and 4096 vibrations a second, the
lowest fork of the new one made only 16 vibrations a second, while the
highest gave a sound too shrill to be perceptible by the human ear.
König will also be remembered as the inventor and constructor of many
other beautiful pieces of apparatus for the investigation of acoustical
problems, among which may be mentioned his wave-sirens, the first of
which was shown at Philadelphia in 1876. His original work dealt, among
other things, with Wheatstone's sound-figures, the characteristic notes
of the different vowels, manometric flames, &c.; but perhaps the most
important of his researches are those devoted to the phenomena produced
by the interference of two tones, in which he controverted the views of
H. von Helmholtz as to the existence of summation and difference tones.
He died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1901.




KÖNIGGRÄTZ (Czech, _Hradec Králové_), a town and episcopal see of
Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 9773, mostly
Czech. It is situated in the centre of a very fertile region called the
"Golden Road," and contains many buildings of historical and
architectural interest. The cathedral was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth,
wife of Wenceslaus II; and the church of St John, built in 1710, stands
on the ruins of the old castle. The industries include the manufacture
of musical instruments, machinery, colours, and _carton-pierre_, as well
as gloves and wax candles. The original name of Königgrätz, one of the
oldest settlements in Bohemia, was _Chlumec Dobroslavsky_; the name
_Hradec_, or "the Castle," was given to it when it became the seat of a
count, and _Kralove_, "of the queen" (Ger. _Königin_), was prefixed when
it became one of the dower towns of the queen of Wenceslaus II.,
Elizabeth of Poland, who lived here for thirty years. It remained a
dower town till 1620. Königgrätz was the first of the towns to declare
for the national cause during the Hussite wars. After the battle of the
White Mountain (1620) a large part of the Protestant population left the
place. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by the Swedes.
Several churches and convents were pulled down to make way for the
fortifications erected under Joseph II. The fortress was finally
dismantled in 1884. Near Königgrätz took place, on the 3rd of July 1866,
the decisive battle (formerly called Sadowa) of the Austro-Prussian war
(see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR).




KÖNIGINHOF (_Dvur Kralove_ in Czech), the seat of a provincial district
and of a provincial law-court, is situated in north-eastern Bohemia on
the left bank of the Elbe, about 160 kilometres from Prague. Brewing,
corn-milling and cotton-weaving are the principal industries. Pop. about
11,000. The city is of very ancient origin. Founded by King Wenceslaus
II. of Bohemia (1278-1305), it was given by him to his wife Elizabeth,
and thus received the name of Dvur Kralove (the court of the queen).
During the Hussite wars, Dvur Kralove was several times taken and
retaken by the contending parties. In a battle fought partly within the
streets of the town, the Austrian army was totally defeated by the
Prussians on the 29th of June 1866. In the 19th century Dvur Kralove
became widely known as the spot where a MS. was found that was long
believed to be one of the oldest written documents in the Czech
language. In 1817 Wenceslas Hanka, afterwards for a long period
librarian of the Bohemian museum, declared that he had found in the
church tower in the town of Dvur Kralove when on a visit there, a very
ancient MS. containing epic and lyric poems. Though Dobrovsky, the
greatest Czech philologist of the time, from the first expressed
suspicions, the MS. known as the Kralodvorsky Rukopis manuscript of
Königinhof was long accepted as genuine, frequently printed and
translated into most European languages. Doubts as to the genuineness of
the document never, however, ceased, and they became stronger when Hanka
was convicted of having fabricated other false Bohemian documents. A
series of works and articles written by Professors Goll, Gebauer,
Masoryk, and others have recently proved that the MS. is a forgery, and
hardly any Bohemian scholars of the present day believe in its
genuineness.

  The discussion of the authenticity of the MS. of Dvur Kralove lasted
  with short interruptions about seventy years, and the Bohemian works
  written on the subject would fill a considerable library. Count
  Lützow's _History of Bohemian Literature_ gives a brief account of the
  controversy.




KÖNIGSBERG (Polish _Krolewiec_), a town of Germany, capital of the
province of East Prussia and a fortress of the first rank. Pop. (1880),
140,800; (1890), 161,666; (1905), 219,862 (including the incorporated
suburbs). It is situated on rising ground, on both sides of the Pregel,
4½ m. from its mouth in the Frische Haff, 397 m. N. E. of Berlin, on the
railway to Eydtkuhnen and at the junction of lines to Pillau, Tilsit and
Kranz. It consists of three parts, which were formerly independent
administrative units, the Altstadt (old town), to the west, Löbenicht to
the east, and the island Kneiphof, together with numerous suburbs, all
embraced in a circuit of 9½ miles. The Pregel, spanned by many bridges,
flows through the town in two branches, which unite below the Grüne
Brücke. Its greatest breadth within the town is from 80 to 90 yards, and
it is usually frozen from November to March. Königsberg does not retain
many marks of antiquity. The Altstadt has long and narrow streets, but
the Kneiphof quarter is roomier. Of the seven market-places only that in
the Altstadt retains something of its former appearance. Among the more
interesting buildings are the Schloss, a long rectangle begun in 1255
and added to later, with a Gothic tower 277 ft. high and a chapel built
in 1592, in which Frederick I. in 1701 and William I. in 1861 crowned
themselves kings of Prussia; and the cathedral, begun in 1333 and
restored in 1856, a Gothic building with a tower 164 ft. high, adjoining
which is the tomb of Kant. The Schloss was originally the residence of
the Grand Masters of the Teutonic order and later of the dukes of
Prussia. Behind is the parade-ground, with the statues of Albert I. and
of Frederick William III. by August Kiss, and the grounds also contain
monuments to Frederick I. and William I. To the east is the
Schlossteich, a long narrow ornamental lake covering 12 acres. The
north-west side of the parade-ground is occupied by the new university
buildings, completed in 1865; these and the new exchange on the south
side of the Pregel are the finest architectural features of the town.
The university (Collegium Albertinum) was founded in 1544 by Albert I.,
duke of Prussia, as a "purely Lutheran" place of learning. It is chiefly
distinguished for its mathematical and philosophical studies, and
possesses a famous observatory, established in 1811 by Frederick William
Bessel, a library of about 240,000 volumes, a zoological museum, a
botanical garden, laboratories and valuable mathematical and other
scientific collections. Among its famous professors have been Kant (who
was born here in 1724 and to whom a monument was erected in 1864), J. G.
von Herder, Bessel, F. Neumann and J. F. Herbart. It is attended by
about 1000 students and has a teaching staff of over 100. Among other
educational establishments, Königsberg numbers four classical schools
(gymnasia) and three commercial schools, an academy of painting and a
school of music. The hospitals and benevolent institutions are numerous.
The town is less well equipped with museums and similar institutions,
the most noteworthy being the Prussia museum of antiquities, which is
especially rich in East Prussian finds from the Stone age to the Viking
period. Besides the cathedral the town has fourteen churches.

Königsberg is a naval and military fortress of the first order. The
fortifications were begun in 1843 and were only completed in 1905,
although the place was surrounded by walls in early times. The works
consist of an inner wall, brought into connexion with an outlying system
of works, and of twelve detached forts, of which six are on the right
and six on the left bank of the Pregel. Between them lie two great
forts, that of Friedrichsburg on an island in the Pregel and that of the
Kaserne Kronprinz on the east of the town, both within the environing
ramparts. The protected position of its harbour has made Königsberg one
of the most important commercial cities of Germany. A new channel has
recently been made between it and its port, Pillau, 29 miles distant, on
the outer side of the Frische Haff, so as to admit vessels drawing 20
feet of water right up to the quays of Königsberg, and the result has
been to stimulate the trade of the city. It is protected for a long
distance by moles, in which a break has been left in the Fischhauser
Wiek, to permit of freer circulation of the water and to prevent damage
to the mainland.

The industries of Königsberg have made great advances within recent
years, notable among them are printing-works and manufactures of
machinery, locomotives, carriages, chemicals, toys, sugar, cellulose,
beer, tobacco and cigars, pianos and amber wares. The principal exports
are cereals and flour, cattle, horses, hemp, flax, timber, sugar and
oilcake. There are two pretty public parks, one in the Hufen, with a
zoological garden attached, another the Luisenwahl which commemorates
the sojourn of Queen Louisa of Prussia in the town in the disastrous
year 1806.

The Altstadt of Königsberg grew up around the castle built in 1255 by the
Teutonic Order, on the advice of Ottaker II. King of Bohemia, after whom
the place was named. Its first site was near the fishing village of
Steindamm, but after its destruction by the Prussians in 1263 it was
rebuilt in its present position. It received civic privileges in 1286, the
two other parts of the present town--Löbenicht and Kneiphof--receiving
them a few years later. In 1340 Königsberg entered the Hanseatic League.
From 1457 it was the residence of the grand master of the Teutonic Order,
and from 1525 till 1618 of the dukes of Prussia. The trade of Königsberg
was much hindered by the constant shifting and silting up of the channels
leading to its harbour; and the great northern wars did it immense harm,
but before the end of the 17th century it had almost recovered.

In 1724 the three independent parts were united into a single town by
Frederick William I.

Königsberg suffered severely during the war of liberation and was
occupied by the French in 1807. In 1813 the town was the scene of the
deliberations which led to the successful uprising of Prussia against
Napoleon. During the 19th century the opening of a railway system in
East Prussia and Russia gave a new impetus to its commerce, making it
the principal outlet for the Russian staples--grain, seeds, flax and
hemp. It has now regular steam communication with Memel, Stettin, Kiel,
Amsterdam and Hull.

  See Faber, _Die Haupt- und Residenzstadt Königsberg in Preussen_
  (Königsberg, 1840); Schubert, _Zur 600-jährigen Jubelfeier
  Königsbergs_ (Königsberg, 1855); Beckherrn, _Geschichte der
  Befestigungen Königsbergs_ (Königsberg, 1890); H. G. Prutz, _Die
  königliche Albertus-Universität zu Königsberg im 19 Jahrhundert_
  (Königsberg, 1894); Armstedt, _Geschichte der königlichen Haupt- und
  Residenzstadt Königsberg_ (Stuttgart, 1899); M. Schultze, _Königsberg
  und Ostpreussen zu Anfang 1813_ (Berlin, 1901); and Gordak, _Wegweiser
  durch Königsberg_ (Königsberg, 1904).




KÖNIGSBORN, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
immediately to the N. of the town of Unna, of which it practically forms
a suburb. It has large saltworks, producing annually over 15,000 tons.
The brine springs, in connexion with which there is a hydropathic
establishment, have a temperature of 93° F., and are efficacious in skin
diseases, rheumatism and scrofula.

  See Wegele, _Bad Königsborn und seine Heilmittel_ (Essen, 1902).




KÖNIGSHÜTTE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia,
situated in the middle of the Upper Silesian coal and iron district, 3
m. S. of Beuthen and 122 m. by rail S.E. of Breslau. Pop. (1852), 4495;
(1875), 26,040; (1900), 57,919. In 1869 it was incorporated with various
neighbouring villages, and raised to the dignity of a town. It has two
Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches and several schools and
benevolent institutions. The largest iron-works in Silesia is situated
at Königshütte, and includes puddling works, rolling-mills, and
zinc-works. Founded in 1797, it was formerly in the hands of government,
but is now carried on by a company. There are also manufactures of
bricks and glass and a trade in wood and coal. Nearly one-half of the
population of the town consists of Poles.

  See Mohr, _Geschichte der Stadt Königshütte_ (Königshütte, 1890).





KÖNIGSLUTTER, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick, on the
Lutter 36 m. E. of Brunswick by the railway to Eisleben and Magdeburg.
Pop. (1905), 3260. It possesses an Evangelical church, a castle and some
interesting old houses. Its chief manufactures are sugar, machinery,
paper and beer. Near the town are the ruins of a Benedictine abbey
founded in 1135. In its beautiful church, which has not been destroyed,
are the tombs of the emperor Lothair II., his wife Richenza, and of his
son-in-law, Duke Henry the Proud of Saxony and Bavaria.




KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA, COUNTESS OF (1662-1728), mistress of Augustus
the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, belonged to a noble
Swedish family, and was born on the 8th of May 1662. Having passed some
years at Hamburg, where she attracted attention both by her beauty and
her talents, Aurora went in 1694 to Dresden to make inquiries about her
brother Philipp Christoph, count of Königsmark, who had suddenly and
mysteriously disappeared from Hanover. Here she was noticed by Augustus,
who made her his mistress; and in October 1696 she gave birth to a son
Maurice, afterwards the famous marshal de Saxe. The elector however
quickly tired of Aurora, who then spent her time in efforts to secure
the position of abbess of Quedlinburg, an office which carried with it
the dignity of a princess of the Empire, and to recover the lost
inheritance of her family in Sweden. She was made coadjutor abbess and
lady-provost (_Pröpstin_) of Quedlinburg, but lived mainly in Berlin,
Dresden and Hamburg. In 1702 she went on a diplomatic errand to Charles
XII. of Sweden on behalf of Augustus, but her adventurous journey ended
in failure. The countess, who was described by Voltaire as "the most
famous woman of two centuries," died at Quedlinburg on the 16th of
February 1728.

  See F. Cramer, _Denkwürdigkeiten der Gräfin M. A. Königsmark_
  (Leipzig, 1836); and _Biographische Nachrichten von der Gräfin M. A.
  Königsmark_ (Quedlinburg, 1833); W. F. Palmblad, _Aurora Königsmark
  und ihre Verwandte_ (Leipzig, 1848-1853); C. L. de Pöllnitz, _La Saxe
  galante_ (Amsterdam, 1734); and O. J. B. von Corvin-Wiersbitzki,
  _Maria Aurora, Gräfin von Königsmark_ (Rudolstadt, 1902).




KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH, COUNT OF (1665-1694), was a member of a
noble Swedish family, and is chiefly known as the lover of Sophia
Dorothea, wife of the English king George I. then electoral prince of
Hanover. Born on the 14th of March 1665, Königsmark was a brother of the
countess noticed above. After wandering and fighting in various parts of
Europe he entered the service of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover.
Here he made the acquaintance of Sophia Dorothea, and assisted her in
one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover. Regarded, rightly or
wrongly, as the lover of the princess, he was seized, and disappeared
from history, probably by assassination, on the 1st of July 1694. One
authority states that George I. was accustomed to boast about this deed;
but this statement is doubted, and the Hanoverian court resolutely
opposed all efforts to clear up the mystery. It is not absolutely
certain that Sophia Dorothea was guilty of a criminal intrigue with
Königsmark, as it is probable that the letters which purport to have
passed between the pair are forgeries. The question of her guilt or
innocence, however, has been and still remains a fruitful and popular
subject for romance and speculation.

  See _Briefwechsel des Grafen Königsmark und der Prinzessin Sophie
  Dorothea von Celle_, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847); A.
  Köcher, "Die Prinzessin von Ahlden," in the _Historische Zeitschrift_
  (Munich, 1882); and W. H. Wilkins, _The Love of an Uncrowned Queen_
  (London, 1900).




KÖNIGSSEE, or Lake of St Bartholomew, a lake of Germany, in the kingdom
of Bavaria, province of Upper Bavaria, about 2½ m. S. from
Berchtesgaden, 1850 ft. above sea-level. It has a length of 5 m., and a
breadth varying from 500 yards to a little over a mile, and attains a
maximum depth of 600 ft. The Königssee is the most beautiful of all the
lakes in the German Alps, pent in by limestone mountains rising to an
altitude of 6500 ft., the flanks of which descend precipitously to the
green waters below. The lake abounds in trout, and the surrounding
country is rich in game. On a promontory by the side of the lake is a
chapel to which pilgrimages are made on St Bartholomew's Day. Separated
by a narrow strip of land from the Königssee is the Obersee, a smaller
lake.




KÖNIGSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, situated in a
deep valley on the left bank of the Elbe, at the influx of the Biela, in
the centre of Saxon Switzerland, 25 m. S.E. of Dresden by the railway to
Bodenbach and Testchen. It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
church, a monument to the composer Julius Otto, and has some small
manufactures of machinery, celluloid, paper, vinegar and buttons. It is
chiefly remarkable for the huge fortress, lying immediately to the
north-west of the town, which crowns a sandstone rock rising abruptly
from the Elbe to a height of 750 ft. Across the Elbe lies the
Lilienstein, a similar formation, but unfortified. The fortress of
Königstein was probably a Slav stronghold as early as the 12th century,
but it is not mentioned in chronicles before the year 1241, when it was
a fief of Bohemia. In 1401 it passed to the margraves of Meissen and by
the treaty of Eger in 1459 it was formally ceded by Bohemia to Saxony.
About 1540 the works were strengthened, and the place was used as a
_point d'appui_ against inroads from Bohemia. Hence the phrase
frequently employed by historians that Königstein is "the key to
Bohemia." As a fact, the main road from Dresden into that country lies
across the hills several miles to the south-west, and the fortress has
exercised little, if any, influence in strategic operations, either
during the middle ages or in modern times. It was further strengthened
under the electors Christian I., John George I. and Frederick Augustus
II. of Saxony, the last of whom completed it in its present form. During
the Prussian invasion of Saxony in 1756 it served as a place of refuge
for the King of Poland, Augustus III., as it did also in 1849, during
the Dresden insurrection of May in that year, to the King of Saxony,
Frederick Augustus II. and his ministers. It was occupied by the
Prussians in 1867, who retained possession of it until the peace of
1871. It is garrisoned by detachments of several Saxon infantry
regiments, and serves as a treasure house for the state and also as a
place of detention for officers sentenced to fortress imprisonment. A
remarkable feature of the place is a well, hewn out of the solid rock to
a depth of 470 ft.

  See Klemm, _Der Königstein in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1905);
  and Gautsch, _Aelteste Geschichte der sächsischen Schweiz_ (Dresden,
  1880).




KÖNIGSWINTER, a town and summer resort of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 24 m. S.S.E. of Cologne by the
railway to Frankfort-on-Main, at the foot of the Siebengebirge. Pop.
(1905), 3944. The romantic Drachenfels (1010 ft.), crowned by the ruins
of a castle built early in the 12th century by the archbishop of
Cologne, rises behind the town. From the summit, to which there is a
funicular railway, there is a magnificent view, celebrated by Byron in
_Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_. A cave in the hill is said to have
sheltered the dragon which was slain by the hero Siegfried. The mountain
is quarried, and from 1267 onward supplied stone (trachyte) for the
building of Cologne cathedral. The castle of Drachenburg, built in 1883,
is on the north side of the hill. Königswinter has a Roman Catholic and
an Evangelical church, some small manufactures and a little shipping. It
has a monument to the poet, Wolfgang Müller. Near the town are the ruins
of the abbey of Heisterbach.




KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE (1809-1887), Belgian palaeontologist and
chemist, was born at Louvain on the 3rd of May 1809. He studied medicine
in the university of his native town, and in 1831 he became assistant in
the chemical schools. He pursued the study of chemistry in Paris, Berlin
and Giessen, and was subsequently engaged in teaching the science at
Ghent and Liége. In 1856 he was appointed professor of chemistry in the
Liége University, and he retained this post until the close of his life.
About the year 1835 he began to devote his leisure to the investigation
of the Carboniferous fossils around Liége, and ultimately he became
distinguished for his researches on the palaeontology of the Palaeozoic
rocks, and especially for his descriptions of the mollusca, brachiopods,
crustacea and crinoids of the Carboniferous limestone of Belgium. In
recognition of this work the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1875
by the Geological Society of London, and in 1876 he was appointed
professor of palaeontology at Liége. He died at Liége on the 16th of
July 1887.

  PUBLICATIONS.--_Éléments de chimie inorganique_ (1839); _Description
  des animaux fossiles qui se trouvent dans le terrain Carbonifère de
  Belgique_ (1842-1844, supp. 1851); _Recherches sur les animaux
  fossiles_ (1847, 1873). See _Notice sur L. G. de Koninck_, by E.
  Dupont; _Annuaire de l'Acad. roy. de Belgique_ (1891), with portrait
  and bibliography.




KONINCK, PHILIP DE [de Coninck, de Koningh, van Koening] (1619-1688),
Dutch landscape painter, was born in Amsterdam in 1619. Little is known
of his history, except that he was a pupil of Rembrandt, whose influence
is to be seen in all his work. He painted chiefly broad sunny
landscapes, full of space, light and atmosphere. Portraits by him,
somewhat in the manner of Rembrandt, also exist; there are examples of
these in the galleries at Copenhagen and Christiania. Of his landscapes
the principal are "Vue de l'embouchure d'une rivière," at the Hague; a
slightly larger replica is in the National Gallery, London; "Lisière
d'un bois," and "Paysage" (with figures by A. Vandevelde) at Amsterdam;
and landscapes in Brussels, Florence (Uffizi), Berlin and Cologne.

Several of his works have been falsely attributed to Rembrandt, and many
more to his namesake and fellow-townsman SALOMON DE KONINCK (1609-1656),
who was also a disciple of Rembrandt; his paintings and etchings consist
mainly of portraits and biblical scenes.

Both these painters are to be distinguished from DAVID DE KONINCK
(1636-?1687), who is also known as "Rammelaar." He was born in Antwerp.
He studied there under Jan Fyt, and later settled in Rome, where he is
stated to have died in 1687; this is, however, doubtful. His pictures
are chiefly landscapes with animals, and still-life.




KONITZ, a town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia, at the
junction of railways to Schneidemühl and Gnesen, 68 m. S.W. of Danzig.
Pop. (1905), 11,014. It is still surrounded by its old fortifications,
has two Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a new town-hall,
handsome public offices, and a prison. It has iron-foundries, saw-mills,
electrical works, and manufactures of bricks. Konitz was the first
fortified post established in Prussia by Hermann Balk, who in 1230 had
been commissioned as _Landmeister_, by the grand-master of the Teutonic
order, to reduce the heathen Prussians. For a long time it continued to
be a place of military importance.

  See Uppenkamp, _Geschichte der Stadt Konitz_ (Konitz, 1873).




KONKAN, or CONCAN, a maritime tract of Western India, situated within
the limits of the Presidency of Bombay, and extending from the
Portuguese settlement of Goa on the S. to the territory of Daman,
belonging to the same nation, on the N. On the E. it is bounded by the
Western Ghats, and on the W. by the Indian Ocean. This tract comprises
the three British districts of Thana, Ratnagiri and Kolaba, and the
native states of Janjira and Sawantwari. It may be estimated at 300 m.
in length, with an average breadth of about 40. From the mountains on
its eastern frontier, which in one place attain a height of 4700 ft.,
the surface, marked by a succession of irregular hilly spurs from the
Ghats, slopes to the westward, where the mean elevation of the coast is
not more than 100 ft. above the level of the sea. Several mountain
streams, but none of any magnitude, traverse the country in the same
direction. One of the most striking characteristics of the climate is
the violence of the monsoon rains--the mean annual fall at Mahabaleshwar
amounting to 239 in. The coast has a straight general outline, but is
much broken into small bays and harbours. This, with the uninterrupted
view along the shore, and the land and sea breezes, which force vessels
steering along the coast to be always within sight of it, rendered this
country from time immemorial the seat of piracy; and so formidable had
the pirates become in the 18th century, that all ships suffered which
did not receive a pass from their chiefs. The Great Mogul maintained a
fleet for the express purpose of checking them, and they were frequently
attacked by the Portuguese. British commerce was protected by occasional
expeditions from Bombay; but the piratical system was not finally
extinguished until 1812. The southern Konkan has given its name to a
dialect of Marathi, which is the vernacular of the Roman Catholics of
Goa.




KONTAGORA, a province in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria,
on the east bank of the Niger to the north of Nupe and opposite Borgu.
It is bounded W. by the Niger, S. by the province of Nupe, E. by that of
Zaria, and N. by that of Sokoto. It has an area of 14,500 sq. m. and a
population estimated at about 80,000. At the time of the British
occupation of Northern Nigeria the province formed a Fula emirate.
Before the Fula domination, which was established in 1864, the ancient
pagan kingdom of Yauri was the most important of the lesser kingdoms
which occupied this territory. The Fula conquest was made from Nupe on
the south and a tribe of independent and warlike pagans continued to
hold the country between Kontagora and Sokoto on the north. The province
was brought under British domination in 1901 as the result of a military
expedition sent to prevent audacious slave-raiding in British protected
territory and of threats directed against the British military station
of Jebba on the Niger. The town of Kontagora was taken in January of
1901. The emir Ibrahim fled, and was not captured till early in 1902.
The province, after having been held for a time in military occupation,
was organized for administration on the same system as the rest of the
protectorate. In 1903 Ibrahim, after agreeing to take the oath of
allegiance to the British crown and to accept the usual conditions of
appointment, which include the abolition of the slave trade within the
province, was reinstated as emir and the British garrison was withdrawn.
Since then the development of the province has progressed favourably.
Roads have been opened and Kontagora connected by telegraph with
headquarters at Zungeru. British courts of justice have been established
at the British headquarters, and native courts in every district. In
1904 an expedition reduced to submission the hitherto independent tribes
in the northern belt, who had up to that time blocked the road to
Sokoto. Their arms were confiscated and their country organized as a
district of the province under a chief and a British assistant resident.




KOORINGA [BURRA], a town of Burra county, South Australia on Burra
Creek, 101 m. by rail N. by E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1994. It is the
centre of a mining and agricultural district in which large areas are
devoted to wheat-growing. The famous Burra Burra copper mine, discovered
by a shepherd in 1844, is close to the town, while silver and lead ore
is also found in the vicinity.




KÖPENICK (CÖPENICK), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on an island in the Spree, 9 m. S.E. from Berlin by the
railway to Fürstenwalde. Pop. (1905), 27,721. It contains a royal
residence, which was built on the site of a palace which belonged to the
great elector, Frederick William. This is surrounded by gardens and
contains a fine banqueting hall and a chapel. Other buildings are a
Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and a teachers' seminary. The
varied industries embrace the manufacture of glass, linoleum,
sealing-wax and ink. In the vicinity is Spindlersfeld, with important
dye-works.

Köpenick, which dates from the 12th century, received municipal rights
in 1225. Shortly afterwards, it became the bone of contention between
Brandenburg and Meissen, but, at the issue of the feud, remained with
the former, becoming a favourite residence of the electors of
Brandenburg. In the palace the famous court martial was held in 1730,
which condemned the crown-prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the
Great, to death. In 1906 the place derived ephemeral fame from the
daring feat of a cobbler, one Wilhelm Voigt, who, attired as a captain
in the army, accompanied by soldiers, whom his apparent rank deceived,
took the mayor prisoner, on a fictitious charge of having falsified
accounts and absconded with a considerable sum of municipal money. The
"captain of Köpenick" was arrested, tried, and sentenced to a term of
imprisonment.

  See Graf zu Dohna, _Kurfürstliche Schlösser in der Mark Brandenburg_
  (Berlin, 1890).




KOPISCH, AUGUST (1799-1853), German poet, was born at Breslau on the
26th of May 1799. In 1815 he began the study of painting at the Prague
academy, but an injury to his hand precluded the prospects of any great
success in this profession, and he turned to literature. After a
residence in Dresden Kopisch proceeded, in 1822, to Italy, where, at
Naples, he formed an intimate friendship with the poet August, count of
Platen Hallermund. He was an expert swimmer, a quality which enabled him
in company with Ernst Fries to discover the blue grotto of Capri. In
1828 he settled at Berlin and was granted a pension by Frederick William
IV., who in 1838 conferred upon him the title of professor. He died at
Berlin on the 3rd of February 1853. Kopisch produced some very original
poetry, light in language and in form. He especially treated legends and
popular subjects, and among his _Gedichte_ (Berlin, 1836) are some naïve
and humorous little pieces such as _Die Historie von Noah_, _Die
Heinzelmännchen_, _Das grüne Tier_ and _Der Scheiderjunge von
Krippstedt_, which became widely popular. He also published a
translation of Dante's _Divine Comedy_ (Berlin, 1840), and under the
title _Agrumi_ (Berlin, 1838) a collection of translations of Italian
folk songs.

  Kopisch's collected works were published in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1856.)




KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ (1817-1892), German chemist, was born on the
30th of October 1817 at Hanau, where his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp
(1777-1858), a physician, was professor of chemistry, physics and
natural history at the Lyceum.

After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied at Marburg
and Heidelberg, and then, attracted by the fame of Liebig, went in 1839
to Giessen, where he became a _privatdozent_ in 1841, and professor of
chemistry twelve years later. In 1864 he was called to Heidelberg in the
same capacity, and he remained there till his death on the 20th of
February 1892. Kopp devoted himself especially to physico-chemical
inquiries, and in the history of chemical theory his name is associated
with several of the most important correlations of the physical
properties of substances with their chemical constitution. Much of his
work was concerned with specific volumes, the conception of which he set
forth in a paper published when he was only twenty-two years of age; and
the principles he established have formed the basis of subsequent
investigations in that subject, although his results have in some cases
undergone modification. Another question to which he gave much attention
was the connexion of the boiling-point of compounds, organic ones in
particular, with their composition. In addition to these and other
laborious researches, Kopp was a prolific writer. In 1843-1847 he
published a comprehensive _History of Chemistry_, in four volumes, to
which three supplements were added in 1869-1875. The _Development of
Chemistry in Recent Times_ appeared in 1871-1874, and in 1886 he
published a work in two volumes on _Alchemy in Ancient and Modern
Times_. In addition he wrote (1863) on theoretical and physical
chemistry for the Graham-Otto _Lehrbuch der Chemie_, and for many years
assisted Liebig in editing the _Annalen der Chemie_ and the
_Jahresbericht_.

He must not be confused with EMIL KOPP (1817-1875), who, born at
Warselnheim, Alsace, became in 1847 professor of toxicology and
chemistry at the École supérieure de Pharmacie at Strasburg, in 1849
professor of physics and chemistry at Lausanne, in 1852 chemist to a
Turkey-red factory near Manchester, in 1868 professor of technology at
Turin, and finally, in 1871, professor of technical chemistry at the
Polytechnic of Zürich, where he died in 1875.




KOPRÜLÜ, or KUPRILI (Bulgarian _Valésa_, Greek _Vélissa_), a town of
Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonica, situated 600
ft. above sea-level, on the river Vardar, and on the Salonica-Mitrovitza
railway, 25 m. S.E. of Uskub. Pop. (1905), about 22,000. Koprülü has a
flourishing trade in silk; maize and mulberries are cultivated in the
neighbourhood. The Greek and Bulgarian names of the town may be corrupt
forms of the ancient Bylazora, described by Polybius as the chief city
of Paeonia.




KORA, or CORA, an ancient town of Northern India, in the Fatehpur
district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 2806. As the capital of a
Mahommedan province, it gave its name to part of the tract (with
Allahabad) granted by Lord Clive to the titular Mogul emperor, Shah
Alam, in 1765.




KORAN. The Koran (Kor'án) is the sacred Book of Islam, on which the
religion of more than two hundred millions of Mahommedans is founded,
being regarded by them as the immediate word of God. And since the use
of the Koran in public worship, in schools and otherwise, is much more
extensive than, for example, the reading of the Bible in most Christian
countries, it has been truly described as the most widely-read book in
existence. This circumstance alone is sufficient to give it an urgent
claim on our attention, whether it suit our taste and fall in with our
religious and philosophical views or not. Besides, it is the work of
Mahomet, and as such is fitted to afford a clue to the spiritual
development of that most successful of all prophets and religious
personalities. It must be owned that the first perusal leaves on a
European an impression of chaotic confusion--not that the book is so
very extensive, for it is not quite as large as the New Testament. This
impression can in some degree be modified only by the application of a
critical analysis with the assistance of Arabian tradition.


  Mahomet's View of Revelation.

To the faith of the Moslems, as has been said, the Koran is the word of
God, and such also is the claim which the book itself advances. For
except in sur. i.--which is a prayer for men--and some few passages
where Mahomet (vi. 104, 114; xxvii. 93; xlii. 8) or the angels (xix. 65;
xxxvii. 164 sqq.) speak in the first person without the intervention of
the usual imperative "say" (sing. or pl.), the speaker throughout is
God, either in the first person singular or more commonly the plural of
majesty "we." The same mode of address is familiar to us from the
prophets of the Old Testament; the human personality disappears, in the
moment of inspiration, behind the God by whom it is filled. But all the
greatest of the Hebrew prophets fall back speedily upon the unassuming
human "I"; while in the Koran the divine "I" is the stereotyped form of
address. Mahomet, however, really felt himself to be the instrument of
God; this consciousness was no doubt brighter at his first appearance
than it afterwards became, but it never entirely forsook him.
Nevertheless we cannot doubt his good-faith, not even in the cases in
which the moral quality of his actions leaves most to be desired. In
spite of all, the dominant fact remains, that to the end he was zealous
for his God and for the salvation of his people, nay, of the whole of
humanity, and that he never lost the unconquerable certainty of his
divine mission.

The rationale of revelation is explained in the Koran itself as follows:
In heaven is the original text ("the mother of the book," xliii. 3; "a
concealed book," lv. 77; "a well-guarded tablet," lxxxv. 22). By the
process of "sending down" (_tanzíl_), one piece after another was
communicated to the Prophet. The mediator was an angel, who is called
sometimes the "Spirit" (xxvi. 193), sometimes the "holy Spirit" (xvi.
104), and at a later time "Gabriel" (only in ii. 91, 92; lxvi. 4). This
angel dictates the revelation to the Prophet, who repeats it after him,
and afterwards proclaims it to the world (lxxxvii. 6, &c.). It is plain
that we have here a somewhat crude attempt of the Prophet to represent
to himself the more or less unconscious process by which his ideas arose
and gradually took shape in his mind. It is no wonder if in such
confused imagery the details are not always self-consistent. When, for
example, this heavenly archetype is said to be in the hands of "exalted
scribes" (lxxx. 13 sqq.), this seems a transition to a quite different
set of ideas, namely, the books of fate, or the record of all human
actions--conceptions which are actually found in the Koran. It is to be
observed, at all events, that Mahomet's transcendental idea of God, as a
Being exalted altogether above the world, excludes the thought of direct
intercourse between the Prophet and God.


  Component Parts of the Koran.

It is an explicit statement of the Koran that the sacred book was
revealed ("sent down") by God, not all at once, but piecemeal and
gradually (xxv. 34). This is evident from the actual composition of the
book, and is confirmed by Moslem tradition. That is to say, Mahomet
issued his revelations in fly-leaves of greater or less extent. A single
piece of this kind was called either, like the entire collection,
_kor'an_, i.e. "recitation," "reading," or, better still, is the
equivalent of Aramaic _geryana_ "lectionary"; or _kitab_, "writing"; or
_sura_, which is perhaps the late-Hebrew _shura_, and means literally
"series." The last became, in the lifetime of Mahomet, the regular
designation of the individual sections as distinguished from the whole
collection; and accordingly it is the name given to the separate
chapters of the existing Koran. These chapters are of very unequal
length. Since many of the shorter ones are undoubtedly complete in
themselves, it is natural to assume that the longer, which are sometimes
very comprehensive, have arisen from the amalgamation of various
originally distinct revelations. This supposition is favoured by the
numerous traditions which give us the circumstances under which this or
that short piece, now incorporated in a larger section, was revealed;
and also by the fact that the connexion of thought in the present suras
often seems to be interrupted. And in reality many pieces of the long
suras have to be severed out as originally independent; even in the
short ones parts are often found which cannot have been there at first.
At the same time we must beware of carrying this sifting operation too
far,--as Nöldeke now believes himself to have done in his earlier works,
and as Sprenger also sometimes seems to do. That some suras were of
considerable length from the first is seen, for example, from xii.,
which contains a short introduction, then the history of Joseph, and
then a few concluding observations, and is therefore perfectly
homogeneous. In like manner, xx., which is mainly occupied with the
history of Moses, forms a complete whole. The same is true of xviii.,
which at first sight seems to fall into several pieces; the history of
the seven sleepers, the grotesque narrative about Moses, and that about
Alexander "the Horned," are all connected together, and the same rhyme
through the whole sura. Even in the separate narrations we may observe
how readily the Koran passes from one subject to another, how little
care is taken to express all the transitions of thought, and how
frequently clauses are omitted, which are almost indispensable. We are
not at liberty, therefore, in every case where the connexion in the
Koran is obscure, to say that it is really broken, and set it down as
the clumsy patchwork of a later hand. Even in the old Arabic poetry such
abrupt transitions are of very frequent occurrence. It is not uncommon
for the Koran, after a new subject has been entered on, to return
gradually or suddenly to the former theme,--a proof that there at least
separation is not to be thought of. In short, however imperfectly the
Koran may have been redacted, in the majority of cases the present suras
are identical with the originals.

How these revelations actually arose in Mahomet's mind is a question
which it is almost as idle to discuss as it would be to analyse the
workings of the mind of a poet. In his early career, sometimes perhaps
in its later stages also, many revelations must have burst from him in
uncontrollable excitement, so that he could not possibly regard them
otherwise than as divine inspirations. We must bear in mind that he was
no cold systematic thinker, but an Oriental visionary, brought up in
crass superstition, and without intellectual discipline; a man whose
nervous temperament had been powerfully worked on by ascetic
austerities, and who was all the more irritated by the opposition he
encountered, because he had little of the heroic in his nature. Filled
with his religious ideas and visions, he might well fancy he heard the
angel bidding him recite what was said to him. There may have been many
a revelation of this kind which no one ever heard but himself, as he
repeated it to himself in the silence of the night (lxxiii. 4). Indeed
the Koran itself admits that he forgot some revelations (lxxxvii. 7).
But by far the greatest part of the book is undoubtedly the result of
deliberation, touched more or less with emotion, and animated by a
certain rhetorical rather than poetical glow. Many passages are based
upon purely intellectual reflection. It is said that Mahomet
occasionally uttered such a passage immediately after one of those
epileptic fits which not only his followers, but (for a time at least)
he himself also, regarded as tokens of intercourse with the higher
powers. If that is the case, it is impossible to say whether the trick
was in the utterance of the revelation or in the fit itself.


  The Koran Written.

How the various pieces of the Koran took literary form is uncertain.
Mahomet himself, so far as we can discover, never wrote down anything.
The question whether he could read and write has been much debated among
Moslems, unfortunately more with dogmatic arguments and spurious
traditions than authentic proofs. At present one is inclined to say that
he was not altogether ignorant of these arts, but that from want of
practice he found it convenient to employ some one else whenever he had
anything to write. After the migration to Medina (A.D. 622) we are told
that short pieces--chiefly legal decisions--were taken down immediately
after they were revealed, by an adherent whom he summoned for the
purpose; so that nothing stood in the way of their publication. Hence it
is probable that in Mecca, where the art of writing was commoner than in
Medina, he had already begun to have his oracles committed to writing.
That even long portions of the Koran existed in written form from an
early date may be pretty safely inferred from various indications;
especially from the fact that in Mecca the Prophet had caused insertions
to be made, and pieces to be erased in his previous revelations. For we
cannot suppose that he knew the longer suras by heart so perfectly that
he was able after a time to lay his finger upon any particular passage.
In some instances, indeed, he may have relied too much on his memory.
For example, he seems to have occasionally dictated the same sura to
different persons in slightly different terms. In such cases, no doubt,
he may have partly intended to introduce improvements; and so long as
the difference was merely in expression, without affecting the sense, it
could occasion no perplexity to his followers. None of them had literary
pedantry enough to question the consistency of the divine revelation on
that ground. In particular instances, however, the difference of reading
was too important to be overlooked. Thus the Koran itself confesses that
the unbelievers cast it up as a reproach to the Prophet that God
sometimes substituted one verse for another (xvi. 103). On one occasion,
when a dispute arose between two of his own followers as to the true
reading of a passage which both had received from the Prophet himself,
Mahomet is said to have explained that the Koran was revealed in seven
forms. In this apparently genuine dictum seven stands, of course, as in
many other cases, for an indefinite but limited number. But one may
imagine what a world of trouble it has cost the Moslem theologians to
explain the saying in accordance with their dogmatic beliefs. A great
number of explanations are current, some of which claim the authority of
the Prophet himself; as, indeed, fictitious utterances of Mahomet play
throughout a conspicuous part in the exegesis of the Koran. One very
favourite, but utterly untenable interpretation is that the "seven
forms," are seven different Arabic dialects.


  Abrogated Readings.

When such discrepancies came to the cognizance of Mahomet it was
doubtless his desire that only one of the conflicting texts should be
considered authentic; only he never gave himself much trouble to have
his wish carried into effect. Although in theory he was an upholder of
verbal inspiration, he did not push the doctrine to its extreme
consequences; his practical good sense did not take these things so
strictly as the theologians of later centuries. Sometimes, however, he
did suppress whole sections or verses, enjoining his followers to efface
or forget them, and declaring them to be "abrogated." A very remarkable
case is that of the two verses in liii., when he had recognized three
heathen goddesses as exalted beings, possessing influence with God. This
had occurred in a moment of weakness, in order that by such a promise,
which yet left Allah in his lofty position, he might gain over his
fellow-countrymen. This object he achieved, but soon his conscience
smote him, and he declared these words to have been an inspiration of
Satan.


  Abrogated Laws.

So much for abrogated readings; the case is somewhat different when we
come to the abrogation of laws and directions to the Moslems, which
often occurs in the Koran. There is nothing in this at variance with
Mahomet's idea of God. God is to him an absolute despot, who declares a
thing right or wrong from no inherent necessity but by his arbitrary
fiat. This God varies his commands at pleasure, prescribes one law for
the Christians, another for the Jews, and a third for the Moslems; nay,
he even changes his instructions to the Moslems when it pleases him.
Thus, for example, the Koran contains very different directions, suited
to varying circumstances, as to the treatment which idolaters are to
receive at the hands of believers. But Mahomet showed no anxiety to have
these superseded enactments destroyed. Believers could be in no
uncertainty as to which of two contradictory passages remained in force;
and they might still find edification in that which had become obsolete.
That later generations might not so easily distinguish the "abrogated"
from the "abrogating" did not occur to Mahomet, whose vision, naturally
enough, seldom extended to the future of his religious community.
Current events were invariably kept in view in the revelations. In
Medina it called forth the admiration of the Faithful to observe how
often God gave them the answer to a question whose settlement was
urgently required at the moment. The same näiveté appears in a remark of
the Caliph Othman about a doubtful case: "If the Apostle of God were
still alive, methinks there had been a Koran passage revealed on this
point." Not unfrequently the divine word was found to coincide with the
advice which Mahomet had received from his most intimate disciples.
"Omar was many a time of a certain opinion," says one tradition, "and
the Koran was then revealed accordingly."


  Contents of the Koran.

The contents of the different parts of the Koran are extremely varied.
Many passages consist of theological or moral reflections. We are
reminded of the greatness, the goodness, the righteousness of God as
manifested in Nature, in history, and in revelation through the
prophets, especially through Mahomet. God is magnified as the One, the
All-powerful. Idolatry and all deification of created beings, such as
the worship of Christ as the Son of God, are unsparingly condemned. The
joys of heaven and the pains of hell are depicted in vivid sensuous
imagery, as is also the terror of the whole creation at the advent of
the last day and the judgment of the world. Believers receive general
moral instruction, as well as directions for special circumstances. The
lukewarm are rebuked, the enemies threatened with terrible punishment,
both temporal and eternal. To the sceptical the truth of Islam is held
forth; and a certain, not very cogent, method of demonstration
predominates. In many passages the sacred book falls into a diffuse
preaching style, others seem more like proclamations or general orders.
A great number contain ceremonial or civil laws, or even special
commands to individuals down to such matters as the regulation of
Mahomet's harem. In not a few definite questions are answered which had
actually been propounded to the Prophet by believers or infidels.
Mahomet himself, too, repeatedly receives direct injunctions, and does
not escape an occasional rebuke. One sura (i.) is a prayer, two (cxiii.
cxiv.) are magical formulas. Many suras treat of a single topic, others
embrace several.


  Narratives.

From the mass of material comprised in the Koran--and the account we
have given is far from exhaustive--we should select the histories of the
ancient prophets and saints as possessing a peculiar interest. The
purpose of Mahomet is to show from these histories how God in former
times had rewarded the righteous and punished their enemies. For the
most part the old prophets only serve to introduce a little variety in
point of form, for they are almost in every case facsimiles of Mahomet
himself. They preach exactly like him, they have to bring the very same
charges against their opponents, who on their part behave exactly as the
unbelieving inhabitants of Mecca. The Koran even goes so far as to make
Noah contend against the worship of certain false gods, mentioned by
name, who were worshipped by the Arabs of Mahomet's time. In an address
which is put in the mouth of Abraham (xxvi. 75 sqq.), the reader quite
forgets that it is Abraham, and not Mahomet (or God himself), who is
speaking. Other narratives are intended rather for amusement, although
they are always well seasoned with edifying phrases. It is no wonder
that the godless Korrishites thought these stories of the Koran not
nearly so entertaining as those of Rostam and Ispandiar, related by Nadr
the son of Harith, who had learned in the course of his trade journeys
on the Euphrates the heroic mythology of the Persians. But the Prophet
was so exasperated by this rivalry that when Nadr fell into his power
after the battle of Badr, he caused him to be executed; although in all
other cases he readily pardoned his fellow-countrymen.


  Relation to the Old and New Testaments.

These histories are chiefly about Scripture characters, especially those
of the Old Testament. But the deviations from the Biblical narratives
are very marked. Many of the alterations are found in the legendary
anecdotes of the Jewish Haggada and the New Testament Apocrypha; but
many more are due perhaps to misconceptions such as only a listener (not
the reader of a book) could fall into. One would suppose that the most
ignorant Jew could never have mistaken Haman, the minister of Ahasuerus,
for the minister of Pharaoh, as happens in the Koran, or identified
Miriam, the sister of Moses, with Mary (= Mariam), the mother of Christ.
So long, however, as we have no closer acquaintance with Arab Judaism
and Christianity, we must always reckon with the possibility that many
of these mistakes were due to adherents of these religions who were his
authorities, or were a naïve reproduction of versions already widely
accepted by his contemporaries. In addition to his misconceptions there
are sundry capricious alterations, some of them very grotesque, due to
Mahomet himself. For instance, in his ignorance of everything out of
Arabia, he makes the fertility of Egypt--where rain is almost never seen
and never missed--depend on rain instead of the inundations of the Nile
(xii. 49).

It is uncertain whether his account of Alexander was borrowed from Jews
or Christians, since the romance of Alexander belonged to the
stereotyped literature of that age. The description of Alexander as "the
Horned" in the Koran is, however, in accordance with the result of
recent researches, to be traced to a Syrian legend dating from A.D.
514-515 (Th. Nöldeke, "Beiträge zur Gesch. des Alexanderromanes" in
_Denkschriften Akad. Wien_, vol. xxxviii. No. 5, p. 27, &c.). According
to this, God caused horns to grow on Alexander's head to enable him to
overthrow all things. This detail of the legend is ultimately traceable,
as Hottinger long ago supposed, to the numerous coins on which Alexander
is represented with the ram's horns of Ammon.[1] Besides Jewish and
Christian histories there are a few about old Arabian prophets. In these
he seems to have handled his materials even more freely than in the
others.

The opinion has already been expressed that Mahomet did not make use of
written sources. Coincidences and divergences alike can always be
accounted for by oral communications from Jews who knew a little and
Christians who knew next to nothing. Even in the rare passages where we
can trace direct resemblances to the text of the Old Testament (cf. xxi.
105 with Ps. xxxvii. 29; i. 5 with Ps. xxvii. 11) or the New (cf. vii.
48 with Luke xvi. 24; xlvi. 19 with Luke xvi. 25), there is nothing more
than might readily have been picked up in conversation with any Jew or
Christian. In Medina, where he had the opportunity of becoming
acquainted with Jews of some culture, he learned some things out of the
Mishna, e.g. v. 35 corresponds almost word for word with Mishna
_Sanhedrin_ iv. 5; compare also ii. 183 with Mishna _Berak'hoth_ i. 2.
That these are only cases of oral communication will be admitted by any
one with the slightest knowledge of the circumstances. Otherwise we
might even conclude that Mahomet had studied the Talmud; e.g. the
regulation as to ablution by rubbing with sand, where water cannot be
obtained (iv. 46), corresponds to a talmudic ordinance (_Berak'hoth_ 15
a). Of Christianity he can have been able to learn very little, even in
Medina; as may be seen from the absurd travesty of the institution of
the Eucharist in v. 112 sqq. For the rest, it is highly improbable that
before the Koran any real literary production--anything that could be
strictly called a book--existed in the Arabic language.


  Style.

In point of style and artistic effect, the different parts of the Koran
are of very unequal value. An unprejudiced and critical reader will
certainly find very few passages where his aesthetic susceptibilities
are thoroughly satisfied. But he will often be struck, especially in the
older pieces, by a wild force of passion, and a vigorous, if not rich,
imagination. Descriptions of heaven and hell, and allusions to God's
working in Nature, not unfrequently show a certain amount of poetic
power. In other places also the style is sometimes lively and
impressive; though it is rarely indeed that we come across such strains
of touching simplicity as in the middle of xciii. The greater part of
the Koran is decidedly prosaic; much of it indeed is stiff in style. Of
course, with such a variety of material, we cannot expect every part to
be equally vivacious, or imaginative, or poetic. A decree about the
right of inheritance, or a point of ritual, must necessarily be
expressed in prose, if it is to be intelligible. No one complains of the
civil laws in Exodus or the sacrificial ritual in Leviticus, because
they want the fire of Isaiah or the tenderness of Deuteronomy. But
Mahomet's mistake consists in persistent and slavish adherence to the
semi-poetic form which he had at first adopted in accordance with his
own taste and that of his hearers. For instance, he employs rhyme in
dealing with the most prosaic subjects, and thus produces the
disagreeable effect of incongruity between style and matter. It has to
be considered, however, that many of those sermonizing pieces which are
so tedious to us, especially when we read two or three in succession
(perhaps in a very inadequate translation), must have had a quite
different effect when recited under the burning sky and on the barren
soil of Mecca. There, thoughts about God's greatness and man's duty,
which are familiar to us from childhood, were all new to the hearers--it
is hearers we have to think of in the first instance, not readers--to
whom, at the same time, every allusion had a meaning which often escapes
our notice. When Mahomet spoke of the goodness of the Lord in creating
the clouds, and bringing them across the cheerless desert, and pouring
them out on the earth to restore its rich vegetation, that must have
been a picture of thrilling interest to the Arabs, who are accustomed to
see from three to five years elapse before a copious shower comes to
clothe the wilderness once more with luxuriant pastures. It requires an
effort for us, under our clouded skies, to realize in some degree the
intensity of that impression.


  Rhetorical Form and Rhyme.

The fact that scraps of poetical phraseology are specially numerous in
the earlier suras, enables us to understand why the prosaic mercantile
community of Mecca regarded their eccentric townsman as a "poet," or
even a "possessed poet." Mahomet himself had to disclaim such titles,
because he felt himself to be a divinely inspired prophet; but we too,
from our standpoint, shall fully acquit him of poetic genius. Like many
other predominantly religious characters, he had no appreciation of
poetic beauty; and if we may believe one anecdote related of him, at a
time when every one made verses, he affected ignorance of the most
elementary rules of prosody. Hence the style of the Koran is not
poetical but rhetorical; and the powerful effect which some portions
produce on us is gained by rhetorical means. Accordingly the sacred book
has not even the artistic form of poetry; which, among the Arabs,
includes a stringent metre, as well as rhyme. The Koran is never
metrical, and only a few exceptionally eloquent portions fall into a
sort of spontaneous rhythm. On the other hand, the rhyme is regularly
maintained; although, especially in the later pieces, after a very
slovenly fashion. Rhymed prose was a favourite form of composition among
the Arabs of that day, and Mahomet adopted it; but if it imparts a
certain sprightliness to some passages, it proves on the whole a
burdensome yoke. The Moslems themselves have observed that the tyranny
of the rhyme often makes itself apparent in derangement of the order of
words, and in the choice of verbal forms which would not otherwise have
been employed; e.g. an imperfect instead of a perfect. In one place, to
save the rhyme, he calls Mount Sinai _Sinin_ (xcv. 2) instead of _Sina_
(xxiii. 20); in another Elijah is called _Ilyasin_ (xxxvii. 130) instead
of _Ilyas_ (vi. 85; xxxvii. 123). The substance even is modified to suit
exigencies of rhyme. Thus the Prophet would scarcely have fixed on the
unusual number of _eight_ angels round the throne of God (lxix. 17) if
the word _thamaniyah_, "eight," had not happened to fall in so well with
the rhyme. And when lv. speaks of _two_ heavenly gardens, each with
_two_ fountains and _two_ kinds of fruit, and again of _two_ similar
gardens, all this is simply because the dual termination (_an_)
corresponds to the syllable that controls the rhyme in that whole sura.
In the later pieces, Mahomet often inserts edifying remarks, entirely
out of keeping with the context, merely to complete his rhyme. In Arabic
it is such an easy thing to accumulate masses of words with the same
termination, that the gross negligence of the rhyme in the Koran is
doubly remarkable. One may say that this is another mark of the
Prophet's want of mental training, and incapacity for introspective
criticism.


  Stylistic Weaknesses.

  Dogma of the Stylistic Perfection of the Koran.

On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly have
considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving reader, the
book, aesthetically considered, is by no means a first-rate performance.
To begin with what we are most competent to criticize, let us look at
some of the more extended narratives. It has already been noticed how
vehement and abrupt they are where they ought to be characterized by
epic repose. Indispensable links, both in expression and in the sequence
of events, are often omitted, so that to understand these histories is
sometimes far easier for us than for those who heard them first, because
we know most of them from better sources. Along with this, there is a
great deal of superfluous verbiage; and nowhere do we find a steady
advance in the narration. Contrast in these respects the history of
Joseph (xii.) and its glaring improprieties with the admirably conceived
and admirably executed story in Genesis. Similar faults are found in the
non-narrative portions of the Koran. The connexion of ideas is extremely
loose, and even the syntax betrays great awkwardness. Anacolutha are of
frequent occurrence, and cannot be explained as conscious literary
devices. Many sentences begin with a "when" or "on the day when" which
seems to hover in the air, so that the commentators are driven to supply
a "think of this" or some such ellipsis. Again, there is no great
literary skill evinced in the frequent and needless harping on the same
words and phrases; in xviii., for example, "till that" (_hatta idha_)
occurs no fewer than eight times. Mahomet, in short, is not in any sense
a master of style. This opinion will be endorsed by any European who
reads through the book with an impartial spirit and some knowledge of
the language, without taking into account the tiresome effect of its
endless iterations. But in the ears of every pious Moslem such a
judgment will sound almost as shocking as downright atheism or
polytheism. Among the Moslems, the Koran has always been looked on as
the most perfect model of style and language. This feature of it is in
their dogmatic the greatest of all miracles, the incontestable proof of
its divine origin. Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic
infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist will ever
do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly challenged its
opponents to produce ten suras, or even a single one, like those of the
sacred book, and they never did so. That, to be sure, on calm
reflection, is not so very surprising. Revelations of the kind which
Mahomet uttered, no unbeliever could produce without making himself a
laughing-stock. However little real originality there is in Mahomet's
doctrines, as against his own countrymen he was thoroughly original,
even in the form of his oracles. To compose such revelations at will was
beyond the power of the most expert literary artist; it would have
required either a prophet or a shameless impostor. And if such a
character appeared _after_ Mahomet, still he could never be anything but
an imitator, like the false prophets who arose about the time of his
death and afterwards. That the adversaries should produce any sample
whatsoever of poetry or rhetoric equal to the Koran is not at all what
the Prophet demands. In that case he would have been put to shame, even
in the eyes of many of his own followers, by the first poem that came to
hand. Nevertheless, it is on a false interpretation of this challenge
that the dogma of the incomparable excellence of the style and diction
of the Koran is based. The rest has been accomplished by dogmatic
prejudice, which is quite capable of working other miracles besides
turning a defective literary production into an unrivalled masterpiece
in the eyes of believers. This view once accepted, the next step was to
find everywhere evidence of the perfection of the style and language.
And if here and there, as one can scarcely doubt, there was among the
old Moslems a lover of poetry who had his difficulties about this dogma,
he had to beware of uttering an opinion which might have cost him his
head. We know of at least one rationalistic theologian who defined the
dogma in such a way that we can see he did not believe it (Shahrastani,
p. 39). The truth is, it would have been a miracle indeed if the style
of the Koran had been perfect. For although there was at that time a
recognized poetical style, already degenerating to mannerism, a
developed prose style did not exist. All beginnings are difficult; and
it can never be esteemed a serious charge against Mahomet that his book,
the first prose work of a high order in the language, testifies to the
awkwardness of the beginner. And further, we must always remember that
entertainment and aesthetic effect were at most subsidiary objects. The
great aim was persuasion and conversion; and, say what we will, that aim
has been realized on the most imposing scale.


  Foreign words.

Mahomet repeatedly calls attention to the fact that the Koran is not
written, like other sacred books, in a strange language, but in Arabic,
and therefore is intelligible to all. At that time, along with foreign
ideas, many foreign words had crept into the language; especially
Aramaic terms for religious conceptions of Jewish or Christian origin.
Some of these had already passed into general use, while others were
confined to a more limited circle. Mahomet, who could not fully express
his new ideas in the common language of his countrymen, but had
frequently to find out new terms for himself, made free use of such
Jewish and Christian words, as was done, though perhaps to a smaller
extent, by certain thinkers and poets of that age who had more or less
risen above the level of heathenism. In Mahomet's case this is the less
wonderful because he was indebted to the instruction of Jews and
Christians, whose Arabic--as the Koran pretty clearly intimates with
regard to one of them--was very defective. On the other hand, it is yet
more remarkable that several of such borrowed words in the Koran have a
sense which they do not possess in the original language. It is not
necessary that this phenomenon should in every case be due to the same
cause. Just as the prophet often misunderstood traditional traits of the
sacred history, he may, as an unlearned man, likewise have often
employed foreign expressions wrongly. Other remarkable senses of words
were possibly already acclimatized in the language of Arabian Jews or
Christians. Thus, _forqan_ means really "redemption," but Mahomet uses
it for "revelation." The widespread opinion that this sense first
asserted itself in reference to the Arab root [Arabic word] (_faraqa_),
"sever," or "decide," is open to considerable doubt. There is, for
instance, no difficulty in deriving the Arab meaning of "revelation"
from the common Aramaic "salvation," and this transference must have
taken place in a community for which salvation formed the central object
of faith, i.e. either amongst those Jews who looked to the coming of a
Messiah or more probably, among Christians, since Christianity is in a
very peculiar sense the religion of salvation. _Milla_ is properly
"word" (= Aramaic _melltha_), but in the Koran "religion." It is
actually used of the religion of the Jews and Christians (once), of the
heathen (5 times), but mostly (8 times) of the religion of Abraham,
which Mahomet in the Medina period places on the same level with Islam.
Although of the Aramaic dialects none employs the term _Melltha_ in the
sense of religion, it appears that the prophet found such a use.
_Illiyun_, which Mahomet uses of a heavenly book (Sura 83; 18, 19), is
clearly the Hebrew _elyon_, "high" or "exalted." It is, however,
doubtful in what sense this word appeared to him, either as a name of
God, as in the Old Testament it often occurs and regularly without the
article, or actually as the epithet of a heavenly book, although this
use cannot be substantiated from Jewish literature. So again the word
_mathani_ is, as Geiger has conjectured, the regular plural of the
Aramaic _mathnitha_, which is the same as the Hebrew _Mishnah_, and
denotes in Jewish usage a legal decision of some of the ancient Rabbins.
But in the Koran Mahomet appears to have understood it in the sense of
"saying" or "sentence" (cf. xxxix. 24). On the other hand, it is by no
means certain that by "the Seven Mathani" (xv. 87) the seven verses of
Sura i. are meant. Words of undoubtedly Christian origin are less
frequent in the Koran. It is an interesting fact that of these a few
have come over from the Abyssinian; such as _hawariyun_ "apostles,"
_maida_ "table," _munafig_ "doubter, sceptic," _ragun_ "cursed,"
_mihrab_ "temple"; the first three of these make their first appearance
in suras of the Medina period. The word _shaitan_ "Satan," which was
likewise borrowed, at least in the first instance, from the Abyssinian,
had probably been already introduced into the language. Sprenger has
rightly observed that Mahomet makes a certain parade of these foreign
terms, as of other peculiarly constructed expressions; in this he
followed a favourite practice of contemporary poets. It is the tendency
of the imperfectly educated to delight in out-of-the-way expressions,
and on such minds they readily produce a remarkably solemn and
mysterious impression. This was exactly the kind of effect that Mahomet
desired, and to secure it he seems even to have invented a few odd
vocables, as _ghislin_ (lxix. 36), _sijjin_ (lxxxiii. 7, 8), _tasnim_
(lxxxiii. 27), and _salsabil_ (lxxvi. 18). But, of course, the necessity
of enabling his hearers to understand ideas which they must have found
sufficiently novel in themselves, imposed tolerably narrow limits on
such eccentricities.


  Date of the Several Parts.

The constituents of our present Koran belong partly to the Mecca
period[2] (before A.D. 622), partly to the period commencing with the
migration to Medina (from the autumn of 622 to 8th June 632). Mahomet's
position in Medina was entirely different from that which he had
occupied in his native town. In the former he was from the first the
leader of a powerful party, and gradually became the autocratic ruler of
Arabia; in the latter he was only the despised preacher of a small
congregation. This difference, as was to be expected, appears in the
Koran. The Medina pieces, whether entire suras or isolated passages
interpolated in Meccan suras, are accordingly pretty broadly distinct,
as to their contents, from those issued in Mecca. In the great majority
of cases there can be no doubt whatever whether a piece first saw the
light in Mecca or in Medina; and for the most part the internal evidence
is borne out by Moslem tradition. And since the revelations given in
Medina frequently take notice of events about which we have fairly
accurate information, and whose dates are at least approximately known,
we are often in a position to fix their date with at any rate
considerable certainty; here again tradition renders valuable
assistance. Even with regard to the Medina passages, however, a great
deal remains uncertain, partly because the allusions to historical
events and circumstances are generally rather obscure, partly because
traditions about the occasion of the revelation of the various pieces
are often fluctuating, and often rest on misunderstanding or arbitrary
conjecture. An important criterion for judging the period during which
individual Meccan suras, interpolated in Medina revelations, arose
(e.g. _Sur._ xvi. 124, vi. 162) is provided by the Ibrahim legend, the
great importance of which, as throwing light on the evolution of
Mahomet's doctrine in its relation to older revealed religions, has been
convincingly set forth by Dr Snouck Hurgronje in his dissertation for
the doctor's degree and in later essays.[3] According to this, Ibrahim,
after the controversy with the Jews, first of all became Mahomet's
special forerunner in Medina, then the first Moslem, and finally the
founder of the Ka'ba. But at all events it is far easier to arrange in
some sort of chronological order the Medina suras than those composed in
Mecca. There is, indeed, one tradition which professes to furnish a
chronological list of all the suras. But not to mention that it occurs
in several divergent forms, and that it takes no account of the fact
that our present suras are partly composed of pieces of different dates,
it contains so many suspicious or undoubtedly false statements, that it
is impossible to attach any great importance to it. Besides, it is a
priori unlikely that a contemporary of Mahomet should have drawn up such
a list; and if any one had made the attempt he would have found it
almost impossible to obtain reliable information as to the order of the
earlier Meccan suras. We have in this list no genuine tradition, but
rather the lucubrations of an undoubtedly conscientious Moslem critic,
who may have lived about a century after the Flight.


  The Meccan Suras.

Among the revelations put forth in Mecca there is a considerable number
of (for the most part) short suras, which strike every attentive reader
as being the oldest. They are in an altogether different strain from
many others, and in their whole composition they show least resemblance
to the Medina pieces. It is no doubt conceivable--as Sprenger
supposes--that Mahomet might have returned at intervals to his earlier
manner; but since this group possesses a remarkable similarity of style,
and since the gradual formation of a different style is on the whole an
unmistakable fact, the assumption has little probability; and we shall
therefore abide by the opinion that these form a distinct group. At the
opposite extreme from them stands another cluster, showing quite obvious
affinities with the style of the Medina suras, which must therefore be
assigned to the later part of the Prophet's work in Mecca. Between these
two groups stand a number of other Meccan suras, which in every respect
mark the transition from the first period to the third. It need hardly
be said that the three periods--which were first distinguished by
Professor Weil--are not separated by sharp lines of division. With
regard to some suras, it may be doubtful whether they ought to be
reckoned amongst the middle group, or with one or other of the extremes.
And it is altogether impossible, within these groups, to establish even
a probable chronological arrangement of the individual revelations. In
default of clear allusions to well-known events, or events whose date
can be determined, we might indeed endeavour to trace the psychological
development of the Prophet by means of the Koran, and arrange its parts
accordingly. But in such an undertaking one is always apt to take
subjective assumptions or mere fancies for established data. Good
traditions about the origin of the Meccan revelations are not very
numerous. In fact the whole history of Mahomet previous to the Flight is
so imperfectly related that we are not even sure in what year he
appeared as a prophet. Probably it was in A.D. 610; it may have been
somewhat earlier, but scarcely later. If, as one tradition says, xxx. 1
seq. ("The Romans are overcome in the nearest neighbouring land") refers
to the defeat of the Byzantines by the Persians, not far from Damascus,
about the spring of 614, it would follow that the third group, to which
this passage belongs, covers the greater part of the Meccan period. And
it is not in itself unlikely that the passionate vehemence which
characterizes the first group was of short duration. Nor is the
assumption contradicted by the tolerably well attested, though far from
incontestable statement, that when Omar was converted (A.D. 615 or 616),
xx., which belongs to the second group, already existed in writing. But
the reference of xxx. 1 seq. to this particular battle is by no means so
certain that positive conclusions can be drawn from it. It is the same
with other allusions in the Meccan suras to occurrences whose chronology
can be partially ascertained. It is better, therefore, to rest satisfied
with a merely relative determination of the order of even the three
great clusters of Meccan revelations.


  Oldest Meccan Suras.

In the pieces of the first period the convulsive excitement of the
Prophet often expresses itself with the utmost vehemence. He is so
carried away by his emotion that he cannot choose his words; they seem
rather to burst from him. Many of these pieces remind us of the oracles
of the old heathen soothsayers, whose style is known to us from
imitations, although we have perhaps not a single genuine specimen. Like
those other oracles, the suras of this period, which are never very
long, are composed of short sentences with tolerably pure but rapidly
changing rhymes. The oaths, too, with which many of them begin were
largely used by the soothsayers. Some of these oaths are very uncouth
and hard to understand, some of them perhaps were not meant to be
understood, for indeed all sorts of strange things are met with in these
chapters. Here and there Mahomet speaks of visions, and appears even to
see angels before him in bodily form. There are some intensely vivid
descriptions of the resurrection and the last day which must have
exercised a demonic power over men who were quite unfamiliar with such
pictures. Other pieces paint in glowing colours the joys of heaven and
the pains of hell. However, the suras of this period are not all so wild
as these; and those which are conceived in a calmer mood appear to be
the oldest. Yet, one must repeat, it is exceedingly difficult to make
out any strict chronological sequence. For instance, it is by no means
certain whether the beginning of xcvi. is really, what a widely
circulated tradition calls it, the oldest part of the whole Koran. That
tradition goes back to the Prophet's favourite wife Ayesha; but as she
was not born at the time when the revelation is said to have been made,
it can only contain at the best what Mahomet told her years afterwards,
from his own not very clear recollection, with or without fictitious
additions, and this woman is little trustworthy. Moreover, there are
other pieces mentioned by others as the oldest. In any case xcvi. 1 sqq.
is certainly very early. According to the traditional view, which
appears to be correct, it treats of a vision in which the Prophet
receives an injunction to recite a revelation conveyed to him by the
angel. It is interesting to observe that here already two things are
brought forward as proofs of the omnipotence and care of God: one is the
creation of man out of a seminal drop--an idea to which Mahomet often
recurs; the other is the then recently introduced art of writing, which
the Prophet instinctively seizes on as a means of propagating his
doctrines. It was only after Mahomet encountered obstinate resistance
that the tone of the revelations became thoroughly passionate. In such
cases he was not slow to utter terrible threats against those who
ridiculed the preaching of the unity of God, of the resurrection, and of
the judgment. His own uncle Abu Lahab had rudely repelled him, and in a
brief special sura (cxi.) he and his wife are consigned to hell. The
suras of this period form almost exclusively the concluding portions of
the present text. One is disposed to assume, however, that they were at
one time more numerous, and that many of them were lost at an early
period.

Since Mahomet's strength lay in his enthusiastic and fiery imagination
rather than in the wealth of ideas and clearness of abstract thought on
which exact reasoning depends, it follows that the older suras, in which
the former qualities have free scope, must be more attractive to us than
the later. In the suras of the second period the imaginative glow
perceptibly diminishes; there is still fire and animation, but the tone
becomes gradually more prosaic. As the feverish restlessness subsides,
the periods are drawn out, and the revelations as a whole become longer.
The truth of the new doctrine is proved by accumulated instances of
God's working in nature and in history; the objections of opponents,
whether advanced in good faith or in jest, are controverted by
arguments; but the demonstration is often confused or even weak. The
histories of the earlier prophets, which had occasionally been briefly
touched on in the first period, are now related, sometimes at great
length. On the whole, the charm of the style is passing away.


  The Fatiha.

There is one piece of the Koran, belonging to the beginning of this
period, if not to the close of the former, which claims particular
notice. This is Sura i., the Lord's Prayer of the Moslems, a vigorous
hymn of praise to God, the Lord of both worlds, which ends in a petition
for aid and true guidance (_huda_). The words of this sura, which is
known as _al-fatiha_ ("the opening one"), are as follows:--

  (1) In the name of God, the compassionate compassioner. (2) Praise be
  [literally "is"] to God, the Lord of the worlds, (3) the compassionate
  compassioner, (4) the Sovereign of the day of judgment. (5) Thee do we
  worship and of Thee do we beg assistance. (6) Direct us in the right
  way; (7) in the way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious, on whom
  there is no wrath, and who go not astray.

The thoughts are so simple as to need no explanation; and yet the prayer
is full of meaning. It is true that there is not a single original idea
of Mahomet's in it. Of the seven verses of the sura no less than five
(verses 1, 2, 3, 4, 6) have an extremely suspicious relationship with
the stereotyped formulae of Jewish and Christian liturgies. Verse 6
agrees, word for word, with Ps. xxvii. 11. On the other hand, the
question must remain open whether Mahomet only gave free renderings of
the several borrowed formulae, or whether in actually composing them he
kept existing models. The designation of God as the "Compassioner,"
_Rahman_, is simply the Jewish _Rahmana_, which was a favourite name for
God in the Talmudic period. The word had long before Mahomet's time been
used for God in southern Arabia (cf. e.g. the Sabaean Inscriptions,
Glaser, 554, line 32; 618, line 2).

Mahomet seems for a while to have entertained the thought of adopting
_al-Rahman_ as a proper name of God, in place of _Allah_, which was
already used by the heathens.[4] This purpose he ultimately
relinquished, but it is just in the suras of the second period that the
use of _Rahman_ is specially frequent. If, for this reason, it is to a
certain extent certain that Sura i. belongs to this period, yet we can
neither prove that it belongs to the beginning of the Mecca period nor
that the present introductory formula "In the name of God," &c.,
belonged to it from the first. It may therefore even be doubted whether
Mahomet at the outset looked upon the latter as revealed. Tradition, of
course, knows in this connexion no doubt, and looks upon the Fatiha
precisely as the most exalted portion of the Koran. Every Moslem who
says his five prayers regularly--as the most of them do--repeats it not
less than twenty times a day.


  Latest Meccan Suras.

The suras of the third Meccan period, which form a fairly large part of
our present Koran, are almost entirely prosaic. Some of the revelations
are of considerable extent, and the single verses also are much longer
than in the older suras. Only now and then a gleam of poetic power
flashes out. A sermonizing tone predominates. The suras are very
edifying for one who is already reconciled to their import, but to us at
least they do not seem very well fitted to carry conviction to the minds
of unbelievers. That impression, however, is not correct, for in reality
the demonstrations of these longer Meccan suras appear to have been
peculiarly influential for the propagation of Islam. Mahomet's mission
was not to Europeans, but to a people who, though quick-witted and
receptive, were not accustomed to logical thinking, while they had
outgrown their ancient religion.


  Medinan Suras.

When we reach the Medina period it becomes, as has been indicated, much
easier to understand the revelations in their historical relations,
since our knowledge of the history of Mahomet in Medina is tolerably
complete. In many cases the historical occasion is perfectly clear, in
others we can at least recognize the general situation from which they
arose, and thus approximately fix their time. There still remains,
however, a remnant, of which we can only say that it belongs to Medina.

The style of this period bears a fairly close resemblance to that of the
latest Meccan period. It is for the most part pure prose, enriched by
occasional rhetorical embellishments. Yet even here there are many
bright and impressive passages, especially in those sections which may
be regarded as proclamations to the army of the faithful. For the
Moslems Mahomet has many different messages. At one time it is a summons
to do battle for the faith; at another, a series of reflections on
recently experienced success or misfortune, or a rebuke for their weak
faith; or an exhortation to virtue, and so on. He often addresses
himself to the "doubters," some of whom vacillate between faith and
unbelief, others make a pretence of faith, while others scarcely take
the trouble even to do that. They are no consolidated party, but to
Mahomet they are all equally vexatious, because, as soon as danger has
to be encountered, or a contribution is levied, they all alike fall
away. There are frequent outbursts, ever increasing in bitterness,
against the Jews, who were very numerous in Medina and its neighbourhood
when Mahomet arrived. He has much less to say against the Christians,
with whom he never came closely in contact; and as for the idolaters,
there was little occasion in Medina to have many words with them. A part
of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws belonging to the
ceremonial, civil and criminal codes; or directions about certain
temporary complications. The most objectionable parts of the whole Koran
are those which treat of Mahomet's relations with women. The laws and
regulations were generally very concise revelations, but most of them
have been amalgamated with other pieces of similar or dissimilar import,
and are now found in very long suras.

Such is an imperfect sketch of the composition and the internal history
of the Koran, but it is probably sufficient to show that the book is a
very heterogeneous collection. If only those passages had been preserved
which had a permanent value for the theology, the ethics, or the
jurisprudence of the Moslems, a few fragments would have been amply
sufficient. Fortunately for knowledge, respect for the sacredness of the
letter has led to the collection of all the revelations that could
possibly be collected--the "abrogating" along with the "abrogated,"
passages referring to passing circumstances as well as those of lasting
importance. Every one who takes up the book in the proper religious
frame of mind, like most of the Moslems, reads pieces directed against
long-obsolete absurd customs of Mecca just as devoutly as the weightiest
moral precepts--perhaps even more devoutly, because he does not
understand them so well.


    Mysterious Letters.

  At the head of twenty-nine of the suras stand certain initial letters,
  from which no clear sense can be obtained. Thus, before ii. iii. xxxi.
  xxxii. we find [Arabic word] (_Alif Lam Mim_), before xl.-xlvi.
  [Arabic word] (_Ha Mim_). Nöldeke at one time suggested that these
  initials did not belong to Mahomet's text, but might be the monograms
  of possessors of codices, which, through negligence on the part of the
  editors, were incorporated in the final form of the Koran; he now
  deems it more probable that they are to be traced to the Prophet
  himself, as Sprenger, Loth and others suppose. One cannot indeed admit
  the truth of Loth's statement that in the proper opening words of
  these suras we may generally find an allusion to the accompanying
  initials; but it can scarcely be accidental that the first verse of
  the great majority of them (in iii. it is the second verse) contains
  the word "book," "revelation," or some equivalent. They usually begin
  with: "This is the book," or "Revelation ('down sending') of the
  book," or something similar. Of suras which commence in this way only
  a few (xviii. xxiv. xxv. xxxix.) want the initials, while only xxix.
  and xxx. have the initials and begin differently. These few exceptions
  may easily have proceeded from ancient corruptions; at all events they
  cannot neutralize the evidence of the greater number. Mahomet seems to
  have meant these letters for a mystic reference to the archetypal text
  in heaven. To a man who regarded the art of writing, of which at the
  best he had but a slight knowledge, as something supernatural, and who
  lived amongst illiterate people, an A B C may well have seemed more
  significant than to us who have been initiated into the mysteries of
  this art from our childhood. The Prophet himself can hardly have
  attached any particular meaning to these symbols: they served their
  purpose if they conveyed an impression of solemnity and enigmatical
  obscurity. In fact, the Koran admits that it contains many things
  which neither can be, nor were intended to be, understood (iii. 5). To
  regard these letters as ciphers is a precarious hypothesis, for the
  simple reason that cryptography is not to be looked for in the very
  infancy of Arabic writing. If they are actually ciphers, the
  multiplicity of possible explanations at once precludes the hope of a
  plausible interpretation. None of the efforts in this direction,
  whether by Moslem scholars or by Europeans, has led to convincing
  results. This remark applies even to the ingenious conjecture of
  Sprenger, that the letters [Arabic word] (_Kaf He Ye Ain Sad_) before
  xix. (which treats of John and Jesus, and, according to tradition, was
  sent to the Christian king of Abyssinia) stand for _Jesus Nazarenus
  Rex Judaeorum_. Sprenger arrives at this explanation by a very
  artificial method; and besides, Mahomet was not so simple as the
  Moslem traditionalists, who imagined that the Abyssinians could read a
  piece of the Arabic Koran. It need hardly be said that the Moslems
  have from of old applied themselves with great assiduity to the
  decipherment of these initials, and have sometimes found the deepest
  mysteries in them. Generally, however, they are content with the
  prudent conclusion that God alone knows the meaning of these letters.


  Transmission of the Koran.

  Zaid's First Koran.

It is probable (see above) that Mahomet had already caused revelations
to be written down at Mecca, and that this began from the moment when he
felt certain that he was the transmitter of the actual text of a
heavenly book to mankind. It is even true that he may at some time or
another have formed the intention of collecting these revelations. The
idea of a heavenly model would in itself have suggested such a course
and, only in an inferior degree to this, the necessity of setting a new
and uncorrupted document of the divine will over against the sacred
scriptures of the Jews and Christians, the people of the Book, as the
Koran calls them. In any case, when Mahomet died, the separate pieces of
the Koran, notwithstanding their theoretical sacredness, existed only in
scattered copies; they were consequently in great danger of being
partially or entirely destroyed. Many Moslems knew large portions by
heart, but certainly no one knew the whole; and a merely oral
propagation would have left the door open to all kinds of deliberate and
inadvertent alterations. But now, after the death of the Prophet, most
of the Arabs revolted against his successor, and had to be reduced to
submission by force. Especially sanguinary was the struggle against the
prophet Maslama (Mubarrad, _Kamil_ 443, 5), commonly known by the
derisive diminutive Mosailima. At that time (A.D. 633) many of the most
devoted Moslems fell, the very men who knew most Koran pieces by heart.
Omar then began to fear that the Koran might be entirely forgotten, and
he induced the Caliph Abu Bekr to undertake the collection of all its
parts. The Caliph laid the duty on Zaid ibn Thabit, a native of Medina,
then about twenty-two years of age, who had often acted as amanuensis to
the Prophet, in whose service he is even said to have learned the Jewish
letters. The account of this collection of the Koran has reached us in
several substantially identical forms, and goes back to Zaid himself.
According to it, he collected the revelations from copies written on
flat stones, pieces of leather, ribs of palm-leaves (not palm-leaves
themselves), and such-like material, but chiefly "from the breasts of
men," i.e. from their memory. From these he wrote a fair copy, which he
gave to Abu Bekr, from whom it came to his successor Omar, who again
bequeathed it to his daughter Hafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet.
This redaction, commonly called _al-sohof_ ("the leaves"), had from the
first no canonical authority; and its internal arrangement can only be
conjectured.


  Othman's Koran.

The Moslems were as far as ever from possessing a uniform text of the
Koran. The bravest of their warriors sometimes knew deplorably little
about it; distinction on _that_ field they cheerfully accorded to pious
men like Ibn Mas'ud. It was inevitable, however, that discrepancies
should emerge between the texts of professed scholars, and as these men
in their several localities were authorities on the reading of the
Koran, quarrels began to break out between the levies from different
districts about the true form of the sacred book. During a campaign in
A.H. 30 (A.D. 650-651), Hodhaifa, the victor in the great and decisive
battle of Nehaveand (see CALIPHATE; and PERSIA: _History_) perceived
that such disputes might become dangerous, and therefore urged on the
caliph Othman the necessity for a universally binding text. The matter
was entrusted to Zaid, who had made the former collection, with three
leading Koreishites. These brought together as many copies as they could
lay their hands on, and prepared an edition which was to be canonical
for all Moslems. To prevent any further disputes, they burned all the
other codices except that of Hafsa, which, however, was soon afterwards
destroyed by Merwan the governor of Medina. The destruction of the
earlier codices was an irreparable loss to criticism; but, for the
essentially political object of putting an end to controversies by
admitting only one form of the common book of religion and of law, this
measure was necessary.

The result of these labours is in our hands; as to how they were
conducted we have no trustworthy information, tradition being here too
much under the influence of dogmatic presuppositions. The critical
methods of a modern scientific commission will not be expected of an age
when the highest literary education for an Arab consisted in ability to
read and write. It now appears highly probable that this second
redaction took this simple form: Zaid read off from the codex which he
had previously written, and his associates, simultaneously or
successively, wrote one copy each to his dictation. These three
manuscripts will therefore be those which the caliph, according to
trustworthy tradition, sent in the first instance as standard copies to
Damascus, Basra and Kufa to the warriors of the provinces of which these
were the capitals, while he retained one at Medina. Be that as it may,
it is impossible now to distinguish in the present form of the book what
belongs to the first redaction from what is due to the second.

In the arrangement of the separate sections, a classification according
to contents was impracticable because of the variety of subjects often
dealt with in one sura. A chronological arrangement was out of the
question, because the chronology of the older pieces must have been
imperfectly known, and because in some cases passages of different dates
had been joined together. Indeed, systematic principles of this kind
were altogether disregarded at that period. The pieces were accordingly
arranged in indiscriminate order, the only rule observed being to place
the long suras first and the shorter towards the end, and even that was
far from strictly adhered to. The two magic formulae, suras cxiii.,
cxiv. owe their position at the end of the collection to their peculiar
contents, which differ from all the other suras; they are protecting
spells for the faithful. Similarly it is by reason of its contents that
sura i. stands at the beginning: not only because it is in praise of
Allah, as Psalm i. is in praise of the righteous man, but because it
gives classical expression to important articles of the faith. These are
the only special traces of design. The combination of pieces of
different origin may proceed partly from the possessors of the codices
from which Zaid compiled his first complete copy, partly from Zaid
himself. The individual suras are separated simply by the
superscription: "In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner,"
which is wanting only in the ninth. The additional headings found in our
texts (the name of the suras, the number of verses, &c.) were not in the
original codices, and form no integral part of the Koran.

It is said that Othman directed Zaid and his associates, in cases of
disagreement, to follow the Koreish dialect; but, though well attested,
this account can scarcely be correct. The extremely primitive writing of
those days was quite incapable of rendering such minute differences as
can have existed between the pronunciation of Mecca and that of Medina.


  The Koran not complete.

Othman's Koran was not complete. Some passages are evidently
fragmentary; and a few detached pieces are still extant which were
originally parts of the Koran, although they have been omitted by Zaid.
Amongst these are some which there is no reason to suppose Mahomet
desired to suppress. Zaid may easily have overlooked a few stray
fragments, but that he purposely omitted anything which he believed to
belong to the Koran is very unlikely. It has been conjectured that in
deference to his superiors he kept out of the book the names of
Mahomet's enemies, if they or their families came afterwards to be
respected. But it must be remembered that it was never Mahomet's
practice to refer explicitly to contemporary persons and affairs in the
Koran. Only a single friend, his adopted son Zaid (xxxiii. 37), and a
single enemy, his uncle Abu Lahab (cxi.)--and these for very special
reasons--are mentioned by name; and the name of the latter has been left
in the Koran with a fearful curse annexed to it, although his son had
embraced Islam before the death of Mahomet, and his descendants belonged
to the noblest families. So, on the other hand, there is no single verse
or clause which can be plausibly made out to be an interpolation by Zaid
at the instance of Abu Bekr, Omar, or Othman. Slight clerical errors
there may have been, but the Koran of Othman contains none but genuine
elements--though sometimes in very strange order. All efforts of
European scholars to prove the existence of later interpolations in the
Koran have failed.

Of the four exemplars of Othman's Koran, one was kept in Medina, and one
was sent to each of the three metropolitan cities, Kufa, Basra, and
Damascus. It can still be pretty clearly shown in detail that these four
codices deviated from one another in points of orthography, in the
insertion or omission of a wa ("and") and such-like minutiae; but these
variations nowhere affect the sense. All later manuscripts are derived
from these four originals.


  Other Editions.

At the same time, the other forms of the Koran did not at once become
extinct. In particular we have some information about the codex of Ubay
ibn Ka'b. If the list which gives the order of its suras is correct, it
must have contained substantially the same materials as our text; in
that case Ubay ibn Ka'b must have used the original collection of Zaid.
The same is true of the codex of Ibn Mas'ud, of which we have also a
catalogue. It appears that the principle of putting the longer suras
before the shorter was more consistently carried out by him than by
Zaid. He omits i. and the magical formulae of cxiii., cxiv. Ubay, on the
other hand, had embodied two additional short prayers, which we may
regard as Mahomet's. One can easily understand that differences of
opinion may have existed as to whether and how far formularies of this
kind belonged to the Koran. Some of the divergent readings of both these
texts have been preserved as well as a considerable number of other
ancient variants. Most of them are decidedly inferior to the received
readings, but some are quite as good, and a few deserve preference.


  Ibn Mas'ud.

The only man who appears to have seriously opposed the general
introduction of Othman's text is Ibn Mas'ud. He was one of the oldest
disciples of the Prophet, and had often rendered him personal service;
but he was a man of contracted views, although he is one of the pillars
of Moslem theology. His opposition had no effect. Now when we consider
that at that time there were many Moslems who had heard the Koran from
the mouth of the Prophet, that other measures of the imbecile Othman met
with the most vehement resistance on the part of the bigoted champions
of the faith, that these were still further incited against him by some
of his ambitious old comrades until at last they murdered him, and
finally that in the civil wars after his death the several parties were
glad of any pretext for branding their opponents as infidels;--when we
consider all this, we must regard it as a strong testimony in favour of
Othman's Koran that no party found fault with his conduct in this
matter, or repudiated the text formed by Zaid, who was one of the most
devoted adherents of Othman and his family, and that even among the
Shiites criticism of the caliph's action is only met with as a rare
exception.


    Later History of the Text.

  But this redaction is not the close of the textual history of the
  Koran. The ancient Arabic alphabet was very imperfect; it not only
  wanted marks for the short and in part even for the long vowels, but
  it often expressed several consonants by the same sign, e.g. one and
  the same character could mean B, T, Th at the beginning and N and J
  (I) in the middle of words. Hence there were many words which could
  be read in very different ways. This variety of possible readings was
  at first very great, and many readers seem to have actually made it
  their object to discover pronunciations which were new, provided they
  were at all appropriate to the ambiguous text. There was also a
  dialectic licence in grammatical forms, which had not as yet been
  greatly restricted. An effort was made by many to establish a more
  refined pronunciation for the Koran than was usual in common life or
  in secular literature. The various schools of "readers" differed very
  widely from one another; although for the most part there was no
  important divergence as to the sense of words. A few of them gradually
  rose to special authority, and the rest disappeared. Seven readers are
  generally reckoned chief authorities, but for practical purposes this
  number was continually reduced in process of time; so that at present
  only two "reading-styles" are in actual use,--the common style of
  Hafs, and that of Nafi'; which prevails in Africa to the west of
  Egypt. There is, however, a very comprehensive massoretic literature
  in which a number of other styles are indicated. The invention of
  vowel-signs of diacritic points to distinguish similarly formed
  consonants, and of other orthographic signs, soon put a stop to
  arbitrary conjectures on the part of the readers. Many zealots
  objected to the introduction of these innovations in the sacred text,
  but theological consistency had to yield to practical necessity. In
  accurate codices, indeed, all such additions, as well as the titles of
  the sura, &c., are written in coloured ink, while the black characters
  profess to represent exactly the original of Othman. But there is
  probably no copy quite faithful in this respect. Moreover, the right
  recitation of the Koran is an art which even people of Arab tongue can
  only learn with great difficulty. In addition to the nuances of
  pronunciation already alluded to, there is a semi-musical modulation.
  In these matters also the various schools differ.


    Manuscripts.

  In European libraries, besides innumerable modern manuscripts of the
  Koran, there are also codices, or fragments, of high antiquity, some
  of them probably dating from the 1st century of the Flight. For the
  restoration of the text, however, the works of ancient scholars on its
  readings and modes of writing are more important than the manuscripts;
  which, however elegantly they may be written and ornamented, proceed
  from irresponsible copyists. The original, written by Othman himself,
  has indeed been exhibited in various parts of the Mahommedan world.
  The library of the India Office contains one such manuscript, bearing
  the subscription: "Written by 'Othman the son of 'Affan." These, of
  course, are barefaced forgeries, although of very ancient date; so are
  those which profess to be from the hand of 'Ali, one of which is
  preserved in the same library. In recent times the Koran has been
  often printed and lithographed, both in the East and the West. In
  Mahommedan countries lithography alone is employed.


    Commentators.

  Shortly after Mahomet's death certain individuals applied themselves
  to the exposition of the Koran. Much of it was obscure from the
  beginning, other sections were unintelligible apart from a knowledge
  of the circumstances of their origin. Unfortunately, those who took
  possession of this field were not very honourable. Ibn 'Abbas, a
  cousin of Mahomet, and the chief source of the traditional exegesis of
  the Koran, has, on theological and other grounds, given currency to a
  number of falsehoods; and at least some of his pupils have emulated
  his example. These earliest expositions dealt more with the sense and
  connexion of whole verses than with the separate words. Afterwards, as
  the knowledge of the old language declined, and the study of philology
  arose, more attention began to be paid to the explanation of vocables.
  A good many fragments of this older theological and philological
  exegesis have survived from the first two centuries of the Flight,
  although we have no complete commentary of this period. The great
  commentary of Tabari, A.D. 839-923, of which for the last few years we
  have possessed an Oriental edition in 30 parts (Cairo A.H. 1321 = A.D.
  1903), is very full when it comes to speak of canonical law, as well
  as in its accounts of the occasions of the several revelations; for,
  as in his great historical work, he faithfully records a large number
  of traditions with the channels by which they have come down to us
  (genealogical trees, _isnad_). In other respects the hopes based upon
  this commentary have not been fulfilled.


    Translations.

  Another very famous commentary is that of Zamakhshari (A.D.
  1075-1144), edited by Nassau-Lees, Calcutta, 1859; but this scholar,
  with his great insight and still greater subtlety, is too apt to read
  his own scholastic ideas into the Koran. The favourite commentary of
  Baidawi (d. A.D. 1286), edited by Fleischer (Leipzig, 1846-1848), is
  little more than an abridgment of Zamakhshari's. Thousands of
  commentaries on the Koran, some of them of prodigious size, have been
  written by Moslems; and even the number of those still extant in
  manuscript is by no means small. Although these works all contain much
  that is useless or false, yet they are invaluable aids to our
  understanding of the sacred book. An unbiased European can, no doubt,
  see many things at a glance more clearly than a good Moslem who is
  under the influence of religious prejudice; but we should still be
  helpless without the exegetical literature of the Mahommedans. Even
  the Arabian Moslems would only understand the Koran very dimly and
  imperfectly if they did not give special attention to the study of its
  interpretation. The advantage of being in a language commonly
  understood, which the holy book claims for itself, has vanished in
  the course of thirteen centuries. According to the dominant view,
  however, the ritual use of the Koran is not in the least concerned
  with the sacred words being understood, but solely with their being
  quite properly recited. Nevertheless, a great deal remains to be
  accomplished by European scholarship for the correct interpretation of
  the Koran. We want, for example, an exhaustive classification and
  discussion of all the Jewish elements in the Koran; a praiseworthy
  beginning was made in Geiger's youthful essay _Was hat Mohamed aus dem
  Judenthum aufgenommen?_ (Bonn, 1833; the "second revised edition,"
  Leipzig, 1902, is only a reprint). We want especially a thorough
  commentary, executed with the methods and resources of modern science.
  No European language, it would seem, can even boast of a translation
  which completely satisfies modern requirements. The best are in
  English; where we have the extremely paraphrastic, but for its time
  admirable translation of George Sale (repeatedly printed), that of
  Rodwell (1861), which seeks to give the pieces in chronological order,
  and that of Palmer (1880), who wisely follows the traditional
  arrangements. The introduction which accompanies Palmer's translation
  is not in all respects abreast of the most recent scholarship.
  Considerable extracts from the Koran are well translated in E. W.
  Lane's _Selections from the Kur-an_. Not much can be said in praise of
  the complete translations into the German language, neither of that of
  Ullmann, which has appeared in several editions, nor of that of
  Henning (Leipzig) and Grigull (Halle), all of them shallow amateurs
  who have no notion of the difficulties to be met with in the task, and
  are almost entirely dependent on Sale. Friedrich Rückert's excellent
  version (published by August Müller, Frankfort-on-Maine, 1888) gives
  only selections. M. Klamroth's translation of the fifty oldest suras,
  _Die fünfzig ältesten Suren_ (Hamburg, 1890) attempts successfully to
  reproduce the rhymed form of the originals. The publication of the
  translation of the Koran by the great Leipzig Arabic scholar, H. L.
  Fleischer (d. 1888) has so far unfortunately been delayed. (For modern
  editions, commentaries, &c., see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: _Bibliography_).

  Besides commentaries on the whole Koran, or on special parts and
  topics, the Moslems possess a whole literature bearing on their sacred
  book. There are works on the spelling and right pronunciation of the
  Koran, works on the beauty of its language, on the number of its
  verses, words and letters, &c.; nay, there are even works which would
  nowadays be called "historical and critical introductions." Moreover,
  the origin of Arabic philology is intimately connected with the
  recitation and exegesis of the Koran. To exhibit the importance of the
  sacred book for the whole mental life of the Moslems would be simply
  to write the history of that life itself; for there is no department
  in which its all-pervading, but unfortunately not always salutary,
  influence has not been felt.


    Eternity of the Koran.

  The unbounded reverence of the Moslems for the Koran reaches its
  climax in the dogma that this book, as the divine word, i.e. thought,
  is immanent in God, and consequently _eternal_ and _uncreated_. This
  dogma, which was doubtless due to the influence of the Christian
  doctrine of the eternal Word of God, has been accepted by almost all
  Mahommedans since the beginning of the 3rd century. Some theologians
  did indeed protest against it with great energy; it was in fact too
  preposterous to declare that a book composed of unstable words and
  letters, and full of variants, was absolutely divine. But what were
  the distinctions and sophisms of the theologians for, if they could
  not remove such contradictions, and convict their opponents of heresy?

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following works may be especially consulted: Weil,
  _Einleitung in den Koran_ (2nd ed., 1878); Th. Nöldeke, _Geschichte
  des Qoran's_ (Göttingen, 1860; 2nd ed. by Friedrich Schwally, 1908);
  the Lives of Mahomet by William Muir and Aloys Sprenger (vols.
  i.-iii., Berlin, 1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1869); C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het
  mekkaansche Feest_ (Leiden, 1880), _De Islam_ (de Gids, 1886, ii.
  257-273, 454-498, iii. 90-134); "Une nouvelle biographie de Mohammed,"
  _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, tome 29, p. 48 f., 149 sqq.;
  Leone Caetani, _Annali dell'Islam_, i. (Milan, 1905), ii.(Milan,
  1907); Frants Buhl, _Muhammeds Liv_ (Copenhagen, 1903).
       (Th. N.; Fr. Sy.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Reproductions of such Ptolemaic and Lysimachan coins are to be
    found in J. J. Bernouilli, _Die erhaltenen Darstellungen Alexanders
    d. Gr._ (Munich, 1905), Tab. VIII.; also in Theodor Schreiber,
    "Studien über das Bildniss Alexanders des Gr." in the _Abh. Sachs.
    Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, Bd. xxi. (1903), Tab. XIII.

  [2] For the schemes of Nöldeke and Grimm see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION.

  [3] See Bibliography at end.

  [4] Since in Arabic also the root [Arabic word] signifies "to have
    pity," the Arabs must have at once perceived the force of the new
    name. While the foreign word _Rahman_ is, in accordance with its
    origin, everywhere in the Koran to be understood as "Merciful," there
    is some doubt as to _Rahim_. The close connexion of the two
    expressions, it is true, makes it probable that Mahomet only added
    the adjective _Rahim_ to the substantive _Rahman_ in order to
    strengthen the conception. But the genuine Arab meaning of _Rahim_ is
    "gracious," and thus, the old Mahommedan Arab papyri render this word
    by [Greek: philanthrôpos].




KORAT, the capital of the provincial division (_Monton_) of Nakawn Racha
Sema, or "the frontier country," in Siam; in 102° 5´ E., 14° 59´ N. Pop.
about 7000, mixed Cambodian and Siamese. It is the headquarters of a
high commissioner and of an army division. It is the terminus of a
railway from Bangkok, 170 m. distant, and the distributing centre for
the whole of the plateau district which forms the eastern part of Siam.
There are copper mines of reputed wealth in the neighbourhood. It is the
centre of a silk-growing district and is the headquarters of the
government sericultural department, instituted in 1904 with the
assistance of Japanese experts for the purpose of improving the quality
of Siamese silk. The government is that of an ordinary provincial
division of Siam. A French vice-consul resides here. Since the founding
of Ayuthia in the 14th century, Korat has been tributary to, or part
of, Siam, with occasional lapses into independence or temporary
subjection to Cambodia. Before that period it was probably part of
Cambodia, as appears from the nature of the ruins still to be seen in
its neighbourhood. In 1896 the last vestige of its tributary condition
vanished with the introduction of the present system of Siamese rural
administration.




KORDOFAN, a country of north-east Africa, forming a _mudiria_ (province)
of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It lies mainly between 12° and 16° W. and
29° and 32½° E., and has an area of about 130,000 sq. m., being bounded
W. by Darfur, N. by the Bayuda steppes, E. by the White Nile mudiria and
S. by the country of the Shilluks and other negro tribes, forming part
of the Upper Nile mudiria.

The greater part of Kordofan consists of undulating plains, riverless,
barren, monotonous, with an average altitude of 1500 ft. Thickets and
small acacias dot the steppes, which, green during the _kharif_ or rainy
season, at other times present a dull brown burnt-up aspect. In the
west, isolated peaks, such as Jebel Abu Senum and Jebel Kordofan, rise
from 150 to 600 ft. above the plain. North-west are the mountain groups
of Kaja and Katul (2000 to 3000 ft.), in the east are the Jebel Daier
and Jebel Tagale (Togale), ragged granitic ranges with precipitous
sides. In the south are flat, fertile and thickly wooded plains, which
give place to jungle at the foot of the hills of Dar Nuba, the district
forming the south-east part of Kordofan. Dar Nuba is well-watered, the
scenery is diversified and pretty, affording a welcome contrast to that
of the rest of the country. Some of the Nuba hills exceed 3000 ft. in
height. The south-western part of the country, a vast and almost level
plain, is known as Dar Homr. A granitic sand with abundance of mica and
feldspar forms the upper stratum throughout the greater part of
Kordofan; but an admixture of clay, which is observable in the north,
becomes strongly marked in the south, where there are also stretches of
black vegetable mould. Beneath there appears to be an unbroken surface
of mica schist. Though there are no perennial rivers, there are
watercourses (_khors_ or _wadis_) in the rainy season; the chief being
the Khor Abu Habl, which traverses the south-central region. In Dar Homr
the Wadi el Ghalla and the Khor Shalango drain towards the Homr affluent
of the Bahr el Ghazal. During the rainy season there is a considerable
body of water in these channels, but owing partly to rapid evaporation
and partly to the porous character of the soil the surface of the
country dries rapidly. The water which has found its way through the
granitic sand flows over the surface of the mica schist and settles in
the hollows, and by sinking wells to the solid rock a supply of water
can generally be obtained. It is estimated that (apart from those in a
few areas where the sand stratum is thin and water is reached at the
depth of a few feet) there are about 900 of these wells. They are narrow
shafts going down usually 30 to 50 ft., but some are over 200 ft. deep.
The water is raised by rope and bucket at the cost of enormous labour,
and in few cases is any available for irrigation. The very cattle are
trained to go a long time without drinking. Entire villages migrate
after the harvest to the neighbourhood of some plentiful well. In a few
localities the surface depressions hold water for the greater part of
the year but there is only one permanent lake--Keilat, which is some
four miles by two. As there is no highland area draining into Kordofan,
the underground reservoirs are dependent on the local rainfall, and a
large number of the wells are dry during many months. The rainy season
lasts from mid-June to the end of September, rain usually falling every
three or four days in brief but violent showers. In general the climate
is healthy except in the rainy season, when large tracts are converted
into swamps and fever is very prevalent. In the _shita_ or cold weather
(October to February inclusive) there is a cold wind from the north. The
seif or hot weather lasts from March to mid-June; the temperature rarely
exceeds 105° F.

  The chief constituent of the low scrub which covers the northern part
  of the country is the grey gum acacia (_hashob_). In the south the red
  gum acacias (_talh_) are abundant. In Dar Hamid, in the N.W. of
  Kordofan, date, dom and other palms grow. The basbab or calabash tree,
  known in the eastern Sudan as the _tebeldi_ and locally _Homr_, is
  fairly common and being naturally hollow the trees collect water,
  which the natives regularly tap. Another common source of water supply
  is a small kind of water melon which grows wild and is also
  cultivated. In the dense jungles of the south are immense creepers,
  some of them rubber-vines. The cotton plant is also found. The fauna
  includes the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, lion, leopard,
  cheetah, roan-antelope, hartebeeste, kudu and many other kinds of
  antelope, wart-hog, hares, quail, partridge, jungle-fowl, bustard and
  guinea-fowl. Nearly all the kinds of game mentioned are found chiefly
  in the western and southern districts. The ril or addra gazelle found
  in N. and N.W. Kordofan are not known elsewhere in the eastern Sudan.
  Reptiles, sand-flies and mosquitoes are common. Ostriches are found in
  the northern steppes. The chief wealth of the people consists in the
  gum obtained from the grey acacias, in oxen, camels and ostrich
  feathers. The finest cattle are of the humped variety, the bulls of
  the Baggara being trained to the saddle and to carry burdens. There
  are large herds of camel, the camel-owning Arabs usually owning also
  large numbers of sheep and goats. Dukhn, a species of millet which can
  grow in the arid northern districts is there the chief grain crop, its
  place in the south being taken by durra. Dukhn is, however, the only
  crop cultivated in Dar Homr. From this grain a beer called _merissa_
  is brewed. Barley and cotton are cultivated in some districts. A
  little gold dust is obtained, but the old gold and other mines in the
  Tagale country have been, apparently, worked out. Iron is found in
  many districts and is smelted in a few places. In the absence of fuel
  the industry is necessarily a small one. There are large beds of
  hematite some 60 m. N.W. and the same distance N.E. of El Obeid.

_Inhabitants._--The population of Kordofan was officially estimated in
1903 to be 550,000. The inhabitants are roughly divisible into two
types--Arabs in the plains and Nubas in the hills. Many of the villagers
of the plains are however of very mixed blood--Arab, Egyptian, Turkish,
Levantine and Negro. It is said that some village communities are
descended from the original negro inhabitants. They all speak Arabic.
The most important village tribe is the Gowama, who own most of the
gum-producing country. Other large tribes are the Dar Hamid and the
Bederia--the last-named living round El Obeid. The nomad Arabs are of
two classes, camel owners (_Siat El Ilbil_) and cattle owners
(_Baggara_), the first-named dwelling in the dry northern regions, the
Baggara in southern Kordofan. Of the camel-owning tribes the chief are
the Hamar and the Kabbabish. Many of the Hamar have settled down in
villages. The Baggara are great hunters, and formerly were noted slave
raiders. They possess many horses, but when journeying place their
baggage on their oxen. They use a stabbing spear, small throwing spears,
and a broad-bladed short sword. Some of the richer men possess suits of
chain armour. The principal Baggara tribes are the Hawazma, Meseria,
Kenana, Habbania, and Homr. The Homr are said to have entered Kordofan
from Wadai about the end of the 18th century and to have come from North
Africa. They speak a purer Arabic than the riverain tribes. The Nubas
are split into many tribes, each under a _mek_ or king, who is not
uncommonly of Arab descent. The Nubas have their own language, though
the inhabitants of each hill have usually a different dialect. They are
a primitive race, very black, of small build but distinctive negro
features. They have feuds with one another and with the Baggara. During
the _mahdia_ they maintained their independence. The Nubas appear to
have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the country and are believed to
be the original stock of the Nubians of the Nile Valley (see NUBIA). In
the northern hills are communities of black people with woolly hair but
of non-negro features. They speak Arabic and are called Nuba Arabs. Some
of the southern hills are occupied by Arab-speaking negroes, escaped
slaves and their descendants, who called themselves after the tribe they
formerly served and who have little intercourse with the Nubas.

The capital, El Obeid (q.v.), is centrally situated. On it converge
various trade routes, notably from Darfur and from Dueim, a town on the
White Nile 125 m. above Khartum, which served as port for the province.
Thence was despatched the gum for the Omdurman market. But the railway
from Khartum to El Obeid, via Sennar, built in 1909-1911, crosses the
Nile some 60 m. farther south above Abba Island. Nahud (pop. about
10,000), 165 m. W.S.W. of El Obeid, is a commercial centre which has
sprung into importance since the fall of the dervishes. All the trade
with Darfur passes through the town, the chief commerce being in cattle,
feathers, ivory and cotton goods. Trade is largely in the hands of
Greeks, Syrians, Danagla and Jaalin. Taiara, on the route between El
Obeid and the Nile, was destroyed by the dervishes but has been rebuilt
and is a thriving mart for the gum trade. El Odoaiya or Eddaiya is the
headquarters of the Homr country. It and Baraka in the Muglad district
are on the trade road between Nahud and Shakka in Darfur.

Bara is a small town some 50 m. N.N.E. of Obeid. Talodi and Tendek are
government stations in the Nuba country. The Nubas have no large towns.
They live in villages on the hillsides or summits. The usual habitation
built both by Arabs and Nubas is the tukl, a conical-shaped hut made of
stone, mud, wattle and daub or straw. The Nuba tukls are the better
built. In the chief towns houses are built of mud bricks with flat
roofs.

_History._--Of the early history of Kordofan there is little record. It
never formed an independent state. About the beginning of the 16th
century Funj from Sennar settled in the country; towards the end of that
century Kordofan was conquered by Suleiman Solon, sultan of Darfur.
About 1775 it was conquered by the Funj, and there followed a
considerable immigration of Arab tribes into the country. The Sennari
however suffered a decisive defeat in 1784 and thereafter under Darfur
viceroys the country enjoyed prosperity. In 1821 Kordofan was conquered
by Mahommed Bey the defterdar, son-in-law of Mehemet Ali, pasha of
Egypt. It remained under Egyptian rule till 1882 when Mahommed Ahmed,
the mahdi, raised the country to revolt. It was in Kordofan that Hicks
Pasha and his army, sent to crush the revolt, were annihilated (Nov.
1883). The Baggara of Kordofan from that time onward were the chief
supporters of the mahdi, and his successor, the khalifa Abdullah, was a
Baggara. In Kordofan in 1899 the khalifa met his death, the country
having already passed into the hands of the new Sudan government. The
chief difficulty experienced by the administration was to habituate the
Arabs and Nubas, both naturally warlike, to a state of peace. In
consequence of the anti-slave raiding measures adopted, the Arabs of
Talodi in May 1906 treacherously massacred the mamur of that place and
40 men of the Sudanese regiment. The promptness with which this
disturbance was suppressed averted what otherwise might have been a
serious rising. (See SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_, § "History.")

  See _The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
  1905); H. A. MacMichael, _Notes on the History of Kordofan before the
  Egyptian Conquest_ (Cairo, 1907); John Petherick, _Egypt, the Sudan,
  and Central Africa_ (London, 1861); Ignaz Pallme, _Beschreibung von
  Kordofan_ (Stuttgart, 1843; trans. _Travels in Kordofan_, London,
  1844); Major H. G. Prout, _General Report on Province of Kordofan_
  (Cairo, 1877); Ernst Marno, _Reise in der egypt. Equat. Provinz_
  (Vienna, 1879); papers (with maps) by Capt. W. Lloyd in the _Geog.
  Journ._ (June 1907 and March 1910); and the bibliography given under
  SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_.




KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN). Its mainland portion consists of
a peninsula stretching southwards from Manchuria, with an estimated
length of about 600 m., an extreme breadth of 135 m., and a coast-line
of 1740 m. It extends from 34° 18´ to 43° N., and from 124° 36´ to 130°
47´ E. Its northern boundary is marked by the Tumen and Yalu rivers; the
eastern boundary by the Sea of Japan; the southern boundary by Korea
Strait; and the western boundary by the Yalu and the Yellow Sea. For 11
m. along the Tumen river the north frontier is conterminous with Russia
(Siberia); otherwise Korea has China (Manchuria) on its land frontier.
Nearly the whole surface of the country is mountainous. (For map, see
JAPAN.)

The south and west coasts are fringed by about 200 islands (exclusive of
islets), two-thirds of which are inhabited; 100 of them are from 100 to
2000 ft. in height, and many consist of bold bare masses of volcanic
rock. The most important are Quelpart and the Nan Hau group. The latter,
36 m. from the eastern end of Quelpart, possesses the deep,
well-sheltered and roomy harbour of Port Hamilton, which lies between
the north points of the large and well-cultivated islands of Sun-ho-dan
and So-dan, which have a population of 2000. Aitan, between their
south-east points, completes this noble harbour. The east coast of Korea
is steep and rock-bound, with deep water and a tidal rise and fall of 1
to 2 ft. The west coast is often low and shelving, and abounds in
mud-banks, and the tidal rise and fall is from 20 to 36 ft. Korean
harbours, except two or three which are closed by drift ice for some
weeks in winter, are ice-free. Among them are Port Shestakov, Port
Lazarev, and Wön-san (Gensan), in Broughton Bay;[1] Fusan, Ma-san-po, at
the mouth of the Nak-tong, on the south coast; Mok-po, Chin-nampo, near
the mouth of the Tai-dong; and Chemulpo, near the mouth of the Han, the
port of the capital and the sea terminus of the first Korean railway on
the west coast.

Korea is distinctly mountainous, and has no plains deserving the name.
In the north there are mountain groups with definite centres, the most
notable being Paik-tu San or Pei-shan (8700 ft.) which contains the
sources of the Yalu and Tumen. From these groups a lofty range runs
southwards, dividing the empire into two unequal parts. On its east,
between it and the coast, which it follows at a moderate distance, is a
fertile strip difficult of access, and on the west it throws off so many
lateral ranges and spurs as to break up the country into a chaos of
corrugated and precipitous hills and steep-sided valleys, each with a
rapid perennial stream. Farther south this axial range, which includes
the Diamond Mountain group, falls away towards the sea in treeless spurs
and small and often infertile levels. The northern groups and the
Diamond Mountain are heavily timbered, but the hills are covered mainly
with coarse, sour grass and oak and chestnut scrub. The rivers are
shallow and rocky, and are usually only navigable for a few miles from
the sea. Among the exceptions are the Yalu (Amnok), Tumen, Tai-dong,
Naktong, Mok-po, and Han. The last, rising in Kang-wön-do, 30 m. from
the east coast, cuts Korea nearly in half, reaching the sea on the west
coast near Chemulpo; and, in spite of many serious rapids, is a valuable
highway for commerce for over 150 miles.

  _Geology._--The geology of Korea is very imperfectly known.
  Crystalline schists occupy a large part of the country, forming all
  the higher mountain ranges. They are always strongly folded and it is
  in them that the mineral wealth of Korea is situated. Towards the
  Manchurian frontier they are covered unconformably by some 1600 ft. of
  sandstones, clay-slates and limestones, which contain Cambrian fossils
  and are the equivalents of a part of the Sinian system of China.
  Carboniferous beds, consisting chiefly of slates, sandstones and
  conglomerates, are found in the south-eastern provinces. They contain
  a few seams of coal, but the most important coal-bearing deposits of
  the country belong to the Tertiary period. Recent eruptive and
  volcanic rocks are met with in the interior of Korea and also in the
  island of Quelpart. The principal mountain in the latter, Hal-la-san
  (or Mount Auckland), according to Chinese stories, was in eruption in
  the year 1007. With this possible exception there are no active
  volcanoes in Korea, and the region has also been remarkably free from
  earthquakes throughout historic times.

  _Climate._--The climate is superb for nine months of the year, and the
  three months of rain, heat and damp are not injurious to health.
  Koreans suffer from malaria, but Europeans and their children are
  fairly free from climatic maladies, and enjoy robust health. The
  summer mean temperature of Seoul is about 75° F., that of winter about
  33°; the average rainfall, 36.3 in. in the year, and of the rainy
  season 21.86 in. The rains come in July and August on the west and
  north-east coasts, and from April to July on the south coast, the
  approximate mean annual rainfall of these localities being 30, 35 and
  42 in. respectively. These averages are based on the observations of
  seven years only.

  _Flora._--The plants and animals await study and classification. Among
  the indigenous trees are the _Abies excelsa_, _Abies microsperma_,
  _Pinus sinensis_, _Pinus pinea_, three species of oak, five of maple,
  lime, birch, juniper, mountain ash, walnut, Spanish chestnut, hazel,
  willow, hornbeam, hawthorn, plum, pear, peach, _Rhus vernicifera_, (?)
  _Rhus semipinnata_, _Acanthopanax ricinifolia_, _Zelkawa_, _Thuja
  orientalis_, _Elaeagnus_, _Sophora Japonica_, &c. Azaleas and
  rhododendrons are widely distributed, as well as other flowering
  shrubs and creepers, _Ampelopsis Veitchii_ being universal. Liliaceous
  plants and cruciferae are numerous. The native fruits, except walnuts
  and chestnuts, are worthless. The persimmon attains perfection, and
  experiment has proved the suitability of the climate to many foreign
  fruits. The indigenous economic plants are few, and are of no
  commercial value, excepting wild _ginseng_, bamboo, which is applied
  to countless uses, and "tak-pul" (_Hibiscus Manihot_), used in the
  manufacture of paper.

  _Fauna._--The tiger takes the first place among wild animals. He is of
  great size, his skin is magnificent, and he is so widely distributed
  as to be a peril to man and beast. Tiger-hunting is a profession with
  special privileges. Leopards are numerous, and have even been shot
  within the walls of Seoul. There are deer (at least five species),
  boars, bears, antelopes, beavers, otters, badgers, tiger-cats, marten,
  an inferior sable, striped squirrels, &c. Among birds there are black
  eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially protected
  by law, turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants, swans, geese,
  common and spectacled teal, mallards, mandarin ducks white and pink
  ibis, cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons, doves,
  nightjars, common and blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles, halcyon and
  blue kingfishers, jays, nut-hatches, redstarts, snipe, grey shrikes,
  hawks, kites, &c. But, pending further observations, it is not
  possible to say which of the smaller birds actually breed in Korea and
  which only make it a halting-place in their annual migrations.

_Area and Population._--The estimated area is 82,000 sq. m.--somewhat
under that of Great Britain. The first complete census was taken in
1897, and returned the population in round numbers at 17,000,000,
females being in the majority. It was subsequently, however, estimated
at a maximum of 12,000,000. There is a foreign population of about
65,000, of whom 60,000 are Japanese. It is estimated that little more
than half the arable land is under cultivation, and that the soil could
support an additional 7,000,000. The native population is absolutely
homogeneous. Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly peopled,
while the rich and warm provinces of the south and west are populous. A
large majority of the people are engaged in agriculture. There is little
emigration, except into Russian and Chinese territory, but some Koreans
have emigrated to Hawaii and Mexico.

The capital is the inland city of Seoul, with a population of nearly
200,000. Among other towns, Songdo (Kaisöng), the capital from about 910
to 1392, is a walled city of the first rank, 25 m. N.W. of Seoul, with a
population of 60,000. It possesses the stately remains of the palace of
the Korean kings of the Wang dynasty, is a great centre of the grain
trade and the sole centre of the _ginseng_ manufacture, makes wooden
shoes, coarse pottery and fine matting, and manufactures with sesamum
oil the stout oiled paper for which Korea is famous. Phyöng-yang, a city
on the Tai-dong, had a population of 60,000 before the war of 1894, in
which it was nearly destroyed; but it fast regained its population. It
lies on rocky heights above a region of stoneless alluvium on the east,
and with the largest and richest plain in Korea on the west. It has five
coal-mines within ten miles, and the district is rich in iron, silk,
cotton, and grain. It has easy communication with the sea (its port
being Chin-nampo), and is important historically and commercially.
Auriferous quartz is worked by a foreign company in its neighbourhood.
Near the city is the illustrated standard of land measurement cut by
Ki-tze in 1124 B.C.

With the exceptions of Kang-hwa, Chöng-ju, Tung-nai, Fusan, and Wön-san,
it is very doubtful if any other Korean towns reach a population of
15,000. The provincial capitals and many other cities are walled. Most
of the larger towns are in the warm and fertile southern provinces. One
is very much like another, and nearly all their streets are replicas of
the better alleys of Seoul. The actual antiquities of Korea are dolmens,
sepulchral pottery, and Korean and Japanese fortifications.

_Race._--The origin of the Korean people is unknown. They are of the
Mongol family; their language belongs to the so-called Turanian group,
is polysyllabic, possesses an alphabet of 11 vowels and 14 consonants,
and a script named _En-mun_. Literature of the higher class and official
and upper class correspondence are exclusively in Chinese characters,
but since 1895 official documents have contained an admixture of
_En-mun_. The Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in
physiognomy, though dark straight hair, dark oblique eyes, and a tinge
of bronze in the skin are always present. The cheek-bones are high; the
nose inclined to flatness; the mouth thin-lipped and refined among
patricians, and wide and full-lipped among plebeians; the ears are
small, and the brow fairly well developed. The expression indicates
quick intelligence rather than force and mental calibre. The male height
averages 5 ft. 4½ in. The hands and feet are small and well-formed. The
physique is good, and porters carry on journeys from 100 to 200 lb. Men
marry at from 18 to 20 years, girls at 16, and have large families, in
which a strumous taint is nearly universal. Women are secluded and
occupy a very inferior position. The Koreans are rigid monogamists, but
concubinage has a recognized status.

_Production and Industries._ i. _Minerals._--Extensive coal-fields,
producing coal of fair quality, as yet undeveloped, occur in Hwang-hai
Do and elsewhere. Iron is abundant, especially in Phyöng-an Do, and rich
copper ore, silver and galena are found. Crystal is a noted product of
Korea, and talc of good quality is also present. In 1885 the rudest
process of "placer" washing produced an export of gold dust amounting to
£120,000; quartz-mining methods were subsequently introduced, and the
annual declared value of gold produced rose to about £450,000; but much
is believed to have been sent out of the country clandestinely. The
reefs were left untouched till 1897, when an American company, which had
obtained a concession in Phyöng-an Do in 1895, introduced the latest
mining appliances, and raised the declared export of 1898 to £240,047,
believed to represent a yield for that year of £600,000. Russian,
German, English, French and Japanese applicants subsequently obtained
concessions. The _concessionnaires_ regard Korean labour as docile and
intelligent. The privilege of owning mines in Korea was extended to
aliens under the Mining Regulations of 1906.

ii. _Agriculture._--Korean soil consists largely of light sandy loam,
disintegrated lava, and rich, stoneless alluvium, from 3 to 10 ft. deep.
The rainfall is abundant during the necessitous months of the year,
facilities for the irrigation of the rice crop are ample, and drought
and floods are seldom known. Land is held from the proprietors on the
terms of receiving seed from them and returning half the produce, the
landlord paying the taxes. Any Korean can become a landowner by
reclaiming and cultivating unoccupied crown land for three years free of
taxation, after which he pays taxes annually. Good land produces two
crops a year. The implements used are two makes of iron-shod wooden
ploughs; a large shovel, worked by three or five men, one working the
handle, the others jerking the blade by ropes attached to it; a short
sharp-pointed hoe, a bamboo rake, and a wooden barrow, all of rude
construction. Rice is threshed by beating the ears on a log; other
grains, with flails on mud threshing-floors. Winnowing is performed by
throwing up the grain on windy days. Rice is hulled and grain coarsely
ground in stone querns or by water pestles. There are provincial
horse-breeding stations, where pony stallions, from 10 to 12 hands high,
are bred for carrying burdens. Magnificent red bulls are bred by the
farmers for ploughing and other farming operations, and for the
transport of goods. Sheep and goats are bred on the imperial farms, but
only for sacrifice. Small, hairy, black pigs, and fowls, are universal.
The cultivation does not compare in neatness and thoroughness with that
of China and Japan. There are no trustworthy estimates of the yield of
any given measurement of land. The farmers put the average yield of rice
at thirty-fold, and of other grain at twenty-fold. Korea produces all
cereals and root crops except the tropical, along with cotton, tobacco,
a species of the Rhea plant used for making grass-cloth, and the
_Brousonettia papyrifera_. The articles chiefly cultivated are rice,
millet, beans, _ginseng_ (at Songdo), cotton, hemp, oil-seeds, bearded
wheat, oats, barley, sorghum, and sweet and Irish potatoes. Korean
agriculture suffers from infamous roads, the want of the exchange of
seed, and the insecurity of the gains of labour. It occupies about
three-fourths of the population.

iii. _Other Industries._--The industries of Korea, apart from supplying
the actual necessaries of a poor population, are few and rarely
collective. They consist chiefly in the manufacture of sea-salt, of
varied and admirable paper, thin and poor silk, horse-hair crinoline for
hats, fine split bamboo blinds, hats and mats, coarse pottery, hemp
cloth for mourners, brass bowls and grass-cloth. Wön-san and Fusan are
large fishing centres, and salt fish and fish manure are important
exports; but the prolific fishing-grounds are worked chiefly by Japanese
labour and capital. Paper and _ginseng_ are the only manufactured
articles on the list of Korean exports. The arts are nil.

_Commerce._--A commercial treaty was concluded with Japan in 1876, and
treaties with the European countries and the United States of America
were concluded subsequently. An imperial edict of the 20th of May 1904
annulled all Korean treaties with Russia. After the opening of certain
Korean ports to foreign trade, the customs were placed under the
management of European commissioners nominated by Sir Robert Hart from
Peking. The ports and other towns open are Seoul, Chemulpo, Fusan,
Wön-san, Chin-nampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po, Song-chin, Wiju,
Yong-ampo, and Phyöng-yang. The value of foreign trade of the open ports
has fluctuated considerably, but has shown a tendency to increase on the
whole. For example, in 1884 imports were valued at £170,113 and exports
at £95,377. By 1890 imports had risen to £790,261, and thereafter
fluctuated greatly, standing at only £473,598 in 1893, but at £1,017,238
in 1897, and £1,382,352 in 1901, but under abnormal conditions in 1904
this last amount was nearly doubled. Exports in 1890 were valued at
£591,746; they also fluctuated greatly, falling to £316,072 in 1893, but
standing at £863,828 in 1901, and having a further increase in some
subsequent years. These figures exclude the value of gold dust. The
principal imports are cotton goods, railway materials, mining supplies
and metals, tobacco, kerosene, timber, and clothing. Japanese cotton
yarns are imported to be woven into a strong cloth on Korean hand-looms.
Beans and peas, rice, cowhides, and ginseng are the chief exports, apart
from gold.

  _Communications._--Under Japanese auspices a railway from Chemulpo to
  Seoul was completed in 1900. This became a branch of the longer line
  from Fusan to Seoul (286 m.), the concession for which was granted in
  1898. This line was pushed forward rapidly on the outbreak of the
  Russo-Japanese War, and the whole was opened early in 1905. A railway
  from Seoul to Wiju was planned under French engineers, but the work
  was started by the Korean government. This line also, however, was
  taken over by the Japanese military authorities, and the first trains
  ran through early in 1905, in which year Japan obtained control of the
  whole of the Korean internal communications. The main roads centring
  in Seoul are seldom fit even for the passage of ox-carts, and the
  secondary roads are bad bridle-tracks, frequently degenerating into
  "rock ladders." Some improvements, however, have been effected under
  Japanese direction. The inland transit of goods is almost entirely on
  the backs of bulls carrying from 450 to 600 lb., on ponies carrying
  200 lb., and on men carrying from 100 to 150 lb., bringing the average
  cost up to a fraction over 8d. per mile per ton. The corvée exists,
  with its usual hardships. Bridges are made of posts, carrying a
  framework either covered with timber or with pine branches and earth.
  They are removed at the beginning of the rainy season, and are not
  replaced for three months. The larger rivers are unbridged, but there
  are numerous government ferries. The infamous roads and the risks
  during the bridgeless season greatly hamper trade. Japanese steamers
  ply on the Han between Chemulpo and Seoul.

  A postal system, established in 1894-1895, has been gradually
  extended. There are postage stamps of four values. The Japanese, under
  the agreement of 1905, took over the postal, telegraphic and telephone
  services. Korea is connected with the Chinese and Japanese telegraph
  systems by a Japanese line from Chemulpo via Seoul to Fusan, and by a
  line acquired by the empire between Seoul and Wiju. The state has also
  lines from Seoul to the open ports, &c. Korea has regular steam
  communication with ports in Japan, the Gulf of Pechili, Shanghai, &c.
  Her own mercantile marine is considerable.

_Government._--From 1895, when China renounced her claims to suzerainty,
to 1910 the king (since 1897 emperor) was in theory an independent
sovereign, Japan in 1904 guaranteeing the welfare and dignity of the
imperial house. Under a treaty signed at Seoul on the 17th of November
1905, Japan directed the external relations of Korea, and Japanese
diplomatic and consular representatives took charge of Korean subjects
and interests in foreign countries. Japan undertook the maintenance of
existing treaties between Korea and foreign powers; and Korea agreed
that her future foreign treaties should be concluded through the medium
of Japan. A resident-general represented Japan at Seoul, to direct
diplomatic affairs, the first being the Marquis Ito. Under a further
convention of July 1907, the resident-general's powers were enormously
increased. In administrative reforms the Korean government followed his
guidance; laws could not be enacted nor administrative measures
undertaken without his consent; the appointment and dismissal of high
officials, and the engagement of foreigners in government employ, were
subject to his pleasure. Each department of state has a Japanese
vice-minister, and a large proportion of Japanese officials were
introduced into these departments as well as Japanese chiefs of the
bureaus of police and customs. By a treaty dated August 22nd 1910, which
came into effect seven days later the emperor of Korea made "complete
and permanent cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of
sovereignty over the whole of Korea." The entire direction of the
administration was then taken over by the Japanese resident-general, who
was given the title of governor-general. The jurisdiction of the
consular courts was abolished but Japan guaranteed the continuance of
the existing Korean tariff for ten years.

  _Local Administration._--Korea for administrative purposes is divided
  into provinces and prefectures or magistracies. Japanese reforms in
  this department have been complete. Each provincial government has a
  Japanese secretary, police inspector and clerks. The secretary may
  represent the governor in his absence.

  _Law._--A criminal code, scarcely equalled for barbarity, though twice
  mitigated by royal edict since 1785, remained in force in its main
  provisions till 1895. Subsequently, a mixed commission of revision
  carried out some good work. Elaborate legal machinery was devised,
  though its provisions were constantly violated by the imperial will
  and the gross corruption of officials. Five classes of law courts were
  established, and provision was made for appeals in both civil and
  criminal cases. Abuses in legal administration and in tax-collecting
  were the chief grievances which led to local insurrections. Oppression
  by the throne and the official and noble classes prevailed
  extensively; but the weak protected themselves by the use of the
  _Kyei_, or principle of association, which developed among Koreans
  into powerful trading gilds, trades-unions, mutual benefit
  associations, money-lending gilds, &c. Nearly all traders, porters and
  artisans were members of gilds, powerfully bound together and strong
  by combined action and mutual helpfulness in time of need. Under the
  Japanese régime the judiciary and the executive were rigidly
  separated. The law courts, including the court of cassation, three
  courts of appeal, eight local courts, and 115 district courts, were
  put under Japanese judges, and the codification of the laws was
  undertaken. The prison system was also reformed.

  _Finance and Money._--Until 1904 the finances of Korea were completely
  disorganized; the currency was chaotic, and the budget was an official
  formality making little or no attempt at accuracy. By agreement of the
  22nd of August 1904, Korea accepted a Japanese financial adviser, and
  valuable reforms were quickly entered upon under the direction of the
  first Japanese official, Mr T. Megata. He had to contend against
  corrupt officialdom, indiscriminate expenditure, and absence of
  organization in the collection of revenue, apart from the confusion
  with regard to the currency. This last was nominally on a silver
  standard. The coins chiefly in use were (i) copper _cash_, which were
  strung in hundreds on strings of straw, and, as about 9lb. weight was
  equal to one shilling, were excessively cumbrous, but were
  nevertheless valued at their face value; (ii) nickel coins, which,
  being profitable to mint, were issued in enormous quantities, quickly
  depreciated, and were moreover extensively forged. The Dai Ichi Ginko
  (First Bank of Japan), which has a branch in Seoul and agencies in
  other towns, was made the government central treasury, and its notes
  were recognized as legal tender in Korea. The currency of Korea being
  thus fixed, the first step was to reorganize the nickel coinage. From
  the 1st of August 1905 the old nickels paid into the treasury were
  remitted and the issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash,
  which was retained as a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary
  coinage was issued of silver 10-sen pieces and bronze 1-sen and
  half-sen pieces. To aid the free circulation of money and facilitate
  trade, the government grants subsidies for the establishment of
  co-operative warehouse companies with bonded warehouses. Regulations
  have also been promulgated with respect to promissory notes, which
  have long existed in Korea. They took the form of a piece of paper
  about an inch broad and five to eight inches long, on which was
  written the sum, the date of payment and the name of the payer and
  payee, with their seals; the paper was then torn down its length, and
  one half given to each party. The debtor was obliged to pay the amount
  of the debt to any person who presented the missing half of the bill.
  The readiness with which they were accepted led to over-issue, and,
  consequently, financial crises. The new regulations require the
  amount of the notes to be expressed in yen, not to be payable in old
  nickel coins or cash. The notes can only be issued by members of a
  note association, a body constituted under government regulations,
  whose members must uphold the credit and validity of their notes. The
  notes must also be made payable to a definite person and require
  endorsement, safeguards which were previously lacking. Administrative
  reform was also taken in hand; the large number of superfluous and
  badly paid officials was considerably reduced, and the status and
  salary of all existing government officials considerably improved. An
  endeavour was made to publish an annual budget, in which the revenue
  and expenditure should accurately represent the sums actually received
  and expended. Regulations were framed for the purpose of establishing
  adequate supervision over the revenue and expenditure for the
  abolition of irregular taxation and extortions, as well as the
  practice of farming out the collection of the revenue to individuals,
  and, generally, to adapt the whole collection and expenditure of the
  national revenue to modern ideas of public finance. Down to 1910 the
  sum expended by Japan on Korean reforms was estimated to approach
  fifteen millions sterling. Among reforms not specifically referred to
  may be mentioned the improvement of coastwise navigation, the
  provision of posts, roads, railways, public buildings, hospitals and
  sanitary works, and the official advancement of industries.

  _Religion._--Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the 10th to the 14th
  century, has been discredited for three centuries, and its priests are
  ignorant, immoral and despised. Confucianism is the official cult, and
  all officials offer sacrifices and homage at stated seasons in the
  Confucian temples. Confucian ethics are the basis of morality and
  social order. Ancestor-worship is universal. The popular cult is,
  however, the propitiation of demons, a modification of the Shamanism
  of northern Asia. The belief in demons, mostly malignant, keeps the
  Koreans in constant terror, and much of their substance is spent on
  propitiations. Sorceresses and blind sorcerers are the intermediaries.
  At the close of the 19th century the fees annually paid to these
  persons were estimated at £150,000; there were in Seoul 1000
  sorceresses, and very large sums are paid to the male sorcerers and
  geomancers.

  Putting aside the temporary Christian work of a Jesuit chaplain to the
  Japanese Christian General Konishe, in 1594 during the Japanese
  invasion, as well as that on a larger scale by students who received
  the evangel in the Roman form from Peking in 1792, and had made 4000
  converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt at the
  conversion of Korea was made by the French _Société des Missions
  Étrangères_ in 1835. In spite of frequent persecutions, there were
  16,500 converts in 1857 and 20,000 in 1866, in which year the French
  bishops and priests were martyred by order of the emperor's father,
  and several thousand native Christians were beheaded, banished or
  imprisoned. This mission in 1900 had about 30 missionaries and 40,000
  converts. In 1884 and 1885, toleration being established, Protestant
  missionaries of the American Presbyterian and Methodist Episcopal
  Churches entered Korea, and were followed by a large number of agents
  of other denominations. An English bishop, clergy, doctors and nursing
  sisters arrived in 1890. Hospitals, orphanages, schools and an
  admirable college in Seoul have been founded, along with tri-lingual
  (Chinese, Korean and English) printing-presses; religious, historical
  and scientific works and much of the Bible have been translated into
  _En-mun_, and periodicals of an enlightened nature in the Korean
  script are also circulated. The progress of Protestant missions was
  very slow for some years, but from 1895 converts multiplied.

  _Education._--The "Royal Examinations" in Chinese literature held in
  Seoul up to 1894, which were the entrance to official position, being
  abolished, the desire for a purely Chinese education diminished. In
  Seoul there were established an imperial English school with two
  foreign teachers, a reorganized Confucian college, a normal college
  under a very efficient foreign principal, Japanese, Chinese, Russian
  and French schools, chiefly linguistic, several Korean primary
  schools, mission boarding-schools, and the _Pai Chai_ College
  connected with the American Methodist Episcopal Church, under imperial
  patronage, and subsidized by government, in which a liberal education
  of a high class was given and _En-mun_ receives much attention. The
  Koreans are expert linguists, and the government made liberal grants
  to the linguistic schools. In the primary schools boys learn
  arithmetic, and geography and Korean history are taught, with the
  outlines of the governmental systems of other civilized countries. The
  education department has been entirely reorganized under the Japanese
  régime, Japanese models being followed.

_History._--By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-tze--a councillor of
the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a sage, and the reputed
author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the _Shu-King_--is
represented as entering Korea in 1122 B.C. with several thousand Chinese
emigrants, who made him their king. The peninsula was then peopled by
savages living in caves and subterranean holes. By both learned and
popular belief in Korea Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean
social order, and is greatly reverenced. He called the new kingdom
_Ch'ao-Hsien_, pacified and policed its borders, and introduced laws
and Chinese etiquette and polity. Korean ancient history is far from
satisfying the rigid demands of modern criticism, but it appears that
Ki-tze's dynasty ruled the peninsula until the 4th century B.C., from
which period until the 10th century A.D. civil wars and foreign
aggressions are prominent. Nevertheless, Hiaksai, which with Korai and
Shinra then constituted Korea, was a centre of literary culture in the
4th century, through which the Chinese classics and the art of writing
reached the other two kingdoms. Buddhism, a forceful civilizing element,
reached Hiaksai in A.D. 384, and from it the sutras and images of
northern Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and
ethics. Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang the Founder,
who unified the peninsula under the name Korai, made Song-do its
capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state religion. In the 11th century
Korea was stripped of her territory west of the Yalu by a warlike horde
of Tungus stock, since which time her frontiers have been stationary.
The Wang dynasty perished in 1392, an important epoch in the peninsula,
when Ni Taijo, or Litan, the founder of the present dynasty, ascended
the throne, after his country had suffered severely from Jenghiz and
Khublai Khan. He tendered his homage to the first Ming emperor of China,
received from him his investiture as sovereign, and accepted from him
the Chinese calendar and chronology, in itself a declaration of fealty.
He revived the name _Ch'ao-Hsien_, changed the capital from Song-do to
Seoul, organized an administrative system, which with some modifications
continued till 1895, and exists partially still, carried out vigorous
reforms, disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary
examinations the basis of appointment to office, made Confucianism the
state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the burying of old men
alive, and introduced that Confucian system of education, polity, and
social order which has dominated Korea for five centuries. Either this
king or an immediate successor introduced the present national costume,
the dress worn by the Chinese before the Manchu conquest. The early
heirs of this vigorous and capable monarch used their power, like him,
for the good of the people; but later decay set in, and Japanese
buccaneers ravaged the coasts, though for two centuries under Chinese
protection Korea was free from actual foreign invasion. In 1592 occurred
the epoch-making invasion of Korea by a Japanese army of 300,000 men, by
order of the great regent Hideyoshi. China came to the rescue with
60,000 men, and six years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in
which Japan used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe.
Seoul and several of the oldest cities were captured, and in some
instances destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures
and the artists were carried to Japan. The Japanese troops were recalled
in 1598 at Hideyoshi's death. The port and fishing privileges of Fusan
remained in Japanese possession, a heavy tribute was exacted, and until
1790 the Korean king stood in humiliating relations towards Japan. Korea
never recovered from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to
all Koreans an intense hatred of the Japanese.

In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and American punitive expeditions
attacked parts of Korea in which French missionaries and American
adventurers had been put to death, and inflicted much loss of life, but
retired without securing any diplomatic successes, and Korea continued
to preserve her complete isolation. The first indirect step towards
breaking it down had been taken in 1860, when Russia obtained from China
the cession of the Usuri province, thus bringing a European power down
to the Tumen. A large emigration of famine-stricken Koreans and
persecuted Christians into Russian territory followed. The emigrants
were very kindly received, and many of them became thrifty and
prosperous farmers. In 1876 Japan, with the consent of China, wrung a
treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully opened to Japanese settlement
and trade, and Wön-san (Gensan) and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to
her in 1880. In 1882 China promulgated her "Trade and Frontier
Regulations," and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by
Germany and Great Britain in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884, France in
1886, and Austria in 1892. A "Trade Convention" was also concluded with
Russia. Seoul was opened in 1884 to foreign residence, and the provinces
to foreign travel, and the diplomatic agents of the contracting powers
obtained a recognized status at the capital. These treaties terminated
the absolute isolation which Korea had effectually preserved. During the
negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was treated with as
an independent state. Between 1897 and 1899, under diplomatic pressure,
a number of ports were opened to foreign trade and residence. From 1882
to 1894 the chief event in the newly opened kingdom was a plot by the
Tai-won-Kun, the father of the emperor, to seize on power, which led to
an attack on the Japanese legation, the members of which were compelled
to fight their way, and that not bloodlessly, to the sea. Japan secured
ample compensation; and the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops,
deported the Tai-won-Kun to Tientsin. In 1884 at an official banquet the
leaders of the progressive party assassinated six leading Korean
statesmen, and the intrigues in Korea of the banished or escaped
conspirators created difficulties which were very slow to subside. In
spite of a constant struggle for ascendancy between the queen and the
returned Tai-won-Kun, the next decade was one of quiet. China, always
esteemed in Korea, consolidated her influence under the new conditions
through a powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms
were projected by foreign "advisers." In May 1894 a more important
insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask armed aid from
China. She landed 2000 troops on the 10th of June, having previously, in
accordance with treaty provisions, notified Japan of her intention. Soon
after this Japan had 12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital
and the treaty ports. Then Japan made three sensible proposals for
Korean reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China. China
replied that Korea must be left to reform herself, and that the
withdrawal of the Japanese troops must precede negotiations. Japan
rejected this suggestion, and on the 23rd of July attacked and occupied
the royal palace. After some further negotiations and fights by land and
sea between Japan and China war was declared formally by Japan, and
Korea was for some time the battle-ground of the belligerents. The
Japanese victories resulted for Korea in the solemn renunciation of
Chinese suzerainty by the Korean king, the substitution of Japanese for
Chinese influence, the introduction of many important reforms under
Japanese advisers, and of checks on the absolutism of the throne.
Everything promised well. The finances flourished under the capable
control of Mr (afterwards Sir) M'Leavy Brown, C.M.G. Large and judicious
retrenchments were carried out in most of the government departments. A
measure of judicial and prison reform was granted. Taxation was placed
on an equable basis. The pressure of the trade gilds was relaxed. Postal
and educational systems were introduced. An approach to a constitution
was made. The distinction between patrician and plebeian, domestic
slavery, and beating and slicing to death were abolished. The age for
marriage of both sexes was raised. Chinese literary examinations ceased
to be a passport to office. Classes previously degraded were
enfranchised, and the alliance between two essentially corrupt systems
of government was severed. For about eighteen months all the departments
were practically under Japanese control. On the 8th of October 1895 the
Tai-won-Kun, with Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the
orders of Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace,
assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who, however,
four months later, escaped to the Russian legation, where he remained
till the spring of 1897. Japanese influence waned. The engagements of
the advisers were not renewed. A strong retrograde movement set in.
Reforms were dropped. The king, with the checks upon his absolutism
removed, reverted to the worst traditions of his dynasty, and the
control and arrangements of finance were upset by Russia.

At the close of 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor, and changed
the official designation of the empire to _Dai Han_--Great Han. By 1898
the imperial will, working under partially new conditions, produced
continual chaos, and by 1900 succeeded in practically overriding all
constitutional restraints. Meanwhile Russian intrigue was constantly
active. At last Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia
in the war of 1904-5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea. On
the 23rd of February 1904 an agreement was determined whereby Japan
resumed her position as administrative adviser to Korea, guaranteed the
integrity of the country, and bound herself to maintain the imperial
house in its position. Her interests were recognized by Russia in the
treaty of peace (September 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the
Anglo-Japanese agreement of the 12th of August 1905. The Koreans did not
accept the restoration of Japanese influence without demur. In August
1905 disturbances arose owing to an attempt by some merchants to obtain
special assistance from the treasury on the pretext of embarrassment
caused by Japanese financial reforms; these disturbances spread to some
of the provinces, and the Japanese were compelled to make a show of
force. Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the completion of the
treaty of the 17th of November 1905, whereby Japan obtained the control
of Korea's foreign affairs and relations, and the confirmation of
previous agreements, the far-reaching results of which have been
indicated. Nor was opposition to Japanese reforms confined to popular
demonstration. In 1907 a Korean delegacy, headed by Prince Yong, a
member of the imperial family, was sent out to lay before the Hague
conference of that year, and before all the principal governments, a
protest against the treatment of Korea by Japan. While this was of
course fruitless from the Korean point of view, it indicated that the
Japanese must take strong measures to suppress the intrigues of the
Korean court.

At the instigation of the Korean ministry the emperor abdicated on the
19th of July 1907, handing over the crown to his son. Somewhat serious
_émeutes_ followed in Seoul and elsewhere, and the Japanese proposals
for a new convention, increasing the powers of the resident general, had
to be presented to the cabinet under a strong guard. The convention was
signed on the 25th of July. One of the reforms immediately undertaken
was the disbanding of the Korean standing army, which led to an
insurrection and an intermittent guerrilla warfare which, owing to the
nature of the country, was not easy to subdue. Under the direction of
Prince Ito (q.v.) the work of reform was vigorously prosecuted. In July
1909, General Teranchi, Japanese minister of war, became
resident-general, with the mission to bring about annexation. This was
effected peacefully in August 1910, the emperor of Korea by formal
treaty surrendering his country and crown. (See JAPAN.)

  AUTHORITIES.--The first Asiatic notice of Korea is by Khordadbeh, an
  Arab geographer of the 9th century A.D., in his _Book of Roads and
  Provinces_, quoted by Baron Richthofen in his great work on _China_,
  p. 575. The earliest European source of information is a narrative by
  H. Hamel, a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked on the coast of Quelpart in
  1654, and held in captivity in Korea for thirteen years. The amount of
  papers on Korea scattered through English, German, French and Russian
  magazines, and the proceedings of geographical societies, is very
  great, and for the last three centuries Japanese writers have
  contributed largely to the sum of general knowledge of the peninsula.
  The list which follows includes some of the more recent works which
  illustrate the history, manners and customs, and awakening of Korea:
  _British Foreign Office Reports on Korean Trade, Annual Series_
  (London); _Bibliographie koréanne_ (3 vols., Paris, 1897); Mrs. I. L.
  Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (2 vols., London, 1897); M. von
  Brandt, _Ostasiatische Fragen_ (Leipzig, 1897); A. E. J. Cavendish and
  H. E. Goold Adams, _Korea, and the Sacred White Mountain_ (London,
  1894); Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895); Curzon,
  _Problems of the Far East_ (London, 1896); Dallet, _Histoire de
  l'église de Korée_ (2 vols., Paris, 1874); J. S. Gale, _Korean
  Sketches_ (Edinburgh, 1898); W. E. Griffis, _The Hermit Nation_ (8th
  and revised edition, New York, 1907); H. Hamel, _Relation du naufrage
  d'un vaisseau Halindois, &c., traduite du Flamond par M. Minutoli_
  (Paris, 1670); Okoji Hidemoto, _Der Feldzug der Japanir gegen Korea im
  Jahre 1597; translated from Japanese by Professor von Pfizmaier_ (2
  vols., Vienna, 1875); M. Jametel, "La Korée: ses ressources, son
  avenir commercial," _L'Économiste française_ (Paris, July 1881);
  Percival Lowell, _Chosön: The Land of the Morning Calm_ (London,
  Boston, 1886); L. J. Miln, _Quaint Korea_ (Harper, New York, 1895);
  V. de Laguerie, _La Korée indépendante, russe ou japonaise?_ (Paris,
  1898); J. Ross, _Korea: Its History, Manners and Customs_ (Paisley,
  1880); W. H. Wilkinson, _The Korean Government: Constitutional Changes
  in Korea during the period 23rd July 1894--30th June 1896_ (Shanghai,
  1896); A. Hamilton, _Korea_ (London, 1903); C. J. D. Taylor, _Koreans
  at Home_ (London, 1904); E. Boudaret, _En Corée_ (Paris, 1904);
  Laurent-Crémazy, _Le Code pénal de la Corée_ (Paris, 1904); G. T.
  Ladd, _In Korea with Marquis Ito_ (London, 1908); Dictionaries and
  vocabularies by W. F. Myers (English secretary of Legation at Peking),
  the French missionaries, and others, were superseded in 1898 by a
  large and learned volume by the Rev J. S. Gale, a Presbyterian
  missionary, who devoted some years to the work. On geology, see C.
  Gottsche, "Geologische Skizze von Korea," _Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss._
  (Berlin, Jahrg. 1886, pp. 857-873, Pl. viii.). A summary of this
  paper, with a reproduction of the map, is given by L. Pervinquière in
  _Rev. sci._ Paris, 5th series, vol. i. (1904), pp. 545-552.
       (I. L. B.; O. J. R. H.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Named after William Robert Broughton (1762-1821), an English
    navigator who explored these seas in 1795-1798.




KOREA, a tributary state of India, transferred from Bengal to the
Central Provinces in 1905; area, 1631 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 35,113, or
only 22 persons per sq. m.; estimated revenue, £1200. It consists of an
elevated table-land, with hills rising to above 3000 ft. Such traffic as
there is is carried by means of pack-bullocks.




KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE, or CHURCH ARCHTRIUMPHANT, a communistic body,
founded by Cyrus R. Teed, a medical practitioner, who was born at Utica,
New York, in 1839. Teed was regarded by his adherents as "the new
Messiah now in the World," and many other extravagant views both in
science and economics are held by them. Two communities were founded: in
Chicago (1886) and at Estero, in Lee county, Florida (1894), where in
1903 the Chicago community removed. Their name is derived from Koresh,
the Hebrew form of Cyrus, and they have a journal, _The Flaming Sword_.




KORIN, OGATA (c. 1657-1716), Japanese painter and lacquerer, was born at
Koto, the son of a wealthy merchant who had a taste for the arts and is
said to have given his son some elementary instruction therein. Korin
also studied under Soken Yamamoto, Kano, Tsunenobu and Gukei Sumiyoshi;
and he was greatly influenced by his predecessors Koyetsu and Sotatsu.
On arriving at maturity, however, he broke away from all tradition, and
developed a very original and quite distinctive style of his own, both
in painting and in the decoration of lacquer. The characteristic of this
is a bold impressionism, which is expressed in few and simple highly
idealized forms, with an absolute disregard either of realism or of the
usual conventions. In lacquer Korin's use of white metals arid of
mother-of-pearl is notable; but herein he followed Koyetsu. Korin died
on the 2nd of June 1716, at the age of fifty-nine. His chief pupils were
Kagei Tatebashi and Shiko Watanable; but the present knowledge and
appreciation of his work are largely due to the efforts of Hoitsu Sakai,
who brought about a revival of Korin's style.

  See A. Morrison, _The Painters of Japan_ (1902); S. Tajima,
  _Masterpieces selected from the Korin School_ (1903); S. Hoitsu, _The
  100 Designs by Korin_ (1815) and _More Designs by Korin_ (1826).
       (E. F. S.)




KORKUS, an aboriginal tribe of India, dwelling on the Satpura hills in
the Central Provinces. They are of interest as being the westernmost
representatives of the Munda family of speech. They are rapidly becoming
hinduized, as may be gathered from the figures of the census of 1901,
which show 140,000 Korkus by race, but only 88,000 speakers of the Korku
language.




KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA (German, _Kremnitz_), an old mining town, in the county of
Bars, in Hungary, 158 m. N. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 4299. It
is situated in a deep valley in the Hungarian Ore Mountains region.
Among its principal buildings are the castle, several Roman Catholic
(from the 13th and 14th centuries) and Lutheran churches, a Franciscan
monastery (founded 1634), the town-hall, and the mint where the
celebrated Kremnitz gold ducats were formerly struck. The bulk of the
inhabitants find employment in connexion with the gold and silver mines.
By means of a tunnel 9 m. in length, constructed in 1851-1852, the water
is drained off from the mines into the river Gran. According to
tradition, Körmöczbánya was founded in the 8th century by Saxons. The
place is mentioned in documents in 1317, and became a royal free town
in 1328, being therefore one of the oldest free towns in Hungary.




KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR (1791-1813), German poet and patriot, often called
the German "Tyrtaeus," was born at Dresden on the 23rd of September
1791. His father, Christian Gottfried Körner (1756-1831), a
distinguished Saxon jurist, was Schiller's most intimate friend. He was
educated at the Kreuzschule in Dresden and entered at the age of
seventeen the mining academy at Freiburg in Saxony, where he remained
two years. Here he occupied himself less with science than with verse, a
collection of which appeared under the title _Knospen_ in 1810. In this
year he went to the university of Leipzig, in order to study law; but he
became involved in a serious conflict with the police and was obliged to
continue his studies in Berlin. In August 1811 Körner went to Vienna,
where he devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits; he became
engaged to the actress Antonie Adamberger, and, after the success of
several plays produced in 1812, he was appointed poet to the
Hofburgtheater. When the German nation rose against the French yoke, in
1813, Körner gave up all his prospects at Vienna and joined Lützow's
famous corps of volunteers at Breslau. On his march to Leipzig he passed
through Dresden, where he issued his spirited _Aufruf an die Sachsen_,
in which he called upon his countrymen to rise against their oppressors.
He became lieutenant towards the end of April, and took part in a
skirmish at Kitzen near Leipzig on the 7th of June, when he was severely
wounded. After being nursed by friends at Leipzig and Carlsbad, he
rejoined his corps and fell in an engagement outside a wood near
Gadebusch in Mecklenburg on the 26th of August 1813. He was buried by
his comrades under an oak close to the village of Wöbbelin, where there
is a monument to him.

The abiding interest in Körner is patriotic and political rather than
literary. His fame as a poet rests upon his patriotic lyrics, which were
published by his father under the title _Leier und Schwert_ in 1814.
These songs, which fired the poet's comrades to deeds of heroism in
1813, bear eloquent testimony to the intensity of the national feeling
against Napoleon, but judged as literature they contain more bombast
than poetry. Among the best known are "Lützow's wilde verwegene Jagd,"
"Gebet während der Schlacht" (set to music by Weber) and "Das
Schwertlied." This last was written immediately before his death, and
the last stanza added on the fatal morning. As a dramatist Körner was
remarkably prolific, but his comedies hardly touch the level of
Kotzebue's and his tragedies, of which the best is _Zriny_ (1814), are
rhetorical imitations of Schiller's.

  His works have passed through many editions. Among the more recent
  are: _Sämtliche Werke_ (Stuttgart, 1890), edited by Adolf Stern; by H.
  Zimmer (2 vols., Leipzig, 1893) and by E. Goetze (Berlin, 1900). The
  most valuable contributions to our knowledge of the poet have been
  furnished by E. Peschel, the founder and director of the Körner Museum
  in Dresden, in _Theodor Körners Tagebuch und Kriegslieder, aus dem
  Jahre 1813_ (Freiburg, 1893) and, in conjunction with E. Wildenow,
  _Theodor Körner und die Seinen_ (Leipzig, 1898).




KORNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 9 m. N.W. of Vienna by
rail. Pop. (1900), 8298. It is situated on the left bank of the Danube,
opposite Klosterneuburg. It is a steamship station and an important
emporium of the salt and corn trade. The industry comprises the
manufacture of coarse textiles, pasteboard, &c. Its charter as a town
dates from 1298, and it was a much frequented market in the preceding
century. At the beginning of the 15th century it was surrounded by
walls, and in 1450 a fortress was erected. It was frequently involved in
the conflict between the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus and the
emperor Frederick William III., and also during the Thirty Years' War.




KOROCHA, a town of central Russia, in the government of Kursk, 75 m.
S.S.E. of the city of Kursk, on the Korocha river. Pop. (1897), 14,405.
Its inhabitants live by gardening, exporting large quantities of dried
cherries, by making candles and leather, and by trade; the merchants
purchase cattle, grain and salt in the south and send them to Moscow.
Founded in 1638, Korocha was formerly a small fort intended to check the
Tatar invasions.




KORSÖR, a seaport of Denmark, in the _amt_ (county) of the island of
Zealand, 69 m. by rail W.S.W. of Copenhagen, on the east shore of the
Great Belt. Pop. (1901), 6054. The harbour, which is formed by a bay of
the Baltic, has a depth throughout of 20 ft. It is the point of
departure and arrival of the steam ferry to Nyborg on Fünen, lying on
the Hamburg, Schleswig, Fredericia and Copenhagen route. There is also
regular communication by water with Kiel. The chief exports are fish,
cereals, bacon; imports, petroleum and coal. A market town since the
14th century, Korsör has ruins of an old fortified castle, on the south
side of the channel, dating from the 14th and 17th centuries.




KORTCHA (Slavonic, _Goritza_ or _Koritza_), a city of Albania, European
Turkey, in the vilayet of Iannina, in a wide plain watered by the Devol
and Dunavitza rivers, and surrounded by mountains on every side except
the north, where Lake Malik constitutes the boundary. Pop. (1905), about
10,000, including Greeks, Albanians and Slavs. Kortcha is the see of an
Orthodox Greek metropolitan, whose large cathedral is richly decorated
in the interior with paintings and statues. The Kortcha school for
girls, conducted by American missionaries, is the only educational
establishment in which the Turkish government permits the use of
Albanian as the language of instruction. The local trade is chiefly
agricultural.




KORYAKS, a Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, inhabiting the
coast-lands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Anadyr basin and the
country to the immediate north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the
southernmost limit of their range being Tigilsk. They are akin to the
Chukchis, whom they closely resemble in physique and in manner of life.
Thus they are divided into the settled fishing tribes and the nomad
reindeer breeders and hunters. The former are described as being more
morally and physically degraded even than the Chukchis, and hopelessly
poor. The Koryaks of the interior, on the other hand, still own enormous
reindeer herds, to which they are so attached that they refuse to part
with an animal to a stranger at any price. They are in disposition
brave, intelligent and self-reliant, and recognize no master. They have
ever tenaciously resisted Russian aggression, and in their fights with
the Cossacks have proved themselves recklessly brave. When outnumbered
they would kill their women and children, set fire to their homes, and
die fighting. Families usually gather in groups of sixes or sevens,
forming miniature states, in which the nominal chief has no
predominating authority, but all are equal. The Koryaks are polygamous,
earning their wives by working for their fathers-in-law. The women and
children are treated well, and Koryak courtesy and hospitality are
proverbial. The chief wedding ceremony is a forcible abduction of the
bride. They kill the aged and infirm, in the belief that thus to save
them from protracted sufferings is the highest proof of affection. The
victims choose their mode of death, and young Koryaks practise the art
of giving the fatal blow quickly and mercifully. Infanticide was
formerly common, and one of twins was always sacrificed. They burn their
dead. The prevailing religion is Shamanism; sacrifices are made to evil
spirits, the heads of the victims being placed on stones facing east.

  See G. Kennan, _Tent Life in Siberia_ (1871); "Über die Koriaken u.
  ihnen nähe verwandten Tchouktchen," in _Bul. Acad. Sc. St.
  Petersburg_, xii. 99.




KOSCIUSCO, the highest mountain in Australia, in the range of the
Australian Alps, towards the south-eastern extremity of New South Wales.
Its height is 7328 ft. An adjacent peak to the south, Mueller's Peak,
long considered the highest in the continent, is 7268 ft. high. A
meteorological station was established on Kosciusco in 1897.




KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ BONAWENTURA (1746-1817), Polish soldier and
statesman, the son of Ludwik Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the palatinate
of Brzesc, and Tekla Ratomska, was born in the village of
Mereczowszczyno. After being educated at home he entered the corps of
cadets at Warsaw, where his unusual ability and energy attracted the
notice of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski, by whose influence in 1769 he
was sent abroad at the expense of the state to complete his military
education. In Germany, Italy and France he studied diligently,
completing his course at Brest, where he learnt fortification and naval
tactics, returning to Poland in 1774 with the rank of captain of
artillery. While engaged in teaching the daughters of the Grand Hetman,
Sosnowski of Sosnowica, drawing and mathematics, he fell in love with
the youngest of them, Ludwika, and not venturing to hope for the consent
of her father, the lovers resolved to fly and be married privately.
Before they could accomplish their design, however, the wooer was
attacked by Sosnowski's retainers, but defended himself valiantly till,
covered with wounds, he was ejected from the house. This was in 1776.
Equally unfortunate was Kosciuszko's wooing of Tekla Zurowska in 1791,
the father of the lady in this case also refusing his consent.

In the interval between these amorous episodes Kosciuszko won his spurs
in the New World. In 1776 he entered the army of the United States as a
volunteer, and brilliantly distinguished himself, especially during the
operations about New York and at Yorktown. Washington promoted
Kosciuszko to the rank of a colonel of artillery and made him his
adjutant. His humanity and charm of manner made him moreover one the
most popular of the American officers. In 1783 Kosciuszko was rewarded
for his services and his devotion to the cause of American independence
with the thanks of Congress, the privilege of American citizenship, a
considerable annual pension with landed estates, and the rank of
brigadier-general, which he retained in the Polish service.

In the war following upon the proclamation of the constitution of the
3rd of May 1791 and the formation of the reactionary Confederation of
Targowica (see POLAND: _History_), Kosciuszko took a leading part. As
the commander of a division under Prince Joseph Poniatowski he
distinguished himself at the battle of Zielence in 1792, and at Dubienka
(July 18) with 4000 men and 10 guns defended the line of the Bug for
five days against the Russians with 18,000 men and 60 guns, subsequently
retiring upon Warsaw unmolested. When the king acceded to the
Targowicians, Kosciuszko with many other Polish generals threw up his
commission and retired to Leipzig, which speedily became the centre of
the Polish emigration. In January 1793, provided with letters of
introduction from the French agent Perandier, Kosciuszko went on a
political mission to Paris to induce the revolutionary government to
espouse the cause of Poland. In return for assistance he promised to
make the future government of Poland as close a copy of the French
government as possible; but the Jacobins, already intent on detaching
Prussia from the anti-French coalition, had no serious intention of
fighting Poland's battles. The fact that Kosciuszko's visit synchronized
with the execution of Louis XVI. subsequently gave the enemies of Poland
a plausible pretext for accusing her of Jacobinism, and thus prejudicing
Europe against her. On his return to Leipzig Kosciuszko was invited by
the Polish insurgents to take the command of the national armies, with
dictatorial power. He hesitated at first, well aware that a rising in
the circumstances was premature. "I will have nothing to do with Cossack
raiding," he replied; "if war we have, it must be a regular war." He
also insisted that the war must be conducted on the model of the
American War of Independence, and settled down in the neighbourhood of
Cracow to await events. When, however, he heard that the insurrection
had already broken out, and that the Russian armies were concentrating
to crush it, Kosciuszko hesitated no longer, but hastened to Cracow,
which he reached on the 23rd of March 1794. On the following day his
arms were consecrated according to ancient custom at the church of the
Capucins, by way of giving the insurrection a religious sanction
incompatible with Jacobinism. The same day, amidst a vast concourse of
people in the market-place, Kosciuszko took an oath of fidelity to the
Polish nation; swore to wage war against the enemies of his country; but
protested at the same time that he would fight only for the independence
and territorial integrity of Poland.

The insurrection had from the first a purely popular character. We find
none of the great historic names of Poland in the lists of the original
confederates. For the most part the confederates of Kosciuszko were
small squires, traders, peasants and men of low degree generally. Yet
the comparatively few gentlemen who joined the movement sacrificed
everything to it. Thus, to take but a single instance, Karol Prozor sold
the whole of his ancestral estates and thus contributed 1,000,000
thalers to the cause. From the 24th of March to the 1st of April
Kosciuszko remained at Cracow organizing his forces. On the 3rd of April
at Raclawice, with 4000 regulars, and 2000 peasants armed only with
scythes and pikes, and next to no artillery, he defeated the Russians,
who had 5000 veterans and 30 guns. This victory had an immense moral
effect, and brought into the Polish camp crowds of waverers to what had
at first seemed a desperate cause. For the next two months Kosciuszko
remained on the defensive near Sandomir. He durst not risk another
engagement with the only army which Poland so far possessed, and he had
neither money, officers nor artillery. The country, harried incessantly
during the last two years, was in a pitiable condition. There was
nothing to feed the troops in the very provinces they occupied, and
provisions had to be imported from Galicia. Money could only be obtained
by such desperate expedients as the melting of the plate of the churches
and monasteries, which was brought in to Kosciuszko's camp at Pinczow
and subsequently coined at Warsaw, minus the royal effigy, with the
inscription: "Freedom, Integrity and Independence of the Republic,
1794." Moreover, Poland was unprepared. Most of the regular troops were
incorporated in the Russian army, from which it was very difficult to
break away, and until these soldiers came in Kosciuszko had principally
to depend on the valour of his scythemen. But in the month of April the
whole situation improved. On the 17th of that month the 2000 Polish
troops in Warsaw expelled the Russian garrison after days of street
fighting, chiefly through the ability of General Mokronowski, and a
provisional government was formed. Five days later Jakob Jasinski drove
the Russians from Wilna.

By this time Kosciuszko's forces had risen to 14,000, of whom 10,000
were regulars, and he was thus able to resume the offensive. He had
carefully avoided doing anything to provoke Austria or Prussia. The
former was described in his manifestoes as a potential friend; the
latter he never alluded to as an enemy. "Remember," he wrote, "that the
only war we have upon our hands is war to the death against the
Muscovite tyranny." Nevertheless Austria remained suspicious and
obstructive; and the Prussians, while professing neutrality, very
speedily effected a junction with the Russian forces. This Kosciuszko,
misled by the treacherous assurances of Frederick William's ministers,
never anticipated, when on the 4th of June he marched against General
Denisov. He encountered the enemy on the 5th of June at Szczekociny, and
then discovered that his 14,000 men had to do not merely with a Russian
division but with the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, numbering
25,000 men. Nevertheless, the Poles acquitted themselves manfully, and
at dusk retreated in perfect order upon Warsaw unpursued. Yet their
losses had been terrible, and of the six Polish generals present three,
whose loss proved to be irreparable, were slain, and two of the others
were seriously wounded. A week later another Polish division was
defeated at Kholm; Cracow was taken by the Prussians on the 22nd of
June; and the mob at Warsaw broke upon the gaols and murdered the
political prisoners in cold blood. Kosciuszko summarily punished the
ringleaders of the massacres and had 10,000 of the rank and file drafted
into his camp, which measures had a quieting effect. But now dissensions
broke out among the members of the Polish government, and it required
all the tact of Kosciuszko to restore order amidst this chaos of
suspicions and recriminations. At this very time too he had need of all
his ability and resource to meet the external foes of Poland. On the 9th
of July Warsaw was invested by Frederick William of Prussia with an army
of 25,000 men and 179 guns, and the Russian general Fersen with 16,000
men and 74 guns, while a third force of 11,000 occupied the right bank
of the Vistula. Kosciuszko for the defence of the city and its outlying
fortifications could dispose of 35,000 men, of whom 10,000 were
regulars. But the position, defended by 200 inferior guns, was a strong
one, and the valour of the Poles and the engineering skill of
Kosciuszko, who was now in his element, frustrated all the efforts of
the enemy. Two unsuccessful assaults were made upon the Polish positions
on the 26th of August and the 1st of September, and on the 6th the
Prussians, alarmed by the progress of the Polish arms in Great Poland,
where Jan Henryk Dabrowski captured the Prussian fortress of Bydogoszcz
and compelled General Schwerin with his 20,000 men to retire upon
Kalisz, raised the siege. Elsewhere, indeed, after a brief triumph the
Poles were everywhere worsted, and Suvarov, after driving them before
him out of Lithuania was advancing by forced marches upon Warsaw. Even
now, however, the situation was not desperate, for the Polish forces
were still numerically superior to the Russian. But the Polish generals
proved unequal to carrying out the plans of the dictator; they allowed
themselves to be beaten in detail, and could not prevent the junction of
Suvarov and Fersen. Kosciuszko himself, relying on the support of
Poninski's division 4 m. away, attacked Fersen at Maciejowice on the
10th of October. But Poninski never appeared, and after a bloody
encounter the Polish army of 7000 was almost annihilated by the 16,000
Russians; and Kosciuszko, seriously wounded and insensible, was made a
prisoner on the field of battle. The long credited story that he cried
"Finis Poloniae!" as he fell is a fiction.

Kosciuszko was conveyed to Russia, where he remained till the accession
of Paul in 1796. On his return on the 19th of December 1796 he paid a
second visit to America, and lived at Philadelphia till May 1798, when
he went to Paris, where the First Consul earnestly invited his
co-operation against the Allies. But he refused to draw his sword unless
Napoleon undertook to give the restoration of Poland a leading place in
his plans; and to this, as he no doubt foresaw, Bonaparte would not
consent. Again and again he received offers of high commands in the
French army, but he kept aloof from public life in his house at
Berville, near Paris, where the emperor Alexander visited him in 1814.
At the Congress of Vienna his importunities on behalf of Poland finally
wearied Alexander, who preferred to follow the counsels of Czartoryski;
and Kosciuszko retired to Solothurn, where he lived with his friend
Zeltner. Shortly before his death, on the 2nd of April 1817, he
emancipated his serfs, insisting only on the maintenance of schools on
the liberated estates. His remains were carried to Cracow and buried in
the cathedral; while the people, reviving an ancient custom, raised a
huge mound to his memory near the city.

Kosciuszko was essentially a democrat, but a democrat of the school of
Jefferson and Lafayette. He maintained that the republic could only be
regenerated on the basis of absolute liberty and equality before the
law; but in this respect he was far in advance of his age, and the
aristocratic prejudices of his countrymen compelled him to resort to
half measures. He wrote _Manoeuvres of Horse Artillery_ (New York, 1808)
and a description of the campaign of 1792 (in vol. xvi. of E.
Raczynski's _Sketch of the Poles and Poland_ (Posen, 1843).

  See Jozef Zajaczek, _History of the Revolution of_ 1794 (Pol.)
  (Lemberg, 1881); Leonard Jakob Borejko Chodzko, _Biographie du général
  Kosciuszko_ (Fontainebleau, 1837); Karol Falkenstein, _Thaddäus
  Kosciuszko_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1834; French ed., Paris, 1839); Antoni
  Choloniewski, _Tadeusz Kosciuszko_ (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1902); Franciszek
  Rychlicki, _T. Kosciuszko and the Partition of Poland_ (Pol.) (Cracow,
  1875).     (R. N. B.)




KÖSEN, a village and summer resort of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, 33 m. by rail S. by W. of Halle, on the Saale. Pop. (1905),
2990. The town has a mineral spring, which is used for bathing, being
efficacious for rheumatism and other complaints. Kösen, which became a
town in 1869, has large mill-works; it has a trade in wood and wine. On
the adjacent Rudelsburg, where there is a ruined castle, the German
students have erected a monument to their comrades who fell in the
Franco-German War of 1870-71. Hereon are also memorials to Bismarck and
to the emperor William I. The town is famous as the central
meeting-place of the German students' corps, which hold an annual
congress here every Whitsuntide.

  See Techow, _Führer durch Kösen und Umgegend_ (Kösen, 1889); and
  Rosenberg, _Kösen_ (Naumburg, 1877).




KOSHER, or KASHER (Hebrew clean, right, or fit), the Jewish term for any
food or vessels for food made ritually fit for use, in contradistinction
to those _pasul_, unfit, and _terefah_, forbidden. Thus the vessels used
at the Passover are "kosher," as are also new metal vessels bought from
a Gentile after they have been washed in a ritual bath. But the term is
specially used of meat slaughtered in accordance with the law of Moses.
The _schochat_ or butcher must be a devout Jew and of high moral
character, and be duly licensed by the chief rabbi. The
slaughtering--the object of which is to insure the complete bleeding of
the body, the Jews being forbidden to eat blood--is done by severing the
windpipe with a long and razor-sharp knife by one continuous stroke
backwards and forwards. No unnecessary force is permitted, and no
stoppage must occur during the operation. The knife is then carefully
examined, and if there be the slightest flaw in its blade the meat
cannot be eaten, as the cut would not have been clean, the uneven blade
causing a thrill to pass through the beast and thus driving the blood
again through the arteries. After this every portion of the animal is
thoroughly examined, for if there is any organic disease the devout Jew
cannot taste the meat. In order to soften meat before it is salted, so
as to allow the salt to extract the blood more freely, the meat is
soaked in water for about half an hour. It is then covered with salt for
about an hour and afterwards washed three times. Kosher meat is labelled
with the name of the slaughterer and the date of killing.




KÖSLIN, or CÖSLIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, at the foot of the Gollenberg (450 ft.), 5 m. from the
Baltic, and 105 m. N.E. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1905), 21,474. The
town has two Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a gymnasium, a
cadet academy and a deaf and dumb asylum. In the large market place is
the statue of the Prussian king Frederick William I., erected in 1824,
and there is a war memorial on the Friedrich Wilhelm Platz. The
industries include the manufacture of soap, tobacco, machinery, paper,
bricks and tiles, beer and other goods. Köslin was built about 1188 by
the Saxons, and raised to the rank of a town in 1266. In 1532 it
accepted the doctrines of the Reformation. It was severely tried in the
Thirty Years' War and in the Seven Years' War, and in 1720 it was burned
down. On the Gollenberg stands a monument to the memory of the
Pomeranians who fell in the war of 1813-15.




KOSSOVO, or Kosovo, a vilayet of European Turkey, comprising the sanjak
of Uskub in Macedonia, and the sanjaks of Prizren and Novibazar (q.v.)
in northern Albania. Pop. (1905), about 1,100,000; area, 12,700 sq. m.
For an account of the physical features of Kossovo, see ALBANIA and
MACEDONIA. The inhabitants are chiefly Albanians and Slavs, with smaller
communities of Greeks, Turks, Vlachs and gipsies. A few good roads
traverse the vilayet (see USKÜB), and the railway from Salonica
northward bifurcates at Usküb, the capital, one branch going to
Mitrovitza in Albania, the other to Nish in Servia. Despite the
undoubted mineral wealth of the vilayet, the only mines working in 1907
were two chrome mines, at Orasha and Verbeshtitza. In the volume of its
agricultural trade, however, Kossovo is unsurpassed by any Turkish
province. The exports, worth about £950,000, include livestock, large
quantities of grain and fruit, tobacco, vegetables, opium, hemp and
skins. Rice is cultivated for local consumption, and sericulture is a
growing industry, encouraged by the Administration of the Ottoman Debt.
The yearly value of the imports is approximately £1,200,000; these
include machinery and other manufactured goods, metals, groceries,
chemical products and petroleum, which is used in the flour-mills and
factories on account of the prohibitive price of coal. There is
practically no trade with Adriatic ports; two-thirds of both exports and
imports pass through Salonica, the remainder going by rail into Servia.
The chief towns, Usküb (32,000), Prizren (30,000), Koprülü (22,000),
Ishtib [Slav. _Stip_] (21,000), Novibazar (12,000) and Prishtina
(11,000) are described in separate articles.

In the middle ages the vilayet formed part of the Servian Empire, its
northern districts are still known to the Serbs as Old Servia (_Stara
Srbiya_). The plain of Kossovo (Kossovopolje, "Field of Blackbirds"), a
long valley lying west of Prishtina and watered by the Sibnitza, a
tributary of the Servian Ibar, is famous in Balkan history and legend as
the scene of the battle of Kossovo (1389), in which the power of Servia
was destroyed by the Turks. (See SERVIA: _History_.)




KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS (1841-   ), Hungarian statesman, the son of
Lajos Kossuth, was born on the 16th of November 1841, and educated at
the Paris Polytechnic and the London University, where in 1859 he won a
prize for political economy. After working as a civil engineer on the
Dean Forest railway he went (1861) to Italy, where he resided for the
next thirty-three years, taking a considerable part in the railway
construction of the peninsula, and at the same time keeping alive the
Hungarian independence question by a whole series of pamphlets and
newspaper articles. At Cesena in 1876 he married Emily Hoggins. In 1885
he was decorated for his services by the Italian government. His last
great engineering work was the construction of the steel bridges for the
Nile. In 1894 he escorted his father's remains to Hungary, and the
following year resolved to settle in his native land and took the oath
of allegiance. As early as 1867 he had been twice elected a member of
the Hungarian diet, but on both occasions refused to accept the mandate.
On the 10th of April 1895 he was returned for Tapolca and in 1896 for
Cegléd, and from that time took an active part in Hungarian politics. In
the autumn of 1898 he became the leader of the obstructionists or
"Independence Party," against the successive Szell, Khuen-Haderváry,
Szápáry and Stephen Tisza administrations (1898-1904), exercising great
influence not only in parliament but upon the public at large through
his articles in the _Egyetértés_. The elections of 1905 having sent his
party back with a large majority, he was received in audience by the
king and helped to construct the Wekerle ministry, of which he was one
of the most distinguished members.

  See Sturm, _The Almanack of the Hungarian Diet_ (1905-1910), art.
  "Kossuth" (Hung.) (Budapest, 1905).




KOSSUTH, LAJOS [Louis] (1802-1894), Hungarian patriot, was born at
Monok, a small town in the county of Zemplin, on the 19th of September
1802. His father, who was descended from an old untitled noble family
and possessed a small estate, was by profession an advocate. Louis, who
was the eldest of four children, received from his mother a strict
religious training. His education was completed at the Calvinist college
of Sárospatak and at the university of Budapest. At the age of nineteen
he returned home and began practice with his father. His talents and
amiability soon won him great popularity, especially among the peasants.
He was also appointed steward to the countess Szápáry, a widow with
large estates, and as her representative had a seat in the county
assembly. This position he lost owing to a quarrel with his patroness,
and he was accused of appropriating money to pay a gambling debt. His
fault cannot have been very serious, for he was shortly afterwards (he
had in the meantime settled in Pesth) appointed by Count Hunyady to be
his deputy at the National Diet in Pressburg (1825-1827, and again in
1832). It was a time when, under able leaders, a great national party
was beginning the struggle for reform against the stagnant Austrian
government. As deputy he had no vote, and he naturally took little share
in the debates, but it was part of his duty to send written reports of
the proceedings to his patron, since the government, with a
well-grounded fear of all that might stir popular feeling, refused to
allow any published reports. Kossuth's letters were so excellent that
they were circulated in MS. among the Liberal magnates, and soon
developed into an organized parliamentary gazette (_Orszagyulesi
tudositasok_), of which he was editor. At once his name and influence
spread. In order to increase the circulation, he ventured on
lithographing the letters. This brought them under the official censure,
and was forbidden. He continued the paper in MS., and when the
government refused to allow it to be circulated through the post sent it
out by hand. In 1836 the Diet was dissolved. Kossuth continued the
agitation by reporting in letter form the debates of the county
assemblies, to which he thereby gave a political importance which they
had not had when each was ignorant of the proceedings of the others. The
fact that he embellished with his own great literary ability the
speeches of the Liberals and Reformers only added to the influence of
his news-letters. The government in vain attempted to suppress the
letters, and other means having failed, he was in May 1837, with
Weszelenyi and several others, arrested on a charge of high treason.
After spending a year in prison at Ofen, he was tried and condemned to
four more years' imprisonment. His confinement was strict and injured
his health, but he was allowed the use of books. He greatly increased
his political information, and also acquired, from the study of the
Bible and Shakespeare, a wonderful knowledge of English. His arrest had
caused great indignation. The Diet, which met in 1839, supported the
agitation for the release of the prisoners, and refused to pass any
government measures; Metternich long remained obdurate, but the danger
of war in 1840 obliged him to give way. Immediately after his release
Kossuth married Teresa Meszleny, a Catholic, who during his prison days
had shown great interest in him. Henceforward she strongly urged him on
in his political career; and it was the refusal of the Roman priests to
bless their union that first prompted Kossuth to take up the defence of
mixed marriages.

He had now become a popular leader. As soon as his health was restored
he was appointed (January 1841) editor of the _Pesti Hirlap_, the newly
founded organ of the party. Strangely enough, the government did not
refuse its consent. The success of the paper was unprecedented. The
circulation soon reached what was then the immense figure of 7000. The
attempts of the government to counteract his influence by founding a
rival paper, the _Vilag_, only increased his importance and added to the
political excitement. The warning of the great reformer Szechenyi that
by his appeal to the passions of the people he was leading the nation to
revolution was neglected. Kossuth, indeed, was not content with
advocating those reforms--the abolition of entail, the abolition of
feudal burdens, taxation of the nobles--which were demanded by all the
Liberals. By insisting on the superiority of the Magyars to the Slavonic
inhabitants of Hungary, by his violent attacks on Austria (he already
discussed the possibility of a breach with Austria), he raised the
national pride to a dangerous pitch. At last, in 1844, the government
succeeded in breaking his connexion with the paper. The proprietor, in
obedience to orders from Vienna (this seems the most probable account),
took advantage of a dispute about salary to dismiss him. He then applied
for permission to start a paper of his own. In a personal interview
Metternich offered to take him into the government service. The offer
was refused, and for three years he was without a regular position. He
continued the agitation with the object of attaining both the political
and commercial independence of Hungary. He adopted the economic
principles of List, and founded a society, the "Vedegylet," the members
of which were to consume none but home produce. He advocated the
creation of a Hungarian port at Fiume. With the autumn of 1847 the great
opportunity of his life came. Supported by the influence of Louis
Batthyany, after a keenly fought struggle he was elected member for
Budapest in the new Diet. "Now that I am a deputy, I will cease to be an
agitator," he said. He at once became chief leader of the Extreme
Liberals. Deak was absent. Batthyany, Szechenyi, Szemere, Eotvos, his
rivals, saw how his intense personal ambition and egoism led him always
to assume the chief place, and to use his parliamentary position to
establish himself as leader of the nation; but before his eloquence and
energy all apprehensions were useless. His eloquence was of that nature,
in its impassioned appeals to the strongest emotions, that it required
for its full effect the highest themes and the most dramatic situations.
In a time of rest, though he could never have been obscure, he would
never have attained the highest power. It was therefore a necessity of
his nature, perhaps unconsciously, always to drive things to a crisis.
The crisis came, and he used it to the full.

On the 3rd of March 1848, as soon as the news of the revolution in
Paris had arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded
parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional government for
the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of the Habsburgs, "our
beloved Archduke Francis Joseph," to perpetuate the ancient glory of the
dynasty by meeting half-way the aspirations of a free people. He at once
became the leader of the European revolution; his speech was read aloud
in the streets of Vienna to the mob by which Metternich was overthrown
(March 13), and when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna to
receive the assent of the emperor to their petition it was Kossuth who
received the chief ovation. Batthyany, who formed the first responsible
ministry, could not refuse to admit Kossuth, but he gave him the
ministry of finance, probably because that seemed to open to him fewest
prospects of engrossing popularity. If that was the object, it was in
vain. With wonderful energy he began developing the internal resources
of the country: he established a separate Hungarian coinage--as always,
using every means to increase the national self-consciousness; and it
was characteristic that on the new Hungarian notes which he issued his
own name was the most prominent inscription; hence the name of _Kossuth
Notes_, which was long celebrated. A new paper was started, to which was
given the name of _Kossuth Hirlapia_, so that from the first it was
Kossuth rather than the Palatine or the president of the ministry whose
name was in the minds of the people associated with the new government.
Much more was this the case when, in the summer, the dangers from the
Croats, Serbs and the reaction at Vienna increased. In a great speech of
11th July he asked that the nation should arm in self-defence, and
demanded 200,000 men; amid a scene of wild enthusiasm this was granted
by acclamation. When Jellachich was marching on Pesth he went from town
to town rousing the people to the defence of the country, and the
popular force of the _Honved_ was his creation. When Batthyany resigned
he was appointed with Szemere to carry on the government provisionally,
and at the end of September he was made President of the Committee of
National Defence. From this time he was in fact, if not in name, the
dictator. With marvellous energy he kept in his own hands the direction
of the whole government. Not a soldier himself, he had to control and
direct the movements of armies; can we be surprised if he failed, or if
he was unable to keep control over the generals or to establish that
military co-operation so essential to success? Especially it was Görgei
(q.v.) whose great abilities he was the first to recognize, who refused
obedience; the two men were in truth the very opposite to one another:
the one all feeling, enthusiasm, sensibility; the other cold, stoical,
reckless of life. Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he
had to restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had something
more of Görgei's calculated ruthlessness, for, as has been truly said,
the revolutionary power he had seized could only be held by
revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted and always
merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision in dealing with
men. It has been said that he showed a want of personal courage; this is
not improbable, the excess of feeling which made him so great an orator
could hardly be combined with the coolness in danger required of a
soldier; but no one was able, as he was, to infuse courage into others.
During all the terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit
never failed him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to
march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat of Schwechat, at which
he was present, he sent Bem to carry on the war in Transylvania. At the
end of the year, when the Austrians were approaching Pesth, he asked for
the mediation of Mr Stiles, the American envoy. Windischgrätz, however,
refused all terms, and the Diet and government fled to Debrecszin,
Kossuth taking with him the regalia of St Stephen, the sacred Palladium
of the Hungarian nation. Immediately after the accession of the Emperor
Francis Joseph all the concessions of March had been revoked and Kossuth
with his colleagues outlawed. In April 1849, when the Hungarians had won
many successes, after sounding the army, he issued the celebrated
declaration of Hungarian independence, in which he declared that "the
house of Habsburg-Lorraine, perjured in the sight of God and man, had
forfeited the Hungarian throne." It was a step characteristic of his
love for extreme and dramatic action, but it added to the dissensions
between him and those who wished only for autonomy under the old
dynasty, and his enemies did not scruple to accuse him of aiming at the
crown himself. For the time the future form of government was left
undecided, but Kossuth was appointed responsible governor. The hopes of
ultimate success were frustrated by the intervention of Russia; all
appeals to the western powers were vain, and on the 11th of August
Kossuth abdicated in favour of Görgei, on the ground that in the last
extremity the general alone could save the nation. How Görgei used his
authority to surrender is well known; the capitulation was indeed
inevitable, but a greater man than Kossuth would not have avoided the
last duty of conducting the negotiations so as to get the best terms.

With the capitulation of Villagos Kossuth's career was at an end. A
solitary fugitive, he crossed the Turkish frontier. He was hospitably
received by the Turkish authorities, who, supported by Great Britain,
refused, notwithstanding the threats of the allied emperors, to
surrender him and the other fugitives to the merciless vengeance of the
Austrians. In January 1849 he was removed from Widdin, where he had been
kept in honourable confinement, to Shumla, and thence to Katahia in Asia
Minor. Here he was joined by his children, who had been confined at
Pressburg; his wife (a price had been set on her head) had joined him
earlier, having escaped in disguise. In September 1851 he was liberated
and embarked on an American man-of-war. He first landed at Marseilles,
where he received an enthusiastic welcome from the people, but the
prince-president refused to allow him to cross France. On the 23rd of
October he landed at Southampton and spent three weeks in England, where
he was the object of extraordinary enthusiasm, equalled only by that
with which Garibaldi was received ten years later. Addresses were
presented to him at Southampton, Birmingham and other towns; he was
officially entertained by the lord mayor of London; at each place he
pleaded the cause of his unhappy country. Speaking in English, he
displayed an eloquence and command of the language scarcely excelled by
the greatest orators in their own tongue. The agitation had no immediate
effect, but the indignation which he aroused against Russian policy had
much to do with the strong anti-Russian feeling which made the Crimean
War possible.

From England he went to the United States of America: there his
reception was equally enthusiastic, if less dignified; an element of
charlatanism appeared in his words and acts which soon destroyed his
real influence. Other Hungarian exiles protested against the claim he
appeared to make that he was the one national hero of the revolution.
Count Casimir Batthyany attacked him in _The Times_, and Szemere, who
had been prime minister under him, published a bitter criticism of his
acts and character, accusing him of arrogance, cowardice and duplicity.
He soon returned to England, where he lived for eight years in close
connexion with Mazzini, by whom, with some misgiving, he was persuaded
to join the Revolutionary Committee. Quarrels of a kind only too common
among exiles followed; the Hungarians were especially offended by his
claim still to be called governor. He watched with anxiety every
opportunity of once more freeing his country from Austria. An attempt to
organize a Hungarian legion during the Crimean War was stopped; but in
1859 he entered into negotiations with Napoleon, left England for Italy,
and began the organization of a Hungarian legion, which was to make a
descent on the coast of Dalmatia. The Peace of Villafranca made this
impossible. From that time he resided in Italy; he refused to follow the
other Hungarian patriots, who, under the lead of Deak, accepted the
composition of 1867; for him there could be no reconciliation with the
house of Habsburg, nor would he accept less than full independence and a
republic. He would not avail himself of the amnesty, and, though elected
to the Diet of 1867, never took his seat. He never lost the affections
of his countrymen, but he refrained from an attempt to give practical
effect to his opinions, nor did he allow his name to become a new cause
of dissension. A law of 1879, which deprived of citizenship all
Hungarians who had voluntarily been absent ten years, was a bitter blow
to him.

He died in Turin on the 20th of March 1894; his body was taken to Pesth,
where he was buried amid the mourning of the whole nation, Maurus Jokai
delivering the funeral oration. A bronze statue, erected by public
subscription, in the Kerepes cemetery, commemorates Hungary's purest
patriot and greatest orator.

  Many points in Kossuth's career and character will probably always
  remain the subject of controversy. His complete works were published
  in Hungarian at Budapest in 1880-1895. The fullest account of the
  Revolution is given in Helfert, _Geschichte Oesterreichs_ (Leipzig,
  1869, &c.), representing the Austrian view, which may be compared with
  that of C. Gracza, _History of the Hungarian War of Independence,
  1848-1849_ (in Hungarian) (Budapest, 1894). See also E. O. S.,
  _Hungary and its Revolutions, with a Memoir of Louis Kossuth_ (Bohn,
  1854); Horvath, _25 Jahre aus der Geschichte Ungarns, 1823-1848_
  (Leipzig, 1867); Maurice, _Revolutions of 1848-1849_; W. H. Stiles,
  _Austria in 1848-1849_ (New York, 1852); Szemere, _Politische
  Charakterskizzen: III. Kossuth_ (Hamburg, 1853); Louis Kossuth,
  _Memoirs of my Exile_ (London, 1880); Pulszky, _Meine Zeit, mein
  Leben_ (Pressburg, 1880); A. Somogyi, _Ludwig Kossuth_ (Berlin, 1894).
       (J. W. He.)




KOSTER (or COSTER), LAURENS (c. 1370-1440), Dutch printer, whose claims
to be considered at least one of the inventors of the art (see
TYPOGRAPHY) have been recognized by many investigators. His real name
was Laurens Janssoen-Koster (i.e. sacristan) being merely the title
which he bore as an official of the great parish church of Haarlem. We
find him mentioned several times between 1417 and 1434 as a member of
the great council, as an assessor (_scabinus_), and as the city
treasurer. He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in
1439-1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. His descendants,
through his daughter Lucia, can be traced down to 1724.

  See Peter Scriver, _Beschryvinge der Stad Harlem_ (Haarlem, 1628);
  Scheltema, _Levensschets van Laurens d. Koster_ (Haarlem, 1834); Van
  der Linde, _De Haarlemsche Costerlegende_ (Hague, 1870).




KOSTROMA, a government of central Russia, surrounded by those of
Vologda, Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Vladimir and Yaroslav, lying mostly
on the left bank of the upper Volga. It has an area of 32,480 sq. m. Its
surface is generally undulating, with hilly tracts on the right bank of
the Volga, and extensive flat and marshy districts in the east. Rocks of
the Permian system predominate, though a small tract belongs to the
Jurassic, and both are overlain by thick deposits of Quaternary clays.
The soil in the east is for the most part sand or a sandy clay; a few
patches, however, are fertile black earth. Forests, yielding excellent
timber for ship-building, and in many cases still untouched, occupy 61%
of the area of the government. The export of timber is greatly
facilitated by the navigable tributaries of the Volga, e.g. the
Kostroma, Unzha, Neya, Vioksa and Vetluga. The climate is severe; frosts
of -22° F. are common in January, and the mean temperature of the year
is only 3°.1 (summer, 64°.5; winter, -13°.3). The population, which
numbered 1,176,000 in 1870 and 1,424,171 in 1897, is almost entirely
Russian. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,596,700. Out of
20,000,000 acres, 7,861,500 acres belong to private owners, 6,379,500 to
the peasant communities, 3,660,800 to the crown, and 1,243,000 to the
imperial family. Agriculture is at a low ebb; only 4,000,000 acres are
under crops (rye, oats, wheat and barley), and the yield of corn is
insufficient for the wants of the population. Flax and hops are
cultivated to an increasing extent. But market-gardening is of some
importance. Bee-keeping was formerly an important industry. The chief
articles of commerce are timber, fuel, pitch, tar, mushrooms, and wooden
wares for building and household purposes, which are largely
manufactured by the peasantry and exported to the steppe governments of
the lower Volga and the Don. Boat-building is also carried on. Some
other small industries, such as the manufacture of silver and copper
wares, leather goods, bast mats and sacks, lace and felt boots, are
carried on in the villages; but the trade in linen and towelling,
formerly the staple, is declining. There are cotton, flax and linen
mills, engineering and chemical works, distilleries, tanneries and paper
mills. The government of Kostroma is divided into twelve districts, the
chief towns of which, with populations in 1897, are Kostroma (q.v.),
Bui (2626), Chukhloma (2200), Galich (6182), Kineshma (7564), Kologriv
(2566), Makariev (6068), Nerekhta (3002), Soligalich (3420), Varnavin
(1140), Vetluga (5200) and Yurievets (4778).




KOSTROMA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name,
230 m. N.N.E. of Moscow and 57 m. E.N.E. from Yaroslav, on the left bank
of the Volga, at the mouth of the navigable Kostroma, with suburbs on
the opposite side of the Volga. Pop. (1897), 41,268. Its glittering
gilded cupolas make it a conspicuous feature in the landscape as it
climbs up the terraced river bank. It is one of the oldest towns of
Russia, having been founded in 1152. Its fort was often the refuge of
the princes of Moscow during war, but the town was plundered more than
once by the Tatars. The cathedral, built in 1239 and rebuilt in 1773, is
situated in the kreml, or citadel, and is a fine monument of old Russian
architecture. In the centre of the town is a monument to the peasant
Ivan Susanin and the tsar Michael (1851). The former sacrificed his own
life in 1669 by leading the Poles astray in the forests in order to save
the life of his own tsar Michael Fedeorovich. On the opposite bank of
the Volga, close to the water's edge, stands the monastery of Ipatiyev,
founded in 1330, with a cathedral built in 1586, both associated with
the election of Tsar Michael (1669). Kostroma has been renowned since
the 16th century for its linen, which was exported to Holland, and the
manufacture of linen and linen-yarn is still kept up to some extent. The
town has also cotton-mills, tanneries, saw-mills, an iron-foundry and a
machine factory. It carries on an active trade--importing grain, and
exporting linen, linen yarn, leather, and especially timber and wooden
wares.




KÖSZEG (Ger. _Güns_), a town in the county of Vas, in Hungary, 173 m. W.
of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 7422. It is pleasantly situated in the
valley of the Güns, and is dominated towards the west by the peaks of
Altenhaus (2000 ft.) and of the Geschriebene Stein (2900 ft.). It
possesses a castle of Count Esterhazy, a modern Roman Catholic Church in
Gothic style and two convents. It has important cloth factories and a
lively trade in fruit and wine. The town has a special historical
interest for the heroic and successful defence of the fortress by
Nicolas Jurisics against a large army of Sultan Soliman, in July-August
1532, which frustrated the advance of the Turks to Vienna for that year.

To the south-east of Köszeg, at the confluence of the Güns with the
Raab, is situated the town of Sárvár (pop. 3158), formerly fortified,
where in 1526 the first printing press in Hungary was established.




KOTAH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area of
5684 sq. m. The country slopes gently northwards from the high
table-land of Malwa, and is drained by the Chambal with its tributaries,
all flowing in a northerly or north-easterly direction. The Mokandarra
range, from 1200 to 1600 ft. above sea-level, runs from south-east to
north-west. The Mokandarra Pass through these hills, in the
neighbourhood of the highest peak (1671 ft.), has been rendered
memorable by the passage of Colonel Monson's army on its disastrous
retreat in 1804. There are extensive game preserves, chiefly covered
with grass. In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat, cotton,
poppy, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated. The
manufactures are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven, but are being
rapidly superseded by the cheap products of Bombay and Manchaster.
Articles of wooden furniture are also constructed. The chief articles of
export are opium and grain; salt, cotton and woollen cloth are imported.

Kotah is an offshoot from Bundi state, having been bestowed upon a
younger son of the Bundi raja by the emperor Shah Jahan in return for
services rendered him when the latter was in rebellion against his
father Jahangir. In 1897 a considerable portion of the area taken to
form Jhalawar (q.v.) in 1838 was restored to Kotah. In 1901 the
population was 544,879, showing a decrease of 24% due to the results of
famine. The estimated revenue is £206,000; tribute, £28,000. The maharao
Umad Singh, was born in 1873, and succeeded in 1889. He was educated at
the Mayo College, Ajmere, and became a major in the British army. A
continuation of the branch line of the Indian Midland railway from Goona
to Baran passes through Kotah, and it is also traversed by a new line,
opened in 1909. The state suffered from drought in 1896-1897, and again
more severely in 1899-1900.

The town of Kotah is on the right bank of the Chambal. Pop. (1901),
33,679. It is surrounded and also divided into three parts by massive
walls, and contains an old and a new palace of the maharao and a number
of fine temples. Muslins are the chief articles of manufacture, but the
town has no great trade, and this and the unhealthiness of the site may
account for the decrease in population.




KOTAS (Kotar, Koter, Kohatur, Gauhatar), an aboriginal tribe of the
Nilgiri hills, India. They are a well-made people, of good features,
tall, and of a dull copper colour, but some of them are among the
fairest of the hill tribes. They recognize no caste among themselves,
but are divided into _keris_ (streets), and a man must marry outside his
_keri_. Their villages (of which there are seven) are large, averaging
from thirty to sixty huts. They are agriculturists and herdsmen, and the
only one of the hill tribes who practise industrial arts, being
excellent as carpenters, smiths, tanners and basket-makers. They do
menial work for the Todas, to whom they pay a tribute. They worship
ideal gods, which are not represented by any images. Their language is
an old and rude dialect of Kanarese. In 1901 they numbered 1267.




KOTKA, a seaport of Finland, in the province of Viborg, 35 m. by rail
from Kuivola junction on the Helsingfors railway, on an island of the
same name at the mouth of the Kymmene river. Pop. (1904), 7628. It is
the chief port for exports from and imports to east Finland and a centre
of the timber trade.




KOTRI, a town of British India, in Karachi district, Sind, situated on
the right bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 7617. Kotri is the junction of
branches of the North-Western railway, serving each bank of the Indus,
which is here crossed by a railway bridge. It was formerly the station
for Hyderabad, which lies across the Indus, and the headquarters of the
Indus steam flotilla, now abolished in consequence of the development of
railway facilities. Besides its importance as a railway centre, however,
Kotri still has a considerable general transit trade by river.




KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON (1761-1819), German dramatist,
was born on the 3rd of May, 1761, at Weimar. After attending the
gymnasium of his native town, he went in his sixteenth year to the
university of Jena, and afterwards studied about a year in Duisburg. In
1780 he completed his legal course and was admitted an advocate. Through
the influence of Graf Görtz, Prussian ambassador at the Russian court,
he became secretary of the governor-general of St Petersburg. In 1783 he
received the appointment of assessor to the high court of appeal in
Reval, where he married the daughter of a Russian lieutenant-general. He
was ennobled in 1785, and became president of the magistracy of the
province of Esthonia. In Reval he acquired considerable reputation by
his novels, _Die Leiden der Ortenbergischen Familie_ (1785) and
_Geschichte meines Vaters_ (1788), and still more by the plays _Adelheid
von Wulfingen_ (1789), _Menschenhass und Reue_ (1790) and _Die Indianer
in England_ (1790). The good impression produced by these works was,
however, almost effaced by a cynical dramatic satire, _Doktor Bahrdt mit
der eisernen Stirn_, which appeared in 1790 with the name of Knigge on
the title-page. After the death of his first wife Kotzebue retired from
the Russian service, and lived for a time in Paris and Mainz; he then
settled in 1795 on an estate which he had acquired near Reval and gave
himself up to literary work. Within a few years he published six volumes
of miscellaneous sketches and stories (_Die jüngsten Kinder meiner
Laune_, 1793-1796) and more than twenty plays, the majority of which
were translated into several European languages. In 1798 he accepted the
office of dramatist to the court theatre in Vienna, but owing to
differences with the actors he was soon obliged to resign. He now
returned to his native town, but as he was not on good terms with
Goethe, and had openly attacked the Romantic school, his position in
Weimar was not a pleasant one. He had thoughts of returning to St
Petersburg, and on his journey thither he was, for some unknown reason,
arrested at the frontier and transported to Siberia. Fortunately he had
written a comedy which flattered the vanity of the emperor Paul I.; he
was consequently speedily brought back, presented with an estate from
the crown lands of Livonia, and made director of the German theatre in
St Petersburg. He returned to Germany when the emperor Paul died, and
again settled in Weimar; he found it, however, as impossible as ever to
gain a footing in literary society, and turned his steps to Berlin,
where in association with Garlieb Merkel (1769-1850) he edited _Der
Freimütige_ (1803-1807) and began his _Almanach dramatischer Spiele_
(1803-1820). Towards the end of 1806 he was once more in Russia, and in
the security of his estate in Esthonia wrote many satirical articles
against Napoleon in his journals _Die Biene_ and _Die Grille_. As
councillor of state he was attached in 1816 to the department for
foreign affairs in St Petersburg, and in 1817 went to Germany as a kind
of spy in the service of Russia, with a salary of 15,000 roubles. In a
weekly journal (_Literarisches Wochenblatt_) which he published in
Weimar he scoffed at the pretensions of those Germans who demanded free
institutions, and became an object of such general dislike that he was
obliged to move to Mannheim. He was especially detested by the young
enthusiasts for liberty, and one of them, Karl Ludwig Sand, a
theological student, stabbed him, in Mannheim, on the 23rd of March
1819. Sand was executed, and the government made his crime an excuse for
placing the universities under strict supervision.

Besides his plays, Kotzebue wrote several historical works, which,
however, are too one-sided and prejudiced to have much value. Of more
interest are his autobiographical writings, _Meine Flucht nach Paris im
Winter_ 1790 (1791), _Über meinen Aufenthalt in Wien_ (1799), _Das
merkwürdigste Jahr meines Lebens_ (1801), _Erinnerungen aus Paris_
(1804), and _Erinnerungen von meiner Reise aus Liefland nach Rom und
Neapel_ (1805). As a dramatist he was extraordinarily prolific, his
plays numbering over 200; his popularity, not merely on the German, but
on the European stage, was unprecedented. His success, however, was due
less to any conspicuous literary or poetic ability than to an
extraordinary facility in the invention of effective situations; he
possessed, as few German playwrights before or since, the unerring
instinct for the theatre; and his influence on the _technique_ of the
modern drama from Scribe to Sardou and from Bauernfeld to Sudermann is
unmistakable. Kotzebue is to be seen to best advantage in his comedies,
such as _Der Wildfang_, _Die beiden Klingsberg_ and _Die deutschen
Kleinstädter_, which contain admirable genre pictures of German life.
These plays held the stage in Germany long after the once famous
_Menschenhass und Reue_ (known in England as _The Stranger_), _Graf
Benjowsky_, or ambitious exotic tragedies like _Die Sonnenjungfrau_ and
_Die Spanier in Peru_ (which Sheridan adapted as _Pizarro_) were
forgotten.

  Two collections of Kotzebue's dramas were published during his
  lifetime: _Schauspiele_ (5 vols., 1797); _Neue Schauspiele_ (23 vols.,
  1798-1820). His _Sämtliche dramatische Werke_ appeared in 44 vols., in
  1827-1829, and again, under the title _Theater_, in 40 vols., in
  1840-1841. A selection of his plays in 10 vols, appeared at Leipzig in
  1867-1868. Cp. H. Döring, _A. von Kotzebues Leben_ (1830); W. von
  Kotzebue, _A. von Kotzebue_ (1881); Ch. Rabany, _Kotzebue, sa vie et
  son temps_ (1893); W. Sellier, _Kotzebue in England_ (1901).




KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787-1846), Russian navigator, second son of the
foregoing, was born at Reval on the 30th of December 1787. After being
educated at the St Petersburg school of cadets, he accompanied
Krusenstern on his voyage of 1803-1806. After his promotion to
lieutenant Kotzebue was placed in command of an expedition, fitted out
at the expense of the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff, in the brig
"Rurick." In this vessel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotzebue set out
on the 30th of July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic Ocean and
explore the less-known parts of Oceania. Proceeding by Cape Horn, he
discovered the Romanzov, Rurik and Krusenstern Islands, then made for
Kamchatka, and in the middle of July proceeded northward, coasting along
the north-west coast of America, and discovering and naming Kotzebue
Gulf or Sound and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he
again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sandwich
Islands, and on the 1st of January 1817 discovered New Year Island.
After some further cruising in the Pacific he again proceeded north, but
a severe attack of illness compelling him to return to Europe, he
reached the Neva on the 3rd of August 1818, bringing home a large
collection of previously unknown plants and much new ethnological
information. In 1823 Kotzebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the
command of an expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which
was to take reinforcements to Kamchatka. There was, however, a staff of
scientists on board, who collected much valuable information and
material in geography, ethnography and natural history. The expedition,
proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the Radak and Society Islands, and
reached Petropavlovsk in July 1824. Many positions along the coast were
rectified, the Navigator islands visited, and several discoveries made.
The expedition returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia and
Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the 10th of July 1826. There are
English translations of both Kotzebue's narratives: _A Voyage of
Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Straits for the Purpose of
exploring a North-East Passage, undertaken in the Years 1815-1818_ (3
vols. 1821), and _A New Voyage Round the World in the Years 1823-1826_
(1830). Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotzebue
died at Reval on the 15th of February 1846.




KOUMISS, milk-wine, or milk brandy, a fermented alcoholic beverage
prepared from milk. It is of very ancient origin, and according to
Herodotus was known to the Scythians. The name is said to be derived
from an ancient Asiatic tribe, the Kumanes or Komans. It is one of the
staple articles of diet of the Siberian and Caucasian races, but of late
years it has also been manufactured on a considerable scale in western
Europe, on account of its valuable medicinal properties. It is generally
made from mares' or camels' milk by a process of fermentation set up by
the addition to the fresh milk of a small quantity of the finished
article. This fermentation, which appears to be of a symbiotic nature,
being dependent on the action of two distinct types of organisms, the
one a fission fungus, the other a true yeast, eventuates in the
conversion of a part of the milk sugar into lactic acid and alcohol.
Koumiss generally contains 1 to 2% of alcohol, 0.5 to 1.5% of lactic
acid, 2 to 4% of milk sugar and 1 to 2% of fat. _Kefir_ is similar to
koumiss, but is usually prepared from cows' milk, and the fermentation
is brought about by the so-called Kefir Grains (derived from a plant).




KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS (1814-1883), Greek statesman, whose name is
commonly spelt Coumoundouros, was born in 1814. His studies at the
university of Athens were repeatedly interrupted for lack of means, and
he began to earn his living as a clerk. He took part in the Cretan
insurrection of 1841, and in the demonstration of 1843, by which the
Greek constitution was obtained from King Otto, he was secretary to
General Theodoraki Grivas. He then settled down to the bar at Kalamata
in Messenia, where he married a lady belonging to the Mavromichalis
family. He was elected to the chamber in 1851, and four years later his
eloquence and ability had secured the president's chair for him. He
became minister of finance in 1856, and again in 1857 and 1859. He
adhered to the moderate wing of the Liberal party until the revolution
of 1862 and the dethronement of King Otto, when he was minister of
justice in the provincial government. He was twice minister of the
interior under Kanaris, in 1864 and in 1865. In March 1865 he became
prime minister, and he formed several subsequent administrations in the
intervals of the ascendancy of Tricoupi. During the Cretan insurrection
of 1866-68 he made active warlike preparations against Turkey, but was
dismissed by King George, who recognized that Greece could not act
without the support of the Powers. He was again premier at the time of
the outbreak of the insurrection in Thessaly in January 1878, and
supported by Delyanni as minister of foreign affairs he sent an army of
10,000 men to help the insurgents against Turkey. The troops were
recalled on the understanding that Greece should be represented at the
Congress of Berlin. In October 1880 the fall of the Tricoupi ministry
restored him to power, when he resumed his warlike policy, but repeated
appeals to the courts of Europe yielded little practical result, and
Koumoundouros was obliged to reduce his territorial demands and to
accept the limited cessions in Thessaly and Epirus, which were carried
out in July 1881. His ministry was overturned in 1882 by the votes of
the new Thessalian deputies, who were dissatisfied with the
administrative arrangements of the new province, and he died at Athens
on the 9th of March 1883.




KOUSSO (KOSSO or CUSSO), a drug which consists of the panicles of the
pistillate flowers of _Brayera anthelmintica_, a handsome rosaceous tree
60 ft. high, growing throughout the table-land of Abyssinia, at an
elevation of 3000 to 8000 ft. above the sea-level. The drug as imported
is in the form of cylindrical rolls, about 18 in. in length and 2 in. in
diameter, and comprises the entire inflorescence or panicle kept in form
by a band wound transversely round it. The active principle is koussin
or kosin, C31H38O10, which is soluble in alcohol and alkalis, and may be
given in doses of thirty grains. Kousso is also used in the form of an
unstrained infusion of ¼ to ½ oz. of the coarsely powdered flowers,
which are swallowed with the liquid. It is considered to be an effectual
vermifuge for _Taenia solium_. In its anthelmintic action it is nearly
allied to male fern, but it is much inferior to that drug and is very
rarely used in Great Britain.




KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE (1850-1891), Russian mathematician, daughter of
General Corvin-Krukovsky, was born at Moscow on the 15th of January
1850. As a young girl she was fired by the aspiration after intellectual
liberty that animated so many young Russian women at that period, and
drove them to study at foreign universities, since their own were closed
to them. This led her, in 1868, to contract one of those conventional
marriages in vogue at the time, with a young student, Waldemar
Kovalevsky, and the two went together to Germany to continue their
studies. In 1869 she went to Heidelberg, where she studied under H. von
Helmholtz, G. R. Kirchhoff, L. Königsberger and P. du Bois-Reymond, and
from 1871-1874 read privately with Karl Weierstrass at Berlin, as the
public lectures were not then open to women. In 1874 the university of
Göttingen granted her a degree _in absentia_, excusing her from the oral
examination on account of the remarkable excellence of the three
dissertations sent in, one of which, on the theory of partial
differential equations, is one of her most remarkable works. Another was
an elucidation of P. S. Laplace's mathematical theory of the form of
Saturn's rings. Soon after this she returned to Russia with her husband,
who was appointed professor of palaeontology at Moscow, where he died in
1883. At this time Madame Kovalevsky was at Stockholm, where Gustaf
Mittag Leffler, also a pupil of Weierstrass, who had been recently
appointed to the chair of mathematics at the newly founded university,
had procured for her a post as lecturer. She discharged her duties so
successfully that in 1884 she was appointed full professor. This post
she held till her death on the 10th of February 1891. In 1888 she
achieved the greatest of her successes, gaining the Prix Bordin offered
by the Paris Academy. The problem set was "to perfect in one important
point the theory of the movement of a solid body round an immovable
point," and her solution added a result of the highest interest to those
transmitted to us by Leonhard Euler and J. L. Lagrange. So remarkable
was this work that the value of the prize was doubled as a recognition
of unusual merit. Unfortunately Madame Kovalevsky did not live to reap
the full reward of her labours, for she died just as she had attained
the height of her fame and had won recognition even in her own country
by election to membership of the St Petersburg Academy of Science.

  See E. de Kerbedz, "Sophie de Kowalevski," _Benidiconti del circolo
  mathematico di Palermo_ (1891); the obituary notice by G. Mittag
  Leffler in the _Acta mathematica_, vol. xvi.; and J. C. Poggendorff,
  _Biographisch-literarisches Handwörterbuch_.




KOVNO (in Lithuanian _Kauna_), a government of north-western Russia,
bounded N. by the governments of Courland and Vitebsk, S.E. by that of
Vilna, and S. and S.W. by Suwalki and the province of East Prussia, a
narrow strip touching the Baltic near Memel. It has an area of 15,687
sq. m. The level uniformity of its surface is broken only by two low
ridges which nowhere rise above 800 ft. The geological character is
varied, the Silurian, Devonian, Jurassic and Tertiary systems being all
represented; the Devonian is that which occurs most frequently, and all
are covered with Quaternary boulder-clays. The soil is either a sandy
clay or a more fertile kind of black earth. The government is drained by
the Niemen, Windau, Courland Aa and Dvina, which have navigable
tributaries. In the flat depressions covered with boulder-clays there
are many lakes and marshes, while forests occupy about 25½% of the
surface. The climate is comparatively mild, the mean temperature at the
city of Kovno being 44°F. The population was 1,156,040 in 1870, and
1,553,244 in 1897. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,683,600. It is
varied, consisting of Lithuanians proper and Zhmuds (together 74%), Jews
(14%), Germans (2½%), Poles (9%), with Letts and Russians; 76.6% are
Roman Catholics, 13.7% Jews, 4.5% Protestants, and 5% belong to the
Greek Church. Of the total 788,102 were women in 1897 and 147,878 were
classed as urban. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is
agriculture, 63% of the surface being under crops; both grain (wheat,
rye, oats and barley) and potatoes are exported. Flax is cultivated and
the linseed exported. Dairying flourishes, and horse and cattle breeding
are attracting attention. Fishing is important, and the navigation on
the rivers is brisk. A variety of petty domestic industries are carried
on by the Jews, but only to a slight extent in the villages. As many as
18,000 to 24,000 men are compelled every year to migrate in search of
work. The factories consist principally of distilleries, tobacco and
steam flour-mills, and hardware manufactories. Trade, especially the
transit trade, is brisk, from the situation of the government on the
Prussian frontier, the custom-houses of Yerburg and Tauroggen being
amongst the most important in Russia. The chief towns of the seven
districts into which the government is divided, with their populations
in 1897, are Kovno (q.v.), Novo-Alexandrovsk (6370), Ponevyezh (13,044),
Rosieny (7455), Shavli (15,914), Telshi (6215) and Vilkemir (13,509).

The territory which now constitutes the government of Kovno was formerly
known as Samogitia and formed part of Lithuania. During the 13th, 14th
and 15th centuries the Livonian and Teutonic Knights continually invaded
and plundered it, especially the western part, which was peopled with
Zhmuds. In 1569 it was annexed, along with the rest of the principality
of Lithuania, to Poland; and it suffered very much from the wars of
Russia with Sweden and Poland, and from the invasion of Charles XII. in
1701. In 1795 the principality of Lithuania was annexed to Russia, and
until 1872, when the government of Kovno was constituted, the territory
now forming it was a part of the government of Vilna.




KOVNO, a town and fortress of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, stands at the confluence of the Niemen with the Viliya, 550
m. S.W. of St Petersburg by rail, and 55 m. from the Prussian frontier.
Pop. (1863), 23,937; (1903), 73,743, nearly one-half being Jews. It
consists of a cramped Old Town and a New Town stretching up the side of
the Niemen. It is a first-class fortress, being surrounded at a mean
distance of 2½ m. by a girdle of forts, eleven in number. The town lies
for the most part in the fork and is guarded by three forts in the
direction of Vilna, one covers the Vilna bridge, while the southern
approaches are protected by seven. Kovno commands and bars the railway
Vilna-Eydtkuhnen. Its factories produce nails, wire-work and other metal
goods, mead and bone-meal. It is an important entrepôt for timber,
cereals, flax, flour, spirits, bone-meal, fish, coal and building-stone
passing from and to Prussia. The city possesses some 15th-century
churches. It was founded in the 11th century; and from 1384 to 1398
belonged to the Teutonic Knights. Tsar Alexis of Russia plundered and
burnt it in 1655. Here the Russians defeated the Poles on the 26th of
June 1831.




KOVROV, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir, 40 m. N.E. of
the city of Vladimir by the railway from Moscow to Nizhniy-Novgorod, and
on the Klyazma River. It has railway-carriage works, cotton mills, steam
flour mills, tallow works and quarries of limestone, and carries on an
active trade in the export of wooden wares and in the import of grain,
salt and fish, brought from the Volga governments. Pop. (1890), 6600;
(1900), 16,806.




KOWTOW, or KOTOU, the Chinese ceremonial act of prostration as a sign of
homage, submission, or worship. The word is formed from _ko_, knock, and
_tou_, head. To the emperor, the "kowtow" is performed by kneeling three
times, each act accompanied by touching the ground with the forehead.




KOZLOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, on the Lyesnoi
Voronezh River, 45 m. W.N.W. of the city of Tambov by rail. Pop. (1900),
41,555. Kozlov had its origin in a small monastery, founded in the
forest in 1627; nine years later, an earthwork was raised close by, for
the protection of the Russian frontier against the Tatars. Situated in a
very fertile country, on the highway to Astrakhan and at the head of
water communication with the Don, the town soon became a centre of
trade; as the junction of the railways leading to the Sea of Azov, to
Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga, to Saratov and to Orel, its importance has
recently been still further increased. Its export of cattle, grain,
meat, eggs (22,000,000), tallow, hides, &c., is steadily growing, and it
possesses factories, flour mills, tallow works, distilleries, tanneries
and glue works.




KRAAL, also spelt _craal_, _kraul_, &c. (South African Dutch, derived
possibly from a native African word, but probably from the Spanish
_corral_, Portuguese _curral_, an enclosure for horses, cattle and the
like), in South and Central Africa, a native village surrounded by a
palisade, mud wall or other fencing roughly circular in form; by
transference, the community living within the enclosure. Folds for
animals and enclosures made specially for defensive purposes are also
called kraals.




KRAFFT (or KRAFT), ADAM (c. 1455-1507), German sculptor, of the
Nuremberg school, was born, probably at Nuremberg, about the middle of
the 15th century, and died, some say in the hospital, at Schwabach,
about 1507. He seems to have emerged as sculptor about 1490, the date of
the seven reliefs of scenes from the life of Christ, which, like almost
every other specimen of his work, are at Nuremberg. The date of his last
work, an Entombment, with fifteen life-size figures, in the Holzschuher
chapel of the St John's cemetery, is 1507. Besides these, Krafft's chief
works are several monumental reliefs in the various churches of
Nuremberg; he produced the great Schreyer monument (1492) for St
Sebald's at Nuremberg, a skilful though mannered piece of sculpture
opposite the Rathaus, with realistic figures in the costume of the time,
carved in a way more suited to wood than stone, and too pictorial in
effect; Christ bearing the Cross, above the altar of the same church;
and various works made for public and private buildings, as the relief
over the door of the Wagehaus, a St George and the Dragon, several
Madonnas, and some purely decorative pieces, as coats of arms. His
masterpiece is perhaps the magnificent tabernacle, 62 ft. high, in the
church of St Laurence (1493-1500). He also made the great tabernacle for
the Host, 80 ft. high, covered with statuettes, in Ulm Cathedral, and
the very spirited "Stations of the Cross" on the road to the Nuremberg
cemetery.

  See _Adam Krafft und seine Schule_, by Friedrich Wanderer (1869);
  _Adam Krafft und die Künstler seiner Zeit_, by Berthold Daun (1897);
  Albert Gümbel in _Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft_, Bd. xxv. Heft 5,
  1902.




KRAGUYEVATS (also written KRAGUIEVATZ and KRAGUJEVAC), the capital of
the Kraguyevats department of Servia; situated 59 m. S.S.W. of Belgrade,
in a valley of the Shumadia, or "forest-land," and on the Lepenitsa, a
small stream flowing north-east to join the Morava. On the opposite bank
stands the picturesque hamlet of Obilichevo, with a large powder
factory. Kraguyevats itself is the main arsenal of Servia, and
possesses an iron-foundry and a steam flour-mill. It is the seat of the
district prefecture, of a tribunal, of a fine library, and of a large
garrison. It boasts the finest college building and the finest modern
cathedral (in Byzantine style) in Servia. In the first years of Servia's
autonomy under Prince Milosh, it was the residence of the prince and the
seat of government (1818-1839). Even later, between 1868 and 1880, the
national assembly (_Narodna Skupshtina_) usually met there. In 1885 it
was connected by a branch line (Kraguyevats-Lapovo) with the principal
railway (Belgrade-Nish), and thenceforward the prosperity of the town
steadily increased. Pop. (1900), 14,160.




KRAKATOA (KRAKATAO, KRAKATAU), a small volcanic island in Sunda Strait,
between the islands of Java and Sumatra, celebrated for its eruption in
1883, one of the most stupendous ever recorded. At some early period a
large volcano rose in the centre of the tract where the Sunda Strait now
runs. Long before any European had visited these waters an explosion
took place by which the mountain was so completely blown away that only
the outer portions of its base were left as a broken ring of islands.
Subsequent eruptions gradually built up a new series of small cones
within the great crater ring. Of these the most important rose to a
height of 2623 ft. above the sea and formed the peak of the volcanic
island of Krakatoa. But compared with the great neighbouring volcanoes
of Java and Sumatra, the islets of the Sunda Strait were comparatively
unknown. Krakatoa was uninhabited, and no satisfactory map or chart of
it had been made. In 1680 it appears to have been in eruption, when
great earthquakes took place and large quantities of pumice were
ejected. But the effects of this disturbance had been so concealed by
the subsequent spread of tropical vegetation that the very occurrence of
the eruption had sometimes been called in question. At last, about 1877,
earthquakes began to occur frequently in the Sunda Strait and continued
for the next few years. In 1883 the manifestations of subterranean
commotion became more decided, for in May Krakatoa broke out in
eruption. For some time the efforts of the volcano appear to have
consisted mainly in the discharge of pumice and dust, with the usual
accompaniment of detonations and earthquakes. But on the 26th of August
a succession of paroxysmal explosions began which lasted till the
morning of the 28th. The four most violent took place on the morning of
the 27th. The whole of the northern and lower portion of the island of
Krakatoa, lying within the original crater ring of prehistoric times,
was blown away; the northern part of the cone of Rakata almost entirely
disappeared, leaving a vertical cliff which laid bare the inner
structure of that volcano. Instead of the volcanic island which had
previously existed, and rose from 300 to 1400 ft. above the sea, there
was now left a submarine cavity, the bottom of which was here and there
more than 1000 ft. below the sea-level. This prodigious evisceration was
the result of successive violent explosions of the superheated vapour
absorbed in the molten magma within the crust of the earth. The vigour
and repetition of these explosions, it has been suggested, may have been
caused by sudden inrushes of the water of the ocean as the throat of the
volcano was cleared and the crater ring was lowered and ruptured. The
access of large bodies of cold water to the top of the column of molten
lava would probably give rise at once to some minor explosions, and then
to a chilling of the surface of the lava and a consequent temporary
diminution or even cessation of the volcanic eructations. But until the
pent-up water-vapour in the lava below had found relief it would only
gather strength until it was able to burst through the chilled crust and
overlying water, and to hurl a vast mass of cooled lava, pumice and dust
into the air.

The amount of material discharged during the two days of paroxysmal
energy was enormous, though there are no satisfactory data for even
approximately estimating it. A large cavity was formed where the island
had previously stood, and the sea-bottom around this crater was covered
with a wide and thick sheet of fragmentary materials. Some of the
surrounding islands received such a thick accumulation of ejected stones
and dust as to bury their forests and greatly to increase the area of
the land. So much was the sea filled up that a number of new islands
rose above its level. But a vast body of the fine dust was carried far
and wide by aerial currents, while the floating pumice was transported
for many hundreds of miles on the surface of the ocean. At Batavia, 100
m. from the centre of eruption, the sky was darkened by the quantity of
ashes borne across it, and lamps had to be used in the houses at midday.
The darkness even reached as far as Bandong, a distance of nearly 150
miles. It was computed that the column of stones, dust and ashes
projected from the volcano shot up into the air for a height of 17 m. or
more. The finer particles coming into the higher layers of the
atmosphere were diffused over a large part of the surface of the earth,
and showed their presence by the brilliant sunset glows to which they
gave rise. Within the tropics they were at first borne along by
air-currents at an estimated rate of about 73 m. an hour from east to
west, until within a period of six weeks they were diffused over nearly
the whole space between the latitudes 30° N. and 45° S. Eventually they
spread northwards and southwards and were carried over North and South
America, Europe, Asia, South Africa and Australasia. In the Old World
they spread from the north of Scandinavia to the Cape of Good Hope.

Another remarkable result of this eruption was the world-wide
disturbance of the atmosphere. The culminating paroxysm on the morning
of the 27th of August gave rise to an atmospheric wave or oscillation,
which, travelling outwards from the volcano as a centre, became a great
circle at 180° from its point of origin, whence it continued travelling
onwards and contracting till it reached a node at the antipodes to
Krakatoa. It was then reflected or reproduced, travelling backwards
again to the volcano, whence it once more returned in its original
direction. "In this manner its repetition was observed not fewer than
seven times at many of the stations, four passages having been those of
the wave travelling from Krakatoa, and three those of the wave
travelling from its antipodes, subsequently to which its traces were
lost" (Sir R. Strachey).

The actual sounds of the volcanic explosions were heard over a vast
area, especially towards the west. Thus they were noticed at Rodriguez,
nearly 3000 English miles away, at Bangkok (1413 m.), in the Philippine
Islands (about 1450 m.), in Ceylon (2058 m.) and in West and South
Australia (from 1300 to 2250 m.). On no other occasion have sound-waves
ever been perceived at anything like the extreme distances to which the
detonations of Krakatoa reached.

Not less manifest and far more serious were the effects of the
successive explosions of the volcano upon the waters of the ocean. A
succession of waves was generated which appear to have been of two
kinds, long waves with periods of more than an hour, and shorter but
higher waves, with irregular and much briefer intervals. The greatest
disturbance, probably resulting from a combination of both kinds of
waves, reached a height of about 50 ft. The destruction caused by the
rush of such a body of sea-water along the coasts and low islands was
enormous. All vessels lying in harbour or near the shore were stranded,
the towns, villages and settlements close to the sea were either at
once, or by successive inundations, entirely destroyed, and more than
36,000 human beings perished. The sea-waves travelled to vast distances
from the centre of propagation. The long wave reached Cape Horn (7818
geographical miles) and possibly the English Channel (11,040 m.). The
shorter waves reached Ceylon and perhaps Mauritius (2900 m.).

  See R. D. M. Verbeek, _Krakatau_ (Batavia, 1886); "The Eruption of
  Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena," _Report of the Krakatoa Committee
  of the Royal Society_ (London, 1888).




KRAKEN, in Norwegian folk-lore, a sea-monster, believed to haunt the
coasts of Norway. It was described in 1752 by the Norwegian bishop
Pontoppidan as having a back about a mile and a half round and a body
which showed above the sea like an island, and its arms were long enough
to enclose the largest ship. The further assertion that the kraken
darkened the water around it by an excretion suggests that the myth was
based on the appearance of some gigantic cuttle-fish.

  See J. Gibson, _Monsters of the Sea_ (1887); A. S. Packard, "Colossal
  Cuttle-fishes," _American Naturalist_ (Salem, 1873), vol. vii.; A. E.
  Verrill, "The Colossal Cephalopods of the Western Atlantic," in
  _American Naturalist_ (Salem, 1875), vol. ix.; and "Gigantic Squids,"
  in _Trans. of Connecticut Academy_ (1879), vol. v.




KRALYEVO (sometimes written KRALJEVO or KRALIEVO), a city of Servia, and
capital of a department bearing the same name. Kralyevo is built beside
the river Ibar, 4 m. W. of its confluence with the Servian Morava; and
in the midst of an upland valley, between the Kotlenik Mountains, on the
north, and the Stolovi Mountains, on the south. Formerly known as
Karanovats, Kralyevo received its present name, signifying "the King's
Town," from King Milan (1868-1889), who also made it a bishopric,
instead of Chachak, 22 m. W. by N. Kralyevo is a garrison town, with a
prefecture, court of first instance, and an agricultural school. But by
far its most interesting feature is the Coronation church belonging to
Jicha monastery. Here six or seven kings are said to have been crowned.
The church is Byzantine in style, and has been partially restored; but
the main tower dates from the year 1210, when it was founded by St Sava,
the patron saint of Servia. Pop. (1900), about 3600.

The famous monastery of Studenitsa, 24 m. S. by W. of Kralyevo, stands
high up among the south-western mountains, overlooking the Studenitsa, a
tributary of the Ibar. It consists of a group of old-fashioned timber
and plaster buildings, a tall belfry, and a diminutive church of white
marble, founded in 1190 by King Stephen Nemanya, who himself turned monk
and was canonized as St Simeon. The carvings round the north, south and
west doors have been partially defaced by the Turks. The inner walls are
decorated with Byzantine frescoes, among which only a painting of the
Last Supper, and the portraits of five saints, remain unrestored. The
dome and narthex are modern additions. Besides the silver shrine of St
Simeon, many gold and silver ornaments, church vessels and old
manuscripts, there are a set of vestments and a reliquary, believed by
the monks to have been the property of St Sava.




KRANTZ (or CRANTZ), ALBERT (c. 1450-1517), German historian, was a
native of Hamburg. He studied law, theology and history at Rostock and
Cologne, and after travelling through western and southern Europe was
appointed professor, first of philosophy and subsequently of theology,
in the university of Rostock, of which he was rector in 1482. In 1493 he
returned to Hamburg as theological lecturer, canon and prebendary in the
cathedral. By the senate of Hamburg he was employed on more than one
diplomatic mission abroad, and in 1500 he was chosen by the king of
Denmark and the duke of Holstein as arbiter in their dispute regarding
the province of Dithmarschen. As dean of the cathedral chapter, to which
office he was appointed in 1508, Krantz applied himself with zeal to the
reform of ecclesiastical abuses, but, though opposed to various
corruptions connected with church discipline, he had little sympathy
with the drastic measures of Wycliffe or Huss. With Luther's protest
against the abuse of Indulgences he was in general sympathy, but with
the reformer's later attitude he could not agree. When, on his
death-bed, he heard of the ninety-five theses, he is said, on good
authority, to have exclaimed: "Brother, Brother, go into thy cell and
say, God have mercy upon me!" Krantz died on the 7th of December 1517.

  Krantz was the author of a number of historical works which for the
  period when they were written are characterized by exceptional
  impartiality and research. The principal of these are _Chronica
  regnorum aquilonarium Daniae, Sueciae, et Norvagiae_ (Strassburg,
  1546); _Vandalia, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera origine_, &c.
  (Cologne, 1518); _Saxonia_ (1520); and _Metropolis, sive Historia de
  ecclesiis sub Carolo Magno in Saxonia_ (Basel, 1548). See life by N.
  Wilckens (Hamburg, 1722).




KRASNOVODSK, a seaport of Russian Transcaspia, on the N. shore of
Balkhan or Krasnovodsk Bay, on the S. side of the Caspian Sea, opposite
to Baku, and at 69 ft. below sea-level. Pop. (1897), 6359. It is
defended by a fort. Here begins the Transcaspian railway to Merv and
Bokhara. There is a fishing industry, and salt and sulphur are
obtained. Krasnovodsk, which is the capital of the Transcaspian
province, was founded in 1869.




KRASNOYARSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, capital of the government of
Yeniseisk, on the left bank of the Yenisei River, at its confluence with
the Kacha, and on the highway from Moscow to Irkutsk, 670 m. by rail
N.W. from the latter. Pop. (1900), 33,337. It has a municipal museum and
a railway technical school. It was founded by Cossacks in 1628, and
during the early years of its existence it was more than once besieged
by the Tatars and the Kirghiz. Its commercial importance depends
entirely upon the gold-washings of the Yeniseisk district. Brick-making,
soap-boiling, tanning and iron-founding are carried on. The climate is
very cold, but dry. The Yenisei River is frozen here for 160 days in the
year.




KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS (1812-1887), Polish novelist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Warsaw on the 28th of July 1812, of an
aristocratic family. He showed a precocious talent for authorship,
beginning his literary career with a volume of sketches from society as
early as 1829, and for more than half a century scarcely ever
intermitting his literary production, except during a period of
imprisonment upon a charge of complicity in the insurrection of 1831. He
narrowly escaped being sent to Siberia, but, rescued by the intercession
of powerful friends, he settled upon his landed property near Grodno,
and devoted himself to literature with such industry that a mere
selection from his fiction alone, reprinted at Lemberg from 1871 to
1875, occupies 102 volumes. He was thus the most conspicuous literary
figure of his day in Poland. His extreme fertility was suggestive of
haste and carelessness, but he declared that the contrivance of his plot
gave him three times as much trouble as the composition of his novel.
Apart from his gifts as a story-teller, he did not possess extraordinary
mental powers; the "profound thoughts" culled from his writings by his
admiring biographer Bohdanowicz are for the most part mere truisms. His
copious invention is nevertheless combined with real truth to nature,
especially evinced in the beautiful little story of _Jermola the Potter_
(1857), from which George Eliot appears to have derived the idea of
_Silas Marner_, though she can only have known it at second hand.
Compared with the exquisite art of _Silas Marner_, _Jermola_ appears
rude and unskilful, but it is not on this account the less touching in
its fidelity to the tenderest elements of human nature. Kraszewski's
literary activity falls into two well-marked epochs, the earlier when,
residing upon his estate, he produced romances like _Jermola_, _Ulana_
(1843), _Kordecki_ (1852), devoid of any special tendency, and that
after 1863, when the suspicions of the Russian government compelled him
to settle in Dresden. To this period belong several political novels
published under the pseudonym of _Boleslawita_, historical fictions such
as _Countess Cosel_, and the "culture" romances _Morituri_ (1874-1875)
and _Resurrecturi_ (1876), by which he is perhaps best known out of his
own country. In 1884 he was accused of plotting against the German
government and sentenced to seven years' imprisonment in a fortress, but
was released in 1886, and withdrew to Geneva, where he died on the 19th
of March 1887. His remains were brought to Poland and interred at
Cracow. Kraszewski was also a poet and dramatist; his most celebrated
poem is his epic _Anafielas_ (3 vols., 1840-1843) on the history of
Lithuania. He was indefatigable as literary critic, editor and
translator, wrote several historical works, and was conspicuous as a
restorer of the study of national archaeology in Poland. Among his most
valuable works were _Litwa_ (Warsaw, 2 vols., 1847-1850), a collection
of Lithuanian antiquities; and an aesthetic history of Poland (Posen, 3
vols., 1873-1875).     (R. G.)




KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781-1832), German philosopher, was
born at Eisenberg on the 4th of May 1781, and died at Munich on the 27th
of September 1832. Educated at first at Eisenberg, he proceeded to Jena,
where he studied philosophy under Hegel and Fichte and became
_privatdozent_ in 1802. In the same year, with characteristic
imprudence, he married a wife without dowry. Two years after, lack of
pupils compelled him to move to Rudolstadt and later to Dresden, where
he gave lessons in music. In 1805 his ideal of a universal world-society
led him to join the Freemasons, whose principles seemed to tend in the
direction he desired. He published two books on Freemasonry, _Die drei
ältesten Kunsturkunden der Freimaurerbrüderschaft_ and _Höhere
Vergeistigung der echt überlieferten Grundsymbole der Freimaurerei_, but
his opinions drew upon him the opposition of the Masons. He lived for a
time in Berlin and became a _privatdozent_, but was unable to obtain a
professorship. He therefore proceeded to Göttingen and afterwards to
Munich, where he died of apoplexy at the very moment when the influence
of Franz von Baader had at last obtained a position for him.

One of the so-called "Philosophers of Identity," Krause endeavoured to
reconcile the ideas of a God known by Faith or Conscience and the world
as known to sense. God, intuitively known by Conscience, is not a
personality (which implies limitations), but an all-inclusive essence
(_Wesen_), which contains the Universe within itself. This system he
called _Panentheism_, a combination of Theism and Pantheism. His theory
of the world and of humanity is universal and idealistic. The world
itself and mankind, its highest component, constitute an organism
(_Gliedbau_), and the universe is therefore a divine organism
(_Wesengliedbau_). The process of development is the formation of higher
unities, and the last stage is the identification of the world with God.
The form which this development takes, according to Krause, is Right or
the Perfect Law. Right is not the sum of the conditions of external
liberty but of absolute liberty, and embraces all the existence of
nature, reason and humanity. It is the mode, or rationale, of all
progress from the lower to the highest unity or identification. By its
operation the reality of nature and reason rises into the reality of
humanity. God is the reality which transcends and includes both nature
and humanity. Right is, therefore, at once the dynamic and the safeguard
of progress. Ideal society results from the widening of the organic
operation of this principle from the individual man to small groups of
men, and finally to mankind as a whole. The differences disappear as the
inherent identity of structure predominates in an ever-increasing
degree, and in the final unity Man is merged in God.

The comparatively small area of Krause's influence was due partly to the
overshadowing brilliance of Hegel, and partly to two intrinsic defects.
The spirit of his thought is mystical and by no means easy to follow,
and this difficulty is accentuated, even to German readers, by the use
of artificial terminology. He makes use of germanized foreign terms
which are unintelligible to the ordinary man. His principal works are
(beside those quoted above): _Entwurf des Systems der Philosophie_
(1804); _System der Sittenlehre_ (1810); _Das Urbild der Menschheit_
(1811); and _Vorlesungen über das System der Philosophie_ (1828). He
left behind him at his death a mass of unpublished notes, part of which
has been collected and published by his disciples, H. Ahrens
(1808-1874), Leonhardi, Tiberghien and others.

  See H. S. Lindemann, _Uebersichtliche Darstellung des Lebens ...
  Krauses_ (1839); P. Hohlfeld, _Die Krausesche Philosophie_ (1879); A.
  Procksch, _Krause, ein Lebensbild nach seinen Briefen_ (1880); R.
  Eucken, _Zur Erinnerung an Krause_ (1881); B. Martin, _Krauses Leben
  und Bedeutung_ (1881), and Histories of Philosophy by Zeller,
  Windelband and Höffding.




KRAWANG, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded
E. and S. by Charibon and the Preanger, W. by Batavia, and N. by the
Java Sea, and comprising a few insignificant islands. The natives are
Sundanese, but contain a large admixture of Middle Javanese and
Bantamers in the north, where they established colonies in the 17th
century. Like the residency of Batavia, the northern half of Krawang is
flat and occasionally marshy, while the southern half is mountainous and
volcanic. Warm and cold mineral, salt and sulphur springs occur in the
hills. Salt is extracted by the government, though in smaller quantities
now than formerly. The principal products are rice, coffee, sugar,
vanilla, indigo and nutmeg. Fishing is practised along the coast and
forest culture in the hills, while the industries also include the
manufacture of coarse linen, sacks and leather tanning. Gold and silver
were formerly thought to be hidden in the Parang mountain in the
Gandasoli district south-west of Purwakarta, and mining was begun by the
Dutch East India Company in 1722. The largest part of the residency
consists of private lands, and only the Purwakarta and Krawang divisions
forming the middle and north-west sections come directly under
government control. The remainder of the residency is divided between
the Pamanukan-Chiasem lands occupying the whole eastern half of the
residency and the Tegalwaru lands in the south-western corner. The
former is owned by a company and forms the largest estate in Java. The
Tegalwaru is chiefly owned by Chinese proprietors. Purwakarta is the
capital of the residency. Subang and Pamanukan both lie at the junction
of several roads near the borders of Cheribon and are the chief centres
of activity in the east of the residency.




KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL, FREIHERR (1735-1804), Austrian soldier. Entering
the Austrian army at the age of nineteen, he arrived somewhat rapidly at
the grade of major, but it was many years before he had any opportunity
of distinguishing himself. In 1784 he suppressed a rising in
Transylvania, and in the Turkish wars he took an active part at Porczeny
and the Vulcan Pass. Made major-general in 1790, three years later he
commanded the advanced guard of the Allies operating in France. He
distinguished himself at Famars, Charleroi, Fleurus, Weissenberg, and
indeed at almost every encounter with the troops of the French Republic.
In the celebrated campaign of 1796 on the Rhine and Danube he did
conspicuous service as a corps commander. At Wetzlar he defeated Kléber,
and at Amberg and Würzburg he was largely responsible for the victory of
the archduke Charles. In the following year he was less successful,
being twice defeated on the Lahn and the Main. Kray commanded in Italy
in 1799, and reconquered from the French the plain of Lombardy. For his
victories of Verona, Mantua, Legnago and Magnano he was promoted
_Feldzeugmeister_, and he ended the campaign by further victories at
Novi and Fossano. Next year he commanded on the Rhine against Moreau.
(For the events of this memorable campaign see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
WARS.) As a consequence of the defeats he underwent at Biberach,
Messkirch, &c., Kray was driven into Ulm, but by a skilful march round
Moreau's flank succeeded in escaping to Bohemia. He was relieved of his
command by the Austrian government, and passed his remaining years in
retirement. He died in 1804. Kray was one of the best representatives of
the old Austrian army. Tied to an obsolete system and unable from habit
to realize the changed conditions of warfare, he failed, but his enemies
held him in the highest respect as a brave, skilful and chivalrous
opponent. It was he who at Altenkirchen cared for the dying Marceau, and
the white uniforms of Kray and his staff mingled with the blue of the
French in the funeral procession of the young general of the Republic.




KREMENCHUG, a town of south-west Russia, in the government of Poltava,
on the left bank of the Dnieper (which periodically overflows its
banks), 73 m. S.W. of the city of Poltava, on the Kharkov-Nikolayev
railway. Pop. (1887), 31,000; (1897, with Kryukov suburb), 58,648. The
most notable public buildings are the cathedral (built in 1808), the
arsenal and the town-hall. The town is supposed to have been founded in
1571. From its situation at the southern terminus of the navigable
course of the Dnieper, and on the highway from Moscow to Odessa, it
early acquired great commercial importance, and by 1655 it was a wealthy
town. From 1765 to 1789 it was the capital of "New Russia." It has a
suburb, Kryukov, on the right bank of the Dnieper, united with the town
by a railway bridge. Nearly all commercial transactions in salt with
White Russia are effected at Kremenchug. The town is also the centre of
the tallow trade with Warsaw; considerable quantities of timber are
floated down to this place. Nearly all the trade in the brandy
manufactured in the government of Kharkov, and destined for the
governments of Ekaterinoslav and Taurida, is concentrated here, as also
is the trade in linseed between the districts situated on the left
affluents of the Dnieper and the southern ports. Other articles of
commerce are rye, rye-flour, wheat, oats and buckwheat, which are sent
partly up the Dnieper to Pinsk, partly by land to Odessa and Berislav,
but principally to Ekaterinoslav, on light boats floated down during the
spring floods. The Dnieper is crossed at Kremenchug by a tubular bridge
1081 yds. long; there is also a bridge of boats. The manufactures
consist of carriages, agricultural machinery, tobacco, steam
flour-mills, steam saw-mills and forges.




KREMENETS (Polish, _Krzemieniec_), a town of south-west Russia, in the
government of Volhynia, 130 m. W. of Zhitomir, and 25 m. E. of Brody
railway station (Austrian Galicia). Pop. (1900), 16,534. It is situated
in a gorge of the Kremenets Hills. The Jews, who are numerous, carry on
a brisk trade in tobacco and grain exported to Galicia and Odessa. The
picturesque ruins of an old castle on a crag close by the town are
usually known as the castle of Queen Bona, i.e. Bona Sforza (wife of
Sigismund I. of Poland); it was built, however, in the 8th or 9th
century. The Mongols vainly besieged it in 1241 and 1255. From that time
Kremenets was under the dominion alternately of Lithuania and Poland,
till 1648, when it was taken by the Zaporogian Cossacks. From 1805 to
1832 its Polish lyceum was the centre of superior instruction for the
western provinces of Little Russia; but after the Polish insurrection of
1831 the lyceum was transferred to Kiev, and is now the university of
that town.




KREMS, a town of Austria, in lower Austria, 40 m. W.N.W. of Vienna by
rail. Pop. (1900), 12,657. It is situated at the confluence of the Krems
with the Danube. The manufactures comprise steel goods, mustard and
vinegar, and a special kind of white lead (_Kremser Weiss_) is prepared
from deposits in the neighbourhood. The trade is mainly in these
products and in wine and saffron. The Danube harbour of Krems is at the
adjoining town of Stein (pop., 4299).




KREMSIER, (Czech, _Kromeríz_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 37 m. E.
by N. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,991, mostly Czech. It is
situated on the March, in the fertile region of the Hanna, and not far
from the confluence of these two rivers. It is the summer residence of
the bishop of Olmütz, whose palace, surrounded by a fine park and
gardens, and containing a picture gallery, library and various
collections, forms the chief object of interest. Its industries include
the manufacture of machinery and iron-founding, brewing and
corn-milling, and there is a considerable trade in corn, cattle, fruit
and manufactures. In 1131 Kremsier was the seat of a bishopric. It
suffered considerably during the Hussite war; and in 1643 it was taken
and burned by the Swedes. After the rising of 1848 the Austrian
parliament met in the palace at Kremsier from November 1848 till March
1849. In August 1885 a meeting took place here between the Austrian and
the Russian emperors.




KREUTZER, KONRADIN (1780-1849), German musical composer, was born on the
22nd of November 1780 in Messkirch in Baden, and died on the 14th of
December 1849 in Riga. He owes his fame almost exclusively to one opera,
_Das Nachtlager von Granada_ (1834), which kept the stage for half a
century in spite of the changes in musical taste. It was written in the
style of Weber, and is remarkable especially for its flow of genuine
melody and depth of feeling. The same qualities are found in Kreutzer's
part-songs for men's voices, which at one time were extremely popular in
Germany, and are still listened to with pleasure. Amongst these "Der Tag
des Herrn" ("The Lord's Day") may be named as the most excellent.
Kreutzer was a prolific composer, and wrote a number of operas for the
theatre at Vienna, which have disappeared from the stage and are not
likely to be revived. He was from 1812 to 1816 Kapellmeister to the king
of Württemberg, and in 1840 became conductor of the opera at Cologne.
His daughter, Cecilia Kreutzer, was a singer of some renown.




KREUTZER, RUDOLPH (1766-1831), French violinist, of German extraction,
was born at Versailles, his father being a musician in the royal chapel.
Rudolph gradually became famous as a violinist, playing with great
success at various continental capitals. It was to him that in 1803
Beethoven dedicated his famous violin sonata (_op._ 47) known as the
"Kreutzer." Apart, however, from his fame as a violinist, Kreutzer was
also a prolific composer; he wrote twenty-nine operas, many of which
were successfully produced, besides nineteen violin concertos and
chamber music. He died at Geneva in 1831.




KREUZBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on
the Stober, 24 m. N.N.E. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905), 10,919. It has an
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a gymnasium and a teacher's
seminary. Here are flour-mills, distilleries, iron-works, breweries, and
manufactories of sugar and of machinery. Kreuzburg, which became a town
in 1252, was the birthplace of the novelist Gustav Freytag.




KREUZNACH (_Creuznach_), a town and watering-place of Germany, in the
Prussian Rhine province, situated on the Nahe, a tributary of the Rhine,
9 m. by rail S. of Bingerbrück. Pop. (1900), 21,321. It consists of the
old town on the right bank of the river, the new town on the left, and
the Bade Insel (bath island), connected by a fine stone bridge. The town
has two Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, a
commercial school and a hospital. There is a collection of Roman and
medieval antiquities, among which is preserved a fine Roman mosaic
discovered in 1893. On the Bade Insel is the Kurhaus (1872) and also the
chief spring, the Elisabethquelle, impregnated with iodine and bromine,
and prescribed for scrofulous, bronchial and rheumatic disorders. The
chief industries are marble-polishing and the manufacture of leather,
glass and tobacco. Vines are cultivated on the neighbouring hills, and
there is a trade in wine and corn.

The earliest mention of the springs of Kreuznach occurs in 1478, but it
was only in the early part of the 19th century that Dr Prieger, to whom
there is a statue in the town, brought them into prominence. Now the
annual number of visitors amounts to several thousands. Kreuznach was
evidently a Roman town, as the ruins of a Roman fortification, the
Heidenmauer, and various antiquities have been found in its immediate
neighbourhood. In the 9th century it was known as Cruciniacum, and it
had a palace of the Carolingian kings. In 1065 the emperor Henry IV.
presented it to the bishopric of Spires; in the 13th century it obtained
civic privileges and passed to the counts of Sponheim; in 1416 it became
part of the Palatinate. The town was ceded to Prussia in 1814. In 1689
the French reduced the strong castle of Kauzenberg to the ruin which now
stands on a hill above Kreuznach.

  See Schneegans, _Historisch-topographische Beschreibung Kreuznachs und
  seiner Umgebung_ (7th ed., 1904); Engelmann, _Kreuznach und seine
  Heilquellen_ (8th ed., 1890); and Stabel, _Das Solbad Kreuznach für
  Ärzte dargestellt_ (Kreuznach, 1887).




KRIEGSPIEL (KRIEGSSPIEL), the original German name, still used to some
extent in England, for the War Game (q.v.).




KRIEMHILD (_Grîmhild_), the heroine of the Nibelungenlied and wife of
the hero Siegfried. The name (from O. H. Ger. _grîma_, a mask or helm,
and _hiltja_ or _hilta_, war) means "the masked warrior woman," and has
been taken to prove her to have been originally a mythical, daemonic
figure, an impersonation of the powers of darkness and of death. In the
north, indeed, the name _Grimhildr_ continued to have a purely mythical
character and to be applied only to daemonic beings; but in Germany, the
original home of the Nibelungen myth, it certainly lost all trace of
this significance, and in the _Nibelungenlied_ Kriemhild is no more than
a beautiful princess, the daughter of King Dancrât and Queen Uote, and
sister of the Burgundian kings Gunther, Giselhêr and Gêrnôt, the masters
of the Nibelungen hoard. As she appears in the Nibelungen legend,
however, Kriemhild would seem to have an historical origin, as the wife
of Attila, king of the Huns, as well as sister of the Nibelung kings.
According to Jordanes (c. 49), who takes his information from the
contemporary and trustworthy account of Priscus, Attila died of a
violent hemorrhage at night, as he lay beside a girl named Ildico (i.e.
O. H. Ger. Hildikô). The story got abroad that he had perished by the
hand of a woman in revenge for her relations slain by him; according to
some (e.g. Saxo Poeta and the Quedlinburg chronicle) it was her father
whom she revenged; but when the treacherous overthrow of the Burgundians
by Attila had become a theme for epic poets, she figured as a Burgundian
princess, and her act as done in revenge for her brothers. Now the name
Hildikô is the diminutive of Hilda or Hild, which again--in accordance
with a custom common enough--may have been used as an abbreviation of
Grîmhild (cf. _Hildr_ for _Brynhildr_). It has been suggested (Symons,
_Heldensage_, p. 55) that when the legend of the overthrow of the
Burgundians, which took place in 437, became attached to that of the
death of Attila (453), Hild, the supposed sister of the Burgundian
kings, was identified with the daemonic Grîmhild, the sister of the
mythical Nibelung brothers, and thus helped the process by which the
Nibelung myth became fused with the historical story of the fall of the
Burgundian kingdom. The older story, according to which Grîmhild slays
her husband Attila in revenge for her brothers, is preserved in the
Norse tradition, though Grîmhild's part is played by Gudrun, a change
probably due to the fact, mentioned above, that the name Grîmhild still
retained in the north its sinister significance. The name of Grîmhild is
transferred to Gudrun's mother, the "wise wife," a semi-daemonic figure,
who brews the potion that makes Sigurd forget his love for Brunhild and
his plighted troth. In the _Nibelungenlied_, however, the primitive
supremacy of the blood-tie has given place to the more modern idea of
the supremacy of the passion of love, and Kriemhild marries Attila
(Etzel) in order to compass the death of her brothers, in revenge for
the murder of Siegfried. Theodor Abeling, who is disposed to reject or
minimize the mythical origins, further suggests a confusion of the story
of Attila's wife Ildico with that of the murder of Sigimund the
Burgundian by the sons of Chrothildis, wife of Clovis. (See
NIBELUNGENLIED.)

  See B. Symons, _Germanische Heldensage_ (Strassburg, 1905); F. Zarnke,
  _Das Nibelungenlied_, p. ii. (Leipzig, 1875); T. Abeling, _Einleitung
  in das Nibelungenlied_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1909).     (W. A. P.)




KRILOFF (or KRUILOV), IVAN ANDREEVICH (1768-1844), the great national
fabulist of Russia, was born on the 14th of February 1768, at Moscow,
but his early years were spent at Orenburg and Tver. His father, a
distinguished military officer, died in 1779; and young Kriloff was left
with no richer patrimony than a chest of old books, to be brought up by
the exertions of a heroic mother. In the course of a few years his
mother removed to St Petersburg, in the hope of securing a government
pension; and there Kriloff obtained a post in the civil service, but he
gave it up immediately after his mother's death in 1788. Already in 1783
he had sold to a bookseller a comedy of his own composition, and by this
means had procured for himself the works of Molière, Racine, Boileau;
and now, probably under the influence of these writers, he produced
_Philomela_ and _Cleopatra_, which gave him access to the dramatic
circle of Knyazhin. Several attempts he made to start a literary
magazine met with little success; but, together with his plays, they
served to make the author known in society. For about four years
(1797-1801) Kriloff lived at the country seats of Prince Sergius
Galitzin, and when the prince was appointed military governor of Livonia
he accompanied him as official secretary. Of the years which follow his
resignation of this post little is known, the common opinion being that
he wandered from town to town under the influence of a passion for
card-playing. Before long he found his place as a fabulist, the first
collection of his _Fables_, 23 in number, appearing in 1809. From 1812
to 1841 he held a congenial appointment in the Imperial Public
Library--first as assistant, and then as head of the Russian books
department. He died on the 21st of November 1844. His statue in the
Summer Garden is one of the finest monuments in St Petersburg.

Honours were showered upon Kriloff while he yet lived: the Academy of
Sciences admitted him a member in 1811, and bestowed upon him its gold
medal; in 1838 a great festival was held under imperial sanction to
celebrate the jubilee of his first appearance as an author; and the
emperor assigned him a handsome pension. Before his death about 77,000
copies of his Fables had found sale in Russia; and his wisdom and humour
had become the common possession of the many. He was at once poet and
sage. His fables for the most part struck root in some actual event, and
they told at once by their grip and by their beauty. Though he began as
a translator and imitator he soon showed himself a master of invention,
who found abundant material in the life of his native land. To the
Russian ear his verse is of matchless quality; while word and phrase are
direct, simple and eminently idiomatic, colour and cadence vary with the
theme.

  A collected edition of Kriloff's works appeared at St Petersburg,
  1844. Of the numerous editions of his _Fables_, which have been often
  translated, may be mentioned that illustrated by Trutovski, 1872. The
  author's life has been written in Russian by Pletneff, by Lebanoff and
  by Grot, _Liter, zhizn Kruilova_. "Materials" for his life are
  published in vol. vi. of the _Sbornik Statei_ of the literary
  department of the Academy of Sciences. W. R. S. Ralston prefixed an
  excellent sketch to his English prose version of the _Fables_ (1868;
  2nd ed. 1871). Another translation, by T. H. Harrison, appeared in
  1883.




KRISHNA (the Dark One), an incarnation of Vishnu, or rather the form in
which Vishnu himself is the most popular object of worship throughout
northern India. In origin, Krishna, like Rama, was undoubtedly a deified
hero of the Kshatriya caste. In the older framework of the _Mahabharata_
he appears as a great chieftain and ally of the Pandava brothers; and it
is only in the interpolated episode of the _Bhagavad-gita_ that he is
identified with Vishnu and becomes the revealer of the doctrine of
_bhakti_ or religious devotion. Of still later date are the popular
developments of the modern cult of Krishna associated with Radha, as
found in the _Vishnu Purana_. Here he is represented as the son of a
king saved from a slaughter of the innocents, brought up by a cowherd,
sporting with the milkmaids, and performing miraculous feats in his
childhood. The scene is laid in the neighbourhood of Muttra, on the
right bank of the Jumna, where the whole country to the present day is
holy ground. Another place associated with incidents of his later life
is Dwarka, the westernmost point in the peninsula of Kathiawar. The two
most famous preachers of Krishna-worship and founders of sects in his
honour were Vallabha and Chaitanya, both born towards the close of the
15th century. The followers of the former are now found chiefly in
Rajputana and Gujarat. They are known as Vallabhacharyas, and their
_gosains_ or high priests as maharajas, to whom semi-divine honours are
paid. The licentious practices of this sect were exposed in a lawsuit
before the high court at Bombay in 1862. Chaitanya was the Vaishnav
reformer of Bengal, with his home at Nadiya. A third influential
Krishna-preacher of the 19th century was Swami Narayan, who was
encountered by Bishop Heber in Gujarat, where his followers at this day
are numerous and wealthy. Among the names of Krishna are _Gopal_, the
cowherd; _Gopinath_, the lord of the milkmaids; and _Mathuranath_, the
lord of Muttra. His legitimate consort was Rukmini, daughter of the king
of Berar; but Radha is always associated with him in his temples. (See
HINDUISM.)




KRISHNAGAR, a town of British India, headquarters of Nadia district in
Bengal, situated on the left bank of the river Jalangi and connected
with Ranaghat, on the Eastern Bengal railway, by a light railway. Pop.
(1901), 24,547. It is the residence of the raja of Nadia and contains a
government college. Coloured clay figures are manufactured.




KRISTIANSTAD (CHRISTIANSTAD), a port of Sweden, chief town of the
district (_län_) of Kristianstad, on a peninsula in Lake Sjövik, an
expansion of the river Helge, 10 m. from the Baltic. Pop. (1900),
10,318. Its harbour, custom-house, &c., are at Åhus at the mouth of the
river. It is among the first twelve manufacturing towns of Sweden as
regards value of output, having engineering works, flour-mills,
distilleries, weaving mills and sugar factories. Granite and wood-pulp
are exported, and coal and grain imported. The town is the seat of the
court of appeal for the provinces of Skane and Blekinge. It was founded
and fortified in 1614 by Christian IV. of Denmark, who built the fine
ornate church. The town was ceded to Sweden in 1658, retaken by
Christian V. in 1676, and again acquired by Sweden in 1678.




KRIVOY ROG, a town of south Russia, in the government of Kherson, on the
Ingulets River, near the station of the same name on the Ekaterinoslav
railway, 113 m. S.W. of the city of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900), about
10,000. It is the centre of a district very rich in minerals, obtained
from a narrow stretch of crystalline schists underlying the Tertiary
deposits. Iron ores (60 to 70% of iron), copper ores, colours, brown
coal, graphite, slate, and lithographic stone are obtained--nearly
2,000,000 tons of iron ore annually.




KROCHMAL, NAHMAN (1785-1840), Jewish scholar, was born at Brody in
Galicia in 1785. He was one of the pioneers in the revival of Jewish
learning which followed on the age of Moses Mendelssohn. His chief work
was the _Moreh Nebuche hazeman_ ("Guide for the Perplexed of the Age"),
a title imitated from that of the 12th-century "Guide for the Perplexed"
of Maimonides (q.v.). This book was not published till after the
author's death, when it was edited by Zunz (1851). The book is a
philosophy of Jewish history, and has a double importance. On the one
side it was a critical examination of the Rabbinic literature and much
influenced subsequent investigators. On the other side, Krochmal, in the
words of N. Slouschz, "was the first Jewish scholar who views Judaism,
not as a distinct and independent entity, but as a part of the whole of
civilization." Krochmal, under Hegelian influences, regarded the
nationality of Israel as consisting in its religious genius, its
spiritual gifts. Thus Krochmal may be called the originator of the idea
of the mission of the Jewish people, "cultural Zionism" as it has more
recently been termed. He died at Tarnopol in 1840.

  See S. Schechter, _Studies in Judaism_ (1896), pp. 56 seq.; N.
  Slouschz, _Renascence of Hebrew Literature_ (1909), pp. 63 seq.
       (I. A.)




KRONENBERG, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine Province, 6 m. S.W.
from Elberfeld, with which it is connected by railway and by an electric
tramway line. Pop. (1905), 11,340. It is a scattered community,
consisting of an agglomeration of seventy-three different hamlets. It
has a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, a handsome modern
town-hall and considerable industries, consisting mainly of steel and
iron manufactures.




KRONSTADT or CRONSTADT, a strongly fortified seaport town of Russia, the
chief naval station of the Russian fleet in the northern seas, and the
seat of the Russian admiralty. Pop. (1867), 45,115; (1897), 59,539. It
is situated on the island of Kotlin, near the head of the Gulf of
Finland, 20 m. W. of St Petersburg, of which it is the chief port, in
59° 59´ 30´´ N. and 29° 46´ 30´´ E. Kronstadt, always strong, has been
thoroughly refortified on modern principles. The old "three-decker"
forts, five in number, which formerly constituted the principal defences
of the place, and defied the Anglo-French fleets during the Crimean War,
are now of secondary importance. From the plans of Todleben a new fort,
Constantine, and four batteries were constructed (1856-1871) to defend
the principal approach, and seven batteries to cover the shallower
northern channel. All these modern fortifications are low and thickly
armoured earthworks, powerfully armed with heavy Krupp guns in turrets.
The town itself is surrounded with an _enceinte_. The island of Kotlin,
or Kettle (Finn., _Retusari_, or Rat Island) in general outline forms an
elongated triangle, 7½ m. in length by about 1 in breadth, with its base
towards St Petersburg. The eastern or broad end is occupied by the town
of Kronstadt, and shoals extend for a mile and a half from the western
point of the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken lighthouse is
built. The island thus divides the seaward approach to St Petersburg
into two channels; that on the northern side is obstructed by shoals
which extend across it from Kotlin to Lisynos on the Finnish mainland,
and is only passable by vessels drawing less than 15 ft. of water; the
southern channel, the highway to the capital, is narrowed by a spit
which projects from opposite Oranienbaum on the Russian mainland, and,
lying close to Kronstadt, has been strongly guarded by batteries. The
approach to the capital has been greatly facilitated by the construction
in 1875-1885 of a canal, 23 ft. deep, through the shallows. The town of
Kronstadt is built on level ground, and is thus exposed to inundations,
from one of which it suffered in 1824. On the south side of the town
there are three harbours--the large western or merchant harbour, the
western flank of which is formed by a great mole joining the
fortifications which traverse the breadth of the island on this side;
the middle harbour, used chiefly for fitting out and repairing vessels;
and the eastern or war harbour for vessels of the Russian navy. The
Peter and Catherine canals, communicating with the merchant and middle
harbours, traverse the town. Between them stood the old Italian palace
of Prince Menshikov, the site of which is now occupied by the pilot
school. Among other public buildings are the naval hospital, the British
seaman's hospital (established in 1867), the civic hospital, admiralty
(founded 1785), arsenal, dockyards and foundries, school of marine
engineering, the cathedral of St Andrew, and the English church. The
port is ice-bound for 140 to 160 days in the year, from the beginning of
December till April. A very large proportion of the inhabitants are
sailors, and large numbers of artisans are employed in the dockyards.
Kronstadt was founded in 1710 by Peter the Great, who took the island of
Kotlin from the Swedes in 1703, when the first fortifications were
constructed.     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)




KROONSTAD, a town of Orange River Colony, 127 m. by rail N.E. of
Bloemfontein and 130 m. S.W. of Johannesburg. Pop. (1904), 7191, of whom
3708 were whites. Kroonstad lies 4489 ft. above the sea and is built on
the banks of the Valsch River, a perennial tributary of the Vaal. It is
a busy town, being the centre of a rich agricultural district and of the
diamond and coal-mining industry of the north-western parts of the
colony. It is also a favourite residential place and resort of visitors
from Johannesburg. It enjoys a healthy climate, affords opportunities
for boating rare in South Africa, and boasts a golf-links. The principal
building is the Dutch Reformed church in the centre of the market
square.

On the capture of Bloemfontein by the British during the Anglo-Boer War
of 1899-1902 Kroonstad was chosen by the Orange Free State Boers as the
capital of the state, a dignity it held from the 13th of March to the
11th of May 1900. On the following day the town was occupied by Lord
Roberts. The linking of the town in 1906 with the Natal system made the
route via Kroonstad the shortest railway connexion between Cape Town and
Durban. Another line goes N.W. from Kroonstad to Klerksdorp, passing (17
miles) the Lace diamond mine and (45 miles) the coal mines at
Vierfontein.




KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH, PRINCE (1842-   ), Russian geographer,
author and revolutionary, was born at Moscow in 1842. His father, Prince
Alexei Petrovich Kropotkin, belonged to the old Russian nobility; his
mother, the daughter of a general in the Russian army, had remarkable
literary and liberal tastes. At the age of fifteen Prince Peter
Kropotkin, who had been designed by his father for the army, entered the
Corps of Pages at St Petersburg (1857). Only a hundred and fifty
boys--mostly children of the nobility belonging to the court--were
educated in this privileged corps, which combined the character of a
military school endowed with special rights and of a Court institution
attached to the imperial household. Here he remained till 1862, reading
widely on his own account, and giving special attention to the works of
the French encyclopaedists and to modern French history. Before he left
Moscow Prince Kropotkin had developed an interest in the condition of
the Russian peasantry, and this interest increased as he grew older. The
years 1857-1861 witnessed a rich growth in the intellectual forces of
Russia, and Kropotkin came under the influence of the new
Liberal-revolutionary literature, which indeed largely expressed his own
aspirations. In 1862 he was promoted from the Corps of Pages to the
army. The members of the corps had the prescriptive right of choosing
the regiment to which they would be attached. Kropotkin had never
wished for a military career, but, as he had not the means to enter the
St Petersburg University, he elected to join a Siberian Cossack regiment
in the recently annexed Amur district, where there were prospects of
administrative work. For some time he was aide de camp to the governor
of Transbaikalia at Chita, subsequently being appointed attaché for
Cossack affairs to the governor-general of East Siberia at Irkutsk.
Opportunities for administrative work, however, were scanty, and in 1864
Kropotkin accepted charge of a geographical survey expedition, crossing
North Manchuria from Transbaikalia to the Amur, and shortly afterwards
was attached to another expedition which proceeded up the Sungari River
into the heart of Manchuria. Both these expeditions yielded most
valuable geographical results. The impossibility of obtaining any real
administrative reforms in Siberia now induced Kropotkin to devote
himself almost entirely to scientific exploration, in which he continued
to be highly successful. In 1867 he quitted the army and returned to St
Petersburg, where he entered the university, becoming at the same time
secretary to the physical geography section of the Russian Geographical
Society. In 1873 he published an important contribution to science, a
map and paper in which he proved that the existing maps of Asia entirely
misrepresented the physical formation of the country, the main
structural lines being in fact from south-west to north-east, not from
north to south, or from east to west as had been previously supposed. In
1871 he explored the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden for the
Russian Geographical Society, and while engaged in this work was offered
the secretaryship of that society. But by this time he had determined
that it was his duty not to work at fresh discoveries but to aid in
diffusing existing knowledge among the people at large, and he
accordingly refused the offer, and returned to St Petersburg, where he
joined the revolutionary party. In 1872 he visited Switzerland, and
became a member of the International Workingmen's Association at Geneva.
The socialism of this body was not, however, advanced enough for his
views, and after studying the programme of the more violent Jura
Federation at Neuchâtel and spending some time in the company of the
leading members, he definitely adopted the creed of anarchism (q.v.)
and, on returning to Russia, took an active part in spreading the
nihilist propaganda. In 1874 he was arrested and imprisoned, but escaped
in 1876 and went to England, removing after a short stay to Switzerland,
where he joined the Jura Federation. In 1877 he went to Paris, where he
helped to start the socialist movement, returning to Switzerland in
1878, where he edited for the Jura Federation a revolutionary newspaper,
_Le Révolté_, subsequently also publishing various revolutionary
pamphlets. Shortly after the assassination of the tsar Alexander II.
(1881) Kropotkin was expelled from Switzerland by the Swiss government,
and after a short stay at Thonon (Savoy) went to London, where he
remained for nearly a year, returning to Thonon towards the end of 1882.
Shortly afterwards he was arrested by the French government, and, after
a trial at Lyons, sentenced by a police-court magistrate (under a
special law passed on the fall of the Commune) to five years'
imprisonment, on the ground that he had belonged to the International
Workingmen's Association (1883). In 1886 however, as the result of
repeated agitation on his behalf in the French Chamber, he was released,
and settled near London.

Prince Kropotkin's authority as a writer on Russia is universally
acknowledged, and he has contributed largely to the _Encyclopaedia
Britannica_. Among his other works may be named _Paroles d'un révolté_
(1884); _La Conquête du pain_ (1888); _L'Anarchie: sa philosophie, son
idéal_ (1896); _The State, its Part in History_ (1898); _Fields,
Factories and Workshops_ (1899); _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_ (1900);
_Mutual Aid, a Factor of Evolution_ (1902); _Modern Science and
Anarchism_ (Philadelphia, 1903); _The Desiccation of Asia_ (1904); The
Orography of Asia (1904); and _Russian Literature_ (1905).




KROTOSCHIN (in Polish, _Krotoszyn_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Posen, 32 m. S.E. of Posen. Pop. (1900), 12,373. It has
three churches, a synagogue, steam saw-mills, and a steam brewery, and
carries on trade in grain and seeds. The castle of Krotoschin is the
chief place of a mediatized principality which was formed in 1819 out of
the domains of the Prussian crown and was granted to the prince of Thurn
and Taxis in compensation for the relinquishment by him of the monopoly
of the Prussian postal system, formerly held by his family.




KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA, BARONESS VON (1764-1824), Russian religious
mystic and author, was born at Riga in Livonia on the 11th of November
1764. Her father, Otto Hermann von Vietinghoff, who had fought as a
colonel in Catherine II.'s wars, was one of the two councillors for
Livonia and a man of immense wealth; her mother, _née_ Countess Anna
Ulrica von Münnich, was a grand-daughter of the celebrated field
marshal. Juliana, as she was usually called, was one of a numerous
family. Her education, according to her own account, consisted of
lessons in French spelling, deportment and sewing; and at the age of
eighteen (Sept. 29, 1782) she was married to Baron Burckhard Alexis
Constantin von Krüdener, a widower sixteen years her senior. The baron,
a diplomatist of distinction, was cold and reserved; the baroness was
frivolous, pleasure-loving, and possessed of an insatiable thirst for
attention and flattery; and the strained relations due to this
incompatibility of temper were embittered by her limitless extravagance,
which constantly involved herself and her husband in financial
difficulties. At first indeed all went well. On the 31st of January 1784
a son was born to them, named Paul after the grand-duke Paul (afterwards
emperor), who acted as god-father. The same year Baron Krüdener became
ambassador at Venice,[1] where he remained until transferred to
Copenhagen in 1786.

In 1787 the birth of a daughter (Juliette) aggravated the nervous
disorders from which the baroness had for some time been suffering, and
it was decided that she must go to the south for her health; she
accordingly left, with her infant daughter and her step-daughter Sophie.
In 1789 she was at Paris when the states general met; a year later, at
Montpellier, she met a young cavalry captain, Charles Louis de
Frégeville, and a passionate attachment sprang up between them. They
returned together to Copenhagen, where the baroness told her husband
that her heart could no longer be his. The baron was coldly kind; he
refused to hear of a divorce and attempted to arrange a _modus vivendi_,
which was facilitated by the departure of De Frégeville for the war. All
was useless; Juliana refused to remain at Copenhagen, and, setting out
on her travels, visited Riga, St Petersburg--where her father had become
a senator[2]--Berlin, Leipzig and Switzerland. In 1798 her husband
became ambassador at Berlin, and she joined him there. But the stiff
court society of Prussia was irksome to her; money difficulties
continued; and by way of climax, the murder of the tsar Paul, in whose
favour Baron Krüdener had stood high, made the position of the
ambassador extremely precarious. The baroness seized the occasion to
leave for the baths of Teplitz, whence she wrote to her husband that the
doctors had ordered her to winter in the south. He died on the 14th of
June 1802, without ever having seen her again.

Meanwhile the baroness had been revelling in the intellectual society of
Coppet and of Paris. She was now thirty-six; her charms were fading, but
her passion for admiration survived. She had tried the effect of the
shawl dance, in imitation of Emma, Lady Hamilton; she now sought fame in
literature, and in 1803, after consulting Châteaubriand and other
writers of distinction, published her _Valérie_, a sentimental romance,
of which under a thin veil of anonymity she herself was the heroine. In
January 1804 she returned to Livonia.

At Riga occurred her "conversion." A gentleman of her acquaintance when
about to salute her fell dying at her feet. The shock overset her not
too well balanced mind; she sought for consolation, and found it in the
ministrations of her shoemaker, an ardent disciple of the Moravian
Brethren. Though she had "found peace," however, the disorder of her
nerves continued, and she was ordered by her doctor to the baths of
Wiesbaden. At Königsberg she had an interview with Queen Louise, and,
more important still, with one Adam Müller, a rough peasant, to whom the
Lord had revealed a prophetic mission to King Frederick William III.
"Chiliasm" was in the air. Napoleon was evidently Antichrist; and the
"latter days" were about to be accomplished. Under the influence of the
pietistic movement the belief was widely spread, in royal courts, in
country parsonages, in peasants' hovels: a man would be raised up "from
the north ... from the rising of the sun" (Isa. xli. 25); Antichrist
would be overthrown, and Christ would come to reign a thousand years
upon the earth. The interview determined the direction of the baroness's
religious development. A short visit to the Moravians at Herrenhut
followed; then she went, via Dresden, to Karlsruhe, to sit at the feet
of Heinrich Jung-Stilling (q.v.), the high priest of occultist pietism,
whose influence was supreme at the court of Baden and infected those of
Stockholm and St Petersburg.[3] By him she was instructed in the
chiliastic faith and in the mysteries of the supernatural world. Then,
hearing that a certain pastor in the Vosges, Jean Frédéric Fontaines,
was prophesying and working miracles, she determined to go to him. On
the 5th of June 1801, accordingly, she arrived at the Protestant
parsonage of Sainte Marie-aux-Mines, accompanied by her daughter
Juliette, her step-daughter Sophie and a Russian valet.

This remained for two years her headquarters. Fontaines, half-charlatan,
half-dupe, had introduced into his household a prophetess named Marie
Gottliebin Kummer,[4] whose visions, carefully calculated for her own
purposes, became the oracle of the divine mysteries for the baroness.
Under this influence she believed more firmly than ever in the
approaching millennium and her own mission to proclaim it. Her rank, her
reckless charities, and her exuberant eloquence produced a great effect
on the simple country folk; and when, in 1809, it was decided to found a
colony of the "elect" in order to wait for "the coming of the Lord,"
many wretched peasants sold or distributed all they possessed and
followed the baroness and Fontaines into Württemberg, where the
settlement was established at Catharinenplaisir and the château of
Bönnigheim, only to be dispersed (May 1) by an unsympathetic
government.[5] Further wanderings followed: to Lichtenthal near Baden;
to Karlsruhe and the congenial society of pietistic princesses; to Riga,
where she was present at the death-bed of her mother (Jan. 24, 1811);
then back to Karlsruhe. The influence of Fontaines, to whom she had been
"spiritually married" (Madame Fontaines being content with the part of
Martha in the household, so long as the baroness's funds lasted), had
now waned, and she had fallen under that of Johann Kaspar Wegelin
(1766-1833), a pious linen-draper of Strassburg, who taught her the
sweetness of "complete annihilation of the will and mystic death." Her
preaching and her indiscriminate charities now began to attract curious
crowds from afar; and her appearance everywhere was accompanied by an
epidemic of visions and prophesyings, which culminated in the appearance
in 1811 of the comet, a sure sign of the approaching end. In 1812 she
was at Strassburg, whence she paid more than one visit to J. F. Oberlin
(q.v.), the famous pastor of Waldbach in Steinthal (Ban de la Roche),
and where she had the glory of converting her host, Adrien de
Lazay-Marnesia, the prefect. In 1813 she was at Geneva, where she
established the faith of a band of young pietists in revolt against the
Calvinist Church authorities--notably Henri Louis Empeytaz, afterwards
destined to be the companion of her crowning evangelistic triumph. In
September 1814 she was again at Waldbach, where Empeytaz had preceded
her; and at Strassburg, where the party was joined by Franz Karl von
Berckheim, who afterwards married Juliette.[6] At the end of the year
she returned with her daughters and Empeytaz to Baden, a fateful
migration.

The empress Elizabeth of Russia was now at Karlsruhe; and she and the
pietist ladies of her entourage hoped that the emperor Alexander might
find at the hands of Madame de Krüdener the peace which an interview
with Jung-Stilling had failed to bring him. The baroness herself wrote
urgent letters to Roxane de Stourdza, sister of the tsar's Rumanian
secretary, begging her to procure an interview. There seemed to be no
result; but the correspondence paved the way for the opportunity which a
strange chance was to give her of realizing her ambition. In the spring
of 1815 the baroness was settled at Schlüchtern, a piece of Baden
territory _enclavé_ in Württemberg, busy persuading the peasants to sell
all and fly from the wrath to come. Near this, at Heilbronn, the emperor
Alexander established his headquarters on the 4th of June. That very
night the baroness sought and obtained an interview. To the tsar, who
had been brooding alone over an open Bible, her sudden arrival seemed an
answer to his prayers; for three hours the prophetess preached her
strange gospel, while the most powerful man in Europe sat, his face
buried in his hands, sobbing like a child; until at last he declared
that he had "found peace." At the tsar's request she followed him to
Heidelberg and later to Paris, where she was lodged at the Hôtel
Montchenu, next door to the imperial headquarters in the Elysée Palace.
A private door connected the establishments, and every evening the
emperor went to take part in the prayer-meetings conducted by the
baroness and Empeytaz. Chiliasm seemed to have found an entrance into
the high councils of Europe, and the baroness von Krüdener had become a
political force to be reckoned with. Admission to her religious
gatherings was sought by a crowd of people celebrated in the
intellectual and social world; Châteaubriand came, and Benjamin
Constant, Madame Récamier, the duchesse de Bourbon, and Madame de Duras.
The fame of the wonderful conversion, moreover, attracted other members
of the chiliastic fraternity, among them Fontaines, who brought with him
the prophetess Marie Kummer.

In this religious forcing-house the idea of the Holy Alliance germinated
and grew to rapid maturity. On the 26th of September the portentous
proclamation, which was to herald the opening of a new age of peace and
goodwill on earth, was signed by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and
Prussia (see HOLY ALLIANCE; and EUROPE: _History_). Its authorship has
ever been a matter of dispute. Madame de Krüdener herself claimed that
she had suggested the idea, and that Alexander had submitted the draft
for her approval. This is probably correct, though the tsar later, when
he had recovered his mental equilibrium, reproved her for her
indiscretion in talking of the matter. His eyes, indeed, had begun to be
opened before he left Paris, and Marie Kummer was the unintentional
cause. At the very first séance the prophetess, whose revelations had
been praised by the baroness in extravagant terms, had the evil
inspiration to announce in her trance to the emperor that it was God's
will that he should endow the religious colony to which she belonged!
Alexander merely remarked that he had received too many such revelations
before to be impressed. The baroness's influence was shaken but not
destroyed, and before he left Paris Alexander gave her a passport to
Russia. She was not, however, destined to see him again.

She left Paris on the 22nd of October 1815, intending to travel to St
Petersburg by way of Switzerland. The tsar, however, offended by her
indiscretions and sensible of the ridicule which his relations with her
had brought upon him, showed little disposition to hurry her arrival.
She remained in Switzerland, where she presently fell under the
influence of an unscrupulous adventurer named J. G. Kellner. For months
Empeytaz, an honest enthusiast, struggled to save her from this man's
clutches, but in vain. Kellner too well knew how to flatter the
baroness's inordinate vanity: the author of the Holy Alliance could be
none other than the "woman clothed with the sun" of Rev. xii. 1. She
wandered with Kellner from place to place, proclaiming her mission,
working miracles, persuading her converts to sell all and follow her.
Crowds of beggars and rapscallions of every description gathered
wherever she went, supported by the charities squandered from the common
fund. She became a nuisance to the authorities and a menace to the
peace; Württemberg had expelled her, and the example was followed by
every Swiss canton she entered in turn. At last, in August 1817, she set
out for her estate in Livonia, accompanied by Kellner and a remnant of
the elect.

The emperor Alexander having opened the Crimea to German and Swiss
chiliasts in search of a land of promise, the baroness's son-in-law
Berckheim and his wife now proceeded thither to help establish the new
colonies. In November 1820 the baroness at last went herself to St
Petersburg, where Berckheim was lying ill. She was there when the news
arrived of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which
opened the war of Greek independence. She at once proclaimed the divine
mission of the tsar to take up arms on behalf of Christendom. Alexander,
however, had long since exchanged her influence for that of Metternich,
and he was far from anxious to be forced into even a holy war. To the
baroness's overtures he replied in a long and polite letter, the gist of
which was that she must leave St Petersburg at once. In 1823 the death
of Kellner, whom to the last she regarded as a saint, was a severe blow
to her. Her health was failing, but she allowed herself to be persuaded
by Princess Galitzin to accompany her to the Crimea, where she had
established a Swiss colony. Here, at Karasu Bazar, she died on the 25th
of December 1824.

Sainte-Beuve said of Madame de Krüdener: "Elle avait un immense besoin
que le monde s'occupât d'elle...; l'amour propre, toujours l'amour
propre...!" A kindlier epitaph might, perhaps, be written in her own
words, uttered after the revelation of the misery of the Crimean
colonists had at last opened her eyes: "The good that I have done will
endure; the evil that I have done (for how often have I not mistaken for
the voice of God that which was no more than the result of my
imagination and my pride) the mercy of God will blot out."

  Much information about Madame de Krüdener, coloured by the author's
  views, is to be found in H. L. Empeytaz's _Notice sur Alexandre,
  empereur de Russie_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1840). The _Vie de Madame de
  Krudener_ (2 vols., Paris, 1849), by the Swiss banker and Philhellene
  J. G. Eynard, was long the standard life and contains much material,
  but is far from authoritative. In English appeared the _Life and
  Letters of Madame de Krüdener_, by Clarence Ford (London, 1893). The
  most authoritative study, based on a wealth of original research, is
  E. Muhlenbeck's _Étude sur les origines de la Sainte-Alliance_ (Paris,
  1909), in which numerous references are given.     (W. A. P.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] A portrait of Madame de Krüdener and her son as "Venus disarming
    Cupid," by Angelica Kauffmann, of this period, is in the Louvre.

  [2] He died while she was there in 1792.

  [3] The consorts of Alexander I. of Russia and of Gustavus Adolphus
    IV. of Sweden were princesses of Baden.

  [4] She had been condemned some years previously in Württemberg to
    the pillory and three years' imprisonment as a "swindler"
    (_Betrügerin_), on her own confession. Her curious history is given
    in detail by M. Muhlenbeck.

  [5] In 1809 it was obviously inconvenient to have people proclaiming
    Napoleon as "the Beast."

  [6] Berckheim had been French commissioner of police in Mainz and had
    abandoned his post in 1813.




KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT (1770-1842), German philosopher and author, was
born at Radis in Prussia on the 22nd of June 1770, and died at Leipzig
on the 12th of January 1842. He studied at Wittenberg under Reinhard and
Jehnichen, at Jena under Reinhold, and at Göttingen. From 1801 to 1804
he was professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, after which he
succeeded Kant in the chair of logic and metaphysics at the university
of Königsberg. From 1809 till his death he was professor of philosophy
at Leipzig. He was a prolific writer on a great variety of subjects, in
all of which he excelled as a popularizer rather than as an original
thinker. In philosophy his method was psychological; he attempted to
explain the Ego by examining the nature of its reflection upon the facts
of consciousness. Being is known to us only through its presentation in
consciousness; consciousness only in its relation to Being. Both Being
and Consciousness, however, are immediately known to us, as also the
relation existing between them. By this Transcendental Synthesis he
proposed to reconcile Realism and Idealism, and to destroy the
traditional difficulty between transcendental, or pure, thought and
"things in themselves." Apart from the intrinsic value of his work, it
is admitted that it had the effect of promoting the study of philosophy
and of stimulating freedom of thought in religion and politics. His
principal works are: _Briefe über den neuesten Idealismus_ (1801);
_Versuch über die Principien der philosophischen Erkenntniss_ (1801);
_Fundamentalphilosophie_ (1803); _System der theoretischen Philosophie_
(1806-1810), _System der praktischen Philosophie_ (1817-1819); _Handbuch
der Philosophie_ (1820; 3rd ed., 1828); _Logik oder Denklehre_ (1827);
_Geschichte der Philos. alter Zeit_ (1815; 2nd ed., 1825); _Allgemeines
Handwörterbuch der philosophischen Wissenschaften_ (1827-1834; 2nd ed.,
1832-1838); _Universal-philosophische Vorlesungen für Gebildete
beiderlei Geschlechts_. His work _Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philos.
des XIX. Jahrh._ (1835-1837) contains interesting criticisms of Hegel
and Schelling.

  See also his autobiography, _Meine Lebensreise_ (Leipzig, 2nd ed.,
  1840).




KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS (1825-1904), president of the
Transvaal Republic, was born in Colesberg, Cape Colony, on the 10th of
October 1825. His father was Caspar Jan Hendrick Kruger, who was born in
1796, and whose wife bore the name of Steyn. In his ancestry on both
sides occur Huguenot names. The founder of the Kruger family appears to
have been a German named Jacob Kruger, who in 1713 was sent with others
by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape. At the age of ten Paul
Kruger--as he afterwards came to be known--accompanied his parents in
the migration, known as the Great Trek, from the Cape Colony to the
territories north of the Orange in the years 1835-1840. From boyhood his
life was one of adventure. Brought up on the borderland between
civilization and barbarism, constantly trekking, fighting and hunting,
his education was necessarily of the most primitive character. He learnt
to read and to write, and was taught the narrowest form of Dutch
Presbyterianism. His literature was almost confined to the Bible, and
the Old Testament was preferred to the New. It is related of Kruger, as
indeed it has been said of Piet Retief and others of the early Boer
leaders, that he believed himself the object of special Divine guidance.
At about the age of twenty-five he is said to have disappeared into the
veldt, where he remained alone for several days, under the influence of
deep religious fervour. During this sojourn in the wilderness Kruger
stated that he had been especially favoured by God, who had communed
with and inspired him. Throughout his life he professed this faith in
God's will and guidance, and much of his influence over his followers is
attributable to their belief in his sincerity and in his enjoyment of
Divine favour. The Dutch Reformed Church in the Transvaal, pervaded by a
spirit and faith not unlike those which distinguished the Covenanters,
was divided in the early days into three sects. Of these the narrowest,
most puritanical, and most bigoted was the Dopper sect, to which Kruger
belonged. His Dopper following was always unswerving in its support, and
at all critical times in the internal quarrels of the state rallied
round him. The charge of hypocrisy, frequently made against Kruger--if
by this charge is meant the mere juggling with religion for purely
political ends--does not appear entirely just. The subordination of
reason to a sense of superstitious fanaticism is the keynote of his
character, and largely the explanation of his life. Where faith is so
profound as to believe the Divine guidance _all_, and the individual
intelligence _nil_, a man is able to persuade himself that any course he
chooses to take is the one he is directed to take. Where bigotry is so
blind, reason is but dust in the balance. At the same time there were
incidents in Kruger's life which but ill conform to any Biblical
standard he might choose to adopt or feel imposed upon him. Even van
Oordt, his eloquent historian and apologist, is cognisant of this fact.

When the lad, who had already taken part in fights with the Matabele and
the Zulus, was fourteen his family settled north of the Vaal and were
among the founders of the Transvaal state. At the age of seventeen Paul
found himself an assistant field cornet, at twenty he was field cornet,
and at twenty-seven held a command in an expedition against the Bechuana
chief Sechele--the expedition in which David Livingstone's mission-house
was destroyed.

In 1853 he took part in another expedition against Montsioa. When not
fighting natives in those early days Kruger was engaged in distant
hunting excursions which took him as far north as the Zambezi. In 1852
the Transvaal secured the recognition of its independence from Great
Britain in the Sand River convention. For many years after this date the
condition of the country was one bordering upon anarchy, and into the
faction strife which was continually going on Kruger freely entered. In
1856-1857 he joined M. W. Pretorius in his attempt to abolish the
district governments in the Transvaal and to overthrow the Orange Free
State government and compel a federation between the two countries. The
raid into the Free State failed; the blackest incident in connexion with
it was the attempt of the Pretorius and Kruger party to induce the
Basuto to harass the Free State forces behind, while they were attacking
them in front.

From this time forward Kruger's life is so intimately bound up with the
history of his country, and even in later years of South Africa, that a
study of that history is essential to an understanding of it (see
TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA). In 1864, when the faction fighting ended
and Pretorius was president, Kruger was elected commandant-general of
the forces of the Transvaal. In 1870 a boundary dispute arose with the
British government, which was settled by the Keate award (1871). The
decision caused so much discontent in the Transvaal that it brought
about the downfall of President Pretorius and his party; and Thomas
François Burgers, an educated Dutch minister, resident in Cape Colony,
was elected to succeed him. During the term of Burgers' presidency
Kruger appeared to great disadvantage. Instead of loyally supporting the
president in the difficult task of building up a stable state, he did
everything in his power to undermine his authority, going so far as to
urge the Boers to pay no taxes while Burgers was in office. The faction
of which he was a prominent member was chiefly responsible for bringing
about that _impasse_ in the government of the country which drew such
bitter protest from Burgers and terminated in the annexation by the
British in April 1877. At this period of Transvaal history it is
impossible to trace any true patriotism in the action of the majority of
the inhabitants. The one idea of Kruger and his faction was to oust
Burgers from office on any pretext, and, if possible, to put Kruger in
his place. When the downfall of Burgers was assured and annexation
offered itself as the alternative resulting from his downfall, it is
true that Kruger opposed it. But matters had gone too far. Annexation
became an accomplished fact, and Kruger accepted paid office under the
British government. He continued, however, so openly to agitate for the
retrocession of the country, being a member of two deputations which
went to England endeavouring to get the annexation annulled, that in
1878 Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British administrator, dismissed him
from his service. In 1880 the Boer rebellion occurred, and Kruger was
one of the famous triumvirate, of which General Piet Joubert and
Pretorius were the other members, who, after Majuba, negotiated the
terms of peace on which the Pretoria convention of August 1881 was
drafted. In 1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal, receiving
3431 votes as against 1171 recorded for Joubert.

In November 1883 President Kruger again visited England, this time for
the purpose of getting another convention. The visit was successful, the
London convention, which for years was a subject of controversy, being
granted by Lord Derby in 1884 on behalf of the British government. The
government of the Transvaal being once more in the hands of the Boers,
the country rapidly drifted towards that state of national bankruptcy
from which it had only been saved by annexation in 1877. In 1886, the
year in which the Rand mines were discovered, President Kruger was by no
means a popular man even among his own followers; as an administrator of
internal affairs he had shown himself grossly incompetent, and it was
only the specious success of his negotiations with the British
government which had retained him any measure of support. In 1888 he was
elected president for a second term of office. In 1889 Dr. Leyds, a
young Hollander, was appointed state secretary, and the system of state
monopolies around which so much corruption grew up was soon in full
course of development. The principle of government monopoly in trade
being thus established, President Kruger now turned his attention to the
further securing of Boer political monopoly. The Uitlanders were
increasing in numbers, as well as providing the state with a revenue. In
1890, 1891, 1892, and 1894 the franchise laws (which at the time of the
convention were on a liberal basis) were so modified that all Uitlanders
were practically excluded altogether. In 1893 Kruger had to face a third
presidential election, and on this occasion the opposition he had raised
among the burgers, largely by the favouritism he displayed to the
Hollander party, was so strong that it was fully anticipated that his
more liberal opponent, General Joubert, would be elected. Before the
election was decided Kruger took care to conciliate the volksraad
members, as well as to see that at all the volksraad elections, which
occurred shortly before the presidential election, his supporters were
returned, or, if not returned, that his opponents were objected to on
some trivial pretext, and by this means prevented from actually sitting
in the volksraad until the presidential election was over. The Hollander
and _concessionnaire_ influence, which had become a strong power in the
state, was all in favour of President Kruger. In spite of these facts
Kruger's position was insecure. "General Joubert was, without any doubt
whatever, elected by a very considerable majority."[1] But the figures
as announced gave Kruger a majority of about 700 votes. General Joubert
accused the government of tampering with the returns, and appealed to
the volksraad. The appeal, however, was fruitless, and Kruger retained
office. The action taken by President Kruger at this election, and his
previous actions in ousting President Burgers and in absolutely
excluding the Uitlanders from the franchise, all show that at any cost,
in his opinion, the government must remain a close corporation, and that
while he lived he must remain at the head of it.

From 1877 onward Kruger's external policy was consistently anti-British,
and on every side--in Bechuanaland, in Rhodesia, in Zululand--he
attempted to enlarge the frontiers of the Transvaal at the expense of
Great Britain. In these disputes he usually gained something, and it was
not until 1895 that he was definitely defeated in his endeavours to
obtain a seaport. His internal policy was blind, reckless and
unscrupulous, and inevitably led to disaster. It may be summed up in his
own words when replying to a deputation of Uitlanders, who desired to
obtain the legalization of the use of the English language in the
Transvaal. "This," said Kruger, "is my country; these are my laws. Those
who do not like to obey my laws can leave my country." This rejection of
the advances of the Uitlanders--by whose aid he could have built up a
free and stable republic--led to his downfall, though the failure of the
Jameson Raid in the first days of 1896 gave him a signal opportunity to
secure the safety of his country by the grant of real reforms. But the
Raid taught him no lesson of this kind, and despite the intervention of
the British government the Uitlanders' grievances were not remedied.

In 1898 Kruger was elected president of the Transvaal for the fourth and
last time. In 1899 relations between the Transvaal and Great Britain had
become so strained, by reason of the oppression of the foreign
population, that a conference was arranged at Bloemfontein between Sir
Alfred (afterwards Lord) Milner, the high commissioner, and President
Kruger. Kruger was true to his principles. At every juncture in his life
his object had been to gain for himself and his own narrow policy
everything that he could, while conceding nothing in return. It was for
this reason that he invariably failed to come to any arrangement with
Sir John Brand while the latter was president of the Free State. In
1889, the very year following President Brand's death, he was able to
make a treaty with President Reitz, his successor, which bound each of
the Boer republics to assist the other in case its independence was
menaced, unless the quarrel could be shown to be an unjust one on the
part of the state so menaced. In effect it bound the Free State to share
all the hazardous risk of the reckless anti-British Transvaal policy,
without the Free State itself receiving anything in return. Kruger thus
achieved one of the objects of his life. With such a history of apparent
success, it is not to be wondered at that the Transvaal president came
to Bloemfontein to meet Sir Alfred Milner in no mood for concession. It
is true that he made an ostensible offer on the franchise question, but
that proposal was made dependent on so many conditions that it was a
palpable sham. Every proposition which Sir Alfred Milner made was met by
the objection that it threatened the independence of the Transvaal. This
retort was President Kruger's rallying cry whenever he found himself in
the least degree pressed, either from within or without the state. To
admit Uitlanders to the franchise, to no matter how moderate a degree,
would destroy the independence of the state. In October 1899, after a
long and fruitless correspondence with the British government, war with
Great Britain was ushered in by an ultimatum from the Transvaal.
Immediately after the ultimatum Natal and the Cape Colony were invaded
by the Boers both of the Transvaal and the Free State. Yet one of the
most memorable utterances made by Kruger at the Bloemfontein conference
was couched in the following terms: "We follow out what God says,
'Accursed be he that removeth his neighbour's landmark.' As long as your
Excellency lives you will see that we shall never be the attacking party
on another man's land." The course of the war that followed is described
under TRANSVAAL. In 1900, Bloemfontein and Pretoria having been occupied
by British troops, Kruger, too old to go on commando, with the consent
of his executive proceeded to Europe, where he endeavoured to induce the
European powers to intervene on his behalf, but without success.

From this time he ceased to have any political influence. He took up his
residence at Utrecht, where he dictated a record of his career,
published in 1902 under the title of _The Memoirs of Paul Kruger_. He
died on the 14th of July 1904 at Clarens, near Vevey, on the shores of
the Lake of Geneva, whither he had gone for the sake of his health. He
was buried at Pretoria on the following 16th of December, Dingaan's Day,
the anniversary of the day in 1838 when the Boers crushed the Zulu king
Dingaan--a fight in which Kruger, then a lad of thirteen, had taken
part. Kruger was thrice married, and had a large family. His second wife
died in 1891. When he went to Europe he left his third wife in Lord
Roberts's custody at Pretoria, but she gradually failed, and died there
(July 1901). It was in her grave that the body of her husband was laid.
It is recorded that when a statue to President Kruger at Pretoria was
erected, it was by Mrs. Kruger's wish that the hat was left open at the
top, in order that the rain-water might collect there for the birds to
drink.

  See J. F. van Oordt, _P. Kruger en de opkomst d. Zuid-Afrikaansche
  Republiek_ (Amsterdam, 1898); the _Memoirs_ already mentioned; F. R.
  Statham, _Paul Kruger and his Times_ (1898); and, among works with a
  wider scope, G. M. Theal, _History of South Africa_ (for events down
  to 1872 only); Sir J. P. Fitzpatrick, _The Transvaal from Within_
  (1899); _The Times History of the War in South Africa_ (1900-9); and
  A. P. Hillier, _South African Studies_ (1900).


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, in _The Transvaal from Within_, ch. iii.




KRUGERSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 21 m. N.W. of Johannesburg by
rail. Pop. (1904), 20,073, of whom 6946 were whites. It is built on the
Witwatersrand at an elevation of 5709 ft. above the sea, and is a mining
centre of some importance. It is also the starting-point of a railway to
Zeerust and Mafeking. Krugersdorp was founded in 1887 at the time of the
discovery of gold on the Rand and is named after President Kruger.
Within the municipal area is the Paardekraal monument erected to
commemorate the victory gained by the Boers under Andries Pretorius in
1838 over the Zulu king Dingaan, and on the 16th of December each year,
kept as a public holiday, large numbers of Boers assemble at the
monument to celebrate the event. Here in December 1880 a great meeting
of Boers resolved again to proclaim the independence of the Transvaal.
The formal proclamation was made on Dingaan's Day, and after the defeat
of the British at Majuba Hill in 1881 that victory was also commemorated
at Paardekraal on the 16th of December. The monument, which was damaged
during the war of 1899-1902, was restored by the British authorities.
It was at Doornkop, near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his
"raiders" surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the 2nd of January
1896 (see TRANSVAAL: _History_). At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W. of
Krugersdorp, are limestone caves containing beautiful stalactites.




KRUMAU (in Czech, _Krumlov_), is a town in Bohemia situated on the banks
of the Moldau (Vitava). It has about 8000 inhabitants, partly of Czech,
partly of German nationality. Krumau is principally celebrated because
its ancient castle was long the stronghold of the Rosenberg family,
known also as _pani z ruze_, the lords of the rose. Henry II. of
Rosenberg (d. 1310) was the first member of the family to reside at
Krumau. His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a
city. The last two members of the family were two brothers, William,
created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg in 1556 (d. 1592), and Peter Vok, who
played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their librarian was
Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on the annals of the
Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a strong adherent of the
Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly before his death (1611), because
the Jesuits had established themselves in the neighbourhood.

The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was bought by
the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius of Austria. In 1622
the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the lordship to his minister, Hans
Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in 1625 raised it to the rank of an hereditary
duchy in his favour. From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1719 to
Prince Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke of Krumau
in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family bears the title of duke of
Krumau. The castle, one of the largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves
much of its ancient character.

  See W. Brezan, _Zivot Vilema z Rosenberka_ (Life of William of
  Rosenberg), 1847; also _Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka_ (Life of Peter
  Vok of Rosenberg), 1880.




KRUMBACHER, CARL (1856-1909), German Byzantine scholar, was born at
Kürnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of September 1856. He was educated at the
universities of Munich and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the
middle age and modern Greek language and literature in the former from
1897 to his death. His greatest work is his _Geschichte der
byzantinischen Litteratur_ (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern
Empire, 1453), a second edition of which was published in 1897, with the
collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and H. Gelzer (general
sketch of Byzantine history, A.D. 395-1453). The value of the work is
greatly enhanced by the elaborate bibliographies contained in the body
of the work and in a special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the
_Byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1892) and the _Byzantinisches Archiv_
(1898). He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece
appeared in his _Griechische Reise_ (1886). Other works by him are:
_Casia_ (1897), a treatise on a 9th-century Byzantine poetess, with the
fragments; _Michael Glykas_ (1894); "Die griechische Litteratur des
Mittelalters" in P. Hinneberg's _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_, i. 8 (1905);
_Das Problem der neugriechischen Schriftsprache_ (1902), in which he
strongly opposed the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical
style into modern Greek literature, and _Populäre Aufsätze_ (1909).




KRUMEN (KROOMEN, KROOBOYS, KRUS, or CROOS), a negro people of the West
Coast of Africa. They dwell in villages scattered along the coast of
Liberia from below Monrovia nearly to Cape Palmas. The name has been
wrongly derived from the English word "crew," with reference to the fact
that Krumen were the first West African people to take service in
European vessels. It is probably from Kraoh, the primitive name of one
of their tribes. Under Krumen are now grouped many kindred tribes, the
Grebo, Basa, Nifu, &c., who collectively number some 40,000. The Krus
proper live in the narrow strip of coast between the Sino river and Cape
Palmas, where are their five chief villages, Kruber, Little Kru, Settra
Kru, Nana Kru and King William's Town. They are traditionally from the
interior, but have long been noted as skilful seamen and daring
fishermen. They are a stout, muscular, broad-chested race, probably the
most robust of African peoples. They have true negro features--skin of a
blue-black hue and woolly and abundant hair. The women are of a lighter
shade than negro women generally, and in several respects come much
nearer to a European standard. Morally as well as physically the Krumen
are one of the most remarkable races in Africa. They are honest, brave,
proud, so passionately fond of freedom that they will starve or drown
themselves to escape capture, and have never trafficked in slaves.
Politically the Krus are divided into small commonwealths, each with an
hereditary chief whose duty is simply to represent the people in their
dealings with strangers. The real government is vested in the elders,
who wear as insignia iron rings on their legs. Their president, the head
fetish-man, guards the national symbols, and his house is sanctuary for
offenders till their guilt is proved. Personal property is held in
common by each family. Land also is communal, but the rights of the
actual cultivator cease only when he fails to farm it.

At 14 or 15 the Kru "boys" eagerly contract themselves for voyages of
twelve or eighteen months. Generally they prefer work near at home, and
are to be found on almost every ship trading on the Guinea coast. As
soon as they have saved enough to buy a wife they return home and settle
down. Krumen ornament their faces with tribal marks--black or blue lines
on the forehead and from ear to ear. They tattoo their arms and mutilate
the incisor teeth. As a race they are singularly intelligent, and
exhibit their enterprise in numerous settlements along the coast. Sierra
Leone, Grand Bassa and Monrovia all have their Kru towns. Dr Bleek
classifies the Kru language with the Mandingo family, and in this he is
followed by Dr R. G. Latham; Dr Kölle, who published a Kru grammar
(1854), considers it as distinct.

  See A. de Quatrefages and E. T. Hamy, _Crania ethnica_, ix. 363
  (1878-1879); Schlagintweit-Sakunlunski, in the _Sitzungsberichte_ of
  the academy at Munich (1875); Nicholas, in _Bull. de la Soc.
  d'Anthrop._ (Paris, 1872); J. Büttikofer, _Reisebilder aus Liberia_
  (Leiden, 1890); Sir H. H. Johnston, _Liberia_ (London, 1906).




KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1767-1845), German theologian, was born on
the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg, Westphalia. Having studied
theology at Lingen and Halle, he became successively rector of the
grammar school at Mörs (1793), professor of theology at Duisburg (1800),
preacher at Crefeld, and afterwards at Kettwig, _Consistorialrath_ and
superintendent in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the
university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen (1824). He
died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He was the author of many
religious works, but is best known by his _Parabeln_ (1805; 9th ed.
1876; Eng. trans. 1844).

  A. W. Möller published his life and letters in 1849.

His brother GOTTFRIED DANIEL KRUMMACHER (1774-1837), who studied
theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively in Bärl (1798),
Wülfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the leader of the "pietists"
of Wupperthal, and published several volumes of sermons, including one
entitled _Die Wanderungen Israels durch d. Wüste nach Kanaan_ (1834).

FRIEDRICH WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1796-1868), son of Friedrich Adolf,
studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became pastor successively at
Frankfort (1819), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke, near Barmen in the Wupperthal
(1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In 1847 he received an appointment to the
Trinity Church in Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at
Potsdam. He was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His
best-known works are _Elias der Thisbiter_ (1828-1833; 6th ed. 1874;
Eng. trans. 1838); _Elisa_ (1837) and _Das Passionsbuch, der leidende
Christus_ (1854, in _English The Suffering Saviour_, 1870). His
_Autobiography_ was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871).

EMIL WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1798-1886), another son, was born at Mörs in
1798. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg. He wrote, amongst other
works, _Herzensmanna aus Luthers Werken_ (1852). His son Hermann
(1828-1890), who was appointed _Consistorialrath_ in Stettin in 1877,
was the author of _Deutsches Leben in Nordamerika_ (1874).




KRUPP, ALFRED (1812-1887), German metallurgist, was born at Essen on the
26th of April 1812. His father, Friedrich Krupp (1787-1826), had
purchased a small forge in that town about 1810, and devoted himself to
the problem of manufacturing cast steel; but though that product was put
on the market by him in 1815, it commanded but little sale, and the firm
was far from prosperous. After his death the works were carried on by
his widow, and Alfred, as the eldest son, found himself obliged, a boy
of fourteen, to leave school and undertake their direction. For many
years his efforts met with little success, and the concern, which in
1845 employed only 122 workmen, did scarcely more than pay its way. But
in 1847 Krupp made a 3 pdr. muzzle-loading gun of cast steel, and at the
Great Exhibition of London in 1851 he exhibited a solid flawless ingot
of cast steel weighing 2 tons. This exhibit caused a sensation in the
industrial world, and the Essen works sprang into fame. Another
successful invention, the manufacture of weldless steel tires for
railway vehicles, was introduced soon afterwards. The profits derived
from these and other steel manufactures were devoted to the expansion of
the works and to the development of the artillery with which the name of
Krupp is especially associated (see ORDNANCE). The model settlement,
which is one of the best-known features of the Krupp works, was started
in the 'sixties, when difficulty began to be found in housing the
increasing number of workmen; and now there are various "colonies,"
practically separate villages, dotted about to the south and south-west
of the town, with schools, libraries, recreation grounds, clubs, stores,
&c. The policy also was adopted of acquiring iron and coal mines, so
that the firm might have command of supplies of the raw material
required for its operations. Alfred Krupp, who was known as the "Cannon
King," died at Essen on the 14th of July 1887, and was succeeded by his
only son, Friedrich Alfred Krupp (1854-1902), who was born at Essen on
the 17th of February 1854. The latter devoted himself to the financial
rather than to the technical side of the business, and under him it
again underwent enormous expansion. Among other things he in 1896 leased
the "Germania" ship-building yard at Kiel, and in 1902 it passed into
the complete ownership of the firm. In the latter year, which was also
the year of his death, on the 22nd of November, the total number of men
employed at Essen and its associated works was over 40,000. His elder
daughter Bertha, who succeeded him, was married in October 1906 to Dr
Gustav von Bohlen und Halbach, who on that occasion received the right
to bear the name Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. The enormous increase in
the German navy involved further expansion in the operations of the
Krupp firm as manufacturers of the armour plates and guns required for
the new ships, and in 1908 its capital, then standing at £9,000,000, was
augmented by £2,500,000.




KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN (1770-1846), Russian navigator, hydrographer and
admiral, was born at Haggud in Esthonia on the 19th of November 1770. In
1785 he entered the corps of naval cadets, after leaving which, in 1788,
with the grade of midshipman, he served in the war against Sweden.
Having been appointed to serve in the British fleet for several years
(1793-1799), he visited America, India and China. After publishing a
paper pointing out the advantages of direct communication between Russia
and China by Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, he was appointed by
the emperor Alexander I. to make a voyage to the east coast of Asia to
endeavour to carry out the project. Two English ships were bought, in
which the expedition left Kronstadt in August 1803 and proceeded by Cape
Horn and the Sandwich Islands to Kamchatka, and thence to Japan.
Returning to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope, after an extended series
of explorations, Krusenstern reached Kronstadt in August 1806, his being
the first Russian expedition to circumnavigate the world. The emperor
conferred several honours upon him, and he ultimately became admiral. As
director of the Russian naval school Krusenstern did much useful work.
He was also a member of the scientific committee of the marine
department, and his contrivance for counteracting the influence of the
iron in vessels on the compass was adopted in the navy. He died at Reval
on the 24th of August 1846.

  Krusenstern's _Voyage Round the World in 1803-1806_ was published at
  St Petersburg in 1810-1814, in 3 vols., with folio atlas of 104 plates
  and maps (Eng. ed., 2 vols. 1813; French ed., 2 vols., and atlas of 30
  plates, 1820). His narrative contains a good many important
  discoveries and rectifications, especially in the region of Japan, and
  the contributions made by the various savants were of much scientific
  importance. A valuable work is his _Atlas de l'Océan Pacifique_, with
  its accompanying _Recueil des mémoires hydrographiques_ (St
  Petersburg, 1824-1827). See _Memoir_ by his daughter, Madame Charlotte
  Bernhardi, translated by Sir John Ross (1856).




KRUSHEVATS (or KRUSEVAC), a town of Servia, lying in a fertile region of
hills and dales near the right bank of the Servian Morava. Pop. (1900),
about 10,000. Krushevats is the capital of a department bearing the same
name, and has an active trade in tobacco, hemp, flax, grain and
livestock, for the sale of which it possesses about a dozen markets. It
was in Krushevats that the last Servian tsar, Lazar, assembled his army
to march against the Turks, and lose his empire, at Kosovo, in 1389. The
site of his palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing a fragment
of the tower of Queen Militsa, whither, according to legend, tidings of
the defeat were brought her by crows from the battlefield. Within the
enclosure stands a church, dating from the reign of Stephen Dushan
(1336-1356), with beautiful rose windows and with imperial peacocks,
dragons and eagles sculptured on the walls. Several old Turkish houses
were left at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an ancient
Turkish fountain and bath.




KSHATTRIYA, one of the four original Indian castes, the other three
being the Brahman, the Vaisya and the Sudra. The Kshattriya was the
warrior caste, and their function was to protect the people and abstain
from sensual pleasures. On the rise of Brahmin ascendancy the
Kshattriyas were repressed, and their consequent revolt gave rise to
Buddhism and Jainism, the founders of both these religions belonging to
the Kshattriya caste. Though, according to tradition, the Kshattriyas
were all exterminated by Parasurama, the rank is now conceded to the
modern Rajputs, and also to the ruling families of native states. (See
CASTE.)




KUBAN, a river of southern Russia, rising on the W. slope of the Elbruz,
in the Caucasus, at an altitude of 13,930 ft., races down the N. face of
the Caucasus as a mountain-torrent, but upon getting down to the
lower-lying steppe country S. of Stavropol it turns, at 1075 ft.
altitude, towards the N.W., and eventually, assuming a westerly course,
enters the Gulf of Kyzyl-tash, on the Black Sea, in the vicinity of the
Straits of Kerch. Its lower course lies for some distance through
marshes, where in times of overflow its breadth increases from the
normal 700 ft. to over half a mile. Its total length is 500 m., the area
of its basin 21,480 sq. m. It is navigable for steamers for 73 m., as
far as the confluence of its tributary, the Laba (200 m. long). This,
like its other affluents, the Byelaya (155 m.), Urup, and Great and
Little Zelenchuk, joins it from the left. The Kuban is the ancient
Hypanis and Vardanes and the Pshishche of the Circassians.




KUBAÑ, a province of Russian Caucasia, having the Sea of Azov on the W.,
the territory of Don Cossacks on the N., the government of Stavropol and
the province of Terek on the E., and the government of Kutais and the
Black Sea district on the S. and S.W. It thus contains the low and
marshy lowlands on the Sea of Azov, the western portion of the fertile
steppes of northern Caucasia, and the northern slopes of the Caucasus
range from its north-west extremity to the Elbruz. The area is 36,370
sq. m. On the south the province includes the parallel ranges of the
Black Mountains (Kara-dagh), 3000 to 6000 ft. high, which are
intersected by gorges that grow deeper and wider as the main range is
approached. Owing to a relatively wet climate and numerous streams,
these mountains are densely clothed with woods, under the shadow of
which a thick undergrowth of rhododendrons, "Caucasian palms" (_Buxus
sempervirens_), ivy, clematis, &c., develops, so as to render the
forests almost impassable. These cover altogether nearly 20% of the
aggregate area. Wide, treeless plains, from 1000 to 2000 ft. high,
stretch north of the Kubañ, and are profusely watered by that river and
its many tributaries--the Little and Great Zelenchuk, Urup, Laba,
Byelaya, Pshish--mountain torrents that rush through narrow gorges from
the Caucasus range. In its lower course the Kubañ forms a wide, low
delta, covered with rushes, haunted by wild boar, and very unhealthy.
The same characteristics mark the low plains on the east of the Sea of
Azov, dotted over with numerous semi-stagnant lakes. Malaria is the
enemy of these regions, and is especially deadly on the Tamañ Peninsula,
as also along the left bank of the lower and middle Kubañ.

There is considerable mineral wealth. Coal is found on the Kubañ and its
tributaries, but its extraction is still insignificant (less than 10,000
tons per annum). Petroleum wells exist in the district of Maikop, but
the best are in the Tamañ Peninsula, where they range over 570 sq. m.
Iron ores, silver and zinc are found; alabaster is extracted, as also
some salt, soda and Epsom salts. The best mineral waters are at Psekup
and Tamañ, where there are also numbers of mud volcanoes, ranging from
small hillocks to hills 365 ft. high and more. The soil is very fertile
in the plains, parts of which consist of black earth and are being
rapidly populated.

The population reached 1,928,419 in 1897, of whom 1,788,622 were
Russians, 13,926 Armenians, 20,137 Greeks and 20,778 Germans. There were
at the same date 945,873 women, and only 156,486 people lived in towns.
The estimated population in 1906 was 2,275,400. The aborigines were
represented by 100,000 Circassians, 5000 Nogai Tatars and some Ossetes.
The Circassians or Adyghe, who formerly occupied the mountain valleys,
were compelled, after the Russian conquest in 1861, either to settle on
the flat land or to emigrate; those who refused to move voluntarily were
driven across the mountains to the Black Sea coast. Most of them (nearly
200,000) emigrated to Turkey, where they formed the Bashi-bazouks.
Peasants from the interior provinces of Russia occupied the plains of
the Kubañ, and they now number over 1,000,000, while the Kubañ Cossacks
in 1897 numbered 804,372 (405,428 women). In point of religion 90% of
the population were in 1897 members of the Orthodox Greek Church, 4%
Raskolniks and other Christians and 5.4% Mahommedans, the rest being
Jews.

Wheat is by far the chief crop (nearly three-quarters of the total area
under crops are under wheat); rye, oats, barley, millet, Indian corn,
some flax and potatoes, as also tobacco, are grown. Agricultural
machinery is largely employed, and the province is a reserve granary for
Russia. Livestock, especially sheep, is kept in large numbers on the
steppes. Bee-keeping is general, and gardening and vine-growing are
spreading rapidly. Fishing in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, as also in
the Kubañ, is important.

Two main lines of railway intersect the province, one running N.W. to
S.E., from Rostov to Vladikavkaz, and another starting from the former
south-westwards to Novorossiysk on the north coast of the Black Sea. The
province is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which, with
their populations in 1897, are Ekaterinodar, capital of the province
(65,697), Anapa (6676), Labinsk (6388), Batalpashinsk (8100), Maikop
(34,191), Temryuk (14,476) and Yeisk (35,446).

The history of the original settlements of the various native tribes,
and their language and worship before the introduction of Mahommedanism,
remain a blank page in the legends of the Caucasus. The peninsula of
Tamañ, a land teeming with relics of ancient Greek colonists, has been
occupied successively by the Cimmerians, Sarmatians, Khazars, Mongols
and other nations. The Genoese, who established an extensive trade in
the 13th century, were expelled by the Turks in 1484, and in 1784 Russia
obtained by treaty the entire peninsula and the territory on the right
bank of the Kubañ, the latter being granted by Catherine II. in 1792 to
the Cossacks of the Dnieper. Then commenced the bloody struggle with
the Circassians, which continued for more than half a century. Not only
domestic, but even field work, is conducted mostly by the women, who are
remarkable for their physical strength and endurance. The native
mountaineers, known under the general name of Circassians, but locally
distinguished as the Karachai, Abadsikh, Khakuchy, Shapsugh, have
greatly altered their mode of life since the pacification of the
Caucasus, still, however, maintaining Mahommedanism, speaking their
vernacular, and strictly observing the customs of their ancestors.
Exports include wheat, tobacco, leather, wool, petroleum, timber, fish,
salt and live cattle; imports, dry goods, grocery and hardware. Local
industry is limited to a few tanneries, petroleum refineries and spirit
distilleries.     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)




KUBELIK, JAN (1880-   ), Bohemian violinist, was born near Prague, of
humble parentage. He learnt the violin from childhood, and appeared in
public at Prague in 1888, subsequently being trained at the
Conservatorium by the famous teacher Ottakar Sevcik. From him he learnt
an extraordinary technique, and from 1898 onwards his genius was
acclaimed at concerts throughout Europe. He first appeared in London in
1900, and in America in 1901, creating a _furore_ everywhere. In 1903 he
married the Countess Czaky Szell.




KUBERA (or KUVERA), in Hindu mythology, the god of wealth. Originally he
appears as king of the powers of evil, a kind of Pluto. His home is
Alaka in Mount Kailasa, and his garden, the world's treasure-house, is
Chaitraratha, on Mount Mandara. Kubera is half-brother to the demon
Ravana, and was driven from Ceylon by the latter.




KUBLAI KHAN (or KAAN, as the supreme ruler descended from Jenghiz was
usually distinctively termed in the 13th century) (1216-1294), the most
eminent of the successors of Jenghiz (Chinghiz), and the founder of the
Mongol dynasty in China. He was the second son of Tule, youngest of the
four sons of Jenghiz by his favourite wife. Jenghiz was succeeded in the
khanship by his third son Okkodai, or Ogdai (1229), he by his son Kuyuk
(1246), and Kuyuk by Mangu, eldest son of Tule (1252). Kublai was born
in 1216, and, young as he was, took part with his younger brother Hulagu
(afterwards conqueror of the caliph and founder of the Mongol dynasty in
Persia) in the last campaign of Jenghiz (1226-27). The Mongol poetical
chronicler, Sanang Setzen, records a tradition that Jenghiz himself on
his death-bed discerned young Kublai's promise and predicted his
distinction.

Northern China, Cathay as it was called, had been partially conquered by
Jenghiz himself, and the conquest had been followed up till the Kin or
"golden" dynasty of Tatars, reigning at K'ai-feng Fu on the Yellow
River, were completely subjugated (1234). But China south of the
Yangtsze-kiang remained many years later subject to the native dynasty
of Sung, reigning at the great city of Lingan, or Kinsai (_King-sz'_,
"capital"), now known as Hang-chow Fu. Operations to subdue this region
had commenced in 1235, but languished till Mangu's accession. Kublai was
then named his brother's lieutenant in Cathay, and operations were
resumed. By what seems a vast and risky strategy, of which the motives
are not quite clear, the first campaign of Kublai was directed to the
subjugation of the remote western province of Yunnan. After the capture
of Tali Fu (well known in recent years as the capital of a Mahommedan
insurgent sultan), Kublai returned north, leaving the war in Yunnan to a
trusted general. Some years later (1257) the khan Mangu himself entered
on a campaign in west China, and died there, before Ho-chow in
Sze-ch'uen (1259).

Kublai assumed the succession, but it was disputed by his brother
Arikbugha and by his cousin Kaidu, and wars with these retarded the
prosecution of the southern conquest. Doubtless, however, this was
constantly before Kublai as a great task to be accomplished, and its
fulfilment was in his mind when he selected as the future capital of his
empire the Chinese city that we now know as Peking. Here, in 1264, to
the north-east of the old city, which under the name of Yenking had been
an occasional residence of the Kin sovereigns, he founded his new
capital, a great rectangular plot of 18 m. in circuit. The (so-called)
"Tatar city" of modern Peking is the city of Kublai, with about
one-third at the north cut off, but Kublai's walls are also on this
retrenched portion still traceable.

The new city, officially termed T'ai-tu ("great court"), but known among
the Mongols and western people as Kaan-baligh ("city of the khan") was
finished in 1267. The next year war against the Sung Empire was resumed,
but was long retarded by the strenuous defence of the twin cities of
Siang-yang and Fan-cheng, on opposite sides of the river Han, and
commanding two great lines of approach to the basin of the
Yangtsze-kiang. The siege occupied nearly five years. After this Bayan,
Kublai's best lieutenant, a man of high military genius and noble
character, took command. It was not, however, till 1276 that the Sung
capital surrendered, and Bayan rode into the city (then probably the
greatest in the world) as its conqueror. The young emperor, with his
mother, was sent prisoner to Kaan-baligh; but two younger princes had
been despatched to the south before the fall of the city, and these
successively were proclaimed emperor by the adherents of the native
throne. An attempt to maintain their cause was made in Fu-kien, and
afterwards in the province of Kwang-tung; but in 1279 these efforts were
finally extinguished, and the faithful minister who had inspired them
terminated the struggle by jumping with his young lord into the sea.

Even under the degenerate Sung dynasty the conquest of southern China
had occupied the Mongols during half a century of intermittent
campaigns. But at last Kublai was ruler of all China, and probably the
sovereign (at least nominally) of a greater population than had ever
acknowledged one man's supremacy. For, though his rule was disputed by
the princes of his house in Turkestan, it was acknowledged by those on
the Volga, whose rule reached to the frontier of Poland, and by the
family of his brother Hulagu, whose dominion extended from the Oxus to
the Arabian desert. For the first time in history the name and character
of an emperor of China were familiar as far west as the Black Sea and
not unknown in Europe. The Chinese seals which Kublai conferred on his
kinsmen reigning at Tabriz are stamped upon their letters to the kings
of France, and survive in the archives of Paris. Adventurers from
Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, Byzantium, even from Venice, served him as
ministers, generals, governors, envoys, astronomers or physicians;
soldiers from all Asia to the Caucasus fought his battles in the south
of China. Once in his old age (1287) Kublai was compelled to take the
field in person against a serious revolt, raised by Nayan, a prince of
his family, who held a vast domain on the borders of Manchuria. Nayan
was taken and executed. The revolt had been stirred up by Kaidu, who
survived his imperial rival, and died in 1301. Kublai himself died in
1294, at the age of seventy-eight.

Though a great figure in Asiatic history, and far from deserving a niche
in the long gallery of Asiatic tyrants, Kublai misses a record in the
short list of the good rulers. His historical locus was a happy one,
for, whilst he was the first of his race to rise above the innate
barbarism of the Mongols, he retained the force and warlike character of
his ancestors, which vanished utterly in the effeminacy of those who
came after him. He had great intelligence and a keen desire for
knowledge, with apparently a good deal of natural benevolence and
magnanimity. But his love of splendour, and his fruitless expeditions
beyond sea, created enormous demands for money, and he shut his eyes to
the character and methods of those whom he employed to raise it. A
remarkable narrative of the oppressions of one of these, Ahmed of
Fenaket, and of the revolt which they provoked, is given by Marco Polo,
in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals.

Kublai patronized Chinese literature and culture generally. The great
astronomical instruments which he caused to be made were long preserved
at Peking, but were carried off to Berlin in 1900. Though he put hardly
any Chinese into the first ranks of his administration, he attached many
to his confidence, and was personally popular among them. Had his
endeavour to procure European priests for the instruction of his
people, of which we know through Marco Polo, prospered, the Roman
Catholic church, which gained some ground under his successors, might
have taken stronger root in China. Failing this momentary effort, Kublai
probably saw in the organized force of Tibetan Buddhism the readiest
instrument in the civilization of his countrymen, and that system
received his special countenance. An early act of his reign had been to
constitute a young lama of intelligence and learning the head of the
Lamaite Church, and eventually also prince of Tibet, an act which may be
regarded as a precursory form of the rule of the "grand lamas" of Lassa.
The same ecclesiastic, Mati Dhwaja, was employed by Kublai to devise a
special alphabet for use with the Mongol language. It was chiefly based
on Tibetan forms of Nagari; some coins and inscriptions in it are
extant; but it had no great vogue, and soon perished. Of the splendour
of his court and entertainments, of his palaces, summer and winter, of
his great hunting expeditions, of his revenues and extraordinary paper
currency, of his elaborate system of posts and much else, an account is
given in the book of Marco Polo, who passed many years in Kublai's
service.

We have alluded to his foreign expeditions, which were almost all
disastrous. Nearly all arose out of a hankering for the nominal
extension of his empire by claiming submission and tribute. Expeditions
against Japan were several times repeated; the last, in 1281, on an
immense scale, met with huge discomfiture. Kublai's preparations to
avenge it were abandoned owing to the intense discontent which they
created. In 1278 he made a claim of submission upon Champa, an ancient
state representing what we now call Cochin China. This eventually led to
an attempt to invade the country through Tongking, and to a war with the
latter state, in which the Mongols had much the worst of it. War with
Burma (or Mien, as the Chinese called it) was provoked in very similar
fashion, but the result was more favourable to Kublai's arms. The
country was overrun as far as the Irrawaddy delta, the ancient capital,
Pagan, with its magnificent temples, destroyed, and the old royal
dynasty overthrown. The last attempt of the kind was against Java, and
occurred in the last year of the old khan's reign. The envoy whom he had
commissioned to claim homage was sent back with ignominy. A great
armament was equipped in the ports of Fu-kien to avenge this insult; but
after some temporary success the force was compelled to re-embark with a
loss of 3000 men. The death of Kublai prevented further action.

Some other expeditions, in which force was not used, gratified the
khan's vanity by bringing back professions of homage, with presents, and
with the curious reports of foreign countries in which Kublai delighted.
Such expeditions extended to the states of southern India, to eastern
Africa, and even to Madagascar.

Of Kublai's twelve legitimate sons, Chingkim, the favourite and
designated successor, died in 1284/5; and Timur, the son of Chingkim,
took his place. No great king arose in the dynasty after Kublai. He had
in all nine successors of his house on the throne of Kaan-baligh, but
the long and imbecile reign of the ninth, Toghon Timur, ended (1368) in
disgrace and expulsion and the native dynasty of Ming reigned in their
stead.     (H. Y.)




KUBUS, a tribe inhabiting the central parts of Sumatra. They are nomadic
savages living entirely in the forests in shelters of branches and
leaves built on platforms. It has been suggested that they represent a
Sumatran aboriginal race; but Dr J. G. Garson, reporting on Kubu skulls
and skeletons submitted to him by Mr. H. O. Forbes, declared them
decidedly Malay, though the frizzle in the hair might indicate a certain
mixture of negrito blood (_Jour. Anthrop. Instit._, April 1884). They
are of a rich olive-brown tint, their hair jet black and inclined to
curl, and, though not dwarfs, are below the average height.




KUCHAN, a fertile and populous district of the province Khorasan in
Persia, bounded N. by the Russian Transcaspian territory, W. by Bujnurd,
S. by Isfaraïn, and extending in the E. to near Radkan. Its area is
about 3000 sq. m. and its population, principally composed of Zafaranlu
Kurds, descendants of tribes settled there by Shah Abbas I. in the 17th
century, is estimated at 100,000. About 3000 families are nomads and
live in tents. The district produces much grain, 25,000 to 30,000 tons
yearly, and contains two towns, Kuchan and Shirvan (pop. 6000), and many
villages.

KUCHAN, the capital of the district, has suffered much from the effects
of earthquakes, notably in 1875, 1894 and 1895. The last earthquake laid
the whole town in ruins and caused considerable loss of life. About 8000
of the survivors removed to a site 7½ m. E. and there built a new town
named Nasseriyeh after Nasr-ud-din Shah, but known better as Kuchan i
jadid, i.e. New Kuchan, and about 1000 remained in the ruined city in
order to be near their vineyards and gardens. The geographical position
of the old town is 37° 8´ N., 58° 25´ E., elevation 4100 ft. The new
town has been regularly laid out with broad streets and spacious
bazaars, and, situated as it is half-way between Meshed and Askabad on
the cart-road connecting those two places, has much trade. Its
population is estimated at 10,000. There are telegraph and post offices.




KUCH BEHAR, or COOCH BEHAR, a native state of India, in Bengal,
consisting of a submontane tract, not far from Darjeeling, entirely
surrounded by British territory. Area, 1307 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 566,974;
estimated revenue, £140,000. The state forms a level plain of triangular
shape, intersected by numerous rivers. The greater portion is fertile
and well cultivated, but tracts of jungle are to be seen in the
north-east corner, which abuts upon Assam. The soil is uniform in
character throughout, consisting of a light, friable loam, varying in
depth from 6 in. to 3 ft., superimposed upon a deep bed of sand. The
whole is detritus, washed down by torrents from the neighbouring
Himalayas. The rivers all pass through the state from north to south, to
join the main stream of the Brahmaputra. Some half-dozen are navigable
for small trading boats throughout the year, and are nowhere fordable;
and there are about twenty minor streams which become navigable only
during the rainy season. The streams have a tendency to cut new channels
for themselves after every annual flood, and they communicate with one
another by cross-country watercourses. Rice is grown on three-fourths of
the cultivated area. Jute and tobacco are also largely grown for export.
The only special industries are the weaving of a strong silk obtained
from worms fed on the castor-oil plant, and of a coarse jute cloth used
for screens and bedding. The external trade is chiefly in the hands of
Marwari immigrants from Rajputana. Among other improvements a railway
has been constructed, with the assistance of a loan from the British
government. The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897 caused damage to
public buildings, roads, &c., in the state to the estimated amount of
£100,000.

The Koch or Rajbansi, from which the name of the state is derived, are a
widely spread tribe, evidently of aboriginal descent, found throughout
all northern Bengal, from Purnea district to the Assam valley. They are
akin to the Indo-Chinese races of the north-east frontier; but they have
now become largely hinduized, especially in their own home, where the
appellation "Koch" has come to be used as a term of reproach. Their
total number in all India was returned in 1901 as nearly 2½ millions.

As in the case of many other small native states, the royal family of
Kuch Behar lays claim to a divine origin in order to conceal an impure
aboriginal descent. The greatest monarch of the dynasty was Nar Narayan,
the son of Visu Singh, who began to reign about 1550. He conquered the
whole of Kamrup, built temples in Assam, of which ruins still exist
bearing inscriptions with his name, and extended his power southwards
over what is now part of the British districts of Rangpur and Purnea.
His son, Lakshmi Narayan, who succeeded him in Kuch Behar, became
tributary to the Mogul Empire. In 1772 a competitor for the throne,
having been driven out of the country by his rivals, applied for
assistance to Warren Hastings. A detachment of sepoys was accordingly
marched into the state; the Bhutias, whose interference had led to this
intervention, were expelled, and forced to sue for peace through the
mediation of the lama of Tibet. By the treaty made on this occasion,
April 1773, the raja acknowledged subjection to the Company, and made
over to it one-half of his annual revenues. In 1863, on the death of the
raja, leaving a son and heir only ten months old, a British commissioner
was appointed to undertake the direct management of affairs during the
minority of the prince, and many important reforms were successfully
introduced. The maharaja Sir Nripendra Narayan, G.C.I.E., born in 1862,
was educated under British guardianship at Patna and Calcutta, and
became hon. lieutenant-colonel of the 6th Bengal Cavalry. In 1897-98 he
served in the Tirah campaign on the staff of General Yeatman-Biggs, and
received the distinction of a C.B. He was present at the Jubilee in
1887, the Diamond Jubilee of 1897, and King Edward's Coronation in 1902,
and became a well-known figure in London society. In 1878 he married a
daughter of Keshub Chunder Sen, the Brahmo leader. His eldest son was
educated in England.

The town of Kuch Behar is situated on the river Tursa, and has a railway
station. Pop. (1901), 10,458. It contains a college affiliated to the
Calcutta University.




KUDU (_koodoo_), the native name for a large species of African antelope
(q.v.), with large corkscrew-like horns in the male, and the body marked
with narrow vertical white lines in both sexes. The female is hornless.
_Strepsiceros capensis_ (or _S. strepsiceros_) is the scientific name of
the true kudu, which ranges from the Cape to Somaliland; but there is
also a much smaller species (_S. imberbis_) in East and North-East
Africa.

[Illustration: Male Kudu.]




KUENEN, ABRAHAM (1828-1891), Dutch Protestant theologian, the son of an
apothecary, was born on the 16th of September 1828, at Haarlem, North
Holland. On his father's death it became necessary for him to leave
school and take a humble place in the business. By the generosity of
friends he was educated at the gymnasium at Haarlem and afterwards at the
university of Leiden. He studied theology, and won his doctor's degree by
an edition of thirty-four chapters of Genesis from the Arabic version of
the Samaritan Pentateuch. In 1853 he became professor extraordinarius of
theology at Leiden, and in 1855 full professor. He married a daughter of
W. Muurling, one of the founders of the Gröningen school, which made the
first pronounced breach with Calvinistic theology in the Reformed Church
of Holland. Kuenen himself soon became one of the main supports of the
modern theology, of which J. N. Scholten (1811-1885) and Karel Willem
Opzoomer (b. 1821) were the chief founders, and of which Leiden became
the headquarters. His first great work, an historico-critical
introduction to the Old Testament, _Historisch-kritisch onderzoek naar
het onstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden Verbonds_ (3 vols.,
1861-1865; 2nd ed., 1885-1893; German by T. Weber and C. T. Müller,
1885-1894), followed the lines of the dominant school of Heinrich Ewald.
But before long he came under the influence of J. W. Colenso, and learned
to regard the prophetic narrative of Genesis, Exodus, and Numbers as
older than what was by the Germans denominated _Grundschrift_ ("Book of
Origins"). In 1869-1870 he published his book on the religion of Israel,
_De godsdienst van Israël tot den ondergang van der Joodschen Staat_
(Eng. trans., 1874-1875). This was followed in 1875 by a study of Hebrew
prophecy, _De profeten en de profetie onder Israel_ (Eng. trans., 1877),
largely polemical in its scope, and specially directed against those who
rest theological dogmas on the fulfilment of prophecy. In 1882 Kuenen
went to England to deliver a course of Hibbert lectures, _National
Religions and Universal Religion_; in the following year he presided at
the congress of Orientalists held at Leiden. In 1886 his volume on the
Hexateuch was published in England. He died at Leiden on the 10th of
December 1891.

  Kuenen was also the author of many articles, papers and reviews; a
  series on the Hexateuch, which appeared in the _Theologisch
  Tijdschrift_, of which in 1866 he became joint editor, is one of the
  finest products of modern criticism. His collected works were
  translated into German and published by K. Budde in 1894. Several of
  his works have been translated into English by Philip Wicksteed. See
  the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_.




KUEN-LUN, or KWEN-LUN, a term used to designate generally the mountain
ranges which run along the northern edge of the great Tibetan plateau in
Central Asia. In a wider application it means the succession of ranges
which extend from the Pamirs on the W. to 113° E., until it strikes
against or merges in the steep escarpments of the S.E. flank of the
Mongolian plateau. In the narrower acceptation it applies only to those
ranges which part the desert of Takla-makan on the N. from the Tibetan
plateau on the S. between the Pamirs and the transverse glen of the
Kara-muren, that is, nearly to the longitude of the town of Cherchen
(about 85½° E.). Although the use of the name is thus restricted in
geographical usage, the mountain system so designated does, as a fact,
extend eastwards as far as the great depression of Tsaidam (say 95° E.),
though it is uncertain whether its direct orographical continuation
eastwards is to be identified with the Astin-tagh, or, as F. Grenard and
K. Bogdanovich believe--and with them Sven Hedin is inclined to
agree--with the parallel ranges of Kalta-alaghan and Arka-tagh, which
lie S. of the Astin-tagh. At any rate the Astin-tagh, whether it is the
principal continuation of the Kuen-lun or only a subsidiary flanking
system, is itself the westward continuation of the Nan-shan or Southern
Mountains, which reach down far into China (to 113° E.).

Taken in its widest meaning, the Kuen-lun Mountains thus stretch in a
wavy line for nearly 2500 m. from E. to W., and while in the W. their
constituent ranges are folded and squeezed by lateral compression into a
breadth of some 150-200 m., their summits being forced up to
correspondingly higher altitudes, in the E. they spread out to a breadth
of some 600 m., the ranges being in that quarter less folded, and
consequently both flatter and lower. In the tectonic structure of Asia
the Kuen-lun forms, as it were, the backbone of the continent. In point
of age it is very much older than either the Himalayas to the S. or the
Tian-shan to the N. But although the crests of its component ranges
reach altitudes of 21,500 to 22,000 ft., they are not as a rule
overtopped by individual peaks of commanding and towering elevation, as
the Himalayas are, but run on the whole tolerably uniform and relatively
at little greater altitude than the lofty valleys which separate them
one from another. It is a strikingly marked characteristic of the
northern edge of the Tibetan plateau that its outermost border-range
(e.g. Western Kuen-lun and Astin-tagh) is throughout double; and this
"twinning" of the mountain-ranges, as also of the intermont lake-basins
among the Kuen-lun ranges, is a peculiar feature of the Tibetan plateau.

  The supreme orographic importance of this great Central Asian mountain
  system was recognized in a fashion even by the geographers of ancient
  Greece. They used to suppose that an immense range of mountains
  crossed Asia from west to east on the parallel of the island of
  Rhodes, extending through Asia Minor, the Kurdish highlands, the N. of
  Persia, the N. of Bactria (Afghanistan), the Hindu-kush, and so on
  into China. This long range they supposed to separate the waters which
  flow N. to the Arctic from those which flow S. to the Indian Ocean. K.
  Ritter (_Asien_, ii.) was the first of modern geographers to recognize
  the true character of the Kuen-lun as a border range of the Tibetan
  plateau; and Baron von Richthofen (_China_, i. 1876) still further
  defined and accentuated the conception of the system by representing
  it as a complex arrangement of several parallel ranges, running in
  wavy lines from the Pamirs (76° E.) eastwards to 118° E. But though
  von Richthofen's general conception of the Kuen-lun system was broadly
  sound and in accordance with facts, the details both of his
  description and of that of his pupil Wegener[1] require now very
  considerable revision, and need even to be in part recast, as a
  consequence of explorations and investigations made since they wrote
  by, amongst others, the Russian explorers N. M. Przhevalsky, M. V.
  Pyevtsov, V. I. Roboroysky, P. K. Kozlov, K. Bogdanovich, V. A.
  Obruchev, and (?) Skassi; by the Englishmen A. D. Carey, A. Dalgleish,
  St G. R. Littledale, H. Bower, H. H. P. Deasy and M. S. Wellby; by the
  American W. W. Rockhill; the Frenchmen J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, F.
  Grenard, P. G. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orléans; by the Hungarians
  L. von Loczy and Count Szechényi; and above all by the Swede Sven
  Hedin.

  _Western Kuen-lun._--On the east the Pamir highlands are fenced off
  from the East Turkestan lowlands by the double border-ridge of
  Sarik-kol (the Sarik-kol range and the Muztagh or Kashgar range),
  which has its eastern foot down in the Tarim basin (4000-4500 ft.) and
  its western up on the Pamirs at 10,500 to 13,000 ft. above sea-level,
  while its own summits, e.g. the Muztagh-ata (25,780 ft.), shoot up far
  above the limits of perpetual snow. This double border-ridge is
  continued east of the meridian of Yarkand or Yarkent (77° E.) by a
  succession of twin ranges, all running, though under different names,
  from the W.N.W. to the E.S.E. According to the investigations of F.
  Stoliczka and K. Bogdanovich, the same fossils occur in both sets of
  border ranges, in the Sarik-kol and in their eastward continuations,
  e.g. corals, _Stromatophorae_, _Bryozoa_, _Atrypa reticularis_, _A.
  latilinguis_ and _A. aspera_, _Spirifer verneuili_, &c., and these the
  latter geologist assigns to the Devonian epoch. These eastward
  continuations of the double border-range of the Pamirs are the
  constituent ranges of the Kuen-lun proper. The names given to them are
  the Kilian or Kiliang, the Khotan and the Keriya Mountains in the more
  northerly range and the Raskem or Raskan, the Sughet and the
  Ullugh-tagh Mountains in the more southerly range. Although they all
  decrease in altitude from west to east, they nevertheless reach
  elevations of 19,000 ft., with individual peaks ascending some
  2000-2500 ft. higher. From the East Turkestan lowlands on the north
  the ascent is very steep, and the passes across both sets of ranges
  lie at great altitudes; for example, the pass of Sanju-davan in the
  lower range is 16,325 ft. above sea-level, and the Kyzyl-davan,
  farther east, is 16,900 ft., while the Sughet-davan in the higher
  range is 17,825 ft. The latter range is separated from the Karakorum
  Mountains by the deeply trenched gorge of the Raskem or Yarkand-darya,
  while the deep glen of the Kara-kash or Khotan-darya intervenes
  between the upper (Sughet Mountains) and the lower (Kilian Mountains)
  border-ranges. Altogether this western extremity of the Kuen-lun
  system is a very rugged mountainous region, a consequence partly of
  the intricacy of the flanking ranges and spurs, partly of the powerful
  lateral compression to which they have been subjected, and partly of
  the great and abrupt differences in vertical elevation between the
  crests of the ranges and the bottoms of the deep, narrow, rugged glens
  between them. In the broad orographical disposition of the ranges
  there is considerable similarity between north Tibet and west Persia,
  in that in both cases the ranges are crowded together in the west, but
  spread out wider as they advance towards the east. To the two
  principal ranges in this part of the system F. Grenard, who
  accompanied J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins on his journey in 1890-1895, gives
  the names the Altyn-tagh and Ustun-tagh, though he names no less than
  six parallel ranges altogether. Now as Altyn-tagh[2] is an accepted,
  though in point of fact erroneous, name for Astin-tagh, it is clear
  that Grenard considers the main Kuen-lun ranges to be continued
  directly by the Astin-tagh.

  From the transverse breach of the Keriya-darya (about 81½° E.) to that
  of the Kara-muren in the longitude of Cherchen (about 85½° E.) the
  parallel border-ranges of the Tibetan plateau trend to the E.N.E., and
  here occur in the lower or outer range the passes of Dalai-kurghan-art
  (14,290 ft.), Choka-davan, i.e. Littledale's Chokur Pass (9530 ft.)
  and others at altitudes ranging from 8600 to 11,500 ft., while in the
  upper range are the At-to-davan (16,600 ft.), Yapkak-lik-davan (15,550
  ft.), Sarshu-davan (15,680 ft.) and others not named at 16,590 and
  17,300 ft.

  _Middle Kuen-lun._--Between the upper transverse glens of the
  Kara-muren (or Mitt River) and the Cherchen-darya stretches the short
  range of Tokuz-davan. From it, on the east side of the Cherchen-daryt,
  in about 86° E., the component ranges of the middle Kuen-lun begin to
  diverge and radiate outwards (i.e. to north and to south) like the
  fingers of the outspread human hand. And here at least four principal
  ranges or groups of ranges admit of being discriminated, namely the
  Astin-tagh, the Chimen-tagh, the Kalta-alaghan and the Arka-tagh, all
  belonging to the mountainous country which borders on the north the
  actual plateau region of Tibet. Although these several ranges, or
  systems of ranges, differ considerably in their orographical
  characteristics, the following description will apply generally to the
  entire region from the Astin-tagh southwards to the Arka-tagh. The
  broad features of the surface configuration are a series of nearly
  parallel mountain-ranges, running from W.S.W. E.N.E. to W.N.W. E.S.E.,
  and separated by high intermont valleys, which are choked with
  disintegrated material and divided into a chequered pattern of
  self-contained, shallow lacustrine basins. As a rule the crests of the
  ranges are worn down by aerial denudation and have the general
  appearance of rounded domes. Hard rock (mostly granite and crystalline
  schists, with red sandstone in places) appears only in the transverse
  glens, which are often choked with their débris in the form either of
  gravel-and-shingle or loose blocks of stone or both. The flanks of the
  mountains are so deeply buried in disintegrated material that the
  difference in vertical altitude between the floors of the valleys and
  the summits of the ranges is comparatively small. But as each
  successive range, proceeding south, represents a higher step in the
  terraced ascent from the desert of Gobi to the plateau of Tibet, the
  ranges when viewed from the north frequently appear like veritable
  upstanding mountain ranges, and this appearance is accentuated by the
  general steepness of the ascent; whereas, when viewed on the other
  hand from the south, these several ranges, owing to their long and
  gentle slope in that direction, have the appearance of comparatively
  gentle swellings of the earth's surface rather than of well-defined
  mountain ranges. As a rule, the streams flow alternately east and west
  down the intermont latitudinal valleys, until they break through some
  transverse glen in the range on the northern side of the valley. In
  the western parts of the system they mostly go to feed the Kara-muren
  or the Cherchen-darya, while farther east they flow down into some
  larger self-contained basin of internal drainage, such as the
  Achik-kol, the two lakes Kara-kol, or the Ghaz-kol, and even yet
  farther east make their way, some of them into the lakes of the
  Tsaidam depression or become lost in its sands or in those of the
  Kum-tagh desert on the north, or go to feed the headstreams of the
  great rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow River) and the Yangtsze-kiang (Blue
  River) in the south. It appears to be a rule that the rivers which
  eventually terminate in the deserts of Gobi and Takla-makan grow
  increasingly larger in magnitude from east to west. Another law
  appears to distinguish the hydrography of at any rate the great
  latitudinal valleys of the Arka-tagh and the Chimen valley (north of
  the Chimen-tagh): the streams flow close under the foot of the range
  that shuts in each individual valley on the north. But in respect of
  precipitation there is a very marked difference between the valleys of
  the north and those of the south. Whereas both the mountains and
  valleys of the Astin-tagh and of the Akato-tagh (the next large range
  to the Astin-tagh on the south) are arid and desolate in the extreme,
  smitten as it were with the desiccating breath of the desert, those of
  the Arka-tagh and beyond are supersaturated with moisture, so that, at
  any rate in summer, the surface is in many parts little better than a
  quaking quagmire. Throughout vegetation is scanty and faunal life poor
  in species, though in some respects certain of the species, e.g. wild
  yaks, wild asses (_kulans_), antelopes (_orongo_ and others), marmots,
  hares and partridges exist locally in large numbers. The wild camel
  approaches the north outliers of the Astin-tagh, but rarely, if ever,
  ventures to enter their fastnesses. Bears, wolves, foxes, goats
  (_kökmet_), wild sheep (_arkharis_), lizards, earth-rats, and a small
  rodent (_teshikan_), with ravens, eagles, wild ducks and wild geese
  are the other varieties principally encountered. The vegetation
  consists almost entirely of scrubby bushes of several varieties,
  including tamarisks and wild briers, of reeds (_kamish_), and of grass
  on the _yaylaks_ (pasture-grounds) of the middle ranges. On the
  Arka-tagh even the moss, the last surviving representative of the
  flora, disappears entirely. In the eastern Astin-tagh a variety of
  wild tea (_chay_, mountain tea) is used by the Mongols. Gold is
  obtained in very small quantities in a few places in the Astin-tagh
  and the Kalta-alaghan. The nomenclature of the numerous ranges in this
  part of the Kuen-lun is extremely confusing, owing to different
  travellers having applied the same name to different ranges and to
  different travellers have applied different names to what is probably
  often identically the same range. In this article the nomenclature
  adopted is that employed by the latest, and probably the most
  thorough, explorer of this part of Central Asia, namely, Sven Hedin.
  Nevertheless, owing to the fact that nearly all the longer and more
  important crossings of Tibet and its northern montane region have been
  made from north to south, or vice versa, that is, transversely across
  the ranges, and comparatively few from east to west along the
  intermont latitudinal valleys, the identifications between ranges in
  the east and ranges in the west are in more than one instance more or
  less doubtful.

  The _Astin-tagh_, although it occupies a similar position to the twin
  ranges of the Western Kuen-lun, in that it forms the outermost
  escarpment or border-ridge on the north of the Tibetan plateau, would
  appear in the opinion of the most competent judges (e.g. Grenard,
  Bogdanovich, Sven Hedin, Przhevalsky), to be only a branch or
  subsidiary range of the main range of the Kuen-lun. It is not however
  a single, long, continuous chain, as it is shown, for example, on the
  map of the Russian general staff, but consists of two parallel main
  ranges, and in the east of three, and even to the N.E. of Tsaidam of
  four, parallel main ranges, flanked throughout by several subsidiary
  chains, spurs and offshoots. Beyond that it swells out into the vast
  _massif_ of Anambaruin-ula, which is traversed by at least three minor
  parallel chains. But on the east of the Anambaruin-ula it once more
  contracts to two main ranges, the more southerly being that which
  Przhevalsky called the Humboldt Range (crossed by a pass at 13,200
  ft.). This branch is probably continued in the range which overhangs
  the Koko-nor on the south, namely, the south Koko-nor Range. The
  northern branch merges eastwards into the Nan-shan or Southern
  Mountains.[3] The passes in the Lower Astin-tagh range from altitudes
  of 10,150 to 10,700 ft., and in the Upper Astin-tagh at 11,770 to
  15,680 ft. (Tash-davan), though one pass beside the Charkhlik-su is
  only 9660 ft. high. And as the relative altitudes of crest and pass
  remain approximately the same as in the Western Kuen-lun, it is
  evident how greatly the general elevation of the twin border ridge
  decreases towards the east. But there exists a striking difference
  between the crests of the Astin-tagh and those of the ranges which
  give rise to the gigantic ridge and furrow arrangement on the Tibetan
  plateau. "Here in the Astin-tagh the mountains, like those in the
  Kuruk-tagh,[4] are indeed severely weathered, but they always consist,
  from base to summit, of hard rock, bare and barren, most frequently
  piled up in eccentric, rugged masses, denticulated, pinnacled crests
  and peaks. On the Tibetan plateau, on the other hand, most of the
  ranges are distinguished by their rounded outlines and soft
  consistency, and their striking poverty in hard rock, which in the
  best cases only crops out near the summits. There too disintegration
  has been to a remarkable extent operative. This gives rise to the
  great morphological difference, that in the former regions, the
  Astin-tagh and the Kuruk-tagh, the products of disintegration are
  almost always carried away by the wind, and so disappear; no matter
  how powerful or how active the disintegration may be, none of the
  loosened material ever succeeds either in gathering amongst the
  mountains or in accumulating at their foot. The climate is so arid,
  and precipitation so extremely rare, that the fine powdery material
  falls a helpless prey to the winds. On the other hand, the
  precipitation on the Tibetan plateau is so copious, and so uniformly
  distributed, that it is able to retain the loosened material _in
  situ_, and causes it to heap itself up in rounded masses on the flanks
  of the mountains that are its primitive source of origin, these
  projecting in great part like skeletons from the midst of their own
  ruins."[5] The twin ranges of the Astin-tagh are fairly equivalent in
  point of magnitude and regularity; but while the Lower Range, on the
  north, sensibly decreases in altitude towards the east, the Upper
  Range, on the south, maintains its general altitude in a remarkable
  way, and is gapped by steep, wild, deeply incised transverse glens
  directed towards the north, and generally fenced in by dark
  precipitous walls of rock. The great valley between the two is "cut up
  into a series of self-contained basins, each serving as the gathering
  ground of the brooks that run down off the adjacent mountains. Outside
  the lower end of each large transverse glen there is a scree of
  sedimentary matter. These screes are however very flat and their lower
  edges generally reach all the way down to the central part of the
  basin, which is occupied by an expanse of yellow clay, perfectly flat
  and fairly hard, as well as dry and barren, often cracked into
  polygonal cakes and drawn out in the direction of the long axis of the
  valley.... But though the great morphological features of this
  latitudinal valley forcibly recall the latitudinal valleys of Tibet,
  the climatic differences give rise to differences between the basins
  corresponding to the differences between the mountain-ranges
  themselves. For while the self-contained basins of Tibet generally
  possess a salt lake in the middle, into which brooks and streams of
  greater or less magnitude gather, often from very considerable
  distances, these self-contained basins of the Astin-tagh are very
  small in area, and it is extremely seldom that their central parts
  receive any water at all, only in fact after copious rain. These
  terminal lakes, or more accurately sedimentary plains, are therefore
  almost always dry."[6]

  The next parallel range on the south, the _Akato-tagh_, and the valley
  which separates it from the Astin-tagh, are equally arid and
  waterless. The valley, known by the general name of Kakir, meaning a
  "hard, dry, sterile expanse of clay," is chequered with shallow
  self-contained basins of the usual type and has remarkably gentle
  slopes up to the mountains on both north and south. Its surface
  slopes from altitudes of 10,100 to 10,600 ft. in the west, where is
  the lake of Uzunshor (9650 ft.) to 9400 ft. in the east, in which
  direction it continues as far as the Anambaruin-ula (see below) and
  the plain or flat basin of Särtäng, a north extension of Tsaidam. This
  range of Akato-tagh, the Altun Range of Carey, is the same as that
  which on the map of the Russian general staff bears the name
  Chimen-tagh. Like the Astin-tagh it stretches towards the E.N.E., and,
  like it, appears to be built up of granite and schists, but its crest
  is greatly denuded, so that it is a mere crumbling skeleton protruding
  above the deep mantle of disintegrated material which masks its
  flanks. The slopes on both north and south are extremely gentle, but
  that on the south is eight to ten times as long as that on the north.
  In the east the range is mostly narrow, and dies away on the edge of
  the Tsaidam depression; but in the west it swells out into the lofty
  and imposing mass of the Ilve-chimen or Shia-manglay, which is capped
  with perpetual snow. This part of the range is crossed by the pass of
  Chopur-alik at an altitude of 16,160 ft., but farther east the passes
  lie at altitudes of 13,380 to 10,520 ft. The latitudinal valley that
  intervenes between the Akato-tagh and the next great range on the
  south, the Chimen-tagh, slopes for the most part eastwards, from
  12,500 ft. down to the shallow salt lake of Ghaz-kol or Chimen-koli
  (9305 ft.). In the western part of this valley occurs the very
  important transverse water-divide of Gulcha-davan (14,150 ft.), which
  separates the basin of the Cherchen-darya that goes down into the
  Tarim basin from the area that drains down to the Ghaz-kol, which
  belongs to the Tsaidam depression. This, the Chimen valley, contains
  in places a good deal of drift-sand, which however is stationary in
  the mass and heaped up along the northern foot of the Chimen-tagh.
  Nevertheless the Akato-tagh is only of secondary importance in the
  general Kuen-lun system, being nothing more than a central ridge
  running along the broad Kakir valley that separates the Astin-tagh
  from the Chimen-tagh.

  The latter range, the _Chimen-tagh_, is identical in its western parts
  with the Piazlik-tagh and in the east must be equated with the Tsaidam
  chain of Przhevalsky; and it is probably continued westwards by the
  range which the Russian explorers call the Moscow Range or the
  Achik-tagh, running north of the Achik-kol and, according to
  Przhevalsky, connecting on the west with the Tokuz-davan. The
  Chimen-tagh rises into imposing summits, some rounded, some pyramidal
  in outline, which are capped with snow, though the snow melts in
  summer. This range acts as a "breakwater" to the clouds, arresting and
  condensing the moisture which is carried northwards by the south
  winds. Hence its slopes are not so arid as those of the Akato-tagh and
  the Astin-tagh. Snow falls all the year round on the Chimen-tagh, even
  in July, and water is abundant everywhere. The southern slope of the
  range is gentle but short, the northern slope long and steep. Grass is
  able to grow, and animal life is more abundant. The range is crossed
  by passes at 13,970, 13,230 and 13,760 ft., and the Piazlik-tagh by a
  pass at an altitude of 13,640 ft.

  The next important range, still going south, is the _Kalta-alaghan_,
  Carey's Chimen-tagh Range, Przhevalsky's Columbus Range and the range
  which is variously designated (e.g. by Pyevtsov) as the Ambal-ashkan,
  Kalga-lagan and Ara-tagh. This last is, however, properly the name of
  a short secondary range which rises along the middle (_ara_ = middle)
  of the valley between the Chimen-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan. Not only
  is it of lower elevation than them both, but it dies away towards the
  west, the valleys on each side of it meeting round its extremity to
  form one broad, open valley, with an altitude of 11,790 to 13,725 ft.
  The Ara-tagh is crossed by a pass at an altitude of 14,345 ft. In the
  Kalta-alaghan, which is the culminating range of this part of the
  Kuen-lun, and is overtopped by towering, snow-clad peaks, the passes
  climb to considerably higher altitudes, namely, 14,560, 14,470, 14,430
  and 14,190 ft., while the pass of Avraz-davan ascends to 15,700 ft.
  This range appears to be linked on to the Tokuz-davan by the
  Muzluk-tagh, in which there are passes at 16,870 and 15,450 ft. It is
  possible however that the Muzluk-tagh belongs more intimately to the
  Chimen-tagh system, that is, to the Moscow or Achik-kol ranges, Indeed
  Bogdanovich considers that the Tokuz-davan, the Muzluk-tagh, the
  Moscow Range and the Chimen-tagh form one single closely connected
  chain, in which he also places Przhevalsky's isolated peak of Mount
  Kreml (15,055 ft.). Sven Hedin, whilst agreeing that this may possibly
  be the true conception, inclines to the view that the Achik-kol Range
  dies away towards the E., and that the Chimen-tagh and the
  Kalta-alaghan merge westwards into the border-ranges that lie north of
  the Muzluk-tagh and the Tokuz-davan. Unlike most of the other parallel
  ranges of N. Tibet, the Kalta-alaghan does not decrease, but it
  increases in elevation towards the east, where, like the Chimen-tagh,
  it abuts upon and merges in the ranges that border Tsaidam on the
  south.

  Immediately south of the Kalta-alaghan comes a relatively deep
  depression, the _Kum-kol valley_, forming a very well-marked feature
  in the physical conformation of this region. It is crossed
  transversely by a water-divide which separates the basin of the
  twin-lakes of Kum-kol (12,700 ft.) from the basin of Tsaidam, some
  3500 ft. lower. The floor of the valley consequently slopes away in
  both directions, like the Chimen valley between the Akato-tagh and the
  Chimen-tagh; and in so far as it slopes westwards towards the Kum-kol
  lakes it differs from nearly all the other great latitudinal valleys
  that run parallel with it, because they slope generally towards the
  east. Not far from the Kum-kol lakes there is a drift-sand area,
  though the dunes are stationary. The upper lake of Kum-kol
  (Chon-kum-kol) (12,730 ft.), which contains fresh water, is of small
  area (8 sq. m.) and in depth nowhere exceeds 13 ft.; but the lower
  lake (Ayak-kum-kol) (12,685 ft.), which is salt, is much bigger (283
  sq. m.) and goes down to depths of 64 and 79 ft. Farther west, lying
  between the Muzluk-tagh and the Arka-tagh, is the lake of Achik-kol
  (13,940 ft.), 16½ m. broad and 50 m. in circuit.

  The next great parallel range is the lofty and imposing _Arka-tagh_,
  the Przhevalsky Range of the Russian geographers, which has its
  eastward continuations in the Marco Polo Range (general altitude
  15,750-16,250 ft.) and Gurbu-naiji Mountains of Przhevalsky. The
  Arka-tagh[7] is the true backbone of the Kuen-lun system, and in
  Central Asia is exceeded in elevation only by the Tang-la, a long way
  farther south, this last being probably an eastern wing of the
  Karakorum Mountains of the Pamirs region. At the same time the
  Arka-tagh is the actual border-range of the Tibetan plateau properly
  so-called; to the south of it none of the long succession of lofty
  parallel ranges which ridge the Tibetan highlands seems to have any
  connexion with the Kuen-lun system. Of great length, the Arka-tagh,
  which is a mountain-system rather than a range, varies greatly in
  configuration in different parts, sometimes exhibiting a sharply
  defined main crest, with several lower flanking ranges, and sometimes
  consisting of numerous parallel crests of nearly uniform altitude.
  Amongst these it is possible to distinguish in the middle of the
  system four predominant ranges, of which the second from the north is
  probably the principal range, though the fourth is the highest. The
  passes across the first range (north) lie at altitudes of 15,675,
  16,420, 17,320 and 18,300 ft.; across the second at 16,830, 17,020,
  17,070 and 17,220 ft.; across the third at 16,800, 16,660, 17,065,
  17,830 and 17,880 ft.; and across the fourth at 16,540, 16,765,
  16,780, 18,100 and 18,110 ft. The crests of the ranges lie
  comparatively little higher than the valleys which separate them, the
  altitudes in the latter running at 14,940 to 16,700 ft., if not
  higher, and being only 500 to 1000 ft. lower than the crests of the
  accompanying ranges. The Arka-tagh ranges do not culminate in lofty
  jagged, pinnacled peaks, but in broad rounded, flattened domes, a
  characteristic feature of the system throughout. These Arka-tagh
  mountains are built up, at all events superficially, of sand and
  powdery, finely sifted disintegrated material. Where the hard rock
  does crop out on the surface, it is so excessively weathered as to be
  with difficulty recognized as rock at all. The culminating summits of
  the ranges generally present the appearance of a flat, rounded
  swelling, and when they are crowned with glaciers, as many of them
  are, these shape themselves into what may be described as a mantle, a
  breast-plate, or a flat cap, from which lappets and fringes project at
  intervals; nowhere do there exist any of the long, narrow, winding
  glacier tongues which are so characteristic of the Alps of Europe. But
  not the slightest indication has been discovered that these mountains
  were ever panoplied with ice. The process of disintegration and
  levelling down has reached such an advanced stage that, if ever there
  did exist evidences of former glaciation, they have now become
  entirely obliterated, even to the complete pulverization of the
  erratic blocks, supposing there were any. The view that meets the eye
  southwards from the heights of the Kalta-alaghan is the picture of a
  chaos of mountain chains, ridges, crests, peaks, spurs, detached
  masses, in fact, montane conformations of every possible description
  and in every possible arrangement. Immediately north of the Arka-tagh
  the country is studded with three or four exceptionally conspicuous
  and imposing detached mountain masses, all capped with snow and some
  of them carrying small glaciers. Amongst them are Shapka Monomakha or
  the Monk's Cap; the Chulak-akkan, which may however be only Shapka
  Monomakha seen from a different point of view; Tömürlik-tagh[8] (i.e.
  the Iron Mountain); and farther west, Ullugh-muz-tagh, which,
  according to Grenard, reaches an altitude of 24,140 ft. But the
  relations in which these detached mountain-masses stand to one another
  and to the Arka-tagh behind them have not yet been elucidated. In the
  vicinity of the Ullugh-muz-tagh there exist numerous indications of
  former volcanic activity, the eminences and summits frequently being
  capped with tuff, and smaller fragments of tuff are scattered over
  other parts of the Arka-tagh ranges.

  The next succeeding parallel range, the _Koko-shili_, which is
  continued eastwards by the Bayan-khara-ula, between the upper
  headstreams of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River and the Yangtsze-kiang,
  belongs orographically to the plateau of Tibet.

  The succession of ranges which follow one another from the deserts of
  Takla-makan and Gobi up to the plateau proper of Tibet rise in steps
  or terraces, each range being higher than the range to the north of it
  and lower than the range to the south of it. The difference in
  altitude between the lowest, most northerly range, the Lower
  Astin-tagh, and the most southerly of the Arka-tagh ranges amounts to
  nearly 7500 ft. With one exception, namely the climb out of the
  Kum-kol valley to the Arka-tagh, the first three steps are
  individually the biggest; whereas the Upper Astin-tagh exceeds the
  Lower Astin-tagh by an altitude of some 1350 ft., it is itself
  exceeded by the Akato-tagh to the extent of 1760 ft. There is also a
  considerable rise of 880 ft. from the Akato-tagh to the Chimen-tagh.
  But between the Chimen-tagh, the Ara-tagh and the Kalta-alaghan there
  is comparatively little difference in point of elevation, namely, 730
  ft. in all. The biggest ascent is that from the Kalta-alaghan to the
  Arka-tagh, namely, nearly 1850 ft. The ranges of the Arka-tagh, again,
  run at pretty nearly the same absolute general altitudes, namely,
  16,470 to 17,260 ft. When the altitudes of the intermont latitudinal
  valleys are compared, the significance orographically of the Chimen
  valley and of the Kum-kol valley is strikingly emphasized. Both are
  much more deeply excavated than all the other latitudinal valleys that
  run parallel to them, the Chimen valley being 875 ft. above the valley
  to the north of it, but no less than 2235 ft. below the valley to the
  south of it. The case of the Kum-kol valley is altogether exceptional,
  for it lies not higher, but 680 ft. lower, than the valley to the
  north of it, and consequently the climb up out of it to the first (on
  north) of the Arka-tagh valleys amounts to no less than 2900 ft. Hence
  these ten parallel ranges of the middle Kuen-lun system may be grouped
  in three divisions--(1) the more strictly border ranges of the Upper
  and Lower Astin-tagh and the Akato-tagh; (2) the three ranges of
  Chimen-tagh, Ara-tagh and Kalta-alaghan, which may be considered as
  forming a transitional system between the foregoing and the third
  division; (3) the Arka-tagh, which constitute the elevated rampart of
  the Tibetan plateau proper.     (J. T. Be.)

  The _Nan-shan Highlands_ overlook Tsaidam on the N.E. They embrace a
  region 380 m. long and 260 m. wide, entirely occupied with parallel
  mountain ranges all running from the N.W. to the S.E. Broad, flat,
  longitudinal valleys, at altitudes of 12,000 to 14,000 ft. (9000 to
  10,000 at the south-western border) and dotted with lakes (Koko-nor,
  9970 ft.; Khara-nor, 13,285 ft.), fill up the space between these
  mountain ranges. In the S.E. the Nan-shan highlands abut upon the
  highlands of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, and near the great
  northward bend of the Hwang-ho they meet the escarpments by which the
  Great Khingan and the In-shan ranges are continued, and by which the
  Mongolian plateau steps down to the lowlands of China. On the N.E. the
  Nan-shan highlands have their foot on the Mongolian plateau (average
  altitude, 4000 ft.), i.e. in the Ala-shan. On the N.W. they are
  fringed by a border range, the Da-sue-shan, a continuation of the
  Astin-tagh, which rises to 12,200-13,000 ft. in its passes, and is
  pierced by several rivers flowing west to Lake Khala-chi or Khara-nor.
  This border-range, which continues on to the 97th meridian, separates
  the Nan-shan range from the Pe-shan range.

  On the S.W. the Nan-shan mountains consist of short irregular chains,
  separated by broad plains, dotted with lakes, which differ but
  slightly in altitude from Tsaidam (8800-9000 ft.). Next a succession
  of narrow ranges intervene between this lower border terrace and the
  higher terrace (12,000-13,500 ft.). The first mountain range on this
  higher terrace is Ritter's range, covered in part with extensive
  snow-fields. The passes at both ends of this snow-clad _massif_ lie at
  altitudes of 15,990 ft. and 14,680 ft. The next range is Humboldt or
  Ama-surgu range, which runs N.W. to S.E. from the Astin-tagh to about
  38° N., and is perhaps continued by the southern Kuku (Koko)-nor
  range, which strikes the Hwang-ho with an elevation of 7440 ft. It
  includes, in fact, several other parallel ranges--e.g. the Mushketov,
  Semenov, Suess, Alexander III., Bain-sarlyk--the mutual relations of
  which are, however, not yet definitely settled.

  Small lateral chains of mountains, rising some 2000 ft. above the
  general level of that plateau, connect the central Nan-shan with the
  next parallel ranges, namely, those of the eastern Nan-shan. The
  mutual relations of the latter, as well as the names of the several
  constituent chains, are equally unsettled. Thus, one of them is named
  indiscriminately Nan-shan, Richthofen Range and Momo-shan. In fact,
  the region is dominated by three ranges of nearly equal altitude, all
  lifting many of their peaks above the snow-line. Finally, there is a
  range of mountains, about 10,000 ft. high, named Lung-shan by
  Obruchev, which borders the Kan-chow and Lian-chow valley on the N.E.,
  and belongs to the Nan-shan system. But the string of oases in Kan-suh
  province, which stretches between the towns named, lies on the lower
  level of the Mongolian plateau (4000 to 5000 ft.), so that the
  Lung-shan ought possibly to be regarded as a continuation of the
  Pe-shan mountains of the Gobi.

  Generally speaking, the Nan-shan highlands are a region raised 12,000
  to 14,000 ft. above the sea, and intersected by wild, stony and partly
  snow-clad mountains, towering another 4000 to 7000 ft. above its
  surface, and arranged in narrow parallel chains all running N.W. to
  S.E. The chains of mountains are severally from 8 to 17 m. wide,
  seldom as much as 35, while the broad, flat valleys between them
  attain widths of 20 to 27 m. As a rule the passes are at an altitude
  of 12,000 to 14,000 ft., and the peaks reach 18,000 to 20,000 ft. in
  the western portion of the highlands, while in the eastern portion
  they may be about 2000 ft. lower. The glaciers also attain a greater
  development in the western portion of the Nan-shan, but the valleys
  are dry, and the slopes of both the mountains and the valleys,
  furrowed by deep ravines, are devoid of vegetation. Good pasture
  grounds are only found near the streams. The soil is dry gravel and
  clay, upon which bushes of _Ephedra_, _Nitraria_ and _Salsolaceae_
  grow sparsely. In the north-eastern Nan-shan, on the contrary, a
  stream runs through each gorge, and both the mountain slopes and the
  bottoms of the valleys are covered with vegetation. Forests of
  conifers (_Picea obovata_) and deciduous trees--Przhevalsky's poplar,
  birch, mountain ash, &c., and a variety of bushes--are common
  everywhere. Higher up, in the picturesque gorges, grow rhododendrons,
  willows, _Potentilla fruticosa_, _Spriaeae_, _Lonicereae_, &c., and
  the rains must evidently be more copious and better distributed. In
  the central Nan-shan it is only the north-eastern slopes that bear
  forests. In the south, where the Nan-shan enters Kan-suh province,
  extensive accumulations of loess make their appearance, and it is only
  the northern slopes of the hills that are clothed with trees.
       (P. A. K.)

  AUTHORITIES.--An enumeration of the works published before 1890, and a
  map of itineraries, will be found in Wegener's _Versuch einer
  Orographie des Kuen-lun_ (Marburg, 1891), but his map is only
  approximately correct. Of the books published since 1890 the most
  important are Sven Hedin's _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central
  Asia_, 1899-1902 (Stockholm, 1905-1907, 6 vols.), with an elaborate
  atlas and a general map of Tibet on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000; H. H.
  P. Deasy's _In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan_ (London, 1901), with a
  good map; F. Grenard's vol. (iii.) of J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins's
  _Mission scientifique dans la haute Asie, 1890-1895_ (n.p., 1897),
  also with a very useful map; W. W. Rockhill's _Diary of a Journey
  through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892_ (Washington, 1894); M. S.
  Wellby's _Through Unknown Tibet_ (London, 1898); P. G. Bonvalot's _De
  Paris au Tonkin à travers le Tibet inconnu_ (Paris, 1892); St G. R.
  Littledale's "A Journey across Tibet," in _Geog. Journal_ (May 1896);
  H. Bower's _Diary of a Journey across Tibet_ (London, 1894); the
  _Izvestia_ of the Russian Geog. Soc. and _Geog. Journal_, both
  _passim_.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] In "Orographie des Kwen-lun," in _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft
    für Erdkunde zu Berlin_ (1891).

  [2] It is used, for instance, on the map of "Inner-Asien" (No. 62) of
    _Stieler's Hand-atlas_ (ed. 1905) and in the _Atlas_ of the Russian
    General Staff. Etymologically the correct form is Astin-tagh or
    Astun-tagh, meaning the Lower or Nearer Mountains. Ustun-tagh, which
    appears on Stieler's map as an _alternative_ name for Altyn-tagh,
    means Higher or Farther Mountains, and though not used locally of any
    specific range, would be appropriately employed to designate the
    higher and more southerly of the twin border-ranges of the Tibetan
    plateau.

  [3] The Northern Mountains are the Pe-shan in the desert of Gobi (see
    GOBI).

  [4] On the opposite or north side of the desert of Lop (desert of
    Gobi).

  [5] Sven Hedin, _Scientific Results_, iii. 308.

  [6] _Ibid._ 310-311.

  [7] This is the correct form, Arka-tagh meaning the Farther or
    Remoter Mountains. The form Akka-tagh is incorrect.

  [8] The form Tumenlik-tagh is erroneous.




KUFA, a Moslem city, situated on the shore of the Hindieh canal, about 4
m. E. by N. of Nejef (32° 4´ N., 44° 20´ E.), was founded by the Arabs
after the battle of Kadesiya in A.D. 638 as one of the two capitals of
the new territory of Irak, the whole country being divided into the
_sawads_, or districts, of Basra and Kufa. The caliph 'Ali made it his
residence and the capital of his caliphate. After the removal of the
capital to Bagdad, in the middle of the following century, Kufa lost its
importance and began to fall into decay. At the beginning of the 19th
century, travellers reported extensive and important ruins as marking
the ancient site. Since that time the ruins have served as quarries for
bricks for the building of Nejef, and at the present time little remains
but holes in the ground, representing excavations for bricks, with
broken fragments of brick and glass strewn over a considerable area. A
mosque still stands on the spot where 'Ali is reputed to have
worshipped. (For history see CALIPHATE.)




KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT (1812-1881), German philologist and
folklorist, was born at Königsberg in Neumark on the 19th of November
1812. From 1841 he was connected with the Köllnisches Gymnasium at
Berlin, of which he was appointed director in 1870. He died at Berlin on
the 5th of May 1881. Kuhn was the founder of a new school of comparative
mythology, based upon comparative philology. Inspired by Grimm's
_Deutsche Mythologie_, he first devoted himself to German stories and
legends, and published _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (1842),
_Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (1848), and _Sagen,
Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (1859). But it is on his researches
into the language and history of the Indo-Germanic peoples as a whole
that his reputation is founded. His chief works in this connexion are:
_Zur ältesten Geschichte der Indogermanischen Völker_ (1845), in which
he endeavoured to give an account of the earliest civilization of the
Indo-Germanic peoples before their separation into different families,
by comparing and analysing the original meaning of the words and stems
common to the different languages; _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des
Göttertranks_ (1859; new ed. by E. Kuhn, under title of _Mythologische
Studien_, 1886); and _Über Entwicklungsstufen der Mythenbildung_ (1873),
in which he maintained that the origin of myths was to be looked for in
the domain of language, and that their most essential factors were
polyonymy and homonymy. The _Zeitschrift für vergleichende
Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der Indogermanischen Sprachen_, with
which he was intimately connected, is the standard periodical on the
subject.

  See obituary notice by C. Bruchmann in Bursian's _Biographisches
  Jahrbuch_ (1881) and J. Schmidt in the above _Zeitschrift_, xxvi. n.s.
  6.




KÜHNE, WILLY (1837-1900), German physiologist, was born at Hamburg on
the 28th of March 1837. After attending the gymnasium at Lüneburg, he
went to Göttingen, where his master in chemistry was F. Wöhler and in
physiology R. Wagner. Having graduated in 1856, he studied under various
famous physiologists, including E. Du Bois-Reymond at Berlin, Claude
Bernard in Paris, and K. F. W. Ludwig and E. W. Brücke in Vienna. At the
end of 1863 he was put in charge of the chemical department of the
pathological laboratory at Berlin, under R. von Virchow; in 1868 he was
appointed professor of physiology at Amsterdam; and in 1871 he was
chosen to succeed H. von Helmholtz in the same capacity at Heidelberg,
where he died on the 10th of June 1900. His original work falls into two
main groups--the physiology of muscle and nerve, which occupied the
earlier years of his life, and the chemistry of digestion, which he
began to investigate while at Berlin with Virchow. He was also known for
his researches on vision and the chemical changes occurring in the
retina under the influence of light. The visual purple, described by
Franz Boll in 1876, he attempted to make the basis of a photochemical
theory of vision, but though he was able to establish its importance in
connexion with vision in light of low intensity, its absence from the
retinal area of most distinct vision detracted from the completeness of
the theory and precluded its general acceptance.




KUKA, or KUKAWA, a town of Bornu, a Mahommedan state of the central
Sudan, incorporated in the British protectorate of Nigeria (see Bornu).
Kuka is situated in 12° 55´ N. and 13° 34´ E., 4½ m. from the western
shores of Lake Chad, in the midst of an extensive plain. It is the
headquarters of the British administration in Bornu, and was formerly
the residence of the native sovereign, who in Bornu bears the title of
shehu.

The modern town of Kuka was founded c. 1810 by Sheikh Mahommed al Amin
al Kanemi, the deliverer of Bornu from the Fula invaders. It is supposed
to have received its name from the _kuka_ or monkey bread tree
(_Adansonia digitata_), of which there are extensive plantations in the
neighbourhood. Kuka or Kaoukaou was a common name in the Sudan in the
middle ages. The number of towns of this name gave occasion for much
geographical confusion, but Idrisi writing in the 12th century, and Ibn
Khaldun in the 14th century, both mention two important towns called
Kaou Kaou, of which one would seem to have occupied a position very near
to that of the modern Kuka. Ibn Khaldun speaks of it as the capital of
Bornu and as situated on the meridian of Tripoli. In 1840 the present
town was laid waste by Mahommed Sherif, the sultan of Wadai; and when it
was restored by Sheikh Omar he built two towns separated by more than
half a mile of open country, each town being surrounded by walls of
white clay. It was probably owing to there being two towns that the
plural _Kukawa_ became the ordinary designation of the town in Kano and
throughout the Sudan, though the inhabitants used the singular _Kuka_.
The town became wealthy and populous (containing some 60,000
inhabitants), being a centre for caravans to Tripoli and a
stopping-place of pilgrims from the Hausa countries going across Africa
to Mecca. The chief building was the great palace of the sheikh. Between
1823 and 1872 Kuka was visited by several English and German travellers.
In 1893 Bornu was seized by the ex-slave Rabah (q.v.), an adventurer
from the Bahr-el-Ghazal, who chose a new capital, Dikwa, Kuka falling
into complete decay. The town was found in ruins in 1902 by the British
expedition which replaced on the throne of Bornu a descendant of the
ancient rulers. In the same year the rebuilding of Kuka was begun and
the town speedily regained part of its former importance. It is now one
of the principal British stations of eastern Bornu. Owing, however, to
the increasing importance of Maidugari, a town 80 m. S.S.W. of Kuka, the
court of the shehu was removed thither in 1908.

  For an account of Kuka before its destruction by Rabah, see the
  _Travels_ of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890); and _Sahara und
  Sudan_, by Gustav Nachtigal (Berlin, 1879), i. 581-748.




KU KLUX KLAN, the name of an American secret association of Southern
whites united for self-protection and to oppose the Reconstruction
measures of the United States Congress, 1865-1876. The name is generally
applied not only to the order of Ku Klux Klan, but to other similar
societies that existed at the same time, such as the Knights of the
White Camelia, a larger order than the Klan; the White Brotherhood; the
White League; Pale Faces; Constitutional Union Guards; Black Cavalry;
White Rose; The '76 Association; and hundreds of smaller societies that
sprang up in the South after the Civil War. The object was to protect
the whites during the disorders that followed the Civil War, and to
oppose the policy of the North towards the South, and the result of the
whole movement was a more or less successful revolution against the
Reconstruction and an overthrow of the governments based on negro
suffrage. It may be compared in some degree to such European societies
as the Carbonara, Young Italy, the Tugendbund, the Confréries of France,
the Freemasons in Catholic countries, and the Vehmgericht.

The most important orders were the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the
White Camelia. The former began in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, as a
social club of young men. It had an absurd ritual and a strange uniform.
The members accidentally discovered that the fear of it had a great
influence over the lawless but superstitious blacks, and soon the club
expanded into a great federation of regulators, absorbing numerous local
bodies that had been formed in the absence of civil law and partaking of
the nature of the old English neighbourhood police and the ante-bellum
slave patrol. The White Camelia was formed in 1867 in Louisiana and
rapidly spread over the states of the late Confederacy. The period of
organization and development of the Ku Klux movement was from 1865 to
1868; the period of greatest activity was from 1868 to 1870, after which
came the decline.

The various causes assigned for the origin and development of this
movement were: the absence of stable government in the South for several
years after the Civil War; the corrupt and tyrannical rule of the alien,
renegade and negro, and the belief that it was supported by the Federal
troops which controlled elections and legislative bodies; the
disfranchisement of whites; the spread of ideas of social and political
equality among the negroes; fear of negro insurrections; the arming of
negro militia and the disarming of the whites; outrages upon white women
by black men; the influence of Northern adventurers in the Freedmen's
Bureau (q.v.) and the Union League (q.v.) in alienating the races; the
humiliation of Confederate soldiers after they had been paroled--in
general, the insecurity felt by Southern whites during the decade after
the collapse of the Confederacy.

In organization the Klan was modelled after the Federal Union. Its
Prescript or constitution, adopted in 1867, and revised in 1868,
provided for the following organization: The entire South was the
Invisible Empire under a Grand Wizard, General N. B. Forrest; each state
was a Realm under a Grand Dragon; several counties formed a Dominion
under a Grand Titan; each county was a Province under a Grand Giant; the
smallest division being a Den under a Grand Cyclops. The staff officers
bore similar titles, relics of the time when the order existed only for
amusement: Genii, Hydras, Furies, Goblins, Night Hawks, Magi, Monks and
Turks. The private members were called Ghouls. The Klan was twice
reorganized, in 1867 and in 1868, each time being more centralized; in
1869 the central organization was disbanded and the order then gradually
declined. The White Camelia with a similar history had a similar
organization, without the queer titles. Its members were called Brothers
and Knights, and its officials Commanders.

The constitutions and rituals of these secret orders have declarations
of principles, of which the following are characteristic: to protect and
succour the weak and unfortunate, especially the widows and orphans of
Confederate soldiers; to protect members of the white race in life,
honour and property from the encroachments of the blacks; to oppose the
Radical Republican party and the Union League; to defend constitutional
liberty, to prevent usurpation, emancipate the whites, maintain peace
and order, the laws of God, the principles of 1776, and the political
and social supremacy of the white race--in short, to oppose African
influence in government and society, and to prevent any intermingling of
the races.

During the Reconstruction the people of the South were divided thus:
nearly all native whites (the most prominent of whom were disfranchised)
on one side irrespective of former political faith, and on the other
side the ex-slaves organized and led by a few native and Northern whites
called respectively scalawags and carpet-baggers, who were supported by
the United States government and who controlled the Southern state
governments. The Ku Klux movement in its wider aspects was the effort of
the first class to destroy the control of the second class. To control
the negro the Klan played upon his superstitious fears by having night
patrols, parades and drills of silent horsemen covered with white
sheets, carrying skulls with coals of fire for eyes, sacks of bones to
rattle, and wearing hideous masks. In calling upon dangerous blacks at
night they pretended to be the spirits of dead Confederates, "just from
Hell," and to quench their thirst would pretend to drink gallons of
water which was poured into rubber sacks concealed under their robes.
Mysterious signs and warnings were sent to disorderly negro politicians.
The whites who were responsible for the conduct of the blacks were
warned or driven away by social and business ostracism or by violence.
Nearly all southern whites (except "scalawags"), whether members of the
secret societies or not, in some way took part in the Ku Klux movement.
As the work of the societies succeeded, they gradually passed out of
existence. In some communities they fell into the control of violent men
and became simply bands of outlaws, dangerous even to the former
members; and the anarchical aspects of the movement excited the North to
vigorous condemnation.[1] The United States Congress in 1871-1872
enacted a series of "Force Laws" intended to break up the secret
societies and to control the Southern elections. Several hundred arrests
were made, and a few convictions were secured. The elections were
controlled for a few years, and violence was checked, but the Ku Klux
movement went on until it accomplished its object by giving protection
to the whites, reducing the blacks to order, replacing the whites in
control of society and state, expelling the worst of the carpet-baggers
and scalawags, and nullifying those laws of Congress which had resulted
in placing the Southern whites under the control of a party composed
principally of ex-slaves.

  AUTHORITIES.--J. C. Lester and D. L. Wilson, _Ku Klux Klan_ (New York,
  1905); W. L. Fleming, _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_ (New
  York, 1905), and _Documentary History of Reconstruction_ (Cleveland,
  1906); J. W. Garner, _Reconstruction in Mississippi_ (New York, 1901);
  W. G. Brown, _Lower South in American History_ (New York, 1901); J. M.
  Beard, _Ku Klux Sketches_ (Philadelphia, 1876); J. W. Burgess,
  _Reconstruction and the Constitution_ (New York, 1901).     (W. L. F.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The judgment of the historian William Garrott Brown, himself a
    Southerner, is worth quoting: "That violence was often used cannot be
    denied. Negroes were often whipped, and so were carpet-baggers. The
    incidents related in such stories as Tourgée's _A Fool's Errand_ all
    have their counterparts in the testimony before congressional
    committees and courts of law. In some cases, after repeated warnings,
    men were dragged from their beds and slain by persons in disguise,
    and the courts were unable to find or to convict the murderers.
    Survivors of the orders affirm that such work was done in most cases
    by persons not connected with them or acting under their authority.
    It is impossible to prove or disprove their statements. When such
    outrages were committed, not on worthless adventurers, who had no
    station in the Northern communities from which they came, but on
    cultivated persons who had gone South from genuinely philanthropic
    motives--no matter how unwisely or tactlessly they went about their
    work--the natural effect was to horrify and enrage the North."




KUKU KHOTO (Chinese _Kwei-hwa_), a city of the Chinese province of
Shan-si, situated to the north of the Great Wall, in 40° 50´ N. and 111°
45´ E., about 160 m. W. of Kalgan. It lies in the valley of a small
river which joins the Hwang-ho 50 m. to the south. There are two
distinct walled towns in Kuku Khoto, at an interval of a mile and a
half; the one is the seat of the civil governor and is surrounded by the
trading town, and the other is the seat of the military governor, and
stands in the open country. In the first or old town more especially
there are strong traces of western Asiatic influence; the houses are not
in the Chinese style, being built all round with brick or stone and
having flat roofs, while a large number of the people are still
Mahommedans and, there is little doubt, descended from western settlers.
The town at the same time is a great seat of Buddhism--the lamaseries
containing, it is said, no less than 20,000 persons devoted to a
religious life. As the southern terminus of the routes across the desert
of Gobi from Ulyasutai and the Tian Shan, Kuku Khoto is a great mart for
the exchange of flour, millet and manufactured goods for the raw
products of Mongolia. A Catholic and a Protestant mission are maintained
in the town. Lieut. Watts-Jones, R.E., was murdered at Kwei-hwa during
the Boxer outbreak in 1900.

  Early notices of Kuku Khoto will be found in Gerbillon (1688-1698, in
  Du Halde (vol. ii., Eng. ed.), and in Astley's _Collection_ (vol. iv.)




KULJA (Chinese, _Ili-ho_), a territory in north-west China; bounded,
according to the treaty of St Petersburg of 1881, on the W. by the
Semiryechensk province of Russian Turkestan, on the N. by the Boro-khoro
Mountains, and on the S. by the mountains Khan-tengri, Muz-art, Terskei,
Eshik-bashi and Narat. It comprises the valleys of the Tekez (middle and
lower portion), Kunghez, the Ili as far as the Russian frontier and its
tributary, the Kash, with the slopes of the mountains turned towards
these rivers. Its area occupies about 19,000 sq. m. (Grum-Grzimailo).
The valley of the Kash is about 160 m. long, and is cultivated in its
lower parts, while the Boro-khoro Mountains are snow-clad in their
eastern portion, and fall with very steep slopes to the valley. The
Avral Mountains, which separate the Kash from the Kunghez, are lower,
but rocky, naked and difficult of access. The valley of the Kunghez is
about 120 m. long; the river flows first in a gorge, then amidst
thickets of rushes, and very small portions of its valley are fit for
cultivation. The Narat Mountains in the south are also very wild, but
are covered with forests of deciduous trees (apple tree, apricot tree,
birch, poplar, &c.) and pine trees. The Tekez flows in the mountains,
and pierces narrow gorges. The mountains which separate it from the
Kunghez are also snow-clad, while those to the south of it reach 24,000
ft. of altitude in Khan-tengri, and are covered with snow and
glaciers--the only pass through them being the Muzart. Forests and
alpine meadows cover their northern slopes. Agriculture was formerly
developed on the Tekez, as is testified by old irrigation canals. The
Ili is formed by the junction of the Kunghez with the Tekez, and for 120
m. it flows through Kulja, its valley reaching a width of 50 m. at
Horgos-koljat. This valley is famed for its fertility, and is admirably
irrigated by canals, part of which, however, fell into decay after
55,000 of the inhabitants migrated to Russian territory in 1881. The
climate of this part of the valley is, of course, continental--frosts of
-22° F. and heats of 170° F. being experienced--but snow lasts only for
one and a half months, and the summer heat is tempered by the proximity
of the high mountains. Apricots, peaches, pears and some vines are
grown, as also some cotton-trees near the town of Kulja, where the
average yearly temperature is 48°.5 F. (January 15°, July 77°). Barley
is grown up to an altitude of 6500 ft.

The population may number about 125,000, of whom 75,000 are settled and
about 50,000 nomads (Grum-Grzimailo). The Taranchis from East Turkestan
represent about 40% of the population; about 40,000 of them left Kulja
when the Russian troops evacuated the territory, and the Chinese
government sent some 8000 families from different towns of Kashgaria to
take their place. There are, besides, about 20,000 Sibos and Solons,
3500 Kara-kidans, a few Dungans, and more than 10,000 Chinese. The
nomads are represented by about 18,000 Kalmucks, and the remainder by
Kirghiz. Agriculture is insufficient to satisfy the needs of the
population, and food is imported from Semiryechensk. Excellent beds of
coal are found in different places, especially about Kulja, but the
fairly rich copper ores and silver ores have ceased to be worked.

The chief towns are Suidun, capital of the province, and Kulja. The
latter (Old Kulja) is on the Ili river. It is one of the chief cities of
the region, owing to the importance of its bazaars, and is the seat of
the Russian consul and a telegraph station. The walled town is nearly
square, each side being about a mile in length; and the walls are not
only 30 ft. high but broad enough on the top to serve as a carriage
drive. Two broad streets cut the enclosed area into four nearly equal
sections. Since 1870 a Russian suburb has been laid out on a wide scale.
The houses of Kulja are almost all clay-built and flat-roofed, and
except in the special Chinese quarter in the eastern end of the town
only a few public buildings show the influence of Chinese architecture.
Of these the most noteworthy are the Taranchi and Dungan mosques, both
with turned-up roofs, and the latter with a pagoda-looking minaret. The
population is mainly Mahommedan, and there are only two Buddhist
pagodas. A small Chinese Roman Catholic church has maintained its
existence through all the vicissitudes of modern times. Paper and
vermicelli are manufactured with rude appliances in the town. The
outskirts are richly cultivated with wheat, barley, lucerne and poppies.
Schuyler estimated the population, which includes Taranchis, Dungans,
Sarts, Chinese, Kalmucks and Russians, at 10,000 in 1873; it has since
increased.

New Kulja, Manchu Kulja, or Ili, which lies lower down the valley on the
same side of the stream, has been a pile of ruins since the terrible
massacre of all its inhabitants by the insurgent Dungans in 1868. It was
previously the seat of the Chinese government for the province, with a
large penal establishment and strong garrison; its population was about
70,000.

_History._--Two centuries B.C. the region was occupied by the fair and
blue-eyed Ussuns, who were driven away in the 6th century of our era by
the northern Huns. Later the Kulja territory became a dependency of
Dzungaria. The Uighurs, and in the 12th century the Kara-Khitai, took
possession of it in turn. Jenghiz Khan conquered Kulja in the 13th
century, and the Mongol Khans resided in the valley of the Ili. It is
supposed (Grum-Grzimailo) that the Oirads conquered it at the end of the
16th or the beginning of the 17th century; they kept it till 1755, when
the Chinese annexed it. During the insurrection of 1864 the Dungans and
the Taranchis formed here the Taranchi sultanate, and this led to the
occupation of Kulja by the Russians in 1871. Ten years later the
territory was restored to China.




KULM (CULM). (1) A town of Germany, in the province of West Prussia, 33
m. by rail N.W. of Thorn, on an elevation above the plain, and 1 m. E.
of the Vistula. Pop. (1905), 11,665. It is surrounded by old walls,
dating from the 13th century, and contains some interesting buildings,
notably its churches, of which two are Roman Catholic and two
Protestant, and its medieval town-hall. The cadet school, founded here
in 1776 by Frederick the Great, was removed to Köslin in 1890. There are
large oil mills, also iron foundries and machine shops, as well as an
important trade in agricultural produce, including fruit and vegetables.
Kulm gives name to the oldest bishopric in Prussia, although the bishop
resides at Pelplin. It was presented about 1220 by Duke Conrad of
Masovia to the bishop of Prussia. Frederick II. pledged it in 1226 to
the Teutonic order, to whom it owes its early development. By the second
peace of Thorn in 1466 it passed to Poland, and it was annexed to
Prussia in 1772. It joined the Hanseatic League, and used to carry on
very extensive manufactures of cloth.

(2) A village of Bohemia about 3 m. N.E. of Teplitz, at the foot of the
Erzgebirge, celebrated as the scene of a battle in which the French were
defeated by the Austrians, Prussians and Russians on the 29th and 30th
of August 1813 (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS).




KULMBACH, or CULMBACH, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian province of
Upper Franconia, picturesquely situated on the Weisser Main, and the
Munich-Bamberg-Hof railway, 11 m. N.W. from Bayreuth. Pop. (1900), 9428.
It contains a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, a museum and
several schools. The town has several linen manufactories and a large
cotton spinnery, but is chiefly famed for its many extensive breweries,
which mainly produce a black beer, not unlike English porter, which is
largely exported. Connected with these are malting and bottling works.
On a rocky eminence, 1300 ft. in height, to the south-east of the town
stands the former fortress of Plassenburg, during the 14th and 15th
centuries the residence of the margraves of Bayreuth, called also
margraves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. It was dismantled in 1807, and is now
used as a prison. Kulmbach and Plassenburg belonged to the dukes of
Meran, and then to the counts of Orlamunde, from whom they passed in the
14th century to the Hohenzollerns, burgraves of Nuremberg, and thus to
the margraves of Bayreuth.

  See F. Stein, _Kulmbach und die Plassenburg in alter und neuer Zeit_
  (Kulmbach, 1903); Huther, _Kulmbach und Umgebung_ (Kulmbach, 1886);
  and C. Meyer, _Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Kulmbach_ (Munich,
  1895).




KULMSEE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of West Prussia, on
a lake, 14 m. by rail N. of Thorn and at the junction of railways to
Bromberg and Marienburg. Pop. (1900), 8987. It has a fine Roman Catholic
cathedral, which was built in the 13th, and restored in the 15th
century, and an Evangelical church. Until 1823 the town was the seat of
the bishops of Kulm.




KULP, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Erivan, 60
m. W.S.W. from the town of Erivan and 2 m. S. of the Aras river. Pop.
(1897), 3074. Close by is the Kulp salt mountain, about 1000 ft. high,
consisting of beds of clay intermingled with thick deposits of rock
salt, which has been worked from time immemorial. Regular galleries are
cut in the transparent, horizontal salt layers, from which cubes of
about 70 lb. weight are extracted, to the amount of 27,500 tons every
year.




KULU, a subdivision of Kangra district, Punjab, British India, which
nominally includes the two Himalayan cantons or _waziris_ of Lahul and
Spiti. The _tahsil_ of Kulu has an area of 1054 sq. m., of which only 60
sq. m. are cultivated; pop. (1901), 68,954. The Sainj, which joins the
Beas at Largi, divides the tract into two portions, Kulu proper and
Soraj. Kulu proper, north of the Sainj, together with inner Soraj, forms
a great basin or depression in the midst of the Himalayan system, having
the narrow gorge of the Beas at Largi as the only outlet for its waters.
North and east the Bara Bangahal and mid-Himalayan ranges rise to a mean
elevation of 18,000 ft., while southward the Jalori and Dhaoladhar
ridges attain a height of 11,000 ft. The higher villages stand 9000 ft.
above the sea; and even the cultivated tracts have probably an average
elevation of 5000 ft. The houses consist of four-storeyed châlets in
little groups, huddled closely together on the ledges or slopes of the
valleys, picturesquely built with projecting eaves and carved wooden
verandas. The Beas, which, with its tributaries, drains the entire
basin, rises at the crest of the Rohtang pass, 13,326 ft. above the sea,
and has an average fall of 125 ft. per mile. Its course presents a
succession of magnificent scenery, including cataracts, gorges,
precipitous cliffs, and mountains clad with forests of deodar, towering
above the tiers of pine on the lower rocky ledges. It is crossed by
several suspension bridges. Great mineral wealth exists, but the
difficulty of transport and labour prevents its development. Hot springs
occur at three localities, much resorted to as places of pilgrimage. The
character of the hillmen resembles that of most other mountaineers in
its mixture of simplicity, independence and superstition. Tibetan
polyandry still prevails in Soraj, but has almost died out elsewhere.
The temples are dedicated rather to local deities than to the greater
gods of the Hindu pantheon. Kulu is an ancient Rajput principality,
which was conquered by Ranjit Singh about 1812. Its hereditary ruler,
with the title of rai, is now recognized by the British government as
_jagirdar_ of Rupi.




KUM, a small province in Persia, between Teheran on the N. and Kashan on
the S. It is divided into seven _buluk_ (districts): (1) Humeh, with
town; (2) Kumrud; (3) Vazkerud; (4) Kinar Rud Khaneh; (5) Kuhistan; (6)
Jasb; (7) Ardahal; has a population of 45,000 to 50,000, and pays a
yearly revenue of about £8000. The province produces much grain and a
fine quality of cotton with a very long staple.

KUM, the capital, in 34° 39´ N. and 50° 55´ E., on the Anarbar river,
which rises near Khunsar, has an elevation of 3100 ft. It owes much of
its importance to the fact that it contains the tomb of Imam Reza's
sister Fatmeh, who died there A.D. 816, and large numbers of pilgrims
visit the city during six or seven months of the year. The fixed
population is between 25,000 and 30,000. A carriage road 92 m. in
length, constructed in 1890-1893, connects the city with Teheran. It has
post and telegraph offices.

  See _Eastern Persian Irak_, R. G. S. suppl. (London, 1896).




KUMAIT IBN ZAID (679-743), Arabian poet, was born in the reign of the
first Omayyad caliph and lived in the reigns of nine others. He was,
however, a strong supporter of the house of Hashim and an enemy of the
South Arabians. He was imprisoned by the caliph Hisham for his verse in
praise of the Hashimites, but escaped by the help of his wife and was
pardoned by the intercession of the caliph's son Maslama. Taking part in
a rebellion, he was killed by the troops of Khalid ul-Qasri.

  His poems, the _Hashimiyyat_, have been edited by J. Horovitz (Leiden,
  1904). An account of him is contained in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_, xv.
  113-130.     (G. W. T.)




KUMAON, or KUMAUN, an administrative division of British India, in the
United Provinces, with headquarters at Naini Tal. It consists of a large
Himalayan tract, together with two submontane strips called the Tarai
and the Bhabhar; area 13,725 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,207,030, showing an
increase of less than 2% in the decade. The submontane strips were up to
1850 an almost impenetrable forest, given up to wild animals; but since
then the numerous clearings have attracted a large population from the
hills, who cultivate the rich soil during the hot and cold seasons,
returning to the hills in the rains. The rest of Kumaon is a maze of
mountains, some of which are among the loftiest known. In a tract not
more than 140 m. in length and 40 m. in breadth there are over thirty
peaks rising to elevations exceeding 18,000 ft. (see HIMALAYA). The
rivers rise chiefly in the southern slope of the Tibetan watershed north
of the loftiest peaks, amongst which they make their way down valleys of
rapid declivity and extraordinary depth. The principal are the Sarda
(Kali), the Pindar and Kailganga, whose waters join the Alaknanda. The
valuable timber of the yet uncleared forest tracts is now under official
supervision. The chief trees are the chir, or three-leaved Himalayan
pine, the cypress, fir, alder, sal or iron-wood, and _saindan_.
Limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss and granite constitute the principal
geological formations. Mines of iron, copper, gypsum, lead and asbestos
exist; but they are not thoroughly worked. Except in the submontane
strips and deep valleys the climate is mild. The rainfall of the outer
Himalayan range, which is first struck by the monsoon, is double that of
the central hills, in the average proportion of 80 in. to 40. No winter
passes without snow on the higher ridges, and in some years it is
universal throughout the mountain tract. Frosts, especially in the
valleys, are often severe. Kumaon is occasionally visited by epidemic
cholera. Leprosy is most prevalent in the east of the district. Goitre
and cretinism afflict a small proportion of the inhabitants. The hill
fevers at times exhibit the rapid and malignant features of plague.

In 1891 the division was composed of the three districts of Kumaon,
Garhwal and the Tarai; but the two districts of Kumaon and the Tarai
were subsequently redistributed and renamed after their headquarters,
Naini Tal and Almora. Kumaon proper constituted an old Rajput
principality, which became extinct at the beginning of the 19th century.
The country was annexed after the Gurkha war of 1815, and was governed
for seventy years on the non-regulation system by three most successful
administrators--Mr Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry Ramsay.




KUMASI, or COOMASSIE, the capital of Ashanti, British West Africa, in 6°
34´ 50´´ N., 2° 12´ W., 168 m. by rail N. of Sekondi and 120 m. by road
N.N.W. of Cape Coast. Pop. (1906), 6280; including suburbs, over 12,000.
Kumasi is situated on a low rocky eminence, from which it extends across
a valley to the hill opposite. It lies in a clearing of the dense forest
which covers the greater part of Ashanti, and occupies an area about 1½
m. in length and over 3 m. in circumference. The land immediately around
the town, once marshy, has been drained. On the north-west is the small
river Dah, one of the headstreams of the Prah. The name Kum-asi, more
correctly Kum-ase (under the okum tree) was given to the town because of
the number of those trees in its streets. The most imposing building in
Kumasi is the fort, built in 1896. It is the residence of the chief
commissioner and is capable of holding a garrison of several hundred
men. There are also officers' quarters and cantonments outside the fort,
European and native hospitals, and stations of the Basel and Wesleyan
missions. The native houses are built with red clay in the style
universal throughout Ashanti. They are somewhat richly ornamented, and
those of the better class are enclosed in compounds within which are
several separate buildings. Near the railway station are the leading
mercantile houses. The principal Ashanti chiefs own large houses, built
in European style, and these are leased to strangers.

Before its destruction by the British in 1874 the city presented a
handsome appearance and bore many marks of a comparatively high state of
culture. The king's palace, built of red sandstone, had been modelled,
it is believed, on Dutch buildings at Elmina. It was blown up by Sir
Garnet (subsequently Viscount) Wolseley's forces on the 6th of February
1874, and but scanty vestiges of it remain. The town was only partially
rebuilt on the withdrawal of the British troops, and it is difficult
from the meagre accounts of early travellers to obtain an adequate idea
of the capital of the Ashanti kingdom when at the height of its
prosperity (middle of the 18th to middle of the 19th century). The
streets were numerous, broad and regular; the main avenue was 70 yds.
wide. A large market-place existed on the south-east, and behind it in a
grove of trees was the Spirit House. This was the place of execution. Of
its population before the British occupation there is no trustworthy
information. It appears not to have exceeded 20,000 in the first quarter
of the 19th century. This is owing partly to the fact that the
commercial capital of Ashanti, and the meeting-place of several caravan
routes from the north and east, was Kintampo, a town farther north. The
decline of Kumasi after 1874 was marked. A new royal palace was built,
but it was of clay, not brick, and within the limits of the former town
were wide stretches of grass-grown country. In 1896 the town again
suffered at the hands of the British, when several of the largest and
most ancient houses in the royal and priestly suburb of Bantama were
destroyed by fire. In the revolt of 1900 Kumasi was once more injured.
The railway from the coast, which passes through the Tarkwa and Obuassi
gold-fields, reached Kumasi in September 1903. Many merchants at the
Gold Coast ports thereupon opened branches in Kumasi. A marked revival
in trade followed, leading to the rapid expansion of the town. By 1906
Kumasi had supplanted the coast towns and had become the distributing
centre for the whole of Ashanti.




KUMISHAH, a district and town in the province of Isfahan, Persia. The
district, which has a length of 50 and a breadth of 16 m., and contains
about 40 villages, produces much grain. The town is situated on the high
road from Isfahan to Shiraz, 52 m. S. of the former. It was a
flourishing city several miles in circuit when it was destroyed by the
Afghans in 1722, but is now a decayed place, with crumbled walls and
mouldering towers and a population of barely 15,000. It has post and
telegraph offices. South of the city and extending to the village
Maksudbeggi, 16 m. away, is a level plain, which in 1835 (February 28)
was the scene of a battle in which the army (2000 men, 16 guns) of
Mahommed Shah, commanded by Sir H. Lindsay-Bethune, routed the much
superior combined forces (6000 men) of the shah's two rebellious uncles,
Firman-Firma and Shuja es Saltana.




KUMQUAT (_Citrus japonica_), a much-branched shrub from 8 to 12 ft.
high, the branches sometimes bearing small thorns, with dark green
glossy leaves and pure white orange-like flowers standing singly or
clustered in the leaf-axils. The bright orange-yellow fruit is round or
ellipsoidal, about 1 in. in diameter, with a thick minutely tuberculate
rind, the inner lining of which is sweet, and a watery acidulous pulp.
It has long been cultivated in China and Japan, and was introduced to
Europe in 1846 by Mr Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural
Society, and shortly after into North America. It is much hardier than
most plants of the orange tribe, and succeeds well when grafted on the
wild species, _Citrus trifoliata_. It is largely used by the Chinese as
a sweetmeat preserved in sugar.




KUMTA, or COOMPTA, a sea-coast town of British India, in the North
Kanara district of Bombay, 40 m. S. of Karwar. Pop. (1901), 10,818. It
has an open roadstead, with a considerable trade. Carving in sandal-wood
is a speciality. The commercial importance of Kumta has declined since
the opening of the Southern Mahratta railway system.




KUMYKS, a people of Turkish stock in Caucasia, occupying the Kumyk
plateau in north Daghestan and south Terek, and the lands bordering the
Caspian. It is supposed that Ptolemy knew them under the name of Kami
and Kamaks. Various explorers see in them descendants of the Khazars. A.
Vambéry supposes that they settled in their present quarters during the
flourishing period of the Khazar kingdom in the 8th century. It is
certain that some Kabardians also settled later. The Russians built
forts in their territory in 1559 and under Peter I. Having long been
more civilized than the surrounding Caucasian mountaineers, the Kumyks
have always enjoyed some respect among them. The upper terraces of the
Kumyk plateau, which the Kumyks occupy, leaving its lower parts to the
Nogai Tatars, are very fertile.




KUNAR, a river and valley of Afghanistan, on the north-west frontier of
British India. The Kunar valley (Khoaspes in the classics) is the
southern section of that great river system which reaches from the Hindu
Kush to the Kabul river near Jalalabad, and which, under the names of
Yarkhun, Chitral, Kashkar, &c., is more extensive than the Kabul basin
itself. The lower reaches of the Kunar are wide and comparatively
shallow, the river meandering in a multitude of channels through a broad
and fairly open valley, well cultivated and fertile, with large
flourishing villages and a mixed population of Mohmand and other tribes
of Afghan origin. Here the hills to the eastward are comparatively low,
though they shut in the valley closely. Beyond them are the Bajour
uplands. To the west are the great mountains of Kafiristan, called
Kashmund, snow-capped, and running to 14,000 ft. of altitude. Amongst
them are many wild but beautiful valleys occupied by Kafirs, who are
rapidly submitting to Afghan rule. From 20 to 30 miles up the river on
its left bank, under the Bajour hills, are thick clusters of villages,
amongst which are the ancient towns of Kunar and Pashat. The chief
tributary from the Kafiristan hills is the Pechdara, which joins the
river close to Chagan Sarai. It is a fine, broad, swift-flowing stream,
with an excellent bridge over it (part of Abdur Rahman's military road
developments), and has been largely utilized for irrigation. The
Pechdara finds its sources in the Kafir hills, amongst forests of pine
and deodar and thick tangles of wild vine and ivy, wild figs,
pomegranates, olives and oaks, and dense masses of sweet-scented shrubs.
Above Chagan Sarai, as far as Arnawai, where the Afghan boundary crosses
the river, and above which the valley belongs to Chitral, the river
narrows to a swift mountain stream obstructed by boulders and hedged in
with steep cliffs and difficult "parris" or slopes of rocky hill-side.
Wild almond here sheds its blossoms into the stream, and in the dawn of
summer much of the floral beauty of Kashmir is to be found. At Asmar
there is a slight widening of the valley, and the opportunity for a
large Afghan military encampment, spreading to both sides of the river
and connected by a very creditable bridge built on the cantilever
system. There are no apparent relics of Buddhism in the Kunar, such as
are common about Jalalabad or Chitral, or throughout Swat and Dir. This
is probably due to the late occupation of the valley by Kafirs, who
spread eastwards into Bajour within comparatively recent historical
times, and who still adhere to their fastnesses in the Kashmund hills.
The Kunar valley route to Chitral and to Kafiristan is being developed
by Afghan engineering. It may possibly extend ultimately unto Badakshan,
in which case it will form the most direct connexion between the Oxus
and India, and become an important feature in the strategical geography
of Asia.     (T. H. H.*)




KUNBIS, the great agricultural caste of Western India, corresponding to
the Kurmis in the north and the Kapus in the Telugu country. Ethnically
they cannot be distinguished from the Mahrattas, though the latter name
is sometimes confined to the class who claim higher rank as representing
the descendants of Sivaji's soldiers. In some districts of the Deccan
they form an actual majority of the population, which is not the case
with any other Indian caste. In 1901 the total number of both Kunbis and
Mahrattas in all India was returned at nearly 8¾ millions.




KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD (1839-1894), German physicist, was
born at Schwerin in Mecklenburg on the 18th of November 1839. He began
his scientific studies at Leipzig, but afterwards went to Berlin. At
first he devoted himself to astronomy, but coming under the influence of
H. G. Magnus, he turned his attention to physics, and graduated in 1864
with a thesis on the depolarization of light. In 1867 he became
_privatdozent_ in Berlin University, and in the following year was
chosen professor of physics at the Zürich Polytechnic; then, after a
year or two at Würzburg, he was called in 1872 to Strassburg, where he
took a great part in the organization of the new university, and was
largely concerned in the erection of the Physical Institute. Finally in
1888 he went to Berlin as successor to H. von Helmholtz in the chair of
experimental physics and directorship of the Berlin Physical Institute.
He died after a protracted illness at Israelsdorf, near Lübeck, on the
21st of May 1894. As an original worker Kundt was especially successful
in the domains of sound and light. In the former he developed a valuable
method for the investigation of aerial waves within pipes, based on the
fact that a finely divided powder--lycopodium, for example--when dusted
over the interior of a tube in which is established a vibrating column
of air, tends to collect in heaps at the nodes, the distance between
which can thus be ascertained. An extension of the method renders
possible the determination of the velocity of sound in different gases.
In light Kundt's name is widely known for his inquiries in anomalous
dispersion, not only in liquids and vapours, but even in metals, which
he obtained in very thin films by means of a laborious process of
electrolytic deposition upon platinized glass. He also carried out many
experiments in magneto-optics, and succeeded in showing, what Faraday
had failed to detect, the rotation under the influence of magnetic force
of the plane of polarization in certain gases and vapours.




KUNDUZ, a khanate and town of Afghan Turkestan. The khanate is bounded
on the E. by Badakshan, on the W. by Tashkurghan, on the N. by the Oxus
and on the S. by the Hindu Kush. It is inhabited mainly by Uzbegs. Very
little is known about the town, which is the trade centre of a
considerable district, including Kataghan, where the best horses in
Afghanistan are bred.




KUNENE, formerly known also as Nourse, a river of South-West Africa,
with a length of over 700 m., mainly within Portuguese territory, but in
its lower course forming the boundary between Angola and German
South-West Africa. The upper basin of the river lies on the inner
versant of the high plateau region which runs southwards from Bihe
parallel to the coast, forming in places ranges of mountains which give
rise to many streams running south to swell the Kunene. The main stream
rises in 12° 30´ S. and about 160 m. in a direct line from the sea at
Benguella, runs generally from north to south through four degrees of
latitude, but finally flows west to the sea through a break in the outer
highlands. A little south of 16° S. it receives the Kulonga from the
east, and in about 16° 50´ the Kakulovar from the west. The Kakulovar
has its sources in the Serra da Chella and other ranges of the Humpata
district behind Mossamedes, but, though the longest tributary of the
Kunene, is but a small river in its lower course, which traverses the
arid region comprised within the lower basin of the Kunene. Between the
mouths of the Kulonga and Kakulovar the Kunene traverses a swampy plain,
inundated during high water, and containing several small lakes at other
parts of the year. From this swampy region divergent branches run S.E.
They are mainly intermittent, but the Kwamatuo, which leaves the main
stream in about 15° 8´ E., 17° 15´ S., flows into a large marsh or lake
called Etosha, which occupies a depression in the inner table-land about
3400 ft. above sea-level. From the S.E. end of the Etosha lake streams
issue in the direction of the Okavango, to which in times of great flood
they contribute some water. From the existence of this divergent system
it is conjectured that at one time the Kunene formed part of the
Okavango, and thus of the Zambezi basin. (See NGAMI.)

On leaving the swampy region the Kunene turns decidedly to the west, and
descends to the coast plain by a number of cataracts, of which the chief
(in 17° 25´ S., 14° 20´ E.) has a fall of 330 ft. The river becomes
smaller in volume as it passes through an almost desert region with
little or no vegetation. The stream is sometimes shallow and fordable,
at others confined to a narrow rocky channel. Near the sea the Kunene
traverses a region of sand-hills, its mouth being completely blocked at
low water. The river enters the Atlantic in 17° 18´ S., 11° 40´ E. There
are indications that a former branch of the river once entered a bay to
the south.




KUNERSDORF, a village of Prussia, 4 m. E. of Frankfurt-on-Oder, the
scene of a great battle, fought on the 12th of August 1759, between the
Prussian army commanded by Frederick the Great and the allied Russians
under Soltykov and Austrians under Loudon, in which Frederick was
defeated with enormous losses and his army temporarily ruined. (See
SEVEN YEARS' WAR.)




KUNGRAD, a trading town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Syr-darya,
in the delta of the Amu-darya, 50 m. S. of Lake Aral; altitude 260 ft.
It is the centre of caravan routes leading to the Caspian Sea and the
Uralsk province.




KUNGUR, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of Perm, on the
highway to Siberia, 58 m. S.S.E. of the city of Perm. Pop. (1892),
12,400; (1897), 14,324. Tanneries and the manufacture of boots, gloves,
leather, overcoats, iron castings and machinery are the chief
industries. It has trade in boots, iron wares, cereals, tallow and
linseed exported, and in tea imported direct from China.




KUNKEL (or KUNCKEL) VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN (1630-1703), German chemist,
was born in 1630 (or 1638), near Rendsburg, his father being alchemist
to the court of Holstein. He became chemist and apothecary to the dukes
of Lauenburg, and then to the elector of Saxony, Johann Georg II., who
put him in charge of the royal laboratory at Dresden. Intrigues
engineered against him caused him to resign this position in 1677, and
for a time he lectured on chemistry at Annaberg and Wittenberg. Invited
to Berlin by Frederick William, in 1679 he became director of the
laboratory and glass works of Brandenburg, and in 1688 Charles XI.
brought him to Stockholm, giving him the title of Baron von Lowenstjern
in 1693 and making him a member of the council of mines. He died on the
20th of March 1703 (others say 1702) at Dreissighufen, his country house
near Pernau. Kunkel shares with Boyle the honour of having discovered
the secret of the process by which Brand of Hamburg had prepared
phosphorus in 1669, and he found how to make artificial ruby (red glass)
by the incorporation of purple of Cassius. His work also included
observations on putrefaction and fermentation, which he spoke of as
sisters, on the nature of salts, and on the preparation of pure metals.
Though he lived in an atmosphere of alchemy, he derided the notion of
the alkahest or universal solvent, and denounced the deceptions of the
adepts who pretended to effect the transmutation of metals; but he
believed mercury to be a constituent of all metals and heavy minerals,
though he held there was no proof of the presence of "sulphur
comburens."

  His chief works were _Oeffentliche Zuschrift von dem Phosphor Mirabil_
  (1678); _Ars vitriaria experimentalis_ (1689) and _Laboratorium
  chymicum_ (1716).




KUNLONG, the name of a district and ferry on the Salween, in the
northern Shan States of Burma. Both are insignificant, but the place has
gained notoriety from being the nominal terminus in British territory of
the railway across the northern Shan States to the borders of Yunnan,
with its present terminus at Lashio. In point of fact, however, this
terminus will be 7 m. below the ferry and outside of Kunlong circle. At
present Kunlong ferry is little used, and the village was burnt by
Kachins in 1893. It is served by dug-outs, three in number in 1899, and
capable of carrying about fifteen men on a trip. Formerly the trade was
very considerable, and the Burmese had a customs station on the island,
from which the place takes its name; but the rebellion in the great
state of Theinni, and the southward movement of the Kachins, as well as
the Mahommedan rebellion in Yunnan, diverted the caravans to the
northern route to Bhamo, which is still chiefly followed. The Wa, who
inhabit the hills immediately overlooking the Nam Ting valley, now make
the route dangerous for traders. The great majority of these Wa live in
unadministered British territory.




KUNZITE, a transparent lilac-coloured variety of spodumene, used as a
gem-stone. It was discovered in 1902 near Pala, in San Diego county,
California, not far from the locality which yields the fine specimens of
rubellite and lepidolite, well known to mineralogists. The mineral was
named by Dr C. Baskerville after Dr George F. Kunz, the gem expert of
New York, who first described it. Analysis by R. O. E. Davis showed it
to be a spodumene. Kunzite occurs in large crystals, some weighing as
much as 1000 grams each, and presents delicate hues from rosy lilac to
deep pink. It is strongly dichroic. Near the surface it may lose colour
by exposure. Kunzite becomes strongly phosphorescent under the Röntgen
rays, or by the action of radium or on exposure to ultra-violet rays.
(See SPODUMENE.)




KUOPIO, a province of Finland, which includes northern Karelia, bounded
on the N.W. and N. by Uleåborg, on the E. by Olonets, on the S.E. by
Viborg, on the S. by St Michel and on the W. by Vasa. Its area covers
16,500 sq. m., and the population (1900) was 313,951, of whom 312,875
were Finnish-speaking. The surface is hilly, reaching from 600 to 800
ft. of altitude in the north (Suomenselkä hills), and from 300 to 400
ft. in the south. It is built up of gneisso-granites, which are covered,
especially in the middle and east, with younger granites, and partly of
gneisses, quartzite, and talc schists and augitic rocks. The whole is
covered with glacial and later lacustrine deposits. The soil is of
moderate fertility, but often full of boulders. Large lakes cover 16% of
surface, marshes and peat bogs over 29% of the area, and forests occupy
2,672,240 hectares. Steamers ply along the lakes as far as Joensuu. The
climate is severe, the average temperature being for the year 36° F.,
for January 13° and for July 63°. Only 2.3% of the whole surface is
under cultivation. Rye, barley, oats and potatoes are the chief crops,
and in good years these meet the needs of the population. Dairy farming
and cattle breeding are of rapidly increasing importance. Nearly 38,800
tons of iron ore are extracted every year, and nearly 12,000 tons of pig
iron and 6420 tons of iron and steel are obtained in ten iron-works.
Engineering and chemical works, tanneries, saw-mills, paper-mills and
distilleries are the chief industrial establishments. The preparation of
carts, sledges and other wooden goods is an important domestic industry.
Timber, iron, butter, furs and game are exported. The chief towns of the
government are Kuopio (13,519), Joensuu (3954) and Iisalmi (1871).




KUOPIO, capital of the Finnish province of that name, situated on Lake
Kalla-vesi, 180 m. by rail from the Kuivola junction of the St
Petersburg-Helsingfors main line. Pop. (1904), 13,519. It is
picturesquely situated, is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral,
two lyceums and two gymnasia (both for boys and girls), a commercial and
several professional schools. There is an agricultural school at Leväis,
close by. Kuopio, in consequence of its steamer communication with
middle Finland and the sea (via Saima Canal), is a trading centre of
considerable importance.




KUPRILI, spelt also KÖPRILI, KOEPRULU, KEUPRULU, &c., the name of a
family of Turkish statesmen.

1. MAHOMMED KUPRILI (c. 1586-1661) was the grandson of an Albanian who
had settled at Kupri in Asia Minor. He began life as a scullion in the
imperial kitchen, became cook, then purse-bearer to Khosrev Pasha, and
so, by wit and favour, rose to be master of the horse, "pasha of two
tails," and governor of a series of important cities and sanjaks. In
1656 he was appointed governor of Tripoli; but before he had set out to
his new post he was nominated to the grand vizierate at the instance of
powerful friends. He accepted office only on condition of being allowed
a free hand. He signalized his accession to power by suppressing an
_émeute_ of orthodox Mussulman fanatics in Constantinople (Sept. 22),
and by putting to death certain favourites of the powerful Valide
Sultana, by whose corruption and intrigues the administration had been
confused. A little later (January 1657) he suppressed with ruthless
severity a rising of the spahis; a certain Sheik Salim, leader of the
fanatical mob of the capital, was drowned in the Bosporus; and the Greek
Patriarch, who had written to the voivode of Wallachia to announce the
approaching downfall of Islam, was hanged. This impartial severity was a
foretaste of Kuprili's rule, which was characterized throughout by a
vigour which belied the expectations based upon his advanced years, and
by a ruthlessness which in time grew to be almost blood-lust. His
justification was the new life which he breathed into the decaying bones
of the Ottoman empire.

Having cowed the disaffected elements in the state, he turned his
attention to foreign enemies. The victory of the Venetians off Chios
(May 2, 1657) was a severe blow to the Turkish sea-power, which Kuprili
set himself energetically to repair. A second battle, fought in the
Dardanelles (July 17-19), ended by a lucky shot blowing up the Venetian
flag-ship; the losses of the Ottoman fleet were repaired, and in the
middle of August Kuprili appeared off Tenedos, which was captured on the
31st and reincorporated permanently in the Turkish empire. Thus the
Ottoman prestige was restored at sea, while Kuprili's ruthless
enforcement of discipline in the army and suppression of revolts,
whether in Europe or Asia, restored it also on land. It was, however,
due to his haughty and violent temper that the traditional friendly
relations between Turkey and France were broken. The French ambassador,
de la Haye, had delayed bringing him the customary gifts, with the idea
that he would, like his predecessors, speedily give place to a new grand
vizier; Kuprili was bitterly offended, and, on pretext of an abuse of
the immunities of diplomatic correspondence, bastinadoed the
ambassador's son and cast him and the ambassador himself into prison. A
special envoy, sent by Louis XIV., to make inquiries and demand
reparation, was treated with studied insult; and the result was that
Mazarin abandoned the Turkish alliance and threw the power of France on
to the side of Venice, openly assisting the Venetians in the defence of
Crete.

Kuprili's restless energy continued to the last, exhibiting itself on
one side in wholesale executions, on the other in vast building
operations. By his orders castles were built at the mouth of the Don and
on the bank of the Dnieper, outworks against the ever-aggressive Tatars,
as well as on either shore of the Dardanelles. His last activity as a
statesman was to spur the sultan on to press the war against Hungary. He
died on the 31st of October 1661. The advice which, on his death-bed, he
is said to have given to the sultan is characteristic of his
Machiavellian statecraft. This was: never to pay attention to the advice
of women, to allow nobody to grow too rich, to keep his treasury well
filled, and himself and his troops constantly occupied. Had he so
desired, Kuprili might have taken advantage of the revolts of the
Janissaries to place himself on the throne; instead, he recommended the
sultan to appoint his son as his successor, and so founded a dynasty of
able statesmen who occupied the grand vizierate almost without
interruption for half a century.

2. FAZIL AHMED KUPRILI (1635-1676), son of the preceding, succeeded his
father as grand vizier in 1661 (this being the first instance of a son
succeeding his father in that office since the time of the Chenderélis).
He began life in the clerical career, which he left, at the age of
twenty-three, when he had attained the rank of _muderris_. Usually
humane and generous, he sought to relieve the people of the excessive
taxation and to secure them against unlawful exactions. Three years
after his accession to office Turkey suffered a crushing defeat at the
battle of St Gothard and was obliged to make peace with the Empire. But
Kuprili's influence with the sultan remained unshaken, and five years
later Crete fell to his arms (1669). The next war in which he was called
upon to take part was with Poland, in defence of the Cossacks, who had
appealed to Turkey for protection. At first successful, Kuprili was
defeated by the Poles under John Sobieski at Khotin and Lemberg; the
Turks, however, continued to hold their own, and finally in October 1676
consented to honourable terms of peace by the treaty of Zurawno (October
16, 1676), retaining Kaminiec, Podolia and the greater part of the
Ukraine. Three days later Ahmed Kuprili died. His military capacity was
far inferior to his administrative qualities. He was a liberal protector
of art and literature, and the kindliness of his disposition formed a
marked contrast to the cruelty of his father; but he was given to
intemperance, and the cause of his death was dropsy brought on by
alcoholic abuse.

3. ZADE MUSTAFA KUPRILI (1637-1691), surnamed Fazil, son of Mahommed
Kuprili, became grand vizier to Suleiman II. in 1689. Called to office
after disaster had driven Turkey's forces from Hungary and Poland and
her fleets from the Mediterranean, he began by ordering strict economy
and reform in the taxation; himself setting the example, which was
widely followed, of voluntary contributions for the army, which with the
navy he reorganized as quickly as he could. His wisdom is shown by the
prudent measures which he took by enacting the _Nizam-i-jedid_, or new
regulations for the improvement of the condition of the Christian rayas,
and for affording them security for life and property; a conciliatory
attitude which at once bore fruit in Greece, where the people abandoned
the Venetian cause and returned to their allegiance to the Porte. He met
his death at the battle of Salankamen in 1691, when the total defeat of
the Turks by the Austrians under Prince Louis of Baden led to their
expulsion from Hungary.

4. HUSSEIN KUPRILI (surnamed AMUJA-ZADE) was the son of Hassan, a
younger brother of Mahommed Kuprili. After occupying various important
posts he became grand vizier in 1697, and owing to his ability and
energy the Turks were able to drive the Austrians back over the Save,
and Turkish fleets were sent into the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
The efforts of European diplomacy succeeded in inducing Austria and
Turkey to come to terms by the treaty of Carlowitz, whereby Turkey was
shorn of her chief conquests (1699). After this event Hussein Kuprili,
surnamed "the Wise," devoted himself to the suppression of the revolts
which had broken out in Arabia, Egypt and the Crimea, to the reduction
of the Janissaries, and to the institution of administrative and
financial reform. Unfortunately the intrigues against him drove him from
office in 1702, and soon afterwards he died.

5. NUMAN KUPRILI, son of Mustafa Fazil, became grand vizier in 1710. The
expectations formed of him were not fulfilled, as although he was
tolerant, wise and just like his father, he injudiciously sought to take
upon himself all the details of administration, a task which proved to
be beyond his powers. He failed to introduce order into the
administration and was dismissed from office in less than fourteen
months after his appointment.

6. ABDULLAH KUPRILI, a son of Mustafa Fazil Kuprili, was appointed
Kaimmakam or _locum tenens_ of the grand vizier in 1703. He commanded
the Persian expedition in 1723 and captured Tabriz in 1725, resigning
his office in 1726. In 1735 he again commanded against the Persians, but
fell at the disastrous battle of Bagaverd, thus emulating his father's
heroic death at Selankamen.




KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH, PRINCE (1676-1727), Russian diplomatist, was
the brother-in-law of Peter the Great, their wives being sisters. He was
one of the earliest of Peter's pupils. In 1697 he was sent to Italy to
learn navigation. His long and honourable diplomatic career began in
1707, when he was sent to Rome to induce the pope not to recognize
Charles XII.'s candidate, Stanislaus Leszczynski, as king of Poland.
From 1708 to 1712 he represented Russia at London, Hanover, and the
Hague successively, and, in 1713, was the principal Russian
plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Utrecht. From 1716 to 1722 he
held the post of ambassador at Paris, and when, in 1724, Peter set forth
on his Persian campaign, Kurakin was appointed the supervisor of all the
Russian ambassadors accredited to the various European courts. "The
father of Russian diplomacy," as he has justly been called, was
remarkable throughout his career for infinite tact and insight, and a
wonderfully correct appreciation of men and events. He was most useful
to Russia perhaps when the Great Northern war (see SWEDEN, _History_)
was drawing to a close. Notably he prevented Great Britain from
declaring war against Peter's close ally, Denmark, at the crisis of the
struggle. Kurakin was one of the best-educated Russians of his day, and
his autobiography, carried down to 1709, is an historical document of
the first importance. He intended to write a history of his own times
with Peter the Great as the central figure, but got no further than the
summary, entitled _History of Tsar Peter Aleksievich and the People
Nearest to Him_ (1682-1694) (Rus.).

  See _Archives of Prince A. Th. Kurakin_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1890);
  A. Brückner, _A Russian Tourist in Western Europe in the beginning of
  the XVIIIth Century_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892).     (R. N. B.)




KURBASH, or KOURBASH (from the Arabic _qurbash_, a whip; Turkish
_qirbach_; and French _courbache_), a whip or strap about a yard in
length, made of the hide of the hippopotamus or rhinoceros. It is an
instrument of punishment and torture used in various Mahommedan
countries, especially in the Turkish empire. "Government by kurbash"
denotes the oppression of a people by the constant abuse of the kurbash
to maintain authority, to collect taxes, or to pervert justice. The use
of the kurbash for such purposes, once common in Egypt, has been
abolished by the British authorities.




KURDISTAN, in its wider sense, the "country of the Kurds" (Koords),
including that part of Mount Taurus which buttresses the Armenian
table-land (see ARMENIA), and is intersected by the Batman Su, the
Bohtan Su, and other tributaries of the Tigris; and the wild mountain
district, watered by the Great and Little Zab, which marks the western
termination of the great Iranian plateau.

_Population._--The total Kurd population probably exceeds two and a half
millions, namely, Turkish Kurds 1,650,000, Persian 800,000, Russian
50,000, but there are no trustworthy statistics. The great mass of the
population has its home in Kurdistan. But Kurds are scattered
irregularly over the country from the river Sakaria on the west to Lake
Urmia on the east, and from Kars on the north to Jebel Sinjar on the
south. There is also an isolated settlement in Khorasan. The tribes,
_ashiret_, into which the Kurds are divided, resemble in some respects
the Highland clans of Scotland. Very few of them number more than 10,000
souls, and the average is about 3000. The sedentary and pastoral Kurds,
_Yerli_, who live in villages in winter and encamp on their own
pasture-grounds in summer, form an increasing majority of the
population. The nomad Kurds, _Kocher_, who always dwell in tents, are
the wealthiest and most independent. They spend the summer on the
mountains and high plateaus, which they enter in May and leave in
October; and pass the winter on the banks of the Tigris and on the great
plain north of Jebel Sinjar, where they purchase right of pasturage
from the Shammar Arabs. Each tribe has its own pasture-grounds, and
trespass by other tribes is a fertile source of quarrel. During the
periodical migrations Moslem and Christian alike suffer from the
predatory instincts of the Kurd, and disturbances are frequent in the
districts traversed. In Turkey the sedentary Kurds pay taxes; but the
nomads only pay the sheep tax, which is collected as they cross the
Tigris on their way to their summer pastures.

_Character._--The Kurd delights in the bracing air and unrestricted
liberty of the mountains. He is rarely a muleteer or camel-man, and does
not take kindly to handicrafts. The Kurds generally bear a very
indifferent reputation, a worse reputation perhaps, than they really
deserve. Being aliens to the Turks in language and to the Persians in
religion, they are everywhere treated with mistrust, and live as it were
in a state of chronic warfare with the powers that be. Such a condition
is not of course favourable to the development of the better qualities
of human nature. The Kurds are thus wild and lawless; they are much
given to brigandage; they oppress and frequently maltreat the Christian
populations with whom they are brought in contact,--these populations
being the Armenians in Diarbekr, Erzerum and Van, the Jacobites and
Syrians in the Jebel-Tur, and the Nestorians and Chaldaeans in the
Hakkari country.

Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of the Kurdish chief is
pride of ancestry. This feeling is in many cases exaggerated, for in
reality the present tribal organization does not date from any great
antiquity. In the list indeed of eighteen principal tribes of the nation
which was drawn up by the Arabian historian Masudi, in the 10th century,
only two or three names are to be recognized at the present day. A
14th-century list, however, translated by Quatremère,[1] presents a
great number of identical names, and there seems no reason to doubt that
certain Kurdish families can trace their descent from the Omayyad
caliphs, while only in recent years the Baban chief of Suleimania,
representing the old Sohrans, and the Ardelan chief of Sinna,[2]
representing an elder branch of the Gurans, each claimed an ancestry of
at least five hundred years. There was up to a recent period no more
picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the east than the
court of one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like another Saladin,
the bey ruled in patriarchal state, surrounded by an hereditary
nobility, regarded by his clansmen with reverence and affection, and
attended by a bodyguard of young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armour,
with flaunting silken scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance and sword as in
the time of the crusades.

Though ignorant and unsophisticated the Kurd is not wanting in natural
intelligence. In recent years educated Kurds have held high office under
the sultan, including that of grand vizier, have assisted in translating
the Bible into Turkish, and in editing a newspaper. The men are lithe,
active and strong, but rarely of unusual stature. The women do not veil,
and are allowed great freedom. The Kurds as a race are proud, faithful
and hospitable, and have rude but strict feelings of honour. They are,
however, much under the influence of dervishes, and when their
fanaticism is aroused their habitual lawlessness is apt to degenerate
into savage barbarity. They are not deficient in martial spirit, but
have an innate dislike to the restraints of military service. The
country is rich in traditions and legends, and in lyric and in epic
poems, which have been handed down from earlier times and are recited in
a weird melancholy tone.

_Antiquities._--Kurdistan abounds in antiquities of the most varied and
interesting character. But it has been very little opened up to modern
research. A series of rock-cut cuneiform inscriptions extend from
Malatia on the west to Miandoab (in Persia) on the east, and from the
banks of the Aras on the north to Rowanduz on the south, which record
the glories of a Turanian dynasty, who ruled the country of Nairi during
the 8th and 7th centuries, B.C., contemporaneously with the lower
Assyrian empire. Intermingled with these are a few genuine Assyrian
inscriptions of an earlier date; and in one instance, at Van, a later
tablet of Xerxes brings the record down to the period of Grecian
history. The most ancient monuments of this class, however, are to be
found at Holwan and in the neighbourhood, where the sculptures and
inscriptions belong probably to the Guti and Luli tribes, and date from
the early Babylonian period.

In the northern Kurdish districts which represent the Arzanene,
Intilene, Anzitene, Zabdicene, and Moxuene of the ancients, there are
many interesting remains of Roman cities, e.g. at Arzen, Miyafarikin
(anc. _Martyropolis_), Sisauronon, and the ruins of Dunisir near Dara,
which Sachau identified with the Armenian capital of Tigranocerta. Of
the Macedonian and Parthian periods there are remains both sculptured
and inscribed at several points in Kurdistan; at Bisitun or Behistun
(q.v.), in a cave at Amadia, at the Mithraic temple of Kereftu, on the
rocks at Sir Pul-o-Zohab near the ruins of Holwan, and probably in some
other localities, such as the Balik country between Lahijan and
Koi-Sanjak; but the most interesting site in all Kurdistan, perhaps in
all western Asia, is the ruined fire temple of Pai Kuli on the southern
frontier of Suleimania. Among the débris of this temple, which is
scattered over a bare hillside, are to be found above one hundred slabs,
inscribed with Parthian and Pahlavi characters, the fragments of a wall
which formerly supported the eastern face of the edifice, and bore a
bilingual legend of great length, dating from the Sassanian period.
There are also remarkable Sassanian remains in other parts of
Kurdistan--at Salmus to the north, and at Kermanshah and Kasr-i-Shirin
on the Turkish frontier to the south.

  _Language._--The Kurdish language, Kermanji, is an old Persian patois,
  intermixed to the north with Chaldaean words and to the south with a
  certain Turanian element which may not improbably have come down from
  Babylonian times. Several peculiar dialects are spoken in secluded
  districts in the mountains, but the only varieties which, from their
  extensive use, require to be specified are the Zaza and the Guran. The
  Zaza is spoken throughout the western portion of the Dersim country,
  and is said to be unintelligible to the Kermanji-speaking Kurds. It is
  largely intermingled with Armenian, and may contain some trace of the
  old Cappadocian, but is no doubt of the same Aryan stock as the
  standard Kurdish. The Guran dialect again, which is spoken throughout
  Ardelan and Kermanshah[3] chiefly differs from the northern Kurdish in
  being entirely free from any Semitic intermixture. It is thus somewhat
  nearer to the Persian than the Kermanji dialect, but is essentially
  the same language. It is a mistake to suppose that there is no
  Kurdish literature. Many of the popular Persian poets have been
  translated into Kurdish, and there are also books relating to the
  religious mysteries of the Ali-Illahis in the hands of the Dersimlis
  to the north and of the Gurans of Kermanshah to the south. The New
  Testament in Kurdish was printed at Constantinople in 1857. The Rev.
  Samuel Rhea published a grammar and vocabulary of the Hakkari dialect
  in 1872. In 1879 there appeared, under the auspices of the imperial
  academy of St Petersburg a French-Kurdish dictionary compiled
  originally by Mons. Jaba, many years Russian consul at Erzerum, but
  completed by Ferdinand Justi by the help of a rich assortment of
  Kurdish tales and ballads, collected by Socin and Prym in Assyria.

  _Religion._--The great body of the nation, in Persia as well as in
  Turkey, are Sunnis of the Shafi'ite sect, but in the recesses of the
  Dersim to the north and of Zagros to the south there are large
  half-pagan communities, who are called indifferently Ali-Illahi and
  Kizjil-bash, and who hold tenets of some obscurity, but of
  considerable interest. Outwardly professing to be Shi'ites or
  "followers of Ali," they observe secret ceremonies and hold esoteric
  doctrines which have probably descended to them from very early ages,
  and of which the essential condition is that there must always be upon
  the earth a visible manifestation of the Deity. While paying reverence
  to the supposed incarnations of ancient days, to Moses, David, Christ,
  Ali and his tutor Salman-ul-Farisi, and several of the Shi'ite imams
  and saints, they have thus usually some recent local celebrity at
  whose shrine they worship and make vows; and there is, moreover, in
  every community of Ali-Illahis some living personage, not necessarily
  ascetic, to whom, as representing the godhead, the superstitious
  tribesmen pay almost idolatrous honours. Among the Gurans of the south
  the shrine of Baba Yadgar, in a gorge of the hills above the old city
  of Holwan, is thus regarded with a supreme veneration. Similar
  institutions are also found in other parts of the mountains, which may
  be compared with the tenets of the Druses and Nosairis in Syria and
  the Ismailites in Persia.

_History._--With regard to the origin of the Kurds, it was formerly
considered sufficient to describe them as the descendants of the
Carduchi, who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the
mountains, but modern research traces them far beyond the period of the
Greeks. At the dawn of history the mountains overhanging Assyria were
held by a people named _Gutu_, a title which signified "a warrior," and
which was rendered in Assyrian by the synonym of _Gardu_ or _Kardu_, the
precise term quoted by Strabo to explain the name of the Cardaces
([Greek: Kardakes]). These _Gutu_ were a Turanian tribe of such power as
to be placed in the early cuneiform records on an equality with the
other nations of western Asia, that is, with the Syrians and Hittites,
the Susians, Elamites, and Akkadians of Babylonia; and during the whole
period of the Assyrian empire they seem to have preserved a more or less
independent political position. After the fall of Nineveh they coalesced
with the Medes, and, in common with all the nations inhabiting the high
plateaus of Asia Minor, Armenia and Persia, became gradually Aryanized,
owing to the immigration at this period of history of tribes in
overwhelming numbers which, from whatever quarter they may have sprung,
belonged certainly to the Aryan family.

The _Gutu_ or Kurdu were reduced to subjection by Cyrus before he
descended upon Babylon, and furnished a contingent of fighting men to
his successors, being thus mentioned under the names of Saspirians and
Alarodians in the muster roll of the army of Xerxes which was preserved
by Herodotus.

In later times they passed successively under the sway of the
Macedonians, the Parthians, and Sassanians, being especially befriended,
if we may judge from tradition as well as from the remains still
existing in the country, by the Arsacian monarchs, who were probably of
a cognate race. Gotarzes indeed, whose name may perhaps be translated
"chief of the _Gutu_," was traditionally believed to be the founder of
the Gurans, the principal tribe of southern Kurdistan,[4] and his name
and titles are still preserved in a Greek inscription at Behistun near
the Kurdish capital of Kermanshah. Under the caliphs of Bagdad the Kurds
were always giving trouble in one quarter or another. In A.D. 838, and
again in 905, there were formidable insurrections in northern Kurdistan;
the amir, Adod-addaula, was obliged to lead the forces of the caliphate
against the southern Kurds, capturing the famous fortress of Sermaj, of
which the ruins are to be seen at the present day near Behistun, and
reducing the province of Shahrizor with its capital city now marked by
the great mound of Yassin Teppeh. The most flourishing period of Kurdish
power was probably during the 12th century of our era, when the great
Saladin, who belonged to the Rawendi branch of the Hadabani tribe,
founded the Ayyubite dynasty of Syria, and Kurdish chiefships were
established, not only to the east and west of the Kurdistan mountains,
but as far as Khorasan upon one side and Egypt and Yemen on the other.
During the Mongol and Tatar domination of western Asia the Kurds in the
mountains remained for the most part passive, yielding a reluctant
obedience to the provincial governors of the plains.

When Sultan Selim I., after defeating Shah Ismail, 1514, annexed Armenia
and Kurdistan, he entrusted the organization of the conquered
territories to Idris, the historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. Idris
found Kurdistan bristling with castles, held by hereditary tribal chiefs
of Kurd, Arab, and Armenian descent, who were practically independent,
and passed their time in tribal warfare or in raiding the agricultural
population. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts, and,
making no attempt to interfere with the principle of heredity, installed
the local chiefs as governors. He also resettled the rich pastoral
country between Erzerum and Erivan, which had lain waste since the
passage of Timur, with Kurds from the Hakkiari and Bohtan districts. The
system of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged until
the close of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29. But the Kurds, owing to
the remoteness of their country from the capital and the decline of
Turkey, had greatly increased in influence and power, and had spread
westwards over the country as far as Angora. After the war the Kurds
attempted to free themselves from Turkish control, and in 1834 it became
necessary to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha.
The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of the Kurd beys
were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843
was firmly repressed, and after the Crimean War the Turks strengthened
their hold on the country. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 was followed
by the attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah, 1880-81, to found an independent
Kurd principality under the protection of Turkey. The attempt, at first
encouraged by the Porte, as a reply to the projected creation of an
Armenian state under the suzerainty of Russia (see ARMENIA), collapsed
after Obaidullah's raid into Persia, when various circumstances led the
central government to reassert its supreme authority. Until the
Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29 there had been little hostile feeling
between the Kurds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877-1878 the
mountaineers of both races had got on fairly well together. Both
suffered from Turkey, both dreaded Russia. But the national movement
amongst the Armenians, and its encouragement by Russia after the last
war, gradually aroused race hatred and fanaticism. In 1891 the activity
of the Armenian Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position
of the Kurds by raising a body of Kurdish irregular cavalry, which was
well armed and called Hamidieh after the Sultan. The opportunities thus
offered for plunder and the gratification of race hatred brought out the
worst qualities of the Kurds. Minor disturbances constantly occurred,
and were soon followed by the massacre of Armenians at Sasun and other
places, 1894-96, in which the Kurds took an active part.

  AUTHORITIES.--Rich, _Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan_ (1836);
  Wagner, _Reise nach Persien und dem Lande der Kurden_ (Leipzig, 1852);
  Consul Taylor in _R. G. S. Journal_ (1865); Millingen, _Wild Life
  among the Koords_ (1870); Von Luschan, "Die Wandervolker Kleinasiens,"
  in _V^n. d. G. für Anthropologie_ (Berlin, 1886); Clayton, "The
  Mountains of Kurdistan," in _Alpine Journal_ (1887); Binder, _Au
  Kurdistan_ (Paris, 1887); Naumann, _Vom Goldnen Horn zu den Quellen
  des Euphrat_ (Munich, 1893); Murray, _Handbook to Asia Minor, &c._
  (1895); Lerch, _Forschungen über die Kurden_ (St Petersburg, 1857-58);
  Jaba, _Dict. Kurde-Français_ (St Petersburg, 1879); Justi, _Kurdische
  Grammatik_ (1880); Prym and Socin, _Kurdische Sammlungen_ (1890);
  Makas, _Kurdische Studien_ (1901); Earl Percy, _Highlands of Asiatic
  Turkey_ (1901); Lynch, _Armenia_ (1901); A. V. Williams Jackson,
  _Persia, Past and Present_ (1906).     (C. W. W.; H. C. R.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] See _Notices et Extraits des MSS._, xiii. 305. Of the tribes
    enumerated in this work of the 14th century who still retain a
    leading place among the Kurds, the following names may be quoted:
    _Guranieh_ of Dartang, modern Gurans; _Zengeneh_, in Hamadan hills,
    now in Kermanshah; _Hasnani_ of Kerkuk and Arbil, now in the Dersim
    mountains, having originally come from Khorasan according to
    tradition; _Sohrieh_ of Shekelabad and Tel-Haftun, modern Sohran,
    from whom descend the Baban of Suleimanieh; _Zerzari_ of Hinjarin
    mountains, modern Zerzas of Ushnu (cuneiform pillars of Kel-i-shin
    and Sidek noticed by author); _Julamerkieh_, modern Julamerik, said
    to be descended from the caliph Merwan-ibn-Hakam; _Hakkarieh_,
    Hakkari inhabiting _Zuzan_ of Arab geography; _Bokhtieh_, modern
    Bohtan. The _Rowadi_, to whom Saladin belonged, are probably modern
    Rawendi, as they held the fortress of Arbil (Arbela). Some twenty
    other names are mentioned, but the orthography is so doubtful that it
    is useless to try to identify them.

  [2] The _Sheref-nama_, a history of the Kurds dating from the 16th
    century, tells us that "towards the close of the reign of the
    Jenghizians, a man named Baba Ardilan, a descendant of the governors
    of Diarbekr, and related to the famous Ahmed-ibn-Merwan, after
    remaining for some time among the Gurans, gained possession of the
    country of Shahrizor" and the Ardelan family history, with the
    gradual extension of their power over Persian Kurdistan, is then
    traced down to the Saffavid period.

  [3] The Guran are mentioned in the _Mesalik-el-Absar_ as the dominant
    tribe in southern Kurdistan in the 14th century, occupying very much
    the same seats as at present, from the Hamadan frontier to Shahrizor.
    Their name probably signifies merely "the mountaineers," being
    derived from _gur_ or _giri_, "a mountain," which is also found in
    Zagros, i.e. _za-giri_, "beyond the mountain," or _Pusht-i-koh_, as
    the name is translated in Persian. They are a fine, active and hardy
    race, individually brave, and make excellent soldiers, though in
    appearance very inferior to the tribal Kurds of the northern
    districts. These latter indeed delight in gay colours, while the
    Gurans dress in the most homely costume, wearing coarse blue cotton
    vests, with felt caps and coats. In a great part of Kurdistan the
    name Guran has become synonymous with an agricultural peasantry, as
    opposed to the migratory shepherds.

  [4] "The Kalhur tribe are traditionally descended from
    Gudarz-ibn-Gio, whose son Roham was sent by Bahman Keiani to destroy
    Jerusalem and bring the Jews into captivity. This Roham is the
    individual usually called Bokht-i-nasser (Nebuchadrezzar) and he
    ultimately succeeded to the throne. The neighbouring country has ever
    since remained in the hands of his descendants, who are called
    Gurans" (_Sheref-Nama_, Persian MS.). The same popular tradition
    still exists in the country, and [Greek: GÔTARZÊO GEOPOTHROS] is
    found on the rock at Behistun, showing that Gudarz-ibn-Gio was really
    an historic personage. See _Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc._ ix. 114.




KURDISTAN, in the narrower sense, a province of Persia, situated in the
hilly districts between Azerbaijan and Kermanshah, and extending to the
Turkish frontier on the W., and bounded on the E. by Gerrus and Hamadan.
In proportion to its size and population it pays a very small yearly
revenue--only about £14,000--due to the fact that a great part of the
population consists of wild and disorderly nomad Kurds. Some of these
nomads pass their winters in Turkish territory, and have their summer
pasture-grounds in the highlands of Kurdistan. This adds much to the
difficulty of collecting taxation. The province is divided into sixteen
districts, and its eastern part, in which the capital is situated, is
known as Ardelan. The capital is Senendij, usually known as Sinna (not
Sihna, or Sahna, as some writers have it), situated 60 m. N.W. of
Hamadan, in 35° 15´ N., 47° 18´ E., at an elevation of 5300 ft. The city
has a population of about 35,000 and manufactures great quantities of
carpets and felts for the supply of the province and for export. Some of
the carpets are very fine and expensive, rugs 2 yards by 1½ costing £15
to £20. Post and telegraph offices have been established since 1879.




KURGAN, a town (founded 1553) of West Siberia, in the government of
Tobolsk, on the Siberian railway, 160 m. E. of Chelyabinsk, and on the
left bank of the Tobol, in a wealthy agricultural district. Pop. (1897),
10,579. Owing to its position at the terminus of steam navigation up the
river Tobol, it has become second only to Tyumen as a commercial centre.
It has a public library and a botanic garden. There is a large trade in
cattle with Petropavlovsk, and considerable export of grain, tallow,
meat, hides, butter, game and fish, there being three large fairs in the
year. In the vicinity are a great number of prehistoric kurgans or
burial-mounds.




KURIA MURIA ISLANDS, a group of five islands in the Arabian Sea, close
under the coast of Arabia, belonging to Britain and forming a dependency
of Aden. They are lofty and rocky, and have a total area of 28 sq. m.,
that of the largest, Hallania, being 22 sq. m. They are identified with
the ancient _Insulae Zenobii_, and were ceded by the sultan of Muscat to
Britain in 1854 for the purposes of a cable station. They are inhabited
by a few families of Arabs, who however speak a dialect differing
considerably from the ordinary Arabic. The islands yield some guano.




KURILES (Jap. _Chishima_, "thousand islands"), a chain of small islands
belonging to Japan, stretching in a north-easterly direction from Nemuro
Bay, on the extreme east of the island of Yezo, to Chishima-kaikyo
(Kuriles Strait), which separates them from the southernmost point of
Kamchatka. They extend from 44° 45´ to 50° 56´ N. and from 145° 25´ to
156° 32´ E. Their coasts measure 1496 m.; their area is 6159 sq. m.;
their total number is 32, and the names of the eight principal islands,
counting from the south, are Kunashiri, Shikotan, Etorofu (generally
called Etorop, and known formerly to Europe as Staten Island), Urup,
Simusir, Onnekotan, Paramoshiri (Paramusir) and Shumshiri. From
Noshapzaki (Notsu-no-sake or Notsu Cape), the most easterly point of
Nemuro province, to Tomari, the most westerly point in Kunashiri, the
distance is 7(1/3) m., and the Kuriles Strait separating Shumshiri from
Kamchatka is about the same width. The name "Kurile" is derived from the
Russian _kurit_ (to smoke), in allusion to the active volcanic character
of the group. The dense fogs that envelop these islands, and the
violence of the currents in their vicinity, have greatly hindered
exploration, so that little is known of their physiography. They lie
entangled in a vast net of sea-weed; are the resort of innumerable
birds, and used to be largely frequented by seals and sea-otters, which,
however, have been almost completely driven away by unregulated
hunting. Near the south-eastern coast of Kunashiri stands a mountain
called Rausunobori (3005 ft. high), round whose base sulphur bubbles up
in large quantities, and hot springs as well as a hot stream are found.
On the west coast of the same island is a boiling lake, called Ponto,
which deposits on its bed and round its shores black sand, consisting
almost entirely of pure sulphur. This island has several lofty peaks;
Ponnobori-yama near the east coast, and Chachanobori and Rurindake in
the north. Chachanobori (about 7382 ft.) is described by Messrs
Chamberlain and Mason as "a cone within a cone, the inner and higher of
the two being--so the natives say--surrounded by a lake." The island has
extensive forests of conifers with an undergrowth of ferns and flowering
plants, and bears are numerous. The chief port of Kunashiri is Tomari,
on the south coast. The island of Shikotan is remarkable for the growth
of a species of bamboo (called Shikotan-chiku), having dark brown spots
on the cane. Etorofu has a coast-line broken by deep bays, of which the
principal are Naibo-wan, Rubetsu-wan and Bettobuwan on the northern
shore and Shitokap-wan on the southern. It is covered almost completely
with dense forest, and has a number of streams abounding with salmon.
Shana, the chief port, is in Rubetsu Bay. This island, the principal of
the group, is divided into four provinces for administrative purposes,
namely, Etorofu, Furubetsu, Shana and Shibetoro. Its mountains are
Atosha-nobori (4035 ft.) in Etorofu; Chiripnupari (5009 ft.) in Shana;
and Mokoro-nobori (3930 ft.) and Atuiyadake (3932 ft.) in Shibetoro.
Among the other islands three only call for notice on account of their
altitudes, namely, Ketoi-jima, Rashua-jima and Matua-jima, which rise to
heights of 3944, 3304 and 5240 ft. respectively.

_Population._--Not much is known about the aborigines. By some
authorities Ainu colonists are supposed to have been the first settlers,
and to have arrived there via Yezo; by others, the earliest comers are
believed to have been a hyperborean tribe travelling southwards by way
of Kamchatka. The islands themselves have not been sufficiently explored
to determine whether they furnish any ethnological evidences. The
present population aggregates about 4400, or 0.7 per sq. m., of whom
about 600 are Ainu (q.v.). There is little disposition to emigrate
thither from Japan proper, the number of settlers being less than 100
annually.

_History._--The Kurile Islands were discovered in 1634 by the Dutch
navigator Martin de Vries. The three southern islands, Kunashiri,
Etorofu, and Shikotan, are believed to have belonged to Japan from a
remote date, but at the beginning of the 18th century the Russians,
having conquered Kamchatka, found their way to the northern part of the
Kuriles in pursuit of fur-bearing animals, with which the islands then
abounded. Gradually these encroachments were pushed farther south,
simultaneously with aggressions imperilling the Japanese settlements in
the southern half of Sakhalin. Japan's occupation was far from effective
in either region, and in 1875 she was not unwilling to conclude a
convention by which she agreed to withdraw altogether from Sakhalin
provided that Russia withdrew from the Kuriles.

An officer of the Japanese navy, Lieut. Gunji, left Tokyo with about
forty comrades in 1892, his intention being to form a settlement on
Shumshiri, the most northerly of the Kurile Islands. They embarked in
open boats, and for that reason, as well as because they were going to
constitute themselves their country's extreme outpost, the enterprise
attracted public enthusiasm. After a long struggle the immigrants became
fairly prosperous.

  See Capt. H. J. Snow, _Notes on the Kurile Islands_ (London, 1896).




KURISCHES HAFF, a lagoon of Germany, on the Baltic coast of East
Prussia, stretching from Labiau to Memel, a distance of 60 m., has an
area of nearly 680 sq. m. It is mostly shallow and only close to Memel
attains a depth of 23 ft. It is thus unnavigable except for small
coasting and fishing boats, and sea-going vessels proceed through the
Memeler Tief (Memel Deep), which connects the Baltic with Memel and has
a depth of 19 ft. and a breadth of 800 to 1900 ft. The Kurisches Haff is
separated from the Baltic by a long spit, or tongue of land, the
so-called Kurische Nehrung, 72 m. in length and with a breadth of 1 to 2
miles. The latter is fringed throughout its whole length by a chain of
dunes, which rise in places to a height of nearly 200 ft. and threaten,
unless checked, to be pressed farther inland and silt up the whole Haff.

  See Berendt, _Geologie des Kurischen Haffs_ (Königsberg, 1869);
  Sommer, _Das Kurische Haff_ (Danzig, 1889); A. Bezzenberger, _Die
  Kurische Nehrung und ihre Bewohner_ (Stuttgart, 1889); and Lindner,
  _Die Preussische Wüste einst und jetzt, Bilder von der Kurischen
  Nehrung_ (Osterwieck, 1898).




KURNOOL, or KARNUL, a town and district of British India, in the Madras
presidency. The town is built on a rocky soil at the junction of the
Hindri and Tungabhadra rivers 33 m. from a railway station. The old
Hindu fort was levelled in 1865, with the exception of one of the gates,
which was preserved as a specimen of ancient architecture. Cotton cloth
and carpets are manufactured. Pop. (1901), 25,376, of whom half are
Mussulmans.

The DISTRICT OF KURNOOL has an area of 7578 sq. m., pop. (1901),
872,055, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. Two long mountain
ranges, the Nallamalais and the Yellamalais, extend in parallel lines,
north and south, through its centre. The principal heights of the
Nallamalai range are Biranikonda (3149 ft.), Gundlabrahmeswaram (3055
ft.), and Durugapukonda (3086 ft.). The Yellamalai is a low range,
generally flat-topped with scarped sides; the highest point is about
2000 ft. Several low ridges run parallel to the Nallamalais, broken here
and there by gorges, through which mountain streams take their course.
Several of these gaps were dammed across under native rule, to form
tanks for purposes of irrigation. The principal rivers are the
Tungabhadra and Kistna, which bound the district on the north. When in
flood, the Tungabhadra averages 900 yards broad and 15 ft. deep. The
Kistna here flows chiefly through uninhabited jungles, sometimes in long
smooth reaches, with intervening shingly rapids. The Bhavanasi rises on
the Nallamalais, and falls into the Kistna at Sungameswaram, a place of
pilgrimage. During the 18th century Kurnool formed the _jagir_ of a
semi-independent Pathan Nawab, whose descendant was dispossessed by the
British government for treason in 1838. The principal crops are millets,
cotton, oil-seeds, and rice, with a little indigo and tobacco. Kurnool
suffered very severely from the famine of 1876-1877, and to a slight
extent in 1896-1897. It is the chief scene of the operations of the
Madras Irrigation Company taken over by government in 1882. The canal,
which starts from the Tungabhadra river near Kurnool town, was
constructed at a total cost of two millions sterling, but has not been a
financial success. A more successful work is the Cumbum tank, formed
under native rule by damming a gorge of the Gundlakamma river. Apart
from the weaving of coarse cotton cloth, the chief industrial
establishments are cotton presses, indigo vats, and saltpetre
refineries. The district is served by the Southern Mahratta railway.




KUROKI, ITEI, COUNT (1844-   ), Japanese general, was born in Satsuma. He
distinguished himself in the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95. He commanded
the I. Army in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), when he won the opening
battle of the war at the Yalu river, and afterwards advanced through the
mountains and took part with the other armies in the battles of
Liao-Yang, Shaho and Mukden (see RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR). He was created
baron for his services in the former war, and count for his services in
the latter.




KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH (1848-   ), Russian general, was born in
1848 and entered the army in 1864. From 1872 to 1874 he studied at the
Nicholas staff college, after which he spent a short time with the
French troops in Algiers. In 1875 he was employed in diplomatic work in
Kashgaria and in 1876 he took part in military operations in Turkistan,
Kokan and Samerkand. In the war of 1877-78 against Turkey he earned a
great reputation as chief of staff to the younger Skobelev, and after
the war he wrote a detailed and critical history of the operations which
is still regarded as the classical work on the subject and is available
for other nations in the German translation by Major Krahmer. After the
war he served again on the south-eastern borders in command of the
Turkestan Rifle Brigade, and in 1881 he won further fame by a march of
500 miles from Tashkent to Geok-Tepe, taking part in the storming of the
latter place. In 1882 he was promoted major-general, at the early age of
34, and he henceforth was regarded by the army as the natural successor
of Skobelev. In 1890 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and thirteen
years later, having acquired in peace and war the reputation of being
one of the foremost soldiers in Europe, he quitted the post of minister
of war which he then held and took command of the Russian army then
gathering in Manchuria for the contest with Japan. His ill-success in
the great war of 1904-5, astonishing as it seemed at the time, was
largely attributable to his subjection to the superior command of
Admiral Alexeiev, the tsar's viceroy in the Far East, and to internal
friction amongst the generals, though in his history of the war (Eng.
trans., 1909) he frankly admitted his own mistakes and paid the highest
tribute to the gallantry of the troops who had been committed to battle
under conditions unfavourable to success. After the defeat of Mukden and
the retirement of the whole army to Tieling he resigned the command to
General Linievich, taking the latter officer's place at the head of one
of the three armies in Manchuria. (See RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR.)




KURO SIWO, or KURO SHIO (literally blue salt), a stream current in the
Pacific Ocean, easily distinguishable by the warm temperature and blue
colour of its waters, flowing north-eastwards along the east coast of
Japan, and separated from it by a strip of cold water. The current
persists as a stream to about 40 N., between the meridians of 150° E.
and 160° E., when it merges in the general easterly drift of the North
Pacific. The Kuro Siwo is the analogue of the Gulf Stream in the
Atlantic.




KURRAM, a river and district on the Kohat border of the North-West
Frontier province of India. The Kurram river drains the southern flanks
of the Safed Koh, enters the plains a few miles above Bannu, and joins
the Indus near Isa-Khel after a course of more than 200 miles. The
district has an area of 1278 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 54,257. It lies
between the Miranzai Valley and the Afghan border, and is inhabited by
the Turis, a tribe of Turki origin who are supposed to have subjugated
the Bangash Pathans five hundred years ago. It is highly irrigated, well
peopled, and crowded with small fortified villages, orchards and groves,
to which a fine background is afforded by the dark pine forests and
alpine snows of the Safed Koh. The beauty and climate of the valley
attracted some of the Mogul emperors of Delhi, and the remains exist of
a garden planted by Shah Jahan. Formerly the Kurram valley was under the
government of Kabul, and every five or six years a military expedition
was sent to collect the revenue, the soldiers living meanwhile at free
quarters on the people. It was not until about 1848 that the Turis were
brought directly under the control of Kabul, when a governor was
appointed, who established himself in Kurram. The Turis, being Shiah
Mahommedans, never liked the Afghan rule. During the second Afghan War,
when Sir Frederick Roberts advanced by way of the Kurram valley and the
Peiwar Kotal to Kabul, the Turis lent him every assistance in their
power, and in consequence their independence was granted them in 1880.
The administration of the Kurram valley was finally undertaken by the
British government, at the request of the Turis themselves, in 1890.
Technically it ranks, not as a British district, but as an agency or
administered area. Two expeditions in the Kurram valley also require
mention: (1) The Kurram expedition of 1856 under Brigadier Chamberlain.
The Turis on the first annexation of the Kohat district by the British
had given much trouble. They had repeatedly leagued with other tribes to
harry the Miranzai valley, harbouring fugitives, encouraging resistance,
and frequently attacking Bangash and Khattak villages in the Kohat
district. Accordingly in 1856 a British force of 4896 troops traversed
their country, and the tribe entered into engagements for future good
conduct. (2) The Kohat-Kurram expedition of 1897 under Colonel W. Hill.
During the frontier risings of 1897 the inhabitants of the Kurram
valley, chiefly the Massozai section of the Orakzais, were infected by
the general excitement, and attacked the British camp at Sadda and other
posts. A force of 14,230 British troops traversed the country, and the
tribesmen were severely punished. In Lord Curzon's reorganization of the
frontier in 1900-1901, the British troops were withdrawn from the forts
in the Kurram valley, and were replaced by the Kurram militia,
reorganized in two battalions, and chiefly drawn from the Turi tribe.




KURSEONG, or KARSIANG, a sanatorium of northern India, in the Darjeeling
district of Bengal, 20 m. S. of Darjeeling and 4860 ft. above sea-level;
pop. (1901), 4469. It has a station on the mountain railway, and is a
centre of the tea trade. It also contains boys' and girls' schools for
Europeans and Eurasians.




KURSK, a government of middle Russia, bounded N. by the government of
Orel, E. by that of Voronezh, S. by Kharkov and W. by Chernigov. Area,
17,932 sq. m. It belongs to the central plateau of middle Russia, of
which it mostly occupies the southern slope, the highest parts being in
Orel and Kaluga, to the north of Kursk. Its surface is 700 to 1100 ft.
high, deeply trenched by ravines, and consequently assumes a hilly
aspect when viewed from the river valleys. Cretaceous and Eocene rocks
prevail, and chalk, iron-stone, potters' clay and phosphates are among
the economic minerals. No fewer than four hundred streams are counted
within its borders, but none of them is of any service as waterways. A
layer of fertile loess covers the whole surface, and Kursk belongs
almost entirely to the black-earth region. The flora is distinct from
that of the governments to the north, not only on account of the
black-earth flora which enters into its composition, but also of the
plants of south-western Russia which belong to it, a characteristic
which is accentuated in the southern portion of the government. The
climate is milder than that of middle Russia generally, and winds from
the south-east and the south-west prevail in winter. The average
temperatures are--for the year 42° F., for January 14° F. and for July
67° F. The very interesting magnetic phenomenon, known as the Byelgorod
anomaly, covering an oval area 20 m. long and 12 m. wide, has been
studied near the town of this name. The population, 1,893,597 in 1862,
was 2,391,091 in 1897, of whom 1,208,488 were women and 199,676 lived in
towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 2,797,000. It is thoroughly
Russian (76% Great Russians and 24% Little Russians), and 94% are
peasants who own over 59% of the land, and live mostly in large
villages. Owing to the rapid increase of the peasantry and the small
size of the allotments given at the emancipation of the serfs in 1861,
emigration, chiefly to Siberia, is on the increase, while 80,000 to
100,000 men leave home every summer to work in the neighbouring
governments. Three-quarters of the available land is under crops,
chiefly rye, other crops being wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet,
potatoes, sugar-beets, hemp, flax, sunflowers and fruits. Grain is
exported in considerable quantities. Bees are commonly kept, as also are
large numbers of livestock. Factories (steam flour-mills,
sugar-factories, distilleries, wool-washing, tobacco factories) give
occupation to about 23,000 workers. Domestic and petty trades are on the
increase in the villages, and new ones are being introduced, the chief
products being boots, ikons (sacred images) and shrines, toys, caps,
vehicles, baskets, and pottery. About 17 m. from the chief town is held
the Korennaya fair, formerly the greatest in South Russia, and still
with an annual trade valued at £900,000. The Kursk district contains
more than sixty old town sites; and barrows or burial mounds (_kurgans_)
are extremely abundant. Notwithstanding the active efforts of the local
councils (_zemstvos_), less than 10% of the population read and write.
The government is crossed from north to south and from west to south by
two main lines of railway. The trade in grain, hemp, hemp-seed oil,
sheepskins, hides, tallow, felt goods, wax, honey and leather goods is
very brisk. There are fifteen districts, the chief towns of which, with
their populations in 1897, are Kursk (q.v.) Byelgorod (21,850), Dmitriev
(7315), Fatezh (4959), Graivoron (7669), Korocha (14,405), Lgov (5376),
Novyi Oskol (2762), Oboyañ (11872), Putivl (8965), Rylsk (11,415),
Staryi Oskol (16,662), Shchigry (3329), Suja (12,856) and Tim (7380).
There are more than twenty villages which have from 5000 to 12,000
inhabitants each.     (P. A K.; J. T. Be.)




KURSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, at
the junction of the railways from Moscow, Kiev and Kharkov, 330 m.
S.S.W. from Moscow. Pop. (1897), 52,896. It is built on two hills (750
ft.), the slopes of which are planted with orchards. The environs all
round are well wooded and the woods are famous for their nightingales.
Among the public buildings the more noticeable are a monastery with an
image of the Virgin, greatly venerated since 1295; the Orthodox Greek
cathedral (18th century); and the episcopal palace, Kursk being a
bishopric of the national church. It is essentially a provincial town,
and is revered as the birthplace of Theodosius, one of the most
venerated of Russian saints. It has a public garden, and has become the
seat of several societies (medical, musical, educational and for sport).
Its factories include steam flour-mills, distilleries, tobacco-works,
hemp-crushing mills, tanneries, soap-works and iron-works. It has a
great yearly fair (_Korennaya_), and an active trade in cereals, linen,
leather, fruit, horses, cattle, hides, sheepskins, furs, down, bristles,
wax, tallow and manufactured goods.

Kursk was in existence in 1032. It was completely destroyed by the
Mongols in 1240. The defence of the town against an incursion of the
Turkish Polovtsi (or Comans or Cumani) is celebrated in _The Triumph of
Igor_, an epic which forms one of the most valuable relics of early
Russian literature. From 1586 to the close of the 18th century the
citadel was a place of considerable strength; the remains are now
comparatively few.




KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH (1809-1890), German Lutheran theologian, was born
at Montjoie near Aix la Chapelle on the 13th of December 1809, and was
educated at Halle and Bonn. Abandoning the idea of a commercial career,
he gave himself to the study of theology and became religious instructor
at the gymnasium of Mitau in 1835, and ordinary professor of theology
(church history, 1850; exegesis, 1859) at Dorpat. He resigned his chair
in 1870 and went to live at Marburg, where he died on the 26th of April
1890. Kurtz was a prolific writer, and many of his books, especially the
_Lehrbuch der heiligen Geschichte_ (1843), became very popular. In the
field of biblical criticism he wrote a _Geschichte des Alten Bundes_
(1848-1855), _Zur Theologie der Psalmen_ (1865) and _Erklärung des
Briefs an die Hebräer_ (1869). His chief work was done in church
history, among his productions being _Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte für
Studierende_ (1849), _Abriss der Kirchengeschichte_ (1852) and _Handbuch
der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte_ (1853-1856). Several of his books
have been translated into English.




KURUMAN, a town in the Bechuanaland division of Cape Colony, 120 m. N.W.
of Kimberley and 85 m. S.W. of Vryburg. It is a station of the London
Missionary Society, founded in 1818, and from 1821 to 1870 was the scene
of the labours of Robert Moffat (q.v.) who here translated the Bible
into the Bechuana tongue. In the middle period of the 19th century
Kuruman was the rendezvous of all travellers going north or south. Of
these the best known is David Livingstone. The trunk railway line
passing considerably to the east of the town, Kuruman is no longer a
place of much importance. It is pleasantly situated on the upper course
of the Kuruman river, being beautified by gardens and orchards, and
presents a striking contrast to the desert conditions of the surrounding
country. Its name is that of the son and heir of Mosilikatze, the
founder of the Matabele nation. Kuruman disappeared during his father's
lifetime and the succession passed to Lobengula (see RHODESIA:
_History_). In November 1899 the town was besieged by a Boer force. The
garrison, less than a hundred strong, held out for six weeks against
over 1000 of the enemy, but was forced to surrender on the 1st of
January 1900. In June following it was reoccupied by the British.




KURUMBAS and KURUBAS, aboriginal tribes of southern India, by some
thought to be of distinct races. There are two types of Kurumbas, those
who live on the Nilgiri plateau, speak the Kurumba dialect and are mere
savages; and those who live in the plains, speak Kanarese and are
civilized. The former are a small people, with wild matted hair and
scanty beard, sickly-looking, pot-bellied, large-mouthed, with
projecting jaws, prominent teeth and thick lips. Their villages are
called _mottas_, groups of four or five huts, built in mountain glens or
forests. At the 1901 census the numbers were returned at 4083.

  See James W. Breeks, _An Account of Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris_
  (1873); Dr John Shortt, _Hill Ranges of Southern India_, pt. i. 47-53;
  Rev. F. Metz, _Tribes Inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills_ (Mangalore,
  1864).




KURUNEGALA, the chief town in the north-western province of Ceylon. Pop.
of the town, 6483; of the district, 249,429. It was the residence of the
kings of Ceylon from A.D. 1319 to 1347, and is romantically situated
under the shade of Adagalla (the rock of the Tusked Elephant), which is
600 ft. high. It was in 1902 the terminus of the Northern railway (59 m.
from Colombo), which has since been extended 200 m. farther, to the
northernmost coast of the Jaffna Peninsula. Kurunegala is the centre of
rice, coco-nut, tea, coffee and cocoa cultivation.




KURUNTWAD, or KURANDVAD, a native state of India, in the Deccan division
of Bombay, forming part of the Southern Mahratta jagirs. Originally
created in 1772 by a grant from the peshwa, the state was divided in
1811 into two parts, one of which, called Shedbal, lapsed to the British
government in 1857. In 1855 Kuruntwad was further divided between a
senior and a junior branch. The territory of both is widely scattered
among other native states and British districts. Area of the senior
branch, 185 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 42,474; revenue, £13,000. Area of
junior branch, 114 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 34,003; revenue, £9000. The
joint tribute is £640. The chiefs are Brahmans by caste, of the
Patwardhan family. The town of Kuruntwad, in which both branches have
their residence, is on the right bank of the Panchganga river near its
junction with the Kistna. Pop. (1901), 10,451.




KURZ, HERMANN (1813-1873), German poet and novelist, was born at
Reutlingen on the 30th of November 1813. Having studied at the
theological seminary at Maulbronn and at the university of Tübingen, he
was for a time assistant pastor at Ehningen. He then entered upon a
literary career, and in 1863 was appointed university librarian at
Tübingen, where he died on the 10th of October 1873. Kurz is less known
to fame by his poems, _Gedichte_ (1836) and _Dichtungen_ (1839), than by
his historical novels, _Schillers Heimatjahre_ (1843, 3rd ed., 1899) and
_Der Sonnenwirt_ (1854, 2nd ed., 1862), and his excellent translations
from English, Italian and Spanish. He also published a successful modern
German version of Gottfried von Strassburg's _Tristan und Isolde_
(1844). His collected works were published in ten volumes (Stuttgart,
1874), also in twelve volumes (Leipzig, 1904).

His daughter, ISOLDE KURZ, born on the 21st of December 1853 at
Stuttgart, takes a high place among contemporary lyric poets in Germany
with her _Gedichte_ (Stuttgart, 1888, 3rd ed. 1898) and _Neue Gedichte_
(1903). Her short stories, _Florentiner Novellen_ (1890, 2nd ed. 1893),
_Phantasien und Märchen_ (1890), _Italienische Erzählungen_ (1895) and
_Von Dazumal_ (1900) are distinguished by a fine sense of form and
clear-cut style.




KUSAN ("lake" or "inland bay"), a small group of North American Indian
tribes, formerly living on the Coos river and the coast of Oregon. They
call themselves Anasitch, and other names given them have been Ka-us or
KWO-KWOOS, Kowes and Cook-koo-oose. They appear to be in no way related
to their neighbours. The few survivors, mostly of mixed blood, are on
the Siletz reservation, Oregon.




KUSHALGARH, a village in the Kohat district of the North-West Frontier
province of India. It is only notable as the point at which the Indus is
bridged to permit of the extension of the strategic frontier railway
from Rawalpindi to the Miranzai and Kurram valleys.




KUSHK, a river of Afghanistan, which also gives its name to the chief
town in the Afghan province of Badghis, and to a military post on the
border of Russian Turkestan. The river Kushk, during a portion of its
course, forms the boundary between Afghan and Russian territory; but the
town is some 20 m. from the border. Kushk, or Kushkinski Post, is now a
fourth-class Russian fortress, on a Russian branch railway from Merv,
the terminus of which is 12 m. to the south, at Chahil Dukteran. It is
served by both the Transcaspian and the Orenburg-Tashkent railways. The
terminus is only 66 m. from Herat, and in the event of war would become
an important base for a Russian advance. Some confusion has arisen
through the popular application of the name of Kushk to this terminus,
though it is situated neither at the Russian post nor at the old town.
     (T. H. H.*)




KUSTANAISK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Turgai, on the
Tobol river, 410 m. E.N.E. of Orenburg, in a very fertile part of the
steppes. Pop. (1897), 14,065. The first buildings were erected in 1871,
and it has since grown with American-like rapidity. The immigrants from
Russia built a large village, which became the centre of the district
administration in 1884, and a town in 1893, under the name of
Nicolaevsk, changed later into Kustanaisk. It is an educational centre,
and a cathedral has been built. There are tanneries, tallow works,
potteries, and a fair for cattle, while its trade makes it a rival to
Orenburg and Troitsk.




KÜSTENLAND (coast-land or littoral), a common name for the three
crown-lands of Austria, Görz and Gradisca, Istria and Trieste. Their
combined area is 3084 sq. m., and their population in 1900 was 755,183.
They are united for certain administrative purposes under the governor
of Trieste, the legal and financial authorities of which also exercise
jurisdiction over the entire littoral.




KUTAIAH, KUTAYA, or KIUTAHIA, the chief town of a sanjak in the vilayet
of Brusa (Khudavendikiar), Asia Minor, is situated on the Pursaksu, an
affluent of the Sakaria (anc. _Sangarius_). The town lies at an
important point of the great road across Asia Minor from Constantinople
to Aleppo, and is connected by a branch line with the main line from
Eski-shehr to Afium Kara-Hissar, of the Anatolian railway. It has a busy
trade; pop. estimated at 22,000. Kutaiah has been identified with the
ancient Cotiaeum.

  See V. Cuinet, _Turquie d'Asie_, vol. iv. (Paris, 1894).




KUTAIS, a government of Russian Transcaucasia, situated between the
Caucasus range on the N. and the Black Sea on the W., the government of
Tiflis on the E. and the province of Kars on the S. Area, 14,313 sq. m.
The government includes the districts of Guria, Mingrelia, Imeretia,
Abkhasia and Svanetia, and consists of four distinct parts: (1) the
lowlands, drained by the Rion, and continued N.W. along the shore of the
Black Sea; (2) the southern slopes of the main Caucasus range; (3) the
western slopes of the Suram mountains, which separate Kutais from
Tiflis; and (4) the slopes of the Armenian highlands, as well as a
portion of the highlands themselves, drained by the Chorokh and its
tributary, the Ajaris-tskhali, which formerly constituted the Batum
province. Generally speaking, the government is mountainous in the north
and south. Many secondary ridges and spurs shoot off the main range,
forming high, narrow valleys (see CAUCASUS). The district of Batum and
Artvin in the S.W., which in 1903 were in part separated for
administration as the semi-military district of Batum, are filled up by
spurs of the Pontic range, 9000 to 11,240 ft. high, the Arzyan ridge
separating them from the plateau of Kars. Deep gorges, through which
tributaries of the Chorokh force their passage to the main river,
intersect these highlands, forming most picturesque gorges. The lowlands
occupy over 2400 sq. m. They are mostly barren in the littoral region,
but extremely fertile higher up the Rion.

The climate is very moist and warm. The winters are often without frost
at all in the lowlands, while the lowest temperatures observed are 18°
F. at Batum and 9° at Poti. The mountains condense the moisture brought
by the west winds, and the yearly amount of rain varies from 50 to 120
in. The chief rivers are the Rion, which enters the Black Sea at Poti;
the Chorokh, which enters the same sea at Batum; and the Ingur, the
Kodor and the Bzyb, also flowing into the Black Sea in Abkhasia. The
vegetation is extremely rich, its character suggesting the sub-tropic
regions of Japan (see CAUCASIA). The population belongs almost entirely
to the Kartvelian or Georgian group, and is distributed as follows:
Imeretians, 41.2%; Mingrelians and Lazes, 22.5%; Gurians, 7.3%; Ajars,
5.8%; Svanetians, 1.3%; of other nationalities there are 6% of
Abkhasians, 2.6% of Turks, 2.3% of Armenians, besides Russians, Jews,
Greeks, Persians, Kurds, Ossetes and Germans. By religion 87% of the
population are Greek Orthodox and only 10% Mussulmans. The total
population was 933,773 in 1897, of whom 508,468 were women and 77,702
lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 was 924,800. The land
is excessively subdivided, and, owing to excellent cultivation, fetches
very high prices. The chief crops are maize, wheat, barley, beans, rye,
hemp, potatoes and tobacco. Maize, wine and timber are largely exported.
Some cotton-trees have been planted. The vine, olive, mulberry and all
sorts of fruit trees are cultivated, as also many exotic plants
(eucalyptus, cork-oak, camellia, and even tea). Manganese ore is the
chief mineral, and is extracted for export to the extent of 160,000 to
180,000 tons annually, besides coal, lead and silver ores, copper,
naphtha, some gold, lithographic stone and marble. Factories are still
in infancy, but silk is spun. A railway runs from the Caspian Sea, via
Tiflis and the Suram tunnel, to Kutais, and thence to Poti and Batum,
and from Kutais to the Tkvibuli coal and manganese mines. The export of
both local produce and goods shipped by rail from other ports of
Transcaucasia is considerable, Batum and Poti being the two chief ports
of Caucasia. Kutais is divided into seven districts, of which the chief
towns, with their populations in 1897, are Kutais, capital of the
province (q.v.); Lailashi (834), chief town of Lechgum, of which
Svanetia makes a separate administrative unit; Ozurgeti (4694); Oni,
chief town of Racha; Senaki (101); Kvirili, of Sharopan district;
Zugdidi; and two semi-military districts--Batum (28,512) with Artvin
(7000) and Sukhum-kaleh (7809).     (P. A. K.--J. T. Be.)




KUTAIS, a town of Russian Caucasia, capital of the government of the
same name, 60 m. by rail E. of Poti and 5 m. from the Rion station of
the railway between Poti and Tiflis. Pop. (1897), 32,492. It is one of
the oldest towns of Caucasia, having been the ancient capital (Aea or
Kutaea) of Colchis, and later the capital of Imeretia (from 792);
Procopius mentions it under the name of Kotatision. Persians, Mongols,
Turks and Russians have again and again destroyed the town and its
fortress. In 1810 it became Russian. It is situated on both banks of the
Rion river, which is spanned by three bridges. Its most remarkable
building is the ruined cathedral, erected in the 11th century by the
Bagratids, the ruling dynasty of Georgia, and destroyed by the Turks in
1692; it is the most important representative extant of Georgian
architecture. The fort, mentioned by Procopius, is now a heap of ruins,
destroyed by the Russians in 1770. The inhabitants make hats and silks,
and trade in agricultural produce and wine. On the right bank of the
Rion is a government model garden, with a model farm.




KUT-EL-AMARA, a small town in Turkish Asia, on the east bank of the
Tigris (32° 29´ 19´´ N., 44° 45´ 37´´ E.) at the point where the
Shatt-el-Haï leaves that stream. It is a coaling station of the steamers
plying between Basra and Bagdad, and an important Turkish post for the
control of the lower Tigris.




KUTENAI (Kutonaga), a group of North-American Indian tribes forming the
distinct stock of Kitunahan. Their former range was British Columbia,
along the Kootenay lake and river. They were always friendly to the
whites and noted for their honesty. In 1904 there were some 550 in
British Columbia; and in 1908 there were 606 on the Flathead Agency,
Montana.




KUTTALAM, or COURTALLUM, a sanatorium of southern India, in the
Tinnevelly district of Madras; pop. (1901), 1197. Though situated only
450 ft. above sea-level, it possesses the climate of a much higher
elevation, owing to the breezes that reach it through a gap in the
Ghats. It has long been a favourite resort for European visitors, the
season lasting from July to September; and it has recently been made
more accessible by the opening of the railway from Tinnevelly into
Travancore. The scenery is most picturesque, including a famous
waterfall.




KUTTENBERG (Czech, _Kutná Hora_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 45 m. E.
by S. of Prague. Pop. (1900), 14,799, mostly Czech. Amongst its
buildings are the Gothic five-naved church of St Barbara, begun in 1368,
the Gothic church of St Jacob (14th century) and the Late Gothic Trinity
church (end of 15th century). The Wälscher Hof, formerly a royal
residence and mint, was built at the end of the 13th century, and the
Gothic Steinerne Haus, which since 1849 serves as town-hall, contains
one of the richest archives in Bohemia. The industry includes
sugar-refining, brewing, the manufacture of cotton and woollen stuffs,
leather goods and agricultural implements.

The town of Kuttenberg owes its origin to the silver mines, the
existence of which can be traced back to the first part of the 13th
century. The city developed with great rapidity, and at the outbreak of
the Hussite troubles, early in the 14th century, was next to Prague the
most important in Bohemia, having become the favourite residence of
several of the Bohemian kings. It was here that, on the 18th of January
1410, Wenceslaus IV. signed the famous decree of Kuttenberg, by which
the Bohemian nation was given three votes in the elections to the
faculty of Prague University as against one for the three other
"nations." In the autumn of the same year Kuttenberg was the scene of
horrible atrocities. The fierce mining population of the town was mainly
German, and fanatically Catholic, in contrast with Prague, which was
Czech and utraquist. By way of reprisals for the Hussite outrages in
Prague, the miners of Kuttenberg seized on any Hussites they could find,
and burned, beheaded or threw them alive into the shafts of disused
mines. In this way 1600 people are said to have perished, including the
magistrates and clergy of the town of Kaurim, which the Kuttenbergers
had taken. In 1420 the emperor Sigismund made the city the base for his
unsuccessful attack on the Taborites; Kuttenberg was taken by Zizka, and
after a temporary reconciliation of the warring parties was burned by
the imperial troops in 1422, to prevent its falling again into the hands
of the Taborites. Zizka none the less took the place, and under Bohemian
auspices it awoke to a new period of prosperity. In 1541 the richest
mine was hopelessly flooded; in the insurrection of Bohemia against
Ferdinand I. the city lost all its privileges; repeated visitations of
the plague and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War completed its ruin.
Half-hearted attempts after the peace to repair the ruined mines failed;
the town became impoverished, and in 1770 was devastated by fire. The
mines were abandoned at the end of the 18th century; one mine was again
opened by the government in 1874, but the work was discontinued in 1903.




KUTUSOV [GOLENISHCHEV-KUTUZOV], MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH, PRINCE OF SMOLENSK
(1745-1813), Russian field marshal, was born on the 16th of September
1745 at St Petersburg, and entered the Russian army in 1759 or 1760. He
saw active service in Poland, 1764-69, and against the Turks, 1770-74;
lost an eye in action in the latter year; and after that travelled for
some years in central and western Europe. In 1784 he became
major-general, in 1787 governor-general of the Crimea; and under
Suvorov, whose constant companion he became, he won considerable
distinction in the Turkish War of 1788-91, at the taking of Ochakov,
Odessa, Benda and Ismail, and the battles of Rimnik and Mashin. He was
now (1791) a lieutenant-general, and successively occupied the positions
of ambassador at Constantinople, governor-general of Finland, commandant
of the corps of cadets at St Petersburg, ambassador at Berlin, and
governor-general of St Petersburg. In 1805 he commanded the Russian
corps which opposed Napoleon's advance on Vienna (see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS), and won the hard-fought action of Dürrenstein on the
18th-19th of November.

On the eve of Austerlitz (q.v.) he tried to prevent the Allied generals
from fighting a battle, and when he was overruled took so little
interest in the event that he fell asleep during the reading of the
orders. He was, however, present at the battle itself, and was wounded.
From 1806 to 1811 Kutusov was governor-general of Lithuania and Kiev,
and in 1811, being then commander-in-chief in the war against the Turks,
he was made a prince. Shortly after this he was called by the unanimous
voice of the army and the people to command the army that was retreating
before Napoleon's advance. He gave battle at Borodino (q.v.), and was
defeated, but not decisively, and after retreating to the south-west of
Moscow, he forced Napoleon to begin the celebrated retreat. The old
general's cautious pursuit evoked much criticism, but at any rate he
allowed only a remnant of the Grand Army to regain Prussian soil. He was
now field marshal and prince of Smolensk--this title having been given
him for a victory over part of the French army at that place in November
1812. Early in the following year he carried the war into Germany, took
command of the allied Russians and Prussians, and prepared to raise all
central Europe in arms against Napoleon's domination, but before the
opening of the campaign he fell ill and died on the 25th of March 1813
at Bunzlau. Memorials have been erected to him at that place and at St
Petersburg.

  Mikhailovsky-Danilevski's life of Kutusov (St Petersburg, 1850) was
  translated into French by A. Fizelier (Paris, 1850).




KUWET (KUWEIT, KOWEIT), a port in Arabia at the north-western angle of
the Persian Gulf in 29° 20' N. and 48° E., about 80 m. due S. of Basra
and 60 m. S.W. of the mouth of the Shat el Arab. The name Kuwet is the
diminutive form of Kut, a common term in Irak for a walled village; it
is also shown in some maps as Grane or Grain, a corruption of Kuren, the
diminutive of Karn, a horn. It lies on the south side of a bay 20 m.
long and 5 m. wide, the mouth of which is protected by two islands,
forming a fine natural harbour, with good anchorage in from 4 to 9
fathoms of water. The town has 15,000 inhabitants and is clean and well
built; the country around being practically desert, it depends entirely
on the sea and its trade, and its sailors have a high reputation as the
most skilful and trustworthy on the Persian Gulf; while its position as
the nearest port to Upper Nejd gives it great importance as the port of
entry for rice, piece goods, &c., and of export for horses, sheep, wool
and other products of the interior. Kuwet was recommended in 1850 by
General F. R. Chesney as the terminus of his proposed Euphrates Valley
railway, and since 1898, when the extension of the Anatolian railway to
Bagdad and the Gulf has been under discussion, attention has again been
directed to it. An alternative site for the terminus has been suggested
in Um Khasa, at the head of the Khor `Abdallah, where a branch of the
Shat el Arab formerly entered the sea; it lies some 20 m. N.E. of Kuwet
and separated from it by the island of Bubian, which has for some time
been in Turkish occupation. An attempt by Turkey to occupy Kuwet in 1898
was met by a formal protest from Great Britain against any infringement
of the _status quo_, and in 1899 Sheikh Mubarak of Kuwet placed his
interests under British protection.

The total trade passing through Kuwet in 1904-1905 was valued at
£160,000. The imports include arms and ammunition, piece goods, rice,
coffee, sugar, &c.; and the exports, horses, pearls, dates, wool, &c.
The steamers of the British India Steamship Company call fortnightly.
     (R. A. W.)




KUZNETSK, two towns of Russia. (1) A town in the government of Saratov,
74 m. by rail east of Penza. It has grown rapidly since the development
of the railway system in the Volga basin. It has manufactures of
agricultural machinery and hardware, in a number of small factories and
workshops, besides tanneries, rope-works, boot and shoe making in
houses, and there is considerable trade in sheepskins, grain, salt and
wooden goods exported to the treeless regions of south-east Russia. Pop.
(1897), 21,740. (2) A town in West Siberia, in the government of Tomsk,
150 m. E.N.E. of Barnaul, on the Upper Tom river, at the head of
navigation. It has trade in grain, cattle, furs, cedarwood, nuts, wax,
honey and tallow, and is the centre of a coal-mining district. Pop.
(1897), 3141.




KVASS, or KWASS (a Russian word for "leaven"), one of the national
alcoholic drinks of Russia, and popular also in eastern Europe. It is
made, by a simultaneous acid and alcoholic fermentation, of wheat, rye,
barley and buckwheat meal or of rye-bread, with the addition of sugar or
fruit. It has been a universal drink in Russia since the 16th century.
Though in the large towns it is made commercially, elsewhere it is
frequently an article of domestic production. Kvass is of very low
alcoholic content (0.7 to 2.2%). There are, beside the ordinary kind,
superior forms of the drink, such as apple or raspberry kvass.




KWAKIUTL, a tribe of North-American Indians of Wakashan stock. They
number about 2000. Formerly the term was used of the one tribe in the
north-east of Vancouver, but now it is the collective name for a group
of Wakashan peoples. The Kwakiutl Indians are remarkable for their
conservatism in all matters and specially their adherence to the custom
of Potlatch, which it is sometimes suggested originated with them.
Tribal government is in the hands of secret societies. There are three
social ranks, hereditary chiefs, middle and third estates, most of the
latter being slaves or their descendants. Entry to the societies is
forbidden the latter, and can only be obtained by the former after
torture and fasting. The _hamatsa_ or cannibal society is only open to
those who have been members of a lower society for eight years.




KWANGCHOW BAY (KWANGCHOW WAN), a coaling station on the south coast of
China, acquired, along with other concessions, by the French government
in April 1898. It is situated on the east side of the peninsula of
Lienchow, in the province of Kwang-tung, and directly north of the
island of Hainan. It is held on lease for 99 years on similar terms to
those by which Kiaochow is held by Germany, Port Arthur by Japan and
Wei-hai-wei by Great Britain. The cession includes the islands lying in
the bay; these enclose a roadstead 18 m. long by 6 m. wide, with
admirable natural defences and a depth at no part of less than 33 ft.
The bay forms the estuary of the Ma-Ts'e river, navigable by the largest
men-of-war for 12 m. from the coast. The limits of the concession inland
were fixed in November 1899. On the left bank of the Ma-Ts'e France
gained from Kow Chow Fu a strip of territory 11 m. by 6 m., and on the
right bank a strip 15 m. by 11 m. from Lei Chow Fu. The country is well
populated; the capital and chief town is Lei Chow. The cession carries
with it full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the
lease. In January 1900 it was placed under the authority of the
governor-general of Indo-China, who in the same month appointed a civil
administrator over the country, which was divided into three districts.
The population of the territory is about 189,000. A mixed tribunal has
been instituted, but the local organization is maintained for purposes
of administration. In addition to the territory acquired, the right has
been given to connect the bay by railway with the city and harbour of
Ompon, situated on the west side of the peninsula, and in consequence of
difficulties which were offered by the provincial government on the
occasion of taking possession, and which compelled the French to have
recourse to arms, the latter demanded and obtained exclusive mining
rights in the three adjoining prefectures. Two lines of French
steamships call at the bay. By reason of the great strategical
importance of the bay, and the presence of large coal-beds in the near
neighbourhood, much importance is attached by the French to the
acquirement of Kwangchow Wan.




KWANG-SI, a southern province of China, bounded N. by Kwei-chow and
Hu-nan, E. and S. by Kwang-tung, S.W. and W. by French Indo-Chino and
Yun-nan. It covers an area of 80,000 sq. m. It is the least populous
province of China, its inhabitants numbering (1908) little over
5,000,000. The Skias, an aboriginal race, form two-thirds of the
population. The provincial capital is Kwei-lin Fu, or City of the Forest
of Cinnamon Trees, and there are besides ten prefectural cities. The
province is largely mountainous. The principal rivers are the Si-kiang
and the Kwei-kiang, or Cinnamon River, which takes its rise in the
district of Hing-gan, in the north of the province, and in the
neighbourhood of that of the Siang river, which flows northward through
Hu-nan to the Tung-t'ing Lake. The Kwei-kiang, on the other hand, takes
a southerly course, and passes the cities of Kwei-lin, Yang-so Hien,
P'ing-le Fu, Chao-p'ing Hien, and so finds its way to Wu-chow Fu, where
it joins the waters of the Si-kiang. Another considerable river is the
Liu-kiang, or Willow River, which rises in the mountains inhabited by
the Miao-tsze, in Kwei-chow. Leaving its source it takes a
south-easterly direction, and enters Kwang-si, in the district of
Hwai-yuen. After encircling the city of that name, it flows south as
far as Liu-ch'eng Hien, where it forms a junction with the Lung-kiang,
or Dragon River. Adopting the trend of this last-named stream, which has
its head-waters in Kwei-chow, the mingled flow passes eastward, and
farther on in a south-easterly direction, by Lai-chow Fu, Wu-suan Hien,
and Sin-chow Fu, where it receives the waters of the Si-kiang, and
thenceforth changes its name for that of its affluent. The treaty ports
in Kwang-si are Wu-chow Fu, Lung-chow and Nanning Fu.




KWANG-TUNG, a southern province of China, bounded N. by Hu-nan, Kiang-si
and Fu-kien, S. and E. by the sea, and W. by Kwang-si. It contains an
area, including the island of Hainan, of 75,500 sq. m., and is divided
into nine prefectures; and the population is estimated at about
30,000,000. Its name, which signifies "east of Kwang," is derived,
according to Chinese writers, from the fact of its being to the east of
the old province of Hu-kwang, in the same way that Kwang-si derives its
name from its position to the west of Hu-kwang. Kwang-tung extends for
more than 600 m. from east to west, and for about 420 from north to
south. It may be described as a hilly region, forming part as it does of
the Nan Shan ranges. These mountains, speaking generally, trend in a
north-east and south-westerly direction, and are divided by valleys of
great fertility. The principal rivers of the province are the Si-kiang,
the Pei-kiang, or North River, which rises in the mountains to the north
of the province, and after a southerly course joins the Si-kiang at
San-shui Hien; the Tung-kiang, or East River, which, after flowing in a
south-westerly direction from its source in the north-east of the
province, empties itself into the estuary which separates the city of
Canton from the sea; and the Han River, which runs a north and south
course across the eastern portion of the province, taking its rise in
the mountains on the western frontier of Fu-kien and emptying itself
into the China Sea in the neighbourhood of Swatow. Kwang-tung is one of
the most productive provinces of the empire. Its mineral wealth is very
considerable, and the soil of the valleys and plains is extremely
fertile. The principal article of export is silk, which is produced in
the district forming the river delta, extending from Canton to Macao and
having its apex at San-shui Hien. Three large coal-fields exist in the
province, namely, the Shao-chow Fu field in the north; the Hwa Hien
field, distant about 30 m. from Canton; and the west coast field, in the
south-west. The last is by far the largest of the three and extends over
the districts of Wu-ch'uen, Tien-pai, Yang-kiang, Yang-ch'un, Gan-p'ing,
K'ai-p'ing, Sin-hing, Ho-shan, Sin-hwang, and Sin-ning. The coal from
the two first-named fields is of an inferior quality, but that in the
west coast field is of a more valuable kind. Iron ore is found in about
twenty different districts, notably in Ts'ing-yuen, Ts'ung-hwa,
Lung-men, and Lu-feng. None, however, is exported in its raw state, as
all which is produced is manufactured in the province, and principally
at Fat-shan, which has been called the Birmingham of China. The
Kwang-tung coast abounds with islands, the largest of which is Hainan,
which forms part of the prefecture of K'iung-chow Fu. This island
extends for about 100 m. from north to south and the same distance from
east to west. The southern and eastern portions of Hainan are
mountainous, but on the north there is a plain of some extent. Gold is
found in the central part; and sugar, coco-nuts, betel-nuts, birds'
nests, and agar agar, or sea vegetable, are among the other products of
the island. Canton, Swatow, K'iung-chow (in Hainan), Pakhoi, San-shui
are among the treaty ports. Three ports in the province have been ceded
or leased to foreign powers--Macao to Portugal, Hong-Kong (with Kowloon)
to Great Britain, and Kwangchow to France.




KWANZA (COANZA or QUANZA), a river of West Africa, with a course of
about 700 m. entirely within the Portuguese territory of Angola. The
source lies in about 13° 40´ S., 17° 30´ E. on the Bihe plateau, at an
altitude of over 5000 ft. It runs first N.E. and soon attains fairly
large dimensions. Just north of 12° it is about 60 yds. wide and 13 to
16 ft. deep. From this point to 10° it flows N.W., receiving many
tributaries, especially the Luando from the east. In about 10°, and at
intervals during its westerly passage through the outer plateau
escarpments, its course is broken by rapids, the river flowing in a
well-defined valley flanked by higher ground. The lowest fall is that of
Kambamba, or Livingstone, with a drop of 70 ft. Thence to the sea, a
distance of some 160 m., it is navigable by small steamers, though very
shallow in the dry season. The river enters the sea in 9° 15´ S., 13°
20´ E., 40 m. S. of Loanda. There is a shifting bar at its mouth,
difficult to cross, but the river as a waterway has become of less
importance since the fertile district in its middle basin has been
served by the railway from Loanda to Ambaca (see ANGOLA).




KWEI-CHOW, a south-western province of China, bounded N. by Sze-ch'uen,
E. by Hu-nan, S. by Kwang-si, and W. by Yun-nan. It contains 67,000 sq.
m., and has a population of about 8,000,000. Kwei-yang Fu is the
provincial capital, and besides this there are eleven prefectural cities
in the province. With the exception of plains in the neighbourhood of
Kwei-yang Fu, Ta-ting Fu, and Tsun-i Fu, in the central and northern
regions, the province may be described as mountainous. The mountain
ranges in the south are largely inhabited by Miao-tsze, who are the
original owners of the soil and have been constantly goaded into a state
of rebellion by the oppression to which they have been subjected by the
Chinese officials. To this disturbing cause was added another in 1861 by
the spread of the Mahommedan rebellion in Yun-nan into some of the
south-western districts of the province. The devastating effects of
these civil wars were most disastrous to the trade and the prosperity of
Kwei-chow. The climate is by nature unhealthy, the supply of running
water being small, and that of stagnant water, from which arises a fatal
malaria, being considerable. The agricultural products of the province
are very limited, and its chief wealth lies in its minerals. Copper,
silver, lead, and zinc are found in considerable quantities, and as
regards quicksilver, Kwei-chow is probably the richest country in the
world. This has been from of old the chief product of the province, and
the belt in which it occurs extends through the whole district from
south-west to north-east. One of the principal mining districts is K'ai
Chow, in the prefecture of Kwei-yang Fu, and this district has the
advantage of being situated near Hwang-p'ing Chow, from which place the
products can be conveniently and cheaply shipped to Hankow. Cinnabar,
realgar, orpiment and coal form the rest of the mineral products of
Kwei-chow. Wild silk is another valuable article of export. It is
chiefly manufactured in the prefecture of Tsun-i Fu.




KYAUKPYU, a district in the Arakan division of Lower Burma, on the
eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal. It consists of, first, a strip of
mainland along the Bay of Bengal, extending from the An pass, across the
main range, to the Ma-i River, and, secondly, the large islands of
Ramree and Cheduba, with many others to the south, lying off the coast
of Sandoway. The mainland in the north and east is highly mountainous
and forest-clad, and the lower portion is cut up into numerous islands
by a network of tidal creeks. Between the mainland and Ramree lies a
group of islands separated by deep, narrow, salt-water inlets, forming
the north-eastern shore of Kyaukpyu harbour, which extends for nearly 30
m. along Ramree in a south-easterly direction, and has an average
breadth of 3 m. The principal mountains are the Arakan Yomas, which send
out spurs and sub-spurs almost to the sea-coast. The An pass, an
important trade route, rises to a height of 4664 ft. above sea-level.
The Dha-let and the An rivers are navigable by large boats for 25 and 45
m. respectively. Above these distances they are mere mountain torrents.
Large forests of valuable timber cover an area of about 650 sq. m.
Kyaukpyu contains numerous "mud volcanoes," from which marsh gas is
frequently discharged, with occasional issue of flame. The largest of
these is situated in the centre of Cheduba island. Earth-oil wells exist
in several places in the district. The oil when brought to the surface
has the appearance of a whitish-blue water, which gives out brilliant
straw-coloured rays, and emits a strong pungent odour. Limestone, iron
and coal are also found. Area 4387 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 168,827,
showing an increase in the decade of 2.3%.

The chief town, Kyaukpyu, had a population in 1901 of 3145. It has a
municipal committee of twelve members, three _ex officio_ and nine
appointed by the local government, and there is a third-class district
gaol. Kyaukpyu is a port under the Indian Ports Act (X. of 1889), and
the steamers of the British India Navigation Company call there once a
week going and coming between Rangoon and Calcutta.




KYAUKSE, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper Burma, with an
area of 1274 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 141,253. It is also
known as the _Ko-kayaing_, so called from the original nine canals of
the district. It consists of a generally level strip running north and
south at the foot of the Shan Hills, and of a hilly region rising up
these hills to the east, and including the Yeyaman tract, which lies
between 21° 30' and 21° 40' N. and 96° 15' and 96° 45' E., with peaks
rising to between 4500 and 5000 ft. This tract is rugged and scored by
ravines, and is very sparsely inhabited. The Panlaung and Zawgyi rivers
from the Shan States flow through the district and are utilized for the
numerous irrigation canals. Notwithstanding this, much timber is floated
down, and the Panlaung is navigable for small boats all the year round.
Rain is very scarce, but the canals supply ample water for cultivation
and all other purposes. They are said to have been dug by King Nawrahta
in 1092. He is alleged to have completed the system of nine canals and
weirs in three years' time. Others have been constructed since the
annexation of Upper Burma. At that time many were in serious disrepair,
but most of them have been greatly improved by the construction of
proper regulators and sluices. Two-thirds of the population are
dependent entirely on cultivation for their support, and this is mainly
rice on irrigated land. In the Yeyaman tract the chief crop is rice. The
great majority of the population is pure Burmese, but in the hills there
are a good many Danus, a cross between Shans and Burmese. The railway
runs through the centre of the rice-producing area, and feeder roads
open up the country as far as the Shan foot-hills. The greater part of
the district consists of state land, the cultivators being tenants of
government, but there is a certain amount of hereditary freehold.

KYAUKSE town is situated on the Zawgyi River and on the Rangoon-Mandalay
railway line, and is well laid out in regular streets, covering an area
of about a square mile. It has a population (1901) of 5420, mostly
Burmese, with a colony of Indian traders. Above it are some bare rocky
hillocks, picturesquely studded with pagodas.




KYD, THOMAS (1558-1594), one of the most important of the English
Elizabethan dramatists who preceded Shakespeare. Kyd remained until the
last decade of the 19th century in what appeared likely to be
impenetrable obscurity. Even his name was forgotten until Thomas Hawkins
about 1773 discovered it in connexion with _The Spanish Tragedy_ in
Thomas Heywood's _Apologie for Actors_. But by the industry of English
and German scholars a great deal of light has since been thrown on his
life and writings. He was the son of Francis Kyd, citizen and scrivener
of London, and was baptized in the church of St Mary Woolnoth, Lombard
Street, on the 6th of November 1558. His mother, who survived her son,
was named Agnes, or Anna. In October 1565 Kyd entered the newly founded
Merchant Taylors' School, where Edmund Spenser and perhaps Thomas Lodge
were at different times his school-fellows. It is thought that Kyd did
not proceed to either of the universities; he apparently followed, soon
after leaving school, his father's business as a scrivener. But Nashe
describes him as a "shifting companion that ran through every art and
throve by none." He showed a fairly wide range of reading in Latin. The
author on whom he draws most freely is Seneca, but there are many
reminiscences, and occasionally mistranslations of other authors. Nashe
contemptuously said that "English Seneca read by candlelight yeeldes
many good sentences," no doubt exaggerating his indebtedness to Thomas
Newton's translation. John Lyly had a more marked influence on his
manner than any of his contemporaries. It is believed that he produced
his famous play, _The Spanish Tragedy_, between 1584 and 1589; the
quarto in the British Museum (which is probably earlier than the
Göttingen and Ellesmere quartos, dated 1594 and 1599) is undated, and
the play was licensed for the press in 1592. The full title runs, _The
Spanish Tragedie containing the Lamentable End of Don Horatio and
Bel-imperia; with the Pitiful Death of Old Hieronimo_, and the play is
commonly referred to by Henslowe and other contemporaries as
_Hieronimo_. This drama enjoyed all through the age of Elizabeth and
even of James I. and Charles I. so unflagging a success that it has been
styled the most popular of all old English plays. Certain expressions in
Nashe's preface to the 1589 edition of Robert Greene's _Menaphon_ may be
said to have started a whole world of speculation with regard to Kyd's
activity. Much of this is still very puzzling; nor is it really
understood why Ben Jonson called him "sporting Kyd." In 1592 there was
added a sort of prologue to _The Spanish Tragedy_, called _The First
Part of Jeronimo, or The Warres of Portugal_, not printed till 1605.
Professor Boas concludes that Kyd had nothing to do with this
melodramatic production, which gives a different version of the story
and presents Jeronimo as little more than a buffoon. On the other hand,
it becomes more and more certain that what German criticism calls the
_Ur-Hamlet_, the original draft of the tragedy of the prince of Denmark,
was a lost work by Kyd, probably composed by him in 1587. This theory
has been very elaborately worked out by Professor Sarrazin, and
confirmed by Professor Boas; these scholars are doubtless right in
holding that traces of Kyd's play survive in the first two acts of the
1603 first quarto of _Hamlet_, but they probably go too far in
attributing much of the actual language of the last three acts to Kyd.
Kyd's next work was in all probability the tragedy of _Soliman and
Perseda_, written perhaps in 1588 and licensed for the press in 1592,
which, although anonymous, is assigned to him on strong internal
evidence by Mr Boas. No copy of the first edition has come down to us;
but it was reprinted, after Kyd's death, in 1599. In the summer or
autumn of 1590 Kyd seems to have given up writing for the stage, and to
have entered the service of an unnamed lord, who employed a troop of
"players." Kyd was probably the private secretary of this nobleman, in
whom Professor Boas sees Robert Radcliffe, afterwards fifth earl of
Sussex. To the wife of the earl (Bridget Morison of Cassiobury) Kyd
dedicated in the last year of his life his translation of Garnier's
_Cornelia_ (1594), to the dedication of which he attached his initials.
Two prose works of the dramatist have survived, a treatise on domestic
economy, _The Householder's Philosophy_, translated from the Italian of
Tasso (1588); and a sensational account of _The Most Wicked and Secret
Murdering of John Brewer, Goldsmith_ (1592). His name is written on the
title-page of the unique copy of the last-named pamphlet at Lambeth, but
probably not by his hand. That many of Kyd's plays and poems have been
lost is proved by the fact that fragments exist, attributed to him,
which are found in no surviving context. Towards the close of his life
Kyd was brought into relations with Marlowe. It would seem that in 1590,
soon after he entered the service of this nobleman, Kyd formed his
acquaintance. If he is to be believed, he shrank at once from Marlowe as
a man "intemperate and of a cruel heart" and "irreligious." This,
however, was said by Kyd with the rope round his neck, and is scarcely
consistent with a good deal of apparent intimacy between him and
Marlowe. When, in May 1593, the "lewd libels" and "blasphemies" of
Marlowe came before the notice of the Star Chamber, Kyd was immediately
arrested, papers of his having been found "shuffled" with some of
Marlowe's, who was imprisoned a week later. A visitation on Kyd's papers
was made in consequence of his having attached a seditious libel to the
wall of the Dutch churchyard in Austin Friars. Of this he was innocent,
but there was found in his chamber a paper of "vile heretical conceits
denying the deity of Jesus Christ." Kyd was arrested and put to the
torture in Bridewell. He asserted that he knew nothing of this document
and tried to shift the responsibility of it upon Marlowe, but he was
kept in prison until after the death of that poet (June 1, 1593). When
he was at length dismissed, his patron refused to take him back into his
service. He fell into utter destitution, and sank under the weight of
"bitter times and privy broken passions." He must have died late in
1594, and on the 30th of December of that year his parents renounced
their administration of the goods of their deceased son, in a document
of great importance discovered by Professor Schick.

The importance of Kyd, as the pioneer in the wonderful movement of
secular drama in England, gives great interest to his works, and we are
now able at last to assert what many critics have long conjectured, that
he takes in that movement the position of a leader and almost of an
inventor. Regarded from this point of view, _The Spanish Tragedy_ is a
work of extraordinary value, since it is the earliest specimen of
effective stage poetry existing in English literature. It had been
preceded only by the pageant-poems of Peele and Lyly, in which all that
constitutes in the modern sense theatrical technique and effective
construction was entirely absent. These gifts, in which the whole power
of the theatre as a place of general entertainment was to consist, were
supplied earliest among English playwrights to Kyd, and were first
exercised by him, so far as we can see, in 1586. This, then, is a more
or less definite starting date for Elizabethan drama, and of peculiar
value to its historians. Curiously enough, _The Spanish Tragedy_, which
was the earliest stage-play of the great period, was also the most
popular, and held its own right through the careers of Shakespeare, Ben
Jonson, and Fletcher. It was not any shortcoming in its harrowing and
exciting plot, but the tameness of its archaic versification, which
probably led in 1602 to its receiving "additions," which have been a
great stumbling-block to the critics. It is known that Ben Jonson was
paid for these additional scenes, but they are extremely unlike all
other known writings of his, and several scholars have independently
conjectured that John Webster wrote them. Of Kyd himself it seems
needful to point out that neither the Germans nor even Professor Boas
seems to realize how little definite merit his poetry has. He is
important, not in himself, but as a pioneer. The influence of Kyd is
marked on all the immediate predecessors of Shakespeare, and the bold
way in which scenes of violent crime were treated on the Elizabethan
stage appears to be directly owing to the example of Kyd's innovating
genius. His relation to _Hamlet_ has already been noted, and _Titus
Andronicus_ presents and exaggerates so many of his characteristics that
Mr Sidney Lee and others have supposed that tragedy to be a work of
Kyd's touched up by Shakespeare. Professor Boas, however, brings cogent
objections against this theory, founding them on what he considers the
imitative inferiority of _Titus Andronicus_ to _The Spanish Tragedy_.
The German critics have pushed too far their attempt to find indications
of Kyd's influence on later plays of Shakespeare. The extraordinary
interest felt for Kyd in Germany is explained by the fact that _The
Spanish Tragedy_ was long the best known of all Elizabethan plays
abroad. It was acted at Frankfort in 1601, and published soon afterwards
at Nuremberg. It continued to be a stock piece in Germany until the
beginning of the 18th century; it was equally popular in Holland, and
potent in its effect upon Dutch dramatic literature.

  Kyd's works were first collected and his life written by Professor F.
  S. Boas in 1901. Of modern editions of _The Spanish Tragedy_ may be
  mentioned that by Professor J. M. Manly in _Specimens of the
  Pre-Shakespearean Drama_, vol. ii. (Boston, 1897), and by J. Schick in
  the _Temple Dramatists_ (1898). See also _Cornelia_ (ed. H. Gassner,
  1894); C. Markscheffel, _T. Kyd's Tragödien_ (1885); Gregor Sarrazin,
  Thomas Kyd und sein Kreis (1892); G. O. Fleischer, "Bemerkungen über
  Thomas Kyd's Spanish Tragedy" (_Jahresbericht der Drei-Königschule zu
  Dresden-Neustadt_ (1896); J. Schick, "T. Kyd's Spanish Tragedy"
  (_Literarhistorische Forschungen_, vol. 19, 1901); and R. Koppel, in
  Prölss, _Altengl. Theater_ (vol. i., 1904).     (E. G.)




KYFFHÄUSER, a double line of hills in Thuringia, Germany. The northern
part looks steeply down upon the valley of the Goldene Aue, and is
crowned by two ruined castles, Rothenburg (1440 ft.) on the west, and
Kyffhausen (1542 ft.) on the east. The latter, built probably in the
10th century, was frequently the residence of the Hohenstaufen emperors,
and was finally destroyed in the 16th century. The existing ruins are
those of the Oberburg with its tower, and of the Unterburg with its
chapel. The hill is surmounted by an imposing monument to the emperor
William I., the equestrian statue of the emperor being 31 ft. high and
the height of the whole 210 ft. This was erected in 1896. According to
an old and popular legend, the emperor Frederick Barbarossa sits asleep
beside a marble table in the interior of the mountain, surrounded by his
knights, awaiting the destined day when he shall awaken and lead the
united peoples of Germany against her enemies, and so inaugurate an era
of unexampled glory. But G. Vogt has advanced cogent reasons (see _Hist.
Zeitschrift_, xxvi. 131-187) for believing that the real hero of the
legend is the other great Hohenstaufen emperor, Frederick II., not
Frederick I. Around him gradually crystallized the hopes of the German
peoples, and to him they looked for help in the hour of their sorest
need. But this is not the only legend of a slumbering future deliverer
which lives on in Germany. Similar hopes cling to the memory of
Charlemagne, sleeping in a hill near Paderborn; to that of the Saxon
hero Widukind, in a hill in Westphalia; to Siegfried, in the hill of
Geroldseck; and to Henry I., in a hill near Goslar.

  See Richter, _Das deutsche Kyffhäusergebirge_ (Eisleben, 1876);
  Lemcke, _Der deutsche Kaisertraum und der Kyffhäuser_ (Magdeburg,
  1887); and _Führer durch das Kyffhäusergebirge_ (Sangerhausen, 1891);
  Baltzer, _Das Kyffhäusergebirge_ (Rudolstadt, 1882); A. Fulda, _Die
  Kyffhäusersage_ (Sangerhausen, 1889); and Anemüller, _Kyffhäuser und
  Rothenburg_ (Detmold, 1892).




KYNASTON, EDWARD (c. 1640-1706), English actor, was born in London and
first appeared in Rhodes's company, having been, like Betterton, a clerk
in Rhodes's book-shop before he set up a company in the Cockpit in Drury
Lane. Kynaston was probably the last and certainly the best of the male
actors of female parts, for which his personal beauty admirably fitted
him. His last female part was Evadne in _The Maid's Tragedy_ in 1661
with Killigrew's company. In 1665 he was playing important male parts at
Covent Garden. He joined Betterton at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1695,
after which he received less important rôles, retiring in 1699. He died
in 1706, and was buried on the 18th of January.




KYNETON, a town of Dalhousie county, Victoria, Australia, on the river
Campaspe, 56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 3274. It is
the centre of a prosperous agricultural and pastoral district. Important
stock sales and an annual exhibition of stock are held. There are,
moreover, some rich gold quartz reefs in the neighbourhood. Kyneton lies
at an elevation of 1687 ft., and the scenery of the district, which
includes some beautiful waterfalls, attracts visitors in summer.




KYOSAI, SHO-FU (1831-1889), Japanese painter, was born at Koga in the
province of Shimotsuke, Japan, in 1831. After working for a short time,
as a boy, with Kuniyoshi, he received his artistic training in the
studio of Kano Dohaku, but soon abandoned the formal traditions of his
master for the greater freedom of the popular school. During the
political ferment which produced and followed the revolution of 1867,
Kyosai attained a considerable reputation as a caricaturist. He was
three times arrested and imprisoned by the authorities of the shogunate.
Soon after the assumption of effective power by the mikado, a great
congress of painters and men of letters was held, at which Kyosai was
present. He again expressed his opinion of the new movement in a
caricature, which had a great popular success, but also brought him into
the hands of the police--this time of the opposite party. Kyosai must be
considered the greatest successor of Hokusai (of whom, however, he was
not a pupil), and as the first political caricaturist of Japan. His
work--like his life--is somewhat wild and undisciplined, and
"occasionally smacks of the _sake_ cup." But if he did not possess
Hokusai's dignity, power and reticence, he substituted an exuberant
fancy, which always lends interest to draughtsmanship of very great
technical excellence. In addition to his caricatures, Kyosai painted a
large number of pictures and sketches, often choosing subjects from the
folk-lore of his country. A fine collection of these works is preserved
in the British Museum; and there are also good examples in the National
Art Library at South Kensington, and the Musée Guimet at Paris. Among
his illustrated books may be mentioned _Yehon Taka-kagami_,
Illustrations of Hawks (5 vols., 1870, &c.); _Kyosai Gwafu_ (1880);
_Kyosai Dongwa_; _Kyosai Raku-gwa_; _Kyosai Riaku-gwa_; _Kyosai Mangwa_
(1881); _Kyosai Suigwa_ (1882); and _Kyosai Gwaden_ (1887). The latter
is illustrated by him under the name of Kawanabe Toyoku, and two of its
four volumes are devoted to an account of his own art and life. He died
in 1889.

  See Guimet (É.) and Regamey (F.), _Promenades japonaises_ (Paris,
  1880); Anderson (W.), _Catalogue of Japanese Painting in the British
  Museum_ (London, 1886); Mortimer Menpes, "A Personal View of Japanese
  Art: A Lesson from Kyosai," _Magazine of Art_ (1888).     (E. F. S.)




KYRIE (in full _kyrie eleison_, or _eleeson_, Gr. [Greek: kyrie
eleêson]; cf. Ps. cxxii. 3, Matt. XV. 22, &c., meaning "Lord, have
mercy"), the words of petition used at the beginning of the Mass and in
other offices of the Eastern and Roman Churches. In the Anglican Book of
Common Prayer the Kyrie is introduced into the orders for Morning and
Evening Prayer, and also, with an additional petition, as a response
made by the congregation after the reading of each of the Ten
Commandments at the opening of the Communion Service. These responses
are usually sung, and the name Kyrie is thus also applied to their
musical setting. In the Lutheran Church the Kyrie is still said or sung
in the original Greek. "Kyrielle," a shortened form of _Kyrie eleison_,
is applied to eight-syllabled four-line verses, the last line in each
verse being repeated as a refrain.




KYRLE, JOHN (1637-1724), "the Man of Ross," English philanthropist, was
born in the parish of Dymock, Gloucestershire, on the 22nd of May 1637.
His father was a barrister and M.P., and the family had lived at Ross,
in Herefordshire, for many generations. He was educated at Balliol
College, Oxford, and having succeeded to the property at Ross took up
his abode there. In everything that concerned the welfare of the little
town in which he lived he took a lively interest--in the education of
the children, the distribution of alms, in improving and embellishing
the town. He delighted in mediating between those who had quarrelled and
in preventing lawsuits. He was generous to the poor and spent all he had
in good works. He lived a great deal in the open air working with the
labourers on his farm. He died on the 7th of November 1724, and was
buried in the chancel of Ross Church. His memory is preserved by the
Kyrie Society, founded in 1877, to better the lot of working people, by
laying out parks, encouraging house decoration, window gardening and
flower growing. Ross was eulogized by Pope in the third _Moral Epistle_
(1732), and by Coleridge in an early poem (1794).




KYSHTYM, a town of Russia, in the government of Perm, 56 m. by rail N.N.W.
of Chelyabinsk, on a river of the same name which connects two lakes. Pop.
(1897), 12,331. The official name is Verkhne-Kyshtymskiy-Zavod, or Upper
Kyshtym Works, to distinguish it from the Lower (Nizhne) Kyshtym Works,
situated two miles lower down the same river.








*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "KITE-FLYING" TO "KYSHTYM" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_41343.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Italy" to "Jacobite Church"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Italy" to "Jacobite Church"

Author: Various

Release date: November 10, 2012 [eBook #41343]
                Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "ITALY" TO "JACOBITE CHURCH" ***

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE ITALY: "The secret societies, such as the Carbonari, the
      Adelfi and the Bersaglieri d'America, which flourished in Romagna,
      replied to these persecutions by assassinating the more brutal
      officials and spies." 'and' amended from 'ans'.

    ARTICLE ITALY: "... and on the 30th attempted to capture Rome by
      surprise, but was completely defeated by Garibaldi, who might have
      driven the French into the sea, had Mazzini allowed him to leave
      the city." 'surprise' amended from 'suprise'.

    ARTICLE IVORY, SIR JAMES: "... he abandoned all idea of the church,
      and in 1786 he became an assistant-teacher of mathematics and
      natural philosophy in a newly established academy at Dundee."
      'philosophy' amended from 'philosoghy'.

    ARTICLE IVORY: "Crucifixes were turned out in enormous numbers,
      some of not inconsiderable merit, but, for the most part, they
      represent anatomical exercises varying but slightly from a pattern
      of which a celebrated one attributed to Faistenberger may be taken
      as a type." 'attributed' amended from 'atributed'.

    ARTICLE JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE: "On his return, he was given the
      command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic expedition (1894-1897),
      which had for its objective the general exploration of Franz Josef
      Land." 'expedition' amended from 'expediton'.

    ARTICLE JACKSON, HELEN MARIA: "American poet and novelist, who
      wrote under the initials of 'H. H.' (Helen Hunt), was born in
      Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 18th of October 1831 ..." 'initials'
      amended from 'intials'.

    ARTICLE JACOBINS, THE: "The constituency to which the club was
      henceforth responsible, and from which it derived its power, was in
      fact the peuple bête of Paris; the sans-culottes--decayed lackeys,
      cosmopolitan ne'er-do-wells, and starving workpeople--who crowded
      its tribunes. " 'wells' amended from 'weels'.

    ARTICLE JACOBITE CHURCH: "... and lived there fifteen years.
      Justinian during those years imprisoned, deprived or exiled most of
      the recalcitrant clergy of Syria, Mesopotamia, Cilicia, Cappadocia,
      and the adjacent regions." 'lived' amended from 'livid'.




  THE

  ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

  ELEVENTH EDITION




  FIRST  edition, published in three    volumes, 1768-1771.
  SECOND    "        "        ten          "     1777-1784.
  THIRD     "        "        eighteen     "     1788-1797.
  FOURTH    "        "        twenty       "     1801-1810.
  FIFTH     "        "        twenty       "     1815-1817.
  SIXTH     "        "        twenty       "     1823-1824.
  SEVENTH   "        "        twenty-one   "     1830-1842.
  EIGHTH    "        "        twenty-two   "     1853-1860.
  NINTH     "        "        twenty-five  "     1875-1889.
  TENTH     "   ninth edition and eleven
                  supplementary volumes,         1902-1903.
  ELEVENTH  "  published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.


  COPYRIGHT

  in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention

  by

  THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
  of the
  UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

  _All rights reserved_




  THE

  ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF
  ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

  ELEVENTH EDITION

  VOLUME XV
  ITALY to KYSHTYM

  New York

  Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
  342 Madison Avenue

  Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
  by
  The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.


       VOLUME XV, SLICE I

    Italy to Jacobite Church




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

  ITALY                             JABLONSKI, DANIEL ERNST
  ITEM                              JABORANDI
  ITHACA (Greece)                   JACA
  ITHACA (New York, U.S.A.)         JACAMAR
  ITINERARIUM                       JAÇANÁ
  ITIUS PORTUS                      JACINI, STEFANO
  ITO, HIROBUMI                     JACK
  ITRI                              JACKAL
  ITURBIDE, AUGUSTIN DE             JACKDAW
  ITZA                              JACKSON, ANDREW
  ITZEHOE                           JACKSON, CYRIL
  IUKA                              JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE
  IULUS                             JACKSON, HELEN MARIA
  IVAN                              JACKSON, MASON
  IVANGOROD                         JACKSON, THOMAS
  IVANOVO-VOZNESENSK                JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN
  IVARR, BEINLAUSI                  JACKSON, WILLIAM
  IVIZA                             JACKSON (Michigan, U.S.A.)
  IVORY, SIR JAMES                  JACKSON (Mississippi, U.S.A.)
  IVORY                             JACKSON (Tennessee, U.S.A.)
  IVORY COAST                       JACKSONVILLE (Florida, U.S.A.)
  IVREA                             JACKSONVILLE (Illinois, U.S.A.)
  IVRY-SUR-SEINE                    JACOB
  IVY                               JACOB, JOHN
  IWAKURA, TOMOMI                   JACOB BEN ASHER
  IXION                             JACOB OF EDESSA
  IXTACCIHUATL                      JACOB OF JÜTERBOGK
  IYRCAE                            JACOB OF SERUGH
  IZBARTA                           JACOBA
  IZHEVSK                           JACOBABAD
  IZMAIL                            JACOBEAN STYLE
  IZU-NO-SHICHI-TO                  JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH
  J                                 JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG
  JA'ALIN                           JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB
  JABIRU                            JACOBINS, THE
  JABLOCHKOV, PAUL                  JACOBITE CHURCH




INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH
THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.




  A. A. M.
    Arthur Anthony Macdonell, M.A., Ph.D.

      Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. Keeper of
      the Indian Institute. Fellow of Balliol College; Fellow of the
      British Academy. Author of _A Vedic Grammar_; _A History of
      Sanskrit Literature_; _Vedic Mythology_; &c.

    Kalidasa.

  A. B. D.
    Rev. Andrew B. Davidson, D.D.

      See the biographical article: DAVIDSON, A. B.

    Job (_in part_).

  A. C. S.
    Algernon Charles Swinburne.

      See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C.

    Keats (_in part_).

  A. D.
    Henry Austin Dobson, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: DOBSON, H. AUSTIN.

    Kauffmann, Angelica.

  A. E. S.
    Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc.

      Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology,
      Cambridge University. Joint-editor of the _Cambridge Natural
      History_.

    Kinorhyncha.

  A. F. P.
    Albert Frederick Polìard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc.

      Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
      of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary
      of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford),
      1892; Arnold prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the
      Protector Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.

    Jewel, John.

  A. G.
    Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908).

      H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of _The Chronicles of
      Newgate_; _Secrets of the Prison House_; &c.

    Juvenile Offenders (_in part_).

  A. Go.*
    Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A.

      Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

    Joris;
    Knipperdollinck.

  A. G. D.
    Arthur George Doughty, C.M.G., M.A., Litt.D., F.R.S.(Canada),
    F.R.Hist.S.

      Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of
      Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint-editor of
      _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_.

    Joly de Lotbinière.

  A. H. S.
     Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, Litt.D., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H.

    Kassites.

  A. H.-S.
    Sir A. Houtum-Schindler. C.I.E.

      General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.

    Karun;
    Kerman;
    Khorasan;
    Kishm.

  A. H. Sm.
    Arthur Hamilton Smith, M.A., F.S.A.

      Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the
      British Museum. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
      Institute. Author of _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British
      Museum_; &c.

    Jewelry.

  A. M. C.
    Agnes Mary Clerke.

      See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.

    Kepler.

  A. Ml.
    Alfred Ogle Maskell, F.S.A.

      Superintendent of the Picture Galleries, Indian and Colonial
      Exhibition, 1887. Cantor Lecturer, 1906. Founder and first editor
      of the _Downside Review_. Author of _Ivories_; &c.

    Ivory.

  A. N.
    Alfred Newton, F.R.S.

      See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.

    Jabiru;
    Jacamar;
    Jaçana;
    Jackdaw;
    Jay;
    Kakapo;
    Kestrel;
    Killdeer;
    King-Bird;
    Kingfisher;
    Kinglet;
    Kite;
    Kiwi;
    Knot.

  A. T. I.
    Alexander Taylor Innés, M.A., LL.D.

      Scotch advocate. Author of _John Knox_; _Law of Creeds in
      Scotland_; _Studies in Scottish History_; &c.

    Knox, John.

  A. W. H.*
    Arthur William Holland.

      Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
      Gray's Inn, 1900.

    Jacobites.

  A. W. W.
    Adolphus William Ward, LL.D., D.Litt.

      See the biographical article: WARD, A. W.

    Jonson, Ben.

  B. F. S. B.-P.
    Major Baden F. S. Baden-Powell, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S.

      Inventor of man-lifting kites. Formerly President of Aeronautical
      Society. Author of _Ballooning as a Sport_; _War in Practice_; &c.

    Kite-flying (_in part_).

  B. W. B.
    Rev. Benjamin Wisner Bacon, A.M., D.D., Litt.D., LL.D.

      Professor of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis in Yale
      University. Formerly Director of American School of Archaeology,
      Jerusalem. Author of _The Fourth Gospel in Research and Debate_;
      _The Founding of the Church_; &c.

    James, Epistle of;
    Jude, The General Epistle of.

  C. D. G.
    Rev. Christian David Ginsburg, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: GINSBURG, C. D.

    Kabbalah (_in part_).

  C. El.
    Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D.,
    D.C.L.

      Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of
      Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and
      Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent
      and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East
      Africa, 1900-1904.

    Kashgar (_in part_);
    Khazars (_in part_);
    Khiva (_in part_).

  C. E. D. B.
    C. E. D. Black.

      Formerly Clerk for Geographical Records, India Office, London.

    Kashgar (_in part_).

  C. H. Ha.
    Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D.

      Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
      City. Member of the American Historical Association.

    John XXI.;
    Julius II.

  C. H. T.*
    Crawford Howell Toy.

      See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL.

    Job (_in part_).

  C. J. J.
    Charles Jasper Joly, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (1864-1906).

      Royal Astronomer of Ireland, and Andrews Professor of Astronomy in
      the University of Dublin, 1897-1906. Fellow of Trinity College,
      Dublin. Secretary of the Royal Irish Academy.

    Kaleidoscope.

  C. J. L.
    Sir Charles James Lyall, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).

      Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of
      King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home
      Department, 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces,
      India, 1895-1898. Author of _Translations of Ancient Arabic
      Poetry_; &c.

    Kabir.

  C. L. K.
    Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc., F.S.A.

      Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of
      Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_, and Stow's _Survev of
      London_.

    Kempe.

  C. Mi.
    Chedomille Mijatovich.

      Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
      Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's,
      1895-1900, and 1902-1903.

    Karageorge;
    Karajich.

  C. M. W.
    Sir Charles Moore Watson, K.C.M.G., C.B.

      Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of
      Fortifications, 1896-1902. Served under General Gordon in the
      Sudan, 1874-1875.

    Jerusalem (_in part_).

  C. R. B.
    Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S.

      Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham.
      Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
      in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
      Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_;
      _The Dawn of Modern Geography_, &c.

    Jordanus.

  C. S. C.
    Caspar Stanley Clark.

      Assistant in Indian Section, Victoria and Albert Museum, South
      Kensington.

    Kashi (_in part_).

  C. We.
    Cecil Weatherly.

      Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law,
      Inner Temple.

    Knighthood: _Orders of_.

  C. W. W.
    Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).

      Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American
      Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the
      Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance
      Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education,
      1895-1898. Author of _From Korti to Khartoum_; _Life of Lord
      Clive_; &c.

    Jerusalem (_in part_);
    Jordan (_in part_);
    Kurdistan (_in part_).

  D. G. H.
    David George Hogarth, M.A.

      Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
      College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at
      Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905;
      Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900.
      Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

    Jebell;
    Jordan (_in part_);
    Karamania;
    Kharput;
    Konia.

  D. H.
    David Hannay.

      Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
      History of the Royal Navy, 1217-1688_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_;
      &c.

    Junius;
    Kanaris;
    Keith, Viscount;
    Keppel, Viscount.

  E. B.
    Edward Breck, M.A., Ph.D.

      Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the _New York Herald_ and the
      _New York Times_. Author of _Fencing_; _Wilderness Pets_;
      _Sporting in Nova Scotia_; &c.

    Kite-flying (_in part_).

  E. Br.
    Ernest Barker, M.A.

      Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford.
      Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.

    Jordanes (_in part_).

  E. F. S.
    Edward Fairbrother Strange.

      Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.
      Member of Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art
      subjects; Joint-editor of Bell's "Cathedral" Series.

    Japan: _Art_ (_in part_);
    Korin, Ogata;
    Kyosai, Sho-Fu.

  E. G.
    Edmund Gosse, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.

    Jacobsen, Jens Peter;
    Kalewala;
    Kyd, Thomas.

  E. Gr.
    Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A.

      See the biographical article: _Gardner, Percy_.

    Ithaca.

  E. He.
    Edward Heawood, M.A.

      Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal
      Geographical Society, London.

    Kenya;
    Kilimanjaro.

  E. H. B.
    Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895).

      M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of _A History of
      Ancient Geography_; &c.

    Italy: _Geography_ (_in part_).

  E. H. M.
    Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A.

      University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and
      Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly
      Fellow of Pembroke College.

    Iyrcae;
    Kashubes.

  Ed. M.
    Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.), LL.D.

      Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author
      of _Geschichte des Alterthums_; _Geschichte des alten Aegyptens_;
      _Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme_.

    Kavadh.

  E. O.*
    Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

      Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
      Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery
      in the Universities of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A
      Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students_.

    Joints: _Diseases and Injuries_;
    Kidney Diseases (_in part_).

  E. Tn.
    Rev. Ethelred Luke Taunton (d. 1907).

      Author of _The English Black Monks of St Benedict_; _History of
      the Jesuits in England_.

    Jesuits (_in part_).

  F. By.
    Captain Frank Brinkley, R.N.

      Foreign Adviser to Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Tokyo. Correspondent of
      _The Times_ in Japan. Editor of the Japan Mail. Formerly Professor
      of Mathematics at Imperial Engineering College, Tokyo. Author of
      _Japan_; &c.

    Japan.

  F. C. C.
    Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen).

      Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University
      College, Oxford. Author of The _Ancient Armenian Texts of
      Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.

    Jacobite Church.

  F. G. M. B.
    Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A.

      Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

    Kent, Kingdom of.

  F. G. P.
    Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.

      Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
      Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
      of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
      College of Surgeons.

    Joints: _Anatomy_.

  F. L. L.
    Lady Lugard.

      See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D.

    Kano;
    Katagum.

  F. LI. G.
    Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A.

      Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the
      Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt
      Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological
      Institute.

    Karnak.

  F. R. C.
    Frank R. Cana.

      Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_.

    Kharga.

  Fr. Sy.
    Friedrich Sciiwally.

      Professor of Semitic Philology in the University of Giessen.

    Koran (_in part_).

  F. S. P,
    Francis Samuel Philbrick, A.M., Ph.D.

      Formerly Teaching Fellow of Nebraska State University, and Scholar
      and Fellow of Harvard University. Member of American Historical
      Association.

    Jefferson, Thomas.

  F. v. H.
    Baron Friedrich von Hügel.

      Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic
      Society. Author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_; &c.

    John: _The Apostle_;
    John, Gospel of St.

  F. W. R.*
    Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.

      Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
      1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

    Jade;
    Jargoon;
    Jasper;
    Kaolin.

  G. A. Gr.
    George Abraham Grierson, C.I.E., Ph.D., D.Litt.

      Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of the
      Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal
      Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic
      Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The
      Languages of India_; &c.

    Kashmiri.

  G. E.
    Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.

      Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
      Lecturer, 1909. Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign
      Member, Netherlands Association of Literature.

    Jacoba.

  G. F. Mo.
    Rev. George Foot Moore.

      See the biographical article: MOORE, GEORGE FOOT.

    Jehovah.

  G. G. Co.
    George Gordon Coulton, M.A.

      Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College,
      Cambridge. Author of _Medieval Studies_; _Chaucer and his
      England_; _From St Francis to Dante_; &c.

    Knighthood and Chivalry.

  G. H. Bo.
    Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A.

      Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant
      Taylors' School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology,
      University of Oxford, 1908-1909. Author of _Translation of Book of
      Isaiah_; &c.

    John the Baptist;
    Joseph (_New Testament_);
    Jubilee, Year of (_in part_).

  G. K.
    Gustav Krüger.

      Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author
      of _Das Papsttum_; &c.

    Justin Martyr.

  G. Mi.
    Rev. George Milligan, D.D.

      Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism in the University of
      Glasgow. Author of _The Theology of the Epistle to the Hebrews_;
      _Lectures from the Greek Papyri_; &c.

    James (_New Testament_);
    Judas Iscariot.

  G. Sa.
    George Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L.

      See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, G. E. B.

    Joinville.

  G. S. L.
    George Somes Layard.

      Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author of _Charles Keene_;
      _Shirley Brooks_; &c.

    Keene, Charles S.

  G. S. R.
    Sir George Scott Robertson, K.C.S.I., D.C.L., M.P.

      Formerly British Agent in Gilgit. Author of _The Kafirs of the
      Hindu Kush_; _Chitral: the Story of a Minor Siege_. M.P. Central
      Division, Bradford.

    Kafiristan.

  G. W. T.
    Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D.

      Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
      and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

    Jahiz;
    Jarir Ibn 'Atiyya ul-Khatfl;
    Jauhari;
    Jawaliqì;
    Jurjani;
    Khalil Ibn Ahmad;
    Khansa;
    Kindi;
    Kumait Ibn Zaid.

  H. A. W.
    Hugh Alexander Webster.

      Formerly Librarian of University of Edinburgh. Editor of the
      _Scottish Geographical Magazine_.

    Java (_in part_).

  H. Ch.
    Hugh Chisholm, M.A.

      Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
      11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-editor of the
      10th edition.

    Joan of Arc (_in part_).

  H. Cl.
    Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, K.C.M.G.

      Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial
      Institute. Formerly Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad
      and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author of _Studies in Brown Humanity_;
      _Further India_; &c. Joint-author of _A Dictionary of the Malay
      Language_.

    Johor.

  H. C. H.
    Horace Carter Hovey, A.M., D.D.

      Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
      Geological Society of America, National Geographic Society and
      Société de Spéléologie (France). Author of _Celebrated American
      Caverns_; _Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky_, &c.

    Jacobs Cavern.

  H. C. R.
    Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Bart.

      See the biographical article: RAWLINSON, SIR H. C.

    Kurdistan (_in part_).

  H. De.
    Hippolyte Delehaye, S.J.

      Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications:
      _Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta sanctorum_.

    Januarius, St;
    Kilian, St.

  H. M. C.
    Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A.

      Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Reader in
      Scandinavian, Cambridge University. Author of _Studies on
      Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.

    Jutes.

  H. M. R.
    Hugh Munro Ross.

      Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of _The
      Times Engineering Supplement_. Author of _British Railways_.

    Kelvin, Lord (_in part_).

  H. M. V.
    Herbert M. Vaughan, F.S.A.

      Keble College, Oxford. Author of _The Last of the Royal Stuarts_;
      _The Medici Popes_; _The Last Stuart Queen_.

    James: _the Pretender_;
    King's Evil.

  H. W. C. D.
    Henry William Carless Davis, M.A.

      Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
      College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans
      and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_.

    John, King of England;
    John of Hexham.

  H. W. S.
    H. Wickham Steed.

      Correspondent of _The Times_ at Vienna. Correspondent of _The
      Times_ at Rome, 1897-1902.

    Italy: _History_ (_F._).

  H. Y.
    Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.I., C.B.

      See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY.

    Kublai Khan.

  I. A.
    Israel Abrahams, M.A.

      Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of
      Cambridge Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of
      England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish
      Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c.

    Jacob ben Asher;
    Jellinek;
    Jews: _Dispersion to Modern Times_;
    Joel;
    Johanan Ben Zaceia;
    Josippon;
    Kalisch, Marcus;
    Krochmal.

  I. L. B.
    Isabella L. Bishop.

      See the biographical article: BISHOP, ISABELLA.

    Korea (_in part_).

  J. A. H
    John Allen Howe.

      Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
      Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_.

    Joints (_Geology_);
    Jurassic;
    Keuper;
    Kimeridgian.

  J. A. R.
    Very Rev. Joseph Armitage Robinson, D.D.

      Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of
      Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norrisian Professor of Divinity
      in the University. Author of _Some Thoughts on the Incarnation_;
      &c.

    Jesus Christ.

  J. A. S.
    John Addington Symonds, LL.D.

      See the biographical article, SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON.

    Italy: _History_ (C.).

  J. Br.
    Right Hon. James Bryce, D.C.L., D.Litt.

      See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES.

    Justinian I.

  J. Bt.
    James Bartlett.

      Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities,
      &c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects.
      Member of Institute of Junior Engineers.

    Joinery.

  J. B. A.
    Joseph Beavington Atkinson.

      Formerly art-critic of the _Saturday Review_. Author of _An Art
      Tour in the Northern Capitals of Europe_; _Schools of Modern Art
      in Germany_.

    Kaulbach.

  J. F.-K.
    James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S.

      Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool
      University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow
      of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy.
      Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of _A
      History of Spanish Literature_; &c.

    Juan Manuel, Don.

  J. G. C. A.
    John George Clark Anderson, M.A.

      Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of
      Lincoln College; Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman,
      1893.

    Kastamuni.

  J. G. Sc.
    Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E.

      Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author
      of _Burma_; _The Upper Burma Gazetteer_.

    Karen;
    Karen-Ni;
    Keng Tung.

  J. Hn.
    Justus Hashagen, Ph.D.

      Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn.
      Author of _Das Rheinland unter die französische Herrschaft_.

    John, King of Saxony.

  J. H. A. H.
    John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A.

      Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College,
      Cambridge.

    Jews: _Greek Domination_;
    Josephus.

  J. H. F.
    John Henry Freese, M.A.

      Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

    Janus;
    Julian (_in part_).

  J. H. R.
    John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).

      Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family
      History_, _Peerage and Pedigree_.

    Knight-Service.

  J. Hl. R.
    John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D.

      Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
      Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
      Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
      Pitt_; &c.

    Italy: _History_ (D.);
    Josephine;
    Junot.

  J. Ja.
    Joseph Jacobs, Litt.D.

      Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological
      Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical
      Society of England. Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of
      History, Madrid. Author of _Jews of Angevin England_; _Studies in
      Biblical Archaeology_, &c.

    Jew, The Wandering.

  J. J. L,*
    Rev. John James Lias, M.A.

      Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in
      Divinity and Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge.

    Ketteler, Baron von.

  J. Mt.
    James Moffatt, M.A., D.D.

      Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of _Historical New
      Testament_; &c.

    John, Epistles of.

  J. N. K.
    John Neville Keynes, M.A., D.Sc.

      Registrary of the University of Cambridge. University Lecturer in
      Moral Science. Secretary to the Local Examinations and Lectures
      Syndicate. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. Author of _Studies
      and Exercises in Formal Logic_; &c.

    Jevons, William Stanley.

  J. P. P.
    John Percival Postgate, M.A., Litt.D.

      Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of
      Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor
      of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-Chief of the _Corpus
      Poetarum Latinorum_; &c.

    Juvenal (_in part_).

  J. P. Pe.
    Rev. John Punnett Peters, Ph.D., D.D.

      Canon Residentiary, P.E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor
      of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the
      University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of _Nippur,
      or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_.

    Kerbela;
    Kerkuk;
    Khorsabad.

  J. R. B.
    John Rose Bradford, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

      Physician to University College Hospital. Professor of Materia
      Medica and Therapeutics, University College, London. Secretary of
      the Royal Society. Formerly Member of Senate, University of
      London.

    Kidney Diseases (_in part_)

  J. T. Be.
    John Thomas Bealby.

      Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the
      _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
      _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.

    Kalmuck;
    Kaluga;
    Kamchatka;
    Kara-Kum;
    Kars;
    Kazañ;
    Kerch;
    Khingan;
    Khiva;
    Khokand;
    Khotan;
    Kiev;
    Kronstadt;
    Kubañ;
    Kuen-Lun;
    Kursk;
    Kutais.

  J. T. S.*
    James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D.

      Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

    Joan of Arc (_in part_).

  J. V.*
    Jules Viard.

      Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public
      Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_;
      &c.

    Jacquerie, The.

  J. W. He.
    James Wycliffe Headlam, M.A.

      Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education.
      Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek
      and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of
      _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c.

    Kossuth.

  K.
    Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D.

      President of the Imperial University of Kyoto. President of
      Imperial Academy of Japan. Emeritus Professor, Imperial
      University, Tokio. Author of _Japanese Education_; &c.

    Japan: _The Claim of Japan_.

  K. S.
    Kathleen Schlesinger.

      Editor of the _Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The
      Instruments of the Orchestra_; &c.

    Jew's Harp;
    Kettledrum;
    Keyboard.

  L.
    Count Lützow, Litt.D. (Oxon.), D.Ph. (Prague), F.R.G.S.

      Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon.
      Member of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian
      Academy, &c. Author of _Bohemia, a Historical Sketch_; _The
      Historians of Bohemia_ (Ilchester Lecture, Oxford, 1904); _The
      Life and Times of John Hus_; &c.

    Jerome of Prague.

  L. F. V.-H.
    Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. (1839-1907).

      Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College,
      London. Author of _Rivers and Canals_; _Harbours and Docks_;
      _Civil Engineering as applied in Construction_; &c.

    Jetty.

  L. J. S.
    Leonard James Spencer, M.A.

      Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
      Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness
      Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.

    Jarosite.

  L. C.
    Rev. Lewis Campbell, D.C.L., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: CAMPBELL, LEWIS.

    Jowett.

  L. D.*
    Louis Duchesne.

      See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

    John XIX.;
    Julius I.

  L. V.*
    Luigi Villari.

      Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper
      Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New
      Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907; Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910.
      Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; _Fire and Sword in
      the Caucasus_; &c.

    Italy: _History_ (E. _and_ G.).

  M.
    Lord Macaulay.

      See the biographical article: MACAULAY, BARON.

    Johnson, Samuel.

  M. Br.
    Margaret Bryant.

    Keats (_in part_).

  M. F.
    Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

      See the biographical article: FOSTER, SIR M.

    Kölliker.

  M. M. Bh.
    Sir Mancherjee Merwanjee Bhownaggree.

      Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green,
      1895-1906. Author of _History of the Constitution of the East
      India Company_; &c.

    Jeejeebhoy.

  M. O. B. C.
    Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A.

      Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek
      at Birmingham University, 1905-1908.

    Justin II.

  M. P.*
    Leon Jacques Maxime Prinet.

      Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of
      the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).

    Joinville (_Family_);
    Joyeuse;
    Juge, Boffille de.

  N. M.
    Norman McLean, M.A.

      Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew
      Lecturer, Christ's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger
      _Cambridge Septuagint_.

    Jacob of Edessa;
    Jacob of Serugh;
    Joshua the Stylite.

  N. V.
    Joseph Marie Noel Valois.

      Member of Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris.
      Honorary Archivist at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President
      of the Société de l'Histoire de France and the Société de l'École
      de Chartes. Author of _La France et le grand schisme d'Occident_;
      &c.

    John XXIII.

  O. H.*
    Otto Hehner, F.I.C., F.C.S.

      Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts.
      Vice-President of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and
      Ireland. Author of works on butter analysis; _Alcohol Tables_; &c.

    Jams and Jellies.

  O. J. R. H.
    Osbert John Radcliffe Howarth, M.A.

      Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant
      Secretary of the British Association.

    Java (_in part_);
    Korea (_in part_).

  P. A.
    Paul Daniel Alphandéry.

      Professor of the History of Dogma, École pratique des Hautes
      Études, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idées morales chez les
      hétérodoxes latines au début du XIII^e siècle_.

    Joachim of Floris;
    John XXII.

  P. A. A.
    Philip A. Ashworth, M.A., Doc.Juris.

      New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von
      Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_.

    Jhering.

  P. A. K.
    Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin.

      See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.

    Kalmuck;
    Kaluga;
    Kamchatka;
    Kara-Kum;
    Kazañ;
    Kerch;
    Khingan;
    Khokand;
    Kiev;
    Kronstadt;
    Kubañ;
    Kuen-Lun;
    Kursk;
    Kutais.

  P. Gi.
    Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D.

      Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and
      University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of
      the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of
      Comparative Philology_.

    J.
    K.

  P. G. T.
    Peter Guthrie Tait.

      See the biographical article: TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE.

    Knot.

  P. La.
    Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S.

      Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge
      University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of
      _Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and Editor
      of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_.

    Japan: _Geology_.

  P. L. G.
    Philip Lyttelton Gell, M.A.

      Sometime Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. Secretary to the
      Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1884-1897. Fellow of King's College,
      London.

    Khazars (_in part_).

  P. Vi.
    Paul Vinogradoff, D.C.L., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: VLNOGRADOFF, PAUL.

    Jurisprudence, Comparative.

  R. A.*
    Robert Anchel.

      Archivist to the Département de l'Eure.

    Kersaint.

  R. Ad.
    Robert Adamson, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: ADAMSON, ROBERT.

    Kant (_in part_).

  R. A. S. M.
    Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.

      St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
      Palestine Exploration Fund.

    Joppa;
    Kerak.

  R. A. W.
    Robert Alexander Wahab, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.

      Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden
      Boundary Delimitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served
      with Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary
      Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c.

    Kuwet.

  R. F. L.
    Rev. Richard Frederick Littledale, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
      (1833-1890).

      Author of _Religious Communities of Women in the Early Church_;
      _Catholic Ritual in the Church of England_; _Why Ritualists do not
      become Roman Catholics_.

    Jesuits (_in part_).

  R. G.
    Richard Garnett, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.

    Krazewski.

  R. H. C.
    Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.).

      Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford and
      Fellow of Merton College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly
      Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. Author and Editor of
      _Book of Enoch_; _Book of Jubilees_; _Assumption of Moses_;
      _Ascension of Isaiah_; _Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs_; &c.

    Jeremy, Epistle of;
    Jubilees, Book of;
    Judith, The Book of.

  R. I. P.
    Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S.

      Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.

    King-Crab.

  R. J. M.
    Ronald John McNeill, M.A.

      Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
      _St James's Gazette_, London.

    Jeffreys, 1st Baron;
    Keith: _Family_.

  R. K. D.
    Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas.

      Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British
      Museum, and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author
      of _The Language and Literature of China_; &c.

    Jenghiz Khan;
    Julien.

  R. L.*
    Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

      Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
      Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the
      British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
      Africa_; &c.

    Jerboa;
    Kangaroo (_in part_).

  R. N. B.
    Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909).

      Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
      _Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
      1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe, the
      Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.

    Ivan I.-VI.;
    Jellaehieh;
    John III.: _Sobieski_;
    Juel, Jens;
    Juel, Neils;
    Kármán;
    Kemeny, Baron;
    Kisfaludy;
    Kollontaj;
    Koniecpolski;
    Kosciuszko;
    Kurakin, Prince.

  R. Po.
    René Poupardin, D. Ès L.

      Secretary of the École des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the
      Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Author of _Le Royaume de Provence
      sous les Carolingiens_; _Recueil des chartes de Saint-Germain_;
      &c.

    John, Duke of Burgundy.

  R. P. S.
    R. Phené Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

      Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy,
      London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and
      Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the
      Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of
      Architecture_. Author of _Architecture: East and West_; &c.

    Jacobean Style.

  R. S. C.
    Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.).

      Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
      of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
      Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
      Author of _The Italic Dialects_.

    Italy: _History_ (A.).

  S. A. C.
    Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.

      Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and
      Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
      Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908.
      Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses
      and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament
      History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.

    Jacob;
    Jehoiakim;
    Jehoram;
    Jehoshaphat;
    Jehu;
    Jephthah;
    Jerahmeel;
    Jeroboam;
    Jews: _Old Testament History_;
    Jezebel;
    Joab;
    Joash;
    Joseph: _Old Testament_;
    Joshua;
    Josiah;
    Judah;
    Judges, Book of;
    Kabbalah (_in part_);
    Kenites;
    Kings, Books of.

  St. C.
    Viscount St Cyres.

      See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF.

    Jansen;
    Jansenism.

  S. N.
    Simon Newcomb, D.Sc., D.C.L.

      See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.

    Jupiter: _Satellites_.

  T. As.
    Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.).

      Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly
      Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington
      Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
      Institute.

    Italy: _Geography and Statistics_; _History_ (B.);
    Ivrea.

  T. A. I.
    Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D.

      Trinity College, Dublin.

    Juvenile Offenders (_in part_).

  T. A. J.
    Thomas Athol Joyce, M.A.

      Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec.,
      Royal Anthropological Institute.

    Kavirondo.

  T. F. C.
    Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, Ph.D.

      Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown,
      Mass., U.S.A.

    Julius III.

  T. H.
    Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: HODGKIN, T.

    Jordanes (_in part_).

  T. H. H.*
    Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.

      Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys,
      India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M.
      Commissioner for the Perso-Beluc Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
      Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.

    Kabul;
    Kalat;
    Kandahar;
    Kashmir;
    Khyber Pass;
    Kunar;
    Kushk.

  T. K.
    Thomas Kirkup, M.A., LL.D.

      Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c.

    Julian (_in part_).

  T. K. C.
    Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.D.

      See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.

    Jeremiah;
    Joel (_in part_);
    Jonah.

  Th. N.
    Theodor Nöldeke, Ph.D.

      See the biographical article: NÖLDEKE, THEODOR.

    Koran (_in part_).

  T. Se.
    Thomas Seccombe, M.A.

      Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and
      Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. Stanhope Prizeman,
      Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of _Dictionary of National
      Biography_, 1891-1901. Author of _The Age of Johnson_.
      Joint-author of _Bookman History of English Literature_; &c.

    Johnson, Samuel.

  T. Wo.
    Thomas Woodhouse.

      Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
      College, Dundee.

    Jute.

  T. W. R. D.
    Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D.

      Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali
      and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904.
      President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy.
      Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902.
      Author of _Buddhism_; _Sacred Books of the Buddhists_; _Early
      Buddhism_; _Buddhist India_; _Dialogues of the Buddha_; &c.

    Jains;
    Jataka;
    Kanishka.

  W. An.
    William Anderson, F.R.C.S

      Formerly Chairman of Council of the Japan Society. Author of _The
      Pictorial Arts of Japan_; _Japanese Wood Engravings_; _Catalogue
      of Chinese and Japanese Pictures in the British Museum_; &c.

    Japan: _Art_ (_in part_).

  W. A. B. C.
    Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D.
    (Bern).

      Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
      St David's. College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
      Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_, &c. Editor of
      _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.

    Jenatsch, Georg;
    Jungfrau;
    Jura.

  W. A. P.
    Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.

      Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
      John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.

    Jacobins;
    King;
    Kriemhild;
    Krüdener, Baroness von.

  W. B.*
    William Burton, M.A., F.C.S.

      Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great
      Britain. Author of _English Stoneware and Earthenware_; &c.

    Kashi (_in part_).

  W. Ba.
    William Bacher, Ph.D.

      Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary,
      Buda-Pest.

    Jonah, Rabbi;
    Kimhi.

  W. Be.
    Sir Walter Besant.

      See the biographical article: BESANT, SIR WALTER.

    Jefferies.

  W. F. C.
    William Feilden Craies, M.A.

      Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's
      College, London. Editor of Archbold's _Criminal Pleading_, 23rd
      ed.

    Jury.

  W. F. D.
    William Frederick Denning, F.R.A.S.

      Gold Medal, R.A.S. President, Liverpool Astronomical Society,
      1877-1878. Corresponding Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society of
      Canada; &c. Author of _Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings_;
      _The Great Meteoric Shower_; &c.

    Jupiter.

  W. G.
    William Garnett, M.A., D.C.L.

      Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow
      and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and
      Professor of Mathematics, Durham College of Science,
      Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of _Elementary Dynamics_; &c.

    Kelvin, Lord.

  W. G. S.
    William Graham Sumner.

      See the biographical article: SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM.

    Jackson, Andrew.

  W. H. Be.
    William Henry Bennett, M.A., D.D., D.Litt.(Cantab.).

      Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
      London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
      in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
      Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.

    Japheth.

  W. H. Di.
    William Henry Dines, F.R.S.

      Director of Upper Air Investigation for the English Meteorological
      Office.

    Kite-flying (_in part_).

  W. H. F.
    Sir William H. Flower, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.

    Kangaroo (_in part_).

  W. L. F.
    Walter Lynwood Fleming, A.M., Ph.D.

      Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of
      _Documentary History of Reconstruction_; &c.

    Knights of the Golden Circle;
    Ku Klux Klan.

  W. L.-W.
    Sir William Lee-Warner, M.A., K.C.S.I.

      Member of Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political
      and Secret Department of the India Office. Author of _Life of the
      Marquis of Dalhousie_; _Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie
      Norman_; &c.

    Jung Bahadur, Sir.

  W. M. R.
    William Michael Rossetti.

      See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.

    Kneller.

  W. M. Ra.
    Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, LL.D., D.C.L.

      See the biographical article, RAMSAY, SIR W. M.

    Jupiter (_in part_).

  W. P. J.
    William Price James.

      Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. High Bailiff, Cardiff County
      Court. Author of _Romantic Professions_; &c.

    Kipling, Rudyard.

  W. R. S.
    William Robertson Smith, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

    Joel (_in part_);
    Jubilee, Year of (_in part_).

  W. W. F.*
    William Warde Fowler, M.A.

      Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford
      Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of _The City-State of
      the Greeks and Romans_; _The Roman Festivals of the Republican
      Period_; &c.

    Juno;
    Jupiter (_in part_).

  W. W. R.*
    William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theol.

      Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
      New York.

    Jerusalem, Synod of.

  W. Y. S.
    William Young Sellar, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: SELLAR, W. Y.

    Juvenal (_in part_).




PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

  Ivy.            Jumping.          Kansas.       Ketones.
  Jamaica.        Juniper.          Kent.         Kildare.
  Janissaries.    Jurisprudence.    Kentucky.     Kilkenny.
  Jaundice.       Kaffirs.          Kerry.        Know Nothing Party.
  Ju-Jutsu.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
    the final volume.




  ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

  ELEVENTH EDITION

  VOLUME XV




ITALY (_Italia_), the name[1] applied both in ancient and in modern
times to the great peninsula that projects from the mass of central
Europe far to the south into the Mediterranean Sea, where the island of
Sicily may be considered as a continuation of the continental
promontory. The portion of the Mediterranean commonly termed the
Tyrrhenian Sea forms its limit on the W. and S., and the Adriatic on the
E.; while to the N., where it joins the main continent of Europe, it is
separated from the adjacent regions by the mighty barrier of the Alps,
which sweeps round in a vast semicircle from the head of the Adriatic to
the shores of Nice and Monaco.


  Boundaries.

_Topography._--The land thus circumscribed extends between the parallels
of 46° 40´ and 36° 38´ N., and between 6° 30´ and 18° 30´ E. Its
greatest length in a straight line along the mainland is from N.W. to
S.E., in which direction it measures 708 m. in a direct line from the
frontier near Courmayeur to Cape Sta Maria di Leuca, south of Otranto,
but the great mountain peninsula of Calabria extends about two degrees
farther south to Cape Spartivento in lat. 37° 55´. Its breadth is, owing
to its configuration, very irregular. The northern portion, measured
from the Alps at the Monte Viso to the mouth of the Po, has a breadth of
about 270 m., while the maximum breadth, from the Rocca Chiardonnet near
Susa to a peak in the valley of the Isonzo, is 354 m. But the peninsula
of Italy, which forms the largest portion of the country, nowhere
exceeds 150 m. in breadth, while it does not generally measure more than
100 m. across. Its southern extremity, Calabria, forms a complete
peninsula, being united to the mass of Lucania or the Basilicata by an
isthmus only 35 m. in width, while that between the gulfs of Sta Eufemia
and Squillace, which connects the two portions of the province, does not
exceed 20 m. The area of the kingdom of Italy, exclusive of the large
islands, is computed at 91,277 sq. m. Though the Alps form throughout
the northern boundary of Italy, the exact limits at the extremities of
the Alpine chain are not clearly marked. Ancient geographers appear to
have generally regarded the remarkable headland which descends from the
Maritime Alps to the sea between Nice and Monaco as the limit of Italy
in that direction, and in a purely geographical point of view it is
probably the best point that could be selected. But Augustus, who was
the first to give to Italy a definite political organization, carried
the frontier to the river Varus or Var, a few miles west of Nice, and
this river continued in modern times to be generally recognized as the
boundary between France and Italy. But in 1860 the annexation of Nice
and the adjoining territory to France brought the political frontier
farther east, to a point between Mentone and Ventimiglia which
constitutes no natural limit.

Towards the north-east, the point where the Julian Alps approach close
to the seashore (just at the sources of the little stream known in
ancient times as the Timavus) would seem to constitute the best natural
limit. But by Augustus the frontier was carried farther east so as to
include Tergeste (Trieste), and the little river Formio (Risano) was in
the first instance chosen as the limit, but this was subsequently
transferred to the river Arsia (the Arsa), which flows into the Gulf of
Quarnero, so as to include almost all Istria; and the circumstance that
the coast of Istria was throughout the middle ages held by the republic
of Venice tended to perpetuate this arrangement, so that Istria was
generally regarded as belonging to Italy, though certainly not forming
any natural portion of that country. Present Italian aspirations are
similarly directed.

The only other part of the northern frontier of Italy where the boundary
is not clearly marked by nature is Tirol or the valley of the Adige.
Here the main chain of the Alps (as marked by the watershed) recedes so
far to the north that it has never constituted the frontier. In ancient
times the upper valleys of the Adige and its tributaries were inhabited
by Raetian tribes and included in the province of Raetia; and the line
of demarcation between that province and Italy was purely arbitrary, as
it remains to this day. Tridentum or Trent was in the time of Pliny
included in the tenth region of Italy or Venetia, but he tells us that
the inhabitants were a Raetian tribe. At the present day the frontier
between Austria and the kingdom of Italy crosses the Adige about 30 m.
below Trent--that city and its territory, which previous to the treaty
of Lunéville in 1801 was governed by sovereign archbishops, subject only
to the German emperors, being now included in the Austrian empire.

While the Alps thus constitute the northern boundary of Italy, its
configuration and internal geography are determined almost entirely by
the great chain of the Apennines, which branches off from the Maritime
Alps between Nice and Genoa, and, after stretching in an unbroken line
from the Gulf of Genoa to the Adriatic, turns more to the south, and is
continued throughout Central and Southern Italy, of which it forms as
it were the backbone, until it ends in the southernmost extremity of
Calabria at Cape Spartivento. The great spur or promontory projecting
towards the east to Brindisi and Otranto has no direct connexion with
the central chain.

One chief result of the manner in which the Apennines traverse Italy
from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic is the marked division between
Northern Italy, including the region north of the Apennines and
extending thence to the foot of the Alps, and the central and more
southerly portions of the peninsula. No such line of separation exists
farther south, and the terms Central and Southern Italy, though in
general use among geographers and convenient for descriptive purposes,
do not correspond to any natural divisions.

  1. _Northern Italy._--By far the larger portion of Northern Italy is
  occupied by the basin of the Po, which comprises the whole of the
  broad plain extending from the foot of the Apennines to that of the
  Alps, together with the valleys and slopes on both sides of it. From
  its source in Monte Viso to its outflow into the Adriatic--a distance
  of more than 220 m. in a direct line--the Po receives all the waters
  that flow from the Apennines northwards, and all those that descend
  from the Alps towards the south, Mincio (the outlet of the Lake of
  Garda) inclusive. The next river to the E. is the Adige, which, after
  pursuing a parallel course with the Po for a considerable distance,
  enters the Adriatic by a separate mouth. Farther to the N. and N.E.
  the various rivers of Venetia fall directly into the Gulf of Venice.

  There is no other instance in Europe of a basin of similar extent
  equally clearly characterized--the perfectly level character of the
  plain being as striking as the boldness with which the lower slopes of
  the mountain ranges begin to rise on each side of it. This is most
  clearly marked on the side of the Apennines, where the great Aemilian
  Way, which has been the high road from the time of the Romans to our
  own, preserves an unbroken straight line from Rimini to Piacenza, a
  distance of more than 150 m., during which the underfalls of the
  mountains continually approach it on the left, without once crossing
  the line of road.

  The geography of Northern Italy will be best described by following
  the course of the Po. That river has its origin as a mountain torrent
  descending from two little dark lakes on the north flank of Monte
  Viso, at a height of more than 6000 ft. above the sea; and after a
  course of less than 20 m. it enters the plain at Saluzzo, between
  which and Turin, a distance of only 30 m., it receives three
  considerable tributaries--the Chisone on its left bank, bringing down
  the waters from the valley of Fenestrelle, and the Varaita and Maira
  on the south, contributing those of two valleys of the Alps
  immediately south of that of the Po itself. A few miles below Valenza
  it is joined by the Tanaro, a large stream, which brings with it the
  united waters of the Stura, the Bormida and several minor rivers.

  More important are the rivers that descend from the main chain of the
  Graian and Pennine Alps and join the Po on its left bank. Of these the
  Dora (called for distinction's sake Dora Riparia), which unites with
  the greater river just below Turin, has its source in the Mont
  Genèvre, and flows past Susa at the foot of the Mont Cenis. Next comes
  the Stura, which rises in the glaciers of the Roche Melon; then the
  Orca, flowing through the Val di Locana; and then the Dora Baltea, one
  of the greatest of all the Alpine tributaries of the Po, which has its
  source in the glaciers of Mont Blanc, above Courmayeur, and thence
  descends through the Val d'Aosta for about 70 m. till it enters the
  plain at Ivrea, and, after flowing about 20 m. more, joins the Po a
  few miles below Chivasso. This great valley--one of the most
  considerable on the southern side of the Alps--has attracted special
  attention, in ancient as well as modern times, from its leading to two
  of the most frequented passes across the great mountain chain--the
  Great and the Little St Bernard--the former diverging at Aosta, and
  crossing the main ridges to the north into the valley of the Rhone,
  the other following a more westerly direction into Savoy. Below Aosta
  also the Dora Baltea receives several considerable tributaries, which
  descend from the glaciers between Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa.

  About 25 m. below its confluence with the Dora, the Po receives the
  Sesia, also a large river, which has its source above Alagna at the
  southern foot of Monte Rosa, and after flowing by Varallo and Vercelli
  falls into the Po about 14 m. below the latter city. About 30 m. east
  of this confluence--in the course of which the Po makes a great bend
  south to Valenza, and then returns again to the northward--it is
  joined by the Ticino, a large and rapid river, which brings with it
  the outflow of Lago Maggiore and all the waters that flow into it. Of
  these the Ticino itself has its source about 10 m. above Airolo at the
  foot of the St Gotthard, and after flowing above 36 m. through the Val
  Leventina to Bellinzona (where it is joined by the Moësa bringing down
  the waters of the Val Misocco) enters the lake through a marshy plain
  at Magadino, about 10 m. distant. On the west side of the lake the
  Toccia or Tosa descends from the pass of the Gries nearly due south to
  Domodossola, where it receives the waters of the Doveria from the
  Simplon, and a few miles lower down those of the Val d'Anzasca from
  the foot of Monte Rosa, and 12 m. farther has its outlet into the
  lake between Baveno and Pallanza. The Lago Maggiore is also the
  receptacle of the waters of the Lago di Lugano on the east and the
  Lago d'Orta on the west.

  The next great affluent of the Po, the Adda, forms the outflow of the
  Lake of Como, and has also its sources in the Alps, above Bormio,
  whence it flows through the broad and fertile valley of the Valtellina
  for more than 65 m. till it enters the lake near Colico. The Adda in
  this part of its course has a direction almost due east to west; but
  at the point where it reaches the lake, the Liro descends the valley
  of S. Giacomo, which runs nearly north and south from the pass of the
  Splügen, thus affording one of the most direct lines of communication
  across the Alps. The Adda flows out of the lake at its south-eastern
  extremity at Lecco, and has thence a course through the plain of above
  70 m. till it enters the Po between Piacenza and Cremona. It flows by
  Lodi and Pizzighettone, and receives the waters of the Brembo,
  descending from the Val Brembana, and the Serio from the Val Seriana
  above Bergamo. The Oglio, a more considerable stream than either of
  the last two, rises in the Monte Tonale above Edolo, and descends
  through the Val Camonica to Lovere, where it expands into a large
  lake, called Iseo from the town of that name on its southern shore.
  Issuing thence at its south-west extremity, the Oglio has a long and
  winding course through the plain before it finally reaches the Po a
  few miles above Borgoforte. In this lower part it receives the smaller
  streams of the Mella, which flows by Brescia, and the Chiese, which
  proceeds from the small Lago d'Idro, between the Lago d'Iseo and that
  of Garda.

  The last of the great tributaries of the Po is the Mincio, which flows
  from the Lago di Garda, and has a course of about 40 m. from
  Peschiera, where it issues from the lake at its south-eastern angle,
  till it joins the Po. About 12 m. above the confluence it passes under
  the walls of Mantua, and expands into a broad lake-like reach so as
  entirely to encircle that city. Notwithstanding its extent, the Lago
  di Garda is not fed by the snows of the high Alps, nor is the stream
  which enters it at its northern extremity (at Riva) commonly known as
  the Mincio, though forming the main source of that river, but is
  termed the Sarca; it rises at the foot of Monte Tonale.

  The Adige, formed by the junction of two streams--the Etsch or Adige
  proper and the Eisak, both of which belong to Tirol rather than to
  Italy--descends as far as Verona, where it enters the great plain,
  with a course from north to south nearly parallel to the rivers last
  described, and would seem likely to discharge its waters into those of
  the Po, but below Legnago it turns eastward and runs parallel to the
  Po for about 40 m., entering the Adriatic by an independent mouth
  about 8 m. from the northern outlet of the greater stream. The waters
  of the two rivers have, however, been made to communicate by
  artificial cuts and canals in more than one place.

  The Po itself, which is here a very large stream, with an average
  width of 400 to 600 yds., continues to flow with an undivided mass of
  waters as far as Sta Maria di Ariano, where it parts into two arms,
  known as the Po di Maestra and Po di Goro, and these again are
  subdivided into several other branches, forming a delta above 20 m. in
  width from north to south. The point of bifurcation, at present about
  25 m. from the sea, was formerly much farther inland, more than 10 m.
  west of Ferrara, where a small arm of the river, still called the Po
  di Ferrara, branches from the main stream. Previous to the year 1154
  this channel was the main stream, and the two small branches into
  which it subdivides, called the Po di Volano and Po di Primaro, were
  in early times the two main outlets of the river. The southernmost of
  these, the Po di Primaro, enters the Adriatic about 12 m. north of
  Ravenna, so that if these two arms be included, the delta of the Po
  extends about 36 m. from south to north. The whole course of the
  river, including its windings, is estimated at about 450 m.

  Besides the delta of the Po and the large marshy tracts which it
  forms, there exist on both sides of it extensive lagoons of salt
  water, generally separated from the Adriatic by narrow strips of sand
  or embankments, partly natural and partly artificial, but having
  openings which admit the influx and efflux of the sea-water, and serve
  as ports for communication with the mainland. The best known and the
  most extensive of these lagoons is that in which Venice is situated,
  which extends from Torcello in the north to Chioggia and Brondolo in
  the south, a distance of above 40 m.; but they were formerly much more
  extensive, and afforded a continuous means of internal navigation, by
  what were called "the Seven Seas" (Septem Maria), from Ravenna to
  Altinum, a few miles north of Torcello. That city, like Ravenna,
  originally stood in the midst of a lagoon; and the coast east of it to
  near Monfalcone, where it meets the mountains, is occupied by similar
  expanses of water, which are, however, becoming gradually converted
  into dry land.

  The tract adjoining this long line of lagoons is, like the basin of
  the Po, a broad expanse of perfectly level alluvial plain, extending
  from the Adige eastwards to the Carnic Alps, where they approach close
  to the Adriatic between Aquileia and Trieste, and northwards to the
  foot of the great chain, which here sweeps round in a semicircle from
  the neighbourhood of Vicenza to that of Aquileia. The space thus
  included was known in ancient times as Venetia, a name applied in the
  middle ages to the well-known city; the eastern portion of it became
  known in the middle ages as the Frioul or Friuli.

  Returning to the south of the Po, the tributaries of that river on its
  right bank below the Tanaro are very inferior in volume and importance
  to those from the north. Flowing from the Ligurian Apennines, which
  never attain the limit of perpetual snow, they generally dwindle in
  summer into insignificant streams. Beginning from the Tanaro, the
  principal of them are--(1) the Scrivia, a small but rapid stream
  flowing from the Apennines at the back of Genoa; (2) the Trebbia, a
  much larger river, though of the same torrent-like character, which
  rises near Torriglia within 20 m. of Genoa, flows by Bobbio, and joins
  the Po a few miles above Piacenza; (3) the Nure, a few miles east of
  the preceding; (4) the Taro, a more considerable stream; (5) the
  Parma, flowing by the city of the same name; (6) the Enza; (7) the
  Secchia, which flows by Modena; (8) the Panaro, a few miles to the
  east of that city; (9) the Reno, which flows by Bologna, but instead
  of holding its course till it discharges its waters into the Po, as it
  did in Roman times, is turned aside by an artificial channel into the
  Po di Primaro. The other small streams east of this--of which the most
  considerable are the Solaro, the Santerno, flowing by Imola, the
  Lamone by Faenza, the Montone by Forlì, all in Roman times tributaries
  of the Po--have their outlet in like manner into the Po di Primaro, or
  by artificial mouths into the Adriatic between Ravenna and Rimini. The
  river Marecchia, which enters the sea immediately north of Rimini, may
  be considered as the natural limit of Northern Italy. It was adopted
  by Augustus as the boundary of Gallia Cispadana; the far-famed Rubicon
  was a trifling stream a few miles farther north, now called Fiumicino.
  The Savio is the only other stream of any importance which has always
  flowed directly into the Adriatic from this side of the Tuscan
  Apennines.

  The narrow strip of coast-land between the Maritime Alps, the
  Apennines and the sea--called in ancient times Liguria, and now known
  as the Riviera of Genoa--is throughout its extent, from Nice to Genoa
  on the one side, and from Genoa to Spezia on the other, almost wholly
  mountainous. It is occupied by the branches and offshoots of the
  mountain ranges which separate it from the great plain to the north,
  and send down their lateral ridges close to the water's edge, leaving
  only in places a few square miles of level plains at the mouths of the
  rivers and openings of the valleys. The district is by no means devoid
  of fertility, the steep slopes facing the south enjoying so fine a
  climate as to render them very favourable for the | growth of fruit
  trees, especially the olive, which is cultivated in terraces to a
  considerable height up the face of the mountains, while the openings
  of the valleys are generally occupied by towns or villages, some of
  which have become favourite winter resorts.

  From the proximity of the mountains to the sea none of the rivers in
  this part of Italy has a long course, and they are generally mere
  mountain torrents, rapid and swollen in winter and spring, and almost
  dry in summer. The largest and most important are those which descend
  from the Maritime Alps between Nice and Albenga. The most considerable
  of them are--the Roja, which rises in the Col di Tenda and descends to
  Ventimiglia; the Taggia, between San Remo and Oneglia; and the Centa,
  which enters the sea at Albenga. The Lavagna, which enters the sea at
  Chiavari, is the only stream of any importance between Genoa and the
  Gulf of Spezia. But immediately east of that inlet (a remarkable
  instance of a deep landlocked gulf with no river flowing into it) the
  Magra, which descends from Pontremoli down the valley known as the
  Lunigiana, is a large stream, and brings with it the waters of another
  considerable stream, the Vara. The Magra (Macra), in ancient times the
  boundary between Liguria and Etruria, may be considered as
  constituting on this side the limit of Northern Italy.

  The Apennines (q.v.), as has been already mentioned, here traverse the
  whole breadth of Italy, cutting off the peninsula properly so termed
  from the broader mass of Northern Italy by a continuous barrier of
  considerable breadth, though of far inferior elevation to that of the
  Alps. The Ligurian Apennines may be considered as taking their rise in
  the neighbourhood of Savona, where a pass of very moderate elevation
  connects them with the Maritime Alps, of which they are in fact only a
  continuation. From the neighbourhood of Savona to that of Genoa they
  do not rise to more than 3000 to 4000 ft., and are traversed by passes
  of less than 2000 ft. As they extend towards the east they increase in
  elevation; the Monte Bue rises to 5915 ft., while the Monte Cimone, a
  little farther east, attains 7103 ft. This is the highest point in the
  northern Apennines, and belongs to a group of summits of nearly equal
  altitude; the range which is continued thence between Tuscany and what
  are now known as the Emilian provinces presents a continuous ridge
  from the mountains at the head of the Val di Mugello (due north of
  Florence) to the point where they are traversed by the celebrated
  Furlo Pass. The highest point in this part of the range is the Monte
  Falterona, above the sources of the Arno, which attains 5410 ft.
  Throughout this tract the Apennines are generally covered with
  extensive forests of chestnut, oak and beech; while their upper slopes
  afford admirable pasturage. Few towns of any importance are found
  either on their northern or southern declivity, and the former region
  especially, though occupying a tract of from 30 to 40 m. in width,
  between the crest of the Apennines and the plain of the Po, is one of
  the least known and at the same time least interesting portions of
  Italy.

  2. _Central Italy._--The geography of Central Italy is almost wholly
  determined by the Apennines, which traverse it in a direction from
  about north-north-east to south-south-west, almost precisely parallel
  to that of the coast of the Adriatic from Rimini to Pescara. The line
  of the highest summits and of the watershed ranges is about 30 to 40
  m. from the Adriatic, while about double that distance separates it
  from the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west. In this part of the range almost
  all the highest points of the Apennines are found. Beginning from the
  group called the Alpi della Luna near the sources of the Tiber, which
  attain 4435 ft., they are continued by the Monte Nerone (5010 ft.),
  Monte Catria (5590), and Monte Maggio to the Monte Pennino near Nocera
  (5169 ft.), and thence to the Monte della Sibilla, at the source of
  the Nar or Nera, which attains 7663 ft. Proceeding thence southwards,
  we find in succession the Monte Vettore (8128 ft.), the Pizzo di Sevo
  (7945 ft.), and the two great mountain masses of the Monte Corno,
  commonly called the Gran Sasso d'Italia, the most lofty of all the
  Apennines, attaining to a height of 9560 ft., and the Monte della
  Maiella, its highest summit measuring 9170 ft. Farther south no very
  lofty summits are found till we come to the group of Monti del Matese,
  in Samnium (6660 ft.), which according to the division here adopted
  belongs to Southern Italy. Besides the lofty central masses enumerated
  there are two other lofty peaks, outliers from the main range, and
  separated from it by valleys of considerable extent. These are the
  Monte Terminillo, near Leonessa (7278 ft.), and the Monte Velino near
  the Lake Fucino, rising to 8192 ft., both of which are covered with
  snow from November till May. But the Apennines of Central Italy,
  instead of presenting, like the Alps and the northern Apennines, a
  definite central ridge, with transverse valleys leading down from it
  on both sides, in reality constitute a mountain mass of very
  considerable breadth, composed of a number of minor ranges and groups
  of mountains, which preserve a generally parallel direction, and are
  separated by upland valleys, some of them of considerable extent as
  well as considerable elevation above the sea. Such is the basin of
  Lake Fucino, situated in the centre of the mass, almost exactly midway
  between the two seas, at an elevation of 2180 ft. above them; while
  the upper valley of the Aterno, in which Aquila is situated, is 2380
  ft. above the sea. Still more elevated is the valley of the Gizio (a
  tributary of the Aterno), of which Sulmona is the chief town. This
  communicates with the upper valley of the Sangro by a level plain
  called the Piano di Cinque Miglia, at an elevation of 4298 ft.,
  regarded as the most wintry spot in Italy. Nor do the highest summits
  form a continuous ridge of great altitude for any considerable
  distance; they are rather a series of groups separated by tracts of
  very inferior elevation forming natural passes across the range, and
  broken in some places (as is the case in almost all limestone
  countries) by the waters from the upland valleys turning suddenly at
  right angles, and breaking through the mountain ranges which bound
  them. Thus the Gran Sasso and the Maiella are separated by the deep
  valley of the Aterno, while the Tronto breaks through the range
  between Monte Vettore and the Pizzo di Sevo. This constitution of the
  great mass of the central Apennines has in all ages exercised an
  important influence upon the character of this portion of Italy, which
  may be considered as divided by nature into two great regions, a cold
  and barren upland country, bordered on both sides by rich and fertile
  tracts, enjoying a warm but temperate climate.

  The district west of the Apennines, a region of great beauty and
  fertility, though inferior in productiveness to Northern Italy,
  coincides in a general way with the countries familiar to all students
  of ancient history as Etruria and Latium. Until the union of Italy
  they were comprised in Tuscany and the southern Papal States. The
  northern part of Tuscany is indeed occupied to a considerable extent
  by the underfalls and offshoots of the Apennines, which, besides the
  slopes and spurs of the main range that constitutes its northern
  frontier towards the plain of the Po, throw off several outlying
  ranges or groups. Of these the most remarkable is the group between
  the valleys of the Serchio and the Magra, commonly known as the
  mountains of Carrara, from the celebrated marble quarries in the
  vicinity of that city. Two of the summits of this group, the Pizzo
  d'Uccello and the Pania della Croce, attain 6155 and 6100 ft. Another
  lateral range, the Prato Magno, which branches off from the central
  chain at the Monte Falterona, and separates the upper valley of the
  Arno from its second basin, rises to 5188 ft.; while a similar branch,
  called the Alpe di Catenaja, of inferior elevation, divides the upper
  course of the Arno from that of the Tiber.

  The rest of this tract is for the most part a hilly, broken country,
  of moderate elevation, but Monte Amiata, near Radicofani, an isolated
  mass of volcanic origin, attains a height of 5650 ft. South of this
  the country between the frontier of Tuscany and the Tiber is in great
  part of volcanic origin, forming hills with distinct crater-shaped
  basins, in several instances occupied by small lakes (the Lake of
  Bolsena, Lake of Vico and Lake of Bracciano). This volcanic tract
  extends across the Campagna of Rome, till it rises again in the lofty
  group of the Alban hills, the highest summit of which, the Monte Cavo,
  is 3160 ft. above the sea. In this part the Apennines are separated
  from the sea, distant about 30 m. by the undulating volcanic plain of
  the Roman Campagna, from which the mountains rise in a wall-like
  barrier, of which the highest point, the Monte Gennaro, attains 4165
  ft. South of Palestrina again, the main mass of the Apennines throws
  off another lateral mass, known in ancient times as the Volscian
  mountains (now called the Monti Lepini), separated from the central
  ranges by the broad valley of the Sacco, a tributary of the Liri
  (Liris) or Garigliano, and forming a large and rugged mountain mass,
  nearly 5000 ft. in height, which descends to the sea at Terracina, and
  between that point and the mouth of the Liri throws out several
  rugged mountain headlands, which may be considered as constituting the
  natural boundary between Latium and Campania, and consequently the
  natural limit of Central Italy. Besides these offshoots of the
  Apennines there are in this part of Central Italy several detached
  mountains, rising almost like islands on the seashore, of which the
  two most remarkable are the Monte Argentaro on the coast of Tuscany
  near Orbetello (2087 ft.) and the Monte Circello (1771 ft.) at the
  angle of the Pontine Marshes, by the whole breadth of which it is
  separated from the Volscian Apennines.

  The two valleys of the Arno and the Tiber (Ital. _Tevere_) may be
  considered as furnishing the key to the geography of all this portion
  of Italy west of the Apennines. The Arno, which has its source in the
  Monte Falterona, one of the most elevated summits of the main chain of
  the Tuscan Apennines, flows nearly south till in the neighbourhood of
  Arezzo it turns abruptly north-west, and pursues that course as far as
  Pontassieve, where it again makes a sudden bend to the west, and
  pursues a westerly course thence to the sea, passing through Florence
  and Pisa. Its principal tributary is the Sieve, which joins it at
  Pontassieve, bringing down the waters of the Val di Mugello. The Elsa
  and the Era, which join it on its left bank, descending from the hills
  near Siena and Volterra, are inconsiderable streams; and the Serchio,
  which flows from the territory of Lucca and the Alpi Apuani, and
  formerly joined the Arno a few miles from its mouth, now enters the
  sea by a separate channel. The most considerable rivers of Tuscany
  south of the Arno are the Cecina, which flows through the plain below
  Volterra, and the Ombrone, which rises in the hills near Siena, and
  enters the sea about 12 m. below Grosseto.

  The Tiber, a much more important river than the Arno, and the largest
  in Italy with the exception of the Po, rises in the Apennines, about
  20 m. east of the source of the Arno, and flows nearly south by Borgo
  S. Sepolcro and Città di Castello, then between Perugia and Todi to
  Orte, just below which it receives the Nera. The Nera, which rises in
  the lofty group of the Monte della Sibilla, is a considerable stream,
  and brings with it the waters of the Velino (with its tributaries the
  Turano and the Salto), which joins it a few miles below its celebrated
  waterfall at Terni. The Teverone or Anio, which enters the Tiber a few
  miles above Rome, is an inferior stream to the Nera, but brings down a
  considerable body of water from the mountains above Subiaco. It is a
  singular fact in the geography of Central Italy that the valleys of
  the Tiber and Arno are in some measure connected by that of the
  Chiana, a level and marshy tract, the waters from which flow partly
  into the Arno and partly into the Tiber.

  The eastern declivity of the central Apennines towards the Adriatic is
  far less interesting and varied than the western. The central range
  here approaches much nearer to the sea, and hence, with few
  exceptions, the rivers that flow from it have short courses and are of
  comparatively little importance. They may be enumerated, proceeding
  from Rimini southwards: (1) the Foglia; (2) the Metauro, of historical
  celebrity, and affording access to one of the most frequented passes
  of the Apennines; (3) the Esino; (4) the Potenza; (5) the Chienti; (6)
  the Aso; (7) the Tronto; (8) the Vomano; (9) the Aterno; (10) the
  Sangro; (11) the Trigno, which forms the boundary of the southernmost
  province of the Abruzzi, and may therefore be taken as the limit of
  Central Italy.

  The whole of this portion of Central Italy is a hilly country, much
  broken and cut up by the torrents from the mountains, but fertile,
  especially in fruit-trees, olives and vines; and it has been, both in
  ancient and modern times, a populous district, containing many small
  towns though no great cities. Its chief disadvantage is the absence of
  ports, the coast preserving an almost unbroken straight line, with the
  single exception of Ancona, the only port worthy of the name on the
  eastern coast of Central Italy.

  3. _Southern Italy._--The great central mass of the Apennines, which
  has held its course throughout Central Italy, with a general direction
  from north-west to south-east, may be considered as continued in the
  same direction for about 100 m. farther, from the basin-shaped group
  of the Monti del Matese (which rises to 6660 ft.) to the neighbourhood
  of Potenza, in the heart of the province of Basilicata, corresponding
  nearly to the ancient Lucania. The whole of the district known in
  ancient times as Samnium (a part of which retains the name of Sannio,
  though officially designated the province of Campobasso) is occupied
  by an irregular mass of mountains, of much inferior height to those of
  Central Italy, and broken up into a number of groups, intersected by
  rivers, which have for the most part a very tortuous course. This
  mountainous tract, which has an average breadth of from 50 to 60 m.,
  is bounded west by the plain of Campania, now called the Terra di
  Lavoro, and east by the much broader and more extensive tract of
  Apulia or Puglia, composed partly of level plains, but for the most
  part of undulating downs, contrasting strongly with the mountain
  ranges of the Apennines, which rise abruptly above them. The central
  mass of the mountains, however, throws out two outlying ranges, the
  one to the west, which separates the Bay of Naples from that of
  Salerno, and culminates in the Monte S. Angelo above Castellammare
  (4720 ft.), while the detached volcanic cone of Vesuvius (nearly 4000
  ft.) is isolated from the neighbouring mountains by an intervening
  strip of plain. On the east side in like manner the Monte Gargano
  (3465 ft.), a detached limestone mass which projects in a bold
  spur-like promontory into the Adriatic, forming the only break in the
  otherwise uniform coast-line of Italy on that sea, though separated
  from the great body of the Apennines by a considerable interval of low
  country, may be considered as merely an outlier from the central mass.

  From the neighbourhood of Potenza, the main ridge of the Apennines is
  continued by the Monti della Maddalena in a direction nearly due
  south, so that it approaches within a short distance of the Gulf of
  Policastro, whence it is carried on as far as the Monte Pollino, the
  last of the lofty summits of the Apennine chain, which exceeds 7000
  ft. in height. The range is, however, continued through the province
  now called Calabria, to the southern extremity or "toe" of Italy, but
  presents in this part a very much altered character, the broken
  limestone range which is the true continuation of the chain as far as
  the neighbourhood of Nicastro and Catanzaro, and keeps close to the
  west coast, being flanked on the east by a great mass of granitic
  mountains, rising to about 6000 ft., and covered with vast forests,
  from which it derives the name of La Sila. A similar mass, separated
  from the preceding by a low neck of Tertiary hills, fills up the whole
  of the peninsular extremity of Italy from Squillace to Reggio. Its
  highest point is called Aspromonte (6420 ft.).

  While the rugged and mountainous district of Calabria, extending
  nearly due south for a distance of more than 150 m., thus derives its
  character and configuration almost wholly from the range of the
  Apennines, the long spur-like promontory which projects towards the
  east to Brindisi and Otranto is merely a continuation of the low tract
  of Apulia, with a dry calcareous soil of Tertiary origin. The Monte
  Volture, which rises in the neighbourhood of Melfi and Venosa to 4357
  ft., is of volcanic origin, and in great measure detached from the
  adjoining mass of the Apennines. Eastward from this the ranges of low
  bare hills called the Murgie of Gravina and Altamura gradually sink
  into the still more moderate level of those which constitute the
  peninsular tract between Brindisi and Taranto as far as the Cape of
  Sta Maria di Leuca, the south-east extremity of Italy. This projecting
  tract, which may be termed the "heel" or "spur" of Southern Italy, in
  conjunction with the great promontory of Calabria, forms the deep Gulf
  of Taranto, about 70 m. in width, and somewhat greater depth, which
  receives a number of streams from the central mass of the Apennines.

  None of the rivers of Southern Italy is of any great importance. The
  Liri (Liris) or Garigliano, which has its source in the central
  Apennines above Sora, not far from Lake Fucino, and enters the Gulf of
  Gaeta about 10 m. east of the city of that name, brings down a
  considerable body of water; as does also the Volturno, which rises in
  the mountains between Castel di Sangro and Agnone, flows past Isernia,
  Venafro and Capua, and enters the sea about 15 m. from the mouth of
  the Garigliano. About 16 m. above Capua it receives the Calore, which
  flows by Benevento. The Silarus or Sele enters the Gulf of Salerno a
  few miles below the ruins of Paestum. Below this the watershed of the
  Apennines is too near to the sea on that side to allow the formation
  of any large streams. Hence the rivers that flow in the opposite
  direction into the Adriatic and the Gulf of Taranto have much longer
  courses, though all partake of the character of mountain torrents,
  rushing down with great violence in winter and after storms, but
  dwindling in the summer into scanty streams, which hold a winding and
  sluggish course through the great plains of Apulia. Proceeding south
  from the Trigno, already mentioned as constituting the limit of
  Central Italy, there are (1) the Biferno and (2) the Fortore, both
  rising in the mountains of Samnium, and flowing into the Adriatic west
  of Monte Gargano; (3) the Cervaro, south of the great promontory; and
  (4) the Ofanto, the Aufidus of Horace, whose description of it is
  characteristic of almost all the rivers of Southern Italy, of which it
  may be taken as the typical representative. It rises about 15 m. west
  of Conza, and only about 25 m. from the Gulf of Salerno, so that it is
  frequently (though erroneously) described as traversing the whole
  range of the Apennines. In its lower course it flows near Canosa and
  traverses the celebrated battlefield of Cannae. (5) The Bradano, which
  rises near Venosa, almost at the foot of Monte Volture, flows towards
  the south-east into the Gulf of Taranto, as do the Basento, the Agri
  and the Sinni, all of which descend from the central chain of the
  Apennines south of Potenza. The Crati, which flows from Cosenza
  northwards, and then turns abruptly eastward to enter the same gulf,
  is the only stream worthy of notice in the rugged peninsula of
  Calabria; while the arid limestone hills projecting eastwards to Capo
  di Leuca do not give rise to anything more than a mere streamlet, from
  the mouth of the Ofanto to the south-eastern extremity of Italy.


    Lakes.

  The only important lakes are those on or near the north frontier,
  formed by the expansion of the tributaries of the Po. They have been
  already noticed in connexion with the rivers by which they are formed,
  but may be again enumerated in order of succession. They are,
  proceeding from west to east, (1) the Lago d'Orta, (2) the Lago
  Maggiore, (3) the Lago di Lugano, (4) the Lago di Como, (5) the Lago
  d'Iseo, (6) the Lago d'Idro, and (7) the Lago di Garda. Of these the
  last named is considerably the largest, covering an area of 143 sq. m.
  It is 32¼ m. long by 10 broad; while the Lago Maggiore,
  notwithstanding its name, though considerably exceeding it in length
  (37 m.), falls materially below it in superficial extent. They are all
  of great depth--the Lago Maggiore having an extreme depth of 1198
  ft., while that of Como attains to 1365 ft. Of a wholly different
  character is the Lago di Varese, between the Lago Maggiore and that of
  Lugano, which is a mere shallow expanse of water, surrounded by hills
  of very moderate elevation. Two other small lakes in the same
  neighbourhood, as well as those of Erba and Pusiano, between Como and
  Lecco, are of a similar character.

  [Illustration: Map of Italy (Modern).]

  The lakes of Central Italy, which are comparatively of trifling
  dimensions, belong to a wholly different class. The most important of
  these, the Lacus Fucinus of the ancients, now called the Lago di
  Celano, situated almost exactly in the centre of the peninsula,
  occupies a basin of considerable extent, surrounded by mountains and
  without any natural outlet, at an elevation of more than 2000 ft. Its
  waters have been in great part carried off by an artificial channel,
  and more than half its surface laid bare. Next in size is the Lago
  Trasimeno, a broad expanse of shallow waters, about 30 m. in
  circumference, surrounded by low hills. The neighbouring lake of
  Chiusi is of similar character, but much smaller dimensions. All the
  other lakes of Central Italy, which are scattered through the volcanic
  districts west of the Apennines, are of an entirely different
  formation, and occupy deep cup-shaped hollows, which have undoubtedly
  at one time formed the craters of extinct volcanoes. Such is the Lago
  di Bolsena, near the city of the same name, which is an extensive
  sheet of water, as well as the much smaller Lago di Vico (the Ciminian
  lake of ancient writers) and the Lago di Bracciano, nearer Rome, while
  to the south of Rome the well known lakes of Albano and Nemi have a
  similar origin.

  The only lake properly so called in southern Italy is the Lago del
  Matese, in the heart of the mountain group of the same name, of small
  extent. The so-called lakes on the coast of the Adriatic north and
  south of the promontory of Gargano are brackish lagoons communicating
  with the sea.


    Islands.

  The three great islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica are closely
  connected with Italy, both by geographical position and community of
  language, but they are considered at length in separate articles. Of
  the smaller islands that lie near the coasts of Italy, the most
  considerable is that of Elba, off the west coast of central Italy,
  about 50 m. S. of Leghorn, and separated from the mainland at Piombino
  by a strait of only about 6 m. in width. North of this, and about
  midway between Corsica and Tuscany, is the small island of Capraia,
  steep and rocky, and only 4½ m. long, but with a secure port; Gorgona,
  about 25 m. farther north, is still smaller, and is a mere rock,
  inhabited by a few fishermen. South of Elba are the equally
  insignificant islets of Pianosa and Montecristo, while the more
  considerable island of Giglio lies much nearer the mainland,
  immediately opposite the mountain promontory of Monte Argentano,
  itself almost an island. The islands farther south in the Tyrrhenian
  Sea are of an entirely different character. Of these Ischia and
  Procida, close to the northern headland of the Bay of Naples, are of
  volcanic origin, as is the case also with the more distant group of
  the Ponza Islands. These are three in number--Ponza, Palmarola and
  Zannone; while Ventotene (also of volcanic formation) is about midway
  between Ponza and Ischia. The island of Capri, on the other hand,
  opposite the southern promontory of the Bay of Naples, is a
  precipitous limestone rock. The Aeolian or Lipari Islands, a
  remarkable volcanic group, belong rather to Sicily than to Italy,
  though Stromboli, the most easterly of them, is about equidistant from
  Sicily and from the mainland.

  The Italian coast of the Adriatic presents a great contrast to its
  opposite shores, for while the coast of Dalmatia is bordered by a
  succession of islands, great and small, the long and uniform
  coast-line of Italy from Otranto to Rimini presents not a single
  adjacent island; and the small outlying group of the Tremiti Islands
  (north of the Monte Gargano and about 15 m. from the mainland) alone
  breaks the monotony of this part of the Adriatic.

  _Geology._--The geology of Italy is mainly dependent upon that of the
  Apennines (q.v.). On each side of that great chain are found extensive
  Tertiary deposits, sometimes, as in Tuscany, the district of
  Monferrat, &c., forming a broken, hilly country, at others spreading
  into broad plains or undulating downs, such as the Tavoliere of
  Puglia, and the tract that forms the spur of Italy from Bari to
  Otranto.

  Besides these, and leaving out of account the islands, the Italian
  peninsula presents four distinct volcanic districts. In three of them
  the volcanoes are entirely extinct, while the fourth is still in great
  activity.

  1. The Euganean hills form a small group extending for about 10 m.
  from the neighbourhood of Padua to Este, and separated from the lower
  offshoots of the Alps by a portion of the wide plain of Padua. Monte
  Venda, their highest peak, is 1890 ft. high.

  2. The Roman district, the largest of the four, extends from the hills
  of Albano to the frontier of Tuscany, and from the lower slopes of the
  Apennines to the Tyrrhenian Sea. It may be divided into three groups:
  the Monti Albani, the second highest[2] of which, Monte Cavo (3115
  ft.), is the ancient Mons Albanus, on the summit of which stood the
  temple of Jupiter Latialis, where the assemblies of the cities forming
  the Latin confederation were held; the Monti Cimini, which extend from
  the valley of the Tiber to the neighbourhood of Civita Vecchia, and
  attain at their culminating point an elevation of 3454 ft.; and the
  mountains of Radicofani and Monte Amiata, the latter of which is 5688
  ft. high. The lakes of Bolsena (Vulsiniensis), of Bracciano
  (Sabatinus), of Vico (Ciminus), of Albano (Albanus), of Nemi
  (Nemorensis), and other smaller lakes belong to this district; while
  between its south-west extremity and Monte Circello the Pontine
  Marshes form a broad strip of alluvial soil infested by malaria.

  3. The volcanic region of the Terra di Lavoro is separated by the
  Volscian mountains from the Roman district. It may be also divided
  into three groups. Of Roccamonfina, at the N.N.W. end of the Campanian
  Plain, the highest cone, called Montagna di Santa Croce, is 3291 ft.
  The Phlegraean Fields embrace all the country round Baiae and Pozzuoli
  and the adjoining islands. Monte Barbaro (Gaurus), north-east of the
  site of Cumae, Monte San Nicola (Epomeus), 2589 ft. in Ischia, and
  Camaldoli, 1488 ft., west of Naples, are the highest cones. The lakes
  Averno (Avernus), Lucrino (Lucrinus), Fusaro (Palus Acherusia), and
  Agnano are within this group, which has shown activity in historical
  times. A stream of lava issued in 1198 from the crater of the
  Solfatara, which still continues to exhale steam and noxious gases;
  the Lava dell' Arso came out of the N.E. flank of Monte Epomeo in
  1302; and Monte Nuovo, north-west of Pozzuoli (455 ft.), was thrown up
  in three days in September 1538. Since its first historical eruption
  in A.D. 79, Vesuvius or Somma, which forms the third group, has been
  in constant activity. The Punta del Nasone, the highest point of
  Somma, is 3714 ft. high, while the Punta del Palo, the highest point
  of the brim of the crater of Vesuvius, varies materially with
  successive eruptions from 3856 to 4275 ft.

  4. The Apulian volcanic formation consists of the great mass of Monte
  Volture, which rises at the west end of the plains of Apulia, on the
  frontier of Basilicata, and is surrounded by the Apennines on its
  south-west and north-west sides. Its highest peak, the Pizzuto di
  Melfi, attains an elevation of 4365 ft. Within the widest crater there
  are the two small lakes of Monticchio and San Michele. In connexion
  with the volcanic districts we may mention _Le Mofete_, the pools of
  Ampsanctus, in a wooded valley S.E. of Frigento, in the province of
  Avellino, Campania (Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 563-571), The largest is
  not more than 160 ft. in circumference, and 7 ft. deep.

  The whole of the great plain of Lombardy is covered by Pleistocene and
  recent deposits. It is a great depression--the continuation of the
  Adriatic Sea--filled up by deposits brought down by the rivers from
  the mountains. The depression was probably formed during the later
  stages of the growth of the Alps.

  _Climate and Vegetation._--The geographical position of Italy,
  extending from about 46° to 38° N., renders it one of the hottest
  countries in Europe. But the effect of its southern latitude is
  tempered by its peninsular character, bounded as it is on both sides
  by seas of considerable extent, as well as by the great range of the
  Alps with its snows and glaciers to the north. There are thus
  irregular variations of climate. Great differences also exist with
  regard to climate between northern and southern Italy, due in great
  part to other circumstances as well as to differences of latitude.
  Thus the great plain of northern Italy is chilled by the cold winds
  from the Alps, while the damp warm winds from the Mediterranean are to
  a great extent intercepted by the Ligurian Apennines. Hence this part
  of the country has a cold winter climate, so that while the mean
  summer temperature of Milan is higher than that of Sassari, and equal
  to that of Naples, and the extremes reached at Milan and Bologna are a
  good deal higher than those of Naples, the mean winter temperature of
  Turin is actually lower than that of Copenhagen. The lowest recorded
  winter temperature at Turin is 5° Fahr. Throughout the region north of
  the Apennines no plants will thrive which cannot stand occasional
  severe frosts in winter, so that not only oranges and lemons but even
  the olive tree cannot be grown, except in specially favoured
  situations. But the strip of coast between the Apennines and the sea,
  known as the Riviera of Genoa, is not only extremely favourable to the
  growth of olives, but produces oranges and lemons in abundance, while
  even the aloe, the cactus and the palm flourish in many places.

  Central Italy also presents striking differences of climate and
  temperature according to the greater or less proximity to the
  mountains. Thus the greater part of Tuscany, and the provinces thence
  to Rome, enjoy a mild winter climate, and are well adapted to the
  growth of mulberries and olives as well as vines, but it is not till
  after passing Terracina, in proceeding along the western coast towards
  the south, that the vegetation of southern Italy develops in its full
  luxuriance. Even in the central parts of Tuscany, however, the climate
  is very much affected by the neighbouring mountains, and the
  increasing elevation of the Apennines as they proceed south produces a
  corresponding effect upon the temperature. But it is when we reach the
  central range of the Apennines that we find the coldest districts of
  Italy. In all the upland valleys of the Abruzzi snow begins to fall
  early in November, and heavy storms occur often as late as May; whole
  communities are shut out for months from any intercourse with their
  neighbours, and some villages are so long buried in snow that regular
  passages are made between the different houses for the sake of
  communication among the inhabitants. The district from the south-east
  of Lake Fucino to the Piano di Cinque Miglia, enclosing the upper
  basin of the Sangro and the small lake of Scanno, is the coldest and
  most bleak part of Italy south of the Alps. Heavy falls of snow in
  June are not uncommon, and only for a short time towards the end of
  July are the nights totally exempt from light frosts. Yet less than 40
  m. E. of this district, and even more to the north, the olive, the
  fig-tree and the orange thrive luxuriantly on the shores of the
  Adriatic from Ortona to Vasto. In the same way, whilst in the plains
  and hills round Naples snow is rarely seen, and never remains long,
  and the thermometer seldom descends to the freezing-point, 20 m. E.
  from it in the fertile valley of Avellino, of no great elevation, but
  encircled by high mountains, light frosts are not uncommon as late as
  June; and 18 m. farther east, in the elevated region of San Angelo dei
  Lombardi and Bisaccia, the inhabitants are always warmly clad, and
  vines grow with difficulty and only in sheltered places. Still farther
  south-east, Potenza has almost the coldest climate in Italy, and
  certainly the lowest summer temperatures. But nowhere are these
  contrasts so striking as in Calabria. The shores, especially on the
  Tyrrhenian Sea, present almost a continued grove of olive, orange,
  lemon and citron trees, which attain a size unknown in the north of
  Italy. The sugar-cane flourishes, the cotton-plant ripens to
  perfection, date-trees are seen in the gardens, the rocks are clothed
  with the prickly-pear or Indian fig, the enclosures of the fields are
  formed by aloes and sometimes pomegranates, the liquorice-root grows
  wild, and the mastic, the myrtle and many varieties of oleander and
  cistus form the underwood of the natural forests of arbutus and
  evergreen oak. If we turn inland but 5 or 6 m. from the shore, and
  often even less, the scene changes. High districts covered with oaks
  and chestnuts succeed to this almost tropical vegetation; a little
  higher up and we reach the elevated regions of the Pollino and the
  Sila, covered with firs and pines, and affording rich pastures even in
  the midst of summer, when heavy dews and light frosts succeed each
  other in July and August, and snow begins to appear at the end of
  September or early in October. Along the shores of the Adriatic, which
  are exposed to the north-east winds, blowing coldly from over the
  Albanian mountains, delicate plants do not thrive so well in general
  as under the same latitude along the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea.

  Southern Italy indeed has in general a very different climate from the
  northern portion of the kingdom; and, though large tracts are still
  occupied by rugged mountains of sufficient elevation to retain the
  snow for a considerable part of the year, the districts adjoining the
  sea enjoy a climate similar to that of Greece and the southern
  provinces of Spain. Unfortunately several of these fertile tracts
  suffer severely from malaria (q.v.), and especially the great plain
  adjoining the Gulf of Tarentum, which in the early ages of history was
  surrounded by a girdle of Greek cities--some of which attained to
  almost unexampled prosperity--has for centuries past been given up to
  almost complete desolation.[3]

  It is remarkable that, of the vegetable productions of Italy, many
  which are at the present day among the first to attract the attention
  of the visitor are of comparatively late introduction, and were
  unknown in ancient times. The olive indeed in all ages clothed the
  hills of a large part of the country; but the orange and lemon, are a
  late importation from the East, while the cactus or Indian fig and the
  aloe, both of them so conspicuous on the shores of southern Italy, as
  well as of the Riviera of Genoa, are of Mexican origin, and
  consequently could not have been introduced earlier than the 16th
  century. The same remark applies to the maize or Indian corn. Many
  botanists are even of opinion that the sweet chestnut, which now
  constitutes so large a part of the forests that clothe the sides both
  of the Alps and the Apennines, and in some districts supplies the
  chief food of the inhabitants, is not originally of Italian growth; it
  is certain that it had not attained in ancient times to anything like
  the extension and importance which it now possesses. The eucalyptus is
  of quite modern introduction; it has been extensively planted in
  malarious districts. The characteristic cypress, ilex and stone-pine,
  however, are native trees, the last-named flourishing especially near
  the coast. The proportion of evergreens is large, and has a marked
  effect on the landscape in winter.

  _Fauna._--The chamois, bouquetin and marmot are found only in the
  Alps, not at all in the Apennines. In the latter the bear was found in
  Roman times, and there are said to be still a few remaining. Wolves
  are more numerous, though only in the mountainous districts; the
  flocks are protected against them by large white sheepdogs, who have
  some wolf blood in them. Wild boars are also found in mountainous and
  forest districts. Foxes are common in the neighbourhood of Rome. The
  sea mammals include the common dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_). The
  birds are similar to those of central Europe; in the mountains
  vultures, eagles, buzzards, kites, falcons and hawks are found.
  Partridges, woodcock, snipe, &c., are among the game birds; but all
  kinds of small birds are also shot for food, and their number is thus
  kept down, while many members of the migratory species are caught by
  traps in the foothills on the south side of the Alps, especially near
  the Lake of Como, on their passage. Large numbers of quails are shot
  in the spring. Among reptiles, the various kinds of lizard are
  noticeable. There are several varieties of snakes, of which three
  species (all vipers) are poisonous. Of sea-fish there are many
  varieties, the tunny, the sardine and the anchovy being commercially
  the most important. Some of the other edible fish, such as the
  palombo, are not found in northern waters. Small cuttlefish are in
  common use as an article of diet. Tortoiseshell, an important article
  of commerce, is derived from the _Thalassochelys caretta_, a sea
  turtle. Of freshwater fish the trout of the mountain streams and the
  eels of the coast lagoons may be mentioned. The tarantula spider and
  the scorpion are found in the south of Italy. The aquarium of the
  zoological station at Naples contains the finest collection in the
  world of marine animals, showing the wonderful variety of the
  different species of fish, molluscs, crustacea, &c., found in the
  Mediterranean.     (E. H. B.; T. As.)

  _Population._--The following table indicates the areas of the several
  provinces (sixty-nine in number), and the population of each according
  to the censuses of the 31st of December 1881 and the 9th of February
  1901. (The larger divisions or compartments in which the provinces are
  grouped are not officially recognized.)

    +----------------------------------+---------+-------------------------+
    |                                  |         |       Population.       |
    |    Provinces and Compartments.   | Area in +------------+------------+
    |                                  |  sq. m. |    1881.   |    1901.   |
    +----------------------------------+---------+------------+------------+
    | Alessandria                      |    1950 |    729,710 |    825,745 |
    | Cuneo                            |    2882 |    635,400 |    670,504 |
    | Novara                           |    2553 |    675,926 |    763,830 |
    | Turin                            |    3955 |  1,029,214 |  1,147,414 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Piedmont                 |  11,340 |  3,070,250 |  3,407,493 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Genoa                            |    1582 |    760,122 |    931,156 |
    | Porto Maurizio                   |     455 |    132,251 |    144,604 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Liguria                  |    2037 |    892,373 |  1,075,760 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Bergamo                          |    1098 |    390,775 |    467,549 |
    | Brescia                          |    1845 |    471,568 |    541,765 |
    | Como                             |    1091 |    515,050 |    594,304 |
    | Cremona                          |     695 |    302,097 |    329,471 |
    | Mantua                           |     912 |    295,728 |    315,448 |
    | Milan                            |    1223 |  1,114,991 |  1,450,214 |
    | Pavia                            |    1290 |    469,831 |    504,382 |
    | Sondrio                          |    1232 |    120,534 |    130,966 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Lombardy                 |    9386 |  3,680,574 |  4,334,099 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Belluno                          |    1293 |    174,140 |    214,803 |
    | Padua                            |     823 |    397,762 |    444,360 |
    | Rovigo                           |     685 |    217,700 |    222,057 |
    | Treviso                          |     960 |    375,704 |    416,945 |
    | Udine                            |    2541 |    501,745 |    614,720 |
    | Venice                           |     934 |    356,708 |    399,823 |
    | Verona                           |    1188 |    394,065 |    427,018 |
    | Vicenza                          |    1052 |    396,349 |    453,621 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Venetia                  |    9476 |  2,814,173 |  3,193,347 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Bologna                          |    1448 |    464,879 |    529,619 |
    | Ferrara                          |    1012 |    230,807 |    270,558 |
    | Forlì                            |     725 |    251,110 |    283,996 |
    | Modena                           |     987 |    279,254 |    323,598 |
    | Parma                            |    1250 |    267,306 |    303,694 |
    | Piacenza                         |     954 |    226,758 |    250,491 |
    | Ravenna                          |     715 |    218,359 |    234,656 |
    | Reggio (Emilia)                  |     876 |    244,959 |    281,085 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Emilia                   |    7967 |  2,183,432 |  2,477,697 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Arezzo                           |    1273 |    238,744 |    275,588 |
    | Florence                         |    2265 |    790,776 |    945,324 |
    | Grosseto                         |    1738 |    114,295 |    137,795 |
    | Leghorn                          |     133 |    121,612 |    121,137 |
    | Lucca                            |     558 |    284,484 |    329,986 |
    | Massa and Carrara                |     687 |    169,469 |    202,749 |
    | Pisa                             |    1179 |    283,563 |    319,854 |
    | Siena                            |    1471 |    205,926 |    233,874 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Tuscany                  |    9304 |  2,208,869 |  2,566,307 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Ancona                           |     762 |    267,338 |    308,346 |
    | Ascoli Piceno                    |     796 |    209,185 |    251,829 |
    | Macerata                         |    1087 |    239,713 |    269,505 |
    | Pesaro and Urbino                |    1118 |    223,043 |    259,083 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Marches                  |    3763 |    939,279 |  1,088,763 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Perugia--Umbria                  |    3748 |    572,060 |    675,352 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Rome--Lazio                      |    4663 |    903,472 |  1,142,526 |
    | Aquila degli Abruzzi (Abruzzo    |         |            |            |
    |   Ulteriore II.)                 |    2484 |    353,027 |    436,367 |
    | Campobasso (Molise)              |    1691 |    365,434 |    389,967 |
    | Chieti (Abruzzo Citeriore)       |    1138 |    343,948 |    387,604 |
    | Teramo (Abruzzo Ulteriore I.)    |    1067 |    254,806 |    312,188 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Abruzzi and Molise       |    6380 |  1,317,215 |  1,526,135 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Avellino (Principato Ulteriore)  |    1172 |    392,619 |    421,766 |
    | Benevento                        |     818 |    238,425 |    265,460 |
    | Caserta (Terra di Lavoro)        |    2033 |    714,131 |    805,345 |
    | Naples                           |     350 |  1,001,245 |  1,141,788 |
    | Salerno (Principato Citeriore)   |    1916 |    550,157 |    585,132 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Campania                 |    6289 |  2,896,577 |  3,219,491 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Bari delle Puglie (Terra di Bari)|    2065 |    679,499 |    837,683 |
    | Foggia (Capitanata)              |    2688 |    356,267 |    421,115 |
    | Lecce (Terra di Otranto)         |    2623 |    553,298 |    705,382 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Apulia                   |    7376 |  1,589,064 |  1,964,180 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Potenza (Basilicata)             |    3845 |    524,504 |    491,558 |
    |                                  +---------+------------|------------+
    | Catanzaro (Calabria Ulteriore    |         |            |            |
    |   II.)                           |    2030 |    433,975 |    498,791 |
    | Cosenza (Calabria Citeriore)     |    2568 |    451,185 |    503,329 |
    | Reggio di Calabria (Calabria     |         |            |            |
    |   Ulteriore I.)                  |    1221 |    372,723 |    437,209 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Calabria                 |    5819 |  1,257,883 |  1,439,329 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Caltanisetta                     |    1263 |    266,379 |    329,449 |
    | Catania                          |    1917 |    563,457 |    703,598 |
    | Girgenti                         |    1172 |    312,487 |    380,666 |
    | Messina                          |    1246 |    460,924 |    550,895 |
    | Palermo                          |    1948 |    699,151 |    796,151 |
    | Syracuse                         |    1442 |    341,526 |    433,796 |
    | Trapani                          |    948  |    283,977 |    373,569 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Sicily                   |    9936 |  2,927,901 |  3,568,124 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Cagliari                         |    5204 |    420,635 |    486,767 |
    | Sassari                          |    4090 |    261,367 |    309,026 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    |         Sardinia                 |    9294 |    682,002 |    795,793 |
    |                                  +---------+------------+------------+
    | Kingdom of Italy                 | 110,623 | 28,459,628 | 32,965,504 |
    +----------------------------------+---------+------------+------------+

  The number of foreigners in Italy in 1901 was 61,606, of whom 37,762
  were domiciled within the kingdom.

  The population given in the foregoing table is the resident or "legal"
  population, which is also given for the individual towns. This is
  490,251 higher than the actual population, 32,475,253, ascertained by
  the census of the 10th of February 1901; the difference is due to
  temporary absences from their residences of certain individuals on
  military service, &c., who probably were counted twice, and also to
  the fact that 469,020 individuals were returned as absent from Italy,
  while only 61,606 foreigners were in Italy at the date of the census.
  The kingdom is divided into 69 provinces, 284 regions, of which 197
  are classed as _circondarii_ and 87 as districts (the latter belonging
  to the province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of Venetia), 1806
  administrative divisions (_mandamenti_) and 8262 communes. These were
  the figures at the date of the census. In 1906 there were 1805
  _mandamenti_ and 8290 communes, and 4 boroughs in Sardinia not
  connected with communes. The _mandamenti_ or administrative divisions
  no longer correspond to the judicial divisions (_mandamenti
  giudiziarii_) which in November 1891 were reduced from 1806 to 1535 by
  a law which provided that judicial reform should not modify existing
  administrative and electoral divisions. The principal elective local
  administrative bodies are the provincial and the communal councils.
  The franchise is somewhat wider than the parliamentary. Both bodies
  are elected for six years, one-half being renewed every three years.
  The provincial council elects a provincial commission and the communal
  council a municipal council from among its own members; these smaller
  bodies carry on the business of the larger while they are not sitting.
  The syndic of each commune is elected by ballot by the communal
  council from among its own members.

  The actual (not the resident or "legal") population of Italy since
  1770 is approximately given in the following table (the first census
  of the kingdom as a whole was taken in 1871):--

    1770    14,689,317   |   1861    25,016,801
    1800    17,237,421   |   1871    26,801,154
    1825    19,726,977   |   1881    28,459,628
    1848    23,617,153   |   1901    32,475,253

  The average density increased from 257.21 per sq. m. in 1881 to 293.28
  in 1901. In Venetia, Emilia, the Marches, Umbria and Tuscany the
  proportion of concentrated population is only from 40 to 55%; in
  Piedmont, Liguria and Lombardy the proportion rises to from 70 to 76%;
  in southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia it attains a maximum of from 76
  to 93%.

  The population of towns over 100,000 is given in the following table
  according to the estimates for 1906. The population of the town itself
  is distinguished from that of its commune, which often includes a
  considerable portion of the surrounding country.

                Town.     Commune.

    Bologna    105,153    160,423
    Catania    135,548    159,210
    Florence   201,183    226,559
    Genoa      255,294    267,248
    Messina    108,514    165,007
    Milan      560,613       ..
    Naples     491,614    585,289
    Palermo    264,036    323,747
    Rome       403,282    516,580
    Turin      277,121    361,720
    Venice     146,940    169,563

The population of the different parts of Italy differs in character and
dialect; and there is little community of sentiment between them. The
modes of life and standards of comfort and morality in north Italy and
in Calabria are widely different; the former being far in front of the
latter. Much, however, is effected towards unification, by compulsory
military service, it being the principle that no man shall serve within
the military district to which he belongs. In almost all parts the idea
of personal loyalty (e.g. between master and servant) retains an almost
feudal strength. The inhabitants of the north--the Piedmontese, Lombards
and Genoese especially--have suffered less than those of the rest of the
peninsula from foreign domination and from the admixture of inferior
racial elements, and the cold winter climate prevents the heat of summer
from being enervating. They, and also the inhabitants of central Italy,
are more industrious than the inhabitants of the southern provinces, who
have by no means recovered from centuries of misgovernment and
oppression, and are naturally more hot-blooded and excitable, but less
stable, capable of organization or trustworthy. The southerners are
apathetic except when roused, and socialist doctrines find their chief
adherents in the north. The Sicilians and Sardinians have something of
Spanish dignity, but the former are one of the most mixed and the latter
probably one of the purest races of the Italian kingdom. Physical
characteristics differ widely; but as a whole the Italian is somewhat
short of stature, with dark or black hair and eyes, often good looking.
Both sexes reach maturity early. Mortality is decreasing, but if we may
judge from the physical conditions of the recruits the physique of the
nation shows little or no improvement. Much of this lack of progress is
attributed to the heavy manual (especially agricultural) work undertaken
by women and children. The women especially age rapidly, largely owing
to this cause (E. Nathan, _Vent' anni di vita italiana attraverso all'
annuario_, 169 sqq.).

  _Births, Marriages, Deaths._--Birth and marriage rates vary
  considerably, being highest in the centre and south (Umbria, the
  Marches, Apulia, Abruzzi and Molise, and Calabria) and lowest in the
  north (Piedmont, Liguria and Venetia), and in Sardinia. The death-rate
  is highest in Apulia, in the Abruzzi and Molise, and in Sardinia, and
  lowest in the north, especially in Venetia and Piedmont.

  Taking the statistics for the whole kingdom, the annual marriage-rate
  for the years 1876-1880 was 7.53 per 1000; in 1881-1885 it rose to
  8.06; in 1886-1890 it was 7.77; in 1891-1895 it was 7.41, and in
  1896-1900 it had gone down to 7.14 (a figure largely produced by the
  abnormally low rate of 6.88 in 1898), and in 1902 was 7.23. Divorce is
  forbidden by the Roman Catholic Church, and only 839 judicial
  separations were obtained from the courts in 1902, more than half of
  the demands made having been abandoned. Of the whole population in
  1901, 57.5% were unmarried, 36.0% married, and 6.5% widowers or
  widows. The illegitimate births show a decrease, having been 6.95 per
  100 births in 1872 and 5.72 in 1902, with a rise, however, in the
  intermediate period as high as 7.76 in 1883. The birth-rate shows a
  corresponding decrease from 38.10 per 1000 in 1881 to 33.29 in 1902.
  The male births have since 1872 been about 3% (3.14 in 1872-1875 and
  2.72 in 1896-1900) in excess of the female births, which is rather
  more than compensated for by the greater male mortality, the excess
  being 2.64 in 1872-1875 and having increased to 4.08 in 1896-1900.
  (The calculations are made in both cases on the total of births and
  deaths of both sexes.) The result is that, while in 1871 there was an
  excess of 143,370 males over females in the total population, in 1881
  the excess was only 71,138, and in 1901 there were 169,684 more
  females than males. The death-rate (excluding still-born children)
  was, in 1872, 30.78 per 1000, and has since steadily decreased--less
  rapidly between 1886-1890 than during other years; in 1902 it was only
  22.15 and in 1899 was as low as 21.89. The excess of births over
  deaths shows considerable variations--owing to a very low birth-rate,
  it was only 3.12 per 1000 in 1880, but has averaged 11.05 per 1000
  from 1896 to 1900, reaching 11.98 in 1899 and 11.14 in 1902. For the
  four years 1899-1902 24.66% died under the age of one year, 9.41
  between one and two years. The average expectation of life at birth
  for the same period was 52 years and 11 months, 62 years and 2 months
  at the age of three years, 52 years at the age of fifteen, 44 years at
  the age of twenty-four, 30 years at the age of forty; while the
  average period of life, which was 35 years 3 months per individual in
  1882, was 43 years per individual in 1901. This shows a considerable
  improvement, largely, but not entirely, in the diminution of infant
  mortality; the expectation of life at birth in 1882, it is true, was
  only 33 years and 6 months, and at three years of age 56 years 1
  month; but the increase, both in the expectation of life and in its
  average duration, goes all through the different ages.

  _Occupations._--In the census of 1901 the population over nine years
  of age (both male and female) was divided as follows as regards the
  main professions:--

    +---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
    |                                 |   Total.  |   Males.  |  Females. |
    +---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
    | Agricultural (including hunting |           |           |           |
    |   and fishing)                  | 9,666,467 | 6,466,165 | 3,200,302 |
    | Industrial                      | 4,505,736 | 3,017,393 | 1,488,343 |
    | Commerce and transport          |           |           |           |
    |   (public and private services) | 1,003,888 |   885,070 |   118,818 |
    | Domestic service, &c.           |   574,855 |   171,875 |   402,980 |
    | Professional classes,           |           |           |           |
    |   administration, &c.           | 1,304,347 |   855,217 |   449,130 |
    | Defence                         |   204,012 |   204,012 |     ..    |
    | Religion                        |   129,893 |    89,329 |    40,564 |
    +---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

  _Emigration._--The movement of emigration may be divided into two
  currents, temporary and permanent--the former going chiefly towards
  neighbouring European countries and to North Africa, and consisting of
  manual labourers, the latter towards trans-oceanic countries,
  principally Brazil, Argentina and the United States. These emigrants
  remain abroad for several years, even when they do not definitively
  establish themselves there. They are composed principally of peasants,
  unskilled workmen and other manual labourers. There was a tendency
  towards increased emigration during the last quarter of the 19th
  century. The principal causes are the growth of population, and the
  over-supply of and low rates of remuneration for manual labour in
  various Italian provinces. Emigration has, however, recently assumed
  such proportions as to lead to scarcity of labour and rise of wages in
  Italy itself. Italians form about half of the total emigrants to
  America.

    +-------+----------------------------+----------------------------+
    |       |    Temporary Emigration.   |    Permanent Emigration.   |
    |       +--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
    | Year. | Total No. of |  Per every  | Total No. of |  Per every  |
    |       |  Emigrants.  | 100,000 of  |  Emigrants.  | 100,000 of  |
    |       |              | Population. |              | Population. |
    +-------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
    | 1881  |     94,225   |     333     |     41,607   |     147     |
    | 1891  |    118,111   |     389     |    175,520   |     578     |
    | 1901  |    281,668   |     865     |    251,577   |     772     |
    +-------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+

  The increased figures may, to a minor extent, be due to better
  registration, in consequence of the law of 1901.

  From the next table will be seen the direction of emigration in the
  years specified:--

    +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
    |                  |  1900.  |  1901.  |  1902.  |  1903.  |  1904.  |  1905.  |
    +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
    | Europe           | 181,047 | 244,298 | 236,066 | 215,943 | 209,942 | 266,982 |
    | N. Africa        |   5,417 |   9,499 |  11,771 |   9,452 |  14,709 |  11,910 |
    | U.S. and Canada  |  89,400 | 124,636 | 196,723 | 200,383 | 173,537 | 322,627 |
    | Mexico (Central  |         |         |         |         |         |         |
    |   America)       |   2,069 |     997 |     766 |   1,311 |   1,828 |   2,044 |
    | South America    |  74,168 | 152,543 |  85,097 |  78,699 |  74,209 | 111,943 |
    | Asia and Oceania |     691 |   1,272 |   1,086 |   2,168 |   2,966 |   2,715 |
    |                  +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
    |      Total       | 352,792 | 533,245 | 531,509 | 507,956 | 477,191 | 718,221 |
    +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

  The figures for 1905 show that the total of 718,221 emigrants was made
  up, as regards numbers, mainly by individuals from Venetia, Sicily,
  Campania, Piedmont, Calabria and the Abruzzi; while the percentage was
  highest in Calabria (4.44), the Abruzzi, Venetia, Basilicata, the
  Marches, Sicily (2.86), Campania, Piedmont (2.02). Tuscany gives 1.20,
  Latium 1.14%, Apulia only 1.02, while Sardinia with 0.34% occupies an
  exceptional position. The figure for Sicily, which was 106,000 in
  1905, reached 127,000 in 1906 (3.5%), and of these about
  three-fourths would be adults; in the meantime, however, the
  population increases so fast that even in 1905 there was a net
  increase in Sicily of 20,000 souls; so that in three years 220,000
  workers were replaced by 320,000 infants.

  The phenomenon of emigration in Sicily cannot altogether be explained
  by low wages, which have risen, though prices have done the same. It
  has been defined as apparently "a kind of collective madness."

_Agriculture._--Accurate statistics with regard to the area occupied in
different forms of cultivation are difficult to obtain, both on account
of their varied and piecemeal character and from the lack of a complete
cadastral survey. A complete survey was ordered by the law of the 1st of
March 1886, but many years must elapse before its completion. The law,
however, enabled provinces most heavily burdened by land tax to
accelerate their portion of the survey, and to profit by the
re-assessment of the tax on the new basis. An idea of the effects of the
survey may be gathered from the fact that the assessments in the four
provinces of Mantua, Ancona, Cremona and Milan, which formerly amounted
to a total of £1,454,696, are now £2,788,080, an increase of 91%. Of the
total area of Italy, 70,793,000 acres, 71% are classed as "productive."
The unproductive area comprises 16% of the total area (this includes 4%
occupied by lagoons or marshes, and 1.75% of the total area susceptible
of _bonificazione_ or improvement by drainage. Between 1882 and 1902
over £4,000,000 was spent on this by the government). The uncultivated
area is 13%. This includes 3.50% of the total susceptible of
cultivation.

  The cultivated area may be divided into five agrarian regions or
  zones, named after the variety of tree culture which flourishes in
  them. (1) Proceeding from south to north, the first zone is that of
  the _agrumi_ (oranges, lemons and similar fruits). It comprises a
  great part of Sicily. In Sardinia it extends along the southern and
  western coasts. It predominates along the Ligurian Riviera from
  Bordighera to Spezia, and on the Adriatic, near San Benedetto del
  Tronto and Gargano, and, crossing the Italian shore of the Ionian Sea,
  prevails in some regions of Calabria, and terminates around the gulfs
  of Salerno, Sorrento and Naples. (2) The region of _olives_ comprises
  the internal Sicilian valleys and part of the mountain slopes; in
  Sardinia, the valleys near the coast on the S.E., S.W. and N.W.; on
  the mainland it extends from Liguria and from the southern extremities
  of the Romagna to Cape Santa Maria di Leuca in Apulia, and to Cape
  Spartivento in Calabria. Some districts of the olive region are near
  the lakes of upper Italy and in Venetia, and the territories of
  Verona, Vicenza, Treviso and Friuli. (3) The vine region begins on the
  sunny slopes of the Alpine spurs and in those Alpine valleys open
  towards the south, extending over the plains of Lombardy and Emilia.
  In Sardinia it covers the mountain slopes to a considerable height,
  and in Sicily covers the sides of the Madonie range, reaching a level
  above 3000 ft. on the southern slope of Etna. The Calabrian Alps, the
  less rocky sides of the Apulian Murgie and the whole length of the
  Apennines are covered at different heights, according to their
  situation. The hills of Tuscany, and of Monferrato in Piedmont,
  produce the most celebrated Italian vintages. (4) The region of
  _chestnuts_ extends from the valleys to the high plateaus of the Alps,
  along the northern slopes of the Apennines in Liguria, Modena,
  Tuscany, Romagna, Umbria, the Marches and along the southern Apennines
  to the Calabrian and Sicilian ranges, as well as to the mountains of
  Sardinia. (5) The wooded region covers the Alps and Apennines above
  the chestnut level. The woods consist chiefly of pine and hazel upon
  the Apennines, and upon the Calabrian, Sicilian and Sardinian
  mountains of oak, ilex, hornbeam and similar trees.

  Between these regions of tree culture lie zones of different
  herbaceous culture, cereals, vegetables and textile plants. The style
  of cultivation varies according to the nature of the ground, terraces
  supported by stone walls being much used in mountainous districts.
  Cereal cultivation occupies the foremost place in area and quantity
  though it has been on the decline since 1903, still representing,
  however, an advance on previous years. Wheat is the most important
  crop and is widely distributed. In 1905 12,734,491 acres, or about 18%
  of the total area, produced 151,696,571 bushels of wheat, a yield of
  only 12 bushels per acre. The importation has, however, enormously
  increased since 1882--from 164,600 to 1,126,368 tons; while the extent
  of land devoted to corn cultivation has slightly decreased. Next in
  importance to wheat comes maize, occupying about 7% of the total area
  of the country, and cultivated almost everywhere as an alternative
  crop. The production of maize in 1905 reached about 96,250,000
  bushels, a slight increase on the average. The production of maize is,
  however, insufficient, and 208,719 tons were imported in 1902--about
  double the amount imported in 1882.

  Rice is cultivated in low-lying, moist lands, where spring and summer
  temperatures are high. The Po valley and the valleys of Emilia and the
  Romagna are best adapted for rice, but the area is diminishing on
  account of the competition of foreign rice and of the impoverishment
  of the soil by too intense cultivation. The area is about 0.5% of the
  total of Italy. The area under rye is about 0.5% of the total, of
  which about two-thirds lie in the Alpine and about one-third in the
  Apennine zone. The barley zone is geographically extensive but
  embraces not more than 1% of the total area, of which half is situated
  in Sardinia and Sicily. Oats, cultivated in the Roman and Tuscan
  maremma and in Apulia, are used almost exclusively for horses and
  cattle. The area of oats cultivation is 1.5% of the total area. The
  other cereals, millet and _panico sorgo_ (_Panicum italicum_), have
  lost much of their importance in consequence of the introduction of
  maize and rice. Millet, however, is still cultivated in the north of
  Italy, and is used as bread for agricultural labourers, and as forage
  when mixed with buckwheat (_Sorghum saccaratum_). The manufacture of
  macaroni and similar foodstuff is a characteristic Italian industry.
  It is extensively distributed, but especially flourishes in the
  Neapolitan provinces. The exportation of "corn-flour pastes" sank,
  however, from 7100 tons to 350 between 1882 and 1902.

  The cultivation of green forage is extensive and is divided into the
  categories of temporary and perennial. The temporary includes vetches,
  pulse, lupine, clover and trifolium; and the perennial,
  meadow-trefoil, lupinella, sulla (_Hedysarum coronarium_), lucerne and
  darnel. The natural grass meadows are extensive, and hay is grown all
  over the country, but especially in the Po valley. Pasture occupies
  about 30% of the total area of the country, of which Alpine pastures
  occupy 1.25%. Seed-bearing vegetables are comparatively scarce. The
  principal are: white beans, largely consumed by the working classes;
  lentils, much less cultivated than beans; and green peas, largely
  consumed in Italy, and exported as a spring vegetable. Chick-pease are
  extensively cultivated in the southern provinces. Horse beans are
  grown, especially in the south and in the larger islands; lupines are
  also grown for fodder.

  Among tuberous vegetables the potato comes first. The area occupied is
  about 0.7% of the whole of the country. Turnips are grown principally
  in the central provinces as an alternative crop to wheat. They yield
  as much as 12 tons per acre. Beetroot (_Beta vulgaris_) is used as
  fodder, and yields about 10 tons per acre. Sugar beet is extensively
  grown to supply the sugar factories. In 1898-1899 there were only four
  sugar factories, with an output of 5972 tons; in 1905 there were
  thirty-three, with an output of 93,916 tons.

  Market gardening is carried on both near towns and villages, where
  products find ready sale, and along the great railways, on account of
  transport facilities. Rome is an exception to the former rule and
  imports garden produce largely from the neighbourhood of Naples and
  from Sardinia.

  Among the chief industrial plants is tobacco, which grows wherever
  suitable soil exists. Since tobacco is a government monopoly, its
  cultivation is subject to official concessions and prescriptions.
  Experiments hitherto made show that the cultivation of Oriental
  tobacco may profitably be extended in Italy. The yield for 1901 was
  5528 tons, but a large increase took place subsequently, eleven
  million new plants having been added in southern Italy in 1905.

  The chief textile plants are hemp, flax and cotton. Hemp is largely
  cultivated in the provinces of Turin, Ferrara, Bologna, Forlì, Ascoli
  Piceno and Caserta. Bologna hemp is specially valued. Flax covers
  about 160,000 acres, with a product, in fibre, amounting to about
  20,000 tons. Cotton (_Gossypium herbaceum_), which at the beginning of
  the 19th century, at the time of the Continental blockade, and again
  during the American War of Secession, was largely cultivated, is now
  grown only in parts of Sicily and in a few southern provinces. Sumach,
  liquorice and madder are also grown in the south.

  The vine is cultivated throughout the length and breadth of Italy, but
  while in some of the districts of the south and centre it occupies
  from 10 to 20% of the cultivated area, in some of the northern
  provinces, such as Sondrio, Belluno, Grosseto, &c., the average is
  only about 1 or 2%. The methods of cultivation are varied; but the
  planting of the vines by themselves in long rows of insignificant
  bushes is the exception. In Lombardy, Emilia, Romagna, Tuscany, the
  Marches, Umbria and the southern provinces, they are trained to trees
  which are either left in their natural state or subjected to pruning
  and pollarding. In Campania the vines are allowed to climb freely to
  the tops of the poplars. In the rest of Italy the elm and the maple
  are the trees mainly employed as supports. Artificial props of several
  kinds--wires, cane work, trellis work, &c.--are also in use in many
  districts (in the neighbourhood of Rome canes are almost exclusively
  employed), and in some the plant is permitted to trail along the
  ground. The vintage takes place, according to locality and climate,
  from the beginning of September to the beginning of November. The vine
  has been attacked by the _Oidium Tuckeri_, the _Phylloxera vastatrix_
  and the _Peronospora viticola_, which in rapid succession wrought
  great havoc in Italian vineyards. American vines, are, however, immune
  and have been largely adopted. The production of wine in the vintage
  of 1907, which was extraordinarily abundant all over the country, was
  estimated at 1232 million gallons (56 million hectolitres), the
  average for 1901-1903 being some 352 million gallons less; of this the
  probable home consumption was estimated at rather over half, while a
  considerable amount remained over from 1906. The exportation in 1902
  only reached about 45 million gallons (and even that is double the
  average), while an equally abundant vintage in France and Spain
  rendered the exportation of the balance of 1907 impossible, and fiscal
  regulations rendered the distillation of the superfluous amount
  difficult. The quality, too, owing to bad weather at the time of
  vintage, was not good; Italian wine, indeed, never is sufficiently
  good to compete with the best wines of other countries, especially
  France (though there is more opening for Italian wines of the Bordeaux
  and Burgundy type); nor will many kinds of it stand keeping, partly
  owing to their natural qualities and partly to the insufficient care
  devoted to their preparation. There has been some improvement,
  however, while some of the heavier white wines, noticeably the Marsala
  of Sicily, have excellent keeping qualities. The area cultivated as
  vineyards has increased enormously, from about 4,940,000 acres to
  9,880,000 acres, or about 14% of the total area of the country.
  Over-production seems thus to be a considerable danger, and
  improvement of quality is rather to be sought after. This has been
  encouraged by government prizes since 1904.

  Next to cereals and the vine the most important object of cultivation
  is the olive. In Sicily and the provinces of Reggio, Catanzaro,
  Cosenza and Lecce this tree flourishes without shelter; as far north
  as Rome, Aquila and Teramo it requires only the slightest protection;
  in the rest of the peninsula it runs the risk of damage by frost every
  ten years or so. The proportion of ground under olives is from 20 to
  36% at Porto Maurizio, and in Reggio, Lecce, Bari, Chieti and Leghorn
  it averages from 10 to 19%. Throughout Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia and
  the greater part of Emilia, the tree is of little importance. In the
  olive there is great variety of kinds, and the methods of cultivation
  differ greatly in different districts; in Bari, Chieti and Lecce, for
  instance, there are regular woods of nothing but olive-trees, while in
  middle Italy there are olive-orchards with the interspaces occupied by
  crops of various kinds. The Tuscan oils from Lucca, Calci and Buti are
  considered the best in the world; those of Bari, Umbria and western
  Liguria rank next. The wood of the olive is also used for the
  manufacture of small articles. The olive-growing area occupies about
  3.5% of the total area of the country, and the crop in 1905 produced
  about 75,000,000 gallons of oil. The falling off of the crop,
  especially in 1899, was due to bad seasons and to insects, notably the
  _Cycloconium oleoginum_, and the _Dacus oleae_, or oil-fly, which have
  ravaged the olive-yards, and it is noticeable that lately good and bad
  seasons seem to alternate; between 1900 and 1905 the crops were
  alternately one half of, and equal to, that of the latter year. With
  the development of agricultural knowledge, notable improvements have
  been effected in the manufacture of oil. The steam mills give the best
  results. The export trade, however, is decreasing considerably, while
  the home consumption is increasing. In 1901, 1985 imperial tuns of oil
  were shipped from Gallipoli for abroad--two-thirds to the United
  Kingdom, one-third to Russia--and 666 to Italian ports; while in 1904
  the figures were reversed, 1633 tuns going to Italian ports, and only
  945 tuns to foreign ports. The other principal port of shipping is
  Gioia Tauro, 30 m. N.N.E. of Reggio Calabria. A certain amount of
  linseed-oil is made in Lombardy, Sicily, Apulia and Calabria; colza in
  Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia and Emilia; and castor-oil in Venetia and
  Sicily. The product is principally used for industrial purposes, and
  partly in the preparation of food, but the amount is decreasing.

  The cultivation of oranges, lemons and their congeners (collectively
  designated in Italian by the term _agrumi_) is of comparatively modern
  date, the introduction of the _Citrus Bigaradia_ being probably due to
  the Arabs. Sicily is the chief centre of cultivation--the area
  occupied by lemon and orange orchards in the province of Palermo alone
  having increased from 11,525 acres in 1854 to 54,340 in 1874. Reggio
  Calabria, Catanzaro, Cosenza, Lecce, Salerno, Naples and Caserta are
  the continental provinces which come next after Sicily. In Sardinia
  the cultivation is extensive, but receives little attention. Both
  crude and concentrated lime-juice is exported, and essential oils are
  extracted from the rind of the _agrumi_, more particularly from that
  of the lemon and the bergamot. In northern and central Italy, except
  in the province of Brescia, the _agrumi_ are almost non-existent. The
  trees are planted on irrigated soil and the fruit gathered between
  November and August. Considerable trade is done in _agro di limone_ or
  lemon extract, which forms the basis of citric acid. Extraction is
  extensively carried on in the provinces of Messina and Palermo.

  Among other fruit trees, apple-trees have special importance. Almonds
  are widely cultivated in Sicily, Sardinia and the southern provinces;
  walnut trees throughout the peninsula, their wood being more important
  than their fruit; hazel nuts, figs, prickly pears (used in the south
  and the islands for hedges, their fruit being a minor consideration),
  peaches, pears, locust beans and pistachio nuts are among the other
  fruits. The mulberry-tree (_Morus alba_), whose leaves serve as food
  for silkworms, is cultivated in every region, considerable progress
  having been made in its cultivation and in the rearing of silkworms
  since 1850. Silkworm-rearing establishments of importance now exist
  in the Marches, Umbria, in the Abruzzi, Tuscany, Piedmont and Venetia.
  The chief silk-producing provinces are Lombardy, Venetia and Piedmont.
  During the period 1900-1904 the average annual production of silk
  cocoons was 53,500 tons, and of silk 5200 tons.

  The great variety in physical and social conditions throughout the
  peninsula gives corresponding variety to the methods of agriculture.
  In the rotation of crops there is an amazing diversity--shifts of two
  years, three years, four years, six years, and in many cases whatever
  order strikes the fancy of the farmer. The fields of Tuscany for the
  most part bear wheat one year and maize the next, in perpetual
  interchanges, relieved to some extent by green crops. A similar method
  prevails in the Abruzzi, and in the provinces of Salerno, Benevento
  and Avellino. In Lombardy a six-year shift is common: either wheat,
  clover, maize, rice, rice, rice (the last year manured with lupines)
  or maize, wheat followed by clover, clover, clover ploughed in, and
  rice, rice and rice manured with lupines. The Emilian region is one
  where regular rotations are best observed--a common shift being grain,
  maize, clover, beans and vetches, &c., grain, which has the
  disadvantage of the grain crops succeeding each other. In the province
  of Naples, Caserta, &c., the method of fallows is widely adopted, the
  ground often being left in this state for fifteen or twenty years; and
  in some parts of Sicily there is a regular interchange of fallow and
  crop year by year. The following scheme indicates a common Sicilian
  method of a type which has many varieties: fallow, grain, grain,
  pasture, pasture--other two divisions of the area following the same
  order, but beginning respectively with the two years of grain and the
  two of pasture.


    Woods and forests.

  Woods and forests play an important part, especially in regard to the
  consistency of the soil and to the character of the watercourses. The
  chestnut is of great value for its wood and its fruit, an article of
  popular consumption. Good timber is furnished by the oak and beech,
  and pine and fir forests of the Alps and Apennines. Notwithstanding
  the efforts of the government to unify and co-ordinate the forest laws
  previously existing in the various states, deforestation has continued
  in many regions. This has been due to speculation, to the unrestricted
  pasturage of goats, to the rights which many communes have over the
  forests, and to some extent to excessive taxation, which led the
  proprietors to cut and sell the trees and then abandon the ground to
  the Treasury. The results are--a lack of water-supply and of
  water-power, the streams becoming mere torrents for a short period and
  perfectly dry for the rest of the year; lack of a sufficient supply of
  timber; the denudation of the soil on the hills, and, where the
  valleys below have insufficient drainage, the formation of swamps. If
  the available water-power of Italy, already very considerable, be
  harnessed, converted into electric power (which is already being done
  in some districts), and further increased by reafforestation, the
  effect upon the industries of Italy will be incalculable, and the
  importation of coal will be very materially diminished. The area of
  forest is about 14.3% of the total, and of the chestnut-woods 1.5
  more; and its products in 1886 were valued at £3,520,000 (not
  including chestnuts). A quantity of it is really brushwood, used for
  the manufacture of charcoal and for fuel, coal being little used
  except for manufacturing purposes. Forest nurseries have also been
  founded.


    Live stock.

  According to an approximate calculation the number of head of live
  stock in Italy in 1890 was 16,620,000, thus divided:--horses, 720,000;
  asses, 1,000,000; mules, 300,000; cattle, 5,000,000; sheep, 6,000,000;
  goats, 1,800,000; swine, 1,800,000.

  The breed of cattle most widely distributed is that known as the
  Podolian, usually with white or grey coat and enormous horns. Of the
  numerous sub-varieties, the finest is said to be that of the Val di
  Chiana, where the animals are stall-fed all the year round; next is
  ranked the so-called Valle Tiberina type. Wilder varieties roam in
  vast herds over the Tuscan and Roman _maremmas_, and the corresponding
  districts in Apulia and other regions. In the Alpine districts there
  is a stock distinct from the Podolian, generally called _razza
  montanina_. These animals are much smaller in stature and more regular
  in form than the Podolians; they are mainly kept for dairy purposes.
  Another stock, with no close allies nearer than the south of France,
  is found in the plain of Racconigi and Carmagnola; the mouse-coloured
  Swiss breed occurs in the neighbourhood of Milan: the Tirolese breed
  stretches south to Padua and Modena; and a red-coated breed named of
  Reggio or Friuli is familiar both in what were the duchies of Parma
  and Modena, and in the provinces of Udine and Treviso. In Sicily the
  so-called Modica race is of note; and in Sardinia there is a distinct
  stock which seldom exceeds the weight of 700 lb. Buffaloes are kept in
  several districts, more particularly of southern Italy.

  Enormous flocks are possessed by professional sheep-farmers, who
  pasture them in the mountains in the summer, and bring them down to
  the plains in the winter. At Saluzzo in Piedmont there is a stock with
  hanging ears, arched face and tall stature, kept for its dairy
  qualities; and in the Biellese the merino breed is maintained by some
  of the larger proprietors. In the upper valleys of the Alps there are
  many local varieties, one of which at Ossola is like the Scottish
  blackface. Liguria is not much adapted for sheep-farming on a large
  scale; but a number of small flocks come down to the plain of Tuscany
  in the winter. With the exception of a few sub-Alpine districts near
  Bergamo and Brescia, the great Lombard plain is decidedly unpastoral.
  The Bergamo sheep is the largest breed in the country; that of Cadore
  and Belluno approaches it in size. In the Venetian districts the
  farmers often have small stationary flocks. Throughout the Roman
  province, and Umbria, Apulia, the Abruzzi, Basilicata and Calabria, is
  found in its full development a remarkable system of pastoral
  migration with the change of seasons which has been in existence from
  the most ancient times, and has attracted attention as much by its
  picturesqueness as by its industrial importance (see APULIA). Merino
  sheep have been acclimatized in the Abruzzi, Capitanata and
  Basilicata. The number of sheep, however, is on the decrease.
  Similarly, the number of goats, which are reared only in hilly
  regions, is decreasing, especially on account of the existing forest
  laws, as they are the chief enemies of young plantations.
  Horse-breeding is on the increase. The state helps to improve the
  breeds by placing choice stallions at the disposal of private breeders
  at a low tariff. The exportation is, however, unimportant, while the
  importation is largely on the increase, 46,463 horses having been
  imported in 1902. Cattle-breeding varies with the different regions.
  In upper Italy cattle are principally reared in pens and stalls; in
  central Italy cattle are allowed to run half wild, the stall system
  being little practised; in the south and in the islands cattle are
  kept in the open air, few shelters being provided. The erection of
  shelters, however, is encouraged by the state. Swine are extensively
  reared in many provinces. Fowls are kept on all farms and, though
  methods are still antiquated, trade in fowls and eggs is rapidly
  increasing.

  In 1905 Italy exported 32,786 and imported 17,766 head of cattle;
  exported 33,574 and imported 6551 sheep; exported 95,995 and imported
  1604 swine. The former two show a very large decrease and the latter a
  large increase on the export figures for 1882. The export of
  agricultural products shows a large increase.

  The north of Italy has long been known for its great dairy districts.
  Parmesan cheese, otherwise called Lodigiano (from Lodi) or _grana_,
  was presented to King Louis XII. as early as 1509. Parmesan is not
  confined to the province from which it derives its name; it is
  manufactured in all that part of Emilia in the neighbourhood of the
  Po, and in the provinces of Brescia, Bergamo, Pavia, Novara and
  Alessandria. Gorgonzola, which takes its name from a town in the
  province, has become general throughout the whole of Lombardy, in the
  eastern parts of the "ancient provinces," and in the province of
  Cuneo. The cheese known as the _cacio-cavallo_ is produced in regions
  extending from 37° to 43° N. lat. Gruyère, extensively manufactured in
  Switzerland and France, is also produced in Italy in the Alpine
  regions and in Sicily. With the exception of Parmesan, Gorgonzola, La
  Fontina and Gruyère, most of the Italian cheese is consumed in the
  locality of its production. Co-operative dairy farms are numerous in
  north Italy, and though only about half as many as in 1889 (114 in
  1902) are better organized. Modern methods have been introduced.


    Drainage, &c.

  The drainage of marshes and marshy lands has considerably extended. A
  law passed on the 22nd of March 1900 gave a special impulse to this
  form of enterprise by fixing the ratio of expenditure incumbent
  respectively upon the State, the provinces, the communes, and the
  owners or other private individuals directly interested.


    Agrarian economics.

  The Italian Federation of Agrarian Unions has greatly contributed to
  agricultural progress. Government travelling teachers of agriculture,
  and fixed schools of viticulture, also do good work. Some unions
  annually purchase large quantities of merchandise for their members,
  especially chemical manures. The importation of machinery amounted to
  over 5000 tons in 1901.

  Income from land has diminished on the whole. The chief diminution has
  taken place in the south in regard to oranges and lemons, cereals and
  (for some provinces) vines. Since 1895, however, the heavy import corn
  duty has caused a slight rise in the income from corn lands. The
  principal reasons for the general decrease are the fall in prices
  through foreign competition and the closing of certain markets, the
  diseases of plants and the increased outlay required to combat them,
  and the growth of State and local taxation. One of the great evils of
  Italian agricultural taxation is its lack of elasticity and of
  adaptation to local conditions. Taxes are not sufficiently
  proportioned to what the land may reasonably be expected to produce,
  nor sufficient allowance made for the exceptional conditions of a
  southern climate, in which a few hours' bad weather may destroy a
  whole crop. The Italian agriculturist has come to look (and often in
  vain) for action on a large scale from the state, for irrigation,
  drainage of uncultivated low-lying land, which may be made fertile,
  river regulation, &c.; while to the small proprietor the state often
  appears only as a hard and inconsiderate tax-gatherer.

  The relations between owners and tillers of the soil are still
  regulated by the ancient forms of agrarian contract, which have
  remained almost untouched by social and political changes. The
  possibility of reforming these contracts in some parts of the kingdom
  has been studied, in the hope of bringing them into closer harmony
  with the needs of rational cultivation and the exigencies of social
  justice.

  Peasant proprietorship is most common in Lombardy and Piedmont, but it
  is also found elsewhere. Large farms are found in certain of the more
  open districts; but in Italy generally, and especially in Sardinia,
  the land is very much subdivided. The following forms of contract are
  most usual in the several regions: In Piedmont the _mezzadria_
  (_métayage_), the _terzieria_, the _colonia parziaria_, the _boaria_,
  the _schiavenza_ and the _affitto_, or lease, are most usual. Under
  _mezzadria_ the contract generally lasts three years. Products are
  usually divided in equal proportions between the owner and the tiller.
  The owner pays the taxes, defrays the cost of preparing the ground,
  and provides the necessary implements. Stock usually belongs to the
  owner, and, even if kept on the half-and-half system, is usually
  bought by him. The peasant, or _mezzadro_, provides labour. Under
  _terzieria_ the owner furnishes stock, implements and seed, and the
  tiller retains only one-third of the principal products. In the
  _colonia parziaria_ the peasant executes all the agricultural work, in
  return for which he is housed rent-free, and receives one-sixth of the
  corn, one-third of the maize and has a small money wage. This contract
  is usually renewed from year to year. The _boaria_ is widely diffused
  in its two forms of _cascina fatta_ and _paghe_. In the former case a
  peasant family undertakes all the necessary work in return for payment
  in money or kind, which varies according to the crop; in the latter
  the money wages and the payment in kind are fixed beforehand.
  _Schiavenza_, either simple or with a share in the crops, is a form of
  contract similar to the _boaria_, but applied principally to large
  holdings. The wages are lower than under the _boaria_. In the
  _affitto_, or lease, the proprietor furnishes seed and the implements.
  Rent varies according to the quality of the soil.

  In Lombardy, besides the _mezzadria_, the lease is common, but the
  _terzieria_ is rare. The lessee, or farmer, tills the soil at his own
  risk; usually he provides live stock, implements and capital, and has
  no right to compensation for ordinary improvements, nor for
  extraordinary improvements effected without the landlord's consent. He
  is obliged to give a guarantee for the fulfilment of his engagements.
  In some places he pays an annual tribute in grapes, corn and other
  produce. In some of the Lombard _mezzadria_ contracts taxes are paid
  by the cultivator.

  In Venetia it is more common than elsewhere in Italy for owners to
  till their own soil. The prevalent forms of contract are the
  _mezzadria_ and the lease. In Liguria, also, _mezzadria_ and lease are
  the chief forms of contract.

  In Emilia both _mezzadria_ and lease tenure are widely diffused in the
  provinces of Ferrara, Reggio and Parma; but other special forms of
  contract exist, known as the _famiglio da spesa_, _boaria_,
  _braccianti obbligati_ and _braccianti disobbligati_. In the _famiglio
  da spesa_ the tiller receives a small wage and a proportion of certain
  products. The _boaria_ is of two kinds. If the tiller receives as much
  as 45 lire per month, supplemented by other wages in kind, it is said
  to be _boaria a salario_; if the principal part of his remuneration is
  in kind, his contract is called _boaria a spesa_.

  In the Marches, Umbria and Tuscany, _mezzadria_ prevails in its purest
  form. Profits and losses, both in regard to produce and stock, are
  equally divided. In some places, however, the landlord takes
  two-thirds of the olives and the whole of the grapes and the mulberry
  leaves. Leasehold exists in the province of Grosseto alone. In Latium
  leasehold and farming by landlords prevail, but cases of _mezzadria_
  and of "improvement farms" exist. In the _agro Romano_, or zone
  immediately around Rome, land is as a rule left for pasturage. It
  needs, therefore, merely supervision by guardians and mounted
  overseers, or _butteri_, who are housed and receive wages. Large
  landlords are usually represented by _ministri_, or factors, who
  direct agricultural operations and manage the estates, but the estate
  is often let to a middleman, or _mercante di campagna_. Wherever corn
  is cultivated, leasehold predominates. Much of the work is done by
  companies of peasants, who come down from the mountainous districts
  when required, permanent residence not being possible owing to the
  malaria. Near Velletri and Frosinone "improvement farms" prevail. A
  piece of uncultivated land is made over to a peasant for from 20 to 29
  years. Vines and olives are usually planted, the landlord paying the
  taxes and receiving one-third of the produce. At the end of the
  contract the landlord either cultivates his land himself or leases it,
  repaying to the improver part of the expenditure incurred by him. This
  repayment sometimes consists of half the estimated value of the
  standing crops.

  In the Abruzzi and in Apulia leasehold is predominant. Usually leases
  last from three to six years. In the provinces of Foggia and Lecce
  long leases (up to twenty-nine years) are granted, but in them it is
  explicitly declared that they do not imply _enfiteusi_ (perpetual
  leasehold), nor any other form of contract equivalent to
  co-proprietorship. _Mezzadria_ is rarely resorted to. On some small
  holdings, however, it exists with contracts lasting from two to six
  years. Special contracts, known as _colonie immovibili_ and _colonie
  temporanee_ are applied to the _latifondi_ or huge estates, the owners
  of which receive half the produce, except that of the vines,
  olive-trees and woods, which he leases separately. "Improvement
  contracts" also exist. They consist of long leases, under which the
  landlord shares the costs of improvements and builds farm-houses; also
  leases of orange and lemon gardens, two-thirds of the produce of which
  go to the landlord, while the farmer contributes half the cost of
  farming besides the labour. Leasehold, varying from four to six years
  for arable land and from six to eighteen years for forest-land,
  prevails also in Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. The _estaglio_, or
  rent, is often paid in kind, and is equivalent to half the produce of
  good land and one-third of the produce of bad land. "Improvement
  contracts" are granted for uncultivated bush districts, where one
  fourth of the produce goes to the landlord, and for plantations of
  fig-trees, olive-trees and vines, half of the produce of which belongs
  to the landlord, who at the end of ten years reimburses the tenant for
  a part of the improvements effected. Other forms of contract are the
  _piccola mezzadria_, or sub-letting by tenants to under-tenants, on
  the half-and-half system; _enfiteusi_, or perpetual leases at low
  rents--a form which has almost died out; and _mezzadria_ (in the
  provinces of Caserta and Benevento).

  In Sicily leasehold prevails under special conditions. In pure
  leasehold the landlord demands at least six months' rent as guarantee,
  and the forfeiture of any fortuitous advantages. Under the _gabella_
  lease the contract lasts twenty-nine years, the lessee being obliged
  to make improvements, but being sometimes exempted from rent during
  the first years. _Inquilinaggio_ is a form of lease by which the
  landlord, and sometimes the tenant, makes over to tenant or sub-tenant
  the sowing of corn. There are various categories of _inquilinaggio_,
  according as rent is paid in money or in kind. Under _mezzadria_ or
  _metateria_ the landlord divides the produce with the farmer in
  various proportions. The farmer provides all labour. _Latifondi_ farms
  are very numerous in Sicily. The landlord lets his land to two or more
  persons jointly, who undertake to restore it to him in good condition
  with one-third of it "_interrozzito_," that is, fallow, so as to be
  cultivated the following year according to triennial rotation. These
  lessees are usually speculators, who divide and sub-let the estate.
  The sub-tenants in their turn let a part of their land to peasants in
  _mezzadria_, thus creating a system disastrous both for agriculture
  and the peasants. At harvest-time the produce is placed in the barns
  of the lessor, who first deducts 25% as premium, then 16% for
  _battiteria_ (the difference between corn before and after winnowing),
  then deducts a proportion for rent and subsidies, so that the portion
  retained by the actual tiller of the soil is extremely meagre. In bad
  years the tiller, moreover, gives up seed corn before beginning
  harvest.

  In Sardinia landlord-farming and leasehold prevail. In the few cases
  of _mezzadria_ the Tuscan system is followed.

  _Mines._--The number of mines increased from 589 in 1881 to 1580 in
  1902. The output in 1881 was worth about £2,800,000, but by 1895 had
  decreased to £1,800,000, chiefly on account of the fall in the price
  of sulphur. It afterwards rose, and was worth more than £3,640,000 in
  1899, falling again to £3,118,600 in 1902 owing to severe American
  competition in sulphur (see SICILY). The chief minerals are sulphur,
  in the production of which Italy holds one of the first places, iron,
  zinc, lead; these, and, to a smaller extent, copper of an inferior
  quality, manganese and antimony, are successfully mined. The bulk of
  the sulphur mines are in Sicily, while the majority of the lead and
  zinc mines are in Sardinia; much of the lead smelting is done at
  Pertusola, near Genoa, the company formed for this purpose having
  acquired many of the Sardinian mines. Iron is mainly mined in Elba.
  Quicksilver and tin are found (the latter in small quantities) in
  Tuscany. Boracic acid is chiefly found near Volterra, where there is
  also a little rock salt, but the main supply is obtained by
  evaporation. The output of stone from quarries is greatly diminished
  (from 12,500,000 tons, worth £1,920,000, in 1890, to 8,000,000 tons,
  worth £1,400,000, in 1899), a circumstance probably attributable to
  the slackening of building enterprise in many cities, and to the
  decrease in the demand for stone for railway, maritime and river
  embankment works. The value of the output had, however, by 1902 risen
  to £1,600,000, representing a tonnage of about 10,000,000. There is
  good travertine below Tivoli and elsewhere in Italy; the finest
  granite is found at Baveno. Lava is much used for paving-stones in the
  neighbourhood of volcanic districts, where pozzolana (for cement) and
  pumice stone are also important. Much of Italy contains Pliocene clay,
  which is good for pottery and brickmaking. Mineral springs are very
  numerous, and of great variety.

  _Fisheries._--The number of boats and smacks engaged in the fisheries
  has considerably increased. In 1881 the total number was 15,914, with
  a tonnage of 49,103. In 1902 there were 23,098 boats, manned by
  101,720 men, and the total catch was valued at just over half a
  million sterling--according to the government figures, which are
  certainly below the truth. The value has, however, undoubtedly
  diminished, though the number of boats and crews increases. Most of
  the fishing boats, properly so called, start from the Adriatic coast,
  the coral boats from the western Mediterranean coast, and the sponge
  boats from the western Mediterranean and Sicilian coasts. Fishing and
  trawling are carried on chiefly off the Italian (especially Ligurian),
  Austrian and Tunisian coasts; coral is found principally near Sardinia
  and Sicily, and sponges almost exclusively off Sicily and Tunisia in
  the neighbourhood of Sfax. For sponge fishing no accurate statistics
  are available before 1896; in that year 75 tons of sponges were
  secured, but there has been considerable diminution since, only 31
  tons being obtained in 1902. A considerable proportion was obtained by
  foreign boats. The island of Lampedusa may be considered its centre.
  Coral fishing, which fell off between 1889 and 1892 on account of the
  temporary closing of the Sciacca coral reefs has greatly decreased
  since 1884, when the fisheries produced 643 tons, whereas in 1902 they
  only produced 225 tons. The value of the product has, however,
  proportionately increased, so that the sum realized was little less,
  while less than half the number of men was employed. Sardinian coral
  commands from £3 to £4 per kilogramme (2.204 lb.), and is much more
  valuable than the Sicilian coral. The Sciacca reefs were again closed
  for three winters by a decree of 1904. The fishing is largely carried
  on by boats from Torre del Greco, in the Gulf of Naples, where the
  best coral beds are now exhausted. In 1879 4000 men were employed; in
  1902 only just over 1000. In 1902 there were 48 tunny fisheries,
  employing 3006 men, and 5116 tons of fish worth £80,000 were caught.
  The main fisheries are in Sardinia, Sicily and Elba. Anchovy and
  sardine fishing (the products of which are reckoned among the general
  total) are also of considerable importance, especially along the
  Ligurian and Tuscan coasts. The lagoon fisheries are also of great
  importance, more especially those of Comacchio, the lagoon of
  Orbetello and the Mare Piccolo at Taranto &c. The deep-sea fishing
  boats in 1902 numbered 1368, with a total tonnage of 16,149; 100 of
  these were coral-fishing boats and 111 sponge-fishing boats.

_Industrial Progress._--The industrial progress of Italy has been great
since 1880. Many articles formerly imported are now made at home, and
some Italian manufactures have begun to compete in foreign markets.
Italy has only unimportant lignite and anthracite mines, but water power
is abundant and has been largely applied to industry, especially in
generating electricity. The electric power required for the tramways and
the illumination of Rome is entirely supplied by turbines situated at
Tivoli, and this is the case elsewhere, and the harnessing of this
water-power is capable of very considerable extension. A sign of
industrial development is to be found in the growing number of
manufacturing companies, both Italian and foreign.


    Mechanical industries.

  The chief development has taken place in mechanical industries, though
  it has also been marked in metallurgy. Sulphur mining supplies large
  industries of sulphur-refining and grinding, in spite of American
  competition. Very little pig iron is made, most of the iron ore being
  exported, and iron manufactured consists of old iron resmelted. For
  steel-making foreign pig iron is chiefly used. The manufacture of
  steel rails, carried on first at Terni and afterwards at Savona, began
  in Italy in 1886. Tin has been manufactured since 1892. Lead,
  antimony, mercury and copper are also produced. The total salt
  production in 1902 was 458,497 tons, of which 248,215 were produced in
  the government salt factories and the rest in the free salt-works of
  Sicily. Great progress has been made in the manufacture of machinery;
  locomotives, railway carriages, electric tram-cars, &c., and machinery
  of all kinds, are now largely made in Italy itself, especially in the
  north and in the neighbourhood of Naples. At Turin the manufacture of
  motor-cars has attained great importance and the F.I.A.T. (Fabbrica
  Italiana Automobili Torino) factory employs 2000 workmen, while eight
  others employ 2780 amongst them.


    Textiles.

  The textile industries, some of which are of ancient date, are among
  those that have most rapidly developed. Handlooms and small spinning
  establishments have, in the silk industry, given place to large
  establishments with steam looms. The production of raw silk at least
  tripled itself between 1875 and 1900, and the value of the silks woven
  in Italy, estimated in 1890 to be £2,200,000, is now, on account of
  the development of the export trade, calculated to be almost
  £4,000,000. Lombardy (especially Como, Milan and Bergamo), Piedmont
  and Venetia are the chief silk-producing regions. There are several
  public assay offices in Italy for silk; the first in the world was
  established in Turin in 1750. The cotton industry has also rapidly
  developed. Home products not only supply the Italian market in
  increasing degree, but find their way into foreign markets. While
  importation of raw cotton increases importations of cotton thread and
  of cotton stuffs have rapidly decreased. The value of the annual
  produce of the various branches of the cotton industry, which in 1885
  was calculated to be £7,200,000, was in 1900, notwithstanding the fall
  in prices, about £12,000,000. The industry is chiefly developed in
  Lombardy, Piedmont and Liguria; to some extent also in Campania,
  Venetia and Tuscany, and to a less extent in Lazio (Rome), Apulia,
  Emilia, the Marches, Umbria, the Abruzzi and Sicily. A government
  weaving school was established in Naples in 1906. As in the case of
  cotton, Italian woollen fabrics are conquering the home market in
  increasing degree. The industry centres chiefly in Piedmont (province
  of Novara), Venetia (province of Vicenza), Tuscany (Florence),
  Lombardy (Brescia), Campania (Caserta), Genoa, Umbria, the Marches and
  Rome. To some extent the industry also exists in Emilia, Calabria,
  Basilicata, the Abruzzi, Sardinia and Sicily. It has, however, a
  comparatively small export trade.

  The other textile industries (flax, jute, &c.) have made notable
  progress. The jute industry is concentrated in a few large factories,
  which from 1887 onwards have more than supplied the home market, and
  have begun considerably to export.


    Chemicals.

  Chemical industries show an output worth £2,640,000 in 1902 as against
  £1,040,000 in 1893. The chief products are sulphuric acid; sulphate of
  copper, employed chiefly as a preventive of certain maladies of the
  vine; carbonate of lead, hyperphosphates and chemical manures; calcium
  carbide; explosive powder; dynamite and other explosives.
  Pharmaceutical industries, as distinguished from those above
  mentioned, have kept pace with the general development of Italian
  activity. The principal product is quinine, the manufacture of which
  has acquired great importance, owing to its use as a specific against
  malaria. Milan and Genoa are the principal centres, and also the
  government military pharmaceutical factory at Turin. Other industries
  of a semi-chemical character are candle-, soap-, glue-, and
  perfume-making, and the preparation of india-rubber. The last named
  has succeeded, by means of the large establishments at Milan in
  supplying not only the whole Italian market but an export trade.

  The match-making industry is subject to special fiscal conditions. In
  1902-1903 there were 219 match factories scattered throughout Italy,
  but especially in Piedmont, Lombardy and Venetia. The number has been
  reduced to less than half since 1897 by the suppression of smaller
  factories, while the production has increased from 47,690 millions to
  59,741 millions.

  The beetroot-sugar industry has attained considerable proportions in
  Umbria, the Marches, Lazio, Venetia and Piedmont since 1890. In
  1898-1899, 5972 tons were produced, while in 1905 the figure had risen
  to 93,916. The rise of the industry has been favoured by protective
  tariffs and by a system of excise which allows a considerable premium
  to manufacturers.

  Alcohol has undergone various oscillations, according to the
  legislation governing distilleries. In 1871 only 20 hectolitres were
  produced, but in 1881 the output was 318,000 hectolitres, the maximum
  hitherto attained. Since then special laws have hampered development,
  some provinces, as for instance Sardinia, being allowed to manufacture
  for their own consumption but not for export. In other parts the
  industry is subjected to an almost prohibitive excise-duty. The
  average production is about 180,000 hectolitres per annum. The
  greatest quantity is produced in Lombardy, Piedmont, Venetia and
  Tuscany. The quantity of beer is about the same, the greater part of
  the beer drunk being imported from Germany, while the production of
  artificial mineral waters has somewhat decreased. There is a
  considerable trade (not very large for export, however) in natural
  mineral waters, which are often excellent.

  Paper-making is highly developed in the provinces of Novara, Caserta,
  Milan, Vicenza, Turin, Como, Lucca, Ancona, Genoa, Brescia, Cuneo,
  Macerata and Salerno. The hand-made paper of Fabriano is especially
  good.

  Furniture-making in different styles is carried on all over Italy,
  especially as a result of the establishment of industrial schools.
  Each region produces a special type, Venetia turning out imitations of
  16th- and 17th-century styles, Tuscany the 15th-century or cinquecento
  style, and the Neapolitan provinces the Pompeian style. Furniture and
  cabinet-making in great factories are carried on particularly in
  Lombardy and Piedmont. Bent-wood factories have been established in
  Venetia and Liguria.

  A characteristic Italian industry is that of straw-plaiting for
  hat-making, which is carried on principally in Tuscany, in the
  district of Fermo, in the Alpine villages of the province of Vicenza,
  and in some communes of the province of Messina. The plaiting is done
  by country women, while the hats are made up in factories. Both plaits
  and hats are largely exported.

  Tobacco is entirely a government monopoly; the total amount
  manufactured in 1902-1903 was 16,599 tons--a fairly constant figure.

  The finest glass is made in Tuscany and Venetia; Venetian glass is
  often coloured and of artistic form.


    Artistic industries.

  In the various ceramic arts Italy was once unrivalled, but the ancient
  tradition for a long time lost its primeval impulse. The works at
  Vinovo, which had fame in the 18th century, came to an untimely end in
  1820; those of Castelli (in the Abruzzi), which have been revived,
  were supplanted by Charles III.'s establishment at Capodimonte, 1750,
  which after producing articles of surprising execution was closed
  before the end of the century. The first place now belongs to the
  Della Doccia works at Florence. Founded in 1735 by the marquis Carlo
  Ginori, they maintained a reputation of the very highest kind down to
  about 1860; but since then they have not kept pace with their younger
  rivals in other lands. They still, however, are commercially
  successful. Other cities where the ceramic industries keep their
  ground are Pesaro, Gubbio, Faenza (whose name long ago became the
  distinctive term for the finer kind of potter's work in France,
  faïence), Savona and Albissola, Turin, Mondovi, Cuneo, Castellamonte,
  Milan, Brescia, Sassuolo, Imola, Rimini, Perugia, Castelli, &c. In all
  these the older styles, by which these places became famous in the
  16th-18th centuries, have been revived. It is estimated that the total
  production of the finer wares amounts on the average to £400,000 per
  annum. The ruder branches of the art--the making of tiles and common
  wares--are pretty generally diffused.

  The jeweller's art received large encouragement in a country which had
  so many independent courts; but nowhere has it attained a fuller
  development than at Rome. A vast variety of trinkets--in coral, glass,
  lava, &c.--is exported from Italy, or carried away by the annual host
  of tourists. The copying of the paintings of the old masters is
  becoming an art industry of no small mercantile importance in some of
  the larger cities.

  The production of mosaics is an industry still carried on with much
  success in Italy, which indeed ranks exceedingly high in the
  department. The great works of the Vatican are especially famous
  (more than 17,000 distinct tints are employed in their productions),
  and there are many other establishments in Rome. The Florentine
  mosaics are perhaps better known abroad; they are composed of larger
  pieces than the Roman. Those of the Venetian artists are remarkable
  for the boldness of their colouring. There is a tendency towards the
  fostering of feminine home industries--lace-making, linen-weaving, &c.

_Condition of the Working Classes._--The condition of the numerous
agricultural labourers (who constitute one-third of the population) is,
except in some regions, hard, and in places absolutely miserable. Much
light was thrown upon their position by the agricultural inquiry
(_inchiesta agraria_) completed in 1884. The large numbers of emigrants,
who are drawn chiefly from the rural classes, furnish another proof of
poverty. The terms of agrarian contracts and leases (except in districts
where _mezzadria_ prevails in its essential form), are in many regions
disadvantageous to the labourers, who suffer from the obligation to
provide guarantees for payment of rent, for repayment of seed corn and
for the division of products.


    Malaria.

  It was only at the close of the 19th century that the true cause of
  malaria--the conveyance of the infection by the bite of the _Anopheles
  claviger_--was discovered. This mosquito does not as a rule enter the
  large towns; but low-lying coast districts and ill-drained plains are
  especially subject to it. Much has been done in keeping out the
  insects by fine wire netting placed on the windows and the doors of
  houses, especially in the railwaymen's cottages. In 1902 the state
  took up the sale of quinine at a low price, manufacturing it at the
  central military pharmaceutical laboratory at Turin. Statistics show
  the difference produced by this measure.

    +---------------+-----------------------+------------------+
    |Financial Year.|Pounds of quinine sold.|Deaths by Malaria.|
    +---------------+-----------------------+------------------+
    |   1901-1902   |          ..           |      13,358      |
    |   1902-1903   |         4,932         |       9,908      |
    |   1903-1904   |        15,915         |       8,513      |
    |   1904-1905   |        30,956         |       8,501      |
    |   1905-1906   |        41,166         |       7,838      |
    |   1906-1907   |        45,591         |       4,875      |
    +---------------+-----------------------+------------------+

  The profit made by the state, which is entirely devoted to a special
  fund for means against malaria, amounted in these five years to
  £41,759. It has been established that two 3-grain pastilles a day are
  a sufficient prophylactic; and the proprietors of malarious estates
  and contractors for public works in malarious districts are bound by
  law to provide sufficient quinine for their workmen, death for want of
  this precaution coming under the provisions of the workmen's
  compensation act. Much has also been, though much remains to be, done
  in the way of _bonificamento_, i.e. proper drainage and improvement of
  the (generally fertile) low-lying and hitherto malarious plains.

  In Venetia the lives of the small proprietors and of the salaried
  peasants are often extremely miserable. There and in Lombardy the
  disease known as _pellagra_ is most widely diffused. The disease is
  due to poisoning by micro-organisms produced by deteriorated maize,
  and can be combated by care in ripening, drying and storing the maize.
  The most recent statistics show the disease to be diminishing. Whereas
  in 1881 there were 104,067 (16.29 per 1000) peasants afflicted by the
  disease, in 1899 there were only 72,603 (10.30 per 1000) peasants,
  with a maximum of 39,882 (34.32 per 1000) peasants in Venetia, and
  19,557 (12.90 per 1000) peasants in Lombardy. The decrease of the
  disease is a direct result of the efforts made to combat it, in the
  form of special hospitals or _pellagrosari_, economic kitchens, rural
  bakeries and maize-drying establishments. A bill for the better
  prevention of pellagra was introduced in the spring of 1902. The
  deaths from it dropped in that year to 2376, from 3054 in the previous
  year and 3788 in 1900.

  In Liguria, on account of the comparative rarity of large estates,
  agricultural labourers are in a better condition. Men earn between 1s.
  3d. and 2s. 1d. a day, and women from 5d. to 8d. In Emilia the day
  labourers, known as _disobbligati_, earn, on the contrary, low wages,
  out of which they have to provide for shelter and to lay by something
  against unemployment. Their condition is miserable. In Tuscany,
  however, the prevalence of _mezzadria_, properly so called, has raised
  the labourers' position. Yet in some Tuscan provinces, as, for
  instance, that of Grosseto, where malaria rages, labourers are
  organized in gangs under "corporals," who undertake harvest work. They
  are poverty-stricken, and easily fall victims to fever. In the Abruzzi
  and in Apulia both regular and irregular workmen are engaged by the
  year. The _curatori_ or _curatoli_ (factors) receive £40 a year, with
  a slight interest in the profits; the stockmen hardly earn in money
  and kind £13; the muleteers and under-workmen get between £5 to £8,
  plus firewood, bread and oil; irregular workmen have even lower
  wages, with a daily distribution of bread, salt and oil. In Campania
  and Calabria the _curatoli_ and _massari_ earn, in money and kind,
  about £12 a year; cowmen, shepherds and muleteers about £10; irregular
  workmen are paid from 8½d. to 1s. 8d. per day, but only find
  employment, on an average, 230 days in the year. The condition of
  Sicilian labourers is also miserable. The huge extent of the
  _latifondi_, or large estates, often results in their being left in
  the hands of speculators, who exploit both workmen and farmers with
  such usury that the latter are often compelled, at the end of a scanty
  year, to hand over their crops to the usurers before harvest. In
  Sardinia wage-earners are paid 10d. a day, with free shelter and an
  allotment for private cultivation. Irregular adult workmen earn
  between 10d. and 1s. 3d., and boys from 6d. to 10d. a day. Woodcutters
  and vine-waterers, however, sometimes earn as much as 3s. a day.

  The peasants somewhat rarely use animal food--this is most largely
  used in Sardinia and least in Sicily--bread and polenta or macaroni
  and vegetables being the staple diet. Wine is the prevailing drink.

The condition of the workmen employed in manufactures has improved
during recent years. Wages are higher, the cost of the prime necessaries
of life is, as a rule, lower, though taxation on some of them is still
enormous; so that the remuneration of work has improved. Taking into
account the variations in wages and in the price of wheat, it may be
calculated that the number of hours of work requisite to earn a sum
equal to the price of a cwt. of wheat fell from 183 in 1871 to 73 in
1894. In 1898 it was 105, on account of the rise in the price of wheat,
and since then up till 1902 it oscillated between 105 and 95.

  Wages have risen from 22.6 centimes per hour (on an average) to 26.3
  centimes, but not in all industries. In the mining and woollen
  industries they have fallen, but have increased in mechanical,
  chemical, silk and cotton industries. Wages vary greatly in different
  parts of Italy, according to the cost of the necessaries of life, the
  degree of development of working-class needs and the state of
  working-class organization, which in some places has succeeded in
  increasing the rates of pay. Women are, as a rule, paid less than men,
  and though their wages have also increased, the rise has been slighter
  than in the case of men. In some trades, for instance the silk trade,
  women earn little more than 10d. a day, and, for some classes of work,
  as little as 7d. and 4½d. The general improvement in sanitation has
  led to a corresponding improvement in the condition of the working
  classes, though much still remains to be done, especially in the
  south. On the other hand, it is generally the case that even in the
  most unpromising inn the bedding is clean.


    Strikes.

  The number of industrial strikes has risen from year to year,
  although, on account of the large number of persons involved in some
  of them, the rise in the number of strikers has not always
  corresponded to the number of strikes. During the years 1900 and 1901
  strikes were increasingly numerous, chiefly on account of the growth
  of Socialist and working-class organizations.

  The greatest proportion of strikes takes place in northern Italy,
  especially Lombardy and Piedmont, where manufacturing industries are
  most developed. Textile, building and mining industries show the
  highest percentage of strikes, since they give employment to large
  numbers of men concentrated in single localities. Agricultural
  strikes, though less frequent than those in manufacturing industries,
  have special importance in Italy. They are most common in the north
  and centre, a circumstance which shows them to be promoted less by the
  more backward and more ignorant peasants than by the better-educated
  labourers of Lombardy and Emilia, among whom Socialist organizations
  are widespread. Since 1901 there have been, more than once, general
  strikes at Milan and elsewhere, and one in the autumn of 1905 caused
  great inconvenience throughout the country, and led to no effective
  result.

  Although in some industrial centres the working-class movement has
  assumed an importance equal to that of other countries, there is no
  general working-class organization comparable to the English trade
  unions. Mutual benefit and co-operative societies serve the purpose of
  working-class defence or offence against the employers. In 1893, after
  many vicissitudes, the Italian Socialist Labour Party was founded, and
  has now become the Italian Socialist Party, in which the majority of
  Italian workmen enrol themselves. Printers and hat-makers, however,
  possess trade societies. In 1899 an agitation began for the
  organization of "Chambers of Labour," intended to look after the
  technical education of workmen and to form commissions of arbitration
  in case of strikes. They act also as employment bureaux, and are often
  centres of political propaganda. At present such "chambers" exist in
  many Italian cities, while "leagues of improvement," or of
  "resistance," are rapidly spreading in the country districts. In many
  cases the action of these organizations has proved, at least
  temporarily, advantageous to the working classes.

  Labour legislation is backward in Italy, on account of the late
  development of manufacturing industry and of working-class
  organization. On the 17th of April 1898 a species of Employers'
  Liability Act compelled employers of more than five workmen in certain
  industries to insure their employees against accidents. On the 17th
  of July 1898 a national fund for the insurance of workmen against
  illness and old age was founded by law on the principle of optional
  registration. In addition to an initial endowment by the state, part
  of the annual income of the fund is furnished in various forms by the
  state (principally by making over a proportion of the profits of the
  Post Office Savings Bank), and part by the premiums of the workmen.
  The minimum annual premium is six lire for an annuity of one lira per
  day at the age of sixty, and insurance against sickness. The low level
  of wages in many trades and the jealousies of the "Chambers of Labour"
  and other working-class organizations impede rapid development.

  A law came into operation in February 1908, according to which a
  weekly day of rest (with few exceptions) was established on Sunday in
  every case in which it was possible, and otherwise upon some other day
  of the week.

  The French institution of _Prudhommes_ was introduced into Italy in
  1893, under the name of _Collegi di Probiviri_. The institution has
  not attained great vogue. Most of the colleges deal with matters
  affecting textile and mechanical industries. Each "college" is founded
  by royal decree, and consists of a president, with not fewer than ten
  and not more than twenty members. A conciliation bureau and a jury are
  elected to deal with disputes concerning wages, hours of work, labour
  contracts, &c., and have power to settle the disputes, without appeal,
  whenever the amounts involved do not exceed £8.


  Provident Institutions.

Provident institutions have considerably developed in Italy under the
forms of savings banks, assurance companies and mutual benefit
societies. Besides the Post Office Savings Bank and the ordinary savings
banks, many co-operative credit societies and ordinary credit banks
receive deposits of savings.

  The greatest number of savings banks exists in Lombardy; Piedmont and
  Venetia come next. Campania holds the first place in the south, most
  of the savings of that region being deposited in the provident
  institutions of Naples. In Liguria and Sardinia the habit of thrift is
  less developed. Assurance societies in Italy are subject to the
  general dispositions of the commercial code regarding commercial
  companies. Mutual benefit societies have increased rapidly, both
  because their advantages have been appreciated, and because, until
  recently, the state had taken no steps directly to insure workmen
  against illness. The present Italian mutual benefit societies resemble
  the ancient beneficent corporations, of which in some respects they
  may be considered a continuation. The societies require government
  recognition if they wish to enjoy legal rights. The state (law of the
  15th of April 1896) imposed this condition in order to determine
  exactly the aims of the societies, and, while allowing them to give
  help to their sick, old or feeble members, or aid the families of
  deceased members, to forbid them to pay old-age pensions, lest they
  assumed burdens beyond their financial strength. Nevertheless, the
  majority of societies have not sought recognition, being suspicious of
  fiscal state intervention.


  Co-operation.

Co-operation, for the various purposes of credit, distribution,
production and labour, has attained great development in Italy. Credit
co-operation is represented by a special type of association known as
People's Banks (_Banche Popolari_). They are not, as a rule, supported
by workmen or peasants, but rather by small tradespeople, manufacturers
and farmers. They perform a useful function in protecting their clients
from the cruel usury which prevails, especially in the south. A recent
form of co-operative credit banks are the _Casse Rurali_ or rural banks,
on the Raffeisen system, which lend money to peasants and small
proprietors out of capital obtained on credit or by gift. These loans
are made on personal security, but the members of the bank do not
contribute any quota of the capital, though their liability is unlimited
in case of loss. They are especially widespread in Lombardy and Venetia.

  Distributive co-operation is confined almost entirely to Piedmont,
  Liguria, Lombardy, Venetia, Emilia and Tuscany, and is practically
  unknown in Basilicata, the Abruzzi and Sardinia.

  Co-operative dairies are numerous. They have, however, much decreased
  in number since 1889. More numerous are the agricultural and
  viticultural co-operative societies, which have largely increased in
  number. They are to be found mainly in the fertile plains of north
  Italy, where they enjoy considerable success, removing the cause of
  labour troubles and strikes, and providing for cultivation on a
  sufficiently large scale. The richest, however, of the co-operative
  societies, though few in number, are those for the production of
  electricity, for textile industries and for ceramic and glass
  manufactures.

  Co-operation in general is most widely diffused, in proportion to
  population, in central Italy; less so in northern Italy, and much less
  so in the south and the islands. It thus appears that co-operation
  flourishes most in the districts in which the _mezzadria_ system has
  been prevalent.

  _Railways._--The first railway in Italy, a line 16 m. long from Naples
  to Castellammare, was opened in 1840. By 1881 there were some 5500 m.
  open, in 1891 some 8000 m., while in 1901 the total length was 9317 m.
  In July 1905 all the principal lines, which had been constructed by
  the state, but had been since 1885 let out to three companies
  (Mediterranean, Adriatic, Sicilian), were taken over by the state;
  their length amounted in 1901 to 6147 m., and in 1907 to 8422 m. The
  minor lines (many of them narrow gauge) remain in the hands of private
  companies. The total length, including the Sardinian railways, was
  10,368 m. in 1907. The state, in taking over the railways, did not
  exercise sufficient care to see that the lines and the rolling stock
  were kept up to a proper state of efficiency and adequacy for the work
  they had to perform; while the step itself was taken somewhat hastily.
  The result was that for the first two years of state administration
  the service was distinctly bad, and the lack of goods trucks at the
  ports was especially felt. A capital expenditure of £4,000,000
  annually was decided on to bring the lines up to the necessary state
  of efficiency to be able to cope with the rapidly increasing traffic.
  It was estimated in 1906 that this would have to be maintained for a
  period of ten years, with a further total expenditure of £14,000,000
  on new lines.

  Comparing the state of things in 1901 with that of 1881, for the whole
  country, we find the passenger and goods traffic almost doubled
  (except the cattle traffic), the capital expenditure almost doubled,
  the working expenses per mile almost imperceptibly increased, and the
  gross receipts per mile slightly lower. The _personnel_ had increased
  from 70,568 to 108,690. The construction of numerous unremunerative
  lines, and the free granting of concessions to government and other
  employees (and also of cheap tickets on special occasions for
  congresses, &c., in various towns, without strict inquiry into the
  qualifications of the claimants) will account for the failure to
  realize a higher profit. The fares (in slow trains, with the addition
  of 10% for expenses) are: 1st class, 1.85d.; 2nd, 1.3d.; 3rd, 0.725d.
  per mile. There are, however, considerable reductions for distances
  over 93 m., on a scale increasing in proportion to the distance.

  The taking over of the main lines by the state has of course produced
  a considerable change in the financial situation of the railways. The
  state incurred in this connexion a liability of some £20,000,000, of
  which about £16,000,000 represented the rolling stock. The state has
  considerably improved the engines and passenger carriages. The capital
  value of the whole of the lines, rolling stock, &c., for 1908-1909 was
  calculated approximately at £244,161,400, and the profits at
  £5,295,019, or 2.2%.

  Milan is the most important railway centre in the country, and is
  followed by Turin, Genoa, Verona, Bologna, Rome, Naples. Lombardy and
  Piedmont are much better provided with railways in proportion to their
  area than any other parts of Italy; next come Venetia, Emilia and the
  immediate environs of Naples.

  The northern frontier is crossed by the railway from Turin to
  Ventimiglia by the Col di Tenda, the Mont Cenis line from Turin to
  Modane (the tunnel is 7 m. in length), the Simplon line (tunnel 11 m.
  in length) from Domodossola to Brigue, the St Gotthard from Milan to
  Chiasso (the tunnel is entirely in Swiss territory), the Brenner from
  Verona to Trent, the line from Udine to Tarvis and the line from
  Venice to Triest by the Adriatic coast. Besides these international
  lines the most important are those from Milan to Turin (via Vercelli
  and via Alessandria), to Genoa via Tortona, to Bologna via Parma and
  Modena, to Verona, and the shorter lines to the district of the lakes
  of Lombardy; from Turin to Genoa via Savona and via Alessandria; from
  Genoa to Savona and Ventimiglia along the Riviera, and along the
  south-west coast of Italy, via Sarzana (whence a line runs to Parma)
  to Pisa (whence lines run to Pistoia and Florence) and Rome; from
  Verona to Modena, and to Venice via Padua; from Bologna to Padua, to
  Rimini (and thence along the north-east coast via Ancona,
  Castellammare Adriatico and Foggia to Brindisi and Otranto), and to
  Florence and Rome; from Rome to Ancona, to Castellammare Adriatico and
  to Naples; from Naples to Foggia, via Metaponto (with a junction for
  Reggio di Calabria), to Brindisi and to Reggio di Calabria. (For the
  Sicilian and Sardinian lines, see SICILY and SARDINIA.) The speed of
  the trains is not high, nor are the runs without stoppage long as a
  rule. One of the fastest runs is from Rome to Orte, 52.40 m. in 69
  min., or 45.40 m. per hour, but this is a double line with little
  traffic. The low speed reduces the potentiality of the lines. The
  insufficiency of rolling stock, and especially of goods wagons, is
  mainly caused by delays in "handling" traffic consequent on this or
  other causes, among which may be mentioned the great length of the
  single lines south of Rome. It is thus a matter of difficulty to
  provide trucks for a sudden emergency, e.g. the vintage season; and in
  1905-1907 complaints were many, while the seaports were continually
  short of trucks. This led to deficiencies in the supply of coal to the
  manufacturing centres, and to some diversion elsewhere of shipping.

  _Steam and Electric Tramways._--Tramways with mechanical traction have
  developed rapidly. Between 1875, when the first line was opened, and
  1901, the length of the lines grew to 1890 m. of steam and 270 m. of
  electric tramways. These lines exist principally in Lombardy
  (especially in the province of Milan), in Piedmont, especially in the
  province of Turin, and in other regions of northern and central Italy.
  In the south they are rare, on account partly of the mountainous
  character of the country, and partly of the scarcity of traffic. All
  the important towns of Italy are provided with internal electric
  tramways, mostly with overhead wires.

  _Carriage-roads_ have been greatly extended in modern times, although
  their ratio to area varies in different localities. In north Italy
  there are 1480 yds. of road per sq. m.; in central Italy 993; in
  southern Italy 405; in Sardinia 596, and in Sicily only 244. They are
  as a rule well kept up in north and central Italy, less so in the
  south, where, especially in Calabria, many villages are inaccessible
  by road and have only footpaths leading to them. By the act of 1903
  the state contributes half and the province a quarter of the cost of
  roads connecting communes with the nearest railway stations or landing
  places.

  _Inland Navigation._--Navigable canals had in 1886 a total length of
  about 655 m.; they are principally situated in Piedmont, Lombardy and
  Venetia, and are thus practically confined to the Po basin. Canals
  lead from Milan to the Ticino, Adda and Po. The Po is itself navigable
  from Turin downwards, but through its delta it is so sandy that canals
  are preferred, the Po di Volano and the Po di Primaro on the right,
  and the Canale Bianco on the left. The total length of navigable
  rivers is 967 m.

  _Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones._--The number of post offices
  (including collettorie, or collecting offices, which are rapidly being
  eliminated) increased from 2200 in 1862 to 4823 in 1881, 6700 in 1891
  and 8817 in 1904. In spite of a large increase in the number of
  letters and post cards (i.e. nearly 10 per inhabitant per annum in
  1904, as against 5.65 in 1888) the average is considerably below that
  of most other European countries. The number of state telegraph
  offices was 4603, of other offices (railway and tramway stations,
  which accept private telegrams for transmission) 1930. The telephone
  system is considerably developed; in 1904, 92 urban and 66 inter-urban
  systems existed. They were installed by private companies, but have
  been taken over by the state. International communication between Rome
  and Paris, and Italy and Switzerland also exists. The parcel post and
  money order services have largely increased since 1887-1888, the
  number of parcels having almost doubled (those for abroad are more
  than trebled), while the number of money orders issued is trebled and
  their value doubled (about £40,000,000). The value of the foreign
  orders paid in Italy increased from £1,280,000 to £2,356,000--owing to
  the increase of emigration and of the savings sent home by emigrants.

  At the end of 1907 Italy was among the few countries that had not
  adopted the reduction of postage sanctioned at the Postal Union
  congress, held in Rome in 1906, by which the rates became 2½d. for the
  first oz., and 1½d. per oz. afterwards. The internal rate is 15c.
  (1½d.) per ½ oz.; post-cards 10c. (1d.), reply 15c. On the other hand,
  letters within the postal district are only 5c. (½d.) per ½ oz.
  Printed matter is 2c. (1/5d.) per 50 grammes (1(2/3) oz.). The
  regulations provide that if there is a greater weight of
  correspondence (including book-packets) than 1¼ lb. for any individual
  by any one delivery, notice shall be given him that it is lying at the
  post office, he being then obliged to arrange for fetching it. Letters
  insured for a fixed sum are not delivered under any circumstances.

  Money order cards are very convenient and cheap (up to 10 lire [8s.]
  for 10c. [1d.]), as they need not be enclosed in a letter, while a
  short private message can be written on them. Owing to the
  comparatively small amount of letters, it is found possible to have a
  travelling post office on all principal trains (while almost every
  train has a travelling sorter, for whom a compartment is reserved)
  without a late fee being exacted in either case. In the principal
  towns letters may be posted in special boxes at the head office just
  before the departure of any given mail train, and are conveyed direct
  to the travelling post office. Another convenient arrangement is the
  provision of letter-boxes on electric tram-cars in some cities.

  _Mercantile Marine._--Between the years 1881 and 1905 the number of
  ships entered and cleared at Italian ports decreased slightly (219,598
  in 1881 and 208,737 in 1905), while their aggregate tonnage increased
  (32,070,704 in 1881 and 80,782,030 in 1905). In the movement of
  shipping, trade with foreign countries prevails (especially as regards
  arrivals) over trade between Italian ports. Most of the merchandise
  and passengers bound for and hailing from foreign ports sail under
  foreign flags. Similarly, foreign vessels prevail over Italian vessels
  in regard to goods embarked. European countries absorb the greater
  part of Italian sea-borne trade, whereas most of the passenger traffic
  goes to North and South America. The substitution of steamships for
  sailing vessels has brought about a diminution in the number of
  vessels belonging to the Italian mercantile marine, whether employed
  in the coasting trade, the fisheries or in traffic on the high seas.
  Thus:--

    +------+--------+-------------------+-------------------+
    |      | Total  |    Steamships.    |  Sailing Vessels. |
    | Year.| No. of +---------+---------+---------+---------+
    |      | Ships. | Number. | Tonnage | Number. | Tonnage |
    |      |        |         |  (Net). |         |  (Net.) |
    +------+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
    | 1881 |  7815  |   176   |  93,698 |  7,639  | 895,359 |
    | 1905 |  5596  |   513   | 462,259 |  5,083  | 570,355 |
    +------+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

  Among the steamers the increase has chiefly taken place in vessels of
  more than 1000 tons displacement, but the number of large sailing
  vessels has also increased. The most important Italian ports are (in
  order): Genoa, Naples, Palermo, Leghorn, Messina, Venice, Catania.

  _Foreign Trade._--Italian trade with foreign countries (imports and
  exports) during the quinquennium 1872-1876 averaged £94,000,000 a
  year; in the quinquennium 1893-1897 it fell to £88,960,000 a year. In
  1898, however, the total rose to £104,680,000, but the increase was
  principally due to the extra importation of corn in that year. In 1899
  it was nearly £120,000,000. Since 1899 there has been a steady
  increase both in imports and exports. Thus:--

    +------+---------------------------------------+
    |      | Trade with Foreign Countries in £1000 |
    |      |   (exclusive of Precious Metals).*    |
    | Year.+--------+--------+--------+------------+
    |      |        |        |        | Excess of  |
    |      | Totals.|Imports.|Exports.|Imports over|
    |      |        |        |        |  Exports.  |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+------------+
    | 1871 | 81,966 | 38,548 | 43,418 |   -4,870   |
    | 1881 | 96,208 | 49,587 | 46,621 |    2,966   |
    | 1891 | 80,135 | 45,063 | 35,072 |    9,991   |
    | 1900 |121,538 | 68,009 | 53,529 |   14,480   |
    | 1904 |140,437 | 76,549 | 63,888 |   12,661   |
    +------+--------+--------+--------+------------+

    * No account has here been taken of fluctuations of exchange.

  The great extension of Italian coast-line is thought by some to be not
  really a source of strength to the Italian mercantile marine, as few
  of the ports have a large enough hinterland to provide them with
  traffic, and in this hinterland (except in the basin of the Po) there
  are no canals or navigable rivers. Another source of weakness is the
  fact that Italy is a country of transit and the Italian mercantile
  marine has to enter into competition with the ships of other
  countries, which call there in passing. A third difficulty is the
  comparatively small tonnage and volume of Italian exports relatively
  to the imports, the former in 1907 being about one-fourth of the
  latter, and greatly out of proportion to the relative value; while a
  fourth is the lack of facilities for handling goods, especially in the
  smaller ports.

  The total imports for the first six months of 1907 amounted to
  £57,840,000, an increase of £7,520,000 as compared with the
  corresponding period of 1906. The exports for the corresponding period
  amounted to £35,840,000, a diminution of £1,520,000 as compared with
  the corresponding period of 1906. The diminution was due to a smaller
  exportation of raw silk and oil. The countries with which this trade
  is mainly carried on are: (imports) United Kingdom, Germany, United
  States, France, Russia and India; (exports) Switzerland, United
  States, Germany, France, United Kingdom and Argentina.

  The most important imports are minerals, including coal and metals
  (both in pig and wrought); silks, raw, spun and woven; stone, potter's
  earths, earthenware and glass; corn, flour and farinaceous products;
  cotton, raw, spun and woven; and live stock. The principal exports are
  silk and cotton tissues, live stock, wines, spirits and oils; corn,
  flour, macaroni and similar products; and minerals, chiefly sulphur.
  Before the tariff reform of 1887 manufactured articles, alimentary
  products and raw materials for manufacture held the principal places
  in the imports. In the exports, alimentary products came first, while
  raw materials for manufacture and manufactured articles were of little
  account. The transformation of Italy from a purely agricultural into a
  largely industrial country is shown by the circumstance that trade in
  raw stuffs, semi-manufactured and manufactured materials, now
  preponderates over that in alimentary products and wholly-manufactured
  articles, both the importation of raw materials and the exportation of
  manufactured articles having increased. The balance of Italian trade
  has undergone frequent fluctuations. The large predominance of imports
  over exports after 1884 was a result of the falling off of the export
  trade in live stock, olive oil and wine, on account of the closing of
  the French market, while the importation of corn from Russia and the
  Balkan States increased considerably. In 1894 the excess of imports
  over exports fell to £2,720,000, but by 1898 it had grown to
  £8,391,000, in consequence chiefly of the increased importation of
  coal, raw cotton and cotton thread, pig and cast iron, old iron,
  grease and oil-seeds for use in Italian industries. In 1899 the excess
  of imports over exports fell to £3,006,000; but since then it has
  never been less than £12,000,000.

_Education._--Public instruction in Italy is regulated by the state,
which maintains public schools of every grade, and requires that other
public schools shall conform to the rules of the state schools. No
private person may open a school without state authorization. Schools
may be classed thus:--

1. Elementary, of two grades, of the lower of which there must legally
be at least one for boys and one for girls in each commune; while the
upper grade elementary school is required in communes having normal and
secondary schools or over 4000 inhabitants. In both the instruction is
free. They are maintained by the communes, sometimes with state help.
The age limit is six to nine years for the lower grade, and up to
twelve for the higher grade, attendance being obligatory at the latter
also where it exists. 2. Secondary instruction (i.) classical in the
_ginnasi_ and _licei_, the latter leading to the universities; (ii.)
technical. 3. Higher education--universities, higher institutes and
special schools.

Of the secondary and higher educatory methods, in the normal schools and
licei the state provides for the payment of the staff and for scientific
material, and often largely supports the ginnasi and technical schools,
which should by law be supported by the communes. The universities are
maintained by the state and by their own ancient resources; while the
higher special schools are maintained conjointly by the state, the
province, the commune and (sometimes) the local chamber of commerce.

The number of persons unable to read and write has gradually decreased,
both absolutely and in proportion to the number of inhabitants. The
census of 1871 gave 73% of illiterates, that of 1881, 67%, and that of
1901, 56%, i.e. 51.8 for males and 60.8 for females. In Piedmont there
were 17.7% of illiterates above six years (the lowest) and in Calabria
78.7% (the highest), the figures for the whole country being 48.5. As
might be expected, progress has been most rapid wherever education, at
the moment of national unification, was most widely diffused. For
instance, the number of bridegrooms unable to write their names in 1872
was in the province of Turin 26%, and in the Calabrian province of
Cosenza 90%; in 1899 the percentage in the province of Turin had fallen
to 5%, while in that of Cosenza it was still 76%. Infant asylums (where
the first rudiments of instruction are imparted to children between two
and a half and six years of age) and elementary schools have increased
in number. There has been a corresponding increase in the number of
scholars. Thus:--

  +---------+---------------------+------------------------+
  |         |   Infant Asylums    |Daily Elementary Schools|
  |         |(Public and Private).| (Public and Private).  |
  |  Year.  +----------+----------+------------+-----------+
  |         |Number of |Number of | Number of  | Number of |
  |         | Asylums  | Scholars.|Schoolrooms.| Scholars. |
  +---------+----------+----------+------------+-----------+
  | 1885-86 |   2083   | 240,365  |   53,628   | 2,252,898 |
  | 1890-91 |   2296   | 278,204  |   57,077   | 2,418,692 |
  | 1901-02 |   3314   | 355,594  |   61,777   | 2,733,349 |
  +---------+----------+----------+------------+-----------+

The teachers in 1901-1902 numbered 65,739 (exclusive of 576 non-teaching
directors and 322 teachers of special subjects) or about 41.5 scholars
per teacher.

  The rate of increase in the public state-supported schools has been
  much greater than in the private schools. School buildings have been
  improved and the qualifications of teachers raised. Nevertheless, many
  schools are still defective, both from a hygienic and a teaching point
  of view; while the economic position of the elementary teachers, who
  in Italy depend upon the communal administrations and not upon the
  state, is still in many parts of the country extremely low.

  The law of 1877 rendering education compulsory for children between
  six and nine years of age has been the principal cause of the spread
  of elementary education. The law is, however, imperfectly enforced for
  financial reasons. In 1901-1902 only 65% out of the whole number of
  children between six and nine years of age were registered in the
  lower standards of the elementary and private schools. The evening
  schools have to some extent helped to spread education. Their number
  and that of their scholars have, however, decreased since the
  withdrawal of state subsidies. In 1871-1872 there were 375,947
  scholars at the evening schools and 154,585 at the holiday schools,
  while in 1900-1901 these numbers had fallen to 94,510 and 35,460
  respectively. These are, however, the only institutions in which a
  decrease is shown, and by the law of 1906 5000 of these institutions
  are to be provided in the communes where the proportion of illiterates
  is highest. In 1895 they numbered 4245, with 138,181 scholars.
  Regimental schools impart elementary education to illiterate soldiers.
  Whereas the levy of 1894 showed 40% of the recruits to be completely
  illiterate, only 27% were illiterate when the levy was discharged in
  1897. Private institutions and working-class associations have striven
  to improve the intellectual conditions of the working classes. Popular
  universities have lately attained considerable development. The number
  of institutes devoted to secondary education remained almost unchanged
  between 1880-1881 and 1895-1896. In some places the number has even
  been diminished by the suppression of private educational institutes.
  But the number of scholars has considerably increased, and shows a
  ratio superior to the general increase of the population. The
  greatest increase has taken place in technical education, where it
  has been much more rapid than in classical education. There are three
  higher commercial schools, with academic rank, at Venice, Genoa and
  Bari, and eleven secondary commercial schools; and technical and
  commercial schools for women at Florence and Milan. The number of
  agricultural schools has also grown, although the total is relatively
  small when compared with population. The attendance at the various
  classes of secondary schools in 1882 and 1902 is shown by the
  following table:--

    +---------------------------+-------+---------+--------+
    |                           | 1882. |  1902.  | No. of |
    |                           |       |         |Schools.|
    +---------------------------+-------+---------+--------+
    | Ginnasi--                 |       |         |        |
    |   Government              |13,875 | 24,081  |  192   |
    |   On an equal footing with|       |         |        |
    |     government schools    | 6,417 |  7,208  |   76   |
    |   Not on such a footing   |22,609 | 24,850* |  442   |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    |               Total       |42,811 | 56,139  |  710   |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    | Technical schools--       |       |         |        |
    |   Government              | 7,510 | 30,411  |  188   |
    |   On an equal footing     | 8,653 | 12,055  |  101   |
    |   Not on such a footing   | 8,670 |  3,623* |  106*  |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    |               Total       |24,833 | 46,089  |  395   |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    | Licei--                   |       |         |        |
    |   Government              | 6,623 | 10,983  |  121   |
    |   On an equal footing     | 1,167 |  1,955  |   33   |
    |   Not on such a footing   | 4,600 |  4,962* |  187   |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    |               Total       |12,390 | 17,900  |  341   |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    | Technical institutes--    |       |         |        |
    |   Government              | 5,555 |  9,654  |   54   |
    |   On an equal footing     | 1,684 |  1,898  |   18   |
    |   Not on such a footing   |   619 |    378* |    7   |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    |               Total       | 7,858 | 11,930  |   79   |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    | Nautical institutes--     |       |         |        |
    |   Government              |   758 |  1,878  |   18   |
    |   On an equal footing     |    69 |     38  |    1   |
    |   Not on such a footing   |    13 |     29* |    1   |
    |                           +-------+---------+--------+
    |               Total       |   816 |  1,945  |   20   |
    +---------------------------+-------+---------+--------+

    * 1: 1896.

  The schools which do not obtain equality with government schools are
  either some of those conducted by religious orders, or else those in
  which a sufficient standard is not reached. The total number of such
  schools was, in 1896, 742 with 33,813 pupils.

  The pupils of the secondary schools reach a maximum of 6.60 per 1000
  in Liguria and 5.92 in Latium, and a minimum of 2.30 in the Abruzzi,
  2.27 in Calabria and 1.65 in Basilicata.

  For the boarding schools, or _convitti_, there are only incomplete
  reports except for the institutions directly dependent on the ministry
  of public instruction, which are comparatively few. The rest are
  largely directed by religious institutions. In 1895-1896 there were
  919 convitti for boys, with 59,066 pupils, of which 40, with 3814
  pupils, were dependent on the ministry (in 1901-1902 there were 43 of
  these with 4036 pupils); and 1456 for girls, with 49,367 pupils, of
  which only 8, with about 600 pupils, were dependent on the ministry.

  The _scuole normali_ or training schools (117 in number, of which 75
  were government institutions) for teachers had 1329 male students in
  1901-1902, showing hardly any increase, while the female students
  increased from 8005 in 1882-1883 to 22,316 in 1895-1896, but decreased
  to 19,044 in 1901-1902, owing to the admission of women to telegraph
  and telephone work. The female secondary schools in 1881-1882 numbered
  77, of which 7 were government institutions, with 3569 pupils; in
  1901-1902 there were 233 schools (9 governmental) with 9347 pupils.

  The total attendance of students in the various faculties at the
  different universities and higher institutes is as follows:--

    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+
    |                                |  1882. |  1902. |
    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+
    | Law                            |  4,801 |  8,385 |
    | Philosophy and letters         |    419 |  1,703 |
    | Medicine and surgery           |  4,428 |  9,055 |
    | Professional diploma, pharmacy |    798 |  3,290 |
    | Mathematics and natural science|  1,364 |  3,500 |
    | Engineering                    |    982 |  1,293 |
    | Agriculture                    |    145 |    507 |
    | Commerce                       |    128 |    167 |
    |                                +--------+--------+
    |                       Total    | 13,065 | 27,900 |
    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+

  Thus a large all-round increase in secondary and higher education is
  shown--satisfactory in many respects, but showing that more young men
  devote themselves to the learned professions (especially to the law)
  than the economic condition of the country will justify. There are 21
  universities--Bologna, Cagliari, Camerino, Catania, Ferrara, Genoa,
  Macerata, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Palermo, Parma, Pavia,
  Perugia, Pisa, Rome, Sassari, Siena, Turin, Urbino, of which Camerino,
  Ferrara, Perugia and Urbino are not state institutions; university
  courses are also given at Aquila, Bari and Catanzaro. Of these the
  most frequented in 1904-1905 were: Naples (4745), Turin (3451), Rome
  (2630), Bologna (1711), Pavia (1559), Padua (1364), Genoa (1276), and
  the least frequented, Cagliari (254), Siena (235) and Sassari (200).
  The professors are ordinary and extraordinary, and free professors
  (_liberi docenti_), corresponding to the German _Privatdozenten_, are
  also allowed to be attached to the universities.

  The institutions which co-operate with the universities are the
  special schools for engineers at Turin, Naples, Rome and Bologna (and
  others attached to some of the universities), the higher technical
  institute at Milan, the higher veterinary schools of Milan, Naples and
  Turin, the institute for higher studies at Florence (_Istituto di
  studi superiori, pratici e di perfezionamento_), the literary and
  scientific academy of Milan, the higher institutes for the training of
  female teachers at Florence and Rome, the Institute of Social Studies
  at Florence, the higher commercial schools at Venice, Bari and Genoa,
  the commercial university founded by L. Bocconi at Milan in 1902, the
  higher naval school at Genoa, the higher schools of agriculture at
  Milan and Portici, the experimental institute at Perugia, the school
  of forestry at Vallambrosa, the industrial museum at Turin. The
  special secondary institutions, distinct from those already reckoned
  under the universities and allied schools, include an Oriental
  institute at Naples with 243 pupils; 34 schools of agriculture with
  (1904-1905) 1925 students; 2 schools of mining (at Caltanisetta and
  Iglesias) with (1904-1905) 83 students; 308 industrial and commercial
  schools with (1903-1904) 46,411 students; 174 schools of design and
  moulding with (1898) 12,556 students; 13 government fine art
  institutes (1904-1905) with 2778 students and 13 non-government with
  1662 students; 5 government institutes of music with 1026 students,
  and 51 non-government with 4109 pupils (1904-1905). Almost all of
  these show a considerable increase.

_Libraries_ are numerous in Italy, those even of small cities being
often rich in manuscripts and valuable works. Statistics collected in
1893-1894 and 1896 revealed the existence of 1831 libraries, either
private (but open to the public) or completely public. The public
libraries have been enormously increased since 1870 by the incorporation
of the treasures of suppressed monastic institutions. The richest in
manuscripts is that of the Vatican, especially since the purchase of the
Barberini Library in 1902; it now contains over 34,000 MSS. The Vatican
archives are also of great importance. Most large towns contain
important state or communal archives, in which a considerable amount of
research is being done by local investigators; the various societies for
local history (_Società di Storia Patria_) do very good work and issue
valuable publications; the treasures which the archives contain are by
no means exhausted. Libraries and archives are under the superintendence
of the Ministry of Public Instruction. A separate department of this
ministry under a director-general has the charge of antiquities and fine
arts, making archaeological excavations and supervising those undertaken
by private persons (permission to foreigners, even to foreign schools,
to excavate in Italy is rarely granted), and maintaining the numerous
state museums and picture galleries. The exportation of works of art and
antiquities from Italy without leave of the ministry is forbidden
(though it has in the past been sometimes evaded). An inventory of those
subjects, the exportation of which can in no case be permitted, has been
prepared; and the ministry has at its disposal a fund of £200,000 for
the purchase of important works of art of all kinds.

_Charities._--In Italy there is no legal right in the poor to be
supported by the parish or commune, nor any obligation on the commune to
relieve the poor--except in the case of forsaken children and the sick
poor. Public charity is exercised through the permanent charitable
foundations (_opere pie_), which are, however, very unequally
distributed in the different provinces. The districts of Italy which
show between 1881 and 1903 the greatest increase of new institutions, or
of gifts to old ones, are Lombardy, Piedmont, Liguria, while Sardinia,
Calabria and Basilicata stand lowest, Latium standing comparatively low.

  The patrimony of Italian charitable institutions is considerable and
  is constantly increasing. In 1880 the number of charitable
  institutions (exclusive of public pawnshops, or _Monti di Pietà_, and
  other institutions which combine operations of credit with charity)
  was approximately 22,000, with an aggregate patrimony of nearly
  £80,000,000. The revenue was about £3,600,000; after deduction of
  taxes, interest on debts, expenses of management, &c., £2,080,000.
  Adding to this £1,240,000 of communal and provincial subsidies, the
  product of the labour of inmates, temporary subscriptions, &c., the
  net revenue available for charity was, during 1880, £3,860,000. Of
  this sum £260,000 was spent for religious purposes. Between 1881 and
  1905 the bequests to existing institutions and sums left for the
  endowment of new institutions amounted to about £16,604,600.

  Charitable institutions take, as a rule, the two forms of outdoor and
  indoor relief and attendance. The indoor institutions are the more
  important in regard to endowment, and consist of hospitals for the
  infirm (a number of these are situated at the seaside); of hospitals
  for chronic and incurable diseases; of orphan asylums; of poorhouses
  and shelters for beggars; of infant asylums or institutes for the
  first education of children under six years of age; of lunatic
  asylums; of homes for the deaf and dumb; and of institutes for the
  blind. The outdoor charitable institutions include those which
  distribute help in money or food; those which supply medicine and
  medical help; those which aid mothers unable to rear their own
  children; those which subsidize orphans and foundlings; those which
  subsidize educational institutes; and those which supply marriage
  portions. Between 1881 and 1898 the chief increases took place in the
  endowments of hospitals; orphan asylums; infant asylums; poorhouses;
  almshouses; voluntary workhouses; and institutes for the blind. The
  least creditably administered of these are the asylums for abandoned
  infants; in 1887, of a total of 23,913, 53.77% died; while during the
  years 1893-1896 (no later statistics are available) of 117,970 51.72%
  died. The average mortality under one year for the whole of Italy in
  1893-1896 was only 16.66%.

  Italian charity legislation was reformed by the laws of 1862 and 1890,
  which attempted to provide efficacious protection for endowments, and
  to ensure the application of the income to the purposes for which it
  was intended. The law considers as "charitable institutions" (_opere
  pie_) all poorhouses, almshouses and institutes which partly or wholly
  give help to able-bodied or infirm paupers, or seek to improve their
  moral and economic condition; and also the _Congregazioni di carità_
  (municipal charity boards existing in every commune, and composed of
  members elected by the municipal council), which administer funds
  destined for the poor in general. All charitable institutions were
  under the protection of provincial administrative junta, existing in
  every province, and empowered to control the management of charitable
  endowments. The supreme control was vested in the minister of the
  Interior. The law of 1890 also empowers every citizen to appeal to the
  tribunals on behalf of the poor, for whose benefit a given charitable
  institution may have been intended. A more recent law provides for the
  formation of a central body, with provincial commissions under it. Its
  effect, however, has been comparatively small.

  Public pawnshops or _Monti di pietà_ numbered 555 in 1896, with a net
  patrimony of £2,879,625. In that year their income, including revenue
  from capital, was £416,385, and their expenditure £300,232. The amount
  lent on security was £4,153,229.

  The _Monti frumentarii_ or co-operative corn deposits, which lend seed
  corn to farmers, and are repaid after harvest with interest in kind,
  numbered 1615 in 1894, and possessed a patrimony of £240,000.

  In addition to the regular charitable institutions, the communal and
  provincial authorities exercise charity, the former (in 1899) to the
  extent of £1,827,166 and the latter to the extent of £919,832 per
  annum. Part of these sums is given to hospitals, and part spent
  directly by the communal and provincial authorities. Of the sum spent
  by the communes, about ½ goes for the sanitary service (doctors,
  midwives, vaccination), 1/8 for the maintenance of foundlings, 1/10
  for the support of the sick in hospitals, and 1/22 for sheltering the
  aged and needy. Of the sum spent by the provincial authorities, over
  half goes to lunatic asylums and over a quarter to the maintenance of
  foundling hospitals.

_Religion._--The great majority of Italians--97.12%--are Roman
Catholics. Besides the ordinary Latin rite, several others are
recognized. The Armenians of Venice maintain their traditional
characteristics. The Albanians of the southern provinces still employ
the Greek rite and the Greek language in their public worship, and their
priests, like those of the Greek Church, are allowed to marry. Certain
peculiarities introduced by St Ambrose distinguish the ritual of Milan
from that of the general church. Up to 1871 the island of Sicily was,
according to the bull of Urban II., ecclesiastically dependent on the
king, and exempt from the canonical power of the pope.

Though the territorial authority of the papal see was practically
abolished in 1870, the fact that Rome is the seat of the administrative
centre of the vast organization of the church is not without
significance to the nation. In the same city in which the administrative
functions of the body politic are centralized there still exists the
court of the spiritual potentate which in 1879 consisted of 1821
persons. Protestants number some 65,000, of whom half are Italian and
half foreign. Of the former 22,500 are Waldensians. The number of Jews
was returned as 36,000, but is certainly higher. There are, besides, in
Italy some 2500 members of the Greek Orthodox Church. There were in 1901
20,707 parishes in Italy, 68,444 secular clergy and 48,043 regulars
(monks, lay brothers and nuns). The size of parishes varies from
province to province, Sicily having larger parishes in virtue of the old
Sicilian church laws, and Naples, and some parts of central Italy,
having the smallest. The Italian parishes had in 1901 a total gross
revenue, including assignments from the public worship endowment fund,
of £1,280,000 or an average of £63 per parish; 51% of this gross sum
consists of revenue from glebe lands.

  The kingdom is divided into 264 sees and ten abbeys, or prelatures
  _nullius dioceseos_. The dioceses are as follows:--

  A. 6 suburbicarian sees--Ostia and Velletri, Porto and Sta Rufina,
  Albano, Frascati, Palestrina, Sabina--all held by cardinal bishops.

  B. 74 sees immediately subject to the Holy See, of which 12 are
  archiepiscopal and 61 episcopal.

  C. 37 ecclesiastical provinces, each under a metropolitan, composed of
  148 suffragan dioceses. Their position is indicated in the following
  table:--

    _Metropolitans._                   _Suffragans._

    Acerenza-Matera         Anglona-Tursi, Tricarico, Venosa.

    Bari                    Conversano, Ruvo-Bitonto.

    Benevento               S. Agata de' Goti, Alife, Ariano, Ascoli
                              Satriano Cerignola, Avellino, Bojano,
                              Bovino, Larino, Lucera, S. Severo, Telese
                              (Cerreto), Termoli.

    Bologna                 Faenza, Imola.

    Brindisi and Ostuni     No suffragan.

    Cagliari                Galtelli-Nuoro, Iglesias, Ogliastra.

    Capua                   Caiazzo, Calvi-Teano, Caserta,
                              Isernia-Venafro, Sessa.

    Chieti and Vasto        No suffragan.

    Conza and Campagna      S. Angelo de' Lombardi-Bisaccia, Lacedonia,
                              Muro Lucano.

    Fermo                   Macerata-Tolentino, Montalto, Ripatransone,
                              S. Severino.

    Florence                Borgo S. Sepolcro, Colle di Val d'Elsa,
                              Fiesole, S. Miniato, Modigliana,
                              Pistoia-Prato.

    Genoa                   Albenga, Bobbio, Chiavari, Savona-Noli,
                              Tortona, Ventimiglia.

    Lanciano and Ortona     No suffragan.

    Manfredonia and Viesti  No suffragan.

    Messina                 Lipari, Nicosia, Patti.

    Milan                   Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Crema, Cremona, Lodi,
                              Mantua, Pavia.

    Modena                  Carpi, Guastalla, Massa-Carrara, Reggio.

    Monreale                Caltanisetta, Girgenti.

    Naples                  Acerra, Ischia, Nola, Pozzuoli.

    Oristano                Ales-Terralba.

    Otranto                 Gallipoli, Lecce, Ugento.

    Palermo                 Cefalù, Mazzara, Trapani.

    Pisa                    Leghorn, Pescia, Pontremoli, Volterra.

    Ravenna                 Bertinoro, Cervia, Cesena, Comacchio, Forlì,
                              Rimini, Sarsina.

    Reggio Calabria         Bova, Cassano, Catanzaro, Cotrone, Gerace,
                              Nicastro, Oppido, Nicotera-Tropea,
                              Squillace.

    Salerno                 Acerno, Capaccio-Vallo, Diano, Marsico-Nuovo
                              and Potenza, Nocera dei Pagani, Nusco,
                              Policastro.

    Sassari                 Alghero, Ampurias and Tempio, Bisarhio, Bosa.

    S. Severino             Cariati.

    Siena                   Chiusi-Pienza, Grosseto, Massa Marittima,
                              Sovana-Pitigliano.

    Syracuse                Caltagirone, Noto, Piazza-Armerina.

    Sorrento                Castellammare.

    Taranto                 Castellaneta, Oria.

    Trani-Nazareth-
      Barletta, Bisceglie   Andria.

    Turin                   Acqui, Alba, Aosta, Asti, Cuneo, Fossano,
                              Ivrea, Mondovi, Pinerolo, Saluzzo, Susa.

    Urbino                  S. Angelo in Vado-Urbania, Cagli-Pergola,
                              Fossombrone, Montefeltro, Pesaro,
                              Sinigaglia.

    Venice (patriarch)      Adria, Belluno-Feltre, Ceneda (Vittorio),
                              Chioggia, Concordia-Portogruaro, Padua,
                              Treviso, Verona, Vicenza.

    Vercelli                Alessandria della Paglia, Biella, Casale,
                              Monferrato, Novara, Vigevano.

  Twelve archbishops and sixty-one bishops are independent of all
  metropolitan supervision, and hold directly of the Holy See. The
  archbishops are those of Amalfi, Aquila, Camerino and Treia, Catania,
  Cosenza, Ferrara, Gaeta, Lucca, Perugia, Rossano, Spoleto, and Udine,
  and the bishops those of Acireale, Acquapendente, Alatri, Amelia,
  Anagni, Ancona-Umana, Aquino-Sora-Pontecorvo, Arezzo, Ascoli, Assisi,
  Aversa, Bagnorea, Borgo San Donnino, Cava-Sarno, Città di Castello,
  Città della Pieve, Cività Castellana-Orte-Gallese, Corneto-Civita
  Vecchia, Cortona, Fabriano-Matelica, Fano, Ferentino, Foggia, Foligno,
  Gravina-Montepeloso, Gubbio, Jesi, Luni-Sarzana and Bragnato, S.
  Marco-Bisignano, Marsi (Pescina), Melfi-Rapolla, Mileto,
  Molfetta-Terlizzi-Giovennazzo, Monopoli, Montalcino, Montefiascone,
  Montepulciano, Nardo, Narni, Nocera in Umbria, Norcia, Orvieto,
  Osimo-Cingoli, Parma, Penne-Atri, Piacenza, Poggio Mirteto,
  Recanati-Loreto, Rieti, Segni, Sutri-Nepi, Teramo, Terni,
  Terracina-Piperno-Sezze, Tivoli, Todi, Trivento, Troia, Valva-Sulmona,
  Veroli, Viterbo-Toscanella. Excluding the diocese of Rome and
  suburbicarian sees, each see has an average area of 430 sq. m. and a
  population of 121,285 souls. The largest sees exist in Venetia and
  Lombardy, and the smallest in the provinces of Naples, Leghorn, Forlì,
  Ancona, Pesaro, Urbino, Caserta, Avellino and Ascoli. The Italian sees
  (exclusive of Rome and of the suburbicarian sees) have a total annual
  revenue of £206,000 equal to an average of £800 per see. The richest
  is that of Girgenti, with £6304, and the poorest that of Porto
  Maurizio, with only £246. In each diocese is a seminary or diocesan
  school.


    Religious Foundations.

  In 1855 an act was passed in the Sardinian states for the
  disestablishment of all houses of the religious orders not engaged in
  preaching, teaching or the care of the sick, of all chapters of
  collegiate churches not having a cure of souls or existing in towns of
  less than 20,000 inhabitants, and of all private benefices for which
  no service was paid by the holders. The property and money thus
  obtained were used to form an ecclesiastical fund (_Cassa
  Ecclesiastica_) distinct from the finances of the state. This act
  resulted in the suppression of 274 monasteries with 3733 friars, of 61
  nunneries with 1756 nuns and of 2722 chapters and benefices. In 1860
  and 1861 the royal commissioners (even before the constitution of the
  new kingdom of Italy had been formally declared) issued decrees by
  which there were abolished--(1) in Umbria, 197 monasteries and 102
  convents with 1809 male and 2393 female associates, and 836 chapters
  or benefices; (2) in the Marches, 292 monasteries and 127 convents
  with 2950 male and 2728 female associates; (3) in the Neapolitan
  provinces, 747 monasteries and 275 convents with 8787 male and 7493
  female associates. There were thus disestablished in seven or eight
  years 2075 houses of the regular clergy occupied by 31,649 persons;
  and the confiscated property yielded a revenue of £398,298. And at the
  same time there had been suppressed 11,889 chapters and benefices of
  the secular clergy, which yielded an annual income of £199,149. The
  value of the capital thus potentially freed was estimated at
  £12,000,000; though hitherto the ecclesiastical possessions in
  Lombardy, Emilia, Tuscany and Sicily had been untouched. As yet the
  Cassa Ecclesiastica had no right to dispose of the property thus
  entrusted to it; but in 1862 an act was passed by which it transferred
  all its real property to the national domain, and was credited with a
  corresponding amount by the exchequer. The property could now be
  disposed of like the other property of the domain; and except in
  Sicily, where the system of emphyteusis was adopted, the church lands
  began to be sold by auction. To encourage the poorer classes of the
  people to become landholders, it was decided that the lots offered for
  sale should be small, and that the purchaser should be allowed to pay
  by five or ten yearly instalments. By a new act in 1866 the process of
  secularization was extended to the whole kingdom. All the members of
  the suppressed communities received full exercise of all the ordinary
  political and civil rights of laymen; and annuities were granted to
  all those who had taken permanent religious vows prior to the 18th of
  January 1864. To priests and choristers, for example, of the
  proprietary or endowed orders were assigned £24 per annum if they were
  upwards of sixty years of age, £16 if upwards of 40, and £14, 8s. if
  younger. The Cassa Ecclesiastica was abolished, and in its stead was
  instituted a _Fondo pel Culto_, or public worship fund. From the
  general confiscation were exempted the buildings actually used for
  public worship, as episcopal residences or seminaries, &c., or which
  had been appropriated to the use of schools, poorhouses, hospitals,
  &c.; as well as the buildings, appurtenances, and movable property of
  the abbeys of Monte Casino, Della Cava dei Tirreni, San Martino della
  Scala, Monreale, Certosa near Pavia, and other establishments of the
  same kind of importance as architectural or historical monuments. An
  annuity equal to the ascertained revenue of the suppressed
  institutions was placed to the credit of the fund in the government 5%
  consols. A fourth of this sum was to be handed to the communes to be
  employed on works of beneficence or education as soon as a surplus was
  obtained from that part of the annuity assigned for the payment of
  monastic pensions; and in Sicily, 209 communes entered on their
  privileges as soon as the patrimony was liquidated. Another act in
  1867 decreed the suppression of certain foundations which had escaped
  the action of previous measures, put an extraordinary tax of 30% on
  the whole of the patrimony of the church, and granted the government
  the right of issuing 5% bonds sufficient to bring into the treasury
  £16,000,000, which were to be accepted at their nominal value as
  purchase money for the alienated property. The public worship
  endowment fund has relieved the state exchequer of the cost of public
  worship; has gradually furnished to the poorer parish priests an
  addition to their stipends, raising them to £32 per annum, with the
  prospect of further raising them to £40; and has contributed to the
  outlay incurred by the communes for religious purposes. The monastic
  buildings required for public purposes have been made over to the
  communal and provincial authorities, while the same authorities have
  been entrusted with the administration of the ecclesiastical revenues
  previously set apart for charity and education, and objects of art and
  historical interest have been consigned to public libraries and
  museums. By these laws the reception of novices was forbidden in the
  existing conventual establishments the extinction of which had been
  decreed, and all new foundations were forbidden, except those engaged
  in instruction and the care of the sick. But the laws have not been
  rigorously enforced of late years; and the ecclesiastical possessions
  seized by the state were thrown on the market simultaneously, and so
  realized very low prices, being often bought up by wealthy religious
  institutions. The large number of these institutions was increased
  when these bodies were expelled from France.

  On the 30th of June 1903 the patrimony of the endowment fund amounted
  to £17,339,040, of which only £264,289 were represented by buildings
  still occupied by monks or nuns. The rest was made up of capital and
  interest. The liabilities of the fund (capitalized) amounted to
  £10,668,105, of which monastic pensions represented a rapidly
  diminishing sum of £2,564,930. The chief items of annual expenditure
  drawn from the fund are the supplementary stipends to priests and the
  pensions to members of suppressed religious houses. The number of
  persons in receipt of monastic pensions on the 30th of June 1899 was
  13,255; but while this item of expenditure will disappear by the
  deaths of those entitled to pensions, the supplementary stipends and
  contributions are gradually increasing. The following table shows the
  course of the two main categories of the fund from 1876 to
  1902-1903:--

    +----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
    |                            |   1876.  |1885-1886.|1898-1899.|1902-1903.|
    +----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
    | Monastic pensions,         |          |          |          |          |
    |   liquidation of religious |          |          |          |          |
    |   property and provision of|          |          |          |          |
    |   shelter for nuns         | £749,172 | £491,339 | £220,479 | £165,144 |
    | Supplementary stipends to  |          |          |          |          |
    |   bishops and parochial    |          |          |          |          |
    |   clergy, assignments to   |          |          |          |          |
    |   Sardinian clergy and     |          |          |          |          |
    |   expenditure for education|          |          |          |          |
    |   and charitable purposes  |  142,912 |  128,521 |  210,020 |  347,940 |
    +----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

  _Roman Charitable and Religious Fund._--The law of the 19th of June
  1873 contained special provisions, in conformity with the character of
  Rome as the seat of the papacy, and with the situation created by the
  Law of Guarantees. According to the census of 1871 there were in the
  city and province of Rome 474 monastic establishments (311 for monks,
  163 for nuns), occupied by 4326 monks and 3825 nuns, and possessing a
  gross revenue of 4,780,891 lire. Of these, 126 monasteries and 90
  convents were situated in the city, 51 monasteries and 22 convents in
  the "suburbicariates." The law of 1873 created a special charitable
  and religious fund of the city, while it left untouched 23 monasteries
  and 49 convents which had either the character of private institutions
  or were supported by foreign funds. New parishes were created, old
  parishes were improved, the property of the suppressed religious
  corporations was assigned to charitable and educational institutions
  and to hospitals, while property having no special application was
  used to form a charitable and religious fund. On the 30th of June 1903
  the balance-sheet of this fund showed a credit amounting to £1,796,120
  and a debit of £460,819. Expenditure for the year 1902-1903 was
  £889,858 and revenue £818,674.

_Constitution and Government._--The Vatican palace itself (with St
Peter's), the Lateran palace, and the papal villa at Castel Gandolfo
have secured to them the privilege of extraterritoriality by the law of
1871. The small republic of San Marino is the only other enclave in
Italian territory. Italy is a constitutional monarchy, in which the
executive power belongs exclusively to the sovereign, while the
legislative power is shared by him with the parliament. He holds supreme
command by land and sea, appoints ministers and officials, promulgates
the laws, coins money, bestows honours, has the right of pardoning, and
summons and dissolves the parliament. Treaties with foreign powers,
however, must have the consent of parliament. The sovereign is
irresponsible, the ministers, the signature of one of whom is required
to give validity to royal decrees, being responsible. Parliament
consists of two chambers, the senate and the Chamber of Deputies, which
are nominally on an equal footing, though practically the elective
chamber is the more important. The senate consists of princes of the
blood who have attained their majority, and of an unlimited number of
senators above forty years of age, who are qualified under any one of
twenty-one specified categories--by having either held high office, or
attained celebrity in science, literature, &c. In 1908 there were 318
senators exclusive of five members of the royal family. Nomination is by
the king for life. Besides its legislative functions, the senate is the
highest court of justice in the case of political offences or the
impeachment of ministers. The deputies to the lower house are 508 in
number, i.e. one to every 64,893 of the population, and all the
constituencies are single-member constituencies. The party system is not
really strong. The suffrage is extended to all citizens over twenty-one
years of age who can read and write and have either attained a certain
standard of elementary education or are qualified by paying a rent which
varies from £6 in communes of 2500 inhabitants to £16 in communes of
150,000 inhabitants, or, if peasant farmers, 16s. of rent; or by being
sharers in the profits of farms on which not less than £3, 4s. of direct
(including provincial) taxation is paid; or by paying not less than £16
in direct (including provincial) taxation. Others, e.g. members of the
professional classes, are qualified to vote by their position. The
number of electors (2,541,327) at the general election in 1904 was 29%
of the male population over twenty-one years of age, and 7.6% of the
total population--exclusive of those temporarily disfranchised on
account of military service; and of these 62.7% voted. No candidate can
be returned unless he obtains more than half the votes given and more
than one-sixth of the total number on the register; otherwise a second
ballot must be held. Nor can he be returned under the age of thirty, and
he must be qualified as an elector. All salaried government officials
(except ministers, under-secretaries of state and other high
functionaries, and officers in the army or navy), and ecclesiastics, are
disqualified for election. Senators and deputies receive no salary but
have free passes on railways throughout Italy and on certain lines of
steamers. Parliaments are quinquennial, but the king may dissolve the
Chamber of Deputies at any time, being bound, however, to convoke a new
chamber within four months. The executive must call parliament together
annually. Each of the chambers has the right of introducing new bills,
as has also the government; but all money bills must originate in the
Chamber of Deputies. The consent of both chambers and the assent of the
king is necessary to their being passed. Ministers may attend the
debates of either house but can only vote in that of which they are
members. The sittings of both houses are public, and an absolute
majority of the members must be present to make a sitting valid. The
ministers are eleven in number and have salaries of about £1000 each;
the presidency of the council of ministers (created in 1889) may be held
by itself or (as is usual) in conjunction with any other portfolio. The
ministries are: interior (under whom are the prefects of the several
provinces), foreign affairs, treasury (separated from finance in 1889),
finance, public works, justice and ecclesiastical affairs, war, marine,
public instruction, commerce, industry and agriculture, posts and
telegraphs (separated from public works in 1889). Each minister is aided
by an under-secretary of state at a salary of £500. There is a council
of state with advisory functions, which can also decide certain
questions of administration, especially applications from local
authorities and conflicts between ministries, and a court of accounts,
which has the right of examining all details of state expenditure. In
every country the bureaucracy is abused, with more or less reason, for
unprogressiveness, timidity and "red-tape," and Italy is no exception to
the rule. The officials are not well paid, and are certainly numerous;
while the manifold checks and counterchecks have by no means always been
sufficient to prevent dishonesty.

  _Titles of Honour._--The former existence of so many separate
  sovereignties and "fountains of honour" gave rise to a great many
  hereditary titles of nobility. Besides many hundreds of princes,
  dukes, marquesses, counts, barons and viscounts, there are a large
  number of persons of "patrician" rank, persons with a right to the
  designation _nobile_ or _signori_, and certain hereditary knights or
  cavalieri. In the "Golden Book of the Capitol" (_Libro d'Oro del
  Campidoglio_) are inscribed 321 patrician families, and of these 28
  have the title of prince and 8 that of duke, while the others are
  marquesses, counts or simply patricians. For the Italian orders of
  knighthood see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY: _Orders of Knighthood_. The
  king's uncle is duke of Aosta, his son is prince of Piedmont and his
  cousin is duke of Genoa.

  _Justice._--The judiciary system of Italy is mainly framed on the
  French model. Italy has courts of cassation at Rome, Naples, Palermo,
  Turin, Florence, 20 appeal court districts, 162 tribunal districts and
  1535 _mandamenti_, each with its own magistracy (_pretura_). In 13 of
  the principal towns there are also _pretori_ who have exclusively
  penal jurisdiction. For minor civil cases involving sums up to 100
  lire (£4), _giudici conciliatori_ have also jurisdiction, while they
  may act as arbitrators up to any amount by request. The Roman court of
  cassation is the highest, and in both penal and civil matters has a
  right to decide questions of law and disputes between the lower
  judicial authorities, and is the only one which has jurisdiction in
  penal cases, while sharing with the others the right to revise civil
  cases.

  The _pretori_ have penal jurisdiction concerning all misdemeanours
  (_contravvenzioni_) or offences (_delitti_) punishable by imprisonment
  not exceeding three months or by fine not exceeding 1000 lire (£40).
  The penal tribunals have jurisdiction in cases involving imprisonment
  up to ten years, or a fine exceeding £40, while the assize courts,
  with a jury, deal with offences involving imprisonment for life or
  over ten years, and have exclusive jurisdiction (except that the
  senate is on occasion a high court of justice) over all political
  offences. Appeal may be made from the sentences of the _pretori_ to
  the tribunals, and from the tribunals to the courts of appeal; from
  the assize courts there is no appeal except on a point of form, which
  appeal goes to the court of cassation at Rome. This court has the
  supreme power in all questions of legality of a sentence, jurisdiction
  or competency.

  The penal code was unified and reformed in 1890. A reform of late
  years is the _condanna condizionale_, equivalent to the English "being
  bound over to appear for judgment if called upon," applied in 94,489
  cases in 1907. In civil matters there is appeal from the _giudice
  conciliatore_ to the _pretore_ (who has jurisdiction up to a sum of
  1500 lire = £60) from the _pretore_ to the civil tribunal, from the
  civil tribunal to the court of appeal, and from the court of appeal to
  the court of cassation.

  The judges of all kinds are very poorly paid. Even the first president
  of the Rome court of cassation only receives £600 a year.

  The statistics of civil proceedings vary considerably from province to
  province. Lombardy, with 25 lawsuits per 1000 inhabitants, holds the
  lowest place; Emilia comes next with 31 per 1000; Tuscany has 39;
  Venetia, 42; Calabria, 144; Rome, 146; Apulia, 153; and Sardinia, 360
  per 1000. The high average in Sardinia is chiefly due to cases within
  the competence of the conciliation offices. The number of penal
  proceedings, especially those within the competence of praetors, has
  also increased, chiefly on account of the frequency of minor
  contraventions of the law referred to in the section _Crime_. The
  ratio of criminal proceedings to population is, as a rule, much higher
  in the south than in the north.

  A royal decree, dated February 1891, established three classes of
  prisons: judiciary prisons, for persons awaiting examination or
  persons sentenced to arrest, detention or seclusion for less than six
  months; penitentiaries of various kinds (_ergastoli_, _case di
  reclusione_, _detenzione_ or _custodia_), for criminals condemned to
  long terms of imprisonment; and reformatories, for criminals under age
  and vagabonds. Capital punishment was abolished in 1877, penal
  servitude for life being substituted. This generally involves solitary
  confinement of the most rigorous nature, and, as little is done to
  occupy the mind, the criminal not infrequently becomes insane. Certain
  types of dangerous individuals are relegated after serving a sentence
  in the ordinary convict prisons, and by administrative, not by
  judicial process, to special penal colonies known as _domicilii
  coatti_ or "forced residences." These establishments are, however,
  unsatisfactory, being mostly situated on small islands, where it is
  often difficult to find work for the _coatti_, who are free by day,
  being only confined at night. They receive a small and hardly
  sufficient, allowance for food of 50 _centesimi_ a day, which they are
  at liberty to supplement by work if they can find it or care to do it.

  Notwithstanding the construction of new prisons and the transformation
  of old ones, the number of cells for solitary confinement is still
  insufficient for a complete application of the penal system
  established by the code of 1890, and the moral effect of the
  association of the prisoners is not good, though the system of
  solitary confinement as practised in Italy is little better. The total
  number of prisoners, including minors and inhabitants of enforced
  residences, which from 76,066 (2.84 per 1000 inhabitants) on the 31st
  of December 1871 rose to a maximum of 80,792 on the 31st of December
  1879 (2.87 per 1000), decreased to a minimum of 60,621 in 1896 (1.94
  per 1000), and on the 31st of December 1898 rose again to 75,470
  (2.38 per 1000), of whom 7038, less than one-tenth, were women. The
  lowness of the figures regarding women is to be noticed throughout. On
  the 31st of December 1903 it had decreased to 65,819, of which 6044
  were women. Of these, 31,219 were in lockups, 25,145 in penal
  establishments, 1837 minors in government, and 4547 in private
  reformatories, and 3071 (males) were inmates of forced residences.

  _Crime._--Statistics of offences, including _contravvenzioni_ or
  breaches of by-laws and regulations, exhibit a considerable increase
  per 100,000 inhabitants since 1887, and only a slight diminution on
  the figures of 1897. The figure was 1783.45 per 100,000 in 1887,
  2164.46 in 1892, 2546.49 in 1897, 2497.90 in 1902. The increase is
  partly covered by _contravvenzioni_, but almost every class of penal
  offence shows a rise except homicide, and even in that the diminution
  is slow, 5418 in 1880, 3966 in 1887, 4408 in 1892, 4005 in 1897, 3202
  in 1902; and Italy remains, owing to the frequent use of the knife,
  the European country in which it is most frequent. Libels, insults,
  &c., resistance to public authority, offences against good customs,
  thefts and frauds, have increased; assaults are nearly stationary.
  There is also an increase in juvenile delinquency. From 1890 to 1900
  the actual number rose by one-third (from 30,108 to 43,684), the
  proportion to the rest of those sentenced from one-fifth to
  one-fourth; while in 1905 the actual number rose to 67,944, being a
  considerable proportionate rise also. In Naples, the Camorra and in
  Sicily, the Mafia are secret societies whose power of resistance to
  authority is still not inconsiderable.

  Procedure, both civil and criminal, is somewhat slow, and the
  preliminary proceedings before the _juge d'instruction_ occupy much
  time; and recent murder trials, by the large number of witnesses
  called (including experts) and the lengthy speeches of counsel, have
  been dragged out to an unconscionable length. In this, as in the
  intervention of the presiding judge, the French system has been
  adopted; and it is said (e.g. by Nathan, _Vent' anni di vita
  italiana_, p. 241) that the efforts of the _juge d'instruction_ are,
  as a rule, in fact, though not in law, largely directed to prove that
  the accused is guilty. In 1902 of 884,612 persons accused of penal
  offences, 13.12% were acquitted during the period of the
  _instruction_, 30.31 by the courts, 46.32 condemned and the rest
  acquitted in some other way. This shows that charges, often involving
  preliminary imprisonment, are brought against an excessive proportion
  of persons who either are not or cannot be proved to be guilty. The
  courts of appeal and cassation, too, often have more than they can do;
  in the year 1907 the court of cassation at Rome decided 948 appeals on
  points of law in civil cases, while no fewer than 460 remained to be
  decided.

  As in most civilized countries, the number of suicides in Italy has
  increased from year to year.

  The Italian suicide rate of 63.6 per 1,000,000 is, however, lower than
  those of Denmark, Switzerland, Germany and France, while it
  approximates to that of England. The Italian rate is highest in the
  more enlightened and industrial north, and lowest in the south. Emilia
  gives a maximum rate of 10.48 per 100,000, while that of Liguria and
  Lazio is little lower. The minimum of 1.27 is found in the Basilicata,
  though Calabria gives only 2.13. About 20% of the total are women, and
  there is an increase of nearly 3% since 1882 in the proportion of
  suicides under twenty years of age.

_Army._--The Italian army grew out of the old Piedmontese army with
which in the main the unification of Italy was brought about. This
unification meant for the army the absorption of contingents from all
parts of Italy and presenting serious differences in physical and moral
aptitudes, political opinions and education. Moreover the strategic
geography of the country required the greater part of the army to be
stationed permanently within reach of the north-eastern and
north-western frontiers. These conditions made a territorial system of
recruiting or organization, as understood in Germany, practically
impossible. To secure fairly uniform efficiency in the various corps,
and also as a means of unifying Italy, Piedmontese, Umbrians and
Neapolitans are mixed in the same corps and sleep in the same barrack
room. But on leaving the colours the men disperse to their homes, and
thus a regiment has, on mobilization, to draw largely on the nearest
reservists, irrespective of the corps to which they belong. The remedy
for this condition of affairs is sought in a most elaborate and
artificial system of transferring officers and men from one unit to
another at stated intervals in peace-time, but this is no more than a
palliative, and there are other difficulties of almost equal importance
to be surmounted. Thus in Italy the universal service system, though
probably the best organization both for the army and the nation, works
with a maximum of friction. "Army Reform," therefore, has been very much
in the forefront of late years owing to the estrangement of Austria
(which power can mobilize much more rapidly), but financial difficulties
have hitherto stood in the way of any radical and far-reaching reforms,
and even the proposals of the Commission of 1907, referred to below,
have only been partially accepted.

  The law of 1875 therefore still regulates the principles of military
  service in Italy, though an important modification was made in
  1907-1908. By this law, every man liable and accepted for service
  served for eight or nine years on the _Active Army_ and its _Reserve_
  (of which three to five were spent with the colours), four or five in
  the _Mobile Militia_, and the rest of the service period of nineteen
  years in the _Territorial Militia_. Under present regulations the term
  of liability is divided into nine years in the _Active Army and
  Reserve_ (three or two years with the colours) four in the _Mobile
  Militia_ and six in the _Territorial Militia_. But these figures do
  not represent the actual service of every able-bodied Italian. Like
  almost all "Universal Service" countries, Italy only drafts a small
  proportion of the available recruits into the army.

  The following table shows the operation of the law of 1875, with the
  figures of 1871 for comparison:--

    +----------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
    |                      |      30th Sept.     |      30th June.     |
    |                      +----------+----------+----------+----------+
    |                      |   1871.  |   1881.  |   1891.  |   1901.  |
    +----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
    | Officers*            |   14,070 |   22,482 |   36,739 |   36,718 |
    | Men                  |  521,969 |1,833,554 |2,821,367 |3,330,202 |
    | Acting Army & Reserve|  536,039 |  731,149 |  843,160 |  734,401 |
    | Mobile Militia       |    ..    |  294,714 |  445,315 |  320,170 |
    | Territorial Militia  |    ..    |  823,970 |1,553,784 |2,275,631 |
    +----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

    * Including officers on special service or in the reserve.

  Thus, on the 30th of September 1871 the various categories of the army
  included only 2% of the population, but on the 30th of June 1898 they
  included 10%. But in 1901 the strength of the active army and reserve
  shows a marked diminution, which became accentuated in the year
  following. The table below indicates that up to 1907 the army, though
  always below its nominal strength, never absorbed more than a quarter
  of the available contingent.

    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    |                                |  1902. |  1903. |  1904. |  1906. |
    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Liable                         |441,171 |453,640 |469,860 |475,737 |
    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Physically unfit               | 91,176 | 98,065 |119,070 |122,559 |
    | Struck off                     | 12,270 | 13,189 | 13,130 | 18,222 |
    | Failed to appear               | 33,634 | 34,711 | 39,219 | 40,226 |
    | Put back for re-examination    |108,835 |108,618 |107,173 |122,205 |
    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Assigned to Territorial Militia|        |        |        |        |
    |   and excused peace service    | 92,952 | 96,916 | 94,136 | 87,032 |
    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
    | Assigned to active army        |102,204 |102,141 | 97,132 | 87,493 |
    | Joined active army             | 88,666 | 86,448 | 81,581 | 66,836 |
    +--------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

  The serious condition of recruiting was quickly noticed, and the
  tabulation of each year's results was followed by a new draft law, but
  no solution was achieved until a special commission assembled. The
  inquiries made by this body revealed an unsatisfactory condition in
  the national defences, traceable in the main to financial exigencies,
  and as regards recruiting a new law was brought into force in
  1907-1908.

  One specially difficult point concerned the effectives of the
  peace-strength army. Hitherto the actual time of training had been
  less than the nominal. The recruits due to join in November were not
  incorporated till the following March, and thus in the winter months
  Italy was defenceless. The army is always maintained at a low peace
  effective (about one-quarter of war establishment) and even this was
  reduced, by the absence of the recruits, until there were often only
  15 rank and file with a company, whose war strength is about 230. Even
  in the summer and autumn a large proportion of the army consisted of
  men with but a few months' service--a highly dangerous state of things
  considering the peculiar mobilization conditions of the country.
  Further--and this case no legislation can cover--the contingent, and
  (what is more serious) the reserves, are being steadily weakened by
  emigration. The increase in the numbers rejected as unfit is accounted
  for by the fact that if only a small proportion of the contingent can
  be taken for service, the medical standard of acceptance is high.

  The new recruiting scheme of 1907 re-established three categories of
  recruits,[4] the 2nd category corresponding practically to the German
  _Ersatz-Reserve_. The men classed in it have to train for six months,
  and they are called up in the late summer to bridge the gap above
  mentioned. The new terms of service for the other categories have been
  already stated. In consequence, in 1908, of 490,000 liable, some
  110,000 actually joined for full training and 24,000 of the new 2nd
  category for short training, which contrasts very forcibly with the
  feeble embodiments of 1906 and 1907. These changes threw a
  considerable strain on the finances, but the imminence of the danger
  caused their acceptance.

The peace strength under the new scheme is nominally 300,000, but
actually (average throughout the year) about 240,000. The army is
organized in 12 army corps (each of 2 divisions), 6 of which are
quartered on the plain of Lombardy and Venetia and on the frontiers, and
2 more in northern Central Italy. Their headquarters are: I. Turin, II.
Alessandria, III. Milan, IV. Genoa, V. Verona, VI. Bologna, VII. Ancona,
VIII. Florence, IX. Rome, X. Naples, XI. Bari, XII. Palermo, Sardinian
division Cagliari. In addition there are 22 "Alpini" battalions and 15
mountain batteries stationed on the Alpine frontiers.

The war strength was estimated in 1901 as, _Active Army_ (incl. Reserve)
750,000, _Mobile Militia_ 320,000, _Territorial Militia_ 2,300,000 (more
than half of the last-named untrained). These figures are, with a
fractional increase in the Regular Army, applicable to-day. When the
1907 scheme takes full effect, however, the Active Army and the Mobile
Militia will each be augmented by about one-third. In 1915 the field
army should, including officers and permanent _cadres_, be about
1,012,000 strong. The Mobile Militia will not, however, at that date
have felt the effects of the scheme, and the Territorial Militia
(setting the drain of emigration against the increased population) will
probably remain at about the same figure as in 1901.

  The army consists of 96 three-battalion regiments of infantry of the
  line and 12 of _bersaglieri_ (riflemen), each of the latter having a
  cyclist company (Bersaglieri cyclist battalions are being (1909)
  provisionally formed); 26 regiments of cavalry, of which 10 are
  lancers, each of 6 squadrons; 24 regiments of artillery, each of 8
  batteries;[5] 1 regiment of horse artillery of 6 batteries; 1 of
  mountain artillery of 12 batteries, and 3 independent mountain
  batteries. The armament of the infantry is the Männlicher-Carcano
  magazine rifle of 1891. The field and horse artillery was in 1909 in
  process of rearmament with a Krupp quick-firer. The garrison artillery
  consists of 3 coast and 3 fortress regiments, with a total of 72
  companies. There are 4 regiments (11 battalions) of engineers. The
  _carabinieri_ or gendarmerie, some 26,500 in number, are part of the
  standing army; they are recruited from selected volunteers from the
  army. In 1902 the special corps in Eritrea numbered about 4700 of all
  ranks, including nearly 4000 natives.

  Ordinary and extraordinary military expenditure for the financial year
  1898-1899 amounted to nearly £10,000,000, an increase of £4,000,000 as
  compared with 1871. The Italian Chamber decided that from the 1st of
  July 1901 until the 30th of June 1907 Italian military expenditure
  proper should not exceed the maximum of £9,560,000 per annum fixed by
  the Army Bill of May 1897, and that military pensions should not
  exceed £1,440,000. Italian military expenditure was thus until 1907
  £11,000,000 per annum. In 1908 the ordinary and extraordinary
  expenditure was £10,000,000. The demands of the Commission were only
  partly complied with, but a large special grant was voted amounting to
  at least £1,000,000 per annum for the next seven years. The amount
  spent is slight compared with the military expenditure of other
  countries.

  The Alpine frontier is fortified strongly, although the condition of
  the works was in many cases considered unsatisfactory by the 1907
  Commission. The fortresses in the basin of the Po chiefly belong to
  the era of divided Italy and are now out of date; the chief coast
  fortresses are Vado, Genoa, Spezia, Monte Argentaro, Gaeta, Straits of
  Messina, Taranto, Maddalena. Rome is protected by a circle of forts
  from a _coup de main_ from the sea, the coast, only 12 m. off, being
  flat and deserted.

_Navy._--For purposes of naval organization the Italian coast is divided
into three maritime departments, with headquarters at Spezia, Naples and
Venice; and into two _comandi militari_, with headquarters at Taranto
and at the island of Maddalena. The _personnel_ of the navy consists of
the following corps: (1) General staff; (2) naval engineers, chiefly
employed in building and repairing war vessels; (3) sanitary corps; (4)
commissariat corps, for supplies and account-keeping; (5) crews.

The _matériel_ of the Italian navy has been completely transformed,
especially in virtue of the bill of the 31st of March 1875. Old types of
vessels have been sold or demolished, and replaced by newer types.

  In March 1907 the Italian navy contained, excluding ships of no
  fighting value:--

    +---------------------+----------+-----------+----------+
    |                     |Effective.|Completing.|Projected.|
    +---------------------+----------+-----------+----------+
    | Modern battleships  |     4    |     4     |     3    |
    | Old battleships     |    10    |    ..     |    ..    |
    | Armoured cruisers   |     6    |     2     |    ..    |
    | Protected cruisers  |    14    |    ..     |    ..    |
    | Torpedo gunboats    |    13    |    ..     |    ..    |
    | Destroyers          |    13    |     4     |    10    |
    | Modern torpedo boats|    34    |    ..     |    15    |
    | Submarines          |     1    |     4     |     2    |
    +---------------------+----------+-----------+----------+

  The four modern ships--the "Vittorio Emanuele" class, laid down in
  1897--have a tonnage of 12,625, two 12-in. and twelve 8-in. guns, an
  I.H.P. of 19,000, and a designed speed of 22 knots, being intended to
  avoid any battleship and to carry enough guns to destroy any cruiser.

  The _personnel_ on active service consisted of 1799 officers and
  25,000 men, the former being doubled and the latter trebled since
  1882.

  Naval expenditure has enormously increased since 1871, the total for
  1871 having been about £900,000, and the total for 1905-1906 over
  £5,100,000. Violent fluctuations have, however, taken place from year
  to year, according to the state of Italian finances. To permit the
  steady execution of a normal programme of shipbuilding, the Italian
  Chamber, in May 1901, adopted a resolution limiting naval expenditure,
  inclusive of naval pensions and of premiums on mercantile
  shipbuilding, to the sum of £4,840,000 for the following six years,
  i.e. from 1st July 1901 until 30th June 1907. This sum consists of
  £4,240,000 of naval expenditure proper, £220,000 for naval pensions
  and £380,000 for premiums upon mercantile shipbuilding. During the
  financial year ending on the 30th of June 1901 these figures were
  slightly exceeded.

_Finance._--The volume of the Italian budget has considerably increased
as regards both income and expenditure. The income of £60,741,418 in
1881 rose in 1899-1900 to £69,917,126; while the expenditure increased
from £58,705,929 in 1881 to £69,708,706 in 1899-1900, an increase of
£9,175,708 in income and £11,002,777 in expenditure, while there has
been a still further increase since, the figures for 1905-1906 showing
(excluding items which figure on both sides of the account) an increase
of £8,766,995 in income and £5,434,560 in expenditure over 1899-1900.
These figures include not only the categories of "income and
expenditure" proper, but also those known as "movement of capital,"
"railway constructions" and "_partite di giro_" which do not constitute
real income and expenditure.[6] Considering only income and expenditure
proper, the approximate totals are:--

    +---------------+------------+------------+------------+
    |Financial Year.|  Revenue.  |Expenditure.|Surpluses or|
    |               |            |            |  Deficits. |
    +---------------+------------+------------+------------+
    |      1882     |£52,064,800 |£51,904,800 |£+  160,000 |
    |   1885-1886   | 56,364,000 | 57,304,400 | -  940,000 |
    |   1890-1891   | 61,600,000 | 64,601,600 | -3,001,600 |
    |   1895-1896   | 65,344,000 | 67,962,800 | -2,618,800 |
    |   1898-1899   | 66,352,800 | 65,046,400 | +1,306,400 |
    |   1899-1900   | 66,860,800 | 65,323,600 | +1,537,200 |
    |   1900-1901   | 68,829,200 | 66,094,400 | +2,734,800 |
    |   1905-1906   | 77,684,100 | 75,143,300 | +2,540,900 |
    +---------------+------------+------------+------------+

  The financial year 1862 closed with a deficit of more than
  £16,000,000, which increased in 1866 to £28,840,000 on account of the
  preparations for the war against Austria. Excepting the increases of
  deficit in 1868 and 1870, the annual deficits tended thenceforward to
  decrease, until in 1875 equilibrium between expenditure and revenue
  was attained, and was maintained until 1881. Advantage was taken of
  the equilibrium to abolish certain imposts, amongst them the grist
  tax, which prior to its gradual repeal produced more than £3,200,000
  a year. From 1885-1886 onwards, outlay on public works, military and
  colonial expenditure, and especially the commercial and financial
  crises, contributed to produce annual deficits; but owing to drastic
  reforms introduced in 1894-1895 and to careful management the year
  1898-1899 marked a return of surpluses (nearly £1,306,400).

  The revenue in the Italian financial year 1905-1906 (July 1, 1905 to
  June 30, 1906) was £102,486,108, and the expenditure £99,945,253, or,
  subtracting the _partite di giro_, £99,684,121 and £97,143,266,
  leaving a surplus of £2,540,855.[7] The surplus was made up by
  contributions from every branch of the effective revenue, except the
  "contributions and repayments from local authorities." The railways
  showed an increase of £351,685; registration transfer and succession,
  £295,560; direct taxation, £42,136 (mainly from income tax, which more
  than made up for the remission of the house tax in the districts of
  Calabria visited by the earthquake of 1906); customs and excise,
  £1,036,742; government monopolies, £291,027; posts, £41,310;
  telegraphs, £23,364; telephones, £65,771. Of the surplus £1,000,000
  was allocated to the improvement of posts, telegraphs and telephones;
  £1,000,000 to public works (£720,000 for harbour improvement and
  £280,000 for internal navigation); £200,000 to the navy (£132,000 for
  a second dry dock at Taranto and £68,000 for coal purchase); and
  £200,000 as a nucleus of a fund for the purchase of valuable works of
  art which are in danger of exportation.


    Taxation.

  The state therefore draws its principal revenues from the imposts, the
  taxes and the monopolies. According to the Italian tributary system,
  "imposts," properly so called are those upon land, buildings and
  personal estate. The impost upon land is based upon the cadastral
  survey independently of the vicissitudes of harvests. In 1869 the main
  quota to the impost was increased by one-tenth, in addition to the
  extra two-tenths previously imposed in 1866. Subsequently, it was
  decided to repeal these additional tenths, the first being abolished
  in 1886 and the rest in 1887. On account of the inequalities still
  existing in the cadastral survey, in spite of the law of 1886 (see
  _Agriculture_, above), great differences are found in the land tax
  assessments in various parts of Italy. Land is not so heavily burdened
  by the government quota as by the additional centimes imposed by the
  provincial and communal authorities. On an average Italian landowners
  pay nearly 25% of their revenues from land in government and local
  land tax. The buildings impost has been assessed since 1866 upon the
  basis of 12.50% of "taxable revenue." Taxable revenue corresponds to
  two-thirds of actual income from factories and to three-fourths of
  actual income from houses; it is ascertained by the agents of the
  financial administration. In 1869, however, a third additional tenth
  was added to the previously existing additional two-tenths, and,
  unlike the tenths of the land tax, they have not been abolished. At
  present the main quota with the additional three-tenths amounts to
  16.25% of taxable income. The imposts on incomes from personal estate
  (_ricchezza mobile_) were introduced in 1866; it applies to incomes
  derived from investments, industry or personal enterprise, but not to
  landed revenues. It is proportional, and is collected by deduction
  from salaries and pensions paid to servants of the state, where it is
  assessed on three-eighths of the income, and from interest on
  consolidated stock, where it is assessed on the whole amount; and by
  register in the cases of private individuals, who pay on three-fourths
  of their income, professional men, capitalists or manufacturers, who
  pay on one-half or nine-twentieths of their income. From 1871 to 1894
  it was assessed at 13.20% of taxable income, this quota being formed
  of 12% main quota and 1.20% as an additional tenth. In 1894 the quota,
  including the additional tenth, was raised to the uniform level of
  20%. One-tenth of the tax is paid to the communes as compensation for
  revenues made over to the state.

  Taxes proper are divided into (a) taxes on business transactions and
  (b) taxes on articles of consumption. The former apply principally to
  successions, stamps, registrations, mortgages, &c.; the latter to
  distilleries, breweries, explosives, native sugar and matches, though
  the customs revenue and octrois upon articles of general consumption,
  such as corn, wine, spirits, meat, flour, petroleum, butter, tea,
  coffee and sugar, may be considered as belonging to this class. The
  monopolies are those of salt, tobacco and the lottery.

  Since 1880, while income from the salt and lotto monopolies has
  remained almost stationary, and that from land tax and octroi has
  diminished, revenue derived from all other sources has notably
  increased, especially that from the income tax on personal estate, and
  the customs, the yield from which has been nearly doubled.

  It will be seen that the revenue is swollen by a large number of taxes
  which can only be justified by necessity; the reduction and, still
  more, the readjustment of taxation (which now largely falls on
  articles of primary necessity) is urgently needed. The government in
  presenting the estimates for 1907-1908 proposed to set aside a sum of
  nearly £800,000 every year for this express purpose. It must be
  remembered that the sums realized by the octroi go in the main to the
  various communes. It is only in Rome and Naples that the octroi is
  collected directly by the government, which pays over a certain
  proportion to the respective communes.

  The external taxation is not only strongly protectionist, but is
  applied to goods which cannot be made in Italy; hardly anything comes
  in duty free, even such articles as second-hand furniture paying duty,
  unless within six months of the date at which the importer has
  declared domicile in Italy. The application, too, is somewhat
  rigorous, e.g. the tax on electric light is applied to foreign ships
  generating their own electricity while lying in Italian ports.

  The annual consumption per inhabitant of certain kinds of food and
  drink has considerably increased, e.g. grain from 270 lb. per head in
  1884-1885 to 321 lb. in 1901-1902 (maize remains almost stationary at
  158 lb.); wine from 73 to 125 litres per head; oil from 12 to 13 lb.
  per head (sugar is almost stationary at 7¼ lb. per head, and coffee at
  about 1 lb.); salt from 14 to 16 lb. per head. Tobacco slightly
  diminished in weight at a little over 1 lb. per head, while the gross
  receipts are considerably increased--by over 2¼ millions sterling
  since 1884-1885--showing that the quality consumed is much better. The
  annual expenditure on tobacco was 5s. per inhabitant in 1902-1903, and
  is increasing.

  The annual surpluses are largely accounted for by the heavy taxation
  on almost everything imported into the country,[8] and by the
  monopolies on tobacco and on salt; and are as a rule spent, and well
  spent, in other ways. Thus, that of 1907-1908 was devoted mainly to
  raising the salaries of government officials and university
  professors; even then the maximum for both (in the former class, for
  an under-secretary of state) was only £500 per annum. The case is
  frequent, too, in which a project is sanctioned by law, but is then
  not carried into execution, or only partly so, owing to the lack of
  funds. Additional stamp duties and taxes were imposed in 1909 to meet
  the expenditure necessitated by the disastrous earthquake at the end
  of 1908.

  The way in which the taxes press on the poor may be shown by the
  number of small proprietors sold up owing to inability to pay the land
  and other taxes. In 1882 the number of landed proprietors was 14.52%
  of the population, in 1902 only 12.66, with an actual diminution of
  some 30,000. Had the percentage of 1882 been kept up there would have
  been in 1902 600,000 more proprietors than there were. Between 1884
  and 1902 no fewer than 220,616 sales were effected for failure to pay
  taxes, while, from 1886 to 1902, 79,208 expropriations were effected
  for other debts not due to the state. In 1884 there were 20,422 sales,
  of which 35.28% were for debts of 4s. or less, and 51.95 for debts
  between 4s. and £2; in 1902 there were 4857 sales, but only 11.01% for
  debts under 4s. (the treasury having given up proceeding in cases
  where the property is a tiny piece of ground, sometimes hardly capable
  of cultivation), and 55.69% for debts between 4s. and £2. The
  expropriations deal as a rule with properties of higher value; of
  these there were 3217 in 1886, 5993 in 1892 (a period of agricultural
  depression), 3910 in 1902. About 22% of them are for debts under £40,
  about 49% from £40 to £200, about 26% from £200 to £2000.


    Expenditure.

  Of the expenditure a large amount is absorbed by interest on debt.
  Debt has continually increased with the development of the state. The
  sum paid in interest on debt amounted to £17,640,000 in 1871,
  £19,440,000 in 1881, £25,600,000 in 1891-1892 and £27,560,000 in
  1899-1900; but had been reduced to £23,100,409 by the 30th of June
  1906. The public debt at that date was composed as follows:--

      Part I.--_Funded Debt._

    Grand Livre--                                  Amount.

      Consolidated 5%                           £316,141,802
            "      3%                              6,404,335
            "      4½% net                        28,872,511
            "      4%   "                          7,875,592
            "      3½%  "                         37,689,880
                                                ------------
    Total                                       £396,984,120
    Debts to be transferred to the Grand Livre.       60,868
    Perpetual annuity to the Holy See              2,580,000
    Perpetual debts (Modena, Sicily, Naples)       2,591,807

                          Total                 £402,216,795

      Part II.--_Unfunded Debt._

    Debts separately inscribed in the Grand
      Livre                                       10,042,027

    Various railway obligations, redeemable, &c.  56,375,351

    Sicilian indemnities                             195,348

    Capital value of annual payment to South
      Austrian Company                            37,102,908

    Long date Treasury warrants, law of July 7,
      1901                                         1,416,200

    Railway certificates (3.65% net),
      Art. 6 of law, June 25, 1905, No. 261       14,220,000
                                                ------------
                          Total                 £119,351,834
                          Part I.               £402,216,795
                                                ------------
                             Grand Total        £521,568,629

  The debt per head of population was, in 1905, £14, 16s. 3d., and the
  interest 13s. 5d.

  In July 1906 the 5% gross (4% net), and 4% net rente were successfully
  converted into 3¾% stock (to be reduced to 3½% after five years), to a
  total amount of £324,017,393. The demands for reimbursement at par
  represented a sum of only £187,588 and the market value of the stock
  was hardly affected; while the saving to the Treasury was to be
  £800,000 per annum for the first five years and about double the
  amount afterwards.

  _Currency._--The _lira_ (plural _lire_) of 100 _centesimi_ (centimes)
  is equal in value to the French franc. The total coinage (exclusive of
  Eritrean currency) from the 1st of January 1862 to the end of 1907 was
  1,104,667,116 lire (exclusive of recoinage), divided as follows: gold,
  427,516,970 lire; silver, 570,097,025 lire; nickel, 23,417,000 lire;
  bronze, 83,636,121 lire. The forced paper currency, instituted in
  1866, was abolished in 1881, in which year were dissolved the Union of
  Banks of Issue created in 1874 to furnish to the state treasury a
  milliard of lire in notes, guaranteed collectively by the banks. Part
  of the Union notes were redeemed, part replaced by 10 lire and 5 lire
  state notes, payable at sight in metallic legal tender by certain
  state banks. Nevertheless the law of 1881 did not succeed in
  maintaining the value of the state notes at a par with the metallic
  currency, and from 1885 onwards there reappeared a gold premium, which
  during 1899 and 1900 remained at about 7%, but subsequently fell to
  about 3% and has since 1902 practically disappeared. The paper
  circulation to the debit of the state and the paper currency issued by
  the authorized state banks is shown below:--

    +-------------------+----------------------------+---------------+---------------+
    |                   | Direct Liability of State. |  Notes issued |   Aggregate   |
    |        Date.      +-------------+--------------+    by State   |     Paper     |
    |                   | State Notes.|   Bons de    |     Banks.    |   Currency.   |
    |                   |             |   Caisse.*   |               |               |
    +-------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------+---------------+
    |                   |    Lire.    |     Lire.    |     Lire.     |     Lire.     |
    |31st December 1881 | 940,000,000 |      ..      |   735,579,197 | 1,675,579,197 |
    |      "       1886 | 446,665,535 |      ..      | 1,031,869,712 | 1,478,535,247 |
    |      "       1891 | 341,949,237 |      ..      | 1,121,601,079 | 1,463,550,316 |
    |      "       1896 | 400,000,000 | 110,000,000  | 1,069,233,376 | 1,579,233,376 |
    |      "       1899 | 451,431,780 |  42,138,152  | 1,180,110,330 | 1,673,680,262 |
    |      "       1905 | 441,304,780 |   1,874,184  | 1,406,474,800 | 1,848,657,764 |
    +-------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------+---------------+

    * These ceased to have legal currency at the end of 1901; they were
      notes of 1 and 2 lire.

  _Banks._--Until 1893 the juridical status of the Banks of Issue was
  regulated by the laws of the 30th of April 1874 on paper currency and
  of the 7th of April 1881 on the abolition of forced currency. At that
  time four limited companies were authorized to issue bank notes,
  namely, the National Bank, the National Bank of Tuscany, the Roman
  Bank and the Tuscan Credit Bank; and two banking corporations, the
  Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily. In 1893 the Roman Bank was put
  into liquidation, and the other three limited companies were fused, so
  as to create the Bank of Italy, the privilege of issuing bank notes
  being thenceforward confined to the Bank of Italy, the Bank of Naples
  and the Bank of Sicily. The gold reserve in the possession of the
  Banca d'Italia on September 30th 1907 amounted to £32,240,984, and the
  silver reserve to £4,767,861; the foreign treasury bonds, &c. amounted
  to £3,324,074, making the total reserve £40,332,919; while the
  circulation amounted to £54,612,234. The figures were on the 31st of
  December 1906:

    +------------------+--------------+--------------+
    |                  |     Paper    |    Reserve.  |
    |                  | Circulation. |              |
    +------------------+--------------+--------------+
    | Banca d'Italia   |  £47,504,352 |  £36,979,235 |
    | Banca di Napoli  |   13,893,152 |    9,756,284 |
    | Banca di Sicilia |    2,813,692 |    2,060,481 |
    +------------------+--------------+--------------+
    |       Total      |  £64,211,196 |  £48,796,000 |
    +------------------+--------------+--------------+

  This is considerably in excess of the circulation, £40,404,000, fixed
  by royal decree of 1900; but the issue of additional notes was
  allowed, provided they were entirely covered by a metallic reserve,
  whereas up to the fixed limit a 40% reserve only was necessary. These
  notes are of 50, 100, 500 and 1000 lire; while the state issues notes
  for 5, 10 and 25 lire, the currency of these at the end of October
  1906 being £17,546,967; with a total guarantee of £15,636,000 held
  against them. They were in January 1908 equal in value to the metallic
  currency of gold and silver.

  The price of Italian consolidated 5% (gross, 4% net, allowing for the
  20% income tax) stock, which is the security most largely negotiated
  abroad, and used in settling differences between large financial
  institutions, has steadily risen during recent years. After being
  depressed between 1885 and 1894, the prices in Italy and abroad
  reached, in 1899, on the Rome Stock Exchange, the average of 100.83
  and of 94.8 on the Paris Bourse. By the end of 1901 the price of
  Italian stock on the Paris Bourse had, however, risen to par or
  thereabouts. The average price of Italian 4% in 1905 was 105.29; since
  the conversion to 3¾% net (to be further reduced to 3½ in five more
  years), the price has been about 103.5. Rates of exchange, or, in
  other words the gold premium, favoured Italy during the years
  immediately following the abolition of the forced currency in 1881. In
  1885, however, rates tended to rise, and though they fell in 1886 they
  subsequently increased to such an extent as to reach 110% at the end
  of August 1894. For the next four years they continued low, but rose
  again in 1898 and 1899. In 1900 the maximum rate was 107.32, and the
  minimum 105.40, but in 1901 rates fell considerably, and were at par
  in 1902-1909.

  There are in Italy six clearing houses, namely, the ancient one at
  Leghorn, and those of Genoa, Milan, Rome, Florence and Turin, founded
  since 1882.

  The number of ordinary banks, which diminished between 1889 and 1894,
  increased in the following years, and was 158 in 1898. At the same
  time the capital employed in banking decreased by nearly one-half,
  namely, from about £12,360,000 in 1880 to about £6,520,000 in 1898.
  This decrease was due to the liquidation of a number of large and
  small banks, amongst others the Bank of Genoa, the General Bank, and
  the Società di Credito Mobiliare Italiano of Rome, and the Genoa
  Discount Bank--establishments which alone represented £4,840,000 of
  paid-up capital. Ordinary credit operations are also carried on by the
  co-operative credit societies, of which there are some 700.


    Agrarian Credit Banks.

  Certain banks make a special business of lending money to owners of
  land or buildings (_credito fondiario_). Loans are repayable by
  instalments, and are guaranteed by first mortgages not greater in
  amount than half the value of the hypothecated property. The banks may
  buy up mortgages and advance money on current account on the security
  of land or buildings. The development of the large cities has induced
  these banks to turn their attention rather to building enterprise than
  to mortgages on rural property. The value of their land certificates
  or _cartelle fondiarie_ (representing capital in circulation) rose
  from £10,420,000 in 1881 to £15,560,000 in 1886, and to £30,720,000 in
  1891, but fell to £29,320,000 in 1896, to £27,360,000 in 1898, and to
  £24,360,000 in 1907; the amount of money lent increased from
  £10,440,000 in 1881 to £15,600,000 in 1886, and £30,800,000 in 1891,
  but fell to £29,320,000 in 1896, to £27,360,000 in 1899, and to
  £21,720,000 in 1907. The diminution was due to the law of the 10th of
  April 1893 upon the banks of issue, by which they were obliged to
  liquidate the loan and mortgage business they had previously carried
  on.

  Various laws have been passed to facilitate agrarian credit. The law
  of the 23rd of January 1887 (still in force) extended the dispositions
  of the Civil Code with regard to "privileges,"[9] and established
  special "privileges" in regard to harvested produce, produce stored in
  barns and farm buildings, and in regard to agricultural implements.
  Loans on mortgage may also be granted to landowners and agricultural
  unions, with a view to the introduction of agricultural improvements.
  These loans are regulated by special disposition, and are guaranteed
  by a share of the increased value of the land after the improvements
  have been carried out. Agrarian credit banks may, with the permission
  of the government, issue _cartelle agrarie_, or agrarian bonds,
  repayable by instalments and bearing interest.

  _Internal Administration._--It was not till 1865 that the
  administrative unity of Italy was realized. Up to that year some of
  the regions of the kingdom, such as Tuscany, continued to have a kind
  of autonomy; but by the laws of the 20th of March the whole country
  was divided into 69 provinces and 8545 communes. The extent to which
  communal independence had been maintained in Italy through all the
  centuries of its political disintegration was strongly in its favour.
  The syndic (_sindaco_) or chief magistrate of the commune was
  appointed by the king for three years, and he was assisted by a
  "municipal junta."

  Local government was modified by the law of the 10th of February 1889
  and by posterior enactments. The syndics (or mayors) are now elected
  by a secret ballot of the communal council, though they are still
  government officials. In the provincial administrations the functions
  of the prefects have been curtailed. Each province has a prefect,
  responsible to and appointed by the Ministry of the Interior, while
  each of the regions (called variously _circondarii_ and _distretti_)
  has its sub-prefect. Whereas the prefect was formerly _ex-officio_
  president of the provincial deputation or executive committee of the
  provincial council, his duties under the present law are reduced to
  mere participation in the management of provincial affairs, the
  president of the provincial deputation being chosen among and elected
  by the members of the deputation. The most important change introduced
  by the new law has been the creation in every province of a provincial
  administrative junta entrusted with the supervision of communal
  administrations, a function previously discharged by the provincial
  deputation. Each provincial administrative junta is composed, in part,
  of government nominees, and in larger part of elective elements,
  elected by the provincial council for four years, half of whom require
  to be elected every two years. The acts of communal administration
  requiring the sanction of the provincial administrative junta are
  chiefly financial. Both communal councils and prefects may appeal to
  the government against the decision of the provincial administrative
  juntas, the government being guided by the opinion of the Council of
  State. Besides possessing competence in regard to local government
  elections, which previously came within the jurisdiction of the
  provincial deputations, the provincial administrative juntas discharge
  magisterial functions in administrative affairs, and deal with appeals
  presented by private persons against acts of the communal and
  provincial administrations. The juntas are in this respect organs of
  the administrative jurisprudence created in Italy by the law of the
  1st of May 1890, in order to provide juridical protection for those
  rights and interests outside the competence of the ordinary tribunals.
  The provincial council only meets once a year in ordinary session.

  The former qualifications for electorship in local government
  elections have been modified, and it is now sufficient to pay five
  lire annually in direct taxes, five lire of certain communal taxes, or
  a certain rental (which varies according to the population of a
  commune), instead of being obliged to pay, as previously, at least
  five lire annually of direct taxes to the state. In consequence of
  this change the number of local electors increased by more than
  one-third between 1887-1889; it decreased, however, as a result of an
  extraordinary revision of the registers in 1894. The period for which
  both communal and provincial councils are elected is six years,
  one-half being renewed every three years.

  The ratio of local electors to population is in Piedmont 79%, but in
  Sicily less than 45%. The ratio of voters to qualified electors tends
  to increase; it is highest in Campania, Basilicata and in the south
  generally; the lowest percentages are given by Emilia and Liguria.


    Local finance.

  Local finance is regulated by the communal and provincial law of May
  1898, which instituted provincial administrative juntas, empowered to
  examine and sanction the acts of the communal financial
  administrations. The sanction of the provincial administrative junta
  is necessary for sales or purchases of property, alterations of rates
  (although in case of increase the junta can only act upon request of
  ratepayers paying an aggregate of one-twentieth of the local direct
  taxation), and expenditure affecting the communal budget for more than
  five years. The provincial administrative junta is, moreover,
  empowered to order "obligatory" expenditure, such as the upkeep of
  roads, sanitary works, lighting, police (i.e. the so-called "guardie
  di pubblica sicurezza," the "carabinieri" being really a military
  force; only the largest towns maintain a municipal police force),
  charities, education, &c., in case such expenditure is neglected by
  the communal authorities. The cost of fire brigades, infant asylums,
  evening and holiday schools, is classed as "optional" expenditure.
  Communal revenues are drawn from the proceeds of communal property,
  interest upon capital, taxes and local dues. The most important of the
  local dues is the gate tax, or _dazio di consumo_, which may be either
  a surtax upon commodities (such as alcoholic drinks or meat), having
  already paid customs duty at the frontier, in which case the local
  surtax may not exceed 50% of the frontier duty, or an exclusively
  communal duty limited to 10% on flour, bread and farinaceous
  products,[10] and to 20% upon other commodities. The taxes thus vary
  considerably in different towns.

  In addition, the communes have a right to levy a surtax not exceeding
  50% of the quota levied by the state upon lands and buildings; a
  family tax, or _fuocatico_, upon the total incomes of families, which,
  for fiscal purposes, are divided into various categories; a tax based
  upon the rent-value of houses, and other taxes upon cattle, horses,
  dogs, carriages and servants; also on licences for shopkeepers, hotel
  and restaurant keepers, &c.; on the slaughter of animals, stamp
  duties, one-half of the tax on bicycles, &c. Occasional sources of
  interest are found in the sale of communal property, the realization
  of communal credits, and the contraction of debt.

  The provincial administrations are entrusted with the management of
  the affairs of the provinces in general, as distinguished from those
  of the communes. Their expenditure is likewise classed as "obligatory"
  and "optional." The former category comprises the maintenance of
  provincial roads, bridges and watercourse embankments; secondary
  education, whenever this is not provided for by private institutions
  or by the state (elementary education being maintained by the
  communes), and the maintenance of foundlings and pauper lunatics.
  "Optional" expenditure includes the cost of services of general public
  interest, though not strictly indispensable. Provincial revenues are
  drawn from provincial property, school taxes, tolls and surtaxes on
  land and buildings. The provincial surtaxes may not exceed 50% of the
  quotas levied by the state. In 1897 the total provincial revenue was
  £3,732,253, of which £3,460,000 was obtained from the surtax upon
  lands and buildings. Expenditure amounted to £3,768,888, of which the
  principal items were £760,000 for roads and bridges, £520,000 for
  lunatic asylums, £240,000 for foundling hospitals, £320,000 for
  interest on debt and £200,000 for police. Like communal revenue,
  provincial revenue has considerably increased since 1880, principally
  on account of the increase in the land and building surtax.

  The Italian local authorities, communes and provinces alike, have
  considerably increased their indebtedness since 1882. The ratio of
  communal and provincial debt per inhabitant has grown from 30.79 lire
  (£1, 4s. 7½d.) to 43.70 lire (£1, 14s. 11d.), an increase due in great
  part to the need for improved buildings, hygienic reforms and
  education, but also attributable in part to the manner in which the
  finances of many communes are administered. The total was in 1900,
  £49,496,193 for the communes and £6,908,022 for the provinces. The
  former total is more than double and the latter more than treble the
  sum in 1873, while there is an increase of 62% in the former and 26%
  in the latter over the totals for 1882.

  See _Annuario statistico italiano_ (not, however, issued regularly
  each year) for general statistics; and other official publications; W.
  Deecke, _Italy; a Popular Account of the Country, its People and its
  Institutions_ (translated by H. A. Nesbitt, London, 1904); B. King and
  T. Okey, _Italy to-day_ (London, 1901); E. Nathan, _Vent' Anni di vita
  italiana attraverso all' Annuario_ (Rome, 1906); G. Strafforello,
  _Geografia dell' Italia_ (Turin, 1890-1902).     (T. As.)


HISTORY

The difficulty of Italian history lies in the fact that until modern
times the Italians have had no political unity, no independence, no
organized existence as a nation. Split up into numerous and mutually
hostile communities, they never, through the fourteen centuries which
have elapsed since the end of the old Western empire, shook off the yoke
of foreigners completely; they never until lately learned to merge their
local and conflicting interests in the common good of undivided Italy.
Their history is therefore not the history of a single people,
centralizing and absorbing its constituent elements by a process of
continued evolution, but of a group of cognate populations, exemplifying
divers types of constitutional developments.

The early history of Italy will be found under ROME and allied headings.
The following account is therefore mainly concerned with the periods
succeeding A.D. 476, when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by Odoacer.
Prefixed to this are two sections dealing respectively with (A) the
ethnographical and philological divisions of ancient Italy, and (B) the
unification of the country under Augustus, the growth of the road system
and so forth. The subsequent history is divided into five periods: (C)
From 476 to 1796; (D) From 1796 to 1814; (E) From 1815 to 1870; (F) From
1870 to 1902; (G) From 1902 to 1910.


A. ANCIENT LANGUAGES AND PEOPLES

The ethnography of ancient Italy is a very complicated and difficult
subject, and notwithstanding the researches of modern scholars is still
involved in some obscurity. The great beauty and fertility of the
country, as well as the charm of its climate, undoubtedly attracted,
even in early ages, successive swarms of invaders from the north, who
sometimes drove out the previous occupants of the most favoured
districts, at others reduced them to a state of serfdom, or settled down
in the midst of them, until the two races gradually coalesced. Ancient
writers are agreed as to the composite character of the population of
Italy, and the diversity of races that were found within the limits of
the peninsula. But unfortunately the traditions they have transmitted to
us are often various and conflicting, while the only safe test of the
affinities of nations, derived from the comparison of their languages,
is to a great extent inapplicable, from the fact that the idioms that
prevailed in Italy in and before the 5th century B.C. are preserved, if
at all, only in a few scanty and fragmentary inscriptions, though from
that date onwards we have now a very fair record of many of them (see,
e.g. LATIN LANGUAGE, OSCA LINGUA, IGUVIUM, VOLSCI, ETRURIA: section
_Language_, and below). These materials, imperfect as they are, when
combined with the notices derived from ancient writers and the evidence
of archaeological excavations, may be considered as having furnished
some results of reasonable certainty.

It must be observed that the name "Italians" was at one time confined to
the Oenotrians; indeed, according to Antiochus of Syracuse (_apud_ Dion.
Hal. _Ant. Rom._ ii. 1), the name of Italy was first still more limited,
being applied only to the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula
(now known as Calabria). But in the time of that historian, as well as
of Thucydides, the names of Oenotria and Italia, which appear to have
been at that period regarded as synonymous, had been extended to include
the shore of the Tarentine Gulf as far as Metapontum and from thence
across to the gulfs of Laus and Posidonia on the Tyrrhenian Sea. It
thus still comprised only the two provinces subsequently known as
Lucania and Bruttium (see references s.v. "Italia" in R. S. Conway's
_Italic Dialects_, p. 5). The name seems to be a Graecized form of an
Italic _Vitelia_, from the stem _vitlo_-, "calf" (Lat. _vitulus_, Gr.
[Greek: italos]), and perhaps to have meant "calf-land," "grazing-land";
but the origin is more certain than the meaning; the calf may be one of
the many animals connected with Italian tribes (see HIRPINI, SAMNITES).

Taking the term Italy to comprise the whole peninsula with the northern
region as far as the Alps, we must first distinguish the tribe or tribes
which spoke Indo-European languages from those who did not. To the
latter category it is now possible to refer with certainty only the
Etruscans (for the chronology and limits of their occupation of Italian
soil see ETRURIA: section _Language_). Of all the other tribes that
inhabited Italy down to the classical period, of whose speech there is
any record (whether explicit or in the form of names and glosses), it is
impossible to maintain that any one does not belong to the Indo-European
group. Putting aside the Etruscan, and also the different Greek dialects
of the Greek colonies, like Cumae, Neapolis, Tarentum, and proceeding
from the south to the north, the different languages or dialects, of
whose separate existence at some time between, say, 600 and 200 B.C., we
can be sure, may be enumerated as follows: (1) Sicel, (2) South Oscan
and Oscan, (3) Messapian, (4) North Oscan, (5) Volscian, (6) East Italic
or "Sabellic," (7) Latinian, (8) Sabine, (9) Iguvine or "Umbrian," (10)
Gallic, (11) Ligurian and (12) Venetic.

Between several of these dialects it is probable that closer affinities
exist. (1) It is probable, though not very clearly demonstrated, that
Venetic, East Italic and Messapian are connected together and with the
ancient dialects spoken in Illyria (q.v.), so that these might be
provisionally entitled the Adriatic group, to which the language spoken
by the Eteocretes of the city of Praesos in Crete down to the 4th
century B.C. was perhaps akin. (2) Too little is known of the Sicel
language to make clear more than its Indo-European character. But it
must be reckoned among the languages of Italy because of the
well-supported tradition of the early existence of the Sicels in Latium
(see SICULI). Their possible place in the earlier stratum of
Indo-European population is discussed under SABINI. How far also the
language or languages spoken in Bruttium and at certain points of
Lucania, such as Anxia, differed from the Oscan of Samnium and Campania
there is not enough evidence to show (see BRUTTII). (3) It is doubtful
whether there are any actual inscriptions which can be referred with
certainty to the language of the Ligures, but some other evidence seems
to link them with the -_CO_- peoples, whose early distribution is
discussed under VOLSCI and LIGURIA. (4) It is difficult to point to any
definite evidence by which we may determine the dates of the earliest
appearance of Gallic tribes in the north of Italy. No satisfactory
collection has been made of the Celtic inscriptions of Cisalpine Gaul,
though many are scattered about in different museums. For our present
purpose it is important to note that the archaeological stratification
in deposits like those of Bologna shows that the Gallic period
supervened upon the Etruscan. Until a scientific collection of the local
and personal names of this district has been made, and until the
archaeological evidence is clearly interpreted, it is impossible to go
beyond the region of conjecture as to the tribe or tribes occupying the
valley of the Po before the two invasions. It is clear, however, that
the Celtic and Etruscan elements together occupied the greater part of
the district between the Apennines and the Alps down to its
Romanization, which took place gradually in the course of the 2nd
century B.C. Their linguistic neighbours were Ligurian in the south and
south-west, and the Veneti on the east.

We know from the Roman historians that a large force of Gauls came as
far south as Rome in the year 390 B.C., and that some part of this horde
settled in what was henceforward known as the _Ager Gallicus_, the
easternmost strip of coast in what was later known as Umbria, including
the towns of Caesena, Ravenna and Ariminum. A bilingual inscription
(Gallic and Latin) of the 2nd century B.C. was found as far south as
Tuder, the modern Todi (_Italic Dialects_, ii. 528; Stokes,
_Bezzenberger's Beiträge_, 11, p. 113).

(5) Turning now to the languages which constitute the Italic group in
the narrower sense, (a) Oscan; (b) the dialect of Velitrae, commonly
called Volscian; (c) Latinian (i.e. Latin and its nearest congeners,
like Faliscan); and (d) Umbrian (or, as it may more safely be called,
Iguvine), two principles of classification offer themselves, of which
the first is purely linguistic, the second linguistic and topographical.
Writers on the ethnology of Italy have been hitherto content with the
first, namely, the broad distinction between the dialects which
preserved the Indo-European velars (especially the breathed plosive _q_)
as velars or back-palatals (gutturals), with or without the addition of
a _w_-sound, and the dialects which converted the velars wholly into
labials, for example, Latinian _quis_ contrasted with Oscan, Volscian
and Umbrian _pis_ (see further LATIN LANGUAGE).

This distinction, however, takes us but a little way towards an
historical grouping of the tribes, since the only Latinian dialects of
which, besides Latin, we have inscriptions are Faliscan and Marsian (see
FALISCI, MARSI); although the place-names of the Aequi (q.v.) suggest
that they belong to the same group in this respect. Except, therefore,
for a very small and apparently isolated area in the north of Latium and
south of Etruria, all the tribes of Italy, though their idioms differed
in certain particulars, are left undiscriminated. This presents a strong
contrast to the evidence of tradition, which asserts very strongly (1)
the identity of the Sabines and Samnites; (2) the conquest of an earlier
population by this tribe; and which affords (3) clear evidence of the
identity of the Sabines with the ruling class, i.e. the patricians, at
Rome itself (see SABINI; and ROME: _Early History and Ethnology_).

Some clue to this enigma may perhaps be found in the second principle of
classification proposed by the present writer at the Congresso
Internationale di Scienze Storiche at Rome (_Atti del Congresso_, ii) in
1903. It was on that occasion pointed out that the ethnica or tribal and
oppidan names of communities belonging to the Sabine stock were marked
by the use of the suffix -_NO_- as in _Sabini_; and that there was some
linguistic evidence that this stratum of population overcame an earlier
population, which used, generally, ethnica in -_CO_- or -_TI_- (as in
_Marruci_, _Ardeates_, transformed later into _Marrucini_, _Ardeatini_).

The validity of this distinction and its results are discussed under
SABINI and VOLSCI, but it is well to state here its chief consequences.

1. Latin will be counted the language of the earlier plebeian stratum of
the population of Rome and Latium, probably once spread over a large
area of the peninsula, and akin in some degree to the language or
languages spoken in north Italy before either the Etruscan or the Gallic
invasions began.

2. It would follow, on the other hand, that what is called Oscan
represented the language of the invading Sabines (more correctly
Safines), whose racial affinities would seem to be of a distinctly more
northern cast, and to mark them, like the Dorians or Achaeans in Greece,
as an early wave of the invaders who more than once in later history
have vitally influenced the fortunes of the tempting southern land into
which they forced their way.

3. What is called Volscian, known only from the important inscription of
the town of Velitrae, and what is called Umbrian, known from the famous
Iguvine Tables with a few other records, would be regarded as Safine
dialects, spoken by Safine communities who had become more or less
isolated in the midst of the earlier and possibly partly Etruscanized
populations, the result being that as early as the 4th century B.C.
their language had suffered corruptions which it escaped both in the
Samnite mountains and in the independent and self-contained community of
Rome.

  For fuller details the reader must be referred to the separate
  articles already mentioned, and to IGUVIUM, PICENUM, OSCA LINGUA,
  MARSI, AEQUI, SICULI and LIGURIA. Such archaeological evidence as can
  be connected with the linguistic data will there be discussed.
       (R. S. C.)


B. CONSOLIDATION OF ITALY

We have seen that the name of Italy was originally applied only to the
southernmost part of the peninsula, and was only gradually extended so
as to comprise the central regions, such as Latium and Campania, which
were designated by writers as late as Thucydides and Aristotle as in
Opicia. The progress of this change cannot be followed in detail, but
there can be little doubt that the extension of the Roman arms, and the
gradual union of the nations of the peninsula under one dominant power,
would contribute to the introduction, or rather would make the necessity
felt, for the use of one general appellation. At first, indeed, the term
was apparently confined to the regions of the central and southern
districts, exclusive of Cisalpine Gaul and the whole tract north of the
Apennines, and this continued to be the official or definite
signification of the name down to the end of the republic. But the
natural limits of Italy are so clearly marked that the name came to be
generally employed as a geographical term at a much earlier period. Thus
we already find Polybius repeatedly applying it in this wider
signification to the whole country, as far as the foot of the Alps; and
it is evident from many passages in the Latin writers that this was the
familiar use of the term in the days of Cicero and Caesar. The official
distinction was, however, still retained. Cisalpine Gaul, including the
whole of northern Italy, still constituted a "province," an appellation
never applied to Italy itself. As such it was assigned to Julius Caesar,
together with Transalpine Gaul, and it was not till he crossed the
Rubicon that he entered Italy in the strict sense of the term.

Augustus was the first who gave a definite administrative organization
to Italy as a whole, and at the same time gave official sanction to that
wider acceptation of the name which had already established itself in
familiar usage, and which has continued to prevail ever since.

The division of Italy into eleven regions, instituted by Augustus for
administrative purposes, which continued in official use till the reign
of Constantine, was based mainly on the territorial divisions previously
existing, and preserved with few exceptions the ancient limits.

The first region comprised Latium (in the more extended sense of the
term, as including the land of the Volsci, Hernici and Aurunci),
together with Campania and the district of the Picentini. It thus
extended from the mouth of the Tiber to that of the Silarus (see
LATIUM).

The second region included Apulia and Calabria (the name by which the
Romans usually designated the district known to the Greeks as Messapia
or Iapygia), together with the land of the Hirpini, which had usually
been considered as a part of Samnium.

The third region contained Lucania and Bruttium; it was bounded on the
west coast by the Silarus, on the east by the Bradanus.

The fourth region comprised all the Samnites (except the Hirpini),
together with the Sabines and the cognate tribes of the Frentani,
Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, Vestini and Aequiculi. It was separated from
Apulia on the south by the river Tifernus, and from Picenum on the north
by the Matrinus.

The fifth region was composed solely of Picenum, extending along the
coast of the Adriatic from the mouth of the Matrinus to that of the
Aesis, beyond Ancona.

The sixth region was formed by Umbria, in the more extended sense of the
term, as including the Ager Gallicus, along the coast of the Adriatic
from the Aesis to the Ariminus, and separated from Etruria on the west
by the Tiber.

The seventh region consisted of Etruria, which preserved its ancient
limits, extending from the Tiber to the Tyrrhenian Sea, and separated
from Liguria on the north by the river Macra.

The eighth region, termed Gallia Cispadana, comprised the southern
portion of Cisalpine Gaul, and was bounded on the north (as its name
implied) by the river Padus or Po, from above Placentia to its mouth. It
was separated from Etruria and Umbria by the main chain of the
Apennines; and the river Ariminus was substituted for the far-famed
Rubicon as its limit on the Adriatic.

[Illustration: Map of Italy (Ancient)]

The ninth region comprised Liguria, extending along the sea-coast from
the Varus to the Macra, and inland as far as the river Padus, which
constituted its northern boundary from its source in Mount Vesulus to
its confluence with the Trebia just above Placentia.

The tenth region included Venetia from the Padus and Adriatic to the
Alps, to which was annexed the neighbouring peninsula of Istria, and to
the west the territory of the Cenomani, a Gaulish tribe, extending from
the Athesis to the Addua, which had previously been regarded as a part
of Gallia Cisalpina.

The eleventh region, known as Gallia Transpadana, included all the rest
of Cisalpine Gaul from the Padus on the south and the Addua on the east
to the foot of the Alps.

The arrangements thus established by Augustus continued almost unchanged
till the time of Constantine, and formed the basis of all subsequent
administrative divisions until the fall of the Western empire.


  Roads.

The mainstay of the Roman military control of Italy first, and of the
whole empire afterwards, was the splendid system of roads. As the
supremacy of Rome extended itself over Italy, the Roman road system grew
step by step, each fresh conquest being marked by the pushing forward of
roads through the heart of the newly-won territory, and the
establishment of fortresses in connexion with them. It was in Italy that
the military value of a network of roads was first appreciated by the
Romans, and the lesson stood them in good stead in the provinces. And it
was for military reasons that from mere cart-tracks they were developed
into permanent highways (T. Ashby, in _Papers of the British School at
Rome_, i. 129). From Rome itself roads radiated in all directions.
Communications with the south-east were mainly provided by the Via Appia
(the "queen of Roman roads," as Statius called it) and the Via Latina,
which met close to Casilinum, at the crossing of the Volturnus, 3 m.
N.W. of Capua, the second city in Italy in the 3rd century B.C., and the
centre of the road system of Campania. Here the Via Appia turned
eastward towards Beneventum, while the Via Popilia continued in a
south-easterly direction through the Campanian plain and thence
southwards through the mountains of Lucania and Bruttii as far as
Rhegium. Coast roads of minor importance as means of through
communication also existed on both sides of the "toe" of the boot. Other
roads ran south from Capua to Cumae, Puteoli (the most important harbour
of Campania), and Neapolis, which could also be reached by a coast road
from Minturnae on the Via Appia. From Beneventum, another important road
centre, the Via Appia itself ran south-east through the mountains past
Venusia to Tarentum on the south-west coast of the "heel," and thence
across Calabria to Brundusium, while Trajan's correction of it,
following an older mule-track, ran north-east through the mountains and
then through the lower ground of Apulia, reaching the coast at Barium.
Both met at Brundusium, the principal port for the East. From Aequum
Tuticum, on the Via Traiana, the Via Herculia ran to the south-east,
crossing the older Via Appia, then south to Potentia and so on to join
the Via Popilia in the centre of Lucania.

The only highroad of importance which left Rome and ran eastwards, the
Via Valeria, was not completed as far as the Adriatic before the time of
Claudius; but on the north and north-west started the main highways
which communicated with central and northern Italy, and with all that
part of the Roman empire which was accessible by land. The Via Salaria,
a very ancient road, with its branch, the Via Caecilia, ran
north-eastwards to the Adriatic coast and so also did the Via Flaminia,
which reached the coast at Fanum Fortunae, and thence followed it to
Ariminum. The road along the east coast from Fanum Fortunae down to
Barium, which connected the terminations of the Via Salaria and Via
Valeria, and of other roads farther south crossing from Campania, had no
special name in ancient times, as far as we know. The Via Flaminia was
the earliest and most important road to the north; and it was soon
extended (in 187 B.C.) by the Via Aemilia running through Bononia as
far as Placentia, in an almost absolutely straight line between the
plain of the Po and the foot of the Apennines. In the same year a road
was constructed over the Apennines from Bononia to Arretium, but it is
difficult to suppose that it was not until later that the Via Cassia was
made, giving a direct communication between Arretium and Rome. The Via
Clodia was an alternative route to the Cassia for the first portion out
of Rome, a branch having been built at the same time from Florentia to
Lucca and Luna. Along the west coast the Via Aurelia ran up to Pisa and
was continued by another Via Aemilia to Genoa. Thence the Via Postumia
led to Dertona, Placentia and Cremona, while the Via Aemilia and the Via
Julia Augusta continued along the coast into Gallia Narbonensis.

The road system of Cisalpine Gaul was mainly conditioned by the rivers
which had to be crossed, and the Alpine passes which had to be
approached.

Cremona, on the north bank of the Po, was an important meeting point of
roads and Postilia (Ostiglia) another; so also was Patavium, farther
east, and Altinum and Aquileia farther east still. Roads, indeed, were
almost as plentiful as railways at the present day in the basin of the
Po.

As to the roads leading out of Italy, from Aquileia roads diverged
northward into Raetia, eastward to Noricum and Pannonia, and southwards
to the Istrian and Dalmatian coasts. Farther west came the roads over
the higher Alpine passes--the Brenner from Verona, the Septimer and the
Splügen from Clavenna (Chiavenna), the Great and the Little St Bernard
from Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), and the Mont Genèvre from Augusta
Taurinorum (Turin).

Westward two short but important roads led on each side of the Tiber to
the great harbour at its mouth; while the coast of Latium was supplied
with a coast road by Septimius Severus. To the south-west the roads were
short and of little importance.

  On ancient Italian geography in general see articles in Pauly-Wissowa,
  _Realencyclopädie_ (1899, sqq.); _Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum_
  (Berlin, 1862 sqq.); G. Strafforello, _Geografia dell' Italia_ (Turin,
  1890-1892); H. Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_ (Berlin, 1883-1902);
  also references in articles ROME, LATIUM, &c.     (T. As.)


C. FROM 476 to 1796

The year 476 opened a new age for the Italian people. Odoacer, a chief
of the Herulians, deposed Romulus, the last Augustus of the West, and
placed the peninsula beneath the titular sway of the Byzantine emperors.
At Pavia the barbarian conquerors of Italy proclaimed him king, and he
received from Zeno the dignity of Roman patrician. Thus began that
system of mixed government, Teutonic and Roman, which, in the absence of
a national monarch, impressed the institutions of new Italy from the
earliest date with dualism. The same revolution vested supreme authority
in a non-resident and inefficient autocrat, whose title gave him the
right to interfere in Italian affairs, but who lacked the power and will
to rule the people for his own or their advantage. Odoacer inaugurated
that long series of foreign rulers--Greeks, Franks, Germans, Spaniards
and Austrians--who have successively contributed to the misgovernment of
Italy from distant seats of empire.

I. _Gothic and Lombard Kingdoms._--In 488 Theodoric, king of the East
Goths, received commission from the Greek emperor, Zeno, to undertake
the affairs of Italy. He defeated Odoacer, drove him to Ravenna,
besieged him there, and in 493 completed the conquest of the country by
murdering the Herulian chief with his own hand. Theodoric respected the
Roman institutions which he found in Italy, held the Eternal City
sacred, and governed by ministers chosen from the Roman population. He
settled at Ravenna, which had been the capital of Italy since the days
of Honorius, and which still testifies by its monuments to the Gothic
chieftain's Romanizing policy. Those who believe that the Italians would
have gained strength by unification in a single monarchy must regret
that this Gothic kingdom lacked the elements of stability. The Goths,
except in the valley of the Po, resembled an army of occupation rather
than a people numerous enough to blend with the Italic stock. Though
their rule was favourable to the Romans, they were Arians; and
religious differences, combined with the pride and jealousies of a
nation accustomed to imperial honours, rendered the inhabitants of Italy
eager to throw off their yoke. When, therefore, Justinian undertook the
reconquest of Italy, his generals, Belisarius and Narses, were supported
by the south. The struggle of the Greeks and the Goths was carried on
for fourteen years, between 539 and 553, when Teias, the last Gothic
king, was finally defeated in a bloody battle near Vesuvius. At its
close the provinces of Italy were placed beneath Greek dukes, controlled
by a governor-general, entitled exarch, who ruled in the Byzantine
emperor's name at Ravenna.


  The Lombards.

This new settlement lasted but a few years. Narses had employed Lombard
auxiliaries in his campaigns against the Goths; and when he was recalled
by an insulting message from the empress in 565, he is said to have
invited this fiercest and rudest of the Teutonic clans to seize the
spoils of Italy. Be this as it may, the Lombards, their ranks swelled by
the Gepidae, whom they had lately conquered, and by the wrecks of other
barbarian tribes, passed southward under their king Alboin in 568. The
Herulian invaders had been but a band of adventurers; the Goths were an
army; the Lombards, far more formidable, were a nation in movement.
Pavia offered stubborn resistance; but after a three years' siege it was
taken, and Alboin made it the capital of his new kingdom.

In order to understand the future history of Italy, it is necessary to
form a clear conception of the method pursued by the Lombards in their
conquest. Penetrating the peninsula, and advancing like a glacier or
half-liquid stream of mud, they occupied the valley of the Po, and moved
slowly downward through the centre of the country. Numerous as they were
compared with their Gothic predecessors, they had not strength or
multitude enough to occupy the whole peninsula. Venice, which since the
days of Attila had offered an asylum to Roman refugees from the northern
cities, was left untouched. So was Genoa with its Riviera. Ravenna,
entrenched within her lagoons, remained a Greek city. Rome, protected by
invincible prestige, escaped. The sea-coast cities of the south, and the
islands, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, preserved their independence.
Thus the Lombards neither occupied the extremities nor subjugated the
brain-centre of the country. The strength of Alboin's kingdom was in the
north; his capital, Pavia. As his people pressed southward, they omitted
to possess themselves of the coasts; and what was worse for the future
of these conquerors, the original impetus of the invasion was checked by
the untimely murder of Alboin in 573. After this event, the
semi-independent chiefs of the Lombard tribe, who borrowed the title of
dukes from their Roman predecessors, seem to have been contented with
consolidating their power in the districts each had occupied. The
duchies of Spoleto in the centre, and of Benevento in the south,
inserted wedge-like into the middle of the peninsula, and enclosing
independent Rome, were but loosely united to the kingdom at Pavia. Italy
was broken up into districts, each offering points for attack from
without, and fostering the seeds of internal revolution. Three separate
capitals must be discriminated--Pavia, the seat of the new Lombard
kingdom; Ravenna, the garrison city of the Byzantine emperor; and Rome,
the rallying point of the old nation, where the successor of St Peter
was already beginning to assume that national protectorate which proved
so influential in the future.

It is not necessary to write the history of the Lombard kingdom in
detail. Suffice it to say that the rule of the Lombards proved at first
far more oppressive to the native population, and was less intelligent
of their old customs, than that of the Goths had been. Wherever the
Lombards had the upper hand, they placed the country under military
rule, resembling in its general character what we now know as the feudal
system. Though there is reason to suppose that the Roman laws were still
administered within the cities, yet the Lombard code was that of the
kingdom; and the Lombards being Arians, they added the oppression of
religious intolerance to that of martial despotism and barbarous
cupidity. The Italians were reduced to the last extremity when Gregory
the Great (590-604), having strengthened his position by diplomatic
relations with the duchy of Spoleto, and brought about the conversion of
the Lombards to orthodoxy, raised the cause of the remaining Roman
population throughout Italy. The fruit of his policy, which made of Rome
a counterpoise against the effete empire of the Greeks upon the one hand
and against the pressure of the feudal kingdom on the other, was seen in
the succeeding century. When Leo the Isaurian published his decrees
against the worship of images in 726, Gregory II. allied himself with
Liudprand, the Lombard king, threw off allegiance to Byzantium, and
established the autonomy of Rome. This pope initiated the dangerous
policy of playing one hostile force off against another with a view to
securing independence. He used the Lombards in his struggle with the
Greeks, leaving to his successors the duty of checking these unnatural
allies. This was accomplished by calling the Franks in against the
Lombards. Liudprand pressed hard, not only upon the Greek dominions of
the exarchate, but also upon Rome. His successors, Rachis and Aistolf,
attempted to follow the same game of conquest. But the popes, Gregory
III., Zachary and Stephen II., determining at any cost to espouse the
national cause and to aggrandize their own office, continued to rely
upon the Franks. Pippin twice crossed the Alps, and forced Aistolf to
relinquish his acquisitions, including Ravenna, Pentapolis, the coast
towns of Romagna and some cities in the duchy of Spoleto. These he
handed over to the pope of Rome. This donation of Pippin in 756
confirmed the papal see in the protectorate of the Italic party, and
conferred upon it sovereign rights. The virtual outcome of the contest
carried on by Rome since the year 726 with Byzantium and Pavia was to
place the popes in the position held by the Greek exarch, and to confirm
the limitation of the Lombard kingdom. We must, however, be cautious to
remember that the south of Italy was comparatively unaffected. The dukes
of the Greek empire and the Lombard dukes of Benevento, together with a
few autonomous commercial cities, still divided Italy below the Campagna
of Rome (see LOMBARDS).


  Charles the Great and the Carolingians.

II. _Frankish Emperors._--The Franko-Papal alliance, which conferred a
crown on Pippin and sovereign rights upon the see of Rome, held within
itself that ideal of mutually supporting papacy and empire which
exercised so powerful an influence in medieval history. When Charles the
Great (Charlemagne) deposed his father-in-law Desiderius, the last
Lombard king, in 774, and when he received the circlet of the empire
from Leo III. at Rome in 800, he did but complete and ratify the compact
offered to his grandfather, Charles Martel, by Gregory III. The
relations between the new emperor and the pope were ill defined; and
this proved the source of infinite disasters to Italy and Europe in the
sequel. But for the moment each seemed necessary to the other; and that
sufficed. Charles took possession of the kingdom of Italy, as limited by
Pippin's settlement. The pope was confirmed in his rectorship of the
cities ceded by Aistolf, with the further understanding, tacit rather
than expressed, that, even as he had wrung these provinces for the
Italic people from both Greeks and Lombards, so in the future he might
claim the protectorate of such portions of Italy, external to the
kingdom, as he should be able to acquire. This, at any rate, seems to be
the meaning of that obscure re-settlement of the peninsula which Charles
effected. The kingdom of Italy, transmitted on his death by Charles the
Great, and afterwards confirmed to his grandson Lothar by the peace of
Verdun in 843, stretched from the Alps to Terracina. The duchy of
Benevento remained tributary, but independent. The cities of Gaeta and
Naples, Sicily and the so-called Theme of Lombardy in South Apulia and
Calabria, still recognized the Byzantine emperor. Venice stood aloof,
professing a nominal allegiance to the East. The parcels into which the
Lombards had divided the peninsula remained thus virtually unaltered,
except for the new authority acquired by the see of Rome.

Internally Charles left the affairs of the Italian kingdom much as he
found them, except that he appears to have pursued the policy of
breaking up the larger fiefs of the Lombards, substituting counts for
their dukes, and adding to the privileges of the bishops. We may reckon
these measures among the earliest advantages extended to the cities,
which still contained the bulk of the old Roman population, and which
were destined to intervene with decisive effect two centuries later in
Italian history. It should also here be noticed that the changes
introduced into the holding of the fiefs, whether by altering their
boundaries or substituting Frankish for Lombard vassals, were chief
among the causes why the feudal system took no permanent hold in Italy.
Feudalism was not at any time a national institution. The hierarchy of
dukes and marquises and counts consisted of foreign soldiers imposed on
the indigenous inhabitants; and the rapid succession of conquerors,
Lombards, Franks and Germans following each other at no long interval,
and each endeavouring to weaken the remaining strength of his
predecessor, prevented this alien hierarchy from acquiring fixity by
permanence of tenure. Among the many miseries inflicted upon Italy by
the frequent changes of her northern rulers, this at least may be
reckoned a blessing.


  Frankish and Italian kings.

The Italians acknowledged eight kings of the house of Charles the Great,
ending in Charles the Fat, who was deposed in 888. After them followed
ten sovereigns, some of whom have been misnamed Italians by writers too
eager to catch at any resemblance of national glory for a people passive
in the hands of foreign masters. The truth is that no period in Italian
history was less really glorious than that which came to a close in 961
by Berengar II.'s cession of his rights to Otto the Great. It was a
period marked in the first place by the conquests of the Saracens, who
began to occupy Sicily early in the 9th century, overran Calabria and
Apulia, took Bari and threatened Rome. In the second place it was marked
by a restoration of the Greeks to power. In 890 they established
themselves again at Bari, and ruled the Theme of Lombardy by means of an
officer entitled Catapan. In the third place it was marked by a decline
of good government in Rome. Early in the 10th century the papacy fell
into the hands of a noble family, known eventually as the counts of
Tusculum, who almost succeeded in rendering the office hereditary, and
in uniting the civil and ecclesiastical functions of the city under a
single member of their house. It is not necessary to relate the scandals
of Marozia's and Theodora's female reign, the infamies of John XII. or
the intrigues which tended to convert Rome into a duchy. The most
important fact for the historian of Italy to notice is that during this
time the popes abandoned, not only their high duties as chiefs of
Christendom, but also their protectorate of Italian liberties. A fourth
humiliating episode in this period was the invasion of the Magyar
barbarians, who overran the north of Italy, and reduced its fairest
provinces to the condition of a wilderness. Anarchy and misery are
indeed the main features of that long space of time which elapsed
between the death of Charles the Great and the descent of Otto. Through
the almost impenetrable darkness and confusion we only discern this
much, that Italy was powerless to constitute herself a nation.

The discords which followed on the break-up of the Carolingian power,
and the weakness of the so-called Italian emperors, who were unable to
control the feudatories (marquises of Ivrea and Tuscany, dukes of Friuli
and Spoleto), from whose ranks they sprang, exposed Italy to
ever-increasing misrule. The country by this time had become thickly
covered over with castles, the seats of greater or lesser nobles, all of
whom were eager to detach themselves from strict allegiance to the
"Regno." The cities, exposed to pillage by Huns in the north and
Saracens in the south, and ravaged on the coast by Norse pirates,
asserted their right to enclose themselves with walls, and taught their
burghers the use of arms. Within the circuit of their ramparts, the
bishops already began to exercise authority in rivalry with the counts,
to whom, since the days of Theodoric, had been entrusted the government
of the Italian burghs. Agreeably to feudal customs, these nobles, as
they grew in power, retired from the town, and built themselves
fortresses on points of vantage in the neighbourhood. Thus the titular
king of Italy found himself simultaneously at war with those great
vassals who had chosen him from their own class, with the turbulent
factions of the Roman aristocracy, with unruly bishops in the growing
cities and with the multitude of minor counts and barons who occupied
the open lands, and who changed sides according to the interests of the
moment. The last king of the quasi-Italian succession, Berengar II.,
marquis of Ivrea (951-961), made a vigorous effort to restore the
authority of the regno; and had he succeeded, it is not impossible that
now at the last moment Italy might have become an independent nation.
But this attempt at unification was reckoned to Berengar for a crime. He
only won the hatred of all classes, and was represented by the obscure
annalists of that period as an oppressor of the church and a remorseless
tyrant. In Italy, divided between feudal nobles and almost hereditary
ecclesiastics, of foreign blood and alien sympathies, there was no
national feeling. Berengar stood alone against a multitude, unanimous in
their intolerance of discipline. His predecessor in the kingdom, Lothar,
had left a young and beautiful widow, Adelheid. Berengar imprisoned her
upon the Lake of Como, and threatened her with a forced marriage to his
son Adalbert. She escaped to the castle of Canossa, where the great
count of Tuscany espoused her cause, and appealed in her behalf to Otto
the Saxon. The king of Germany descended into Italy, and took Adelheid
in marriage. After this episode Berengar was more discredited and
impotent than ever. In the extremity of his fortunes he had recourse
himself to Otto, making a formal cession of the Italian kingdom, in his
own name and that of his son Adalbert, to the Saxon as his overlord. By
this slender tie the crown of Italy was joined to that of Germany; and
the formal right of the elected king of Germany to be considered king of
Italy and emperor may be held to have accrued from this epoch.


  Saxon and Franconian emperors.

III. _The German Emperors._--Berengar gained nothing by his act of
obedience to Otto. The great Italian nobles, in their turn, appealed to
Germany. Otto entered Lombardy in 961, deposed Berengar, assumed the
crown in San Ambrogio at Milan, and in 962 was proclaimed emperor by
John XII. at Rome. Henceforward Italy changed masters according as one
or other of the German families assumed supremacy beyond the Alps. It is
one of the strongest instances furnished by history of the fascination
exercised by an idea that the Italians themselves should have grown to
glory in this dependence of their nation upon Caesars who had nothing
but a name in common with the Roman Imperator of the past.

The first thing we have to notice in this revolution which placed Otto
the Great upon the imperial throne is that the Italian kingdom, founded
by the Lombards, recognized by the Franks and recently claimed by
eminent Italian feudatories, virtually ceased to exist. It was merged in
the German kingdom; and, since for the German princes Germany was of
necessity their first care, Italy from this time forward began to be
left more and more to herself. The central authority of Pavia had always
been weak; the regno had proved insufficient to combine the nation. But
now even that shadow of union disappeared, and the Italians were
abandoned to the slowly working influences which tended to divide them
into separate states. The most brilliant period of their chequered
history, the period which includes the rise of communes, the exchange of
municipal liberty for despotism and the gradual discrimination of the
five great powers (Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papacy and the kingdom
of Naples), now begins. Among the centrifugal forces which determined
the future of the Italian race must be reckoned, first and foremost, the
new spirit of municipal independence. We have seen how the cities
enclosed themselves with walls, and how the bishops defined their
authority against that of the counts. Otto encouraged this revolution by
placing the enclosures of the chief burghs beyond the jurisdiction of
the counts. Within those precincts the bishops and the citizens were
independent of all feudal masters but the emperor. He further broke the
power of the great vassals by redivisions of their feuds, and by the
creation of new marches which he assigned to his German followers. In
this way, owing to the dislocation of the ancient aristocracy, to the
enlarged jurisdiction of a power so democratic as the episcopate, and to
the increased privileges of the burghs, feudalism received a powerful
check in Italy. The Italian people, that people which gave to the world
the commerce and the arts of Florence, was not indeed as yet apparent.
But the conditions under which it could arise, casting from itself all
foreign and feudal trammels, recognizing its true past in ancient Rome,
and reconstructing a civility out of the ruins of those glorious
memories, were now at last granted. The nobles from this time forward
retired into the country and the mountains, fortified themselves in
strong places outside the cities, and gave their best attention to
fostering the rural population. Within the cities and upon the open
lands the Italians, in this and the next century, doubled, trebled and
quadrupled their numbers. A race was formed strong enough to keep the
empire itself in check, strong enough, except for its own internecine
contests, to have formed a nation equal to its happier neighbours.

The recent scandals of the papacy induced Otto to deprive the Romans of
their right to elect popes. But when he died in 973, his son Otto II.
(married to Theophano of the imperial Byzantine house) and his grandson,
Otto III., who descended into Italy in 996, found that the affairs of
Rome and of the southern provinces were more than even their imperial
powers could cope with. The faction of the counts of Tusculum raised its
head from time to time in the Eternal City, and Rome still claimed to be
a commonwealth. Otto III.'s untimely death in 1002 introduced new
discords. Rome fell once more into the hands of her nobles. The Lombards
chose Ardoin, marquis of Ivrea, for king, and Pavia supported his claims
against those of Henry of Bavaria, who had been elected in Germany.
Milan sided with Henry; and this is perhaps the first eminent instance
of cities being reckoned powerful allies in the Italian disputes of
sovereigns. It is also the first instance of that bitter feud between
the two great capitals of Lombardy, a feud rooted in ancient antipathies
between the Roman population of Mediolanum and the Lombard garrison of
Alboin's successors, which proved so disastrous to the national cause.
Ardoin retired to a monastery, where he died in 1015. Henry nearly
destroyed Pavia, was crowned in Rome and died in 1024. After this event
Heribert, the archbishop of Milan, invited Conrad, the Franconian king
of Germany, into Italy, and crowned him with the iron crown of the
kingdom.


  Heribert and the Lombard burghs.

The intervention of this man, Heribert, compels us to turn a closer
glance upon the cities of North Italy. It is here, at the present epoch
and for the next two centuries, that the pith and nerve of the Italian
nation must be sought; and among the burghs of Lombardy, Milan, the
eldest daughter of ancient Rome, assumes the lead. In Milan we hear for
the first time the word _Comune_. In Milan the citizens first form
themselves into a _Parlamento_. In Milan the archbishop organizes the
hitherto voiceless, defenceless population into a community capable of
expressing its needs, and an army ready to maintain its rights. To
Heribert is attributed the invention of the _Carroccio_, which played so
singular and important a part in the warfare of Italian cities. A huge
car drawn by oxen, bearing the standard of the burgh, and carrying an
altar with the host, this carroccio, like the ark of the Israelites,
formed a rallying point in battle, and reminded the armed artisans that
they had a city and a church to fight for. That Heribert's device proved
effectual in raising the spirit of his burghers, and consolidating them
into a formidable band of warriors, is shown by the fact that it was
speedily adopted in all the free cities. It must not, however, be
supposed that at this epoch the liberties of the burghs were fully
developed. The mass of the people remained unrepresented in the
government; and even if the consuls existed in the days of Heribert,
they were but humble legal officers, transacting business for their
constituents in the courts of the bishop and his viscount. It still
needed nearly a century of struggle to render the burghers independent
of lordship, with a fully organized commune, self-governed in its
several assemblies. While making these reservations, it is at the same
time right to observe that certain Italian communities were more
advanced upon the path of independence than others. This is specially
the case with the maritime ports. Not to mention Venice, which has not
yet entered the Italian community, and remains a Greek free city, Genoa
and Pisa were rapidly rising into ill-defined autonomy. Their command of
fleets gave them incontestable advantages, as when, for instance, Otto
II. employed the Pisans in 980 against the Greeks in Lower Italy, and
the Pisans and Genoese together attacked the Saracens of Sardinia in
1017. Still, speaking generally, the age of independence for the burghs
had only begun when Heribert from Milan undertook the earliest
organization of a force that was to become paramount in peace and war.


  Rome.

Next to Milan, and from the point of view of general politics even more
than Milan, Rome now claims attention. The destinies of Italy depended
upon the character which the see of St Peter should assume. Even the
liberties of her republics in the north hung on the issue of a contest
which in the 11th and 12th centuries shook Europe to its farthest
boundaries. So fatally were the internal affairs of that magnificent but
unhappy country bound up with concerns which brought the forces of the
civilized world into play. Her ancient prestige, her geographical
position and the intellectual primacy of her most noble children
rendered Italy the battleground of principles that set all Christendom
in motion, and by the clash of which she found herself for ever
afterwards divided. During the reign of Conrad II., the party of the
counts of Tusculum revived in Rome; and Crescentius, claiming the title
of consul in the imperial city, sought once more to control the election
of the popes. When Henry III., the son of Conrad, entered Italy in 1046,
he found three popes in Rome. These he abolished, and, taking the
appointment into his own hands, gave German bishops to the see. The
policy thus initiated upon the precedent laid down by Otto the Great was
a remedy for pressing evils. It saved Rome from becoming a duchy in the
hands of the Tusculum house. But it neither raised the prestige of the
papacy, nor could it satisfy the Italians, who rightly regarded the
Roman see as theirs. These German popes were short-lived and
inefficient. Their appointment, according to notions which defined
themselves within the church at this epoch, was simoniacal; and during
the long minority of Henry IV., who succeeded his father in 1056, the
terrible Tuscan monk, Hildebrand of Soana, forged weapons which he used
with deadly effect against the presumption of the empire. The condition
of the church seemed desperate, unless it could be purged of crying
scandals--of the subjection of the papacy to the great Roman nobles, of
its subordination to the German emperor and of its internal
demoralization. It was Hildebrand's policy throughout three papacies,
during which he controlled the counsels of the Vatican, and before he
himself assumed the tiara, to prepare the mind of Italy and Europe for a
mighty change. His programme included these three points: (1) the
celibacy of the clergy; (2) the abolition of ecclesiastical appointments
made by the secular authority; (3) the vesting of the papal election in
the hands of the Roman clergy and people, presided over by the curia of
cardinals. How Hildebrand paved the way for these reforms during the
pontificates of Nicholas II. and Alexander II., how he succeeded in
raising the papal office from the depths of degradation and subjection
to illimitable sway over the minds of men in Europe, and how his warfare
with the empire established on a solid basis the still doubtful
independence of the Italian burghs, renewing the long neglected
protectorate of the Italian race, and bequeathing to his successors a
national policy which had been forgotten by the popes since his great
predecessor Gregory II., forms a chapter in European history which must
now be interrupted. We have to follow the fortunes of unexpected allies,
upon whom in no small measure his success depended.


  Norman conquest of the Two Sicilies.

In order to maintain some thread of continuity through the perplexed and
tangled vicissitudes of the Italian race, it has been necessary to
disregard those provinces which did not immediately contribute to the
formation of its history. For this reason we have left the whole of the
south up to the present point unnoticed. Sicily in the hands of the
Mussulmans, the Theme of Lombardy abandoned to the weak suzerainty of
the Greek catapans, the Lombard duchy of Benevento slowly falling to
pieces and the maritime republics of Naples, Gaeta and Amalfi extending
their influence by commerce in the Mediterranean, were in effect
detached from the Italian regno, beyond the jurisidiction of Rome,
included in no parcel of Italy proper. But now the moment had arrived
when this vast group of provinces, forming the future kingdom of the Two
Sicilies, was about to enter definitely and decisively within the bounds
of the Italian community. Some Norman adventurers, on pilgrimage to St
Michael's shrine on Monte Gargano, lent their swords in 1017 to the
Lombard cities of Apulia against the Greeks. Twelve years later we find
the Normans settled at Aversa under their Count Rainulf. From this
station as a centre the little band of adventurers, playing the Greeks
off against the Lombards, and the Lombards against the Greeks, spread
their power in all directions, until they made themselves the most
considerable force in southern Italy. William of Hauteville was
proclaimed count of Apulia. His half-brother, Robert Wiskard or
Guiscard, after defeating the papal troops at Civitella in 1053,
received from Leo IX. the investiture of all present and future
conquests in Apulia, Calabria and Sicily, which he agreed to hold as
fiefs of the Holy See. Nicholas II. ratified this grant, and confirmed
the title of count. Having consolidated their possessions on the
mainland, the Normans, under Robert Guiscard's brother, the great Count
Roger, undertook the conquest of Sicily in 1060. After a prolonged
struggle of thirty years, they wrested the whole island from the
Saracens; and Roger, dying in 1101, bequeathed to his son Roger a
kingdom in Calabria and Sicily second to none in Europe for wealth and
magnificence. This, while the elder branch of the Hauteville family
still held the title and domains of the Apulian duchy; but in 1127, upon
the death of his cousin Duke William, Roger united the whole of the
future realm. In 1130 he assumed the style of king of Sicily, inscribing
upon his sword the famous hexameter--

  "Appulus et Calaber Siculus mihi servit et Afer."

This Norman conquest of the two Sicilies forms the most romantic episode
in medieval Italian history. By the consolidation of Apulia, Calabria
and Sicily into a powerful kingdom, by checking the growth of the
maritime republics and by recognizing the over-lordship of the papal
see, the house of Hauteville influenced the destinies of Italy with more
effect than any of the princes who had previously dealt with any portion
of the peninsula. Their kingdom, though Naples was from time to time
separated from Sicily, never quite lost the cohesion they had given it;
and all the disturbances of equilibrium in Italy were due in after days
to papal manipulation of the rights acquired by Robert Guiscard's act of
homage. The southern regno, in the hands of the popes, proved an
insurmountable obstacle to the unification of Italy, led to French
interference in Italian affairs, introduced the Spaniard and maintained
in those rich southern provinces the reality of feudal sovereignty long
after this alien element had been eliminated from the rest of Italy (see
NORMANS; SICILY: _History_).


  War of investitures.

For the sake of clearness, we have anticipated the course of events by
nearly a century. We must now return to the date of Hildebrand's
elevation to the papacy in 1073, when he chose the memorable name of
Gregory VII. In the next year after his election Hildebrand convened a
council, and passed measures enforcing the celibacy of the clergy. In
1075 he caused the investiture of ecclesiastical dignitaries by secular
potentates of any degree to be condemned. These two reforms, striking at
the most cherished privileges and most deeply-rooted self-indulgences of
the aristocratic caste in Europe, inflamed the bitterest hostility.
Henry IV., king of Germany, but not crowned emperor, convened a diet in
the following year at Worms, where Gregory was deposed and
excommunicated. The pope followed with a counter excommunication, far
more formidable, releasing the king's subjects from their oaths of
allegiance. War was thus declared between the two chiefs of western
Christendom, that war of investitures which out-lasted the lives of both
Gregory and Henry, and was not terminated till the year 1122. The
dramatic episodes of this struggle are too well known to be enlarged
upon. In his single-handed duel with the strength of Germany, Gregory
received material assistance from the Countess Matilda of Tuscany. She
was the last heiress of the great house of Canossa, whose fiefs
stretched from Mantua across Lombardy, passed the Apennines, included
the Tuscan plains, and embraced a portion of the duchy of Spoleto. It
was in her castle of Canossa that Henry IV. performed his three days'
penance in the winter of 1077; and there she made the cession of her
vast domains to the church. That cession, renewed after the death of
Gregory to his successors, conferred upon the popes indefinite rights,
of which they afterwards availed themselves in the consolidation of
their temporal power. Matilda died in the year 1115. Gregory had passed
before her from the scene of his contest, an exile at Salerno, whither
Robert Guiscard carried him in 1084 from the anarchy of rebellious Rome.
With unbroken spirit, though the objects of his life were unattained,
though Italy and Europe had been thrown into confusion, and the issue of
the conflict was still doubtful, Gregory expired in 1085 with these
words on his lips: "I loved justice, I hated iniquity, therefore in
banishment I die."

The greatest of the popes thus breathed his last; but the new spirit he
had communicated to the papacy was not destined to expire with him.
Gregory's immediate successors, Victor III., Urban II. and Paschal II.,
carried on his struggle with Henry IV. and his imperial antipopes,
encouraging the emperor's son to rebel against him, and stirring up
Europe for the first crusade. When Henry IV. died, his own son's
prisoner, in 1106, Henry V. crossed the Alps, entered Rome, wrung the
imperial coronation from Paschal II. and compelled the pope to grant his
claims on the investitures. Scarcely had he returned to Germany when the
Lateran disavowed all that the pope had done, on the score that it had
been extorted by force. France sided with the church. Germany rejected
the bull of investiture. A new descent into Italy, a new seizure of
Rome, proved of no avail. The emperor's real weakness was in Germany,
where his subjects openly expressed their discontent. He at last
abandoned the contest which had distracted Europe. By the concordat of
Worms, 1122, the emperor surrendered the right of investiture by ring
and staff, and granted the right of election to the clergy. The popes
were henceforth to be chosen by the cardinals, the bishops by the
chapters subject to the pope's approval. On the other hand the pope
ceded to the emperor the right of investiture by the sceptre. But the
main issue of the struggle was not in these details of ecclesiastical
government; principles had been at stake far deeper and more widely
reaching. The respective relations of pope and emperor, ill-defined in
the compact between Charles the Great and Leo III., were brought in
question, and the two chief potentates of Christendom, no longer tacitly
concordant, stood against each other in irreconcilable rivalry. Upon
this point, though the battle seemed to be a drawn one, the popes were
really victors. They remained independent of the emperor, but the
emperor had still to seek the crown at their hands. The pretensions of
Otto the Great and Henry III. to make popes were gone for ever (see
PAPACY; INVESTITURE).


  Rise of free cities.

IV. _Age of the Communes._--The final gainers, however, by the war of
investitures were the Italians. In the first place, from this time
forward, owing to the election of popes by the Roman curia, the Holy See
remained in the hands of Italians; and this, though it was by no means
an unmixed good, was a great glory to the nation. In the next place, the
antagonism of the popes to the emperors, which became hereditary in the
Holy College, forced the former to assume the protectorate of the
national cause. But by far the greatest profit the Italians reaped was
the emancipation of their burghs. During the forty-seven years' war,
when pope and emperor were respectively bidding for their alliance, and
offering concessions to secure their support, the communes grew in
self-reliance, strength and liberty. As the bishops had helped to free
them from subservience to their feudal masters, so the war of
investitures relieved them of dependence on their bishops. The age of
real autonomy, signalized by the supremacy of consuls in the cities, had
arrived.

In the republics, as we begin to know them after the war of
investitures, government was carried on by officers called consuls,
varying in number according to custom and according to the division of
the town into districts. These magistrates, as we have already seen,
were originally appointed to control and protect the humbler classes.
But, in proportion as the people gained more power in the field the
consuls rose into importance, superseded the bishops and began to
represent the city in transactions with its neighbours. Popes and
emperors who needed the assistance of a city, had to seek it from the
consuls, and thus these officers gradually converted an obscure and
indefinite authority into what resembles the presidency of a
commonwealth. They were supported by a deliberative assembly, called
_credenza_, chosen from the more distinguished citizens. In addition to
this privy council, we find a _gran consiglio_, consisting of the
burghers who had established the right to interfere immediately in
public affairs, and a still larger assembly called _parlamento_, which
included the whole adult population. Though the institutions of the
communes varied in different localities, this is the type to which they
all approximated. It will be perceived that the type was rather
oligarchical than strictly democratic. Between the parlamento and the
consuls with their privy council, or credenza, was interposed the gran
consiglio of privileged burghers. These formed the aristocracy of the
town, who by their wealth and birth held its affairs within their
custody. There is good reason to believe that, when the term _popolo_
occurs, it refers to this body and not to the whole mass of the
population. The _comune_ included the entire city--bishop, consuls,
oligarchy, councils, handicraftsmen, proletariate. The _popolo_ was the
governing or upper class. It was almost inevitable in the transition
from feudalism to democracy that this intermediate ground should be
traversed; and the peculiar Italian phrases, _primo popolo_, _secondo
popolo_, _terzo popolo_, and so forth, indicate successive changes,
whereby the oligarchy passed from one stage to another in its progress
toward absorption in democracy or tyranny.

Under their consuls the Italian burghs rose to a great height of
prosperity and splendour. Pisa built her Duomo. Milan undertook the
irrigation works which enriched the soil of Lombardy for ever. Massive
walls, substantial edifices, commodious seaports, good roads, were the
benefits conferred by this new government on Italy. It is also to be
noticed that the people now began to be conscious of their past. They
recognized the fact that their blood was Latin as distinguished from
Teutonic, and that they must look to ancient Rome for those memories
which constitute a people's nationality. At this epoch the study of
Roman law received a new impulse, and this is the real meaning of the
legend that Pisa, glorious through her consuls, brought the pandects in
a single codex from Amalfi. The very name consul, no less than the
Romanizing character of the best architecture of the time, points to the
same revival of antiquity.


  Republic in Rome.

The rise of the Lombard communes produced a sympathetic revolution in
Rome, which deserves to be mentioned in this place. A monk, named Arnold
of Brescia, animated with the spirit of the Milanese, stirred up the
Romans to shake off the temporal sway of their bishop. He attempted, in
fact, upon a grand scale what was being slowly and quietly effected in
the northern cities. Rome, ever mindful of her unique past, listened to
Arnold's preaching. A senate was established, and the republic was
proclaimed. The title of patrician was revived and offered to Conrad,
king of Italy, but not crowned emperor. Conrad refused it, and the
Romans conferred it upon one of their own nobles. Though these
institutions borrowed high-sounding titles from antiquity, they were in
reality imitations of the Lombard civic system. The patrician stood for
the consuls. The senate, composed of nobles, represented the credenza
and the gran consiglio. The pope was unable to check this revolution,
which is now chiefly interesting as further proof of the insurgence of
the Latin as against the feudal elements in Italy at this period (see
ROME: _History_).


  Municipal wars.

Though the communes gained so much by the war of investitures, the
division of the country between the pope's and emperor's parties was no
small price to pay for independence. It inflicted upon Italy the
ineradicable curse of party-warfare, setting city against city, house
against house, and rendering concordant action for a national end
impossible. No sooner had the compromise of the investitures been
concluded than it was manifest that the burghers of the new enfranchised
communes were resolved to turn their arms against each other. We seek in
vain an obvious motive for each separate quarrel. All we know for
certain is that, at this epoch, Rome attempts to ruin Tivoli, and Venice
Pisa; Milan fights with Cremona, Cremona with Crema, Pavia with Verona,
Verona with Padua, Piacenza with Parma, Modena and Reggio with Bologna,
Bologna and Faenza with Ravenna and Imola, Florence and Pisa with Lucca
and Siena, and so on through the whole list of cities. The nearer the
neighbours, the more rancorous and internecine is the strife; and, as in
all cases where animosity is deadly and no grave local causes of dispute
are apparent, we are bound to conclude that some deeply-seated permanent
uneasiness goaded these fast growing communities into rivalry. Italy
was, in fact, too small for her children. As the towns expanded, they
perceived that they must mutually exclude each other. They fought for
bare existence, for primacy in commerce, for the command of seaports,
for the keys of mountain passes, for rivers, roads and all the avenues
of wealth and plenty. The pope's cause and the emperor's cause were of
comparatively little moment to Italian burghers; and the names of Guelph
and Ghibelline, which before long began to be heard in every street, on
every market-place, had no meaning for them. These watchwords are said
to have arisen in Germany during the disputed succession of the empire
between 1135 and 1152, when the Welfs of Bavaria opposed the Swabian
princes of Waiblingen origin. But in Italy, although they were severally
identified with the papal and imperial parties, they really served as
symbols for jealousies which altered in complexion from time to time and
place to place, expressing more than antagonistic political principles,
and involving differences vital enough to split the social fabric to its
foundation.


  Swabian emperors.

  Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombard cities.

Under the imperial rule of Lothar the Saxon (1125-1137) and Conrad the
Swabian (1138-1152), these civil wars increased in violence owing to the
absence of authority. Neither Lothar nor Conrad was strong at home; the
former had no influence in Italy, and the latter never entered Italy at
all. But when Conrad died, the electors chose his nephew Frederick,
surnamed Barbarossa, who united the rival honours of Welf and
Waiblingen, to succeed him; and it was soon obvious that the empire had
a master powerful of brain and firm of will. Frederick immediately
determined to reassert the imperial rights in his southern provinces,
and to check the warfare of the burghs. When he first crossed the Alps
in 1154, Lombardy was, roughly speaking, divided between two parties,
the one headed by Pavia professing loyalty to the empire, the other
headed by Milan ready to oppose its claims. The municipal animosities of
the last quarter of a century gave substance to these factions; yet
neither the imperial nor the anti-imperial party had any real community
of interest with Frederick. He came to supersede self-government by
consuls, to deprive the cities of the privilege of making war on their
own account and to extort his regalian rights of forage, food and
lodging for his armies. It was only the habit of inter-urban jealousy
which prevented the communes from at once combining to resist demands
which threatened their liberty of action, and would leave them passive
at the pleasure of a foreign master. The diet was opened at Roncaglia
near Piacenza, where Frederick listened to the complaints of Como and
Lodi against Milan, of Pavia against Tortona and of the marquis of
Montferrat against Asti and Chieri. The plaintiffs in each case were
imperialists; and Frederick's first action was to redress their supposed
grievances. He laid waste Chieri, Asti and Tortona, then took the
Lombard crown at Pavia, and, reserving Milan for a future day, passed
southward to Rome. Outside the gates of Rome he was met by a deputation
from the senate he had come to supersede, who addressed him in words
memorable for expressing the republican spirit of new Italy face to face
with autocratic feudalism: "Thou wast a stranger, I have made thee a
citizen"; it is Rome who speaks: "Thou earnest as an alien from beyond
the Alps, I have conferred on thee the principality." Moved only to
scorn and indignation by the rhetoric of these presumptuous enthusiasts,
Frederick marched into the Leonine city, and took the imperial crown
from the hands of Adrian IV. In return for this compliance, the emperor
delivered over to the pope his troublesome rival Arnold of Brescia, who
was burned alive by Nicholas Breakspear, the only English successor of
St Peter. The gates of Rome itself were shut against Frederick; and even
on this first occasion his good understanding with Adrian began to
suffer. The points of dispute between them related mainly to Matilda's
bequest, and to the kingdom of Sicily, which the pope had rendered
independent of the empire by renewing its investiture in the name of the
Holy See. In truth, the papacy and the empire had become irreconcilable.
Each claimed illimitable authority, and neither was content to abide
within such limits as would have secured a mutual tolerance. Having
obtained his coronation, Frederick withdrew to Germany, while Milan
prepared herself against the storm which threatened. In the ensuing
struggle with the empire, that great city rose to the altitude of
patriotic heroism. By their sufferings no less than by their deeds of
daring, her citizens showed themselves to be sublime, devoted and
disinterested, winning the purest laurels which give lustre to Italian
story. Almost in Frederick's presence, they rebuilt Tortona, punished
Pavia, Lodi, Cremona and the marquis of Montferrat. Then they fortified
the Adda and Ticino, and waited for the emperor's next descent. He came
in 1158 with a large army, overran Lombardy, raised his imperial allies,
and sat down before the walls of Milan. Famine forced the burghers to
partial obedience, and Frederick held a victorious diet at Roncaglia.
Here the jurists of Bologna appeared, armed with their new lore of Roman
law, and expounded Justinian's code in the interests of the German
empire. It was now seen how the absolutist doctrines of autocracy
developed in Justinian's age at Byzantium would bear fruits in the
development of an imperial idea, which was destined to be the fatal
mirage of medieval Italy. Frederick placed judges of his own
appointment, with the title of podestà, in all the Lombard communes; and
this stretch of his authority, while it exacerbated his foes, forced
even his friends to join their ranks against him. The war, meanwhile,
dragged on. Crema yielded after an heroic siege in 1160, and was
abandoned to the cruelty of its fierce rival Cremona. Milan was invested
in 1161, starved into capitulation after nine months' resistance, and
given up to total destruction by the Italian imperialists of Frederick's
army, so stained and tarnished with the vindictive passions of municipal
rivalry was even this, the one great glorious strife of Italian annals.
Having ruined his rebellious city, but not tamed her spirit, Frederick
withdrew across the Alps. But, in the interval between his second and
third visit, a league was formed against him in north-eastern Lombardy.
Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso, Venice entered into a compact to defend
their liberties; and when he came again in 1163 with a brilliant staff
of German knights, the imperial cities refused to join his standards.
This was the first and ominous sign of a coming change.


  Lombard League.

Meanwhile the election of Alexander III. to the papacy in 1159 added a
powerful ally to the republican party. Opposed by an anti-pope whom the
emperor favoured, Alexander found it was his truest policy to rely for
support upon the anti-imperialist communes. They in return gladly
accepted a champion who lent them the prestige and influence of the
church. When Frederick once more crossed the Alps in 1166, he advanced
on Rome, and besieged Alexander in the Coliseum. But the affairs of
Lombardy left him no leisure to persecute a recalcitrant pontiff. In
April 1167 a new league was formed between Cremona, Bergamo, Brescia,
Mantua and Ferrara. In December of the same year this league allied
itself with the elder Veronese league, and received the addition of
Milan, Lodi, Piacenza, Parma, Modena and Bologna. The famous league of
Lombard cities, styled Concordia in its acts of settlement, was now
established. Novara, Vercelli, Asti and Tortona swelled its ranks; only
Pavia and Montferrat remained imperialist between the Alps and
Apennines. Frederick fled for his life by the Mont Cenis, and in 1168
the town of Alessandria was erected to keep Pavia and the marquisate in
check. In the emperor's absence, Ravenna, Rimini, Imola and Forli joined
the league, which now called itself the "Society of Venice, Lombardy,
the March, Romagna and Alessandria." For the fifth time, in 1174,
Frederick entered his rebellious dominions. The fortress town of
Alessandria stopped his progress with those mud walls contemptuously
named "of straw," while the forces of the league assembled at Modena and
obliged him to raise the siege. In the spring of 1176 Frederick
threatened Milan. His army found itself a little to the north of the
town near the village of Legnano, when the troops of the city, assisted
only by a few allies from Piacenza, Verona, Brescia, Novara and
Vercelli, met and overwhelmed it. The victory was complete. Frederick
escaped alone to Pavia, whence he opened negotiations with Alexander. In
consequence of these transactions, he was suffered to betake himself
unharmed to Venice. Here, as upon neutral ground, the emperor met the
pope, and a truce for six years was concluded with the Lombard burghs.
Looking back from the vantage-ground of history upon the issue of this
long struggle, we are struck with the small results which satisfied the
Lombard communes. They had humbled and utterly defeated their foreign
lord. They had proved their strength in combination. Yet neither the
acts by which their league was ratified nor the terms negotiated for
them by their patron Alexander evince the smallest desire of what we now
understand as national independence. The name of Italy is never
mentioned. The supremacy of the emperor is not called in question. The
conception of a permanent confederation, bound together in Offensive and
defensive alliance for common objects, has not occurred to these hard
fighters and stubborn asserters of their civic privileges. All they
claim is municipal autonomy; the right to manage their own affairs
within the city walls, to fight their battles as they choose, and to
follow their several ends unchecked. It is vain to lament that, when
they might have now established Italian independence upon a secure
basis, they chose local and municipal privileges. Their mutual
jealousies, combined with the prestige of the empire, and possibly with
the selfishness of the pope, who had secured his own position, and was
not likely to foster a national spirit that would have threatened the
ecclesiastical supremacy, deprived the Italians of the only great
opportunity they ever had of forming themselves into a powerful nation.


  Peace of Constance.

When the truce expired in 1183, a permanent peace was ratified at
Constance. The intervening years had been spent by the Lombards, not in
consolidating their union, but in attempting to secure special
privileges for their several cities. Alessandria della Paglia, glorious
by her resistance to the emperor in 1174, had even changed her name to
Cesarea! The signatories of the peace of Constance were divided between
leaguers and imperialists. On the one side we find Vercelli, Novara,
Milan, Lodi, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso,
Bologna, Faenza, Modena, Reggio, Parma, Piacenza; on the other, Pavia,
Genoa, Alba, Cremona, Como, Tortona, Asti, Cesarea. Venice, who had not
yet entered the Italian community, is conspicuous by her absence.
According to the terms of this treaty, the communes were confirmed in
their right of self-government by consuls, and their right of warfare.
The emperor retained the supreme courts of appeal within the cities, and
his claim for sustenance at their expense when he came into Italy.


  War of cities against nobles.

The privileges confirmed to the Lombard cities by the peace of Constance
were extended to Tuscany, where Florence, having ruined Fiesole, had
begun her career of freedom and prosperity. The next great chapter in
the history of Italian evolution is the war of the burghs against the
nobles. The consular cities were everywhere surrounded by castles; and,
though the feudal lords had been weakened by the events of the preceding
centuries, they continued to be formidable enemies. It was, for
instance, necessary to the well-being of the towns that they should
possess territory round their walls, and this had to be wrested from the
nobles. We cannot linger over the details of this warfare. It must
suffice to say that, partly by mortgaging their property to rich
burghers, partly by entering the service of the cities as _condottieri_
(mercenary leaders), partly by espousing the cause of one town against
another, and partly by forced submission after the siege of their strong
places, the counts were gradually brought into connexion of dependence
on the communes. These, in their turn, forced the nobles to leave their
castles, and to reside for at least a portion of each year within the
walls. By these measures the counts became citizens, the rural
population ceased to rank as serfs, and the Italo-Roman population of
the towns absorbed into itself the remnants of Franks, Germans and other
foreign stocks. It would be impossible to exaggerate the importance of
this revolution, which ended by destroying the last vestige of
feudality, and prepared that common Italian people which afterwards
distinguished itself by the creation of European culture. But, like all
the vicissitudes, of the Italian race, while it was a decided step
forward in one direction, it introduced a new source of discord. The
associated nobles proved ill neighbours to the peaceable citizens. They
fortified their houses, retained their military habits, defied the
consuls, and carried on feuds in the streets and squares. The war
against the castles became a war against the palaces; and the system of
government by consuls proved inefficient to control the clashing
elements within the state. This led to the establishment of podestàs,
who represented a compromise between two radically hostile parties in
the city, and whose business it was to arbitrate and keep the peace
between them. Invariably a foreigner, elected for a year with power of
life and death and control of the armed force, but subject to a strict
account at the expiration of his office, the podestà might be compared
to a dictator invested with limited authority. His title was derived
from that of Frederick Barbarossa's judges; but he had no dependence on
the empire. The citizens chose him, and voluntarily submitted to his
rule. The podestà marks an essentially transitional state in civic
government, and his intervention paved the way for despotism.


  Innocent III.

The thirty years which elapsed between Frederick Barbarossa's death in
1190 and the coronation of his grandson Frederick II. in 1220 form one
of the most momentous epochs in Italian history. Barbarossa, perceiving
the advantage that would accrue to his house if he could join the crown
of Sicily to that of Germany, and thus deprive the popes of their allies
in Lower Italy, procured the marriage of his son Henry VI. to Constance,
daughter of King Roger, and heiress of the Hauteville dynasty. When
William II., the last monarch of the Norman race, died, Henry VI.
claimed that kingdom in his wife's right, and was recognized in 1194.
Three years afterwards he died, leaving a son, Frederick, to the care of
Constance, who in her turn died in 1198, bequeathing the young prince,
already crowned king of Germany, to the guardianship of Innocent III. It
was bold policy to confide Frederick to his greatest enemy and rival;
but the pope honourably discharged his duty, until his ward outgrew the
years of tutelage, and became a fair mark for ecclesiastical hostility.
Frederick's long minority was occupied by Innocent's pontificate. Among
the principal events of that reign must be reckoned the foundation of
the two orders, Franciscan and Dominican, who were destined to form a
militia for the holy see in conflict with the empire and the heretics of
Lombardy. A second great event was the fourth crusade, undertaken in
1198, which established the naval and commercial supremacy of the
Italians in the Mediterranean. The Venetians, who contracted for the
transport of the crusaders, and whose blind doge Dandolo was first to
land in Constantinople, received one-half and one-fourth of the divided
Greek empire for their spoils. The Venetian ascendancy in the Levant
dates from this epoch; for, though the republic had no power to occupy
all the domains ceded to it, Candia was taken, together with several
small islands and stations on the mainland. The formation of a Latin
empire in the East increased the pope's prestige; while at home it was
his policy to organize Countess Matilda's heritage by the formation of
Guelph leagues, over which he presided. This is the meaning of the three
leagues, in the March, in the duchy of Spoleto and in Tuscany, which now
combined the chief cities of the papal territory into allies of the holy
see. From the Tuscan league Pisa, consistently Ghibelline, stood aloof.
Rome itself again at this epoch established a republic, with which
Innocent would not or could not interfere. The thirteen districts in
their council nominated four _caporioni_, who acted in concert with a
_senator_, appointed, like the podestà of other cities, for supreme
judicial functions. Meanwhile the Guelph and Ghibelline factions were
beginning to divide Italy into minute parcels. Not only did commune
range itself against commune under the two rival flags, but party rose
up against party within the city walls. The introduction of the factions
into Florence in 1215, owing to a private quarrel between the
Buondelmonti, Amidei and Donati, is a celebrated instance of what was
happening in every burgh.


  Frederick II. Emperor.

Frederick II. was left without a rival for the imperial throne in 1218
by the death of Otto IV., and on the 22nd of November 1220, Honorius
III., Innocent's successor, crowned him in Rome. It was impossible for
any section of the Italians to mistake the gravity of his access to
power. In his single person he combined the prestige of empire with the
Crowns of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Germany and Burgundy; and in 1225, by
marriage with Yolande de Brienne, he added that of Jerusalem. There was
no prince greater or more formidable in the habitable globe. The
communes, no less than the popes, felt that they must prepare themselves
for contest to the death with a power which threatened their existence.
Already in 1218, the Guelphs of Lombardy had resuscitated their old
league, and had been defeated by the Ghibellines in a battle near
Ghibello. Italy seemed to lie prostrate before the emperor, who
commanded her for the first time from the south as well as from the
north. In 1227 Frederick, who had promised to lead a crusade, was
excommunicated by Gregory IX. because he was obliged by illness to defer
his undertaking; and thus the spiritual power declared war upon its
rival. The Guelph towns of Lombardy again raised their levies. Frederick
enlisted his Saracen troops at Nocera and Luceria, and appointed the
terrible Ezzelino da Romano his vicar in the Marches of Verona to quell
their insurrection. It was 1236, however, before he was able to take the
field himself against the Lombards. Having established Ezzelino in
Verona, Vicenza and Padua, he defeated the Milanese and their allies at
Cortenuova in 1237, and sent their carroccio as a trophy of his victory
to Rome. Gregory IX. feared lest the Guelph party would be ruined by
this check. He therefore made alliance with Venice and Genoa, fulminated
a new excommunication against Frederick, and convoked a council at Rome
to ratify his ban in 1241. The Genoese undertook to bring the French
bishops to this council. Their fleet was attacked at Meloria by the
Pisans, and utterly defeated. The French prelates went in silver chains
to prison in the Ghibelline capital of Tuscany. So far Frederick had
been successful at all points. In 1243 a new pope, Innocent IV., was
elected, who prosecuted the war with still bitterer spirit. Forced to
fly to France, he there, at Lyons, in 1245, convened a council, which
enforced his condemnation of the emperor. Frederick's subjects were
freed from their allegiance, and he was declared dethroned and deprived
of all rights. Five times king and emperor as he was, Frederick, placed
under the ban of the church, led henceforth a doomed existence. The
mendicant monks stirred up the populace to acts of fanatical enmity. To
plot against him, to attempt his life by poison or the sword, was
accounted virtuous. His secretary, Piero delle Vigne, was wrongly
suspected of conspiring. The crimes of his vicar Ezzelino, who laid
whole provinces waste and murdered men by thousands in his Paduan
prisons, increased the horror with which he was regarded. Parma revolted
from him, and he spent months in 1247-1248 vainly trying to reduce this
one time faithful city. The only gleam of success which shone on his ill
fortune was the revolution which placed Florence in the hands of the
Ghibellines in 1248. Next year Bologna rose against him, defeated his
troops and took his son Enzio, king of Sardinia, prisoner at Fossalta.
Hunted to the ground and broken-hearted, Frederick expired at the end of
1250 in his Apulian castle of Fiorentino. It is difficult to judge his
career with fairness. The only prince who could, with any probability of
success, have established the German rule in Italy, his ruin proved the
impossibility of that long-cherished scheme. The nation had outgrown
dependence upon foreigners, and after his death no German emperor
interfered with anything but miserable failure in Italian affairs. Yet
from many points of view it might be regretted that Frederick was not
suffered to rule Italy. By birth and breeding an Italian, highly gifted
and widely cultivated, liberal in his opinions, a patron of literature,
a founder of universities, he anticipated the spirit of the Renaissance.
At his court Italian started into being as a language. His laws were
wise. He was capable of giving to Italy a large and noble culture. But
the commanding greatness of his position proved his ruin. Emperor and
king of Sicily, he was the natural enemy of popes, who could not
tolerate so overwhelming a rival.


  Papal war against Frederick's successors.

After Frederick's death, the popes carried on their war for eighteen
years against his descendants. The cause of his son Conrad was sustained
in Lower Italy by Manfred, one of Frederick's many natural children;
and, when Conrad died in 1254, Manfred still acted as vicegerent for the
Swabians, who were now represented by a boy Conradin. Innocent IV. and
Alexander IV. continued to make head against the Ghibelline party. The
most dramatic incident in this struggle was the crusade preached against
Ezzelino. This tyrant had made himself justly odious; and when he was
hunted to death in 1259, the triumph was less for the Guelph cause than
for humanity outraged by the iniquities of such a monster. The battle
between Guelph and Ghibelline raged with unintermitting fury. While the
former faction gained in Lombardy by the massacre of Ezzelino, the
latter revived in Tuscany after the battle of Montaperti, which in 1260
placed Florence at the discretion of the Ghibellines. Manfred, now
called king of Sicily, headed the Ghibellines, and there was no strong
counterpoise against him. In this necessity Urban IV. and Clement IV.
invited Charles of Anjou to enter Italy and take the Guelph command.
They made him senator of Rome and vicar of Tuscany, and promised him the
investiture of the regno provided he stipulated that it should not be
held in combination with the empire. Charles accepted these terms, and
was welcomed by the Guelph party as their chief throughout Italy. He
defeated Manfred in a battle at Grandella near Benevento in 1266.
Manfred was killed; and, when Conradin, a lad of sixteen, descended from
Germany to make good his claims to the kingdom, he too was defeated at
Tagliacozzo in 1267. Less lucky than his uncle, Conradin escaped with
his life, to die upon a scaffold at Naples. His glove was carried to his
cousin Constance, wife of Peter of Aragon, the last of the great
Norman-Swabian family. Enzio died in his prison four years later. The
popes had been successful; but they had purchased their bloody victory
at a great cost. This first invitation to French princes brought with it
incalculable evils.


  Civil War of Guelphs and Ghibellines.

Charles of Anjou, supported by Rome, and recognized as chief in Tuscany,
was by far the most formidable of the Italian potentates. In his turn he
now excited the jealousy of the popes, who began, though cautiously, to
cast their weight into the Ghibelline scale. Gregory initiated the
policy of establishing an equilibrium between the parties, which was
carried out by his successor Nicholas III. Charles was forced to resign
the senatorship of Rome and the signoria of Lombardy and Tuscany. In
1282 he received a more decided check, when Sicily rose against him in
the famous rebellion of the Vespers. He lost the island, which gave
itself to Aragon; and thus the kingdom of Sicily was severed from that
of Naples, the dynasty in the one being Spanish and Ghibelline, in the
other French and Guelph. Meanwhile a new emperor had been elected, the
prudent Rudolf of Habsburg, who abstained from interference with Italy,
and who confirmed the territorial pretensions of the popes by solemn
charter in 1278. Henceforth Emilia, Romagna, the March of Ancona, the
patrimony of St Peter and the Campagna of Rome held of the Holy See, and
not of the empire. The imperial chancery, without inquiring closely into
the deeds furnished by the papal curia, made a deed of gift, which
placed the pope in the position of a temporal sovereign. While Nicholas
III. thus bettered the position of the church in Italy, the Guelph party
grew stronger than ever, through the crushing defeat of the Pisans by
the Genoese at Meloria in 1284. Pisa, who had ruined Amalfi, was now
ruined by Genoa. She never held her head so high again after this
victory, which sent her best and bravest citizens to die in the Ligurian
dungeons. The Mediterranean was left to be fought for by Genoa and
Venice, while Guelph Florence grew still more powerful in Tuscany. Not
long after the battle of Meloria Charles of Anjou died, and was
succeeded by his son Charles II. of Naples, who played no prominent part
in Italian affairs. The Guelph party was held together with a less tight
hand even in cities so consistent as Florence. Here in the year 1300 new
factions, subdividing the old Guelphs and Ghibellines under the names of
Neri and Bianchi, had acquired such force that Boniface VIII., a
violently Guelph pope, called in Charles of Valois to pacify the
republic and undertake the charge of Italian affairs. Boniface was a
passionate and unwise man. After quarrelling with the French king,
Philip le Bel, he fell into the hands of the Colonna family at Anagni,
and died, either of the violence he there received or of mortification,
in October 1303.


  Translation of the Papacy to Avignon.

After the short papacy of Benedict XI. a Frenchman, Clement V., was
elected, and the seat of the papacy was transferred to Avignon. Thus
began that Babylonian exile of the popes which placed them in subjection
to the French crown and ruined their prestige in Italy. Lasting seventy
years, and joining on to the sixty years of the Great Schism, this
enfeeblement of the papal authority, coinciding as it did with the
practical elimination of the empire from Italian affairs, gave a long
period of comparative independence to the nation. Nor must it be
forgotten that this exile was due to the policy which induced the
pontiffs, in their detestation of Ghibellinism, to rely successively
upon the houses of Anjou and of Valois. This policy it was which
justified Dante's fierce epigram--the _puttaneggiar co regi_.

The period we have briefly traversed was immortalized by Dante in an
epic which from one point of view might be called the poem of the
Guelphs and Ghibellines. From the foregoing bare narration of events it
is impossible to estimate the importance of these parties, or to
understand their bearing on subsequent Italian history. We are therefore
forced to pause awhile, and probe beneath the surface. The civil wars
may be regarded as a continuation of the previous municipal struggle,
intensified by recent hostilities between the burghers and the nobles.
The quarrels of the church and empire lend pretexts and furnish
war-cries; but the real question at issue is not the supremacy of pope
or emperor. The conflict is a social one, between civic and feudal
institutions, between commercial and military interests, between
progress and conservatism. Guelph democracy and industry idealize the
pope. The banner of the church waves above the camp of those who aim at
positive prosperity and republican equality. Ghibelline aristocracy and
immobility idealize the emperor. The prestige of the empire, based upon
Roman law and feudal tradition, attracts imaginative patriots and
systematic thinkers. The two ideals are counterposed and mutually
exclusive. No city calls itself either Guelph or Ghibelline till it has
expelled one-half of its inhabitants; for each party is resolved to
constitute the state according to its own conception, and the
affirmation of the one programme is the negation of the other. The
Ghibelline honestly believes that the Guelphs will reduce society to
chaos. The Guelph is persuaded that the Ghibellines will annihilate
freedom and strangle commerce. The struggle is waged by two sets of men
who equally love their city, but who would fain rule it upon
diametrically opposite principles, and who fight to the death for its
possession. This contradiction enters into the minutest details of
life--armorial bearings, clothes, habits at table, symbolize and
accentuate the difference. Meanwhile each party forms its own
organization of chiefs, finance-officers and registrars at home, and
sends ambassadors to foreign cities of the same complexion. A network of
party policy embraces and dominates the burghs of Italy, bringing the
most distant centres into relation, and by the very division of the
country augmenting the sense of nationality. The Italians learn through
their discords at this epoch that they form one community. The victory
in the conflict practically falls to the hitherto unenfranchised
plebeians. The elder noble families die out or lose their preponderance.
In some cities, as notably in Florence after the date 1292, it becomes
criminal to be _scioperato_, or unemployed in industry. New houses rise
into importance; a new commercial aristocracy is formed. Burghers of all
denominations are enrolled in one or other of the arts or gilds, and
these trading companies furnish the material from which the government
or signoria of the city is composed. Plebeian handicrafts assert their
right to be represented on an equality with learned professions and
wealthy corporations. The ancient classes are confounded and obliterated
in a population more homogeneous, more adapted for democracy and
despotism.


  New constitution of the free cities.

In addition to the parliament and the councils which have been already
enumerated, we now find a _council of the party_ established within the
city. This body tends to become a little state within the state, and, by
controlling the victorious majority, disposes of the government as it
thinks best. The consuls are merged in _ancients_ or _priors_, chosen
from the arts. A new magistrate, the _gonfalonier of justice_, appears
in some of the Guelph cities, with the special duty of keeping the
insolence of the nobility in check. Meanwhile the podestà still
subsists; but he is no longer equal to the task of maintaining an
equilibrium of forces. He sinks more and more into a judge, loses more
and more the character of dictator. His ancient place is now occupied by
a new functionary, no longer acting as arbiter, but concentrating the
forces of the triumphant party. The _captain of the people_, acting as
head of the ascendant Guelphs or Ghibellines, undertakes the
responsibility of proscriptions, decides on questions of policy, forms
alliances, declares war. Like all officers created to meet an emergency,
the limitations to his power are ill-defined, and he is often little
better than an autocrat.


  Origin of Tyrannies.

V. _Age of the Despots._--Thus the Italians, during the heat of the
civil wars, were ostensibly divided between partisans of the empire and
partisans of the church. After the death of Frederick II. their affairs
were managed by Manfred and by Charles of Anjou, the supreme captains of
the parties, under whose orders acted the captains of the people in each
city. The contest being carried on by warfare, it followed that these
captains in the burghs were chosen on account of military skill; and,
since the nobles were men of arms by profession, members of ancient
houses took the lead again in towns where they had been absorbed into
the bourgeoisie. In this way, after the downfall of the Ezzelini of
Romano, the Della Scala dynasty arose in Verona, and the Carraresi in
Padua. The Estensi made themselves lords of Ferrara; the Torriani headed
the Guelphs of Milan. At Ravenna we find the Polenta family, at Rimini
the Malatestas, at Parma the Rossi, at Piacenza the Scotti, at Faenza
the Manfredi. There is not a burgh of northern Italy but can trace the
rise of a dynastic house to the vicissitudes of this period. In Tuscany,
where the Guelph party was very strongly organized, and the commercial
constitution of Florence kept the nobility in check, the communes
remained as yet free from hereditary masters. Yet generals from time to
time arose, the Conte Ugolino della Gheradesca at Pisa, Uguccione della
Faggiuola at Lucca, the Conte Guido di Montefeltro at Florence, who
threatened the liberties of Tuscan cities with military despotism.

Left to themselves by absentee emperors and exiled popes, the Italians
pursued their own course of development unchecked. After the
commencement of the 14th century, the civil wars decreased in fury, and
at the same time it was perceived that their effect had been to confirm
tyrants in their grasp upon free cities. Growing up out of the captain
of the people or signore of the commune, the tyrant annihilated both
parties for his own profit and for the peace of the state. He used the
dictatorial powers with which he was invested to place himself above the
law, resuming in his person the state-machinery which had preceded him.
In him, for the first time, the city attained self-consciousness; the
blindly working forces of previous revolutions were combined in the will
of a ruler. The tyrant's general policy was to favour the multitude at
the expense of his own caste. He won favour by these means, and
completed the levelling down of classes, which had been proceeding ever
since the emergence of the communes.


  Decline of civil wars. Advent of the bourgeoisie.

In 1309 Robert, grandson of Charles, the first Angevine sovereign,
succeeded to the throne of Naples, and became the leader of the Guelphs
in Italy. In the next year Henry VII. of Luxembourg crossed the Alps
soon after his election to the empire, and raised the hopes of the
Ghibellines. Dante from his mountain solitudes passionately called upon
him to play the part of a Messiah. But it was now impossible for any
German to control the "Garden of the Empire." Italy had entered on a new
phase of her existence, and the great poet's _De monarchia_ represented
a dream of the past which could not be realized. Henry established
imperial vicars in the Lombard towns, confirming the tyrants, but
gaining nothing for the empire in exchange for the titles he conferred.
After receiving the crown in Rome, he died at Buonconvento, a little
walled town south of Siena, on his backward journey in 1313. The profits
of his inroad were reaped by despots, who used the Ghibelline prestige
for the consolidation of their own power. It is from this epoch that the
supremacy of the Visconti, hitherto the unsuccessful rivals of the
Guelphic Torriani for the signory of Milan, dates. The Scaligers in
Verona and the Carraresi in Padua were strengthened; and in Tuscany
Castruccio Castracane, Uguccione's successor at Lucca, became
formidable. In 1325 he defeated the Florentines at Alto Pascio, and
carried home their carroccio as a trophy of his victory over the
Guelphs. Louis of Bavaria, the next emperor, made a similar excursion in
the year 1327, with even greater loss of imperial prestige. He deposed
Galeazzo Visconti on his downward journey, and offered Milan for a sum
of money to his son Azzo upon his return. Castruccio Castracane was
nominated by him duke of Lucca; and this is the first instance of a
dynastic title conferred upon an Italian adventurer by the emperor.
Castruccio dominated Tuscany, where the Guelph cause, in the weakness of
King Robert, languished. But the adventurer's death in 1328 saved the
stronghold of republican institutions, and Florence breathed freely for
a while again. Can Grande della Scala's death in the next year inflicted
on the Lombard Ghibellines a loss hardly inferior to that of
Castruccio's on their Tuscan allies. Equally contemptible in its
political results and void of historical interest was the brief visit of
John of Bohemia, son of Henry VII., whom the Ghibellines next invited to
assume their leadership. He sold a few privileges, conferred a few
titles, and recrossed the Alps in 1333. It is clear that at this time
the fury of the civil wars was spent. In spite of repeated efforts on
the part of the Ghibellines, in spite of King Robert's supine
incapacity, the imperialists gained no permanent advantage. The Italians
were tired of fighting, and the leaders of both factions looked
exclusively to their own interests. Each city which had been the cradle
of freedom thankfully accepted a master, to quench the conflagration of
party strife, encourage trade, and make the handicraftsmen comfortable.
Even the Florentines in 1342 submitted for a few months to the despotism
of the duke of Athens. They conferred the signory upon him for life;
and, had he not mismanaged matters, he might have held the city in his
grasp. Italy was settling down and turning her attention to home
comforts, arts and literature. Boccaccio, the contented bourgeois,
succeeded to Dante, the fierce aristocrat.

The most marked proof of the change which came over Italy towards the
middle of the 14th century is furnished by the companies of adventure.
It was with their own militia that the burghers won freedom in the war
of independence, subdued the nobles, and fought the battles of the
parties. But from this time forward they laid down their arms, and
played the game of warfare by the aid of mercenaries. Ecclesiastical
overlords, interfering from a distance in Italian politics; prosperous
republics, with plenty of money to spend but no leisure or inclination
for camp-life; cautious tyrants, glad of every pretext to emasculate
their subjects, and courting popularity by exchanging conscription for
taxation--all combined to favour the new system. Mercenary troops are
said to have been first levied from disbanded Germans, together with
Breton and English adventurers, whom the Visconti and Castruccio took
into their pay. They soon appeared under their own captains, who hired
them out to the highest bidder, or marched them on marauding expeditions
up and down the less protected districts. The names of some of these
earliest captains of adventure, Fra Moriale, Count Lando and Duke
Werner, who styled himself the "Enemy of God and Mercy," have been
preserved to us. As the companies grew in size and improved their
discipline, it was seen by the Italian nobles that this kind of service
offered a good career for men of spirit, who had learned the use of
arms. To leave so powerful and profitable a calling in the hands of
foreigners seemed both dangerous and uneconomical. Therefore, after the
middle of the century, this profession fell into the hands of natives.
The first Italian who formed an exclusively Italian company was Alberico
da Barbiano, a nobleman of Romagna, and founder of the Milanese house of
Belgiojoso. In his school the great condottieri Braccio da Montone and
Sforza Attendolo were formed; and henceforth the battles of Italy were
fought by Italian generals commanding native troops. This was better in
some respects than if the mercenaries had been foreigners. Yet it must
not be forgotten that the new companies of adventure, who decided
Italian affairs for the next century, were in no sense patriotic. They
sold themselves for money, irrespective of the cause which they upheld;
and, while changing masters, they had no care for any interests but
their own. The name condottiero, derived from _condotta_, a paid
contract to supply so many fighting men in serviceable order,
sufficiently indicates the nature of the business. In the hands of able
captains, like Francesco Sforza or Piccinino, these mercenary troops
became moving despotisms, draining the country of its wealth, and always
eager to fasten and found tyrannies upon the provinces they had been
summoned to defend. Their generals substituted heavy-armed cavalry for
the old militia, and introduced systems of campaigning which reduced the
art of war to a game of skill. Battles became all but bloodless;
diplomacy and tactics superseded feats of arms and hard blows in pitched
fields. In this way the Italians lost their military vigour, and wars
were waged by despots from their cabinets, who pulled the strings of
puppet captains in their pay. Nor were the people only enfeebled for
resistance to a real foe; the whole political spirit of the race was
demoralized. The purely selfish bond between condottieri and their
employers, whether princes or republics, involved intrigues and
treachery, checks and counterchecks, secret terror on the one hand and
treasonable practice on the other, which ended by making statecraft in
Italy synonymous with perfidy.


  Change in type of despotism.

It must further be noticed that the rise of mercenaries was synchronous
with a change in the nature of Italian despotism. The tyrants, as we
have already seen, established themselves as captains of the people,
vicars of the empire, vicars for the church, leaders of the Guelph and
Ghibelline parties. They were accepted by a population eager for
repose, who had merged old class distinctions in the conflicts of
preceding centuries. They rested in large measure on the favour of the
multitude, and pursued a policy of sacrificing to their interests the
nobles. It was natural that these self-made princes should seek to
secure the peace which they had promised in their cities, by freeing the
people from military service and disarming the aristocracy. As their
tenure of power grew firmer, they advanced dynastic claims, assumed
titles, and took the style of petty sovereigns. Their government became
paternal; and, though there was no limit to their cruelty when stung by
terror, they used the purse rather than the sword, bribery at home and
treasonable intrigue abroad in preference to coercive measures or open
war. Thus was elaborated the type of despot which attained completeness
in Gian Galeazzo Visconti and Lorenzo de' Medici. No longer a tyrant of
Ezzelino's stamp, he reigned by intelligence and terrorism masked
beneath a smile. He substituted cunning and corruption for violence. The
lesser people tolerated him because he extended the power of their city
and made it beautiful with public buildings. The bourgeoisie, protected
in their trade, found it convenient to support him. The nobles, turned
into courtiers, placemen, diplomatists and men of affairs, ended by
preferring his authority to the alternative of democratic institutions.
A lethargy of well-being, broken only by the pinch of taxation for
war-costs, or by outbursts of frantic ferocity and lust in the less
calculating tyrants, descended on the population of cities which had
boasted of their freedom. Only Florence and Venice, at the close of the
period upon which we are now entering, maintained their republican
independence. And Venice was ruled by a close oligarchy; Florence was
passing from the hands of her oligarchs into the power of the Medicean
merchants.


  Discrimination of the five great powers.

Between the year 1305, when Clement V. settled at Avignon, and the year
1447, when Nicholas V. re-established the papacy upon a solid basis at
Rome, the Italians approximated more nearly to self-government than at
any other epoch of their history. The conditions which have been
described, of despotism, mercenary warfare and bourgeois prosperity,
determined the character of this epoch, which was also the period when
the great achievements of the Renaissance were prepared. At the end of
this century and a half, five principal powers divided the peninsula;
and their confederated action during the next forty-five years
(1447-1492) secured for Italy a season of peace and brilliant
prosperity. These five powers were the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of
Milan, the republic of Florence, the republic of Venice and the papacy.
The subsequent events of Italian history will be rendered most
intelligible if at this point we trace the development of these five
constituents of Italian greatness separately.


  The Two Sicilies.

When Robert of Anjou died in 1343, he was succeeded by his
grand-daughter Joan, the childless wife of four successive husbands,
Andrew of Hungary, Louis of Taranto, James of Aragon and Otto of
Brunswick. Charles of Durazzo, the last male scion of the Angevine house
in Lower Italy, murdered Joan in 1382, and held the kingdom for five
years. Dying in 1387, he transmitted Naples to his son Ladislaus, who
had no children, and was followed in 1414 by his sister Joan II. She
too, though twice married, died without issue, having at one time
adopted Louis III. of Provence and his brother René, at another Alfonso
V. of Aragon, who inherited the crown of Sicily. After her death in
February 1435 the kingdom was fought for between René of Anjou and
Alfonso, surnamed the Magnanimous. René found supporters among the
Italian princes, especially the Milanese Visconti, who helped him to
assert his claims with arms. During the war of succession which ensued,
Alfonso was taken prisoner by the Genoese fleet in August 1435, and was
sent a prisoner to Filippo Maria at Milan. Here he pleaded his own cause
so powerfully, and proved so incontestably the advantage which might
ensue to the Visconti from his alliance, if he held the regno, that he
obtained his release and recognition as king. From the end of the year
1435 Alfonso reigned alone and undisturbed in Lower Italy, combining
for the first time since the year 1282 the crowns of Sicily and Naples.
The former he held by inheritance, together with that of Aragon. The
latter he considered to be his by conquest. Therefore, when he died in
1458, he bequeathed Naples to his natural son Ferdinand, while Sicily
and Aragon passed together to his brother John, and so on to Ferdinand
the Catholic. The twenty-three years of Alfonso's reign were the most
prosperous and splendid period of South Italian history. He became an
Italian in taste and sympathy, entering with enthusiasm into the
humanistic ardour of the earlier Renaissance, encouraging men of letters
at his court, administering his kingdom on the principles of an
enlightened despotism, and lending his authority to establish that
equilibrium in the peninsula upon which the politicians of his age
believed, not without reason, that Italian independence might be
secured.


  Duchy of Milan.

The last member of the Visconti family of whom we had occasion to speak
was Azzo, who bought the city in 1328 from Louis of Bavaria. His uncle
Lucchino succeeded, but was murdered in 1349 by a wife against whose
life he had been plotting. Lucchino's brother John, archbishop of Milan,
now assumed the lordship of the city, and extended the power of the
Visconti over Genoa and the whole of north Italy, with the exception of
Piedmont, Verona, Mantua, Ferrara and Venice. The greatness of the
family dates from the reign of this masterful prelate. He died in 1354,
and his heritage was divided between three members of his house, Matteo,
Bernabò and Galeazzo. In the next year Matteo, being judged incompetent
to rule, was assassinated by order of his brothers, who made an equal
partition of their subject cities--Bernabò residing in Milan, Galeazzo
in Pavia. Galeazzo was the wealthiest and most magnificent Italian of
his epoch. He married his daughter Violante to our duke of Clarence, and
his son Gian Galeazzo to a daughter of King John of France. When he died
in 1378, this son resolved to reunite the domains of the Visconti; and,
with this object in view, he plotted and executed the murder of his
uncle Bernabò. Gian Galeazzo thus became by one stroke the most
formidable of Italian despots. Immured in his castle at Pavia,
accumulating wealth by systematic taxation and methodical economy, he
organized the mercenary troops who eagerly took service under so good a
paymaster; and, by directing their operations from his cabinet, he
threatened the whole of Italy with conquest. The last scions of the
Della Scala family still reigned in Verona, the last Carraresi in Padua;
the Estensi were powerful in Ferrara, the Gonzaghi in Mantua. Gian
Galeazzo, partly by force and partly by intrigue, discredited these
minor despots, pushed his dominion to the very verge of Venice, and,
having subjected Lombardy to his sway, proceeded to attack Tuscany. Pisa
and Perugia were threatened with extinction, and Florence dreaded the
advance of the Visconti arms, when the plague suddenly cut short his
career of treachery and conquest in the year 1402. Seven years before
his death Gian Galeazzo bought the title of duke of Milan and count of
Pavia from the emperor Wenceslaus, and there is no doubt that he was
aiming at the sovereignty of Italy. But no sooner was he dead than the
essential weakness of an artificial state, built up by cunning and
perfidious policy, with the aid of bought troops, dignified by no
dynastic title, and consolidated by no sense of loyalty, became
apparent. Gian Galeazzo's duchy was a masterpiece of mechanical
contrivance, the creation of a scheming intellect and lawless will. When
the mind which had planned it was withdrawn, it fell to pieces, and the
very hands which had been used to build it helped to scatter its
fragments. The Visconti's own generals, Facino Cane, Pandolfo Malatesta,
Jacopo dal Verme, Gabrino Fondulo, Ottobon Terzo, seized upon the
tyranny of several Lombard cities. In others the petty tyrants whom the
Visconti had uprooted reappeared. The Estensi recovered their grasp upon
Ferrara, and the Gonzaghi upon Mantua. Venice strengthened herself
between the Adriatic and the Alps. Florence reassumed her Tuscan
hegemony. Other communes which still preserved the shadow of
independence, like Perugia and Bologna, began once more to dream of
republican freedom under their own leading families. Meanwhile Gian
Galeazzo had left two sons, Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria. Giovanni,
a monster of cruelty and lust, was assassinated by some Milanese nobles
in 1412; and now Filippo set about rebuilding his father's duchy. Herein
he was aided by the troops of Facino Cane, who, dying opportunely at
this period, left considerable wealth, a well-trained band of
mercenaries, and a widow, Beatrice di Tenda. Filippo married and then
beheaded Beatrice after a mock trial for adultery, having used her money
and her influence in reuniting several subject cities to the crown of
Milan. He subsequently spent a long, suspicious, secret and
incomprehensible career in the attempt to piece together Gian Galeazzo's
Lombard state, and to carry out his schemes of Italian conquest. In this
endeavour he met with vigorous opponents. Venice and Florence, strong in
the strength of their resentful oligarchies, offered a determined
resistance; nor was Filippo equal in ability to his father. His infernal
cunning often defeated its own aims, checkmating him at the point of
achievement by suggestions of duplicity or terror. In the course of
Filippo's wars with Florence and Venice, the greatest generals of this
age were formed--Francesco Carmagnola, who was beheaded between the
columns at Venice in 1432; Niccolò Piccinino, who died at Milan in 1444;
and Francesco Sforza, who survived to seize his master's heritage in
1450. Son of Attendolo Sforza, this Francesco received the hand of
Filippo's natural daughter, Bianca, as a reward for past service and a
pledge of future support. When the Visconti dynasty ended by the duke's
death in 1447, he pretended to espouse the cause of the Milanese
republic, which was then re-established; but he played his cards so
subtly as to make himself, by the help of Cosimo de' Medici in Florence,
duke _de facto_ if not _de jure_. Francesco Sforza was the only
condottiero among many aspiring to be tyrants who planted themselves
firmly on a throne of first-rate importance. Once seated in the duchy of
Milan, he displayed rare qualities as a ruler; for he not only entered
into the spirit of the age, which required humanity and culture from a
despot, but he also knew how to curb his desire for territory. The
conception of confederated Italy found in him a vigorous supporter. Thus
the limitation of the Milanese duchy under Filippo Maria Visconti, and
its consolidation under Francesco Sforza, were equally effectual in
preparing the balance of power to which Italian politics now tended.

[Illustration: Map of the Unification of Italy 1859-1870.]

This balance could not have been established without the concurrent aid
of Florence. After the expulsion of the duke of Athens in 1343, and the
great plague of 1348, the Florentine proletariate rose up against the
merchant princes. This insurgence of the artisans, in a republic which
had been remodelled upon economical principles by Giano della Bella's
constitution of 1292, reached a climax in 1378, when the Ciompi
rebellion placed the city for a few years in the hands of the Lesser
Arts. The revolution was but temporary, and was rather a symptom of
democratic tendencies in the state than the sign of any capacity for
government on the part of the working classes. The necessities of war
and foreign affairs soon placed Florence in the power of an oligarchy
headed by the great Albizzi family. They fought the battles of the
republic with success against the Visconti, and widely extended the
Florentine domain over the Tuscan cities. During their season of
ascendancy Pisa was enslaved, and Florence gained the access to the sea.
But throughout this period a powerful opposition was gathering strength.
It was led by the Medici, who sided with the common people, and
increased their political importance by the accumulation and wise
employment of vast commercial wealth. In 1433 the Albizzi and the Medici
came to open strife. Cosimo de' Medici, the chief of the opposition, was
exiled to Venice. In the next year he returned, assumed the presidency
of the democratic party, and by a system of corruption and
popularity-hunting, combined with the patronage of arts and letters,
established himself as the real but unacknowledged dictator of the
commonwealth. Cosimo abandoned the policy of his predecessors. Instead
of opposing Francesco Sforza in Milan, he lent him his prestige and
influence, foreseeing that the dynastic future of his own family and the
pacification of Italy might be secured by a balance of power in which
Florence should rank on equal terms with Milan and Naples.


  Venice.

The republic of Venice differed essentially from any other state in
Italy; and her history was so separate that, up to this point, it would
have been needless to interrupt the narrative by tracing it. Venice,
however, in the 14th century took her place at last as an Italian power
on an equality at least with the very greatest. The constitution of the
commonwealth had slowly matured itself through a series of revolutions,
which confirmed and defined a type of singular stability. During the
earlier days of the republic the doge had been a prince elected by the
people, and answerable only to the popular assemblies. In 1032 he was
obliged to act in concert with a senate, called _pregadi_; and in 1172
the grand council, which became the real sovereign of the state, was
formed. The several steps whereby the members of the grand council
succeeded in eliminating the people from a share in the government, and
reducing the doge to the position of their ornamental representative,
cannot here be described. It must suffice to say that these changes
culminated in 1297, when an act was passed for closing the grand
council, or in other words for confining it to a fixed number of
privileged families, in whom the government was henceforth vested by
hereditary right. This ratification of the oligarchical principle,
together with the establishment in 1311 of the Council of Ten, completed
that famous constitution which endured till the extinction of the
republic in 1797. Meanwhile, throughout the middle ages, it had been the
policy of Venice to refrain from conquests on the Italian mainland, and
to confine her energies to commerce in the East. The first entry of any
moment made by the Venetians into strictly Italian affairs was in 1336,
when the republics of Florence and St Mark allied themselves against
Mastino della Scala, and the latter took possession of Treviso. After
this, for thirty years, between 1352 and 1381, Venice and Genoa
contested the supremacy of the Mediterranean. Pisa's maritime power
having been extinguished in the battle of Meloria (1284), the two
surviving republics had no rivals. They fought their duel out upon the
Bosporus, off Sardinia, and in the Morea, with various success. From the
first great encounter, in 1355, Venice retired well-nigh exhausted, and
Genoa was so crippled that she placed herself under the protection of
the Visconti. The second and decisive battle was fought upon the
Adriatic. The Genoese fleet under Luciano Doria defeated the Venetians
off Pola in 1379, and sailed without opposition to Chioggia, which was
stormed and taken. Thus the Venetians found themselves blockaded in
their own lagoons. Meanwhile a fleet was raised for their relief by
Carlo Zeno in the Levant, and the admiral Vittore Pisani, who had been
imprisoned after the defeat at Pola, was released to lead their forlorn
hope from the city side. The Genoese in their turn were now blockaded in
Chioggia, and forced by famine to surrender. The losses of men and money
which the war of Chioggia, as it was called, entailed, though they did
not immediately depress the spirit of the Genoese republic, signed her
naval ruin. During this second struggle to the death with Genoa, the
Venetians had been also at strife with the Carraresi of Padua and the
Scaligers of Verona. In 1406, after the extinction of these princely
houses they added Verona, Vicenza and Padua to the territories they
claimed on _terra firma_. Their career of conquest, and their new policy
of forming Italian alliances and entering into the management of Italian
affairs were confirmed by the long dogeship of Francesco Foscari
(1423-1457), who must rank with Alfonso, Cosimo de' Medici, Francesco
Sforza and Nicholas V., as a joint-founder of confederated Italy. When
Constantinople fell in 1453, the old ties between Venice and the Eastern
empire were broken, and she now entered on a wholly new phase of her
history. Ranking as one of the five Italian powers, she was also
destined to defend Western Christendom against the encroachments of the
Turk in Europe. (See VENICE: _History_.)


  The Papacy.

By their settlement in Avignon, the popes relinquished their
protectorate of Italian liberties, and lost their position as Italian
potentates. Rienzi's revolution in Rome (1347-1354), and his
establishment of a republic upon a fantastic basis, half classical,
half feudal, proved the temper of the times; while the rise of dynastic
families in the cities of the church, claiming the title of papal
vicars, but acting in their own interests, weakened the authority of the
Holy See. The predatory expeditions of Bertrand du Poiet and Robert of
Geneva were as ineffective as the descents of the emperors; and, though
the cardinal Albornoz conquered Romagna and the March in 1364, the
legates who resided in those districts were not long able to hold them
against their despots. At last Gregory XI. returned to Rome; and Urban
VI., elected in 1378, put a final end to the Avignonian exile. Still the
Great Schism, which now distracted Western Christendom, so enfeebled the
papacy, and kept the Roman pontiffs so engaged in ecclesiastical
disputes, that they had neither power nor leisure to occupy themselves
seriously with their temporal affairs. The threatening presence of the
two princely houses of Orsini and Colonna, alike dangerous as friends or
foes, rendered Rome an unsafe residence. Even when the schism was
nominally terminated in 1415 by the council of Constance, the next two
popes held but a precarious grasp upon their Italian domains. Martin V.
(1417-1431) resided principally at Florence. Eugenius IV. (1431-1447)
followed his example. And what Martin managed to regain Eugenius lost.
At the same time, the change which had now come over Italian politics,
the desire on all sides for a settlement, and the growing conviction
that a federation was necessary, proved advantageous to the popes as
sovereigns. They gradually entered into the spirit of their age, assumed
the style of despots and made use of the humanistic movement, then at
its height, to place themselves in a new relation to Italy. The election
of Nicholas V. in 1447 determined this revolution in the papacy, and
opened a period of temporal splendour, which ended with the
establishment of the popes as sovereigns. Thomas of Sarzana was a
distinguished humanist. Humbly born, he had been tutor in the house of
the Albizzi, and afterwards librarian of the Medici at Florence, where
he imbibed the politics together with the culture of the Renaissance.
Soon after assuming the tiara, he found himself without a rival in the
church; for the schism ended by Felix V.'s resignation in 1449. Nicholas
fixed his residence in Rome, which he began to rebuild and to fortify,
determining to render the Eternal City once more a capital worthy of its
high place in Europe. The Romans were flattered; and, though his reign
was disturbed by republican conspiracy, Nicholas V. was able before his
death in 1455 to secure the modern status of the pontiff as a splendid
patron and a wealthy temporal potentate.


  Confederated Italy.

Italy was now for a brief space independent. The humanistic movement had
created a common culture, a common language and sense of common
nationality. The five great powers, with their satellites--dukes of
Savoy and Urbino, marquesses of Ferrara and Mantua, republics of
Bologna, Perugia, Siena--were constituted. All political institutions
tended toward despotism. The Medici became yearly more indispensable to
Florence, the Bentivogli more autocratic in Bologna, the Baglioni in
Perugia; and even Siena was ruled by the Petrucci. But this despotism
was of a mild type. The princes were Italians; they shared the common
enthusiasms of the nation for art, learning, literature and science;
they studied how to mask their tyranny with arts agreeable to the
multitude. When Italy had reached this point, Constantinople was taken
by the Turks. On all sides it was felt that the Italian alliance must be
tightened; and one of the last, best acts of Nicholas V.'s pontificate
was the appeal in 1453 to the five great powers in federation. As
regards their common opposition to the Turk, this appeal led to nothing;
but it marked the growth of a new Italian consciousness.

Between 1453 and 1492 Italy continued to be prosperous and tranquil.
Nearly all wars during this period were undertaken either to check the
growing power of Venice or to further the ambition of the papacy. Having
become despots, the popes sought to establish their relatives in
principalities. The word nepotism acquired new significance in the
reigns of Sixtus IV. and Innocent VIII. Though the country was convulsed
by no great struggle, these forty years witnessed a truly appalling
increase of political crime. To be a prince was tantamount to being the
mark of secret conspiracy and assassination. Among the most noteworthy
examples of such attempts may be mentioned the revolt of the barons
against Ferdinand I. of Naples (1464), the murder of Galeazzo Maria
Sforza at Milan (1476) and the plot of the Pazzi to destroy the Medici
(1478). After Cosimo de' Medici's death in 1464, the presidency of the
Florentine republic passed to his son Piero, who left it in 1469 to his
sons Lorenzo and Giuliano. These youths assumed the style of princes,
and it was against their lives that the Pazzi, with the sanction of
Sixtus IV., aimed their blow. Giuliano was murdered, Lorenzo escaped, to
tighten his grasp upon the city, which now loved him and was proud of
him. During the following fourteen years of his brilliant career he made
himself absolute master of Florence, and so modified her institutions
that the Medici were henceforth necessary to the state. Apprehending the
importance of Italian federation, Lorenzo, by his personal tact and
prudent leadership of the republic, secured peace and a common
intelligence between the five powers. His own family was fortified by
the marriage of his daughter to a son of Innocent VIII., which procured
his son Giovanni's elevation to the cardinalate, and involved two
Medicean papacies and the future dependence of Florence upon Rome.


  Invasion of Charles VIII.

VI. _Age of Invasions._--The year 1492 opened a new age for Italy. In
this year Lorenzo died, and was succeeded by his son, the vain and weak
Piero; France passed beneath the personal control of the inexperienced
Charles VIII.; the fall of Granada freed Spain from her embarrassments;
Columbus discovered America, destroying the commercial supremacy of
Venice; last, but not least, Roderigo Borgia assumed the tiara with the
famous title of Alexander VI. In this year the short-lived federation of
the five powers was shaken, and Italy was once more drawn into the
vortex of European affairs. The events which led to this disaster may be
briefly told. After Galeazzo Maria's assassination, his crown passed to
a boy, Gian Galeazzo, who was in due course married to a grand-daughter
of Ferdinand I. of Naples. But the government of Milan remained in the
hands of this youth's uncle, Lodovico, surnamed Il Moro. Lodovico
resolved to become duke of Milan. The king of Naples was his natural
enemy, and he had cause to suspect that Piero de' Medici might abandon
his alliance. Feeling himself alone, with no right to the title he was
bent on seizing, he had recourse to Charles VIII. of France, whom he
urged to make good his claim to the kingdom of Naples. This claim, it
may be said in passing, rested on the will of King René of Anjou. After
some hesitation, Charles agreed to invade Italy. He crossed the Alps in
1495, passed through Lombardy, entered Tuscany, freed Pisa from the yoke
of Florence, witnessed the expulsion of the Medici, marched to Naples
and was crowned there--all this without striking a blow. Meanwhile
Lodovico procured his nephew's death, and raised a league against the
French in Lombardy. Charles hurried back from Naples, and narrowly
escaped destruction at Fornovo in the passes of the Apennines. He made
good his retreat, however, and returned to France in 1495. Little
remained to him of his light acquisitions; but he had convulsed Italy by
this invasion, destroyed her equilibrium, exposed her military weakness
and political disunion, and revealed her wealth to greedy and more
powerful nations.


  Louis XII.

The princes of the house of Aragon, now represented by Frederick, a son
of Ferdinand I., returned to Naples. Florence made herself a republic,
adopting a form of constitution analogous to that of Venice. At this
crisis she was ruled by the monk Girolamo Savonarola, who inspired the
people with a thirst for freedom, preached the necessity of reformation,
and placed himself in direct antagonism to Rome. After a short but
eventful career, the influence of which was long effective, he lost his
hold upon the citizens. Alexander VI. procured a mock trial, and his
enemies burned him upon the Piazza in 1498. In this year Louis XII.
succeeded Charles VIII. upon the throne of France. As duke of Orleans he
had certain claims to Milan through his grandmother Valentina, daughter
of Gian Galeazzo, the first duke. They were not valid, for the
investiture of the duchy had been granted only to male heirs. But they
served as a sufficient pretext, and in 1499 Louis entered and subdued
the Milanese. Lodovico escaped to Germany, returned the next year, was
betrayed by his Swiss mercenaries and sent to die at Loches in France.
In 1500 Louis made the blunder of calling Ferdinand the Catholic to help
him in the conquest of Naples. By a treaty signed at Granada, the French
and Spanish kings were to divide the spoil. The conquest was easy; but,
when it came to a partition, Ferdinand played his ally false. He made
himself supreme over the Two Sicilies, which he now reunited under a
single crown. Three years later, unlessoned by this experience, Louis
signed the treaty of Blois (1504), whereby he invited the emperor
Maximilian to aid him in the subjugation of Venice. No policy could have
been less far-sighted; for Charles V., joint heir to Austria, Burgundy,
Castile and Aragon, the future overwhelming rival of France, was already
born.

The stage was now prepared, and all the actors who were destined to
accomplish the ruin of Italy trod it with their armies. Spain, France,
Germany, with their Swiss auxiliaries, had been summoned upon various
pretexts to partake her provinces. Then, too late, patriots like
Machiavelli perceived the suicidal self-indulgence of the past, which,
by substituting mercenary troops for national militias, left the
Italians at the absolute discretion of their neighbours. Whatever parts
the Italians themselves played in the succeeding quarter of a century,
the game was in the hands of French, Spanish and German invaders.
Meanwhile, no scheme for combination against common foes arose in the
peninsula. Each petty potentate strove for his own private advantage in
the confusion; and at this epoch the chief gains accrued to the papacy.
Aided by his terrible son, Cesare Borgia, Alexander VI. chastised the
Roman nobles, subdued Romagna and the March, threatened Tuscany, and
seemed to be upon the point of creating a Central Italian state in
favour of his progeny, when he died suddenly in 1503. His conquests
reverted to the Holy See. Julius II., his bitterest enemy and powerful
successor, continued Alexander's policy, but no longer in the interest
of his own relatives. It became the nobler ambition of Julius to
aggrandize the church, and to reassume the protectorate of the Italian
people. With this object, he secured Emilia, carried his victorious arms
against Ferrara, and curbed the tyranny of the Baglioni in Perugia.
Julius II. played a perilous game; but the stakes were high, and he
fancied himself strong enough to guide the tempest he evoked.
Quarrelling with the Venetians in 1508, he combined the forces of all
Europe by the league of Cambray against them; and, when he had succeeded
in his first purpose of humbling them even to the dust, he turned round
in 1510, uttered his famous resolve to expel the barbarians from Italy,
and pitted the Spaniards against the French. It was with the Swiss that
he hoped to effect this revolution; but the Swiss, now interfering for
the first time as principals in Italian affairs, were incapable of more
than adding to the already maddening distractions of the people. Formed
for mercenary warfare, they proved a perilous instrument in the hands of
those who used them, and were hardly less injurious to their friends
than to their foes. In 1512 the battle of Ravenna between the French
troops and the allies of Julius--Spaniards, Venetians and Swiss--was
fought. Gaston de Foix bought a doubtful victory dearly with his death;
and the allies, though beaten on the banks of the Ronco, immediately
afterwards expelled the French from Lombardy. Yet Julius II. had failed,
as might have been foreseen. He only exchanged one set of foreign
masters for another, and taught a new barbarian race how pleasant were
the plains of Italy. As a consequence of the battle of Ravenna, the
Medici returned in 1512 to Florence.

When Leo X. was elected in 1513, Rome and Florence rejoiced; but Italy
had no repose. Louis XII. had lost the game, and the Spaniards were
triumphant. But new actors appeared upon the scene, and the same old
struggle was resumed with fiercer energy. By the victory of Marignano in
1515 Francis I., having now succeeded to the throne of France, regained
the Milanese, and broke the power of the Swiss, who held it for
Massimiliano Sforza, the titular duke. Leo for a while relied on
Francis; for the vast power of Charles V., who succeeded to the empire
in 1519, as in 1516 he had succeeded to the crowns of Spain and Lower
Italy, threatened the whole of Europe. It was Leo's nature, however, to
be inconstant. In 1521 he changed sides, allied himself to Charles, and
died after hearing that the imperial troops had again expelled the
French from Milan. During the next four years the Franco-Spanish war
dragged on in Lombardy until the decisive battle of Pavia in 1525, when
Francis was taken prisoner, and Italy lay open to the Spanish armies.
Meanwhile Leo X. had been followed by Adrian VI., and Adrian by Clement
VII., of the house of Medici, who had long ruled Florence. In the reign
of this pope Francis was released from his prison in Madrid (1526), and
Clement hoped that he might still be used in the Italian interest as a
counterpoise to Charles. It is impossible in this place to follow the
tangled intrigues of that period. The year 1527 was signalized by the
famous sack of Rome. An army of mixed German and Spanish troops,
pretending to act for the emperor, but which may rather be regarded as a
vast marauding party, entered Italy under their leader Frundsberg. After
his death, the Constable de Bourbon took command of them; they marched
slowly down, aided by the marquis of Ferrara, and unopposed by the duke
of Urbino, reached Rome, and took it by assault. The constable was
killed in the first onslaught; Clement was imprisoned in the castle of
St Angelo; Rome was abandoned to the rage of 30,000 ruffians. As an
immediate result of this catastrophe, Florence shook off the Medici, and
established a republic. But Clement, having made peace with the emperor,
turned the remnants of the army which had sacked Rome against his native
city. After a desperate resistance, Florence fell in 1530. Alessandro
de' Medici was placed there with the title of duke of Cività di Penna;
and, on his murder in 1537, Cosimo de' Medici, of the younger branch of
the ruling house, was made duke. Acting as lieutenant for the Spaniards,
he subsequently (1555) subdued Siena, and bequeathed to his descendants
the grand-duchy of Tuscany.


  Settlement of Italy by Spain.

VII. _Spanish-Austrian Ascendancy._--It was high time, after the sack of
Rome in 1527, that Charles V. should undertake Italian affairs. The
country was exposed to anarchy, of which this had been the last and most
disgraceful example. The Turks were threatening western Europe, and
Luther was inflaming Germany. By the treaty of Barcelona in 1529 the
pope and emperor made terms. By that of Cambray in the same year France
relinquished Italy to Spain. Charles then entered the port of Genoa, and
on the 5th of November met Clement VII. at Bologna. He there received
the imperial crown, and summoned the Italian princes for a settlement of
all disputed claims. Francesco Sforza, the last and childless heir of
the ducal house, was left in Milan till his death, which happened in
1535. The republic of Venice was respected in her liberties and Lombard
territories. The Este family received a confirmation of their duchy of
Modena and Reggio, and were invested in their fief of Ferrara by the
pope. The marquessate of Mantua was made a duchy; and Florence was
secured, as we have seen, to the Medici. The great gainer by this
settlement was the papacy, which held the most substantial Italian
province, together with a prestige that raised it far above all rivalry.
The rest of Italy, however parcelled, henceforth became but a dependence
upon Spain. Charles V., it must be remembered, achieved his conquest and
confirmed his authority far less as emperor than as the heir of Castile
and Aragon. A Spanish viceroy in Milan and another in Naples, supported
by Rome and by the minor princes who followed the policy dictated to
them from Madrid, were sufficient to preserve the whole peninsula in a
state of somnolent inglorious servitude.

From 1530 until 1796, that is, for a period of nearly three centuries,
the Italians had no history of their own. Their annals are filled with
records of dynastic changes and redistributions of territory, consequent
upon treaties signed by foreign powers, in the settlement of quarrels
which no wise concerned the people. Italy only too often became the
theatre of desolating and distracting wars. But these wars were fought
for the most part by alien armies; the points at issue were decided
beyond the Alps; the gains accrued to royal families whose names were
unpronounceable by southern tongues. The affairs of Europe during the
years when Habsburg and Bourbon fought their domestic battles with the
blood of noble races may teach grave lessons to all thoughtful men of
our days, but none bitterer, none fraught with more insulting
recollections, than to the Italian people, who were haggled over like
dumb driven cattle in the mart of chaffering kings. We cannot wholly
acquit the Italians of their share of blame. When they might have won
national independence, after their warfare with the Swabian emperors,
they let the golden opportunity slip. Pampered with commercial
prosperity, eaten to the core with inter-urban rivalries, they submitted
to despots, renounced the use of arms, and offered themselves in the
hour of need, defenceless and disunited to the shock of puissant
nations. That they had created modern civilization for Europe availed
them nothing. Italy, intellectually first among the peoples, was now
politically and practically last; and nothing to her historian is more
heart-rending than to watch the gradual extinction of her spirit in this
age of slavery.


  Pontificate of Paul III.

In 1534 Alessandro Farnese, who owed his elevation to his sister Giulia,
one of Alexander VI.'s mistresses, took the tiara with the title of Paul
III. It was his ambition to create a duchy for his family; and with this
object he gave Parma and Piacenza to his son Pier Luigi. After much
wrangling between the French and Spanish parties, the duchy was
confirmed in 1586 to Ottaviano Farnese and his son Alessandro, better
known as Philip II.'s general, the prince of Parma. Alessandro's
descendants reigned in Parma and Piacenza till the year 1731. Paul
III.'s pontificate was further marked by important changes in the
church, all of which confirmed the spiritual autocracy of Rome. In 1540
this pope approved of Loyola's foundation, and secured the powerful
militia of the Jesuit order. The Inquisition was established with almost
unlimited powers in Italy, and the press was placed under its
jurisdiction. Thus free thought received a check, by which not only
ecclesiastical but political tyrants knew how to profit. Henceforth it
was impossible to publish or to utter a word which might offend the
despots of church or state; and the Italians had to amuse their leisure
with the polite triflings of academics. In 1545 a council was opened at
Trent for the reformation of church discipline and the promulgation of
orthodox doctrine. The decrees of this council defined Roman Catholicism
against the Reformation; and, while failing to regenerate morality, they
enforced a hypocritical observance of public decency. Italy to outer
view put forth blossoms of hectic and hysterical piety, though at the
core her clergy and her aristocracy were more corrupt than ever.


  Reign of Philip II.

In 1556 Philip II., by the abdication of his father Charles V., became
king of Spain. He already wore the crown of the Two Sicilies, and ruled
the duchy of Milan. In the next year Ferdinand, brother of Charles, was
elected emperor. The French, meanwhile, had not entirely abandoned their
claims on Italy. Gian Pietro Caraffa, who was made pope in 1555 with the
name of Paul IV., endeavoured to revive the ancient papal policy of
leaning upon France. He encouraged the duke of Guise to undertake the
conquest of Naples, as Charles of Anjou had been summoned by his
predecessors. But such schemes were now obsolete and anachronistic. They
led to a languid lingering Italian campaign, which was settled far
beyond the Alps by Philip's victories over the French at St Quentin and
Gravelines. The peace of Câteau Cambresis, signed in 1559, left the
Spanish monarch undisputed lord of Italy. Of free commonwealths there
now survived only Venice, which, together with Spain, achieved for
Europe the victory of Lepanto in 1573; Genoa, which, after the
ineffectual Fieschi revolution in 1547, abode beneath the rule of the
great Doria family, and held a feeble sway in Corsica; and the two
insignificant republics of Lucca and San Marino.

The future hope of Italy, however, was growing in a remote and hitherto
neglected corner. Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, represented the
oldest and not the least illustrious reigning house in Europe, and his
descendants were destined to achieve for Italy the independence which no
other power or prince had given her since the fall of ancient Rome. (See
SAVOY, HOUSE OF.)

When Emmanuel Philibert succeeded to his father Charles III. in 1553, he
was a duke without a duchy. But the princes of the house of Savoy were a
race of warriors; and what Emmanuel Philibert lost as sovereign he
regained as captain of adventure in the service of his cousin Philip II.
The treaty of Câteau Cambresis in 1559, and the evacuation of the
Piedmontese cities held by French and Spanish troops in 1574, restored
his state. By removing the capital from Chambéry to Turin, he completed
the transformation of the dukes of Savoy from Burgundian into Italian
sovereigns. They still owned Savoy beyond the Alps, the plains of
Bresse, and the maritime province of Nice.

Emmanuel Philibert was succeeded by his son Charles Emmanuel I., who
married Catherine, a daughter of Philip II. He seized the first
opportunity of annexing Saluzzo, which had been lost to Savoy in the
last two reigns, and renewed the disastrous policy of his grandfather
Charles III. by invading Geneva and threatening Provence. Henry IV. of
France forced him in 1601 to relinquish Bresse and his Burgundian
possessions. In return he was allowed to keep Saluzzo. All hopes of
conquest on the transalpine side were now quenched; but the keys of
Italy had been given to the dukes of Savoy; and their attention was
still further concentrated upon Lombard conquests. Charles Emmanuel now
attempted the acquisition of Montferrat, which was soon to become vacant
by the death of Francesco Gonzaga, who held it together with Mantua. In
order to secure this territory, he went to war with Philip III. of
Spain, and allied himself with Venice and the Grisons to expel the
Spaniards from the Valtelline. When the male line of the Gonzaga family
expired in 1627, Charles, duke of Nevers, claimed Mantua and Montferrat
in right of his wife, the only daughter of the last duke. Charles
Emmanuel was now checkmated by France, as he had formerly been by Spain.
The total gains of all his strenuous endeavours amounted to the
acquisition of a few places on the borders of Montferrat.


  Extinction of old ducal families.

Not only the Gonzagas, but several other ancient ducal families, died
out about the date which we have reached. The legitimate line of the
Estensi ended in 1597 by the death of Alfonso II., the last duke of
Ferrara. He left his domains to a natural relative, Cesare d'Este, who
would in earlier days have inherited without dispute, for bastardy had
been no bar on more than one occasion in the Este pedigree. Urban VIII.,
however, put in a claim to Ferrara, which, it will be remembered, had
been recognized a papal fief in 1530. Cesare d'Este had to content
himself with Modena and Reggio, where his descendants reigned as dukes
till 1794. Under the same pontiff, the Holy See absorbed the duchy of
Urbino on the death of Francesco Maria II., the last representative of
Montefeltro and Della Rovere. The popes were now masters of a fine and
compact territory, embracing no inconsiderable portion of Countess
Matilda's legacy, in addition to Pippin's donation, and the patrimony of
St Peter. Meanwhile Spanish fanaticism, the suppression of the Huguenots
in France and the Catholic policy of Austria combined to strengthen
their authority as pontiffs. Urban's predecessor, Paul V., advanced so
far as to extend his spiritual jurisdiction over Venice, which, up to
the date of his election (1605), had resisted all encroachments of the
Holy See. Venice offered the single instance in Italy of a national
church. The republic managed the tithes, and the clergy acknowledged no
chief above their own patriarch. Paul V. now forced the Venetians to
admit his ecclesiastical supremacy; but they refused to readmit the
Jesuits, who had been expelled in 1606. This, if we do not count the
proclamation of James I. of England (1604), was the earliest instance of
the order's banishment from a state where it had proved disloyal to the
commonwealth.


  Decline of Venice and Spain.

Venice rapidly declined throughout the 17th century. The loss of trade
consequent upon the closing of Egypt and the Levant, together with the
discovery of America and the sea-route to the Indies, had dried up her
chief source of wealth. Prolonged warfare with the Ottomans, who forced
her to abandon Candia in 1669, as they had robbed her of Cyprus in 1570,
still further crippled her resources. Yet she kept the Adriatic free of
pirates, notably by suppressing the sea-robbers called Uscocchi
(1601-1617), maintained herself in the Ionian Islands, and in 1684 added
one more to the series of victorious episodes which render her annals so
romantic. In that year Francesco Morosini, upon whose tomb we still may
read the title Peloponnesiacus, wrested the whole of the Morea from the
Turks. But after his death in 1715 the republic relaxed her hold upon
his conquests. The Venetian nobles abandoned themselves to indolence and
vice. Many of them fell into the slough of pauperism, and were saved
from starvation by public doles. Though the signory still made a brave
show upon occasions of parade, it was clear that the state was rotten to
the core, and sinking into the decrepitude of dotage. The Spanish
monarchy at the same epoch dwindled with apparently less reason.
Philip's Austrian successors reduced it to the rank of a secondary
European power. This decline of vigour was felt, with the customary
effects of discord and bad government, in Lower Italy. The revolt of
Masaniello in Naples (1647), followed by rebellions at Palermo and
Messina, which placed Sicily for a while in the hands of Louis XIV.
(1676-1678) were symptoms of progressive anarchy. The population, ground
down by preposterous taxes, ill-used as only the subjects of Spaniards,
Turks or Bourbons are handled, rose in blind exasperation against their
oppressors. It is impossible to attach political importance to these
revolutions; nor did they bring the people any appreciable good. The
destinies of Italy were decided in the cabinets and on the battlefields
of northern Europe. A Bourbon at Versailles, a Habsburg at Vienna, or a
thick-lipped Lorrainer, with a stroke of his pen, wrote off province
against province, regarding not the populations who had bled for him or
thrown themselves upon his mercy.


  Wars of Succession.

This inglorious and passive chapter of Italian history is continued to
the date of the French Revolution with the records of three dynastic
wars, the war of the Spanish succession, the war of the Polish
succession, the war of the Austrian succession, followed by three
European treaties, which brought them respectively to diplomatic
terminations. Italy, handled and rehandled, settled and resettled, upon
each of these occasions, changed masters without caring or knowing what
befell the principals in any one of the disputes. Humiliating to human
nature in general as are the annals of the 18th-century campaigns in
Europe, there is no point of view from which they appear in a light so
tragi-comic as from that afforded by Italian history. The system of
setting nations by the ears with the view of settling the quarrels of a
few reigning houses was reduced to absurdity when the people, as in
these cases, came to be partitioned and exchanged without the assertion
or negation of a single principle affecting their interests or rousing
their emotions.


  Spanish Succession.

In 1700 Charles II. died, and with him ended the Austrian family in
Spain. Louis XIV. claimed the throne for Philip, duke of Anjou. Charles,
archduke of Austria, opposed him. The dispute was fought out in
Flanders; but Lombardy felt the shock, as usual, of the French and
Austrian dynasties. The French armies were more than once defeated by
Prince Eugene of Savoy, who drove them out of Italy in 1707. Therefore,
in the peace of Utrecht (1713), the services of the house of Savoy had
to be duly recognized. Victor Amadeus II. received Sicily with the title
of king. Montferrat and Alessandria were added to his northern
provinces, and his state was recognized as independent. Charles of
Austria, now emperor, took Milan, Mantua, Naples and Sardinia for his
portion of the Italian spoil. Philip founded the Bourbon line of Spanish
kings, renouncing in Italy all that his Habsburg predecessors had
gained. Discontented with this diminution of the Spanish heritage,
Philip V. married Elisabetta Farnese, heiress to the last duke of Parma,
in 1714. He hoped to secure this duchy for his son, Don Carlos; and
Elisabetta further brought with her a claim to the grand-duchy of
Tuscany, which would soon become vacant by the death of Gian Gastone de'
Medici. After this marriage Philip broke the peace of Europe by invading
Sardinia. The Quadruple Alliance was formed, and the new king of Sicily
was punished for his supposed adherence to Philip V. by the forced
exchange of Sicily for the island of Sardinia. It was thus that in 1720
the house of Savoy assumed the regal title which it bore until the
declaration of the Italian kingdom in the last century. Victor Amadeus
II.'s reign was of great importance in the history of his state. Though
a despot, as all monarchs were obliged to be at that date, he reigned
with prudence, probity and zeal for the welfare of his subjects. He took
public education out of the hands of the Jesuits, which, for the future
development of manliness in his dominions, was a measure of incalculable
value. The duchy of Savoy in his days became a kingdom, and Sardinia,
though it seemed a poor exchange for Sicily, was a far less perilous
possession than the larger and wealthier island would have been. In 1730
Victor Amadeus abdicated in favour of his son Charles Emmanuel III.
Repenting of this step, he subsequently attempted to regain Turin, but
was imprisoned in the castle of Rivoli, where he ended his days in 1732.


  Polish Succession.

The War of the Polish Succession which now disturbed Europe is only
important in Italian history because the treaty of Vienna in 1738
settled the disputed affairs of the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. The
duke Antonio Farnese died in 1731; the grand-duke Gian Gastone de'
Medici died in 1737. In the duchy of Parma Don Carlos had already been
proclaimed. But he was now transferred to the Two Sicilies, while
Francis of Lorraine, the husband of Maria Theresa, took Tuscany and
Parma. Milan and Mantua remained in the hands of the Austrians. On this
occasion Charles Emmanuel acquired Tortona and Novara.


  Austrian Succession.

Worse complications ensued for the Italians when the emperor Charles
VI., father of Maria Theresa, died in 1740. The three branches of the
Bourbon house, ruling in France, Spain and the Sicilies, joined with
Prussia, Bavaria and the kingdom of Sardinia to despoil Maria Theresa of
her heritage. Lombardy was made the seat of war; and here the king of
Sardinia acted as in some sense the arbiter of the situation. After war
broke out, he changed sides and supported the Habsburg-Lorraine party.
At first, in 1745, the Sardinians were defeated by the French and
Spanish troops. But Francis of Lorraine, elected emperor in that year,
sent an army to the king's support, which in 1746 obtained a signal
victory over the Bourbons at Piacenza. Charles Emmanuel now threatened
Genoa. The Austrian soldiers already held the town. But the citizens
expelled them, and the republic kept her independence. In 1748 the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which put an end to the War of the Austrian
Succession, once more redivided Italy. Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla
were formed into a duchy for Don Philip, brother of Charles III. of the
Two Sicilies, and son of Philip V. of Spain. Charles III. was confirmed
in his kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Austrians kept Milan and
Tuscany. The duchy of Modena was placed under the protection of the
French. So was Genoa, which in 1755, after Paoli's insurrection against
the misgovernment of the republic, ceded her old domain of Corsica to
France.


  Forty-four years' peace.

From the date of this settlement until 1792, Italy enjoyed a period of
repose and internal amelioration under her numerous paternal despots. It
became the fashion during these forty-four years of peace to encourage
the industrial population and to experimentalize in economical reforms.
The Austrian government in Lombardy under Maria Theresa was
characterized by improved agriculture, regular administration, order,
reformed taxation and increased education. A considerable amount of
local autonomy was allowed, and dependence on Vienna was very slight and
not irksome. The nobles and the clergy were rich and influential, but
kept in order by the civil power. There was no feeling of nationality,
but the people were prosperous, enjoyed profound peace and were placidly
content with the existing order of things. On the death of Maria Theresa
in 1780, the emperor Joseph II. instituted much wider reforms. Feudal
privileges were done away with, clerical influence diminished and many
monasteries and convents suppressed, the criminal law rendered more
humane and torture abolished largely as a result of G. Beccaria's famous
pamphlet _Dei delitti e delle pene_. At the same time Joseph's
administration was more arbitrary, and local autonomy was to some extent
curtailed. His anti-clerical laws produced some ill-feeling among the
more devout part of the population. On the whole the Austrian rule in
pre-revolutionary days was beneficial and far from oppressive, and
helped Lombardy to recover from the ill-effects of the Spanish
domination. It did little for the moral education of the people, but the
same criticism applies more or less to all the European governments of
the day. The emperor Francis I. ruled the grand-duchy of Tuscany by
lieutenants until his death in 1765, when it was given, as an
independent state, to his second son, Peter Leopold. The reign of this
duke was long remembered as a period of internal prosperity, wise
legislation and important public enterprise. Leopold, among other useful
works, drained the Val di Chiana, and restored those fertile upland
plains to agriculture. In 1790 he succeeded to the empire, and left
Tuscany to his son Ferdinand. The kingdom of Sardinia was administered
upon similar principles, but with less of geniality. Charles Emmanuel
made his will law, and erased the remnants of free institutions from his
state. At the same time he wisely followed his father's policy with
regard to education and the church. This is perhaps the best that can be
said of a king who incarnated the stolid absolutism of the period. From
this date, however, we are able to trace the revival of independent
thought among the Italians. The European ferment of ideas which preceded
the French Revolution expressed itself in men like Alfieri, the fierce
denouncer of tyrants, Beccaria, the philosopher of criminal
jurisprudence, Volta, the physicist, and numerous political economists
of Tuscany. Moved partly by external influences and partly by a slow
internal reawakening, the people was preparing for the efforts of the
19th century. The papacy, during this period, had to reconsider the
question of the Jesuits, who made themselves universally odious, not
only in Italy, but also in France and Spain. In the pontificate of
Clement XIII. they ruled the Vatican, and almost succeeded in embroiling
the pope with the concerted Bourbon potentates of Europe. His successor,
Clement XIV. suppressed the order altogether by a brief of 1773.
     (J. A. S.)


D. ITALY IN THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD, 1796-1814

The campaign of 1796 which led to the awakening of the Italian people to
a new consciousness of unity and strength is detailed in the article
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS. Here we can attempt only a general survey of the
events, political, civic and social, which heralded the _Risorgimento_
in its first phase. It is desirable in the first place to realize the
condition of Italy at the time when the irruption of the French and the
expulsion of the Austrians opened up a new political vista for that
oppressed and divided people.


  Influence of the French Revolution.

  Bonaparte in Italy.

For many generations Italy had been bandied to and fro between the
Habsburgs and the Bourbons. The decline of French influence at the close
of the reign of Louis XIV. left the Habsburgs and the Spanish Bourbons
without serious rivals. The former possessed the rich duchies of Milan
(including Mantua) and Tuscany; while through a marriage alliance with
the house of Este of Modena (the Archduke Ferdinand had married the
heiress of Modena) its influence over that duchy was supreme. It also
had a few fiefs in Piedmont and in Genoese territory. By marrying her
daughter, Maria Amelia, to the young duke of Parma, and another
daughter, Maria Carolina, to Ferdinand of Naples, Maria Theresa
consolidated Habsburg influence in the north and south of the peninsula.
The Spanish Bourbons held Naples and Sicily, as well as the duchy of
Parma. Of the nominally independent states the chief were the kingdom
of Sardinia, ruled over by the house of Savoy, and comprising Piedmont,
the isle of Sardinia and nominally Savoy and Nice, though the two
provinces last named had virtually been lost to the monarchy since the
campaign of 1793. Equally extensive, but less important in the political
sphere, were the Papal States and Venetia, the former torpid under the
obscurantist rule of pope and cardinals, the latter enervated by luxury
and the policy of unmanly complaisance long pursued by doge and council.
The ancient rival of Venice, Genoa, was likewise far gone in decline.
The small states, Lucca and San Marino, completed the map of Italy. The
worst governed part of the peninsula was the south, where feudalism lay
heavily on the cultivators and corruption pervaded all ranks. Milan and
Piedmont were comparatively well governed; but repugnance to Austrian
rule in the former case, and the contagion of French Jacobinical
opinions in the latter, brought those populations into increasing
hostility to the rulers. The democratic propaganda, which was permeating
all the large towns of the peninsula, then led to the formation of
numerous and powerful clubs and secret societies; and the throne of
Victor Amadeus III., of the house of Savoy, soon began to totter under
the blows delivered by the French troops at the mountain barriers of his
kingdom and under the insidious assaults of the friends of liberty at
Turin. Plotting was rife at Milan, as also at Bologna, where the memory
of old liberties predisposed men to cast off clerical rule and led to
the first rising on behalf of Italian liberty in the year 1794. At
Palermo the Sicilians struggled hard to establish a republic in place of
the odious government of an alien dynasty. The anathemas of the pope,
the bravery of Piedmontese and Austrians, and the subsidies of Great
Britain failed to keep the league of Italian princes against France
intact. The grand-duke of Tuscany was the first of the European
sovereigns who made peace with, and recognized the French republic,
early in 1795. The first fortnight of Napoleon's campaign of 1796
detached Sardinia from alliance with Austria and England. The enthusiasm
of the Italians for the young Corsican "liberator" greatly helped his
progress. Two months later Ferdinand of Naples sought for an armistice,
the central duchies were easily overrun, and, early in 1797, Pope Pius
VI. was fain to sign terms of peace with Bonaparte at Tolentino,
practically ceding the northern part of his states, known as the
Legations. The surrender of the last Habsburg stronghold, Mantua, on the
2nd of February 1797 left the field clear for the erection of new
political institutions.


  The Cispadane Republic.

Already the men of Reggio, Modena and Bologna had declared for a
democratic policy, in which feudalism and clerical rule should have no
place, and in which manhood suffrage, together with other rights
promised by Bonaparte to the men of Milan in May 1796, should form the
basis of a new order of things. In taking this step the Modenese and
Romagnols had the encouragement of Bonaparte, despite the orders which
the French directory sent to him in a contrary sense. The result was the
formation of an assembly at Modena which abolished feudal dues and
customs, declared for manhood suffrage and established the Cispadane
Republic (October 1796).


  The Cisalpine Republic.

The close of Bonaparte's victorious campaign against the Archduke
Charles in 1797 enabled him to mature those designs respecting Venice
which are detailed in the article NAPOLEON. On a far higher level was
his conduct towards the Milanese. While the French directory saw in that
province little more than a district which might be plundered and
bargained for, Bonaparte, though by no means remiss in the exaction of
gold and of artistic treasures, was laying the foundation of a friendly
republic. During his sojourn at the castle of Montebello or Mombello,
near Milan, he commissioned several of the leading men of northern Italy
to draw up a project of constitution and list of reforms for that
province. Meanwhile he took care to curb the excesses of the Italian
Jacobins and to encourage the Moderates, who were favourable to the
French connexion as promising a guarantee against Austrian domination
and internal anarchy. He summed up his conduct in the letter of the 8th
of May 1797 to the French directory, "I cool the hot heads here and warm
the cool ones." The Transpadane Republic, or, as it was soon called, the
Cisalpine Republic, began its organized life on the 9th of July 1797,
with a brilliant festival at Milan. The constitution was modelled on
that of the French directory, and, lest there should be a majority of
clerical or Jacobinical deputies, the French Republic through its
general, Bonaparte, nominated and appointed the first deputies and
administrators of the new government. In the same month it was joined by
the Cispadane Republic; and the terms of the treaty of Campo Formio
(October 17, 1797), while fatal to the political life of Venice, awarded
to this now considerable state the Venetian territories west of the
river Adige. A month later, under the pretence of stilling the civil
strifes in the Valtelline, Bonaparte absorbed that Swiss district in the
Cisalpine Republic, which thus included all the lands between Como and
Verona on the north, and Rimini on the south.


  End of the Venetian Republic.

Early in the year 1798 the Austrians, in pursuance of the scheme of
partition agreed on at Campo Formio, entered Venice and brought to an
end its era of independence which had lasted some 1100 years. Venice
with its mainland territories east of the Adige, inclusive of Istria and
Dalmatia, went to the Habsburgs, while the Venetian isles of the
Adriatic (the Ionian Isles) and the Venetian fleet went to strengthen
France for that eastern expedition on which Bonaparte had already set
his heart. Venice not only paid the costs of the war to the two chief
belligerents, but her naval resources also helped to launch the young
general on his career of eastern adventure. Her former rival, Genoa, had
also been compelled, in June 1797, to bow before the young conqueror,
and had undergone at his hands a remodelling on the lines already
followed at Milan. The new Genoese republic, French in all but name, was
renamed the Ligurian Republic.


  French occupation of Rome.

Before he set sail for Egypt, the French had taken possession of Rome.
Already masters of the papal fortress of Ancona, they began openly to
challenge the pope's authority at the Eternal City itself. Joseph
Bonaparte, then French envoy to the Vatican, encouraged democratic
manifestations; and one of them, at the close of 1797, led to a scuffle
in which a French general, Duphot, was killed. The French directory at
once ordered its general, Berthier, to march to Rome: the Roman
democrats proclaimed a republic on the 15th of February 1798, and on
their invitation Berthier and his troops marched in. The pope, Pius VI.,
was forthwith haled away to Siena and a year later to Valence in the
south of France, where he died. Thus fell the temporal power. The
"liberators" of Rome thereupon proceeded to plunder the city in a way
which brought shame on their cause and disgrace (perhaps not wholly
deserved) on the general left in command, Masséna.


  Naples.

  The Parthenopaean Republic.

These events brought revolution to the gates of the kingdom of Naples,
the worst-governed part of Italy, where the boorish king, Ferdinand IV.
(_il rè lazzarone_, he was termed), and his whimsical consort, Maria
Carolina, scarcely held in check the discontent of their own subjects. A
British fleet under Nelson, sent into the Mediterranean in May 1798
primarily for their defence, checkmated the designs of Bonaparte in
Egypt, and then, returning to Naples, encouraged that court to adopt a
spirited policy. It is now known that the influence of Nelson and of the
British ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, and Lady Hamilton precipitated
the rupture between Naples and France. The results were disastrous. The
Neapolitan troops at first occupied Rome, but, being badly handled by
their leader, the Austrian general, Mack, they were soon scattered in
flight; and the Republican troops under General Championnet, after
crushing the stubborn resistance of the lazzaroni, made their way into
Naples and proclaimed the Parthenopaean Republic (January 23, 1799). The
Neapolitan Democrats chose five of their leading men to be directors,
and tithes and feudal dues and customs were abolished. Much good work
was done by the Republicans during their brief tenure of power, but it
soon came to an end owing to the course of events which favoured a
reaction against France. The directors of Paris, not content with
overrunning and plundering Switzerland, had outraged German sentiment in
many ways. Further, at the close of 1798 they virtually compelled the
young king of Sardinia, Charles Emmanuel IV., to abdicate at Turin. He
retired to the island of Sardinia, while the French despoiled Piedmont,
thereby adding fuel to the resentment rapidly growing against them in
every part of Europe.


  Suvarov in Italy.

The outcome of it all was the War of the Second Coalition, in which
Russia, Austria, Great Britain, Naples and some secondary states of
Germany took part. The incursion of an Austro-Russian army, led by that
strange but magnetic being, Suvarov, decided the campaign in northern
Italy. The French, poorly handled by Schérer and Sérurier, were
everywhere beaten, especially at Magnano (April 5) and Cassano (April
27). Milan and Turin fell before the allies, and Moreau, who took over
the command, had much difficulty in making his way to the Genoese
coast-line. There he awaited the arrival of Macdonald with the army of
Naples. That general, Championnet's successor, had been compelled by
these reverses and by the threatening pressure of Nelson's fleet to
evacuate Naples and central Italy. In many parts the peasants and
townsfolk, enraged by the licence of the French, hung on his flank and
rear. The republics set up by the French at Naples, Rome and Milan
collapsed as soon as the French troops retired; and a reaction in favour
of clerical and Austrian influence set in with great violence. For the
events which then occurred at Naples, so compromising to the reputation
of Nelson, see NELSON and NAPLES. Sir William Hamilton was subsequently
recalled in a manner closely resembling a disgrace, and his place was
taken by Paget, who behaved with more dignity and tact.

Meanwhile Macdonald, after struggling through central Italy, had
defeated an Austrian force at Modena (June 12, 1799), but Suvarov was
able by swift movements utterly to overthrow him at the Trebbia (June
17-19). The wreck of his force drifted away helplessly towards Genoa. A
month later the ambitious young general, Joubert, who took over Moreau's
command and rallied part of Macdonald's following, was utterly routed by
the Austro-Russian army at Novi (August 15) with the loss of 12,000 men.
Joubert perished in the battle. The growing friction between Austria and
Russia led to the transference of Suvarov and his Russians to
Switzerland, with results which were to be fatal to the allies in that
quarter. But in Italy the Austrian successes continued. Melas defeated
Championnet near Coni on the 4th of November; and a little later the
French garrisons at Ancona and Coni surrendered. The tricolour, which
floated triumphantly over all the strongholds of Italy early in the
year, at its close waved only over Genoa, where Masséna prepared for a
stubborn defence. Nice and Savoy also seemed at the mercy of the
invaders. Everywhere the old order of things was restored. The death of
the aged Pope Pius VI. at Valence (August 29, 1799) deprived the French
of whatever advantage they had hoped to gain by dragging him into exile;
on the 24th of March 1800 the conclave, assembled for greater security
on the island of San Giorgio at Venice, elected a new pontiff, Pius VII.


  Campaign of Marengo.

  Treaty of Lunéville.

Such was the position of affairs when Bonaparte returned from Egypt and
landed at Fréjus. The contrast presented by his triumphs, whether real
or imaginary, to the reverses sustained by the armies of the French
directory, was fatal to that body and to popular institutions in France.
After the _coup d'état_ of Brumaire (November 1799) he, as First Consul,
began to organize an expedition against the Austrians (Russia having now
retired from the coalition), in northern Italy. The campaign culminating
at Marengo was the result. By that triumph (due to Desaix and Kellermann
rather than directly to him), Bonaparte consolidated his own position in
France and again laid Italy at his feet. The Austrian general, Melas,
signed an armistice whereby he was to retire with his army beyond the
river Mincio. Ten days earlier, namely on the 4th of June, Masséna had
been compelled by hunger to capitulate at Genoa; but the success at
Marengo, followed up by that of Macdonald in north Italy, and Moreau at
Hohenlinden (December 2, 1800), brought the emperor Francis to sue for
peace which was finally concluded at Lunéville on the 9th of February
1801. The Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics (reconstituted soon after
Marengo) were recognized by Austria on condition that they were
independent of France. The rule of Pius VII. over the Papal States was
admitted; and Italian affairs were arranged much as they were at Campo
Formio: Modena and Tuscany now reverted to French control, their former
rulers being promised compensation in Germany. Naples, easily worsted by
the French, under Miollis, left the British alliance, and made peace by
the treaty of Florence (March 1801), agreeing to withdraw her troops
from the Papal States, to cede Piombino and the Presidii (in Tuscany) to
France and to close her ports to British ships and commerce. King
Ferdinand also had to accept a French garrison at Taranto, and other
points in the south.


  Napoleon's reorganization of Italy.

Other changes took place in that year, all of them in favour of France.
By complex and secret bargaining with the court of Madrid, Bonaparte
procured the cession to France of Louisiana, in North America, and
Parma; while the duke of Parma (husband of an infanta of Spain) was
promoted by him to the duchy of Tuscany, now renamed the kingdom of
Etruria. Piedmont was declared to be a military division at the disposal
of France (April 21, 1801); and on the 21st of September 1802,
Bonaparte, then First Consul for life, issued a decree for its
definitive incorporation in the French Republic. About that time, too,
Elba fell into the hands of Napoleon. Piedmont was organized in six
departments on the model of those of France, and a number of French
veterans were settled by Napoleon in and near the fortress of
Alessandria. Besides copying the Roman habit of planting military
colonies, the First Consul imitated the old conquerors of the world by
extending and completing the road-system of his outlying districts,
especially at those important passes, the Mont Cenis and Simplon. He
greatly improved the rough track over the Simplon Pass, so that, when
finished in 1807, it was practicable for artillery. Milan was the
terminus of the road, and the construction of the Foro Buonaparte and
the completion of the cathedral added dignity to the Lombard capital.
The Corniche road was improved; and public works in various parts of
Piedmont, and the Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics attested the
foresight and wisdom of the great organizer of industry and quickener of
human energies. The universities of Pavia and Bologna were reopened and
made great progress in this time of peace and growing prosperity.
Somewhat later the Pavia canal was begun in order to connect Lake Como
with the Adriatic for barge-traffic.

The personal nature of the tie binding Italy to France was illustrated
by a curious incident of the winter of 1802-1803. Bonaparte, now First
Consul for life, felt strong enough to impose his will on the Cisalpine
Republic and to set at defiance one of the stipulations of the treaty of
Lunéville. On the pretext of consolidating that republic, he invited 450
of its leading men to come to Lyons to a _consulta_. In reality he and
his agents had already provided for the passing of proposals which were
agreeable to him. The deputies having been dazzled by fêtes and reviews,
Talleyrand and Marescalchi, ministers of foreign affairs at Paris and
Milan, plied them with hints as to the course to be followed by the
_consulta_; and, despite the rage of the more democratic of their
number, everything corresponded to the wishes of the First Consul. It
remained to find a chief. Very many were in favour of Count Melzi, a
Lombard noble, who had been chief of the executive at Milan; but again
Talleyrand and French agents set to work on behalf of their master, with
the result that he was elected president for ten years. He accepted that
office because, as he frankly informed the deputies, he had found no one
who "for his services rendered to his country, his authority with the
people and his separation from party has deserved such an office."
Melzi was elected vice-president with merely honorary functions. The
constitution comprised a _consulta_ charged with executive duties, a
legislative body of 150 members and a court charged with the maintenance
of the fundamental laws. These three bodies were to be chosen by three
electoral colleges consisting of (a) landed proprietors, (b) learned men
and clerics, (c) merchants and traders, holding their sessions
biennially at Milan, Bologna and Brescia respectively. In practice the
_consulta_ could override the legislature; and, as the _consulta_ was
little more than the organ of the president, the whole constitution may
be pronounced as autocratic as that of France after the changes brought
about by Bonaparte in August 1802. Finally we must note that the
Cisalpine now took the name of the Italian Republic, and that by a
concordat with the pope, Bonaparte regulated its relations to the Holy
See in a manner analogous to that adopted in the famous French concordat
promulgated at Easter 1802 (see CONCORDAT). It remains to add that the
Ligurian Republic and that of Lucca remodelled their constitutions in a
way somewhat similar to that of the Cisalpine.


  Kingdom of Italy.

Bonaparte's ascendancy did not pass unchallenged. Many of the Italians
retained their enthusiasm for democracy and national independence. In
1803 movements in these directions took place at Rimini, Brescia and
Bologna; but they were sharply repressed, and most Italians came to
acquiesce in the Napoleonic supremacy as inevitable and indeed
beneficial. The complete disregard shown by Napoleon for one of the
chief conditions of the treaty of Lunéville (February 1801)--that
stipulating for the independence of the Ligurian and Cisalpine
Republics--became more and more apparent every year. Alike in political
and commercial affairs they were for all practical purposes dependencies
of France. Finally, after the proclamation of the French empire (May 18,
1804) Napoleon proposed to place his brother Joseph over the Italian
state, which now took the title of kingdom of Italy. On Joseph
declining, Napoleon finally decided to accept the crown which Melzi,
Marescalchi, Serbelloni and others begged him to assume. Accordingly, on
the 26th of May 1805, in the cathedral at Milan, he crowned himself with
the iron crown of the old Lombard kings, using the traditional formula,
"God gave it me: let him beware who touches it." On the 7th of June he
appointed his step-son, Eugène Beauharnais, to be viceroy. Eugène soon
found that his chief duty was to enforce the will of Napoleon. The
legislature at Milan having ventured to alter some details of taxation,
Eugène received the following rule of conduct from his step-father:
"Your system of government is simple: the emperor wills it to be thus."
Republicanism was now everywhere discouraged. The little republic of
Lucca, along with Piombino, was now awarded as a principality by the
emperor to Elisa Bonaparte and her husband, Bacciocchi.

In June 1805 there came a last and intolerable affront to the emperors
of Austria and Russia, who at that very time were seeking to put bounds
to Napoleon's ambition and to redress the balance of power. The French
emperor, at the supposed request of the doge of Genoa, declared the
Ligurian Republic to be an integral part of the French empire. This
defiance to the sovereigns of Russia and Austria rekindled the flames of
war. The third coalition was formed between Great Britain, Russia and
Austria, Naples soon joining its ranks.


  Joseph Bonaparte in Naples.

For the chief events of the ensuing campaigns see Napoleonic Campaigns.
While Masséna pursued the Austrians into their own lands at the close of
1805, Italian forces under Eugène and Gouvion St Cyr (q.v.) held their
ground against allied forces landed at Naples. After Austerlitz
(December 2, 1805) Austria made peace by the treaty of Pressburg, ceding
to the kingdom of Italy her part of Venetia along with the provinces of
Istria and Dalmatia. Napoleon then turned fiercely against Maria
Carolina of Naples upbraiding her with her "perfidy." He sent Joseph
Bonaparte and Masséna southwards with a strong column, compelled the
Anglo-Russian forces to evacuate Naples, and occupied the south of the
peninsula with little opposition except at the fortress of Gaeta. The
Bourbon court sailed away to Palermo, where it remained for eight years
under the protection afforded by the British fleet and a British army of
occupation. On the 15th of February 1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples
in triumph, his troops capturing there two hundred pieces of cannon.
Gaeta, however, held out stoutly against the French. Sir Sidney Smith
with a British squadron captured Capri (February 1806), and the peasants
of the Abruzzi and Calabria soon began to give trouble. Worst of all was
the arrival of a small British force in Calabria under Sir John Stuart,
which beat off with heavy loss an attack imprudently delivered by
General Réynier on level ground near the village of Maida (July 4). The
steady volleys of Kempt's light infantry were fatal to the French, who
fell back in disorder under a bayonet charge of the victors, with the
loss of some 2700 men. Calabria now rose in revolt against King Joseph,
and the peasants dealt out savage reprisals to the French troops. On the
18th of July, however, Gaeta surrendered to Masséna, and that marshal,
now moving rapidly southwards, extricated Réynier, crushed the Bourbon
rising in Calabria with great barbarity, and compelled the British force
to re-embark for Sicily. At Palermo Queen Maria Carolina continued to
make vehement but futile efforts for the overthrow of King Joseph.

It is more important to observe that under Joseph and his ministers or
advisers, including the Frenchmen Roederer, Dumas, Miot de Melito and
the Corsican Saliceti, great progress was made in abolishing feudal laws
and customs, in reforming the judicial procedure and criminal laws on
the model of the _Code Napoléon_, and in attempting the beginnings of
elementary education. More questionable was Joseph's policy in closing
and confiscating the property of 213 of the richer monasteries of the
land. The monks were pensioned off, but though the confiscated property
helped to fill the empty coffers of the state, the measure aroused
widespread alarm and resentment among that superstitious people.

The peace of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) enabled Napoleon to press on his
projects for securing the command of the Mediterranean, thenceforth a
fundamental axiom of his policy. Consequently, in the autumn of 1807 he
urged on Joseph the adoption of vigorous measures for the capture of
Sicily. Already, in the negotiations with England during the summer of
1806, the emperor had shown his sense of the extreme importance of
gaining possession of that island, which indeed caused the breakdown of
the peace proposals then being considered; and now he ordered French
squadrons into the Mediterranean in order to secure Corfu and Sicily.
His plans respecting Corfu succeeded. That island and some of the
adjacent isles fell into the hands of the French (some of them were
captured by British troops in 1809-10); but Sicily remained
unassailable. Capri, however, fell to the French on the 18th of October
1808, shortly after the arrival at Naples of the new king, Murat.


  Murat, King of Naples.

This ambitious marshal, brother-in-law of Napoleon, foiled in his hope
of gaining the crown of Spain, received that of Naples in the summer of
1808, Joseph Bonaparte being moved from Naples to Madrid. This
arrangement pleased neither of the relatives of the emperor; but his
will now was law on the continent. Joseph left Naples on the 23rd of May
1808; but it was not until the 6th of September that Joachim Murat made
his entry. A fortnight later his consort Caroline arrived, and soon
showed a vigour and restlessness of spirit which frequently clashed with
the dictates of her brother, the emperor and the showy, unsteady policy
of her consort. The Spanish national rising of 1808 and thereafter the
Peninsular War diverted Napoleon's attention from the affairs of south
Italy. In June 1809, during his campaign against Austria, Sir John
Stuart with an Anglo-Sicilian force sailed northwards, captured Ischia
and threw Murat into great alarm; but on the news of the Austrian defeat
at Wagram, Stuart sailed back again.


  Central Italy.

It is now time to turn to the affairs of central Italy. Early in 1808
Napoleon proceeded with plans which he had secretly concerted after the
treaty of Tilsit for transferring the infanta of Spain who, after the
death of her consort, reigned at Florence on behalf of her young son,
Charles Louis, from her kingdom of Etruria to the little principality of
Entre Douro e Minho which he proposed to carve out from the north of
Portugal. Etruria reverted to the French empire, but the Spanish
princess and her son did not receive the promised indemnity. Elisa
Bonaparte and her husband, Bacciocchi, rulers of Lucca and Piombino,
became the heads of the administration in Tuscany, Elisa showing decided
governing capacity.


  Napoleon and the Papacy.

  Annexation of the Papal States.

The last part of the peninsula to undergo the Gallicizing influence was
the papal dominion. For some time past the relations between Napoleon
and the pope, Pius VII., had been severely strained, chiefly because the
emperor insisted on controlling the church, both in France and in the
kingdom of Italy, in a way inconsistent with the traditions of the
Vatican, but also because the pontiff refused to grant the divorce
between Jerome Bonaparte and the former Miss Patterson on which Napoleon
early in the year 1806 laid so much stress. These and other disputes led
the emperor, as successor of Charlemagne, to treat the pope in a very
highhanded way. "Your Holiness (he wrote) is sovereign of Rome, but I am
its emperor"; and he threatened to annul the presumed "donation" of Rome
by Charlemagne, unless the pope yielded implicit obedience to him in all
temporal affairs. He further exploited the Charlemagne tradition for the
benefit of the continental system, that great engine of commercial war
by which he hoped to assure the ruin of England. This aim prompted the
annexation of Tuscany, and his intervention in the affairs of the Papal
States. To this the pope assented under pressure from Napoleon; but the
latter soon found other pretexts for intervention, and in February 1808
a French column under Miollis occupied Rome, and deposed the papal
authorities. Against this violence Pius VII. protested in vain. Napoleon
sought to push matters to an extreme, and on the 2nd of April he adopted
the rigorous measure of annexing to the kingdom of Italy the papal
provinces of Ancona, Urbino, Macerata and Camerina. This measure, which
seemed to the pious an act of sacrilege, and to Italian patriots an
outrage on the only independent sovereign of the peninsula, sufficed for
the present. The outbreak of war in Spain, followed by the rupture with
Austria in the spring of 1809, distracted the attention of the emperor.
But after the occupation of Vienna the conqueror dated from that capital
on the 17th of May 1809 a decree virtually annexing Rome and the
_Patrimonium Petri_ to the French empire. Here again he cited the action
of Charlemagne, his "august predecessor," who had merely given "certain
domains to the bishops of Rome as fiefs, though Rome did not thereby
cease to be part of his empire."

In reply the pope prepared a bull of excommunication against those who
should infringe the prerogatives of the Holy See in this matter.
Thereupon the French general, Miollis, who still occupied Rome, caused
the pope to be arrested and carried him away northwards into Tuscany,
thence to Savona; finally he was taken, at Napoleon's orders, to
Fontainebleau. Thus, a second time, fell the temporal power of the
papacy. By an imperial decree of the 17th of February 1810, Rome and the
neighbouring districts, including Spoleto, became part of the French
empire. Rome thenceforth figured as its second city, and entered upon a
new life under the administration of French officials. The Roman
territory was divided into two departments--the Tiber and Trasimenus;
the _Code Napoléon_ was introduced, public works were set on foot and
great advance was made in the material sphere. Nevertheless the
harshness with which the emperor treated the Roman clergy and suppressed
the monasteries caused deep resentment to the orthodox.


  Character of Napoleon's rule.

  Collapse of Napoleon's rule.

There is no need to detail the fortunes of the Napoleonic states in
Italy. One and all they underwent the influences emanating from Paris;
and in respect to civil administration, law, judicial procedure,
education and public works, they all experienced great benefits, the
results of which never wholly disappeared. On the other hand, they
suffered from the rigorous measures of the continental system, which
seriously crippled trade at the ports and were not compensated by the
increased facilities for trade with France which Napoleon opened up. The
drain of men to supply his armies in Germany, Spain and Russia was also
a serious loss. A powerful Italian corps marched under Eugène
Beauharnais to Moscow, and distinguished itself at Malo-Jaroslavitz, as
also during the horrors of the retreat in the closing weeks of 1812. It
is said that out of 27,000 Italians who entered Russia with Eugène, only
333 saw their country again. That campaign marked the beginning of the
end for the Napoleonic domination in Italy as elsewhere. Murat, left in
command of the Grand Army at Vilna, abandoned his charge and in the next
year made overtures to the allies who coalesced against Napoleon. For
his vacillations at this time and his final fate, see Murat. Here it
must suffice to say that the uncertainty caused by his policy in
1813-1814 had no small share in embarrassing Napoleon and in
precipitating the downfall of his power in Italy. Eugène Beauharnais,
viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, showed both constancy and courage; but
after the battle of Leipzig (October 16-19, 1813) his power crumbled
away under the assaults of the now victorious Austrians. By an
arrangement with Bavaria, they were able to march through Tirol and down
the valley of the Adige in force, and overpowered the troops of Eugène
whose position was fatally compromised by the defection of Murat and the
dissensions among the Italians. Very many of them, distrusting both of
these kings, sought to act independently in favour of an Italian
republic. Lord William Bentinck with an Anglo-Sicilian force landed at
Leghorn on the 8th of March 1814, and issued a proclamation to the
Italians bidding them rise against Napoleon in the interests of their
own freedom. A little later he gained possession of Genoa. Amidst these
schisms the defence of Italy collapsed. On the 16th of April 1814
Eugène, on hearing of Napoleon's overthrow at Paris, signed an armistice
at Mantua by which he was enabled to send away the French troops beyond
the Alps and entrust himself to the consideration of the allies. The
Austrians, under General Bellegarde, entered Milan without resistance;
and this event precluded the restoration of the old political order.

The arrangements made by the allies in accordance with the treaty of
Paris (June 12, 1814) and the Final Act of the congress of Vienna (June
9, 1815), imposed on Italy boundaries which, roughly speaking,
corresponded to those of the pre-Napoleonic era. To the kingdom of
Sardinia, now reconstituted under Victor Emmanuel I., France ceded its
old provinces, Savoy and Nice; and the allies, especially Great Britain
and Austria, insisted on the addition to that monarchy of the
territories of the former republic of Genoa, in respect of which the
king took the title of duke of Genoa, in order to strengthen it for the
duty of acting as a buffer state between France and the smaller states
of central Italy. Austria recovered the Milanese, and all the
possessions of the old Venetian Republic on the mainland, including
Istria and Dalmatia. The Ionian Islands, formerly belonging to Venice,
were, by a treaty signed at Paris on the 5th of November 1815, placed
under the protection of Great Britain. By an instrument signed on the
24th of April 1815, the Austrian territories in north Italy were erected
into the kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia, which, though an integral part of
the Austrian empire, was to enjoy a separate administration, the symbol
of its separate individuality being the coronation of the emperors with
the ancient iron crown of Lombardy ("Proclamation de l'empereur
d'Autriche, &c.," April 7, 1815, _State Papers_, ii. 906). Francis IV.,
son of the archduke Ferdinand of Austria and Maria Beatrice, daughter of
Ercole Rinaldo, the last of the Estensi, was reinstated as duke of
Modena. Parma and Piacenza were assigned to Marie Louise, daughter of
the Austrian emperor and wife of Napoleon, on behalf of her son, the
little Napoleon, but by subsequent arrangements (1816-1817) the duchy
was to revert at her death to the Bourbons of Parma, then reigning at
Lucca. Tuscany was restored to the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of
Habsburg-Lorraine. The duchy of Lucca was given to Marie Louise of
Bourbon-Parma, who, at the death of Marie Louise of Austria, would
return to Parma, when Lucca would be handed over to Tuscany. The pope,
Pius VII., who had long been kept under restraint by Napoleon at
Fontainebleau, returned to Rome in May 1814, and was recognized by the
congress of Vienna (not without some demur on the part of Austria) as
the sovereign of all the former possessions of the Holy See. Ferdinand
IV. of Naples, not long after the death of his consort, Maria Carolina,
in Austria, returned from Sicily to take possession of his dominions on
the mainland. He received them back in their entirety at the hands of
the powers, who recognized his new title of Ferdinand I. of the Two
Sicilies. The rash attempt of Murat in the autumn of 1815, which led to
his death at Pizzo in Calabria, enabled the Bourbon dynasty to crush
malcontents with all the greater severity. The reaction, which was dull
and heavy in the dominions of the pope and of Victor Emmanuel,
systematically harsh in the Austrian states of the north, and
comparatively mild in Parma and Tuscany, excited the greatest loathing
in southern Italy and Sicily, because there it was directed by a dynasty
which had aroused feelings of hatred mingled with contempt.

There were special reasons why Sicily should harbour these feelings
against the Bourbons. During eight years (1806-1814) the chief places of
the island had been garrisoned by British troops; and the commander of
the force which upheld the tottering rule of Ferdinand at Palermo
naturally had great authority. The British government, which awarded a
large annual subsidy to the king and queen at Palermo, claimed to have
some control over the administration. Lord William Bentinck finally took
over large administrative powers, seeing that Ferdinand, owing to his
dulness, and Maria Carolina, owing to her very suspicious intrigues with
Napoleon, could never be trusted. The contest between the royal power
and that of the Sicilian estates threatened to bring matters to a
deadlock, until in 1812, under the impulse of Lord William Bentinck, a
constitution modelled largely on that of England was passed by the
estates. After the retirement of the British troops in 1814 the
constitution lapsed, and the royal authority became once more absolute.
But the memory of the benefits conferred by "the English constitution"
remained fresh and green amidst the arid waste of repression which
followed. It lived on as one of the impalpable but powerful influences
which spurred on the Sicilians and the democrats of Naples to the
efforts which they put forth in 1821, 1830, 1848 and 1860.

This result, accruing from British intervention, was in some respects
similar to that exerted by Napoleon on the Italians of the mainland. The
brutalities of Austria's white coats in the north, the unintelligent
repression then characteristic of the house of Savoy, the petty spite of
the duke of Modena, the medieval obscurantism of pope and cardinals in
the middle of the peninsula and the clownish excesses of Ferdinand in
the south, could not blot out from the minds of the Italians the
recollection of the benefits derived from the just laws, vigorous
administration and enlightened aims of the great emperor. The hard but
salutary training which they had undergone at his hands had taught them
that they were the equals of the northern races both in the council
chamber and on the field of battle. It had further revealed to them that
truth, which once grasped can never be forgotten, that, despite
differences of climate, character and speech, they were in all
essentials a nation.     (J. Hl. R.)


E. THE RISORGIMENTO, 1815-1870

As the result of the Vienna treaties, Austria became the real mistress
of Italy. Not only did she govern Lombardy and Venetia directly, but
Austrian princes ruled in Modena, Parma and Tuscany; Piacenza, Ferrara
and Comacchio had Austrian garrisons; Prince Metternich, the Austrian
chancellor, believed that he could always secure the election of an
Austrophil pope, and Ferdinand of Naples, reinstated by an Austrian
army, had bound himself, by a secret article of the treaty of June 12,
1815, not to introduce methods of government incompatible with those
adopted in Austria's Italian possessions. Austria also concluded
offensive and defensive alliances with Sardinia, Tuscany and Naples;
and Metternich's ambition was to make Austrian predominance over Italy
still more absolute, by placing an Austrian archduke on the Sardinian
throne.


  Reaction in the Italian States.

Victor Emmanuel I., the king of Sardinia, was the only native ruler in
the peninsula, and the Savoy dynasty was popular with all classes. But
although welcomed with enthusiasm on his return to Turin, he introduced
a system of reaction which, if less brutal, was no less uncompromising
than that of Austrian archdukes or Bourbon princes. His object was to
restore his dominions to the conditions preceding the French occupation.
The French system of taxation was maintained because it brought in
ampler revenues; but feudalism, the antiquated legislation and
bureaucracy were revived, and all the officers and officials still
living who had served the state before the Revolution, many of them now
in their dotage, were restored to their posts; only nobles were eligible
for the higher government appointments; all who had served under the
French administration were dismissed or reduced in rank, and in the army
beardless scions of the aristocracy were placed over the heads of
war-worn veterans who had commanded regiments in Spain and Russia. The
influence of a bigoted priesthood was re-established, and "every form of
intellectual and moral torment, everything save actual persecution and
physical torture that could be inflicted on the 'impure' was inflicted"
(Cesare Balbo's _Autobiography_). All this soon provoked discontent
among the educated classes. In Genoa the government was particularly
unpopular, for the Genoese resented being handed over to their old enemy
Piedmont like a flock of sheep. Nevertheless the king strongly disliked
the Austrians, and would willingly have seen them driven from Italy.


  Austrian rule in Italy.

  Reaction in Rome.

  Naples.

In Lombardy French rule had ended by making itself unpopular, and even
before the fall of Napoleon a national party, called the _Italici puri_,
had begun to advocate the independence of Lombardy, or even its union
with Sardinia. At first a part of the population were content with
Austrian rule, which provided an honest and efficient administration;
but the rigid system of centralization which, while allowing the
semblance of local autonomy, sent every minute question for settlement
to Vienna; the severe police methods; the bureaucracy, in which the best
appointments were usually conferred on Germans or Slavs wholly dependent
on Vienna, proved galling to the people, and in view of the growing
disaffection the country was turned into a vast armed camp. In Modena
Duke Francis proved a cruel tyrant. In Parma, on the other hand, there
was very little oppression, the French codes were retained, and the
council of state was consulted on all legislative matters. Lucca too
enjoyed good government, and the peasantry were well cared for and
prosperous. In Tuscany the rule of Ferdinand and of his minister
Fossombroni was mild and benevolent, but enervating and demoralizing.
The Papal States were ruled by a unique system of theocracy, for not
only the head of the state but all the more important officials were
ecclesiastics, assisted by the Inquisition, the Index and all the
paraphernalia of medieval church government. The administration was
inefficient and corrupt, the censorship uncompromising, the police
ferocious and oppressive, although quite unable to cope with the
prevalent anarchy and brigandage; the antiquated pontifical statutes
took the place of the French laws, and every vestige of the vigorous old
communal independence was swept away. In Naples King Ferdinand retained
some of the laws and institutions of Murat's régime, and many of the
functionaries of the former government entered his service; but he
revived the Bourbon tradition, the odious police system and the
censorship; and a degrading religious bigotry, to which the masses were
all too much inclined, became the basis of government and social life.
The upper classes were still to a large extent inoculated with French
ideas, but the common people were either devoted to the dynasty or
indifferent. In Sicily, which for centuries had enjoyed a feudal
constitution modernized and Anglicized under British auspices in 1812,
and where anti-Neapolitan feeling was strong, autonomy was suppressed,
the constitution abolished in 1816, and the island, as a reward for its
fidelity to the dynasty, converted into a Neapolitan province governed
by Neapolitan bureaucrats.


  Secret societies. The Carbonari.

To the mass of the people the restoration of the old governments
undoubtedly brought a sense of relief, for the terrible drain in men and
money caused by Napoleon's wars had caused much discontent, whereas now
there was a prospect of peace and rest. But the restored governments in
their terror of revolution would not realize that the late régime had
wafted a breath of new life over the country and left ineffaceable
traces in the way of improved laws, efficient administration, good roads
and the sweeping away of old abuses; while the new-born idea of Italian
unity, strengthened by a national pride revived on many a stricken field
from Madrid to Moscow, was a force to be reckoned with. The oppression
and follies of the restored governments made men forget the evils of
French rule and remember only its good side. The masses were still more
or less indifferent, but among the nobility and the educated middle
classes, cut off from all part in free political life, there was
developed either the spirit of despair at Italy's moral degradation, as
expressed in the writings of Foscolo and Leopardi, or a passion of
hatred and revolt, which found its manifestation, in spite of severe
laws, in the development of secret societies. The most important of
these were the Carbonari lodges, whose objects were the expulsion of the
foreigner and the achievement of constitutional freedom (see CARBONARI).


  Revolution in Naples, 1820.

When Ferdinand returned to Naples in 1815 he found the kingdom, and
especially the army, honeycombed with Carbonarism, to which many
noblemen and officers were affiliated; and although the police
instituted prosecutions and organized the counter-movement of the
_Calderai_, who may be compared to the "Black Hundreds" of modern
Russia, the revolutionary spirit continued to grow, but it was not at
first anti-dynastic. The granting of the Spanish constitution of 1820
proved the signal for the beginning of the Italian liberationist
movement; a military mutiny led by two officers, Silvati and Morelli,
and the priest Menichini, broke out at Monteforte, to the cry of "God,
the King, and the Constitution!" The troops sent against them commanded
by General Guglielmo Pepe, himself a Carbonaro, hesitated to act, and
the king, finding that he could not count on the army, granted the
constitution (July 13, 1820), and appointed his son Francis regent. The
events that followed are described in the article on the history of
Naples (q.v.). Not only did the constitution, which was modelled on the
impossible Spanish constitution of 1812, prove unworkable, but the
powers of the Grand Alliance, whose main object was to keep the peace of
Europe, felt themselves bound to interfere to prevent the evil precedent
of a successful military revolution. The diplomatic developments that
led to the intervention of Austria are sketched elsewhere (see EUROPE:
_History_); in general the result of the deliberations of the congresses
of Troppau and Laibach was to establish, not the general right of
intervention claimed in the Troppau Protocol, but the special right of
Austria to safeguard her interests in Italy. The defeat of General Pepe
by the Austrians at Rieti (March 7, 1821) and the re-establishment of
King Ferdinand's autocratic power under the protection of Austrian
bayonets were the effective assertion of this principle.


  Military revolt in Piedmont.

The movement in Naples had been purely local, for the Neapolitan
Carbonari had at that time no thought save of Naples; it was, moreover,
a movement of the middle and upper classes in which the masses took
little interest. Immediately after the battle of Rieti a Carbonarist
mutiny broke out in Piedmont independently of events in the south. Both
King Victor Emmanuel and his brother Charles Felix had no sons, and the
heir presumptive to the throne was Prince Charles Albert, of the
Carignano branch of the house of Savoy. Charles Albert felt a certain
interest in Liberal ideas and was always surrounded by young nobles of
Carbonarist and anti-Austrian tendencies, and was therefore regarded
with suspicion by his royal relatives. Metternich, too, had an
instinctive dislike for him, and proposed to exclude him from the
succession by marrying one of the king's daughters to Francis of Modena,
and getting the Salic law abolished so that the succession would pass to
the duke and Austria would thus dominate Piedmont. The Liberal movement
had gained ground in Piedmont as in Naples among the younger nobles and
officers, and the events of Spain and southern Italy aroused much
excitement. In March 1821, Count Santorre di Santarosa and other
conspirators informed Charles Albert of a constitutional and
anti-Austrian plot, and asked for his help. After a momentary hesitation
he informed the king; but at his request no arrests were made, and no
precautions were taken. On the 10th of March the garrison of Alessandria
mutinied, and its example was followed on the 12th by that of Turin,
where the Spanish constitution was demanded, and the black, red and blue
flag of the Carbonari paraded the streets. The next day the king
abdicated after appointing Charles Albert regent. The latter immediately
proclaimed the constitution, but the new king, Charles Felix, who was at
Modena at the time, repudiated the regent's acts and exiled him to
Tuscany; and, with his consent, an Austrian army invaded Piedmont and
crushed the constitutionalists at Novara. Many of the conspirators were
condemned to death, but all succeeded in escaping. Charles Felix was
most indignant with the ex-regent, but he resented, as an unwarrantable
interference, Austria's attempt to have him excluded from the succession
at the congress of Verona (1822). Charles Albert's somewhat equivocal
conduct also roused the hatred of the Liberals, and for a long time the
_esecrato Carignano_ was regarded, most unjustly, as a traitor even by
many who were not republicans.


  Liberalism in Lombardy.

Carbonarism had been introduced into Lombardy by two Romagnols, Count
Laderchi and Pietro Maroncelli, but the leader of the movement was Count
F. Confalonieri, who was in favour of an Italian federation composed of
northern Italy under the house of Savoy, central Italy under the pope,
and the kingdom of Naples. There had been some mild plotting against
Austria in Milan, and an attempt was made to co-operate with the
Piedmontese movement of 1821; already in 1820 Maroncelli and the poet
Silvio Pellico had been arrested as Carbonari, and after the movement in
Piedmont more arrests were made. The mission of Gaetano Castiglia and
Marquis Giorgio Pallavicini to Turin, where they had interviewed Charles
Albert, although without any definite result--for Confalonieri had
warned the prince that Lombardy was not ready to rise--was accidentally
discovered, and Confalonieri was himself arrested. The plot would never
have been a menace to Austria but for her treatment of the conspirators.
Pellico and Maroncelli were immured in the Spielberg; Confalonieri and
two dozen others were condemned to death, their sentences being,
however, commuted to imprisonment in that same terrible fortress. The
heroism of the prisoners, and Silvio Pellico's account of his
imprisonment (_Le mie Prigioni_), did much to enlist the sympathy of
Europe for the Italian cause.


  The Papal States.

  Revolutions of 1830.

During the next few years order reigned in Italy, save for a few
unimportant outbreaks in the Papal States; there was, however, perpetual
discontent and agitation, especially in Romagna, where misgovernment was
extreme. Under Pius VII. and his minister Cardinal Consalvi oppression
had not been very severe, and Metternich's proposal to establish a
central inquisitorial tribunal for political offences throughout Italy
had been rejected by the papal government. But on the death of Pius in
1823, his successor Leo XII. (Cardinal Della Genga) proved a ferocious
reactionary under whom barbarous laws were enacted and torture
frequently applied. The secret societies, such as the Carbonari, the
Adelfi and the Bersaglieri d'America, which flourished in Romagna,
replied to these persecutions by assassinating the more brutal officials
and spies. The events of 1820-1821 increased the agitation in Romagna,
and in 1825 large numbers of persons were condemned to death,
imprisonment or exile. The society of the Sanfedisti, formed of the
dregs of the populace, whose object was to murder every Liberal, was
openly protected and encouraged. Leo died in 1829, and the mild,
religious Pius VIII. (Cardinal Castiglioni) only reigned until 1830,
when Gregory XVI. (Cardinal Cappellari) was elected through Austrian
influence, and proved another _zelante_. The July revolution in Paris
and the declaration of the new king, Louis Philippe, that France, as a
Liberal monarchy, would not only not intervene in the internal affairs
of other countries, but would not permit other powers to do so, aroused
great hopes among the oppressed peoples, and was the immediate cause of
a revolution in Romagna and the Marches. In February 1831 these
provinces rose, raised the red, white and green tricolor (which
henceforth took the place of the Carbonarist colours as the Italian
flag), and shook off the papal yoke with surprising ease.[11] At Parma
too there was an outbreak and a demand for the constitution; Marie
Louise could not grant it because of her engagements with Austria, and,
therefore, abandoned her dominions. In Modena Duke Francis, ambitious of
enlarging his territories, coquetted with the Carbonari of Paris, and
opened indirect negotiations with Menotti, the revolutionary leader in
his state, believing that he might assist him in his plans. Menotti, for
his part, conceived the idea of a united Italian state under the duke. A
rising was organized for February 1831; but Francis got wind of it, and,
repenting of his dangerous dallying with revolution, arrested Menotti
and fled to Austrian territory with his prisoner. In his absence the
insurrection took place, and Biagio Nardi, having been elected dictator,
proclaimed that "Italy is one; the Italian nation one sole nation." But
the French king soon abandoned his principle of non-intervention on
which the Italian revolutionists had built their hopes; the Austrians
intervened unhindered; the old governments were re-established in Parma,
Modena and Romagna; and Menotti and many other patriots were hanged. The
Austrians evacuated Romagna in July, but another insurrection having
broken out immediately afterwards which the papal troops were unable to
quell, they returned. This second intervention gave umbrage to France,
who by way of a counterpoise sent a force to occupy Ancona. These two
foreign occupations, which were almost as displeasing to the pope as to
the Liberals, lasted until 1838. The powers, immediately after the
revolt, presented a memorandum to Gregory recommending certain moderate
reforms, but no attention was paid to it. These various movements proved
in the first place that the masses were by no means ripe for revolution,
and that the idea of unity, although now advocated by a few
revolutionary leaders, was far from being generally accepted even by the
Liberals; and, secondly, that, in spite of the indifference of the
masses, the despotic governments were unable to hold their own without
the assistance of foreign bayonets.


  Mazzini and "Young Italy."

On the 27th of April 1831, Charles Albert succeeded Charles Felix on the
throne of Piedmont. Shortly afterwards he received a letter from an
unknown person, in which he was exhorted with fiery eloquence to place
himself at the head of the movement for liberating and uniting Italy and
expelling the foreigner, and told that he was free to choose whether he
would be "the first of men or the last of Italian tyrants." The author
was Giuseppe Mazzini, then a young man of twenty-six years, who, though
in theory a republican, was ready to accept the leadership of a prince
of the house of Savoy if he would guide the nation to freedom. The only
result of his letter, however, was that he was forbidden to re-enter
Sardinian territory. Mazzini, who had learned to distrust Carbonarism
owing to its lack of a guiding principle and its absurd paraphernalia of
ritual and mystery, had conceived the idea of a more serious political
association for the emancipation of his country not only from foreign
and domestic despotism but from national faults of character; and this
idea he had materialized in the organization of a society called the
_Giovane Italia_ (Young Italy) among the Italian refugees at Marseilles.
After the events of 1831 he declared that the liberation of Italy could
only be achieved through unity, and his great merit lies in having
inspired a large number of Italians with that idea at a time when
provincial jealousies and the difficulty of communications maintained
separatist feelings. Young Italy spread to all centres of Italian
exiles, and by means of literature carried on an active propaganda in
Italy itself, where the party came to be called "Ghibellini," as though
reviving the traditions of medieval anti-Papalism. Though eventually
this activity of the Giovane Italia supplanted that of the older
societies, in practice it met with no better success; the two attempts
to invade Savoy in the hope of seducing the army from its allegiance
failed miserably, and only resulted in a series of barbarous sentences
of death and imprisonment which made most Liberals despair of Charles
Albert, while they called down much criticism on Mazzini as the
organizer of raids in which he himself took no part. He was now forced
to leave France, but continued his work of agitation from London. The
disorders in Naples and Sicily in 1837 had no connexion with Mazzini,
but the forlorn hope of the brothers Bandiera, who in 1844 landed on the
Calabrian coast, was the work of the Giovane Italia. The rebels were
captured and shot, but the significance of the attempt lies in the fact
that it was the first occasion on which north Italians (the Bandieras
were Venetians and officers in the Austrian navy) had tried to raise the
standard of revolt in the south.

Romagna had continued a prey to anarchy ever since 1831; the government
organized armed bands called the Centurioni (descended from the earlier
Sanfedisti), to terrorize the Liberals, while the secret societies
continued their "propaganda by deeds." It is noteworthy that Romagna was
the only part of Italy where the revolutionary movement was accompanied
by murder. In 1845 several outbreaks occurred, and a band led by Pietro
Renzi captured Rimini, whence a proclamation drawn up by L. C. Farini
was issued demanding the reforms advocated by the powers' memorandum of
1831. But the movement collapsed without result, and the leaders fled to
Tuscany.


    Liberalism and economic development.

  Side by side with the Mazzinian propaganda in favour of a united
  Italian republic, which manifested itself in secret societies, plots
  and insurrections, there was another Liberal movement based on the
  education of opinion and on economic development. In Piedmont, in
  spite of the government's reactionary methods, a large part of the
  population were genuinely attached to the Savoy dynasty, and the idea
  of a regeneration of Italy under its auspices began to gain ground.
  Some writers proclaimed the necessity of building railways, developing
  agriculture and encouraging industries, before resorting to
  revolution; while others, like the Tuscan Gino Capponi, inspired by
  the example of England and France, wished to make the people fit for
  freedom by means of improved schools, books and periodicals. Vincenzo
  Gioberti (q.v.) published in 1843 his famous treatise _Del primato
  morale e civile degli Italiani_, a work, which, in striking contrast
  to the prevailing pessimism of the day, extolled the past greatness
  and achievements of the Italian people and their present virtues. His
  political ideal was a federation of all the Italian states under the
  presidency of the pope, on a basis of Catholicism, but without a
  constitution. In spite of all its inaccuracies and exaggerations the
  book served a useful purpose in reviving the self-respect of a
  despondent people. Another work of a similar kind was _Le Speranze
  d'Italia_ (1844) by the Piedmontese Count Cesare Balbo (q.v.). Like
  Gioberti he advocated a federation of Italian states, but he declared
  that before this could be achieved Austria must be expelled from Italy
  and compensation found for her in the Near East by making her a
  Danubian power--a curious forecast that Italy's liberation would begin
  with an eastern war. He extolled Charles Albert and appealed to his
  patriotism; he believed that the church was necessary and the secret
  societies harmful; representative government was undesirable, but he
  advocated a consultative assembly. Above all Italian character must be
  reformed and the nation educated. A third important publication was
  Massimo d'Azeglio's _Degli ultimi casi di Romagna_, in which the
  author, another Piedmontese nobleman, exposed papal misgovernment
  while condemning the secret societies and advocating open resistance
  and protest. He upheld the papacy in principle, regarded Austria as
  the great enemy of Italian regeneration, and believed that the means
  of expelling her were only to be found in Piedmont.


    The Italian exiles.

  Besides the revolutionists and republicans who promoted conspiracy and
  insurrection whenever possible, and the moderates or "Neo-Guelphs," as
  Gioberti's followers were called, we must mention the Italian exiles
  who were learning the art of war in foreign countries--in Spain, in
  Greece, in Poland, in South America--and those other exiles who, in
  Paris or London, eked out a bare subsistence by teaching Italian or
  by their pen, and laid the foundations of that love of Italy which,
  especially in England, eventually brought the weight of diplomacy into
  the scales for Italian freedom. All these forces were equally
  necessary--the revolutionists to keep up agitation and make government
  by bayonets impossible; the moderates to curb the impetuosity of the
  revolutionists and to present a scheme of society that was neither
  reactionary nor anarchical; the volunteers abroad to gain military
  experience; and the more peaceful exiles to spread the name of Italy
  among foreign peoples. All the while a vast amount of revolutionary
  literature was being printed in Switzerland, France and England, and
  smuggled into Italy; the poet Giusti satirized the Italian princes,
  the dramatist G. B. Niccolini blasted tyranny in his tragedies, the
  novelist Guerrazzi re-evoked the memories of the last struggle for
  Florentine freedom in _L'Assedio di Firenze_, and Verdi's operas
  bristled with political _double entendres_ which escaped the censor
  but were understood and applauded by the audience.


  Election of Pius IX.

On the death of Pope Gregory XVI. in 1846 Austria hoped to secure the
election of another zealot; but the Italian cardinals, who did not want
an Austrophil, finished the conclave before the arrival of Cardinal
Gaysrück, Austria's mouthpiece, and in June elected Giovanni Maria
Mastai Ferretti as Pius IX. The new pope, who while bishop of Imole had
evinced a certain interest in Liberalism, was a kindly man, of inferior
intelligence, who thought that all difficulties could be settled with a
little good-will, some reforms and a political amnesty. The amnesty
which he granted was the beginning of the immense if short-lived
popularity which he was to enjoy. But he did not move so fast in the
path of reform as was expected, and agitation continued throughout the
papal states.[12] In 1847 some administrative reforms were enacted, the
laity were admitted to certain offices, railways were talked about, and
political newspapers permitted. In April Pius created a _Consulta_, or
consultative assembly, and soon afterwards a council of ministers and a
municipality for Rome. Here he would willingly have stopped, but he soon
realized that he had hardly begun. Every fresh reform edict was greeted
with demonstrations of enthusiasm, but the ominous cry "Viva Pio Nono
solo!" signified dissatisfaction with the whole system of government. A
lay ministry was now demanded, a constitution, and an Italian federation
for war against Austria. Rumours of a reactionary plot by Austria and
the Jesuits against Pius, induced him to create a national guard and to
appoint Cardinal Ferretti as secretary of state.


  Revolutionary agitation, 1847.

Events in Rome produced widespread excitement throughout Europe.
Metternich had declared that the one thing which had not entered into
his calculations was a Liberal pope, only that was an impossibility;
still he was much disturbed by Pius's attitude, and tried to stem the
revolutionary tide by frightening the princes. Seizing the agitation in
Romagna as a pretext, he had the town of Ferrara occupied by Austrian
troops, which provoked the indignation not only of the Liberals but also
of the pope, for according to the treaties Austria had the right of
occupying the citadel alone. There was great resentment throughout
Italy, and in answer to the pope's request Charles Albert declared that
he was with him in everything, while from South America Giuseppe
Garibaldi wrote to offer his services to His Holiness. Charles Albert,
although maintaining his reactionary policy, had introduced
administrative reforms, built railways, reorganized the army and
developed the resources of the country. He had little sympathy with
Liberalism and abhorred revolution, but his hatred of Austria and his
resentment at the galling tutelage to which she subjected him had gained
strength year by year. Religion was still his dominant passion, and when
a pope in Liberal guise appeared on the scene and was bullied by
Austria, his two strongest feelings--piety and hatred of Austria--ceased
to be incompatible. In 1847 Lord Minto visited the Italian courts to try
to induce the recalcitrant despots to mend their ways, so as to avoid
revolution and war, the latter being England's especial anxiety; this
mission, although not destined to produce much effect, aroused
extravagant hopes among the Liberals. Charles Louis, the opera-bouffe
duke of Lucca, who had coquetted with Liberalism in the past, now
refused to make any concessions to his subjects, and in 1847 sold his
duchy to Leopold II. of Tuscany (the successor of Ferdinand III. since
1824) to whom it would have reverted in any case at the death of the
duchess of Parma. At the same time Leopold ceded Lunigiana to Parma and
Modena in equal parts, an arrangement which provoked the indignation of
the inhabitants of the district (especially of those destined to be
ruled by Francis V. of Modena, who had succeeded to Francis IV. in
1846), and led to disturbances at Fivizzano. In September 1847, Leopold
gave way to the popular agitation for a national guard, in spite of
Metternich's threats, and allowed greater freedom of the press; every
concession made by the pope was followed by demands for a similar
measure in Tuscany.

Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies had died in 1825, and was succeeded by
Francis I. At the latter's death in 1830 Ferdinand II. succeeded, and
although at first he gave promise of proving a wiser ruler, he soon
reverted to the traditional Bourbon methods. An ignorant bigot, he
concentrated the whole of the executive into his own hands, was
surrounded by priests and monks, and served by an army of spies. In 1847
there were unimportant disturbances in various parts of the kingdom, but
there was no anti-dynastic outbreak, the jealousy between Naples and
Sicily largely contributing to the weakness of the movement. On the 12th
of January, however, a revolution, the first of the many throughout
Europe that was to make the year 1848 memorable, broke out at Palermo
under the leadership of Ruggiero Settimo. The Neapolitan army sent to
crush the rising was at first unsuccessful, and the insurgents demanded
the constitution of 1812 or complete independence. Disturbances occurred
at Naples also, and the king, who could not obtain Austrian help, as the
pope refused to allow Austrian troops to pass through his dominions, on
the advice of his prime minister, the duke of Serracapriola, granted a
constitution, freedom of the press, the national guard, &c. (January
28).


  Revolutions of 1848.

The news from Naples strengthened the demand for a constitution in
Piedmont. Count Camillo Cavour, then editor of a new and influential
paper called _Il Risorgimento_, had advocated it strongly, and monster
demonstrations were held every day. The king disliked the idea, but
great pressure was brought to bear on him, and finally, on the 4th of
March 1848, he granted the charter which was destined to be the
constitution of the future Italian kingdom. It provided for a nominated
senate and an elective chamber of deputies, the king retaining the right
of veto; the press censorship was abolished, and freedom of meeting, of
the press and of speech were guaranteed. Balbo was called upon to form
the first constitutional ministry. Three days later the grand-duke of
Tuscany promised similar liberties, and a charter, prepared by a
commission which included Gino Capponi and Bettino Ricasoli, was
promulgated on the 17th.

In the Austrian provinces the situation seemed calmer, and the
government rejected the moderate proposals of Daniele Manin and N.
Tommaseo. A demonstration in favour of Pius IX. on the 3rd of January at
Milan was dispersed with unnecessary severity, and martial law was
proclaimed the following month. The revolution which broke out on the
8th of March in Vienna itself and the subsequent flight of Metternich
(see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_), led to the granting of feeble
concessions to Lombardy and Venetia, which were announced in Milan on
the 18th. But it was too late; and in spite of the exhortations of the
mayor, Gabrio Casati, and of the republican C. Cattaneo, who believed
that a rising against 15,000 Austrian soldiers under Field-Marshal
Radetzky was madness, the famous Five Days' revolution began. It was a
popular outburst of pent-up hate, unprepared by leaders, although
leaders such as Luciano Manara soon arose. Radetzky occupied the citadel
and other points of vantage; but in the night barricades sprang up by
the hundred and were manned by citizens of all classes, armed with every
kind of weapon. The desperate struggle lasted until the 22nd, when the
Austrians, having lost 5000 killed and wounded, were forced to evacuate
the city. The rest of Lombardy and Venetia now flew to arms, and the
Austrian garrisons, except in the Quadrilateral (Verona, Peschiera,
Mantua and Legnano) were expelled. In Venice the people, under the
leadership of Manin, rose in arms and forced the military and civil
governors (Counts Zichy and Palffy) to sign a capitulation on the 22nd
of March, after which the republic was proclaimed. At Milan, where there
was a division of opinion between the monarchists under Casati and the
republicans under Cattaneo, a provisional administration was formed and
the question of the form of government postponed for the moment. The
duke of Modena and Charles Louis of Parma (Marie Louise was now dead)
abandoned their capitals; in both cities provisional governments were
set up which subsequently proclaimed annexation to Piedmont. In Rome the
pope gave way to popular clamour, granting one concession after another,
and on the 8th of February he publicly called down God's blessing on
Italy--that Italy hated by the Austrians, whose name it had hitherto
been a crime to mention. On the 10th of March he appointed a new
ministry, under Cardinal Antonelli, which included several Liberal
laymen, such as Marco Minghetti, G. Pasolini, L. C. Farini and Count G.
Recchi. On the 11th a constitution drawn up by a commission of
cardinals, without the knowledge of the ministry, was promulgated, a
constitution which attempted the impossible task of reconciling the
pope's temporal power with free institutions. In the meanwhile
preparations for war against Austria were being carried on with Pius's
sanction.


  First war of Italy against Austria.

There were now three main political tendencies, viz. the union of north
Italy under Charles Albert and an alliance with the pope and Naples, a
federation of the different states under their present rulers, and a
united republic of all Italy. All parties, however, were agreed in
favour of war against Austria, for which the peoples forced their
unwilling rulers to prepare. But the only state capable of taking the
initiative was Piedmont, and the king still hesitated. Then came the
news of the Five Days of Milan, which produced the wildest excitement in
Turin; unless the army were sent to assist the struggling Lombards at
once the dynasty was in jeopardy. Cavour's stirring articles in the
_Risorgimento_ hastened the king's decision, and on the 23rd of March he
declared war (see for the military events ITALIAN WARS, 1848-70). But
much precious time had been lost, and even then the army was not ready.
Charles Albert could dispose of 90,000 men, including some 30,000 from
central Italy, but he took the field with only half his force. He might
yet have cut off Radetzky on his retreat, or captured Mantua, which was
only held by 300 men. But his delays lost him both chances and enabled
Radetzky to receive reinforcements from Austria. The pope, unable to
resist the popular demand for war, allowed his army to depart (March 23)
under the command of General Durando, with instructions to act in
concert with Charles Albert, and he corresponded with the grand-duke of
Tuscany and the king of Naples with a view to a military alliance. But
at the same time, fearing a schism in the church should he attack
Catholic Austria, he forbade his troops to do more than defend the
frontier, and in his Encyclical of the 29th of April stated that, as
head of the church, he could not declare war, but that he was unable to
prevent his subjects from following the example of other Italians. He
then requested Charles Albert to take the papal troops under his
command, and also wrote to the emperor of Austria asking him voluntarily
to relinquish Lombardy and Venetia. Tuscany and Naples had both joined
the Italian league; a Tuscan army started for Lombardy on the 30th of
April, and 17,000 Neapolitans commanded by Pepe (who had returned after
28 years of exile) went to assist Durando in intercepting the Austrian
reinforcements under Nugent. The Piedmontese defeated the enemy at
Pastrengo (April 30), but did not profit by the victory. The Neapolitans
reached Bologna on the 17th of May, but in the meantime a dispute had
broken out at Naples between the king and parliament as to the nature of
the royal oath; a cry of treason was raised by a group of factious
youngsters, barricades were erected and street fighting ensued (May 15).
On the 17th Ferdinand dissolved parliament and recalled the army. On
receiving the order to return, Pepe, after hesitating for some time
between his oath to the king and his desire to fight for Italy, finally
resigned his commission and crossed the Po with a few thousand men, the
rest of his force returning south. The effects of this were soon felt. A
force of Tuscan volunteers was attacked by a superior body of Austrians
at Curtatone and Montanaro and defeated after a gallant resistance on
the 27th of May; Charles Albert, after wasting precious time round
Peschiera, which capitulated on the 30th of May, defeated Radetzky at
Goito. But the withdrawal of the Neapolitans left Durando too weak to
intercept Nugent and his 30,000 men; and the latter, although harassed
by the inhabitants of Venetia and repulsed at Vicenza, succeeded in
joining Radetzky, who was soon further reinforced from Tirol. The whole
Austrian army now turned on Vicenza, which after a brave resistance
surrendered on the 10th of June. All Venetia except the capital was thus
once more occupied by the Austrians. On the 23rd, 24th and 25th of July
(first battle of Custozza) the Piedmontese were defeated and forced to
retire on Milan with Radetzky's superior force in pursuit. The king was
the object of a hostile demonstration in Milan, and although he was
ready to defend the city to the last, the town council negotiated a
capitulation with Radetzky. The mob, egged on by the republicans,
attacked the palace where the king was lodged, and he escaped with
difficulty, returning to Piedmont with the remnants of his army. On the
6th of August Radetzky re-entered Milan, and three days later an
armistice was concluded between Austria and Piedmont, the latter
agreeing to evacuate Lombardy and Venetia. The offer of French
assistance, made after the proclamation of the republic in the spring of
1848, had been rejected mainly because France, fearing that the creation
of a strong Italian state would be a danger to her, would have demanded
the cession of Nice and Savoy, which the king refused to consider.


  Daniele Manin and Venice.

  Proclamation of the Roman Republic.

Meanwhile, the republic had been proclaimed in Venice; but on the 7th of
July the assembly declared in favour of fusion with Piedmont, and Manin,
who had been elected president, resigned his powers to the royal
commissioners. Soon after Custozza, however, the Austrians blockaded the
city on the land side. In Rome the pope's authority weakened day by day,
and disorder increased. The Austrian attempt to occupy Bologna was
repulsed by the citizens, but unfortunately this success was followed by
anarchy and murder, and Farini only with difficulty restored a semblance
of order. The Mamiani ministry having failed to achieve anything, Pius
summoned Pellegrino Rossi, a learned lawyer who had long been exiled in
France, to form a cabinet. On the 15th of November he was assassinated,
and as no one was punished for this crime the insolence of the
disorderly elements increased, and shots were exchanged with the Swiss
Guard. The terrified pope fled in disguise to Gaeta (November 25), and
when parliament requested him to return he refused even to receive the
deputation. This meant a complete rupture; on the 5th of February 1849 a
constituent assembly was summoned, and on the 9th it voted the downfall
of the temporal power and proclaimed the republic. Mazzini hurried to
Rome to see his dream realized, and was chosen head of the Triumvirate.
On the 18th Pius invited the armed intervention of France, Austria,
Naples and Spain to restore his authority. In Tuscany the government
drifted from the moderates to the extreme democrats; the Ridolfi
ministry was succeeded after Custozza by that of Ricasoli, and the
latter by that of Capponi. The lower classes provoked disorders, which
were very serious at Leghorn, and were only quelled by Guerrazzi's
energy. Capponi resigned in October 1848, and Leopold reluctantly
consented to a democratic ministry led by Guerrazzi and Montanelli, the
former a very ambitious and unscrupulous man, the latter honest but
fantastic. Following the Roman example, a constituent assembly was
demanded to vote on union with Rome and eventually with the rest of
Italy. The grand-duke, fearing an excommunication from the pope, refused
the request, and left Florence for Siena and S. Stefano; on the 8th of
February 1849 the republic was proclaimed, and on the 21st, at the
pressing request of the pope and the king of Naples, Leopold went to
Gaeta.

Ferdinand did not openly break his constitutional promises until Sicily
was reconquered. His troops had captured Messina after a bombardment
which earned him the sobriquet of "King Bomba"; Catania and Syracuse
fell soon after, hideous atrocities being everywhere committed with his
sanction. He now prorogued parliament, adopted stringent measures
against the Liberals, and retired to Gaeta, the haven of refuge for
deposed despots.


  Charles Albert renews the war.

  Accession of Victor Emmanuel II.

But so long as Piedmont was not completely crushed none of the princes
dared to take decisive measures against their subjects; in spite of
Custozza, Charles Albert still had an army, and Austria, with
revolutions in Vienna, Hungary and Bohemia on her hands, could not
intervene. In Piedmont the Pinelli-Revel ministry, which had continued
the negotiations for an alliance with Leopold and the pope, resigned as
it could not count on a parliamentary majority, and in December the
returned exile Gioberti formed a new ministry. His proposal to reinstate
Leopold and the pope with Piedmontese arms, so as to avoid Austrian
intervention, was rejected by both potentates, and met with opposition
even in Piedmont, which would thereby have forfeited its prestige
throughout Italy. Austrian mediation was now imminent, as the Vienna
revolution had been crushed, and the new emperor, Francis Joseph,
refused to consider any settlement other than on the basis of the
treaties of 1815. But Charles Albert, who, whatever his faults, had a
generous nature, was determined that so long as he had an army in being
he could not abandon the Lombards and the Venetians, whom he had
encouraged in their resistance, without one more effort, though he knew
full well that he was staking all on a desperate chance. On the 12th of
March 1849, he denounced the armistice, and, owing to the want of
confidence in Piedmontese strategy after 1848, gave the chief command to
the Polish General Chrzanowski. His forces amounted to 80,000 men,
including a Lombard corps and some Roman, Tuscan and other volunteers.
But the discipline and moral of the army were shaken and its
organization faulty. General Ramorino, disobeying his instructions,
failed to prevent a corps of Austrians under Lieut. Field-Marshal
d'Aspre from seizing Mortara, a fault for which he was afterwards
court-martialled and shot, and after some preliminary fighting Radetzky
won the decisive battle of Novara (March 23) which broke up the
Piedmontese army. The king, who had sought death in vain all day, had to
ask terms of Radetzky; the latter demanded a slice of Piedmont and the
heir to the throne (Victor Emmanuel) as a hostage, without a reservation
for the consent of parliament. Charles Albert, realizing his own failure
and thinking that his son might obtain better terms, abdicated and
departed at once for Portugal, where he died in a monastery a few months
later. Victor Emmanuel went in person to treat with Radetzky on the 24th
of March. The Field-Marshal received him most courteously and offered
not only to waive the demand for a part of Piedmontese territory, but to
enlarge the kingdom, on condition that the constitution should be
abolished and the blue Piedmontese flag substituted for the tricolor.
But the young king was determined to abide by his father's oath, and had
therefore to agree to an Austrian occupation of the territory between
the Po, the Ticino and the Sesia, and of half the citadel of
Alessandria, until peace should be concluded, the evacuation of all
districts occupied by his troops outside Piedmont, the dissolution of
his corps of Lombard, Polish and Hungarian volunteers and the withdrawal
of his fleet from the Adriatic.

Novara set Austria free to reinstate the Italian despots. Ferdinand at
once re-established autocracy in Naples; though the struggle in Sicily
did not end until May, when Palermo, after a splendid resistance,
capitulated. In Tuscany disorder continued, and although Guerrazzi, who
had been appointed dictator, saved the country from complete anarchy, a
large part of the population, especially among the peasantry, was still
loyal to the grand-duke. After Novara the chief question was how to
avoid an Austrian occupation, and owing to the prevailing confusion the
town council of Florence took matters into its own hands and declared
the grand-duke reinstated, but on a constitutional basis and without
foreign help (April 12). Leopold accepted as regards the constitution,
but said nothing about foreign intervention. Count Serristori, the
grand-ducal commissioner, arrived in Florence on the 4th of May 1849;
the national guard was disbanded; and on the 25th, the Austrians under
d'Aspre entered Florence.

On the 28th of July Leopold returned to his capital, and while that
event was welcomed by a part of the people, the fact that he had come
under Austrian protection ended by destroying all loyalty to the
dynasty, and consequently contributed not a little to Italian unity.


  Garibaldi.

  France and the Roman Republic.

In Rome the triumvirate decided to defend the republic to the last. The
city was quieter and more orderly than it had ever been before, for
Mazzini and Ciceruacchio successfully opposed all class warfare; and in
April the defenders received a priceless addition to their strength in
the person of Garibaldi, who, on the outbreak of the revolution in 1848,
had returned with a few of his followers from his exile in South
America, and in April 1849 entered Rome with some 500 men to fight for
the republic. At this time France, as a counterpoise to Austrian
intervention in other parts of Italy, decided to restore the pope,
regardless of the fact that this action would necessitate the crushing
of a sister republic. As yet, however, no such intention was publicly
avowed. On the 25th of April General Oudinot landed with 8000 men at
Civitavecchia, and on the 30th attempted to capture Rome by surprise,
but was completely defeated by Garibaldi, who might have driven the
French into the sea, had Mazzini allowed him to leave the city. The
French republican government, in order to gain time for reinforcements
to arrive, sent Ferdinand de Lesseps to pretend to treat with Mazzini,
the envoy himself not being a party to this deception. Mazzini refused
to allow the French into the city, but while the negotiations were being
dragged on Oudinot's force was increased to 35,000 men. At the same time
an Austrian army was marching through the Legations, and Neapolitan and
Spanish troops were advancing from the south. The Roman army (20,000
men) was commanded by General Rosselli, and included, besides
Garibaldi's red-shirted legionaries, volunteers from all parts of Italy,
mostly very young men, many of them wealthy and of noble family. The
Neapolitans were ignominiously beaten in May and retired to the
frontier; on the 1st of June Oudinot declared that he would attack Rome
on the 4th, but by beginning operations on the 3rd, when no attack was
expected, he captured an important position in the Pamphili gardens.

In spite of this success, however, it was not until the end of the
month, and after desperate fighting, that the French penetrated within
the walls and the defence ceased (June 29). The Assembly, which had
continued in session, was dispersed by the French troops on the 2nd of
July, but Mazzini escaped a week later. Garibaldi quitted the city,
followed by 4000 of his men, and attempted to join the defenders of
Venice. In spite of the fact that he was pursued by the armies of four
Powers, he succeeded in reaching San Marino; but his force melted away
and, after hiding in the marshes of Ravenna, he fled across the
peninsula, assisted by nobles, peasants and priests, to the Tuscan
coast, whence he reached Piedmont and eventually America, to await a new
call to fight for Italy (see GARIBALDI).


  Reduction of Venice by Austria.

After a heroic defence, conducted by Giuseppe Martinengo, Brescia was
recaptured in April by the Austrians under Lieut. Field-Marshal von
Haynau, the atrocities which followed earning for Haynau the name of
"The Hyena of Brescia." In May they seized Bologna, and Ancona in June,
restoring order in those towns by the same methods as at Brescia. Venice
alone still held out; after Novara the Piedmontese commissioners
withdrew and Manin again took charge of the government. The assembly
voted: "Venice resists the Austrians at all costs," and the citizens
and soldiers, strengthened by the arrival of volunteers from all parts
of Italy, including Pepe, who was given the chief command of the
defenders, showed the most splendid devotion in their hopeless task. By
the end of May the city was blockaded by land and sea, and in July the
bombardment began. On the 24th the city, reduced by famine, capitulated
on favourable terms. Manin, Pepe and a few others were excluded from the
amnesty and went into exile.

Thus were despotism and foreign predominance re-established throughout
Italy save in Piedmont. Yet the "terrible year" was by no means all
loss. The Italian cause had been crushed, but revolution and war had
strengthened the feeling of unity, for Neapolitans had fought for
Venice, Lombards for Rome, Piedmontese for all Italy. Piedmont was shown
to possess the qualities necessary to constitute the nucleus of a great
nation. It was now evident that the federal idea was impossible, for
none of the princes except Victor Emmanuel could be trusted, and that
unity and freedom could not be achieved under a republic, for nothing
could be done without the Piedmontese army, which was royalist to the
core. All reasonable men were now convinced that the question of the
ultimate form of the Italian government was secondary, and that the
national efforts should be concentrated on the task of expelling the
Austrians; the form of government could be decided afterwards. Liberals
were by no means inclined to despair of accomplishing this task; for
hatred of the foreigners, and of the despots restored by their bayonets,
had been deepened by the humiliations and cruelties suffered during the
war into a passion common to all Italy.


  Piedmont after the war.

  Cavour.

When the terms of the Austro-Piedmontese armistice were announced in the
Chamber at Turin they aroused great indignation, but the king succeeded
in convincing the deputies that they were inevitable. The peace
negotiations dragged on for several months, involving two changes of
ministry, and D'Azeglio became premier. Through Anglo-French mediation
Piedmont's war indemnity was reduced from 230,000,000 to 75,000,000
lire, but the question of the amnesty remained. The king declared
himself ready to go to war again if those compromised in the Lombard
revolution were not freely pardoned, and at last Austria agreed to
amnesty all save a very few, and in August the peace terms were agreed
upon. The Chamber, however, refused to ratify them, and it was not until
the king's eloquent appeal from Moncalieri to his people's loyalty, and
after a dissolution and the election of a new parliament, that the
treaty was ratified (January 9, 1850). The situation in Piedmont was far
from promising, the exchequer was empty, the army disorganized, the
country despondent and suspicious of the king. If Piedmont was to be
fitted for the part which optimists expected it to play, everything must
be built up anew. Legislation had to be entirely reformed, and the bill
for abolishing the special jurisdiction for the clergy (_foro
ecclesiastico_) and other medieval privileges aroused the bitter
opposition of the Vatican as well as of the Piedmontese clericals. This
same year (1850) Cavour, who had been in parliament for some time and
had in his speech of the 7th of March struck the first note of
encouragement after the gloom of Novara, became minister of agriculture,
and in 1851 also assumed the portfolio of finance. He ended by
dominating the cabinet, but owing to his having negotiated a union of
the Right Centre and the Left Centre (the _Connubio_) in the conviction
that the country needed the moderate elements of both parties, he
quarrelled with D'Azeglio (who, as an uncompromising conservative,
failed to see the value of such a move) and resigned. But D'Azeglio was
not equal to the situation, and he, too, resigned in November 1852;
whereupon the king appointed Cavour prime minister, a position which
with short intervals he held until his death.


  Austrian rule after 1849.

The Austrians in the period from 1849 to 1859, known as the _decennio
della resistenza_ (decade of resistance), were made to feel that they
were in a conquered country where they could have no social intercourse
with the people; for no self-respecting Lombard or Venetian would even
speak to an Austrian. Austria, on the other hand, treated her Italian
subjects with great severity. The Italian provinces were the most
heavily taxed in the whole empire, and much of the money thus levied was
spent either for the benefit of other provinces or to pay for the huge
army of occupation and the fortresses in Italy. The promise of a
constitution for the empire, made in 1849, was never carried out; the
government of Lombardo-Venetia was vested in Field-Marshal Radetzky; and
although only very few of the revolutionists were excluded from the
amnesty, the carrying of arms or the distribution or possession of
revolutionary literature was punished with death. Long terms of
imprisonment and the bastinado, the latter even inflicted on women, were
the penalties for the least expression of anti-Austrian opinion.

The Lombard republicans had been greatly weakened by the events of 1848,
but Mazzini still believed that a bold act by a few revolutionists would
make the people rise _en masse_ and expel the Austrians. A conspiracy,
planned with the object, among others, of kidnapping the emperor while
on a visit to Venice and forcing him to make concessions, was postponed
in consequence of the _coup d'état_ by which Louis Napoleon became
emperor of the French (1852); but a chance discovery led to a large
number of arrests, and the state trials at Mantua, conducted in the most
shamelessly inquisitorial manner, resulted in five death sentences,
including that of the priest Tazzoli, and many of imprisonment for long
terms. Even this did not convince Mazzini of the hopelessness of such
attempts, for he was out of touch with Italian public opinion, and he
greatly weakened his influence by favouring a crack-brained outbreak at
Milan on the 6th of February 1853, which was easily quelled, numbers of
the insurgents being executed or imprisoned. Radetzky, not satisfied
with this, laid an embargo on the property of many Lombard emigrants who
had settled in Piedmont and become naturalized, accusing them of
complicity. The Piedmontese government rightly regarded this measure as
a violation of the peace treaty of 1850, and Cavour recalled the
Piedmontese minister from Vienna, an action which was endorsed by
Italian public opinion generally, and won the approval of France and
England.

Cavour's ideal for the present was the expulsion of Austria from Italy
and the expansion of Piedmont into a north Italian kingdom; and,
although he did not yet think of Italian unity as a question of
practical policy, he began to foresee it as a future possibility. But in
reorganizing the shattered finances of the state and preparing it for
its greater destinies, he had to impose heavy taxes, which led to
rioting and involved the minister himself in considerable though
temporary unpopularity. His ecclesiastical legislation, too, met with
bitter opposition from the Church.


  Crimean War.

  Italy and the Congress of Paris, 1856.

But the question was soon forgotten in the turmoil caused by the Crimean
War. Cavour believed that by taking part in the war his country would
gain for itself a military status and a place in the councils of the
great Powers, and establish claims on Great Britain and France for the
realization of its Italian ambitions. One section of public opinion
desired to make Piedmont's co-operation subject to definite promises by
the Powers; but the latter refused to bind themselves, and both Victor
Emmanuel and Cavour realized that, even without such promises,
participation would give Piedmont a claim. There was also the danger
that Austria might join the allies first and Piedmont be left isolated;
but there were also strong arguments on the other side, for while the
Radical party saw no obvious reason why Piedmont should fight other
people's battles, and therefore opposed the alliance, there was the risk
that Austria might join the alliance together with Piedmont, which would
have constituted a disastrous situation. Da Bormida, the minister for
foreign affairs, resigned rather than agree to the proposal, and other
statesmen were equally opposed to it. But after long negotiations the
treaty of alliance was signed in January 1855, and while Austria
remained neutral, a well-equipped Piedmontese force of 15,000 men, under
General La Marmora, sailed for the Crimea. Everything turned out as
Cavour had hoped. The Piedmontese troops distinguished themselves in
the field, gaining the sympathies of the French and English; and at the
subsequent congress of Paris (1856), where Cavour himself was Sardinian
representative, the Italian question was discussed, and the intolerable
oppression of the Italian peoples by Austria and the despots ventilated.

Austria at last began to see that a policy of coercion was useless and
dangerous, and made tentative efforts at conciliation. Taxation was
somewhat reduced, the censorship was made less severe, political
amnesties were granted, humaner officials were appointed and the
Congregations (a sort of shadowy consultative assembly) were revived. In
1856 the emperor and empress visited their Italian dominions, but were
received with icy coldness; the following year, on the retirement of
Radetzky at the age of ninety-three, the archduke Maximilian, an able,
cultivated and kind-hearted man, was appointed viceroy. He made
desperate efforts to conciliate the population, and succeeded with a few
of the nobles, who were led to believe in the possibility of an Italian
confederation, including Lombardy and Venetia which would be united to
Austria by a personal union alone; but the immense majority of all
classes rejected these advances, and came to regard union with Piedmont
with increasing favour.[13]


  Restored governments after 1849.

  Persecution of Liberals in Naples.

Meanwhile Francis V. of Modena, restored to his duchy by Austrian
bayonets, continued to govern according to the traditions of his house.
Charles II. of Parma, after having been reinstated by the Austrians,
abdicated in favour of his son Charles III. a drunken libertine and a
cruel tyrant (May 1849); the latter was assassinated in 1854, and a
regency under his widow, Marie Louise, was instituted during which the
government became somewhat more tolerable, although by no means free
from political persecution; in 1857 the Austrian troops evacuated the
duchy. Leopold of Tuscany suspended the constitution, and in 1852
formally abolished it by order from Vienna; he also concluded a treaty
of semi-subjection with Austria and a Concordat with the pope for
granting fresh privileges to the Church. His government, however, was
not characterized by cruelty like those of his brother despots, and
Guerrazzi and the other Liberals of 1849, although tried and sentenced
to long terms of imprisonment, were merely exiled. Yet the opposition
gained recruits among all the ablest and most respectable Tuscans. In
Rome, after the restoration of the temporal power by the French troops,
the pope paid no attention to Louis Napoleon's advice to maintain some
form of constitution, to grant a general amnesty, and to secularize the
administration. He promised, indeed, a consultative council of state,
and granted an amnesty from which no less than 25,000 persons were
excluded; but on his return to Rome (12th April 1850), after he was
quite certain that France had given up all idea of imposing
constitutional limitations on him, he re-established his government on
the old lines of priestly absolutism, and, devoting himself to religious
practices, left political affairs mostly to the astute cardinal
Antonelli, who repressed with great severity the political agitation
which still continued. At Naples a trifling disturbance in September
1849, led to the arrest of a large number of persons connected with the
_Unità Italiana_, a society somewhat similar to the Carbonari. The
prisoners included Silvio Spaventa, Luigi Settembrini, Carlo Poerio and
many other cultured and worthy citizens. Many condemnations followed,
and hundreds of "politicals" were immured in hideous dungeons, a state
of things which provoked Gladstone's famous letters to Lord Aberdeen, in
which Bourbon rule was branded for all time as "the negation of God
erected into a system of government." But oppressive, corrupt and
inefficient as it was, the government was not confronted by the
uncompromising hostility of the whole people; the ignorant priest-ridden
masses were either indifferent or of mildly Bourbon sympathies; the
opposition was constituted by the educated middle classes and a part of
the nobility. The revolutionary attempts of Bentivegna in Sicily (1856)
and of the Mazzinian Carlo Pisacane, who landed at Sapri in Calabria
with a few followers in 1857, failed from lack of popular support, and
the leaders were killed.


  New Unionist movement.

  Napoleon III. and Italy.

The decline of Mazzini's influence was accompanied by the rise of a new
movement in favour of Italian unity under Victor Emmanuel, inspired by
the Milanese marquis Giorgio Pallavicini, who had spent 14 years in the
Spielberg, and by Manin, living in exile in Paris, both of them
ex-republicans who had become monarchists. The propaganda was organized
by the Sicilian La Farina by means of the _Società Nazionale_. All who
accepted the motto "Unity, Independence and Victor Emmanuel" were
admitted into the society. Many of the republicans and Mazzinians joined
it, but Mazzini himself regarded it with no sympathy. In the Austrian
provinces and in the duchies it carried all before it, and gained many
adherents in the Legations, Rome and Naples, although in the latter
regions the autonomist feeling was still strong even among the Liberals.
In Piedmont itself it was at first less successful; and Cavour, although
he aspired ultimately to a united Italy with Rome as the capital,[14]
openly professed no ambition beyond the expulsion of Austria and the
formation of a North Italian kingdom. But he gave secret encouragement
to the movement, and ended by practically directing its activity through
La Farina. The king, too, was in close sympathy with the society's aims,
but for the present it was necessary to hide this attitude from the eyes
of the Powers, whose sympathy Cavour could only hope to gain by
professing hostility to everything that savoured of revolution. Both the
king and his minister realized that Piedmont alone, even with the help
of the National Society, could not expel Austria from Italy without
foreign assistance. Piedmontese finances had been strained to
breaking-point to organize an army obviously intended for other than
merely defensive purposes. Cavour now set himself to the task of
isolating Austria and securing an alliance for her expulsion. A British
alliance would have been preferable, but the British government was too
much concerned with the preservation of European peace. The emperor
Napoleon, almost alone among Frenchmen, had genuine Italian sympathies.
But were he to intervene in Italy, the intervention would not only have
to be successful; it would have to bring tangible advantages to France.
Hence his hesitations and vacillations, which Cavour steadily worked to
overcome. Suddenly on the 14th of January 1858 Napoleon's life was
attempted by Felice Orsini (q.v.) a Mazzinian Romagnol, who believed
that Napoleon was the chief obstacle to the success of the revolution in
Italy. The attempt failed and its author was caught and executed, but
while it appeared at first to destroy Napoleon's Italian sympathies and
led to a sharp interchange of notes between Paris and Turin, the emperor
was really impressed by the attempt and by Orsini's letter from prison
exhorting him to intervene in Italy. He realized how deep the Italian
feeling for independence must be, and that a refusal to act now might
result in further attempts on his life, as indeed Orsini's letter
stated. Consequently negotiations with Cavour were resumed, and a
meeting with him was arranged to take place at Plombières (20th and 21st
of July 1858). There it was agreed that France should supply 200,000 men
and Piedmont 100,000 for the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy, that
Piedmont should be expanded into a kingdom of North Italy, that central
Italy should form a separate kingdom, on the throne of which the emperor
contemplated placing one of his own relatives, and Naples another,
possibly under Lucien Murat; the pope, while retaining only the
"Patrimony of St Peter" (the Roman province), would be president of the
Italian confederation. In exchange for French assistance Piedmont would
cede Savoy and perhaps Nice to France; and a marriage between Victor
Emmanuel's daughter Clothilde and Jerome Bonaparte, to which Napoleon
attached great importance, although not made a definite condition, was
also discussed. No written agreement, however, was signed.


  Italian war of 1859.

  Armistice of Villafranca.

On the 1st of January 1859, Napoleon astounded the diplomatic world by
remarking to Baron Hübner, the Austrian ambassador, at the New Year's
reception at the Tuileries, that he regretted that relations between
France and Austria were "not so good as they had been"; and at the
opening of the Piedmontese parliament on the 10th Victor Emmanuel
pronounced the memorable words that he could not be insensible to the
cry of pain (_il grido di dolore_) which reached him from all parts of
Italy. Yet after these warlike declarations and after the signing of a
military convention at Turin, the king agreeing to all the conditions
proposed by Napoleon, the latter suddenly became pacific again, and
adopted the Russian suggestion that Italian affairs should be settled by
a congress. Austria agreed on condition that Piedmont should disarm and
should not be admitted to the congress. Lord Malmesbury urged the
Sardinian government to yield; but Cavour refused to disarm, or to
accept the principle of a congress, unless Piedmont were admitted to it
on equal terms with the other Powers. As neither the Sardinian nor the
Austrian government seemed disposed to yield, the idea of a congress had
to be abandoned. Lord Malmesbury now proposed that all three Powers
should disarm simultaneously and that, as suggested by Austria, the
precedent of Laibach should be followed and all the Italian states
invited to plead their cause at the bar of the Great Powers. To this
course Napoleon consented, to the despair of King Victor Emmanuel and
Cavour, who saw in this a proof that he wished to back out of his
engagement and make war impossible. When war seemed imminent volunteers
from all parts of Italy, especially from Lombardy, had come pouring into
Piedmont to enrol themselves in the army or in the specially raised
volunteer corps (the command of which was given to Garibaldi), and "to
go to Piedmont" became a test of patriotism throughout the country.
Urged by a peremptory message from Napoleon, Cavour saw the necessity of
bowing to the will of Europe, of disbanding the volunteers and reducing
the army to a peace footing. The situation, however, was saved by a
false move on the part of Austria. At Vienna the war party was in the
ascendant; the convention for disarmament had been signed, but so far
from its being carried out, the reserves were actually called out on the
12th of April; and on the 23rd, before Cavour's decision was known at
Vienna, an Austrian ultimatum reached Turin, summoning Piedmont to
disarm within three days on pain of invasion. Cavour was filled with joy
at the turn affairs had taken, for Austria now appeared as the
aggressor. On the 29th Francis Joseph declared war, and the next day his
troops crossed the Ticino, a move which was followed, as Napoleon had
stated it would be, by a French declaration of war. The military events
of the Italian war of 1859 are described under ITALIAN WARS. The actions
of Montebello (May 20), Palestro (May 31) and Melegnano (June 8) and the
battles of Magenta (June 4) and Solferino (June 24) all went against the
Austrians. Garibaldi's volunteers raised the standard of insurrection
and held the field in the region of the Italian lakes. After Solferino
the allies prepared to besiege the Quadrilateral. Then Napoleon suddenly
drew back, unwilling, for many reasons, to continue the campaign.
Firstly, he doubted whether the allies were strong enough to attack the
Quadrilateral, for he saw the defects of his own army's organization;
secondly, he began to fear intervention by Prussia, whose attitude
appeared menacing; thirdly, although really anxious to expel the
Austrians from Italy, he did not wish to create a too powerful Italian
state at the foot of the Alps, which, besides constituting a potential
danger to France, might threaten the pope's temporal power, and Napoleon
believed that he could not stand without the clerical vote; fourthly,
the war had been declared against the wishes of the great majority of
Frenchmen and was even now far from popular. Consequently, to the
surprise of all Europe, while the allied forces were drawn up ready for
battle, Napoleon, without consulting Victor Emmanuel, sent General
Fleury on the 6th of July to Francis Joseph to ask for an armistice,
which was agreed to. The king was now informed, and on the 8th Generals
Vaillant, Della Rocca and Hess met at Villafranca and arranged an
armistice until the 15th of August. But the king and Cavour were
terribly upset by this move, which meant peace without Venetia; Cavour
hurried to the king's headquarters at Monzambano and in excited, almost
disrespectful, language implored him not to agree to peace and to
continue the war alone, relying on the Piedmontese army and a general
Italian revolution. But Victor Emmanuel on this occasion proved the
greater statesman of the two; he understood that, hard as it was, he
must content himself with Lombardy for the present, lest all be lost. On
the 11th the two emperors met at Villafranca, where they agreed that
Lombardy should be ceded to Piedmont, and Venetia retained by Austria
but governed by Liberal methods; that the rulers of Tuscany, Parma and
Modena, who had been again deposed, should be restored, the Papal States
reformed, the Legations given a separate administration and the pope
made president of an Italian confederation including Austria as mistress
of Venetia. It was a revival of the old impossible federal idea, which
would have left Italy divided and dominated by Austria and France.
Victor Emmanuel regretfully signed the peace preliminaries, adding,
however, _pour ce qui me concerne_ (which meant that he made no
undertaking with regard to central Italy), and Cavour resigned office.


  Unionist movements in Central Italy.

The Lombard campaign had produced important effects throughout the rest
of Italy. The Sardinian government had formally invited that of Tuscany
to participate in the war of liberation, and on the grand-duke rejecting
the proposal, moderates and democrats combined to present an ultimatum
to Leopold demanding that he should abdicate in favour of his son, grant
a constitution and take part in the campaign. On his refusal Florence
rose as one man, and he, feeling that he could not rely on his troops,
abandoned Tuscany on the 27th of April 1859. A provisional government
was formed, led by Ubaldino Peruzzi, and was strengthened on the 8th of
May by the inclusion of Baron Bettino Ricasoli, a man of great force of
character, who became the real head of the administration, and all
through the ensuing critical period aimed unswervingly at Italian unity.
Victor Emmanuel, at the request of the people, assumed the protectorate
over Tuscany, where he was represented by the Sardinian minister
Boncompagni. On the 23rd of May Prince Napoleon, with a French army
corps, landed at Leghorn, his avowed object being to threaten the
Austrian flank;[15] and in June these troops, together with a Tuscan
contingent, departed for Lombardy. In the duchy of Modena an
insurrection had broken out, and after Magenta Duke Francis joined the
Austrian army in Lombardy, leaving a regency in charge. But on the 14th
of June the municipality formed a provisional government and proclaimed
annexation to Piedmont; L. C. Farini was chosen dictator, and 4000
Modenese joined the allies. The duchess-regent of Parma also withdrew to
Austrian territory, and on the 11th of June annexation to Piedmont was
proclaimed. At the same time the Austrians evacuated the Legations and
Cardinal Milesi, the papal representative, departed. The municipality of
Bologna formed a _Giunta_, to which Romagna and the Marches adhered, and
invoked the dictatorship of Victor Emmanuel; at Perugia, too, a
provisional government was constituted under F. Guardabassi. But the
Marches were soon reoccupied by pontifical troops, and Perugia fell, its
capture being followed by an indiscriminate massacre of men, women and
children. In July the marquis D'Azeglio arrived at Bologna as royal
commissioner.

After the meetings at Villafranca Napoleon returned to France. The
question of the cession of Nice and Savoy had not been raised; for the
emperor had not fulfilled his part of the bargain, that he would drive
the Austrians out of Italy, since Venice was yet to be freed. At the
same time he was resolutely opposed to the Piedmontese annexations in
central Italy. But here Cavour intervened, for he was determined to
maintain the annexations, at all costs. Although he had resigned, he
remained in office until Rattazzi could form a new ministry; and while
officially recalling the royal commissioners according to the
preliminaries of Villafranca, he privately encouraged them to remain and
organize resistance to the return of the despots, if necessary by force
(see CAVOUR). Farini, who in August was elected dictator of Parma as
well as Modena, and Ricasoli, who since, on the withdrawal of the
Sardinian commissioner Boncompagni, had become supreme in Tuscany, were
now the men who by their energy and determination achieved the
annexation of central Italy to Piedmont, in spite of the strenuous
opposition of the French emperor and the weakness of many Italian
Liberals. In August Marco Minghetti succeeded in forming a military
league and a customs union between Tuscany, Romagna and the duchies, and
in procuring the adoption of the Piedmontese codes; and envoys were sent
to Paris to mollify Napoleon. Constituent assemblies met and voted for
unity under Victor Emmanuel, but the king could not openly accept the
proposal owing to the emperor's opposition, backed by the presence of
French armies in Lombardy; at a word from Napoleon there might have been
an Austrian, and perhaps a Franco-Austrian, invasion of central Italy.
But to Napoleon's statement that he could not agree to the unification
of Italy, as he was bound by his promises to Austria at Villafranca,
Victor Emmanuel replied that he himself, after Magenta and Solferino,
was bound in honour to link his fate with that of the Italian people;
and General Manfredo Fanti was sent by the Turin government to organize
the army of the Central League, with Garibaldi under him.


  Treaty of Zürich.

The terms of the treaty of peace signed at Zürich on the 10th of
November were practically identical with those of the preliminaries of
Villafranca. It was soon evident, however, that the Italian question was
far from being settled. Central Italy refused to be bound by the treaty,
and offered the dictatorship to Prince Carignano, who, himself unable to
accept owing to Napoleon's opposition, suggested Boncompagni, who was
accordingly elected. Napoleon now realized that it would be impossible,
without running serious risks, to oppose the movement in favour of
unity. He suggested an international congress on the question; inspired
a pamphlet, _Le Pape et le Congrès_, which proposed a reduction of the
papal territory, and wrote to the pope advising him to cede Romagna in
order to obtain better guarantees for the rest of his dominions. The
proposed congress fell through, and Napoleon thereupon raised the
question of the cession of Nice and Savoy as the price of his consent to
the union of the central provinces with the Italian kingdom. In January
1866 the Rattazzi ministry fell, after completing the fusion of Lombardy
with Piedmont, and Cavour was again summoned by the king to the head of
affairs.

Cavour well knew the unpopularity that would fall upon him by consenting
to the cession of Nice, the birthplace of Garibaldi, and Savoy, the
cradle of the royal house; but he realized the necessity of the
sacrifice, if central Italy was to be won. The negotiations were long
drawn out; for Cavour struggled to save Nice and Napoleon was anxious to
make conditions, especially as regards Tuscany. At last, on the 24th of
March, the treaty was signed whereby the cession was agreed upon, but
subject to the vote of the populations concerned and ratification by the
Italian parliament. The king having formally accepted the voluntary
annexation of the duchies, Tuscany and Romagna, appointed the prince of
Carignano viceroy with Ricasoli as governor-general (22nd of March), and
was immediately afterwards excommunicated by the pope. On the 2nd of
April 1860 the new Italian parliament, including members from central
Italy, assembled at Turin. Three weeks later the treaty of Turin ceding
Savoy and Nice to France was ratified, though not without much
opposition, and Cavour was fiercely reviled for his share in the
transaction, especially by Garibaldi, who even contemplated an
expedition to Nice, but was induced to desist by the king.


  Naples under Francis II.

In May 1859 Ferdinand of Naples was succeeded by his son Francis II.,
who gave no signs of any intention to change his father's policy, and,
in spite of Napoleon's advice, refused to grant a constitution or to
enter into an alliance with Sardinia. The result was a revolutionary
agitation which in Sicily, stirred up by Mazzini's agents, Rosalino Pilo
and Francesco Crispi, culminated, on the 5th of April 1860, in open
revolt. An invitation had been sent Garibaldi to put himself at the head
of the movement; at first he had refused, but reports of the progress of
the insurrection soon determined him to risk all on a bold stroke, and
on the 5th of May he embarked at Quarto, near Genoa, with Bixio, the
Hungarian Türr and some 1000 picked followers, on two steamers. The
preparations for the expedition, openly made, were viewed by Cavour with
mixed feelings. With its object he sympathized; yet he could not give
official sanction to an armed attack on a friendly power, nor on the
other hand could he forbid an action enthusiastically approved by public
opinion. He accordingly directed the Sardinian admiral Persano only to
arrest the expedition should it touch at a Sardinian port; while in
reply to the indignant protests of the continental powers he disclaimed
all knowledge of the affair. On the 11th Garibaldi landed at Marsala,
without opposition, defeated the Neapolitan forces at Calatafimi on the
15th, and on the 27th entered Palermo in triumph, where he proclaimed
himself, in King Victor Emmanuel's name, dictator of Sicily. By the end
of July, after the hard-won victory of Milazzo, the whole island, with
the exception of the citadel of Messina and a few unimportant ports, was
in his hands.

From Cavour's point of view, the situation was now one of extreme
anxiety. It was certain that, his work in Sicily done, Garibaldi would
turn his attention to the Neapolitan dominions on the mainland; and
beyond these lay Umbria and the Marches and--Rome. It was all-important
that whatever victories Garibaldi might win should be won for the
Italian kingdom, and, above all, that no ill-timed attack on the Papal
States should provoke an intervention of the powers. La Farina was
accordingly sent to Palermo to urge the immediate annexation of Sicily
to Piedmont. But Garibaldi, who wished to keep a free hand, distrusted
Cavour and scorned all counsels of expediency, refused to agree; Sicily
was the necessary base for his projected invasion of Naples; it would be
time enough to announce its union with Piedmont when Victor Emmanuel had
been proclaimed king of United Italy in Rome. Foiled by the dictator's
stubbornness, Cavour had once more to take to underhand methods; and,
while continuing futile negotiations with King Francis, sent his agents
into Naples to stir up disaffection and create a sentiment in favour of
national unity strong enough, in any event, to force Garibaldi's hand.


  Garibaldi in Naples.

On the 8th of August, in spite of the protests and threats of most of
the powers, the Garibaldians began to cross the Straits, and in a short
time 20,000 of them were on the mainland. The Bourbonists in Calabria,
utterly disorganized, broke before the invincible red-shirts, and the
40,000 men defending the Salerno-Avellino line made no better
resistance, being eventually ordered to fall back on the Volturno. On
the 6th of September King Francis, with his family and several of the
ministers, sailed for Gaeta, and the next day Garibaldi entered Naples
alone in advance of the army, and was enthusiastically welcomed. He
proclaimed himself dictator of the kingdom, with Bertani as secretary of
state, but as a proof of his loyalty he consigned the Neapolitan fleet
to Persano.


  Intervention of Piedmont.

His rapid success, meanwhile, inspired both the French emperor and the
government of Turin with misgivings. There was a danger that Garibaldi's
_entourage_, composed of ex-Mazzinians, might induce him to proclaim a
republic and march on Rome; which would have meant French intervention
and the undoing of all Cavour's work. King Victor Emmanuel and Cavour
both wrote to Garibaldi urging him not to spoil all by aiming at too
much. But Garibaldi poured scorn on all suggestions of compromise; and
Cavour saw that the situation could only be saved by the armed
participation of Piedmont in the liberation of south Italy.

The situation was, indeed, sufficiently critical. The unrest in Naples
had spread into Umbria and the Marches, and the papal troops, under
General Lamoricière, were preparing to suppress it. Had they succeeded,
the position of the Piedmontese in Romagna would have been imperilled;
had they failed, the road would have been open for Garibaldi to march on
Rome. In the circumstances, Cavour decided that Piedmont must anticipate
Garibaldi, occupy Umbria and the Marches and place Italy between the
red-shirts and Rome. His excuse was the pope's refusal to dismiss his
foreign levies (September 7). On the 11th of September a Piedmontese
army of 35,000 men crossed the frontier at La Cattolica; on the 18th the
pontifical army was crushed at Castelfidardo; and when, on the 29th,
Ancona fell, Umbria and the Marches were in the power of Piedmont. On
the 15th of October King Victor Emmanuel crossed the Neapolitan border
at the head of his troops.

It had been a race between Garibaldi and the Piedmontese. "If we do not
arrive at the Volturno before Garibaldi reaches La Cattolica," Cavour
had said, "the monarchy is lost, and Italy will remain in the
prison-house of the Revolution."[16] Fortunately for his policy, the
red-shirts had encountered a formidable obstacle to their advance in the
Neapolitan army entrenched on the Volturno under the guns of Capua. On
the 19th of September the Garibaldians began their attack on this
position with their usual impetuous valour; but they were repulsed again
and again, and it was not till the 2nd of October, after a two days'
pitched battle, that they succeeded in carrying the position. The way
was now open for the advance of the Piedmontese, who, save at Isernia,
encountered practically no resistance. On the 29th Victor Emmanuel and
Garibaldi met, and on the 7th of November they entered Naples together.
Garibaldi now resigned his authority into the king's hands and, refusing
the title and other honours offered to him, retired to his island home
of Caprera.[17]


  Recognition of the united kingdom of Italy.

Gaeta remained still to be taken. The Piedmontese under Cialdini had
begun the siege on the 5th of November, but it was not until the 10th of
January 1861, when at the instance of Great Britain Napoleon withdrew
his squadron, that the blockade could be made complete. On the 13th of
February the fortress surrendered, Francis and his family having
departed by sea for papal territory. The citadel of Messina capitulated
on the 22nd, and Civitella del Tronto, the last stronghold of
Bourbonism, on the 21st of March. On the 18th of February the first
Italian parliament met at Turin, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king
of Italy. The new kingdom was recognized by Great Britain within a
fortnight, by France three months later, and subsequently by other
powers. It included the whole peninsula except Venetia and Rome, and
these the government and the nation were determined to annex sooner or
later.


    Problems of the new government.

    Brigandage.

  There were, however, other serious problems calling for immediate
  attention. The country had to be built up and converted from an
  agglomeration of scattered medieval principalities into a unified
  modern nation. The first question which arose was that of brigandage
  in the south. Brigandage had always existed in the Neapolitan kingdom,
  largely owing to the poverty of the people; but the evil was now
  aggravated by the mistake of the new government in dismissing the
  Bourbon troops, and then calling them out again as recruits. A great
  many turned brigands rather than serve again, and together with the
  remaining adherents of Bourbon rule and malefactors of all kinds, were
  made use of by the ex-king and his _entourage_ to harass the Italian
  administration. Bands of desperadoes were formed, commanded by the
  most infamous criminals and by foreigners who came to fight in what
  they were led to believe was an Italian _Vendée_, but which was in
  reality a campaign of butchery and plunder. Villages were sacked and
  burnt, men, women and children mutilated, tortured or roasted alive,
  and women outraged. The authors of these deeds when pursued by troops
  fled into papal territory, where they were welcomed by the authorities
  and allowed to refit and raise fresh recruits under the aegis of the
  Church. The prime organizers of the movement were King Francis's
  uncle, the count of Trapani, and Mons. de Mérode, a Belgian
  ecclesiastic who enjoyed immense influence at the Vatican. The task
  of suppressing brigandage was entrusted to Generals La Marmora and
  Cialdini; but in spite of extreme severity, justifiable in the
  circumstances, it took four or five years completely to suppress the
  movement. Its vitality, indeed, was largely due to the mistakes made
  by the new administration, conducted as this was by officials ignorant
  of southern conditions and out of sympathy with a people far more
  primitive than in any other part of the peninsula. Politically, its
  sole outcome was to prove the impossibility of allowing the
  continuance of an independent Roman state in the heart of Italy.


    Garibaldi's volunteers.

  Another of the government's difficulties was the question of what to
  do with Garibaldi's volunteers. Fanti, the minister of war, had three
  armies to incorporate in that of Piedmont, viz. that of central Italy,
  that of the Bourbons and that of Garibaldi. The first caused no
  difficulty; the rank and file of the second were mostly disbanded, but
  a number of the officers were taken into the Italian army; the third
  offered a more serious problem. Garibaldi demanded that all his
  officers should be given equivalent rank in the Italian army, and in
  this he had the support of Fanti. Cavour, on the other hand, while
  anxious to deal generously with the Garibaldians, recognized the
  impossibility of such a course, which would not only have offended the
  conservative spirit of the Piedmontese military caste, which disliked
  and despised irregular troops, but would almost certainly have
  introduced into the army an element of indiscipline and disorder.


  Death of Cavour.

On the 18th of April the question of the volunteers was discussed in one
of the most dramatic sittings of the Italian parliament. Garibaldi,
elected member for Naples, denounced Cavour in unmeasured terms for his
treatment of the volunteers and for the cession of Nice, accusing him of
leading the country to civil war. These charges produced a tremendous
uproar, but Bixio by a splendid appeal for concord succeeded in calming
the two adversaries. On the 23rd of April they were formally reconciled
in the presence of the king, but the scene of the 18th of April hastened
Cavour's end. In May the Roman question was discussed in parliament.
Cavour had often declared that in the end the capital of Italy must be
Rome, for it alone of all Italian cities had an unquestioned claim to
moral supremacy, and his views of a free church in a free state were
well known. He had negotiated secretly with the pope through unofficial
agents, and sketched out a scheme of settlement of the Roman question,
which foreshadowed in its main features the law of papal guarantees. But
it was not given him to see this problem solved, for his health was
broken by the strain of the last few years, during which practically the
whole administration of the country was concentrated in his hands. He
died after a short illness on the 6th of June 1861, at a moment when
Italy had the greatest need of his statesmanship.


  Ricasoli Ministry. Financial difficulties.

  Rattazzi Ministry.

  Garibaldi and Rome. Affair of Aspromonte, 1862.

  Minghetti Ministry.

Ricasoli now became prime minister, Cavour having advised the king to
that effect. The financial situation was far from brilliant, for the
expenses of the administration of Italy were far larger than the total
of those of all the separate states, and everything had to be created or
rebuilt. The budget of 1861 showed a deficit of 344,000,000 lire, while
the service of the debt was 110,000,000; deficits were met by new loans
issued on unfavourable terms (that of July 1861 for 500,000,000 lire
cost the government 714,833,000), and government stock fell as low as
36. It was now that the period of reckless finance began which, save for
a lucid interval under Sella, was to last until nearly the end of the
century. Considering the state of the country and the coming war for
Venice, heavy expenditure was inevitable, but good management might have
rendered the situation less dangerous. Ricasoli, honest and capable as
he was, failed to win popularity; his attitude on the Roman question,
which became more uncompromising after the failure of his attempt at
conciliation, and his desire to emancipate Italy from French
predominance, brought down on him the hostility of Napoleon. He fell in
March 1862, and was succeeded by Rattazzi, who being more pliable and
intriguing managed at first to please everybody, including Garibaldi. At
this time the extremists and even the moderates were full of schemes for
liberating Venice and Rome. Garibaldi had a plan, with which the premier
was connected, for attacking Austria by raising a revolt in the Balkans
and Hungary, and later he contemplated a raid into the Trentino; but
the government, seeing the danger of such an attempt, arrested several
Garibaldians at Sarnico (near Brescia), and in the _émeute_ which
followed several persons were shot. Garibaldi now became an opponent of
the ministry, and in June went to Sicily, where, after taking counsel
with his former followers, he decided on an immediate raid on Rome. He
summoned his legionaries, and in August crossed over to Calabria with
1000 men. His intentions in the main were still loyal, for he desired to
capture Rome for the kingdom; and he did his best to avoid the regulars
tardily sent against him. On the 29th of August 1862, however, he
encountered a force under Pallavicini at Aspromonte, and, although
Garibaldi ordered his men not to fire, some of the raw Sicilian
volunteers discharged a few volleys which were returned by the regulars.
Garibaldi himself was seriously wounded and taken prisoner. He was shut
up in the fortress of Varignano, and after endless discussions as to
whether he should be tried or not, the question was settled by an
amnesty. The affair made the ministry so unpopular that it was forced to
resign. Farini, who succeeded, retired almost at once on account of
ill-health, and Minghetti became premier, with Visconti-Venosta as
minister for foreign affairs. The financial situation continued to be
seriously embarrassing; deficit was piled on deficit, loan upon loan,
and the service of the debt rose from 90,000,000 lire in 1860 to
220,000,000 in 1864.


  France, Italy and the Roman question.

  Capital transferred to Florence, 1865.

  La Marmora Ministry.

Negotiations were resumed with Napoleon for the evacuation of Rome by
the French troops; but the emperor, though he saw that the temporal
power could not for ever be supported by French bayonets, desired some
guarantee that the evacuation should not be followed, at all events
immediately, by an Italian occupation, lest Catholic opinion should lay
the blame for this upon France. Ultimately the two governments concluded
a convention on the 15th of September 1864, whereby France agreed to
withdraw her troops from Rome so soon as the papal army should be
reorganized, or at the outside within two years, Italy undertaking not
to attack it nor permit others to do so, and to transfer the capital
from Turin to some other city within six months.[18] The change of
capital would have the appearance of a definite abandonment of the _Roma
capitale_ programme, although in reality it was to be merely a _tappa_
(stage) on the way. The convention was kept secret, but the last clause
leaked out and caused the bitterest feeling among the people of Turin,
who would have been resigned to losing the capital provided it were
transferred to Rome, but resented the fact that it was to be established
in any other city, and that the convention was made without consulting
parliament. Demonstrations were held which were repressed with
unnecessary violence, and although the change of capital was not
unpopular in the rest of Italy, where the _Piemontesismo_ of the new
régime was beginning to arouse jealousy, the secrecy with which the
affair was arranged and the shooting down of the people in Turin raised
such a storm of disapproval that the king for the first time used his
privilege of dismissing the ministry. Under La Marmora's administration
the September convention was ratified, and the capital was transferred
to Florence the following year. This affair resulted in an important
political change, for the Piedmontese deputies, hitherto the bulwarks of
moderate conservatism, now shifted to the Left or constitutional
opposition.


  Venetian question.

  Prusso-Italian Alliance of 1866.

Meanwhile, the Venetian question was becoming more and more acute. Every
Italian felt the presence of the Austrians in the lagoons as a national
humiliation, and between 1859 and 1866 countless plots were hatched for
their expulsion. But, in spite of the sympathy of the king, the attempt
to raise armed bands in Venetia had no success, and it became clear that
the foreigner could only be driven from the peninsula by regular war. To
wage this alone Italy was still too weak, and it was necessary to look
round for an ally. Napoleon was sympathetic; he desired to see the
Austrians expelled, and the Syllabus of Pius IX., which had stirred up
the more aggressive elements among the French clergy against his
government, had brought him once more into harmony with the views of
Victor Emmanuel; but he dared not brave French public opinion by another
war with Austria, nor did Italy desire an alliance which would only have
been bought at the price of further cessions. There remained Prussia,
which, now that the Danish campaign of 1864 was over, was completing her
preparations for the final struggle with Austria for the hegemony of
Germany; and Napoleon, who saw in the furthering of Bismarck's plans the
surest means of securing his own influence in a divided Europe,
willingly lent his aid in negotiating a Prusso-Italian alliance. In the
summer of 1865 Bismarck made formal proposals to La Marmora; but the
_pourparlers_ were interrupted by the conclusion of the convention of
Gastein (August 14), to which Austria agreed partly under pressure of
the Prusso-Italian _entente_. To Italy the convention seemed like a
betrayal; to Napoleon it was a set-back which he tried to retrieve by
suggesting to Austria the peaceful cession of Venetia to the Italian
kingdom, in order to prevent any danger of its alliance with Prussia.
This proposal broke on the refusal of the emperor Francis Joseph to cede
Austrian territory except as the result of a struggle; and Napoleon, won
over by Bismarck at the famous interview at Biarritz, once more took up
the idea of a Prusso-Italian offensive and defensive alliance. This was
actually concluded on the 8th of April 1866. Its terms, dictated by a
natural suspicion on the part of the Italian government, stipulated that
it should only become effective in the event of Prussia declaring war on
Austria within three months. Peace was not to be concluded until Italy
should have received Venetia, and Prussia an equivalent territory in
Germany.

The outbreak of war was postponed by further diplomatic complications.
On the 12th of June Napoleon, whose policy throughout had been obscure
and contradictory, signed a secret treaty with Austria, under which
Venice was to be handed over to him, to be given to Italy in the event
of her making a separate peace. La Marmora, however, who believed
himself bound in honour to Prussia, refused to enter into a separate
arrangement. On the 16th the Prussians began hostilities, and on the
20th Italy declared war.


  Ricasoli Ministry.

  Battle of Königgrätz.

Victor Emmanuel took the supreme command of the Italian army, and La
Marmora resigned the premiership (which was assumed by Ricasoli), to
become chief of the staff. La Marmora had three army corps (130,000 men)
under his immediate command, to operate on the Mincio, while Cialdini
with 80,000 men was to operate on the Po. The Austrian southern army
consisting of 95,000 men was commanded by the archduke Albert, with
General von John as chief of the staff. On the 23rd of June La Marmora
crossed the Mincio, and on the 24th a battle was fought at Custozza,
under circumstances highly disadvantageous to the Italians, which after
a stubborn contest ended in a crushing Austrian victory. Bad
generalship, bad organization and the jealousy between La Marmora and
Della Rocca were responsible for this defeat. Custozza might have been
afterwards retrieved, for the Italians had plenty of fresh troops
besides Cialdini's army; but nothing was done, as both the king and La
Marmora believed the situation to be much worse than it actually was. On
the 3rd of July the Prussians completely defeated the Austrians at
Königgrätz, and on the 5th Austria ceded Venetia to Napoleon, accepting
his mediation in favour of peace. The Italian iron-clad fleet commanded
by the incapable Persano, after wasting much time at Taranto and Ancona,
made an unsuccessful attack on the Dalmatian island of Lissa on the 18th
of July, and on the 20th was completely defeated by the Austrian
squadron, consisting of wooden ships, but commanded by the capable
Admiral Tegethoff.


  Venice united to Italy.

On the 22nd Prussia, without consulting Italy, made an armistice with
Austria, while Italy obtained an eight days' truce on condition of
evacuating the Trentino, which had almost entirely fallen into the
hands of Garibaldi and his volunteers. Ricasoli wished to go on with the
war, rather than accept Venetia as a gift from France; but the king and
La Marmora saw that peace must be made, as the whole Austrian army of
350,000 men was now free to fall on Italy. An armistice was accordingly
signed at Cormons on the 12th of August; Austria handed Venetia over to
General Leboeuf, representing Napoleon; and on the 3rd of October peace
between Austria and Italy was concluded at Vienna. On the 19th Leboeuf
handed Venetia over to the Venetian representatives, and at the
plebiscite held on the 21st and 22nd, 647,246 votes were returned in
favour of union with Italy, only 69 against it. When this result was
announced to the king by a deputation from Venice he said: "This is the
finest day of my life; Italy is made, but it is not complete." Rome was
still wanting.


  Revolt in Sicily, 1866.

  Rattazzi Ministry.

  Garibaldi attacks Rome.

  Menabrea Ministry.

  Battle of Mentana.

Custozza and Lissa were not Italy's only misfortunes in 1866. There had
been considerable discontent in Sicily, where the government had made
itself unpopular. The priesthood and the remnants of the Bourbon party
fomented an agitation, which in September culminated in an attack on
Palermo by 3000 armed insurgents, and in similar outbreaks elsewhere.
The revolt was put down owing to the energy of the mayor of Palermo,
Marquis A. Di Rudini, and the arrival of reinforcements. The Ricasoli
cabinet fell over the law against the religious houses, and was
succeeded by that of Rattazzi, who with the support of the Left was
apparently more fortunate. The French regular troops were withdrawn from
Rome in December 1866; but the pontifical forces were largely recruited
in France and commanded by officers of the imperial army, and service
under the pope was considered by the French war office as equivalent to
service in France. This was a violation of the letter as well as of the
spirit of the September convention, and a stronger and more
straightforward statesman than Rattazzi would have declared Italy
absolved from its provisions. Mazzini now wanted to promote an
insurrection in Roman territory, whereas Garibaldi advocated an invasion
from without. He delivered a series of violent speeches against the
papacy, and made open preparations for a raid, which were not interfered
with by the government; but on the 23rd of September 1867 Rattazzi had
him suddenly arrested and confined to Caprera. In spite of the vigilance
of the warships he escaped on the 14th of October and landed in Tuscany.
Armed bands had already entered papal territory, but achieved nothing in
particular. Their presence, however, was a sufficient excuse for
Napoleon, under pressure of the clerical party, to send another
expedition to Rome (26th of October). Rattazzi, after ordering a body of
troops to enter papal territory with no definite object, now resigned,
and was succeeded by Menabrea. Garibaldi joined the bands on the 23rd,
but his ill-armed and ill-disciplined force was very inferior to his
volunteers of '49, '60 and '66. On the 24th he captured Monte Rotondo,
but did not enter Rome as the expected insurrection had not broken out.
On the 29th a French force, under de Failly, arrived, and on the 3rd of
November a battle took place at Mentana between 4000 or 5000 red-shirts
and a somewhat superior force of French and pontificals. The
Garibaldians, mowed down by the new French _chassepôt_ rifles, fought
until their last cartridges were exhausted, and retreated the next day
towards the Italian frontier, leaving 800 prisoners.


  Lanza Ministry.

The affair of Mentana caused considerable excitement throughout Europe,
and the Roman question entered on an acute stage. Napoleon suggested his
favourite expedient of a congress but the proposal broke down owing to
Great Britain's refusal to participate; and Rouher, the French premier,
declared in the Chamber (5th of December 1867) that France could never
permit the Italians to occupy Rome. The attitude of France strengthened
that anti-French feeling in Italy which had begun with Villafranca; and
Bismarck was not slow to make use of this hostility, with a view to
preventing Italy from taking sides with France against Germany in the
struggle between the two powers which he saw to be inevitable. At the
same time Napoleon was making overtures both to Austria and to Italy,
overtures which were favourably received. Victor Emmanuel was sincerely
anxious to assist Napoleon, for in spite of Nice and Savoy and Mentana
he felt a chivalrous desire to help the man who had fought for Italy.
But with the French at Civitavecchia (they had left Rome very soon after
Mentana) a war for France was not to be thought of, and Napoleon would
not promise more than the literal observance of the September
convention. Austria would not join France unless Italy did the same, and
she realized that that was impossible unless Napoleon gave way about
Rome. Consequently the negotiations were suspended. A scandal concerning
the tobacco monopoly led to the fall of Menabrea, who was succeeded in
December 1869 by Giovanni Lanza, with Visconti-Venosta at the foreign
office and Q. Sella as finance minister. The latter introduced a sounder
financial policy, which was maintained until the fall of the Right in
1876. Mazzini, now openly hostile to the monarchy, was seized with a
perfect monomania for insurrections, and promoted various small risings,
the only effect of which was to show how completely his influence was
gone.


  Italian occupation of Rome.

In December 1869 the XXI. oecumenical council began its sittings in
Rome, and on the 18th of July 1870 proclaimed the infallibility of the
pope (see VATICAN COUNCIL). Two days previously Napoleon had declared
war on Prussia, and immediately afterwards he withdrew his troops from
Civitavecchia; but he persuaded Lanza to promise to abide by the
September convention, and it was not until after Worth and Gravelotte
that he offered to give Italy a free hand to occupy Rome. Then it was
too late; Victor Emmanuel asked Thiers if he could give his word of
honour that with 100,000 Italian troops France could be saved, but
Thiers remained silent. Austria replied like Italy: "It is too late." On
the 9th of August Italy made a declaration of neutrality, and three
weeks later Visconti-Venosta informed the powers that Italy was about to
occupy Rome. On the 3rd of September the news of Sédan reached Florence,
and with the fall of Napoleon's empire the September convention ceased
to have any value. The powers having engaged to abstain from
intervention in Italian affairs, Victor Emmanuel addressed a letter to
Pius IX. asking him in the name of religion and peace to accept Italian
protection instead of the temporal power, to which the pope replied that
he would only yield to force. On the 11th of September General Cadorna
at the head of 60,000 men entered papal territory. The garrison of
Civitavecchia surrendered to Bixio, but the 10,000 men in Rome, mostly
French, Belgians, Swiss and Bavarians, under Kanzler, were ready to
fight. Cardinal Antonelli would have come to terms, but the pope decided
on making a sufficient show of resistance to prove that he was yielding
to force. On the 20th the Italians began the attack, and General Mazé de
la Roche's division having effected a breach in the Porta Pia, the pope
ordered the garrison to cease fire and the Italians poured into the
Eternal City followed by thousands of Roman exiles. By noon the whole
city on the left of the Tiber was occupied and the garrison laid down
their arms; the next day, at the pope's request, the Leonine City on the
right bank was also occupied. It had been intended to leave that part of
Rome to the pope, but by the earnest desire of the inhabitants it too
was included in the Italian kingdom. At the plebiscite there were
133,681 votes for union and 1507 against it. In July 1872 King Victor
Emmanuel made his solemn entry into Rome, which was then declared the
capital of Italy. Thus, after a struggle of more than half a century, in
spite of apparently insuperable obstacles, the liberation and the unity
of Italy were accomplished.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A vast amount of material on the Risorgimento has been
  published both in Italy and abroad as well as numerous works of a
  literary and critical nature. The most detailed Italian history of the
  period is Carlo Tivaroni's _Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano_
  in 9 vols. (Turin, 1888-1897), based on a diligent study of the
  original authorities and containing a large amount of information; the
  author is a Mazzinian, which fact should be taken into account, but
  he generally quotes the opinions of those who disagree with him as
  well. Another voluminous but less valuable work is F. Bertolini's
  _Storia d'Italia dal 1814 al 1878_, in 2 parts (Milan, 1880-1881.) L.
  Chiala's _Lettere del Conte di Cavour_ (7 vols., Turin, 1883-1887) and
  D. Zanichelli's _Scritti del Conte di Cavour_ (Bologna, 1892) are very
  important, and so are Prince Metternich's _Mémoires_ (7 vols., Paris,
  1881). P. Orsi's _L'Italia moderna_ (Milan, 1901) should also be
  mentioned. N. Bianchi's _Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia_ (8
  vols., Turin, 1865) is an invaluable and thoroughly reliable work. See
  also Zini's _Storia d' Italia_ (4 vols., Milan, 1875); Gualterio's
  _Gli ultimi rivolgimenti italiani_ (4 vols., Florence, 1850) is
  important for the period from 1831 to 1847, and so also is L. Farina's
  _Storia d' Italia dal 1815 al 1849_ (5 vols., Turin, 1851); W. R.
  Thayer's _Dawn of Italian Independence_ (Boston, 1893) is gushing and
  not always accurate; C. Cantù's _Dell' indipendenza italiana
  cronistoria_ (Naples, 1872-1877) is reactionary and often unreliable;
  V. Bersezio, _Il Regno di Vittorio Emanuele II_ (8 vols., Turin, 1889,
  &c.). For English readers Countess E. Martinengo Cesaresco's
  _Liberation of Italy_ (London, 1895) is to be strongly recommended,
  and is indeed, for accuracy, fairness and synthesis, as well as for
  charm of style, one of the very best books on the subject in any
  language; Bolton King's _History of Italian Unity_ (2 vols., London,
  1899) is bulkier and less satisfactory, but contains a useful
  bibliography. A succinct account of the chief events of the period
  will be found in Sir Spencer Walpole's _History of Twenty-Five Years_
  (London, 1904). See also the _Cambridge Modern History_, vols. x. and
  xi. (Cambridge, 1907, &c.), where full bibliographies will be found.
       (L. V.*)


F. HISTORY, 1870-1902

  Italian occupation of Rome.

The downfall of the temporal power was hailed throughout Italy with
unbounded enthusiasm. Abroad, Catholic countries at first received the
tidings with resignation, and Protestant countries with joy. In France,
where the Government of National Defence had replaced the Empire,
Crémieux, as president of the government delegation at Tours, hastened
to offer his congratulations to Italy. The occupation of Rome caused no
surprise to the French government, which had been forewarned on 11th
September of the Italian intentions. On that occasion Jules Favre had
recognized the September convention to be dead, and, while refusing
explicitly to denounce it, had admitted that unless Italy went to Rome
the city would become a prey to dangerous agitators. At the same time he
made it clear that Italy would occupy Rome upon her own responsibility.
Agreeably surprised by this attitude on the part of France,
Visconti-Venosta lost no time in conveying officially the thanks of
Italy to the French government. He doubtless foresaw that the language
of Favre and Crémieux would not be endorsed by the French Clericals.
Prussia, while satisfied at the fall of the temporal power, seemed to
fear lest Italy might recompense the absence of French opposition to the
occupation of Rome by armed intervention in favour of France. Bismarck,
moreover, was indignant at the connivance of the Italian government in
the Garibaldian expedition to Dijon, and was irritated by
Visconti-Venosta's plea in the Italian parliament for the integrity of
French territory. The course of events in France, however, soon calmed
German apprehensions. The advent of Thiers, his attitude towards the
petition of French bishops on behalf of the pope, the recall of Senard,
the French minister at Florence--who had written to congratulate Victor
Emmanuel on the capture of Rome--and the instructions given to his
successor, the comte de Choiseul, to absent himself from Italy at the
moment of the king's official entry into the new capital (2nd July
1871), together with the haste displayed in appointing a French
ambassador to the Holy See, rapidly cooled the cordiality of
Franco-Italian relations, and reassured Bismarck on the score of any
dangerous intimacy between the two governments.


  Attitude of the Vatican.

The friendly attitude of France towards Italy during the period
immediately subsequent to the occupation of Rome seemed to cow and to
dishearten the Vatican. For a few weeks the relations between the Curia
and the Italian authorities were marked by a conciliatory spirit. The
secretary-general of the Italian foreign office, Baron Blanc, who had
accompanied General Cadorna to Rome, was received almost daily by
Cardinal Antonelli, papal secretary of state, in order to settle
innumerable questions arising out of the Italian occupation. The royal
commissioner for finance, Giacomelli, had, as a precautionary measure,
seized the pontifical treasury; but upon being informed by Cardinal
Antonelli that among the funds deposited in the treasury were 1,000,000
crowns of Peter's Pence offered by the faithful to the pope in person,
the commissioner was authorized by the Italian council of state not only
to restore this sum, but also to indemnify the Holy See for moneys
expended for the service of the October coupon of the pontifical debt,
that debt having been taken over by the Italian state. On the 29th of
September Cardinal Antonelli further apprised Baron Blanc that he was
about to issue drafts for the monthly payment of the 50,000 crowns
inscribed in the pontifical budget for the maintenance of the pope, the
Sacred College, the apostolic palaces and the papal guards. The Italian
treasury at once honoured all the papal drafts, and thus contributed a
first instalment of the 3,225,000 lire per annum afterwards placed by
Article 4 of the Law of Guarantees at the disposal of the Holy See.
Payments would have been regularly continued had not pressure from the
French Clerical party coerced the Vatican into refusing any further
instalment.


  The Law of Guarantees.

Once in possession of Rome, and guarantor to the Catholic world of the
spiritual independence of the pope, the Italian government prepared
juridically to regulate its relations to the Holy See. A bill known as
the Law of Guarantees was therefore framed and laid before parliament.
The measure was an amalgam of Cavour's scheme for a "free church in a
free state," of Ricasoli's Free Church Bill, rejected by parliament four
years previously, and of the proposals presented to Pius IX. by Count
Ponza di San Martino in September 1870. After a debate lasting nearly
two months the Law of Guarantees was adopted in secret ballot on the
21st of March 1871 by 185 votes against 106.

  It consisted of two parts. The first, containing thirteen articles,
  recognized (Articles 1 and 2) the person of the pontiff as sacred and
  intangible, and while providing for free discussion of religious
  questions, punished insults and outrages against the pope in the same
  way as insults and outrages against the king. Royal honours were
  attributed to the pope (Article 3), who was further guaranteed the
  same precedence as that accorded to him by other Catholic sovereigns,
  and the right to maintain his Noble and Swiss guards. Article 4
  allotted the pontiff an annuity of 3,225,000 lire (£129,000) for the
  maintenance of the Sacred College, the sacred palaces, the
  congregations, the Vatican chancery and the diplomatic service. The
  sacred palaces, museums and libraries were, by Article 5, exempted
  from all taxation, and the pope was assured perpetual enjoyment of the
  Vatican and Lateran buildings and gardens, and of the papal villa at
  Castel Gandolfo. Articles 6 and 7 forbade access of any Italian
  official or agent to the above-mentioned palaces or to any eventual
  conclave or oecumenical council without special authorization from the
  pope, conclave or council. Article 8 prohibited the seizure or
  examination of any ecclesiastical papers, documents, books or
  registers of purely spiritual character. Article 9 guaranteed to the
  pope full freedom for the exercise of his spiritual ministry, and
  provided for the publication of pontifical announcements on the doors
  of the Roman churches and basilicas. Article 10 extended immunity to
  ecclesiastics employed by the Holy See, and bestowed upon foreign
  ecclesiastics in Rome the personal rights of Italian citizens. By
  Article 11, diplomatists accredited to the Holy See, and papal
  diplomatists while in Italy, were placed on the same footing as
  diplomatists accredited to the Quirinal. Article 12 provided for the
  transmission free of cost in Italy of all papal telegrams and
  correspondence both with bishops and foreign governments, and
  sanctioned the establishment, at the expense of the Italian state, of
  a papal telegraph office served by papal officials in communication
  with the Italian postal and telegraph system. Article 13 exempted all
  ecclesiastical seminaries, academies, colleges and schools for the
  education of priests in the city of Rome from all interference on the
  part of the Italian government.

  This portion of the law, designed to reassure foreign Catholics, met
  with little opposition; but the second portion, regulating the
  relations between state and church in Italy, was sharply criticized by
  deputies who, like Sella, recognized the ideal of a "free church in a
  free state" to be an impracticable dream. The second division of the
  law abolished (Article 14) all restrictions upon the right of meeting
  of members of the clergy. By Article 15 the government relinquished
  its rights to apostolic legation in Sicily, and to the appointment of
  its own nominees to the chief benefices throughout the kingdom.
  Bishops were further dispensed from swearing fealty to the king,
  though, except in Rome and suburbs, the choice of bishops was limited
  to ecclesiastics of Italian nationality. Article 16 abolished the need
  for royal _exequatur_ and _placet_ for ecclesiastical publications,
  but subordinated the enjoyment of temporalities by bishops and
  priests to the concession of state _exequatur_ and _placet_. Article
  17 maintained the independence of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction in
  spiritual and disciplinary matters, but reserved for the state the
  exclusive right to carry out coercive measures.

On the 12th of July 1871, Articles 268, 269 and 270 of the Italian Penal
Code were so modified as to make ecclesiastics liable to imprisonment
for periods varying from six months to five years, and to fines from
1000 to 3000 lire, for spoken or written attacks against the laws of the
state, or for the fomentation of disorder. An encyclical of Pius IX. to
the bishops of the Catholic Church on the 15th of May 1871 repudiated
the Law of Guarantees, and summoned Catholic princes to co-operate in
restoring the temporal power. Practically, therefore, the law has
remained a one-sided enactment, by which Italy considers herself bound,
and of which she has always observed the spirit, even though the
exigencies of self-defence may have led in some minor respects to
non-observance of the letter. The annuity payable to the pope has, for
instance, been made subject to quinquennial prescription, so that in the
event of tardy recognition of the law the Vatican could at no time claim
payment of more than five years' annuity with interest.

For a few months after the occupation of Rome pressing questions
incidental to a new change of capital and to the administration of a new
domain distracted public attention from the real condition of Italian
affairs. The rise of the Tiber and the flooding of Rome in December 1870
(tactfully used by Victor Emmanuel as an opportunity for a first visit
to the new capital) illustrated the imperative necessity of reorganizing
the drainage of the city and of constructing the Tiber embankment. In
spite of pressure from the French government, which desired Italy to
maintain Florence as the political and to regard Rome merely as the
moral capital of the realm, the government offices and both legislative
chambers were transferred in 1871 to the Eternal City. Early in the year
the crown prince Humbert with the Princess Margherita took up their
residence in the Quirinal Palace, which, in view of the Vatican refusal
to deliver up the keys, had to be opened by force. Eight monasteries
were expropriated to make room for the chief state departments, pending
the construction of more suitable edifices. The growth of Clerical
influence in France engendered a belief that Italy would soon have to
defend with the sword her newly-won unity, while the tremendous lesson
of the Franco-Prussian War convinced the military authorities of the
need for thorough military reform. General Ricotti Magnani, minister of
war, therefore framed an Army Reform Bill designed to bring the Italian
army as nearly as possible up to the Prussian standard. Sella, minister
of finance, notwithstanding the sorry plight of the Italian exchequer,
readily granted the means for the reform. "We must arm," he said, "since
we have overturned the papal throne," and he pointed to France as the
quarter from which attack was most likely to come.


  Finance.

Though perhaps less desperate than during the previous decade, the
condition of Italian finance was precarious indeed. With taxation
screwed up to breaking point on personal and real estate, on all forms
of commercial and industrial activity, and on salt, flour and other
necessaries of life; with a deficit of £8,500,000 for the current year,
and the prospect of a further aggregate deficit of £12,000,000 during
the next quinquennium, Sella's heroic struggle against national
bankruptcy was still far from a successful termination. He chiefly had
borne the brunt and won the laurels of the unprecedented fight against
deficit in which Italy had been involved since 1862. As finance minister
in the Rattazzi cabinet of that year he had been confronted with a
public debt of nearly £120,000,000, and with an immediate deficit of
nearly £18,000,000. In 1864, as minister in the La Marmora cabinet, he
had again to face an excess of expenditure over income amounting to more
than £14,600,000. By the seizure and sale of Church lands, by the sale
of state railways, by "economy to the bone" and on one supreme occasion
by an appeal to taxpayers to advance a year's quota of the land-tax, he
had met the most pressing engagements of that troublous period. The king
was persuaded to forgo one-fifth of his civil list, ministers and the
higher civil servants were required to relinquish a portion of their
meagre salaries, but, in spite of all, Sella had found himself in 1865
compelled to propose the most hated of fiscal burdens--a grist tax on
cereals. This tax (_macinato_) had long been known in Italy. Vexatious
methods of assessment and collection had made it so unpopular that the
Italian government in 1859-1860 had thought it expedient to abolish it
throughout the realm. Sella hoped by the application of a mechanical
meter both to obviate the odium attaching to former methods of
collection and to avoid the maintenance of an army of inspectors and
tax-gatherers, whose stipends had formerly eaten up most of the proceeds
of the impost. Before proposing the reintroduction of the tax, Sella and
his friend Ferrara improved and made exhaustive experiments with the
meter. The result of their efforts was laid before parliament in one of
the most monumental and most painstaking preambles ever prefixed to a
bill. Sella, nevertheless, fell before the storm of opposition which his
scheme aroused. Scialoja, who succeeded him, was obliged to adopt a
similar proposal, but parliament again proved refractory. Ferrara,
successor of Scialoja, met a like fate; but Count Cambray-Digny, finance
minister in the Menabrea cabinet of 1868-1869, driven to find means to
cover a deficit aggravated by the interest on the Venetian debt,
succeeded, with Sella's help, in forcing a Grist Tax Bill through
parliament, though in a form of which Sella could not entirely approve.
When, on the 1st of January 1869, the new tax came into force, nearly
half the flour-mills in Italy ceased work. In many districts the
government was obliged to open mills on its own account. Inspectors and
tax-gatherers did their work under police protection, and in several
parts of the country riots had to be suppressed _manu militari_. At
first the net revenue from the impost was less than £1,100,000; but
under Sella's firm administration (1869-1873), and in consequence of
improvements gradually introduced by him, the net return ultimately
exceeded £3,200,000. The parliamentary opposition to the impost, which
the Left denounced as "the tax on hunger," was largely factitious. Few,
except the open partisans of national bankruptcy, doubted its necessity;
yet so strong was the current of feeling worked up for party purposes by
opponents of the measure, that Sella's achievement in having by its
means saved the financial situation of Italy deserves to rank among the
most noteworthy performances of modern parliamentary statesmanship.

Under the stress of the appalling financial conditions represented by
chronic deficit, crushing taxation, the heavy expenditure necessary for
the consolidation of the kingdom, the reform of the army and the
interest on the pontifical debt, Sella, on the 11th of December 1871,
exposed to parliament the financial situation in all its nakedness. He
recognized that considerable improvement had already taken place.
Revenue from taxation had risen in a decade from £7,000,000 to
£20,200,000; profit on state monopolies had increased from £7,000,000 to
£9,400,000; exports had grown to exceed imports; income from the working
of telegraphs had tripled itself; railways had been extended from 2200
to 6200 kilometres, and the annual travelling public had augmented from
15,000,000 to 25,000,000 persons. The serious feature of the situation
lay less in the income than in the "intangible" expenditure, namely, the
vast sums required for interest on the various forms of public debt and
for pensions. Within ten years this category of outlay had increased
from £8,000,000 to £28,800,000. During the same period the assumption of
the Venetian and Roman debts, losses on the issue of loans and the
accumulation of annual deficits, had caused public indebtedness to rise
from £92,000,000 to £328,000,000, no less than £100,000,000 of the
latter sum having been sacrificed in premiums and commissions to bankers
and underwriters of loans. By economies and new taxes Sella had reduced
the deficit to less than £2,000,000 in 1871, but for 1872 he found
himself confronted with a total expenditure of £8,000,000 in excess of
revenue. He therefore proposed to make over the treasury service to the
state banks, to increase the forced currency, to raise the stamp and
registration duties and to impose a new tax on textile fabrics. An
optional conversion of sundry internal loans into consolidated stock at
a lower rate of interest was calculated to effect considerable saving.
The battle over these proposals was long and fierce. But for the tactics
of Rattazzi, leader of the Left, who, by basing his opposition on party
considerations, impeded the secession of Minghetti and a part of the
Right from the ministerial majority, Sella would have been defeated. On
the 23rd of March 1872, however, he succeeded in carrying his programme,
which not only provided for the pressing needs of the moment, but laid
the foundation of the much-needed equilibrium between expenditure and
revenue.


  Religious Orders Bill.

In the spring of 1873 it became evident that the days of the Lanza-Sella
cabinet were numbered. Fear of the advent of a Radical administration
under Rattazzi alone prevented the Minghettian Right from revolting
against the government. The Left, conscious of its strength, impatiently
awaited the moment of accession to power. Sella, the real head of the
Lanza cabinet, was worn out by four years' continuous work and
disheartened by the perfidious misrepresentation in which Italian
politicians, particularly those of the Left, have ever excelled. By
sheer force of will he compelled the Chamber early in 1873 to adopt some
minor financial reforms, but on the 29th of April found himself in a
minority on the question of a credit for a proposed state arsenal at
Taranto. Pressure from all sides of the House, however, induced the
ministry to retain office until after the debate on the application to
Rome and the Papal States of the Religious Orders Bill (originally
passed in 1866)--a measure which, with the help of Ricasoli, was carried
at the end of May. While leaving intact the general houses of the
various confraternities (except that of the Jesuits), the bill abolished
the corporate personality of religious orders, handed over their schools
and hospitals to civil administrators, placed their churches at the
disposal of the secular clergy, and provided pensions for nuns and
monks, those who had families being sent to reside with their relatives,
and those who by reason of age or bereavement had no home but their
monasteries being allowed to end their days in religious houses
specially set apart for the purpose. The proceeds of the sale of the
suppressed convents and monasteries were partly converted into pensions
for monks and nuns, and partly allotted to the municipal charity boards
which had undertaken the educational and charitable functions formerly
exercised by the religious orders. To the pope was made over £16,000 per
annum as a contribution to the expense of maintaining in Rome
representatives of foreign orders; the Sacred College, however, rejected
this endowment, and summoned all the suppressed confraternities to
reconstitute themselves under the ordinary Italian law of association. A
few days after the passage of the Religious Orders Bill, the death of
Rattazzi (5th June 1873) removed all probability of the immediate advent
of the Left. Sella, uncertain of the loyalty of the Right, challenged a
vote on the immediate discussion of further financial reforms, and on
the 23rd of June was overthrown by a coalition of the Left under
Depretis with a part of the Right under Minghetti and the Tuscan Centre
under Correnti. The administration which thus fell was unquestionably
the most important since the death of Cavour. It had completed national
unity, transferred the capital to Rome, overcome the chief obstacles to
financial equilibrium, initiated military reform and laid the foundation
of the relations between state and church.


  Minghetti.

The succeeding Minghetti-Visconti-Venosta cabinet--which held office
from the 10th of July 1873 to the 18th of March 1876--continued in
essential points the work of the preceding administration. Minghetti's
finance, though less clear-sighted and less resolute than that of Sella,
was on the whole prudent and beneficial. With the aid of Sella he
concluded conventions for the redemption of the chief Italian railways
from their French and Austrian proprietors. By dint of expedients he
gradually overcame the chronic deficit, and, owing to the normal
increase of revenue, ended his term of office with the announcement of a
surplus of some £720,000. The question whether this surplus was real or
only apparent has been much debated, but there is no reason to doubt its
substantial reality. It left out of account a sum of £1,000,000 for
railway construction which was covered by credit, but, on the other
hand, took no note of £360,000 expended in the redemption of debt.
Practically, therefore, the Right, of which the Minghetti cabinet was
the last representative administration, left Italian finance with a
surplus of £80,000. Outside the all-important domain of finance, the
attention of Minghetti and his colleagues was principally absorbed by
strife between church and state, army reform and railway redemption. For
some time after the occupation of Rome the pope, in order to
substantiate the pretence that his spiritual freedom had been
diminished, avoided the creation of cardinals and the nomination of
bishops. On the 22nd of December 1873, however, he unexpectedly created
twelve cardinals, and subsequently proceeded to nominate a number of
bishops. Visconti-Venosta, who had retained the portfolio for foreign
affairs in the Minghetti cabinet, at once drew the attention of the
European powers to this proof of the pope's spiritual freedom and of the
imaginary nature of his "imprisonment" in the Vatican. At the same time
he assured them that absolute liberty would be guaranteed to the
deliberations of a conclave. In relation to the Church in Italy,
Minghetti's policy was less perspicacious. He let it be understood that
the announcement of the appointment of bishops and the request for the
royal _exequatur_ might be made to the government impersonally by the
congregation of bishops and regulars, by a municipal council or by any
other corporate body--a concession of which the bishops were quick to
take advantage, but which so irritated Italian political opinion that,
in July 1875, the government was compelled to withdraw the temporalities
of ecclesiastics who had neglected to apply for the _exequatur_, and to
evict sundry bishops who had taken possession of their palaces without
authorization from the state. Parliamentary pressure further obliged
Bonghi, minister of public instruction, to compel clerical seminaries
either to forgo the instruction of lay pupils or to conform to the laws
of the state in regard to inspection and examination, an ordinance which
gave rise to conflicts between ecclesiastical and lay authorities, and
led to the forcible dissolution of the Mantua seminary and to the
suppression of the Catholic university in Rome.


  Military and naval reform.

More noteworthy than its management of internal affairs were the efforts
of the Minghetti cabinet to strengthen and consolidate national defence.
Appalled by the weakness, or rather the non-existence, of the navy,
Admiral Saint-Bon, with his coadjutor Signor Brin, addressed himself
earnestly to the task of recreating the fleet, which had never recovered
from the effects of the disaster of Lissa. During his three years of
office he laid the foundation upon which Brin was afterwards to build up
a new Italian navy. Simultaneously General Ricotti Magnani matured the
army reform scheme which he had elaborated under the preceding
administration. His bill, adopted by parliament on the 7th of June 1875,
still forms the ground plan of the Italian army.


  Foreign policy under the Right.

It was fortunate for Italy that during the whole period 1860-1876 the
direction of her foreign policy remained in the experienced hands of
Visconti-Venosta, a statesman whose trustworthiness, dignity and
moderation even political opponents have been compelled to recognize.
Diplomatic records fail to substantiate the accusations of lack of
initiative and instability of political criterion currently brought
against him by contemporaries. As foreign minister of a young state
which had attained unity in defiance of the most formidable religious
organization in the world and in opposition to the traditional policy of
France, it could but be Visconti-Venosta's aim to uphold the dignity of
his country while convincing European diplomacy that United Italy was an
element of order and progress, and that the spiritual independence of
the Roman pontiff had suffered no diminution. Prudence, moreover,
counselled avoidance of all action likely to serve the predominant
anti-Italian party in France as a pretext for violent intervention in
favour of the pope. On the occasion of the Metrical Congress, which met
in Paris in 1872, he, however, successfully protested against the
recognition of the Vatican delegate, Father Secchi, as a representative
of a "state," and obtained from Count de Rémusat, French foreign
minister, a formal declaration that the presence of Father Secchi on
that occasion could not constitute a diplomatic precedent. The
irritation displayed by Bismarck at the Francophil attitude of Italy
towards the end of the Franco-German War gave place to a certain show of
goodwill when the great chancellor found himself in his turn involved in
a struggle against the Vatican and when the policy of Thiers began to
strain Franco-Italian relations. Thiers had consistently opposed the
emperor Napoleon's pro-Italian policy. In the case of Italy, as in that
of Germany, he frankly regretted the constitution of powerful
homogeneous states upon the borders of France. Personal pique
accentuated this feeling in regard to Italy. The refusal of Victor
Emmanuel II. to meet Thiers at the opening of the Mont Cenis tunnel (a
refusal not unconnected with offensive language employed at Florence in
October 1870 by Thiers during his European tour, and with his
instructions to the French minister to remain absent from Victor
Emmanuel's official entry into Rome) had wounded the _amour propre_ of
the French statesman, and had decreased whatever inclination he might
otherwise have felt to oppose the French Clerical agitation for the
restoration of the temporal power, and for French interference with the
Italian Religious Orders Bill. Consequently relations between France and
Italy became so strained that in 1873 both the French minister to the
Quirinal and the Italian minister to the Republic remained for several
months absent from their posts. At this juncture the emperor of Austria
invited Victor Emmanuel to visit the Vienna Exhibition, and the Italian
government received a confidential intimation that acceptance of the
invitation to Vienna would be followed by a further invitation from
Berlin. Perceiving the advantage of a visit to the imperial and
apostolic court after the Italian occupation of Rome and the suppression
of the religious orders, and convinced of the value of more cordial
intercourse with the German empire, Visconti-Venosta and Minghetti
advised their sovereign to accept both the Austrian and the subsequent
German invitations. The visit to Vienna took place on the 17th to the
22nd of September, and that to Berlin on the 22nd to the 26th of
September 1873, the Italian monarch being accorded in both capitals a
most cordial reception, although the contemporaneous publication of La
Marmora's famous pamphlet, _More Light on the Events of 1866_, prevented
intercourse between the Italian ministers and Bismarck from being
entirely confidential. Visconti-Venosta and Minghetti, moreover, wisely
resisted the chancellor's pressure to override the Law of Guarantees and
to engage in an Italian _Kulturkampf_. Nevertheless the royal journey
contributed notably to the establishment of cordial relations between
Italy and the central powers, relations which were further strengthened
by the visit of the emperor Francis Joseph to Victor Emmanuel at Venice
in April 1875, and by that of the German emperor to Milan in October of
the same year. Meanwhile Thiers had given place to Marshal Macmahon, who
effected a decided improvement in Franco-Italian relations by recalling
from Civitavecchia the cruiser "Orénoque," which since 1870 had been
stationed in that port at the disposal of the pope in case he should
desire to quit Rome. The foreign policy of Visconti-Venosta may be said
to have reinforced the international position of Italy without sacrifice
of dignity, and without the vacillation and short-sightedness which was
to characterize the ensuing administrations of the Left.


  First Depretis Cabinet.

The fall of the Right on the 18th of March 1876 was an event destined
profoundly and in many respects adversely to affect the course of
Italian history. Except at rare and not auspicious intervals, the Right
had held office from 1849 to 1876. Its rule was associated in the
popular mind with severe administration; hostility to the democratic
elements represented by Garibaldi, Crispi, Depretis and Bertani;
ruthless imposition and collection of taxes in order to meet the
financial engagements forced upon Italy by the vicissitudes of her
Risorgimento; strong predilection for Piedmontese, Lombards and Tuscans,
and a steady determination, not always scrupulous in its choice of
means, to retain executive power and the most important administrative
offices of the state for the _consorteria_, or close corporation, of its
own adherents. For years the men of the Left had worked to inoculate the
electorate with suspicion of Conservative methods and with hatred of the
imposts which they nevertheless knew to be indispensable to sound
finance. In regard to the grist tax especially, the agitators of the
Left had placed their party in a radically false position. Moreover, the
redemption of the railways by the state--contracts for which had been
signed by Sella in 1875 on behalf of the Minghetti cabinet with
Rothschild at Basel and with the Austrian government at Vienna--had been
fiercely opposed by the Left, although its members were for the most
part convinced of the utility of the operation. When, at the beginning
of March 1876, these contracts were submitted to parliament, a group of
Tuscan deputies, under Cesare Correnti, joined the opposition, and on
the 18th of March took advantage of a chance motion concerning the date
of discussion of an interpellation on the grist tax to place the
Minghetti cabinet in a minority. Depretis, ex-pro-dictator of Sicily,
and successor of Rattazzi in the leadership of the Left, was entrusted
by the king with the formation of a Liberal ministry. Besides the
premiership, Depretis assumed the portfolio of finance; Nicotera, an
ex-Garibaldian of somewhat tarnished reputation, but a man of energetic
and conservative temperament, was placed at the ministry of the
interior; public works were entrusted to Zanardelli, a Radical
doctrinaire of considerable juridical attainments; General Mezzacapo and
Signor Brin replaced General Ricotti Magnani and Admiral Saint-Bon at
the war office and ministry of marine; while to Mancini and Coppino,
prominent members of the Left, were allotted the portfolios of justice
and public instruction. Great difficulty was experienced in finding a
foreign minister willing to challenge comparison with Visconti-Venosta.
Several diplomatists in active service were approached, but, partly on
account of their refusal, and partly from the desire of the Left to
avoid giving so important a post to a diplomatist bound by ties of
friendship or of interest to the Right, the choice fell upon Melegari,
Italian minister at Bern.


  Programme of the Left.

The new ministers had long since made monarchical professions of faith,
but, up to the moment of taking office, were nevertheless considered to
be tinged with an almost revolutionary hue. The king alone appeared to
feel no misgiving. His shrewd sense of political expediency and his
loyalty to constitutional principles saved him from the error of
obstructing the advent and driving into an anti-dynastic attitude
politicians who had succeeded in winning popular favour. Indeed, the
patriotism and loyalty of the new ministers were above suspicion. Danger
lay rather in entrusting men schooled in political conspiracy and in
unscrupulous parliamentary opposition with the government of a young
state still beset by enemies at home and abroad. As an opposition party
the Left had lived upon the facile credit of political promises, but had
no well-considered programme nor other discipline nor unity of purpose
than that born of the common eagerness of its leaders for office and
their common hostility to the Right. Neither Depretis, Nicotera, Crispi,
Cairoli nor Zanardelli was disposed permanently to recognize the
superiority of any one chief. The dissensions which broke out among them
within a few months of the accession of their party to power never
afterwards disappeared, except at rare moments when it became necessary
to unite in preventing the return of the Conservatives. Considerations
such as these could not be expected to appeal to the nation at large,
which hailed the advent of the Left as the dawn of an era of unlimited
popular sovereignty, diminished administrative pressure, reduction of
taxation and general prosperity. The programme of Depretis corresponded
only in part to these expectations. Its chief points were extension of
the franchise, incompatibility of a parliamentary mandate with an
official position, strict enforcement of the rights of the State in
regard to the Church, protection of freedom of conscience, maintenance
of the military and naval policy inaugurated by the Conservatives,
acceptance of the railway redemption contracts, consolidation of the
financial equilibrium, abolition of the forced currency, and,
eventually, fiscal reform. The long-promised abolition of the grist tax
was not explicitly mentioned, opposition to the railway redemption
contracts was transformed into approval, and the vaunted reduction of
taxation replaced by lip-service to the Conservative deity of financial
equilibrium. The railway redemption contracts were in fact immediately
voted by parliament, with a clause pledging the government to legislate
in favour of farming out the railways to private companies.

Nicotera, minister of the interior, began his administration of home
affairs by a sweeping change in the _personnel_ of the prefects,
sub-prefects and public prosecutors, but found himself obliged to incur
the wrath of his supporters by prohibiting Radical meetings likely to
endanger public order, and by enunciating administrative principles
which would have befitted an inveterate Conservative. In regard to the
Church, he instructed the prefects strictly to prevent infraction of the
law against religious orders. At the same time the cabinet, as a whole,
brought in a Clerical Abuses Bill, threatening with severe punishment
priests guilty of disturbing the peace of families, of opposing the laws
of the state, or of fomenting disorder. Depretis, for his part, was
compelled to declare impracticable the immediate abolition of the grist
tax, and to frame a bill for the increase of revenue, acts which caused
the secession of some sixty Radicals and Republicans from the
ministerial majority, and gave the signal for an agitation against the
premier similar to that which he himself had formerly undertaken against
the Right. The first general election under the Left (November 1876) had
yielded the cabinet the overwhelming majority of 421 Ministerialists
against 87 Conservatives, but the very size of the majority rendered it
unmanageable. The Clerical Abuses Bill provoked further dissensions:
Nicotera was severely affected by revelations concerning his political
past; Zanardelli refused to sanction the construction of a railway in
Calabria in which Nicotera was interested; and Depretis saw fit to
compensate the supporters of his bill for the increase of revenue by
decorating at one stroke sixty ministerial deputies with the Order of
the Crown of Italy. A further derogation from the ideal of democratic
austerity was committed by adding £80,000 per annum to the king's civil
list (14th May 1877) and by burdening the state exchequer with royal
household pensions amounting to £20,000 a year. The civil list, which
the law of the 10th of August 1862 had fixed at £650,000 a year, but
which had been voluntarily reduced by the king to £530,000 in 1864, and
to £490,000 in 1867, was thus raised to £570,000 a year. Almost the only
respect in which the Left could boast a decided improvement over the
administration of the Right was the energy displayed by Nicotera in
combating brigandage and the mafia in Calabria and Sicily. Successes
achieved in those provinces failed, however, to save Nicotera from the
wrath of the Chamber, and on the 14th of December 1877 a cabinet crisis
arose over a question concerning the secrecy of telegraphic
correspondence. Depretis thereupon reconstructed his administration,
excluding Nicotera, Melegari and Zanardelli, placing Crispi at the home
office, entrusting Magliani with finance, and himself assuming the
direction of foreign affairs.


  Foreign policy of the Left.

In regard to foreign affairs, the début of the Left as a governing party
was scarcely more satisfactory than its home policy. Since the war of
1866 the Left had advocated an Italo-Prussian alliance in opposition to
the Francophil tendencies of the Right. On more than one occasion
Bismarck had maintained direct relations with the chiefs of the Left,
and had in 1870 worked to prevent a Franco-Italian alliance by
encouraging the "party of action" to press for the occupation of Rome.
Besides, the Left stood for anti-clericalism and for the retention by
the State of means of coercing the Church, in opposition to the men of
the Right, who, with the exception of Sella, favoured Cavour's ideal of
"a free Church in a free State," and the consequent abandonment of state
control over ecclesiastical government. Upon the outbreak of the
Prussian _Kulturkampf_ the Left had pressed the Right to introduce an
Italian counterpart to the Prussian May laws, especially as the
attitude of Thiers and the hostility of the French Clericals obviated
the need for sparing French susceptibilities. Visconti-Venosta and
Minghetti, partly from aversion to a Jacobin policy, and partly from a
conviction that Bismarck sooner or later would undertake his _Gang nach
Canossa_, regardless of any tacit engagement he might have assumed
towards Italy, had wisely declined to be drawn into any infraction of
the Law of Guarantees. It was, however, expected that the chiefs of the
Left, upon attaining office, would turn resolutely towards Prussia in
search of a guarantee against the Clerical menace embodied in the régime
of Marshal Macmahon. On the contrary, Depretis and Melegari, both of
whom were imbued with French Liberal doctrines, adopted towards the
Republic an attitude so deferential as to arouse suspicion in Vienna and
Berlin. Depretis recalled Nigra from Paris and replaced him by General
Cialdini, whose ardent plea for Italian intervention in favour of France
in 1870, and whose comradeship with Marshal Macmahon in 1859, would, it
was supposed, render him _persona gratissima_ to the French government.
This calculation was falsified by events. Incensed by the elevation to
the rank of embassies of the Italian legation in Paris and the French
legation to the Quirinal, and by the introduction of the Italian bill
against clerical abuses, the French Clerical party not only attacked
Italy and her representative, General Cialdini, in the Chamber of
Deputies, but promoted a monster petition against the Italian bill. Even
the _coup d'état_ of the 16th of May 1877 (when Macmahon dismissed the
Jules Simon cabinet for opposing the Clerical petition) hardly availed
to change the attitude of Depretis. As a precaution against an eventual
French attempt to restore the temporal power, orders were hurriedly
given to complete the defences of Rome, but in other respects the
Italian government maintained its subservient attitude. Yet at that
moment the adoption of a clear line of policy, in accord with the
central powers, might have saved Italy from the loss of prestige
entailed by her bearing in regard to the Russo-Turkish War and the
Austrian acquisition of Bosnia, and might have prevented the
disappointment subsequently occasioned by the outcome of the Congress of
Berlin. In the hope of inducing the European powers to "compensate"
Italy for the increase of Austrian influence on the Adriatic, Crispi
undertook in the autumn of 1877, with the approval of the king, and in
spite of the half-disguised opposition of Depretis, a semi-official
mission to Paris, Berlin, London and Vienna. The mission appears not to
have been an unqualified success, though Crispi afterwards affirmed in
the Chamber (4th March 1886) that Depretis might in 1877 "have harnessed
fortune to the Italian chariot." Depretis, anxious only to avoid "a
policy of adventure," let slip whatever opportunity may have presented
itself, and neglected even to deal energetically with the impotent but
mischievous Italian agitation for a "rectification" of the
Italo-Austrian frontier. He greeted the treaty of San Stefano (3rd March
1878) with undisguised relief, and by the mouth of the king,
congratulated Italy (7th March 1878) on having maintained with the
powers friendly and cordial relations "free from suspicious
precautions," and upon having secured for herself "that most precious of
alliances, the alliance of the future"--a phrase of which the empty
rhetoric was to be bitterly demonstrated by the Berlin Congress and the
French occupation of Tunisia.


  Crispi.

  Deaths of Victor Emmanuel II. and Pius IX.

  Leo XIII.

The entry of Crispi into the Depretis cabinet (December 1877) placed at
the ministry of the interior a strong hand and sure eye at a moment when
they were about to become imperatively necessary. Crispi was the only
man of truly statesmanlike calibre in the ranks of the Left. Formerly a
friend and disciple of Mazzini, with whom he had broken on the question
of the monarchical form of government which Crispi believed
indispensable to the unification of Italy, he had afterwards been one of
Garibaldi's most efficient coadjutors and an active member of the "party
of action." Passionate, not always scrupulous in his choice and use of
political weapons, intensely patriotic, loyal with a loyalty based
rather on reason than sentiment, quick-witted, prompt in action,
determined and pertinacious, he possessed in eminent degree many
qualities lacking in other Liberal chieftains. Hardly had he assumed
office when the unexpected death of Victor Emmanuel II. (9th January
1878) stirred national feeling to an unprecedented depth, and placed the
continuity of monarchical institutions in Italy upon trial before
Europe. For thirty years Victor Emmanuel had been the centre point of
national hopes, the token and embodiment of the struggle for national
redemption. He had led the country out of the despondency which followed
the defeat of Novara and the abdication of Charles Albert, through all
the vicissitudes of national unification to the final triumph at Rome.
His disappearance snapped the chief link with the heroic period, and
removed from the helm of state a ruler of large heart, great experience
and civil courage, at a moment when elements of continuity were needed
and vital problems of internal reorganization had still to be faced.
Crispi adopted the measures necessary to ensure the tranquil accession
of King Humbert with a quick energy which precluded any Radical or
Republican demonstrations. His influence decided the choice of the Roman
Pantheon as the late monarch's burial-place, in spite of formidable
pressure from the Piedmontese, who wished Victor Emmanuel II. to rest
with the Sardinian kings at Superga. He also persuaded the new ruler to
inaugurate, as King Humbert I., the new dynastical epoch of the kings of
Italy, instead of continuing as Humbert IV. the succession of the kings
of Sardinia. Before the commotion caused by the death of Victor Emmanuel
had passed away, the decease of Pius IX (7th February 1878) placed
further demands upon Crispi's sagacity and promptitude. Like Victor
Emmanuel, Pius IX. had been bound up with the history of the
Risorgimento, but, unlike him, had represented and embodied the
anti-national, reactionary spirit. Ecclesiastically, he had become the
instrument of the triumph of Jesuit influence, and had in turn set his
seal upon the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, the Syllabus and Papal
Infallibility. Yet, in spite of all, his jovial disposition and
good-humoured cynicism saved him from unpopularity, and rendered his
death an occasion of mourning. Notwithstanding the pontiff's bestowal of
the apostolic benediction _in articulo mortis_ upon Victor Emmanuel, the
attitude of the Vatican had remained so inimical as to make it doubtful
whether the conclave would be held in Rome. Crispi, whose strong
anti-clerical convictions did not prevent him from regarding the papacy
as preeminently an Italian institution, was determined both to prove to
the Catholic world the practical independence of the government of the
Church and to retain for Rome so potent a centre of universal attraction
as the presence of the future pope. The Sacred College having decided to
hold the conclave abroad, Crispi assured them of absolute freedom if
they remained in Rome, or of protection to the frontier should they
migrate, but warned them that, once evacuated, the Vatican would be
occupied in the name of the Italian government and be lost to the Church
as headquarters of the papacy. The cardinals thereupon overruled their
former decision, and the conclave was held in Rome, the new pope,
Cardinal Pecci, being elected on the 20th of February 1878 without let
or hindrance. The Italian government not only prorogued the Chamber
during the conclave to prevent unseemly inquiries or demonstrations on
the part of deputies, but by means of Mancini, minister of justice, and
Cardinal di Pietro, assured the new pope protection during the
settlement of his outstanding personal affairs, an assurance of which
Leo XIII. on the evening after his election, took full advantage. At the
same time the duke of Aosta, commander of the Rome army corps, ordered
the troops to render royal honours to the pontiff should he officially
appear in the capital. King Humbert addressed to the pope a letter of
congratulation upon his election, and received a courteous reply. The
improvement thus signalized in the relations between Quirinal and
Vatican was further exemplified on the 18th of October 1878, when the
Italian government accepted a papal formula with regard to the granting
of the royal _exequatur_ for bishops, whereby they, upon nomination by
the Holy See, recognized state control over, and made application for,
the payment of their temporalities.


  Cairoli.

The Depretis-Crispi cabinet did not long survive the opening of the new
reign. Crispi's position was shaken by a morally plausible but
juridically untenable charge of bigamy, while on the 8th of March the
election of Cairoli, an opponent of the ministry and head of the
extremer section of the Left, to the presidency of the Chamber, induced
Depretis to tender his resignation to the new king. Cairoli succeeded in
forming an administration, in which his friend Count Corti, Italian
ambassador at Constantinople, accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs,
Zanardelli the ministry of the interior, and Seismit Doda the ministry
of finance. Though the cabinet had no stable majority, it induced the
Chamber to sanction a commercial treaty which had been negotiated with
France and a general "autonomous" customs tariff. The commercial treaty
was, however, rejected by the French Chamber in June 1878, a
circumstance necessitating the application of the Italian general
tariff, which implied a 10 to 20% increase in the duties on the
principal French exports. A highly imaginative financial exposition by
Seismit Doda, who announced a surplus of £2,400,000, paved the way for a
Grist Tax Reduction Bill, which Cairoli had taken over from the Depretis
programme. The Chamber, though convinced of the danger of this reform,
the perils of which were incisively demonstrated by Sella, voted by an
overwhelming majority for an immediate reduction of the impost by
one-fourth, and its complete abolition within four years. Cairoli's
premiership was, however, destined to be cut short by an attempt made
upon the king's life in November 1878, during a royal visit to Naples,
by a miscreant named Passanante. In spite of the courage and presence of
mind of Cairoli, who received the dagger thrust intended for the king,
public and parliamentary indignation found expression in a vote which
compelled the ministry to resign.


  Italy and the Berlin Congress.

  Irredentism.

Though brief, Cairoli's term of office was momentous in regard to
foreign affairs. The treaty of San Stefano had led to the convocation of
the Berlin Congress, and though Count Corti was by no means ignorant of
the rumours concerning secret agreements between Germany, Austria and
Russia, and Germany, Austria and Great Britain, he scarcely seemed alive
to the possible effect of such agreements upon Italy. Replying on the
9th of April 1878 to interpellations by Visconti-Venosta and other
deputies on the impending Congress of Berlin, he appeared free from
apprehension lest Italy, isolated, might find herself face to face with
a change of the balance of power in the Mediterranean, and declared that
in the event of serious complications Italy would be "too much sought
after rather than too much forgotten." The policy of Italy in the
congress, he added, would be to support the interests of the young
Balkan nations. Wrapped in this optimism, Count Corti proceeded, as
first Italian delegate, to Berlin, where he found himself obliged, on
the 28th of May, to join reluctantly in sanctioning the Austrian
occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On the 8th of July the revelation
of the Anglo-Ottoman treaty for the British occupation of Cyprus took
the congress by surprise. Italy, who had made the integrity of the
Ottoman empire a cardinal point of her Eastern policy, felt this change
of the Mediterranean _status quo_ the more severely inasmuch as, in
order not to strain her relations with France, she had turned a deaf ear
to Austrian, Russian and German advice to prepare to occupy Tunisia in
agreement with Great Britain. Count Corti had no suspicion that France
had adopted a less disinterested attitude towards similar suggestions
from Bismarck and Lord Salisbury. He therefore returned from the German
capital with "clean" but empty hands, a plight which found marked
disfavour in Italian eyes, and stimulated anti-Austrian Irredentism.
Ever since Venetia had been ceded by Austria to the emperor Napoleon,
and by him to Italy, after the war of 1866, secret revolutionary
committees had been formed in the northern Italian provinces to prepare
for the "redemption" of Trent and Trieste. For twelve years these
committees had remained comparatively inactive, but in 1878 the presence
of the ex-Garibaldian Cairoli at the head of the government, and popular
dissatisfaction at the spread of Austrian sway on the Adriatic,
encouraged them to begin a series of noisy demonstrations. On the
evening of the signature at Berlin of the clause sanctioning the
Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an Irredentist riot took
place before the Austrian consulate at Venice. The Italian government
attached little importance to the occurrence, and believed that a
diplomatic expression of regret would suffice to allay Austrian
irritation. Austria, indeed, might easily have been persuaded to ignore
the Irredentist agitation, had not the equivocal attitude of Cairoli and
Zanardelli cast doubt upon the sincerity of their regret. The former at
Pavia (15th October 1878), and the latter at Arco (3rd November),
declared publicly that Irredentist manifestations could not be prevented
under existing laws, but gave no hint of introducing any law to sanction
their prevention. "Repression, not prevention" became the official
formula, the enunciation of which by Cairoli at Pavia caused Count Corti
and two other ministers to resign.


  Finance.

The fall of Cairoli, and the formation of a second Depretis cabinet in
1878, brought no substantial change in the attitude of the government
towards Irredentism, nor was the position improved by the return of
Cairoli to power in the following July. Though aware of Bismarck's
hostility towards Italy, of the conclusion of the Austro-German alliance
of 1879, and of the undisguised ill-will of France, Italy not only made
no attempt to crush an agitation as mischievous as it was futile, but
granted a state funeral to General Avezzana, president of the
Irredentist League. In Bonghi's mordant phrase, the foreign policy of
Italy during this period may be said to have been characterized by
"enormous intellectual impotence counterbalanced by equal moral
feebleness." Home affairs were scarcely better managed. Parliament had
degenerated into a congeries of personal groups, whose members were
eager only to overturn cabinets in order to secure power for the leaders
and official favours for themselves. Depretis, who had succeeded Cairoli
in December 1878, fell in July 1879, after a vote in which Cairoli and
Nicotera joined the Conservative opposition. On 12th July Cairoli formed
a new administration, only to resign on 24th November, and to
reconstruct his cabinet with the help of Depretis. The administration of
finance was as chaotic as the condition of parliament. The £2,400,000
surplus announced by Seismit Doda proved to be a myth. Nevertheless
Magliani, who succeeded Seismit Doda, had neither the perspicacity nor
the courage to resist the abolition of the grist tax. The first vote of
the Chamber for the immediate diminution of the tax, and for its total
abolition on 1st January 1883, had been opposed by the Senate. A second
bill was passed by the Chamber on 18th July 1879, providing for the
immediate repeal of the grist tax on minor cereals, and for its total
abolition on 1st January 1884. While approving the repeal in regard to
minor cereals, the Senate (24th January 1880) again rejected the repeal
of the tax on grinding wheat as prejudicial to national finance. After
the general election of 1880, however, the Ministerialists, aided by a
number of factious Conservatives, passed a third bill repealing the
grist tax on wheat (10th July 1880), the repeal to take effect from the
1st of January 1884 onwards. The Senate, in which the partisans of the
ministry had been increased by numerous appointments ad hoc, finally set
the seal of its approval upon the measure. Notwithstanding this
prospective loss of revenue, parliament showed great reluctance to vote
any new impost, although hardly a year previously it had sanctioned
(30th June 1879) Depretis's scheme for spending during the next eighteen
years £43,200,000 in building 5000 kilometres of railway, an expenditure
not wholly justified by the importance of the lines, and useful
principally as a source of electoral sops for the constituents of
ministerial deputies. The unsatisfactory financial condition of the
Florence, Rome and Naples municipalities necessitated state help, but
the Chamber nevertheless proceeded with a light heart (23rd February
1881) to sanction the issue of a foreign loan for £26,000,000, with a
view to the abolition of the forced currency, thus adding to the burdens
of the exchequer a load which three years later again dragged Italy into
the gulf of chronic deficit.


  Tunisia.

In no modern country is error or incompetence on the part of
administrators more swiftly followed by retribution than in Italy; both
at home and abroad she is hemmed in by political and economic conditions
which leave little margin for folly, and still less for "mental and
moral insufficiency," such as had been displayed by the Left. Nemesis
came in the spring of 1881, in the form of the French invasion of
Tunisia. Guiccioli, the biographer of Sella, observes that Italian
politicians find it especially hard to resist "the temptation of
appearing crafty." The men of the Left believed themselves subtle enough
to retain the confidence and esteem of all foreign powers while
coquetting at home with elements which some of these powers had reason
to regard with suspicion. Italy, in constant danger from France, needed
good relations with Austria and Germany, but could only attain the
goodwill of the former by firm treatment of the revolutionary
Irredentist agitation, and of the latter by clear demonstration of
Italian will and ability to cope with all anti-monarchical forces.
Depretis and Cairoli did neither the one nor the other. Hence, when
opportunity offered firmly to establish Italian predominance in the
central Mediterranean by an occupation of Tunisia, they found themselves
deprived of those confidential relations with the central powers, and
even with Great Britain, which might have enabled them to use the
opportunity to full advantage. The conduct of Italy in declining the
suggestions received from Count Andrássy and General Ignatiev on the eve
of the Russo-Turkish War--that Italy should seek compensation in Tunisia
for the extension of Austrian sway in the Balkans--and in subsequently
rejecting the German suggestion to come to an arrangement with Great
Britain for the occupation of Tunisia as compensation for the British
occupation of Cyprus, was certainly due to fear lest an attempt on
Tunisia should lead to a war with France, for which Italy knew herself
to be totally unprepared. This very unpreparedness, however, rendered
still less excusable her treatment of the Irredentist agitation, which
brought her within a hair's-breadth of a conflict with Austria. Although
Cairoli, upon learning of the Anglo-Ottoman convention in regard to
Cyprus, had advised Count Corti of the possibility that Great Britain
might seek to placate France by conniving at a French occupation of
Tunisia, neither he nor Count Corti had any inkling of the verbal
arrangement made between Lord Salisbury and Waddington at the instance
of Bismarck, that, when convenient, France should occupy Tunisia, an
agreement afterwards confirmed (with a reserve as to the eventual
attitude of Italy) in despatches exchanged in July and August 1878
between the Quai d'Orsay and Downing Street. Almost up to the moment of
the French occupation of Tunisia the Italian government believed that
Great Britain, if only out of gratitude for the bearing of Italy in
connexion with the Dulcigno demonstration in the autumn of 1880, would
prevent French acquisition of the Regency. Ignorant of the assurance
conveyed to France by Lord Granville that the Gladstone cabinet would
respect the engagements of the Beaconsfield-Salisbury administration,
Cairoli, in deference to Italian public opinion, endeavoured to
neutralize the activity of the French consul Roustan by the appointment
of an equally energetic Italian consul, Macciò. The rivalry between
these two officials in Tunisia contributed not a little to strain
Franco-Italian relations, but it is doubtful whether France would have
precipitated her action had not General Menabrea, Italian ambassador in
London, urged his government to purchase the Tunis-Goletta railway from
the English company by which it had been constructed. A French attempt
to purchase the line was upset in the English courts, and the railway
was finally secured by Italy at a price more than eight times its real
value. This pertinacity engendered a belief in France that Italy was
about to undertake in Tunisia a more aggressive policy than necessary
for the protection of her commercial interests. Roustan therefore
hastened to extort from the bey concessions calculated to neutralize the
advantages which Italy had hoped to secure by the possession of the
Tunis-Goletta line, and at the same time the French government prepared
at Toulon an expeditionary corps for the occupation of the Regency. In
the spring of 1881 the Kroumir tribe was reported to have attacked a
French force on the Algerian border, and on the 9th of April Roustan
informed the bey of Tunis that France would chastise the assailants. The
bey issued futile protests to the powers. On the 26th of April the
island of Tabarca was occupied by the French, Bizerta was seized on the
2nd of May, and on the 12th of May the bey signed the treaty of Bardo
accepting the French protectorate. France undertook the maintenance of
order in the Regency, and assumed the representation of Tunisia in all
dealings with other countries.

Italian indignation at the French _coup de main_ was the deeper on
account of the apparent duplicity of the government of the Republic. On
the 11th of May the French foreign minister, Barthélémy Saint Hilaire,
had officially assured the Italian ambassador in Paris that France "had
no thought of occupying Tunisia or any part of Tunisian territory,
beyond some points of the Kroumir country." This assurance, dictated by
Jules Ferry to Barthélémy Saint Hilaire in the presence of the Italian
ambassador, and by him telegraphed _en clair_ to Rome, was considered a
binding pledge that France would not materially alter the _status quo_
in Tunisia. Documents subsequently published have somewhat attenuated
the responsibility of Ferry and Saint Hilaire for this breach of faith,
and have shown that the French forces in Tunisia acted upon secret
instructions from General Farre, minister of war in the Ferry cabinet,
who pursued a policy diametrically opposed to the official declarations
made by the premier and the foreign minister. Even had this circumstance
been known at the time, it could scarcely have mitigated the intense
resentment of the whole Italian nation at an event which was considered
tantamount not only to the destruction of Italian aspirations to
Tunisia, but to the ruin of the interests of the numerous Italian colony
and to a constant menace against the security of the Sicilian and south
Italian coasts.

Had the blow thus struck at Italian influence in the Mediterranean
induced politicians to sink for a while their personal differences and
to unite in presenting a firm front to foreign nations, the crisis in
regard to Tunisia might not have been wholly unproductive of good.
Unfortunately, on this, as on other critical occasions, deputies proved
themselves incapable of common effort to promote general welfare. While
excitement over Tunisia was at its height, but before the situation was
irretrievably compromised to the disadvantage of Italy, Cairoli had been
compelled to resign by a vote of want of confidence in the Chamber. The
only politician capable of dealing adequately with the situation was
Sella, leader of the Right, and to him the crown appealed. The faction
leaders of the Left, though divided by personal jealousies and mutually
incompatible ambitions, agreed that the worst evil which could befall
Italy would be the return of the Right to power, and conspired to
preclude the possibility of a Sella cabinet. An attempt by Depretis to
recompose the Cairoli ministry proved fruitless, and after eleven
precious days had been lost, King Humbert was obliged, on the 19th of
April 1881, to refuse Cairoli's resignation. The conclusion of the
treaty of Bardo on the 12th of May, however, compelled Cairoli to
sacrifice himself to popular indignation. Again Sella was called upon,
but again the dog-in-the-manger policy of Depretis, Cairoli, Nicotera
and Baccarini, in conjunction with the intolerant attitude of some
extreme Conservatives, proved fatal to his endeavours. Depretis then
succeeded in recomposing the Cairoli cabinet without Cairoli, Mancini
being placed at the foreign office. Except in regard to an increase of
the army estimates, urgently demanded by public opinion, the new
ministry had practically no programme. Public opinion was further
irritated against France by the massacre of some Italian workmen at
Marseilles on the occasion of the return of the French expedition from
Tunisia, and Depretis, in response to public feeling, found himself
obliged to mobilize a part of the militia for military exercises. In
this condition of home and foreign affairs occurred disorders at Rome in
connexion with the transfer of the remains of Pius IX. from St Peter's
to the basilica of San Lorenzo. Most of the responsibility lay with the
Vatican, which had arranged the procession in the way best calculated to
irritate Italian feeling, but little excuse can be offered for the
failure of the Italian authorities to maintain public order. In
conjunction with the occupation of Tunisia, the effect of these
disorders was to exhibit Italy as a country powerless to defend its
interests abroad or to keep peace at home. The scandal and the pressure
of foreign Catholic opinion compelled Depretis to pursue a more
energetic policy, and to publish a formal declaration of the
intangibility of the Law of Guarantees.


  Growth of the Triple Alliance.

Meanwhile a conviction was spreading that the only way of escape from
the dangerous isolation of Italy lay in closer agreement with Austria
and Germany. Depretis tardily recognized the need for such agreement, if
only to remove the "coldness and invincible diffidence" which, by
subsequent confession of Mancini, then characterized the attitude of the
central powers; but he was opposed to any formal alliance, lest it might
arouse French resentment, while the new Franco-Italian treaty was still
unconcluded, and the foreign loan for the abolition of the forced
currency had still to be floated. He, indeed, was not disposed to
concede to public opinion anything beyond an increase of the army, a
measure insistently demanded by Garibaldi and the Left. The Right
likewise desired to strengthen both army and navy, but advocated cordial
relations with Berlin and Vienna as a guarantee against French
domineering, and as a pledge that Italy would be vouchsafed time to
effect her armaments without disturbing financial equilibrium. The Right
also hoped that closer accord with Germany and Austria would compel
Italy to conform her home policy more nearly to the principles of order
prevailing in those empires. More resolute than Right or Left was the
Centre, a small group led by Sidney Sonnino, a young politician of
unusual fibre, which sought in the press and in parliament to spread a
conviction that the only sound basis for Italian policy would be close
alliance with the central powers and a friendly understanding with Great
Britain in regard to Mediterranean affairs. The principal Italian public
men were divided in opinion on the subject of an alliance. Peruzzi,
Lanza and Bonghi pleaded for equal friendship with all powers, and
especially with France; Crispi, Minghetti, Cadorna and others, including
Blanc, secretary-general to the foreign office, openly favoured a
pro-Austrian policy. Austria and Germany, however, scarcely reciprocated
these dispositions. The Irredentist agitation had left profound traces
at Berlin as well as at Vienna, and had given rise to a distrust of
Depretis which nothing had yet occurred to allay. Nor, in view of the
comparative weakness of Italian armaments, could eagerness to find an
ally be deemed conclusive proof of the value of Italian friendship.
Count di Robilant, Italian ambassador at Vienna, warned his government
not to yield too readily to pro-Austrian pressure, lest the dignity of
Italy be compromised, or her desire for an alliance be granted on
onerous terms. Mancini, foreign minister, who was as anxious as Depretis
for the conclusion of the Franco-Italian commercial treaty, gladly
followed this advice, and limited his efforts to the maintenance of
correct diplomatic relations with the central powers. Except in regard
to the Roman question, the advantages and disadvantages of an Italian
alliance with Austria and Germany counterbalanced each other. A
_rapprochement_ with France and a continuance of the Irredentist
movement could not fail to arouse Austro-German hostility; but, on the
other hand, to draw near to the central powers would inevitably
accentuate the diffidence of France. In the one hypothesis, as in the
other, Italy could count upon the moral support of Great Britain, but
could not make of British friendship the keystone of a Continental
policy. Apart from resentment against France on account of Tunisia there
remained the question of the temporal power of the pope to turn the
scale in favour of Austria and Germany. Danger of foreign interference
in the relations between Italy and the papacy had never been so great
since the Italian occupation of Rome, as when, in the summer of 1881,
the disorders during the transfer of the remains of Pius IX. had lent an
unwonted ring of plausibility to the papal complaint concerning the
"miserable" position of the Holy See. Bismarck at that moment had
entered upon his "pilgrimage to Canossa," and was anxious to obtain from
the Vatican the support of German Catholics. What resistance could
Italy have offered had the German chancellor, seconded by Austria, and
assuredly supported by France, called upon Italy to revise the Law of
Guarantees in conformity with Catholic exigencies, or had he taken the
initiative of making papal independence the subject of an international
conference? Friendship and alliance with Catholic Austria and powerful
Germany could alone lay this spectre. This was the only immediate
advantage Italy could hope to obtain by drawing nearer the central
Powers.

The political conditions of Europe favoured the realization of Italian
desires. Growing rivalry between Austria and Russia in the Balkans
rendered the continuance of the "League of the Three Emperors" a
practical impossibility. The Austro-German alliance of 1879 formally
guaranteed the territory of the contracting parties, but Austria could
not count upon effectual help from Germany in case of war, since Russian
attack upon Austria would certainly have been followed by French attack
upon Germany. As in 1860-1870, it therefore became a matter of the
highest importance for Austria to retain full disposal of all her troops
by assuring herself against Italian aggression. The tsar, Alexander
III., under the impression of the assassination of his father, desired,
however, the renewal of the _Dreikaiserbund_, both as a guarantee of
European peace and as a conservative league against revolutionary
parties. The German emperor shared this desire, but Bismarck and the
Austrian emperor wished to substitute for the imperial league some more
advantageous combination. Hence a tacit understanding between Bismarck
and Austria that the latter should profit by Italian resentment against
France to draw Italy into the orbit of the Austro-German alliance. For
the moment Germany was to hold aloof lest any active initiative on her
part should displease the Vatican, of whose help Bismarck stood in need.

At the beginning of August 1881 the Austrian press mooted the idea of a
visit from King Humbert to the emperor Francis Joseph. Count di
Robilant, anxious that Italy should not seem to beg a smile from the
central Powers, advised Mancini to receive with caution the suggestions
of the Austrian press. Depretis took occasion to deny, in a form
scarcely courteous, the probability of the visit. Robilant's opposition
to a precipitate acceptance of the Austrian hint was founded upon fear
lest King Humbert at Vienna might be pressed to disavow Irredentist
aspirations, and upon a desire to arrange for a visit of the emperor
Francis Joseph to Rome in return for King Humbert's visit to Vienna.
Seeing the hesitation of the Italian government, the Austrian and German
semi-official press redoubled their efforts to bring about the visit. By
the end of September the idea had gained such ground in Italy that the
visit was practically settled, and on the 7th of October Mancini
informed Robilant (who was then in Italy) of the fact. Though he
considered such precipitation impolitic, Robilant, finding that
confidential information of Italian intentions had already been conveyed
to the Austrian government, sought an interview with King Humbert, and
on the 17th of October started for Vienna to settle the conditions of
the visit. Depretis, fearing to jeopardize the impending conclusion of
the Franco-Italian commercial treaty, would have preferred the visit to
take the form of an act of personal courtesy between sovereigns. The
Austrian government, for its part, desired that the king should be
accompanied by Depretis, though not by Mancini, lest the presence of the
Italian foreign minister should lend to the occasion too marked a
political character. Mancini, unable to brook exclusion, insisted,
however, upon accompanying the king. King Humbert with Queen Margherita
reached Vienna on the morning of the 27th of October, and stayed at the
Hofburg until the 31st of October. The visit was marked by the greatest
cordiality, Count Robilant's fears of inopportune pressure with regard
to Irredentism proving groundless. Both in Germany and Austria the visit
was construed as a preliminary to the adhesion of Italy to the
Austro-German alliance. Count Hatzfeldt, on behalf of the German Foreign
Office, informed the Italian ambassador in Berlin that whatever was
done at Vienna would be regarded as having been done in the German
capital. Nor did nascent irritation in France prevent the conclusion of
the Franco-Italian commercial treaty, which was signed at Paris on the
3rd of November.

In Italy public opinion as a whole was favourable to the visit,
especially as it was not considered an obstacle to the projected
increase of the army and navy. Doubts, however, soon sprang up as to its
effect upon the minds of Austrian statesmen, since on the 8th of
November the language employed by Kállay and Count Andrássy to the
Hungarian delegations on the subject of Irredentism was scarcely
calculated to soothe Italian susceptibilities. But on 9th November the
European situation was suddenly modified by the formation of the
Gambetta cabinet, and, in view of the policy of revenge with which
Gambetta was supposed to be identified, it became imperative for
Bismarck to assure himself that Italy would not be enticed into a
Francophil attitude by any concession Gambetta might offer. As usual
when dealing with weaker nations, the German chancellor resorted to
intimidation. He not only re-established the Prussian legation to the
Vatican, suppressed since 1874, and omitted from the imperial message to
the Reichstag (17th November 1881) all reference to King Humbert's visit
to Vienna, but took occasion on the 29th of November to refer to Italy
as a country tottering on the verge of revolution, and opened in the
German semi-official press a campaign in favour of an international
guarantee for the independence of the papacy. These manoeuvres produced
their effect upon Italian public opinion. In the long and important
debate upon foreign policy in the Italian Chamber of Deputies (6th to
9th December) the fear was repeatedly expressed lest Bismarck should
seek to purchase the support of German Catholics by raising the Roman
question. Mancini, still unwilling frankly to adhere to the
Austro-German alliance, found his policy of "friendship all round"
impeded by Gambetta's uncompromising attitude in regard to Tunisia.
Bismarck nevertheless continued his press campaign in favour of the
temporal power until, reassured by Gambetta's decision to send Roustan
back to Tunis to complete as minister the anti-Italian programme begun
as consul, he finally instructed his organs to emphasize the common
interests of Germany and Italy on the occasion of the opening of the St
Gothard tunnel. But the effect of the German press campaign could not be
effaced in a day. At the new year's reception of deputies King Humbert
aroused enthusiasm by a significant remark that Italy intended to remain
"mistress in her own house"; while Mancini addressed to Count de Launay,
Italian ambassador in Berlin, a haughty despatch, repudiating the
supposition that the pope might (as Bismarckian emissaries had suggested
to the Vatican) obtain abroad greater spiritual liberty than in Rome, or
that closer relations between Italy and Germany, such as were required
by the interests and aspirations of the two countries, could be made in
any way contingent upon a modification of Italian freedom of action in
regard to home affairs.


  Death of Garibaldi.

  Signature of the Treaty, 1882.

The sudden fall of Gambetta (26th January 1882) having removed the fear of
immediate European complications, the cabinets of Berlin and Vienna again
displayed diffidence towards Italy. So great was Bismarck's distrust of
Italian parliamentary instability, his doubts of Italian capacity for
offensive warfare and his fear of the Francophil tendencies of Depretis,
that for many weeks the Italian ambassador at Berlin was unable to obtain
audience of the chancellor. But for the Tunisian question Italy might
again have been drawn into the wake of France. Mancini tried to impede the
organization of French rule in the Regency by refusing to recognize the
treaty of Bardo, yet so careless was Bismarck of Italian susceptibilities
that he instructed the German consul at Tunis to recognize French decrees.
Partly under the influence of these circumstances, and partly in response
to persuasion by Baron Blanc, secretary-general for foreign affairs,
Mancini instructed Count di Robilant to open negotiations for an
Italo-Austrian alliance--instructions which Robilant neglected until
questioned by Count Kalnóky on the subject. The first exchange of ideas
between the two Governments proved fruitless, since Kalnóky, somewhat
Clerical-minded, was averse from guaranteeing the integrity of all Italian
territory, and Mancini was equally unwilling to guarantee to Austria
permanent possession of Trent and Trieste. Mancini, moreover, wished the
treaty of alliance to provide for reciprocal protection of the chief
interests of the contracting Powers, Italy undertaking to second
Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, and Austria and Germany pledging
themselves to support Italy in Mediterranean questions. Without some such
proviso Italy would, in Mancini's opinion, be exposed single-handed to
French resentment. At the request of Kalnóky, Mancini defined his proposal
in a memorandum, but the illness of himself and Depretis, combined with an
untoward discussion in the Italian press on the failure of the Austrian
emperor to return in Rome King Humbert's visit to Vienna, caused
negotiations to drag. The pope, it transpired, had refused to receive the
emperor if he came to Rome on a visit to the Quirinal, and Francis Joseph,
though anxious to return King Humbert's visit, was unable to offend the
feelings of his Catholic subjects. Meanwhile (11th May 1882) the Italian
parliament adopted the new Army Bill, involving a special credit of
£5,100,000 for the creation of two new army corps, by which the war
footing of the regular army was raised to nearly 850,000 men and the
ordinary military estimates to £8,000,000 per annum. Garibaldi, who, since
the French occupation of Tunis, had ardently worked for the increase of
the army, had thus the satisfaction of seeing his desire realized before
his death at Caprera, on the 2nd of June 1882. "In spirit a child, in
character a man of classic mould," Garibaldi had remained the nation's
idol, an almost legendary hero whose place none could aspire to fill.
Gratitude for his achievements and sorrow for his death found expression
in universal mourning wherein king and peasant equally joined. Before his
death, and almost contemporaneously with the passing of the Army Bill,
negotiations for the alliance were renewed. Encouraged from Berlin,
Kalnóky agreed to the reciprocal territorial guarantee, but declined
reciprocity in support of special interests. Mancini had therefore to be
content with a declaration that the allies would act in mutually friendly
intelligence. Depretis made some opposition, but finally acquiesced, and
the treaty of triple alliance was signed on the 20th of May 1882, five
days after the promulgation of the Franco-Italian commercial treaty in
Paris. Though partial revelations have been made, the exact tenor of the
treaty of triple alliance has never been divulged. It is known to have
been concluded for a period of five years, to have pledged the contracting
parties to join in resisting attack upon the territory of any one of them,
and to have specified the military disposition to be adopted by each in
case attack should come either from France, or from Russia, or from both
simultaneously. The Italian General Staff is said to have undertaken, in
the event of war against France, to operate with two armies on the
north-western frontier against the French armée des Alpes, of which the
war strength is about 250,000 men. A third Italian army would, if
expedient, pass into Germany, to operate against either France or Russia.
Austria undertook to guard the Adriatic on land and sea, and to help
Germany by checkmating Russia on land. Germany would be sufficiently
employed in carrying on war against two fronts. Kalnóky desired that both
the terms of the treaty and the fact of its conclusion should remain
secret, but Bismarck and Mancini hastened to hint at its existence, the
former in the Reichstag on the 12th of June 1882, and the latter in the
Italian semi-official press. A revival of Irredentism in connexion with
the execution of an Austrian deserter named Oberdank, who after escaping
into Italy endeavoured to return to Austria with explosive bombs in his
possession, and the cordial references to France made by Depretis at
Stradella (8th October 1882), prevented the French government from
suspecting the existence of the alliance, or from ceasing to strive after
a Franco-Italian understanding. Suspicion was not aroused until March
1883, when Mancini, in defending himself against strictures upon his
refusal to co-operate with Great Britain in Egypt, practically revealed
the existence of the treaty, thereby irritating France and destroying
Depretis's secret hope of finding in the triple alliance the advantage of
an Austro-German guarantee without the disadvantage of French enmity. In
Italy the revelation of the treaty was hailed with satisfaction except by
the Clericals, who were enraged at the blow thus struck at the restoration
of the pope's temporal power, and by the Radicals, who feared both the
inevitable breach with republican France and the reinforcement of Italian
constitutional parties by intimacy with strong monarchical states such as
Germany and Austria. These very considerations naturally combined to
recommend the fact to constitutionalists, who saw in it, besides the
territorial guarantee, the elimination of the danger of foreign
interference in the relations between Italy and the Vatican, such as
Bismarck had recently threatened and such as France was believed ready to
propose.


  First renewal of the Triple Alliance.

Nevertheless, during its first period (1882-1887) the triple alliance
failed to ensure cordiality between the contracting Powers. Mancini
exerted himself in a hundred ways to soothe French resentment. He not
only refused to join Great Britain in the Egyptian expedition, but
agreed to suspend Italian consular jurisdiction in Tunis, and deprecated
suspicion of French designs upon Morocco. His efforts were worse than
futile. France remained cold, while Bismarck and Kalnóky, distrustful of
the Radicalism of Depretis and Mancini, assumed towards their ally an
attitude almost hostile. Possibly Germany and Austria may have been
influenced by the secret treaty signed between Austria, Germany and
Russia on the 21st of March 1884, and ratified during the meeting of the
three emperors at Skierniewice in September of that year, by which
Bismarck, in return for "honest brokerage" in the Balkans, is understood
to have obtained from Austria and Russia a promise of benevolent
neutrality in case Germany should be "forced" to make war upon a fourth
power--France. Guaranteed thus against Russian attack, Italy became in
the eyes of the central powers a negligible quantity, and was treated
accordingly. Though kept in the dark as to the Skierniewice arrangement,
the Italian government soon discovered from the course of events that
the triple alliance had practically lost its object, European peace
having been assured without Italian co-operation. Meanwhile France
provided Italy with fresh cause for uneasiness by abating her hostility
to Germany. Italy in consequence drew nearer to Great Britain, and at
the London conference on the Egyptian financial question sided with
Great Britain against Austria and Germany. At the same time negotiations
took place with Great Britain for an Italian occupation of Massawa, and
Mancini, dreaming of a vast Anglo-Italian enterprise against the Mahdi,
expatiated in the spring of 1885 upon the glories of an Anglo-Italian
alliance, an indiscretion which drew upon him a scarcely-veiled
_démenti_ from London. Again speaking in the Chamber, Mancini claimed
for Italy the principal merit in the conclusion of the triple alliance,
but declared that the alliance left Italy full liberty of action in
regard to interests outside its scope, "especially as there was no
possibility of obtaining protection for such interests from those who by
the alliance had not undertaken to protect them." These words, which
revealed the absence of any stipulation in regard to the protection of
Italian interests in the Mediterranean, created lively dissatisfaction
in Italy and corresponding satisfaction in France. They hastened
Mancini's downfall (17th June 1885), and prepared the advent of count di
Robilant, who three months later succeeded Mancini at the Italian
Foreign Office. Robilant, for whom the Skierniewice pact was no secret,
followed a firmly independent policy throughout the Bulgarian crisis of
1885-1886, declining to be drawn into any action beyond that required by
the treaty of Berlin and the protection of Italian interests in the
Balkans. Italy, indeed, came out of the Eastern crisis with enhanced
prestige and with her relations to Austria greatly improved. Towards
Prince Bismarck Robilant maintained an attitude of dignified
independence, and as, in the spring of 1886, the moment for the renewal
of the triple alliance drew near, he profited by the development of the
Bulgarian crisis and the threatened Franco-Russian understanding to
secure from the central powers "something more" than the bare
territorial guarantee of the original treaty. This "something more"
consisted, at least in part, of the arrangement, with the help of
Austria and Germany, of an Anglo-Italian naval understanding having
special reference to the Eastern question, but providing for common
action by the British and Italian fleets in the Mediterranean in case of
war. A vote of the Italian Chamber on the 4th of February 1887, in
connexion with the disaster to Italian troops at Dogali, in Abyssinia,
brought about the resignation of the Depretis-Robilant cabinet. The
crisis dragged for three months, and before its definitive solution by
the formation of a Depretis-Crispi ministry, Robilant succeeded (17th
March 1887) in renewing the triple alliance on terms more favourable to
Italy than those obtained in 1882. Not only did he secure concessions
from Austria and Germany corresponding in some degree to the improved
state of the Italian army and navy, but, in virtue of the Anglo-Italian
understanding, assured the practical adhesion of Great Britain to the
European policy of the central powers, a triumph probably greater than
any registered by Italian diplomacy since the completion of national
unity.


  Internal reforms.

  The railway conventions.

The period between May 1881 and July 1887 occupied, in the region of
foreign affairs, by the negotiation, conclusion and renewal of the
triple alliance, by the Bulgarian crisis and by the dawn of an Italian
colonial policy, was marked at home by urgent political and economic
problems, and by the parliamentary phenomena known as _trasformismo_. On
the 29th of June 1881 the Chamber adopted a Franchise Reform Bill, which
increased the electorate from 600,000 to 2,000,000 by lowering the
fiscal qualification from 40 to 19.80 lire in direct taxation, and by
extending the suffrage to all persons who had passed through the two
lower standards of the elementary schools, and practically to all
persons able to read and write. The immediate result of the reform was
to increase the political influence of large cities where the proportion
of illiterate workmen was lower than in the country districts, and to
exclude from the franchise numbers of peasants and small proprietors
who, though of more conservative temperament and of better economic
position than the artizan population of the large towns, were often
unable to fulfil the scholarship qualification. On the 12th of April
1883 the forced currency was formally abolished by the resumption of
treasury payments in gold with funds obtained through a loan of
£14,500,000 issued in London on the 5th of May 1882. Owing to the
hostility of the French market, the loan was covered with difficulty,
and, though the gold premium fell and commercial exchanges were
temporarily facilitated by the resumption of cash payments, it is
doubtful whether these advantages made up for the burden of £640,000
additional annual interest thrown upon the exchequer. On the 6th of
March 1885 parliament finally sanctioned the conventions by which state
railways were farmed out to three private companies--the Mediterranean,
Adriatic and Sicilian. The railways redeemed in 1875-1876 had been
worked in the interval by the government at a heavy loss. A commission
of inquiry reported in favour of private management. The conventions,
concluded for a period of sixty years, but terminable by either party
after twenty or forty years, retained for the state the possession of
the lines (except the southern railway, viz. the line from Bologna to
Brindisi belonging to the Società Meridionale to whom the Adriatic lines
were now farmed), but sold rolling stock to the companies, arranged
various schedules of state subsidy for lines projected or in course of
construction, guaranteed interest on the bonds of the companies and
arranged for the division of revenue between the companies, the reserve
fund and the state. National control of the railways was secured by a
proviso that the directors must be of Italian nationality. Depretis and
his colleague Genala, minister of public works, experienced great
difficulty in securing parliamentary sanction for the conventions, not
so much on account of their defective character, as from the opposition
of local interests anxious to extort new lines from the government. In
fact, the conventions were only voted by a majority of twenty-three
votes after the government had undertaken to increase the length of new
state-built lines from 1500 to 2500 kilometres. Unfortunately, the
calculation of probable railway revenue on which the conventions had
been based proved to be enormously exaggerated. For many years the 37½%
of the gross revenue (less the cost of maintaining the rolling stock,
incumbent on the state) scarcely sufficed to pay the interest on debts
incurred for railway construction and on the guaranteed bonds. Gradually
the increase of traffic consequent upon the industrial development of
Italy decreased the annual losses of the state, but the position of the
government in regard to the railways still remained so unsatisfactory as
to render the resumption of the whole system by the state on the
expiration of the first period of twenty years in 1905 inevitable.


  Finance.

Intimately bound up with the forced currency, the railway conventions
and public works was the financial question in general. From 1876, when
equilibrium between expenditure and revenue had first been attained,
taxation yielded steady annual surpluses, which in 1881 reached the
satisfactory level of £2,120,000. The gradual abolition of the grist tax
on minor cereals diminished the surplus in 1882 to £236,000, and in 1883
to £110,000, while the total repeal of the grist tax on wheat, which
took effect on the 1st of January 1884, coincided with the opening of a
new and disastrous period of deficit. True, the repeal of the grist tax
was not the only, nor possibly even the principal, cause of the deficit.
The policy of "fiscal transformation" inaugurated by the Left increased
revenue from indirect taxation from £17,000,000 in 1876 to more than
£24,000,000 in 1887, by substituting heavy corn duties for the grist
tax, and by raising the sugar and petroleum duties to unprecedented
levels. But partly from lack of firm financial administration, partly
through the increase of military and naval expenditure (which in 1887
amounted to £9,000,000 for the army, while special efforts were made to
strengthen the navy), and principally through the constant drain of
railway construction and public works, the demands upon the exchequer
grew largely to exceed the normal increase of revenue, and necessitated
the contraction of new debts. In their anxiety to remain in office
Depretis and the finance minister, Magliani, never hesitated to mortgage
the financial future of their country. No concession could be denied to
deputies, or groups of deputies, whose support was indispensable to the
life of the cabinet, nor, under such conditions, was it possible to
place any effective check upon administrative abuses in which
politicians or their electors were interested. Railways, roads and
harbours which contractors had undertaken to construct for reasonable
amounts were frequently made to cost thrice the original estimates.
Minghetti, in a trenchant exposure of the parliamentary condition of
Italy during this period, cites a case in which a credit for certain
public works was, during a debate in the Chamber, increased by the
government from £6,600,000 to £9,000,000 in order to conciliate local
political interests. In the spring of 1887 Genala, minister of public
works, was taken to task for having sanctioned expenditure of
£80,000,000 on railway construction while only £40,000,000 had been
included in the estimates. As most of these credits were spread over a
series of years, succeeding administrations found their financial
liberty of action destroyed, and were obliged to cover deficit by
constant issues of consolidated stock. Thus the deficit of £940,000 for
the financial year 1885-1886 rose to nearly £2,920,000 in 1887-1888, and
in 1888-1889 attained the terrible level of £9,400,000.

Nevertheless, in spite of many and serious shortcomings, the long series
of Depretis administrations was marked by the adoption of some useful
measures. Besides the realization of the formal programme of the Left,
consisting of the repeal of the grist tax, the abolition of the forced
currency, the extension of the suffrage and the development of the
railway system, Depretis laid the foundation for land tax re-assessment
by introducing a new cadastral survey. Unfortunately, the new survey was
made largely optional, so that provinces which had reason to hope for a
diminution of land tax under a revised assessment hastened to complete
their survey, while others, in which the average of the land tax was
below a normal assessment, neglected to comply with the provisions of
the scheme. An important undertaking, known as the Agricultural Inquiry,
brought to light vast quantities of information valuable for future
agrarian legislation. The year 1885 saw the introduction and adoption of
a measure embodying the principle of employers' liability for accidents
to workmen, a principle subsequently extended and more equitably defined
in the spring of 1899. An effort to encourage the development of the
mercantile marine was made in the same year, and a convention was
concluded with the chief lines of passenger steamers to retain their
fastest vessels as auxiliaries to the fleet in case of war. Sanitation
and public hygiene received a potent impulse from the cholera epidemic
of 1884, many of the unhealthiest quarters in Naples and other cities
being demolished and rebuilt, with funds chiefly furnished by the state.
The movement was strongly supported by King Humbert, whose intrepidity
in visiting the most dangerous spots at Busca and Naples while the
epidemic was at its height, reassuring the panic-stricken inhabitants by
his presence, excited the enthusiasm of his people and the admiration of
Europe.


  "Trasformismo."

During the accomplishment of these and other reforms the condition of
parliament underwent profound change. By degrees the administrations of
the Left had ceased to rely solely upon the Liberal sections of the
Chamber, and had carried their most important bills with the help of the
Right. This process of transformation was not exclusively the work of
Depretis, but had been initiated as early as 1873, when a portion of the
Right under Minghetti had, by joining the Left, overturned the
Lanza-Sella cabinet. In 1876 Minghetti himself had fallen a victim to a
similar defection of Conservative deputies. The practical annihilation
of the old Right in the elections of 1876 opened a new parliamentary
era. Reduced in number to less than one hundred, and radically changed
in spirit and composition, the Right gave way, if not to despair, at
least to a despondency unsuited to an opposition party. Though on more
than one occasion personal rancour against the men of the Moderate Left
prevented the Right from following Sella's advice and regaining, by
timely coalition with cognate parliamentary elements, a portion of its
former influence, the bulk of the party, with singular inconsistency,
drew nearer and nearer to the Liberal cabinets. The process was
accelerated by Sella's illness and death (14th March 1884), an event
which cast profound discouragement over the more thoughtful of the
Conservatives and Moderate Liberals, by whom Sella had been regarded as
a supreme political reserve, as a statesman whose experienced vigour and
patriotic sagacity might have been trusted to lift Italy from any depth
of folly or misfortune. By a strange anomaly the Radical measures
brought forward by the Left diminished instead of increasing the
distance between it and the Conservatives. Numerically insufficient to
reject such measures, and lacking the fibre and the cohesion necessary
for the pursuance of a far-sighted policy, the Right thought prudent not
to employ its strength in uncompromising opposition, but rather, by
supporting the government, to endeavour to modify Radical legislation in
a Conservative sense. In every case the calculation proved fallacious.
Radical measures were passed unmodified, and the Right was compelled
sadly to accept the accomplished fact. Thus it was with the abolition of
the grist tax, the reform of the suffrage, the railway conventions and
many other bills. When, in course of time, the extended suffrage
increased the Republican and Extreme Radical elements in the Chamber,
and the Liberal "Pentarchy" (composed of Crispi, Cairoli, Nicotera,
Zanardelli and Baccarini) assumed an attitude of bitter hostility to
Depretis, the Right, obeying the impulse of Minghetti, rallied openly to
Depretis, lending him aid without which his prolonged term of office
would have been impossible. The result was parliamentary chaos, baptized
_trasformismo_. In May 1883 this process received official recognition
by the elimination of the Radicals Zanardelli and Baccarini from the
Depretis cabinet, while in the course of 1884 a Conservative, Signor
Biancheri, was elected to the presidency of the Chamber, and another
Conservative, General Ricotti, appointed to the War Office. Though
Depretis, at the end of his life in 1887, showed signs of repenting of
the confusion thus created, he had established a parliamentary system
destined largely to sterilize and vitiate the political life of Italy.


  Colonial policy.

Contemporaneously with the vicissitudes of home and foreign policy under
the Left there grew up in Italy a marked tendency towards colonial
enterprise. The tendency itself dated from 1869, when a congress of the
Italian chambers of commerce at Genoa had urged the Lanza cabinet to
establish a commercial depôt on the Red Sea. On the 11th of March 1870
an Italian shipper, Signor Rubattino, had bought the bay of Assab, with
the neighbouring island of Darmakieh, from Beheran, sultan of Raheita,
for £1880, the funds being furnished by the government. The Egyptian
government being unwilling to recognize the sovereignty of Beheran over
Assab or his right to sell territory to a foreign power,
Visconti-Venosta thought it opportune not then to occupy Assab. No
further step was taken until, at the end of 1879, Rubattino prepared to
establish a commercial station at Assab. The British government made
inquiry as to his intentions, and on the 19th of April 1880 received a
formal undertaking from Cairoli that Assab would never be fortified nor
be made a military establishment. Meanwhile (January 1880) stores and
materials were landed, and Assab was permanently occupied. Eighteen
months later a party of Italian sailors and explorers under Lieutenant
Biglieri and Signor Giulietti were massacred in Egyptian territory.
Egypt, however, refused to make thorough inquiry into the massacre, and
was only prevented from occupying Raheita and coming into conflict with
Italy by the good offices of Lord Granville, who dissuaded the Egyptian
government from enforcing its sovereignty. On the 20th of September 1881
Beheran formally accepted Italian protection, and in the following
February an Anglo-Italian convention established the Italian title to
Assab on condition that Italy should formally recognise the suzerainty
of the Porte and of the khedive over the Red Sea coast, and should
prevent the transport of arms and munitions of war through the territory
of Assab. This convention was never recognized by the Porte nor by the
Egyptian government. A month later (10th March 1882) Rubattino made over
his establishment to the Italian government, and on the 12th of June the
Chamber adopted a bill constituting Assab an Italian crown colony.


  The Egyptian Question.

  Disaster of Dogali.

Within four weeks of the adoption of this bill the bombardment of
Alexandria by the British fleet (11th July 1882) opened an era destined
profoundly to affect the colonial position of Italy. The revolt of Arabi
Pasha (September 1881) had led to the meeting of an ambassadorial
conference at Constantinople, promoted by Mancini, Italian minister for
foreign affairs, in the hope of preventing European intervention in
Egypt and the permanent establishment of an Anglo-French condominium to
the detriment of Italian influence. At the opening of the conference
(23rd June 1882) Italy secured the signature of a self-denying protocol
whereby all the great powers undertook to avoid isolated action; but the
rapid development of the crisis in Egypt, and the refusal of France to
co-operate with Great Britain in the restoration of order, necessitated
vigorous action by the latter alone. In view of the French refusal, Lord
Granville on the 27th of July invited Italy to join in restoring order
in Egypt; but Mancini and Depretis, in spite of the efforts of Crispi,
then in London, declined the offer. Financial considerations, lack of
proper transports for an expeditionary corps, fear of displeasing
France, dislike of a "policy of adventure," misplaced deference towards
the ambassadorial conference in Constantinople, and unwillingness to
thwart the current of Italian sentiment in favour of the Egyptian
"nationalists," were the chief motives of the Italian refusal, which had
the effect of somewhat estranging Great Britain and Italy. Anglo-Italian
relations, however, regained their normal cordiality two years later,
and found expression in the support lent by Italy to the British
proposal at the London conference on the Egyptian question (July 1884).
About the same time Mancini was informed by the Italian agent in Cairo
that Great Britain would be well disposed towards an extension of
Italian influence on the Red Sea coast. Having sounded Lord Granville,
Mancini received encouragement to seize Beilul and Massawa, in view of
the projected restriction of the Egyptian zone of military occupation
consequent on the Mahdist rising in the Sudan. Lord Granville further
inquired whether Italy would co-operate in pacifying the Sudan, and
received an affirmative reply. Italian action was hastened by news that,
in December 1884, an exploring party under Signor Bianchi, royal
commissioner for Assab, had been massacred in the Aussa (Danakil)
country, an event which aroused in Italy a desire to punish the
assassins and to obtain satisfaction for the still unpunished massacre
of Signor Giulietti and his companions. Partly to satisfy public
opinion, partly in order to profit by the favourable disposition of the
British government, and partly in the hope of remedying the error
committed in 1882 by refusal to co-operate with Great Britain in Egypt,
the Italian government in January 1885 despatched an expedition under
Admiral Caimi and Colonel Saletta to occupy Massawa and Beilul. The
occupation, effected on the 5th of February, was accelerated by fear
lest Italy might be forestalled by France or Russia, both of which
powers were suspected of desiring to establish themselves firmly on the
Red Sea and to exercise a protectorate over Abyssinia. News of the
occupation reached Europe simultaneously with the tidings of the fall of
Khartum, an event which disappointed Italian hopes of military
co-operation with Great Britain in the Sudan. The resignation of the
Gladstone-Granville cabinet further precluded the projected Italian
occupation of Suakin, and the Italians, wisely refraining from an
independent attempt to succour Kassala, then besieged by the Mahdists,
bent their efforts to the increase of their zone of occupation around
Massawa. The extension of the Italian zone excited the suspicions of
John, negus of Abyssinia, whose apprehensions were assiduously fomented
by Alula, ras of Tigré, and by French and Greek adventurers. Measures,
apparently successful, were taken to reassure the negus, but shortly
afterwards protection inopportunely accorded by Italy to enemies of Ras
Alula, induced the Abyssinians to enter upon hostilities. In January
1886 Ras Alula raided the village of Wa, to the west of Zula, but
towards the end of the year (23rd November) Wa was occupied by the
irregular troops of General Gené, who had superseded Colonel Saletta at
Massawa. Angered by this step, Ras Alula took prisoners the members of
an Italian exploring party commanded by Count Salimbeni, and held them
as hostages for the evacuation of Wa. General Gené nevertheless
reinforced Wa and pushed forward a detachment to Saati. On the 25th of
January 1887 Ras Alula attacked Saati, but was repulsed with loss. On
the following day, however, the Abyssinians succeeded in surprising,
near the village of Dogali, an Italian force of 524 officers and men
under Colonel De Cristoforis, who were convoying provisions to the
garrison of Saati. The Abyssinians, 20,000 strong, speedily overwhelmed
the small Italian force, which, after exhausting its ammunition, was
destroyed where it stood. One man only escaped. Four hundred and seven
men and twenty-three officers were killed outright, and one officer and
eighty-one men wounded. Dead and wounded alike were horribly mutilated
by order of Alula. Fearing a new attack, General Gené withdrew his
forces from Saati, Wa and Arafali; but the losses of the Abyssinians at
Saati and Dogali had been so heavy as to dissuade Alula from further
hostilities.


  Abyssinia.

  Treaty of Uccialli.

In Italy the disaster of Dogali produced consternation, and caused the
fall of the Depretis-Robilant cabinet. The Chamber, eager for revenge,
voted a credit of £200,000, and sanctioned the despatch of
reinforcements. Meanwhile Signor Crispi, who, though averse from
colonial adventure, desired to vindicate Italian honour, entered the
Depretis cabinet as minister of the interior, and obtained from
parliament a new credit of £800,000. In November 1887 a strong
expedition under General di San Marzano raised the strength of the
Massawa garrison to nearly 20,000 men. The British government, desirous
of preventing an Italo-Abyssinian conflict, which could but strengthen
the position of the Mahdists, despatched Mr (afterwards Sir) Gerald
Portal from Massawa on the 29th of October to mediate with the negus.
The mission proved fruitless. Portal returned to Massawa on the 25th of
December 1887, and warned the Italians that John was preparing to attack
them in the following spring with an army of 100,000 men. On the 28th of
March 1888 the negus indeed descended from the Abyssinian high plateau
in the direction of Saati, but finding the Italian position too strong
to be carried by assault, temporized and opened negotiations for peace.
His tactics failed to entice the Italians from their position, and on
the 3rd of April sickness among his men compelled John to withdraw the
Abyssinian army. The negus next marched against Menelek, king of Shoa,
whose neutrality Italy had purchased with 5000 Remington rifles and a
supply of ammunition, but found him with 80,000 men too strongly
entrenched to be successfully attacked. Tidings of a new Mahdist
incursion into Abyssinian territory reaching the negus induced him to
postpone the settlement of his quarrel with Menelek until the dervishes
had been chastised. Marching towards the Blue Nile, he joined battle
with the Mahdists, but on the 10th of March 1889 was killed, in the hour
of victory, near Gallabat. His death gave rise to an Abyssinian war of
succession between Mangashà, natural son of John, and Menelek, grandson
of the Negus Sella-Sellassié. Menelek, by means of Count Antonelli,
resident in the Shoa country, requested Italy to execute a diversion in
his favour by occupying Asmarà and other points on the high plateau.
Antonelli profited by the situation to obtain Menelek's signature to a
treaty fixing the frontiers of the Italian colony and defining
Italo-Abyssinian relations. The treaty, signed at Uccialli on the 2nd of
May 1899, arranged for regular intercourse between Italy and Abyssinia
and conceded to Italy a portion of the high plateau, with the positions
of Halai, Saganeiti and Asmarà. The main point of the treaty, however,
lay in clause 17:--

  "His Majesty the king of kings of Ethiopia _consents_ to make use of
  the government of His Majesty the king of Italy for the treatment of
  all questions concerning other powers and governments."

Upon this clause Italy founded her claim to a protectorate over
Abyssinia. In September 1889 the treaty of Uccialli was ratified in
Italy by Menelek's lieutenant, the Ras Makonnen. Makonnen further
concluded with the Italian premier, Crispi, a convention whereby Italy
recognized Menelek as emperor of Ethiopia, Menelek recognized the
Italian colony, and arranged for a special Italo-Abyssinian currency and
for a loan. On the 11th of October Italy communicated article 17 of the
treaty of Uccialli to the European powers, interpreting it as a valid
title to an Italian protectorate over Abyssinia. Russia alone neglected
to take note of the communication, and persisted in the hostile attitude
she had assumed at the moment of the occupation of Massawa. Meanwhile
the Italian mint coined thalers bearing the portrait of King Humbert,
with an inscription referring to the Italian protectorate, and on the
1st of January 1890 a royal decree conferred upon the colony the name of
"Eritrea."


  Operations in Abyssinia.

In the colony itself General Baldissera, who had replaced General
Saletta, delayed the movement against Mangashà desired by Menelek. The
Italian general would have preferred to wait until his intervention was
requested by both pretenders to the Abyssinian throne. Pressed by the
home government, he, however, instructed a native ally to occupy the
important positions of Keren and Asmarà, and prepared himself to take
the offensive against Mangashà and Ras Alula. The latter retreated south
of the river Mareb, leaving the whole of the cis-Mareb territory,
including the provinces of Hamasen, Agameh, Seraè and Okulè-Kusai, in
Italian hands. General Orero, successor of Baldissera, pushed offensive
action more vigorously, and on the 26th of January 1890 entered Adowa, a
city considerably to the south of the Mareb--an imprudent step which
aroused Menelek's suspicions, and had hurriedly to be retraced.
Mangashà, seeing further resistance to be useless, submitted to Menelek,
who at the end of February ratified at Makallé the additional
convention to the treaty of Uccialli, but refused to recognize the
Italian occupation of the Mareb. The negus, however, conformed to
article 17 of the treaty of Uccialli by requesting Italy to represent
Abyssinia at the Brussels anti-slavery conference, an act which
strengthened Italian illusions as to Menelek's readiness to submit to
their protectorate. Menelek had previously notified the chief European
powers of his coronation at Entotto (14th December 1889), but Germany
and Great Britain replied that such notification should have been made
through the Italian government. Germany, moreover, wounded Menelek's
pride by employing merely the title of "highness." The negus took
advantage of the incident to protest against the Italian text of article
17, and to contend that the Amharic text contained no equivalent for the
word "_consent_," but merely stipulated that Abyssinia "_might_" make
use of Italy in her relations with foreign powers. On the 28th of
October 1890 Count Antonelli, negotiator of the treaty, was despatched
to settle the controversy, but on arriving at Adis Ababa, the new
residence of the negus, found agreement impossible either with regard to
the frontier or the protectorate. On the 10th of April 1891, Menelek
communicated to the powers his views with regard to the Italian
frontier, and announced his intention of re-establishing the ancient
boundaries of Ethiopia as far as Khartum to the north-west and Victoria
Nyanza to the south. Meanwhile the marquis de Rudini, who had succeeded
Crispi as Italian premier, had authorized the abandonment of article 17
even before he had heard of the failure of Antonelli's negotiations.
Rudini was glad to leave the whole dispute in abeyance and to make with
the local ras, or chieftains, of the high plateau an arrangement
securing for Italy the cis-Mareb provinces of Seraè and Okulè-Kusai
under the rule of an allied native chief named Bath-Agos. Rudini,
however, was able to conclude two protocols with Great Britain (March
and April 1891) whereby the British government definitely recognized
Abyssinia as within the Italian sphere of influence in return for an
Italian recognition of British rights in the Upper Nile.


  First Crispi Cabinet.

  Tosti and conciliation.

  Terms of the "Roman Question."

The period 1887-1890 was marked in Italy by great political activity.
The entry of Crispi into the Depretis cabinet as minister of the
interior (4th April 1887) introduced into the government an element of
vigour which had long been lacking. Though sixty-eight years of age,
Crispi possessed an activity, a rapidity of decision and an energy in
execution with which none of his contemporaries could vie. Within four
months the death of Depretis (29th July 1887) opened for Crispi the way
to the premiership. Besides assuming the presidency of the council of
ministers and retaining the ministry of the interior, Crispi took over
the portfolio of foreign affairs which Depretis had held since the
resignation of Count di Robilant. One of the first questions with which
he had to deal was that of conciliation between Italy and the Vatican.
At the end of May the pope, in an allocution to the cardinals, had
spoken of Italy in terms of unusual cordiality, and had expressed a wish
for peace. A few days later Signor Bonghi, one of the framers of the Law
of Guarantees, published in the _Nuova Antologia_ a plea for
reconciliation on the basis of an amendment to the Law of Guarantees and
recognition by the pope of the Italian title to Rome. The chief incident
cf the movement towards conciliation consisted, however, in the
publication of a pamphlet entitled _La Conciliazione_ by Father Tosti, a
close friend and confidant of the pope, extolling the advantages of
peace between Vatican and Quirinal. Tosti's pamphlet was known to
represent papal ideas, and Tosti himself was _persona grata_ to the
Italian government. Reconciliation seemed within sight when suddenly
Tosti's pamphlet was placed on the Index, ostensibly on account of a
phrase, "The whole of Italy entered Rome by the breach of Porta Pia; the
king cannot restore Rome to the pope, since Rome belongs to the Italian
people." On the 4th of June 1887 the official Vatican organ, the
_Osservatore Romano_, published a letter written by Tosti to the pope
conditionally retracting the views expressed in the pamphlet. The letter
had been written at the pope's request, on the understanding that it
should not be published. On the 15th of June the pope addressed to
Cardinal Rampolla del Tindaro, secretary of state, a letter reiterating
in uncompromising terms the papal claim to the temporal power, and at
the end of July Cardinal Rampolla reformulated the same claim in a
circular to the papal nuncios abroad. The dream of conciliation was at
an end, but the Tosti incident had served once more to illustrate the
true position of the Vatican in regard to Italy. It became clear that
neither the influence of the regular clergy, of which the Society of
Jesus is the most powerful embodiment, nor that of foreign clerical
parties, which largely control the Peter's Pence fund, would ever permit
renunciation of the papal claim to temporal power. France, and the
French Catholics especially, feared lest conciliation should diminish
the reliance of the Vatican upon France, and consequently French hold
over the Vatican. The Vatican, for its part, felt its claim to temporal
power to be too valuable a pecuniary asset and too efficacious an
instrument of church discipline lightly to be thrown away. The legend of
an "imprisoned pope," subject to every whim of his gaolers, had never
failed to arouse the pity and loosen the purse-strings of the faithful;
dangerous innovators and would-be reformers within the church could be
compelled to bow before the symbol of the temporal power, and their
spirit of submission tested by their readiness to forgo the realization
of their aims until the head of the church should be restored to his
rightful domain. More important than all was the interest of the Roman
curia, composed almost exclusively of Italians, to retain in its own
hands the choice of the pontiff and to maintain the predominance of the
Italian element and the Italian spirit in the ecclesiastical hierarchy.
Conciliation with Italy would expose the pope and his Italian
_entourage_ to suspicion of being unduly subject to Italian political
influence--of being, in a word, more Italian than Catholic. Such a
suspicion would inevitably lead to a movement in favour of the
internationalization of the curia and of the papacy. In order to avoid
this danger it was therefore necessary to refuse all compromise, and, by
perpetual reiteration of a claim incompatible with Italian territorial
unity, to prove to the church at large that the pope and the curia were
more Catholic than Italian. Such rigidity of principle need not be
extended to the affairs of everyday contact between the Vatican and the
Italian authorities, with regard to which, indeed, a tacit _modus
vivendi_ was easily attainable. Italy, for her part, could not go back
upon the achievements of the Risorgimento by restoring Rome or any
portion of Italian territory to the pope. She had hoped by conciliation
to arrive at an understanding which should have ranged the church among
the conservative and not among the disruptive forces of the country, but
she was keenly desirous to retain the papacy as a preponderatingly
Italian institution, and was ready to make whatever formal concessions
might have appeared necessary to reassure foreign Catholics concerning
the reality of the pope's spiritual independence. The failure of the
conciliation movement left profound irritation between Vatican and
Quirinal, an irritation which, on the Vatican side, found expression in
vivacious protests and in threats of leaving Rome; and, on the Italian
side, in the deposition of the syndic of Rome for having visited the
cardinal-vicar, in the anti-clerical provisions of the new penal code,
and in the inauguration (9th June 1889) of a monument to Giordano Bruno
on the very site of his martyrdom.

The internal situation inherited by Crispi from Depretis was very
unsatisfactory. Extravagant expenditure on railways and public works,
loose administration of finance, the cost of colonial enterprise, the
growing demands for the army and navy, the impending tariff war with
France, and the over-speculation in building and in industrial ventures,
which had absorbed all the floating capital of the country, had combined
to produce a state of affairs calling for firm and radical treatment.
Crispi, burdened by the premiership and by the two most important
portfolios in the cabinet, was, however, unable to exercise efficient
control over all departments of state. Nevertheless his administration
was by no means unfruitful. Zanardelli, minister of justice, secured in
June 1888 the adoption of a new penal code; state surveillance was
extended to the _opere pie_, or charitable institutions; municipal
franchise was reformed by granting what was practically manhood suffrage
with residential qualification, provision being made for minority
representation; and the central state administration was reformed by a
bill fixing the number and functions of the various ministries. The
management of finance was scarcely satisfactory, for though Giolitti,
who had succeeded Magliani and Perazzi at the treasury, suppressed the
former's illusory "pension fund," he lacked the fibre necessary to deal
with the enormous deficit of nearly £10,000,000 in 1888-1889, the
existence of which both Perazzi and he had recognized. The most
successful feature of Crispi's term of office was his strict maintenance
of order and the suppression of Radical and Irredentist agitation. So
vigorous was his treatment of Irredentism that he dismissed without
warning his colleague Seismit Doda, minister of finance, for having
failed to protest against Irredentist speeches delivered in his presence
at Udine. Firmness such as this secured for him the support of all
constitutional elements, and after three years' premiership his position
was infinitely stronger than at the outset. The general election of 1890
gave the cabinet an almost unwieldy majority, comprising four-fifths of
the Chamber. A lengthy term of office seemed to be opening out before
him when, on the 31st of January 1891, Crispi, speaking in a debate upon
an unimportant bill, angrily rebuked the Right for its noisy
interruptions. The rebuke infuriated the Conservative deputies, who,
protesting against Crispi's words in the name of the "sacred memories"
of their party, precipitated a division and placed the cabinet in a
minority. The incident, whether due to chance or guile, brought about
the resignation of Crispi. A few days later he was succeeded in the
premiership by the marquis di Rudini, leader of the Right, who formed a
coalition cabinet with Nicotera and a part of the Left.


  Rudini.

  Second renewal of the Triple Alliance.

  Giolitti.

The sudden fall of Crispi wrought a great change in the character of
Italian relations with foreign powers. His policy had been characterized
by extreme cordiality towards Austria and Germany, by a close
understanding with Great Britain in regard to Mediterranean questions,
and by an apparent animosity towards France, which at one moment seemed
likely to lead to war. Shortly before the fall of the Depretis-Robilant
cabinet Count Robilant had announced the intention of Italy to denounce
the commercial treaties with France and Austria, which would lapse on
the 31st of December 1887, and had intimated his readiness to negotiate
new treaties. On the 24th of June 1887, in view of a possible rupture of
commercial relations with France, the Depretis-Crispi cabinet introduced
a new general tariff. The probability of the conclusion of a new
Franco-Italian treaty was small, both on account of the protectionist
spirit of France and of French resentment at the renewal of the triple
alliance, but even such slight probability vanished after a visit paid
to Bismarck by Crispi (October 1887) within three months of his
appointment to the premiership. Crispi entertained no a priori animosity
towards France, but was strongly convinced that Italy must emancipate
herself from the position of political dependence on her powerful
neighbour which had vitiated the foreign policy of the Left. So far was
he from desiring a rupture with France, that he had subordinated
acceptance of the portfolio of the interior in the Depretis cabinet to
an assurance that the triple alliance contained no provision for
offensive warfare. But his ostentatious visit to Friedrichsruh, and a
subsequent speech at Turin, in which, while professing sentiments of
friendship and esteem for France, he eulogized the personality of
Bismarck, aroused against him a hostility on the part of the French
which he was never afterwards able to allay. France was equally careless
of Italian susceptibilities, and in April 1888 Goblet made a futile but
irritating attempt to enforce at Massawa the Ottoman régime of the
capitulations in regard to non-Italian residents. In such circumstances
the negotiations for the new commercial treaty could but fail, and
though the old treaty was prolonged by special arrangement for two
months, differential tariffs were put in force on both sides of the
frontier on the 29th of February 1888. The value of French exports into
Italy decreased immediately by one-half, while Italian exports to France
decreased by nearly two-thirds. At the end of 1889 Crispi abolished the
differential duties against French imports and returned to the general
Italian tariff, but France declined to follow his lead and maintained
her prohibitive dues. Meanwhile the enthusiastic reception accorded to
the young German emperor on the occasion of his visit to Rome in October
1888, and the cordiality shown towards King Humbert and Crispi at Berlin
in May 1889, increased the tension of Franco-Italian relations; nor was
it until after the fall of Prince Bismarck in March 1890 that Crispi
adopted towards the Republic a more friendly attitude by sending an
Italian squadron to salute President Carnot at Toulon. The chief
advantage derived by Italy from Crispi's foreign policy was the increase
of confidence in her government on the part of her allies and of Great
Britain. On the occasion of the incident raised by Goblet with regard to
Massawa, Bismarck made it clear to France that, in case of
complications, Italy would not stand alone; and when in February 1888 a
strong French fleet appeared to menace the Italian coast, the British
Mediterranean squadron demonstrated its readiness to support Italian
naval dispositions. Moreover, under Crispi's hand Italy awoke from the
apathy of former years and gained consciousness of her place in the
world. The conflict with France, the operations in Eritrea, the vigorous
interpretation of the triple alliance, the questions of Morocco and
Bulgaria, were all used by him as means to stimulate national sentiment.
With the instinct of a true statesman, he felt the pulse of the people,
divined their need for prestige, and their preference for a government
heavy-handed rather than lax. How great had been Crispi's power was seen
by contrast with the policy of the Rudini cabinet which succeeded him in
February 1891. Crispi's so-called "megalomania" gave place to
retrenchment in home affairs and to a deferential attitude towards all
foreign powers. The premiership of Rudini was hailed by the Radical
leader, Cavallotti, as a pledge of the non-renewal of the triple
alliance, against which the Radicals began a vociferous campaign. Their
tactics, however, produced a contrary effect, for Rudini, accepting
proposals from Berlin, renewed the alliance in June 1891 for a period of
twelve years. None of Rudini's public utterances justify the supposition
that he assumed office with the intention of allowing the alliance to
lapse on its expiry in May 1892; indeed, he frankly declared it to form
the basis of his foreign policy. The attitude of several of his
colleagues was more equivocal, but though they coquetted with French
financiers in the hope of obtaining the support of the Paris Bourse for
Italian securities, the precipitate renewal of the alliance destroyed
all probability of a close understanding with France. The desire of
Rudini to live on the best possible terms with all powers was further
evinced in the course of a visit paid to Monza by M. de Giers in October
1891, when the Russian statesman was apprised of the entirely defensive
nature of Italian engagements under the triple alliance. At the same
time he carried to a successful conclusion negotiations begun by Crispi
for the renewal of commercial treaties with Austria and Germany upon
terms which to some extent compensated Italy for the reduction of her
commerce with France, and concluded with Great Britain conventions for
the delimitation of British and Italian spheres of influence in
north-east Africa. In home affairs his administration was weak and
vacillating, nor did the economies effected in naval and military
expenditure and in other departments suffice to strengthen the position
of a cabinet which had disappointed the hopes of its supporters. On the
14th of April 1892 dissensions between ministers concerning the
financial programme led to a cabinet crisis, and though Rudini succeeded
in reconstructing his administration, he was defeated in the Chamber on
the 5th of May and obliged to resign. King Humbert, who, from lack of
confidence in Rudini, had declined to allow him to dissolve parliament,
entrusted Signor Giolitti, a Piedmontese deputy, sometime treasury
minister in the Crispi cabinet, with the formation of a ministry of the
Left, which contrived to obtain six months' supply on account, and
dissolved the Chamber.


  Bank scandals.

The ensuing general election (November 1892), marked by unprecedented
violence and abuse of official pressure upon the electorate, fitly
ushered in what proved to be the most unfortunate period of Italian
history since the completion of national unity. The influence of
Giolitti was based largely upon the favour of a court clique, and
especially of Rattazzi, minister of the royal household. Early in 1893 a
scandal arose in connexion with the management of state banks, and
particularly of the Banca Romana, whose managing director, Tanlongo, had
issued £2,500,000 of duplicate bank-notes. Giolitti scarcely improved
matters by creating Tanlongo a member of the senate, and by denying in
parliament the existence of any mismanagement. The senate, however,
manifested the utmost hostility to Tanlongo, whom Giolitti, in
consequence of an interpellation in the Chamber, was compelled to
arrest. Arrests of other prominent persons followed, and on the 3rd of
February the Chamber authorized the prosecution of De Zerbi, a
Neapolitan deputy accused of corruption. On the 20th of February De
Zerbi suddenly expired. For a time Giolitti successfully opposed inquiry
into the conditions of the state banks, but on the 21st of March was
compelled to sanction an official investigation by a parliamentary
commission composed of seven members. On the 23rd of November the report
of the commission was read to the Chamber amid intense excitement. It
established that all Italian cabinets since 1880 had grossly neglected
the state banks; that the two preceding cabinets had been aware of the
irregularities committed by Tanlongo; that Tanlongo had heavily
subsidized the press, paying as much as £20,000 for that purpose in 1888
alone; that a number of deputies, including several ex-ministers, had
received from him loans of a considerable amount, which they had
apparently made no effort to refund; that Giolitti had deceived the
Chamber with regard to the state banks, and was open to suspicion of
having, after the arrest of Tanlongo, abstracted a number of documents
from the latter's papers before placing the remainder in the hands of
the judicial authorities. In spite of the gravity of the charges
formulated against many prominent men, the report merely "deplored" and
"disapproved" of their conduct, without proposing penal proceedings.
Fear of extending still farther a scandal which had already attained
huge dimensions, and the desire to avoid any further shock to national
credit, convinced the commissioners of the expediency of avoiding a long
series of prosecutions. The report, however, sealed the fate of the
Giolitti cabinet, and on the 24th of November it resigned amid general
execration.


  Aigues-Mortes massacre.

  Insurrection in Sicily.

Apart from the lack of scruple manifested by Giolitti in the bank
scandals, he exhibited incompetence in the conduct of foreign and home
affairs. On the 16th and 18th of August 1893 a number of Italian workmen
were massacred at Aigues-Mortes. The French authorities, under whose
eyes the massacre was perpetrated, did nothing to prevent or repress it,
and the mayor of Marseilles even refused to admit the wounded Italian
workmen to the municipal hospital. These occurrences provoked
anti-French demonstrations in many parts of Italy, and revived the
chronic Italian rancour against France. The Italian foreign minister,
Brin, began by demanding the punishment of the persons guilty of the
massacre, but hastened to accept as satisfactory the anodyne measures
adopted by the French government. Giolitti removed the prefect of Rome
for not having prevented an expression of popular anger, and presented
formal excuses to the French consul at Messina for a demonstration
against that consulate. In the following December the French tribunal at
Angoulême acquitted all the authors of the massacre. At home Giolitti
displayed the same weakness. Riots at Naples in August 1893 and symptoms
of unrest in Sicily found him, as usual, unprepared and vacillating. The
closing of the French market to Sicilian produce, the devastation
wrought by the phylloxera and the decrease of the sulphur trade had
combined to produce in Sicily a discontent of which Socialist agitators
took advantage to organize the workmen of the towns and the peasants of
the country into groups known as _fasci_. The movement had no
well-defined object. Here and there it was based upon a bastard
Socialism, in other places it was made a means of municipal party
warfare under the guidance of the local mafia, and in some districts it
was simply popular effervescence against the local octrois on bread and
flour. As early as January 1893 a conflict had occurred between the
police and the populace, in which several men, women and children were
killed, an occurrence used by the agitators further to inflame the
populace. Instead of maintaining a firm policy, Giolitti allowed the
movement to spread until, towards the autumn of 1893, he became alarmed
and drafted troops into the island, though in numbers insufficient to
restore order. At the moment of his fall the movement assumed the aspect
of an insurrection, and during the interval between his resignation
(24th November) and the formation of a new Crispi cabinet (10th
December) conflicts between the public forces and the rioters were
frequent. The return of Crispi to power--a return imposed by public
opinion as that of the only man capable of dealing with the desperate
situation--marked the turning-point of the crisis. Intimately acquainted
with the conditions of his native island, Crispi adopted efficacious
remedies. The _fasci_ were suppressed, Sicily was filled with troops,
the reserves were called out, a state of siege proclaimed, military
courts instituted and the whole movement crushed in a few weeks. The
chief agitators were either sentenced to heavy terms of imprisonment or
were compelled to flee the country. A simultaneous insurrection at
Massa-Carrara was crushed with similar vigour. Crispi's methods aroused
great outcry in the Radical press, but the severe sentences of the
military courts were in time tempered by the Royal prerogative of
amnesty.


  Financial crisis.

But it was not alone in regard to public order that heroic measures were
necessary. The financial situation inspired serious misgivings. While
engagements contracted by Depretis in regard to public works had more
than neutralized the normal increase of revenue from taxation, the whole
credit of the state had been affected by the severe economic and
financial crises of the years 1889-1893. The state banks, already
hampered by maladministration, were encumbered by huge quantities of
real estate which had been taken over as compensation for unredeemed
mortgages. Baron Sidney Sonnino, minister of finance in the Crispi
cabinet, found a prospective deficit of £7,080,000, and in spite of
economies was obliged to face an actual deficit of more than £6,000,000.
Drastic measures were necessary to limit expenditure and to provide new
sources of revenue. Sonnino applied, and subsequently amended, the Bank
Reform Bill passed by the previous Administration (August 10, 1893) for
the creation of a supreme state bank, the Bank of Italy, which was
entrusted with the liquidation of the insolvent Banca Romana. The new
law forbade the state banks to lend money on real estate, limited their
powers of discounting bills and securities, and reduced the maximum of
their paper currency. In order to diminish the gold premium, which under
Giolitti had risen to 16%, forced currency was given to the existing
notes of the banks of Italy, Naples and Sicily, while special state
notes were issued to meet immediate currency needs. Measures were
enforced to prevent Italian holders of consols from sending their
coupons abroad to be paid in gold, with the result that, whereas in 1893
£3,240,000 had been paid abroad in gold for the service of the January
coupons and only £680,000 in paper in Italy, the same coupon was paid a
year later with only £1,360,000 abroad and £2,540,000 at home. Economies
for more than £1,000,000, were immediately effected, taxes, calculated
to produce £2,440,000, were proposed to be placed upon land, incomes,
salt and corn, while the existing income-tax upon consols (fixed at 8%
by Cambray-Digny in 1868, and raised to 13.20% by Sella in 1870) was
increased to 20% irrespectively of the stockholders' nationality. These
proposals met with opposition so fierce as to cause a cabinet crisis,
but Sonnino who resigned office as minister of finance, returned to
power as minister of the treasury, promulgated some of his proposals by
royal decree, and in spite of vehement opposition secured their
ratification by the Chamber. The tax upon consols, which, in conjunction
with the other severe fiscal measures, was regarded abroad as a pledge
that Italy intended at all costs to avoid bankruptcy, caused a rise in
Italian stocks. When the Crispi cabinet fell in March 1896 Sonnino had
the satisfaction of seeing revenue increased by £3,400,000, expenditure
diminished by £2,800,000, the gold premium reduced from 16 to 5%,
consolidated stock at 95 instead of 72, and, notwithstanding the
expenditure necessitated by the Abyssinian War, financial equilibrium
practically restored.


  Attacks on Crispi.

While engaged in restoring order and in supporting Sonnino's courageous
struggle against bankruptcy, Crispi became the object of fierce attacks
from the Radicals, Socialists and anarchists. On the 16th of June an
attempt by an anarchist named Lega was made on Crispi's life; on the
24th of June President Carnot was assassinated by the anarchist Caserio;
and on the 30th of June an Italian journalist was murdered at Leghorn
for a newspaper attack upon anarchism--a series of outrages which led
the government to frame and parliament to adopt (11th July) a Public
Safety Bill for the prevention of anarchist propaganda and crime. At the
end of July the trial of the persons implicated in the Banca Romana
scandal revealed the fact that among the documents abstracted by
Giolitti from the papers of the bank manager, Tanlongo, were several
bearing upon Crispi's political and private life. On the 11th of
December Giolitti laid these and other papers before the Chamber, in the
hope of ruining Crispi, but upon examination most of them were found to
be worthless, and the rest of so private a nature as to be unfit for
publication. The effect of the incident was rather to increase
detestation of Giolitti than to damage Crispi. The latter, indeed,
prosecuted the former for libel and for abuse of his position when
premier, but after many vicissitudes, including the flight of Giolitti
to Berlin in order to avoid arrest, the Chamber refused authorization
for the prosecution, and the matter dropped. A fresh attempt of the same
kind was then made against Crispi by the Radical leader Cavallotti, who
advanced unproven charges of corruption and embezzlement. These attacks
were, however, unavailing to shake Crispi's position, and in the general
election of May 1895 his government obtained a majority of nearly 200
votes. Nevertheless public confidence in the efficacy of the
parliamentary system and in the honesty of politicians was seriously
diminished by these unsavoury occurrences, which, in combination with
the acquittal of all the defendants in the Banca Romana trial, and the
abandonment of the proceedings against Giolitti, reinforced to an
alarming degree the propaganda of the revolutionary parties.


  Complications in Eritrea.

The foreign policy of the second Crispi Administration, in which the
portfolio of foreign affairs was held by Baron Blanc, was, as before,
marked by a cordial interpretation of the triple alliance, and by close
accord with Great Britain. In the Armenian question Italy seconded with
energy the diplomacy of Austria and Germany, while the Italian fleet
joined the British Mediterranean squadron in a demonstration off the
Syrian coast. Graver than any foreign question were the complications in
Eritrea. Under the arrangement concluded in 1891 by Rudini with native
chiefs in regard to the Italo-Abyssinian frontier districts, relations
with Abyssinia had remained comparatively satisfactory. Towards the
Sudan, however, the Mahdists, who had recovered from a defeat inflicted
by an Italian force at Agordat in 1890, resumed operations in December
1893. Colonel Arimondi, commander of the colonial forces in the absence
of the military governor, General Baratieri, attacked and routed a
dervish force 10,000 strong on the 21st of December. The Italian troops,
mostly native levies, numbered only 2200 men. The dervish loss was more
than 1000 killed, while the total Italian casualties amounted to less
than 230. General Baratieri, upon returning to the colony, decided to
execute a _coup de main_ against the dervish base at Kassala, both in
order to relieve pressure from that quarter and to preclude a combined
Abyssinian and dervish attack upon the colony at the end of 1894. The
protocol concluded with Great Britain on the 15th of April 1891, already
referred to, contained a clause to the effect that, were Kassala
occupied by the Italians, the place should be transferred to the
Egyptian government as soon as the latter should be in a position to
restore order in the Sudan. Concentrating a little army of 2600 men,
Baratieri surprised and captured Kassala on the 17th of July 1894, and
garrisoned the place with native levies under Italian officers.
Meanwhile Menelek, jealous of the extension of Italian influence to a
part of northern Somaliland and to the Benadir coast, had, with the
support of France and Russia, completed his preparations for asserting
his authority as independent ruler of Ethiopia. On the 11th of May 1893
he denounced the treaty of Uccialli, but the Giolitti cabinet, absorbed
by the bank scandals, paid no heed to his action. Possibly an adroit
repetition in favour of Mangashà and against Menelek of the policy
formerly followed in favour of Menelek against the negus John might have
consolidated Italian influence in Abyssinia by preventing the ascendancy
of any single chieftain. The Italian government, however, neglected this
opening, and Mangashà came to terms with Menelek. Consequently the
efforts of Crispi and his envoy, Colonel Piano, to conclude a new treaty
with Menelek in June 1894 not only proved unsuccessful, but formed a
prelude to troubles on the Italo-Abyssinian frontier. Bath-Agos, the
native chieftain who ruled the Okulé-Kusai and the cis-Mareb provinces
on behalf of Italy, intrigued with Mangashà, ras of the trans-Mareb
province of Tigre, and with Menelek, to raise a revolt against Italian
rule on the high plateau. In December 1894 the revolt broke out, but
Major Toselli with a small force marched rapidly against Bath Agos, whom
he routed and killed at Halai. General Baratieri, having reason to
suspect the complicity of Mangashà in the revolt, called upon him to
furnish troops for a projected Italo-Abyssinian campaign against the
Mahdists. Mangashà made no reply, and Baratieri crossing the Mareb
advanced to Adowa, but four days later was obliged to return northwards.
Mangashà thereupon took the offensive and attempted to occupy the
village of Coatit in Okulé-Kusai, but was forestalled and defeated by
Baratieri on the 13th of January 1895. Hurriedly retreating to Senafé,
hard pressed by the Italians, who shelled Senafé on the evening of the
15th of January, Mangashà was obliged to abandon his camp and provisions
to Baratieri, who also secured a quantity of correspondence establishing
the complicity of Menelek and Mangashà in the revolt of Bath-Agos.


  Conquest of Tigre.

  Battle of Adowa.

The comparatively facile success achieved by Baratieri against Mangashà
seems to have led him to undervalue his enemy, and to forget that
Menelek, negus and king of Shoa, had an interest in allowing Mangashà to
be crushed, in order that the imperial authority and the superiority of
Shoan over Tigrin arms might be the more strikingly asserted. After
obtaining the establishment of an apostolic prefecture in Eritrea under
the charge of Italian Franciscans, Baratieri expelled from the colony
the French Lazarist missionaries for their alleged complicity in the
Bath-Agos insurrection, and in March 1895 undertook the conquest of
Tigre. Occupying Adigrat and Makallè, he reached Adowa on the 1st of
April, and thence pushed forward to Axum, the holy city of Abyssinia.
These places were garrisoned, and during the rainy season Baratieri
returned to Italy, where he was received with unbounded enthusiasm.
Whether he or the Crispi cabinet had any inkling of the enterprise to
which they were committed by the occupation of Tigre is more than
doubtful. Certainly Baratieri made no adequate preparations to repel an
Abyssinian attempt to reconquer the province. Early in September both
Mangashà and Menelek showed signs of activity, and on the 20th of
September Makonnen, ras of Harrar, who up till then had been regarded as
a friend and quasi-ally by Italy, expelled all Italians from his
territory and marched with 30,000 men to join the negus. On returning to
Eritrea, Baratieri mobilized his native reserves and pushed forward
columns under Major Toselli and General Arimondi as far south as Amba
Alagi. Mangashà fell back before the Italians, who obtained several
minor successes; but on the 6th of December Toselli's column, 2000
strong, which through a misunderstanding continued to hold Amba Alagi,
was almost annihilated by the Abyssinian vanguard of 40,000 men. Toselli
and all but three officers and 300 men fell at their posts after a
desperate resistance. Arimondi, collecting the survivors of the Toselli
column, retreated to Makallè and Adigrat. At Makallè, however, he left a
small garrison in the fort, which on the 7th of January 1896 was
invested by the Abyssinian army. Repeated attempts to capture the fort
having failed, Menelek and Makonnen opened negotiations with Baratieri
for its capitulation, and on the 21st of January the garrison, under
Major Galliano, who had heroically defended the position, were permitted
to march out with the honours of war. Meanwhile Baratieri received
reinforcements from Italy, but remained undecided as to the best plan of
campaign. Thus a month was lost, during which the Abyssinian army
advanced to Hausen, a position slightly south of Adowa. The Italian
commander attempted to treat with Menelek, but his negotiations merely
enabled the Italian envoy, Major Salsa, to ascertain that the
Abyssinians were nearly 100,000 strong mostly armed with rifles and well
supplied with artillery. The Italians, including camp-followers,
numbered less than 25,000 men, a force too small for effective action,
but too large to be easily provisioned at 200 m. from its base, in a
roadless, mountainous country, almost devoid of water. For a moment
Baratieri thought of retreat, especially as the hope of creating a
diversion from Zaila towards Harrar had failed in consequence of the
British refusal to permit the landing of an Italian force without the
consent of France. The defection of a number of native allies (who,
however, were attacked and defeated by Colonel Stevani on the 18th of
February) rendered the Italian position still more precarious; but
Baratieri, unable to make up his mind, continued to manoeuvre in the
hope of drawing an Abyssinian attack. These futile tactics exasperated
the home government, which on the 22nd of February despatched General
Baldissera, with strong reinforcements, to supersede Baratieri. On the
25th of February Crispi telegraphed to Baratieri, denouncing his
operations as "mllitary phthisis," and urging him to decide upon some
strategic plan. Baratieri, anxious probably to obtain some success
before the arrival of Baldissera, and alarmed by the rapid diminution of
his stores, which precluded further immobility, called a council of war
(29th of February) and obtained the approval of the divisional
commanders for a plan of attack. During the night the army advanced
towards Adowa in three divisions, under Generals Dabormida, Arimondi and
Albertone, each division being between 4000 and 5000 strong, and a
brigade 5300 strong under General Ellena remaining in reserve. All the
divisions, save that of Albertone, consisted chiefly of Italian troops.
During the march Albertone's native division mistook the road, and found
itself obliged to delay in the Arimondi column by retracing its steps.
Marching rapidly, however, Albertone outdistanced the other columns,
but, in consequence of allowing his men an hour's rest, arrived upon the
scene of action when the Abyssinians, whom it had been hoped to surprise
at dawn, were ready to receive the attack. Pressed by overwhelming
forces, the Italians, after a violent combat, began to give way. The
Dabormida division, unsupported by Albertone, found itself likewise
engaged in a separate combat against superior numbers. Similarly the
Arimondi brigade was attacked by 30,000 Shoans, and encumbered by the
débris of Albertone's troops. Baratieri vainly attempted to push forward
the reserve, but the Italians were already overwhelmed, and the
battle--or rather, series of distinct engagements--ended in a general
rout. The Italian loss is estimated to have been more than 6000, of whom
3125 were whites. Between 3000 and 4000 prisoners were taken by the
Abyssinians, including General Albertone, while Generals Arimondi and
Dabormida were killed and General Ellena wounded. The Abyssinians lost
more than 5000 killed and 8000 wounded. Baratieri, after a futile
attempt to direct the retreat, fled in haste and reached Adi-Cajè before
the débris of his army. Thence he despatched telegrams to Italy throwing
blame for the defeat upon his troops, a proceeding which subsequent
evidence proved to be as unjustifiable as it was unsoldier-like. Placed
under court-martial for his conduct, Baratieri was acquitted of the
charge for having been led to give battle by other than military
considerations, but the sentence "deplored that in such difficult
circumstances the command should have been given to a general so
inferior to the exigencies of the situation."


  Abyssinian settlement.

In Italy the news of the defeat of Adowa caused deep discouragement and
dismay. On the 5th of March the Crispi cabinet resigned before an
outburst of indignation which the Opposition had assiduously fomented,
and five days later a new cabinet was formed by General Ricotti-Magnani,
who, however, made over the premiership to the marquis di Rudini. The
latter, though leader of the Right, had long been intriguing with
Cavallotti, leader of the Extreme Left, to overthrow Crispi, but without
the disaster of Adowa his plan would scarcely have succeeded. The first
act of the new cabinet was to confirm instructions given by its
predecessor to General Baldissera (who had succeeded General Baratieri
on the 2nd of March) to treat for peace with Menelek if he thought
desirable. Baldissera opened negotiations with the negus through Major
Salsa, and simultaneously reorganized the Italian army. The negotiations
having failed, he marched to relieve the beleaguered garrison of
Adigrat; but Menelek, discouraged by the heavy losses at Adowa, broke up
his camp and returned southwards to Shoa. At the same time Baldissera
detached Colonel Stevani with four native battalions to relieve Kassala,
then hard pressed by the Mahdists. Kassala was relieved on the 1st of
April, and Stevani a few days later severely defeated the dervishes at
Jebel Mokram and Tucruff. Returning from Kassala Colonel Stevani
rejoined Baldissera, who on the 4th of May relieved Adigrat after a
well-executed march. By adroit negotiations with Mangashà the Italian
general obtained the release of the Italian prisoners in Tigré, and
towards the end of May withdrew his whole force north of the Mareb.
Major Nerazzini was then despatched as special envoy to the negus to
arrange terms of peace. On the 26th of October Nerazzini succeeded in
concluding, at Adis Ababa, a provisional treaty annulling the treaty of
Uccialli; recognizing the absolute independence of Ethiopia; postponing
for one year the definitive delimitation of the Italo-Abyssinian
boundary, but allowing the Italians meanwhile to hold the strong
Mareb-Belesa-Muna line; and arranging for the release of the Italian
prisoners after ratification of the treaty in exchange for an indemnity
of which the amount was to be fixed by the Italian government. The
treaty having been duly ratified, and an indemnity of £400,000 paid to
Menelek, the Shoan prisoners were released, and Major Nerazzini once
more returned to Abyssinia with instructions to secure, if possible,
Menelek's assent to the definitive retention of the Mareb-Belesa-Muna
line by Italy. Before Nerazzini could reach Adis Ababa, Rudini, in order
partially to satisfy the demands of his Radical supporters for the
abandonment of the colony, announced in the Chamber the intention of
Italy to limit her occupation to the triangular zone between the points
Asmarà, Keren and Massawa, and, possibly, to withdraw to Massawa alone.
This declaration, of which Menelek was swiftly apprised by French
agents, rendered it impossible to Nerazzini to obtain more than a
boundary leaving to Italy but a small portion of the high plateau and
ceding to Abyssinia the fertile provinces of Seraè and Okulé-Kusai. The
fall of the Rudini cabinet in June 1898, however, enabled Signor
Ferdinando Martini and Captain Cicco di Cola, who had been appointed
respectively civil governor of Eritrea and minister resident at Adis
Ababa, to prevent the cession of Seraè and Okulé-Kusai, and to secure
the assent of Menelek to Italian retention of the Mareb-Belesa-Muna
frontier. Eritrea has now approximately the same extent as before the
revolt of Bath-Agos, except in regard (1) to Kassala, which was
transferred to the Anglo-Egyptian authorities on the 25th of December
1897, in pursuance of the above-mentioned Anglo-Italian convention; and
(2) to slight rectifications of its northern and eastern boundaries by
conventions concluded between the Eritrean and the Anglo-Egyptian
authorities. Under Signor Ferdinando Martini's able administration
(1898-1906) the cost of the colony to Italy was reduced and its trade
and agriculture have vastly improved.

While marked in regard to Eritrea by vacillation and undignified
readiness to yield to Radical clamour, the policy of the marquis di
Rudini was in other respects chiefly characterized by a desire to
demolish Crispi and his supporters. Actuated by rancour against Crispi,
he, on the 29th of April 1896, authorized the publication of a Green
Book on Abyssinian affairs, in which, without the consent of Great
Britain, the confidential Anglo-Italian negotiations in regard to the
Abyssinian war were disclosed. This publication, which amounted to a
gross breach of diplomatic confidence, might have endangered the
cordiality of Anglo-Italian relations, had not the esteem of the British
government for General Ferrero, Italian ambassador in London, induced it
to overlook the incident. Fortunately for Italy, the marquis Visconti
Venosta shortly afterwards consented to assume the portfolio of foreign
affairs, which had been resigned by Duke Caetani di Sermoneta, and again
to place, after an interval of twenty years, his unrivalled experience
at the service of his country. In September 1896 he succeeded in
concluding with France a treaty with regard to Tunisia in place of the
old Italo-Tunisian treaty, denounced by the French Government a year
previously. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 Visconti Venosta
laboured to maintain the European concert, joined Great Britain in
preserving Greece from the worst consequences of her folly, and lent
moral and material aid in establishing an autonomous government in
Crete. At the same time he mitigated the Francophil tendencies of some
of his colleagues, accompanied King Humbert and Queen Margherita on
their visit to Homburg in September 1897, and, by loyal observance of
the spirit of the triple alliance, retained for Italy the confidence of
her allies without forfeiting the goodwill of France.


  Riots of May, 1898.

The home administration of the Rudini cabinet compared unfavourably with
that of foreign affairs. Bound by a secret understanding with the
Radical leader Cavallotti, an able but unscrupulous demagogue, Rudini
was compelled to bow to Radical exigencies. He threw all the influence
of the government against Crispi, who was charged with complicity in
embezzlements perpetrated by Favilla, managing director of the Bologna
branch of the Bank of Naples. After being subjected to persecution for
nearly two years, Crispi's character was substantially vindicated by the
report of a parliamentary commission appointed to inquire into his
relations with Favilla. True, the commission proposed and the Chamber
adopted a vote of censure upon Crispi's conduct in 1894, when, as
premier and minister of the interior, he had borrowed £12,000 from
Favilla to replenish | the secret service fund, and had subsequently
repaid the money as instalments for secret service were in due course
furnished by the treasury. Though irregular, his action was to some
extent justified by the depletion of the secret service fund under
Giolitti and by the abnormal circumstances prevailing in 1893-1894, when
he had been obliged to quell the insurrections in Sicily and
Massa-Carrara. But the Rudini-Cavallotti alliance was destined to
produce other results than those of the campaign against Crispi. Pressed
by Cavallotti, Rudini in March 1897 dissolved the Chamber and conducted
the general election in such a way as to crush by government pressure
the partisans of Crispi, and greatly to strengthen the (Socialist,
Republican and Radical) revolutionary parties. More than ever at the
mercy of the Radicals and of their revolutionary allies, Rudini
continued so to administer public affairs that subversive propaganda and
associations obtained unprecedented extension. The effect was seen in
May 1898, when, in consequence of a rise in the price of bread,
disturbances occurred in southern Italy. The corn duty was reduced to
meet the emergency, but the disturbed area extended to Naples, Foggia,
Bari, Minervino-Murge, Molfetta and thence along the line of railway
which skirts the Adriatic coast. At Faenza, Piacenza, Cremona, Pavia and
Milan, where subversive associations were stronger, it assumed the
complexion of a political revolt. From the 7th to the 9th of May Milan
remained practically in the hands of the mob. A palace was sacked,
barricades were erected and for forty-eight hours the troops under
General Bava-Beccaris, notwithstanding the employment of artillery, were
unable to restore order. In view of these occurrences, Rudini authorized
the proclamation of a state of siege at Milan, Florence, Leghorn and
Naples, delegating the suppression of disorder to special military
commissioners. By these means order was restored, though not without
considerable loss of life at Milan and elsewhere. At Milan alone the
official returns confessed to eighty killed and several hundred wounded,
a total generally considered below the real figures. As in 1894,
excessively severe sentences were passed by the military tribunals upon
revolutionary leaders and other persons considered to have been
implicated in the outbreak, but successive royal amnesties obliterated
these condemnations within three years.


  Pelloux and obstruction.

  Death of King Humbert.

  Accession of King Victor Emmanuel III.

No Italian administration since the death of Depretis underwent so many
metamorphoses as that of the marquis di Rudini. Modified a first time
within five months of its formation (July 1896) in connexion with
General Ricotti's Army Reform Bill, and again in December 1897, when
Zanardelli entered the cabinet, it was reconstructed for a third time at
the end of May 1898 upon the question of a Public Safety Bill, but fell
for the fourth and last time on the 18th of June 1898, on account of
public indignation at the results of Rudini's home policy as exemplified
in the May riots. On the 29th of June Rudini was succeeded in the
premiership by General Luigi Pelloux, a Savoyard, whose only title to
office was the confidence of the king. The Pelloux cabinet possessed no
clear programme except in regard to the Public Safety Bill, which it had
taken over from its predecessor. Presented to parliament in November
1898, the bill was read a second time in the following spring, but its
third reading was violently obstructed by the Socialists, Radicals and
Republicans of the Extreme Left. After a series of scenes and scuffles
the bill was promulgated by royal decree, the decree being postdated to
allow time for the third reading. Again obstruction precluded debate,
and on the 22nd of July 1899 the decree automatically acquired force of
law, pending the adoption of a bill of indemnity by the Chamber. In
February 1900 it was, however, quashed by the supreme court on a point
of procedure, and the Public Safety Bill as a whole had again to be
presented to the Chamber. In view of the violence of Extremist
obstruction, an effort was made to reform the standing orders of the
Lower House, but parliamentary feeling ran so high that General Pelloux
thought it expedient to appeal to the country. The general election of
June 1900 not only failed to reinforce the cabinet, but largely
increased the strength of the extreme parties (Radicals, Republicans and
Socialists), who in the new Chamber numbered nearly 100 out of a total
of 508. General Pelloux therefore resigned, and on the 24th of June a
moderate Liberal cabinet was formed by the aged Signor Saracco,
president of the senate. Within five weeks of its formation King Humbert
was shot by an anarchist assassin named Bresci while leaving an athletic
festival at Monza, where his Majesty had distributed the prizes (29th
July 1900). The death of the unfortunate monarch, against whom an
attempt had previously been made by the anarchist Acciarito (22nd April
1897), caused an outburst of profound sorrow and indignation. Though not
a great monarch, King Humbert had, by his unfailing generosity and
personal courage, won the esteem and affection of his people. During the
cholera epidemic at Naples and Busca in 1884, and the Ischia earthquake
of 1885, he, regardless of danger, brought relief and encouragement to
sufferers, and rescued many lives. More than £100,000 of his civil list
was annually devoted to charitable purposes. Humbert was succeeded by
his only son, Victor Emmanuel III. (b. November 11, 1869), a
liberal-minded and well-educated prince, who at the time of his father's
assassination was returning from a cruise in the eastern Mediterranean.
The remains of King Humbert were laid to rest in the Pantheon at Rome
beside those of his father, Victor Emmanuel II. (9th August). Two days
later Victor Emmanuel III. swore fidelity to the constitution before the
assembled Houses of Parliament and in the presence of his consort, Elena
of Montenegro, whom he had married in October 1896.


  Foreign affairs.

The later course of Italian foreign policy was marked by many
vicissitudes. Admiral Canevaro, who had gained distinction as commander
of the international forces in Crete (1896-1898), assumed the direction
of foreign affairs in the first period of the Pelloux administration.
His diplomacy, though energetic, lacked steadiness. Soon after taking
office he completed the negotiations begun by the Rudini administration
for a new commercial treaty with France (October 1898), whereby
Franco-Italian commercial relations were placed upon a normal footing
after a breach which had lasted for more than ten years. By the despatch
of a squadron to South America he obtained satisfaction for injuries
inflicted thirteen years previously upon an Italian subject by the
United States of Colombia. In December 1898 he convoked a diplomatic
conference in Rome to discuss secret means for the repression of
anarchist propaganda and crime in view of the assassination of the
empress of Austria by an Italian anarchist (Luccheni), but it is
doubtful whether results of practical value were achieved. The action of
the tsar of Russia in convening the Peace Conference at The Hague in May
1900 gave rise to a question as to the right of the Vatican to be
officially represented, and Admiral Canevaro, supported by Great Britain
and Germany, succeeded in preventing the invitation of a papal delegate.
Shortly afterwards his term of office was brought to a close by the
failure of an attempt to secure for Italy a coaling station at Sanmen
and a sphere of influence in China; but his policy of active
participation in Chinese affairs was continued in a modified form by his
successor, the Marquis Visconti Venosta, who, entering the reconstructed
Pelloux cabinet in May 1899, retained the portfolio of foreign affairs
in the ensuing Saracco administration, and secured the despatch of an
Italian expedition, 2000 strong, to aid in repressing the Chinese
outbreak and in protecting Italian interests in the Far East (July
1900). With characteristic foresight, Visconti Venosta promoted an
exchange of views between Italy and France in regard to the Tripolitan
hinterland, which the Anglo-French convention of 1899 had placed within
the French sphere of influence--a modification of the _status quo ante_
considered highly detrimental to Italian aspirations in Tripoli. For
this reason the Anglo-French convention had caused profound irritation
in Italy, and had tended somewhat to diminish the cordiality of
Anglo-Italian relations. Visconti Venosta is believed, however, to have
obtained from France a formal declaration that France would not
transgress the limits assigned to her influence by the convention.
Similarly, in regard to Albania, Visconti Venosta exchanged notes with
Austria with a view to the prevention of any misunderstanding through
the conflict between Italian and Austrian interests in that part of the
Adriatic coast. Upon the fall of the Saracco cabinet (9th February 1901)
Visconti Venosta was succeeded at the foreign office by Signor Prinetti,
a Lombard manufacturer of strong temperament, but without previous
diplomatic experience. The new minister continued in most respects the
policy of his predecessor. The outset of his administration was marked
by Franco-Italian fêtes at Toulon (10th to 14th April 1901), when the
Italian fleet returned a visit paid by the French Mediterranean squadron
to Cagliari in April 1899; and by the despatch of three Italian warships
to Prevesa to obtain satisfaction for damage done to Italian subjects by
Turkish officials.


  Zanardelli-Giolitti Cabinet.

The Saracco administration, formed after the obstructionist crisis of
1899-1900 as a cabinet of transition and pacification, was overthrown in
February 1901 in consequence of its vacillating conduct towards a dock
strike at Genoa. It was succeeded by a Zanardelli cabinet, in which the
portfolio of the interior was allotted to Giolitti. Composed mainly of
elements drawn from the Left, and dependent for a majority upon the
support of the subversive groups of the Extreme Left, the formation of
this cabinet gave the signal for a vast working-class movement, during
which the Socialist party sought to extend its political influence by
means of strikes and the organization of labour leagues among
agricultural labourers and artisans. The movement was confined chiefly
to the northern and central provinces. During the first six months of
1901 the strikes numbered 600, and involved more than 1,000,000 workmen.
     (H. W. S.)


G. 1902-1909

  Labour troubles.

In 1901-1902 the social economic condition of Italy was a matter of
grave concern. The strikes and other economic agitations at this time
may be divided roughly into three groups: strikes in industrial centres
for higher wages, shorter hours and better labour conditions generally;
strikes of agricultural labourers in northern Italy for better contracts
with the landlords; disturbances among the south Italian peasantry due
to low wages, unemployment (particularly in Apulia), and the claims of
the labourers to public land occupied illegally by the landlords,
combined with local feuds and the struggle for power of the various
influential families. The prime cause in most cases was the
unsatisfactory economic condition of the working classes, which they
realized all the more vividly for the very improvements that had been
made in it, while education and better communications enabled them to
organize themselves. Unfortunately these genuine grievances were taken
advantage of by the Socialists for their own purposes, and strikes and
disorders were sometimes promoted without cause and conciliation impeded
by outsiders who acted from motives of personal ambition or profit.
Moreover, while many strikes were quite orderly, the turbulent character
of a part of the Italian people and their hatred of authority often
converted peaceful demands for better conditions into dangerous riots,
in which the dregs of the urban population (known as _teppisti_ or the
_mala vita_) joined.

Whereas in the past the strikes had been purely local and due to local
conditions, they now appeared of more general and political character,
and the "sympathy" strike came to be a frequent and undesirable addition
to the ordinary economic agitation. The most serious movement at this
time was that of the railway servants. The agitation had begun some
fifteen years before, and the men had at various times demanded better
pay and shorter hours, often with success. The next demand was for
greater fixity of tenure and more regular promotion, as well as for the
recognition by the companies of the railwaymen's union. On the 4th of
January 1902, the employees of the Mediterranean railway advanced these
demands at a meeting at Turin, and threatened to strike if they were not
satisfied. By the beginning of February the agitation had spread all
over Italy, and the government was faced by the possibility of a strike
which would paralyse the whole economic life of the country. Then the
Turin gas men struck, and a general "sympathy" strike broke out in that
city in consequence, which resulted in scenes of violence lasting two
days. The government called out all the railwaymen who were army
reservists, but continued to keep them at their railway work, exercising
military discipline over them and thus ensuring the continuance of the
service. At the same time it mediated between the companies and the
employees, and in June a settlement was formally concluded between the
ministers of public works and of the treasury and the directors of the
companies concerning the grievances of the employees.

One consequence of the agrarian agitations was the increased use of
machinery and the reduction in the number of hands employed, which if it
proved advantageous to the landlord and to the few labourers retained,
who received higher wages, resulted in an increase of unemployment. The
Socialist party, which had grown powerful under a series of weak-kneed
administrations, now began to show signs of division; on the one hand
there was the revolutionary wing, led by Signor Enrico Ferri, the
Mantuan deputy, which advocated a policy of uncompromising class
warfare, and on the other the _riformisti_, or moderate Socialists, led
by Signor Filippo Turati, deputy for Milan, who adopted a more
conciliatory attitude and were ready to ally themselves with other
parliamentary parties. Later the division took another aspect, the
extreme wing being constituted by the _sindacalisti_, who were opposed
to all legislative parliamentary action and favoured only direct
revolutionary propaganda by means of the _sindacati_ or unions which
organized strikes and demonstrations. In March 1902 agrarian strikes
organized by the _leghe_ broke out in the district of Copparo and
Polesine (lower valley of the Po), owing to a dispute about the labour
contracts, and in Apulia on account of unemployment. In August there
were strikes among the dock labourers of Genoa and the iron workers of
Florence; the latter agitation developed into a general strike in that
city, which aroused widespread indignation among the orderly part of the
population and ended without any definite result. At Como 15,000 textile
workers remained on strike for nearly a month, but there were no
disorders.


  General strike of 1904.

The year 1903, although not free from strikes and minor disturbances,
was quieter, but in September 1904 a very serious situation was brought
about by a general economic and political agitation. The troubles began
with the disturbances at Buggeru in Sardinia and Castelluzzo in Sicily,
in both of which places the troops were compelled to use their arms and
several persons were killed and wounded; at a demonstration at Sestri
Ponente in Liguria to protest against what was called the Buggeru
"massacre," four carabineers and eleven rioters were injured. The Monza
labour exchange then took the initiative of proclaiming a general strike
throughout Italy (September 15th) as a protest against the government
for daring to maintain order. The strike spread to nearly all the
industrial centres, although in many places it was limited to a few
trades. At Milan it was more serious and lasted longer than elsewhere,
as the movement was controlled by the anarchists under Arturo Labriola;
the hooligans committed many acts of savage violence, especially against
those workmen who refused to strike, and much property was wilfully
destroyed. At Genoa, which was in the hands of the _teppisti_ for a
couple of days, three persons were killed and 50 wounded, including 14
policemen, and railway communications were interrupted for a short time.
Venice was cut off from the mainland for two days and all the public
services were suspended. Riots broke out also in Naples, Florence, Rome
and Bologna. The deputies of the Extreme Left, instead of using their
influence in favour of pacification, could think of nothing better than
to demand an immediate convocation of parliament in order that they
might present a bill forbidding the troops and police to use their arms
in all conflicts between capital and labour, whatever the provocation
might be. This preposterous proposal was of course not even discussed,
and the movement caused a strong feeling of reaction against Socialism
and of hostility to the government for its weakness; for, however much
sympathy there might be with the genuine grievances of the working
classes, the September strikes were of a frankly revolutionary character
and had been fomented by professional agitators and kept going by the
dregs of the people. The mayor of Venice sent a firm and dignified
protest to the government for its inaction, and the people of Liguria
raised a large subscription in favour of the troops, in recognition of
their gallantry and admirable discipline during the troubles.


  Unrest of 1905.

Early in 1905 there was a fresh agitation among the railway servants,
who were dissatisfied with the clauses concerning the personnel in the
bill for the purchase of the lines by the state. They initiated a system
of obstruction which hampered and delayed the traffic without altogether
suspending it. On the 17th of April a general railway strike was ordered
by the union, but owing to the action of the authorities, who for once
showed energy, the traffic was carried on. Other disturbances of a
serious character occurred among the steelworkers of Terni, at
Grammichele in Sicily and at Alessandria. The extreme parties now began
to direct especial attention to propaganda in the army, with a view to
destroying its cohesion and thus paralysing the action of the
government. The campaign was conducted on the lines of the
anti-militarist movement in France identified with the name of Hervé.
Fortunately, however, this policy was not successful, as military
service is less unpopular in Italy than in many other countries;
aggressive militarism is quite unknown, and without it anti-militarism
can gain no foothold. No serious mutinies have ever occurred in the
Italian army, and the only results of the propaganda were occasional
meetings of hooligans, where Hervéist sentiments were expressed and
applauded, and a few minor disturbances among reservists unexpectedly
called back to the colours. In the army itself the _esprit de corps_ and
the sense of duty and discipline nullified the work of the
propagandists.


  Strikes in 1907.

In June and July 1907 there were again disturbances among the
agricultural labourers of Ferrara and Rovigo, and a widespread strike
organized by the _leghe_ throughout those provinces caused very serious
losses to all concerned. The _leghisti_, moreover, were guilty of much
criminal violence; they committed one murder and established a veritable
reign of terror, boycotting, beating and wounding numbers of peaceful
labourers who would not join the unions, and brutally maltreating
solitary policemen and soldiers. The authorities, however, by arresting
a number of the more prominent leaders succeeded in restoring order.
Almost immediately afterwards an agitation of a still less defensible
character broke out in various towns under the guise of
anti-clericalism. Certain scandals had come to light in a small convent
school at Greco near Milan. This was seized upon as a pretext for
violent anti-clerical demonstrations all over Italy and for brutal and
unprovoked attacks on unoffending priests; at Spezia a church was set on
fire and another dismantled, at Marino Cardinal Merry del Val was
attacked by a gang of hooligans, and at Rome the violence of the
_teppisti_ reached such a pitch as to provoke reaction on the part of
all respectable people, and some of the aggressors were very roughly
handled. The Socialists and the Freemasons were largely responsible for
the agitation, and they filled the country with stories of other
priestly and conventual immoralities, nearly all of which, except the
original case at Greco, proved to be without foundation. In September
1907 disorders in Apulia over the repartition of communal lands broke
out anew, and were particularly serious at Ruvo, Bari, Cerignola and
Satriano del Colle. In some cases there was foundation for the
labourers' claims, but unfortunately the movement got into the hands of
professional agitators and common swindlers, and the leader, a certain
Giampetruzzi, who at one time seemed to be a worthy colleague of
Marcelin Albert, was afterwards tried and condemned for having cheated
his own followers.

In October 1907 there was again a general strike at Milan, which was
rendered more serious on account of the action of the railway servants,
and extended to other cities; traffic was disorganized over a large part
of northern Italy, until the government, being now owner of the
railways, dismissed the ringleaders from the service. This had the
desired effect, and although the _Sindacato dei ferrovieri_ (railway
servants' union) threatened a general railway strike if the dismissed
men were not reinstated, there was no further trouble. In the spring of
1908 there were agrarian strikes at Parma; the labour contracts had
pressed hardly on the peasantry, who had cause for complaint; but while
some improvement had been effected in the new contracts, certain
unscrupulous demagogues, of whom Alceste De Ambris, representing the
"syndacalist" wing of the Socialist party, was the chief, organized a
widespread agitation. The landlords on their part organized an agrarian
union to defend their interests and enrolled numbers of non-union
labourers to carry on the necessary work and save the crops. Conflicts
occurred between the strikers and the independent labourers and the
police; the trouble spread to the city of Parma, where violent scenes
occurred when the labour exchange was occupied by the troops, and many
soldiers and policemen, whose behaviour as usual was exemplary
throughout, were seriously wounded. The agitation ceased in June with
the defeat of the strikers, but not until a vast amount of damage had
been done to the crops and all had suffered heavy losses, including the
government, whose expenses for the maintenance of public order ran into
tens of millions of lire. The failure of the strike caused the
Socialists to quarrel among themselves and to accuse each other of
dishonesty in the management of party funds; it appeared in fact that
the large sums collected throughout Italy on behalf of the strikers had
been squandered or appropriated by the "syndacalist" leaders. The spirit
of indiscipline had begun to reach the lower classes of state employees,
especially the school teachers and the postal and telegraph clerks, and
at one time it seemed as though the country were about to face a
situation similar to that which arose in France in the spring of 1909.
Fortunately, however, the government, by dismissing the ringleader, Dr
Campanozzi, in time nipped the agitation in the bud, and it did attempt
to redress some of the genuine grievances. Public opinion upheld the
government in its attitude, for all persons of common sense realized
that the suspension of the public services could not be permitted for a
moment in a civilized country.


  Internal politics, 1902.

In parliamentary politics the most notable event in 1902 was the
presentation of a divorce bill by Signor Zanardelli's government; this
was done not because there was any real demand for it, but to please the
doctrinaire anti-clericals and freemasons, divorce being regarded not as
a social institution but as a weapon against Catholicism. But while the
majority of the deputies were nominally in favour of the bill, the
parliamentary committee reported against it, and public opinion was so
hostile that an anti-divorce petition received 3,500,000 signatures,
including not only those of professing Catholics, but of free-thinkers
and Jews, who regarded divorce as unsuitable to Italian conditions. The
opposition outside parliament was in fact so overwhelming that the
ministry decided to drop the bill. The financial situation continued
satisfactory; a new loan at 3½% was voted by the Chamber in April 1902,
and by June the whole of it had been placed in Italy. In October the
rate of exchange was at par, the premium on gold had disappeared, and by
the end of the year the budget showed a surplus of sixteen millions.


  1903-1905.

In January 1903 Signor Prinetti, the minister for foreign affairs,
resigned on account of ill-health, and was succeeded by Admiral Morin,
while Admiral Bettolo took the latter's place as minister of marine. The
unpopularity of the ministry forced Signor Giolitti, the minister of the
interior, to resign (June 1903), and he was followed by Admiral Bettolo,
whose administration had been violently attacked by the Socialists; in
October Signor Zanardelli, the premier, resigned on account of his
health, and the king entrusted the formation of the cabinet to Signor
Giolitti. The latter accepted the task, and the new administration
included Signor Tittoni, late prefect of Naples, as foreign minister,
Signor Luigi Luzzatti, the eminent financier, at the treasury, General
Pedotti at the war office, and Admiral Mirabello as minister of marine.
Almost immediately after his appointment Signor Tittoni accompanied the
king and queen of Italy on a state visit to France and then to England,
where various international questions were discussed, and the cordial
reception which the royal pair met with in London and at Windsor served
to dispel the small cloud which had arisen in the relations of the two
countries on account of the Tripoli agreements and the language question
in Malta. The premier's programme was not well received by the Chamber,
although the treasury minister's financial statement was again
satisfactory. The weakness of the government in dealing with the strike
riots caused a feeling of profound dissatisfaction, and the so-called
"experiment of liberty," conducted with the object of conciliating the
extreme parties, proved a dismal failure. In October 1904, after the
September strikes, the Chamber was dissolved, and at the general
elections in November a ministerial majority was returned, while the
deputies of the Extreme Left (Socialists, Republicans and Radicals) were
reduced from 107 to 94, and a few mild clericals elected. The municipal
elections in several of the larger cities, which had hitherto been
regarded as strongholds of socialism, marked an overwhelming triumph for
the constitutional parties, notably in Milan, Turin and Genoa, for the
strikes had wrought as much harm to the working classes as to the
bourgeoisie. In spite of its majority the Giolitti cabinet, realizing
that it had lost its hold over the country, resigned in March 1905.


  1905-1906.

Signor Fortis then became premier and minister of the interior, Signor
Maiorano finance minister and Signor Carcano treasury minister, while
Signor Tittoni, Admiral Mirabello and General Pedotti retained the
portfolios they had held in the previous administration. The new
government was colourless in the extreme, and the premier's programme
aroused no enthusiasm in the House, the most important bill presented
being that for the purchase of the railways, which was voted in June
1905. But the ministry never had any real hold over the country or
parliament, and the dissatisfaction caused by the _modus vivendi_ with
Spain, which would have wrought much injury to the Italian wine-growers,
led to demonstrations and riots, and a hostile vote in the Chamber
produced a cabinet crisis (December 17, 1905); Signor Fortis, however,
reconstructed the ministry, inducing the marquis di San Giuliano to
accept the portfolio of foreign affairs. This last fact was significant,
as the new foreign secretary, a Sicilian deputy and a specialist on
international politics, had hitherto been one of Signor Sonnino's
staunchest adherents; his defection, which was but one of many, showed
that the more prominent members of the Sonnino party were tired of
waiting in vain for their chief's access to power. Even this cabinet was
still-born, and a hostile vote in the Chamber on the 30th of January
1906 brought about its fall.


  1906-1909.

Now at last, after waiting so long, Signor Sonnino's hour had struck,
and he became premier for the first time. This result was most
satisfactory to all the best elements in the country, and great hopes
were entertained that the advent of a rigid and honest statesman would
usher in a new era of Italian parliamentary life. Unfortunately at the
very outset of its career the composition of the new cabinet proved
disappointing; for while such men as Count Guicciardini, the minister
for foreign affairs, and Signor Luzzatti at the treasury commanded
general approval, the choice of Signor Sacchi as minister of justice and
of Signor Pantano as minister of agriculture and trade, both of them
advanced and militant Radicals, savoured of an unholy compact between
the premier and his erstwhile bitter enemies, which boded ill for the
success of the administration. For this unfortunate combination Signor
Sonnino himself was not altogether to blame; having lost many of his
most faithful followers, who, weary of waiting for office, had gone over
to the enemy, he had been forced to seek support among men who had
professed hostility to the existing order of things and thus to secure
at least the neutrality of the Extreme Left and make the public realize
that the "reddest" of Socialists, Radicals and Republicans may be tamed
and rendered harmless by the offer of cabinet appointments. A similar
experiment had been tried in France not without success. Unfortunately
in the case of Signor Sonnino public opinion expected too much and did
not take to the idea of such a compromise. The new premier's first act
was one which cannot be sufficiently praised: he suppressed all
subsidies to journalists, and although this resulted in bitter attacks
against him in the columns of the "reptile press" it commanded the
approval of all right-thinking men. Signor Sonnino realized, however,
that his majority was not to be counted on: "The country is with me," he
said to a friend, "but the Chamber is against me." In April 1906 an
eruption of Mount Etna caused the destruction of several villages and
much loss of life and damage to property; in appointing a committee to
distribute the relief funds the premier refused to include any of the
deputies of the devastated districts among its members, and when asked
by them for the reason of this omission, he replied, with a frankness
more characteristic of the man than politic, that he knew they would
prove more solicitous in the distribution of relief for their own
electors than for the real sufferers. A motion presented by the
Socialists in the Chamber for the immediate discussion of a bill to
prevent "the massacres of the proletariate" having been rejected by an
enormous majority, the 28 Socialist deputies resigned their seats; on
presenting themselves for re-election their number was reduced to 25. A
few days later the ministry, having received an adverse vote on a
question of procedure, sent in its resignation (May 17).

The fall of Signor Sonnino, the disappointment caused by the
non-fulfilment of the expectations to which his advent to power had
given rise throughout Italy and the dearth of influential statesmen,
made the return to power of Signor Giolitti inevitable. An appeal to the
country might have brought about a different result, but it is said that
opposition from the highest quarters rendered this course practically
impossible. The change of government brought Signor Tittoni back to the
foreign office; Signor Maiorano became treasury minister, General Viganò
minister of war, Signor Cocco Ortu, whose chief claim to consideration
was the fact of his being a Sardinian (the island had rarely been
represented in the cabinet) minister of agriculture, Signor Gianturco of
justice, Signor Massimini of finance, Signor Schanzer of posts and
telegraphs and Signor Fusinato of education. The new ministry began
auspiciously with the conversion of the public debt from 4% to 3¾%, to
be eventually reduced to 3½%. This operation had been prepared by Signor
Luzzatti under Signor Sonnino's leadership, and although carried out by
Signor Maiorano it was Luzzatti who deservedly reaped the honour and
glory; the bill was presented, discussed and voted by both Houses on the
29th of June, and by the 7th of July the conversion was completed most
successfully, showing on how sound a basis Italian finance was now
placed. The surplus for the year amounted to 65,000,000 lire. In
November Signor Gianturco died, and Signor Pietro Bertolini took his
place as minister of public works; the latter proved perhaps the ablest
member of the cabinet, but the acceptance of office under Giolitti of a
man who had been one of the most trusted and valuable lieutenants of
Signor Sonnino marked a further step in the _dégringolade_ of that
statesman's party, and was attributed to the fact that Signor Bertolini
resented not having had a place in the late Sonnino ministry. General
Viganò was succeeded in December by Senator Casana, the first civilian
to become minister of war in Italy. He made various reforms which were
badly wanted in army administration, but on the whole the experiment of
a civilian "War Lord" was not a complete success, and in April 1909
Senator Casana retired and was succeeded by General Spingardi, an
appointment which received general approval.

The elections of March 1909 returned a chamber very slightly different
from its predecessor. The ministerial majority was over three hundred,
and although the Extreme Left was somewhat increased in numbers it was
weakened in tone, and many of the newly elected "reds" were hardly more
than pale pink.


  Church and State.

Meanwhile, the relations between Church and State began to show signs of
change. The chief supporters of the claims of the papacy to temporal
power were the clericals of France and Austria, but in the former
country they had lost all influence, and the situation between the
Church and the government was becoming every day more strained. With the
rebellion of her "Eldest Daughter," the Roman Church could not continue
in her old attitude of uncompromising hostility towards United Italy,
and the Vatican began to realize the folly of placing every Italian in
the dilemma of being _either_ a good Italian _or_ a good Catholic, when
the majority wished to be both. Outside of Rome relations between the
clergy and the authorities were as a rule quite cordial, and in May 1903
Cardinal Sarto, the patriarch of Venice, asked for and obtained an
audience with the king when he visited that city, and the meeting which
followed was of a very friendly character. In July following Leo XIII.
died, and that same Cardinal Sarto became pope under the style of Pius
X. The new pontiff, although nominally upholding the claims of the
temporal power, in practice attached but little importance to it. At the
elections for the local bodies the Catholics had already been permitted
to vote, and, availing themselves of the privilege, they gained seats in
many municipal councils and obtained the majority in some. At the
general parliamentary elections of 1904 a few Catholics had been elected
as such, and the encyclical of the 11th of June 1905 on the political
organization of the Catholics, practically abolished the _non expedit_.
In September of that year a number of religious institutions in the Near
East, formerly under the protectorate of the French government, in view
of the rupture between Church and State in France, formally asked to be
placed under Italian protection, which was granted in January 1907. The
situation thus became the very reverse of what it had been in Crispi's
time, when the French government, even when anti-clerical, protected the
Catholic Church abroad for political purposes, whereas the conflict
between Church and State in Italy extended to foreign countries, to the
detriment of Italian political interests. A more difficult question was
that of religious education in the public elementary schools. Signor
Giolitti wished to conciliate the Vatican by facilitating religious
education, which was desired by the majority of the parents, but he did
not wish to offend the Freemasons and other anti-clericals too much, as
they could always give trouble at awkward moments. Consequently the
minister of education, Signor Rava, concocted a body of rules which, it
was hoped, would satisfy every one: religious instruction was to be
maintained as a necessary part of the curriculum, but in communes where
the majority of the municipal councillors were opposed to it it might be
suppressed; the council in that case must, however, facilitate the
teaching of religion to those children whose parents desire it. In
practice, however, when the council has suppressed religious instruction
no such facilities are given. At the general elections of March 1909,
over a score of Clerical deputies were returned, Clericals of a very
mild tone who had no thought of the temporal power and were supporters
of the monarchy and anti-socialists; where no Clerical candidate was in
the field the Catholic voters plumped for the constitutional candidate
against all representatives of the Extreme Left. On the other hand, the
attitude of the Vatican towards Liberalism within the Church was one of
uncompromising reaction, and under the new pope the doctrines of
Christian Democracy and Modernism were condemned in no uncertain tone.
Don Romolo Murri, the Christian Democratic leader, who exercised much
influence over the younger and more progressive clergy, having been
severely censured by the Vatican, made formal submission, and declared
his intention of retiring from the struggle. But he appeared again on
the scene in the general elections of 1909, as a Christian Democratic
candidate; he was elected, and alone of the Catholic deputies took his
seat in the Chamber on the Extreme Left, where all his neighbours were
violent anti-clericals.


  Earthquake of December 1908.

At 5 A.M. on the 28th of December 1908, an earthquake of appalling
severity shook the whole of southern Calabria and the eastern part of
Sicily, completely destroying the cities of Reggio and Messina, the
smaller towns of Canitello, Scilla, Villa San Giovanni, Bagnara, Palmi,
Melito, Porto Salvo and Santa Eufemia, as well as a large number of
villages. In the case of Messina the horror of the situation was
heightened by a tidal wave. The catastrophe was the greatest of its kind
that has ever occurred in any country; the number of persons killed was
approximately 150,000, while the injured were beyond calculation.


  Foreign affairs.

The characteristic feature of Italy's foreign relations during this
period was the weakening of the bonds of the Triple Alliance and the
improved relations with France, while the traditional friendship with
England remained unimpaired. Franco-Italian friendship was officially
cemented by the visit of King Victor Emmanuel and Queen Elena in October
1903 to Paris where they received a very cordial welcome. The visit was
returned in April 1904 when M. Loubet, the French president, came to
Rome; this action was strongly resented by the pope, who, like his
predecessor since 1870, objected to the presence of foreign Catholic
rulers in Rome, and led to the final rupture between France and the
Vatican. The Franco-Italian understanding had the effect of raising
Italy's credit, and the Italian _rente_, which had been shut out of the
French bourses, resumed its place there once more, a fact which
contributed to increase its price and to reduce the unfavourable rate of
exchange. That agreement also served to clear up the situation in
Tripoli; while Italian aspirations towards Tunisia had been ended by the
French occupation of that territory, Tripoli and Bengazi were now
recognized as coming within the Italian "sphere of influence." The
Tripoli hinterland, however, was in danger of being absorbed by other
powers having large African interests; the Anglo-French declaration of
the 21st of March 1899 in particular seemed likely to interfere with
Italian activity.

The Triple Alliance was maintained and renewed as far as paper documents
were concerned (in June 1902 it was reconfirmed for 12 years), but
public opinion was no longer so favourably disposed towards it.
Austria's petty persecutions of her Italian subjects in the _irredente_
provinces, her active propaganda incompatible with Italian interests in
the Balkans, and the anti-Italian war talk of Austrian military circles,
imperilled the relations of the two "allies"; it was remarked, indeed,
that the object of the alliance between Austria and Italy was to prevent
war between them. Austria had persistently adopted a policy of
pin-pricks and aggravating police provocation towards the Italians of
the Adriatic Littoral and of the Trentino, while encouraging the
Slavonic element in the former and the Germans in the latter. One of the
causes of ill-feeling was the university question; the Austrian
government had persistently refused to create an Italian university for
its Italian subjects, fearing lest it should become a hotbed of
"irredentism," the Italian-speaking students being thus obliged to
attend the German-Austrian universities. An attempt at compromise
resulted in the institution of an Italian law faculty at Innsbruck, but
this aroused the violent hostility of the German students and populace,
who gave proof of their superior civilization by an unprovoked attack on
the Italians in October 1902. Further acts of violence were committed by
the Germans in 1903, which led to anti-Austrian demonstrations in Italy.
The worst tumults occurred in November 1904, when Italian students and
professors were attacked at Innsbruck without provocation; being
outnumbered by a hundred to one the Italians were forced to use their
revolvers in self-defence, and several persons were wounded on both
sides. Anti-Italian demonstrations occurred periodically also at Vienna,
while in Dalmatia and Croatia Italian fishermen and workmen (Italian
citizens, not natives) were subject to attacks by gangs of half-savage
Croats, which led to frequent diplomatic "incidents." A further cause of
resentment was Austria's attitude towards the Vatican, inspired by the
strong clerical tendencies of the imperial family, and indeed of a large
section of the Austrian people. But the most serious point at issue was
the Balkan question. Italian public opinion could not view without
serious misgivings the active political propaganda which Austria was
conducting in Albania. The two governments frequently discussed the
situation, but although they had agreed to a self-denying ordinance
whereby each bound itself not to occupy any part of Albanian territory,
Austria's declarations and promises were hardly borne out by the
activity of her agents in the Balkans. Italy, therefore, instituted a
counter-propaganda by means of schools and commercial agencies. The
Macedonian troubles of 1903 again brought Austria and Italy into
conflict. The acceptance by the powers of the Mürzsteg programme and the
appointment of Austrian and Russian financial agents in Macedonia was an
advantage for Austria and a set-back for Italy; but the latter scored a
success in the appointment of General de Giorgis as commander of the
international Macedonian gendarmerie; she also obtained, with the
support of Great Britain, France and Russia, the assignment of the
partly Albanian district of Monastir to the Italian officers of that
corps.

In October 1908 came the bombshell of the Austrian annexation of Bosnia,
announced to King Victor Emmanuel and to other rulers by autograph
letters from the emperor-king. The news caused the most widespread
sensation, and public opinion in Italy was greatly agitated at what it
regarded as an act of brigandage on the part of Austria, when Signor
Tittoni in a speech at Carate Brianza (October 6th) declared that "Italy
might await events with serenity, and that these could find her neither
unprepared nor isolated." These words were taken to mean that Italy
would receive compensation to restore the balance of power upset in
Austria's favour. When it was found that there was to be no direct
compensation for Italy a storm of indignation was aroused against
Austria, and also against Signor Tittoni.

On the 29th of October, however, Austria abandoned her military posts in
the sandjak of Novibazar, and the frontier between Austria and Turkey,
formerly an uncertain one, which left Austria a half-open back door to
the Aegean, was now a distinct line of demarcation. Thus the danger of a
"pacific penetration" of Macedonia by Austria became more remote.
Austria also gave way on another point, renouncing her right to police
the Montenegrin coast and to prevent Montenegro from having warships of
its own (paragraphs 5, 6 and 11 of art. 29 of the Berlin Treaty) in a
note presented to the Italian foreign office on the 12th of April 1909.
Italy had developed some important commercial interests in Montenegro,
and anything which strengthened the position of that principality was a
guarantee against further Austrian encroachments. The harbour works in
the Montenegrin port of Antivari, commenced in March 1905 and completed
early in 1909, were an Italian concern, and Italy became a party to the
agreement for the Danube-Adriatic Railway (June 2, 1908) together with
Russia, France and Servia; Italy was to contribute 35,000,000 lire out
of a total capital of 100,000,000, and to be represented by four
directors out of twelve. But the whole episode was a warning to Italy,
and the result was a national movement for security. Credits for the
army and navy were voted almost without a dissentient voice; new
battleships were laid down, the strength of the army was increased, and
the defences of the exposed eastern border were strengthened. It was
clear that so long as Austria, bribed by Germany, could act in a way so
opposed to Italian interests in the Balkans, the Triple Alliance was a
mockery, and Italy could only meet the situation by being prepared for
all contingencies.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--It is difficult to indicate in a short space the most
  important sources of general Italian history. Muratori's great
  collection, the _Rerum Italicarum scriptores_ in combination with his
  _Dissertationes_, the chronicles and other historical material
  published by the _Archivio Storico Italiano_, and the works of
  detached annalists of whom the Villani are the most notable, take
  first rank. Next we may mention Muratori's _Annali d' Italia_,
  together with Guicciardini's _Storia d' Italia_ and its modern
  continuation by Carlo Botta. Among the more recent contributions S. de
  Sismondi's _Républiques italiennes_ (Brussels, 1838) and Carlo Troya's
  _Storia d' Italia nel medio evo_ are among the most valuable general
  works, while the large _Storia Politica d' Italia_ by various authors,
  published at Milan, is also important--F. Bertolini, _I Barbari_; F.
  Lanzani, _Storia dei comuni italiani dalle origini fino al 1313_
  (1882); C. Cipolla, _Storia delle Signorie Italiane dal 1313 al 1530_
  (1881); A. Cosci, _L' Italia durante le preponderanze straniere,
  1530-1789_ (1875); A. Franchetti, _Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799_;
  G. de Castro, _Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1814_ (1881). For the
  beginnings of Italian history the chief works are T. Hodgkin's _Italy
  and her Invaders_ (Oxford, 1892-1899) and P. Villari's _Le Invasioni
  barbariche_ (Milan, 1900), both based on original research and sound
  scholarship. The period from 1494 to modern times is dealt with in
  various volumes of the _Cambridge Modern History_, especially in vol.
  i., "The Renaissance," which contains valuable bibliographies.
  Giuseppe Ferrari's _Rivoluzioni d' Italia_ (1858) deserves notice as a
  work of singular vigour, though no great scientific importance, and
  Cesare Balbo's _Sommario_ (Florence, 1856) presents the main outlines
  of the subject with brevity and clearness. For the period of the
  French revolution and the Napoleonic wars see F. Lemmi's _Le Origini
  del risorgimento italiano_ (Milan, 1906); E. Bonnal de Ganges, _La
  Chute d'une république [Venise]_ (Paris, 1885); D. Carutti, _Storia
  della corte di Savoia durante la rivoluzione e l' impero francese_ (2
  vols., Turin, 1892); G. de Castro, _Storia d' Italia dal 1797 al 1814_
  (Milan, 1881); A. Dufourcq, _Le Régime jacobin en Italie, 1796-1799_
  (Paris, 1900); A. Franchetti, _Storia d' Italia dal 1789 al 1799_
  (Milan, 1878); P. Gaffarel, _Bonaparte et les républiques italiennes_
  (1796-1799) (Paris, 1895); R. M. Johnston, _The Napoleonic Empire in
  Southern Italy_ (2 vols., with full bibliography, London, 1904); E.
  Ramondini, _L' Italia durante la dominazione francese_ (Naples, 1882);
  E. Ruth, _Geschichte des italienischen Volkes unter der napoleonischen
  Herrschaft_ (Leipzig, 1859). For modern times, see Bolton King's
  _History of Italian Unity_ (1899) and Bolton King and Thomas Okey's
  _Italy To-day_ (1901). With regard to the history of separate
  provinces it may suffice to notice N. Machiaveili's _Storia
  fiorentina_, B. Corio's _Storia di Milano_, G. Capponi's _Storia della
  repubblica di Firenze_ (Florence, 1875), P. Villari's _I primi due
  secoli della storia di Firenze_ (Florence, 1905), F. Pagano's _Istoria
  del regno di Napoli_ (Palermo-Naples, 1832, &c.), P. Romanin's _Storia
  documentata di Venezia_ (Venice, 1853), M. Amari's _Musulmani di
  Sicilia_ (1854-1875), F. Gregorovius's _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_
  (Stuttgart, 1881), A. von Reumont's _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_
  (Berlin, 1867), L. Cibrario's _Storia della monarchia piemontese_
  (Turin, 1840), and D. Carutti's _Storia della diplomazia della corte
  di Savoia_ (Rome, 1875). The _Archivii storici_ and _Deputazioni di
  storia patria_ of the various Italian towns and provinces contain a
  great deal of valuable material for local history. From the point of
  view of papal history, L. von Ranke's _History of the Popes_ (English
  edition, London, 1870), M. Creighton's _History of the Papacy_
  (London, 1897) and L. Pastor's _Geschichte der Päpste_ (Freiburg i.
  B., 1886-1896), should be mentioned. From the point of view of general
  culture, Jacob Burckhardt's _Cultur der Renaissance in Italien_
  (Basel, 1860), E. Guinet's _Révolutions d' Italie_ (Paris, 1857), and
  J. A. Symonds's _Renaissance in Italy_ (5 vols., London, 1875, &c.)
  should be consulted.     (L. V.*)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] On the derivation see below, _History_, section A, _ad. init_.

  [2] The actually highest point is the Maschio delle Faete (3137 ft.).
    (See ALBANUS MONS.)

  [3] On the influence of malaria on the population of Early Italy see
    W. H. S. Jones in _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, ii. 97
    sqq. (Liverpool, 1909).

  [4] The 2nd category of the 1875 law had practically ceased to exist.

  [5] This may be reduced, in consequence of the adoption of the new
    Q.F. gun, 1 to 6.

  [6] "Movement of capital" consists, as regards "income," of the
    proceeds of the sale of buildings, Church or Crown lands, old
    prisons, barracks, &c., or of moneys derived from sale of
    consolidated stock. Thus "income" really signifies diminution of
    patrimony or increase of debt. In regard to "expenditure," "movement
    of capital" refers to extinction of debt by amortization or
    otherwise, to purchases of buildings or to advances made by the
    state. Thus "expenditure" really represents a patrimonial
    improvement, a creation of credit or a decrease of indebtedness. The
    items referring to "railway construction" represent, on the one hand,
    repayments made to the exchequer by the communes and provinces of
    money disbursed on their account by the State Treasury; and, on the
    other, the cost of new railways incurred by the Treasury. The items
    of the "_partite di giro_" are inscribed both on the credit and debit
    sides of the budget, and have merely a figurative value.

  [7] Financial operations (mainly in connexion with railway purchase)
    figure on each side of the account for about £22,000,000.

  [8] For example, wheat, the price of which was in 1902 26 lire per
    cwt., pays a tax of 7½ lire; sugar pays four times its wholesale
    value in tax; coffee twice its wholesale value.

  [9] "Privileges" assure to creditors priority of claim in case of
    foreclosure for debt or mortgage. Prior to the law of the 23rd of
    January 1887 harvested produce and agricultural implements were
    legally exempt from "privilege."

  [10] At the beginning of 1902 the Italian parliament sanctioned a
    bill providing for the abolition of municipal duties on bread and
    farinaceous products within three years of the promulgation of the
    bill on 1st July 1902.

  [11] Among the insurgents of Romagna was Louis Napoleon, afterwards
    emperor of the French.

  [12] In Rome itself a certain Angelo Brunetti, known as Ciceruacchio,
    a forage merchant of lowly birth and a Carbonaro, exercised great
    influence over the masses and kept the peace where the authorities
    would have failed.

  [13] The popular cry of "Viva Verdi!" did not merely express
    enthusiasm for Italy's most eminent musician, but signified, in
    initials: "Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re d' Italia!"

  [14] La Farina's _Epistolario_, ii. 426.

  [15] In reality the emperor was contemplating an Etrurian kingdom
    with the prince at its head.

  [16] N. Bianchi, _Cavour_, p. 118.

  [17] He asked for the Neapolitan viceroyalty for life, which the king
    very wisely refused.

  [18] The counterblast of Pius IX. to this convention was the
    encyclical _Quanta Cura_ of Dec. 8, 1864, followed by the famous
    _Syllabus_.




ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning "also," "likewise"), originally used
adverbially in English at the beginning of each separate head in a list
of articles, or each detail in an account book or ledger or in a legal
document. The word is thus applied, as a noun, to the various heads in
any such enumeration and also to a piece of information or news.




ITHACA ([Greek: Ithakê]), vulgarly Thiaki ([Greek: Thiakê]), next to
Paxo the smallest of the seven Ionian Islands, with an area of about 44
sq. m. It forms an eparchy of the nomos of Cephalonia in the kingdom of
Greece, and its population, which was 9873 in 1870, is now about 13,000.
The island consists of two mountain masses, connected by a narrow
isthmus of hills, and separated by a wide inlet of the sea known as the
Gulf of Molo. The northern and greater mass culminates in the heights of
Anoi (2650 ft.), and the southern in Hagios Stephanos, or Mount
Merovigli (2100 ft.). Vathy ([Greek: Bathu] = "deep"), the chief town
and port of the island, lies at the northern foot of Mount Stephanos,
its whitewashed houses stretching for about a mile round the deep bay in
the Gulf of Molo, to which it owes its name. As there are only one or
two small stretches of arable land in Ithaca, the inhabitants are
dependent on commerce for their grain supply; and olive oil, wine and
currants are the principal products obtained by the cultivation of the
thin stratum of soil that covers the calcareous rocks. Goats are fed in
considerable number on the brushwood pasture of the hills; and hares (in
spite of Aristotle's supposed assertion of their absence) are
exceptionally abundant. The island is divided into four districts:
Vathy, Aeto (or Eagle's Cliff), Anoge (Anoi) or Upland, and Exoge (Exoi)
or Outland.

The name has remained attached to the island from the earliest
historical times with but little interruption of the tradition; though
in Brompton's travels (12th century) and in the old Venetian maps we
find it called Fale or Val de Compar, and at a later date it not
unfrequently appears as Little Cephalonia. This last name indicates the
general character of Ithacan history (if history it can be called) in
modern and indeed in ancient times; for the fame of the island is almost
solely due to its position in the Homeric story of Odysseus. Ithaca,
according to the Homeric epos, was the royal seat and residence of King
Odysseus. The island is incidentally described with no small variety of
detail, picturesque and topographical; the Homeric localities for which
counterparts have been sought are Mount Neritos, Mount Neion, the
harbour of Phorcys, the town and palace of Odysseus, the fountain of
Arethusa, the cave of the Naiads, the stalls of the swineherd Eumaeus,
the orchard of Laertes, the Korax or Raven Cliff and the island Asteris,
where the suitors lay in ambush for Telemachus. Among the
"identificationists" there are two schools, one placing the town at
Polis on the west coast in the northern half of the island (Leake,
Gladstone, &c.), and the other at Aeto on the isthmus. The latter site,
which was advocated by Sir William Gell (_Topography and Antiquities of
Ithaca_, London, 1807), was supported by Dr H. Schliemann, who carried
on excavations in 1873 and 1878 (see H. Schliemann, _Ithaque, le
Péloponnèse, Troie_, Paris, 1869, also published in German; his letter
to _The Times_, 26th of September, 1878; and the author's life prefixed
to _Ilios_, London, 1880). But his results were mainly negative. The
fact is that no amount of ingenuity can reconcile the descriptions given
in the _Odyssey_ with the actual topography of this island. Above all,
the passage in which the position of Ithaca is described offers great
difficulties. "Now Ithaca lies low, farthest up the sea line towards the
darkness, but those others face the dawning and the sun" (Butcher and
Lang). Such a passage fits very ill an island lying, as Ithaca does,
just to the east of Cephalonia. Accordingly Professor W. Dörpfeld has
suggested that the Homeric Ithaca is not the island which was called
Ithaca by the later Greeks, but must be identified with Leucas (Santa
Maura, q.v.). He succeeds in fitting the Homeric topography to this
latter island, and suggests that the name may have been transferred in
consequence of a migration of the inhabitants. There is no doubt that
Leucas fits the Homeric descriptions much better than Ithaca; but, on
the other hand, many scholars maintain that it is a mistake to treat the
imaginary descriptions of a poet as if they were portions of a
guide-book, or to look, in the author of the _Odyssey_, for a close
familiarity with the geography of the Ionian islands.

  See, besides the works already referred to, the separate works on
  Ithaca by Schreiber (Leipzig, 1829); Rühle von Lilienstern (Berlin,
  1832); N. Karavias Grivas ([Greek: Historia tês nêsou Ithakês])
  (Athens, 1849); Bowen (London, 1851); and Gandar, (Paris, 1854);
  Hercher, in _Hermes_ (1866); Leake's _Northern Greece_; Mure's _Tour
  in Greece_; Bursian's _Geogr. von Griechenland_; Gladstone, "The
  Dominions of Ulysses," in _Macmillan's Magazine_ (1877). A history of
  the discussions will be found in Buchholz, _Die Homerischen Realien_
  (Leipzig, 1871); Partsch, _Kephallenia und Ithaka_ (1890); W. Dörpfeld
  in _Mélanges Perrot_, pp. 79-93 (1903); P. Goessler, _Leukas-Ithaka_
  (Stuttgart, 1904).     (E. Gr.)




ITHACA, a city and the county-seat of Tompkins county, New York, U.S.A.,
at the southern end of Cayuga Lake, 60 m. S.W. of Syracuse. Pop. (1890)
11,079, (1900) 13,136, of whom 1310 were foreign-born, (1910 census)
14,802. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the
Lehigh Valley railways and by inter-urban electric line; and steamboats
ply on the lake. Most of the city is in the level valley, from which it
spreads up the heights on the south, east and west. The finest
residential district is East Hill, particularly Cornell and Cayuga
Heights (across Fall Creek from the Cornell campus). Renwick Beach, at
the head of the lake, is a pleasure resort. The neighbouring region is
one of much beauty, and is frequented by summer tourists. Near the city
are many waterfalls, the most notable being Taughannock Falls (9 m. N.),
with a fall of 215 ft. Through the city from the east run Fall,
Cascadilla and Six Mile Creeks, the first two of which have cut deep
gorges and have a number of cascades and waterfalls, the largest, Ithaca
Fall in Fall Creek, being 120 ft. high. Six Mile Creek crosses the south
side of the city and empties into Cayuga Inlet, which crosses the
western and lower districts, often inundated in the spring. The Inlet
receives the waters of a number of small streams descending from the
south-western hills. Among the attractions in this direction are
Buttermilk Falls and ravine, on the outskirts of the city, Lick Brook
Falls and glen and Enfield Falls and glen, the last 7 m. distant. Fall
Creek furnishes good water-power. The city has various manufactures,
including fire-arms, calendar clocks, traction engines, electrical
appliances, patent chains, incubators, autophones, artesian well drills,
salt, cement, window glass and wall-paper. The value of the factory
product increased from $1,500,604 in 1900 to $2,080,002 in 1905, or
38.6%. Ithaca is also a farming centre and coal market, and much fruit
is grown in the vicinity. The city is best known as the seat of Cornell
University (q.v.). It has also the Ezra Cornell Free Library of about
28,000 volumes, the Ithaca Conservatory of Music, the Cascadilla School
and the Ithaca High School. Ithaca was settled about 1789, the name
being given to it by Simeon De Witt in 1806. It was incorporated as a
village in 1821, and was chartered as a city in 1888. At Buttermilk
Falls stood the principal village of the Tutelo Indians, Coreorgonel,
settled in 1753 and destroyed in 1779 by a detachment of Sullivan's
force.




ITINERARIUM (i.e. road-book, from Lat. _iter_, road), a term applied to
the extant descriptions of the ancient Roman roads and routes of
traffic, with the stations and distances. It is usual to distinguish two
classes of these, _Itineraria adnotata_ or _scripta_ and _Itineraria
picta_--the former having the character of a book, and the latter being
a kind of travelling map. Of the Itineraria Scripta the most important
are: (1) _It. Antonini_ (see ANTONINI ITINERARIUM), which consists of
two parts, the one dealing with roads in Europe, Asia and Africa, and
the other with familiar sea-routes--the distances usually being measured
from Rome; (2) _It. Hierosolymitanum_ or _Burdigalense_, which belongs
to the 4th century, and contains the route of a pilgrimage from Bordeaux
to Jerusalem and from Heraclea by Rome to Milan (ed. G. Parthey and M.
Pinder, 1848, with the _Itinerarium Antonini_); (3) _It. Alexandria_
containing a sketch of the march-route of Alexander the Great, mainly
derived from Arrian and prepared for Constantius's expedition in A.D.
340-345 against the Persians (ed. D. Volkmann, 1871). A collected
edition of the ancient itineraria, with ten maps, was issued by Fortia
d'Urban, _Recueil des itinéraires anciens_ (1845). Of the Itineraria
Picta only one great example has been preserved. This is the famous
_Tabula Peutingeriana_, which, without attending to the shape or
relative position of the countries, represents by straight lines and
dots of various sizes the roads and towns of the whole Roman world
(facsimile published by K. Miller, 1888; see also MAP).




ITIUS PORTUS, the name given by Caesar to the chief harbour which he
used when embarking for his second expedition to Britain in 54 B.C. (_De
bello Gallico_, v. 2). It was certainly near the uplands round Cape
Grisnez (_Promuntorium Itium_), but the exact site has been violently
disputed ever since the renaissance of learning. Many critics have
assumed that Caesar used the same port for his first expedition, but the
name does not appear at all in that connexion (_B. G._ iv. 21-23). This
fact, coupled with other considerations, makes it probable that the two
expeditions started from different places. It is generally agreed that
the first embarked at Boulogne. The same view was widely held about the
second, but T. Rice Holmes in an article in the _Classical Review_ (May
1909) gave strong reasons for preferring Wissant, 4 m. east of Grisnez.
The chief reason is that Caesar, having found he could not set sail from
the small harbour of Boulogne with even 80 ships simultaneously, decided
that he must take another point for the sailing of the "more than 800"
ships of the second expedition. Holmes argues that, allowing for change
in the foreshore since Caesar's time, 800 specially built ships could
have been hauled above the highest spring-tide level, and afterwards
launched simultaneously at Wissant, which would therefore have been
"commodissimus" (v. 2) or opposed to "brevissimus traiectus" (iv. 21).

  See T. R. Holmes in _Classical Review_ (May 1909), in which he
  partially revises the conclusions at which he arrived in his _Ancient
  Britain_ (1907), pp. 552-594; that the first expedition started from
  Boulogne is accepted, e.g. by H. Stuart Jones, in _English Historical
  Review_ (1909), xxiv. 115; other authorities in Holmes's article.




ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909), Japanese statesman, was born in 1841,
being the son of Ito Juzo, and (like his father) began life as a
retainer of the lord of Choshu, one of the most powerful nobles of
Japan. Choshu, in common with many of his fellow Daimyos, was bitterly
opposed to the rule of the shôgun or tycoon, and when this rule resulted
in the conclusion of the treaty with Commodore M. C. Perry in 1854, the
smouldering discontent broke out into open hostility against both
parties to the compact. In these views Ito cordially agreed with his
chieftain, and was sent on a secret mission to Yedo to report to his
lord on the doings of the government. This visit had the effect of
causing Ito to turn his attention seriously to the study of the British
and of other military systems. As a result he persuaded Choshu to
remodel his army, and to exchange the bows and arrows of his men for
guns and rifles. But Ito felt that his knowledge of foreigners, if it
was to be thorough, should be sought for in Europe, and with the
connivance of Choshu he, in company with Inouye and three other young
men of the same rank as himself, determined to risk their lives by
committing the then capital offence of visiting a foreign country. With
great secrecy they made their way to Nagasaki, where they concluded an
arrangement with the agent of Messrs Jardine, Matheson & Co. for
passages on board a vessel which was about to sail for Shanghai (1863).
At that port the adventurers separated, three of their number taking
ship as passengers to London, while Ito and Inouye preferred to work
their passages before the mast in the "Pegasus," bound for the same
destination. For a year these two friends remained in London studying
English methods, but then events occurred in Japan which recalled them
to their country. The treaties lately concluded by the shôgun with the
foreign powers conceded the right to navigate the strait of Shimonoseki,
leading to the Inland Sea. On the northern shores of this strait
stretched the feudal state ruled over by Prince Choshu, who refused to
recognize the clause opening the strait, and erected batteries on the
shore, from which he opened fire on all ships which attempted to force
the passage. The shôgun having declared himself unable in the
circumstances to give effect to the provision, the treaty powers
determined to take the matter into their own hands. Ito, who was better
aware than his chief of the disproportion between the fighting powers of
Europe and Japan, memorialized the cabinets, begging that hostilities
should be suspended until he should have had time to use his influence
with Choshu in the interests of peace. With this object Ito hurried back
to Japan. But his efforts were futile. Choshu refused to give way, and
suffered the consequences of his obstinacy in the destruction of his
batteries and in the infliction of a heavy fine. The part played by Ito
in these negotiations aroused the animosity of the more reactionary of
his fellow-clansmen, who made repeated attempts to assassinate him. On
one notable occasion he was pursued by his enemies into a tea-house,
where he was concealed by a young lady beneath the floor of her room.
Thus began a romantic acquaintance, which ended in the lady becoming the
wife of the fugitive. Subsequently (1868) Ito was made governor of
Hiogo, and in the course of the following year became vice-minister of
finance. In 1871 he accompanied Iwakura on an important mission to
Europe, which, though diplomatically a failure, resulted in the
enlistment of the services of European authorities on military, naval
and educational systems.

After his return to Japan Ito served in several cabinets as head of the
bureau of engineering and mines, and in 1886 he accepted office as prime
minister, a post which, when he resigned in 1901, he had held four
times. In 1882 he was sent on a mission to Europe to study the various
forms of constitutional government; on this occasion he attended the
coronation of the tsar Alexander III. On his return to Japan he was
entrusted with the arduous duty of drafting a constitution. In 1890 he
reaped the fruits of his labours, and nine years later he was destined
to witness the abrogation of the old treaties, and the substitution in
their place of conventions which place Japan on terms of equality with
the European states. In all the great reforms in the Land of the Rising
Sun Ito played a leading part. It was mainly due to his active interest
in military and naval affairs that he was able to meet Li Hung-chang at
the end of the Chinese and Japanese War (1895) as the representative of
the conquering state, and the conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance
in 1902 testified to his triumphant success in raising Japan to the
first rank among civilized powers. As a reward for his conspicuous
services in connexion with the Chinese War Ito was made a marquis, and
in 1897 he accompanied Prince Arisugawa as a joint representative of the
Mikado at the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. At the close of 1901 he
again, though in an unofficial capacity, visited Europe and the United
States; and in England he was created a G.C.B. After the Russo-Japanese
War (1905) he was appointed resident general in Korea, and in that
capacity he was responsible for the steps taken to increase Japanese
influence in that country. In September 1907 he was advanced to the rank
of prince. He retired from his post in Korea in July 1909, and became
president of the privy council in Japan. But on the 26th of October,
when on a visit to Harbin, he was shot dead by a Korean assassin.

  He is to be distinguished from Admiral Count Yuko Ito (b. 1843), the
  distinguished naval commander.




ITRI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 6 m. by
road N.W. of Formia. Pop. (1901) 5797. The town is picturesquely
situated 690 ft. above sea-level, in the mountains which the Via Appia
traverses between Fondi and Formia. Interesting remains of the
substruction wall supporting the ancient road are preserved in Itri
itself; and there are many remains of ancient buildings near it. The
brigand Fra Diavolo, the hero of Auber's opera, was a native of Itri,
and the place was once noted for brigandage.




ITURBIDE (or YTURBIDE), AUGUSTIN DE (1783-1824), emperor of Mexico from
May 1822 to March 1823, was born on the 27th of September 1783, at
Valladolid, now Morelia, in Mexico, where his father, an Old Spaniard
from Pampeluna, had settled with his creole wife. After enjoying a
better education than was then usual in Mexico, Iturbide entered the
military service, and in 1810 held the post of lieutenant in the
provincial regiment of his native city. In that year the insurrection
under Hidalgo broke out, and Iturbide, more from policy, it would seem,
than from principle, served in the royal army. Possessed of splendid
courage and brilliant military talents, which fitted him especially for
guerilla warfare, the young creole did signal service, and rapidly rose
in military rank. In December 1813 Colonel Iturbide, along with General
Llano, dealt a crushing blow to the revolt by defeating Morelos, the
successor of Hidalgo, in the battle of Valladolid; and the former
followed it up by another decisive victory at Puruaran in January 1814.
Next year Don Augustin was appointed to the command of the army of the
north and to the governorship of the provinces of Valladolid and
Guanajuato, but in 1816 grave charges of extortion and violence were
brought against him, which led to his recall. Although the general was
acquitted, or at least although the inquiry was dropped, he did not
resume his commands, but retired into private life for four years,
which, we are told, he spent in a rigid course of penance for his former
excesses. In 1820 Apodaca, viceroy of Mexico, received instructions from
the Spanish cortes to proclaim the constitution promulgated in Spain in
1812, but although obliged at first to submit to an order by which his
power was much curtailed, he secretly cherished the design of reviving
the absolute power for Ferdinand VII. in Mexico. Under pretext of
putting down the lingering remains of revolt, he levied troops, and,
placing Iturbide at their head, instructed him to proclaim the absolute
power of the king. Four years of reflection, however, had modified the
general's views, and now, led both by personal ambition and by patriotic
regard for his country, Iturbide resolved to espouse the cause of
national independence. His subsequent proceedings--how he issued the
_Plan of Iguala_, on the 24th of February 1821, how by the refusal of
the Spanish cortes to ratify the treaty of Cordova, which he had signed
with O'Donoju, he was transformed from a mere champion of monarchy into
a candidate for the crown, and how, hailed by the soldiers as Emperor
Augustin I. on the 18th of May 1822, he was compelled within ten months,
by his arrogant neglect of constitutional restraints, to tender his
abdication to a congress which he had forcibly dissolved--will be found
detailed under Mexico. Although the congress refused to accept his
abdication on the ground that to do so would be to recognize the
validity of his election, it permitted the ex-emperor to retire to
Leghorn in Italy, while in consideration of his services in 1820 a
yearly pension of £5000 was conferred upon him. But Iturbide resolved to
make one more bid for power; and in 1824, passing from Leghorn to
London, he published a _Statement_, and on the 11th of May set sail for
Mexico. The congress immediately issued an act of outlawry against him,
forbidding him to set foot on Mexican soil on pain of death. Ignorant of
this, the ex-emperor landed in disguise at Soto la Marina on the 14th of
July. He was almost immediately recognized and arrested, and on the 19th
of July 1824 was shot at Padilla, by order of the state of Tamaulipas,
without being permitted an appeal to the general congress. Don Augustin
de Iturbide is described by his contemporaries as being of handsome
figure and ingratiating manner. His brilliant courage and wonderful
success made him the idol of his soldiers, though towards his prisoners
he displayed the most cold-blooded cruelty, boasting in one of his
despatches of having honoured Good Friday by shooting three hundred
excommunicated wretches. Though described as amiable in his private
life, he seems in his public career to have been ambitious and
unscrupulous, and by his haughty Spanish temper, impatient of all
resistance or control, to have forfeited the opportunity of founding a
secure imperial dynasty. His grandson Augustin was chosen by the
ill-fated emperor Maximilian as his successor.

  See _Statement of some of the principal events in the public life of
  Augustin de Iturbide_, written by himself (Eng. trans., 1824).




ITZA, an American-Indian people of Mayan stock, inhabiting the country
around Lake Peten in northern Guatemala. Chichen-Itza, among the most
wonderful of the ruined cities of Yucatan, was the capital of the Itzas.
Thence, according to their traditions they removed, on the breaking up
of the Mayan kingdom in 1420, to an island in the lake where another
city was built. Cortes met them in 1525, but they preserved their
independence till 1697, when the Spaniards destroyed the city and
temples, and a library of sacred books, written in hieroglyphics on bark
fibre. The Itzas were one of the eighteen semi-independent Maya states,
whose incessant internecine wars at length brought about the
dismemberment of the empire of Xibalba and the destruction of Mayan
civilization.




ITZEHOE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, on the Stör, a navigable tributary of the Elbe, 32
m. north-west of Hamburg and 15 m. north of Glückstadt. Pop. (1900)
15,649. The church of St Lawrence, dating from the 12th century, and the
building in which the Holstein estates formerly met, are noteworthy. The
town has a convent founded in 1256, a high school, a hospital and other
benevolent institutions. Itzehoe is a busy commercial place. Its sugar
refineries are among the largest in Germany. Ironfounding, shipbuilding
and wool-spinning are also carried on, and the manufactures include
machinery, tobacco, fishing-nets, chicory, soap, cement and beer.
Fishing employs some of the inhabitants, and the markets for cattle and
horses are important. A considerable trade is carried on in agricultural
products and wood, chiefly with Hamburg and Altona.

Itzehoe is the oldest town in Holstein. Its nucleus was a castle, built
in 809 by Egbert, one of Charlemagne's counts, against the Danes. The
community which sprang up around it was diversely called Esseveldoburg,
Eselsfleth and Ezeho. In 1201 the town was destroyed, but it was
restored in 1224. To the new town the Lübeck rights were granted by
Adolphus IV. in 1238, and to the old town in 1303. During the Thirty
Years' War Itzehoe was twice destroyed by the Swedes, in 1644 and 1657,
but was rebuilt on each occasion. It passed to Prussia in 1867, with the
duchy of Schleswig-Holstein.




IUKA, the county-seat of Tishomingo county, Mississippi, U.S.A., about
25 m. S.E. of Corinth in the N.E. corner of the state and 8 m. S. of the
Tennessee river. Pop. (1900) 882; (1910) 1221. It is served by the
Southern railway, and has a considerable trade in cotton and farm
products. Its mineral springs make it a health resort. In the American
Civil War, a Confederate force under General Sterling Price occupied the
town on the 14th of September 1862, driving out a small Union garrison;
and on the 19th of September a partial engagement took place between
Price and a Federal column commanded by General Rosecrans, in which the
Confederate losses were 700 and the Union 790. Price, whose line of
retreat was threatened by superior forces under General Grant, withdrew
from Iuka on the morning of the 20th of September.




IULUS, in Roman legend: (a) the eldest son of Ascanius and grandson of
Aeneas, founder of the Julian gens (_gens Iulia_), deprived of his
kingdom of Latium by his younger brother Silvius (Dion. Halic. i. 70);
(b) another name for, or epithet of, Ascanius.




IVAN (JOHN), the name of six grand dukes of Muscovy and tsars of Russia.

IVAN I., called _Kalita_, or Money-Bag (d. 1341), grand duke of
Vladimir, was the first _sobiratel_, or "gatherer" of the scattered
Russian lands, thereby laying the foundations of the future autocracy as
a national institution. This he contrived to do by adopting a policy of
complete subserviency to the khan of the Golden Horde, who, in return
for a liberal and punctual tribute, permitted him to aggrandize himself
at the expense of the lesser grand dukes. Moscow and Tver were the first
to fall. The latter Ivan received from the hand of the khan, after
devastating it with a host of 50,000 Tatars (1327). When Alexander of
Tver fled to the powerful city of Pskov, Ivan, not strong enough to
attack Pskov, procured the banishment of Alexander by the aid of the
metropolitan, Theognost, who threatened Pskov with an interdict. In 1330
Ivan extended his influence over Rostov by the drastic methods of
blackmail and hanging. But Great Novgorod was too strong for him, and
twice he threatened that republic in vain. In 1340 Ivan assisted the
khan to ravage the domains of Prince Ivan of Smolensk, who had refused
to pay the customary tribute to the Horde. Ivan's own domains, at any
rate during his reign, remained free from Tatar incursions, and
prospered correspondingly, thus attracting immigrants and their wealth
from the other surrounding principalities. Ivan was a most careful, not
to say niggardly economist, keeping an exact account of every village or
piece of plate that his money-bags acquired, whence his nickname. The
most important event of his reign was the transference of the
metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow, which gave Muscovy the
pre-eminence over all the other Russian states, and made the
metropolitan the ecclesiastical police-superintendent of the grand duke.
The Metropolitan Peter built the first stone cathedral of Moscow, and
his successor, Theognost, followed suit with three more stone churches.
Simultaneously Ivan substituted stone walls for the ancient wooden ones
of the Kreml', or citadel, which made Moscow a still safer place of
refuge.

  See S. M. Solov'ev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. iii. (St
  Petersburg, 1895); Polezhaev, _The Principality of Moscow in the first
  half of the 14th Century_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1878).

IVAN II. (1326-1359), grand duke of Vladimir, a younger son of Ivan
Kalita, was born in 1326. In 1353 he succeeded his elder brother Simeon
as grand duke, despite the competition of Prince Constantine of Suzdal,
the Khan Hanibek preferring to bestow the _yarluik_, or letter of
investiture, upon Ivan rather than upon Constantine. At first the
principalities of Suzdal, Ryazan and the republic of Novgorod refused to
recognize him as grand duke, and waged war with him till 1354. The
authority of the grand duchy sensibly diminished during the reign of
Ivan II. The surrounding principalities paid but little attention to
Moscow, and Ivan, "a meek, gentle and merciful prince," was ruled to a
great extent by the _tuisyatsky_, or chiliarch, Alexis Khvost, and,
after his murder by the jealous boyars in 1357, by Bishop Alexis. He
died in 1359. Like most of his predecessors, Ivan, by his last will,
divided his dominions among his children.

  See Dmitry Ilovaisky, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. ii. (Moscow,
  1876-1894).

IVAN III. (1440-1505), grand duke of Muscovy, son of Vasily (Basil)
Vasilievich the Blind, grand duke of Moscow, and Maria Yaroslavovna, was
born in 1440. He was co-regent with his father during the latter years
of his life and succeeded him in 1462. Ivan tenaciously pursued the
unifying policy of his predecessors. Nevertheless, cautious to timidity,
like most of the princes of the house of Rurik, he avoided as far as
possible any violent collision with his neighbours until all the
circumstances were exceptionally favourable, always preferring to attain
his ends gradually, circuitously and subterraneously. Muscovy had by
this time become a compact and powerful state, whilst her rivals had
grown sensibly weaker, a condition of things very favourable to the
speculative activity of a statesman of Ivan III.'s peculiar character.
His first enterprise was a war with the republic of Novgorod, which,
alarmed at the growing dominancy of Muscovy, had placed herself beneath
the protection of Casimir IV., king of Poland, an alliance regarded at
Moscow as an act of apostasy from orthodoxy. Ivan took the field against
Novgorod in 1470, and after his generals had twice defeated the forces
of the republic, at Shelona and on the Dvina, during the summer of 1471,
the Novgorodians were forced to sue for peace, which they obtained on
engaging to abandon for ever the Polish alliance, ceding a considerable
portion of their northern colonies, and paying a war indemnity of 15,500
roubles. From henceforth Ivan sought continually a pretext for
destroying Novgorod altogether; but though he frequently violated its
ancient privileges in minor matters, the attitude of the republic was so
wary that his looked-for opportunity did not come till 1477. In that
year the ambassadors of Novgorod played into his hands by addressing him
in public audience as "Gosudar" (sovereign) instead of "Gospodin"
("Sir") as heretofore. Ivan at once seized upon this as a recognition of
his sovereignty, and when the Novgorodians repudiated their ambassadors,
he marched against them. Deserted by Casimir IV., and surrounded on
every side by the Muscovite armies, which included a Tatar contingent,
the republic recognized Ivan as autocrat, and surrendered (January 14,
1478) all her prerogatives and possessions (the latter including the
whole of northern Russia from Lapland to the Urals) into his hands.
Subsequent revolts (1479-1488) were punished by the removal _en masse_
of the richest and most ancient families of Novgorod to Moscow, Vyatka
and other central Russian cities. After this, Novgorod, as an
independent state, ceased to exist. The rival republic of Pskov owed the
continuance of its own political existence to the readiness with which
it assisted Ivan against its ancient enemy. The other principalities
were virtually absorbed, by conquest, purchase or marriage
contract--Yaroslavl in 1463, Rostov in 1474, Tver in 1485.

Ivan's refusal to share his conquests with his brothers, and his
subsequent interference with the internal politics of their inherited
principalities, involved him in several wars with them, from which,
though the princes were assisted by Lithuania, he emerged victorious.
Finally, Ivan's new rule of government, formally set forth in his last
will to the effect that the domains of all his kinsfolk, after their
deaths, should pass directly to the reigning grand duke instead of
reverting, as hitherto, to the princes' heirs, put an end once for all
to these semi-independent princelets. The further extension of the
Muscovite dominion was facilitated by the death of Casimir IV. in 1492,
when Poland and Lithuania once more parted company. The throne of
Lithuania was now occupied by Casimir's son Alexander, a weak and
lethargic prince so incapable of defending his possessions against the
persistent attacks of the Muscovites that he attempted to save them by a
matrimonial compact, and wedded Helena, Ivan's daughter. But the clear
determination of Ivan to appropriate as much of Lithuania as possible at
last compelled Alexander in 1499 to take up arms against his
father-in-law. The Lithuanians were routed at Vedrosha (July 14, 1500),
and in 1503 Alexander was glad to purchase peace by ceding to Ivan
Chernigov, Starodub, Novgorod-Syeversk and sixteen other towns.

It was in the reign of Ivan III. that Muscovy rejected the Tatar yoke.
In 1480 Ivan refused to pay the customary tribute to the grand Khan
Ahmed. When, however, the grand khan marched against him, Ivan's courage
began to fail, and only the stern exhortations of the high-spirited
bishop of Rostov, Vassian, could induce him to take the field. All
through the autumn the Russian and Tatar hosts confronted each other on
opposite sides of the Ugra, till the 11th of November, when Ahmed
retired into the steppe. In the following year the grand khan, while
preparing a second expedition against Moscow, was suddenly attacked,
routed and slain by Ivak, the khan of the Nogai Tatars, whereupon the
Golden Horde suddenly fell to pieces. In 1487 Ivan reduced the khanate
of Kazan (one of the offshoots of the Horde) to the condition of a
vassal-state, though in his later years it broke away from his
suzerainty. With the other Mahommedan powers, the khan of the Crimea and
the sultan of Turkey, Ivan's relations were pacific and even amicable.
The Crimean khan, Mengli Girai, helped him against Lithuania and
facilitated the opening of diplomatic intercourse between Moscow and
Constantinople, where the first Russian embassy appeared in 1495.

The character of the government of Muscovy under Ivan III. changed
essentially and took on an autocratic form which it had never had
before. This was due not merely to the natural consequence of the
hegemony of Moscow over the other Russian lands, but even more to the
simultaneous growth of new and exotic principles falling upon a soil
already prepared for them. After the fall of Constantinople, orthodox
canonists were inclined to regard the Muscovite grand dukes as the
successors by the Byzantine emperors. This movement coincided with a
change in the family circumstances of Ivan III. After the death of his
first consort, Maria of Tver (1467), at the suggestion of Pope Paul II.
(1469), who hoped thereby to bind Russia to the holy see, Ivan III.
wedded the Catholic Zoe Palaeologa (better known by her orthodox name of
Sophia), daughter of Thomas, despot of the Morea, who claimed the throne
of Constantinople as the nearest relative of the last Greek emperor. The
princess, however, clave to her family traditions, and awoke imperial
ideas in the mind of her consort. It was through her influence that the
ceremonious etiquette of Constantinople (along with the imperial
double-headed eagle and all that it implied) was adopted by the court of
Moscow. The grand duke henceforth held aloof from his boyars. The old
patriarchal systems of government vanished. The boyars were no longer
consulted on affairs of state. The sovereign became sacrosanct, while
the boyars were reduced to the level of slaves absolutely dependent on
the will of the sovereign. The boyars naturally resented so insulting a
revolution, and struggled against it, at first with some success. But
the clever Greek lady prevailed in the end, and it was her son Vasily,
not Maria of Tver's son, Demetrius, who was ultimately crowned co-regent
with his father (April 14, 1502). It was in the reign of Ivan III. that
the first Russian "Law Book," or code, was compiled by the scribe Gusev.
Ivan did his utmost to promote civilization in his realm, and with that
object invited many foreign masters and artificers to settle in Muscovy,
the most noted of whom was the Italian Ridolfo di Fioravante, nicknamed
Aristotle because of his extraordinary knowledge, who built the
cathedrals of the Assumption (Uspenski) and of Saint Michael or the Holy
Archangels in the Kreml.

  See P. Pierling, _Mariage d'un tsar au Vatican, Ivan III. et Sophie
  Paléologue_ (Paris, 1891); E. I. Kashprovsky, _The Struggle of Ivan
  III. with Sigismund I._ (Rus.) (Nizhni, 1899); S. M. Solov'ev,
  _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. v. (St Petersburg, 1895).

IVAN IV., called "the Terrible" (1530-1584), tsar of Muscovy, was the
son of Vasily [Basil] III. Ivanovich, grand duke of Muscovy, by his
second wife, Helena Glinska. Born on the 25th of August 1530, he was
proclaimed grand duke on the death of his father (1533), and took the
government into his own hands in 1544, being then fourteen years old.
Ivan IV. was in every respect precocious; but from the first there was
what we should now call a neurotic strain in his character. His father
died when he was three, his mother when he was only seven, and he grew
up in a brutal and degrading environment where he learnt to hold human
life and human dignity in contempt. He was maltreated by the leading
boyars whom successive revolutions placed at the head of affairs, and
hence he conceived an inextinguishable hatred of their whole order and a
corresponding fondness for the merchant class, their natural enemies. At
a very early age he entertained an exalted idea of his own divine
authority, and his studies were largely devoted to searching in the
Scriptures and the Slavonic chronicles for sanctions and precedents for
the exercise and development of his right divine. He first asserted his
power by literally throwing to the dogs the last of his boyar tyrants,
and shortly afterwards announced his intention of assuming the title of
tsar, a title which his father and grandfather had coveted but never
dared to assume publicly. On the 16th of January 1547, he was crowned
the first Russian tsar by the metropolitan of Moscow; on the 3rd of
February in the same year he selected as his wife from among the virgins
gathered from all parts of Russia for his inspection, Anastasia
Zakharina-Koshkina, the scion of an ancient and noble family better
known by its later name of Romanov.

Hitherto, by his own showing, the private life of the young tsar had
been unspeakably abominable, but his sensitive conscience (he was
naturally religious) induced him, in 1550, to summon a _Zemsky Sobor_ or
national assembly, the first of its kind, to which he made a curious
public confession of the sins of his youth, and at the same time
promised that the realm of Russia (for whose dilapidation he blamed the
boyar regents) should henceforth be governed justly and mercifully. In
1551 the tsar submitted to a synod of prelates a hundred questions as to
the best mode of remedying existing evils, for which reason the decrees
of this synod are generally called _stoglav_ or _centuria_. The
decennium extending from 1550 to 1560 was the good period of Ivan IV.'s
reign, when he deliberately broke away from his disreputable past and
surrounded himself with good men of lowly origin. It was not only that
he hated and distrusted the boyars, but he was already statesman enough
to discern that they could not be fitted into the new order of things
which he aimed at introducing. Ivan meditated the regeneration of
Muscovy, and the only men who could assist him in his task were men who
could look steadily forward to the future because they had no past to
look back upon, men who would unflinchingly obey their sovereign because
they owed their whole political significance to him alone. The chief of
these men of good-will were Alexis Adashev and the monk Sylvester, men
of so obscure an origin that almost every detail of their lives is
conjectural, but both of them, morally, the best Muscovites of their
day. Their influence upon the young tsar was profoundly beneficial, and
the period of their administration coincides with the most glorious
period of Ivan's reign--the period of the conquest of Kazan and
Astrakhan.

In the course of 1551 one of the factions of Kazan offered the whole
khanate to the young tsar, and on the 20th of August 1552 he stood
before its walls with an army of 150,000 men and 50 guns. The siege was
long and costly; the army suffered severely; and only the tenacity of
the tsar kept it in camp for six weeks. But on the 2nd of October the
fortress, which had been heroically defended, was taken by assault. The
conquest of Kazan was an epoch-making event in the history of eastern
Europe. It was not only the first territorial conquest from the Tatars,
before whom Muscovy had humbled herself for generations; at Kazan Asia,
in the name of Mahomet, had fought behind its last trench against
Christian Europe marshalled beneath the banner of the tsar of Muscovy.
For the first time the Volga became a Russian river. Nothing could now
retard the natural advance of the young Russian state towards the east
and the south-east. In 1554 Astrakhan fell almost without a blow. By
1560 all the Finnic and Tatar tribes between the Oka and the Kama had
become Russian subjects. Ivan was also the first tsar who dared to
attack the Crimea. In 1555 he sent Ivan Sheremetev against Perekop, and
Sheremetev routed the Tatars in a great two days' battle at
Sudbishenska. Some of Ivan's advisers, including both Sylvester and
Adashev, now advised him to make an end of the Crimean khanate, as he
had already made an end of the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan. But
Ivan, wiser in his generation, knew that the thing was impossible, in
view of the immense distance to be traversed, and the predominance of
the Grand Turk from whom it would have to be wrested. It was upon
Livonia that his eyes were fixed, which was comparatively near at hand
and promised him a seaboard and direct communication with western
Europe. Ivan IV., like Peter I. after him, clearly recognized the
necessity of raising Muscovy to the level of her neighbours. He proposed
to do so by promoting a wholesale immigration into his tsardom of
master-workmen and skilled artificers. But all his neighbours,
apprehensive of the consequences of a civilized Muscovy, combined to
thwart him. Charles V. even went so far as to disperse 123 skilled
Germans whom Ivan's agent had collected and brought to Lübeck for
shipment to a Baltic port. After this, Ivan was obliged to help himself
as best he could. His opportunity seemed to have come when, in the
middle of the 16th century, the Order of the Sword broke up, and the
possession of Livonia was fiercely contested between Sweden, Poland and
Denmark. Ivan intervened in 1558 and quickly captured Narva, Dorpat and
a dozen smaller fortresses; then, in 1560, Livonia placed herself
beneath the protection of Poland, and King Sigismund II. warned Ivan off
the premises.

By this time, Ivan had entered upon the second and evil portion of his
reign. As early as 1553 he had ceased to trust Sylvester and Adashev,
owing to their extraordinary backwardness in supporting the claims of
his infant son to the throne while he himself lay at the point of death.
The ambiguous and ungrateful conduct of the tsar's intimate friends and
protégés on this occasion has never been satisfactorily explained, and
he had good reason to resent it. Nevertheless, on his recovery, much to
his credit, he overlooked it, and they continued to direct affairs for
six years longer. Then the dispute about the Crimea arose, and Ivan
became convinced that they were mediocre politicians as well as
untrustworthy friends. In 1560 both of them disappeared from the scene,
Sylvester into a monastery at his own request, while Adashev died the
same year, in honourable exile as a general in Livonia. The death of his
deeply beloved consort Anastasia and his son Demetrius, and the
desertion of his one bosom friend Prince Kurbsky, about the same time,
seem to have infuriated Ivan against God and man. During the next ten
years (1560-1570) terrible and horrible things happened in the realm of
Muscovy. The tsar himself lived in an atmosphere of apprehension,
imagining that every man's hand was against him. On the 3rd of December
1564 he quitted Moscow with his whole family. On the 3rd of January 1565
he declared in an open letter addressed to the metropolitan his
intention to abdicate. The common people, whom he had always favoured at
the expense of the boyars, thereupon implored him to come back on his
own terms. He consented to do so, but entrenched himself within a
peculiar institution, the _oprichina_ or "separate estate." Certain
towns and districts all over Russia were separated from the rest of the
realm, and their revenues were assigned to the maintenance of the tsar's
new court and household, which was to consist of 1000 carefully selected
boyars and lower dignitaries, with their families and suites, in the
midst of whom Ivan henceforth lived exclusively. The _oprichina_ was no
constitutional innovation. The _duma_, or council, still attended to all
the details of the administration; the old boyars still retained their
ancient offices and dignities. The only difference was that the tsar had
cut himself off from them, and they were not even to communicate with
him except on extraordinary and exceptional occasions. The _oprichniki_,
as being the exclusive favourites of the tsar, naturally, in their own
interests, hardened the tsar's heart against all outsiders, and trampled
with impunity upon every one beyond the charmed circle. Their first and
most notable victim was Philip, the saintly metropolitan of Moscow, who
was strangled for condemning the _oprichina_ as an unchristian
institution, and refusing to bless the tsar (1569). Ivan had stopped at
Tver, to murder St Philip, while on his way to destroy the second
wealthiest city in his tsardom--Great Novgorod. A delator of infamous
character, one Peter, had accused the authorities of the city to the
tsar of conspiracy; Ivan, without even confronting the Novgorodians with
their accuser, proceeded at the end of 1569 to punish them. After
ravaging the land, his own land, like a wild beast, he entered the city
on the 8th of January 1570, and for the next five weeks, systematically
and deliberately, day after day, massacred batches of every class of the
population. Every monastery, church, manor-house, warehouse and farm
within a circuit of 100 m. was then wrecked, plundered and left
roofless, all goods were pillaged, all cattle destroyed. Not till the
13th of February were the miserable remnants of the population permitted
to rebuild their houses and cultivate their fields once more.

An intermittent and desultory war, with Sweden and Poland
simultaneously, for the possession of Livonia and Esthonia, went on from
1560 to 1582. Ivan's generals (he himself rarely took the field) were
generally successful at first, and bore down their enemies by sheer
numbers, capturing scores of fortresses and towns. But in the end the
superior military efficiency of the Swedes and Poles invariably
prevailed. Ivan was also unfortunate in having for his chief antagonist
Stephen Báthory, one of the greatest captains of the age. Thus all his
strenuous efforts, all his enormous sacrifices, came to nothing. The
West was too strong for him. By the peace of Zapoli (January 15th, 1582)
he surrendered Livonia with Polotsk to Báthory, and by the truce of
Ilyusa he at the same time abandoned Ingria to the Swedes. The Baltic
seaboard was lost to Muscovy for another century and a half. In his
latter years Ivan cultivated friendly relations with England, in the
hope of securing some share in the benefits of civilization from the
friendship of Queen Elizabeth, one of whose ladies, Mary Hastings, he
wished to marry, though his fifth wife, Martha Nagaya, was still alive.
Towards the end of his life Ivan was partially consoled for his failure
in the west by the unexpected acquisition of the kingdom of Siberia in
the east, which was first subdued by the Cossack hetman Ermak or Yermak
in 1581.

In November 1580 Ivan in a fit of ungovernable fury at some
contradiction or reproach, struck his eldest surviving son Ivan, a
prince of rare promise, whom he passionately loved, a blow which proved
fatal. In an agony of remorse, he would now have abdicated "as being
unworthy to reign longer"; but his trembling boyars, fearing some dark
ruse, refused to obey any one but himself. Three years later, on the
18th of March 1584, while playing at chess, he suddenly fell backwards
in his chair and was removed to his bed in a dying condition. At the
last moment he assumed the hood of the strictest order of hermits, and
died as the monk Jonah.

Ivan IV. was undoubtedly a man of great natural ability. His political
foresight was extraordinary. He anticipated the ideals of Peter the
Great, and only failed in realizing them because his material resources
were inadequate. But admiration of his talents must not blind us to his
moral worthlessness, nor is it right to cast the blame for his excesses
on the brutal and vicious society in which he lived. The same society
which produced his infamous favourites also produced St Philip of
Moscow, and by refusing to listen to St Philip Ivan sank below even the
not very lofty moral standard of his own age. He certainly left
Muscovite society worse than he found it, and so prepared the way for
the horrors of "the Great Anarchy." Personally, Ivan was tall and
well-made, with high shoulders and a broad chest. His eyes were small
and restless, his nose hooked, he had a beard and moustaches of imposing
length. His face had a sinister, troubled expression; but an enigmatical
smile played perpetually around his lips. He was the best educated and
the hardest worked man of his age. His memory was astonishing, his
energy indefatigable. As far as possible he saw to everything
personally, and never sent away a petitioner of the lower orders.

  See S. M. Solov'ev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.) vol. v. (St Petersburg,
  1895); A. Brückner, _Geschichte Russlands bis zum Ende des 18ten
  Jahrhunderts_ (Gotha, 1896); E. Tikhomirov, _The first Tsar of
  Moscovy, Ivan IV._ (Rus.) (Moscow, 1888); L. G. T. Tidander, _Kriget
  mellan Sverige och Ryssland åren 1555-1557_ (Vesterås, 1888); P.
  Pierling, _Un Arbitrage pontifical au XVI^e siècle entre la Pologne et
  la Russie_ (Bruxelles, 1890); V. V. Novodvorsky, _The Struggle for
  Livonia, 1570-1582_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1904); K. Waliszewski,
  _Ivan le terrible_ (Paris, 1904); R. N. Bain, _Slavonic Europe_, ch. 5
  (Cambridge, 1907).

IVAN V.[1] (1666-1696), tsar of Russia, was the son of Tsar Alexius
Mikhailovich and his first consort Miloslavzkoya. Physically and
mentally deficient, Ivan was the mere tool of the party in Muscovy who
would have kept the children of the tsar Alexis, by his second consort
Natalia Naruishkina, from the throne. In 1682 the party of progress,
headed by Artamon Matvyeev and the tsaritsa Natalia, passed Ivan over
and placed his half-brother, the vigorous and promising little tsarevich
Peter, on the throne. On the 23rd of May, however, the Naruishkin
faction was overthrown by the _stryeltsi_ (musketeers), secretly worked
upon by Ivan's half-sister Sophia, and Ivan was associated as tsar with
Peter. Three days later he was proclaimed "first tsar," in order still
further to depress the Naruishkins, and place the government in the
hands of Sophia exclusively. In 1689 the name of Ivan was used as a
pretext by Sophia in her attempt to oust Peter from the throne
altogether. Ivan was made to distribute beakers of wine to his sister's
adherents with his own hands, but subsequently, beneath the influence of
his uncle Prozorovsky, he openly declared that "even for his sister's
sake, he would quarrel no longer with his dear brother." During the
reign of his colleague Peter, Ivan V. took no part whatever in affairs,
but devoted himself "to incessant prayer and rigorous fasting." On the
9th of January 1684 he married Praskovia Saltuikova, who bore him five
daughters, one of whom, Anne, ultimately ascended the Russian throne. In
his last years Ivan was a paralytic. He died on the 29th of January
1696.

  See R. Nisbet Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905); M. P.
  Pogodin, _The First Seventeen Years of the Life of Peter the Great_
  (Rus.) (Moscow, 1875).

IVAN VI. (1740-1764), emperor of Russia, was the son of Prince Antony
Ulrich of Brunswick, and the princess Anna Leopoldovna of Mecklenburg,
and great-nephew of the empress Anne, who adopted him and declared him
her successor on the 5th of October 1740, when he was only eight weeks
old. On the death of Anne (October 17th) he was proclaimed emperor, and
on the following day Ernest Johann Biren, duke of Courland, was
appointed regent. On the fall of Biren (November 8th), the regency
passed to the baby tsar's mother, though the government was in the hands
of the capable vice-chancellor, Andrei Osterman. A little more than
twelve months later, a _coup d'état_ placed the tsesarevna Elizabeth on
the throne (December 6, 1741), and Ivan and his family were imprisoned
in the fortress of Dünamünde (Ust Dvinsk) (December 13, 1742) after a
preliminary detention at Riga, from whence the new empress had at first
decided to send them home to Brunswick. In June 1744 they were
transferred to Kholmogory on the White Sea, where Ivan, isolated from
his family, and seeing nobody but his gaoler, remained for the next
twelve years. Rumours of his confinement at Kholmogory having leaked
out, he was secretly transferred to the fortress of Schlüsselburg
(1756), where he was still more rigorously guarded, the very commandant
of the fortress not knowing who "a certain arrestant" committed to his
care really was. On the accession of Peter III. the condition of the
unfortunate prisoner seemed about to be ameliorated, for the
kind-hearted emperor visited and sympathized with him; but Peter himself
was overthrown a few weeks later. In the instructions sent to Ivan's
guardian, Prince Churmtyev, the latter was ordered to chain up his
charge, and even scourge him should he become refractory. On the
accession of Catherine still more stringent orders were sent to the
officer in charge of "the nameless one." If any attempt were made from
outside to release him, the prisoner was to be put to death; in no
circumstances was he to be delivered alive into any one's hands, even if
his deliverers produced the empress's own sign-manual authorizing his
release. By this time, twenty years of solitary confinement had
disturbed Ivan's mental equilibrium, though he does not seem to have
been actually insane. Nevertheless, despite the mystery surrounding him,
he was well aware of his imperial origin, and always called himself
_gosudar_ (sovereign). Though instructions had been given to keep him
ignorant, he had been taught his letters and could read his Bible. Nor
could his residence at Schlüsselburg remain concealed for ever, and its
discovery was the cause of his ruin. A sub-lieutenant of the garrison,
Vasily Mirovich, found out all about him, and formed a plan for freeing
and proclaiming him emperor. At midnight on the 5th of July 1764,
Mirovich won over some of the garrison, arrested the commandant,
Berednikov, and demanded the delivery of Ivan, who there and then was
murdered by his gaolers in obedience to the secret instructions already
in their possession.

  See R. Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897); M.
  Semevsky, _Ivan VI. Antonovich_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1866); A.
  Brückner, _The Emperor Ivan VI. and his Family_ (Rus.) (Moscow, 1874);
  V. A. Bilbasov, _Geschichte Catherine II._ (vol. ii., Berlin,
  1891-1893).     (R. N. B.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Ivan V., if we count from the first grand duke of that name, as
    most Russian historians do; Ivan II., if, with the minority, we
    reckon from Ivan the Terrible as the first Russian tsar.




IVANGOROD, a fortified town of Russian Poland, in the government of
Lublin, 64 m. by rail S.E. from Warsaw, at the confluence of the Wieprz
with the Vistula. It is defended by nine forts on the right bank of the
Vistula and by three on the left bank, and, with Warsaw, Novo-Georgievsk
and Brest-Litovsk, forms the Polish "quadrilateral."




IVANOVO-VOZNESENSK, a town of middle Russia, in the government of
Vladimir, 86 m. by rail N. of the town of Vladimir. Pop. (1887) 22,000;
(1900) 64,628. It consists of what were originally two villages--Ivanovo,
dating from the 16th century, and Voznesensk, of much more recent
date--united into a town in 1861. Of best note among the public buildings
are the cathedral, and the church of the Intercession of the Virgin,
formerly associated with an important monastery founded in 1579 and
abandoned in 1754. One of the colleges of the town contains a public
library. Linen-weaving was introduced in 1751, and in 1776 the
manufacture of chintzes was brought from Schlüsselburg. The town has
cotton factories, calico print-works, iron-works and chemical works.




IVARR, BEINLAUSI (d. 873), son of Ragnar Lothbrok, the great Viking
chieftain, is known in English and Continental annals as Inuaer, Ingwar
or Hingwar. He was one of the Danish leaders in the Sheppey expedition
of 855 and was perhaps present at the siege of York in 867. The chief
incident in his life was his share in the martyrdom of St Edmund in 870.
He seems to have been the leader of the Danes on that occasion, and by
this act he probably gained the epithet "crudelissimus" by which he is
usually described. It is probable that he is to be identified with
Imhar, king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain, who was active
in Ireland between the years 852 and 873, the year of his death.




IVIZA, IBIZA or IVIÇA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, belonging to
Spain, and forming part of the archipelago known as the Balearic Islands
(q.v.). Pop. (1900) 23,524; area 228 sq. m. Iviza lies 50 m. S.W. of
Majorca and about 60 m. from Cape San Martin on the coast of Spain. Its
greatest length from north-east to south-west is about 25 m. and its
greatest breadth about 13 m. The coast is indented by numerous small
bays, the principal of which are those of San Antonio on the north-west,
and of Iviza on the south-east. Of all the Balearic group, Iviza is the
most varied in its scenery and the most fruitful. The hilly parts which
culminate in the Pico de Atalayasa (1560 ft.), are richly wooded. The
climate is for the most part mild and agreeable, though the hot winds
from the African coast are sometimes troublesome. Oil, corn and fruits
(of which the most important are the fig, prickly pear, almond and
carob-bean) are the principal products; hemp and flax are also grown,
but the inhabitants are rather indolent, and their modes of culture are
very primitive. There are numerous salt-pans along the coast, which were
formerly worked by the Spanish government. Fruit, salt, charcoal, lead
and stockings of native manufacture are exported. The imports are rice,
flour, sugar, woollen goods and cotton. The capital of the island, and,
indeed, the only town of much importance--for the population is
remarkably scattered--is Iviza or La Ciudad (6527), a fortified town on
the south-east coast, consisting of a lower and upper portion, and
possessing a good harbour, a 13th-century Gothic collegiate church and
an ancient castle. Iviza was the see of a bishop from 1782 to 1851.

South of Iviza lies the smaller and more irregular island of Formentera
(pop., 1900, 2243; area, 37 sq. m.), which is said to derive its name
from the production of wheat. With Iviza it agrees both in general
appearance and in the character of its products, but it is altogether
destitute of streams. Goats and sheep are found in the mountains, and
the coasts are greatly frequented by flamingoes. Iviza and Formentera
are the principal islands of the lesser or western Balearic group,
formerly known as the Pityusae or Pine Islands.




IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842), Scottish mathematician, was born in Dundee
in 1765. In 1779 he entered the university of St Andrews, distinguishing
himself especially in mathematics. He then studied theology; but, after
two sessions at St Andrews and one at Edinburgh, he abandoned all idea
of the church, and in 1786 he became an assistant-teacher of mathematics
and natural philosophy in a newly established academy at Dundee. Three
years later he became partner in and manager of a flax-spinning company
at Douglastown in Forfarshire, still, however, prosecuting in moments of
leisure his favourite studies. He was essentially a self-trained
mathematician, and was not only deeply versed in ancient and modern
geometry, but also had a full knowledge of the analytical methods and
discoveries of the continental mathematicians. His earliest memoir,
dealing with an analytical expression for the rectification of the
ellipse, is published in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh_ (1796); and this and his later papers on "Cubic Equations"
(1799) and "Kepler's Problem" (1802) evince great facility in the
handling of algebraic formulae. In 1804 after the dissolution of the
flax-spinning company of which he was manager, he obtained one of the
mathematical chairs in the Royal Military College at Marlow (afterwards
removed to Sandhurst); and till the year 1816, when falling health
obliged him to resign, he discharged his professional duties with
remarkable success. During this period he published in the
_Philosophical Transactions_ several important memoirs, which earned for
him the Copley medal in 1814 and ensured his election as a Fellow of the
Royal Society in 1815. Of special importance in the history of
attractions is the first of these earlier memoirs (_Phil. Trans._,
1809), in which the problem of the attraction of a homogeneous ellipsoid
upon an external point is reduced to the simpler case of the attraction
of another but related ellipsoid upon a corresponding point interior to
it. This theorem is known as Ivory's theorem. His later papers in the
_Philosophical Transactions_ treat of astronomical refractions, of
planetary perturbations, of equilibrium of fluid masses, &c. For his
investigations in the first named of these he received a royal medal in
1826 and again in 1839. In 1831, on the recommendation of Lord Brougham,
King William IV. granted him a pension of £300 per annum, and conferred
on him the Hanoverian Guelphic order of knighthood. Besides being
directly connected with the chief scientific societies of his own
country, the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Irish Academy, &c.,
he was corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences both of
Paris and Berlin, and of the Royal Society of Göttingen. He died at
London on the 21st of September 1842.

  A list of his works is given in the _Catalogue of Scientific Papers of
  the Royal Society of London_.




IVORY (Fr. _ivoire_, Lat. _ebur_), strictly speaking a term confined to
the material represented by the tusk of the elephant, and for commercial
purposes almost entirely to that of the male elephant. In Africa both
the male and female elephant produce good-sized tusks; in the Indian
variety the female is much less bountifully provided, and in Ceylon
perhaps not more than 1% of either sex have any tusks at all. Ivory is
in substance very dense, the pores close and compact and filled with a
gelatinous solution which contributes to the beautiful polish which may
be given to it and makes it easy to work. It may be placed between bone
and horn; more fibrous than bone and therefore less easily torn or
splintered. For a scientific definition it would be difficult to find a
better one than that given by Sir Richard Owen. He says:[1] "The name
ivory is now restricted to that modification of dentine or tooth
substance which in transverse sections or fractures shows lines of
different colours, or striae, proceeding in the arc of a circle and
forming by their decussations minute curvilinear lozenge-shaped spaces."
These spaces are formed by an immense number of exceedingly minute tubes
placed very close together, radiating outwards in all directions. It is
to this arrangement of structure that ivory owes its fine grain and
almost perfect elasticity, and the peculiar marking resembling the
engine-turning on the case of a watch, by which many people are guided
in distinguishing it from celluloid or other imitations. Elephants'
tusks are the upper incisor teeth of the animal, which, starting in
earliest youth from a semi-solid vascular pulp, grow during the whole of
its existence, gathering phosphates and other earthy matters and
becoming hardened as in the formation of teeth generally. The tusk is
built up in layers, the inside layer being the last produced. A large
proportion is embedded in the bone sockets of the skull, and is hollow
for some distance up in a conical form, the hollow becoming less and
less as it is prolonged into a narrow channel which runs along as a
thread or as it is sometimes called, nerve, towards the point of the
tooth. The outer layer, or bark, is enamel of similar density to the
central part. Besides the elephant's tooth or tusk we recognize as
ivory, for commercial purposes, the teeth of the hippopotamus, walrus,
narwhal, cachalot or sperm-whale and of some animals of the wild boar
class, such as the warthog of South Africa. Practically, however,
amongst these the hippo and walrus tusks are the only ones of importance
for large work, though boars' tusks come to the sale-rooms in
considerable quantities from India and Africa.

Generally speaking, the supply of ivory imported into Europe comes from
Africa; some is Asiatic, but much that is shipped from India is really
African, coming by way of Zanzibar and Mozambique to Bombay. A certain
amount is furnished by the vast stores of remains of prehistoric animals
still existing throughout Russia, principally in Siberia in the
neighbourhood of the Lena and other rivers discharging into the Arctic
Ocean. The mammoth and mastodon seem at one time to have been common
over the whole surface of the globe. In England tusks have been recently
dug up--for instance at Dungeness--as long as 12 ft. and weighing 200
lb. The Siberian deposits have been worked for now nearly two centuries.
The store appears to be as inexhaustible as a coalfield. Some think that
a day may come when the spread of civilization may cause the utter
disappearance of the elephant in Africa, and that it will be to these
deposits that we may have to turn as the only source of animal ivory. Of
late years in England the use of mammoth ivory has shown signs of
decline. Practically none passed through the London sale-rooms during
1903-1906. Before that, parcels of 10 to 20 tons were not uncommon. Not
all of it is good; perhaps about half of what comes to England is so,
the rest rotten; specimens, however, are found as perfect and in as fine
condition as if recently killed, instead of having lain hidden and
preserved for thousands of years in the icy ground. There is a
considerable literature (see Shooting) on the subject of big-game
hunting, which includes that of the elephant, hippopotamus and smaller
tusk-bearing animals. Elephants until comparatively recent times roamed
over the whole of Africa from the northern deserts to the Cape of Good
Hope. They are still abundant in Central Africa and Uganda, but
civilization has gradually driven them farther and farther into the
wilds and impenetrable forests of the interior.

The quality of ivory varies according to the districts whence it is
obtained, the soft variety of the eastern parts of the continent being
the most esteemed. When in perfect condition African ivory should be if
recently cut of a warm, transparent, mellow tint, with as little as
possible appearance of grain or mottling. Asiatic ivory is of a denser
white, more open in texture and softer to work. But it is apt to turn
yellow sooner, and is not so easy to polish. Unlike bone, ivory requires
no preparation, but is fit for immediate working. That from the
neighbourhood of Cameroon is very good, then ranks the ivory from
Loango, Congo, Gabun and Ambriz; next the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and
Cape Coast Castle. That of French Sudan is nearly always "ringy," and
some of the Ambriz variety also. We may call Zanzibar and Mozambique
varieties soft; Angola and Ambriz all hard. Ambriz ivory was at one time
much esteemed, but there is comparatively little now. Siam ivory is
rarely if ever soft. Abyssinian has its soft side, but Egypt is
practically the only place where both descriptions are largely
distributed. A drawback to Abyssinian ivory is a prevalence of a rather
thick bark. Egyptian is liable to be cracked, from the extreme
variations of temperature; more so formerly than now, since better
methods of packing and transit are used. Ivory is extremely sensitive to
sudden extremes of temperature; for this reason billiard balls should be
kept where the temperature is fairly equable.

The market terms by which descriptions of ivory are distinguished are
liable to mislead. They refer to ports of shipment rather than to places
of origin. For instance, "Malta" ivory is a well-understood term, yet
there are no ivory producing animals in that island.

Tusks should be regular and tapering in shape, not very curved or
twisted, for economy in cutting; the coat fine, thin, clear and
transparent. The substance of ivory is so elastic and flexible that
excellent riding-whips have been cut longitudinally from whole tusks.
The size to which tusks grow and are brought to market depends on race
rather than on size of elephants. The latter run largest in equatorial
Africa. Asiatic bull elephant tusks seldom exceed 50 lb. in weight,
though lengths of 9 ft. and up to 150 lb. weight are not entirely
unknown. Record lengths for African tusks are the one presented to
George V., when prince of Wales, on his marriage (1893), measuring 8 ft.
7½ in. and weighing 165 lb., and the pair of tusks which were brought to
the Zanzibar market by natives in 1898, weighing together over 450 lb.
One of the latter is new in the Natural History Museum at South
Kensington; the other is in Messrs Rodgers & Co.'s collection at
Sheffield. For length the longest known are those belonging to Messrs
Rowland Ward, Piccadilly, which measure 11 ft. and 11 ft. 5 in.
respectively, with a combined weight of 293 lb. Osteodentine, resulting
from the effects of injuries from spearheads or bullets, is sometimes
found in tusks. This formation, resembling stalactites, grows with the
tusk, the bullets or iron remaining embedded without trace of their
entry.

The most important commercial distinction of the qualities of ivory is
that of the _hard_ and _soft_ varieties. The terms are difficult to
define exactly. Generally speaking, hard or bright ivory is distinctly
harder to cut with the saw or other tools. It is, as it were, glassy and
transparent. Soft contains more moisture, stands differences of climate
and temperature better, and does not crack so easily. The expert is
guided by the shape of the tooth, by the colour and quality of the bark
or skin, and by the transparency when cut, or even before, as at the
point of the tooth. Roughly, a line might be drawn almost centrally down
the map of Africa, on the west of which the hard quality prevails, on the
east the soft. In choosing ivory for example for knife-handles--people
rather like to see a pretty grain, strongly marked; but the finest
quality in the hard variety, which is generally used for them, is the
closest and freest from grain. The curved or canine teeth of the
hippopotamus are valuable and come in considerable quantities to the
European markets. Owen describes this variety as "an extremely dense,
compact kind of dentine, partially defended on the outside by a thin
layer of enamel as hard as porcelain; so hard as to strike fire with
steel." By reason of this hardness it is not at all liked by the turner
and ivory workers, and before being touched by them the enamel has to be
removed by acid, or sometimes by heating and sudden cooling, when it can
be scaled off. The texture is slightly curdled, mottled or damasked.
Hippo ivory was at one time largely used for artificial teeth, but now
mostly for umbrella and stick-handles; whole (in their natural form) for
fancy door-handles and the like. In the trade the term is not
"riverhorse" but "seahorse teeth." Walrus ivory is less dense and coarser
than hippo, but of fine quality--what there is of it, for the oval centre
which has more the character of coarse bone unfortunately extends a long
way up. At one time a large supply came to the market, but of late years
there has been an increasing scarcity, the animals having been almost
exterminated by the ruthless persecution to which they have been
subjected in their principal haunts in the northern seas. It is little
esteemed now, though our ancestors thought highly of it. Comparatively
large slabs are to be found in medieval sculpture of the 11th and 12th
centuries, and the grips of most oriental swords, ancient and modern, are
made from it. The ivory from the single tusk or horn of the narwhal is
not of much commercial value except as an ornament or curiosity. Some
horns attain a length of 8 to 10 ft., 4 in. thick at the base. It is
dense in substance and of a fair colour, but owing to the central cavity
there is little of it fit for anything larger than napkin-rings.

_Ivory in Commerce, and its Industrial Applications._--Almost the whole
of the importation of ivory to Europe was until recent years confined to
London, the principal distributing mart of the world. But the opening up
of the Congo trade has placed the port of Antwerp in a position which
has equalled and, for a time, may surpass that of London. Other
important markets are Liverpool and Hamburg; and Germany, France and
Portugal have colonial possessions in Africa, from which it is imported.
America is a considerable importer for its own requirements. From the
German Cameroon alone, according to Schilling, there were exported
during the ten years ending 1905, 452,100 kilos of ivory. Mr Buxton
estimates the amount of ivory imported into the United Kingdom at about
500 tons. If we give the same to Antwerp we have from these two ports
alone no less than 1000 tons a year to be provided. Allowing a weight so
high as 30 lb. per pair of tusks (which is far too high, perhaps twice
too high) we should have here alone between thirty and forty thousand
elephants to account for. It is true that every pair of tusks that comes
to the market represents a dead elephant, but not necessarily by any
means a slain or even a recently killed one, as is popularly supposed
and unfortunately too often repeated. By far the greater proportion is
the result of stores accumulated by natives, a good part coming from
animals which have died a natural death. Not 20% is _live_ ivory or
recently killed; the remainder is known in the trade as _dead_ ivory.

  In 1827 the principal London ivory importers imported 3000 cwt. in
  1850, 8000 cwt. The highest price up to 1855 was £55 per cwt. At the
  July sales in 1905 a record price was reached for billiard-ball teeth
  of £167 per cwt. The total imports into the United Kingdom were,
  according to Board of Trade returns, in 1890, 14,349 cwt.; in 1895,
  10,911 cwt.; in 1900, 9889 cwt.; in 1904, 9045 cwt.

  From Messrs Hale & Son's (ivory brokers, 10 Fenchurch Avenue) Ivory
  Report of the second quarterly sales in London, April 1906, it appears
  that the following were offered:--

                                                Tons.

    From Zanzibar, Bombay, Mozambique and Siam   17
    Egyptian                                     19¼
    West Coast African                           11
    Lisbon                                        1
    Abyssinian                                    6¾
                                                 ---
                                                 55

    Sea horse (hippopotamus teeth)                1¾
    Walrus                                         ¼
    Waste ivory                                  10¼
                                                 ---
                                                 67¼

  Hard ivory was scarce. West Coast African was principally of the Gabun
  description, and some of very fine quality. There was very little
  inquiry for walrus. The highest prices ranged as follows: Soft East
  Coast tusks (Zanzibar, Mozambique, Bombay and Siam), 102 to 143 lb.
  each £66, 10s. to £75, 10s. per cwt. Billiard-ball scrivelloes, £104
  per cwt. Cut points for billiard-balls (3(1/8) in. to 2(3/8) to 3 in.)
  £114 to £151 per cwt. Seahorse (for best), 3s. 6d. to 4s. 1d. per lb.
  Boars' tusks, 6d. to 7d. per lb.

  _Quantities of ivory offered to Public auction (from Messrs Hale &
  Son's Reports)._

    +--------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+
    |                                      | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. |
    +--------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+
    |                                      | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. |
    | Zanzibar, Bombay, Mozambique and Siam|  81   |  75   |  76   |
    | Egyptian                             |  49¾  |  72¾  |  81¾  |
    | Abyssinian                           |  22¾  |   9¾  |  23¼  |
    | West Coast African                   |  46¾  |  39½  |  41½  |
    | Lisbon                               |   3   |   3   |   1¾  |
    |                                      +-------+-------+-------+
    |                                      | 203¼  | 200   | 224¼  |
    | Seahorse teeth and Boars' tusks      |   7   |   9¾  |   7   |
    |                                      +-------+-------+-------+
    |                                      | 210¼  | 209¾  | 231½  |
    +--------------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+

  _Fluctuations in prices of ivory at the London Sale-Room (from Messrs
  Hale & Son's Charts, which show the prices at each quarterly sale from
  1870)._

    +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
    |                                |1870.|1880.|1890.|1900.|1905.|
    |                                +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
    | Billiard Ball pieces           | £55 | £90 |£112 | £68 |£167 |
    |Averages--                      |     |     |     |     |     |
    | Hard Egyptian 36 to 50 lb.     |  30 |  38 |  50 |  29 |  48 |
    | Soft East Indian 50 to 70 lb.  |  67 |  55 |  88 |  57 |  72 |
    | West Coast African 50 to 70 lb.|  36 |  57 |  65 |  48 |  61 |
    | Hard East African 50 to 70 lb. |  37 |  49 |  64 |  48 |  61 |
    +--------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

  In October 1889 soft East Indian fetched an average of £82 per cwt.,
  but in several instances higher prices were realized, and one lot
  reached £88 per cwt. At the Liverpool April sales 1906 about 7¼ tons
  were offered from Gabun, Angola, and Cameroon (from the last 5¾ tons).
  To the port of Antwerp the imports were 6830 cwt. in 1904 and 6570
  cwt. in 1905; of which 5310 cwt. and 4890 cwt. respectively were from
  the Congo State.

  The leading London sales are held quarterly in Mincing Lane, a very
  interesting and wonderful display of tusks and ivory of all kinds
  being laid out previously for inspection in the great warehouses known
  as the "Ivory Floor" in the London docks. The quarterly Liverpool
  sales follow the London ones, with a short interval.

The important part which ivory plays in the industrial arts not only for
decorative, but also for domestic applications is hardly sufficiently
recognized. Nothing is wasted of this valuable product. Hundreds of
sacks full of cuttings and shavings, and scraps returned by
manufacturers after they have used what they require for their
particular trade, come to the mart. The dust is used for polishing, and
in the preparation of Indian ink, and even for food in the form of ivory
jelly. The scraps come in for inlaying and for the numberless purposes
in which ivory is used for small domestic and decorative objects. India,
which has been called the backbone of the trade, takes enormous
quantities of the rings left in the turning of billiard-balls, which
serve as women's bangles, or for making small toys and models, and in
other characteristic Indian work. Without endeavouring to enumerate all
the applications, a glance may be cast at the most important of those
which consume the largest quantity. Chief among these is the manufacture
of billiard-balls, of cutlery handles, of piano-keys and of brushware
and toilet articles. Billiard-balls demand the highest quality of ivory;
for the best balls the soft description is employed, though recently,
through the competition of bonzoline and similar substitutes, the hard
has been more used in order that the weight may be assimilated to that
of the artificial kind. Therefore the most valuable tusks of all are
those adapted for the billiard-ball trade. The term used is
"scrivelloes," and is applied to teeth proper for the purpose, weighing
not over about 7 lb. The division of the tusk into smaller pieces for
subsequent manufacture, in order to avoid waste, is a matter of
importance.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

  The accompanying diagrams (figs. 1 and 2) show the method; the cuts
  are made radiating from an imaginary centre of the curve of the tusk.
  In after processes the various trades have their own particular
  methods for making the most of the material. In making a billiard-ball
  of the English size the first thing to be done is to rough out, from
  the cylindrical section, a sphere about 2¼ in. in diameter, which will
  eventually be 2(1/16) or sometimes for professional players a little
  larger. One hemisphere--as shown in the diagrams (fig. 2)--is first
  turned, and the resulting ring detached with a parting tool. The
  diameter is accurately taken and the subsequent removals taken off in
  other directions. The ball is then fixed in a wooden chuck, the half
  cylinder reversed, and the operation repeated for the other
  hemisphere. It is now left five years to season and then turned dead
  true. The rounder and straighter the tusk selected for ball-making the
  better. Evidently, if the tusk is oval and the ball the size of the
  least diameter, its sides which come nearer to the bark or rind will
  be coarser and of a different density from those portions further
  removed from this outer skin. The matching of billiard-balls is
  important, for extreme accuracy in weight is essential. It is usual to
  bleach them, as the purchaser--or at any rate the distributing
  intermediary--likes to have them of a dead white. But this is a
  mistake, for bleaching with chemicals takes out the gelatine to some
  extent, alters the quality and affects the density; it also makes them
  more liable to crack, and they are not nearly so nice-looking.
  Billiard-balls should be bought in summer time when the temperature is
  most equable, and gently used till the winter season. On an average
  three balls of fine quality are got out of a tooth. The stock of more
  than one great manufacturer surpasses at times 30,000 in number. But
  although ball teeth rose in 1905 to £167 a cwt., the price of
  billiard-balls was the same in 1905 as it was in 1885. Roughly
  speaking, there are about twelve different qualities and prices of
  billiard-balls, and eight of pyramid- and pool-balls, the latter
  ranging from half a guinea to two guineas each.

The ivory for piano-keys is delivered to the trade in the shape of what
are known as heads and tails, the former for the parts which come under
the fingers, the latter for that running up between the black keys. The
two are joined afterwards on the keyboard with extreme accuracy.
Piano-keys are bleached, but organists for some reason or other prefer
unbleached keys. The soft variety is mostly used for high-class work and
preferably of the Egyptian type.

The great centres of the ivory industry for the ordinary objects of
common domestic use are in England, for cutlery handles Sheffield, for
billiard-balls and piano-keys London. For cutlery a large firm such as
Rodgers & Sons uses an average of some twenty tons of ivory annually,
mostly of the hard variety. But for billiard-balls and piano-keys
America is now a large producer, and a considerable quantity is made in
France and Germany. Brush backs are almost wholly in English hands.
Dieppe has long been famous for the numberless little ornaments and
useful articles such as statuettes, crucifixes, little bookcovers,
paper-cutters, combs, serviette-rings and _articles de Paris_ generally.
And St Claude in the Jura, and Geislingen in Würtemberg, and Erbach in
Hesse, Germany, are amongst the most important centres of the industry.
India and China supply the multitude of toys, models, chess and
draughtsmen, puzzles, workbox fittings and other curiosities.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

  _Vegetable Ivory, &c._--Some allusion may be made to vegetable ivory
  and artificial substitutes. The plants yielding the vegetable ivory of
  commerce represent two or more species of an anomalous genus of palms,
  and are known to botanists as _Phytelephas_. They are natives of
  tropical South America, occurring chiefly on the banks of the river
  Magdalena, Colombia, always found in damp localities, not only,
  however, on the lower coast region as in Darien, but also at a
  considerable elevation above the sea. They are mostly found in
  separate groves, not mixed with other trees or shrubs. The plant is
  severally known as the "tagua" by the Indians on the banks of the
  Magdalena, as the "anta" on the coast of Darien, and as the
  "pulli-punta" and "homero" in Peru. It is stemless or short-stemmed,
  and crowned with from twelve to twenty very long pinnatifid leaves.
  The plants are dioecious, the males forming higher, more erect and
  robust trunks than the females. The male inflorescence is in the form
  of a simple fleshy cylindrical spadix covered with flowers; the female
  flowers are also in a single spadix, which, however, is shorter than
  in the male. The fruit consists of a conglomerated head composed of
  six or seven drupes, each containing from six to nine seeds, and the
  whole being enclosed in a walled woody covering forming altogether a
  globular head as large as that of a man. A single plant sometimes
  bears at the same time from six to eight of these large heads of
  fruit, each weighing from 20 to 25 lb. In its very young state the
  seed contains a clear insipid fluid, which travellers take advantage
  of to allay thirst. As it gets older this fluid becomes milky and of a
  sweet taste, and it gradually continues to change both in taste and
  consistence until it becomes so hard as to make it valuable as a
  substitute for animal ivory. In their young and fresh state the fruits
  are eaten with avidity by bears, hogs and other animals. The seeds, or
  nuts as they are usually called when fully ripe and hard, are used by
  the American Indians for making small ornamental articles and toys.
  They are imported into Britain in considerable quantities, frequently
  under the name of "Corozo" nuts, a name by which the fruits of some
  species of _Attalea_ (another palm with hard ivory-like seeds) are
  known in Central America--their uses being chiefly for small articles
  of turnery. Of vegetable ivory Great Britain imported in 1904 1200
  tons, of which about 400 tons were re-exported, principally to
  Germany. It is mainly and largely used for coat buttons.

  Many artificial compounds have, from time to time, been tried as
  substitutes for ivory; amongst them potatoes treated with sulphuric
  acid. Celluloid is familiar to us nowadays. In the form of bonzoline,
  into which it is said to enter, it is used largely for billiard balls;
  and a new French substitute--a caseine made from milk, called
  gallalith--has begun to be much used for piano keys in the cheaper
  sorts of instrument. Odontolite is mammoth ivory, which through lapse
  of time and from surroundings becomes converted into a substance known
  as fossil or blue ivory, and is used occasionally in jewelry as
  turquoise, which it very much resembles. It results from the tusks of
  antediluvian mammoths buried in the earth for thousands of years,
  during which time under certain conditions the ivory becomes slowly
  penetrated with the metallic salts which give it the peculiar vivid
  blue colour of turquoise.

_Ivory Sculpture and the Decorative Arts._--The use of ivory as a
material peculiarly adapted for sculpture and decoration has been
universal in the history of civilization. The earliest examples which
have come down to us take us back to prehistoric times, when, so far as
our knowledge goes, civilization as we understand it had attained no
higher degree than that of the dwellers in caves, or of the most
primitive races. Throughout succeeding ages there is continued evidence
that no other substance--except perhaps wood, of which we have even
fewer ancient examples--has been so consistently connected with man's
art-craftsmanship. It is hardly too much to say that to follow properly
the history of ivory sculpture involves the study of the whole world's
art in all ages. It will take us back to the most remote antiquity, for
we have examples of the earliest dynasties of Egypt and Assyria. Nor is
there entire default when we come to the periods of the highest
civilization of Greece and Rome. It has held an honoured place in all
ages for the adornment of the palaces of the great, not only in
sculpture proper but in the rich inlay of panelling, of furniture,
chariots and other costly articles. The Bible teems with references to
its beauty and value. And when, in the days of Pheidias, Greek sculpture
had reached the highest perfection, we learn from ancient writers that
colossal statues were constructed--notably the "Zeus of Olympia" and the
"Athena of the Parthenon." The faces, hands and other exposed portions
of these figures were of ivory, and the question, therefore, of the
method of production of such extremely large slabs as perhaps were used
has been often debated. A similar difficulty arises with regard to other
pieces of considerable size, found, for example, amongst consular
diptychs. It has been conjectured that some means of softening and
moulding ivory was known to the ancients, but as a matter of fact though
it may be softened it cannot be again restored to its original
condition. If up to the 4th century we are unable to point to a large
number of examples of sculpture in ivory, from that date onwards the
chain is unbroken, and during the five or six hundred years of unrest
and strife from the decline of the Roman empire in the 5th century to
the dawn of the Gothic revival of art in the 11th or 12th, ivory
sculpture alone of the sculptural arts carries on the preservation of
types and traditions of classic times in central Europe. Most important
indeed is the rôle which existing examples of ivory carving play in the
history of the last two centuries of the consulates of the Western and
Eastern empires. Though the evidences of decadence in art may be marked,
the close of that period brings us down to the end of the reign of
Justinian (527-563). Two centuries later the iconoclastic persecutions
in the Eastern empire drive westward and compel to settle there numerous
colonies of monks and artificers. Throughout the Carlovingian period,
the examples of ivory sculpture which we possess in not inconsiderable
quantity are of extreme importance in the history of the early
development of Byzantine art in Europe. And when the Western world of
art arose from its torpor, freed itself from Byzantine shackles and
traditions, and began to think for itself, it is to the sculptures in
ivory of the Gothic art of the 13th and 14th centuries that we turn with
admiration of their exquisite beauty of expression. Up to about the 14th
century the influence of the church was everywhere predominant in all
matters relating to art. In ivories, as in mosaics, enamels or miniature
painting it would be difficult to find a dozen examples, from the age of
Constantine onwards, other than sacred ones or of sacred symbolism. But
as the period of the Renaissance approached, the influence of romantic
literature began to assert itself, and a feeling and style similar to
those which are characteristic of the charming series of religious art
in ivory, so touchingly conceived and executed, meet us in many objects
in ivory destined for ordinary domestic uses and ornament. Mirror cases,
caskets for jewelry or toilet purposes, combs, the decoration of arms,
or of saddlery or of weapons of the chase, are carved and chased with
scenes of real life or illustrations of the romances, which bring home
to us in a vivid manner details of the manners and customs, amusements,
dresses and domestic life of the times. With the Renaissance and a
return to classical ideas, joined with a love of display and of gorgeous
magnificence, art in ivory takes a secondary place. There is a want of
simplicity and of originality. It is the period of the commencement of
decadence. Then comes the period nicknamed _rococo_, which persisted so
long. Ivory carving follows the vulgar fashion, is content with copying
or adapting, and until the revival in our own times is, except in rare
instances, no longer to be classed as a fine art. It becomes a trade and
is in the hands of the mechanic of the workshop. In this necessarily
brief and condensed sketch we have been concerned mainly with ivory
carving in Europe. It will be necessary to give also, presently, some
indications enabling the inquirer to follow the history--or at least to
put him on the track of it--not only in the different countries of the
West but also in India, China and Japan.

_Prehistoric Ivory Carvings._--These are the result of investigations
made about the middle of the 19th century in the cave dwellings of the
Dordogne in France and also of the lake dwellings of Switzerland. As
records they are unique in the history of art. Further than this our
wonderment is excited at finding these engravings or sculptures in the
round, these chiselled examples of the art of the uncultivated savage,
conceived and executed with a feeling of delicacy and restraint which
the most modern artist might envy. Who they were who executed them must
be left to the palaeontologist and geologist to decide. We can only be
certain that they were contemporary with the period when the mammoth and
the reindeer still roved freely in southern France. The most important
examples are the sketch of the mammoth (see PAINTING, Plate I.), on a
slab of ivory now in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, the head and
shoulders of an ibex carved in the round on a piece of reindeer horn,
and the figure of a woman (instances of representations of the human
form are most rare) naked and wearing a necklace and bracelet. Many of
the originals are in the museum at St Germain-en-Laye, and casts of a
considerable number are in the British Museum.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Panel with Cartouche, Nineveh.]

_Ancient Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman Ivories._--We know from
ancient writers that the Egyptians were skilled in ivory carving and
that they procured ivory in large quantities from Ethiopia. The Louvre
possesses examples of a kind of flat castanets or clappers, in the form
of the curve of the tusks themselves, engraved in outline, beautifully
modelled hands forming the tapering points; and large quantities of
small objects, including a box of plain form and simple decoration
identified from the inscribed praenomen as the fifth dynasty, about 4000
B.C. The British Museum and the museum at Cairo are also comparatively
rich. But no other collection in the world contains such an interesting
collection of ancient Assyrian ivories as that in the British Museum.
Those exhibited number some fifty important pieces, and many other
fragments are, on account of their fragility or state of decay, stowed
away. The collection is the result of the excavations by Layard about
1840 on the supposed site of Nineveh opposite the modern city of Mosul.
When found they were so decomposed from the lapse of time as scarcely to
bear touching or the contact of the external air. Layard hit upon the
ingenious plan of boiling in a solution of gelatine and thus restoring
to them the animal matter which had dried up in the course of centuries.
Later, the explorations of Flinders Petrie and others at Abydos brought
to light a considerable number of sculptured fragments which may be even
two thousand years older than those of Nineveh. They have been exhibited
in London and since distributed amongst various museums at home and
abroad.

[Illustration: From photo by W. A. Mansell & Co.

FIG. 4.--Leaf of diptych showing combats with stags; in the Liverpool
Museum.]

_Consular and Official and Private Diptychs._--About fifty of the
remarkable plaques called "consular diptychs," of the time of the three
last centuries of the consulates of the Roman and Greek empire have been
preserved. They range in date from perhaps mid-fourth to mid-sixth
centuries, and as with two or three exceptions the dates are certain it
would be difficult to overestimate their historic or intrinsic value.
The earliest of absolutely certain date is the diptych of Aosta (A.D.
408), the first after the recognition of Christianity; or, if the Monza
diptych represents, as some think, the Consul Stilicon, then we may
refer back six years earlier. At any rate the edict of Theodosius in
A.D. 384, concerning the restriction of the use of ivory to the diptychs
of the regular consuls, is evidence that the custom must have been long
established. According to some authorities the beautiful leaf of diptych
in the Liverpool Museum (fig. 4) is a consular one and to be ascribed to
Marcus Julius Philippus (A.D. 248). Similarly the Gherardesca leaf in
the British Museum may be accepted as of the Consul Marcus Aurelius
(A.D. 308). But the whole question of the half dozen earliest examples
is conjectural. With a few notable exceptions they show decadence in
art. Amongst the finest may be cited the leaf with the combats with
stags at Liverpool, the diptych of Probianus at Berlin and the two
leaves, one of Anastasius, the other of Orestes, in the Victoria and
Albert Museum. The literature concerning these diptychs is voluminous,
from the time of the erudite treatise by Gori published in 1759 to the
present day. The latest of certain date is that of Basilius, consul of
the East in 541, the last of the consuls. The diptychs of private
individuals or of officials number about sixteen, and in the case of the
private ones have a far greater artistic value. Of these the Victoria
and Albert Museum possesses the most beautiful leaf of perhaps the
finest example of ancient ivory sculpture which has come down to us,
diptychon Meleretense, representing a Bacchante (fig. 5). The other
half, which is much injured, is in the Cluny Museum. Other important
pieces are the Aesculapius and Hygeia at Liverpool, the Hippolytus and
Phaedra at Brescia, the Barberini in the Bargello and at Vienna and the
Rufius Probianus at Berlin. Besides the diptychs ancient Greek and Roman
ivories before the recognition of Christianity are comparatively small
in number and are mostly in the great museums of the Vatican, Naples,
the British Museum, the Louvre and the Cluny Museum. Amongst them are
the statuette of Penthea, perhaps of the 3rd century (Cluny), a large
head of a woman (museum of Vienna) and the Bellerophon (British Museum),
nor must those of the Roman occupation in England and other countries be
forgotten. Notable instances are the plaque and ivory mask found at
Caerleon. Others are now in the Guildhall and British Museums, and most
continental European museums have examples connected with their own
history.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Leaf of Roman diptych, representing a Bacchante;
in the Victoria and Albert Museum.]

[Illustration: From photo by W. A. Mansell & Co.

FIG. 6.--Leaf of Diptych, representing Archangel; in the British Museum.]

_Early Christian and Early Byzantine Ivories._--The few examples we
possess of Christian ivories previous to the time of Constantine are not
of great importance from the point of view of the history of art. But
after that date the ivories which we may ascribe to the centuries from
the end of the 4th to at least the end of the 9th become of considerable
interest, on account of their connexion with the development of
Byzantine art in western Europe. With regard to exact origins and dates
opinions are largely divergent. In great part they are due to the
carrying on of traditions and styles by which the makers of the
sarcophagi were inspired, and the difficulties of ascription are
increased when in addition to the primitive elements the influence of
Byzantine systems introduced many new ideas derived from many extraneous
sources. The questions involved are of no small archaeological,
iconographical and artistic importance, but it must be admitted that we
are reduced to conjecture in many cases, and compelled to theorize. And
it would seem to be impossible to be more precise as to dates than
within a margin of sometimes three centuries. Then, again, we are met by
the question how far these ivories are connected with Byzantine art;
whether they were made in the West by immigrant Greeks, or indigenous
works, or purely imported productions. Some German critics have
endeavoured to construct a system of schools, and to form definite
groups, assigning them to Rome, Ravenna, Milan and Monza. Not only so,
but they claim to be precise in dating even to a certain decade of a
century. But it is certainly more than doubtful whether there is
sufficient evidence on which to found such assumptions. It is at least
probable that a considerable number of the ivories whose dates are given
by such a number of critics so wide a range as from the 4th to the 10th
century are nothing more than the work of the monks of the numerous
monasteries founded throughout the Carlovingian empire, copying and
adapting from whatever came into their hands. Many of them were Greek
immigrants exiled at the time of the iconoclastic persecutions. To these
must be added the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon missionaries, who brought with
them and disseminated their own national feeling and technique. We have
to take into account also the relations which existed not only with
Constantinople but also with the great governing provinces of Syria and
Egypt. Where all our information is so vague, and in the face of so much
conflicting opinion amongst authorities, it is not unreasonable to hold
with regard to very many of these ivories that instead of assigning them
to the age of Justinian or even the preceding century we ought rather to
postpone their dating from one to perhaps three centuries later and to
admit that we cannot be precise even within these limits. It would be
impossible to follow here the whole of the arguments relating to this
most important period of the development of ivory sculpture or to
mention a tithe of the examples which illustrate it. Amongst the most
striking the earliest is the very celebrated leaf of a diptych in the
British Museum representing an archangel (fig. 6). It is generally
admitted that we have no ivory of the 5th or 6th centuries or in fact of
any early medieval period which can compare with it in excellence of
design and workmanship. There is no record (it is believed) from whence
the museum obtained the ivory. There are at least plausible grounds for
surmising that it is identical with the "Angelus longus eburneus" of a
book-cover among the books brought to England by St Augustine which is
mentioned in a list of things belonging to Christchurch, Canterbury (see
Dart, _App._ p. xviii.). The dating of the four Passion plaques, also in
the British Museum, varies from the 5th to the 7th century. But although
most recent authorities accept the earlier date, the present writer
holds strongly that they are not anterior to, at earliest, the 7th
century. Even then they will remain, with the exception of the Monza oil
flask and perhaps the St Sabina doors, the earliest known representation
of the crucifixion. The ivory vase, with cover, in the British Museum,
appears to possess defined elements of the farther East, due perhaps to
the relations between Syria and Christian India or Ceylon. Other
important early Christian ivories are the series of pyxes, the diptych
in the treasury of St Ambrogio at Milan, the chair of Maximian at
Ravenna (most important as a type piece), the panel with the "Ascension"
in the Bavarian National Museum, the Brescia casket, the "Lorsch"
bookcovers of the Vatican and Victoria and Albert Museum, the Bodleian
and other bookcovers, the St Paul diptych in the Bargello at Florence
and the "Annunciation" plaque in the Trivulzio collection. So far as
unquestionably oriental specimens of Byzantine art are concerned they
are few in number, but we have in the famous Harbaville triptych in the
Louvre a super-excellent example.

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Mirror Case, illustrating the Storming of the
Castle of Love; in the Victoria and Albert Museum.]

_Gothic Ivories._--The most generally charming period of ivory sculpture
is unquestionably that which, coincident with the Gothic revival in art,
marked the beginning of a great and lasting change. The formalism
imposed by Byzantine traditions gave place to a brighter, more delicate
and tenderer conception. This golden age of the ivory carver--at its
best in the 13th century--was still in evidence during the 14th, and
although there is the beginning of a transition in style in the 15th
century, the period of neglect and decadence which set in about the
beginning of the 16th hardly reached the acute stage until well on into
the 17th. To review the various developments both of religious art which
reigned almost alone until the 14th century, or of the secular side as
exemplified in the delightful mirror cases and caskets carved with
subjects from the romantic stories which were so popular, would be
impossible here. Almost every great museum and famous private collection
abounds in examples of the well-known diptychs and triptychs and little
portable oratories of this period. Some, as in a famous panel in the
British Museum, are marvels of minute workmanship, others of delicate
openwork and tracery. Others, again, are remarkable for the wonderful
way in which, in the compass of a few inches, whole histories and
episodes of the scriptural narratives are expressed in the most vivid
and telling manner. Charming above all are the statuettes of the Virgin
and Child which French and Flemish art, especially, have handed down to
us. Of these the Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a representative
collection. Another series of interest is that of the croziers or
pastoral staves, the development of which the student of ivories will be
careful to study in connexion with the earlier ones and the tau-headed
staves. In addition there are shrines, reliquaries, bookcovers,
liturgical combs, portable altars, pyxes, holy water buckets and
sprinklers, _flabella_ or liturgical fans, rosaries, _memento mori_,
paxes, small figures and groups, and almost every conceivable adjunct of
the sanctuary or for private devotion. It is to French or Flemish art
that the greater number and the most beautiful must be referred. At the
same time, to take one example only--the diptych and triptych of Bishop
Grandison in the British Museum--we have evidence that English ivory
carvers were capable of rare excellence of design and workmanship. Nor
can crucifixes be forgotten, though they are of extreme rarity before
the 17th century. A most beautiful 13th-century figure for one--though
only a fragment--is in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Amongst secular
objects of this period, besides the mirror cases (fig. 7) and caskets,
there are hunting horns (the earlier ones probably oriental, or more or
less faithfully copied from oriental models), chess and draughtsmen
(especially the curious set from the isle of Lewis), combs, marriage
coffers (at one period remarkable Italian ones of bone), memorandum
tablets, seals, the pommels and cantles of saddles and a unique harp now
in the Louvre. The above enumeration will alone suffice to show that the
inquirer must be referred for details to the numerous works which treat
of medieval ivory sculpture.

_Ivory Sculpture from the 16th to the 19th Century._--Compared with the
wealth of ivory carving of the two preceding centuries, the 15th, and
especially the 16th, centuries are singularly poor in really fine work.
But before we arrive at the period of real decadence we shall come
across such things as the knife of Diana of Poitiers in the Louvre, the
sceptre of Louis XIII., the Rothschild hunting horn, many Italian powder
horns, the German Psyche in the Louvre, or the "Young Girl and Death" in
the Munich Museum, in which there is undoubtedly originality and talent
of the first order. The practice of ivory carving became extremely
popular throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in the
Netherlands and in Germany, and the amount of ivory consumed must have
been very great. But, with rare exceptions, and these for the most part
Flemish, it is art of an inferior kind, which seems to have been
abandoned to second-rate sculptors and the artisans of the workshop.
There is little originality, the rococo styles run riot, and we seem to
be condemned to wade through an interminable series of gods and
goddesses, bacchanalians and satyrs, pseudo-classical copies from the
antique and imitations of the schools of Rubens. As a matter of fact few
great museums, except the German ones, care to include in their
collections examples of these periods. Some exceptions are made in the
case of Flemish sculptors of such talent as François Duquesnoy
(Fiammingo), Gerard van Obstal or Lucas Fayd'herbe. In a lesser degree,
in Germany, Christoph Angermair, Leonhard Kern, Bernhard Strauss,
Elhafen, Kruger and Rauchmiller; and, in France, Jean Guillermin, David
le Marchand and Jean Cavalier. Crucifixes were turned out in enormous
numbers, some of not inconsiderable merit, but, for the most part, they
represent anatomical exercises varying but slightly from a pattern of
which a celebrated one attributed to Faistenberger may be taken as a
type. Tankards abound, and some, notably the one in the Jones
collection, than which perhaps no finer example exists, are also of a
high standard. Duquesnoy's work is well illustrated by the charming
series of six plaques in the Victoria and Albert Museum known as the
"Fiammingo boys." Amongst the crowd of objects in ivory of all
descriptions of the early 18th century, the many examples of the curious
implements known as _rappoirs_, or tobacco graters, should be noticed.
It may perhaps be necessary to add that although the character of art in
ivory in these periods is not of the highest, the subject is not one
entirely unworthy of attention and study, and there are a certain number
of remarkable and even admirable examples.

_Ivory Sculpture of Spain, Portugal, India, China and Japan._--Generally
speaking, with regard to Spain and Portugal, there is little reason to
do otherwise than confine our attention to a certain class of important
Moorish or Hispano-Moresque ivories of the time of the Arab occupation
of the Peninsula, from the 8th to the 15th centuries. Some fine examples
are in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Of Portuguese work there is
little except the hybrid productions of Goa and the Portuguese
settlements in the East. Some mention must be made also of the
remarkable examples of mixed Portuguese and savage art from Benin, now
in the British Museum. Of Indian ivory carving the India Museum at
Kensington supplies a very large and varied collection which has no
equal elsewhere. But there is little older than the 17th century, nor
can it be said that Indian art in ivory can occupy a very high place in
the history of the art. What we know of Chinese carving in ivory is
confined to those examples which are turned out for the European market,
and can hardly be considered as appealing very strongly to cultivated
tastes. A brief reference to the well-known delightful _netsukés_ and
the characteristic inlaid work must suffice here for the ivories of
Japan (see JAPAN: _Art_).

_Ivory Sculpture in the 19th Century and of the Present Day._--Few
people are aware of the extent to which modern ivory sculpture is
practised by distinguished artists. Year by year, however, a certain
amount is exhibited in the Royal Academy and in most foreign salons, but
in England the works--necessarily not very numerous--are soon absorbed
in private collections. On the European continent, on the contrary, in
such galleries as the Belgian state collections or the Luxembourg,
examples are frequently acquired and exhibited. In Belgium the
acquisition of the Congo and the considerable import of ivory therefrom
gave encouragement to a definite revival of the art. Important
exhibitions have been held in Belgium, and a notable one in Paris in
1904. Though ivory carving is as expensive as marble sculpture, all
sculptors delight in following it, and the material entails no special
knowledge or training. Of 19th-century artists there were in France
amongst the best known, besides numerous minor workers of Dieppe and St
Claude, Augustin Moreau, Vautier, Soitoux, Belleteste, Meugniot,
Pradier, Triqueti and Gerôme; and in the first decade of the 20th
century, besides such distinguished names in the first rank as Jean
Dampt and Théodore Rivière, there were Vever, Gardet, Caron, Barrias,
Allouard, Ferrary and many others. Nor must the decorative work of René
Lalique be omitted. No less than forty Belgian sculptors exhibited work
in ivory at the Brussels exhibition of 1887. The list included artists
of such distinction as J. Dillens, Constantin Meunier, van der Stappen,
Khnopff, P. Wolfers, Samuel and Paul de Vigne, and amongst contemporary
Belgian sculptors are also van Beurden, G. Devreese, Vincotte, de Tombay
and Lagae. In England the most notable work includes the "Lamia" of
George Frampton, the "St Elizabeth" of Alfred Gilbert, the "Mors Janua
Vitae" of Harry Bates, the "Launcelot" of W. Reynolds-Stephens and the
use of ivory in the applied arts by Lynn Jenkins, A. G. Walker,
Alexander Fisher and others.

  AUTHORITIES.--See generally A. Maskell, _Ivories_ (1906), and the
  bibliography there given.

  On Early Christian and Early Byzantine ivories, the following works
  may be mentioned: Abbé Cabrol, _Dictionnaire de l'archéologie
  chrétienne_ (in progress); O. M. Dalton, _Catalogue of Early Christian
  Antiquities in British Museum_ (1902); E. Dobbert, _Zur Geschichte der
  Elfenbeinsculptur_ (1885); H. Graeven, _Antike Schnitzereien_ (1903);
  R. Kanzler, _Gli avori ... Vaticana_ (1903); Kondakov, _L'Art
  byzantin_; A. Maskell, _Cantor Lectures_, Soc. of Arts (1906) (lecture
  II., "Early Christian and Early Byzantine Ivories"); Strzygowski,
  _Byzantinische Denkmäler_ (1891); V. Schulze, _Archäologie der
  altchristlichen Kunst_ (1895); G. Stuhlfauth, _Die altchristl.
  Elfenbeinplastik_ (1896).

  On the consular diptychs, see H. F. Clinton, _Fasti Romani_
  (1845-1850); A. Gori, _Thesaurus veterum diptychorum_ (1759); C.
  Lenormant, _Trésor de numismatique et de glyptique_ (1834-1846); F.
  Pulszky, _Catalogue of the Féjérváry Ivories_ (1856).

  On the artistic interest generally, see also C. Alabaster, _Catalogue
  of Chinese Objects in the South Kensington Museum_; Sir R. Alcock,
  _Art and Art Industries in Japan_ (1878); Barraud et Martin, _Le Bâton
  pastoral_ (1856); Bouchot, _Les Reliures d'art à la Bibliothèque
  Nationale_; Bretagne, _Sur les peignes liturgiques_; H. Cole, _Indian
  Art at Delhi_ (1904); R. Garrucci, _Storia dell' arte Christiana_
  (1881); A. Jacquemart, _Histoire du mobilier_ (1876); J. Labarte,
  _Histoire des arts industriels_ (1864); C. Lind, _Über den Krummstab_
  (1863); Sir F. Madden, "Lewis Chessmen" (in _Archaeologia_, vol. xxiv.
  1832); W. Maskell, _Ivories, Ancient and Medieval in the South
  Kensington Museum_ (1872); A. Michel, _Histoire de l'art_; E.
  Molinier, _Histoire générale des arts_ (1896); E. Oldfield, _Catalogue
  of Fictile Ivories sold by the Arundel Society_ (1855); A. H. Pitt
  Rivers, _Antique Works of Art from Benin_ (1900); A. C. Quatremère de
  Quincy, _Le Jupiter Olympien_ (1815); Charles Scherer,
  _Elfenbeinplastik seit der Renaissance_ (1903); E. du Sommerard, _Les
  Arts au moyen âge_ (1838-1846); G. Stephens, _Runic Caskets_
  (1866-1868); A. Venturi, _Storia dell' arte Italiana_ (1901); Sir G.
  Watt, _Indian Art at Delhi_ (1904); J. O. Westwood, _Fictile Ivories
  in the South Kensington Museum_ (1876). Sir M. D. Wyatt, _Notices of
  Sculpture in Ivory_ (1856).     (A. Ml.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Lecture before the Society of Arts (1856).




IVORY COAST (_Côte d'Ivoire_), a French West African colony, bounded S.
by the Gulf of Guinea, W. by Liberia and French Guinea, N. by the colony
of Upper Senegal and Niger, E. by the Gold Coast. Its area is
approximately 120,000 sq. m., and its population possibly 2,000,000, of
whom some 600 are Europeans. Official estimates (1908) placed the native
population as low as 980,000.

  _Physical Features._--The coast-line extends from 70° 30´ to 3° 7´ W.
  and has a length of 380 m. It forms an arc of a circle of which the
  convexity turns slightly to the north; neither bay nor promontory
  breaks the regularity of its outline. The shore is low, bordered in
  its eastern half with lagoons, and difficult of access on account of
  the submarine bar of sand which stretches along nearly the whole of
  the coast, and also because of the heavy surf caused by the great
  Atlantic billows. The principal lagoons, going W. to E. are those of
  Grand Lahou, Grand Bassam or Ebrié and Assini. The coast plains extend
  inland about 40 m. Beyond the ground rises in steep slopes to a
  general level of over 1000 ft., the plateau being traversed in several
  directions by hills rising 2000 ft. and over, and cut by valleys with
  a general south-eastern trend. In the north-east, in the district of
  Kong (q.v.), the country becomes mountainous, Mt. Kommono attaining a
  height of 4757 ft. In the north-west, by the Liberian frontier, the
  mountains in the Gon region rise over 6000 ft. Starting from the
  Liberian frontier, the chief rivers are the Cavalla (or Kavalli), the
  San Pedro, the Sassandra (240 m. long), the Bandama (225 m.), formed
  by the White and the Red Bandama, the Komoe (360 m.) and the Bia. All
  these streams are interrupted by rapids as they descend from the
  highlands to the plain and are unnavigable by steamers save for a few
  miles from their mouths. The rivers named all drain to the Gulf of
  Guinea; the rivers in the extreme north of the colony belong to the
  Niger system, being affluents of the Bani or Mahel Balevel branch of
  that river. The watershed runs roughly from 9° N. in the west to 10°
  N. in the east, and is marked by a line of hills rising about 650 ft.
  above the level of the plateau. The climate is in general very hot and
  unhealthy, the rainfall being very heavy. In some parts of the plateau
  healthier conditions prevail. The fauna and flora are similar to those
  of the Gold Coast and Liberia. Primeval forest extends from the coast
  plains to about 8° N., covering nearly 50,000 sq. m.

_Inhabitants._--The coast districts are inhabited by Negro tribes allied
on the one hand to the Krumen (q.v.) and on the other to the people of
Ashanti (q.v.). The Assinis are of Ashanti origin, and chiefly of the
Ochin and Agni tribes. Farther west are found the "Jack-Jacks" and the
"Kwa-Kwas," sobriquets given respectively to the Aradian and Avikom by
the early European traders. The Kwa-Kwa are said to be so called because
their salutation "resembles the cry of a duck." In the interior the
Negro strain predominates but with an admixture of Hamitic or Berber
blood. The tribes represented include Jamans, Wongaras and Mandingos
(q.v.), some of whom are Moslems. The Mandingos have intermarried
largely with the Bambara or Sienuf, an agricultural people of more than
average intelligence widely spread over the country, of which they are
considered to be the indigenous race. The Bambara themselves are perhaps
only a distinct branch of the original Mandingo stock. The Baulé, who
occupy the central part of the colony, are of Agni-Ashanti origin. The
bulk of the inhabitants are fetish worshippers. On the northern confines
of the great forest belt live races of cannibals, whose existence was
first made known by Captain d'Ollone in 1899. In general the coast
tribes are peaceful. They have the reputation of being neither
industrious nor intelligent. The traders are chiefly Fanti, Sierra
Leonians, Senegalese and Mandingos.

  _Towns._--The chief towns on the coast are Grand and Little Bassam,
  Jackville and Assini in the east and Grand Lahou, Sassandra and Tabu
  in the west. Grand and Little Bassam are built on the strip of sand
  which separates the Grand Bassam or Ebrié lagoon from the sea. This
  lagoon forms a commodious harbour, once the bar has been crossed.
  Grand Bassam is situated at the point where the lagoon and the river
  Komoe enter the sea and there is a minimum depth of 12 ft. of water
  over the bar. The town (pop. 5000, including about 100 Europeans) is
  the seat of the customs administration and of the judicial department,
  and is the largest centre for the trade of the colony. A wharf
  equipped with cranes extends beyond the surf line and the town is
  served by a light railway. It is notoriously unhealthy; yellow fever
  is endemic. Little Bassam, renamed by the French Port Bouet, possesses
  an advantage over the other ports on the coast, as at this point there
  is no bar. The sea floor is here rent by a chasm, known as the
  "Bottomless Pit," the waters having a depth of 65 ft. Abijean
  (Abidjan), on the north side of the lagoon opposite Port Bouet is the
  starting-point of a railway to the oil and rubber regions. The
  half-mile of foreshore separating the port from the lagoon was in
  1904-1907 pierced by a canal, but the canal silted up as soon as cut,
  and in 1908 the French decided to make Grand Bassam the chief port of
  the colony. Assini is an important centre for the rubber trade of
  Ashanti. On the northern shore of the Bassam lagoon, and 19 m. from
  Grand Bassam, is the capital of the colony, the native name Adjame
  having been changed into Bingerville, in honour of Captain L. G.
  Binger (see below). The town is built on a hill and is fairly healthy.

  In the interior are several towns, though none of any size
  numerically. The best known are Koroko, Kong and Bona, entrepôts for
  the trade of the middle Niger, and Bontuku, on the caravan route to
  Sokoto and the meeting-place of the merchants from Kong and Timbuktu
  engaged in the kola-nut trade with Ashanti and the Gold Coast. Bontuku
  is peopled largely by Wongara and Hausa, and most of the inhabitants,
  who number some 3000, are Moslems. The town, which was founded in the
  15th century or earlier, is walled, contains various mosques and
  generally presents the appearance of an eastern city.

  _Agriculture and Trade._--The natives cultivate maize, plantains,
  bananas, pineapples, limes, pepper, cotton, &c., and live easily on
  the products of their gardens, with occasional help from fishing and
  hunting. They also weave cloth, make pottery and smelt iron. Europeans
  introduced the cultivation of coffee, which gives good results. The
  forests are rich in palm-tree products, rubber and mahogany, which
  constitute the chief articles of export. The rubber goes almost
  exclusively to England, as does also the mahogany. The palm-oil and
  palm kernels are sent almost entirely to France. The value of the
  external trade of the colony exceeded £1,000,000 for the first time in
  1904. About 50% of the trade is with Great Britain. The export of
  ivory, for which the country was formerly famous, has almost ceased,
  the elephants being largely driven out of the colony. Cotton goods, by
  far the most important of the imports, come almost entirely from Great
  Britain. Gold exists and many native villages have small "placer"
  mines. In 1901 the government of the colony began the granting of
  mining concessions, in which British capital was largely invested.
  There are many ancient mines in the country, disused since the close
  of the 18th century, if not earlier.

  _Communications._--The railway from Little Bassam serves the east
  central part of the colony and runs to Katiola, in Kong, a total
  distance of 250 m. The line is of metre gauge. The cutting of two
  canals, whereby communication is effected by lagoon between Assini and
  Grand Lahou via Bassam, followed the construction of the railway.
  Grand and Little Bassam are in regular communication by steamer with
  Bordeaux, Marseilles, Liverpool, Antwerp and Hamburg. Grand Bassam is
  connected with Europe by submarine cable via Dakar. Telegraph lines
  connect the coast with all the principal stations in the interior,
  with the Gold Coast, and with the other French colonies in West
  Africa.

  _Administration, &c._--The colony is under the general superintendence
  of the government general of French West Africa. At the head of the
  local administration is a lieutenant-governor, who is assisted by a
  council on which nominated unofficial members have seats. To a large
  extent the native forms of government are maintained under European
  administrators responsible for the preservation of order, the colony
  for this purpose being divided into a number of "circles" each with
  its local government. The colony has a separate budget and is
  self-supporting. Revenue is derived chiefly from customs receipts and
  a capitation tax of frs. 2.50 (2s.), instituted in 1901 and levied on
  all persons over ten years old. The budget for 1906 balanced at
  £120,400.

_History._--The Ivory Coast is stated to have been visited by Dieppe
merchants in the 14th century, and was made known by the Portuguese
discoveries towards the end of the 15th century. It was thereafter
frequented by traders for ivory, slaves and other commodities. There was
a French settlement at Assini, 1700-1704, and a French factory was
maintained at Grand Bassam from 1700 to 1707. In the early part of the
19th century several French traders had established themselves along the
coast. In 1830 Admiral (then Commandant) Bouët-Willaumez (1808-1871)
began a series of surveys and expeditions which yielded valuable
results. In 1842 he obtained from the native chiefs cessions of
territory at Assini and Grand Bassam to France and the towns named were
occupied in 1843. From that time French influence gradually extended
along the coast, but no attempt was made to penetrate inland. As one
result of the Franco-Prussian War, France in 1872 withdrew her
garrisons, handing over the care of the establishments to a merchant
named Verdier, to whom an annual subsidy of £800 was paid. This merchant
sent an agent into the interior who made friendly treaties between
France and some of the native chiefs. In 1883, in view of the claims of
other European powers to territory in Africa, France again took over the
actual administration of Assini and Bassam. Between 1887 and 1889
Captain Binger (an officer of marine infantry, and subsequently director
of the African department at the colonial ministry) traversed the whole
region between the coast and the Niger, visited Bontuku and the Kong
country, and signed protectorate treaties with the chiefs. The kingdom
of Jaman, it may be mentioned, was for a few months included in the Gold
Coast hinterland. In January 1889 a British mission sent by the governor
of the Gold Coast concluded a treaty with the king of Jaman at Bontuku,
placing his dominions under British protection. The king had, however,
previously concluded treaties of "commerce and friendship" with the
French, and by the Anglo-French agreement of August 1889 Jaman, with
Bontuku, was recognized as French territory. In 1892 Captain Binger made
further explorations in the interior of the Ivory Coast, and in 1893 he
was appointed the first governor of the colony on its erection into an
administration distinct from that of Senegal. Among other famous
explorers who helped to make known the hinterland was Colonel (then
Captain) Marchand. It was to the zone between the Kong states and the
hinterland of Liberia that Samory (see SENEGAL) fled for refuge before
he was taken prisoner (1898), and for a short time he was master of
Kong. The boundary of the colony on the west was settled by
Franco-Liberian agreements of 1892 and subsequent dates; that on the
east by the Anglo-French agreements of 1893 and 1898. The northern
boundary was fixed in 1899 on the division of the middle Niger
territories (up to that date officially called the French Sudan) among
the other French West African colonies. The systematic development of
the colony, the opening up of the hinterland and the exploitation of its
economic resources date from the appointment of Captain Binger as
governor, a post he held for over three years. The work he began has
been carried on zealously and effectively by subsequent governors, who
have succeeded in winning the co-operation of the natives.

In the older books of travel are often found the alternative names for
this region, Tooth Coast (_Côte des Dents_) or Kwa-Kwa Coast, and, less
frequently, the Coast of the Five and Six Stripes (alluding to a kind of
cotton fabric in favour with the natives). The term Côte des Dents
continued in general use in France until the closing years of the 19th
century.

  See _Dix ans à la Côte d'Ivoire_ (Paris, 1906) by F. J. Clozel,
  governor of the colony, and _Notre colonie de la Côte d'Ivoire_
  (Paris, 1903) by R. Villamur and Richaud. These two volumes deal with
  the history, geography, zoology and economic condition of the Ivory
  Coast. _La Côte d'Ivoire_ by Michellet and Clement describes the
  administrative and land systems, &c. Another volume also called _La
  Côte d'Ivoire_ (Paris, 1908) is an official monograph on the colony.
  For ethnology consult _Coutumes indigènes de la Côte d'Ivoire_ (Paris,
  1902) by F. J. Clozel and R. Villamur, and _Les Coutumes Agni_, by R.
  Villamur and Delafosse. Of books of travel see _Du Niger au Golfe de
  Guinée par Kong_ (Paris, 1892) by L. G. Binger, and _Mission
  Hostains-d'Ollone 1890-1900_ (Paris, 1901) by Captain d'Ollone. A
  _Carte de la Côte d'Ivoire_ by A. Meunier, on the scale of 1:500,000
  (6 sheets), was published in Paris, 1905. Annual reports on the colony
  are published by the French colonial and the British foreign offices.




IVREA (anc. _Eporedia_), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in
the province of Turin, from which it is 38 m. N.N.E. by rail and 27 m.
direct, situated 770 ft. above sea-level, on the Dora Baltea at the
point where it leaves the mountains. Pop. (1901) 6047 (town), 11,696
(commune). The cathedral was built between 973 and 1005; the gallery
round the back of the apse and the crypt have plain cubical capitals of
this period. The two _campanili_ flanking the apse at each end of the
side aisle are the oldest example of this architectural arrangement. The
isolated tower, which is all that remains of the ancient abbey of S.
Stefano, is slightly later. The hill above the town is crowned by the
imposing Castello delle Quattro Torri, built in 1358, and now a prison.
One of the four towers was destroyed by lightning in 1676. A tramway
runs to Santhià.

The ancient Eporedia, standing at the junction of the roads from Augusta
Taurinorum and Vercellae, at the point where the road to Augusta
Praetoria enters the narrow valley of the Duria (Dora Baltea), was a
military position of considerable importance belonging to the Salassi
who inhabited the whole upper valley of the Duria. The importance of the
gold-mines of the district led to its seizure by the Romans in 143 B.C.
The centre of the mining industry seems to have been Victumulae (see
TICINUM), until in 100 B.C. a colony of Roman citizens was founded at
Eporedia itself; but the prosperity of this was only assured when the
Salassi were finally defeated in 25 B.C. and Augusta Praetoria founded.
There are remains of a theatre of the time of the Antonines and the
Ponte Vecchio rests on Roman foundations.

In the middle ages Ivrea was the capital of a Lombard duchy, and later
of a marquisate; both Berengar II. (950) and Arduin (1002) became kings
of Italy for a short period. Later it submitted to the marquises of
Monferrato, and in the middle of the 14th century passed to the house of
Savoy.     (T. As.)




IVRY-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine,
near the left bank of the Seine, less than 1 m. S.S.E. of the
fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 30,532. Ivry has a large hospital
for incurables. It manufactures organs, earthenware, wall-paper and
rubber, and has engineering works, breweries, and oil-works, its trade
being facilitated by a port on the Seine. The town is dominated by a
fort of the older line of defence of Paris.




IVY (A.S. _ifig_, Ger. _Epheu_, perhaps connected with _apium_, [Greek:
apion]), the collective designation of certain species and varieties of
_Hedera_, a member of the natural order Araliaceae. There are fifty
species of ivy recorded in modern books, but they may be reduced to two,
or at the most, three. The European ivy, _Hedera Helix_ (fig. 1), is a
plant subject to infinite variety in the forms and colours of its
leaves, but the tendency of which is always to a three- to five-lobed
form when climbing and a regular ovate form of leaf when producing
flower and fruit. The African ivy, _H. canariensis_, often regarded as a
variety of _H. Helix_ and known as the Irish ivy, is a native of North
Africa and the adjacent islands. It is the common large-leaved climbing
ivy, and also varies, but in a less degree than _H. Helix_, from which
its leaves differ in their larger size, rich deep green colour, and a
prevailing tendency to a five-lobed outline. When in fruit the leaves
are usually three-lobed, but they are sometimes entire and broadly
ovate. The Asiatic ivy, _H. colchica_ (fig. 2), now considered to be a
form of _H. Helix_, has ovate, obscurely three-lobed leaves of a
coriaceous texture and a deep green colour; in the tree or fruiting form
the leaves are narrower than in the climbing form, and without any trace
of lobes. Distinctive characters are also to be found in the appendages
of the pedicels and calyx, _H. Helix_ having six-rayed stellate hairs,
_H. canariensis_ fifteen-rayed hairs and _H. colchica_ yellowish
two-lobed scales.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Ivy (_Hedera Helix_) fruiting branch. 1. Flower.
2. Fruit.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Hedera colchica._]

The Australian ivy, _H. australiana_, is a small glabrous shrub with
pinnate leaves. It is a native of Queensland, and is practically unknown
in cultivation.

It is of the utmost importance to note the difference of characters of
the same species of ivy in its two conditions of climbing and fruiting.
The first stage of growth, which we will suppose to be from the seed, is
essentially scandent, and the leaves are lobed more or less. This stage
is accompanied with a plentiful production of the claspers or modified
roots by means of which the plant becomes attached and obtains support.
When it has reached the summit of the tree or tower, the stems, being no
longer able to maintain a perpendicular attitude, fall over and become
horizontal or pendent. Coincidently with this change they cease to
produce claspers, and the leaves are strikingly modified in form, being
now narrower and less lobed than on the ascending stems. In due time
this tree-like growth produces terminal umbels of greenish flowers,
which have the parts in fives, with the styles united into a very short
one. These flowers are succeeded by smooth black or yellow berries,
containing two to five seeds. The yellow-berried ivy is met with in
northern India and in Italy, but in northern Europe it is known only as
a curiosity of the garden, where, if sufficiently sheltered and
nourished, it becomes an exceedingly beautiful and fruitful tree.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Climbing Shoot of Ivy.]

It is stated in books that some forms of sylvestral ivy never flower,
but a negative declaration of this kind is valueless. Sylvestral ivies
of great age may be found in woods on the western coasts of Britain that
have apparently never flowered, but this is probably to be explained by
their inability to surmount the trees supporting them, for until the
plant can spread its branches horizontally in full daylight, the
flowering or tree-like growth is never formed.

A question of great practical importance arises out of the relation of
the plant to its means of support. A moderate growth of ivy is not
injurious to trees; still the tendency is from the first inimical to the
prosperity of the tree, and at a certain stage it becomes deadly.
Therefore the growth of ivy on trees should be kept within reasonable
bounds, more especially in the case of trees that are of special value
for their beauty, history, or the quality of their timber. In regard to
buildings clothed with ivy, there is nothing to be feared so long as the
plant does not penetrate the substance of the wall by means of any
fissure. Should it thrust its way in, the natural and continuous
expansion of its several parts will necessarily hasten the decay of the
edifice. But a fair growth of ivy on sound walls that afford no entrance
beyond the superficial attachment of the claspers is, without any
exception whatever, beneficial. It promotes dryness and warmth, reduces
to a minimum the corrosive action of the atmosphere, and is altogether
as conservative as it is beautiful.

The economical uses of the ivy are not of great importance. The leaves
are eaten greedily by horses, deer, cattle and sheep, and in times of
scarcity have proved useful. The flowers afford a good supply of honey
to bees; and, as they appear in autumn, they occasionally make amends
for the shortcomings of the season. The berries are eaten by wood
pigeons, blackbirds and thrushes. From all parts of the plant a balsamic
bitter may be obtained, and this in the form of _hederic acid_ is the
only preparation of ivy known to chemists.

In the garden the uses of the ivy are innumerable, and the least known
though not the least valuable of them is the cultivation of the plant as
a bush or tree, the fruiting growth being selected for this purpose. The
variegated tree forms of _H. Helix_, with leaves of creamy white, golden
green or rich deep orange yellow, soon prove handsome miniature trees,
that thrive almost as well in smoky town gardens as in the pure air of
the country, and that no ordinary winter will injure in the least. The
tree-form of the Asiatic ivy (_H. colchica_) is scarcely to be equalled
in beauty of leafage by any evergreen shrub known to English gardens,
and, although in the course of a few years it will attain to a stature
of 5 or 6 ft., it is but rarely we meet with it, or indeed with tree
ivies of any kind, but little attention having been given to this
subject until recent years. The scandent forms are more generally
appreciated, and are now much employed in the formation of marginal
lines, screens and trained pyramids, as well as for clothing walls. A
very striking example of the capabilities of the commonest ivies, when
treated artistically as garden plants, may be seen in the Zoological
Gardens of Amsterdam, where several paddocks are enclosed with wreaths,
garlands and bands of ivy in a most picturesque manner.

About sixty varieties known in gardens are figured and described in _The
Ivy, a Monograph_, by Shirley Hibberd (1872). To cultivate these is an
extremely simple matter, as they will thrive in a poor soil and endure a
considerable depth of shade, so that they may with advantage be planted
under trees. The common Irish ivy is often to be seen clothing the
ground beneath large yew trees where grass would not live, and it is
occasionally planted in graveyards in London to form an imitation of
grass turf, for which purpose it is admirably suited.

The ivy, like the holly, is a scarce plant on the American continent. In
the northern United States and British America the winters are not more
severe than the ivy can endure, but the summers are too hot and dry, and
the requirements of the plant have not often obtained attention. In
districts where native ferns abound the ivy will be found to thrive, and
the varieties of _Hedera Helix_ should have the preference. But in the
drier districts ivies might often be planted on the north side of
buildings, and, if encouraged with water and careful training for three
or four years, would then grow rapidly and train themselves. A strong
light is detrimental to the growth of ivy, but this enhances its value,
for we have no hardy plants that may be compared with it for variety and
beauty that will endure shade with equal patience.

The North American poison ivy (poison oak), _Rhus Toxicodendron_ (nat.
order Anacardiaceae), is a climber with pinnately compound leaves, which
are very attractive in their autumn colour but poisonous to the touch to
some persons, while others can handle the plant without injury. The
effects are redness and violent itching followed by fever and a
vesicular eruption.

The ground ivy, _Nepeta Glechoma_ (nat. order Labiatae), is a small
creeping plant with rounded crenate leaves and small blue-purple
flowers, occurring in hedges and thickets.




IWAKURA, TOMOMI, PRINCE (1835-1883), Japanese statesman, was born in
Kioto. He was one of the court nobles (_kuge_) of Japan, and he traced
his descent to the emperor Murakami (A.D. 947-967). A man of profound
ability and singular force of character, he acted a leading part in the
complications preceding the fall of the Tokugawa _shogunate_, and was
obliged to fly from Kioto accompanied by his coadjutor, Prince Sanjo.
They took refuge with the _Daimyo_ of Choshu, and, while there,
established relations which contributed greatly to the ultimate union of
the two great fiefs, Satsuma and Choshu, for the work of the
Restoration. From 1867 until the day of his death Iwakura was one of the
most prominent figures on the political stage. In 1871 he proceeded to
America and Europe at the head of an imposing embassy of some fifty
persons, the object being to explain to foreign governments the actual
conditions existing in Japan, and to pave the way for negotiating new
treaties consistent with her sovereign rights. Little success attended
the mission. Returning to Japan in 1873, Iwakura found the cabinet
divided as to the manner of dealing with Korea's insulting attitude. He
advocated peace, and his influence carried the day, thus removing a
difficulty which, though apparently of minor dimensions, might have
changed the whole course of Japan's modern history.




IXION, in Greek legend, son of Phlegyas, king of the Lapithae in
Thessaly (or of Ares), and husband of Dia. According to custom he
promised his father-in-law, Deïoneus, a handsome bridal present, but
treacherously murdered him when he claimed the fulfilment of the
promise. As a punishment, Ixion was seized with madness, until Zeus
purified him of his crime and admitted him as a guest to Olympus. Ixion
abused his pardon by trying to seduce Hera; but the goddess substituted
for herself a cloud, by which he became the father of the Centaurs. Zeus
bound him on a fiery wheel, which rolls unceasingly through the air or
(according to the later version) in the underworld (Pindar, _Pythia_,
ii. 21; Ovid, _Metam._ iv. 461; Virgil, Aeneid, vi. 601). Ixion is
generally taken to represent the eternally moving sun. Another
explanation connects the story with the practice (among certain peoples
of central Europe) of carrying a blazing, revolving wheel through fields
which needed the heat of the sun, the legend being invented to explain
the custom and subsequently adopted by the Greeks (see Mannhardt, _Wald-
und Feldkulte_, ii. 1905, p. 83). In view of the fact that the oak was
the sun-god's tree and that the mistletoe grew upon it, it is suggested
by A. B. Cook (_Class. Rev._ xvii. 420) that [Greek: Ixiôn] is derived
from [Greek: ixos] (mistletoe), the sun's fire being regarded as an
emanation from the mistletoe. Ixion himself is probably a by-form of
Zeus (Usener in _Rhein. Mus._ liii. 345).

  "The Myth of Ixion" (by C. Smith, in _Classical Review_, June 1895)
  deals with the subject of a red-figure cantharus in the British
  Museum.




IXTACCIHUATL, or IZTACCIHUATL ("white woman"), a lofty mountain of
volcanic origin, 10 m. N. of Popocatepetl and about 40 m. S.S.E of the
city of Mexico, forming part of the short spur called the Sierra Nevada.
According to Angelo Heilprin (1853-1907) its elevation is 16,960 ft.;
other authorities make it much less. Its apparent height is dwarfed
somewhat by its elongated summit and the large area covered. It has
three summits of different heights standing on a north and south line,
the central one being the largest and highest and all three rising above
the permanent snow-line. As seen from the city of Mexico the three
summits have the appearance of a shrouded human figure, hence the poetic
Aztec appellation of "white woman" and the unsentimental Spanish
designation "_La mujer gorda_." The ascent is difficult and perilous,
and is rarely accomplished.

  Heilprin says that the mountain is largely composed of trachytic rocks
  and that it is older than Popocatepetl. It has no crater and no trace
  of lingering volcanic heat. It is surmised that its crater, if it ever
  had one, has been filled in and its cone worn away by erosion through
  long periods of time.




IYRCAE, an ancient nation on the north-east trade route described by
Herodotus (iv. 22) beyond the Thyssagetae, somewhere about the upper
basins of the Tobol and the Irtysh. They were distinguished by their
mode of hunting, climbing a tree to survey their game, and then pursuing
it with trained horses and dogs. They were almost certainly the
ancestors of the modern Magyars, also called Jugra.

  The reading [Greek: Tyrkai] is an anachronism, and when Pliny (_N.H._
  vi. 19) and Mela (i. 116) speak of Tyrcae it is also probably due to a
  false correction.     (E. H. M.)




IZBARTA, or SPARTA [anc. _Baris_], the chief town of the Hamid-abad
sanjak of the Konia vilayet, in Asia Minor, well situated on the edge of
a fertile plain at the foot of Aghlasun Dagh. It was once the capital of
the Emirate of Hamid. It suffered severely from the earthquake of the
16th-17th of January 1889. It is a prosperous place with an enlightened
Greek element in its population (hence the numerous families called
"Spartali" in Levantine towns); and it is, in fact, the chief inland
colony of Hellenism in Anatolia; Pop. 20,000 (Moslems 13,000, Christians
7000). The new Aidin railway extends from Dineir to Izbarta via Buldur.




IZHEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vyatka, 140 m. S.W. of
Perm and 22 m. W. from the Kama, on the Izh river. Pop. (1897) 21,500.
It has one of the principal steel and rifle works of the Russian crown,
started in 1807. The making of sporting guns is an active industry.




IZMAIL, or ISMAIL, a town of Russia, in the government of Bessarabia, on
the left bank of the Kilia branch of the Danube, 35 m. below Reni
railway station. Pop. (1866) 31,779, (1900) 33,607, comprising Great and
Little Russians, Bulgarians, Jews and Gipsies. There are flour-mills and
a trade in cereals, wool, tallow and hides. Originally a Turkish
fortified post, Izmail had by the end of the 18th century grown into a
place of 30,000 inhabitants. It was occupied by the Russians in 1770,
and twenty years later its capture was one of the brilliant achievements
of the Russian general, Count A. V. Suvarov. On that occasion the
garrison was 40,000 strong, and the assault cost the assailants 10,000
and the defenders 30,000 men. The victory was the theme of one of the
Russian poet G. R. Derzhavin's odes. In 1809 the town was again captured
by the Russians; and, when in 1812 it was assigned to them by the
Bucharest peace, they chose it as the central station for their Danube
fleet. It was about this time that the town of Tuchkov, with which it
was later (1830) incorporated, grew up outside of the fortifications.
These were dismantled in accordance with the treaty of Paris (1856), by
which Izmail was made over to Rumania. The town was again transferred to
Russia by the peace of Berlin (1878).




IZU-NO-SHICHI-TO, the seven (_shichi_) islands (_to_) of Izu, included
in the empire of Japan. They stretch in a southerly direction from a
point near the mouth of Tokyo Bay, and lie between 33° and 34° 48´ N.
and between 139° and 140° E. Their names, beginning from the north, are
Izu-no-Oshima, To-shima, Nii-shima, Kozu-shima, Miyake-shima and
Hachijo-shima. There are some islets in their immediate vicinity.
Izu-no-Oshima, an island 10 m. long and 5½ m. wide, is 15 m. from the
nearest point of the Izu promontory. It is known to western
cartographers as Vries Island, a name derived from that of Captain
Martin Gerritsz de Vries, a Dutch navigator, who is supposed to have
discovered the island in 1643. But the group was known to the Japanese
from a remote period, and used as convict settlements certainly from the
12th century and probably from a still earlier era. Hachijo, the most
southerly, is often erroneously written "Fatsisio" on English charts.
Izu-no-Oshima is remarkable for its smoking volcano, Mihara-yama (2461
ft.), a conspicuous object to all ships bound for Yokohama. Three others
of the islands--Nii-shima, Kozu-shima and Miyake-shima--have active
volcanoes. Those on Nii-shima and Kozu-shima are of inconsiderable size,
but that on Miyake-shima, namely, Oyama, rises to a height of 2707 ft.
The most southerly island, Hachijo-shima, has a still higher peak,
Dsubotake (2838 ft.), but it does not emit any smoke.




J  A letter of the alphabet which, as far as form is concerned, is only a
modification of the Latin I and dates back with a separate value only to
the 15th century. It was first used as a special form of initial I, the
ordinary form being kept for use in other positions. As, however, in
many cases initial _i_ had the consonantal value of the English _y_ in
_iugum_ (yoke), &c., the symbol came to be used for the value of y, a
value which it still retains in German: _Ja! jung_, &c. Initially it is
pronounced in English as an affricate _dzh_. The great majority of
English words beginning with _j_ are (1) of foreign (mostly French)
origin, as "jaundice," "judge"; (2) imitative of sound, like "jar" (the
verb); or (3) influenced by analogy, like "jaw" (influenced by _chaw_,
according to Skeat). In early French _g_ when palatalized by _e_ or _i_
sounds became confused with consonantal _i_ (_y_), and both passed into
the sound of _j_ which is still preserved in English. A similar
sound-change takes place in other languages, e.g. Lithuanian, where the
resulting sound is spelt _dz_. Modern French and also Provençal and
Portuguese have changed _j = dzh_ into _z_ (_zh_). The sound initially
is sometimes represented in English by _g_: _gem_, _gaol_ as well as
_jail_. At the end of modern English words the same sound is represented
by -_dge_ as in _judge_, French _juge_. In this position, however, the
sound occurs also in genuine English words like _bridge_, _sedge_,
_singe_, but this is true only for the southern dialects on which the
literary language is founded. In the northern dialects the pronunciation
as _brig_, _seg_, _sing_ still survives.     (P. Gi.)




JA'ALIN (from _Ja'al_, to settle, i.e. "the squatters"), an African
tribe of Semitic stock. They formerly occupied the country on both banks
of the Nile from Khartum to Abu Hamed. They claim to be of the Koreish
tribe and even trace descent from Abbas, uncle of the prophet. They are
of Arab origin, but now of very mixed blood. According to their own
tradition they emigrated to Nubia in the 12th century. They were at one
time subject to the Funj kings, but their position was in a measure
independent. At the Egyptian invasion in 1820 they were the most
powerful of Arab tribes in the Nile valley. They submitted at first, but
in 1822 rebelled and massacred the Egyptian garrison at Shendi. The
revolt was mercilessly suppressed, and the Ja'alin were thenceforward
looked on with suspicion. They were almost the first of the northern
tribes to join the mahdi in 1884, and it was their position to the north
of Khartum which made communication with General Gordon so difficult.
The Ja'alin are now a semi-nomad agricultural people. Many are employed
in Khartum as servants, scribes and watchmen. They are a proud religious
people, formerly notorious as cruel slave dealers. J. L. Burckhardt says
the true Ja'alin from the eastern desert is exactly like the Bedouin of
eastern Arabia.

  See _The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
  1905).




JABIRU, according to Marcgrave the Brazilian name of a bird, subsequently
called by Linnaeus _Mycteria americana_, one of the largest of the
storks, _Ciconiidae_, which occurs from Mexico southwards to the
territory of the Argentine Republic. It stands between 4 and 5 ft. in
height, and is conspicuous for its massive bill, slightly upturned, and
its entirely white plumage; but the head and neck are bare and black,
except for about the lower third part of the latter, which is bright red
in the living bird. Very nearly allied to _Mycteria_, and also commonly
called jabirus, are the birds of the genera _Xenorhynchus_ and
_Ephippiorhynchus_--the former containing one or (in the opinion of some)
two species, _X. australis_ and _X. indicus_, and the latter one only,
_E. senegalensis_. These belong to the countries indicated by their
names, and differ chiefly by their feathered head and neck, while the
last is sometimes termed the saddle-billed stork from the very singular
shape of its beak. Somewhat more distantly related are the gigantic birds
known to Europeans in India and elsewhere as adjutant birds, belonging to
the genus _Leptoptilus_, distinguished by their sad-coloured plumage,
their black scabrous head, and their enormous tawny pouch, which depends
occasionally some 16 in. or more in length from the lower part of the
neck, and seems to be connected with the respiratory and not, as commonly
believed, with the digestive system. In many parts of India _L. dubius_,
the largest of these birds, the _hargila_ as Hindus call it, is a most
efficient scavenger, sailing aloft at a vast height and descending on the
discovery of offal, though frogs and fishes also form part of its diet.
It familiarly enters the large towns, in many of which an account of its
services it is strictly protected from injury, and, having satisfied its
appetite, seeks the repose it has earned, sitting with its feet extended
in front in a most grotesque attitude. A second and smaller species, _L.
javanicus_, has a more southern and eastern range; while a third, _L.
crumenifer_, of African origin, and often known as the marabou-stork,
gives its name to the beautifully soft feathers so called, which are the
under-tail-coverts; the "marabout" feathers of the plume-trade are mostly
supplied by other birds, the term being apparently applied to any downy
feathers.     (A. N.)

[Illustration: Jabiru.]




JABLOCHKOV, PAUL (1847-1894), Russian electrical engineer and inventor,
was born at Serdobsk, in the government of Saratov, on the 14th of
September 1847, and educated at St Petersburg. In 1871 he was appointed
director of the telegraph lines between Moscow and Kursk, but in 1875 he
resigned his position in order to devote himself to his researches on
electric lighting by arc lamps, which he had already taken up. In 1876
he settled in Paris, and towards the end of the year brought out his
famous "candles," known by his name, which consisted of two carbon
parallel rods, separated by a non-conducting partition; alternating
currents were employed, and the candle was operated by a high-resistance
carbon match connecting the tips of the rods, a true arc forming between
the parallel carbons when this burnt off, and the separators
volatilizing as the carbons burnt away. For a few years his system of
electric lighting was widely adopted, but it was gradually superseded
(see LIGHTING: _Electric_) and is no longer in use. Jablochkov made
various other electrical inventions, but he died in poverty, having
returned to Russia on the 19th of March 1894.




JABLONSKI, DANIEL ERNST (1660-1741), German theologian, was born at
Nassenhuben, near Danzig, on the 20th of November 1660. His father was a
minister of the Moravian Church, who had taken the name of Peter Figulus
on his baptism; the son, however, preferred the Bohemian family name of
Jablonski. His maternal grandfather, Johann Amos Comenius (d. 1670), was
a bishop of the Moravian Church. Having studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder
and at Oxford, Jablonski entered upon his career as a preacher at
Magdeburg in 1683, and then from 1686 to 1691 he was the head of the
Moravian college at Lissa, a position which had been filled by his
grandfather. Still retaining his connexion with the Moravians, he was
appointed court preacher at Königsberg in 1691 by the elector of
Brandenburg, Frederick III., and here, entering upon a career of great
activity, he soon became a person of influence in court circles. In 1693
he was transferred to Berlin as court preacher, and in 1699 he was
consecrated a bishop of the Moravian Church. At Berlin Jablonski worked
hard to bring about a union between the followers of Luther and those of
Calvin; the courts of Berlin, Hanover, Brunswick and Gotha were
interested in his scheme, and his principal helper was the philosopher
Leibnitz. His idea appears to have been to form a general union between
the German, the English and the Swiss Protestants, and thus to establish
_una eademque sancta catholica et apostolica eademque evangelica et
reformata ecclesia_. For some years negotiations were carried on with a
view to attaining this end, but eventually it was found impossible to
surmount the many difficulties in the way; Jablonski and Leibnitz,
however, did not cease to believe in the possibility of accomplishing
their purpose. Jablonski's next plan was to reform the Church of Prussia
by introducing into it the episcopate, and also the liturgy of the
English Church, but here again he was unsuccessful. As a scholar
Jablonski brought out a Hebrew edition of the Old Testament, and
translated Bentley's _A Confutation of Atheism_ into Latin (1696). He
had some share in founding the Berlin Academy of Sciences, of which he
was president in 1733, and he received a degree from the university of
Oxford. He died on the 25th of May 1741.

Jablonski's son, Paul Ernst Jablonski (1693-1757), was professor of
theology and philosophy at the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder.

  Editions of the letters which passed between Jablonski and Leibnitz,
  relative to the proposed union, were published at Leipzig in 1747 and
  at Dorpat in 1899.




JABORANDI, a name given in a generic manner in Brazil and South America
generally to a number of different plants, all of which possess more or
less marked sialogogue and sudorific properties. In the year 1875 a drug
was introduced under the above name to the notice of medical men in
France by Dr Coutinho of Pernambuco, its botanical source being then
unknown. _Pilocarpus pennatifolius_, a member of the natural order
Rutaceae, the plant from which it is obtained, is a slightly branched
shrub about 10 ft. high, growing in Paraguay and the eastern provinces
of Brazil. The leaves, which are placed alternately on the stem, are
often 1½ ft. long, and consist of from two to five pairs of opposite
leaflets, the terminal one having a longer pedicel than the others. The
leaflets are oval, lanceolate, entire and obtuse, with the apex often
slightly indented, from 3 to 4 in. long and 1 to 1½ in. broad in the
middle. When held up to the light they may be observed to have scattered
all over them numerous pellucid dots or receptacles of secretion
immersed in the substance of the leaf. The leaves in size and texture
bear some resemblance to those of the cherry-laurel (_Prunus
laurocerasus_), but are less polished on the upper surface. The flowers,
which are produced in spring and early summer, are borne on a raceme, 6
or 8 in. long, and the fruit consists of five carpels, of which not more
than two or three usually arrive at maturity. The leaves are the part of
the plant usually imported, although occasionally the stems and roots
are attached to them. The active principle for which the name
_pilocarpine_, suggested by Holmes, was ultimately adopted, was
discovered almost simultaneously by Hardy in France and Gerrard in
England, but was first obtained in a pure state by Petit of Paris. It is
a liquid alkaloid, slightly soluble in water, and very soluble in
alcohol, ether and chloroform. It strongly rotates the plane of
polarization to the right, and forms crystalline salts of which the
nitrate is that chiefly used in medicine. The nitrate and phosphate are
insoluble in ether, chloroform and benzol, while the hydrochlorate and
hydrobromate dissolve both in these menstrua and in water and alcohol;
the sulphate and acetate being deliquescent are not employed
medicinally. The formula of the alkaloid is C11H16N2O2.

Certain other alkaloids are present in the leaves. They have been named
_jaborine, jaboridine and pilocarpidine_. The first of these is the most
important and constant. It is possibly derived from pilocarpine, and has
the formula C22H32N4O4. Jaborine resembles atropine pharmacologically,
and is therefore antagonistic to pilocarpine. The various preparations
of jaborandi leaves are therefore undesirable for therapeutic purposes,
and only the nitrate of pilocarpine itself should be used. This is a
white crystalline powder, soluble in the ratio of about one part in ten
of cold water. The dose is (1/20)-½ grain by the mouth, and up to
one-third of a grain hypodermically, in which fashion it is usually
given.

[Illustration: Jaborandi--a, leaf (reduced); b, leaflet (natural size);
c, flower; d, fruit (natural size).]

  The action of this powerful alkaloid closely resembles that of
  physostigmine, but whereas the latter is specially active in
  influencing the heart, the eye and the spinal cord, pilocarpine exerts
  its greatest power on the secretions. It has no external action. When
  taken by the mouth the drug is rapidly absorbed and stimulates the
  secretions of the entire alimentary tract, though not of the liver.
  The action on the salivary glands is the most marked and the best
  understood. The great flow of saliva is due to an action of the drug,
  after absorption, on the terminations of the chorda tympani,
  sympathetic and other nerves of salivary secretion. The gland cells
  themselves are unaffected. The nerves are so violently excited that
  direct stimulation of them by electricity adds nothing to the rate of
  salivary flow. The action is antagonized by atropine, which paralyses
  the nerve terminals. About (1/100)th of a grain of atropine
  antagonizes half a grain of pilocarpine. The circulation is depressed
  by the drug, the pulse being slowed and the blood pressure falling.
  The cardiac action is due to stimulation of the vagus, but the
  dilatation of the blood-vessels does not appear to be due to a
  specific action upon them. The drug does not kill by its action on the
  heart. Its dangerous action is upon the bronchial secretion, which is
  greatly increased. Pilocarpine is not only the most powerful
  sialogogue but also the most powerful diaphoretic known. One dose may
  cause the flow of nearly a pint of sweat in an hour. The action is
  due, as in the case of the salivation, to stimulation of the terminals
  of the sudorific nerves. According to K. Binz there is also in both
  cases an action on the medullary centres for these secretions. Just as
  the saliva is a true secretion containing a high proportion of ptyalin
  and salts, and is not a mere transudation of water, so the
  perspiration is found to contain a high ratio of urea and chlorides.
  The great diaphoresis and the depression of the circulation usually
  cause a fall in temperature of about 2° F. The drug is excreted
  unchanged in the urine. It is a mild diuretic. When given internally
  or applied locally to the eye it powerfully stimulates the terminals
  of the oculomotor nerves in the iris and ciliary muscle, causing
  extreme contraction of the pupil and spasm of accommodation. The
  tension of the eyeball is at first raised but afterwards lowered.

  The chief therapeutic use of the drug is as a diaphoretic in chronic
  Bright's disease. It is also used to aid the growth of the hair--in
  which it is sometimes successful; in cases of inordinate thirst, when
  one-tenth of a grain with a little bismuth held in the mouth may be of
  much value; in cases of lead and mercury poisoning, where it aids the
  elimination of the poison in the secretions; as a galactagogue; and in
  cases of atropine poisoning (though here it is of doubtful value).




JACA, a city of northern Spain, in the province of Huesca, 114 m. by
rail N. by W. of Saragossa, on the left bank of the river Aragon, and
among the southern slopes of the Pyrenees, 2380 ft. above the sea. Pop.
(1900), 4934. Jaca is an episcopal see, and was formerly the capital of
the Aragonese county of Sobrarbe. Its massive Gothic cathedral dates at
least from the 11th century, and possibly from the 9th. The city derives
some importance from its position on the ancient frontier road from
Saragossa to Pau. In August 1904 the French and Spanish governments
agreed to supplement this trade-route by building a railway from Oloron
in the Basses Pyrénées to Jaca. Various frontier defence works were
constructed in the neighbourhood at the close of the 19th century.

The origin of the city is unknown. The Jaccetani ([Greek: Iakkêtanoi])
are mentioned as one of the most celebrated of the numerous small tribes
inhabiting the basin of the Ebro by Strabo, who adds that their
territory was the theatre of the wars which took place in the 1st
century B.C. between Sertorius and Pompey. They are probably identical
with the Lacetani of Livy (xxi. 60, 61) and Caesar (_B.C._ i. 60). Early
in the 8th century Jaca fell into the possession of the Moors, by whose
writers it is referred to under the name of Dyaka as one of the chief
places in the province of Sarkosta (Saragossa). The date of its
reconquest is uncertain, but it must have been before the time of Ramiro
I. of Aragon (1035-1063), who gave it the title of "city," and in 1063
held within its walls a council, which, inasmuch as the people were
called in to sanction its decrees, is regarded as of great importance in
the history of the parliamentary institutions of the Peninsula. In 1705
Jaca supported King Philip V. from whom, in consequence, it received the
title of _muy noble, muy leal y vencedora_, "most noble, most loyal and
victorious." During the Peninsular War it surrendered to the French in
1809, and was recaptured in 1814.




JACAMAR, a word formed by Brisson from _Jacameri_, the Brazilian name of
a bird, as given by Marcgrave, and since adopted in most European tongues
for the species to which it was first applied and others allied to it,
forming the family _Galbulidae_[1] of ornithologists, the precise
position of which is uncertain, since the best authorities differ. All
will agree that the jacamars belong to the great heterogeneous group
called by Nitzsch Picariae, but further into detail it is hardly safe to
go. The _Galbulidae_ have zygodactylous or pair-toed feet, like the
_Cuculidae_, _Bucconidae_ and _Picidae_, they also resemble both the
latter in laying glossy white eggs, but in this respect they bear the
same resemblance to the _Momotidae_, _Alcedinidae_, _Meropidae_ and some
other groups, to which affinity has been claimed for them. In the opinion
of Sclater (_A Monograph of the Jacamars and Puff-birds_) the jacamars
form two groups--one consisting of the single genus and species
_Jacamerops aureus_ (_J. grandis_ of most authors), and the other
including all the rest, viz. _Urogalba_ with two species, _Galbula_ with
nine, _Brachygalba_ with five, and _Jacamaralcyon_ and _Galbalcyrhynchus_
with one each. They are all rather small birds, the largest known being
little over 10 in. in length, with long and sharply pointed bills, and
the plumage more or less resplendent with golden or bronze reflections,
but at the same time comparatively soft. _Jacamaralcyon tridactyla_
differs from all the rest in possessing but three toes (as its name
indicates), on each foot, the hallux being deficient. With the exception
of _Galbula melanogenia_, which is found also in Central America and
southern Mexico, all the jacamars inhabit the tropical portions of South
America eastward of the Andes, _Galbula ruficauda_, however, extending
its range to the islands of Trinidad and Tobago.[2] Very little is known
of the habits of any of the species. They are seen sitting motionless on
trees, sometimes solitarily, at other times in companies, whence they
suddenly dart off at any passing insect, catch it on the wing, and return
to their perch. Of their nidification almost nothing has been recorded,
but the species occurring in Tobago is said by Kirk to make its nest in
marl-banks, digging a hole about an inch and a half in diameter and some
18 in. deep.     (A. N.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Galbula_ was first applied to Marcgrave's bird by Moehring. It
    is another form of _Galgulus_, and seems to have been one of the many
    names of the golden oriole. See ICTERUS.

  [2] The singular appearance, recorded by Canon Tristram (_Zoologist_,
    p. 3906), of a bird of this species in Lincolnshire seems to require
    notice. No instance seems to be known of any jacamar having been kept
    in confinement or brought to this country alive; but expert
    aviculturists are often not communicative, and many importations of
    rare birds have doubtless passed unrecorded.




JAÇANÁ, the Brazilian name, according to Marcgrave, of certain birds,
since found to have some allies in other parts of the world, which are
also very generally called by the same appellation. They have been most
frequently classed with the water-hens or rails (_Rallidae_), but are
now recognized by many systematists as forming a separate family,
_Parridae_,[1] whose leaning seems to be rather towards the _Limicolae_,
as apparently first suggested by Blyth, a view which is supported by the
osteological observations of Parker (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1863, p.
513), though denied by A. Milne-Edwards (_Ois. foss. de la France_, ii.
p. 110). The most obvious characteristic of this group of birds is the
extraordinary length of their toes and claws, whereby they are enabled
to walk with ease over water-lilies and other aquatic plants growing in
rivers and lakes. The family has been divided into four genera--of which
_Parra_, as now restricted, inhabits South America; _Metopidius_, hardly
differing from it, has representatives in Africa, Madagascar and the
Indian region; _Hydralector_, also very nearly allied to _Parra_,
belongs to the northern portion of the Australian region; and
_Hydrophasianus_, the most extravagant form of the whole, is found in
India, Ceylon and China. In habits the jaçanás have much in common with
the water-hens, but that fact is insufficient to warrant the affinity
asserted to exist between the two groups; for in their osteological
structure there is much difference, and the resemblance seems to be only
that of analogy. The _Parridae_ lay very peculiar eggs of a rich
olive-brown colour, in most cases closely marked with dark lines, thus
presenting an appearance by which they may be readily known from those
of any other birds, though an approach to it is occasionally to be
noticed in those of certain _Limicolae_, and especially of certain
_Charadriidae_.     (A. N.)

[Illustration: Pheasant-tailed Jaçaná.]


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The classic _Parra_ is by some authors thought to have been the
    golden oriole (see ICTERUS), while others suppose it was a jay or
    pie. The word seems to have been imported into ornithology by
    Aldrovandus, but the reason which prompted Linnaeus to apply it, as
    he seems first to have done, to a bird of this group, cannot be
    satisfactorily stated.




JACINI, STEFANO, COUNT (1827-1891), Italian statesman and economist, was
descended from an old and wealthy Lombard family. He studied in
Switzerland, at Milan, and in German universities. During the period of
the Austrian restoration in Lombardy (1849-1859) he devoted himself to
literary and economic studies. For his work on _La Proprietà fondiaria
in Lombardia_ (Milan, 1856) he received a prize from the Milanese
_Società d'incoraggiamento di scienze e lettere_ and was made a member
of the Istituto Lombardo. In another work, _Sulle condizioni economiche
della Valtellina_ (Milan, 1858, translated into English by W. E.
Gladstone), he exposed the evils of Austrian rule, and he drew up a
report on the general conditions of Lombardy and Venetia for Cavour. He
was minister of Public Works under Cavour in 1860-1861, in 1864 under La
Marmora, and down to 1867 under Ricasoli. In 1866 he presented a bill
favouring Italy's participation in the construction of the St Gotthard
tunnel. He was instrumental in bringing about the alliance with Prussia
for the war of 1866 against Austria, and in the organization of the
Italian railways. From 1881 to 1886 he was president of the commission
to inquire into the agricultural conditions of Italy, and edited the
voluminous report on the subject. He was created senator in 1870, and
given the title of count in 1880. He died in 1891.

  L. Carpi's _Risorgimento italiano_, vol. iv. (Milan, 1888), contains a
  short sketch of Jacini's life.




JACK, a word with a great variety of meanings and applications, all
traceable to the common use of the word as a by-name of a man. The
question has been much discussed whether "Jack" as a name is an
adaptation of Fr. _Jacques_, i.e. James, from Lat. _Jacobus_, Gr.
[Greek: Iakôbos], or whether it is a direct pet formation from John,
which is its earliest and universal use in English. In the _History of
the Monastery of St Augustine_ at Canterbury, 1414, Jack is given as a
form of John--_Mos est Saxonum ... verba et nomina transformare ... ut
... pro Johanne Jankin sive Jacke_ (see E. W. B. Nicholson, _The
Pedigree of Jack and other Allied Names_, 1892). "Jack" was early used
as a general term for any man of the common people, especially in
combination with the woman's name Jill or Gill, as in the nursery rhyme.
The _New English Dictionary_ quotes from the _Coventry Mysteries_, 1450:
"And I wole kepe the feet this tyde Thow ther come both Iakke and
Gylle." Familiar examples of this generic application of the name are
Jack or Jack Tar for a sailor, which seems to date from the 17th
century, and such compound uses as cheap-jack and steeple-jack, or such
expressions as "jack in office," "jack of all trades," &c. It is a
further extension of this that gives the name to the knave in a pack of
cards, and also to various animals, as jackdaw, jack-snipe, jack-rabbit
(a species of large prairie-hare); it is also used as a general name for
pike.

The many applications of the word "jack" to mechanical devices and other
objects follow two lines of reference, one to objects somewhat smaller
than the ordinary, the other to appliances which take the place of
direct manual labour or assist or save it. Of the first class may be
noticed the use of the term for the small object bowl in the game of
bowls or for jack rafters, those rafters in a building shorter than the
main rafters, especially the end rafters in a hipped roof. The use of
jack as the name for a particular form of ship's flag probably arose
thus, for it is always a smaller flag than the ensign. The jack is flown
on a staff on the bowsprit of a vessel. In the British navy the jack is
a small Union flag. (The Union flag should not be styled a Union Jack
except when it is flown as a jack.) The jack of other nations is usually
the canton of the ensign, as in the German and the United States navies,
or else is a smaller form of the national ensign, as in France. (See
FLAG.)

The more common use of "jack" is for various mechanical and other
devices originally used as substitutes for men or boys. Thus the origin
of the boot-jack and the meat-jack is explained in Isaac Watts's
_Logic_, 1724: "So foot boys, who had frequently the common name of Jack
given them, were kept to turn the spit or pull off their masters' boots,
but when instruments were invented for both these services, they were
both called jacks." The _New English Dictionary_ finds a transitional
sense in the use of the name "jack" for mechanical figures which strike
the hours on a bell of a clock. Such a figure in the clock of St
Lawrence Church at Reading is called a jack in the parish accounts for
1498-1499. There are many different applications of "jack," to certain
levers and other parts of textile machinery, to metal plugs used for
connecting lines in a telephone exchange, to wooden uprights connecting
the levers of the keys with the strings in the harpsichord and virginal,
to a framework forming a seat or staging which can be fixed outside a
window for cleaning or painting purposes, and to many devices containing
a roller or winch, as in a jack towel, a long towel hung on a roller.
The principal mechanical application of the word, however, is to a
machine for raising weights from below. A jack chain, so called from its
use in meat-jacks, is one in which the links, formed each in a figure of
eight, are set in planes at right angles to each other, so that they are
seen alternately flat or edgeways.

In most European languages the word "jack" in various forms appears for
a short upper outer garment, particularly in the shape of a sleeveless
(quilted) leather jerkin, sometimes with plates or rings of iron sewn to
it. It was the common coat of defence of the infantry of the middle
ages. The word in this case is of French origin and was an adaptation of
the common name _Jacques_, as being a garment worn by the common people.
In French the word is _jaque_, and it appears in Italian as _giaco_, or
_giacco_, in Dutch _jak_, Swedish _jacka_ and German _Jacke_, still the
ordinary name for a short coat, as is the English jacket, from the
diminutive French _jaquette_. It was probably from some resemblance to
the leather coat that the well-known leather vessels for holding liquor
or for drinking were known as jacks or black jacks. These drinking
vessels, which are often of great size, were not described as black
jacks till the 16th century, though known as jacks much earlier. Among
the important specimens that have survived to this day is one with the
initials and crown of Charles I. and the date, 1646, which came from
Kensington Palace and is now in the British Museum; one each at Queen's
College and New College, Oxford; two at Winchester College; one at Eton
College; and six at the Chelsea Hospital. Many specimens are painted
with shields of arms, initials and other devices; they are very seldom
mounted in silver, though spurious specimens with silver medallions of
Cromwell and other prominent personages exist. At the end of the 17th
century a smaller jack of a different form, like an ordinary drinking
mug with a tapering cylindrical body, often mounted in silver, came into
vogue in a limited degree. The black jack is a distinct type of drinking
vessel from the leather botel and the bombard. The jack-boot, the heavy
riding boot with long flap covering the knee and part of the thigh, and
worn by troopers first during the 17th century, was so called probably
from association with the leather jack or jerkin. The jack-boot is still
worn by the Household Cavalry, and the name is applied to a high riding
boot reaching to the knee as distinguished from the riding boot with
tops, used in full hunting-kit or by grooms or coachmen.

Jack, sometimes spelled jak, is the common name for the fruit of the
tree _Artiocarpus integrifolia_, found in the East Indies. The word is
an adaptation of the Portuguese _jaca_ from the Malay name _chakka_.
(See BREAD FRUIT.)

The word "jackanapes," now used as an opprobrious term for a swaggering
person with impertinent ways and affected airs and graces, has a
disputed and curious history. According to the _New English Dictionary_
it first appears in 1450 in reference to William de la Pole, duke of
Suffolk (_Political Poems_, "Rolls Series," II. 224), "Jack Napys with
his clogge hath tiede Talbot oure gentille dogge." Suffolk's badge was a
clog and chain, such as was often used for an ape kept in captivity, and
he is alluded to (ibid. 222) as "Ape clogge." Jack Napes, Jack o' Napes,
Jackanapes, was a common name for a tame ape from the 16th century, and
it seems more likely that the word is a fanciful name for a monkey than
that it is due to the nickname of Suffolk.




JACKAL (Turk, _chakal_), a name properly restricted to _Canis aureus_, a
wolf-like wild member of the dog family inhabiting eastern Europe and
southern Asia, but extended to include a number of allied species.
Jackals resemble wolves and dogs in their dentition, the round
eye-pupils, the period of gestation, and to a large extent also in
habits. The European species grows to a height of 15 in. at the
shoulders, and to a length of about 2 ft., exclusive of its bushy tail.
Typically the fur is greyish-yellow, darker on the back and lighter
beneath. The range of the common jackal (_C. aureus_) extends from
Dalmatia to India, the species being represented by several local races.
In Senegal this species is replaced by _C. anthus_, while in Egypt
occurs the much larger _C. lupaster_, commonly known as the Egyptian
wolf. Nearly allied to the last is the so-called Indian wolf (_C.
pallipes_). Other African species are the black-backed jackal (_C.
mesomelas_), the variegated jackal (_C. variegatus_), and the dusky
jackal (_C. adustus_). Jackals are nocturnal animals, concealing
themselves until dusk in woody jungles and other natural lurking places,
and then sallying forth in packs, which sometimes number two hundred
individuals, and visiting farmyards, villages and towns in search of
food. This consists for the most part of the smaller mammals and
poultry; although the association in packs enables these marauders to
hunt down antelopes and sheep. When unable to obtain living prey, they
feed on carrion and refuse of all kinds, and are thus useful in removing
putrescent matter from the streets. They are also fond of grapes and
other fruits, and are thus the pests of the vineyard as well as the
poultry-yard. The cry of the jackal is even more appalling than that of
the hyena, a shriek from one member of a pack being the signal for a
general chorus of screams, which is kept up during the greater part of
the night. In India these animals are hunted with foxhounds or
greyhounds, and from their cunning and pluck afford excellent sport.
Jackals are readily tamed; and domesticated individuals are said, when
called by their masters, to wag their tails, crouch and throw themselves
on the ground, and otherwise behave in a dog-like fashion. The jackal,
like the fox, has an offensive odour, due to the secretion of a gland at
the base of the tail.

[Illustration: Egyptian Jackal (_Canis lupaster_).]




JACKDAW, or simply DAW (Old Low German, _Daha_; Dutch, _Kaauw_), one of
the smallest species of the genus _Corvus_ (see CROW), and a very well
known inhabitant of Europe, the _C. monedula_ of ornithologists. In some
of its habits it much resembles its congener the rook, with which it
constantly associates during a great part of the year; but, while the
rook only exceptionally places its nest elsewhere than on the boughs of
trees and open to the sky, the daw almost invariably chooses holes,
whether in rocks, hollow trees, rabbit-burrows or buildings. Nearly
every church-tower and castle, ruined or not, is more or less numerously
occupied by daws. Chimneys frequently give them the accommodation they
desire, much to the annoyance of the householder, who finds the funnel
choked by the quantity of sticks brought together by the birds, since
their industry in collecting materials for their nests is as marvellous
as it often is futile. In some cases the stack of loose sticks piled up
by daws in a belfry or tower has been known to form a structure 10 or 12
ft. in height, and hence this species may be accounted one of the
greatest nest-builders in the world. The style of architecture practised
by the daw thus brings it more than the rook into contact with man, and
its familiarity is increased by the boldness of its disposition which,
though tempered by discreet cunning, is hardly surpassed among birds.
Its small size, in comparison with most of its congeners, alone
incapacitates it from inflicting the serious injuries of which some of
them are often the authors, yet its pilferings are not to be denied,
though on the whole its services to the agriculturist are great, for in
the destruction of injurious insects it is hardly inferior to the rook,
and it has the useful habit of ridding sheep, on whose backs it may be
frequently seen perched, of some of their parasites.

The daw displays the glossy black plumage so characteristic of the true
crows, varied only by the hoary grey of the ear-coverts, and of the nape
and sides of the neck, which is the mark of the adult; but examples from
the east of Europe and western Asia have these parts much lighter,
passing into a silvery white, and hence have been deemed by some
authorities to constitute a distinct species (_C. collaris_, Drumm.).
Further to the eastward occurs the _C. dauuricus_ of Pallas, which has
not only the collar broader and of a pure white, but much of the lower
parts of the body white also. Japan and northern China are inhabited
also by a form resembling that of western Europe, but wanting the grey
nape of the latter. This is the _C. neglectus_ of Professor Schlegel,
and is said by Dresser, on the authority of Swinhoe, to interbreed
frequently with _C. dauuricus_. These are all the birds that seem
entitled to be considered daws, though Dr Bowdler Sharpe (_Cat. B. Brit.
Museum_, iii. 24) associates with them (under the little-deserved
separate generic distinction _Coloeus_) the fish-crow of North America,
which appears both in structure and in habits to be a true crow.
     (A. N.)




JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845), seventh president of the United States, was
born on the 15th of March 1767, at the Waxhaw or Warsaw settlement, in
Union county, North Carolina, or in Lancaster county, South Carolina,
whither his parents had immigrated from Carrickfergus, Ireland, in 1765.
He played a slight part in the War of Independence, and was taken
prisoner in 1781, his treatment resulting in a lifelong dislike of Great
Britain. He studied law at Salisbury, North Carolina, was admitted to
the bar there in 1787, and began to practise at McLeansville, Guilford
county, North Carolina, where for a time he was a constable and
deputy-sheriff. In 1788, having been appointed prosecuting attorney of
the western district of North Carolina (now the state of Tennessee), he
removed to Nashville, the seat of justice of the district. In 1791 he
married Mrs Rachel Robards (_née_ Donelson), having heard that her
husband had obtained a divorce through the legislature of Virginia. The
legislative act, however, had only authorized the courts to determine
whether or not there were sufficient grounds for a divorce and to grant
or withhold it accordingly. It was more than two years before the
divorce was actually granted, and only on the basis of the fact that
Jackson and Mrs Robards were then living together. On receiving this
information, Jackson had the marriage ceremony performed a second time.

In 1796 Jackson assisted in framing the constitution of Tennessee. From
December 1796 to March 1797 he represented that state in the Federal
House of Representatives, where he distinguished himself as an
irreconcilable opponent of President Washington, and was one of the
twelve representatives who voted against the address to him by the
House. In 1797 he was elected a United States senator; but he resigned
in the following year. He was judge of the supreme court of Tennessee
from 1798 to 1804. In 1804-1805 he contracted a friendship with Aaron
Burr; and at the latter's trial in 1807 Jackson was one of his
conspicuous champions. Up to the time of his nomination for the
presidency, the biographer of Jackson finds nothing to record but
military exploits in which he displayed perseverance, energy and skill
of a very high order, and a succession of personal acts in which he
showed himself ignorant, violent, perverse, quarrelsome and
astonishingly indiscreet. His combative disposition led him into
numerous personal difficulties. In 1795 he fought a duel with Colonel
Waitstill Avery (1745-1821), an opposing counsel, over some angry words
uttered in a court room; but both, it appears, intentionally fired wild.
In 1806 in another duel, after a long and bitter quarrel, he killed
Charles Dickinson, and Jackson himself received a wound from which he
never fully recovered. In 1813 he exchanged shots with Thomas Hart
Benton and his brother Jesse in a Nashville tavern, and received a
second wound. Jackson and Thomas Hart Benton were later reconciled.

In 1813-1814, as major-general of militia, he commanded in the campaign
against the Creek Indians in Georgia and Alabama, defeated them (at
Talladega, on the 9th of November 1813, and at Tohopeka, on the 29th of
March 1814), and thus first attracted public notice by his talents. In
May 1814 he was commissioned as major-general in the regular army to
serve against the British; in November he captured Pensacola, Florida,
then owned by Spain, but used by the British as a base of operations;
and on the 8th of January 1815 he inflicted a severe defeat on the enemy
before New Orleans, the contestants being unaware that a treaty of peace
had already been signed. During his stay in New Orleans he proclaimed
martial law, and carried out his measures with unrelenting sternness,
banishing from the town a judge who attempted resistance. When civil law
was restored, Jackson was fined $1000 for contempt of court; in 1844
Congress ordered the fine with interest ($2700) to be repaid. In 1818
Jackson received the command against the Seminoles. His conduct in
following them up into the Spanish territory of Florida, in seizing
Pensacola, and in arresting and executing two British subjects,
Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert Ambrister, gave rise to much hostile
comment in the cabinet and in Congress; but the negotiations for the
purchase of Florida put an end to the diplomatic difficulty. In 1821
Jackson was military governor of the territory of Florida, and there
again he came into collision with the civil authority. From this, as
from previous troubles, John Quincy Adams, then secretary of state,
extricated him.

In July 1822 the general assembly of Tennessee nominated Jackson for
president; and in 1823 he was elected to the United States Senate, from
which he resigned in 1825. The rival candidates for the office of
president in the campaign of 1824 were Jackson, John Quincy Adams, W. H.
Crawford and Henry Clay. Jackson obtained the largest number of votes
(99) in the electoral college (Adams receiving 84, Crawford 41 and Clay
37); but no one had an absolute majority, and it thus became the duty of
the House of Representatives to choose one of the three
candidates--Adams, Jackson and Crawford--who had received the greatest
numbers of electoral votes. At the election by the house (February 9,
1825) Adams was chosen, receiving the votes of 13 states, while Jackson
received the votes of 7 and Crawford the votes of 4. Jackson, however,
was recognized by the abler politicians as the coming man. Martin Van
Buren and others, going into opposition under his banner, waged from the
first a relentless and factious war on the administration. Van Buren was
the most adroit politician of his time; and Jackson was in the hands of
very astute men, who advised and controlled him. He was easy to lead
when his mind was in solution; and he gave his confidence freely where
he had once placed it. He was not suspicious, but if he withdrew his
confidence he was implacable. When his mind crystallized on a notion
that had a personal significance to himself, that notion became a hard
fact that filled his field of vision. When he was told that he had been
cheated in the matter of the presidency,[1] he was sure of it, although
those who told him were by no means so.

There was great significance in the election of Jackson in 1828. A new
generation was growing up under new economic and social conditions. They
felt great confidence in themselves and great independence. They
despised tradition and Old World ways and notions; and they accepted the
Jeffersonian dogmas, not only as maxims, but as social forces--the
causes of the material prosperity of the country. By this generation,
therefore, Jackson was recognized as a man after their own heart. They
liked him because he was vigorous, brusque, uncouth, relentless,
straightforward and open. They made him president in 1828, and he
fulfilled all their expectations. He had 178 votes in the electoral
college against 83 given for Adams. Though the work of redistribution of
offices began almost at his inauguration, it is yet an incorrect account
of the matter to say that Jackson corrupted the civil service. His
administration is rather the date at which a system of democracy,
organized by the use of patronage, was introduced into the federal arena
by Van Buren. It was at this time that the Democratic or Republican
party divided, largely along personal lines, into Jacksonian Democrats
and National Republicans, the latter led by such men as Henry Clay and
J. Q. Adams. The administration itself had two factions in it from the
first, the faction of Van Buren, the secretary of state in 1829-1831,
and that of Calhoun, vice-president in 1829-1832. The refusal of the
wives of the cabinet and of Mrs Calhoun to accord social recognition to
Mrs J. H. Eaton brought about a rupture, and in April 1831 the whole
cabinet was reorganized. Van Buren, a widower, sided with the president
in this affair and grew in his favour. Jackson in the meantime had
learned that Calhoun as secretary of war had wished to censure him for
his actions during the Seminole war in Florida in 1818, and henceforth
he regarded the South Carolina statesman as his enemy. The result was
that Jackson transferred to Van Buren his support for succession in the
presidency. The relations between Jackson and his cabinet were unlike
those existing under his predecessors. Having a military point of view,
he was inclined to look upon the cabinet members as inferior officers,
and when in need of advice he usually consulted a group of personal
friends, who came to be called the "Kitchen Cabinet." The principal
members of this clique were William B. Lewis (1784-1866), Amos Kendall
and Duff Green, the last named being editor of the _United States
Telegraph_, the organ of the administration.

In 1832 Jackson was re-elected by a large majority (219 electoral votes
to 49) over Henry Clay, his chief opponent. The battle raged mainly
around the re-charter of the Bank of the United States. It is probable
that Jackson's advisers in 1828 had told him, though erroneously, that
the bank had worked against him, and then were not able to control him.
The first message of his first presidency had contained a severe
reflection on the bank; and in the very height of this second campaign
(July 1832) he vetoed the re-charter, which had been passed in the
session of 1831-1832. Jackson interpreted his re-election as an approval
by the people of his war on the bank, and he pushed it with energy. In
September 1833 he ordered the public deposits in the bank to be
transferred to selected local banks, and entered upon the "experiment"
whether these could not act as fiscal agents for the government, and
whether the desire to get the deposits would not induce the local banks
to adopt sound rules of currency. During the next session the Senate
passed a resolution condemning his conduct. Jackson protested, and after
a hard struggle, in which Jackson's friends were led by Senator Thomas
Hart Benton, the resolution was ordered to be expunged from the record,
on the 16th of January 1837.

In 1832, when the state of South Carolina attempted to "nullify" the
tariff laws, Jackson at once took steps to enforce the authority of the
federal government, ordering two war vessels to Charleston and placing
troops within convenient distance. He also issued a proclamation warning
the people of South Carolina against the consequences of their conduct.
In the troubles between Georgia and the Cherokee Indians, however, he
took a different stand. Shortly after his first election Georgia passed
an act extending over the Cherokee country the civil laws of the state.
This was contrary to the rights of the Cherokees under a federal treaty,
and the Supreme Court consequently declared the act void (1832).
Jackson, however, having the frontiersman's contempt for the Indian,
refused to enforce the decision of the court (see NULLIFICATION;
GEORGIA: _History_).

Jackson was very successful in collecting old claims against various
European nations for spoliations inflicted under Napoleon's continental
system, especially the French spoliation claims, with reference to which
he acted with aggressiveness and firmness. Aiming at a currency to
consist largely of specie, he caused the payment of these claims to be
received and imported in specie as far as possible; and in 1836 he
ordered land-agents to receive for land nothing but specie. About the
same time a law passed Congress for distributing among the states some
$35,000,000 balance belonging to the United States, the public debt
having all been paid. The eighty banks of deposit in which it was lying
had regarded this sum almost as a permanent loan, and had inflated
credit on the basis of it. The necessary calling in of their loans in
order to meet the drafts in favour of the states, combining with the
breach of the overstrained credit between America and Europe and the
decline in the price of cotton, brought about a crash which prostrated
the whole financial, industrial and commercial system of the country for
six or seven years. The crash came just as Jackson was leaving office;
the whole burden fell on his successor, Van Buren.

In the 18th century the influences at work in the American colonies
developed democratic notions. In fact, the circumstances were those
which create equality of wealth and condition, as far as civilized men
ever can be equal. The War of Independence was attended by a grand
outburst of political dogmatism of the democratic type. A class of men
were produced who believed in very broad dogmas of popular power and
rights. There were a few rich men, but they were almost ashamed to
differ from their neighbours and, in some known cases, they affected
democracy in order to win popularity. After the 19th century began the
class of rich men rapidly increased. In the first years of the century a
little clique at Philadelphia became alarmed at the increase of the
"money power," and at the growing perils to democracy. They attacked
with some violence, but little skill, the first Bank of the United
States, and they prevented its re-charter. The most permanent interest
of the history of the United States is the picture it offers of a
primitive democratic society transformed by prosperity and the
acquisition of capital into a great republican commonwealth. The
denunciations of the "money power" and the reiteration of democratic
dogmas deserve earnest attention. They show the development of classes
or parties in the old undifferentiated mass. Jackson came upon the
political stage just when a wealthy class first existed. It was an
industrial and commercial class greatly interested in the tariff, and
deeply interested also in the then current forms of issue banking. The
southern planters also were rich, but were agriculturists and remained
philosophical Democrats. Jackson was a man of low birth, uneducated,
prejudiced, and marked by strong personal feeling in all his beliefs and
disbeliefs. He showed, in his military work and in his early political
doings, great lack of discipline. The proposal to make him president won
his assent and awakened his ambition. In anything which he undertook he
always wanted to carry his point almost regardless of incidental effects
on himself or others. He soon became completely engaged in the effort to
be made president. The men nearest to him understood his character and
played on it. It was suggested to him that the money power was against
him. That meant that, to the educated or cultivated class of that day,
he did not seem to be in the class from which a president should be
chosen. He took the idea that the Bank of the United States was leading
the money power against him, and that he was the champion of the masses
of democracy and of the common people. The opposite party, led by Clay,
Adams, Biddle, &c., had schemes for banks and tariffs, enterprises which
were open to severe criticism. The political struggle was very intense
and there were two good sides to it. Men like Thomas H. Benton, Edward
Livingston, Amos Kendall, and the southern statesmen, found material for
strong attacks on the Whigs. The great mass of voters felt the issue as
Jackson's managers stated it. That meant that the masses recognized
Jackson as their champion. Therefore, Jackson's personality and name
became a power on the side opposed to banks, corporations and other
forms of the new growing power of capital. That Jackson was a typical
man of his generation is certain. He represents the spirit and temper of
the free American of that day, and it was a part of his way of thinking
and acting that he put his whole life and interest into the conflict. He
accomplished two things of great importance in the history: he crushed
excessive state-rights and established the contrary doctrine in fact and
in the political orthodoxy of the democrats; he destroyed the great
bank. The subsequent history of the bank left it without an apologist,
and prejudiced the whole later judgment about it. The way in which
Jackson accomplished these things was such that it cost the country ten
years of the severest liquidation, and left conflicting traditions of
public policy in the Democratic party. After he left Washington, Jackson
fell into discord with his most intimate old friends, and turned his
interest to the cause of slavery, which he thought to be attacked and in
danger.

Jackson is the only president of whom it may be said that he went out of
office far more popular than he was when he entered. When he went into
office he had no political opinions, only some popular notions. He left
his party strong, perfectly organized and enthusiastic on a platform of
low expenditure, payment of the debt, no expenditure for public
improvement or for glory or display in any form and low taxes. His name
still remained a spell to conjure with, and the politicians sought to
obtain the assistance of his approval for their schemes; but in general
his last years were quiet and uneventful. He died at his residence, "The
Hermitage," near Nashville, Tennessee, on the 8th of June 1845.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the early biographies, that by J. H. Eaton
  (Philadelphia, 1824) is a history of Jackson's early military
  exploits, written for political purposes. Amos Kendall's _Life_ (New
  York, 1843) is incomplete, extending only to 1814. James Parton's
  elaborate work (3 vols., New York, 1860) is still useful. Parton
  prepared a shorter biography for the "Great Commanders Series" (New
  York, 1893), which emphasizes Jackson's military career. W. G.
  Sumner's _Andrew Jackson_ in the "American Statesmen Series" (Boston,
  1882; revised, 1899) combines the leading facts of Jackson's life with
  a history of his times. W. G. Brown wrote an appreciative sketch
  (Boston, 1900) for the "Riverside Biographical Series." Of more recent
  works the most elaborate are the _History of Andrew Jackson_, by A. C.
  Buell (New York, 1904), marred by numerous errors, and the _Life and
  Times of Andrew Jackson_, by A. S. Colyar (Nashville, 1904). Charles
  H. Peck's _The Jacksonian Epoch_ (New York, 1899) is an account of
  national politics from 1815 to 1840, in which the antagonism of
  Jackson and Clay is emphasized.     (W. G. S.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The charge was freely made then and afterwards (though, it is now
    believed, without justification) that Clay had supported Adams and by
    influencing his followers in the house had been instrumental in
    securing his election, as the result of a bargain by which Adams had
    agreed to pay him for his support by appointing him secretary of
    state.




JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819), dean of Christ Church, Oxford, was born in
Yorkshire, and educated at Westminster and Oxford. In 1771 he was chosen
to be sub-preceptor to the two eldest sons of George III., but in 1776
he was dismissed, probably through some household intrigues. He then
took orders, and was appointed in 1779 to the preachership at Lincoln's
Inn and to a canonry at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1783 he was elected
dean of Christ Church. His devotion to the college led him to decline
the bishopric of Oxford in 1799 and the primacy of Ireland in 1800. He
took a leading part in framing the statute which, in 1802, launched the
system of public examinations at Oxford, but otherwise he was not
prominent in university affairs. On his resignation in 1809 he settled
at Felpham, in Sussex, where he remained till his death.




JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (1860-   ), British Arctic explorer, was
educated at Denstone College and Edinburgh University. His first voyage
in Arctic waters was on a whaling-cruise in 1886-1887, and in 1893 he
made a sledge-journey of 3000 miles across the frozen _tundra_ of
Siberia lying between the Ob and the Pechora. His narrative of this
journey was published under the title of _The Great Frozen Land_ (1895).
On his return, he was given the command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic
expedition (1894-1897), which had for its objective the general
exploration of Franz Josef Land. In recognition of his services he
received a knighthood of the first class of the Danish Royal Order of St
Olaf in 1898, and was awarded the gold medal of the Paris Geographical
Society in 1899. His account of the expedition was published under the
title of _A Thousand Days in the Arctic_ (1899). He served in South
Africa during the Boer War, and obtained the rank of captain. His
travels also include a journey across the Australian deserts.




JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831-1885), American poet and novelist, who wrote
under the initials of "H. H." (Helen Hunt), was born in Amherst,
Massachusetts, on the 18th of October 1831, the daughter of Nathan Welby
Fiske (1798-1847), who was a professor in Amherst College. In October
1852 she married Lieutenant Edward Bissell Hunt (1822-1863), of the U.S.
corps of engineers. In 1870 she published a little volume of meditative
_Verses_, which was praised by Emerson in the preface to his _Parnassus_
(1874). In 1875 she married William S. Jackson, a banker, of Colorado
Springs. She became a prolific writer of prose and verse, including
juvenile tales, books of travel, household hints and novels, of which
the best is _Ramona_ (1884), a defence of the Indian character. In 1883,
as a special commissioner with Abbot Kinney (b. 1850), she investigated
the condition and needs of the Mission Indians in California. _A Century
of Dishonor_ (1881) was an arraignment of the treatment of the Indians
by the United States. She died on the 12th of August 1885 in San
Francisco.

  In addition to her publications referred to above, _Mercy Philbrick's
  Choice_ (1876), _Hetty's Strange History_ (1877), _Zeph_ (1886), and
  _Sonnets and Lyrics_ (1886) may be mentioned.




JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903), British engraver, was born at
Berwick-on-Tweed about 1820, and was trained as a wood engraver by his
brother, John Jackson, the author of a history of this art. In the
middle of the 19th century he made a considerable reputation by his
engravings for the Art Union of London, and for Knight's _Shakespeare_
and other standard books; and in 1860 he was appointed art editor of the
_Illustrated London News_, a post which he held for thirty years. He
wrote a history of the rise and progress of illustrated journalism. He
died in December 1903.




JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640), president of Corpus Christi College,
Oxford, and dean of Peterborough, was born at Witton-le-Wear, Durham,
and educated at Oxford. He became a probationer fellow of Corpus in
1606, and was soon afterwards elected vice-president. In 1623 he was
presented to the living of St Nicholas, Newcastle, and about 1625 to the
living of Winston, Durham. Five years later he was appointed president
of Corpus, and in 1632 the king presented him to the living of Witney,
Oxfordshire. He was made a prebendary of Winchester in 1635, and was
dean of Peterborough in 1635-1639. Although originally a Calvinist, he
became in later life an Arminian.

  His chief work was a series of commentaries on the Apostles' Creed,
  the first complete edition being entitled _The Works of Thomas
  Jackson, D.D._ (London, 1673). The commentaries were, however,
  originally published in 1613-1657, as twelve books with different
  titles, the first being _The Eternal Truth of Scriptures_ (London,
  1613).




JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863), known as "Stonewall Jackson,"
American general, was born at Clarksburg, Virginia (now West Virginia),
on the 21st of January 1824, and was descended from an Ulster family. At
an early age he was left a penniless orphan, and his education was
acquired in a small country school until he procured, mainly by his own
energy, a nomination to the Military Academy. Lack of social graces and
the deficiencies of his early education impeded him at first, but "in
the end 'Old Jack,' as he was always called, with his desperate
earnestness, his unflinching straightforwardness, and his high sense of
honour, came to be regarded with something like affection." Such
qualities he displayed not less amongst the light-hearted cadets than
afterwards at the head of troops in battle. After graduating he took
part, as second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Artillery, in the Mexican
War. At Vera Cruz he won the rank of first lieutenant, and for gallant
conduct at Contreras and Chapultepec respectively he was brevetted
captain and major, a rank which he attained with less than one year's
service. During his stay in the city of Mexico his thoughts were
seriously directed towards religion, and, eventually entering the
Presbyterian communion, he ruled every subsequent action of his life by
his faith. In 1851 he applied for and obtained a professorship at the
Virginia military institute, Lexington; and here, except for a short
visit to Europe, he remained for ten years, teaching natural science,
the theory of gunnery and battalion drill. Though he was not a good
teacher, his influence both on his pupils and on those few intimate
friends for whom alone he relaxed the gravity of his manner was
profound, and, little as he was known to the white inhabitants of
Lexington, he was revered by the slaves, to whom he showed uniform
kindness, and for whose moral instruction he worked unceasingly. As to
the great question at issue in 1861, Major Jackson's ruling motive was
devotion to his state, and when Virginia seceded, on the 17th of April,
and the Lexington cadets were ordered to Richmond, Jackson went thither
in command of the corps. His intimate friend, Governor Letcher,
appreciating his gifts, sent him as a colonel of infantry to Harper's
Ferry, where the first collision with the Union forces was hourly
expected. In June he received the command of a brigade, and in July
promotion to the rank of brigadier-general. He had well employed the
short time at his disposal for training his men, and on the first field
of Bull Run they won for themselves and their brigadier, by their rigid
steadiness at the critical moment of the battle, the historic name of
"Stonewall."

After the battle of Bull Run Jackson spent some time in the further
training of his brigade which, to his infinite regret, he was compelled
to leave behind him when, in October, he was assigned as a major-general
to command in the Shenandoah Valley. His army had to be formed out of
local troops, and few modern weapons were available, but the Valley
regiments retained the impress of Jackson's training till the days of
Cedar Creek. Discipline was not acquired at once, however, and the first
ventures of the force were not very successful. At Kernstown, indeed,
Jackson was tactically defeated by the Federals under Shields (March 23,
1862). But the Stonewall brigade had been sent to its old leader in
November, and by the time that the famous Valley Campaign (see
SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS) began, the forces under Jackson's command
had acquired cohesion and power of manoeuvre. On the 8th of May 1862 was
fought the combat of McDowell, won by Jackson against the leading troops
of Frémont's command from West Virginia. Three weeks later the forces
under Banks were being driven over the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, and
Jackson was master of the Valley. Every other plan of campaign in
Virginia was at once subordinated to the scheme of "trapping Jackson."
But the Confederates, marching swiftly up the Valley, slipped between
the converging columns of Frémont from the west and McDowell from the
east, and concluded a most daring campaign by the victorious actions of
Cross Keys and Port Republic (8th and 9th of June). While the forces of
the North were still scattered, Jackson secretly left the Valley to take
a decisive part in Lee's campaign before Richmond. In the "Seven Days"
Jackson was frequently at fault, but his driving energy bore no small
part in securing the defeat of McClellan's advance on Richmond. Here he
passed for the first time under the direct orders of Robert Lee, and the
rest of his career was spent in command of the II. corps of the Army of
Northern Virginia. As Lee's chief and most trusted subordinate he was
throughout charged with the execution of the more delicate and difficult
operations of his commander's hazardous strategy. After his victory over
Banks at Cedar Mountain, near Culpeper, Virginia, Jackson led the daring
march round the flank of General Pope's army, which against all
theoretical rules ended in the great victory of second Bull Run. In the
Maryland campaign Lieut.-General Jackson was again detached from the
main army. Eleven thousand Federals, surrounded in Harper's Ferry, were
forced to surrender, and Jackson rejoined Lee just in time to oppose
McClellan's advance. At the Antietam his corps bore the brunt of the
battle, which was one of the most stubborn of modern warfare. At
Fredericksburg his wing of Lee's line of battle was heavily engaged, and
his last battle, before Chancellorsville, in the thickets of the
Wilderness, was his greatest triumph. By one of his swift and secret
flank marches he placed his corps on the flank of the enemy, and on the
2nd of May flung them against the Federal XI. corps, which was utterly
routed. At the close of a day of victory he was reconnoitring the
hostile positions when suddenly the Confederate outposts opened fire
upon his staff, whom they mistook in the dark and tangled forest for
Federal cavalry. Jackson fell wounded, and on the 10th of May he died at
Guinea's station. He was buried, according to his own wish, at
Lexington, where a statue and a memorial hall commemorate his connexion
with the place; and on the spot where he was mortally wounded stands a
plain granite pillar. The first contribution towards the bronze statue
at Richmond was made by the negro Baptist congregation for which Jackson
had laboured so earnestly in his Lexington years. He was twice married,
first to Eleanor (d. 1854), daughter of George Junkin, president of
Washington College, Virginia, and secondly in 1857 to Mary Anna
Morrison, daughter of a North Carolina clergyman.

That Jackson's death, at a critical moment of the fortunes of the
Confederacy, was an irreparable loss was disputed by no one. Lee said
that he had lost his right arm, and, good soldiers as were the other
generals, not one amongst them was comparable to Jackson, whose name was
dreaded in the North like that of Lee himself. His military character
was the enlargement of his personal character--"desperate earnestness,
unflinching straightforwardness," and absolute, almost fatalist, trust
in the guidance of providence. At the head of his troops, who idolized
him, he was a Cromwell, adding to the zeal of a fanatic and the energy
of the born leader the special military skill and trained soldierly
spirit which the English commander had to gain by experience. His
Christianity was conspicuous, even amongst deeply religious men like Lee
and Stuart, and penetrated every part of his character and conduct.

  See lives by R. L. Dabney (New York, 1883), J. E. Cooke (New York,
  1866), M. A. Jackson (General Jackson's widow) (New York, 1892); and
  especially G. F. R. Henderson, _Stonewall Jackson_ (London, 1898), and
  H. A. White, _Stonewall Jackson_ (Philadelphia, 1909).




JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803), English musician, was born at Exeter on
the 29th of May 1730. His father, a grocer, bestowed a liberal education
upon him, but, on account of the lad's strong predilection for music,
was induced to place him under the care of John Silvester, the organist
of Exeter Cathedral, with whom he remained about two years. In 1748 he
went to London, and studied under John Travers, organist of the king's
chapel. Returning to Exeter, he settled there as a teacher and composer,
and in 1777 was appointed subchanter, organist, lay-vicar and master of
the choristers of the cathedral. In 1755 he published his first work,
_Twelve Songs_, which became at once highly popular. His next
publication, _Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord_, was a failure. His third
work, _Six Elegies for three voices, preceded by an Invocation, with an
Accompaniment_, placed him among the first composers of his day. His
fourth work was another set of _Twelve Songs_, now very scarce; and his
fifth work was again a set of _Twelve Songs_, all of which are now
forgotten. He next published _Twelve Hymns_, with some good remarks upon
that style of composition, although his precepts were better than his
practice. A set of _Twelve Songs_ followed, containing some good
compositions. Next came an _Ode to Fancy_, the words by Dr Warton.
_Twelve Canzonets for two voices_ formed his ninth work; and one of
them--"Time has not thinned my Flowing Hair"--long held a place at
public and private concerts. His tenth work was _Eight Sonatas for the
Harpsichord_, some of which were novel and pleasing. He composed three
dramatic pieces,--_Lycidas_ (1767), _The Lord of the Manor_, to General
Burgoyne's words (1780), and _The Metamorphoses_, a comic opera produced
at Drury Lane in 1783, which did not succeed. In the second of these
dramatic works, two airs--"Encompassed in an Angel's Form" and "When
first this Humble Roof I knew"--were great favourites. His church music
was published after his death by James Paddon (1820); most of it is
poor, but "Jackson in F" was for many years popular. In 1782 he
published _Thirty Letters on Various Subjects_, in which he severely
attacked canons, and described William Bird's _Non nobis Domine_ as
containing passages not to be endured. But his anger and contempt were
most strongly expressed against catches of all kinds, which he denounced
as barbarous. In 1791 he put forth a pamphlet, _Observations on the
Present State of Music in London_, in which he found fault with
everything and everybody. He published in 1798 _The Four Ages, together
with Essays on Various Subjects_,--a work which gives a favourable idea
of his character and of his literary acquirements. Jackson also
cultivated a taste for landscape painting, and imitated, not
unsuccessfully, the style of his friend Gainsborough. He died on the 5th
of July 1803.




JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
on both sides of the Grand River, 76 m. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890),
20,798; (1900), 25,180, of whom 3843 were foreign-born (1004 German, 941
English Canadian); (1910 census) 31,433. It is served by the Michigan
Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the
Cincinnati Northern railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. It is
the seat of the state prison (established 1839). Coal is mined in the
vicinity; the city has a large trade with the surrounding agricultural
district (whose distinctive product is beans); the Michigan Central
railway has car and machine shops here; and the city has many
manufacturing establishments. The total factory product in 1904 was
valued at $8,348,125, an increase of 24.4% over that of 1900. The
municipality owns and operates its water-works. The place was formerly a
favourite camping ground of the Indians, and was settled by whites in
1829. In 1830 it was laid out as a town, selected for the county-seat,
and named Jacksonburg in honour of Andrew Jackson; the present name was
adopted in 1838. Jackson was incorporated as a village in 1843, and in
1857 was chartered as a city. It was at a convention held at Jackson on
the 6th of July 1854 that the Republican party was first organized and
so named by a representative state body.




JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Hinds county, Mississippi,
U.S.A., and the capital of the state, on the W. bank of the Pearl River,
about 40 m. E. of Vicksburg and 185 m. N. of New Orleans, Louisiana.
Pop. (1890), 5920; (1900), 7816, of whom 4447 were negroes. According to
the Federal census taken in 1910 the population had increased to 21,262.
Jackson is served by the Illinois Central, the Alabama & Vicksburg, the
Gulf & Ship Island, New Orleans Great Northern, and the Yazoo &
Mississippi Valley railways, and during the winter by small freight and
passenger steamboats on the Pearl River. In Jackson is the state
library, with more than 80,000 volumes. The new state capitol was
finished in 1903. The old state capitol, dating from 1839, is of
considerable interest; in it were held the secession convention (1861),
the "Black and Tan Convention" (1868), and the constitutional convention
of 1890, and in it Jefferson Davis made his last speech (1884). Jackson
is the seat of Millsaps College, chartered in 1890 and opened in 1892
(under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South), and
having, in 1907-1908, 12 instructors and 297 students; of Belhaven
College (non-sectarian, 1894), for girls; and of Jackson College
(founded in 1877 at Natchez by the American Baptist Home Mission
Society; in 1883 removed to Jackson), for negroes, which had 356
students in 1907-1908. The city is a market for cotton and farm
products, and has a number of manufactories. In 1821 the site was
designated as the seat of the state government, and early in the
following year the town, named in honour of Andrew Jackson, was laid
out. The legislature first met here in December 1822. It was not until
1840 that it was chartered as a city. During the Civil War Jackson was
in the theatre of active campaigning. On the 14th of May 1863 Johnston
who then held the city, was attacked on both sides by Sherman and
McPherson with two corps of Grant's army, which, after a sharp
engagement, drove the Confederates from the town. After the fall of
Vicksburg Johnston concentrated his forces at Jackson, which had been
evacuated by the Federal troops, and prepared to make a stand behind the
intrenchments. On the 9th of July Sherman began an investment of the
place, and during the succeeding week a sharp bombardment was carried
on. In the night of the 16th Johnston, taking advantage of a lull in the
firing, withdrew suddenly from the city. Sherman's army entered on the
17th and remained five days, burning a considerable part of the city and
ravaging the surrounding country.




JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Tennessee,
U.S.A., situated on the Forked Deer river, about 85 m. N.E. of Memphis.
Pop. (1890), 10,039; (1900), 14,511, of whom 6108 were negroes; (1910
census), 15,779. It is served by the Mobile & Ohio, the Nashville,
Chattanooga & St Louis and the Illinois Central railways. The state
supreme court holds its sessions here for the western district of
Tennessee. The city is the seat of Union University (co-educational),
chartered in 1875 as Southwestern Baptist University, and conducted
under that name at Jackson until 1907, when the present name was
adopted. In 1907-1908 the university had 17 instructors and 280
students. At Jackson, also, are St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic); the
Memphis Conference Female Institute (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1843),
and Lane College (for negroes), under the control of the Colored
Methodist Episcopal Church. Jackson is an important cotton market, and
is a shipping point for the farm products and fruits of the surrounding
country. It has also numerous manufactures and railway shops. The total
value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,317,715. The municipality
owns and operates the electric-lighting plant and the water-works. There
is in the city an electro-chalybeate well with therapeutic properties.
Jackson was settled about 1820, incorporated as a town in 1823,
chartered as a city in 1854, and in 1907 received a new charter by which
the sale of intoxicating liquors is forever prohibited. After General
Grant's advance into Tennessee in 1862 Jackson was fortified and became
an important base of operations for the Federal army, Grant himself
establishing his headquarters here in October.




JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Duval county, Florida,
U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the left bank of the St John's
River, 14 m. from the Atlantic Ocean as the crow flies and about 27 m.
by water. Pop. (1890), 17,201; (1900), 28,429, of whom 16,236 were
negroes and 1166 foreign-born; (1910 census) 57,699; the city being the
largest in the state. It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast
Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Georgia Southern & Florida and the
Florida East Coast railways, and by several steamship lines.[1] It is
the largest railway centre in the state, and is popularly known as the
Gate City of Florida. In appearance Jacksonville is very attractive. It
has many handsome buildings, and its residential streets are shaded with
live-oaks, water oaks and bitter-orange trees. Jacksonville is the seat
of two schools for negroes, the Florida Baptist Academy and Cookman
Institute (1872; Methodist Episcopal). Many winter visitors are annually
attracted by the excellent climate, the mean temperature for the winter
months being about 55° F. Among the places of interest in the vicinity
is the large Florida ostrich farm. There are numerous municipal and
other parks. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and
its water-works system. The capital invested in manufacturing increased
from $1,857,844 in 1900 to $4,837,281 in 1905, or 160.4%, and the value
of the factory product rose from $1,798,607 in 1900 to $5,340,264 in
1905, or 196.9%. Jacksonville is the most important distributing centre
in Florida, and is a port of entry. In 1909 its foreign imports were
valued at $513,439; its foreign exports at $2,507,373.

The site of Jacksonville was called Cow Ford (a version of the Indian
name, Wacca Pilatka), from the excellent ford of the St John's River,
over which went the King's Road, a highway built by the English from St
Augustine to the Georgia line. The first settlement was made in 1816. In
1822 a town was laid out here and was named in honour of General Andrew
Jackson; in 1833 Jacksonville was incorporated. During the Civil War the
city was thrice occupied by Federal troops. In 1888 there was an
epidemic of yellow fever. On the 3rd of May 1901 a fire destroyed nearly
150 blocks of buildings, constituting nearly the whole of the business
part of the city, the total loss being more than $15,000,000; but within
two years new buildings greater in number than those destroyed were
constructed, and up to December 1909 about 9000 building permits had
been granted.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Shoals in the river and sand rock at its mouth long prevented the
    development of an extensive water trade, but in 1896 the United
    States Government made an appropriation (supplemented in 1902, 1903
    and 1904) for deepening, for a width of 300 ft., the channel
    connecting the city and the ocean to 24 ft., and on the bar 27 ft.
    (mean low water), and by 1909 the work had been completed; further
    dredging to a 24 ft. depth between the navigable channel and pierhead
    lines was authorized in 1907 and completed by 1910.




JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Morgan county, Illinois,
U.S.A., on Mauvaiseterre Creek, about 33 m. W. of Springfield. Pop.
(1890), 12,935; (1900), 15,078, of whom 1497 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 15,326. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis and the Wabash railways.
It is the seat of several educational and philanthropic institutions.
Illinois College (Presbyterian), founded in 1829 through the efforts of
the Rev. John Millot Ellis (1793-1855), a missionary of the American
Home Missionary Society and of the so-called Yale Band (seven Yale
graduates devoted to higher education in the Middle West), is one of the
oldest colleges in the Central States of the United States. The
Jacksonville Female Academy (1830) and the Illinois Conservatory of
Music (1871) were absorbed in 1903 by Illinois College, which then
became co-educational. The college embraces, besides the collegiate
department, Whipple Academy (a preparatory department), the Illinois
Conservatory of Music and a School of Art, and in 1908-1909 had 21
instructors and 173 students. The Rev. Edward Beecher was the first
president of the college (from 1830 to 1844), and among its prominent
graduates have been Richard Yates, jun., the Rev. Thomas K. Beecher,
Newton Bateman (1822-1897), superintendent of public instruction of
Illinois from 1865 to 1875 and president of Knox College in 1875-1893,
Bishop Theodore N. Morrison (b. 1850), Protestant Episcopal Bishop of
Iowa after 1898, and William J. Bryan. The Illinois Woman's College
(Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1847 as the Illinois Conference
Female Academy) received its present name in 1899. The State Central
Hospital for the Insane (opened in 1851), the State School for the deaf
(established in 1839, opened in 1845, and the first charitable
institution of the state) and the State School for the Blind (1849) are
also in Jacksonville. Morgan Lake and Duncan Park are pleasure resorts.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,981,582, an
increase of 17.7% since 1900. Jacksonville was laid out in 1825 as the
county-seat of Morgan county, was named probably in honour of Andrew
Jackson, and was incorporated as a town in 1840, chartered as a city in
1867, and re-chartered in 1887. The majority of the early settlers came
from the southern and border states, principally from Missouri and
Kentucky; but subsequently there was a large immigration of New England
and Eastern people, and these elements were stronger in the population
of Jacksonville than in any other city of southern Illinois. The city
was a station of the "Underground Railroad."




JACOB (Hebrew _ya'aqob_, derived, according to Gen. xxv. 26, xxvii. 36,
from a root meaning "to seize the heel" or "supplant"), son of Isaac and
Rebekah in the Biblical narrative, and the father of the twelve tribes
of Israel. Jacob and his twin brother Esau are the eponyms of the
Israelites and Edomites. It was said of them that they would be two
nations, and that the elder would serve the younger. Esau was born
first, but lost his superiority by relinquishing his birthright, and
Jacob by an act of deceit gained the paternal blessing intended for Esau
(Gen. xxvii., J and E).[1] The popular view regarding Israel and Edom is
expressed when the story makes Jacob a tent-dweller, and Esau a hunter,
a man of the field. But whilst Esau married among the Canaanite
"daughters of the land" (P in xxvi. 34; xxviii. 8 seq.), Jacob was sent,
or (according to a variant tradition) fled from Beer-sheba, to take a
wife from among his Syrian kinsfolk at Haran. On the way he received a
revelation at Bethel ("house of God") promising to him and to his
descendants the whole extent of the land. The beautiful story of Jacob's
fortunes at Haran is among the best examples of Hebrew narrative: how he
served seven years for Rachel, "and they seemed a few days for the love
he had to her," and was tricked by receiving the elder sister Leah, and
how he served yet another seven years, and at last won his love. The
patriarch's increasing wealth caused him to incur the jealousy of his
father-in-law, Laban, and he was forced to flee in secret with his
family. They were overtaken at Gilead,[2] whose name (interpreted "heap
of witness") is explained by the covenant into which Jacob and Laban
entered (xxxi. 47 sqq.). Passing Mahanaim ("camps"), where he saw the
camps of God, Jacob sent to Esau with friendly overtures. At the Jabbok
he wrestled with a divine being and prevailed (cf. Hos. xii. 3 sqq.),
hence he called the place Peniel or Penuel ("the face of God"), and
received the new name Israel. He then effected an unexpected
reconciliation with Esau, passed to Succoth, where he built "booths" for
his cattle (hence its name), and reached Shechem. Here he purchased
ground from the clan Hamor (cf. Judg. ix. 28), and erected an altar to
"God (El) the God of Israel." This was the scene of the rape of Dinah
and of the attack of Simeon and Levi which led to their ruin (xxxiv.;
see DAN, LEVITES, SIMEON). Thence Jacob went down south to Bethel, where
he received a divine revelation (P), similar to that recorded by the
earlier narrator (J), and was called Israel (xxxv. 9-13, 15). Here
Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, died, on the way to Ephrath. Rachel died in
giving birth to Benjamin (q.v.), and further south Reuben was guilty of
a grave offence (cf. xlix. 4). According to P, Jacob came to Hebron, and
it was at this juncture that Jacob and Esau separated (a second time)
and the latter removed to Mount Seir (xxxvi. 6 sqq.; cf. the parallel in
xiii. 5 sqq.). Compelled by circumstances, described with much fullness
and vividness, Jacob ultimately migrated to Egypt, receiving on the way
the promise that God would make of him a great nation, which should come
again out of Egypt (see JOSEPH). After an interview with the Pharaoh
(recorded only by P, xlvii. 5-11), he dwelt with his sons in the land of
Goshen, and as his death drew near pronounced a formal benediction upon
the two sons of Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim), intentionally exalting
the younger. Then he summoned all the "sons" to gather round his bed,
and told them "what shall befall in the latter days" (xlix.). He died at
the age of 147 (so P), and permission was given to carry his body to
Canaan to be buried.

These narratives are full of much valuable evidence regarding marriage
customs, pastoral life and duties, popular beliefs and traditions, and
are evidently typical of what was currently retailed. Their historical
value has been variously estimated. The _name_ existed long before the
traditional date of Jacob, and the Egyptian phonetic equivalent of
Jacob-el (cf. Isra-el, Ishma-el) appears to be the name of a district of
central Palestine (or possibly east of Jordon) about 1500 B.C. But the
stories in their present form are very much later. The close relation
between Jacob and Aramaeans confirms the view that some of the tribes of
Israel were partly of Aramaean origin; his entrance into Palestine from
beyond the Jordan is parallel to Joshua's invasion at the head of the
Israelites; and his previous journey from the south finds independent
support in traditions of another distinct movement from this quarter.
Consequently, it would appear that these extremely elevated and richly
developed narratives of Jacob-Israel embody, among a number of other
features, a recollection of two distinct traditions of migration which
became fused among the Israelites. See further GENESIS; JEWS.
     (S. A. C.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] For the symbols J, E, P, as regards the sources of the book of
    Genesis, see GENESIS; BIBLE: _Old Test. Criticism._

  [2] Since it is some 300 m. from Haran to Gilead it is probable that
    Laban's home, only seven days' journey distant, was nearer Gilead
    than the current tradition allows (Gen. xxxi. 22 sqq.).




JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858), Indian soldier and administrator, was born on
the 11th of January 1812, educated at Addiscombe, and entered the Bombay
artillery in 1828. He served in the first Afghan War under Sir John
Keane, and afterwards led his regiment with distinction at the battles
of Meeanee, Shahdadpur, and Umarkot; but it is as commandant of the Sind
Horse and political superintendent of Upper Sind that he was chiefly
famous. He was the pacificator of the Sind frontier, reducing the tribes
to quietude as much by his commanding personality as by his ubiquitous
military measures. In 1853 he foretold the Indian Mutiny, saying: "There
is more danger to our Indian empire from the state of the Bengal army,
from the feeling which there exists between the native and the European,
and thence, spreads throughout the length and breadth of the land, than
from all other causes combined. Let government look to this; it is a
serious and most important truth"; but he was only rebuked by Lord
Dalhousie for his pains. He was a friend of Sir Charles Napier and Sir
James Outram, and resembled them in his outspoken criticisms and
independence of authority. He died at the early age of 46 of brain
fever, brought on by excessive heat and overwork. The town of Jacobabad,
which has the reputation of being the hottest place in India, is named
after him.

  See A. I. Shand, _General John Jacob_ (1900).




JACOB BEN ASHER (1280-1340), codifier of Jewish law, was born in Germany
and died in Toledo. A son of Asher ben Yehiel (q.v.), Jacob helped to
re-introduce the older elaborate method of legal casuistry which had
been overthrown by Maimonides (q.v.). The Asheri family suffered great
privations but remained faithful in their devotion to the Talmud. Jacob
ben Asher is known as the Ba'al ha-turim (literally "Master of the
Rows") from his chief work, the four _Turim_ or Rows (the title is
derived from the four _Turim_ or rows of jewels in the High Priest's
breastplate). In this work Jacob ben Asher codified Rabbinic law on
ethics and ritual, and it remained a standard work of reference until it
was edited with a commentary by Joseph Qaro, who afterwards simplified
the code into the more popular _Shulhan Aruch_. Jacob also wrote two
commentaries on the Pentateuch.

  See Graetz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), vol. iv. ch. iii.;
  Weiss, _Dor dor we-dorashav_, v. 118-123.     (I. A.)




JACOB OF EDESSA, who ranks with Barhebraeus as the most distinguished
for scholarship among Syriac writers,[1] was born at 'En-debha in the
province of Antioch, probably about A.D. 640. From the trustworthy
account of his life by Barhebraeus (_Chron. Eccles._ i. 289) we learn
that he studied first at the famous monastery of Ken-neshre (on the left
bank of the Euphrates, opposite Jerabis) and afterwards at Alexandria,
which had of course been for some time in the hands of the Moslems.[2]
On his return he was appointed bishop of Edessa by his friend Athanasius
II. (of Balad), probably in 684,[3] but held this office only for three
or four years, as the clergy withstood his strict enforcement of the
Church canons and he was not supported by Julian, the successor of
Athanasius in the patriarchate. Accordingly, having in anger publicly
burnt a copy of the canons in front of Julian's residence, Jacob retired
to the monastery of Kaisum near Samosata, and from there to the
monastery of Eusebhona,[4] where for eleven years he taught the Psalms
and the reading of the Scriptures in Greek. But towards the close of
this period he again encountered opposition, this time from monks "who
hated the Greeks," and so proceeded to the great convent of Tell 'Adda
or Teleda (? modern Telladi, N.W. of Aleppo), where he spent nine years
in revising and emending the Peshitta version of the Old Testament by
the help of the various Greek versions. He was finally recalled to the
bishopric of Edessa in 708, but died four months later, on the 5th of
June.

  In doctrine Jacob was undoubtedly Monophysite.[5] Of the very large
  number of his works, which are mostly in prose, not many have as yet
  been published, but much information may be gathered from Assemani's
  _Bibliotheca Orientalis_ and Wright's _Catalogue of Syriac MSS. in the
  British Museum_. (1) Of the Syriac Old Testament Jacob produced what
  Wright calls "a curious eclectic or patchwork text," of which five
  volumes survive in Europe (Wright's _Catalogue_ 38). It was "the last
  attempt at a revision of the Old Testament in the Monophysite Church."
  Jacob was also the chief founder of the Syriac Massorah among the
  Monophysites, which produced such MSS. as the one (Vat. cliii.)
  described by Wiseman in _Horae syriacae_, part iii. (2) Jacob was the
  author both of commentaries and of scholia on the sacred books; of
  these specimens are given by Assemani and Wright. They were largely
  quoted by later commentators, who often refer to Jacob as "the
  interpreter of the Scriptures." With the commentaries may be mentioned
  his _Hexahemeron_, or treatise on the six days of creation, MSS. of
  which exist at Leiden and at Lyons. It was his latest work, and being
  left incomplete was finished by his friend George the bishop of the
  Arabs. Among apocrypha, the _History of the Rechabites_ composed by
  Zosimus was translated from Greek into Syriac by Jacob (Wright's
  _Catalogue_ 1128, and Nau in _Revue sémitique_ vi. 263, vii. 54, 136).
  (3) Mention has been made above of Jacob's zeal on behalf of
  ecclesiastical canons. In his letter to the priest Addai we possess a
  collection of canons from his pen, given in the form of answers to
  Addai's questions. These were edited by Lagarde in _Reliquiae juris
  eccl. syriace_, pp. 117 sqq. and Lamy in _Dissert._ pp. 98 sqq.
  Additional canons were given in Wright's _Notulae syriacae_. The whole
  have been translated and expounded by Kayser, _Die Canones Jacobs von
  Edessa_ (Leipzig, 1886). (4) Jacob made many contributions to Syriac
  liturgy, both original and translated (Wright, _Short Hist._ p. 145
  seq.). (5) To philosophical literature his chief original contribution
  was his _Enchiridion_, a tract on philosophical terms (Wright's
  _Catalogue_ 984). The translations of works of Aristotle which have
  been attributed to him are probably by other hands (Wright, _Short
  Hist._ p. 149; Duval, _Littérature syriaque_, pp. 255, 258). The
  treatise _De causa omnium causarum_, which was the work of a bishop of
  Edessa, was formerly attributed to Jacob; but the publication of the
  whole by Kayser[6] has made it clear that the treatise is of much
  later date. (6) An important historical work by Jacob--a _Chronicle_
  in continuation of that of Eusebius--has unfortunately perished all
  except a few leaves. Of these a full account is given in Wright's
  _Catalogue_ 1062. (7) Jacob's fame among his countrymen rests most of
  all on his labours as a grammarian. In his letter to George, bishop of
  Serugh, on Syriac orthography (published by Phillips in London 1869,
  and by Martin in Paris the same year) he sets forth the importance of
  fidelity by scribes in the copying of minutiae of spelling. In his
  grammar[7] (of which only some fragments remain), while expressing his
  sense of the disadvantage under which Syriac labours through its
  alphabet containing only consonants, he declined to introduce a
  general system of vowel-signs, lest the change should contribute to
  the neglect and loss of the older books written without vowels. At the
  same time he invented, by adaptation of the Greek vowels, such a
  system of signs as might serve for purposes of grammatical exposition,
  and elaborated the rules by which certain consonants serve to indicate
  vowels. He also systematized and extended the use of diacritical
  points. It is still a moot question how far Jacob is to be regarded as
  the author of the five vowel-signs derived from Greek which soon after
  came into use among the Jacobites.[8] In any case he made the most
  important contribution to Syriac grammar down to the time of
  Barhebraeus. (8) As a translator Jacob's greatest achievement was his
  Syriac version of the _Homiliae cathedrales_ of Severus, the
  monophysite patriarch of Antioch (512-518, 535-536). This important
  collection is now in part known to us by E. W. Brooks's edition and
  translation of the 6th book of selected epistles of Severus, according
  to another Syriac version made by Athanasius of Nisibis in 669. (9) A
  large number of letters by Jacob to various correspondents have been
  found in various MSS. Besides those on the canon law to Addai, and on
  grammar to George of Serugh referred to above, there are others
  dealing with doctrine, liturgy, &c. A few are in verse.

  Jacob impresses the modern reader mainly as an _educator_ of his
  countrymen, and particularly of the clergy. His writings lack the
  fervid rhetoric and graceful style of such authors as Isaac of
  Antioch, Jacob of Serugh and Philoxenus of Mabbog. But judged by the
  standard of his time he shows the qualities of a truly scientific
  theologian and scholar.     (N. M.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] "In the literature of his country Jacob holds much the same place
    as Jerome among the Latin fathers" (Wright, _Short Hist. of Syr.
    Lit._ p. 143).

  [2] Merx infers that the fact of Jacob's going to Alexandria as a
    student tells against the view that the Arabs burned the great
    library (_Hist. artis gramm. apud Syros_, p. 35). On this question
    cf. Krehl in _Alli del iv. congr. internaz. degli Orientalisti_
    (Florence, 1880), pp. 433 sqq.

  [3] Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre says 677; but Athanasius was
    patriarch only 684-687.

  [4] According to Merx (_op. cit._ p. 43) this may be the celebrated
    convent of Eusebius near Apamea.

  [5] Assemani tried hard to prove him orthodox (_B.O._ i. 470 sqq.)
    but changed his opinion on reading his biography by Barhebraeus (ib.
    ii. 337). See especially Lamy, _Dissert. de Syrorum fide_, pp. 206
    sqq.

  [6] Text at Leipzig 1889 (_Das Buch der Erkenntniss der Wahrheit oder
    der Ursache aller Ursachen_): translation (posthumously) at
    Strassburg 1893.

  [7] The surviving fragments were published by Wright (London, 1871)
    and by Merx, _op. cit._ p. 73 sqq. of Syriac text.

  [8] An affirmative answer is given by Wiseman (_Horae syr._ pp.
    181-8) and Wright (_Catalogue_ 1168; _Fragm. of the Syriac Grammar of
    Jacob of Edessa_, preface; Short Hist. p. 151 seq.). But Martin (in
    _Jour. As._ May-June 1869, pp. 456 sqq.), Duval (_Grammaire
    syriaque_, p. 71) and Merx (_op. cit._ p. 50) are of the opposite
    opinion. The date of the introduction of the seven Nestorian
    vowel-signs is also uncertain.




JACOB OF JÜTERBOGK (c. 1381-1465), monk and theologian. Benedict
Stolzenhagen, known in religion as Jacob, was born at Jüterbogk in
Brandenburg of poor peasant stock. He became a Cistercian at the
monastery of Paradiz in Poland, and was sent by the abbot to the
university of Cracow, where he became master in philosophy and doctor of
theology. He returned to his monastery, of which he became abbot. In
1441, however, discontented with the absence of strict discipline in his
community, he obtained the leave of the papal legate at the council of
Basel to transfer himself to the Carthusians, entering the monastery of
Salvatorberg near Erfurt, of which he became prior. He lectured on
theology at the university of Erfurt, of which he was rector in 1455. He
died on the 30th of April 1465.

  Jacob's main preoccupation was the reform of monastic life, the grave
  disorders of which he deplored, and to this end he wrote his
  _Petitiones religiosorum pro reformatione sui status_. Another work,
  _De negligentia praelatorum_, was directed against the neglect of
  their duties by the higher clergy, and he addressed a petition for the
  reform of the church (_Advisamentum pro reformatione ecclesiae_) to
  Pope Nicholas V. This having no effect, he issued the most outspoken
  of his works, _De Septem ecclesiae statibus_, in which he reviewed the
  work of the reforming councils of his time, and, without touching the
  question of doctrine, championed a drastic reform of life and practice
  of the church on the lines laid down at Constance and Basel.

  His principal works are collected in Walch, _Monimenta med. aev._ i.
  and ii. (1757, 1771), and Engelbert Klüpfel, _Vetus bibliotheca
  eccles_. (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1780).




JACOB OF SERUGH, one of the best Syriac authors, named by one of his
biographers "the flute of the Holy Spirit and the harp of the believing
church," was born in 451 at Kurtam, a village on the Euphrates to the
west of Harran, and was probably educated at Edessa. At an early age he
attracted the attention of his countrymen by his piety and his literary
gifts, and entered on the composition of the long series of metrical
homilies on religious themes which formed the great work of his life.
Having been ordained to the priesthood, he became periodeutes or
episcopal visitor of Haura, in Serugh, not far from his birthplace. His
tenure of this office extended over a time of great trouble to the
Christian population of Mesopotamia, due to the fierce war carried on by
Kavadh II. of Persia within the Roman borders. When on the 10th of
January 503 Amid was captured by the Persians after a three months'
siege and all its citizens put to the sword or carried captive, a panic
seized the whole district, and the Christian inhabitants of many
neighbouring cities planned to leave their homes and flee to the west of
the Euphrates. They were recalled to a more courageous frame of mind by
the letters of Jacob.[1] In 519, at the age of 68, Jacob was made bishop
of Batnan, another town in the district of Serugh, but only lived till
November 521.

  From the various extant accounts of Jacob's life and from the number
  of his known works, we gather that his literary activity was
  unceasing. According to Barhebraeus (_Chron. Eccles._ i. 191) he
  employed 70 amanuenses and wrote in all 760 metrical homilies, besides
  expositions, letters and hymns of different sorts. Of his merits as a
  writer and poet we are now well able to judge from P. Bedjan's
  excellent edition of selected metrical homilies, of which four volumes
  have already appeared (Paris 1905-1908), containing 146 pieces.[2]
  They are written throughout in dodecasyllabic metre, and those
  published deal mainly with biblical themes, though there are also
  poems on such subjects as the deaths of Christian martyrs, the fall of
  the idols, the council of Nicaea, &c.[3] Of Jacob's prose works, which
  are not nearly so numerous, the most interesting are his letters,
  which throw light upon some of the events of his time and reveal his
  attachment to the Monophysite doctrine which was then struggling for
  supremacy in the Syrian churches, and particularly at Edessa, over the
  opposite teaching of Nestorius.[4]     (N. M.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] See the contemporary _Chronicle_ called that of Joshua the
    Stylite, chap. 54.

  [2] Assemani (_Bibl. Orient._ i. 305-339) enumerates 231 which he had
    seen in MSS.

  [3] Some other historical poems M. Bedjan has not seen fit to
    publish, on account of their unreliable and legendary character (vol.
    i. p. ix. of preface).

  [4] A full list of the older editions of works by Jacob is given by
    Wright in _Short History of Syriac Literature_, pp. 68-72.




JACOBA, or JACQUELINE (1401-1436), countess of Holland, was the only
daughter and heiress of William, duke of Bavaria and count of Holland,
Zeeland and Hainaut. She was married as a child to John, duke of
Touraine, second son of Charles VI., king of France, who on the death of
his elder brother Louis became dauphin. John of Touraine died in April
1417, and two months afterwards Jacoba lost her father. Acknowledged as
sovereign in Holland and Zeeland, Jacoba was opposed by her uncle John
of Bavaria, bishop of Liége. She had the support of the Hook faction in
Holland. Meanwhile she had been married in 1418 by her uncle, John the
Fearless, duke of Burgundy, to her cousin John IV., duke of Brabant. By
the mediation of John the Fearless, a treaty of partition was concluded
in 1419 between Jacoba and John of Bavaria; but it was merely a truce,
and the contest between uncle and niece soon began again and continued
with varying success. In 1420 Jacoba fled to England; and there,
declaring that her marriage with John of Brabant was illegal, she
contracted a marriage with Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, in 1422. Two
years later Jacoba, with Humphrey, invaded Holland, where she was now
opposed by her former husband, John of Brabant, John of Bavaria having
died of poison. In 1425 Humphrey deserted his wife, who found herself
obliged to seek refuge with her cousin, Philip V., duke of Burgundy, to
whom she had to submit, and she was imprisoned in the castle of Ghent.
John of Brabant now mortgaged the two counties of Holland and Zeeland to
Philip, who assumed their protectorate. Jacoba, however, escaped from
prison in disguise, and for three years struggled gallantly to maintain
herself in Holland against the united efforts of Philip of Burgundy and
John of Brabant, and met at first with success. The death of the weak
John of Brabant (April 1427) freed the countess from her quondam
husband; but nevertheless the pope pronounced Jacoba's marriage with
Humphrey illegal, and Philip, putting out his full strength, broke down
all opposition. By a treaty, made in July 1428, Jacoba was left
nominally countess, but Philip was to administer the government of
Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut, and was declared heir in case Jacoba
should die without children. Two years later Philip mortgaged Holland
and Zeeland to the Borselen family, of which Francis, lord of Borselen,
was the head. Jacoba now made her last effort. In 1432 she secretly
married Francis of Borselen, and endeavoured to foment a rising in
Holland against the Burgundian rule. Philip invaded the country,
however, and threw Borselen into prison. Only on condition that Jacoba
abdicated her three countships in his favour would he allow her liberty
and recognize her marriage with Borselen. She submitted in April 1432,
retained her title of duchess in Bavaria, and lived on her husband's
estates in retirement. She died on the 9th of October 1436, leaving no
children.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. von Löher, _Jakobäa von Bayern und ihre Zeit_ (2
  vols., Nördlingen, 1862-1869); W. J. F. Nuyens, _Jacoba van Beieren en
  de eerste helft der XV. eeuw_ (Haarlem, 1873); A. von Overstraten,
  _Jacoba van Beieren_ (Amsterdam, 1790).     (G. E.)




JACOBABAD, a town of British India, the administrative headquarters of
the Upper Sind frontier district in Bombay; with a station on the Quetta
branch of the North-Western railway, 37 m. from the junction at Ruk, on
the main line. Pop. (1901), 10,787. It is famous as having consistently
the highest temperature in India. During the month of June the
thermometer ranges between 120° and 127° F. The town was founded on the
site of the village of Khangarh in 1847 by General John Jacob, for many
years commandant of the Sind Horse, who died here in 1858. It has
cantonments for a cavalry regiment, with accommodation for caravans from
Central Asia. It is watered by two canals. An annual horse show is held
in January.




JACOBEAN STYLE, the name given to the second phase of the early
Renaissance architecture in England, following the Elizabethan style.
Although the term is generally employed of the style which prevailed in
England during the first quarter of the 17th century, its peculiar
decadent detail will be found nearly twenty years earlier at Wollaton
Hall, Nottinghamshire, and in Oxford and Cambridge examples exist up to
1660, notwithstanding the introduction of the purer Italian style by
Inigo Jones in 1619 at Whitehall. Already during Queen Elizabeth's reign
reproductions of the classic orders had found their way into English
architecture, based frequently upon John Shute's _The First and Chief
Grounds of Architecture_, published in 1563, with two other editions in
1579 and 1584. In 1577, three years before the commencement of Wollaton
Hall, a copybook of the orders was brought out in Antwerp by Jan
Vredeman de Vries. Though nominally based on the description of the
orders by Vitruvius, the author indulged freely not only in his
rendering of them, but in suggestions of his own, showing how the orders
might be employed in various buildings. Those suggestions were of a most
decadent type, so that even the author deemed it advisable to publish a
letter from a canon of the Church, stating that there was nothing in his
architectural designs which was contrary to religion. It is to
publications of this kind that Jacobean architecture owes the perversion
of its forms and the introduction of strap work and pierced crestings,
which appear for the first time at Wollaton (1580); at Bramshill,
Hampshire (1607-1612), and in Holland House, Kensington (1624), it
receives its fullest development.     (R. P. S.)




JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1743-1819), German philosopher, was born at
Düsseldorf on the 25th of January 1743. The second son of a wealthy
sugar merchant near Düsseldorf, he was educated for a commercial career.
Of a retiring, meditative disposition, Jacobi associated himself at
Geneva mainly with the literary and scientific circle of which the most
prominent member was Lesage. He studied closely the works of Charles
Bonnet, and the political ideas of Rousseau and Voltaire. In 1763 he was
called back to Düsseldorf, and in the following year he married and took
over the management of his father's business. After a short period he
gave up his commercial career, and in 1770 became a member of the
council for the duchies of Jülich and Berg, in which capacity he
distinguished himself by his ability in financial affairs, and his zeal
in social reform. Jacobi kept up his interest in literary and
philosophic matters by an extensive correspondence, and his mansion at
Pempelfort, near Düsseldorf, was the centre of a distinguished literary
circle. With C. M. Wieland he helped to found a new literary journal.
_Der Teutsche Mercur_, in which some of his earliest writings, mainly on
practical or economic subjects, were published. Here too appeared in
part the first of his philosophic works, _Edward Allwills Briefsammlung_
(1776), a combination of romance and speculation. This was followed in
1779 by _Woldemar_, a philosophic novel, of very imperfect structure,
but full of genial ideas, and giving the most complete picture of
Jacobi's method of philosophizing. In 1779 he visited Munich as member
of the privy council, but after a short stay there differences with his
colleagues and with the authorities of Bavaria drove him back to
Pempelfort. A few unimportant tracts on questions of theoretical
politics were followed in 1785 by the work which first brought Jacobi
into prominence as a philosopher. A conversation which he had held with
Lessing in 1780, in which Lessing avowed that he knew no philosophy, in
the true sense of that word, save Spinozism, led him to a protracted
study of Spinoza's works. The _Briefe über die Lehre Spinozas_ (1785;
2nd ed., much enlarged and with important _Appendices_, 1789) expressed
sharply and clearly Jacobi's strenuous objection to a dogmatic system in
philosophy, and drew upon him the vigorous enmity of the Berlin clique,
led by Moses Mendelssohn. Jacobi was ridiculed as endeavouring to
re-introduce into philosophy the antiquated notion of unreasoning
belief, was denounced as an enemy of reason, as a pietist, and as in all
probability a Jesuit in disguise, and was especially attacked for his
use of the ambiguous term "belief." Jacobi's next important work, _David
Hume über den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus_ (1787), was an
attempt to show not only that the term _Glaube_ had been used by the
most eminent writers to denote what he had employed it for in the
_Letters on Spinoza_, but that the nature of the cognition of facts as
opposed to the construction of inferences could not be otherwise
expressed. In this writing, and especially in the _Appendix_, Jacobi
came into contact with the critical philosophy, and subjected the
Kantian view of knowledge to searching examination.

The outbreak of the war with the French republic induced Jacobi in 1793
to leave his home near Düsseldorf, and for nearly ten years he resided
in Holstein. While there he became intimately acquainted with Reinhold
(in whose _Beiträge_, pt. iii., 1801, his important work _Über das
Unternehmen des Kriticismus, die Vernunft zu Verstande zu bringen_ was
first published), and with Matthias Claudius, the editor of the
_Wandsbecker Bote_. During the same period the excitement caused by the
accusation of atheism brought against Fichte at Jena led to the
publication of Jacobi's _Letter to Fichte_ (1799), in which he made more
precise the relation of his own philosophic principles to theology. Soon
after his return to Germany, Jacobi received a call to Munich in
connexion with the new academy of sciences just founded there. The loss
of a considerable portion of his fortune induced him to accept this
offer; he settled in Munich in 1804, and in 1807 became president of the
academy. In 1811 appeared his last philosophic work, directed against
Schelling specially (_Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung_),
the first part of which, a review of the _Wandsbecker Bote_, had been
written in 1798. A bitter reply from Schelling was left without answer
by Jacobi, but gave rise to an animated controversy in which Fries and
Baader took prominent part. In 1812 Jacobi retired from the office of
president, and began to prepare a collected edition of his works. He
died before this was completed, on the 10th of March 1819. The edition
of his writings was continued by his friend F. Köppen, and was completed
in 1825. The works fill six volumes, of which the fourth is in three
parts. To the second is prefixed an introduction by Jacobi, which is at
the same time an introduction to his philosophy. The fourth volume has
also an important preface.

  The philosophy of Jacobi is essentially unsystematic. A certain
  fundamental view which underlies all his thinking is brought to bear
  in succession upon those systematic doctrines which appear to stand
  most sharply in contradiction to it, and any positive philosophic
  results are given only occasionally. The leading idea of the whole is
  that of the complete separation between understanding and apprehension
  of real fact. For Jacobi understanding, or the logical faculty, is
  purely formal or elaborative, and its results never transcend the
  given material supplied to it. From the basis of immediate experience
  or perception thought proceeds by comparison and abstraction,
  establishing connexions among facts, but remaining in its nature
  mediate and finite. The principle of reason and consequent, the
  necessity of thinking each given fact of perception as conditioned,
  impels understanding towards an endless series of identical
  propositions, the records of successive comparisons and abstractions.
  The province of the understanding is therefore strictly the region of
  the conditioned; to it the world must present itself as a mechanism.
  If, then, there is objective truth at all, the existence of real facts
  must be made known to us otherwise than through the logical faculty of
  thought; and, as the regress from conclusion to premises must depend
  upon something not itself capable of logical grounding, mediate
  thought implies the consciousness of immediate truth. Philosophy
  therefore must resign the hopeless ideal of a systematic (i.e.
  intelligible) explanation of things, and must content itself with the
  examination of the facts of consciousness. It is a mere prejudice of
  philosophic thinkers, a prejudice which has descended from Aristotle,
  that mediate or demonstrated cognition is superior in cogency and
  value to the immediate perception of truths or facts.

  As Jacobi starts with the doctrine that thought is partial and
  limited, applicable only to connect facts, but incapable of explaining
  their existence, it is evident that for him any demonstrative system
  of metaphysic which should attempt to subject all existence to the
  principle of logical ground must be repulsive. Now in modern
  philosophy the first and greatest demonstrative system of metaphysic
  is that of Spinoza, and it lay in the nature of things that upon
  Spinoza's system Jacobi should first direct his criticism. A summary
  of the results of his examination is thus presented (_Werke_, i.
  216-223): (1) Spinozism is atheism; (2) the Kabbalistic philosophy, in
  so far as it is philosophy, is nothing but undeveloped or confused
  Spinozism; (3) the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff is not less
  fatalistic than that of Spinoza, and carries a resolute thinker to the
  very principles of Spinoza; (4) every demonstrative method ends in
  fatalism; (5) we can demonstrate only similarities (agreements, truths
  conditionally necessary), proceeding always in identical propositions;
  every proof presupposes something already proved, the principle of
  which is immediately given (_Offenbarung_, revelation, is the term
  here employed by Jacobi, as by many later writers, e.g. Lotze, to
  denote the peculiar character of an immediate, unproved truth); (6)
  the keystone (_Element_) of all human knowledge and activity is belief
  (_Glaube_). Of these propositions only the first and fourth require
  further notice. Jacobi, accepting the law of reason and consequent as
  the fundamental rule of demonstrative reasoning, and as the rule
  explicitly followed by Spinoza, points out that, if we proceed by
  applying this principle so as to recede from particular and qualified
  facts to the more general and abstract conditions, we land ourselves,
  not in the notion of an active, intelligent creator of the system of
  things, but in the notion of an all-comprehensive, indeterminate
  _Nature_, devoid of will or intelligence. Our unconditioned is either
  a pure _abstraction_, or else the impossible notion of a completed
  system of conditions. In either case the result is atheism, and this
  result is necessary if the demonstrative method, the method of
  understanding, is regarded as the only possible means of knowledge.
  Moreover, the same method inevitably lands in fatalism. For, if the
  action of the human will is to be made intelligible to understanding,
  it must be thought as a conditioned phenomenon, having its sufficient
  ground in preceding circumstances, and, in ultimate abstraction, as
  the outflow from nature which is the sum of conditions. But this is
  the fatalist conception, and any philosophy which accepts the law of
  reason and consequent as the essence of understanding is fatalistic.
  Thus for the scientific understanding there can be no God and no
  liberty. It is impossible that there should be a God, for if so he
  would of necessity be finite. But a finite God, a God that is _known_,
  is no God. It is impossible that there should be liberty, for if so
  the mechanical order of phenomena, by means of which they are
  comprehensible, would be disturbed, and we should have an
  unintelligible world, coupled with the requirement that it shall be
  understood. Cognition, then, in the strict sense, occupies the middle
  place between sense perception, which is belief in matters of sense,
  and reason, which is belief in supersensuous fact.

  The best introduction to Jacobi's philosophy is the preface to the
  second volume of the _Works_, and Appendix 7 to the _Letters on
  Spinoza's Theory_. See also J. Kuhn, _Jacobi und die Philosophie
  seiner Zeit_ (1834); F. Deycks, _F. H. Jacobi im Verhältnis zu seinen
  Zeitgenossen_ (1848); H. Düntzer, _Freundesbilder aus Goethes Leben_
  (1853); E. Zirngiebl, _F. H. Jacobis Leben, Dichten, und Denken_,
  1867; F. Harms, _Über die Lehre von F. H. Jacobi_ (1876). Jacobi's
  _Auserlesener Briefwechsel_ has been edited by F. Roth in 2 vols.
  (1825-1827).




JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG (1740-1814), German poet, elder brother of the
philosopher, F. H. Jacobi (1743-1819), was born at Düsseldorf on the 2nd
of September 1740. He studied theology at Göttingen and jurisprudence at
Helmstedt, and was appointed, in 1766, professor of philosophy in Halle.
In this year he made the acquaintance of J. W. L. ("Vater") Gleim, who,
attracted by the young poet's _Poetische Versuche_ (1764), became his
warm friend, and a lively literary correspondence ensued between Gleim
in Halberstadt and Jacobi in Halle. In order to have Jacobi near him,
Gleim succeeded in procuring for him a prebendal stall at the cathedral
of Halberstadt in 1769, and here Jacobi issued a number of anacreontic
lyrics and sonnets. He tired, however, of the lighter muse, and in 1774,
to Gleim's grief, left Halberstadt, and for two years (1774-1776) edited
at Düsseldorf the _Iris_, a quarterly for women readers. Meanwhile, he
wrote many charming lyrics, distinguished by exquisite taste and true
poetical feeling. In 1784 he became professor of literature at the
university of Freiburg im Breisgau, a post which he held until his death
there on the 4th of January 1814. In addition to the earlier _Iris_, to
which Goethe, his brother F. H. Jacobi, Gleim and other poets
contributed, he published, from 1803-1813, another periodical, also
called _Iris_, in which Klopstock, Herder, Jean Paul, Voss and the
brothers Stollberg also collaborated.

  Jacobi's _Sämmtliche Werke_ were published in 1774 (Halberstadt, 3
  vols.). Other editions appeared at Zürich in 1807-1813 and 1825. See
  _Ungedruckte Briefe von und an Johann Georg Jacobi_ (Strassburg,
  1874); biographical notice by Daniel Jacoby in _Allg. Deutsche
  Biographie_; Longo, _Laurence Sterne und Johann Georg Jacobi_ (Vienna,
  1898); and _Leben J. G. Jacobis, von einem seiner Freunde_ (1822).




JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851), German mathematician, was born at
Potsdam, of Jewish parentage, on the 10th of December 1804. He studied
at Berlin University, where he obtained the degree of doctor of
philosophy in 1825, his thesis being an analytical discussion of the
theory of fractions. In 1827 he became extraordinary and in 1829
ordinary professor of mathematics at Königsberg, and this chair he
filled till 1842, when he visited Italy for a few months to recruit his
health. On his return he removed to Berlin, where he lived as a royal
pensioner till his death, which occurred on the 18th of February 1851.

  His investigations in elliptic functions, the theory of which he
  established upon quite a new basis, and more particularly his
  development of the theta-function, as given in his great treatise
  _Fundamenta nova theoriae functionum ellipticarum_ (Königsberg, 1829),
  and in later papers in _Crelle's Journal_, constitute his grandest
  analytical discoveries. Second in importance only to these are his
  researches in differential equations, notably the theory of the last
  multiplier, which is fully treated in his _Vorlesungen über Dynamik_,
  edited by R. F. A. Clebsch (Berlin, 1866). It was in analytical
  development that Jacobi's peculiar power mainly lay, and he made many
  important contributions of this kind to other departments of
  mathematics, as a glance at the long list of papers that were
  published by him in _Crelle's Journal_ and elsewhere from 1826 onwards
  will sufficiently indicate. He was one of the early founders of the
  theory of determinants; in particular, he invented the functional
  determinant formed of the n² differential coefficients of n given
  functions of n independent variables, which now bears his name
  (Jacobian), and which has played an important part in many analytical
  investigations (see ALGEBRAIC FORMS). Valuable also are his papers on
  Abelian transcendents, and his investigations in the theory of
  numbers, in which latter department he mainly supplements the labours
  of K. F. Gauss. The planetary theory and other particular dynamical
  problems likewise occupied his attention from time to time. He left a
  vast store of manuscript, portions of which have been published at
  intervals in _Crelle's Journal_. His other works include _Commentatio
  de transformatione integralis duplicis indefiniti in formam
  simpliciorem_ (1832), _Canon arithmeticus_ (1839), and _Opuscula
  mathematica_ (1846-1857). His _Gesammelte Werke_ (1881-1891) were
  published by the Berlin Academy.

  See Lejeune-Dirichlet, "Gedächtnisrede auf Jacobi" in the
  _Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie_ (1852).




JACOBINS, THE, the most famous of the political clubs of the French
Revolution. It had its origin in the Club Breton, which was established
at Versailles shortly after the opening of the States General in 1789.
It was at first composed exclusively of deputies from Brittany, but was
soon joined by others from various parts of France, and counted among
its early members Mirabeau, Sieyès, Barnave, Pétion, the Abbé Grégoire,
Charles and Alexandre Lameth, Robespierre, the duc d'Aiguillon, and La
Revellière-Lépeaux. At this time its meetings were secret and little is
known of what took place at them. After the émeute of the 5th and 6th of
October the club, still entirely composed of deputies, followed the
National Assembly to Paris, where it rented the refectory of the
monastery of the Jacobins in the Rue St Honoré, near the seat of the
Assembly. The name "Jacobins," given in France to the Dominicans,
because their first house in Paris was in the Rue St Jacques, was first
applied to the club in ridicule by its enemies. The title assumed by the
club itself, after the promulgation of the constitution of 1791, was
_Société des amis de la constitution séants aux Jacobins à Paris_, which
was changed on the 21st of September 1792, after the fall of the
monarchy, to _Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté et de l'égalité_.
It occupied successively the refectory, the library, and the chapel of
the monastery.

Once transferred to Paris, the club underwent rapid modifications. The
first step was its expansion by the admission as members or associates
of others besides deputies; Arthur Young was so admitted on the 18th of
January 1790. On the 8th of February the society was formally
constituted on this broader basis by the adoption of the rules drawn up
by Barnave, which were issued with the signature of the duc d'Aiguillon,
the president. The objects of the club were defined as (1) to discuss in
advance questions to be decided by the National Assembly; (2) to work
for the establishment and strengthening of the constitution in
accordance with the spirit of the preamble (i.e. of respect for legally
constituted authority and the rights of man); (3) to correspond with
other societies of the same kind which should be formed in the realm. At
the same time the rules of order and forms of election were settled, and
the constitution of the club determined. There were to be a president,
elected every month, four secretaries, a treasurer, and committees
elected to superintend elections and presentations, the correspondence,
and the administration of the club. Any member who by word or action
showed that his principles were contrary to the constitution and the
rights of man was to be expelled, a rule which later on facilitated the
"purification" of the society by the expulsion of its more moderate
elements. By the 7th article the club decided to admit as associates
similar societies in other parts of France and to maintain with them a
regular correspondence.

This last provision was of far-reaching importance. By the 10th of
August 1790 there were already one hundred and fifty-two affiliated
clubs; the attempts at counter-revolution led to a great increase of
their number in the spring of 1791, and by the close of the year the
Jacobins had a network of branches all over France. It was this
widespread yet highly centralized organization that gave to the Jacobin
Club its formidable power.

At the outset the Jacobin Club was not distinguished by extreme
political views. The somewhat high subscription confined its membership
to men of substance, and to the last it was--so far as the central
society in Paris was concerned--composed almost entirely of professional
men, such as Robespierre, or well-to-do _bourgeois_, like Santerre. From
the first, however, other elements were present. Besides Louis Philippe,
duc de Chartres (afterwards king of the French), liberal aristocrats of
the type of the duc d'Aiguillon, the prince de Broglie, or the vicomte
de Noailles, and the _bourgeois_ who formed the mass of the members, the
club contained such figures as "Père" Michel Gérard, a peasant
proprietor from Tuel-en-Montgermont, in Brittany, whose rough common
sense was admired as the oracle of popular wisdom, and whose
countryman's waistcoat and plaited hair were later on to become the
model for the Jacobin fashion.[1] The provincial branches were from the
first far more democratic, though in these too the leadership was
usually in the hands of members of the educated or propertied classes.
Up to the very eve of the republic, the club ostensibly supported the
monarchy; it took no part in the petition of the 17th of July 1790 for
the king's dethronement; nor had it any official share even in the
insurrections of the 20th of June and the 10th of August 1792; it only
formally recognized the republic on the 21st of September. But the
character and extent of the club's influence cannot be gauged by its
official acts alone, and long before it emerged as the principal focus
of the Terror, its character had been profoundly changed by the
secession of its more moderate elements, some to found the Club of 1789,
some in 1791--among them Barnave, the Lameths, Duport and Bailly--to
found the club of the Feuillants scoffed at by their former friends as
the _club monarchique_. The main cause of this change was the admission
of the public to the sittings of the club, which began on the 14th of
October 1791. The result is described in a report of the Department of
Paris on "the state of the empire," presented on the 12th of June 1792,
at the request of Roland, the minister of the interior, and signed by
the duc de La Rochefoucauld, which ascribes to the Jacobins all the woes
of the state. "There exists," it runs, "in the midst of the capital
committed to our care a public pulpit of defamation, where citizens of
every age and both sexes are admitted day by day to listen to a criminal
propaganda.... This establishment, situated in the former house of the
Jacobins, calls itself a society; but it has less the aspect of a
private society than that of a public spectacle: vast tribunes are
thrown open for the audience; all the sittings are advertised to the
public for fixed days and hours, and the speeches made are printed in a
special journal and lavishly distributed."[2] In this society--the
report continues--murder is counselled or applauded, all authorities are
calumniated and all the organs of the law bespattered with abuse; as to
its power, it exercises "by its influence, its affiliations and its
correspondence a veritable ministerial authority, without title and
without responsibility, while leaving to the legal and responsible
authorities only the shadow of power" (Schmidt, _Tableaux_ i. 78, &c.).

The constituency to which the club was henceforth responsible, and from
which it derived its power, was in fact the _peuple bête_ of Paris; the
_sans-culottes_--decayed lackeys, cosmopolitan ne'er-do-wells, and
starving workpeople--who crowded its tribunes. To this audience, and not
primarily to the members of the club, the speeches of the orators were
addressed and by its verdict they were judged. In the earlier stages of
the Revolution the mob had been satisfied with the fine platitudes of
the _philosophes_ and the vague promise of a political millennium; but
as the chaos in the body politic grew, and with it the appalling
material misery, it began to clamour for the blood of the "traitors" in
office by whose corrupt machinations the millennium was delayed, and
only those orators were listened to who pandered to its suspicions.
Hence the elimination of the moderate elements from the club; hence the
ascendancy of Marat, and finally of Robespierre, the secret of whose
power was that they really shared the suspicions of the populace, to
which they gave a voice and which they did not shrink from translating
into action. After the fall of the monarchy Robespierre was in effect
the Jacobin Club; for to the tribunes he was the oracle of political
wisdom, and by his standard all others were judged.[3] With his fall the
Jacobins too came to an end.

Not the least singular thing about the Jacobins is the very slender
material basis on which their overwhelming power rested. France groaned
under their tyranny, which was compared to that of the Inquisition, with
its system of espionage and denunciations which no one was too
illustrious or too humble to escape. Yet it was reckoned by competent
observers that, at the height of the Terror, the Jacobins could not
command a force of more than 3000 men in Paris. But the secret of their
strength was that, in the midst of the general disorganization, they
alone were organized. The police agent Dutard, in a report to the
minister Garat (April 30, 1793), describing an episode in the Palais
Égalité (Royal), adds: "Why did a dozen Jacobins strike terror into two
or three hundred aristocrats? It is that the former have a
rallying-point and that the latter have none." When the _jeunesse dorée_
did at last organize themselves, they had little difficulty in flogging
the Jacobins out of the cafés into comparative silence. Long before this
the Girondin government had been urged to meet organization by
organization, force by force; and it is clear from the daily reports of
the police agents that even a moderate display of energy would have
saved the National Convention from the humiliation of being dominated by
a club, and the French Revolution from the blot of the Terror. But
though the Girondins were fully conscious of the evil, they were too
timid, or too convinced of the ultimate triumph of their own persuasive
eloquence, to act. In the session of the 30th of April 1793 a proposal
was made to move the Convention to Versailles out of reach of the
Jacobins, and Buzot declared that it was "impossible to remain in Paris"
so long as "this abominable haunt" should exist; but the motion was not
carried, and the Girondins remained to become the victims of the
Jacobins.

Meanwhile other political clubs could only survive so long as they were
content to be the shadows of the powerful organization of the Rue St
Honoré. The Feuillants had been suppressed on the 18th of August 1792.
The turn of the Cordeliers came so soon as its leaders showed signs of
revolting against Jacobin supremacy, and no more startling proof of this
ascendancy could be found than the ease with which Hébert and his
fellows were condemned and the readiness with which the Cordeliers,
after a feeble attempt at protest, acquiesced in the verdict. It is idle
to speculate on what might have happened had this ascendancy been
overthrown by the action of a strong government. No strong government
existed, nor, in the actual conditions of the country, could exist on
the lines laid down by the constitution. France was menaced by civil war
within, and by a coalition of hostile powers without; the discipline of
the Terror was perhaps necessary if she was to be welded into a united
force capable of resisting this double peril; and the revolutionary
leaders saw in the Jacobin organization the only instrument by which
this discipline could be made effective. This is the apology usually put
forward for the Jacobins by republican writers of later times; they
were, it is said (and of some of them it is certainly true), no mere
doctrinaires and visionary sectaries, but practical and far-seeing
politicians, who realized that "desperate ills need desperate remedies,"
and, by having the courage of their convictions, saved the gains of the
Revolution for France.

The Jacobin Club was closed after the fall of Robespierre on the 9th of
Thermidor of the year III., and some of its members were executed. An
attempt was made to re-open the club, which was joined by many of the
enemies of the Thermidorians, but on the 21st of Brumaire, year III.
(Nov. 11, 1794), it was definitively closed. Its members and their
sympathizers were scattered among the cafés, where a ruthless war of
sticks and chairs was waged against them by the young "aristocrats"
known as the _jeunesse dorée_. Nevertheless the "Jacobins" survived, in
a somewhat subterranean fashion, emerging again in the club of the
Panthéon, founded on the 25th of November 1795, and suppressed in the
following February (see BABEUF; FRANÇOIS NOEl). The last attempt to
reorganize them was the foundation of the _Réunion d'amis de l'égalité
et de la liberté_, in July 1799, which had its headquarters in the
_Salle du Manège_ of the Tuileries, and was thus known as the _Club du
Manège_. It was patronized by Barras, and some two hundred and fifty
members of the two councils of the legislature were enrolled as members,
including many notable ex-Jacobins. It published a newspaper called the
_Journal des Libres_, proclaimed the apotheosis of Robespierre and
Babeuf, and attacked the Directory as a _royauté pentarchique_. But
public opinion was now preponderatingly moderate or royalist, and the
club was violently attacked in the press and in the streets, the
suspicions of the government were aroused; it had to change its
meeting-place from the Tuileries to the church of the Jacobins (Temple
of Peace) in the Rue du Bac, and in August it was suppressed, after
barely a month's existence. Its members revenged themselves on the
Directory by supporting Napoleon Bonaparte.

Long before the suppression of the Jacobin Club the name of "Jacobins"
had been popularly applied to all promulgators of extreme revolutionary
opinions. In this sense the word passed beyond the borders of France and
long survived the Revolution. Canning's paper, _The Anti-Jacobin_,
directed against the English Radicals, consecrated its use in England;
and in the correspondence of Metternich and other leaders of the
repressive policy which followed the second fall of Napoleon, "Jacobin"
is the term commonly applied to anyone with Liberal tendencies, even to
so august a personage as the emperor Alexander I. of Russia.

  The most important source of information for the history of the
  Jacobins is F. A. Aulard's _La société des Jacobins, Recueil de
  documents_ (6 vols., Paris, 1889, &c.), where a critical bibliography
  will be found. This collection does not contain all the printed
  sources--notably the official Journal of the Club is omitted--but
  these sources, when not included, are indicated. The documents
  published are furnished with valuable explanatory notes. See also W.
  A. Schmidt, _Tableaux de la révolution française_ (3 vols., Leipzig,
  1867-1870), notably for the reports of the secret police, which throw
  much light on the actual working of the Jacobin propaganda.
       (W. A. P.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] "When I first sat among you I heard so many beautiful speeches
    that I might have believed myself in heaven, had there not been so
    many lawyers present." Instead of practical questions "we have become
    involved in a _galimatias_ of Rights of Man of which I understand
    mighty little but that it is worth nothing." _Motion du Père Gérard_
    in the Jacobins of the 27th of April 1790 (Aulard i. 63).

  [2] i.e. _Journal des débats et de la correspondance de la Société_,
    &c. For the various newspapers published under the auspices of the
    Jacobins see Aulard i. p. cx., &c.

  [3] In the published reports only the speeches of members are given,
    not the interruptions from the tribunes. But see the report (May 18,
    1793) of Dutard to Garat on a meeting of the Jacobins (Schmidt,
    _Tableaux_ ii. 242).




JACOBITE CHURCH. The name of "Jacobites" is first found in a synodal
decree of Nicaea A.D. 787, and was invented by hostile Greeks for the
Syrian Monophysite Church as founded, or rather restored, by Jacob or
James Baradaeus, who was ordained its bishop A.D. 541 or 543. The
Monophysites, who like the Greeks knew themselves simply as the
Orthodox, were grievously persecuted by the emperor Justinian and the
graecizing patriarchs of Antioch, because they rejected the decrees of
the council of Chalcedon, in which they--not without good reason--saw
nothing but a thinly veiled relapse into those opinions of Nestorius
which the previous council of Ephesus had condemned. James was born a
little before A.D. 500 at Tella or Tela, 55 m. east of Edessa, of a
priestly family, and entered the convent of Phesilta on Mount Isla.
About 528 he went with a fellow-monk Sergius to Constantinople to plead
the cause of his co-religionists with the empress Theodora, and lived
there fifteen years. Justinian during those years imprisoned, deprived
or exiled most of the recalcitrant clergy of Syria, Mesopotamia,
Cilicia, Cappadocia, and the adjacent regions. Once ordained bishop of
Edessa, with the connivance of Theodora, James, disguised as a ragged
beggar (whence his name Baradaeus, Syriac _Burdeana_, Arabic
_al-Baradia_), traversed these regions preaching, teaching and ordaining
new clergy to the number, it is said, of 80,000. His later years were
embittered by squabbles with his own clergy, and he died in 578. His
work, however, endured, and in the middle ages the Jacobite hierarchy
numbered 150 archbishops and bishops under a patriarch and his
_maphrian_. About the year 728 six Jacobite bishops present at the
council of Manazgert established communion with the Armenians, who
equally rejected Chalcedon; they were sent by the patriarch of Antioch,
and among them were the metropolitan of Urha (Edessa) and the bishops of
Qarhan, Gardman, Nferkert and Amasia. How long this union lasted is not
known. In 1842, when the Rev. G. P. Badger visited the chief Jacobite
centres, their numbers in all Turkey had dwindled to about 100,000
souls, owing to vast secessions to Rome. At Aleppo at that date only ten
families out of several hundred remained true to their old faith, and
something like the same proportion at Damascus and Bagdad. Badger
testifies that the Syrian proselytes to Rome were superior to their
Jacobite brethren, having established schools, rebuilt their churches,
increased their clergy, and, above all, having learned to live with each
other on terms of peace and charity. As late as 1850 there were 150
villages of them in the Jebel Toor to the north-east of Mardin, 50 in
the district of Urfah and Gawar, and a few in the neighbourhoods of
Diarbekr, Mosul and Damascus. From about 1860, the seceders to Rome were
able, thanks to French consular protection, to seize the majority of the
Jacobite churches in Turkey; and this injustice has contributed much to
the present degradation and impoverishment of the Jacobites.

They used leavened bread in the Eucharist mixed with salt and oil, and
like other Monophysites add to the _Trisagion_ the words "Who wast
crucified for our sake." They venerate pictures or images, and make the
sign of the cross with one finger to show that Christ had but one
nature. Deacons, as in Armenia, marry before taking priests' orders.
Their patriarch is styled of Antioch, but seldom comes west of Mardin.
His _maphrian_ (fertilizer) since 1089 has lived at Mosul and ordains
the bishops. Monkery is common among them, but there are no nuns. Next
to the Roman Uniats (whom they term _Rassen_ or Venal) they most hate
the Nestorian Syrians of Persia. In 1882, at the instance of the British
government, the Turks began to recognize them as a separate
organization.

  See M. Klein, _Jacobus Baradaeus_ (Leiden, 1882); Assemani, _Bibl.
  Or._ ii. 62-69, 326 and 331; G. P. Badger, _The Nestorians_ (London,
  1852); Rubens Duval, _La litérature syriaque_ (Paris, 1899); G.
  Krüger, _Monophysitische Streitigkeiten_ (Jena, 1884); Silbernagel,
  _Verfassung der Kirchen des Orients_ (Landshut, 1865); and G. Wright,
  _History of Syriac Literature_ (London, 1894).     (F. C. C.)








*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "ITALY" TO "JACOBITE CHURCH" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_41902.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "L" to "Lamellibranchia"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "L" to "Lamellibranchia"

Author: Various

Release date: January 23, 2013 [eBook #41902]
                Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "L" TO "LAMELLIBRANCHIA" ***

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE LABYRINTHULIDEA: "From each cyst ultimately emerges a
      single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7)." 'amoeba' amended
      from 'amoebae'.

    ARTICLE LACE: "... upon the lace-making industry in
      Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire contains many
      illustrations of laces made in these counties from the 17th century
      to the present time." 'Bedfordshire' amended from 'Bedforshire'.

    ARTICLE LACONIA: "The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and
      dangerous." 'especially' amended from 'expecially'.

    ARTICLE LA FARGE, JOHN: "Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai (New York,
      1897), and An Artist's Letters from Japan (New York, 1897)."
      'Hokusai' amended from 'Hoksuai'.

    ARTICLE LAMELLIBRANCHIA: "The series of oval holes on the back of
      the lamella are the water-pores which open between the filaments in
      irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse
      inter-filamentar junctions." 'filamentar' amended from 'filmentar'.




  THE

  ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

  ELEVENTH EDITION




  FIRST  edition, published in three    volumes, 1768-1771.
  SECOND    "        "        ten          "     1777-1784.
  THIRD     "        "        eighteen     "     1788-1797.
  FOURTH    "        "        twenty       "     1801-1810.
  FIFTH     "        "        twenty       "     1815-1817.
  SIXTH     "        "        twenty       "     1823-1824.
  SEVENTH   "        "        twenty-one   "     1830-1842.
  EIGHTH    "        "        twenty-two   "     1853-1860.
  NINTH     "        "        twenty-five  "     1875-1889.
  TENTH     "   ninth edition and eleven
                  supplementary volumes,         1902-1903.
  ELEVENTH  "  published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.


  COPYRIGHT

  in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention

  by

  THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
  of the
  UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

  _All rights reserved_




  THE

  ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF
  ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

  ELEVENTH EDITION

  VOLUME XVI
  L to LORD ADVOCATE

  New York

  Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
  342 Madison Avenue

  Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
  by
  The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.


       VOLUME XVI, SLICE I

      L to Lamellibranchia


ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

  L                                LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE
  LAACHER SEE                      LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE
  LAAGER                           LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE
  LAAS, ERNST                      LA FAYETTE, ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER
  LA BADIE, JEAN DE                LA FAYETTE, PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE
  LABEL                            LAFAYETTE
  LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS          LA FERTÉ
  LABERIUS, DECIMUS                LA FERTÉ-BERNARD
  LABIATAE                         LA FERTÉ-MILON
  LABICANA, VIA                    LAFFITTE, JACQUES
  LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN            LAFFITTE, PIERRE
  LABICI                           LA FLÈCHE
  LABID                            LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI
  LABIENUS                         LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE
  LABLACHE, LUIGI                  LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE
  LABOR DAY                        LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE
  LA BOURBOULE                     LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE
  LABOUR CHURCH, THE               LAGASH
  LA BOURDONNAIS, FRANÇOIS         LAGHMAN
  LABOUR EXCHANGE                  LAGOON
  LABOUR LEGISLATION               LAGOS (province of Nigeria)
  LABOUR PARTY                     LAGOS (seaport of Nigeria)
  LABRADOR                         LAGOS (seaport of Portugal)
  LABRADORITE                      LA GRÂCE
  LABRADOR TEA                     LA GRAND' COMBE
  LABRUM                           LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS
  LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE              LAGRANGE-CHANCEL, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH
  LABUAN                           LA GRANJA
  LABURNUM                         LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS
  LABYRINTH                        LA GUAIRA
  LABYRINTHULIDEA                  LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, DUBREUIL HÉLION
  LAC                              LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES
  LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE       LAGUNA
  LACAITA, SIR JAMES               LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE
  LA CALLE                         LAHIRE, LAURENT DE
  LA CALPRENÈDE, COSTES            LAHN
  LA CARLOTA                       LAHNDA
  LACCADIVE ISLANDS                LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF
  LACCOLITE                        LAHORE
  LACE                             LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE
  LACE-BARK TREE                   LAHR
  LACEDAEMON                       LAIBACH
  LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD DE LA VILLE    LAIDLAW, WILLIAM
  LACEWING-FLY                     LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON
  LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE           LAING, DAVID
  LA CHAISE-DIEU                   LAING, MALCOLM
  LA CHALOTAIS, DE CARADEUC DE     LAING, SAMUEL
  LA CHARITÉ                       LAING'S NEK
  LA CHAUSSÉE, NIVELLE DE          LAIRD, MACGREGOR
  LACHES                           LAÏS
  LACHINE                          LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE
  LACHISH                          LAI-YANG
  LACHMANN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM      LAKANAL, JOSEPH
  LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM           LAKE, GERARD LAKE
  LA CIOTAT                        LAKE
  LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE              LAKE CHARLES
  LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE   LAKE CITY
  LACONIA (Peloponnese district)   LAKE DISTRICT
  LACONIA (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)  LAKE DWELLINGS
  LACONICUM                        LAKE GENEVA
  LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI  LAKE OF THE WOODS
  LACQUER                          LAKE PLACID
  LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE      LAKEWOOD
  LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED LAKH
  LACROIX, PAUL                    LAKHIMPUR
  LACROMA                          LAKSHMI
  LA CROSSE                        LALAING, JACQUES DE
  LACROSSE                         LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE
  LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE                LALÍN
  LACRYMATORY                      LA LINEA
  LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS             LALITPUR
  LACTIC ACID                      LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR
  LACTONES                         LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD
  LA CUEVA, JUAN DE                LALO, EDOUARD
  LACUNAR                          LA MADDALENA
  LACUZON                          LAMAISM
  LACY, FRANZ MORITZ               LAMALOU-LES-BAINS
  LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH          LAMA-MIAO
  LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO            LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS
  LACYDES OF CYRENE                LAMARCK, ANTOINE DE MONET
  LADAKH AND BALTISTAN             LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO
  LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL            LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO
  LADDER                           LAMARTINE, LOUIS DE PRAT DE
  LADING                           LAMB, CHARLES
  LADISLAUS I                      LAMB
  LADISLAUS IV.                    LAMBALLE, LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO
  LADISLAUS V.                     LAMBALLE
  LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE LAMBAYEQUE
  LADO ENCLAVE                     LAMBEAUX, JEF
  LADOGA                           LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE
  LADY                             LAMBERT, DANIEL
  LADYBANK                         LAMBERT, FRANCIS
  LADYBRAND                        LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH
  LADY-CHAPEL                      LAMBERT, JOHN (English martyr)
  LADY DAY                         LAMBERT, JOHN (English general)
  LADYSMITH                        LAMBERT OF HERSFELD
  LAELIUS                          LAMBESSA
  LAENAS                           LAMBETH
  LAER, PIETER VAN                 LAMBETH CONFERENCES
  LAESTRYGONES                     LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS
  LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS         LAMBOURN
  LAEVIUS                          LAMECH
  LAEVULINIC ACID                  LAMEGO
  LA FARGE, JOHN                   LAMELLIBRANCHIA




INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1]
WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.


  A. B. Ch.
    A. B. CHATWOOD, B.SC., A.M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E.

    Lock.

  A. B. R.
    ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S., F.L.S.

      Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book
      on Classification of Flowering Plants, &c._

    Leaf.

  A. C. F.
    ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FRASER, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: FRASER, A. C.

    Locke, John.

  A. C. S.
    ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.

      See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C.

    Landor.

  A. D.
    HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: Dobson, HENRY AUSTIN.

    Locker-Lampson.

  A. Fi.
    PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON.

      See the biographical article: FILON, P. M. A.

    Labiche.

  A. F. P.
    ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC.

      Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
      of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant editor of the Dictionary
      of National Biography, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892;
      Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the Protector
      Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.

    Lambert, Francis;
    Lambert, Nicholson.

  A. Gl.
    ARNOLD GLOVER, M.A., LL.B. (d. 1905)

      Trinity College, Cambridge; Joint-editor of _Beaumont and
      Fletcher_ for the Cambridge University Press.

    Layard.

  A. Go.*
    REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.

      Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester.

    Laurentius, Paul;
    Libertines.

  A. G. D.
    ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S.,
    F.R.S.(Canada).

      Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of
      Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint editor of
      _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_.

    Lafontaine.

  A. H. S.
    REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LITT.D., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H.

    Laodicea.

  A. J. G.
    REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D.

      Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United
      Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras
      University, and Member of Mysore Educational Service.

    Logos (_in part_).

  A. J. L.
    ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX.

      Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of
      the _Rio News_ (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.

    Lima (_Peru_).

  A. L.
    ANDREW LANG.

      See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.

    La Cloche.

  A. M. An.
    ADELAIDE MARY ANDERSON, M.A.

      H.M. Principal Lady Inspector of Factories, Home Office. Clerk to
      the Royal Commission on Labour, 1892-1894. Gamble Gold Medallist,
      Girton College, Cambridge, 1893. Author of various articles on
      Industrial Life and Legislation, &c.

    Labour Legislation.

  A. M. C.
    AGNES MARY CLERKE.

      See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.

    Lagrange;
    Laplace;
    Leverrier.

  A. N.
    ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.

      See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.

    Lämmergeyer;
    Lapwing;
    Lark;
    Linnet;
    Loom.

  A. P. C.
    ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S.

      Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist,
      Bureau of Mines, Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of _Reports of the
      Bureau of Mines of Ontario_.

    Labrador (_in part_).

  A. P. Lo.
    ALBERT PETER LOW.

      Deputy Minister of Department of Mines, Canada. Member of
      Geological Survey of Canada. Author of _Report on the Exploration
      in the Labrador Peninsula_; &c.

    Labrador (_in part_).

  A. Se.*
    ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.

      Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and
      Technology, London. Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity
      College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology in the University of
      Cambridge, 1907-1909.

    Larval Forms.

  A. Sl.
    ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P.

      Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of _The
      London Water-Supply_; _Industrial Efficiency_; _Drink, Temperance
      and Legislation_.

    Liquor Laws.

  A. So.
    ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899).

      Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of
      Leipzig and Tübingen. Author of _Arabische Grammatik_; &c.

    Lebanon (_in part_).

  A. S. C.
    ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.

      Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author
      of _Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace_; _Embroidery and Lace_;
      _Ornament in European Silks_; &c.

    Lace.

  A. St H. G.
    ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS.

      Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa.
      Author of _Africa from South to North through Marotseland._

    Lewanika.

  A. S. M.
    ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART.

    Lamp.

  A. S. W.
    AUGUSTUS SAMUEL WILKINS, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. (1843-1905).

      Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, 1869-1905. Author
      of _Roman Literature_; &c.

    Latin Language (_in part_).

  A. T. T.
    A. T. THORSON.

      Official in Life Saving Service, U.S.A.

    Life-boat: _United States_.

  A. W. H.*
    ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.

      Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
      Gray's Inn, 1900.

    Leopold I. (_Roman Emperor_);
    Levellers.

  A. W. Hu.
    REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A.

      Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside. Librarian National Liberal Club,
      1889-1899. Author of _Life of Cardinal Newman_; _Life of Cardinal
      Manning_; &c.

    Leo XIII.

  A. W. R.
    ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.

      Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of
      _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_.

    Landlord and Tenant;
    Letters Patent;
    Lodger and Lodgings.

  A. W. W.
    ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM.

    Lodge, Thomas.

  B. D. J.
    BENJAMIN DAYDON JACKSON, PH.D.

      General Secretary of the Linnean Society. Secretary to
      Departmental Committee of H.M. Treasury on Botanical Work,
      1900-1901. Author of _Glossary of Botanic Terms_; &c.

    Linnaeus.

  C.
    THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF CREWE.

      See the biographical article: CREWE, 1ST EARL OF.

    Laprade.

  C. C. W.
    CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M.

      Cornell University. Assistant editor 11th Edition of the
      _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.

    La Salle;
    Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_).

  C. Di.
    CHARLES DIBDIN. F.R.G.S.

      Secretary of the Royal National Life-boat Institution. Hon.
      Secretary of the Civil Service Life-boat Fund, 1870-1906.

    Life-boat: _British_.

  C. D. W.
    HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT.

      See the biographical article: WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON.

    Labour Legislation: _United States_.

  C. E.*
    CHARLES EVERITT. M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.

      Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.

    Light: _Introduction and History_.

  C. F. A.
    CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

      Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of
      London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold
      Harbour_.

    Long Island (_Battle_).

  C. F.-Br.
    CHARLES FORTESCUE-BRICKDALE.

      Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Registrar of the Office of the
      Land Registry, Lincoln's Inn Fields. Author of _Registration of
      Title to Land_; _The Practice of the Land Registry_; _Land
      Transfer in Various Countries_; &c.

    Land Registration.

  C. H.*
    SIR CHARLES HOLROYD.

      See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES.

    Legros.

  C. H. Ha.
    CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.

      Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
      City. Member of the American Historical Association.

    Leo I.-X. (_Popes_).

  C. J. B.*
    REV. CHARLES JAMES BALL, M.A.

      University Lecturer in Assyriology, Oxford. Author of _Light from
      the East_.

    Lamentations.

  C. L. K.
    CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, MA., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A.

      Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of _Life of Henry
      V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of
      London_.

    Lancaster, John of Gaunt, duke of.

  C. M.
    CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH.

      Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author
      of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte
      des Papstthums_; &c.

    Lateran Councils.

  C. Mo.
    WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE.

      See the biographical article: MONKHOUSE, W. C.

    Leighton, Lord.

  C. R. B.
    CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.

      Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham.
      Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
      in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
      Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_;
      _The Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c.

    Leif Ericsson;
    Leo, Johannes.

  De B.
    HENRI G. S. A. DE BLOWITZ.

      See the biographical article: BLOWITZ, H. DE.

    Lesseps, Ferdinand de.

  D. F. T.
    DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.

      Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_: comprising _The Classical
      Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_, and analysis of many other
      classical works.

    Lasso, Orlando.

  D. G. H.
    DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.

      Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
      College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at
      Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905;
      Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900;
      Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

    Latakia;
    Lebanon (_in part_).

  D. H.
    DAVID HANNAY.

      Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
      History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c.

    La Hogue, Battle of;
    Lauria, Roger de;
    Lepanto, Battle of;
    Lissa.

  D. Ll. T.
    DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS.

      Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at
      Pontypridd and Rhondda.

    Llantwit Major.

  D. Mn.
    REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.

      Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of
      _Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c.

    Leighton, Robert (_in part_).

  D. M. W.
    SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.

      Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of
      the Foreign Department of _The Times_, 1891-1899. Member of the
      Institut de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction
      Publique (France). Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the
      _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the
      Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c.

    Lobánov-Rostovski.

  E. B.*
    ERNEST CHARLES FRANÇOIS BABELON.

      Professor at the Collège de France. Keeper of the department of
      Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliothèque Nationale. Member of
      the Académie des Inscriptions et de Belles Lettres, Paris.
      Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of _Descriptions
      Historiques des Monnaies de la République Romaine_; _Traités des
      Monnaies Grecques et Romaines_; _Catalogue des Camées de la
      Bibliothèque Nationale_.

    Leptis.

  E. C. B.
    EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin).

      Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of
      Palladius," in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.

    Leo, Brother.

  E. Da.
    EDWARD GEORGE DANNREUTHER (1844-1905).

      Member of Board of Professors, Royal College of Music, 1895-1905.
      Conducted the first Wagner Concerts in London, 1873-1874. Author
      of _The Music of the Future_; &c. Editor of a critical edition of
      Liszt's _Etudes_.

    Liszt.

  E. D. J. W.
    EDWARD D. J. WILSON.

      Formerly Leader-writer on _The Times_.

    Londonderry, 2nd Marquess of.

  E. G.
    EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.

      See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.

    Lampoon;
    Lie, Jonas L. E.

  E. Ga.
    EMILE GARCKE, M.INST.E.E.

      Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of
      _Manual of Electrical Undertakings_; &c.

    Lighting: _Electric (Commercial Aspects)_.

  E. He.
    EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A.

      Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal
      Geographical Society, London.

    Livingstone Mountains.

  E. J. D.
    EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.

      Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Author of _A.
      Scarlatti: his Life and Works_.

    Leo, Leonardo.

  E. O.*
    EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.

      Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
      Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
      Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of
      Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
      Senior Students_.

    Liver: _Surgery of Liver and Gall Bladder_.

  E. Pr.
    EDGAR PRESTAGE.

      Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of
      Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London,
      Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
      Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon
      Geographical Society, &c. Author of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_;
      _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c.

    Lobo, F. R.;
    Lopes, Fernão.

  E. R. L.
    SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.SC.

      Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Director of the Natural
      History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. President of
      the British Association, 1906. Professor of Zoology and
      Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890.
      Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898.
      Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at
      Oxford, 1905. Author of _Degeneration_; _The Advancement of
      Science_; _The Kingdom of Man_; &c.

    Lamellibranchia (_in part_).

  E. V. L.
    EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS.

      Editor of _Works of Charles Lamb_. Author of _Life of Charles
      Lamb_.

    Lamb, Charles.

  F. E. B.
    FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S.

      Prosector of Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in
      Biology at Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger"
      Expedition Commission, 1882-1884. Author of _Monograph of the
      Oligochaeta_; _Animal Colouration_; &c.

    Leech.

  F. E. W.
    REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., B.D., F.S.A.

      Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds. Fellow of St John's College,
      Oxford, 1865-1882. Author of _The Old Catholic Ritual done into
      English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman
      and Old German Manuals_; _The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic
      Church_; &c.

    Lection, Lectionary;
    Lector;
    Litany;
    Liturgy.

  F. G. M. B.
    FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.

      Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

    Lombards (_in part_).

  F. G. P.
    FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.

      Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
      Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
      of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
      College of Surgeons.

    Liver: _Anatomy_.

  F. J. H.
    FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.

      Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
      Fellow of Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of
      the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History,
      especially Roman Britain; &c.

    Legion (_in part_);
    Limes Germanicus.

  F. L.*
    SIR FRANKLIN LUSHINGTON, M.A.

      Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of
      Battle.

    Lear, Edward.

  F. V. B.
    F. VINCENT BROOKS.

    Lithography.

  F. v. H.
    BARON FRIEDRICH VON HÜGEL.

      Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic
      Society. Author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_.

    Loisy.

  F. Wa.
    FRANCIS WATT, M.A.

      Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of _Law's Lumber Room_;
      _Scotland of to-day_; &c.

    Law, John.

  F. W. R.*
    FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.

      Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
      1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

    Labradorite;
    Lapis Lazuli.

  F. W. Ra.
    FRANCIS WILLIAM RAIKES, K.C., LL.D. (1842-1906).

      Judge of County Courts, Hull, 1898-1906. Joint-author of _The New
      Practice_; &c.

    Lien.

  G. A. Gr.
    GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dubl.).

      Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of
      Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal
      Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic
      Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The
      Languages of India_; &c.

    Lahnda.

  G. E.
    REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON. M.A., F.R.HIST.S.

      Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
      Lecturer, 1909-1910. Employed by British Government in preparation
      of the British Case in the British Guiana-Venezuelan and British
      Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations.

    Limburg.

  G. F. B.
    GEORGE FREDERICK BARWICK.

      Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of
      Reading-room, British Museum.

    Lavigerie.

  G. F. K.
    GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, A.M., PH.D., D.SC.

      Gem Expert to Messrs Tiffany & Co., New York. Hon. Curator of
      Precious Stones, American Museum of Natural History, New York.
      Fellow of Geological Society of America. Author of _Precious
      Stones of North America_; &c. Senior Editor of _Book of the
      Pearl_.

    Lapidary and Gem-cutting.

  G. H. C.
    GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC.

      Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
      Author of _Insects: Their Structure and Life_.

    Lepidoptera.

  G. Sa.
    GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B.

    La Bruyère;
    La Fontaine;
    Lamartine;
    La Rochefoucauld;
    Le Sage.

  G. S. L.
    GEORGE SOMES LAYARD.

      Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author
      of _Charles Keene_; _Shirley Brooks_; &c.

    Linton, William James.

  G. W. T.
    REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.

      Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
      and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

    Labid.

  H. A. L.
    HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ.

      Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of _La
      théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps
      mouvants_.

    Light: _Nature of_.

  H. B. W.*
    HENRY BENJAMIN WHEATLEY, F.S.A.

      Assistant Secretary, Royal Society of Arts, 1879-1909. President
      of the Samuel Pepys Club, 1903-1910. Vice-President of the
      Bibliographical Society, 1908-1910. Author of _The Story of
      London_; _London Past and Present_; &c.

    London: _History_.

  H. B. Wo.
    HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.

      Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England
      and Wales. President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston
      Medallist, 1908.

    Logan, Sir William E.;
    Lonsdale, William.

  H. Ch.
    HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.

      Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
      11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-editor of the
      10th edition.

    Lloyd George, D.

  H. De.
    REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.

      Bollandist. Joint-author of the _Acta Sanctorum_.

    Lawrence, St;
    Linus.

  H. F. G.
    HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D.

      Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of
      Cambridge. Author of _Amphibia and Reptiles_ (Cambridge Natural
      History).

    Lizard.

  H. F. P.
    HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F.

    Livy (_in part_).

  H. H. J.
    SIR HENRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, K.C.B., G.C.M.G.

      See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON.

    Liberia.

  H. M. S.
    HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D.

      Professor of History and Director of University Extension,
      University of California. Author of _History of the French
      Revolution_; _Revolutionary Europe_; &c.

    Littré.

  H. R. T.
    HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A.

      Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.

    Libraries (_in part_).

  H. St.
    HENRY STURT, M.A.

      Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; and
      _Personal Idealism_.

    Lange, Friedrich Albert.

  H. T. A.
    REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS.

      Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author
      of the "Commentary on Acts," in the _Westminster New Testament_;
      _Handbook on the Apocryphal Books_ in the "Century Bible."

    Logia.

  H. W. B.*
    HERBERT WILLIAM BLUNT, M.A.

      Student, Tutor, and Librarian, Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly
      Fellow of All Souls' College.

    Logic: _History_.

  H. W. C. D.
    HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.

      Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
      College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _Charlemagne_; _England
      under the Normans and Angevins_; &c.

    Lanfranc;
    Langton, Stephen.

  H. Y.
    SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I.

      See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY.

    Lhasa (_in part_).

  I. A.
    ISRAEL ABRAHAMS.

      Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of
      Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of
      England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish
      Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c.

    Lazarus, Emma;
    Leon, Moses;
    Leon of Modena.

  J. An.
    JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D.

      Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Assistant
      Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and Rhind
      Lecturer, 1879-1882 and 1892. Editor of Drummond's _Ancient
      Scottish Weapons_; &c.

    Lake Dwellings.

  J. A. F.
    JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.

      Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of
      London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of
      St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-President of the Institution of
      Electrical Engineers. Author of _The Principles of Electric Wave
      Telegraphy_; _Magnets and Electric Currents_; &c.

    Leyden Jar;
    Lighting: _Electric_.

  J. A. F. M.
    JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.

      Musical critic of _The Times_. Author of _Life of Schumann_; _The
      Musician's Pilgrimage_; _Masters of German Music_; _English Music
      in the Nineteenth Century_; _The Age of Bach and Handel_. Editor
      of _Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians_; &c.

    Lind, Jenny.

  J. A. H.
    JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC.

      Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
      Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_; &c.

    Lias;
    Llandovery Group.

  J. Dr.
    SIR JAMES DEWAR, F.R.S., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: DEWAR, SIR J.

    Liquid Gases.

  J. D. B.
    JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.

      King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of _The Times_ in
      South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of
      Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order
      of St Alexander of Bulgaria.

    Larissa.

  J. D. Br.
    JAMES DUFF BROWN.

      Borough Librarian, Islington Public Libraries. Vice-President of
      the Library Association. Author of _Guide to Librarianship_; &c.

    Libraries (_in part_).

  J. F.-K.
    JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S.

      Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool
      University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow
      of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy.
      Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of _A
      History of Spanish Literature_; &c.

    La Cueva;
    Larra;
    Literature.

  J. F. St.
    JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A.

      Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
      Aramaic, Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.

    Leviticus.

  J. Ga.
    JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D.

      See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES.

    Lancaster, House of;
    Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of.

  J. G. F.
    SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G.

    Lancaster, Joseph.

  J. G. N.
    JOHN GEORGE NICOLAY (1832-1901).

      Marshal of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1872-1887. Joint-author of
      _Abraham Lincoln_: &c.

    Lincoln, Abraham (_in part_).

  J. G. P.*
    JAMES GORDON PARKER, D.SC., F.C.S.

      Principal of Leathersellers Technical College, London. Gold
      Medallist, Society of Arts. Author of _Leather for Libraries_;
      _Principles of Tanning_; &c.

    Leather.

  J. G. R.
    JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.

      Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London.
      Editor of the _Modern Language Journal_. Author of _History of
      German Literature_; _Schiller after a Century_; &c.

    Lessing (_in part_).

  J. Hn.
    JUSTUUS HASHAGEN, PH.D.

      Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn.
      Author of _Das Rheinland unter der französische Herrschaft_.

    Lang, Karl Heinrich;
    Ledochowski;
    Leo, Heinrich.

  J. H. F.
    JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.

      Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

    Leo VI. (_Emperor of the East_).

  J. Hl. R.
    JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.

      Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
      Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
      Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
      Pitt_; &c.

    Las Casas.

  J. J. L.*
    REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A.

      Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in
      Divinity and Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge.

    Langen.

  J. K. I.
    JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: INGRAM, J. K.

    Leslie, Thomas E. C.

  J. Le.
    REV. JAMES LEGGE, M.A.

      See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES.

    Lâo-Tsze.

  J. L. M.
    JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.

      Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
      Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient
      Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical
      Archaeology in University of Oxford.

    Leleges;
    Locri (_Greece_).

  J. L. W.
    JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.

      Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_.

    Lancelot.

  J. Mu.
    SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S.

      See the biographical article: MURRAY, SIR JOHN.

    Lake.

  J. M. C.
    REV. JAMES M. CROMBIE.

      Author of _Braemar: its Topography and Natural History_; _Lichenes
      Britannici_.

    Lichens (_in part_).

  J. M. G.
    JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894).

      Art Critic and Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery,
      1884-1894. Author of _David Scott, R.S.A._; _James and William
      Tassie_.

    Leech, John.

  J. P. E.
    JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ESMEIN.

      Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion
      of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours
      élémentaire d'histoire du droit français_; &c.

    Lettres de Cachet.

  J. P. P.
    JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D.

      Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of
      Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor
      of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-chief of the _Corpus
      Poetarum Latinorum_; &c.

    Latin Literature (_in part_).

  J. P. Pe.
    REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.

      Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly
      Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of
      the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of
      _Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_;
      _Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian_.

    Lagash;
    Larsa.

  J. S.
    JAMES SULLY, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: SULLY, JAMES.

    Lewes, George Henry (_in part_).

  J. Si.
    JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895).

      Author of _A History of Germany_; &c.

    Lessing (_in part_).

  J. S. F.
    JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC., F.G.S.

      Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
      Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
      Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
      of London.

    Laccolite;
    Lamprophyres;
    Laterite;
    Leucite: _Leucite Rocks_;
    Limestone.

  J. S. K.
    JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.).

      Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Hon. Member, Geographical
      Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of the _Statesman's
      Year Book_. Editor of the _Geographical Journal_.

    Livingstone.

  J. S. W.
    JOHN STEPHEN WILLISON, LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada).

      Editor of _The News_ (Toronto). Canadian Correspondent of _The
      Times_. Author of _Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party_; &c.

    Laurier.

  J. T. Be.
    JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.

      Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
      _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
      _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.

    Ladoga (_in part_);
    Livonia (_in part_);
    Lop-nor.

  J. T. Br.
    J. TAYLOR BROWN.

    Leighton, Robert (_in part_).

  J. T. C.
    JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.

      Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London.
      Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor
      of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to
      the Marine Biological Association.

    Lamellibranchia (_in part_).

  J. T. S.*
    JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.

      Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

    Languedoc.

  J. V.*
    JULES VIARD.

      Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public
      Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_;
      &c.

    Le Maçon.

  J. W. D.
    CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N.

      Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal.

    Log.

  J. W. He.
    JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.

      Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education.
      Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek
      and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of
      _Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c.

    Lasker.

  J. W. L. G.
    JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S.

      Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the
      Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical
      Society. Editor of _Messenger of Mathematics_ and the _Quarterly
      Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics_.

    Legendre, A. M.;
    Logarithm.

  K. H.
    KILLINGWORTH HEDGES, M.INST.C.E., M.INST.ELECT.E.

      Hon. Secretary of the Lightning Research Committee. Author of
      _Modern Lightning Conductors_; &c.

    Lightning Conductor.

  K. S.
    KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

      Editor of _The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The
      Instruments of the Orchestra_.

    Lituus.

  L. A. W.
    LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D., M.B.

      Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of _Lhasa and its
      Mysteries_; &c.

    Lhasa (_in part_).

  L. B.
    LAURENCE BINYON.

      See the biographical article: BINYON, L.

    Lawson, Cecil Gordon.

  L. D.*
    LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE.

      See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

    Liberius.

  L. J. S.
    LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.

      Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
      Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness
      Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.

    Leadhillite;
    Lepidolite;
    Leucite (_in part_);
    Liroconite.

  L. T. D.
    SIR LEWIS TONNA DIBDIN, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.A.

      Dean of the Arches; Master of the Faculties; and First Church
      Estates Commissioner. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of
      _Monasticism in England_; &c.

    Lincoln Judgment, The.

  L. V.*
    LUIGI VILLARI.

      Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper
      Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New
      Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910.
      Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; &c.

    Leopold II. (_Grand Duke of Tuscany_).

  M. Br.
    MARGARET BRYANT.

    Landor: _Bibliography_;
    La Sale.

  M. Ca.
    MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D.

      Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg.
      Author of _Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Mathematik_; &c.

    Leonardo of Pisa.

  M. H. S.
    MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.

      Formerly Editor of the _Magazine of Art_. Member of Fine Art
      Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos
      Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of
      _History of "Punch"_; _British Portrait Painting to the Opening of
      the Nineteenth Century_; _Works of G. F. Watts, R.A._; _British
      Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day_; _Henriette Ronner_; &c.

    Line Engraving (_in part_).

  M. N. T.
    MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.

      Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
      Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_.

    Laconia;
    Leonidas;
    Leotychides.

  M. O. B. C.
    MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.

      Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek
      at Birmingham University, 1905-1908.

    Leo I.-V. (_Emperors of the East_);
    Lesbos;
    Leuctra.

  M. P.*
    LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET.

      Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of
      the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).

    L'Aubespine.

  N. G. G.
    NICHOLAS G. GEDYE.

      Chief Engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission.

    Lighthouse (_in part_).

  O. Hr.
    OTTO HENKER, PH.D.

      On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany.

    Lens.

  P. A. K.
    PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.

      See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.

    Ladoga (_in part_);
    Lithuanians and Letts: _History_;
    Livonia (_in part_).

  P. C. M.
    PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., D.SC., LL.D.

      Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University
      Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre
      Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing
      Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in
      Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-1903.
      Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.

    Life;
    Longevity.

  P. C. Y.
    PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.

      Magdalen College, Oxford.

    Laud, Archbishop;
    Lauderdale, Duke of;
    Leeds, 1st Duke of.

  P. G.
    PERCY GARDNER. LITT.D., LL.D., F.S.A.

      See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.

    Leochares.

  P. Gi.
    PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.

      Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and
      University Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the
      Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of Comparative
      Philology_; &c.

    L.

  P. G. H.
    PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON.

      See the biographical article: Hamerton, PHILIP GILBERT.

    Line Engraving (_in part_).

  R. A. S. M.
    ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.

      St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
      Palestine Exploration Fund.

    Lachish.

  R. G.
    RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.

    Leopardi.

  R. I. P.
    REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S.

      Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.

    Leaf-insect;
    Locust (_in part_).

  R. J. M.
    RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.

      Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
      _St James's Gazette_, London.

    Lawn Tennis;
    Leicester, R. Sidney, earl of;
    Lockhart, George.

  R. K. D.
    SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

      Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of
      Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907.
      Member of the Chinese Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of _The
      Language and Literature of China_; _Europe and the Far East_; &c.

    Li Hung Chang.

  R. L.*
    RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

      Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
      Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the
      British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
      Africa_; &c.

    Langur;
    Lemming (_in part_);
    Lemur;
    Leopard (_in part_);
    Lion (_in part_);
    Litopterna.

  R. M'L.
    ROBERT M'LACHLAN.

      Editor of the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_.

    Locust (_in part_).

  R. M. B.
    ROBERT MICHAEL BALLANTYNE.

      See the biographical article: BALLANTYNE, R. M.

    Life-boat: _British (in part)_.

  R. N. B.
    ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).

      Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
      _Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
      1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the
      Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.

    Ladislaus I. and IV. of Hungary;
    Laski.

  R. S. C.
    ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.).

      Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
      of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
      Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
      Author of _The Italic Dialects_.

    Latin Language (_in part_);
    Liguria: _Archaeology and Philology_.

  R. We.
    RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M.

      Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The
      Elegies of Maximianus_; &c.

    Long Island.

  R. W. C.
    THE VERY REV. R. W. CHURCH, D.D.

      See the biographical article: CHURCH, R. W.

    Lombards: _The Kingdom in Italy_.

  S. A. C.
    STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.

      Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and
      Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
      Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908.
      Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses
      and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament
      History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.

    Levites.

  S. C.
    SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY.

    Leonardo da Vinci.

  St C.
    VISCOUNT ST CYRES.

      See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF.

    Liguori.

  S. D. F. S.
    REV. STEWART DINGWALL FORDYCE SALMON, M.A., D.D. (1838-1905).

      Professor of Systematic Theology and Exegesis of the Epistles,
      U.F.C. College Aberdeen, 1876-1905. Author of _The Parables of our
      Lord_; &c. Editor of _The International Library of Theology_; &c.

    Logos (_in part_).

  S. N.
    SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC.

      See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.

    Latitude;
    Light: _Velocity_.

  T. As.
    THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A.

      Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome.
      Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
      Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven
      Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the
      Roman Campagna_; &c.

    Labicana, Via;
    Labici;
    Lampedusa;
    Lanciano;
    Lanuvium;
    Larino;
    Latina, Via;
    Latium;
    Laurentina, Via;
    Lavinium;
    Lecce;
    Leghorn;
    Leontini;
    Licodia Eubea;
    Ligures Baebiani;
    Liguria: _History_;
    Locri: _Italy_.

  T. A. I.
    THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.

      Trinity College, Dublin.

    Livery Companies;
    London: _Finance_.

  T. Ca.
    THOMAS CASE, M.A.

      President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete
      Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford and
      Fellow of Magdalen College. Author of _Physical Realism_; &c.

    Logic.

  T. C. A.
    SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.SC., LL.D.,
    F.R.S.

      Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge.
      Physician to Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville
      and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor of _Systems of Medicine_.

    Lister, 1st Baron.

  T. Da.
    THOMAS DAVIDSON, LL.D.

      Longfellow.

  T. F. C.
    THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.

      Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown,
      Mass., U.S.A.

    Laodicea, Synod of.

  T. F. H.
    THOMAS F. HENDERSON.

      Author of _Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters_; &c.

    Latimer.

  T. H. H.*
    SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S.

      Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys,
      India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M.
      Commissioner for the Perso-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
      Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.

    Ladakh and Baltistan

  T. K.
    THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D.

      Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c.

    Lassalle.

  T. Mo.
    THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S. (1821-1887).

      Curator of the Garden of the Apothecaries Company at Chelsea,
      1848-1887. Editor of the _Gardeners' Magazine of Botany_; Author
      of _Handbook of British Ferns_; _Index Filicum_; _Illustrations of
      Orchidaceous Plants_.

    Labyrinth.

  T. M. L.
    REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D.

      Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly
      Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the
      University of Edinburgh. Author of _History of the Reformation_;
      _Life of Luther_; &c.

    Lollards.

  T. Se.
    THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.

      Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University
      of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of
      _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1900. Author of _The Age
      of Johnson_; &c.

    Lever, Charles.

  T. W. R. D.
    THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.

      Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University.
      Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College,
      London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of
      the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic
      Society, 1885-1902. Author of _Buddhism_; _Sacred Books of the
      Buddhists_; _Early Buddhism_; _Buddhist India_; _Dialogues of the
      Buddha_; &c.

    Lamaism.

  T. Wo.
    THOMAS WOODHOUSE.

      Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
      College, Dundee.

    Linen and Linen Manufactures.

  V. B. L.
    VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S.

      Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College. Chief Superintendent
      Gas Examiner to the Corporation of the City of London.

    Lighting: _Oil and Gas_.

  V. H. B.
    VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.SC.

      Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of
      St John's College, Cambridge.

    Lichens (_in part_).

  W. A. B. C.
    REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S.

      Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
      St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
      Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of
      _The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.

    Lausanne;
    Leuk;
    Liechtenstein;
    Linth;
    Locarno;
    Locle, Le.

  W. A. P.
    WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

      Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
      John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.

    Laibach, Congress of;
    Lights, Ceremonial use of.

  W. E. Co.
    THE RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, M.A., D.D.

      Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History,
      King's College, London. Lecturer of Selwyn and St John's Colleges,
      Cambridge. Author of _The Study of Ecclesiastical History_;
      _Beginnings of English Christianity_; &c.

    Libellatici.

  W. F. I.
    WILLIAM FERGUSSON IRVINE, HON. M.A. (Liverpool).

      Hon. Secretary and General Editor of Historical Society of
      Lancashire and Cheshire. Hon. Local Secretary for Cheshire of the
      Society of Antiquaries. Author of _Liverpool in the reign of
      Charles II._; _Old Halls of Wirral_; &c.

    Liverpool.

  W. H. Be.
    WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.).

      Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
      London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
      in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
      Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.

    Lamech.

  W. H. F.
    SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.

      See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.

    Lemming (_in part_);
    Leopard (_in part_);
    Lion (_in part_).

  W. M. R.
    WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.

      See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.

    Lely, Sir Peter;
    Lippi.

  W. P. T.
    WILLIAM PETERFIELD TRENT, LL.D., D.C.L.

      Professor of English Literature. Columbia University. Author of
      _English Culture in Virginia_; _A Brief History of American
      Literature_; &c.

    Lanier.

  W. R. So.
    WILLIAM RITCHIE SORLEY, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D.

      Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge.
      Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British
      Academy. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College. Author of _The Ethics
      of Naturalism_; _The Interpretation of Evolution_; &c.

    Leibnitz.

  W. R. S.-R.
    WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A.

      Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British
      Museum. Author of _Russian Folk Tales_; &c.

    Lermontov.

  W. T. Ca.
    WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN. D.SC., F.Z.S.

      Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South
      Kensington. Author of "Crustacea" in _A Treatise on Zoology_,
      edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester.

    Lobster.

  W. T. D.
    WILLIAM TREGARTHEN DOUGLASS, M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E.

      Consulting Engineer to Governments of Western Australia, New South
      Wales, Victoria, Cape of Good Hope, &c. Erected the Eddystone and
      Bishop Rock Lighthouses. Author of _The New Eddystone Lighthouse_;
      &c.

    Lighthouse (_in part_).

  W. W. R.*
    WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.

      Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
      New York.

    Leo XI. and XII. (_popes_).

  W. W. S.
    WALTER WILLIAM SKEAT, LITT.D., LL.D., D.C.L.

      See the biographical article: SKEAT, W. W.

    Layamon.

  W. Y. S.
    WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.

      See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.

    Latin Literature (_in part_).


PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

  Labiatae.              Larch.            Leprosy.
  Lacrosse.              Lead Poisoning.   Libel.
  Lagos.                 Leeds.            Liberal Party.
  Lahore.                Legitimacy.       Liliaceae.
  Lake District.         Leguminosae.      Lille.
  Lambeth Conferences.   Leicestershire.   Lily.
  Lanarkshire.           Leipzig.          Limitation, Statutes of.
  Lancashire.            Leith.            Lincoln.
  Lantern.               Lemnos.           Lincolnshire.
  Lapland.               Lemon.            Lippe.
  Larceny.               Lent.             Lisbon.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
    the final volume.




    ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

    ELEVENTH EDITION

    VOLUME XVI




L a letter which was the twelfth letter of the Phoenician alphabet. It
has in its history passed through many changes of form, ending curiously
enough in its usual manuscript form with a shape almost identical with
that which it had about 900 B.C. ([symbol] L). As was the case with B
and some other letters the Greeks did not everywhere keep the symbol in
the position in which they had borrowed it [symbol]. This, which was its
oldest form in Attica and in the Chalcidian colonies of Italy, was the
form adopted by the Romans, who in time converted it into the rectangle
L, which passed from them to the nations of western Europe. In the Ionic
alphabet, however, from which the ordinary Greek alphabet is derived it
appeared as [symbol]. A still more common form in other parts of Greece
was [symbol], with the legs of unequal length. The editors of Herodotus
have not always recognized that the name of Labda, the mother of
Cypselus, in the story (v. 92) of the founding of the great family of
Corinthian despots, was derived from the fact that she was lame and so
suggested the form of the Corinthian [symbol]. Another form [symbol] or
[symbol] was practically confined to the west of Argolis. The name of
the Greek letter is ordinarily given as _Lambda_, but in Herodotus
(above) and in Athenaeus x. p. 453 _e_, where the names of the letters
are given, the best authenticated form is _Labda_. The Hebrew name,
which was probably identical with the Phoenician, is _Lamed_, which,
with a final vowel added as usual, would easily become _Lambda_, _b_
being inserted between m and another consonant. The pronunciation of _l_
varies a great deal according to the point at which the tongue makes
contact with the roof of the mouth. The contact, generally speaking, is
at the same point as for _d_, and this accounts for an interchange
between these sounds which occurs in various languages, e.g. in Latin
_lacrima_ from the same root as the Greek [Greek: dakru] and the English
_tear_. The change in Latin occurs in a very limited number of cases and
one explanation of their occurrence is that they are borrowed (Sabine)
words. In pronunciation the breath may be allowed to escape at one or
both sides of the tongue. In most languages _l_ is a fairly stable
sound. Orientals, however, have much difficulty in distinguishing
between _l_ and _r_. In Old Persian _l_ is found in only two foreign
words, and in Sanskrit different dialects employ _r_ and _l_ differently
in the same words. Otherwise, however, the interchanges between _r_ and
_l_ were somewhat exaggerated by the older philologists. Before other
consonants _l_ becomes silent in not a few languages, notably in French,
where it is replaced by _u_, and in English where it has occasionally
been restored in recent times, e.g. in _fault_ which earlier was spelt
without _l_ (as in French whence it was borrowed), and which Goldsmith
could still rhyme with _aught_. In the 15th century the Scottish dialect
of English dropped _l_ largely both before consonants and finally after
_a_ and _u_, _a'_ = all, _fa'_ = fall, _pu'_ = pull, _'oo'_ = wool,
_bulk_ pronounced like _book_, &c., while after _o_ it appears as _w_,
_row_ (pronounced _rau_) = roll, _know_ = knoll, &c. It is to be
observed that L = 50 does not come from this symbol, but was an
adaptation of [symbol], the western Greek form of [chi], which had no
corresponding sound in Latin and was therefore not included in the
ordinary alphabet. This symbol was first rounded into [symbol] and then
changed first to [symbol], and ultimately to L.     (P. Gi.)




LAACHER SEE, a lake of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 5 m. W.
of Brohl on the Rhine, and N. of the village of Niedermendig. It
occupies what is supposed to be a crater of the Eifel volcanic
formation, and the pumice stone and basalt found in great quantities
around it lend credence to this theory. It lies 850 ft. above the sea,
is 5 m. in circumference and 160 ft. deep, and is surrounded by an
amphitheatre of high hills. The water is sky blue in colour, very cold
and bitter to the taste. The lake has no natural outlet and consequently
is subjected to a considerable rise and fall. On the western side lies
the Benedictine abbey of St Maria Laach (_Abballa Lacensis_) founded in
1093 by Henry II., count palatine of the Rhine. The abbey church, dating
from the 12th century, was restored in 1838. The history of the
monastery down to modern times appears to have been uneventful. In 1802
it was abolished and at the close of the Napoleonic wars it became a
Prussian state demesne. In 1863 it passed into the hands of the Jesuits,
who, down to their expulsion in 1873, published here a periodical, which
still appears, entitled _Stimmen aus Maria Laach_. In 1892 the monastery
was again occupied by the Benedictines.




LAAGER, a South African Dutch word (Dutch _leger_, Ger. _lager_,
connected with Eng. "lair") for a temporary defensive encampment, formed
by a circle of wagons. The English word is "leaguer," an armed camp,
especially that of a besieging or "beleaguering" army. The Ger. _lager_,
in the sense of "store," is familiar as the name of a light beer (see
BREWING).




LAAS, ERNST (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born on the 16th of
June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under
Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy
in the new university of Strassburg. In _Kant's Analogien der Erfahrung_
(1876) he keenly criticized Kant's transcendentalism, and in his chief
work _Idealismus und Positivismus_ (3 vols., 1879-1884), he drew a
clear contrast between Platonism, from which he derived
transcendentalism, and positivism, of which he considered Protagoras the
founder. Laas in reality was a disciple of Hume. Throughout his
philosophy he endeavours to connect metaphysics with ethics and the
theory of education.

  His chief educational works were _Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern
  Gymnasialklassen_ (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), and
  _Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten_ (1872; 2nd ed.
  1886). He contributed largely to the _Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss.
  Philos._ (1880-1882); the _Litterarischer Nachlass_, a posthumous
  collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, _Der
  Positivismus von Ernst Laas_ (1902); Gjurits, _Die Erkenntnistheorie
  des Ernst Laas_ (1903); Falckenberg, _Hist. of Mod. Philos._ (Eng.
  trans., 1895).




LA BADIE, JEAN DE (1610-1674), French divine, founder of the school
known as the Labadists, was born at Bourg, not far from Bordeaux, on the
13th of February 1610, being the son of Jean Charles de la Badie,
governor of Guienne. He was sent to the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, and
when fifteen entered the Jesuit college there. In 1626 he began to study
philosophy and theology. He was led to hold somewhat extreme views about
the efficacy of prayer and the direct influence of the Holy Spirit upon
believers, and adopted Augustinian views about grace, free will and
predestination, which brought him into collision with his order. He
therefore separated from the Jesuits, and then became a preacher to the
people, carrying on this work in Bordeaux, Paris and Amiens. At Amiens
in 1640 he was appointed a canon and teacher of theology. The hostility
of Cardinal Mazarin, however, forced him to retire to the Carmelite
hermitage at Graville. A study of Calvin's _Institutes_ showed him that
he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic
Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of
France and became professor of theology at Montauban in 1650. His
reasons for doing so he published in the same year in his _Déclaration
de Jean de la Badie_. His accession to the ranks of the Protestants was
deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said,
had left the Roman Catholic Church. He was called to the pastorate of
the church at Orange on the Rhone in 1657, and at once became noted for
his severity of discipline. He set his face zealously against dancing,
card-playing and worldly entertainments. The unsettled state of the
country, recently annexed to France, compelled him to leave Orange, and
in 1659 he became a pastor in Geneva. He then accepted a call to the
French church in London, but after various wanderings settled at
Middelburg, where he was pastor to the French-speaking congregation at a
Walloon church. His peculiar opinions were by this time (1666) well
known, and he and his congregation found themselves in conflict with the
ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his
followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669
he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon
(1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon (d. 1679), François Menuret
(d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1693), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and,
more important than any, Anna Maria v. Schürman (1607-1678), whose book
_Eucleria_ is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master.
At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views
for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church is a communion of
holy people who have been born again from sin; baptism is the sign and
seal of this regeneration, and is to be administered only to believers;
the Holy Spirit guides the regenerate into all truth, and the church
possesses throughout all time those gifts of prophecy which it had in
the ancient days; the community at Jerusalem is the continual type of
every Christian congregation, therefore there should be a community of
goods, the disciples should live together, eat together, dance together;
marriage is a holy ordinance between two believers, and the children of
the regenerate are born without original sin, marriage with an
unregenerate person is not binding. They did not observe the Sabbath,
because--so they said--their life was a continual Sabbath. The life and
separatism of the community brought them into frequent collision with
their neighbours and with the magistrates, and in 1670 they accepted
Society is in Miss Edith Sichel's _Women and Men of the French
Renaissance_ (1901). See also J. Favre, _Olivier de Magny_ (1885).




LABEL (a French word, now represented by _lambeau_, possibly a variant;
it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word
appearing in the English "lap," a flap or fold), a slip, ticket, or card
of paper, metal or other material, attached to an object, such as a
parcel, bottle, &c., and containing a name, address, description or
other information, for the purpose of identification. Originally the
word meant a band or ribbon of linen or other material, and was thus
applied to the fillets (_infulae_) attached to a bishop's mitre. In
heraldry the "label" is a mark of "cadency."

In architecture the term "label" is applied to the outer projecting
moulding over doors, windows, arches, &c., sometimes called "Dripstone"
or "Weather Moulding," or "Hood Mould." The former terms seem scarcely
applicable, as this moulding is often inside a building where no rain
could come, and consequently there is no drip. In Norman times the label
frequently did not project, and when it did it was very little, and
formed part of the series of arch mouldings. In the Early English styles
they were not very large, sometimes slightly undercut, sometimes deeply,
sometimes a quarter round with chamfer, and very frequently a "roll" or
"scroll-moulding," so called because it resembles the part of a scroll
where the edge laps over the body of the roll. Labels generally resemble
the string-courses of the period, and, in fact, often return
horizontally and form strings. They are less common in Continental
architecture than in English.




LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS (c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 18), Roman jurist, was the son
of Pacuvius Antistius Labeo, a jurist who caused himself to be slain
after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian
nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered
public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised
antipathy to the new régime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in
the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican
sympathies--what Tacitus (_Ann._ iii. 75) calls his _incorrupta
libertas_--proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius
Capito, who had unreservedly given in his adhesion to the ruling powers,
was promoted by Augustus to the consulate, when the appointment should
have fallen to Labeo; smarting under the wrong done him, Labeo declined
the office when it was offered to him in a subsequent year (Tac. _Ann._
iii. 75; Pompon, in fr. 47, _Dig._ i. 2). From this time he seems to
have devoted his whole time to jurisprudence. His training in the
science had been derived principally from Trebatius Testa. To his
knowledge of the law he added a wide general culture, devoting his
attention specially to dialectics, philology (_grammatica_), and
antiquities, as valuable aids in the exposition, expansion, and
application of legal doctrine (Gell. xiii. 10). Down to the time of
Hadrian his was probably the name of greatest authority; and several of
his works were abridged and annotated by later hands. While Capito is
hardly ever referred to, the dicta of Labeo are of constant recurrence
in the writings of the classical jurists, such as Gaius, Ulpian and
Paul; and no inconsiderable number of them were thought worthy of
preservation in Justinian's _Digest_. Labeo gets the credit of being the
founder of the Proculian sect or school, while Capito is spoken of as
the founder of the rival Sabinian one (Pomponius in fr. 47, _Dig._ i.
2); but it is probable that the real founders of the two _scholae_ were
Proculus and Sabinus, followers respectively of the methods of Labeo and
Capito.

  Labeo's most important literary work was the _Libri Posteriorum_, so
  called because published only after his death. It contained a
  systematic exposition of the common law. His _Libri ad Edictum_
  embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and
  peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His
  _Probabilium_ ([Greek: pithanôn]) _lib. VIII._, a collection of
  definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one
  of his most characteristic productions.

  See van Eck, "De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis"
  (Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs's _Thes. nov._, vol. i.; Mascovius, _De
  sectis Sabinianor. et Proculianor._ (1728); Pernice, _M. Antistius
  Labeo. Das röm. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit_
  (Halle, 1873-1892).




LABERIUS, DECIMUS (c. 105-43 B.C.), Roman knight and writer of mimes. He
seems to have been a man of caustic wit, who wrote for his own pleasure.
In 45 Julius Caesar ordered him to appear in one of his own mimes in a
public contest with the actor Publilius Syrus. Laberius pronounced a
dignified prologue on the degradation thus thrust on his sixty years,
and directed several sharp allusions against the dictator. Caesar
awarded the victory to Publilius, but restored Laberius to his
equestrian rank, which he had forfeited by appearing as a mimus
(Macrobius, _Sat._ ii. 7). Laberius was the chief of those who
introduced the mimus into Latin literature towards the close of the
republican period. He seems to have been a man of learning and culture,
but his pieces did not escape the coarseness inherent to the class of
literature to which they belonged; and Aulus Gellius (xvi. 7, 1) accuses
him of extravagance in the coining of new words. Horace (_Sat._ i. 10)
speaks of him in terms of qualified praise.

  In addition to the prologue (in Macrobius), the titles of forty-four
  of his mimi have been preserved; the fragments have been collected by
  O. Ribbeck in his _Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1873).




LABIATAE (i.e. "lipped," Lat. _labium_, lip), in botany, a natural order
of seed-plants belonging to the series Tubiflorae of the dicotyledons,
and containing about 150 genera with 2800 species. The majority are
annual or perennial herbs inhabiting the temperate zone, becoming
shrubby in warmer climates. The stem is generally square in section and
the simple exstipulate leaves are arranged in decussating pairs (i.e.
each pair is in a plane at right angles to that of the pairs immediately
above and below it); the blade is entire, or toothed, lobed or more or
less deeply cut. The plant is often hairy, and the hairs are frequently
glandular, the secretion containing a scent characteristic of the genus
or species. The flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves or bracts;
they are rarely solitary as in _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap), and generally
form an apparent whorl (_verticillaster_) at the node, consisting of a
pair of cymose inflorescences each of which is a simple three-flowered
dichasium as in _Brunella_, _Salvia_, &c., or more generally a dichasium
passing over into a pair of monochasial cymes as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1),
_Ballota_, _Nepeta_, &c. A number of whorls may be crowded at the apex
of the stem and the subtending leaves reduced to small bracts, the whole
forming a raceme- or spike-like inflorescence as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 5)
_Brunella_, &c.; the bracts are sometimes large and coloured as in
_Monarda_, species of _Salvia_, &c., in the latter the apex of the stem
is sometimes occupied with a cluster of sterile coloured bracts. The
plan of the flower is remarkably uniform (fig. 1, 3); it is bisexual,
and zygomorphic in the median plane, with 5 sepals united to form a
persistent cup-like calyx, 5 petals united to form a two-lipped gaping
corolla, 4 stamens inserted on the corolla-tube, two of which, generally
the anterior pair, are longer than the other two (didynamous
arrangement)--sometimes as in _Salvia_, the posterior pair is
aborted--and two superior median carpels, each very early divided by a
constriction in a vertical plane, the pistil consisting of four cells
each containing one erect anatropous ovule attached to the base of an
axile placenta; the style springs from the centre of the pistil between
the four segments (_gynobasic_), and is simple with a bifid apex. The
fruit comprises four one-seeded nutlets included in the persistent
calyx; the seed has a thin testa and the embryo almost or completely
fills it. Although the general form and plan of arrangement of the
flower is very uniform, there are wide variations in detail. Thus the
calyx may be tubular, bell-shaped, or almost spherical, or straight or
bent, and the length and form of the teeth or lobes varies also; it may
be equally toothed as in mint (_Mentha_) (fig. 2, 3), and marjoram
(_Origanum_), or two-lipped as in thyme (_Thymus_), _Lamium_ (fig. 1)
and _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 1); the number of nerves affords useful characters
for distinction of genera, there are normally five main nerves between
which simple or forked secondary nerves are more or less developed. The
shape of the corolla varies widely, the differences being doubtless
intimately associated with the pollination of the flowers by
insect-agency. The tube is straight or variously bent and often widens
towards the mouth. Occasionally the limb is equally five-toothed, or
forms, as in _Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3, 4) an almost regular four-toothed
corolla by union of the two posterior teeth. Usually it is two-lipped,
the upper lip being formed by the two posterior, the lower lip by the
three anterior petals (see fig. 1, and fig. 2, 1, 6); the median lobe of
the lower lip is generally most developed and forms a resting-place for
the bee or other insect when probing the flower for honey, the upper lip
shows great variety in form, often, as in _Lamium_ (fig. 1), _Stachys_,
&c., it is arched forming a protection from rain for the stamens, or it
may be flat as in thyme. In the tribe _Ocimoideae_ the four upper petals
form the upper lip, and the single anterior one the lower lip, and in
_Teucrium_ the upper lip is absent, all five lobes being pushed forward
to form the lower. The posterior stamen is sometimes present as a
staminode, but generally suppressed; the upper pair are often reduced to
staminodes or more or less completely suppressed as in _Salvia_ (fig. 2,
2, 6); rarely are these developed and the anterior pair reduced. In
_Coleus_ the stamens are monadelphous. In _Nepeta_ and allied genera the
posterior pair are the longer, but this is rare, the didynamous
character being generally the result of the anterior pair being the
longer. The anthers are two-celled, each cell splitting lengthwise; the
connective may be more or less developed between the cells; an extreme
case is seen in _Salvia_ (fig. 2, 2), where the connective is filiform
and jointed to the filament, while the anterior anther-cell is reduced
to a sterile appendage. Honey is secreted by a hypogynous disk. In the
more general type of flower the anthers and stigmas are protected by the
arching upper lip as in dead-nettle (fig. 1) and many other British
genera; the lower lip affords a resting-place for the insect which in
probing the flower for the honey, secreted on the lower side of the
disk, collects pollen on its back. Numerous variations in detail are
found in the different genera; in _Salvia_ (fig. 2), for instance, there
is a lever mechanism, the barren half of each anther forming a knob at
the end of a short arm which when touched by the head of an insect
causes the anther at the end of the longer arm to descend on the
insect's back. In the less common type, where the anterior part of the
flower is more developed, as in the _Ocimoideae_, the stamens and style
lie on the under lip and honey is secreted on the upper side of the
hypogynous disk; the insect in probing the flower gets smeared with
pollen on its belly and legs. Both types include brightly-coloured
flowers with longer tubes adapted to the visits of butterflies and
moths, as species of _Salvia_, _Stachys_, _Monarda_, &c.; some South
American species of _Salvia_ are pollinated by humming-birds. In
_Mentha_ (fig. 2, 3), thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), and allied genera,
the flowers are nearly regular and the stamens spread beyond the
corolla.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Flowering Shoot of Dead-nettle (_Lamium album_).
1, Flower cut lengthwise, enlarged; 2 calyx, enlarged; 3, floral
diagram.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--1, Flower of Sage (_Salvia officinalis_); 2,
Corolla of same cut open showing the two stamens; 3, flower of spearmint
(_Mentha viridis_); 4, corolla of same cut open showing stamens; 5,
flowering shoot of same, reduced; 6, floral diagram of _Salvia_.]

The persistent calyx encloses the ripe nutlets, and aids in their
distribution in various ways, by means of winged spiny or hairy lobes or
teeth; sometimes it forms a swollen bladder. A scanty endosperm is
sometimes present in the seed; the embryo is generally parallel to the
fruit axis with a short inferior radicle and generally flat cotyledons.

  The order occurs in all warm and temperate regions; its chief centre
  is the Mediterranean region, where some genera such as _Lavandula_,
  _Thymus_, _Rosmarinus_ and others form an important feature in the
  vegetation. The tribe _Ocimoideae_ is exclusively tropical and
  subtropical and occurs in both hemispheres. The order is well
  represented in Britain by seventeen native genera; _Mentha_ (mint)
  including also _M. piperita_ (peppermint) and _M. Pulegium_
  (pennyroyal); _Origanum vulgare_ (marjoram); _Thymus Serpyllum_
  (thyme); _Calamintha_ (calamint), including also _C. Clinopodium_
  (wild basil) and _C. Acinos_ (basil thyme); _Salvia_ (sage), including
  _S. Verbenaca_ (clary); _Nepeta Cataria_ (catmint), _N. Glechoma_
  (ground-ivy); _Brunella_ (self-heal); _Scutellaria_ (skull-cap);
  _Stachys (woundwort); _S. Betonica_ is wood betony; _Galeopsis_
  (hemp-nettle); Lamium_ (dead-nettle); _Ballota_ (black horehound);
  _Teucrium_ (germander); and _Ajuga_ (bugle).

  Labiatae are readily distinguished from all other orders of the series
  excepting Verbenaceae, in which, however, the style is terminal; but
  several genera, e.g. _Ajuga_, _Teucrium_ and _Rosmarinus_, approach
  Verbenaceae in this respect, and in some genera of that order the
  style is more or less sunk between the ovary lobes. The
  fruit-character indicates an affinity with Boraginaceae from which,
  however, they differ in habit and by characters of ovule and embryo.

  The presence of volatile oil renders many genera of economic use, such
  are thyme, marjoram (_Origanum_), sage (_Salvia_), lavender
  (_Lavandula_), rosemary (_Rosmarinus_), patchouli (_Pogostemon_). The
  tubers of _Stachys Sieboldi_ are eaten in France.




LABICANA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading E.S.E. from Rome.
It seems possible that the road at first led to Tusculum, that it was
then prolonged to Labici, and later still became a road for through
traffic; it may even have superseded the Via Latina as a route to the
S.E., for, while the distance from Rome to their main junction at Ad
Bivium (or to another junction at Compitum Anagninum) is practically
identical, the summit level of the former is 725 ft. lower than that of
the latter, a little to the west of the pass of Algidus. After their
junction it is probable that the road bore the name Via Latina rather
than Via Labicana. The course of the road after the first six miles from
Rome is not identical with that of any modern road, but can be clearly
traced by remains of pavement and buildings along its course.

  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 215 sqq.
      (T. As.)




LABICHE, EUGÈNE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th
of May 1815, of _bourgeois_ parentage. He read for the bar, but
literature had more powerful attractions, and he was hardly twenty when
he gave to the _Chérubin_--an impertinent little magazine, long vanished
and forgotten--a short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the
period, _Les plus belles sont les plus fausses_. A few others followed
much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the
public. He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the _Revue des
théâtres_, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small
Théâtre du Panthéon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama
of his, _L'Avocat Loubet_, while a vaudeville, _Monsieur de Coislin ou
l'homme infiniment poli_, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and
given at the Palais Royal, introduced for the first time to the
Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great
favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year
Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance
called _La Clé des champs_. M. Léon Halévy, his successor at the Academy
and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon
after the novel was out. "A lucky misadventure, for," the biographer
concludes, "this timely warning of Destiny sent him back to the stage,
where a career of success was awaiting him." There was yet another
obstacle in the way. When he married, he solemnly promised his wife's
parents that he would renounce a profession then considered incompatible
with moral regularity and domestic happiness. But a year afterwards his
wife spontaneously released him from his vow, and Labiche recalled the
incident when he dedicated the first edition of his complete works: "To
my wife." Labiche, in conjunction with Varin,[1] Marc Michel,[2]
Clairville,[3] Dumanoir,[4] and others contributed comic plays
interspersed with couplets to various Paris theatres. The series
culminated in the memorable farce in five acts, _Un Chapeau de paille
d'Italie_ (August 1851). It remains an accomplished specimen of the
French _imbroglio_, in which some one is in search of something, but
does not find it till five minutes before the curtain falls. Prior to
that date Labiche had been only a successful _vaudevilliste_ among a
crowd of others; but a twelvemonth later he made a new departure in _Le
Misanthrope et l'Auvergnat_. All the plays given for the next
twenty-five years, although constructed on the old plan, contained a
more or less appreciable dose of that comic observation and good sense
which gradually raised the French farce almost to the level of the
comedy of character and manners. "Of all the subjects," he said, "which
offered themselves to me, I have selected the _bourgeois_. Essentially
mediocre in his vices and in his virtues, he stands half-way between the
hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate." During
the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of
Delacour,[5] Choler,[6] and others. When it is asked what share in the
authorship and success of the plays may be claimed for those men, we
shall answer in Émile Augier's words: "The distinctive qualities which
secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all
the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are
conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him." A more
useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie Michel
Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a _débutant_ in his younger
days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy
impersonated the _bourgeois_ not only to the public, but to the author
himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and
hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy
way, the words that he had just committed to paper. _Célimare le
bien-aimé_ (1863), _Le Voyage de M. Perrichon_ (1860), _La Grammaire_,
_Un Pied dans le crime_, _La Cagnotte_ (1864), may be quoted as the
happiest productions of Labiche.

In 1877 he brought his connexion with the stage to a close, and retired
to his rural property in Sologne. There he could be seen, dressed as a
farmer, with low-brimmed hat, thick gaiters and an enormous stick,
superintending the agricultural work and busily engaged in reclaiming
land and marshes. His lifelong friend, Augier, visited him in his
principality, and, being left alone in the library, took to reading his
host's dramatic productions, scattered here and there in the shape of
theatrical _brochures_. He strongly advised Labiche to publish a
collected and revised edition of his works. The suggestion, first
declined as a joke and long resisted, was finally accepted and carried
into effect. Labiche's comic plays, in ten volumes, were issued during
1878 and 1879. The success was even greater than had been expected by
the author's most sanguine friends. It had been commonly believed that
these plays owed their popularity in great measure to the favourite
actors who had appeared in them; but it was now discovered that all,
with the exception of Geoffroy, had introduced into them a grotesque and
caricatural element, thus hiding from the spectator, in many cases, the
true comic vein and delightful delineation of human character. The
amazement turned into admiration, and the _engouement_ became so general
that very few dared grumble or appear scandalized when, in 1880, Labiche
was elected to the French Academy. It was fortunate that, in former
years, he had never dreamt of attaining this high distinction; for, as
M. Pailleron justly observed, while trying to get rid of the little
faults which were in him, he would have been in danger of losing some of
his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he
enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris
on the 23rd of January 1888.

Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Molière, but it
will be enough to say that he was something better than a public
_amuseur_. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage.
They are, on the whole, as sound as they are entertaining. Love is
practically absent from his theatre. In none of his plays did he ever
venture into the depths of feminine psychology, and womankind is only
represented in them by pretentious old maids and silly, insipid, almost
dumb, young ladies. He ridiculed marriage according to the invariable
custom of French playwrights, but in a friendly and good-natured manner
which always left a door open to repentance and timely amendment. He is
never coarse, never suggestive. After he died the French farce, which he
had raised to something akin to literature, relapsed into its former
grossness and unmeaning complexity.     (A. Fi.)

  His _Théâtre complet_ (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by
  Émile Augier.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869).

  [2] Marc Antoine Amédée Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist.

  [3] Louis François Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879),
    part-author of the famous _Fille de Mme Angot_ (1872).

  [4] Philippe François Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865).

  [5] Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). For a
    list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, _Catalogue Général_ (vol.
    ii., 1868).

  [6] Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889).




LABICI, an ancient city of Latium, the modern Monte Compatri, about 17
m. S.E. from Rome, on the northern slopes of the Alban Hills, 1739 ft.
above sea-level. It occurs among the thirty cities of the Latin League,
and it is said to have joined the Aequi in 419 B.C. and to have been
captured by the Romans in 418. After this it does not appear in history,
and in the time of Cicero and Strabo was almost entirely deserted if not
destroyed. Traces of its ancient walls have been noticed. Its place was
taken by the _respublica Lavicanorum Quintanensium_, the post-station
established in the lower ground on the Via Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA),
a little S.W. of the modern village of Colonna, the site of which is
attested by various inscriptions and by the course of the road itself.

  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 256 sqq.
      (T. As.)




LABID (Abu 'Aqil Labid ibn Rabi'a) (_c._ 560-_c._ 661), Arabian poet,
belonged to the Bani 'Amir, a division of the tribe of the Hawazin. In
his younger years he was an active warrior and his verse is largely
concerned with inter-tribal disputes. Later, he was sent by a sick uncle
to get a remedy from Mahomet at Medina and on this occasion was much
influenced by a part of the Koran. He accepted Islam soon after, but
seems then to have ceased writing. In Omar's caliphate he is said to
have settled in Kufa. Tradition ascribes to him a long life, but dates
given are uncertain and contradictory. One of his poems is contained in
the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.).

  Twenty of his poems were edited by Chalidi (Vienna, 1880); another
  thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the whole,
  were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. Brockelmann
  (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, _Über die Gedichte des Lebyd_
  (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labid are contained in the
  _Kitabul-Aghani_, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff.     (G. W. T.)




LABIENUS, the name of a Roman family, said (without authority) to belong
to the gens Atia. The most important member was TITUS LABIENUS. In 63
B.C., at Caesar's instigation, he prosecuted Gaius Rabirius (q.v.) for
treason; in the same year, as tribune of the plebs, he carried a
plebiscite which indirectly secured for Caesar the dignity of pontifex
maximus (Dio Cassius xxxvii. 37). He served as a legatus throughout
Caesar's Gallic campaigns and took Caesar's place whenever he went to
Rome. His chief exploits in Gaul were the defeat of the Treviri under
Indutiomarus in 54, his expedition against Lutetia (Paris) in 52, and
his victory over Camulogenus and the Aedui in the same year. On the
outbreak of the civil war, however, he was one of the first to desert
Caesar, probably owing to an overweening sense of his own importance,
not adequately recognized by Caesar. He was rapturously welcomed on the
Pompeian side; but he brought no great strength with him, and his ill
fortune under Pompey was as marked as his success had been under Caesar.
From the defeat at Pharsalus, to which he had contributed by affecting
to despise his late comrades, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to Africa.
There he was able by mere force of numbers to inflict a slight check
upon Caesar at Ruspina in 46. After the defeat at Thapsus he joined the
younger Pompey in Spain, and was killed at Munda (March 17th, 45).




LABLACHE, LUIGI (1794-1858), Franco-Italian singer, was born at Naples
on the 6th of December 1794, the son of a merchant of Marseilles who had
married an Irish lady. In 1806 he entered the Conservatorio della Pieta
de Turchini, where he studied music under Gentili and singing under
Valesi, besides learning to play the violin and violoncello. As a boy he
had a beautiful alto voice, and by the age of twenty he had developed a
magnificent bass with a compass of two octaves from E[flat] below to
E[flat] above the bass stave. After making his first appearance at
Naples he went to Milan in 1817, and subsequently travelled to Turin,
Venice and Vienna. His first appearances in London and Paris in 1830 led
to annual engagements in both the English and French capitals. His
reception at St Petersburg a few years later was no less enthusiastic.
In England he took part in many provincial musical festivals, and was
engaged by Queen Victoria to teach her singing. On the operatic stage he
was equally successful in comic or tragic parts, and with his
wonderfully powerful voice he could express either humour or pathos.
Among his friends were Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Mercadante. He
was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at
Beethoven's funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January
1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache's Leporello in
_Don Giovanni_ was perhaps his most famous impersonation; among his
principal other rôles were Dandini in _Cenerentola_ (Rossini), Assur in
_Semiramide_ (Rossini), Geronimo in _La Gazza Ladra_ (Rossini), Henry
VIII. in _Anna Bolena_ (Donizetti), the Doge in _Marino Faliero_
(Donizetti), the title-rôle in _Don Pasquale_ (Donizetti), Geronimo in
_Il Matrimonio Segreto_ (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in _L'Étoile du Nord_
(Meyerbeer), Caliban in _The Tempest_ (Halévy).




LABOR DAY, in the United States, a legal holiday in nearly all of the
states and Territories, where the first Monday in September is observed
by parades and meetings of labour organizations. In 1882 the Knights of
Labor paraded in New York City on this day; in 1884 another parade was
held, and it was decided that this day should be set apart for this
purpose. In 1887 Colorado made the first Monday in September a legal
holiday; and in 1909 Labor Day was observed as a holiday throughout the
United States, except in Arizona and North Dakota; in Louisiana it is a
holiday only in New Orleans (Orleans parish), and in Maryland, Wyoming
and New Mexico it is not established as a holiday by statute, but in
each may be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor.




LA BOURBOULE, a watering-place of central France, in the department of
Puy-de-Dôme, 4½ m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La
Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height of
2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic constituent,
are used in cases of diseases of the skin and respiratory organs,
rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. Though known to the Romans they were not in
much repute till towards the end of the 19th century. The town has three
thermal establishments and a casino.




LABOUR CHURCH, THE, an organization intended to give expression to the
religion of the labour movement. This religion is not theological--it
leaves theological questions to private individual conviction--but
"seeks the realization of universal well-being by the establishment of
Socialism--a commonwealth founded upon justice and love." It asserts
that "improvement of social conditions and the development of personal
character are both essential to emancipation from social and moral
bondage, and to that end insists upon the duty of studying the economic
and moral forces of society." The first Labour Church was founded at
Manchester (England) in October 1891 by a Unitarian minister, John
Trevor. This has disappeared, but vigorous successors have been
established not only in the neighbourhood, but in Bradford, Birmingham,
Nottingham, London, Wolverhampton and other centres of industry, about
30 in all, with a membership of 3000. Many branches of the Independent
Labour Party and the Social Democratic Federation also hold Sunday
gatherings for adults and children, using the Labour Church hymn-book
and a similar form of service, the reading being chosen from Dr Stanton
Coit's _Message of Man_. There are special forms for child-naming,
marriages and burials. The separate churches are federated in a Labour
Church Union, which holds an annual conference and business meeting in
March. At the conference of 1909, held in Ashton-under-Lyne, the name
"Labour Church" was changed to "Socialist Church."




LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANÇOIS, COUNT MAHÉ de (1699-1753), French
naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the 11th of February 1699. He
went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French
India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and
displayed such bravery in the capture of Mahé of the Malabar coast that
the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the
service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in 1735 he returned to
French service as governor of the Île de France and the Île de Bourbon.
His five years' administration of the islands was vigorous and
successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of
hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head
of a fleet in Indian waters. He saved Mahé, relieved General Dupleix at
Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege
of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in
India, and his anger was increased on his return to the Île de France at
finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail
on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the
British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing
a settlement of his quarrel with Dupleix, he was arrested (1748) on a
charge of gubernatorial peculation and maladministration, and secretly
imprisoned for over two years in the Bastille. He was tried in 1751 and
acquitted, but his health was broken by the imprisonment and by chagrin
at the loss of his property. To the last he made unjust accusations
against Dupleix. He died at Paris on the 10th of November 1753. The
French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres.

La Bourdonnais wrote _Traité de la mâture des vaisseaux_ (Paris 1723),
and left valuable memoirs which were published by his grandson, a
celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahé de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840)
(latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise
to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the
arrogance and jealousy of Dupleix, but W. Cartwright and Colonel
Malleson have pointed out that La Bourdonnais was proud, suspicious and
over-ambitious.

  See P. de Gennes, _Mémoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais, avec les
  pièces justificatives_ (Paris, 1750); _The Case of Mde la Bourdonnais,
  in a Letter to a Friend_ (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards,
  _Révolutions de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1796); Collin de Bar, _Histoire de
  l'Inde ancienne et moderne_ (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoën,
  _Histoire de la conquête et de la fondation de l'empire anglais dans
  l'Inde_ (Paris, 1840); Margry, "Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous
  le gouvernement de La Bourdonnais," in _La Revue maritime et
  coloniale_ (1862); W. Cartwright, "Dupleix et l'Inde française," in
  _La Revue britannique_ (1882); G. B. Malleson, _Dupleix_ (Oxford,
  1895); Anandaranga Pillai, _Les Français dans l'Inde_, _Dupleix et
  Labourdonnais, extraits du journal d'Anandaran-gappoullé 1736-1748_,
  trans. in French by Vinsor in _École spéciale des langues orientales
  vivantes_, séries 3, vol. xv. (Paris, 1894).




LABOUR EXCHANGE, a term very frequently applied to registries having for
their principal object the better distribution of labour (see
UNEMPLOYMENT). Historically the term is applied to the system of
equitable labour exchanges established in England between 1832 and 1834
by Robert Owen and his followers. The idea is said to have originated
with Josiah Warren, who communicated it to Owen. Warren tried an
experiment in 1828 at Cincinnati, opening an exchange under the title of
a "time store." He joined in starting another at Tuscarawas, Ohio, and a
third at Mount Vernon, Indiana, but none were quite on the same line as
the English exchanges. The fundamental idea of the English exchanges was
to establish a currency based upon labour; Owen in _The Crisis_ for June
1832 laid down that all wealth proceeded from labour and knowledge; that
labour and knowledge were generally remunerated according to the time
employed, and that in the new exchanges it was proposed to make _time_
the standard or measure of wealth. This new currency was represented by
"labour notes," the notes being measured in hours, and the hour reckoned
as being worth sixpence, this figure being taken as the mean between the
wage of the best and the worst paid labour. Goods were then to be
exchanged for the new currency. The exchange was opened in extensive
premises in the Gray's Inn Road, near King's Cross, London, on the 3rd
of September 1832. For some months the establishment met with
considerable success, and a considerable number of tradesmen agreed to
take labour notes in payment for their goods. At first, an enormous
number of deposits was made, amounting in seventeen weeks to 445,501
hours. But difficulties soon arose from the lack of sound practical
valuators, and from the inability of the promoters to distinguish
between the labour of the highly skilled and that of the unskilled.
Tradesmen, too, were quick to see that the exchange might be worked to
their advantage; they brought unsaleable stock from their shops,
exchanged it for labour notes, and then picked out the best of the
saleable articles. Consequently the labour notes began to depreciate;
trouble also arose with the proprietors of the premises, and the
experiment came to an untimely end early in 1834.

  See F. Podmore's _Robert Owen_, ii. c. xvii. (1906); B. Jones,
  _Co-operative Production_, c. viii. (1894); G. J. Holyoake, _History
  of Co-operation_, c. viii. (1906).




LABOUR LEGISLATION. Regulation of labour,[1] in some form or another,
whether by custom, royal authority, ecclesiastical rules or by formal
legislation in the interests of a community, is no doubt as old as the
most ancient forms of civilization. And older than all civilization is
the necessity for the greater part of mankind to labour for maintenance,
whether freely or in bonds, whether for themselves and their families or
for the requirements or superfluities of others. Even while it is clear,
however, that manual labour, or the application of the bodily
forces--with or without mechanical aid--to personal maintenance and the
production of goods, remains the common lot of the majority of citizens
of the most developed modern communities, still there is much risk of
confusion if modern technical terms such as "labour," "employer,"
"labour legislation" are freely applied to conditions in bygone
civilizations with wholly different industrial organization and social
relationships. In recent times in England there has been a notable
disappearance from current use of correlative terms implying a social
relationship which is greatly changed, for example, in the rapid passage
from the Master and Servant Act 1867 to the Employer and Workman Act
1875. In the 18th century the term "manufacturer" passed from its
application to a working craftsman to its modern connotation of at least
some command of capital, the employer being no longer a small working
master. An even more significant later change is seen in the steady
development of a labour legislation, which arose in a clamant social
need for the care of specially helpless "protected" persons in factories
and mines, into a wider legislation for the promotion of general
industrial health, safety and freedom for the worker from fraud in
making or carrying out wage contracts.

If, then, we can discern these signs of important changes within so
short a period, great caution is needed in rapidly reviewing long
periods of time prior to that industrial revolution which is traced
mainly to the application of mechanical power to machinery in aid of
manual labour, practically begun and completed within the second half of
the 18th century. "In 1740 save for the fly-shuttle the loom was as it
had been since weaving had begun ... and the law of the land was" (under
the Act of Apprentices of 1503) "that wages in each district should be
assessed by Justices of the Peace."[2] Turning back to still earlier
times, legislation--whatever its source or authority--must clearly be
devoted to aims very different from modern aims in regulating labour,
when it arose before the labourer, as a man dependent on an "employer"
for the means of doing work, had appeared, and when migratory labour was
almost unknown through the serfdom of part of the population and the
special status secured in towns to the artisan.

In the great civilizations of antiquity there were great aggregations of
labour which was not solely, though frequently it was predominantly,
slave labour; and some of the features of manufacture and mining on a
great scale arose, producing the same sort of evils and industrial
maladies known and regulated in our own times. Some of the maladies were
described by Pliny and classed as "diseases of slaves." And he gave
descriptions of processes, for example in the metal trades, as belonging
entirely to his own day, which modern archaeological discoveries trace
back through the earliest known Aryan civilizations to a prehistoric
origin in the East, and which have never died out in western Europe, but
can be traced in a concentrated manufacture with almost unchanged
methods, now in France, now in Germany, now in England.

Little would be gained in such a sketch as this by an endeavour to piece
together the scattered and scanty materials for a comparative history of
the varying conditions and methods of labour regulation over so enormous
a range. While our knowledge continually increases of the remains of
ancient craft, skill and massed labour, much has yet to be discovered
that may throw light on methods of organization of the labourers. While
much, and in some civilizations most, of the labour was compulsory or
forced, it is clear that too much has been sometimes assumed, and it is
by no means certain that even the pyramids of Egypt, much less the
beautiful earliest Egyptian products in metal work, weaving and other
skilled craft work, were typical products of slave labour. Even in Rome
it was only at times that the proportion of slaves valued as property
was greater than that of hired workers, or, apart from capture in war or
self-surrender in discharge of a debt, that purchase of slaves by the
trader, manufacturer or agriculturist was generally considered the
cheapest means of securing labour. As in early England the various
stages of village industrial life, medieval town manufacture, and
organization in craft gilds, and the beginnings of the mercantile
system, were parallel with a greater or less prevalence of serfdom and
even with the presence in part of slavery, so in other ages and
civilizations the various methods of organization of labour are found to
some extent together. The Germans in their primitive settlements were
accustomed to the notion of slavery, and in the decline of the Roman
Empire Roman captives from among the most useful craftsmen were carried
away by their northern conquerors.

The history and present details of the labour laws of various countries
are dealt with below in successive sections: (1) history of legislation
in the United Kingdom; (2) the results as shown by the law in force in
1909, with the corresponding facts for (3) Continental Europe and (4)
the United States. Under other headings (TRADE-UNIONS, STRIKES AND
LOCK-OUTS, ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION, &c., &c.) are many details on
cognate subjects.


I. HISTORY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

1. _Until the Close of the 15th Century._--Of the main conditions of
industrial labour in early Anglo-Saxon England details are scanty.
Monastic industrial communities were added in Christian times to village
industrial communities. While generally husbandry was the first object
of toil, and developed under elaborate regulation in the manorial
system, still a considerable variety of industries grew up, the aim
being expressly to make each social group self-sufficing, and to protect
and regulate village artisans in the interest of village resources. This
protective system, resting on a communal or co-operative view of labour
and social life, has been compared as analogous to the much later and
wider system under which the main purpose was to keep England as a whole
self-sufficing.[3] It has also been shown how greatly a fresh spirit of
enterprise in industry and trade was stimulated first by the Danish and
next by the Norman invasion; the former brought in a vigour shown in
growth of villages, increase in number of freemen, and formation of
trading towns; the latter especially opened up new communications with
the most civilized continental people, and was followed by a
considerable immigration of artisans, particularly of Flemings. In Saxon
England slavery in the strictest sense existed, as is shown in the
earliest English laws, but it seems that the true slave class as
distinct from the serf class was comparatively small, and it may well be
that the labour of an ordinary serf was not practically more severe, and
the remuneration in maintenance and kind not much less than that of
agricultural labourers in recent times. In spite of the steady protest
of the Church, slavery (as the exception, not the general rule) did not
die out for many centuries, and was apt to be revived as a punishment
for criminals, e.g. in the fierce provisions of the statute of Edward
VI. against beggars, not repealed until 1597. At no time, however, was
it general, and as the larger village and city populations grew the
ratio of serfs and slaves to the freemen in the whole population rapidly
diminished, for the city populations "had not the habit and use of
slavery," and while serfs might sometimes find a refuge in the cities
from exceptionally severe taskmasters, "there is no doubt that freemen
gradually united with them under the lord's protection, that strangers
engaged in trade sojourned among them, and that a race of artisans
gradually grew up in which original class feelings were greatly
modified." From these conditions grew two parallel tendencies in
regulation of labour. On the one hand there was, under royal charters,
the burgh or municipal organization and control of artisan and craft
labour, passing later into the more specialized organization in craft
gilds; on the other hand, there was a necessity, sometimes acute, to
prevent undue diminution in the numbers available for husbandry or
agricultural labour. To the latter cause must be traced a provision
appearing in a succession of statutes (see especially an act of Richard
II., 1388), that a child under twelve years once employed in agriculture
might never be transferred to apprenticeship in a craft. The steady
development of England, first as a wool-growing, later as a
cloth-producing country, would accentuate this difficulty. During the
13th century, side by side with development of trading companies for the
export of wool from England, may be noted many agreements on the part of
monasteries to sell their wool to Florentines, and during the same
century absorption of alien artisans into the municipal system was
practically completed. Charters of Henry I. provided for naturalization
of these aliens. From the time of Edward I. to Edward III. a gradual
transference of burgh customs, so far as recognized for the common good,
to statute law was in progress, together with an assertion of the rights
of the crown against ecclesiastical orders. "The statutes of Edward I.,"
says Dr. Cunningham, "mark the first attempt to deal with Industry and
Trade as a public matter which concerns the whole state, not as the
particular affair of leading men in each separate locality." The first
direct legislation for labour by statute, however, is not earlier than
the twenty-third year of the reign of Edward III., and it arose in an
attempt to control the decay and ruin, both in rural and urban
districts, which followed the Hundred Years' War, and the pestilence
known as the Black Death. This first "Statute of Labourers" was designed
for the benefit of the community, not for the protection of labour or
prevention of oppression, and the policy of enforcing customary wages
and compelling the able-bodied labourer, whether free or bond, not
living in merchandise or exercising any craft, to work for hire at
recognized rates of pay, must be reviewed in the circumstances and
ideals of the time. Regulation generally in the middle ages aimed at
preventing any individual or section of the community from making what
was considered an exceptional profit through the necessity of others.[4]
The scarcity of labour by the reduction of the population through
pestilence was not admitted as a justification for the demands for
increased pay, and while the unemployed labourer was liable to be
committed to gaol if he refused service at current rates, the lords of
the towns or manors who promised or paid more to their servants were
liable to be sued treble the sum in question. Similar restrictions were
made applicable to artificers and workmen. By another statute, two years
later, labourers or artificers who left their work and went into another
county were liable to be arrested by the sheriff and brought back. These
and similar provisions with similar aims were confirmed by statutes of
1360, 1368 and 1388, but the act of 1360, while prohibiting "all
alliances and covins of masons, carpenters, congregations, chapters,
ordinances and oaths betwixt them made," allowed "every lord to bargain
or covenant for their works in gross with such labourers and artificers
when it pleaseth them, so that they perform such works well and lawfully
according to the bargain and covenant with them thereof made." Powers
were given by the acts of 1368 and 1388 to justices to determine matters
under these statutes and to fix wages. Records show that workmen of
various descriptions were pressed by writs addressed to sheriffs to work
for their king at wages regardless of their will as to terms and place
of work. These proceedings were founded on notions of royal prerogative,
of which impressment of seamen survived as an example to a far later
date. By an act of 1388 no servant or labourer, man or woman, however,
could depart out of the hundred to serve elsewhere unless bearing a
letter patent under the king's seal stating the cause of going and time
of return. Such provisions would appear to have widely failed in their
purpose, for an act of 1414 declares that the servants and labourers
fled from county to county, and justices were empowered to send writs to
the sheriffs for fugitive labourers as for felons, and to examine
labourers, servants and their masters, as well as artificers, and to
punish them on confession. An act of 1405, while putting a property
qualification on apprenticeship and requiring parents under heavy
penalties to put their children to such labour as their estates
required, made a reservation giving freedom to any person "to send their
children to school to learn literature." Up to the end of the 15th
century a monotonous succession of statutes strengthening, modifying,
amending the various attempts (since the first Statute of Labourers) to
limit free movement of labour, or demands by labourers for increased
wages, may be seen in the acts of 1411, 1427, 1444, 1495. It was clearly
found extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to carry out the minute
control of wages considered desirable, and exceptions in favour of
certain occupations were in some of the statutes themselves. In 1512 the
penalties for giving wages contrary to law were repealed so far as
related to masters, but it also appears that London workmen would not
endure the prevalent restrictions as to wages, and that they secured in
practice a greater freedom to arrange rates when working within the
city. Several of these statutes, and especially one of 1514, fixed the
hours of labour when limiting wages. During March to September the
limits were 5 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with half an hour off for breakfast
and an hour and a half off for mid-day dinner. In winter the outside
limits were fixed by the length of daylight.

Throughout the 15th century the rapidly increasing manufacture of cloth
was subject to a regulation which aimed at maintaining the standard of
production and prevention of bad workmanship, and the noteworthy statute
4 Edward IV. c. 1, while giving power to royal officers to supervise
size of cloths, modes of sealing, &c., also repressed payment to workers
in "pins, girdles and unprofitable wares," and ordained payment in true
and lawful money. This statute (the first against "Truck") gives an
interesting picture of the way in which clothiers--or, as we should call
them, wholesale merchants and manufacturers--delivered wool to spinners,
carders, &c., by weight, and paid for the work when brought back
finished. It appears that the work was carried on in rural as well as
town districts. While this industry was growing and thriving other
trades remained backward, and agriculture was in a depressed condition.
Craft gilds had primarily the same purpose as the Edwardian statutes,
that is, of securing that the public should be well served with good
wares, and that the trade and manufacture itself should be on a sound
basis as to quality of products and should flourish. Incidentally there
was considerable regulation by the gilds of the conditions of labour,
but not primarily in the interests of the labourer. Thus night work was
prohibited because it tended to secrecy and so to bad execution of work;
working on holidays was prohibited to secure fair play between craftsmen
and so on. The position of apprentices was made clear through
indentures, but the position of journeymen was less certain. Signs are
not wanting of a struggle between journeymen and masters, and towards
the end of the 15th century masters themselves, in at least the great
wool trade, tended to develop from craftsmen into something more like
the modern capitalist employer; from an act of 1555 touching weavers it
is quite clear that this development had greatly advanced and that
cloth-making was carried on largely by employers with large capitals.
Before this, however, while a struggle went on between the town
authorities and the craft gilds, journeymen began to form companies of
their own, and the result of the various conflicts may be seen in an act
of Henry VI., providing that in future new ordinances of gilds shall be
submitted to justices of the peace--a measure which was strengthened in
1503.

2. _From Tudor Days until the Close of the 18th Century._--A detailed
history of labour regulation in the 16th century would include some
account of the Tudor laws against vagrancy and methods of dealing with
the increase of pauperism, attributable, at least in part, to the
dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII., and to the
confiscation of craft gild funds, which proceeded under Somerset and
Edward VI. It is sufficient here to point to the general recognition of
the public right to compel labourers to work and thus secure control of
unemployed as well as employed. The statutes of Henry VIII. and Edward
VI. against vagrancy differed rather in degree of severity than in
principle from legislation for similar purposes in previous and
subsequent reigns. The Statute of Labourers, passed in the fifth year of
Elizabeth's reign (1562), as well as the poor law of the same year, was
to a considerable extent both a consolidating and an amending code of
law, and was so securely based on public opinion and deeply rooted
custom that it was maintained in force for two centuries. It avowedly
approves of principles and aims in earlier acts, regulating wages,
punishing refusal to work, and preventing free migration of labour. It
makes, however, a great advance in its express aim of protecting the
poor labourer against insufficient wages, and of devising a machinery,
by frequent meeting of justices, which might yield "unto the hired
person both in time of scarcity and in time of plenty a convenient
proportion of wages." Minute regulations were made governing the
contract between master and servant, and their mutual rights and
obligations on parallel lines for (a) artificers, (b) labourers in
husbandry. Hiring was to be by the year, and any unemployed person
qualified in either calling was bound to accept service on pain of
imprisonment, if required, unless possessed of property of a specified
amount or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a "gentleman."
Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might
not be taken into fresh employment without producing such testimonial,
or, if in a new district, until after showing it to the authorities of
the place. A master might be fined £5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if
contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised
scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable
extent the methods and experiences of the craft gilds. Hours of labour
were as follows: "All artificers and labourers being hired for wages by
the day or week shall, betwixt the midst of the months of March and
September, be and continue at their work at or before 5 o'clock in the
morning and continue at work and not depart until betwixt 7 and 8
o'clock at night, except it be in the time of breakfast, dinner or
drinking, the which time at the most shall not exceed two hours and a
half in a day, that is to say, at every drinking half an hour, for his
dinner one hour and for his sleep when he is allowed to sleep, the which
is from the midst of May to the midst of August, half an hour; and all
the said artificers and labourers betwixt the midst of September and the
midst of March shall be and continue at their work from the spring of
the day in the morning until the night of the same day, except it be in
time afore appointed for breakfast and dinner, upon pain to lose and
forfeit one penny for every hour's absence, to be deducted and defaulked
out of his wages that shall so offend." Although the standpoint of the
Factory Act and Truck Act in force at the beginning of the 20th century
as regards hours of labour or regulation of fines deducted from wages is
completely reversed, yet the difference is not great between the average
length of hours of labour permissible under the present law for women
and those hours imposed upon the adult labourer in Elizabeth's statute.
Apart from the standpoint of compulsory imposition of fines, one
advantage in the definiteness of amount deductable from wages would
appear to lie on the side of the earlier statute.

Three points remain to be touched on in connexion with the Elizabethan
poor law. In addition to (a) consolidation of measures for setting
vagrants to work, we find the first compulsory contributions from the
well-to-do towards poor relief there provided for, (b) at least a
theoretical recognition of a right as well as an obligation on the part
of the labourer to be hired, (c) careful provision for the apprenticing
of destitute children and orphans to a trade.

One provision of considerable interest arose in Scotland, which was
nearly a century later in organizing provisions for fixing conditions of
hire and wages of workmen, labourers and servants, similar to those
consolidated in the Elizabethan Statute of Labourers. In 1617 it was
provided (and reaffirmed in 1661) that power should be given to the
sheriffs to compel payment of wages, "that servants may be the more
willing to obey the ordinance." The difficulties in regulation of
compulsory labour in Scotland must, however, have been great, for in
1672 houses of correction were erected for disobedient servants, and
masters of these houses were empowered to force them to work and to
correct them according to their demerits. While servants in manufacture
were compelled to work at reasonable rates they might not enter on a new
hire without their previous master's consent.

Such legislation continued, at least theoretically, in force until the
awakening effected by the beginning of the industrial revolution--that
is, until the combined effects of steady concentration of capital in the
hands of employers and expansion of trade, followed closely by an
unexampled development of invention in machinery and application of
power to its use. completely altered the face of industrial England.
From time to time, in respect of particular trades, provisions against
truck and for payment of wages in current coin, similar to the act of
Edward IV. in the woollen industry, were found necessary, and this
branch of labour legislation developed through the reigns of Anne and
the four Georges until consolidation and amendment were effected, after
the completion of the industrial revolution, in the Truck Act of 1831.
From the close of the 17th century and during the 18th century the
legislature is no longer mainly engaged in devising means for compelling
labourers and artisans to enter into involuntary service, but rather in
regulating the summary powers of justices of the peace in the matter of
dispute between masters and servants in relation to contracts and
agreements, express or implied, presumed to have been entered into
voluntarily on both sides. While the movement to refer labour questions
to the jurisdiction of the justices thus gradually developed, the main
subject matter for their exercise of jurisdiction in regard to labour
also changed, even when theoretically for a time the two sets of
powers--such as (a) moderation of craft gild ordinances and punishment
of workers refusing hire, or (b) fixing scales of wages and enforcement
of labour contracts--might be concurrently exercised. Even in an act of
George II. (1746) for settlement of disputes and differences as to wages
or other conditions under a contract of labour, power was retained for
the justices, on complaint of the masters of misdemeanour or
ill-behaviour on the part of the servant, to discharge the latter from
service or to send him to a house of correction "there to be corrected,"
that is, to be held to hard labour for a term not exceeding a month or
to be corrected by whipping. In an act with similar aims of George IV.
(1823), with a rather wider scope, the power to order corporal
punishment, and in 1867 to hard labour, for breach of labour contracts
had disappeared, and soon after the middle of the 19th century the right
to enforce contracts of labour also disappeared. Then breach of such
labour contracts became simply a question of recovery of damages, unless
both parties agreed that security for performance of the contract shall
be given instead of damages.

While the endeavour to enforce labour apart from a contract died out in
the latter end of the 18th century, sentiment for some time had strongly
grown in favour of developing early industrial training of children. It
appears to have been a special object of charitable and philanthropic
endeavour in the 17th century, as well as the 18th, to found houses of
industry, in which little children, even under five years of age, might
be trained for apprenticeship with employers. Connected as this
development was with poor relief, one of its chief aims was to prevent
future unemployment and vagrancy by training in habits and knowledge of
industry, but not unavowed was another motive: "from children thus
trained up to constant labour we may venture to hope the lowering of its
price."[5] The evils and excesses which lay enfolded within such a
movement gave the first impulse to the new ventures in labour
legislation which are specially the work of the 19th century. Evident as
it is "that before the Industrial Revolution very young children were
largely employed both in their own homes and as apprentices under the
Poor Law," and that "long before Peel's time there were misgivings about
the apprenticeship system," still it needed the concentration and
prominence of suffering and injury to child life in the factory system
to lead to parliamentary intervention.

3. _From 1800 to the Codes of 1872 and 1878._--A serious outbreak of
fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester appears to have first
drawn widespread and influential public opinion to the overwork of
children, under terribly dangerous and insanitary conditions, on which
the factory system was then largely being carried on. A local inquiry,
chiefly by a group of medical men presided over by Dr Percival, was
instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and in the
forefront of the resulting report stood a recommendation for limitation
and control of the working hours of the children. A resolution by the
county justices followed, in which they declared their intention in
future to refuse "indentures of parish Apprentices whereby they shall be
bound to Owners of Cotton Mills and other works in which children are
obliged to work in the night or more than ten hours in the day." In 1795
the Manchester Board of Health was formed, which, with fuller
information, more definitely advised legislation for the regulation of
the hours and conditions of labour in factories. In 1802 the Health and
Morals of Apprentices Act was passed, which in effect formed the first
step towards prevention of injury to and protection of labour in
factories. It was directly aimed only at evils of the apprentice system,
under which large numbers of pauper children were worked in cotton and
woollen mills without education, for excessive hours, under wretched
conditions. It did not apply to places employing fewer than twenty
persons or three apprentices, and it applied the principle of limitation
of hours (to twelve a day) and abolition of night work, as well as
educational requirements, only to apprentices. Religious teaching and
suitable sleeping accommodation and clothing were provided for in the
act, also as regards apprentices. Lime-washing and ventilation
provisions applied to all cotton and woollen factories employing more
than twenty persons. "Visitors" were to be appointed by county justices
for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to "direct the
adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think
proper." The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and
justices had power to inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions.
Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in
many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was
done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of Yorkshire justices
passed a resolution substituting the ten hours' limit for the twelve
hours' limit of the act, as a condition of permission for indenturing of
apprentices in mills.

Rapid development of the application of steam power to manufacture led
to growth of employment of children in populous centres, otherwise than
on the apprenticeship system, and before long the evils attendant on
this change brought the general question of regulation and protection of
child labour in textile factories to the front. The act of 1819, limited
as it was, was a noteworthy step forward, in that it dealt with this
wider scope of employment of children in cotton factories, and it is
satisfactory to record that it was the outcome of the efforts and
practical experiments of a great manufacturer, Robert Owen. Its
provisions fell on every point lower than the aims he put forward on his
own experience as practicable, and notably in its application only to
cotton mills instead of all textile factories. Prohibition of child
labour under nine years of age and limitation of the working day to
twelve in the twenty-four (without specifying the precise hour of
beginning and closing) were the main provisions of this act. No
provision was made for enforcement of the law beyond such as was
attempted in the act of 1802. Slight amendments were attempted in the
acts of 1825 and 1831, but the first really important factory act was in
1833 applying to textile factories generally, limiting employment of
young persons under eighteen years of age, as well as children,
prohibiting night work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M., and first
providing for "inspectors" to enforce the law. This is the act which was
based on the devoted efforts of Michael Sadler, with whose name in this
connexion that of Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, was from
1832 associated. The importance of this act lay in its provision for
skilled inspection and thus for enforcement of the law by an independent
body of men unconnected with the locality in which the manufactures lay,
whose specialization in their work enabled them to acquire information
needed for further development of legislation for protection of labour.
Their powers were to a certain extent judicial, being assimilated to
those possessed by justices; they could administer oaths and make such
"rules, regulations and orders" as were necessary for execution of the
act, and could hear complaints and impose penalties under the act. In
1844 a textile factory act modified these extensive inspectoral powers,
organizing the service on lines resembling those of our own time, and
added provision for certifying surgeons to examine workers under sixteen
years of age as to physical fitness for employment and to grant
certificates of age and ordinary strength. Hours of labour, by the act
of 1833, were limited for children under eleven to 9 a day or 48 in the
week, and for young persons under eighteen to 12 a day or 69 in the
week. Between 1833 and 1844 the movement in favour of a ten hours' day,
which had long been in progress, reached its height in a time of great
commercial and industrial distress, but could not be carried into effect
until 1847. By the act of 1844 the hours of adult women were first
regulated, and were limited (as were already those of "young persons")
to 12 a day; children were permitted either to work the same hours on
alternate days or "half-time," with compulsory school attendance as a
condition of their employment. The aim in thus adjusting the hours of
the three classes of workers was to provide for a practical standard
working-day. For the first time detailed provisions for health and
safety began to make their appearance in the law. Penal compensation for
preventible injuries due to unfenced machinery was also provided, and
appears to have been the outcome of a discussion by witnesses before the
Royal Commission on Labour of Young Persons in Mines and Manufactures in
1841.

From this date, 1841, begin the first attempts at protective legislation
for labour in mining. The first Mines Act of 1842 following the terrible
revelations of the Royal Commission referred to excluded women and girls
from underground working, and limited the employment of boys, excluding
from underground working those under ten years, but it was not until
1850 that systematic reporting of fatal accidents and until 1855 that
other safeguards for health, life and limb in mines were seriously
provided by law. With the exception of regulations against truck there
was no protection for the miner before 1842; before 1814 it was not
customary to hold inquests on miners killed by accidents in mines. From
1842 onwards considerable interaction in the development of the two sets
of acts (mines and factories), as regards special protection against
industrial injury to health and limb, took place, both in parliament and
in the department (Home Office) administering them. Another strong
influence tending towards ultimate development of scientific protection
of health and life in industry began in the work and reports of the
series of sanitary commissions and Board of Health reports from 1843
onwards. In 1844 the mines inspector made his first report, but two
years later women were still employed to some extent underground.
Organized inspection began in 1850, and in 1854 the Select Committee on
Accidents adopted a suggestion of the inspectors for legislative
extension of the practice of several colliery owners in framing special
safety rules for working in mines. The act of 1855 provided seven
general rules, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts,
proper means for signalling, proper gauges and valve for steam-boiler,
indicator and brake for machine lowering and raising; also it provided
that detailed special rules submitted by mine-owners to the secretary of
state, might, on his approval, have the force of law and be enforceable
by penalty. The Mines Act of 1860, besides extending the law to
ironstone mines, following as it did on a series of disastrous accidents
and explosions, strengthened some of the provisions for safety. At
several inquests strong evidence was given of incompetent management and
neglect of rules, and a demand was made for enforcing employment only of
certificated managers of coal mines. This was not met until the act of
1872, but in 1860 certain sections relating to wages and education were
introduced. Steady development of the coal industry, increasing
association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge of means of
ventilation and of other methods for securing safety, all paved the way
to the Coal Mines Act of 1872, and in the same year health and safety in
metalliferous mines received their first legislative treatment in a code
of similar scope and character to that of the Coal Mines Act. This act
was amended in 1886, and repealed and recodified in 1887; its principal
provisions are still in force, with certain revised special rules and
modifications as regards reporting of accidents (1906) and employment of
children (1903). It was based on the recommendations of a Royal
Commission, which had reported in 1864, and which had shown the grave
excess of mortality and sickness among metalliferous miners, attributed
to the inhalation of gritty particles, imperfect ventilation, great
changes of temperature, excessive physical exertion, exposure to wet,
and other causes. The prohibition of employment of women and of boys
under ten years underground in this class of mines, as well as in coal
mines, had been effected by the act of 1842, and inspection had been
provided for in the act of 1860; these were in amended form included in
the code of 1872, the age of employment of boys underground being raised
to twelve. In the Coal Mines Act of 1872 we see the first important
effort to provide a complete code of regulation for the special dangers
to health, life and limb in coal mines apart from other mines; it
applied to "mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shale
and mines of fire-clay." Unlike the companion act--applying to all other
mines--it maintained the age limit of entering underground employment
for boys at ten years, but for those between ten and twelve it provided
for a system of working analogous to the half-time system in factories,
including compulsory school attendance. The limits of employment for
boys from twelve to sixteen were 10 hours in any one day and 54 in
anyone week. The chief characteristics of the act lay in extension of
the "general" safety rules, improvement of the method of formulating
"special" safety rules, provision for certificated and competent
management, and increased inspection. Several important matters were
transferred from the special to the general rules, such as compulsory
use of safety lamps where needed, regulation of use of explosives, and
securing of roofs and sides. Special rules, before being submitted to
the secretary of state for approval, must be posted in the mine for two
weeks, with a notice that objections might be sent by any person
employed to the district inspector. Wilful neglect of safety provisions
became punishable in the case of employers as well as miners by
imprisonment with hard labour. But the most important new step lay in
the sections relating to daily control and supervision of every mine by
a manager holding a certificate of competency from the secretary of
state, after examination by a board of examiners appointed by the
secretary of state, power being retained for him to cause later inquiry
into competency of the holder of the certificate, and to cancel or
suspend the certificate in case of proved unfitness.

Returning to the development of factory and workshop law from the year
1844, the main line of effort--after the act of 1847 had restricted
hours of women and young persons to 10 a day and fixed the daily limits
between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. (Saturday 6 A.M. to 2 P.M.)--lay in bringing
trade after trade in some degree under the scope of this branch of law,
which had hitherto only regulated conditions in textile factories.
Bleaching and dyeing works were included by the acts of 1860 and 1862;
lace factories by that of 1861; calendering and finishing by acts of
1863 and 1864; bakehouses became partially regulated by an act of 1863,
with special reference to local authorities for administration of its
clauses. The report of the third Children's Employment Commission
brought together in accessible form the miserable facts relating to
child labour in a number of unregulated industries in the year 1862, and
the act of 1864 brought some of (these earthenware-making, lucifer
match-making, percussion cap and cartridge making, paper-staining, and
fustian cutting) partly under the scope of the various textile factory
acts in force. A larger addition of trades was made three years later,
but the act of 1864 is particularly interesting in that it first
embodied some of the results of inquiries of expert medical and sanitary
commissioners, by requiring ventilation to be applied to the removal of
injurious gases, dust, and other impurities generated in manufacture,
and made a first attempt to engraft part of the special rules system
from the mines acts. The provisions for framing such rules disappeared
in the Consolidating Act of 1878, to be revived in a better form later.
The Sanitary Act of 1866, administered by local authorities, provided
for general sanitation in any factories and workshops not under existing
factory acts, and the Workshops Regulation Act of 1867, similarly to be
administered by local authorities, amended in 1870, practically
completed the application of the main principle of the factory acts to
all places in which manual labour was exercised for gain in the making
or finishing of articles or parts of articles for sale. A few specially
dangerous or injurious trades brought under regulation in 1864 and 1867
(e.g. earthenware and lucifer match making, glass-making) ranked as
"factories," although not using mechanical power, and for a time
employment of less than fifty persons relegated certain workplaces to
the category of "workshops," but broadly the presence or absence of such
motor power in aid of process was made and has remained the distinction
between factories and workshops. The Factory Act of 1874, the last of
the series before the great Consolidating Act of 1878, raised the
minimum age of employment for children to ten years in textile
factories. In most of the great inquiries into conditions of child
labour the fact has come clearly to light, in regard to textile and
non-textile trades alike, that parents as much as any employers have
been responsible for too early employment and excessive hours of
employment of children, and from early times until to-day in factory
legislation it has been recognized that they must to some extent be held
responsible for due observation of the limits imposed. For example, in
1831 it was found necessary to protect occupiers against parental
responsibility for false certificates of age, and in 1833 parents of a
child or "any Person having any benefit from the wages of such child"
were made to share responsibility for employment of children without
school attendance or beyond legal hours.

During the discussions on the bill which became law in 1874, it had
become apparent that revision and consolidation of the multiplicity of
statutes then regulating manufacturing industry had become pressingly
necessary; modifications and exceptions for exceptional conditions in
separate industries needed reconsideration and systematization on clear
principles, and the main requirements of the law could with great
advantage be applied more generally to all the industries. In
particular, the daily limits as to period of employment, pauses for
meals, and holidays, needed to be unified for non-textile factories and
workshops, so as to bring about a standard working-day, and thus prevent
the tendency in "the larger establishments to farm out work among the
smaller, where it is done under less favourable conditions both sanitary
and educational."[6] In these main directions, and that of simplifying
definitions, summarizing special sanitary provisions that had been
gradually introduced for various trades, and centralizing and improving
the organization of the inspectorate, the Commission of 1876 on the
Factory Acts made its recommendations, and the Factory Act of 1878 took
effect. In the fixed working-day, provisions for pauses, holidays,
general and special exceptions, distinctions between systems of
employment for children, young persons and women, education of children
and certificates of fitness for children and young persons, limited
regulation of domestic workshops, general principles of administration
and definitions, the law of 1878 was made practically the same as that
embodied in the later principal act of 1901. More or less completely
revised are: (a) the sections in the 1878 act relating to mode of
controlling sanitary conditions in workshops (since 1891 primarily
enforced by the local sanitary authority); (b) provision for reporting
accidents and for enforcing safety (other than fencing of mill gearing
and dangerous machinery); (c) detailed regulation of injurious and
dangerous process and trades; (d) powers of certifying surgeons; (e)
amount of overtime permissible (greatly reduced in amount and now
confined to adults); (f) age for permissible employment of a child has
been raised from ten years to twelve years. Entirely new since the act
of 1878 are the provisions: (a) for control of outwork; (b) for
supplying particulars of work and wages to piece-workers, enabling them
to compute the total amount of wages payable to them; (e) extension of
the act to laundries; (f) a tentative effort to limit the too early
employment of mothers after childbirth.


II. LAW OF UNITED KINGDOM, 1910

_Factories and Workshops._--The act of 1878 remained until 1901,
although much had been meanwhile superimposed, a monument to the efforts
of the great factory reformers of the first half of the 19th century,
and the general groundwork of safety for workers in factories and
workshops in the main divisions of sanitation, security against
accidents, physical fitness of workers, general limitation of hours and
times of employment for young workers and women. The act of 1901, which
came into force 1st January 1902 (and became the principal act), was an
amending as well as a consolidating act. Comparison of the two acts
shows, however, that, in spite of the advantages of further
consolidation and helpful changes in arrangement of sections and
important additions which tend towards a specialized hygiene for factory
life, the fundamental features of the law as fought out in the 19th
century remain undisturbed. So far as the law has altered in character,
it has done so chiefly by gradual development of certain sanitary
features, originally subordinate, and by strengthening provision for
security against accidents and not by retreat from its earlier aims. At
the same time a basis for possible new developments can be seen in the
protection of "outworkers" as well as factory workers against fraudulent
or defective particulars of piece-work rates of wages.

Later acts directly and indirectly affecting the law are certain acts of
1903, 1906, 1907, to be touched on presently.


  Additions to act of 1878.

The act of 1878, in a series of acts from 1883 to 1895, received
striking additions, based (1) on the experience gained in other branches
of protective legislation, e.g. development of the method of regulation
of dangerous trades by "special rules" and administrative inquiry into
accidents under Coal Mines Acts; (2) on the findings of royal
commissions and parliamentary inquiries, e.g. increased control of
"outwork" and domestic workshops, and limitation of "overtime"; (3) on
the development of administrative machinery for enforcing the more
modern law relating to public health, e.g. transference of
administration of sanitary provisions in workshops to the local sanitary
authorities; (4) on the trade-union demand for means for securing
trustworthy records of wage-contracts between employer and workman, e.g.
the section requiring particulars of work and wages for piece-workers.
The first additions to the act of 1878 were, however, almost purely
attempts to deal more adequately than had been attempted in the code of
1878 with certain striking instances of trades injurious to health. Thus
the Factory and Workshop Act of 1883 provided that white-lead factories
should not be carried on without a certificate of conformity with
certain conditions, and also made provision for special rules, on lines
later superseded by those laid down in the act of 1891, applicable to
any employment in a factory or workshop certified as dangerous or
injurious by the secretary of state. The act of 1883 also dealt with
sanitary conditions in bakehouses. Certain definitions and explanations
of previous enactments touching overtime and employment of a child in
any factory or workshop were also included in the act. A class of
factories in which excessive heat and humidity seriously affected the
health of operatives was next dealt with in the Cotton Cloth Factories
Act 1889. This provided for special notice to the chief inspector from
all occupiers of cotton cloth factories (i.e. any room, shed, or
workshop or part thereof in which weaving of cotton cloth is carried on)
who intend to produce humidity by artificial means; regulated both
temperature of workrooms and amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and
provided for tests and records of the same; and fixed a standard minimum
volume of fresh air (600 cub. ft.) to be admitted in every hour for
every person employed in the factory. Power was retained for the
secretary of state to modify by order the standard for the maximum limit
of humidity of the atmosphere at any given temperature. A short act in
1870 extended this power to other measures for the protection of
health.

The special measures from 1878 to 1889 gave valuable precedents for
further developments of special hygiene in factory life, but the next
advance in the Factory and Workshop Act 1891, following the House of
Lords Committee on the sweating system and the Berlin International
Labour Conference, extended over much wider ground. Its principal
objects were: (a) to render administration of the law relating to
workshops more efficient, particularly as regards sanitation; with this
end in view it made the primary controlling authority for sanitary
matters in workshops the local sanitary authority (now the district
council), acting by their officers, and giving them the powers of the
less numerous body of factory inspectors, while at the same time the
provisions of the Public Health Acts replaced in workshops the very
similar sanitary provisions of the Factory Acts; (b) to provide for
greater security against accidents and more efficient fencing of
machinery in factories; (c) to extend the method of regulation of
unhealthy or dangerous occupations by application of special rules and
requirements to any incident of employment (other than in a domestic
workshop) certified by the secretary of state to be dangerous or
injurious to health or dangerous to life or limb; (d) to raise the age
of employment of children and restrict the employment of women
immediately after childbirth; (e) to require particulars of rate of
wages to be given with work to piece-workers in certain branches of the
textile industries; (f) to amend the act of 1878 in various subsidiary
ways, with the view of improving the administration of its principles,
e.g. by increasing the means of checking the amount of overtime worked,
empowering inspectors to enter workplaces used as dwellings without a
justice's warrant, and the imposition of minimum penalties in certain
cases. On this act followed four years of greatly accelerated
administrative activity. No fewer than sixteen trades were scheduled by
the secretary of state as dangerous to health. The manner of preparing
and establishing suitable rules was greatly modified by the act of 1901
and will be dealt with in that connexion.

The Factory and Workshop Act 1895 followed thus on a period of exercise
of new powers of administrative regulation (the period being also that
during which the Royal Commission on Labour made its wide survey of
industrial conditions), and after two successive annual reports of the
chief inspector of factories had embodied reports and recommendations
from the women inspectors, who in 1893 were first added to the
inspectorate. Again, the chief features of an even wider legislative
effort than that of 1891 were the increased stringency and definiteness
of the measures for securing hygienic and safe conditions of work. Some
of these measures, however, involved new principles, as in the provision
for the prohibition of the use of a dangerous machine or structure by
the order of a magistrate's court, and the power to include in the
special rules drawn up in pursuance of section 8 of the act of 1891, the
prohibition of the employment of any class of persons, or the limitation
of the period of employment of any class of persons in any process
scheduled by order of the secretary of state. These last two powers have
both been exercised, and with the exercise of the latter passed away,
without opposition, the absolute freedom of the employer of the adult
male labourer to carry on his manufacture without legislative limitation
of the hours of labour. Second only in significance to these new
developments was the addition, for the first time since 1867, of new
classes of workplaces not covered by the general definitions in section
93 of the Consolidating Act of 1878, viz.: (a) laundries (with special
conditions as to hours, &c.); (b) docks, wharves, quays, warehouses and
premises on which machinery worked by power is temporarily used for the
purpose of the construction of a building or any structural work in
connexion with the building (for the purpose only of obtaining security
against accidents). Other entirely new provisions in the act of 1895,
later strengthened by the act of 1901, were the requirement of a
reasonable temperature in workrooms, the requirement of lavatories for
the use of persons employed in any department where poisonous substances
are used, the obligation on occupiers and medical practitioners to
report cases of industrial poisoning; and the penalties imposed on an
employer wilfully allowing wearing apparel to be made, cleaned or
repaired in a dwelling-house where an inmate is suffering from
infectious disease. Another provision empowered the secretary of state
to specify classes of outwork and areas with a view to the regulation of
the sanitary condition of premises in which outworkers are employed.
Owing to the conditions attached to its exercise, no case was found in
which this power could come into operation, and the act of 1901 deals
with the matter on new lines. The requirement of annual returns from
occupiers of persons employed, and the competency of the person charged
with infringing the act to give evidence in his defence, were important
new provisions, as was also the adoption of the powers to direct a
formal investigation of any accident on the lines laid down in section
45 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1887. Other sections, relating to
sanitation and safety, were developments of previous regulations, e.g.
the fixing of a standard of overcrowding, provision of sanitary
accommodation separate for each sex where the standard of the Public
Health Act Amendment Act of 1890 had not been adopted by the competent
local sanitary authority, power to order a fan or other mechanical means
to carry off injurious gas, vapour or other impurity (the previous power
covering only dust). The fencing of machinery and definition of
accidents were made more precise, young persons were prohibited from
cleaning dangerous machinery, and additional safeguards against risk of
injury by fire or panic were introduced. On the question of employment
the foremost amendments lay in the almost complete prohibition of
overtime for young persons, and the restriction of the power of an
employer to employ protected persons outside his factory or workshop on
the same day that he had employed them in the factory or workshop. Under
the head of particulars of work and wages to piece-workers an important
new power, highly valued by the workers, was given to apply the
principle with the necessary modifications by order of the secretary of
state to industries other than textile and to outworkers as well as to
those employed inside factories and workshops.


  The act of 1901.

In 1899 an indirect modification of the limitation to employment of
children was effected by the Elementary Education Amendment Act, which,
by raising from eleven to twelve the minimum age at which a child may,
by the by-laws of a local authority, obtain total or partial exemption
from the obligation to attend school, made it unlawful for an occupier
to take into employment any child under twelve in such a manner as to
prevent full-time attendance at school. The age of employment became
generally thereby the same as it has been for employment at a mine above
ground since 1887. The act of 1901 made the prohibition of employment of
a child under twelve in a factory or workshop direct and absolute. Under
the divisions of sanitation, safety, fitness for employment, special
regulation of dangerous trades, special control of bakehouses,
exceptional treatment of creameries, new methods of dealing with home
work and outworkers, important additions were made to the general law by
the act of 1901, as also in regulations for strengthened administrative
control. New general sanitary provisions were those prescribing: (a)
ventilation _per se_ for every workroom, and empowering the secretary of
state to fix a standard of sufficient ventilation; (b) drainage of wet
floors; (c) the power of the secretary of state to define in certain
cases what shall constitute sufficient and suitable sanitary
accommodation. New safety provisions were those relating to--(a)
Examination and report on steam boilers; (b) prohibition of employment
of a child in cleaning below machinery in motion; (c) power of the
district council to make by-laws for escape in case of fire. The most
important administrative alterations were: (a) a justice engaged in the
same trade as, or being officer of an association of persons engaged in
the same trade as, a person charged with an offence may not act at the
hearing and determination of the charge; (b) ordinary supervision of
sanitary conditions under which outwork is carried on was transferred to
the district council, power being reserved to the Home Office to
intervene in case of neglect or default by any district council.


  Acts of 1903, 1906, 1907.

The Employment of Children Act 1903, while primarily providing for
industries outside the scope of the Factory Act, incidentally secured
that children employed as half-timers should not also be employed in
other occupations. The Notice of Accidents Act 1906 amended the whole
system of notification of accidents, simultaneously in mines, quarries,
factories and workshops, and will be set out in following paragraphs.
The Factory and Workshop Act of 1907 amended the law in respect of
laundries by generally applying the provisions of 1901 to trade
laundries while granting them choice of new exceptional periods, and by
extending the provisions of the act (with certain powers to the Home
Office by Orders laid before parliament to allow variations) to
institution laundries carried on for charitable or reformatory purposes.
The Employment of Women Act 1907 repealed an exemption in the act of
1901 (and earlier acts) relating to employment of women in flax scutch
mills, thus bringing this employment under the ordinary provisions as to
period of employment.

The following paragraphs aim at presenting an idea of the scope of the
modified and amended law, as a whole, adding where clearly necessary
reference to the effect of acts, which ceased to apply after the 31st of
December 1901:--


    Definitions.

  The workplaces to which the act applies are, first, "factories" and
  "workshops"; secondly, laundries, docks, wharves, &c., enumerated
  above as introduced and regulated partially only by the act of 1895
  and subsequent acts. Apart from this secondary list, and having regard
  to workplaces which remain undefined by the law, the act may broadly
  be said to apply to premises, rooms or places in which manual labour,
  with or without the aid of mechanical power, is exercised for gain in
  or incidental to the making, altering, repairing, ornamenting,
  washing, cleaning or finishing or adapting for sale of any article or
  part of any article. If steam, water or other mechanical power is used
  in aid of the manufacturing process, the workplace is a factory; if
  not, it is a workshop. There is, however, a list of eighteen classes
  of works (brought under the factory law for reasons of safety, &c.,
  before workshops generally were regulated) which are defined as
  factories whether power is used in them or not. Factories are, again,
  subdivided into textile and non-textile: they are textile if the
  machinery is employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing cotton,
  wool, hair, silk, flax, hemp, jute, tow, China grass, cocoanut fibre
  or other like material either separately or mixed together, or mixed
  with any other material, or any fabric made thereof; all other
  factories are non-textile. The distinction turns on the historical
  origin of factory regulation and the regulations in textile factories
  remain in some respects slightly more stringent than in the
  non-textile factories and workshops, though the general provisions are
  almost the same. Three special classes of workshops have for certain
  purposes to be distinguished from ordinary workshops, which include
  tenement workshops: (a) Domestic workshops, i.e. any private house,
  room or place, which, though used as a dwelling, is by reason of the
  work carried on there a workshop, and in which the only persons
  employed are members of the same family, dwelling there alone--in
  these women's hours are unrestricted; (b) Women's workshops, in which
  neither children nor young persons are employed--in these a more
  elastic arrangement of hours is permissible than in ordinary
  workshops; (c) Workshops in which men only are employed--these come
  under the same general regulations in regard to sanitation as other
  workshops, also under the provisions of the Factory Act as regards
  security, and, if certified by the secretary of state, may be brought
  under special regulations. They are otherwise outside the scope of the
  act of 1901.

  The person to whom the regulations apply in the above-defined
  workplaces are _children_, i.e. persons between the ages of twelve and
  fourteen, _young persons_, i.e. boys or girls between the ages of
  fourteen (or if an educational certificate has been obtained,
  thirteen) and eighteen years of age, and _women_, i.e. females above
  the age of eighteen; these are all "protected" persons to whom the
  general provisions of the act, inclusive of the regulation of hours
  and times of employment, apply. To adult men generally those
  provisions broadly only apply which are aimed at securing sanitation
  and safety in the conduct of the manufacturing process.

  The person generally responsible for observance of the provisions of
  the law, whether these relate to health, safety, limitation of the
  hours of labour or other matters, is the _occupier_ (a term undefined
  in the act) of the factory, workshop or laundry. There are, however,
  limits to his responsibility: (a) generally, where the occupier has
  used due diligence to enforce the execution of the act, and can show
  that another person, whether agent, servant, workman or other person,
  is the real offender; (b) specially in a factory the sections relating
  to employment of protected persons, where the owner or hirer of a
  machine or implement driven by mechanical power is some person other
  than the occupier of the factory, the owner or hirer, so far as
  respects any offence against the act committed in relation to a person
  who is employed in connexion with the machine or implement, and is in
  the employment or pay of the owner or hirer, shall be deemed to be the
  occupier of the factory; (c) for the one purpose of reporting
  accidents, the actual employer of the person injured in any factory or
  workshop is bound under penalty immediately to report the same to the
  occupier; (d) so far as relates to sanitary conditions, fencing of
  machinery, affixing of notices in _tenement_ factories, the _owner_
  (as defined by the Public Health Act 1875), generally speaking, takes
  the place of the occupier.

  Employment in a factory or workshop includes work whether for wages or
  not: (a) in a manufacturing process or handicraft, (b) in cleaning any
  place used for the same, (c) in cleaning or oiling any part of the
  machinery, (d) any work whatsoever incidental to the process or
  handicraft, or connected with the article made. Persons found in any
  part of the factory or workshop, where machinery is used or
  manufacture carried on, except at meal-times, or when machinery is
  stopped, are deemed to be employed until the contrary is proved. The
  act, however, does not apply to employment for the sole purpose of
  repairing the premises or machinery, nor to the process of preserving
  and curing fish immediately upon its arrival in the fishing boats in
  order to prevent the fish from being destroyed or spoiled, nor to the
  process of cleaning and preparing fruit so far as is necessary to
  prevent it from spoiling during the months of June, July, August and
  September. Certain light handicrafts carried on by a family only in a
  private house or room at irregular intervals are also outside the
  scope of the act.


    Sanitation.

  The foremost provisions are those relating to the sanitary condition
  of the workplaces and the general security of every class of worker.
  Every factory must be kept in a cleanly condition, free from noxious
  effluvia, ventilated in such a manner as to render harmless, so far as
  practicable, gases, vapours, dust or other impurities generated in the
  manufacture; must be provided with sufficient and suitable sanitary
  conveniences separate for the sexes; must not be overcrowded (not less
  than 250 cubic ft. during the day, 400 during overtime, for each
  worker). In these matters the law of public health takes in workshops
  the place of the Factory Act, the requirements being substantially the
  same. Although, however, primarily the officers of the district
  council enforce the sanitary provisions in workshops, the government
  factory inspectors may give notice of any defect in them to the
  district council in whose district they are situate; and if
  proceedings are not taken within one month by the latter, the factory
  inspector may act in default and recover expenses from the district
  council. This power does not extend to domestic workshops which are
  under the law relating to public health so far as general sanitation
  is concerned. General powers are reserved to the secretary of state,
  where he is satisfied that the Factory Act or law relating to public
  health as regards workplaces has not been carried out by any district
  council, to authorize a factory inspector during a period named in his
  order to act instead of the district council. Other general sanitary
  provisions administered by the government inspectors are the
  requirement in factories and workshops of washing conveniences where
  poisonous substances are used; adequate measures for securing and
  maintaining a reasonable temperature of such a kind as will not
  interfere with the purity of the air in each room in which any person
  is employed; maintenance of sufficient means of ventilation in every
  room in a factory or workshop (in conformity with such standard as may
  be prescribed by order of the secretary of state); provision of a fan
  to carry off injurious dust, gas or other impurity, and prevent their
  inhalation in any factory or workshop; drainage of floors where wet
  processes are carried on. For laundries and bakehouses there are
  further sanitary regulations; e.g. in laundries all stoves for heating
  irons shall be sufficiently separated from any ironing-room or
  ironing-table, and the floors shall be "drained in such a manner as
  will allow the water to flow off freely"; and in bakehouses a cistern
  supplying water to a bakehouse must be quite separate from that
  supplying water to a water-closet, and the latter may not communicate
  directly with the bakehouse. Use of underground bakehouses (i.e. a
  baking room with floor more than 3 ft. below the ground adjoining) is
  prohibited, except where already used at the passing of the act;
  further, in these cases, after 1st January 1904, a certificate as to
  suitability in light, ventilation, &c., must be obtained from the
  district council. In other trades certified by the secretary of state
  further sanitary regulations may be made to increase security for
  health by special rules to be presently touched on. The secretary of
  state may also make sanitary requirements a condition of granting such
  exceptions to the general law as he is empowered to grant. In
  factories, as distinct from workshops, a periodical lime washing (or
  washing with hot water and soap where paint and varnish have been
  used) of all inside walls and ceilings once at least in every fourteen
  months is generally required (in bakehouses once in six months). As
  regards sufficiency and suitability of sanitary accommodation, the
  standards determined by order of the secretary of state shall be
  observed in the districts to which it is made applicable. An order was
  made called the Sanitary Accommodation Order, on the 4th of February
  1903, the definitions and standards in which have also been widely
  adopted by local sanitary authorities in districts where the Order
  itself has no legal force, the local authority having parallel power
  under the Public Health Act of 1890.


    Security and accidents.

  Security in the use of machinery is provided for by precautions as
  regards the cleaning of machinery in motion and working between the
  fixed and traversing parts of self-acting machines driven by power, by
  fencing of machinery, and by empowering inspectors to obtain an order
  from a court of summary jurisdiction to prohibit the use, temporarily
  or absolutely, of machinery, ways, works or plant, including use of a
  steam boiler, which cannot be used without danger to life and limb.
  Every hoist and fly-wheel directly connected with mechanical power,
  and every part of a water-wheel or engine worked by mechanical power,
  and every wheel race, must be fenced, whatever its position, and every
  part of mill-gearing or dangerous machinery must either be fenced or
  be in such position that it is as safe as if fenced. No protected
  persons may clean any part of mill-gearing in motion, and children may
  further not clean any part of or below manufacturing machinery in
  motion by aid of mechanical power; young persons further may not clean
  any machinery if the inspector notifies it to the occupier as
  dangerous. Security as regards the use of dangerous premises is
  provided for by empowering courts of summary jurisdiction, on the
  application of an inspector, to prohibit their use until the danger
  has been removed. The district council, or, in London, the county
  council, or in case of their default the factory inspector, can
  require certain provisions for escape in case of fire in factories and
  workshops in which more than forty persons are employed; special
  powers to make by-laws for means of escape from fire in any factory or
  workshop are, in addition to any powers for prevention of fire that
  they possess, given to every district council, in London to the county
  council. The means of escape must be kept free from obstruction.
  Provisions are made for doors to open outwards in each room in which
  more than ten persons are employed, and to prevent the locking,
  bolting or fastening of doors so that they cannot easily be opened
  from inside when any person is employed or at meals inside the
  workplace. Further, provisions for security may be provided in special
  regulations. Every boiler for generating steam in a factory or
  workshop or place where the act applies must have a proper safety
  valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and every such boiler, valve
  and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a
  competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen
  months. The occupier of any factory or workshop may be liable for
  penal compensation not exceeding £100 in case of injury or death due
  to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of
  which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his
  family, as the secretary of state determines. When a death has
  occurred by accident in a factory or workshop, the coroner must advise
  the factory inspector for the district of the place and time of the
  inquest. The secretary of state may order a formal investigation of
  the circumstances of any accident as in the case of mines. Careful and
  detailed provisions are made for the reporting by occupiers to
  inspectors, and entry in the registers at factories and workshops of
  accidents which occur in a factory or workshop and (a) cause loss of
  life to a person employed there, or (b) are due to machinery moved by
  mechanical power, molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas
  or steam, electricity, so disabling any person employed in the factory
  or workshop as to cause him to be absent throughout at least one whole
  day from his ordinary work, (c) are due to any other special cause
  which the secretary of state may determine, (d) not falling under the
  previous heads and yet cause disablement for more than seven days'
  ordinary work to any person working in the factory or workshop. In the
  case of (a) or (b) notice has also to be sent to the certifying
  surgeon by the occupier. Cases of lead, phosphorus, arsenical and
  mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, contracted in any factory or workshop
  must similarly be reported and registered by the occupier, and the
  duty of reporting these cases is also laid on medical practitioners
  under whose observation they come. The list of classes of poisoning
  can be extended by the secretary of state's order.


    Physical fitness of workers.

  Certificates of physical fitness for employment must be obtained by
  the occupier from the certifying surgeon for the district for all
  persons under sixteen years of age employed in a factory, and in any
  class of workshops to which the requirement has been extended by order
  of the secretary of state, and an inspector may suspend any such
  persons for re-examination in a factory, or for examination in a
  workshop, when "disease or bodily infirmity" unfits the person, in his
  opinion, for the work of the place. The certifying surgeon may examine
  the process as well as the person submitted, and may qualify the
  certificate he grants by conditions as to the work on which the person
  is fit to be employed. An occupier of a factory or workshop or laundry
  shall not knowingly allow a woman to be employed therein within four
  weeks after childbirth.


    Hours of protected persons.

  The employment of children, young persons and women is regulated as
  regards ordinary and exceptional hours of work, ordinary and
  exceptional meal-times, length of spells and holidays. The outside
  limits of ordinary periods of employment and holidays are, broadly,
  the same for textile factories as for non-textile factories and
  workshops; the main difference lies in the requirement of not less
  than a total two hours' interval for meals out of the twelve, and a
  limit of four and a half hours for any spell of work, a longer weekly
  half holiday, and a prohibition of overtime, in textile factories, as
  compared with a total one and a half hours' interval for meals and a
  limit of five hours for spells and (conditional) permission of
  overtime in non-textile factories. The hours of work must be
  specified, and from Monday to Friday may be between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M.,
  or 7 A.M. to 7 P.M.; in non-textile factories and workshops the hours
  also may be taken between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M. or by order of the
  secretary of state for special industries 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. Between
  these outside limits, with the proviso that meal-times must be fixed
  and limits as to spells observed, women and young persons may be
  employed the full time, children on the contrary only half time, on
  alternate days, or in alternate sets attending school half time
  regularly. On Saturdays, in textile factories in which the period
  commences at 6 A.M. all manufacturing work must cease at 12 if not
  less than one hour is given for meals, or 11.30 if less than one hour
  is given for meals (half an hour extra allowed for cleaning), and in
  non-textile factories and workshops at 2 P.M., 3 P.M. or 4 P.M.,
  according as the hour of beginning is 6 A.M., 7 A.M. or 8 A.M. In
  "domestic workshops" the total number of hours for young persons and
  children must not exceed those allowed in ordinary workshops, but the
  outside limits for beginning and ending are wider; and the case is
  similar as regards hours of women in "women's workshops." Employment
  outside a factory or workshop in the business of the same is limited
  in a manner similar to that laid down in the Shop Hours Act, to be
  touched on presently. Overtime in certain classes of factories,
  workshops and warehouses attached to them is permitted, under
  conditions specified in the acts, for women, to meet seasonal or
  unforeseen pressure of business, or where goods of a perishable nature
  are dealt with, for young persons only in a very limited degree in
  factories liable to stoppage for drought or flood, or for an
  unfinished process. These and other cases of exceptional working are
  under minute and careful administrative regulations. Broadly these
  same regulations as to exceptional overtime may apply in _laundries_
  but the act of 1907 granted to laundries not merely ancillary to the
  manufacture carried on in a factory or workshop (e.g. shirt and collar
  factories), additional power to fix different periods of employment
  for different days of the week, and to make use of one or other of two
  exceptional methods of arranging the daily periods so as to permit of
  periods of different length on different days; these exceptional
  periods cannot be worked in addition to overtime permissible under the
  general law. Laundries carried on in connexion with charitable or
  reformatory institutions were brought in 1907 within the scope of the
  law, but special schemes for regulation as to hours, meals, holidays,
  &c., may be submitted by the managers to the secretary of state, who
  is empowered to approve them if he is satisfied that they are not less
  favourable than the corresponding provisions of the principal act;
  such schemes shall be laid as soon as possible before both Houses of
  Parliament.


    Dangerous and unhealthy industries.

  Night work is allowed in certain specified industries, under
  conditions, for male young persons, but for no other workers under
  eighteen, and overtime for women may never be later than 10 P.M. or
  before 6 A.M. Sunday work is prohibited except, under conditions, for
  Jews; and in factories, workshops and laundries six holidays
  (generally the Bank holidays) must be allowed in the year. In
  creameries in which women and young persons are employed the secretary
  of state may by special order vary the beginning and end of the daily
  period of employment, and allow employment for not more than three
  hours on Sundays and holidays.

  The general provisions of the act may be supplemented where specially
  dangerous or unhealthy trades are carried on, by special regulations.
  This was provided for in the law in force until 31st December 1901, as
  in the existing principal act, and the power to establish rules had
  been exercised between 1892 and 1901 in twenty-two trades or processes
  where injury arose either from handling of dangerous substances, such
  as lead and lead compounds, phosphorus, arsenic or various chemicals,
  or where there is inhalation of irritant dust or noxious fumes, or
  where there is danger of explosion or infection of anthrax. Before the
  rule could be drawn up under the acts of 1891 to 1895, the secretary
  of state had to certify that in the particular case or class of cases
  in question (e.g. process or machinery), there was, in his opinion,
  danger to life or limb or risk of injury to health; thereupon the
  chief inspector might propose to the occupier of the factory or
  workshop such special rules or measures as he thought necessary to
  meet the circumstances. The occupier might object or propose
  modifications, but if he did not the rules became binding in
  twenty-one days; if he objected, and the secretary of state did not
  assent to any proposed modification, the matters in difference had to
  be referred to arbitration, the award in which finally settled the
  rules or requirement to be observed. In November 1901, in the case of
  the earthenware and china industry, the last arbitration of the kind
  was opened and was finally concluded in 1903. The parties to the
  arbitration were the chief inspector, on behalf of the secretary of
  state, and the occupier or occupiers, but the workmen interested might
  be and were represented on the arbitration. In the establishing of the
  twenty-two sets of existing special rules only thrice has arbitration
  been resorted to, and only on two of these occasions were workmen
  represented. The provisions as to the arbitration were laid down in
  the first schedule to the Act of 1891, and were similar to those under
  the Coal Mines Regulation Acts. Many of these codes have still the
  force of law and will continue until in due course revised under the
  amended procedure of the act of 1901. They might not only regulate
  conditions of employment, but also restrict or prohibit employment of
  any class of workers; where such restriction or prohibition affected
  adult workers the rules had to be laid for forty days before both
  Houses of Parliament before coming into operation. The obligation to
  observe the rules in detail lies on workers as well as on occupiers,
  and the section in the act of 1891 providing a penalty for
  non-observance was drafted, as in the case of the mines, so as to
  provide for a simultaneous fine for each (not exceeding two pounds for
  the worker, not exceeding ten pounds for the employer).

  The provisions as to special regulations of the act of 1901 touch
  primarily the method of procedure for making the regulations, but they
  also covered for the first time domestic workshops and added a power
  as to the kind of regulations that may be made; further, they
  strengthened the sanction for observance of any rules that may be
  established, by placing the occupier in the same general position as
  regards penalty for non-observance as in other matters under the act.
  On the certificate of the secretary of state that any manufacture,
  machinery, plant, process or manual labour used in factories or
  workshops is dangerous or injurious to life, health or limb, such
  regulations as appear to the secretary of state to meet the necessity
  of the case may be made by him after he has duly published notice: (1)
  of his intention; (2) of the place where copies of the draft
  regulations can be obtained; and (3) of the time during which
  objections to them can be made by persons affected. The secretary of
  state may modify the regulations to meet the objections made. If not,
  unless the objection is withdrawn or appears to him frivolous, he
  shall, before making the regulations, appoint a competent person to
  hold a public inquiry with regard to the draft regulations and to
  report to him thereon. The inquiry is to be made under such rules as
  the secretary of state may lay down, and when the regulations are
  made, they must be laid as soon as possible before parliament. Either
  House may annul these regulations or any of them, without prejudice to
  the power of the secretary of state to make new regulations. The
  regulations may apply to all factories or workshops in which the
  certified manufacture, process, &c., is used, or to a specified class.
  They may, among other things, (a) prohibit or limit employment of any
  person or class of persons; (b) prohibit, limit, or control use of any
  material or process; (c) modify or extend special regulations
  contained in the Act. Regulations have been established among others
  in the following trades and processes: felt hat-making where any
  inflammable solvent is used; file-cutting by hand; manufacture of
  electric accumulators; docks, processes of loading, unloading, &c.;
  tar distilling; factories in which self-acting mules are used; use of
  locomotives; spinning and weaving of flax, hemp and jute; manufacture
  of paints and colours; heading of yarn dyed by means of lead
  compounds.


    Measures and particulars to piece-workers.

  Although the Factory and Workshop Acts have not directly regulated
  wages, they have made certain provision for securing to the worker
  that the amount agreed upon shall be received: (a) by extending every
  act in force relating to the inspection of weights, measures and
  weighing machines for use in the sale of goods to those used in a
  factory or workshop for checking or ascertaining the wages of persons
  employed; (b) by ensuring that piece-workers in the textile trades
  (and other trades specified by the secretary of state) shall receive,
  before commencing any piece of work, clear particulars of the wages
  applicable to the work to be done and of the work to which that rate
  is to be applied. Unless the particulars of work are ascertainable by
  an automatic indicator, they must be given to textile workers in
  writing, and in the case of weavers in the cotton, worsted and woollen
  trades the particulars of wages must be supplied separately to each
  worker, and also shown on a placard in a conspicuous position. In
  other textile processes, it is sufficient to furnish the particulars
  separately to each worker. The secretary of state has used his powers
  to extend this protection to non-textile workers, with suitable
  modifications, in various hardware industries, including pen-making,
  locks, chains, in wholesale tailoring and making of wearing apparel,
  in fustian cutting, umbrella-making, brush-making and a number of
  other piece-work trades. He further has in most of these and other
  trades used his power to extend this protection to outworkers.


    Administration.

  With a view to efficient administration of the act (a) certain notices
  have to be conspicuously exhibited at the factory or workshop, (b)
  registers and lists kept, and (c) notices sent to the inspector by the
  occupier. Among the first the most important are the prescribed
  abstract of the act, the names and addresses of the inspector and
  certifying surgeon, the period of employment, and specified meal-times
  (which may not be changed without fresh notice to the inspector), the
  air space and number of persons who may legally be employed in each
  room, and prescribed particulars of exceptional employment; among the
  second are the general registers of children and young persons
  employed, of accidents, of lime-washing, of overtime, and lists of
  outworkers; among the third are the notice of beginning to occupy a
  factory or workshop, which the occupier must send within one month,
  report of overtime employment, notice of accident, poisoning or
  anthrax, and returns of persons employed, with such other particulars
  as may be prescribed. These must be sent to the chief inspector at
  intervals of not less than one and not more than three years, as may
  be directed by the secretary of state.

  The secretary of state for the Home Department controls the
  administration of the acts, appoints the inspectors referred to in the
  acts, assigns to them their duties, and regulates the manner and cases
  in which they are to exercise the powers of inspectors. The act,
  however, expressly assigns certain duties and powers to a chief
  inspector and certain to district inspectors. Many provisions of the
  acts depend as to their operation on the making of orders by the
  secretary of state. These orders may impose special obligations on
  occupiers and increase the stringency of regulations, may apply
  exceptions as to employment, and may modify or relax regulations to
  meet special classes of circumstances. In certain cases, already
  indicated, his orders guide or determine the action of district
  councils, and, generally, in case of default by a council he may
  empower his inspectors to act as regards workplaces, instead of the
  council, both under the Factory Acts and Public Health Acts.

  The powers of an inspector are to enter, inspect and examine, by day
  or by night, at any reasonable time, any factory or workshop (or
  laundry, dock, &c.), or part of one, when he has reason to believe
  that any person is employed there; to take with him a constable if he
  has reasonable cause to expect obstruction; to require production of
  registers, certificates, &c., under the acts; to examine, alone or in
  the presence of any other person, as he sees fit, every person in the
  factory or workshop, or in a school where the children employed are
  being educated; to prosecute, conduct or defend before a court of
  summary jurisdiction any proceeding under the acts; and to exercise
  such other powers as are necessary for carrying the act into effect.
  The inspector has also the duty of enforcing the Truck Acts in places,
  and in respect of persons, under the Factory Acts. Certifying surgeons
  are appointed by the chief inspector subject to the regulations of the
  secretary of state, and their chief duties are (a) to examine workers
  under sixteen, and persons under special rules, as to physical fitness
  for the daily work during legal periods, with power to grant qualified
  certificates as to the work for which the young worker is fit, and (b)
  to investigate and report on accidents and cases of lead, phosphorus
  or other poisoning and anthrax.

In 1907 there were registered as under inspection 110,276 factories,
including laundries with power, 146,917 workshops (other than men's
workshops), including laundries without power; of works under special
rules or regulations (included in the figures just given) there were
10,586 and 19,687 non-textile works under orders for supply of
particulars to piece-workers. Of notices of accidents received there
were 124,325, of which 1179 were fatal; of reported cases of poisoning
there were 653, of which 40 were fatal. Prosecutions were taken by
inspectors in 4474 cases and convictions obtained in 4211 cases. Of
persons employed there were, according to returns of occupiers, 1904,
4,165,791 in factories and 688,756 in workshops.

_Coal Mines._--The mode of progress to be recorded in the regulation of
coal mines since 1872 can be contrasted in one aspect with the progress
just recorded of factory legislation since 1878. Consolidation was again
earlier adopted when large amendments were found necessary, with the
result that by far the greater part of the law is to be found in the act
of 1887, which repealed and re-enacted, with amendments, the Coal Mines
Acts of 1872 and 1886, and the Stratified Ironstone Mines (Gunpowder)
Act, 1881. The act of 1881 was simply concerned with rules relating to
the use of explosives underground. The act of 1886 dealt with three
questions: (a) The election and payment of checkweighers (i.e. the
persons appointed and paid by miners in pursuance of section 13 of the
act of 1887 for the purpose of taking a correct account on their behalf
of the weight of the mineral gotten by them, and for the correct
determination of certain deductions for which they may be liable); (b)
provision for new powers of the secretary of state to direct a formal
investigation of any explosion or accident, and its causes and
circumstances, a provision which was later adopted in the law relating
to factories; (c) provision enabling any relatives of persons whose
death may have been caused by explosions or accidents in or about mines
to attend in person, or by agent, coroners' inquests thereon, and to
examine witnesses. The act of 1887, which amended, strengthened and
consolidated these acts and the earlier Consolidating Act of 1872, may
also be contrasted in another aspect with the general acts of factory
legislation. In scope it formed, as its principal forerunner had done, a
general code; and in some measure it went farther in the way of
consolidation than the Factory Acts had done, inasmuch as certain
questions, which in factories are dealt with by statutes distinct from
the Factory Acts, have been included in the Mines Regulation Acts, e.g.
the prohibition of the payment of wages in public-houses, and the
machinery relating to weights and measures whereby miners control their
payment; further, partly from the less changing nature of the industry,
but probably mainly from the power of expression gained for miners by
their organization, the code, so far as it went, at each stage answered
apparently on the whole more nearly to the views and needs of the
persons protected than the parallel law relating to factories. This was
strikingly seen in the evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour in
1892-1894, where the repeated expression of satisfaction on the part of
the miners with the provisions as distinct from the administration of
the code ("with a few trifling exceptions") is in marked contrast with
the long and varied series of claims and contentions put forward for
amendment of the Factory Acts.

Since the act of 1887 there have followed five minor acts, based on the
recommendation of the officials acting under the acts, while two of them
give effect to claims made by the miners before the Royal Commission on
Labour. Thus, in 1894, the Coal Mines (Checkweigher) Act rendered it
illegal for an employer ("owner, agent, or manager of any mine, or any
person employed by or acting under the instructions of any such owner,
agent, or manager") to make the removal of a particular checkweigher a
condition of employment, or to exercise improper influence in the
appointment of a checkweigher. The need for this provision was
demonstrated by a decision of the Court of Session in Edinburgh, which
upheld an employer in his claim to the right of dismissing all the
workmen and re-engaging them on condition that they would dismiss a
particular checkweigher. In 1896 a short act extended the powers to
propose, amend and modify special rules, provided for representation of
workmen on arbitration under the principal act on any matter in
difference, modified the provision for plans of mines in working and
abandoned mines, amended three of the general rules (inspection before
commencing work, use of safety lamp and non-inflammable substances for
stemming), and empowered the secretary of state by order to prohibit or
regulate the use of any explosive likely to become dangerous. In 1900
another brief act raised the age of employment of boys underground from
twelve to thirteen. In 1903 another amending act allowed as an
alternative qualification for a manager's certificate a diploma in
scientific and mining training after at least two years' study at a
university mining school or other educational institution approved by
the secretary of state, coupled with practical experience of at least
three years in a mine. In the same year the Employment of Children Act
affected children in mines to the extent already indicated in connexion
with factories. In 1905 a Coal Mines (Weighing of Minerals) Act improved
some provisions relating to appointment and pay of checkweighers and
facilities for them and their duly appointed deputies in carrying out
their duties. In 1906 the Notice of Accidents Act provided for improved
annual returns of accidents and for immediate reporting to the district
inspector of accidents under newly-defined conditions as they arise in
coal and metalliferous mines.


    Act of 1887.

  While the classes of mines regulated by the act of 1887 are the same
  as those regulated by the act of 1872 (i.e. mines of coal, of
  stratified ironstone, of shale and of fire-clay, including works above
  ground where the minerals are prepared for use by screening, washing,
  &c.) the interpretation of the term "mine" is wider and simpler,
  including "every shaft in the course of being sunk, and every level
  and inclined plane in the course of being driven, and all the shafts,
  levels, planes, works, tramways and sidings, both below ground and
  above ground, in and adjacent to and belonging to the mine." Of the
  persons responsible under penalty for the observance of the acts the
  term "owner" is defined precisely as in the act of 1872, but the term
  "agent" is modified to mean "any person appointed as the
  representative of the owner in respect of any mine or any part
  thereof, and, as such, superior to a manager appointed in pursuance of
  this act." Of the persons protected, the term "young person"
  disappeared from the act, and "boy," i.e. "a male under the age of
  sixteen years," and "girl," i.e. "a female under the age of sixteen
  years," take their place, and the term "woman" means, as before, "a
  female of the age of sixteen years and upwards." The prohibition of
  employment underground of women and girls remains untouched, and the
  prohibition of employment underground of boys has been successively
  extended from boys of the age of ten in 1872 to boys of twelve in 1887
  and to boys of thirteen in 1900. The age of employment of boys and
  girls above ground in connexion with any mine is raised from ten years
  in 1872 to twelve years since 1887. The hours of employment of a boy
  below ground may not exceed fifty-four in any one week, nor ten in any
  one day from the time of leaving the surface to the time of returning
  to the surface. Above ground any boy or girl under thirteen (and over
  twelve) may not be employed on more than six days in any one week; if
  employed on more than three days in one week, the daily total must not
  exceed six hours, or in any other case ten hours. Protected persons
  above thirteen are limited to the same daily and weekly total of hours
  as boys below ground, but there are further provisions with regard to
  intervals for meals and prohibiting employment for more than five
  hours without an interval of at least half an hour for a meal.
  Registers must be kept of all protected persons, whether employed
  above or below ground. Section 38 of the Public Health Act 1875, which
  requires separate and sufficient sanitary conveniences for persons of
  each sex, was first extended by the act of 1887 to the portions of
  mines above ground in which girls and women are employed; underground
  this matter is in metalliferous mines in Cornwall now provided for by
  special rules. Ventilation, the only other requirement in the acts
  that can be classed as sanitary, is provided for in every mine in the
  "general rules" which are aimed at securing safety of mines, and
  which, so far as ventilation is concerned, seek to dilute and render
  harmless noxious or inflammable gases. The provision which prohibits
  employment of any persons in mines not provided with at least two
  shafts is made much more stringent by the act of 1887 than in the
  previous code, by increasing the distance between the two shafts from
  10 to 15 yds., and increasing the height of communications between
  them. Other provisions amended or strengthened are those relating to
  the following points: (a) Daily personal supervision of the mine by
  the certificated manager; (b) classes of certificates and constitution
  of board for granting certificates of competency; (c) plan of workings
  of any mine to be kept up to a date not more than three months
  previously at the office of the mine; (d) notice to be given to the
  inspector of the district by the owner, agent or manager, of accidents
  in or about any mine which cause loss of life or serious personal
  injury, or are caused by explosion of coal or coal dust or any
  explosive or electricity or any other special cause that the secretary
  of state specifies by order, and which causes any personal injury to
  any person employed in or about the mine; it is provided that the
  place where an explosion or accident occurs causing loss of life or
  serious personal injury shall be left for inspection for at least
  three days, unless this would tend to increase or continue a danger or
  impede working of the mine: this was new in the act of 1887; (e)
  notice to be given of opening and abandonment of any mine: this was
  extended to the opening or abandonment of any seam; (f) plan of an
  abandoned mine or seam to be sent within three months; (g) formal
  investigation of any explosion or accident by direction of the
  secretary of state: this provision, first introduced by the act of
  1886, was modified in 1887 to admit the appointment by the secretary
  of state of "any competent person" to hold the investigation, whereas
  under the earlier section only an inspector could be appointed.


    General rules.

  The "general rules" for safety in mines have been strengthened in many
  ways since the act of 1872. Particular mention may be made of rule 4
  of the act of 1887, relating to the inspection of conditions as to gas
  ventilation beyond appointed stations at the entrance to the mine or
  different parts of the mine; this rule generally removed the earlier
  distinction between mines in which inflammable gas has been found
  within the preceding twelve months, and mines in which it has not been
  so found; of rules 8, 9, 10 and 11, relating to the construction, use,
  &c., of safety lamps, which are more detailed and stringent than rule
  7 of the act of 1872, which they replaced; of rule 12, relating to the
  use of explosives below ground; of rule 24, which requires the
  appointment of a competent male person not less than twenty-two years
  of age for working the machinery for lowering and raising persons at
  the mine; of rule 34, which first required provision of ambulances or
  stretchers with splints and bandages at the mine ready for immediate
  use; of rule 38, which strengthened the provision for periodical
  inspection of the mine by practical miners on behalf of the workmen at
  their own cost. With reference to the last-cited rule, during 1898 a
  Prussian mining commission visited Great Britain, France and Belgium,
  to study and compare the various methods of inspection by working
  miners established in these three countries. They found that, so far
  as the method had been applied, it was most satisfactory in Great
  Britain, where the whole cost is borne by the workers' own
  organizations, and they attributed part of the decrease in number of
  accidents per thousand employed since 1872 to the inauguration of this
  system.


    Special rules.

  The provisions as to the proposal, amendment and modification of
  "special rules," last extended by the act of 1896, may be contrasted
  with those of the Factory Act. In the latter it is not until an
  industry or process has been scheduled as dangerous or injurious by
  the secretary of state's order that occasion arises for the formation
  of special rules, and then the initiative rests with the Factory
  Department whereas in mines it is incumbent in every case on the
  owner, agent or manager to propose within three months of the
  commencement of any working, for the approval of the secretary of
  state, special rules best calculated to prevent dangerous accidents,
  and to provide for the safety, convenience and proper discipline of
  the persons employed in or about the mine. These rules may, if they
  relate to lights and lamps used in the mine, description of
  explosives, watering and damping of the mine, or prevention of
  accidents from inflammable gas or coal dust, supersede any general
  rule in the principal act. Apart from the initiation of the rules, the
  methods of establishing them, whether by agreement or by resort to
  arbitration of the parties (i.e. the mine owners and the secretary of
  state), are practically the same as under the Factory Act, but there
  is special provision in the Mines Acts for enabling the persons
  working in the mine to transmit objections to the proposed rules, in
  addition to their subsequent right to be represented on the
  arbitration, if any.

  Of the sections touching on wages questions, the prohibition of the
  payment of wages in public-houses remains unaltered, being re-enacted
  in 1887; the sections relating to payment by weight for amount of
  mineral gotten by persons employed, and for checkweighing the amount
  by a "checkweigher" stationed by the majority of workers at each place
  appointed for the weighing of the material, were revised, particularly
  as to the determination of deductions by the act of 1887, with a view
  to meeting some problems raised by decisions on cases under the act of
  1872. The attempt seems not to have been wholly successful, the
  highest legal authorities having expressed conflicting opinions on the
  precise meaning of the terms "mineral contracted to be gotten." The
  whole history of the development of this means of securing the
  fulfilment of wage contract to the workers may be compared with the
  history of the sections affording protection to piece-workers by
  particulars of work and wages in the textile trades since the Factory
  Act of 1891.


    Administration.

  As regards legal proceedings, the chief amendments of the act of 1872
  are: the extension of the provision that the "owner, agent, or
  manager" charged in respect of any contravention by another person
  might be sworn and examined as an ordinary witness, to any person
  charged with any offence under the act. The result of the proceedings
  against workmen by the owner, agent or manager in respect of an
  offence under the act is to be reported within twenty-one days to the
  inspector of the district. The powers of inspectors were extended to
  cover an inquiry as to the care and treatment of horses and other
  animals in the mine, and as to the control, management or direction of
  the mine by the manager.

An important act was passed in 1908 (Coal Mines Regulation Act 1908)
limiting the hours of work for workmen below ground. It enacted that,
subject to various provisions, a workman was not to be below ground in a
mine for the purpose of his work, and of going to and from his work, for
more than eight hours in any consecutive twenty-four hours. Exception
was made in the case of those below ground for the purpose of rendering
assistance in the event of an accident, or for meeting any danger, or
for dealing with any emergency or work incompleted, through unforeseen
circumstances, which requires to be dealt with to avoid serious
interference in the work of the mine. The authorities of every mine must
fix the times for the lowering and raising of the men to begin and be
completed, and such times must be conspicuously posted at the pit head.
These times must be approved by an inspector. The term "workman" in the
act means any person employed in a mine below ground who is not an
official of the mine (other than a fireman, examiner or deputy), or a
mechanic or a horse keeper or a person engaged solely in surveying or
measuring. In the case of a fireman, examiner, deputy, onsetter, pump
minder, fanman or furnace man, the maximum period for which he may be
below ground is nine hours and a half. A register must be kept by the
authorities of the mine of the times of descent and ascent, while the
workmen may, at their own cost, station persons (whether holding the
office of checkweigher or not) at the pit head to observe the times. The
authorities of the mine may extend the hours of working by one hour a
day on not more than sixty days in one calendar year (s. 3). The act may
be suspended by order in council in the event of war or of imminent
national danger or great emergency, or in the event of any grave
economic disturbance due to the demand for coal exceeding the supply
available at any time. The act came into force on the 1st of July 1909
except for the counties of Northumberland and Durham where its operation
was postponed until the 1st of January 1910.

  In 1905 the number of coal-mines reported on was 3126, and the number
  of persons employed below ground was 691,112 of whom 43,443 were under
  16 years of age. Above ground 167,261 were employed, of whom 6154 were
  women and girls. The number of separate fatal accidents was 1006,
  causing the loss of 1205 lives. Of prosecutions by far the greater
  number were against workmen, numbering in coal and metalliferous mines
  953; owners and managers were prosecuted in 72 cases, and convictions
  obtained in 43 cases.

_Quarries._--From 1878 until 1894 open quarries (as distinct from
underground quarries regulated by the Metalliferous Mines Regulation
Act) were regulated only by the Factory Acts so far as they then
applied. It was laid down in section 93 of the act of 1878 (41 Vict. c.
16), that "any premises or place shall not be excluded from the
definition of a factory or workshop by reason only that such premises,
&c., are or is in the open air," thereby overruling the decision in
_Kent_ v. _Astley_ that quarries in which the work, as a whole, was
carried on in the open air were not factories; in a schedule to the same
act quarries were defined as "any place not being a mine in which
persons work in getting slate, stone, coprolites or other minerals." The
Factory Act of 1891 made it possible to bring these places in part under
"special rules" adapted to meet the special risks and dangers of the
operations carried on in them, and by order of the secretary of state
they were certified, December 1892, as dangerous, and thereby subject to
special rules. Until then, as reported by one of the inspectors of
factories, quarries had been placed under the Factory Acts without
insertion of appropriate rules for their safe working, and many of them
were "developed in a most dangerous manner without any regard for
safety, but merely for economy," and managers of many had "scarcely seen
a quarry until they became managers." In his report for 1892 it was
recommended by the chief inspector of factories that quarries should be
subject to the jurisdiction of the government inspectors of mines. At
the same time currency was given, by the published reports of the
evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour, to the wish of large
numbers of quarrymen that open as well as underground quarries should
come under more specialized government inspection. In 1893 a committee
of experts, including inspectors of mines and of factories, was
appointed by the Home Office to investigate the conditions of labour in
open quarries, and in 1894 the Quarries Act brought every quarry, as
defined in the Factory Act 1878, any part of which is more than 20 ft.
deep, under certain of the provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts,
and under the inspection of the inspectors appointed under those acts;
further, it transferred the duty of enforcing the Factory and Workshop
Acts, so far as they apply in quarries over 20 ft. deep, from the
Factory to the Metalliferous Mines inspectors.

The provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts 1872 and 1875, applied to
quarries, are those relating to payment of wages in public-houses,
notice of accidents to the inspector, appointment and powers of
inspectors, arbitration, coroners' inquests, special rules, penalties,
certain of the definitions, and the powers of the secretary of state
finally to decide disputed questions whether places come within the
application of the acts. For other matters, and in particular fencing of
machinery and employment of women and young persons, the Factory Acts
apply, with a proviso that nothing shall prevent the employment of young
persons (boys) in three shifts for not more than eight hours each. In
1899 it was reported by the inspectors of mines that special rules for
safety had been established in over 2000 quarries. In the reports for
1905 it was reported that the accounts of blasting accidents indicated
that there was "still much laxity in observance of the Special rules,
and that many irregular and dangerous practices are in vogue." The
absence or deficiency of external fencing to a quarry dangerous to the
public has been since 1887 (50 & 51 Vict. c. 19) deemed a nuisance
liable to be dealt with summarily in the manner provided by the Public
Health Act 1875.

  In 1905, 94,819 persons were employed, of whom 59,978 worked inside
  the actual pits or excavations, and 34,841 outside. Compared with
  1900, there was a total increase of 924 in the number of persons
  employed. Fatal accidents resulted in 1900 in 127 deaths; compared
  with 1899 there was an increase of 10 in the number of deaths, and, as
  Professor Le Neve Foster pointed out, this exceeded the average
  death-rate of underground workers at mines under the Coal Mines Acts
  during the previous ten years, in spite of the quarrier "having
  nothing to fear from explosions of gas, underground fires or
  inundations." He attributed the difference to a lax observance of
  precautions which might in time be remedied by stringent
  administration of the law. In 1905 there were 97 fatal accidents
  resulting in 99 deaths. In 1900 there were 92 prosecutions against
  owners or agents, with 67 convictions, and 13 prosecutions of workers,
  with 12 convictions, and in 1905 there were 45 prosecutions of owners
  or agents with 43 convictions and 9 prosecutions of workmen with 5
  convictions.


    Payment of wages in public-houses.

  In 1883 a short act extended to all "workmen" who are manual labourers
  other than miners, with the exception of domestic or menial servants,
  the prohibition of payment of wages in public-houses, beer-shops and
  other places for the sale of spirituous or fermented liquor, laid down
  in the Coal Mines Regulations and Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts.
  The places covered by the prohibition include any office, garden or
  place belonging to or occupied with the places named, but the act does
  not apply to such wages as are paid by the resident, owner or occupier
  of the public-house, beer-shop and other places included in the
  prohibition to any workman _bona fide_ employed by him. The penalty
  for an offence against this act is one not exceeding £10 (compare the
  limit of £20 for the corresponding offence under the Coal Mines Act),
  and all offences may be prosecuted and penalties recovered in England
  and Scotland under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts. The act does not
  apply to Ireland, and no special inspectorate is charged with the duty
  of enforcing its provisions.

_Shop Hours._--In four brief acts, 1892 to 1899, still in force, the
first very limited steps were taken towards the positive regulation of
the employment of shop assistants. In the act of 1904 certain additional
optional powers were given to any local authority making a "closing
order" fixing the hour (not earlier than 7 P.M. or on one day in the
week 1 P.M.) at which shops shall cease to serve customers throughout
the area of the authority or any specified part thereof as regards all
shops or as regards any specified class of shops. Before such an order
can be made (1) a prima facie case for it must appear to the local
authority; (2) the local authority must inquire and agree; (3) the order
must be drafted and sent for confirmation or otherwise to the central
authority, that is, the secretary of state for the Home Department; (4)
the order must be laid before both Houses of Parliament. The Home Office
has given every encouragement to the making of such orders, but their
number in England is very small, and the act is practically inoperative
in London and many large towns where the need is greatest. As the
secretary of state pointed out in the House of Commons on the 1st of May
1907, the local authorities have not taken enough initiative, but at the
same time there is a great difficulty for them in obtaining the required
two-thirds majority, among occupiers of the shops to be affected, in
favour of the order, and at the same time shop assistants have no power
to set the law in motion. In England 364 local authorities have taken no
steps, but in Scotland rather better results have been obtained. The
House resolved, on the date named, that more drastic legislation is
required. As regards shops, therefore, in place of such general codes as
apply to factories, laundries, mines--only three kinds of protective
requirement are binding on employers of shop assistants: (1) Limitation
of the weekly total of hours of work of persons under eighteen years of
age to seventy-four inclusive of meal-times; (2) prohibition of the
employment of such persons in a shop on the same day that they have, to
the knowledge of the employer, been employed in any factory or workshop
for a longer period than would, in both classes of employment together,
amount to the number of hours permitted to such persons in a factory or
workshop; (3) provision for the supply of seats by the employer, in all
rooms of a shop or other premises where goods are retailed to the
public, for the use of female assistants employed in retailing the
goods--the seats to be in the proportion of not fewer than one to every
three female assistants. The first two requirements are contained in the
act of 1892, which also prescribed that a notice, referring to the
provisions of the act, and stating the number of hours in the week
during which a young person may be lawfully employed in the shop, shall
be kept exhibited by the employer; the third requirement was first
provided by the act of 1899. The intervening acts of 1893 and 1895 are
merely supplementary to the act of 1892; the former providing for the
salaries and expenses of the inspectors which the council of any county
or borough (and in the City of London the Common Council) were
empowered by the act of 1892 to appoint; the latter providing a penalty
of 40s. for failure of an employer to keep exhibited the notice of the
provisions of the acts, which in the absence of a penalty it had been
impossible to enforce. The penalty for employment contrary to the acts
is a fine not exceeding £1 for each person so employed, and for failure
to comply with the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for
a first offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than
£1 and not exceeding £5.


    Meaning of "shop."

  A wide interpretation is given by the act of 1892 to the class of
  workplace to which the limitation of hours applies. "Shop" means
  retail and wholesale shops, markets, stalls and warehouses in which
  assistants are employed for hire, and includes licensed public-houses
  and refreshment houses of any kind. The person responsible for the
  observance of the acts is the "employer" of the "young persons" (i.e.
  persons under the age of eighteen years), whose hours are limited, and
  of the "female assistants" for whom seats must be provided. Neither
  the term "employer" nor "shop assistant" (used in the title of the act
  of 1899) is defined; but other terms have the meaning assigned to them
  in the Factory and Workshop Act 1878. The "employer" has, in case of
  any contravention alleged, the same power as the "occupier" in the
  Factory Acts to exempt himself from fine on proof of due diligence and
  of the fact that some other person is the actual offender. The
  provisions of the act of 1892 do not apply to members of the same
  family living in a house of which the shop forms part, or to members
  of the employer's family, or to any one wholly employed as a domestic
  servant.

  In London, where the County Council has appointed men and women
  inspectors to apply the acts of 1892 to 1899, there were, in 1900,
  73,929 premises, and in 1905, 84,269, under inspection. In the latter
  year there were 22,035 employing persons under 18 years of age. In
  1900 the number of young persons under the acts were: indoors, 10,239
  boys and 4428 girls; outdoors, 35,019 boys, 206 girls. In 1905 the
  ratio between boys and girls had decidedly altered: indoors, 6602
  boys, 4668 girls; outdoors, 22,654 boys, 308 girls. The number of
  irregularities reported in 1900 were 9204 and the prosecutions were
  117; in 1905 the irregularities were 6966 and the prosecutions
  numbered 34. As regards the act of 1899, in only 1088 of the 14,844
  shops affected in London was there found in 1900 to be failure to
  provide seats for the women employed in retailing goods. The chief
  officer of the Public Control Department reported that with very few
  exceptions the law was complied with at the end of the first year of
  its application.

  As regards cleanliness, ventilation, drainage, water-supply and
  sanitary condition generally, shops have been since 1878 (by 41 Vict.
  c. 16, s. 101) subject to the provisions of the Public Health Act
  1875, which apply to all buildings, except factories under the Factory
  Acts, in which any persons, whatever their number be, are employed.
  Thus, broadly, the same sanitary provisions apply in shops as in
  workshops, but in the former these are enforced solely by the officers
  of the local authority, without reservation of any power, as in
  workshops for the Home Office inspectorate, to act in default of the
  local authority.

  Shop assistants, so far as they are engaged in manual, not merely
  clerical labour, come under the provisions of the Truck Acts 1831 to
  1887, and in all circumstances they fall within the sections directed
  against unfair and unreasonable fines in the Truck Act of 1896; but,
  unlike employés in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they are
  left to apply these provisions so far as they can themselves, since
  neither Home Office inspectors nor officers of the local authority
  have any specially assigned powers to administer the Truck Acts in
  shops.


  The Truck Act 1887.

  Persons benefited by Truck Acts.

_Truck._--Setting aside the special Hosiery Manufacture (Wages) Act
1874, aimed at a particular abuse appearing chiefly in the hosiery
industry--the practice of making excessive charges on wages for
machinery and frame rents--only two acts, those of 1887 and 1896, have
been added to the general law against truck since the act of 1831, which
repealed all prior Truck Acts and which remains the principal act.
Further amendments of the law have been widely and strenuously demanded,
and are hoped for as the result of the long inquiry by a departmental
committee appointed early in 1906. The Truck Act Amendment Act 1887,
amended and extended the act without adding any distinctly new
principle; the Truck Act of 1896 was directed towards providing remedies
for matters shown by decisions under the earlier Truck Acts to be
outside the scope of the principles and provisions of those acts. Under
the earlier acts the main objects were: (1) to make the wages of
workmen, i.e. the reward of labour, payable only in current coin of the
realm, and to prohibit whole or part payment of wages in food or drink
or clothes or any other articles; (2) to forbid agreements, express or
implied, between employer and workmen as to the manner or place in
which, or articles on which, a workman shall expend his wages, or for
the deduction from wages of the price of articles (other than materials
to be used in the labour of the workmen) supplied by the employer. The
act of 1887 added a further prohibition by making it illegal for an
employer to charge interest on any advance of wages, "whenever by
agreement, custom, or otherwise a workman is entitled to receive in
anticipation of the regular period of the payment of his wages an
advance as part or on account thereof." Further, it strengthened the
section of the principal act which provided that no employer shall have
any action against his workman for goods supplied at any shop belonging
to the employer, or in which the employer is interested, by (a) securing
any workman suing an employer for wages against any counter-claim in
respect of goods supplied to the workman by any person under any order
or direction of the employer, and (b) by expressly prohibiting an
employer from dismissing any worker on account of any particular time,
place or manner of expending his wages. Certain exemptions to the
prohibition of payment otherwise than in coin were provided for in the
act of 1831, if an agreement were made in writing and signed by the
worker, viz. rent, victuals dressed and consumed under the employer's
roof, medicine, fuel, provender for beasts of burden used in the trade,
materials and tools for use by miners, advances for friendly societies
or savings banks; in the case of fuel, provender and tools there was
also a proviso that the charge should not exceed the real and true
value. The act of 1887 amended these provisions by requiring a correct
annual audit in the case of deductions for medicine or tools, by
permitting part payment of servants in husbandry in food, drink (not
intoxicants) or other allowances, and by prohibiting any deductions for
sharpening or repairing workmen's tools except by agreement not forming
part of the condition of hiring. Two important administrative amendments
were made by the act of 1887: (1) a section similar to that in the
Factory and Mines Acts was added, empowering the employer to exempt
himself from penalty for contravention of the acts on proof that any
other person was the actual offender and of his own due diligence in
enforcing the execution of the acts; (2) the duty of enforcing the acts
in factories, workshops, and mines was imposed upon the inspectors of
the Factory and Mines Departments, respectively, of the Home Office, and
to their task they were empowered to bring all the authorities and
powers which they possessed in virtue of the acts under which they are
appointed; these inspectors thus prosecute defaulting employers and
recover penalties under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts, but they do not
undertake civil proceedings for improper deductions or payments,
proceedings for which would lie with workmen under the Employers and
Workmen Act 1875. The persons to whom the benefits of the act applied
were added to by the act of 1887, which repealed the complicated list of
trades contained in the principal act and substituted the simpler
definition of the Employers and Workmen Act, 1875. Thus the acts 1831 to
1887, and also the act of 1896, apply to all workers (men, women and
children) engaged in manual labour, except domestic servants; they apply
not only in mines, factories and workshops, but, to quote the published
Home Office Memorandum on the acts, "in all places where workpeople are
engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer, whether or
no the employer be an owner or agent or a parent, or be himself a
workman; and therefore a workman who employs and pays others under him
must also observe the Truck Acts." The law thus in certain circumstances
covers outworkers for a contractor or sub-contractor. A decision of the
High Court at Dublin in 1900 (_Squire_ v. _Sweeney_) strengthened the
inspectors in investigation of offences committed amongst outworkers by
supporting the contention that inquiry and exercise of all the powers of
an inspector could legally take place in parts of an employer's premises
other than those in which the work is given out. It defined for Ireland,
in a narrower sense than had hitherto been understood and acted upon by
the Factory Department, the classes of outworkers protected, by
deciding that only such as were under a contract personally to execute
the work were covered. In 1905 the law in England was similarly declared
in the decided case of _Squire_ v. _The Midland Lace Co._ The judges
(Lord Alverstone, C.J.; and Kennedy and Ridley, J.J.) stated that they
came to the conclusion with "reluctance," and said: "We venture to
express the hope that some amendment of the law may be made so as to
extend the protection of the Truck Act to a class of workpeople
indistinguishable from those already within its provisions." The workers
in question were lace-clippers taking out work to do in their homes, and
in the words of the High Court decision "though they do sometimes employ
assistants are evidently, as a class, wage-earning manual labourers and
not contractors in the ordinary and popular sense." The principle relied
on in the decision was that in the case of _Ingram_ v. _Barnes_.


    Meaning of "wages."

    The Truck Act 1896.

  At the time of the passing of the act of 1887 it seems to have been
  generally believed that the obligation under the principal act to pay
  the "entire amount of wages earned" in coin rendered illegal any
  deductions from wages in respect of fines. Important decisions in 1888
  and 1889 showed this belief to have been ill-founded. The essential
  point lies in the definition of the word "wages" as the "recompense,
  reward or remuneration of labour," which implies not necessarily any
  gross sum in question between employer and workmen where there is a
  contract to perform a certain piece of work, but that part of it, the
  real _net_ wage, which the workman was to get as his _recompense_ for
  the labour performed. As soon as it became clear that excessive
  deductions from wages as well as payments by workers for materials
  used in the work were not illegal, and that deductions or payments by
  way of compensation to employers or by way of discipline might legally
  (with the single exception of fines for lateness for women and
  children, regulated by the Employers and Workmen Act 1875) even exceed
  the degree of loss, hindrance or damage to the employer, it also came
  clearly into view that further legislation was desirable to extend the
  principles at the root of the Truck Acts. It was desirable, that is to
  say, to hinder more fully the unfair dealing that may be encouraged by
  half-defined customs in workplaces, on the part of the employer in
  making a contract, while at the same time leaving the principle of
  freedom of contract as far as possible untouched. The Truck Act of
  1896 regulates the conditions under which deductions can be made by or
  payments made to the employer, out of the "sum contracted to be paid
  to the worker," i.e. out of any gross sum whatever agreed upon between
  employer and workman. It makes such deductions or payments illegal
  unless they are in pursuance of a contract; and it provides that
  deductions (or payments) for (a) fines, (b) bad work and damaged
  goods, (c) materials, machines, and any other thing provided by the
  employer in relation to the work shall be reasonable, and that
  particulars of the same in writing shall be given to the workman. In
  none of the cases mentioned is the employer to make any profit;
  neither by fines, for they may only be imposed in respect of acts or
  omissions which cause, or are likely to cause, loss or damage; nor by
  sale of materials, for the price may not exceed the cost to the
  employer; nor by deductions or payments for damage, for these may not
  exceed the actual or estimated loss to the employer. Fines and charges
  for damage must be "fair and reasonable having regard to all the
  circumstances of the case," and no contract could make legal a fine
  which a court held to be unfair to the workman in the sense of the
  act. The contract between the employer and workman must either be in
  writing signed by the workman, or its terms must be clearly stated in
  a notice constantly affixed in a place easily accessible to the
  workman to whom, if a party to the contract, a copy shall be given at
  the time of making the contract, and who shall be entitled, on
  request, to obtain from the employer a copy of the notice free of
  charge. On each occasion when a deduction or payment is made, full
  particulars in writing must be supplied to the workman. The employer
  is bound to keep a register of deductions or payments, and to enter
  therein particulars of any fine made under the contract, specifying
  the amount and nature of the act or omission in respect of which the
  fine was imposed. This register must be at all times open to
  inspectors of mines or factories, who are entitled to make a copy of
  the contract or any part of it. This act as a whole applies to all
  workmen included under the earlier Truck Acts; the sections relating
  to fines apply also to shop assistants. The latter, however,
  apparently are left to enforce the provisions of the law themselves,
  as no inspectorate is empowered to intervene on their behalf. In these
  and other cases a prosecution under the Truck Acts may be instituted
  by any person. Any workman or shop assistant may recover any sum
  deducted by or paid to his employer contrary to the act of 1896,
  provided that proceedings are commenced within six months, and that
  where he has acquiesced in the deduction or payment he shall only
  recover the excess over the amount which the court may find to have
  been fair and reasonable in all the circumstances of the case. It is
  expressly declared in the act that nothing in it shall affect the
  provisions of the Coal Mines Acts with reference to payment by
  weight, or legalize any deductions, from payments made, in pursuance
  of those provisions. The powers and duties of inspectors are extended
  to cover the case of a laundry, and of any place where work is given
  out by the occupier of a factory or workshop or by a contractor or
  sub-contractor. Power is reserved for the secretary of state to exempt
  by order specified trades or branches of them in specified areas from
  the provisions of the act of 1896, if he is satisfied that they are
  unnecessary for the protection of the workmen. This power has been
  exercised only in respect of one highly organized industry, the
  Lancashire cotton industry. The effect of the exemption is not to
  prevent fines and deductions from being made, but the desire for it
  demonstrated that there are cases where leaders among workers have
  felt competent to make their own terms on their own lines without the
  specific conditions laid down in this act. The reports of the
  inspectors of factories have demonstrated that in other industries
  much work has had to be done under this act, and knowledge of a highly
  technical character to be gradually acquired, before opinions could be
  formed as to the reasonableness and fairness, or the contrary, of many
  forms of deduction. Owing partly to difficulties of legal
  interpretation involving the necessity of taking test cases into
  court, partly to the margin for differences of opinion as to what
  constitutes "reasonableness" in a deduction, the average number of
  convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as under the
  Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is higher. In 1904,
  61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34 convictions with an
  average penalty of £1, 10s. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34
  convictions were taken with an average penalty of £1, 3s. In 1906, 37
  cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with an average penalty
  of £1, 10s.

  Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as closely
  allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its provision
  that employers shall not make it a condition of employment that any
  workman shall become a member of a shop club unless it is registered
  under the Friendly Societies Act of 1896. As in the case of payment of
  wages in Public Houses Act, no special inspectorate has the duty of
  enforcing this act.


III. CONTINENTAL EUROPE

In comparing legislation affecting factories, mines, shops and truck in
the chief industrial countries of the continent with that of Great
Britain, it is essential to a just view that inquiry should be extended
beyond the codes themselves to the general social order and system of
law and administration in each country. Further, special comparison of
the definitions and the sanctions of each industrial code must be
recognized as necessary, for these vary in all. In so brief a summary as
is appended here no more is possible than an outline indication of the
main general requirements and prohibitions of the laws as regards: (1)
hours and times of employment, (2) ordinary sanitation and special
requirements for unhealthy and dangerous industries, (3) security
against accidents, and (4) prevention of fraud and oppression in
fulfilment of wage contracts. As regards the first of these
subdivisions, in general in Europe the ordinary legal limit is rather
wider than in Great Britain, being in several countries not less than 11
hours a day, and while in some, as in France, the normal limit is 10
hours daily, yet the administrative discretion in granting exceptions is
rather more elastic. The weekly half-holiday is a peculiarly British
institution. On the other hand, in several European countries, notably
France, Austria, Switzerland and Russia, the legal maximum day applies
to adult as well as youthful labour, and not only to specially protected
classes of persons. As regards specialized sanitation for unhealthy
factory industries, German regulations appear to be most nearly
comparable with British. Mines' labour regulation in several countries,
having an entirely different origin linked with ownership of mines, is
only in few and most recent developments comparable with British Mines
Regulation Acts. In regulation of shops, Germany, treating this matter
as an integral part of her imperial industrial code, has advanced
farther than has Great Britain. In truck legislation most European
countries (with the exception of France) appear to have been influenced
by the far earlier laws of Great Britain, although in some respects
Belgium, with her rapid and recent industrial development, has made
interesting original experiments. The rule of Sunday rest (see SUNDAY)
has been extended in several countries, most recently in Belgium and
Spain. In France this partially attempted rule has been so modified as
to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday.

  _France._--Hours of labour were, in France, first limited in factories
  (_usines et manufactures_) for adults by the law of the 9th of
  September 1848 to 12 in the 24. Much uncertainty existed as to the
  class of workplaces covered. Finally, in 1885, an authoritative
  decision defined them as including: (1) Industrial establishments with
  motor power or continual furnaces, (2) workshops employing over 20
  workers. In 1851, under condition of notification to the local
  authorities, exceptions, still in force, were made to the general
  limitation, in favour of certain industries or processes, among others
  for letterpress and lithographic printing, engineering works, work at
  furnaces and in heating workshops, manufacture of projectiles of war,
  and any work for the government in the interests of national defence
  or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in
  which women or young workers are employed, in 1900 to 11, and was to
  be successively reduced to 10½ hours and to 10 hours at intervals of
  two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was preceded in
  1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment in
  factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any
  child under 13. This was strengthened in 1874, particularly as regards
  employment of girls under 21, but it was not until 1892 that the
  labour of women was specially regulated by a law, still in force, with
  certain amendments in 1900. Under this law factory and workshop labour
  is prohibited for children under 13 years, though they may begin at 12
  if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate and medical
  certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of employment is the
  same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the 1st of April 1902
  was 10½, and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of the
  hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses with absolute
  cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified. By the act
  of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had to be given
  for entire absence from work, in addition to eight recognized annual
  holidays, but this was modified by a law of 1906 which generally
  requires Sunday rest, but allows substitution of another day in
  certain industries and certain circumstances. Night labour--work
  between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M.--is prohibited for workers under 18, and
  only exceptionally permitted, under conditions, for girls and women
  over 18 in specified trades. In mines and underground quarries
  employment of women and girls is prohibited except at surface works,
  and at the latter is subject to the same limits as in factories. Boys
  of 13 may be employed in certain work underground, but under 16 may
  not be employed more than 8 hours in the 24 from bank to bank. A law
  of 1905 provided for miners a 9 hours' day and in 1907 an 8 hours' day
  from the foot of the entrance gallery back to the same point.

  As in Great Britain, distinct services of inspection enforce the law
  in factories and mines respectively. In factories and workshops an
  inspector may order re-examination as to physical fitness for the work
  imposed of any worker under 16; certain occupations and processes are
  prohibited--e.g. girls under 16 at machines worked by treadles, and
  the weights that may be lifted, pushed or carried by girls or boys
  under 18 are carefully specified. The law applies generally to
  philanthropic and religious institutions where industrial work is
  carried on, as in ordinary trading establishments; and this holds good
  even if the work is by way of technical instruction. Domestic
  workshops are not controlled unless the industry is classed as
  dangerous or unhealthy; introduction of motor power brings them under
  inspection. General sanitation in industrial establishments is
  provided for in a law of 1893, amended in 1903, and is supplemented by
  administrative regulations for special risks due to poisons, dust,
  explosive substances, gases, fumes, &c. Ventilation, both general and
  special, lighting, provision of lavatories, cloakrooms, good drinking
  water, drainage and cleanliness are required in all workplaces, shops,
  warehouses, restaurant kitchens, and where workers are lodged by their
  employers hygienic conditions are prescribed for dormitories. In many
  industries women, children and young workers are either absolutely
  excluded from specified unhealthy processes, or are admitted only
  under conditions. As regards shops and offices, the labour laws are:
  one which protects apprentices against overwork (law of 22nd February
  1851), one (law of 29th December 1900) which requires that seats shall
  be provided for women and girls employed in retail sale of articles,
  and a decree of the 28th of July 1904 defining in detail conditions of
  hygiene in dormitories for workmen and shop assistants. The law
  relating to seats is enforced by the inspectors of factories. In
  France there is no special penal legislation against abuses of the
  truck system, or excessive fines and deductions from wages, although
  bills with that end in view have frequently been before parliament.
  Indirect protection to workers is no doubt in many cases afforded in
  organized industries by the action of the _Conseils de Prud'hommes_.

  _Belgium._--In 1848 in Belgium the Commission on Labour proposed
  legislation to limit, as in France, the hours of labour for adults,
  but this proposal was never passed. Belgian regulation of labour in
  industry remains essentially, in harmony with its earliest beginnings
  in 1863 and onwards, a series of specialized provisions to meet
  particular risks of individual trades, and did not, until 1889, give
  any adherence to a common principle of limitation of hours and times
  of labour for "protected" persons. This was in the law of the 13th of
  December 1889, which applies to mines, quarries, factories, workshops
  classed as unhealthy, wharves and docks, transports. As in France,
  industrial establishments having a charitable or philanthropic or
  educational character are included. The persons protected are girls
  and women under 21 years, and boys under 16; and women over 21 only
  find a place in the law through the prohibition of their employment
  within four weeks after childbirth. As the hours of labour of adult
  women remain ordinarily unlimited by law, so are the hours of boys
  from 16 to 21. The law of Sunday rest dated the 17th of July 1905,
  however, applies to labour generally in all industrial and commercial
  undertakings except transport and fisheries, with certain regulated
  exceptions for (a) cases of breakdown or urgency due to _force
  majeure_, (b) certain repairs and cleaning, (c) perishable materials,
  (d) retail food supply. Young workers are excluded from the
  exceptions. The absolute prohibitions of employment are: for children
  under 12 years in any industry, manufacturing or mining or transport,
  and for women and girls under 21 years below the surface in working of
  mines. Boys under 16 years and women and girls under 21 years may in
  general not be employed before 5 A.M. or after 9 P.M., and one day in
  the seven is to be set apart for rest from employment; to these rules
  exception may be made either by royal decree for classes or groups of
  processes, or by local authorities in exceptional cases. The
  exceptions may be applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years,
  but in mines, by royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from
  4 A.M. The law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective
  work, to be interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than 1½ hours,
  empowering the king by decree to formulate more precise limits suited
  to the special circumstances of individual industries. Royal decrees
  have accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, including
  textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, clothing, mines,
  quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the daily limit is
  10 hours, but in more 10½ or 11 hours. In a few exceptionally
  unhealthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer matches,
  vulcanization of india-rubber by means of carbon bi-sulphide, the age
  of exclusion from employment has been raised, and in the last-named
  process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2½
  hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and safeguarding of
  employments in exceptionally injurious trades have been sought by a
  series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to public health in
  such industries. Special regulations for safety of workers have been
  introduced in manufactures of white-lead, oxides of lead, chromate of
  lead, lucifer match works, rag and shoddy works; and for dangers
  common to many industries, provisions against dust, poisons, accidents
  and other risks to health or limb have been codified in a decree of
  1896. A royal decree of the 31st of March 1903 prohibits employment of
  persons under 16 years in fur-pulling and in carotting of rabbit
  skins, and another of the 13th of May 1905 regulates use of lead in
  house-painting. In 1898 a law was passed to enable the authorities to
  deal with risks in quarries under the same procedure. Safety in mines
  (which are not private property, but state concessions to be worked
  under strict state control) has been provided for since 1810. In
  matters of hygiene, until 1899 the powers of the public health
  authorities to intervene were insufficient, and a law was passed
  authorizing the government to make regulations for every kind of risk
  in any undertaking, whether classed under the law of public health or
  not. By a special law of 1888 children and young persons under 18
  years are excluded from employment as pedlars, hawkers or in circuses,
  except by their parents, and then only if they have attained 14 years.
  Abuses of the truck system have, since 1887, been regulated with care.
  The chief objects of the law of 1887 were to secure payment in full to
  all workers, other than those in agriculture or domestic service, of
  wages in legal tender, to prohibit payment of wages in public-houses,
  and to secure prompt payment of wages. Certain deductions were
  permitted under careful control for specific customary objects:
  lodging, use of land, uniforms, food, firing. A royal order of the
  10th of October 1903 required use of automatic indicators for
  estimating wages in certain cases in textile processes. The law of the
  15th of June 1896 regulates the affixing in workplaces, where at least
  five workers are employed, of a notice of the working rules, the
  nature and rate of fines, if any, and the mode of their application.
  Two central services the mines inspectorate and the factory and
  workshop inspectorate, divide the duties above indicated. There is
  also a system of local administration of the regulations relating to
  industries classed as unhealthy, but the tendency has been to give the
  supreme control in these matters to the factory service, with its
  expert staff.

  _Holland._--The first law for regulation of labour in manufacture was
  passed in 1874, and this related only to employment of children. The
  basis of all existing regulations was established in the law of the
  5th of May 1889, which applies to all industrial undertakings,
  excluding agriculture and forestry, fishing, stock-rearing. Employment
  of children under 12 years is prohibited, and hours are limited for
  young persons under 16 and for women of any age. These protected
  persons may be excluded by royal decree from unhealthy industries, and
  such industries are specified in a decree of 1897 which supersedes
  other earlier regulations. Hours of employment must not exceed 11 in
  the 24, and at least one hour for rest must be given between 11 A.M.
  and 3 P.M., which hour must not be spent in a workroom. Work before 5
  A.M. or after 7 P.M., Sunday work, and work on recognized holidays is
  generally prohibited, but there are exceptions. Overtime from 7 to 10
  P.M., under conditions, is allowed for women and young workers, and
  Sunday work for women, for example, in butter and cheese making, and
  night work for boys over 14 in certain industries. Employment of women
  within four weeks of childbirth is prohibited. Notices of working
  hours must be affixed in workplaces. Underground work in mines is
  prohibited for women and young persons under 16, but in Holland mining
  is a very small industry. In 1895 the first legislative provision was
  made for protection of workers against risk of accident or special
  injury to health. Sufficient cubic space, lighting, ventilation,
  sanitary accommodation, reasonable temperature, removal of noxious
  gases or dust, fencing of machinery, precautions against risk from
  fire and other matters are provided for. The manufacture of lucifer
  matches by means of white phosphorus was forbidden and the export,
  importation and sale was regulated by a law of the 28th of May 1901.
  By a regulation of the 16th of March 1904 provisions for safety and
  health of women and young workers were strengthened in processes where
  lead compounds or other poisons are used, and their employment at
  certain dangerous machines and in cleaning machinery or near driving
  belts was prohibited. No penal provision against truck exists in
  Holland, but possibly abuses of the system are prevented by the
  existence of industrial councils representing both employers and
  workers, with powers to mediate or arbitrate in case of disputes.

  _Switzerland._--In Switzerland separate cantonal legislation prepared
  the way for the general Federal labour law of 1877 on which subsequent
  legislation rests. Such legislation is also cantonal as well as
  Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or
  interpretation of the principles contained in the law of 1877, whereas
  cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal
  law, e.g. single workers employed in a trade (_métier_) and employment
  in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories,
  workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10 workers,
  and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes are carried
  on. Mines are not included, but are regulated in some respects as
  regards health and safety by cantonal laws. Further, the Law of
  Employers' Liability 1881-1887, which requires in all industries
  precautions against accidents and reports of all serious accidents to
  the cantonal governments, applies to mines. This led, in 1896, to the
  creation of a special mining department, and mines, of which there are
  few, have to be inspected once a year by a mining engineer. The
  majority of the provisions of the Federal labour law apply to adult
  workers of both sexes, and the general limit of the 11-hours' day,
  exclusive of at least one hour for meals, applies to men as well as
  women. The latter have, however, a legal claim, when they have a
  household to manage, to leave work at the dinner-hour half an hour
  earlier than the men. Men and unmarried women may be employed in such
  subsidiary work as cleaning before or after the general legal limits.
  On Saturdays and eves of the eight public holidays the 11-hours' day
  is reduced to 10. Sunday work and night work are forbidden, but
  exceptions are permitted conditionally. Night work is defined as 8
  P.M. to 5 A.M. in summer, 8 P.M. to 6 A.M. in winter. Children are
  excluded from employment in workplaces under the law until 14 years of
  age, and until 16 must attend continuation schools. Zürich canton has
  fixed the working day for women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on
  Saturdays and eves of holidays. Bâle-Ville canton has the same limits
  and provides that the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall
  be compensated by double time off on another day. In the
  German-speaking cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work
  overtime; in all cantons except Glarus the conditional overtime of 2
  hours must be paid for at an enhanced wage.

  Sanitary regulations and fencing of machinery are provided for with
  considerable minuteness in a Federal decree of 1897. The plans of
  every new factory must be submitted to the cantonal government. In the
  case of lucifer match factories, not only the building but methods of
  manufacture must be submitted. Since 1901 the manufacture, sale and
  import of matches containing white phosphorus have been forbidden.
  Women must be absent from employment during eight weeks before and
  after childbirth. In certain dangerous occupations, e.g. where lead or
  lead compounds are in use, women may not legally be employed during
  pregnancy. A resolution of the federal council in 1901 classed
  thirty-four different substances in use in industry as dangerous and
  laid down that in case of clearly defined illness of workers directly
  caused by use of any of these substances the liability provided by
  article 3 of the law of the 25th of June 1881, and article 1 of the
  law of the 26th of April 1887, should apply to the manufacture.
  Legislative provision against abuses of the truck system appears to be
  of earlier origin in Switzerland (17th century) than any other
  European country outside England (15th century). The Federal Labour
  Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of wages otherwise than in
  current coin, and provides that no deduction shall be made without an
  express contract. Some of the cantonal laws go much farther than the
  British act of 1896 in forbidding certain deductions; e.g. Zürich
  prohibits any charge for cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or
  for hire of machinery. By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a
  day's wage. Administration of the Labour laws is divided between
  inspectors appointed by the Federal Government and local authorities,
  under supervision of the cantonal governments. The Federal Government
  forms a court of appeal against decisions of the cantonal
  governments.

  _Germany._--Regulation of the conditions of labour in industry
  throughout the German empire is provided for in the Imperial
  Industrial Code and the orders of the Federal Council based thereon.
  By far the most important recent amendment socially is the law
  regulating child-labour, dated the 30th of March 1903, which relates
  to establishments having industrial character in the sense of the
  Industrial Code. This Code is based on earlier industrial codes of the
  separate states, but more especially on the Code of 1869 of the North
  German Confederation. It applies in whole or in part to all trades and
  industrial occupations, except transport, fisheries and agriculture.
  Mines are only included so far as truck, Sunday and holiday rest,
  prohibition of employment underground of female labour, limitation of
  the hours of women and young workers are concerned; otherwise the
  regulations for protection of life and limb of miners vary, as do the
  mining laws of the different states. To estimate the force of the
  Industrial Code in working, it is necessary to bear in mind the
  complicated political history of the empire, the separate
  administration by the federated states, and the generally considerable
  powers vested in administration of initiating regulations. The
  Industrial Code expressly retains power for the states to initiate
  certain additions or exceptions to the Code which in any given state
  may form part of the law regulating factories there. The Code (unlike
  the Austrian Industrial Code) lays down no general limit for a normal
  working day for adult male workers, but since 1891 full powers were
  given to the Imperial government to limit hours for any classes of
  workers in industries where excessive length of the working day
  endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § 120e). Previously
  application had been made of powers to reduce the working day in such
  unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury and the
  manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under mining laws,
  also limited hours of miners. Sunday rest was, in 1891, secured for
  every class of workers, commercial, industrial and mining. Annual
  holidays were also secured on church festivals. These provisions,
  however, are subject to exceptions under conditions. An important
  distinction has to be shown when we turn to the regulations for hours
  and times of labour for protected persons (women, young persons and
  children). Setting aside for the moment hours of shop assistants
  (which are under special sections since 1900), it is to "factory
  workers" and not to industrial workers in general that these limits
  apply, although they may be, and in some instances have been, further
  extended--for instance, in ready-made clothing trades--by imperial
  decree to workshops, and by the Child Labour Law of 1903 regulation of
  the scope and duration of employment of children is much strengthened
  in workshops, commerce, transport and domestic industries. The term
  "factory" (_Fabrik_) is not defined in the Code, but it is clear from
  various decisions of the supreme court that it only in part coincides
  with the English term, and that some workplaces, where processes are
  carried on by aid of mechanical power, rank rather as English
  workshops. The distinction is rather between wholesale manufacturing
  industry, with subdivision of labour, and small industry, where the
  employer works himself. Certain classes of undertaking, viz. forges,
  timber-yards, dockyards, brickfields and open quarries, are
  specifically ranked as factories. Employment of protected persons at
  the surface of mines and underground quarries, and in salt works and
  ore-dressing works, and of boys underground comes under the factory
  regulations. These exclude children from employment under 13 years,
  and even later if an educational certificate has not been obtained;
  until 14 years hours of employment may not exceed 6 in the 24. In
  processes and occupations under the scope of the Child Labour Law
  children may not be employed by their parents or guardians before 10
  years of age or by other employers before 12 years of age; nor between
  the hours of 8 P.M. and 8 A.M., nor otherwise than in full compliance
  with requirements of educational authorities for school attendance and
  with due regard to prescribed pauses. In school term time the daily
  limit of employment for children is three hours, in holiday time three
  hours. As regards factories Germany, unlike Great Britain, France and
  Switzerland, requires a shorter day for young persons than for
  women--10 hours for the former, 11 hours for the latter. Women over 16
  years may be employed 11 hours. Night work is forbidden, i.e. work
  between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M. Overtime may be granted to meet
  unforeseen pressure or for work on perishable articles, under
  conditions, by local authorities and the higher administrative
  authorities. Prescribed meal-times are--an unbroken half-hour for
  children in their 6 hours; for young persons a mid-day pause of one
  hour, and half an hour respectively in the morning and afternoon
  spells; for women, an hour at mid-day, but women with the care of a
  household have the claim, on demand, to an extra half-hour, as in
  Switzerland. No woman may be employed within four weeks after
  childbirth, and unless a medical certificate can then be produced, the
  absence must extend to six weeks. Notice of working periods and
  meal-times must be affixed, and copies sent to the local authorities.
  Employment of protected persons in factory industries where there are
  special risks to health or morality may be forbidden or made dependent
  on special conditions. By the Child Labour Law employment of children
  is forbidden in brickworks, stone breaking, chimney sweeping, street
  cleaning and other processes and occupations. By an order of the
  Federal Council in 1902 female workers were excluded from main
  processes in forges and rolling mills. All industrial employers alike
  are bound to organize labour in such a manner as to secure workers
  against injury to health and to ensure good conduct and propriety.
  Sufficient light, suitable cloakrooms and sanitary accommodation, and
  ventilation to carry off dust, vapours and other impurities are
  especially required. Dining-rooms may be ordered by local authorities.
  Fencing and provision for safety in case of fire are required in
  detail. The work of the trade accident insurance associations in
  preventing accidents is especially recognized in provisions for
  special rules in dangerous or unhealthy industries. Officials of the
  state factory departments are bound to give opportunity to trustees of
  the trade associations to express an opinion on special rules. In a
  large number of industries the Federal Council has laid down special
  rules comparable with those for unhealthy occupations in Great
  Britain. Among the regulations most recently revised and strengthened
  are those for manufacture of lead colours and lead compounds, and for
  horse-hair and brush-making factories. The relations between the state
  inspectors of factories and the ordinary police authorities are
  regulated in each state by its constitution. Prohibitions of truck in
  its original sense--that is, payment of wages otherwise than in
  current coin--apply to any persons under a contract of service with an
  employer for a specified time for industrial purposes; members of a
  family working for a parent or husband are not included; outworkers
  are covered. Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only
  in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop
  hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between
  9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of 1½ hours and
  at least 10 hours' rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can be
  modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working
  rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of
  goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the
  Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is bound to
  adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety, health and
  good conduct of his employés. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor
  under the Commercial Code seats must be provided for commercial
  assistants and apprentices.

  _Austria._--The Industrial Code of Austria, which in its present
  outline (modified by later enactments) dates from 1883, must be
  carefully distinguished from the Industrial Code of the kingdom of
  Hungary. The latter is, owing to the predominantly agricultural
  character of the population, of later origin, and hardly had practical
  force before the law of 1893 provided for inspection and prevention of
  accidents in factories. No separate mining code exists in Hungary, and
  conditions of labour are regulated by the Austrian law of 1854. The
  truck system is repressed on lines similar to those in Austria and
  Germany. As regards limitation of hours of adult labour, Hungary may
  be contrasted with both those empires in that no restriction of hours
  applies either to men's or women's hours, whereas in Austrian
  factories both are limited to an 11-hours' day with exceptional
  overtime for which payment must always be made to the worker. The
  Austrian Code has its origin, however, like the British Factory Acts,
  in protection of child labour. Its present scope is determined by the
  Imperial "Patent" of 1859, and all industrial labour is included
  except mining, transport, fisheries, forestry, agriculture and
  domestic industries. Factories are defined as including industries in
  which a "manufacturing process is carried on in an enclosed place by
  the aid of not less than twenty workers working with machines, with
  subdivision of labour, and under an employer who does not himself
  manually assist in the work." In smaller handicraft industries the
  compulsory gild system of organization still applies. In every
  industrial establishment, large or small, the sanitary and safety
  provisions, general requirement of Sunday rest, and annual holidays
  (with conditional exceptions), prohibition of truck and limitation of
  the ages of child labour apply. Night work for women, 8 P.M. to 5
  A.M., is prohibited only in factory industries; for young workers it
  is prohibited in any industry. Pauses in work are required in all
  industries; one hour at least must be given at mid-day, and if the
  morning and afternoon spells exceed 5 hours each, another half-hour's
  rest at least must be given. Children may not be employed in
  industrial work before 12 years, and then only 8 hours a day at work
  that is not injurious and if educational requirements are observed.
  The age of employment is raised to 14 for "factories," and the work
  must be such as will not hinder physical development. Women may not be
  employed in regular industrial occupation within one month after
  childbirth. In certain scheduled unhealthy industries, where
  certificates of authorization from local authorities must be obtained
  by intending occupiers, conditions of health and safety for workers
  can be laid down in the certificate. The Minister of the Interior is
  empowered to draw up regulations prohibiting or making conditions for
  the employment of young workers or women in dangerous or unhealthy
  industries. The provisions against truck cover not only all industrial
  workers engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer,
  but also shop-assistants; the special regulations against fines and
  deductions apply to factory workers and shops where at least 20
  workers are employed. In mines under the law of 1884, which
  supplements the general mining law, employment of women and girls
  underground is prohibited; boys from 12 to 16 and girls from 12 to 18
  may only be employed at light work above ground; 14 is the earliest
  age of admission for boys underground. The shifts from bank to bank
  must not exceed 12 hours, of which not more than 10 may be effective
  work. Sunday rest must begin not later than 6 A.M., and must be of 24
  hours' duration. These last two provisions do not hold in case of
  pressing danger for safety, health or property. Sick and accident
  funds and mining associations are legislated for in minutest detail.
  The general law provides for safety in working, but special rules
  drawn up by the district authorities lay down in detail the conditions
  of health and safety. As regards manufacturing industry, the
  Industrial Code lays no obligation on employers to report accidents,
  and until the Accident Insurance Law of 1889 came into force no
  statistics were available. In Austria, unlike Germany, the factory
  inspectorate is organized throughout under a central chief inspector.

  _Scandinavian Countries._--In Sweden the Factory Law was amended in
  January 1901; in Denmark in July 1901. Until that year, however,
  Norway was in some respects in advance of the other two countries by
  its law of 1892, which applied to industrial works, including metal
  works of all kinds and mining. Women were thereby prohibited from
  employment: (a) underground; (b) in cleaning or oiling machinery in
  motion; (c) during six weeks after childbirth, unless provided with a
  medical certificate stating that they might return at the end of four
  weeks without injury to health; (d) in dangerous, unhealthy or
  exhausting trades during pregnancy. Further, work on Sundays and
  public holidays is prohibited to all workers, adult and youthful, with
  conditional exceptions under the authority of the inspectors. Children
  over 12 are admitted to industrial work on obtaining certificates of
  birth, of physical fitness and of elementary education. The hours of
  children are limited to 6, with pauses, and of young persons (of 14 to
  18 years) to 10, with pauses. Night work between 8 P.M. and 6 A.M. is
  prohibited. All workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory
  rules containing the terms of the contract of work drawn up by
  representatives of employés with the employers and sanctioned by the
  inspector. Health and safety in working are provided for in detail in
  the same law of 1892. Special rules may be made for dangerous trades,
  and in 1899 such rules were established for match factories, similar
  to some of the British rules, but notably providing for a dental
  examination four times yearly by a doctor. In Denmark, regulation
  began with unhealthy industries, and it was not until the law of 1901
  came into force, on the 1st of January 1902, that children under 12
  years have been excluded from factory labour. Control of child labour
  can be strengthened by municipal regulation, and this has been done in
  Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the 12
  years' limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the scope
  has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian law. The
  hours of children are, in Denmark, 6½ for those under 14 years; in
  Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may not in either
  country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work, which is
  forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in Norway.
  Women may not be employed in industry within four weeks of childbirth,
  except on authority of a medical certificate. All factories in Sweden
  where young workers are employed are subject to medical inspection
  once a year. Fencing of machinery and hygienic conditions
  (ventilation, cubic space, temperature, light) are regulated in
  detail. In Denmark the use of white phosphorus in manufacture of
  lucifer matches has been prohibited since 1874, and special
  regulations have been drawn up by administrative orders which
  strengthen control of various unhealthy or dangerous industries, e.g.
  dry-cleaning works, printing works and type foundries, iron foundries
  and engineering works. A special act of the 6th of April 1906
  regulates labour and sanitary conditions in bakehouses and
  confectionery works.

  _Italy and Spain._--The wide difference between the industrial
  development of these southern Latin countries and the two countries
  with which this summary begins, and the far greater importance of the
  agricultural interests, produced a situation, as regards labour
  legislation until as recently as 1903, which makes it convenient to
  touch on the comparatively limited scope of their regulations at the
  close of the series. It was stated by competent and impartial
  observers from each of the two countries, at the International
  Congress on Labour Laws held at Brussels in 1897, that the lack of
  adequate measures for protection of child labour and inefficient
  administration of such regulations as exist was then responsible for
  abuse of their forces that could be found in no other European
  countries. "Their labour in factories, workshops, and mines
  constitutes a veritable martyrdom" (Spain). "I believe that there is
  no country where a sacrifice of child life is made that is comparable
  with that in certain Italian factories and industries" (Italy). In
  both countries important progress has since been made in organizing
  inspection and preventing accidents. In Spain the first step in the
  direction of limitation of women's hours of labour was taken by a law
  of 1900, which took effect in 1902, in regulations for reduction of
  hours of labour for adults to 11, normally, in the 24. Hours of
  children under 14 must not exceed 6 in any industrial work nor 8 in
  any commercial undertaking. Labour before the age of 10 years and
  night work between 6 P.M. and 5 A.M. was prohibited, and powers were
  taken to extend the prohibition of night work to young persons under
  16 years. The labour of children in Italy was until 1902 regulated in
  the main by a law of 1886, but a royal decree of 1899 strengthened it
  by classing night work for children under 12 years as "injurious,"
  such work being thereby generally prohibited for them, though
  exceptions are admitted; at the same time it was laid down that
  children from 12 to 15 years might not be employed for more than 6
  hours at night. The law of 1886 prohibits employment of children
  under 9 years in industry and under 10 years in underground mining.
  Night work for women was in Italy first prohibited by the law of the
  19th of June 1902, and at the same time also for boys under 15, but
  this regulation was not to take full effect for 5 years as regards
  persons already so employed; by the same law persons under 15 and
  women of any age were accorded the claim to one day's complete rest of
  24 hours in the week; the age of employment of children in factories,
  workshops, laboratories, quarries, mines, was raised to 12 years
  generally and 14 years for underground work; the labour of female
  workers of any age was prohibited in underground work, and power was
  reserved to further restrict and regulate their employment as well as
  that of male workers under 15. Spain and Italy, the former by the law
  of the 13th of March 1900, the latter by the law of the 19th of June
  1902, prohibit the employment of women within a fixed period of
  childbirth; in Spain the limit is three weeks, in Italy one month,
  which may be reduced to three weeks on a medical certificate of
  fitness. Sunday rest is secured in industrial works, with regulated
  exceptions in Spain by the law of the 3rd of March 1904. It is in the
  direction of fencing and other safeguards against accidents and as
  regards sanitary provisions, both in industrial workplaces and in
  mines, that Italy has made most advance since her law of 1890 for
  prevention of accidents. Special measures for prevention of malaria
  are required in cultivation of rice by a ministerial circular of the
  23rd of April 1903; work may not begin until an hour after sunrise and
  must cease an hour before sunset; children under 13 may not be
  employed in this industry.     (A. M, An.)


IV. UNITED STATES

  History.

Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American statute laws
regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation of employer and
employé must be classed. It includes what is properly known as factory
legislation. Labour legislation belongs to the latter half of the 19th
century, so far as the United States is concerned. Like England in the
far past, the Americans in colonial days undertook to regulate wages and
prices, and later the employment of apprentices. Legislation relating to
wages and prices was long ago abandoned, but the laws affecting the
employment of apprentices still exist in some form, although conditions
of employment have changed so materially that apprenticeships are not
entered as of old; but the laws regulating the employment of apprentices
were the basis on which English legislation found a foothold when
parliament wished to regulate the labour of factory operatives. The code
of labour laws of the present time is almost entirely the result of the
industrial revolution during the latter part of the 18th century, under
which the domestic or hand-labour system was displaced through the
introduction of power machinery. As this revolution took place in the
United States at a somewhat later date than in England, the labour
legislation necessitated by it belongs to a later date. The factory, so
far as textiles are concerned, was firmly established in America during
the period from 1820 to 1840, and it was natural that the English
legislation found friends and advocates in the United States, although
the more objectionable conditions accompanying the English factory were
not to be found there.


  Early attempts to regulate hours.

The first attempt to secure legislation regulating factory employment
related to the hours of labour, which were very long--from twelve to
thirteen hours a day. As machinery was introduced it was felt that the
tension resulting from speeded machines and the close attention required
in the factory ought to be accompanied by a shorter work-day. This view
took firm hold of the operatives, and was the chief cause of the
agitation which has resulted in a great body of laws applying in very
many directions. As early as 1806 the caulkers and shipbuilders of New
York City agitated for a reduction of hours to ten per day, but no
legislation followed. There were several other attempts to secure some
regulation relative to hours, but there was no general agitation prior
to 1831. As Massachusetts was the state which first recognized the
necessity of regulating employment (following in a measure, and so far
as conditions demanded, the English labour or factory legislation), the
history of such legislation in that state is indicative of that in the
United States, and as it would be impossible in this article to give a
detailed history of the origin of laws in the different states, the
dates of their enactment, and their provisions, it is best to follow
primarily the course of the Eastern states, and especially that of
Massachusetts, where the first general agitation took place and the
first laws were enacted. That state in 1836 regulated by law the
question of the education of young persons employed in manufacturing
establishments. The regulation of hours of labour was warmly discussed
in 1832, and several legislative committees and commissions reported
upon it, but no specific action on the general question of hours of
labour secured the indorsement of the Massachusetts legislature until
1874, although the day's labour of children under twelve years of age
was limited to ten hours in 1842. Ten hours constituted a day's labour,
on a voluntary basis, in many trades in Massachusetts and other parts of
the country as early as 1853, while in the shipbuilding trades this was
the work-day in 1844. In April 1840 President Van Buren issued an order
"that all public establishments will hereafter be regulated, as to
working hours, by the ten-hours system." The real aggressive movement
began in 1845, through numerous petitions to the Massachusetts
legislature urging a reduction of the day's labour to eleven hours, but
nothing came of these petitions at that time. Again, in 1850, a similar
effort was made, and also in 1851 and 1852, but the bills failed. Then
there was a period of quiet until 1865, when an unpaid commission made a
report relative to the hours of labour, and recommended the
establishment of a bureau of statistics for the purpose of collecting
data bearing upon the labour question. This was the first step in this
direction in any country. The first bureau of the kind was established
in Massachusetts in 1869, but meanwhile, in accordance with reports of
commissions and the address of Governor Bullock in 1866, and the general
sentiment which then prevailed, the legislature passed an act regulating
in a measure the conditions of the employment of children in
manufacturing establishments; and this is one of the first laws of the
kind in the United States, although the first legislation in the United
States relating to the hours of labour which the writer has been able to
find, and for which he can fix a date, was enacted by the state of
Pennsylvania in 1849, the law providing that ten hours should be a day's
work in cotton, woollen, paper, bagging, silk and flax factories.


  Employment of children.

The Massachusetts law of 1866 provided, firstly, that no child under ten
should be employed in any manufacturing establishment, and that no child
between ten and fourteen should be so employed unless he had attended
some public or private school at least six months during the year
preceding such employment, and, further, that such employment should not
continue unless the child attended school at least six months in each
and every year; secondly, a penalty not exceeding $50 for every owner or
agent or other person knowingly employing a child in violation of the
act; thirdly, that no child under the age of fourteen should be employed
in any manufacturing establishment more than eight hours in any one day;
fourthly, that any parent or guardian allowing or consenting to
employment in violation of the act should forfeit a sum not to exceed
$50 for each offence; fifthly, that the Governor instruct the state
constable and his deputies to enforce the provisions of all laws for
regulating the employment of children in manufacturing establishments.
The same legislature also created a commission of three persons, whose
duty it was to investigate the subject of hours of labour in relation to
the social, educational and sanitary condition of the working classes.
In 1867 a fundamental law relating to schooling and hours of labour of
children employed in manufacturing and mechanical establishments was
passed by the Massachusetts legislature. It differed from the act of the
year previous in some respects, going deeper into the general question.
It provided that no child under ten should be employed in any
manufacturing or mechanical establishment of the commonwealth, and that
no child between ten and fifteen should be so employed unless he had
attended school, public or private, at least three months during the
year next preceding his employment. There were provisions relating to
residence, &c., and a further provision that no time less than 120
half-days of actual schooling should be deemed an equivalent of three
months, and that no child under fifteen should be employed in any
manufacturing or mechanical establishment more than sixty hours any one
week. The law also provided penalties for violation. It repealed the
act of 1866.

In 1869 began the establishment of that chain of offices in the United
States, the principle of which has been adopted by other countries,
known as bureaus of statistics of labour, their especial purpose being
the collection and dissemination of information relating to all features
of industrial employment. As a result of the success of the first
bureau, bureaus are in existence in thirty-three states, in addition to
the United States Bureau of Labour.

A special piece of legislation which belongs to the commonwealth of
Massachusetts, so far as experience shows, was that in 1872, providing
for cheap morning and evening trains for the accommodation of working
men living in the vicinity of Boston. Great Britain had long had such
trains, which were called parliamentary trains. Under the Massachusetts
law some of the railways running out of Boston furnished the
accommodation required, and the system has since been in operation.


  Factory legislation, 1877.

In different parts of the country the agitation to secure legislation
regulating the hours of labour became aggressive again in 1870 and the
years immediately following, there being a constant repetition of
attempts to secure the enactment of a ten-hours law, but in
Massachusetts all the petitions failed till 1874, when the legislature
of that commonwealth established the hours of labour at sixty per week
not only for children under eighteen, but for women, the law providing
that no minor under eighteen and no woman over that age should be
employed by any person, firm or corporation in any manufacturing
establishment more than ten hours in any one day. In 1876 Massachusetts
reconstructed its laws relating to the employment of children, although
it did not abrogate the principles involved in earlier legislation,
while in 1877 the commonwealth passed Factory Acts covering the general
provisions of the British laws. It provided for the general inspection
of factories and public buildings, the provisions of the law relating to
dangerous machinery, such as belting, shafting, gearing, drums, &c.,
which the legislature insisted must be securely guarded, and that no
machinery other than steam engines should be cleaned while running. The
question of ventilation and cleanliness was also attended to. Dangers
connected with hoistways, elevators and well-holes were minimized by
their protection by sufficient trap-doors, while fire-escapes were made
obligatory on all establishments of three or more storeys in height. All
main doors, both inside and outside, of manufacturing establishments, as
well as those of churches, school-rooms, town halls, theatres and every
building used for public assemblies, should open outwardly whenever the
factory inspectors of the commonwealth deemed it necessary. These
provisions remain in the laws of Massachusetts, and other states have
found it wise to follow them.

  The labour legislation in force in 1910 in the various states of the
  Union might be classified in two general branches: (A) protective
  labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of
  their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect
  themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the
  legal status of the worker as an employé, such as laws relating to the
  making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form
  organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour
  disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c.


    Factory and workshop acts.

  (A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating
  to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of
  wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their employés, &c.
  Factory acts have been passed by nearly all the states of the Union.
  These may be considered in two groups--first, laws which relate to
  conditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and
  women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of
  factories and workshops and to the safety of employés generally. The
  states adopting such laws have usually made provision for factory
  inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who have power
  to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most common
  provisions of the factory acts in the various states are those which
  fix an age limit below which employment is unlawful. All but five
  states have enacted such provisions, and these five states have
  practically no manufacturing industries. In some states the laws
  fixing an age limit are restricted in their application to factories,
  while in others they extend also to workshops, bakeries, mercantile
  establishments and other work places where children are employed. The
  prescribed age limit varies from ten to fourteen years. Provisions
  concerning the education of children in factories and workshops may be
  considered in two groups, those relating to apprenticeship and those
  requiring a certain educational qualification as a pre-requisite to
  employment. Apprenticeship laws are numerous, but they do not now have
  great force, because of the practical abrogation of the apprenticeship
  system through the operation of modern methods of production. Most
  states have provisions prohibiting illiterates under a specified age,
  usually sixteen, from being employed in factories and workshops. The
  provisions of the factory acts relating to hours of labour and night
  work generally affect only the employment of women and young persons.
  Most of the states have enacted such provisions, those limiting the
  hours of children occurring more frequently than those limiting the
  hours of women. The hour limit for work in such cases ranges from six
  per day to sixty-six per week. Where the working time of children is
  restricted, the minimum age prescribed for such children ranges from
  twelve to twenty-one years. In some cases the restriction of the hours
  of labour of women and children is general, while in others it applies
  only to employment in one or more classes of industries. Other
  provisions of law for the protection of women and children, but not
  usually confined in their operation to factories and workshops, are
  such as require seats for females and separate toilet facilities for
  the sexes, and prohibit employment in certain occupations as in mines,
  places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or
  operating dangerous machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating
  to the sanitary condition of factories and workshops and the safety of
  employés have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of
  the Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventilation,
  sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls and
  ceilings, the provision of exhaust fans and blowers in places where
  dust or dangerous fumes are generated, guards on machinery, mechanical
  belts and gearing shifters, guards on elevators and hoistways,
  hand-rails on stairs, fire-escapes, &c.


    Hours of labour.

  The statutes relating to hours of labour may be considered under five
  groups, namely: (1) general laws which merely fix what shall be
  regarded as a day's labour in the absence of a contract; (2) laws
  defining what shall constitute a day's work on public roads; (3) laws
  limiting the hours of labour per day on public works; (4) laws
  limiting the hours of labour in certain occupations; and (5) laws
  which specify the hours per day or per week during which women and
  children may be employed. The statutes included in the first two
  groups place no restrictions upon the number of hours which may be
  agreed upon between employers and employés, while those in the other
  three groups usually limit the freedom of contract and provide
  penalties for their violation. A considerable number of states have
  enacted laws which fix a day's labour in the absence of any contract,
  some at eight and others at ten hours, so that when an employer and an
  employé make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute
  a day's labour, eight or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the
  day's labour in an action which might come before the courts. In a
  number of the states it is optional with the citizens to liquidate
  certain taxes either by cash payments or by rendering personal
  service. In the latter case the length of the working day is defined
  by law, eight hours being usually specified. The Federal government
  and nearly one-half of the states have laws providing that eight hours
  shall constitute a day's work for employés on public works. Under the
  Federal Act it is unlawful for any officer of the government or of any
  contractor or sub-contractor for public works to permit labourers and
  mechanics to work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws
  concerning hours of labour have similar provisions. Exceptions are
  provided for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to
  human life or property. In many states the hours of labour have been
  limited by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous
  or insanitary character, the health of the employés would be
  jeopardized by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue
  occasioned by long hours would endanger the lives of the employés or
  of the public. The occupations for which such special legislation has
  been enacted are those of employés on steam and street railways, in
  mines and other underground workings, smelting and refining works,
  bakeries and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of
  labour of women and children have been considered under factory and
  workshop acts.


    Sunday labour.

  Nearly all states and Territories of the Union have laws prohibiting
  the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it a
  misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or to compel or
  permit their apprentices, servants or other employés, to labour on the
  first day of the week. Exceptions are made in the case of household
  duties or works of necessity or charity, and in the case of members of
  religious societies who observe some other than the first day of the
  week.


    Payment of wages.

  Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employés may be considered
  in two groups: (1) those which relate to the employment contract, such
  as laws fixing the maximum period of wage payments, prohibiting the
  payment of wages in scrip or other evidences of indebtedness in lieu
  of lawful money, prohibiting wage deductions on account of fines,
  breakage of machinery, discounts for prepayments, medical attendance,
  relief funds or other purposes, requiring the giving of notice of
  reduction of wages, &c.; (2) legislation granting certain privileges
  or affording special protection to working people with respect to
  their wages, such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring
  wage claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings
  and other constructions on which they have been employed.


    Employers' liability.

  Employers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employé to
  recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has
  been injured through accident occurring in the works of the employer.
  The common-law maxim that the principal is responsible for the acts of
  his agent does not apply where two or more persons are working
  together under the same employer and one of the employés is injured
  through the carelessness of his fellow-employé, although the one
  causing the accident is the agent of the principal, who under the
  common law would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and
  American practice under it held that the co-employé was a party to the
  accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration.
  A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives,
  is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of
  the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not recover
  damages from the employer, because he was the co-employé of the
  engineer. So, one of thousands of employés of a railway system,
  sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman whom he
  never saw, could recover no damages from the railway company, both
  being co-employés of the same employer. The injustice of this
  application of the common-law rule has been recognized, but the only
  way to avoid the difficulty was through specific legislation providing
  that under such conditions as those related, and similar ones, the
  doctrine of co-employment should not apply, and that the workman
  should have the same right to recover damages as a passenger upon a
  railway train. This legislation has upset some of the most notable
  distinctions of law.

  The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in
  England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now enacted
  statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain conditions
  and relieving the employé from the application of the common-law rule.
  Where the employé himself is contributory to the injuries resulting
  from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he recover in some cases
  where he knows of the danger from the defects of tools or implements
  employed by him. The legislation upon the subject involves many
  features of legislation which need not be described here, such as
  those concerning the power of employés to make a contract, and those
  defining the conditions, often elaborate, which lead to the liability
  of the employer and the duties of the employé, and the relations in
  which damages for injuries sustained in employment may be recovered
  from the employer.

  (B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective
  labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws
  enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal
  status of employers and employés and defining their rights and
  privileges as such.


    Labour contract.

  A great variety of statutes have been enacted in the various states
  relating to the labour contract. Among these are laws defining the
  labour contract, requiring notice of termination of contract, making
  it a misdemeanour to break a contract of service and thereby endanger
  human life or expose valuable property to serious injury, or to make a
  contract of service and accept transportation or pecuniary
  advancements with intent to defraud, prohibiting contracts of
  employment whereby employés waive the right to damages in case of
  injury, &c. A Federal statute makes it a misdemeanour for any one to
  prepay the transportation or in any way assist or encourage the
  importation of aliens under contract to perform labour or service of
  any kind in the United States, exceptions being made in the case of
  skilled labour that cannot otherwise be obtained, domestic servants
  and persons belonging to any of the recognized professions.


    Licensed occupations.

  The Federal government and nearly all the states and territories have
  statutory provisions requiring the examination and licensing of
  persons practising certain trades other than those in the class of
  recognized professions. The Federal statute relates only to engineers
  on steam vessels, masters, mates, pilots, &c. The occupations for
  which examinations and licences are required by the various state laws
  are those of barbers, horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers,
  stationary firemen, steam engineers, telegraph operators on railroads
  and certain classes of mine workers and steam and street railway
  employés.


  Labour organizations.

The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part of employés
is recognized at common law throughout the United States. Organizations
of working-men formed for their mutual benefit, protection and
improvement, such as for endeavouring to secure higher wages, shorter
hours of labour or better working conditions, are nowhere regarded as
unlawful. A number of states and the Federal government have enacted
statutes providing for the incorporation of trade unions, but owing to
the freedom from regulation or inspection enjoyed by unincorporated
trade unions, very few have availed themselves of this privilege. A
number of states have enacted laws tending to give special protection to
and encourage trade unions. Thus, nearly one-half of the states have
passed acts declaring it unlawful for employers to discharge workmen for
joining labour organizations, or to make it a condition of employment
that they shall not belong to such bodies. Laws of this kind have
generally been held to be unconstitutional. Nearly all the states have
laws protecting trade unions in the use of the union label, insignia of
membership, credentials, &c., and making it a misdemeanour to
counterfeit or fraudulently use them. A number of the states exempt
labour organizations from the operations of the anti-trust and insurance
acts.


  Labour disputes.

Until recent years all legal action concerning labour disturbances was
based upon the principles of the common law. Some of the states have now
fairly complete statutory enactments concerning labour disturbances,
while others have little or no legislation of this class. The right of
employés to strike for any cause or for no cause is sustained by the
common law everywhere in the United States. Likewise an employer has a
right to discharge any or all of his employés when they have no contract
with him, and he may refuse to employ any person or class of persons for
any reason or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable
means to induce others to remain away from the works of an employer
until he yields to the demands of the strikers are not held to be
conspiracies under the common law, and the carrying out of such a
purpose by peaceable persuasion and without violence, intimidation or
threats, is not unlawful. However, any interference with the
constitutional rights of another to employ whom he chooses or to labour
when, where or on what terms he pleases, is illegal. The boycott has
been held to be an illegal conspiracy in restraint of trade. The
statutory enactments of the various states concerning labour
disturbances are in part re-enactments of the rules of common law and in
part more or less departures from or additions to the established
principles. The list of such statutory enactments is a large one, and
includes laws relating to blacklisting, boycotting, conspiracy against
working-men, interference with employment, intimidation, picketing and
strikes of railway employés; laws requiring statements of causes of
discharge of employés and notice of strikes in advertisements for
labour; laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the
hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that certain
labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of these laws have
been held to be unconstitutional, and some have not yet been tested in
the courts.


    Arbitration and conciliation.

  The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of
  employers or of employés, but there is another form of law, namely,
  that providing for action to be taken by others in the effort to
  prevent working people from losing employment, either by their own
  acts or by those of their employers, or to settle any differences
  which arise out of controversies relating to wages, hours of labour,
  terms and conditions of employment, rules, &c. These laws provide for
  the mediation and the arbitration of labour disputes (see ARBITRATION
  AND CONCILIATION). Twenty-three states and the Federal government have
  laws or constitutional provisions of this nature. In some cases they
  provide for the appointment of state boards, and in others of local
  boards only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in
  addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required
  that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the board,
  and, in general, both employers and employés must be represented.
  Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to mediate between the
  parties to a dispute when information is received of an actual or
  threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may be undertaken in some
  states on application from either party, in others on the application
  of both parties. An agreement to maintain the _status quo_ pending
  arbitration is usually required. The modes of enforcement of obedience
  to the awards of the boards are various. Some states depend on
  publicity alone, some give the decisions the effect of judgments of
  courts of law which may be enforced by execution, while in other
  states disobedience to such decisions is punishable as for contempt of
  court. The Federal statute applies only to common carriers engaged in
  interstate commerce, and provides for an attempt to be made at
  mediation by two designated government officials in controversies
  between common carriers and their employés, and, in case of the
  failure of such an attempt, for the formation of a board of
  arbitration consisting of the same officials together with certain
  other parties to be selected. Such arbitration boards are to be formed
  only at the request or upon the consent of both parties to the
  controversy.


  The judicial enforcement of labour laws.

The enforcement of laws by executive or judicial action is an important
matter relating to labour legislation, for without action such laws
would remain dead letters. Under the constitutions of the states, the
governor is the commander-in-chief of the military forces, and he has
the power to order the militia or any part of it into active service in
case of insurrection, invasion, tumult, riots or breaches of the peace
or imminent danger thereof. Frequent action has been taken in the case
of strikes with the view of preventing or suppressing violence
threatened or happening to persons or property, the effect being,
however, that the militia protects those working or desiring to work, or
the employers. The president of the United States may use the land and
naval forces whenever by reason of insurrection, domestic violence,
unlawful obstructions, conspiracy, combinations or assemblages of
persons it becomes impracticable to enforce the laws of the land by the
ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or when the execution of the
laws is so hindered by reason of such events that any portion or class
of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under
the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the
United States forces have been used for the protection of both employers
and employés indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in
the states, to see that the laws are carried out.

The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is through the
injunction and punishment thereunder for contempt of court. It is a
principle of law that when there are interferences, actual or
threatened, with property or with rights of a pecuniary nature, and the
common or statute law offers no adequate and immediate remedy for the
prevention of injury, a court of equity may interpose and issue its
order or injunction as to what must or must not be done, a violation of
which writ gives the court which issued it the power to punish for
contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop
at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and
the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted
to frequently for the indirect protection of employés and of employers.
     (C. D. W.)

  AUTHORITIES.--ENGLISH: (a) Factory Legislation: Abraham and Davies,
  _Law relating to Factories and Workshops_ (London, 1897 and 1902);
  Redgrave, _Factory Acts_ (London, 1897); Royal Commission on Labour,
  _Minutes of Evidence and Digests_, Group "C" (3 vols., 1892-1893),
  _Assistant Commissioner's Report on Employment of Women_ (1893),
  _Fifth and Final Report of the Commission_ (1894); International
  Labour Conference at Berlin, _Correspondence, Commercial Series_ (C,
  6042) (1890); House of Lords Committee on the Sweating System,
  _Report_ (1891); _Home Office Reports_: Annual Reports of H.M. Chief
  Inspector of Factories (1879 to 1901), Committee on White Lead and
  Various Lead Industries (1894), Working of the Cotton Cloth Factories
  Acts (1897), Dangerous Trades (Anthrax) Committee, Do., Miscellaneous
  Trades (1896-97-98-99), Conditions of Work in Fish-Curing Trade
  (1898), Lead Compounds in Pottery (1899), Phosphorus in Manufacture of
  Lucifer Matches (1899), &c., &c.; Whately Cooke-Taylor, _Modern
  Factory System_ (London, 1891); Oliver, _Dangerous Trades_ (London,
  1902); Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_ (1907);
  Hutchins and Harrison, _History of Factory Legislation_ (1903);
  Traill, _Social England, &c., &c._ (b) Mines and Quarries: _Statutes_:
  Coal Mines Regulation Acts 1886, 1894, 1896, 1899; Metalliferous Mines
  Regulation Acts 1872, 1875; Quarries Act 1894; Royal Commission on
  Labour, _Minutes of Evidence and Digests_, Group "A" (1892-1893, 3
  vols.); Royal Commission on Mining Royalties, _Appendices_ (1894);
  _Home Office Reports_: Annual General Report upon the Mining Industry
  (1894-1897), Mines and Quarries, General Reports and Statistics (1898
  to 1899), Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories
  (1893-1895) (Quarries); Macswinney and Bristowe, _Coal Mines
  Regulation Act_ 1887 (London, 1888). (c) Shops: _Statutes_: Shop Hours
  Acts 1892, 1893, 1896, Seats for Shop Assistants Act 1899; _Report of
  Select Committee of House of Commons on the Shop Hours Regulation Bill
  1886_ (Eyre and Spottiswoode). (d) Truck: _Home Office Reports_:
  Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories, especially
  1895-1900, Memorandum on the Law relating to Truck and Checkweighing
  Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memorandum relating to the Truck
  Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of Acts (1897).

  CONTINENTAL EUROPE: _Annuaire de la législation du travail_
  (Bruxelles, 1898-1905); _Hygiène et sécurité des travailleurs dans les
  ateliers industriels_ (Paris, 1895); _Bulletin de l'inspection du
  travail_ (Paris, 1895-1902); _Bulletin de l'office international du
  travail_ (Paris, 1902-1906); _Congrès international de législation du
  travail_ (1898); _Die Gewerbeordnung für das deutsche Reich_. (1)
  Landmann (1897); (2) Neukamp (1901); _Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in
  gewerblichen Betrieben_, 30. _März 1903_; Konrad Agahd, _Manz'sche
  Gesetzausgabe_, erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898);
  _Legge sugli infortunii del lavoro_ (Milan, 1900).

  UNITED STATES: See the _Twenty-Second Annual Report of the
  Commissioner of Labor_ (1907) giving all labour laws in force in the
  United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts;
  bimonthly _Bulletins_ of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws
  passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts
  relating to employers and employés; also special articles in these
  _Bulletins_ on "Employer and Employé under the Common Law" (No. 1),
  "Protection of Workmen in their Employment" (No. 26), "Government
  Industrial Arbitration" (No. 60), "Laws relating to the Employment of
  Women and Children, and to Factory Inspection and the Health and
  Safety of Employés" (No. 74), "Wages and Hours of Labor in
  Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to 1907" (No. 77), "Review of Labor
  Legislation of 1908 and 1909" (No. 85); also "Report of the Industrial
  Commission on Labor Legislation" (vol. v., _U.S. Commission's
  Report_); C. D. Wright, _Industrial Evolution in the United States_
  (1887); Stimson, _Handbook to the Labor Laws of the United States_,
  and _Labor in its Relation to Law_; Adams and Sumner, _Labor
  Problems_; Labatt, _Commentaries on the Law of Master and Servant_.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The term "labour" (Lat. _labor_) means strictly any energetic
    work, though in general it implies hard work, but in modern parlance
    it is specially confined to industrial work of the kind done by the
    "working-classes."

  [2] H. D. Traill, _Social England_, v. 602 (1896).

  [3] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_.

  [4] W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Commerce and Industry_.

  [5] From an "Essay on Trade" (1770), quoted in _History of Factory
    Legislation_, by B. L. Hutchins and A. Harrison (1903), pp. 5, 6.

  [6] Minutes of Evidence, House of Commons, 1876; quoted in _History
    of Factory Legislation_, by Harrison and Hutchinson, p. 179.




LABOUR PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to the party in
parliament composed of working-class representatives. As the result of
the Reform Act of 1884, extending the franchise to a larger new
working-class electorate, the votes of "labour" became more and more a
matter of importance for politicians; and the Liberal party, seeking for
the support of organized labour in the trade unions, found room for a
few working-class representatives, who, however, acted and voted as
Liberals. It was not till 1893 that the Independent Labour party,
splitting off under Mr J. Keir Hardie (b. 1856) from the socialist
organization known as the Social Democratic Federation (founded 1881),
was formed at Bradford, with the object of getting independent
candidates returned to parliament on a socialist programme. In 1900 Mr
Keir Hardie, who as secretary of the Lanarkshire Miners' Union had stood
unsuccessfully as a labour candidate for Mid-Lanark in 1888, and sat as
M.P. for West Ham in 1892-1895, was elected to parliament for
Merthyr-Tydvil by its efforts, and in 1906 it obtained the return of 30
members, Mr Keir Hardie being chairman of the group. Meanwhile in 1899
the Trade Union Congress instructed its parliamentary committee to call
a conference on the question of labour representation; and in February
1900 this was attended by trade union delegates and also by
representatives of the Independent Labour party, the Social Democratic
Federation and the Fabian Society. A resolution was carried "to
establish a distinct labour group in parliament, who shall have their
own whips, and agree upon their own policy, which must embrace a
readiness to co-operate with any party which for the time being may be
engaged in promoting legislation in the direct interest of labour," and
the committee (the Labour Representation Committee) was elected for the
purpose. Under their auspices 29 out of 51 candidates were returned at
the election of 1906. These groups were distinct from the Labour members
("Lib.-Labs") who obeyed the Liberal whips and acted with the Liberals.
In 1908 the attempts to unite the parliamentary representatives of the
Independent Labour party with the Trades Union members were successful.
In June of that year the Miners' Federation, returning 15 members,
joined the Independent Labour party, now known for parliamentary
purposes as the "Labour Party"; other Trades Unions, such as the
Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, took the same step. This
arrangement came into force at the general election of 1910, when the
bulk of the miners' representatives signed the constitution of the
Labour party, which after the election numbered 40 members of
parliament.




LABRADOR,[1] a great peninsula in British North America, bounded E. by
the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W. by Hudson and James Bays,
and S. by an arbitrary line extending eastwards from the south-east
corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, on
the Gulf of St Lawrence, in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of
St Lawrence. It extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and
embraces an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. Recent explorations and
surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of this vast region, and
have shown that much of the peninsula is not a land of "awful
desolation," but a well-wooded country, containing latent resources of
value in its forests, fisheries and minerals.

  _Physical Geography._--Labrador forms the eastern limb of the V in the
  Archaean protaxis of North America (see CANADA), and includes most of
  the highest parts of that area. Along some portions of the coasts of
  Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of lowland, but most
  of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south and east. The
  highest portion extends east and west between 52° and 54° N., where an
  immense granite area lies between the headwaters of the larger rivers
  of the four principal drainage basins; the lowest area is between
  Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north-west, where the general level
  is not more than 500 ft. above the sea. The only mountains are the
  range along the Atlantic coast, extending from the Strait of Belle
  Isle to Cape Chidley; in their southern half they rarely exceed 1500
  ft., but increase in the northern half to a general elevation of
  upwards of 2000 ft., with numerous sharp peaks between 3000 and 5000
  ft., some say 7000 or 8000 ft. The coasts are deeply indented by
  irregular bays and fringed with rocky islands, especially along the
  high Atlantic coast, where long narrow fiords penetrate inland.
  Hamilton Inlet, 250 m. north of the Strait of Belle Isle, is the
  longest of these bays, with a length of 150 m. and a breadth varying
  from 2 to 30 m. The surface of the outer portions of the plateau is
  deeply seamed by valleys, cut into the crystalline rocks by the
  natural erosion of rivers, depending for their length and depth upon
  the volume of water flowing through them. The valley of the Hamilton
  river is the greatest, forms a continuation of the valley of the Inlet
  and extends 300 m. farther inland, while its bottom lies from 500 to
  1500 ft. below the surface of the plateau into which it is cut. The
  depressions between the low ridges of the interior are occupied by
  innumerable lakes, many of great size, including Mistassini,
  Mishikamau, Clearwater, Kaniapiskau and Seal, all from 50 to 100 m.
  long. The streams discharging these lakes, before entering their
  valleys, flow on a level with the country and occupy all depressions,
  so that they frequently spread out into lake-expansions and are often
  divided into numerous channels by large islands. The descent into the
  valleys is usually abrupt, being made by heavy rapids and falls; the
  Hamilton, from the level interior, in a course of 12 m. falls 760 ft.
  into the head of its valley, this descent including a sheer drop of
  315 ft. at the Grand Falls, which, taken with the large volume of the
  river, makes it the greatest fall in North America. The rivers of the
  northern and western watersheds drain about two-thirds of the
  peninsula; the most important of the former are the Koksoak, the
  largest river of Labrador (over 500 m. long), the George, Whale and
  Payne rivers, all flowing into Ungava Bay. The large rivers flowing
  westwards into Hudson Bay are the Povungnituk, Kogaluk, Great Whale,
  Big, East Main and Rupert, varying in length from 300 to 500 m. The
  rivers flowing south are exceedingly rapid, the Moisie, Romaine,
  Natashkwan and St Augustine being the most important; all are about
  300 m. long. The Atlantic coast range throws most of the drainage
  northwards into the Ungava basin, and only small streams fall into the
  ocean, except the Hamilton, North-west and Kenamou, which empty into
  the head of Hamilton Inlet.

  _Geology._--The peninsula is formed largely of crystalline schists and
  gneisses associated with granites and other igneous rocks, all of
  archaean age; there are also large areas of non-fossiliferous,
  stratified limestones, cherts, shales and iron ores, the unaltered
  equivalents of part of the schists and gneisses. Narrow strips of
  Animikie (Upper Huronian or perhaps Cambrian) rocks occur along the
  low-lying southern and western shores, but there are nowhere else
  indications of the peninsula having been below sea-level since an
  exceedingly remote time. During the glacial period the country was
  covered by a thick mantle of ice, which flowed out radially from a
  central collecting-ground. Owing to the extremely long exposure to
  denudation, to the subsequent removal of the greater part of the
  decomposed rock by glaciers, and to the unequal weathering of the
  component rocks, it is now a plateau, which ascends somewhat abruptly
  within a few miles of the coast-line to heights of between 500 and
  2000 ft. The interior is undulating, and traversed by ridges of low,
  rounded hills, seldom rising more than 500 ft. above the surrounding
  general level.

  _Minerals._--The mineral wealth is undeveloped. Thick beds of
  excellent iron ore cover large areas in the interior and along the
  shores of Hudson and Ungava Bays. Large areas of mineralized Huronian
  rocks have also been discovered, similar to areas in other parts of
  Canada, where they contain valuable deposits of gold, copper, nickel
  and lead; good prospects of these metals have been found.

  _Climate._--The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern
  coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that
  it is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°,
  except on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of
  potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while about
  the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the same
  latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer coasts the
  climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating ice borne
  southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at Mistassini, 50°
  30´ N, a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely mature.
  No attempts at agriculture have been made elsewhere inland. Owing to
  the absence of grass plains, there is little likelihood that it will
  ever be a grazing district. There are only two seasons in the
  interior: winter begins early in October, with the freezing of the
  small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, when the ice on
  rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts forth. From
  unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the interior range
  from -50° F. to -60° F., and are slightly higher along the coast. The
  mean summer temperature of the interior is about 55° F., with frosts
  during every month in the northern portion. On the Atlantic coast and
  in Hudson Bay the larger bays freeze solid between the 1st and 15th of
  December, and these coasts remain ice-bound until late in June. Hudson
  Strait is usually sufficiently open for navigation about the 10th of
  July.

  _Vegetation._--The southern half is included in the sub-Arctic forest
  belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora
  of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen,
  cedar. Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch.
  The forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only
  exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands of
  the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river valleys
  contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size and number of
  barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more than half the
  country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the limit of trees
  is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens covered with low
  Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens.

  _Fisheries._--The fisheries along the shores of the Gulf of St
  Lawrence and of the Atlantic form practically the only industry of the
  white population scattered along the coasts, as well as of a large
  proportion of the inhabitants of Newfoundland. The census (1891) of
  Newfoundland gave 10,478 men, 2081 women and 828 children employed in
  the Labrador fishery in 861 vessels, of which the tonnage amounted to
  33,689; the total catch being 488,788 quintals of cod, 1275 tierces of
  salmon and 3828 barrels of herring, which, compared with the customs
  returns for 1880, showed an increase of cod and decreases of salmon
  and herring. The salmon fishery along the Atlantic coast is now very
  small, the decrease being probably due to excessive use of cod-traps.
  The cod fishery is now carried on along the entire Atlantic coast and
  into the eastern part of Ungava Bay, where excellent catches have been
  made since 1893. The annual value of the fisheries on the Canadian
  portion of the coast is about $350,000. The fisheries of Hudson Bay
  and of the interior are wholly undeveloped, though both the bay and
  the large lakes of the interior are well stocked with several species
  of excellent fish, including Arctic trout, brook trout, lake trout,
  white fish, sturgeon and cod.

_Population._--The population is approximately 14,500, or about one
person to every 35 sq. m.; it is made up of 3500 Indians, 2000 Eskimo
and 9000 whites. The last are confined to the coasts and to the Hudson
Bay Company's trading posts of the interior. On the Atlantic coast they
are largely immigrants from Newfoundland, together with descendants of
English fishermen and Hudson Bay Company's servants. To the north of
Hamilton Inlet they are of more or less mixed blood from marriage with
Eskimo women. The Newfoundland census of 1901 gave 3634 as the number of
permanent white residents along the Atlantic coast, and the Canadian
census (1891) gave a white population of 5728, mostly French Canadians,
scattered along the north shore of the Gulf of St Lawrence, while the
whites living at the inland posts did not exceed fifty persons. It is
difficult to give more than a rough approximation of the number of the
native population, owing to their habits of roving from one trading post
to another, and the consequent liability of counting the same family
several times if the returns are computed from the books of the various
posts, the only available data for an enumeration. The following
estimate is arrived at in this manner: Indians--west coast, 1200;
Ungava Bay, 200; east coast, 200; south coast, 1900. Eskimo--Atlantic
coast, 1000; south shore of Hudson Strait, 800; east coast of Hudson
Bay, 500. The Indians roam over the southern interior in small bands,
their northern limit being determined by that of the trees on which they
depend for fuel. They live wholly by the chase, and their numbers are
dependent upon the deer and other animals; as a consequence there is a
constant struggle between the Indian and the lower animals for
existence, with great slaughter of the latter, followed by periodic
famines among the natives, which greatly reduce their numbers and
maintain an equilibrium. The native population has thus remained about
stationary for the last two centuries. The Indians belong to the
Algonquin family, and speak dialects of the Cree language. By contact
with missionaries and fur-traders they are more or less civilized, and
the great majority of them are Christians. Those living north of the St
Lawrence are Roman Catholic, while the Indians of the western watershed
have been converted by the missionaries of the Church Mission Society;
the eastern and northern bands have not yet been reached by the
missionaries, and are still pagans. The Eskimo of the Atlantic coast
have long been under the guidance of the Moravian missionaries, and are
well advanced in civilization; those of Hudson Bay have been taught by
the Church Mission Society, and promise well; while the Eskimo of Hudson
Strait alone remain without teachers, and are pagans. The Eskimo live
along the coasts, only going inland for short periods to hunt the
barren-ground caribou for their winter clothing; the rest of the year
they remain on the shore or the ice, hunting seals and porpoises, which
afford them food, clothing and fuel. The christianized Indians and
Eskimo read and write in their own language; those under the teaching of
the Church Mission Society use a syllabic character, the others make use
of the ordinary alphabet.

_Political Review._--The peninsula is divided politically between the
governments of Canada, Newfoundland and the province of Quebec. The
government of Newfoundland, under Letters Patent of the 28th of March
1876, exercises jurisdiction along the Atlantic coast; the boundary
between its territory and that of Canada is a line running due north and
south from Anse Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle,
to 52° N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. The
northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East Main river
to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due east to the
Ashuanipi branch of the Hamilton river; it then follows that river and
Hamilton Inlet to the coast area under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland.
The remainder of the peninsula, north of the province of Quebec, by
order in council dated the 18th of December 1897, was constituted Ungava
District, an unorganized territory under the jurisdiction of the
government of the Dominion of Canada.

  AUTHORITIES.--W. T. Grenfell and others, _Labrador: the Country and
  the People_ (New York, 1909); R. F. Holmes, "A Journey in the Interior
  of Labrador," Proc. _R.G.S._ x. 189-205 (1887); A. S. Packard, _The
  Labrador Coast_ (New York, 1891); Austen Cary, "Exploration on Grand
  River, Labrador," _Bul. Am. Geo. Soc._ vol. xxiv., 1892; R. Bell, "The
  Labrador Peninsula," _Scottish Geo. Mag._ July 1895. Also the
  following reports by the Geological Survey of Canada:--R. Bell,
  "Report on an Exploration of the East Coast of Hudson Bay," 1877-1878;
  "Observations on the Coast of Labrador and on Hudson Strait and Bay,"
  1882-1884; A. P. Low, "Report on the Mistassini Expedition," 1885;
  "Report on James Bay and the Country East of Hudson Bay," 1887-1888;
  "Report on Explorations in the Labrador Peninsula, 1892-1895," 1896;
  "Report on a Traverse of the Northern Part of the Labrador Peninsula,"
  1898; "Report on the South Shore of Hudson Strait," 1899. For History:
  W. G. Gosling, _Labrador_ (1910).     (A. P. Lo.; A. P. C.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] From the Portuguese _llavrador_ (a yeoman farmer). The name was
    originally given to Greenland (1st half of 16th century) and was
    transferred to the peninsula in the belief that it formed part of the
    same country as Greenland. The name was bestowed "because he who
    first gave notice of seeing it [Greenland] was a farmer (_llavrador_)
    from the Azores." See the historical sketch of Labrador by W. S.
    Wallace in Grenfell's _Labrador, &c._, 1909.




LABRADORITE, or LABRADOR SPAR, a lime-soda felspar of the plagioclase
(q.v.) group, often cut and polished as an ornamental stone. It takes
its name from the coast of Labrador, where it was discovered, as
boulders, by the Moravian Mission about 1770, and specimens were soon
afterwards sent to the secretary in London, the Rev. B. Latrobe. The
felspar itself is generally of a dull grey colour, with a rather greasy
lustre, but many specimens exhibit in certain directions a magnificent
play of colours--blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour in some
specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different directions.
This optical effect, known sometimes as "labradorescence," seems due in
some cases to the presence of minute laminae of certain minerals, like
göthite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects
the colour; but in other cases it may be caused not so much by
inclusions as by a delicate lamellar structure in the felspar. An
aventurine effect is produced by the presence of microscopic enclosures.
The original labradorite was found in the neighbourhood of Nain, notably
in a lagoon about 50 m. inland, and in St Paul's Island. Here it occurs
with hypersthene, of a rich bronzy sheen, forming a coarse-grained
norite. When wet, the stones are remarkably brilliant, and have been
called by the natives "fire rocks." Russia has also yielded chatoyant
labradorite, especially near Kiev and in Finland; a fine blue
labradorite has been brought from Queensland; and the mineral is also
known in several localities in the United States, as at Keeseville, in
Essex county, New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now
largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its beauty
to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labradorite, but
really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. Brögger has termed
cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which it occurs is an augite-syenite
called by him laurvigite, from its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway.
Common labradorite, without play of colour, is an important constituent
of such rocks as gabbro, diorite, andesite, dolerite and basalt. (See
PLAGIOCLASE.) Ejected crystals of labradorite are found on Monti Rossi,
a double parasitic cone on Etna.

The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock-name, having
been applied by Fouqué and Lévy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite
and poor in olivine.     (F. W. R.*)




LABRADOR TEA, the popular name for a species of _Ledum_, a small
evergreen shrub growing in bogs and swamps in Greenland and the more
northern parts of North America. The leaves are tough, densely covered
with brown wool on the under face, fragrant when crushed and have been
used as a substitute for tea. The plant is a member of the heath family
(Ericaceae).




LABRUM (Lat. for "lip"), the large vessel of the warm bath in the Roman
thermae. These were cut out of great blocks of marble and granite, and
have generally an overhanging lip. There is one in the Vatican of
porphyry over 12 ft. in diameter. The term _labrum_ is used in zoology,
of a lip or lip-like part; in entomology it is applied specifically to
the upper lip of an insect, the lower lip being termed _labium_.




LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE (1643-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born
in Paris on the 16th of August 1645, and not as was once the common
statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1639. His family was of the
middle class, and his reference to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyère, a
crusader, is only a satirical illustration of a method of
self-ennoblement common in France as in some other countries. Indeed he
himself always signed the name Delabruyère in one word, thus avowing his
_roture_. His progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he
could trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had
been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyère's own father was controller-general of
finance to the Hôtel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians
and at the university of Orleans; he was called to the bar, and in 1673
bought a post in the revenue department at Caen, which gave the status
of noblesse and a certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His
predecessor in it was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the
transaction was the cause of La Bruyère's introduction to the great
orator. Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the
dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal family,
introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great Condé, to whose
grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as to that prince's girl-bride
Mlle de Nantes, one of Louis XIV.'s natural children, La Bruyère became
tutor. The rest of his life was passed in the household of the prince or
else at court, and he seems to have profited by the inclination which
all the Condé family had for the society of men of letters. Very little
is known of the events of this part--or, indeed, of any part--of his
life. The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent,
observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners Joseph
Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyère undoubtedly was. Yet
despite the numerous enemies which his book raised up for him, most of
these notices are favourable--notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute
judge and one bitterly prejudiced against _roturiers_ generally. There
is, however, a curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in
which he regrets that "nature has not made La Bruyère as agreeable as he
would like to be." His _Caractères_ appeared in 1688, and at once, as
Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him "bien des lecteurs et
bien des ennemis." At the head of these were Thomas Corneille,
Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty clearly aimed at in the book,
as well as innumerable other persons, men and women of letters as well
as of society, on whom the cap of La Bruyère's fancy-portraits was
fitted by manuscript "keys" compiled by the scribblers of the day. The
friendship of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condés
sufficiently defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh
portraits of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book,
especially in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were
powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La Bruyère before
he could make his way into that guarded hold. He was defeated thrice in
1691, and on one memorable occasion he had but seven votes, five of
which were those of Bossuet, Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and
Bussy-Rabutin. It was not till 1693 that he was elected, and even then
an epigram, which, considering his admitted insignificance in
conversation, was not of the worst, _haesit lateri_:--

  "Quand la Bruyère se présente
      Pourquoi faut il crier haro?
  Pour faire un nombre de quarante
      Ne falloit il pas un zéro?"

His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects of his
sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time, of whom he
was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed by that of Pope. His
description of the _Mercure galant_ as "_immédiatement au dessous de
rien_" is the best-remembered specimen of these unwise attacks; and
would of itself account for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and
the younger Corneille. La Bruyère's discourse of admission at the
Academy, one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself,
severely criticized, especially by the partisans of the "Moderns" in the
"Ancient and Modern" quarrel. With the _Caractères_, the translation of
Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them addressed to the prince de
Condé, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of
a curious and much-disputed posthumous treatise. La Bruyère died very
suddenly, and not long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to
have been struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being
carried home to the Hôtel de Condé, to have expired of apoplexy a day or
two afterwards, on the 10th of May 1696. It is not surprising that,
considering the recent panic about poisoning, the bitter personal
enmities which he had excited and the peculiar circumstances of his
death, suspicions of foul play should have been entertained, but there
was apparently no foundation for them. Two years after his death
appeared certain _Dialogues sur le Quiétisme_, alleged to have been
found among his papers incomplete, and to have been completed by the
editor. As these dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La
Bruyère's other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the
straightforward and circumstantial account of their appearance given by
this editor, the Abbé du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, the
intimacy of La Bruyère with Bossuet, whose views in his contest with
Fénelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence,
at so short a time after the alleged author's death, of the least
protest on the part of his friends and representatives, seem to be
decisive in their favour.

Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the
_Caractères_ has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French
criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place. The plan of
the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be accorded to a novel
and skilful combination of existing elements. The treatise of
Theophrastus may have furnished the first idea, but it gave little more.
With the ethical generalizations and social Dutch painting of his
original La Bruyère combined the peculiarities of the Montaigne essay,
of the _Pensées_ and _Maximes_ of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are
the masters respectively, and lastly of that peculiar 17th-century
product, the "portrait" or elaborate literary picture of the personal
and mental characteristics of an individual. The result was quite unlike
anything that had been before seen, and it has not been exactly
reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele resembles it
very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy portraits. In the
titles of his work, and in its extreme desultoriness, La Bruyère reminds
the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed too much at sententiousness to
attempt even the apparent continuity of the great essayist. The short
paragraphs of which his chapters consist are made up of maxims proper,
of criticisms literary and ethical, and above all of the celebrated
sketches of individuals baptized with names taken from the plays and
romances of the time. These last are the great feature of the work, and
that which gave it its immediate if not its enduring popularity. They
are wonderfully piquant, extraordinarily life-like in a certain sense,
and must have given great pleasure or more frequently exquisite pain to
the originals, who were in many cases unmistakable and in most
recognizable.

But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of Charpentier,
who received La Bruyère at the Academy, and who was of the opposite
faction, is in fact fully justified as far as it goes. La Bruyère
literally "est [trop] descendu dans le particulier." He has neither,
like Molière, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like
type, nor has he, like Shakespeare, made the individual pass _sub
speciem aeternitatis_, and serve as a type while retaining his
individuality. He is a photographer rather than an artist in his
portraiture. So, too, his maxims, admirably as they are expressed, and
exact as their truth often is, are on a lower level than those of La
Rochefoucauld. Beside the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity,
the profoundness of ethical intuition "piercing to the accepted hells
beneath," of the great Frondeur, La Bruyère has the air of a literary
_petit-maître_ dressing up superficial observation in the finery of
_esprit_. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then it is
by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant wit and his
personal "malice" have done much to give him his rank in French
literature, but much must also be allowed to his purely literary merits.
With Racine and Massillon he is probably the very best writer of what is
somewhat arbitrarily styled classical French. He is hardly ever
incorrect--the highest merit in the eyes of a French academic critic. He
is always well-bred, never obscure, rarely though sometimes "precious"
in the turns and niceties of language in which he delights to indulge,
in his avowed design of attracting readers by form, now that, in point
of matter, "tout est dit." It ought to be added to his credit that he
was sensible of the folly of impoverishing French by ejecting old words.
His chapter on "Les ouvrages de l'esprit" contains much good criticism,
though it shows that, like most of his contemporaries except Fénelon, he
was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue.

  The editions of La Bruyère, both partial and complete, have been
  extremely numerous. _Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du Grec,
  avec les caractères et les moeurs de ce siècle_, appeared for the
  first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little
  daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyère gave the profits of the
  book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published in
  the same year. In the following year, and in each year until 1694,
  with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all
  these five, additions, omissions and alterations were largely made. A
  ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the
  author's death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition. The
  Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters,
  including those addressed to Condé, not till 1867. In recent times
  numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably those
  of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of _Grands
  écrivains de la France_), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last
  original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one
  of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost
  everything of value in his predecessors. The literature of "keys" to
  La Bruyère is extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be
  done in this direction and in that of general illustration was done by
  Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing _Comédie de La Bruyère_
  (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on La Bruyère to the
  series of _Grands écrivains français_ in 1904.     (G. Sa.)




LABUAN (a corruption of the Malay word _labuh-an_, signifying an
"anchorage"), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the north-west
coast of Borneo in 5° 16´ N., 115° 15´ E. Its area is 30.23 sq. m.; it
is distant about 6 m. from the mainland of Borneo at the nearest point,
and lies opposite to the northern end of the great Brunei Bay. The
island is covered with low hills rising from flats near the shore to an
irregular plateau near the centre. About 1500 acres are under rice
cultivation, and there are scattered patches of coco-nut and sago palms
and a few vegetable gardens, the latter owned for the most part by
Chinese. For the rest Labuan is covered over most of its extent by
vigorous secondary growth, amidst which the charred trunks of trees rise
at frequent intervals, the greater part of the forest of the island
having been destroyed by great accidental conflagrations. Labuan was
ceded to Great Britain in 1846, chiefly through the instrumentality of
Sir James Brooke, the first raja of Sarawak, and was occupied two years
later.

At the time of its cession the island was uninhabited, but in 1881 the
population numbered 5731, though it had declined to 5361 in 1891. The
census returns for 1901 give the population at 8411. The native
population consists of Malay fishermen, Chinese, Tamils and small
shifting communities of Kadayans, Tutongs and other natives of the
neighbouring Bornean coast. There are about fifty European residents. At
the time of its occupation by Great Britain a brilliant future was
predicted for Labuan, which it was thought would become a second
Singapore. These hopes have not been realized. The coal deposits, which
are of somewhat indifferent quality, have been worked with varying
degrees of failure by a succession of companies, one of which, the
Labuan & Borneo Ltd., liquidated in 1902 after the collapse of a shaft
upon which large sums had been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan
Coalfields Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company
possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern-going
ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading depôt for the
natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who sell their
produce--beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor, gutta, trepang, &c.,--to
Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in Singapore. There is also a
considerable trade in sago, much of which is produced on the mainland,
and there are three small sago-factories on the island where the raw
product is converted into flour. The Eastern Extension Telegraph Company
has a central station at Labuan with cables to Singapore, Hong-Kong and
British North Borneo. Monthly steam communication is maintained by a
German firm between Labuan, Singapore and the Philippines. The colony
joined the Imperial Penny Postage Union in 1889. There are a few miles
of road on the island and a metre-gauge railway from the harbour to the
coal mines, the property of the company. There is a Roman Catholic
church with a resident priest, an Anglican church, visited periodically
by a clergyman from the mainland, two native and Chinese schools, and a
sailors' club, built by the Roman Catholic mission. The bishop of
Singapore and Sarawak is also bishop of Labuan. The European graveyard
has repeatedly been the scene of outrages perpetrated, it is believed,
by natives from the mainland of Borneo, the graves being rifled and the
hair of the head and other parts of the corpses being carried off to
furnish ornaments to weapons and ingredients in the magic philtres of
the natives. Pulau Dat, a small island in the near neighbourhood of
Labuan, is the site of a fine coco-nut plantation whence nuts and copra
are exported in bulk. The climate is hot and very humid.

  Until 1869 the expenditure of the colony was partly defrayed by
  imperial grants-in-aid, but after that date it was left to its own
  resources. A garrison of imperial troops was maintained until 1871,
  when the troops were withdrawn after many deaths from fever and
  dysentery had occurred among them. Since then law and order have been
  maintained without difficulty by a small mixed police force of
  Punjabis and Malays. From the 1st of January 1890 to the 1st of
  January 1906 Labuan was transferred for administrative purposes to the
  British North Borneo Company, the governor for the time being of the
  company's territories holding also the royal commission as governor of
  Labuan. This arrangement did not work satisfactorily and called forth
  frequent petitions and protests from the colonists. Labuan was then
  placed under the government of the Straits Settlements, and is
  administered by a deputy governor who is a member of the Straits Civil
  Service.




LABURNUM, known botanically as _Laburnum vulgare_ (or _Cytisus
Laburnum_), a familiar tree of the pea family (Leguminosae); it is also
known as "golden chain" and "golden rain." It is a native of the
mountains of France, Switzerland, southern Germany, northern Italy, &c.,
has long been cultivated as an ornamental tree throughout Europe, and
was introduced into north-east America by the European colonists. Gerard
records it as growing in his garden in 1597 under the names of anagyris,
laburnum or beane trefoyle (_Herball_, p. 1239), but the date of its
introduction into England appears to be unknown. In France it is called
_l'aubour_--a corruption from laburnum according to Du Hamel--as also
_arbois_, i.e. _arc-bois_, "the wood having been used by the ancient
Gauls for bows. It is still so employed in some parts of the Mâconnois,
where the bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for
half a century" (Loudon, _Arboretum_, ii. 590).

Several varieties of this tree are cultivated, differing in the size of
the flowers, in the form of the foliage, &c., such as the "oak-leafed"
(_quercifolium_), _pendulum_, _crispum_, &c.; var. _aureum_ has golden
yellow leaves. One of the most remarkable forms is _Cytisus Adami (C.
purpurascens)_, which bears three kinds of blossoms, viz. racemes of
pure yellow flowers, others of a purple colour and others of an
intermediate brick-red tint. The last are hybrid blossoms, and are
sterile, with malformed ovules, though the pollen appears to be good.
The yellow and purple "reversions" are fertile. It originated in Paris
in 1828 by M. Adam, who inserted a "shield" of the bark of Cytisus
purpureus into a stock of Laburnum. A vigorous shoot from this bud was
subsequently propagated. Hence it would appear that the two distinct
species became united by their cambium layers, and the trees propagated
therefrom subsequently reverted to their respective parentages in
bearing both yellow and purple flowers, but produce as well blossoms of
an intermediate or hybrid character. Such a result may be called a
"graft-hybrid." For full details see Darwin's _Animals and Plants under
Domestication_.

The laburnum has highly poisonous properties. The roots taste like
liquorice, which is a member of the same family as the laburnum. It has
proved fatal to cattle, though hares and rabbits eat the bark of it with
avidity (_Gardener's Chronicle_, 1881, vol. xvi. p. 666). The seeds also
are highly poisonous, possessing emetic as well as acrid narcotic
principles, especially in a green state. Gerard (loc. cit.) alludes to
the powerful effect produced on the system by taking the bruised leaves
medicinally. Pliny states that bees will not visit the flowers (_N.H._
xvi. 31), but this is an error, as bees and butterflies play an
important part in the fertilization of the flowers, which they visit for
the nectar.

The heart wood of the laburnum is of a dark reddish-brown colour, hard
and durable, and takes a good polish. Hence it is much prized by
turners, and used with other coloured woods for inlaying purposes. The
laburnum has been called false ebony from this character of its wood.




LABYRINTH (Gr. [Greek: labyrinthos], Lat. _labyrinthus_), the name given
by the Greeks and Romans to buildings, entirely or partly subterranean,
containing a number of chambers and intricate passages, which rendered
egress puzzling and difficult. The word is considered by some to be of
Egyptian origin, while others connect it with the Gr. [Greek: laura],
the passage of a mine. Another derivation suggested is from [Greek:
labrys], a Lydian or Carian word meaning a "double-edged axe" (_Journal
of Hellenic Studies_, xxi. 109, 268), according to which the Cretan
labyrinth or palace of Minos was the house of the double axe, the symbol
of Zeus.

Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 19, 91) mentions the following as the four
famous labyrinths of antiquity.

1. The Egyptian: of which a description is given by Herodotus (ii. 148)
and Strabo (xvii. 811). It was situated to the east of Lake Moeris,
opposite the ancient site of Arsinoë or Crocodilopolis. According to
Egyptologists, the word means "the temple at the entrance of the lake."
According to Herodotus, the entire building, surrounded by a single
wall, contained twelve courts and 3000 chambers, 1500 above and 1500
below ground. The roofs were wholly of stone, and the walls covered with
sculpture. On one side stood a pyramid 40 orgyiae, or about 243 ft.
high. Herodotus himself went through the upper chambers, but was not
permitted to visit those underground, which he was told contained the
tombs of the kings who had built the labyrinth, and of the sacred
crocodiles. Other ancient authorities considered that it was built as a
place of meeting for the Egyptian nomes or political divisions; but it
is more likely that it was intended for sepulchral purposes. It was the
work of Amenemhe III., of the 12th dynasty, who lived about 2300 B.C. It
was first located by the Egyptologist Lepsius to the north of Hawara in
the Fayum, and (in 1888) Flinders Petrie discovered its foundation, the
extent of which is about 1000 ft. long by 800 ft. wide. Immediately to
the north of it is the pyramid of Hawara, in which the mummies of the
king and his daughter have been found (see W. M. Flinders Petrie,
_Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoë_, 1889).

2. The Cretan: said to have been built by Daedalus on the plan of the
Egyptian, and famous for its connexion with the legend of the Minotaur.
It is doubtful whether it ever had any real existence and Diodorus
Siculus says that in his time it had already disappeared. By the older
writers it was placed near Cnossus, and is represented on coins of that
city, but nothing corresponding to it has been found during the course
of the recent excavations, unless the royal palace was meant. The rocks
of Crete are full of winding caves, which gave the first idea of the
legendary labyrinth. Later writers (for instance, Claudian, _De sexto
Cons. Honorii_, 634) place it near Gortyna, and a set of winding
passages and chambers close to that place is still pointed out as the
labyrinth; these are, however, in reality ancient quarries.

3. The Lemnian: similar in construction to the Egyptian. Remains of it
existed in the time of Pliny. Its chief feature was its 150 columns.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Labyrinth of London and Wise.]

4. The Italian: a series of chambers in the lower part of the tomb of
Porsena at Clusium. This tomb was 300 ft. square and 50 ft. high, and
underneath it was a labyrinth, from which it was exceedingly difficult
to find an exit without the assistance of a clew of thread. It has been
maintained that this tomb is to be recognized in the mound named Poggio
Gajella near Chiusi.

Lastly, Pliny (xxxvi. 19) applies the word to a rude drawing on the
ground or pavement, to some extent anticipating the modern or garden
maze.

  On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, _Ägyptische Geschichte_
  (1884), p. 258, and his edition of the second book of Herodotus
  (1890); on the Cretan, C. Höck, _Kreta_ (1823-1829), and A. J. Evans
  in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_; on the subject generally, articles
  in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and Saglio's
  _Dictionnaire des antiquités_.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Labyrinth of Batty Langley.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Labyrinth at Versailles.]

In gardening, a labyrinth or _maze_ means an intricate network of
pathways enclosed by hedges or plantations, so that those who enter
become bewildered in their efforts to find the centre or make their
exit. It is a remnant of the old geometrical style of gardening. There
are two methods of forming it. That which is perhaps the more common
consists of walks, or alleys as they were formerly called, laid out and
kept to an equal width or nearly so by parallel hedges, which should be
so close and thick that the eye cannot readily penetrate them. The task
is to get to the centre, which is often raised, and generally contains
a covered seat, a fountain, a statue or even a small group of trees.
After reaching this point the next thing is to return to the entrance,
when it is found that egress is as difficult as ingress. To every design
of this sort there should be a key, but even those who know the key are
apt to be perplexed. Sometimes the design consists of alleys only, as in
fig. 1, published in 1706 by London and Wise. In such a case, when the
farther end is reached, there only remains to travel back again. Of a
more pretentious character was a design published by Switzer in 1742.
This is of octagonal form, with very numerous parallel hedges and paths,
and "six different entrances, whereof there is but one that leads to the
centre, and that is attended with some difficulties and a great many
stops." Some of the older designs for labyrinths, however, avoid this
close parallelism of the alleys, which, though equally involved and
intricate in their windings, are carried through blocks of thick
planting, as shown in fig. 2, from a design published in 1728 by Batty
Langley. These blocks of shrubbery have been called wildernesses. To
this latter class belongs the celebrated labyrinth at Versailles (fig.
3), of which Switzer observes, that it "is allowed by all to be the
noblest of its kind in the world."

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Maze at Hampton Court.]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Maze at Somerleyton Hall.]

  Whatever style be adopted, it is essential that there should be a
  thick healthy growth of the hedges or shrubberies that confine the
  wanderer. The trees used should be impenetrable to the eye, and so
  tall that no one can look over them; and the paths should be of gravel
  and well kept. The trees chiefly used for the hedges, and the best for
  the purpose, are the hornbeam among deciduous trees, or the yew among
  evergreens. The beech might be used instead of the hornbeam on
  suitable soil. The green holly might be planted as an evergreen with
  very good results, and so might the American arbor vitae if the
  natural soil presented no obstacle. The ground must be well prepared,
  so as to give the trees a good start, and a mulching of manure during
  the early years of their growth would be of much advantage. They must
  be kept trimmed in or clipped, especially in their earlier stages;
  trimming with the knife is much to be preferred to clipping with
  shears. Any plants getting much in advance of the rest should be
  topped, and the whole kept to some 4 ft. or 5 ft. in height until the
  lower parts are well thickened, when it may be allowed to acquire the
  allotted height by moderate annual increments. In cutting, the hedge
  (as indeed all hedges) should be kept broadest at the base and
  narrowed upwards, which prevents it from getting thin and bare below
  by the stronger growth being drawn to the tops.

  The maze in the gardens at Hampton Court Palace (fig. 4) is considered
  one of the finest examples in England. It was planted in the early
  part of the reign of William III., though it has been supposed that a
  maze had existed there since the time of Henry VIII. It is constructed
  on the hedge and alley system, and was, it is believed, originally
  planted with hornbeam, but many of the plants have been replaced by
  hollies, yews, &c., so that the vegetation is mixed. The walks are
  about half a mile in length, and the ground occupied is a little over
  a quarter of an acre. The centre contains two large trees, with a seat
  beneath each. The key to reach this resting place is to keep the right
  hand continuously in contact with the hedge from first to last, going
  round all the stops.

  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Labyrinth in Horticultural Society's Garden.]

  The maze in the gardens at Somerleyton Hall, near Lowestoft (fig. 5),
  was designed by Mr John Thomas. The hedges are of English yew, are
  about 6½ ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years. In the
  centre is a grass mound, raised to the height of the hedges, and on
  this mound is a pagoda, approached by a curved grass path. At the two
  corners on the western side are banks of laurels 15 or 16 ft. high. On
  each side of the hedges throughout the labyrinth is a small strip of
  grass.

  There was also a labyrinth at Theobald's Park, near Cheshunt, when
  this place passed from the earl of Salisbury into the possession of
  James I. Another is said to have existed at Wimbledon House, the seat
  of Earl Spencer, which was probably laid out by Brown in the 18th
  century. There is an interesting labyrinth, somewhat after the plan of
  fig. 2, at Mistley Place, Manningtree.

  When the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at South
  Kensington were being planned, Albert, Prince Consort, the president
  of the society, especially desired that there should be a maze formed
  in the ante-garden, which was made in the form shown in fig. 6. This
  labyrinth, designed by Lieut. W. A. Nesfield, was for many years the
  chief point of attraction to the younger visitors to the gardens; but
  it was allowed to go to ruin, and had to be destroyed. The gardens
  themselves are now built over.     (T. Mo.)




LABYRINTHULIDEA, the name given by Sir Ray Lankester (1885) to Sarcodina
(q.v.) forming a reticulate plasmodium, the denser masses united by fine
pseudopodical threads, hardly distinct from some Proteomyxa, such as
_Archerina_.

This is a small and heterogeneous group. _Labyrinthula_, discovered by
L. Cienkowsky, forms a network of relatively stiff threads on which are
scattered large spindle-shaped enlargements, each representing an
amoeba, with a single nucleus. The threads are pseudopods, very slowly
emitted and withdrawn. The amoebae multiply by fission in the active
state. The nearest approach to a "reproductive" state is the
approximation of the amoebae, and their separate encystment in an
irregular heap, recalling the Acrasieae. From each cyst ultimately
emerges a single amoeba, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7). The
saprophyte _Diplophrys (?) stercorea_ (Cienk.) appears closely allied to
this.

[Illustration: Labyrinthulidea.

  1. A colony or "cell-heap" of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk.,
  crawling upon an Alga.

  2. A colony or "cell-heap" of _Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides_, Archer,
  with fully expanded network of threads on which the oat-shaped
  corpuscles (cells) are moving. o, Is an ingested food particle; at c a
  portion of the general protoplasm has detached itself and become
  encysted.

  3 A portion of the network of _Labyrinthula vitellina_, Cienk., more
  highly magnified. p, Protoplasmic mass apparently produced by fusion
  of several filaments. p´, Fusion of several cells which have lost
  their definite spindle-shaped contour. s, Corpuscles which have become
  spherical and are no longer moving (perhaps about to be encysted).

  4. A single spindle cell and threads of _Labyrinthula macrocystis_,
  Cienk. n, Nucleus.

  5. A group of encysted cells of _L. Macrocystis_, embedded in a tough
  secretion.

  6, 7. Encysted cells of _L. macrocystis_, with enclosed protoplasm
  divided into four spores.

  8, 9. Transverse division of a non-encysted spindle-cell of _L.
  macrocystis_.]

_Chlamydomyxa_ (W. Archer) resembles _Labyrinthula_ in its freely
branched plasmodium, but contains yellowish chromatophores, and minute
oval vesicles ("physodes") filled with a substance allied to
tannin--possibly phloroglucin--which glide along the plasmodial tracks.
The cell-body contains numerous nuclei; but in its active state is not
resolvable into distinct oval amoeboids. It is amphitrophic, ingesting
and digesting other Protista, as well as "assimilating" by its
chromatophores, the product being oil, not starch. The whole body may
form a laminated cellulose resting cyst, from which it may only
temporarily emerge (fig. 2), or it may undergo resolution into nucleate
cells which then encyst, and become multinucleate before rupturing the
cyst afresh.

_Leydenia_ (F. Schaudinn) is a parasite in malignant diseases of the
pleura. The pseudopodia of adjoining cells unite to form a network; but
its affinities seem to such social naked Foraminifera as _Mikrogromia_.

  See Cienkowsky, _Archiv f. Microscopische Anatomie_, iii. 274 (1867),
  xii. 44 (1876); W. Archer, _Quart. Jour. Microscopic Science_, xv. 107
  (1875); E. R. Lankester, _Ibid._, xxxix., 233 (1896); Hieronymus and
  Jenkinson, _Ibid._, xiii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, _Beiträge zur
  Physiologie und Morphologie niederer Organismen_, ii. 36 (1892), iv.
  60 (1894); Pènard, _Archiv für Protistenkunde_, iv. 296 (1904); F.
  Schaudinn and Leyden, _Sitzungsberichte der Königlich preussischen
  Akademie der Wissenschaft_, vi. (1896).




LAC, a resinous incrustation formed on the twigs and young branches of
various trees by an insect, _Coccus lacca_, which infests them. The term
lac (_laksha_, Sanskrit; _lakh_, Hindi) is the same as the numeral
lakh--a hundred thousand--and is indicative of the countless hosts of
insects which make their appearance with every successive generation.
Lac is a product of the East Indies, coming especially from Bengal,
Pegu, Siam and Assam, and is produced by a number of trees of the
species _Ficus_, particularly _F. religiosa_. The insect which yields it
is closely allied to the cochineal insect, _Coccus cacti_; kermes, _C.
ilicis_ and Polish grains, _C. polonicus_, all of which, like the lac
insect, yield a red colouring matter. The minute larval insects fasten
in myriads on the young shoots, and, inserting their long proboscides
into the bark, draw their nutriment from the sap of the plant. The
insects begin at once to exude the resinous secretion over their entire
bodies; this forms in effect a cocoon, and, the separate exudations
coalescing, a continuous hard resinous layer regularly honeycombed with
small cavities is deposited over and around the twig. From this living
tomb the female insects, which form the great bulk of the whole, never
escape. After their impregnation, which takes place on the liberation of
the males, about three months from their first appearance, the females
develop into a singular amorphous organism consisting in its main
features of a large smooth shining crimson-coloured sac--the ovary--with
a beak stuck into the bark, and a few papillary processes projected
above the resinous surface. The red fluid in the ovary is the substance
which forms the lac dye of commerce. To obtain the largest amount of
both resin and dye-stuff it is necessary to gather the twigs with their
living inhabitants in or near June and November. Lac encrusting the
twigs as gathered is known in commerce as "stick lac"; the resin crushed
to small fragments and washed in hot water to free it from colouring
matter constitutes "seed lac"; and this, when melted, strained through
thick canvas, and spread out into thin layers, is known as "shellac,"
and is the form in which the resin is usually brought to European
markets. Shellac varies in colour from a dark amber to an almost pure
black; the palest, known as "orange-lac," is the most valuable; the
darker varieties--"liver-coloured," "ruby," "garnet," &c.--diminish in
value as the colour deepens. Shellac may be bleached by dissolving it in
a boiling lye of caustic potash and passing chlorine through the
solution till all the resin is precipitated, the product being known as
white shellac. Bleached lac takes light delicate shades of colour, and
dyed a golden yellow it is much used in the East Indies for working into
chain ornaments for the head and for other personal adornments. Lac is
a principal ingredient in sealing-wax, and forms the basis of some of
the most valuable varnishes, besides being useful in various cements,
&c. Average stick lac contains about 68% of resin, 10 of lac dye and 6
of a waxy substance. Lac dye is obtained by evaporating the water in
which stick lac is washed, and comes into commerce in the form of small
square cakes. It is in many respects similar to, although not identical
with, cochineal.




LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE (1713-1762), French astronomer, was born at
Rumigny, in the Ardennes, on the 15th of March 1713. Left destitute by
the death of his father, who held a post in the household of the duchess
of Vendôme, his theological studies at the Collège de Lisieux in Paris
were prosecuted at the expense of the duke of Bourbon. After he had
taken deacon's orders, however, he devoted himself exclusively to
science, and, through the patronage of J. Cassini, obtained employment,
first in surveying the coast from Nantes to Bayonne, then, in 1739, in
remeasuring the French arc of the meridian. The success of this
difficult operation, which occupied two years, and achieved the
correction of the anomalous result published by J. Cassini in 1718, was
mainly due to Lacaille's industry and skill. He was rewarded by
admission to the Academy and the appointment of mathematical professor
in Mazarin college, where he worked in a small observatory fitted for
his use. His desire to observe the southern heavens led him to propose,
in 1750, an astronomical expedition to the Cape of Good Hope, which was
officially sanctioned, and fortunately executed. Among its results were
determinations of the lunar and of the solar parallax (Mars serving as
an intermediary), the first measurement of a South African arc of the
meridian, and the observation of 10,000 southern stars. On his return to
Paris in 1754 Lacaille was distressed to find himself an object of
public attention; he withdrew to Mazarin college, and there died, on the
21st of March 1762, of an attack of gout aggravated by unremitting toil.
Lalande said of him that, during a comparatively short life, he had made
more observations and calculations than all the astronomers of his time
put together. The quality of his work rivalled its quantity, while the
disinterestedness and rectitude of his moral character earned him
universal respect.

  His principal works are: _Astronomiae Fundamenta_ (1757), containing a
  standard catalogue of 398 stars, re-edited by F. Baily (_Memoirs Roy.
  Astr. Society_, v. 93); Tabulae Solares (1758); _Coelum australe
  stelliferum_ (1763) (edited by J. D. Maraldi), giving
  zone-observations of 10,000 stars, and describing fourteen new
  constellations; "Observations sur 515 étoiles du Zodiaque" (published
  in t. vi. of his _Éphémérides_, 1763); _Leçons élémentaires de
  Mathématiques_ (1741), frequently reprinted; ditto _de Mécanique_
  (1743), &c.; ditto _d'Astronomie_ (1746), 4th edition augmented by
  Lalande (1779); ditto _d'Optique_ (1750), &c. Calculations by him of
  eclipses for eighteen hundred years were inserted in _L'Art de
  vérifier les dates_ (1750); he communicated to the Academy in 1755 a
  classed catalogue of forty-two southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of
  his _Éphémérides_ (1755) practical rules for the employment of the
  lunar method of longitudes, proposing in his additions to Pierre
  Bouguer's _Traité de Navigation_ (1760) the model of a nautical
  almanac.

  See G. de Fouchy, "Éloge de Lacaille," _Hist. de l'Acad. des
  Sciences_, p. 197 (1762); G. Brotier, Preface to Lacaille's _Coelum
  australe_; Claude Carlier, _Discours historique_, prefixed to
  Lacaille's _Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap_ (1763); J. J.
  Lalande, _Connoissance des temps_, p. 185 (1767); _Bibl. astr._ pp.
  422, 456, 461, 482; J. Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_,
  pp. 457-542; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, tomes ii.,
  iii., _passim_; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch_; R.
  Grant, _Hist. of Physical Astronomy_, pp. 486, &c.; R. Wolf,
  _Geschichte der Astronomie_. A catalogue of 9766 stars, reduced from
  Lacaille's observations by T. Henderson, under the supervision of F.
  Baily, was published in London in 1847.




LACAITA, SIR JAMES [GIACOMO] (1813-1895), Anglo-Italian politician and
writer. Born at Manduria in southern Italy, he practised law in Naples,
and having come in contact with a number of prominent Englishmen and
Americans in that city, he acquired a desire to study the English
language. Although a moderate Liberal in politics, he never joined any
secret society, but in 1851 after the restoration of Bourbon autocracy
he was arrested for having supplied Gladstone with information on
Bourbon misrule. Through the intervention of the British and Russian
ministers he was liberated, but on the publication of Gladstone's
famous letters to Lord Aberdeen he was obliged to leave Naples. He first
settled in Edinburgh, where he married Maria Carmichael, and then in
London where he made numerous friends in literary and political circles,
and was professor of Italian at Queen's College from 1853 to 1856. In
the latter year he accompanied Lord Minto to Italy, on which occasion he
first met Cavour. From 1857 to 1863 he was private secretary
(non-political) to Lord Lansdowne, and in 1858 he accompanied Gladstone
to the Ionian Islands as secretary, for which services he was made a
K.C.M.G. the following year. In 1860 Francis II. of Naples had implored
Napoleon III. to send a squadron to prevent Garibaldi from crossing over
from Sicily to Calabria; the emperor expressed himself willing to do so
provided Great Britain co-operated, and Lord John Russell was at first
inclined to agree. At this juncture Cavour, having heard of the scheme,
entrusted Lacaita, at the suggestion of Sir James Hudson, the British
minister at Turin, with the task of inducing Russell to refuse
co-operation. Lacaita, who was an intimate friend both of Russell and
his wife, succeeded, with the help of the latter, in winning over the
British statesman just as he was about to accept the Franco-Neapolitan
proposal, which was in consequence abandoned. He returned to Naples late
in 1860 and the following year was elected member of parliament for
Bitonto, although he had been naturalized a British subject in 1855. He
took little part in parliamentary politics, but in 1876 was created
senator. He was actively interested in a number of English companies
operating in Italy, and was made one of the directors of the Italian
Southern Railway Co. He had a wide circle of friends in many European
countries and in America, including a number of the most famous men in
politics and literature. He died in 1895 at Posilipo near Naples.

  An authority on Dante, he gave many lectures on Italian literature and
  history while in England; and among his writings may be mentioned a
  large number of articles on Italian subjects in the _Encyclopaedia
  Britannica_ (1857-1860), and an edition of Benvenuto da Imola's Latin
  lectures on Dante delivered in 1375; he co-operated with Lord Vernon
  in the latter's great edition of Dante's _Inferno_ (London,
  1858-1865), and he compiled a catalogue in four volumes of the duke of
  Devonshire's library at Chatsworth (London, 1879).




LA CALLE, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Bona,
department of Constantine, 56 m. by rail E. of Bona and 10 m. W. of the
Tunisian frontier. It is the centre of the Algerian and Tunisian coral
fisheries and has an extensive industry in the curing of sardines; but
the harbour is small and exposed to the N.E. and W. winds. The old
fortified town, now almost abandoned, is built on a rocky peninsula
about 400 yds. long, connected with the mainland by a bank of sand.
Since the occupation of La Calle by the French in 1836 a new town has
grown up along the coast. Pop. (1906) of the town, 2774; of the commune,
4612.

La Calle from the times of its earliest records in the 10th century has
been the residence of coral merchants. In the 16th century exclusive
privileges of fishing for coral were granted by the dey of Algiers to
the French, who first established themselves on a bay to the westward of
La Calle, naming their settlement Bastion de France; many ruins still
exist of this town. In 1677 they moved their headquarters to La Calle.
The company--_Compagnie d'Afrique_--who owned the concession for the
fishery was suppressed in 1798 on the outbreak of war between France and
Algeria. In 1806 the British consul-general at Algiers obtained the
right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual rent of £11,000; but
though the money was paid for several years no practical effect was
given to the agreement. The French regained possession in 1817, were
expelled during the wars of 1827, when La Calle was burnt, but returned
and rebuilt the place in 1836. The boats engaged in the fishery were
mainly Italian, but the imposition, during the last quarter of the 19th
century, of heavy taxes on all save French boats drove the foreign
vessels away. For some years the industry was abandoned, but was
restarted on a small scale in 1903.

  See Abbé Poiret, _Voyage en Barbarie_ ... (Paris, 1789); E. Broughton,
  _Six Years' Residence in Algiers_ (London, 1839) and Sir R. L.
  Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_ (London, 1877).




LA CALPRENÈDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES, SEIGNEUR DE (_c._ 1610-1663), French
novelist and dramatist, was born at the Château of Tolgou, near Sarlat
(Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610. After studying at Toulouse, he came to
Paris and entered the regiment of the guards, becoming in 1650
gentleman-in-ordinary of the royal household. He died in 1663 in
consequence of a kick from his horse. He was the author of several long
heroic romances ridiculed by Boileau. They are: _Cassandre_ (10 vols.,
1642-1650); _Cléopatre_ (1648); _Faramond_ (1661); and _Les Nouvelles,
ou les Divertissements de la princesse Alcidiane_ (1661) published under
his wife's name, but generally attributed to him. His plays lack the
spirit and force that occasionally redeem the novels. The best is _Le
Comte d'Essex_, represented in 1638, which supplied some ideas to Thomas
Corneille for his tragedy of the same name.




LA CARLOTA, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, Philippine
Islands, on the W. coast of the island and the left bank of San Enrique
river, about 18 m. S. of Bacolod, the capital of the province. Pop.
(1903), after the annexation of San Enrique, 19,192. There are
fifty-four villages or barrios in the town; the largest had a population
in 1903 of 3254 and two others had each more than 1000 inhabitants. The
Panayano dialect of the Visayan language is spoken by most of the
inhabitants. At La Carlota the Spanish government established a station
for the study of the culture of sugar-cane; by the American government
this has been converted into a general agricultural experiment station,
known as "Government Farm."




LACCADIVE ISLANDS, a group of coral reefs and islands in the Indian
Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20´ N. and 71° 40´ and 74° E. The name
Laccadives (_laksha dwipa_, the "hundred thousand isles") is that given
by the people of the Malabar coast, and was probably meant to include
the Maldives; they are called by the natives simply _Divi_, "islands,"
or _Amendivi_, from the chief island. There are seventeen separate
reefs, "round each of which the 100-fathom line is continuous" (J. S.
Gardiner). There are, however, only thirteen islands, and of these only
eight are inhabited. They fall into two groups--the northern, belonging
to the collectorate of South Kanara, and including the inhabited islands
of Amini, Kardamat, Kiltan and Chetlat; and the southern, belonging to
the administrative district of Malabar, and including the inhabited
islands of Agatti, Kavaratti, Androth and Kalpeni. Between the
Laccadives and the Maldives to the south lies the isolated Minikoi,
which physically belongs to neither group, though somewhat nearer to the
Maldives (q.v.). The principal submerged banks lie north of the northern
group of islands; they are Munyal, Coradive and Sesostris, and are of
greater extent than those on which the islands lie. The general depth
over these is from 23 to 28 fathoms, but Sesostris has shallower
soundings "indicating patches growing up, and some traces of a rim" (J.
S. Gardiner). The islands have in nearly all cases emerged from the
eastern and protected side of the reef, the western being completely
exposed to the S.W. monsoon. The islands are small, none exceeding a
mile in breadth, while the total area is only about 80 sq. m. They lie
so low that they would be hardly discernible but for the coco-nut groves
with which they are thickly covered. The soil is light coral sand,
beneath which, a few feet down, lies a stratum of coral stretching over
the whole of the islands. This coral, generally a foot to a foot and a
half in thickness, has been in the principal islands wholly excavated,
whereby the underlying damp sand is rendered available for cereals.
These excavations--a work of vast labour--were made at a remote period,
and according to the native tradition by giants. In these spaces
(_totam_, "garden") coarse grain, pulse, bananas and vegetables are
cultivated; coco-nuts grow abundantly everywhere. For rice the natives
depend upon the mainland.

_Population and Trade._--The population in 1901 was 10,274. The people
are Moplas, i.e. of mixed Hindu and Arab descent, and are Mahommedans.
Their manners and customs are similar to those of the coast Moplas; but
they maintain their own ancient caste distinctions. The language spoken
is Malayalim, but it is written in the Arabic character. Reading and
writing are common accomplishments among the men. The chief industry is
the manufacture of coir. The various processes are entrusted to the
women. The men employ themselves with boatbuilding and in conveying the
island produce to the coast. The exports from the Laccadives are of the
annual value of about £17,000.

  _History._--No data exist for determining at what period the
  Laccadives were first colonized. The earliest mention of them as
  distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by Albírúní (c. 1030), who
  divides the whole archipelago (Díbaját) into the _Dívah Kúzah_ or
  Cowrie Islands (the Maldives), and the _Divah Kanbar_ or Coir Islands
  (the Laccadives). (See _Journ. Asiat. Soc._, September 1844, p. 265).
  The islanders were converted to Islam by an Arab apostle named Mumba
  Mulyaka, whose grave at Androth still imparts a peculiar sanctity to
  that island. The kazee of Androth was in 1847 still a member of his
  family, and was said to be the twenty-second who had held the office
  in direct line from the saint. This gives colour to the tradition that
  the conversion took place about 1250. It is also further corroborated
  by the story given by the Ibn Batuta of the conversion of the
  Maldives, which occurred, as he heard, four generations (say one
  hundred and twenty years) before his visit to these islands in 1342.
  The Portuguese discovered the Laccadives in May 1498, and built forts
  upon them, but about 1545 the natives rose upon their oppressors. The
  islands subsequently became a suzerainty of the raja of Cannanore, and
  after the peace of Seringapatam, 1792 the southern group was permitted
  to remain under the management of the native chief at a yearly
  tribute. This was often in arrear, and on this account these islands
  were sequestrated by the British government in 1877.

  See _The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive
  Archipelagoes_, ed. J. Stanley Gardiner (Cambridge 1901-1905);
  _Malabar District Gazetteer_ (Madras, 1908); G. Pereira, "As Ilhas de
  Dyve" (_Boletim da Soc. Geog._, Lisbon, 1898-1899) gives details
  relating to the Laccadives from the 16th-century MS. volume _De
  insulis et peregrinatione lusitanorum_ in the National Library,
  Lisbon.




LACCOLITE (Gr. [Greek: lakkos], cistern, [Greek: lithos], stone), in
geology, the name given by Grove K. Gilbert to intrusive masses of
igneous rock possessing a cake-like form, which he first described from
the Henry Mountains of southern Utah. Their characteristic is that they
have spread out along the bedding planes of the strata, but are not so
broad and thin as the sheets or intrusive sills which, consisting
usually of basic rocks, have spread over immense distances without
attaining any great thickness. Laccolites cover a comparatively small
area and have greater thickness. Typically they have a domed upper
surface while their base is flat. In the Henry Mountains they are from 1
to 5 m. in diameter and range in thickness up to about 5000 ft. The
cause of their peculiar shape appears to be the viscosity of the rock
injected, which is usually of intermediate character and comparatively
rich in alkalis, belonging to the trachytes and similar lithological
types. These are much less fluid than the basalts, and the latter in
consequence spread out much more readily along the bedding planes,
forming thin flat-topped sills. At each side the laccolites thin out
rapidly so that their upper surface slopes steeply to the margins. The
strata above them which have been uplifted and bent are often cracked by
extension, and as the igneous materials well into the fissures a large
number of dikes is produced. At the base of the laccolite, on the other
hand, the strata are flat and dikes are rare, though there may be a
conduit up which the magma has flowed into the laccolite. The rocks
around are often much affected by contact alteration, and great masses
of them have sometimes sunk into the laccolite, where they may be partly
melted and absorbed.

Gilbert obtained evidence that these laccolites were filled at depths of
7000 to 10,000 ft. and did not reach the surface, giving rise to
volcanoes. From the effects on the drainage of the country it seemed
probable that above the laccolites the strata swelled up in flattish
eminences. Often they occur side by side in groups belonging to a single
period, though all the members of each group are not strictly of the
same age. One laccolite may be formed on the side of an earlier one, and
compound laccolites also occur. When exposed by erosion they give rise
to hills, and their appearance varies somewhat with the stage of
development.

  In the western part of South America laccolites agreeing in all
  essential points with those described by Gilbert occur in considerable
  numbers and present some diversity of types. Occasionally they are
  asymmetrical, or have one steep or vertical side while the other is
  gently inclined. In other cases they split into a number of sheets
  spreading outwards through the rocks around. But the term laccolite
  has also been adopted by geologists in Britain and elsewhere to
  describe a variety of intrusive masses not strictly identical in
  character with those of the Henry Mountains. Some of these rest on a
  curved floor, like the gabbro masses of the Cuillin Hills in Skye;
  others are injected along a flattish plane of unconformability where
  one system of rocks rests on the upturned and eroded edges of an older
  series. An example of the latter class is furnished by the felsite
  mass of the Black Hill in the Pentlands, near Edinburgh, which has
  followed the line between the Silurian and the Old Red Sandstone,
  forcing the rocks upwards without spreading out laterally to any great
  extent.

  The term laccolite has also been applied to many granite intrusions,
  such as those of Cornwall. We know from the evidence of mining shafts
  which have been sunk in the country near the edge of these granites
  that they slope downwards underground with an angle of twenty to
  thirty degrees. They have been proved also to have been injected along
  certain wall-marked horizons; so that although the rocks of the
  country have been folded in a very complicated manner the granite can
  often be shown to adhere closely to certain members of the
  stratigraphical sequence for a considerable distance. Hence it is
  clear that their upper surfaces are convex and gently arched, and it
  is conjectured that the strata must extend below them, though at a
  great depth, forming a floor. The definite proof of this has not been
  attained for no borings have penetrated the granites and reached
  sedimentary rocks beneath them. But often in mountainous countries
  where there are deep valleys the bases of great granite laccolites are
  exposed to view in the hill sides. These granite sills have a
  considerable thickness in proportion to their length, raise the rocks
  above them and fill them with dikes, and behave generally like typical
  laccolites. In contradistinction to intrusions of this type with a
  well-defined floor we may place the batholiths, bysmaliths, plutonic
  plugs and stocks, which have vertical margins and apparently descend
  to unknown depths. It has been conjectured that masses of this type
  eat their way upwards by dissolving the rock above them and absorbing
  it, or excavate a passage by breaking up the roof of the space they
  occupy while the fragments detached sink downwards and are lost in the
  ascending magma.     (J. S. F.)




LACE (corresponding to Ital. _merletto_, _trina_; Genoese _pizzo_; Ger.
_spitzen_; Fr. _dentelle_; Dutch _kanten_; Span. _encaje_; the English
word owes something to the Fr. _lassis_ or _lacis_, but both are
connected with the earlier Lat. _laqueus_; early French laces were also
called _passements_ or insertions and _dents_ or edgings), the name
applied to ornamental open work formed of threads of flax, cotton, silk,
gold or silver, and occasionally of mohair or aloe fibre, looped or
plaited or twisted together by hand, (1) with a needle, when the work is
distinctively known as "needlepoint lace"; (2) with bobbins, pins and a
pillow or cushion, when the work is known as "pillow lace"; and (3) by
steam-driven machinery, when imitations of both needlepoint and pillow
laces are produced. Lace-making implies the production of ornament and
fabric concurrently. Without a pattern or design the fabric of lace
cannot be made.

The publication of patterns for needlepoint and pillow laces dates from
about the middle of the 16th century. Before that period lace described
such articles as cords and narrow braids of plaited and twisted threads,
used not only to fasten shoes, sleeves and corsets together, but also in
a decorative manner to braid the hair, to wind round hats, and to be
sewn as trimmings upon costumes. In a Harleian MS. of the time of Henry
VI. and Edward IV., about 1471, directions are given for the making of
"lace Bascon, lace indented, lace bordered, lace covert, a brode lace, a
round lace, a thynne lace, an open lace, lace for hattys," &c. The MS.
opens with an illuminated capital letter, in which is the figure of a
woman making these articles. The MS. supplies a clear description how
threads in combinations of twos, threes, fours, fives, to tens and
fifteens, were to be twisted and plaited together. Instead of the
pillow, bobbins and pins with which pillow lace soon afterwards was
made, the hands were used, each finger of a hand serving as a peg upon
which was placed a "bowys" or "bow," or little ball of thread. Each ball
might be of different colour from the other. The writer of the MS. says
that the first finger next the thumb shall be called A, the next B, and
so on. According to the sort of cord or braid to be made, so each of the
four fingers, A, B, C, D might be called into service. A "thynne lace"
might be made with three threads, and then only fingers A, B, C would be
required. A "round" lace, stouter than the "thynne" lace, might require
the service of four or more fingers. By occasionally dropping the use of
threads from certain fingers a sort of indented lace or braid might be
made. But when laces of more importance were wanted, such as a broad
lace for "hattys," the fingers on the hands of assistants were required.
The smaller cords or "thynne laces," when fastened in simple or
fantastic loops along the edges of collars and cuffs, were called
"purls" (see the small edge to the collar worn by Catherine de' Medici,
Pl. II. fig. 4). In another direction from which some suggestion may be
derived as to the evolution of lace-making, notice should be taken of
the fact that at an early period the darning of varied ornamental
devices, stiff and geometric in treatment into hand-made network of
small square meshes (see squares of "lacis," Pl. I. fig. 1) became
specialized in many European countries. This is held by some writers to
be "opus filatorium," or "opus araneum" (spider work). Examples of this
"opus filatorium," said to date from the 13th century exist in public
collections. The productions of this darning in the early part of the
16th century came to be known as "punto a maglia quadra" in Italy and as
"lacis" in France, and through a growing demand for household and
wearing linen, very much of the "lacis" was made in white threads not
only in Italy and France but also in Spain. In appearance it is a filmy
fabric. With white threads also were the "purlings" above mentioned
made, by means of leaden bobbins or "fuxii," and were called "merletti a
piombini" (see lower border, Pl. II. fig. 3). Cut and drawn thread linen
work (the latter known as "tela tirata" in Italy and as "deshilado" in
Spain) were other forms of embroidery as much in vogue as the darning on
net and the "purling." The ornament of much of this cut and drawn linen
work (see collar of Catherine de' Medici, Pl. II. fig. 4), more
restricted in scope than that of the darning on net, was governed by the
recurrence of open squares formed by the withdrawal of the threads.
Within these squares and rectangles radiating devices usually were
worked by means of whipped and buttonhole stitches (Pl. fig. 5). The
general effect in the linen was a succession of insertions or borders of
plain or enriched reticulations, whence the name "punto a reticella"
given to this class of embroidery in Italy. Work of similar style and
especially that with whipped stitches was done rather earlier in the
Grecian islands, which derived it from Asia Minor and Persia. The close
connexion of the Venetian republic with Greece and the eastern islands,
as well as its commercial relations with the East, sufficiently explains
an early transplanting of this kind of embroidery into Venice, as well
as in southern Spain. At Venice besides being called "reticella," cut
work was also called "punto tagliato." Once fairly established as home
industries such arts were quickly exploited with a beauty and variety of
pattern, complexity of stitch and delicacy of execution, until
insertions and edgings made independently of any linen as a starting
base (see first two borders, Pl. II. fig. 3) came into being under the
name of "Punto in aria" (Pl. II. fig. 7). This was the first variety of
Venetian and Italian needlepoint lace in the middle of the 16th
century,[1] and its appearance then almost coincides in date with that
of the "merletti a piombini," which was the earliest Italian cushion or
pillow lace (see lower edging, Pl. II. fig. 3).

The many varieties of needlepoint and pillow laces will be touched on
under the heading allotted to each of these methods of making lace.
Here, however, the general circumstances of their genesis may be briefly
alluded to. The activity in cord and braid-making and in the particular
sorts of ornamental needlework already mentioned clearly postulated such
special labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making. And
from the 16th century onwards the stimulus to the industry in Europe was
afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with the exertions of those
who encouraged their dependents or protegés to give their spare time to
remunerative home occupations. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the
industry have come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and
fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity whether in
regard to needle lace workers now making lace in whitewashed cottages
and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in the south of Ireland, or those who
produced their "punti in aria" during the 16th century about the lagoons
of Venice, or Frenchwomen who made the sumptuous "Points de France" at
Alençon and elsewhere in the 17th and 18th centuries; or pillow lace
workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages tucked
away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged more than four
hundred years ago in "merletti a piombini" in Italian villages or on
"Dentelles au fuseau" in Flemish lowlands. The ornamental character,
however, of these several laces would be found to differ much; but
methods, materials, appliances and opportunities of work would in the
main be alike. As fashion in wearing laces extended, so workers came to
be drawn together into groups by employers who acted as channels for
general trade.[2] Nuns in the past as in the present have also devoted
attention to the industry, often providing in the convent precincts
workrooms not only for peasant women to carry out commissions in the
service of the church or for the trade, but also for the purpose of
training children in the art. Elsewhere lace schools have been founded
by benefactors or organized by some leading local lace-maker[3] as much
for trading as for education. In all this variety of circumstance,
development of finer work has depended upon the abilities of the workers
being exercised under sound direction, whether derived through their own
intuitions, or supplied by intelligent and tasteful employers. Where any
such direction has been absent the industry viewed commercially has
suffered, its productions being devoid of artistic effect or
adaptability to the changing tastes of demand.

It is noteworthy that the two widely distant regions of Europe where
pictorial art first flourished and attained high perfection, north Italy
and Flanders, were precisely the localities where lace-making first
became an industry of importance both from an artistic and from a
commercial point of view. Notwithstanding more convincing evidence as to
the earlier development of pillow lace making in Italy the invention of
pillow lace is often credited to the Flemings; but there is no distinct
trace of the time or the locality. In a picture said to exist in the
church of St Gomar at Lierre, and sometimes attributed to Quentin Matsys
(1495), is introduced a girl apparently working at some sort of lace
with pillow, bobbins, &c., which are somewhat similar to the implements
in use in more recent times.[4] From the very infancy of Flemish art an
active intercourse was maintained between the Low Countries and the
great centres of Italian art; and it is therefore only what might be
expected that the wonderful examples of the art and handiwork of Venice
in lace-making should soon have come to be known to and rivalled among
the equally industrious, thriving and artistic Flemings. At the end of
the 16th century pattern-books were issued in Flanders having the same
general character as those published for the guidance of the Venetian
and other Italian lace-makers.

[Illustration: PLATE I.

  FIG. 1.--PORTION OF A COVERLET COMPOSED OF SQUARES OF "LACIS" OR
  DARNED NETTING, DIVIDED BY LINEN CUT-WORK BANDS.

  The squares are worked with groups representing the twelve months, and
  with scenes from the old Spanish dramatic story "Celestina." Spanish
  or Portuguese. 16th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)

  FIG. 2.--CORNER OF A BED-COVER OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF A TAPE-LIKE
  TEXTURE WITH CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TWISTED AND PLAITED THREADS
  RELATING THE WORK TO ITALIAN "MERLETTI A PIOMBINI" OR EARLY ENGLISH
  "BONE LACE."

  Possibly made in Flanders or Italy during the early part of the 17th
  or at the end of the 16th century. The design includes the Imperial
  double-headed eagle of Austria with the ancient crown of the German
  Empire. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]

[Illustration: PLATE II.

  FIG. 3.--THREE VANDYKE OR DENTATED BORDERS OF ITALIAN LACE OF THE LATE
  16TH CENTURY.

  Style usually called "Reticella" on account of the patterns being
  based on repeated squares or reticulations. The two first borders are
  of needlepoint work; the lower border is of such pillow lace as was
  known in Italy as "merletti a piombini."

  FIG. 4.--CATHERINE DE MEDICI, WEARING A LINEN UPTURNED COLLAR OF CUT
  WORK AND NEEDLEPOINT LACE.

  Louvre. About 1540.

  FIG. 5.--CORNER OF A NAPKIN OR HANDKERCHIEF BORDERED WITH "RETICELLA"
  NEEDLEPOINT LACE IN THE DESIGN OF WHICH ACORNS AND CARNATIONS ARE
  MINGLED WITH GEOMETRIC RADIATIONS.

  Probably of English early 17th century.

  FIG. 6.--AMELIE ELISABETH, COMTESSE DE HAINAULT, WEARING A RUFF OF
  NEEDLEPOINT RETICELLA LACE.

  By Morcelse. The Hague. About 1600.

  FIG. 7.--BORDER OF FLAT NEEDLEPOINT LACE OF FULLER TEXTURE THAN THAT
  OF FIG. 3, AND FROM A FREER STYLE OF DESIGN IN WHICH CONVENTIONALIZED
  FLORAL FORMS HELD TOGETHER BY SMALL BARS OR TYES ARE USED.

  Style called "Punto in Aria," chiefly on account of its independence
  of squares or reticulations. Italian. Early 17th century.

  (_Figs._ 4 _and_ 6 _by permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co.,
  Dornach (Alsace), and Paris_.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace,
French, early 18th century, "Point de France." The honeycomb ground is
considered to be a peculiarity of "Point d'Argentan": some of the
fillings are made in the manner of the "Point d'Alençon" _réseau_.]

France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders in making
needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574-1589) appointed a
Venetian, Frederic Vinciolo, pattern maker for varieties of linen needle
works and laces to his court. Through the influence of this fertile
designer the seeds of a taste for lace in France were principally sown.
But the event which _par excellence_ would seem to have fostered the
higher development of the French art of lace-making was the aid
officially given it in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on
the advice of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into
action to secure the services of Venetian lace-workers; and by an edict
dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alençon, Quesnoy, Arras, Reims,
Sedan, Château Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the
operations of a company in aid of which the state made a contribution of
36,000 francs; at the same time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and
other laces was strictly forbidden.[5] The edict contained instructions
that the lace-makers should produce all sorts of thread work, such as
those done on a pillow or cushion and with the needle, in the style of
the laces made at Venice, Genoa, Ragusa and other places; these French
imitations were to be called "points de France." By 1671 the Italian
ambassador at Paris writes, "Gallantly is the minister Colbert on his
way to bring the 'lavori d'aria' to perfection." Six years later an
Italian, Domenigo Contarini, alludes to the "punto in aria," "which the
French can now do to admiration." The styles of design which emanated
from the chief of the French lace centre, Alençon, were more fanciful
and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the Flemish
lace-makers later on adopted many of these French patterns for their own
use. The provision of French designs (fig. 24) which owes so much to the
state patronage, contrasts with the absence of corresponding provision
in England and was noticed early in the 18th century by Bishop Berkeley.
"How," he asks, "could France and Flanders have drawn so much money from
other countries for figured silk, lace and tapestry, if they had not had
their academies of design?"

The humble endeavours of peasantry in England (which could boast of no
schools of design), Germany, Sweden, Russia and Spain could not result
in work of so high artistic pretension as that of France and Flanders.
In the 18th century good lace was made in Devonshire, but it is only in
recent years that to some extent the hand lace-makers of England and
Ireland have become impressed with the necessity of well-considered
designs for their work. Pillow lace making under the name of "bone lace
making" was pursued in the 17th century in Buckinghamshire,
Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire, and in 1724 Defoe refers to the
manufacture of bone lace in which villagers were "wonderfully exercised
and improved within these few years past." "Bone" lace dates from the
17th century in England and was practically the counterpart of Flemish
"dentelles au fuseau," and related also to the Italian "merletti a
piombini" (see Pl. fig. 10). In Germany, Barbara Uttmann, a native of
Nuremberg, instructed peasants of the Harz mountains to twist and plait
threads in 1561. She was assisted by certain refugees from Flanders. A
sort of "purling" or imitation of the Italian "merletti a piombini" was
the style of work produced then.

Lace of comparatively simple design has been made for centuries in
villages of Andalusia as well as in Spanish conventual establishments.
The "point d'Espagne," however, appears to have been a commercial name
given by French manufacturers of a class of lace made in France with
gold or silver threads on the pillow and greatly esteemed by Spaniards
in the 17th century. No lace pattern-books have been found to have been
published in Spain. The needle-made laces which came out of Spanish
monasteries in 1830, when these institutions were dissolved, were mostly
Venetian needle-made laces. The lace vestments preserved at the
cathedral at Granada hitherto presumed to be of Spanish work are
verified as being Flemish of the 17th century (similar in style to Pl.
fig. 14). The industry is not alluded to in Spanish ordinances of the
15th, 16th or 17th centuries, but traditions which throw its origin back
to the Moors or Saracens are still current in Seville and its
neighbourhood, where a twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is
often worked[6] under the name of "Morisco" fringe, elsewhere called
macramé lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or "blondes," date from
the 18th century. They were made in considerable quantity in the
neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas by Spain, where
corresponding silk lace making was started. Although after the 18th
century the making of silk laces more or less ceased at Chantilly and
the neighbourhood, the craft is now carried on in Normandy--at Bayeux
and Caen--as well as in Auvergne, which is also noted for its simple
"torchon" laces. Silk pillow lace making is carried on in Spain,
especially at Barcelona. The patterns are almost entirely imitations
from 18th-century French ones of a large and free floral character.
Lace-making is said to have been promoted in Russia through the
patronage of the court, after the visit of Peter the Great to Paris in
the early days of the 18th century. Peasants in the districts of
Vologda, Balakhua (Nijni-Novgorod), Bieleff (Tula) and Mzensk (Orel)
make pillow laces of simple patterns. Malta is noted for producing a
silk pillow lace of black or white, or red threads, chiefly of patterns
in which repetitions of circles, wheels and radiations of shapes
resembling grains of wheat are the main features. This characteristic of
design, appearing in white linen thread laces of similar make which have
been identified as Genoese pillow laces of the early 17th century,
reappears in Spanish and Paraguayan work. Pillow lace in imitation of
Maltese, Buckinghamshire and Devonshire laces is made to a small extent
in Ceylon, in different parts of India and in Japan. A successful effort
has also been made to re-establish the industry in the island of Burano
near Venice, and pillow and needlepoint lace of good design is made
there.

At present the chief sources of hand-made lace are France, Belgium,
Ireland and England.

France is faithful to her traditions in maintaining a lively and
graceful taste in lace-making. Fashion of late years has called for
ampler and more boldly effective laces, readily produced with both
braids and cords and far less intricate needle or pillow work than was
required for the dainty and smaller laces of earlier date.

[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Collar and Berthe of Irish Crochet Lace.]

[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Collar of Irish Crochet Lace.]

In Belgium the social and economic conditions are, as they have been in
the past, more conducive and more favourable than elsewhere to
lace-making at a sufficiently remunerative rate of wages. The production
of hand-made laces in Belgium was in 1900 greater than that of France.
The principal modern needle-made lace of Belgium is the "Point de Gaze";
"Duchesse" and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces; whilst
"Point Appliqué" and "Plat Appliqué" are frequently the results not only
of combining needle-made and pillow work, but also of using them in
conjunction with machine-made net. Ireland is the best producer of that
substantial looped-thread work known as crochet (see figs. 25, 26, 27),
which must be regarded as a hand-made lace fabric although not
classifiable as a needlepoint or pillow lace. It is also quite distinct
in character from pseudo-laces, which are really embroideries with a
lace-like appearance, e.g. embroideries on net, cut and embroidered
cambrics and fine linen. For such as these Ireland maintains a
reputation in its admirable Limerick and Carrickmacross laces, made not
only in Limerick and Carrickmacross, but also in Kinsale, Newry,
Crossmaglen and elsewhere. The demand from France for Irish crochet is
now far beyond the supply, a condition which leads not only to the rapid
repetition by Irish workers of old patterns, but tends also to a gradual
debasement of both texture and ornament. Attempts have been made to
counteract this tendency, with some success, as the specimens of Irish
crochet in figs. 25, 26 and 27 indicate.

[Illustration: PLATE III.

  FIG. 8.--MARY, COUNTESS OF PEMBROKE, WEARING A COIF AND CUFFS OF
  RETICELLA LACE.

  National Portrait Gallery. Dated 1614.

  FIG. 9.--HENRI II., DUC DE MONTMORENCY, WEARING A FALLING LACE COLLAR.
  By LE NAIN. Louvre. About 1628.

  (_By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and
  Paris_.)

  FIG. 10.--SCALLOPPED COLLAR OF TAPE-LIKE PILLOW-MADE LACE.

  Possibly of English early 17th-century work. Its texture is typical of
  a development in pillow-lace-making later than that of the lower edge
  of "merletti a piombini" in Pl. II. fig. 3.

  FIG. 11.--JAMES II. WEARING A JABOT AND CUFFS OF RAISED NEEDLEPOINT
  LACE.

  By RILEY. National Portrait Gallery. About 1685.

  FIG. 12.--JABOT OF NEEDLEPOINT LACE WORKED PARTLY IN RELIEF, AND
  USUALLY KNOWN AS "GROS POINT DE VENISE."

  Middle of 17th century. Conventional scrolling stems with off-shooting
  pseudo-blossoms and leafs are specially characteristic.

  (_Figs._ 8 _and_ 11, _photo by Emery Walker_.)]

[Illustration: PLATE IV.

  FIG. 13.--MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE LACE _À RÉSEAU_.

  From the family group by GONZALES COQUER. Buckingham Palace. About
  1664.

  (_By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and
  Paris_.)

  FIG. 14.--PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY KNOWN AS "POINT DE
  FLANDRES À BRIDES."

  Of the middle of the 17th century, the designs for which were often
  adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that of the
  Jabot in fig. 12.

  FIG. 15.--PRINCESS MARIA TERESA STUART, WEARING A FLOUNCE OR TABLIER
  OF LACE SIMILAR TO THAT IN FIG. 17. Dated 1695.

  From a group by LARGILLIERE. National Portrait Gallery. (_Photo by
  Emery Walker_.)

  FIG. 16.--FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE _À RÉSEAU_.

  Flemish, of the middle of the 17th century. This lace is usually
  thought to be the earliest type of "Point d'Angleterre" in
  contradistinction to the "Point de Flandres" (fig. 14).

  FIG. 17--VERY DELICATE NEEDLEPOINT LACE WITH CLUSTERS OF SMALL RELIEF
  WORK.

  Venetian, middle of the 17th century, and often called "rose-point
  lace," and sometimes "Point de Neige."]

[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Lady's Sleeve of Irish Crochet Lace.]

An appreciable amount of pillow-made lace is annually supplied from
Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Northampton, but it is
bought almost wholly for home use. The English laces are made almost
entirely in accordance with the precedents of the 19th century--that is
to say, in definite lengths and widths, as for borders, insertions and
flounces, although large shaped articles, such as panels for dresses,
long sleeves complete skirts, jackets, blouses, and fancifully shaped
collars of considerable dimensions have of late been freely made
elsewhere. To make such things entirely of lace necessitates many
modifications in the ordinary methods; the English lace-workers are slow
to adapt their work in the manner requisite, and hence are far behind in
the race to respond to the fashionable demand. No countries succeed so
well in promptly answering the variable call of fashion as France and
Belgium.

  As regards trade in lace, America probably buys more from Belgium than
  from France; France and England come next as purchasers of nearly
  equal quantities, after which come Russia and Italy.

  The greatest amount of lace now made is that which issues from
  machines in England, France and Germany. The total number of persons
  employed in the lace industry in England in 1871 was 49,370, and in
  1901 about 34,929, of whom not more than 5000 made lace by hand.

The early history[7] of the lace-making machine coincides with that of
the stocking frame, that machine having been adapted about the year 1768
for producing open-looped fabrics which had a net-like appearance. About
1786 frames for making point nets by machinery first appear at Mansfield
and later at Ashbourne and Nottingham and soon afterwards modifications
were introduced into such frames in order to make varieties of meshes in
the point nets which were classed as figured nets. In 1808 and 1809 John
Heathcoat of Nottingham obtained patents for machines for making bobbin
net with a simpler and more readily produced mesh than that of the point
net just mentioned. For at least thirty years thousands of women had
been employed in and about Nottingham in the embroidery of simple
ornament on net. In 1813 John Leavers began to improve the figured net
weaving machines above mentioned, and from these the lace-making
machines in use at the present time were developed. But it was the
application of the celebrated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that
enabled manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work in
imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French machine called
the "dentellière" was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881),
and the patterns produced by it were of plaited threads. The expense,
however, attending the production of plaited lace by the "dentellière"
is as great as that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine
has not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successful results
have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine of Messrs.
Birkin & Co. of Nottingham, the productions of which, all of simple
design, cannot be distinguished from hand-made pillow lace of the same
style (see figs. 57, 58, 59).

Before dealing with technical details in processes of making lace
whether by hand or by the machine, the component parts of different
makes of lace may be considered. These are governed by the ornaments or
patterns, which may be so designed, as they were in the earlier laces,
that the different component parts may touch one another without any
intervening groundwork. But as a wish arose to vary the effect of the
details in a pattern ground-works were gradually developed and at first
consisted of links or ties between the substantial parts of the pattern.
The bars or ties were succeeded by grounds of meshes, like nets.
Sometimes the substantial parts of a pattern were outlined with a single
thread or by a strongly marked raised edge of buttonhole-stitched or of
plaited work. Minute fanciful devices were then introduced to enrich
various portions of the pattern. Some of the heavier needle-made laces
resemble low relief carving in ivory, and the edges of the relief
portions are often decorated with clusters of small loops. For the most
part all this elaboration was brought to a high pitch of variety and
finish by French designers and workers; and French terms are more usual
in speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern is
called the _toilé_ or clothing, the links or ties are called _brides_,
the meshed grounds are called _réseaux_, the outline to the edges of a
pattern is called _cordonnet_ or _brodé_, the insertions of fanciful
devices _modes_, the little loops _picots_. These terms are applicable
to the various portions of laces made with the needle, on the pillow or
by the machine.

The sequence of patterns in lace (which may be verified upon referring
to figs. 1 to 23) is roughly as follows. From about 1540 to 1590 they
were composed of geometric forms set within squares, or of crossed and
radiating line devices, resulting in a very open fabric, stiff and
almost wiry in effect, without _brides_ or _réseaux_. From 1590 may be
dated the introduction into patterns of very conventional floral and
even human and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like
texture, held together by _brides_. To the period from 1620 to 1670
belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns with
_réseaux_ and _brides_, accompanied in the case of needle-made laces
with an elaboration of details, e.g. _cordonnet_ with massings of
_picots_. Much of these laces enriched with fillings or _modes_ was made
at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll patterns gave way to
arrangements of detached ornamental details (as in Pl. VI. fig. 22): and
about 1700 to 1760 more important schemes or designs were made (as in
Pl. fig. 19, and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced
naturalistic renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies,
architectural ornament and human figures. Grounds composed entirely of
varieties of _modes_ as in the case of the _réseau rosacé_ (Pl. V. fig.
21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small details consisting
of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers, leaves, buds, spots and
such like were adopted, and sprinkled over meshed grounds, and the
character of the texture was gauzy and filmy (as in figs. 40 and 42).
Since that time variants of the foregoing styles of pattern and textures
have been used according to the bent of fashion in favour of simple or
complex ornamentation, or of stiff, compact or filmy textures.

[Illustration: FIG. 28.]

[Illustration: FIG. 29.]

_Needlepoint Lace._--The way in which the early Venetian "punto in aria"
was made corresponds with that in which needlepoint lace is now worked.
The pattern is first drawn upon a piece of parchment. The parchment is
then stitched to two pieces of linen. Upon the leading lines drawn on
the parchment a thread is laid, and fastened through to the parchment
and linen by means of stitches, thus constructing a skeleton thread
pattern (see left-hand part of fig. 30). Those portions which are to be
represented as the "clothing" or _toilé_ are usually worked as indicated
in the enlarged diagram (fig. 29), and then edged as a rule with
buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). Between these _toilé_ portions of the
pattern are worked ties (_brides_) or meshes (_réseaux_), and thus the
various parts united into one fabric are wrought on to the face of the
parchment pattern and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A
knife is passed between the two pieces of linen at the back of the
parchment, cutting the stitches which have passed through the parchment
and linen, and so releasing the lace itself from its pattern parchment.
In the earlier stages, the lace was made in lengths to serve as
insertions (_passements_) and also in vandykes (_dentelles_) to serve as
edgings. Later on insertions and vandykes were made in one piece. All of
such were at first of a geometric style of pattern (Pl. figs. 3-5 and
6).

[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Parchment Pattern showing work in progress: the
more complete lace is on the right half of the pattern.]

[Illustration: FIG. 31.]

Following closely upon them came the freer style of design already
mentioned, without and then with links or ties--_brides_--interspersed
between the various details of the patterns (Pl. II. fig. 7), which were
of flat tape-like texture. In elaborate specimens of this flat point
lace some lace workers occasionally used gold thread with the white
thread. These flat laces ("Punto in Aria") are also called "flat
Venetian point." About 1640 "rose (raised) point" laces began to be made
(Pl. III. fig. 12). They were done in relief and those of bold design
with stronger reliefs are called "gros point de Venise." Lace of this
latter class was used for altar cloths, flounces, _jabots_ or neckcloths
which hung beneath the chin over the breast (Pl. III. fig. 11), as well
as for trimming the turned-over tops of jack boots. _Tabliers_ and
ladies' aprons were also made of such lace. In these no regular ground
was introduced. All sorts of minute embellishments, like little knots,
stars and loops or _picots_, were worked on to the irregularly arranged
_brides_ or ties holding the main patterns together, and the more dainty
of these raised laces (Pl. fig. 17) exemplify the most subtle uses to
which the buttonhole stitch appears capable of being put in making
ornaments. But about 1660 came laces with _brides_ or ties arranged in a
honeycomb reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in
which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter material
combined with a ground of meshes or _réseau_. The needle-made meshes
were sometimes of single and sometimes of double threads. A diagram is
given of an ordinary method of making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end
of the 17th century the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint laces were
made; and this class which was of the filmiest texture is usually known
as "point de Venise à réseau" (Pl. V. fig. 20a). It was contemporary
with the needle-made French laces of Alençon and Argentan[8] that became
famous towards the latter part of the 17th century (Pl. V. fig. 20b).
"Point d'Argentan" has been thought to be especially distinguished on
account of its delicate honeycomb ground of hexagonally arranged
_brides_ (fig. 32), a peculiarity already referred to in certain
antecedent Venetian point laces. Often intermixed with this hexagonal
_brides_ ground is the fine-meshed ground or _réseau_ (fig. 20b), which
has been held to be distinctive of "point d'Alençon." But the styles of
patterns and the methods of working them, with rich variety of
insertions or _modes_, with the _brodé_ or _cordonnet_ of raised
buttonhole stitched edging, are alike in Argentan and Alençon
needle-made laces (Pl. V. fig. 20b and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal
_brides_ ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding
(_réseau rosacé_) was used in certain Alençon designs. This ground
consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each of which
was worked a small hexagon of _toilé_ connected with the outer
surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or _brides_ (Pl. V. fig.
21). Lace with this particular ground has been called "Argentella," and
some writers have thought that it was a specialty of Genoese or Venetian
work. But the character of the work and the style of the floral patterns
are those of Alençon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an
offshoot of that nurtured at Alençon, where "lacis," "cut work" and
"vélin" (work on parchment) had been made for years before the
well-developed needle-made "point d'Alençon" came into vogue under the
favouring patronage of the state-aided lace company mentioned as having
been formed in 1665. Madame Despierre in her _Histoire du point
d'Alençon_ gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Border of Needlepoint Lace made in France about
1740-1750, the clear hexagonal mesh ground, which is compactly stitched,
being usually regarded as characteristic of the point de France made at
Argentan.]

In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle-made laces.
These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those made at Alençon, but
the _toilé_ is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of
pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is often worked with meshed grounds
made on a pillow, and a plain thread is used as a _cordonnet_ for their
patterns instead of a thread overcast with buttonhole stitches as in the
French needlepoint laces. Note the bright sharp outline to the various
ornamental details in Pl. V. fig. 20b.

[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Shirt decorated with Insertions of Flat
Needlepoint Lace. (English, 17th century. Victoria and Albert Museum.)]

[Illustration: PLATE IV.

  FIG. 18.--CHARLES GASPARD GUILLAUME DE VINTI-MILLE, WEARING LACE
  SIMILAR IN STYLE OF DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730.

  FIG. 19.--PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE COPIED AT THE BURANO
  LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED "POINT DE VENISE À
  BRIDES PICOTÉES."

  17th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but now the
  property of the queen of Italy. The design and work, however, are
  indistinguishable from those of important flounces of "Point de
  France." The pattern consists of repetitions of two
  vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with
  flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices. The
  hexagonal meshes of the ground, although similar to the Venetian
  "brides picotées," are much akin to the buttonhole stitched ground of
  "Point d'Argentan." (Victoria and Albert Museum.)

  FIG. 20.

  A.--A LAPPET OF "POINT DE VENISE À RÉSEAU."

  The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms
  contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French
  laces. Italian. Early 18th century.

  B.--A LAPPET OF FINE "POINT D'ALENÇON." Louis XV. period. The variety
  of the fillings of geometric design is particularly remarkable in this
  specimen, as is the buttonhole stitched cordonnat or outline to the
  various ornamental forms.

  FIG. 21.--BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, WITH GROUND OF "RÉSEAU
  ROSACÉ." 18th century.]

[Illustration: PLATE VI.

  FIG. 22.--JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE. Brussels. Late 17th
  century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)

  FIG. 23.--JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF FANTASTIC FLORAL
  DESIGN, THE GROUND OF WHICH IS COMPOSED OF LITTLE FLOWERS AND LEAVES
  ARRANGED WITHIN SMALL OPENWORK VERTICAL STRIPS.

  Brussels. 18th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)]

Needlepoint lace has also been occasionally produced in England. Whilst
the character of its design in the early 17th century was rather more
primitive, as a rule, than that of the contemporary Italian, the method
of its workmanship is virtually the same and an interesting specimen of
English needle-made lace inset into an early 17th-century shirt is
illustrated in fig. 33. Specimens of needle-made work done by English
school children may be met with in samplers of the 17th and 18th
centuries. Needlepoint lace is successfully made at Youghal, Kenmare and
New Ross in Ireland, where of late years attention has been given to the
study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano near Venice
produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent, careful
reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces, such as
"punto in aria," "rose point de Venise," "point de Venise à réseau,"
"point d'Alençon," "point d'Argentan" and others. Some good needlepoint
lace is made in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Austrian empire.

_Pillow-made Lace._--Pillow-made lace is built upon no substructure
corresponding with a skeleton thread pattern such as is used for
needlepoint lace, but is the representation of a pattern obtained by
twisting and plaiting threads.

These patterns were never so strictly geometric in style as those
adopted for the earliest point lace making from the antecedent cut linen
and drawn thread embroideries. Curved forms, almost at the outset of
pillow lace, seem to have been found easy of execution (see lower
border, Pl. II. fig. 3); its texture was more lissom and less crisp and
wiry in appearance than that of contemporary needle-made lace. The early
twisted and plaited thread laces, which had the appearance of small
cords merging into one another, were soon succeeded by laces of similar
make but with flattened and broader lines more like fine braids or tapes
(Pl. I. fig. 2, and Pl. fig. 10). But pillow laces of this tapey
character must not be confused with laces in which actual tape or braid
is used. That peculiar class of lace-work does not arise until after the
beginning of the 17th century when the weaving of tape is said to have
commenced in Flanders. In England this sort of tape-lace dates no
farther back than 1747, when two Dutchmen named Lanfort were invited by
an English firm to set up tape looms in Manchester.

[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Diagram showing six Bobbins in use.]

The process by which lace is made on the pillow is roughly and briefly
as follows. A pattern is first drawn upon a piece of paper or parchment.
It is then pricked with holes by a skilled "pattern pricker," who
determines where the principal pins shall be stuck for guiding the
threads. This pricked pattern is then fastened to the pillow. The pillow
or cushion varies in shape in different countries. Some lace-makers use
a circular pad, backed with a flat board, in order that it may be placed
upon a table and easily moved. Other lace-workers use a well-stuffed
round pillow or short bolster, flattened at the two ends, so that they
may hold it conveniently on their laps. From the upper part of pillow
with the pattern fastened on it hang the threads from the bobbins. The
bobbin threads thus hang across the pattern. Fig. 34 shows the
commencement, for instance, of a double set of three-thread plaitings.
The compact portion in a pillow lace has a woven appearance (fig. 35).

[Illustration: FIG. 35.]

About the middle of the 17th century pillow lace of formal scroll
patterns somewhat in imitation of those for point lace was made, chiefly
in Flanders. The earlier of these had grounds of ties or _brides_ and
was often called "point de Flandres" (Pl. fig. 14) in contradistinction
to scroll patterns with a mesh ground, which were called "point
d'Angleterre" (Pl. fig. 16). Into Spain and France much lace from Venice
and Flanders was imported as well as into England, where from the 16th
century the manufacture of the simple pattern "bone lace" by peasants in
the midland and southern counties was still being carried on. In Charles
II.'s time its manufacture was threatened with extinction by the
preference given to the more artistic and finer Flemish laces. The
importation of the latter was accordingly prohibited. Dealers in Flemish
lace sought to evade the prohibitions by calling certain of their laces
"point d'Angleterre," and smuggling them into England. But smuggling was
made so difficult that English dealers were glad to obtain the services
of Flemish lace-makers and to induce them to settle in England. It is
from some such cause that the better 17th- and 18th-century English
pillow laces bear resemblance to pillow laces of Brussels, of Mechlin
and of Valenciennes.

[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Border of English Pillow-made (Devonshire) Lace
in the style of a Brussels design of the middle of the 18th century.]

[Illustration: FIG. 37--Border of English (Bucks. or Beds.) Pillow-made
Lace in the Style of a Mechlin design of the latter part of the 18th
century.]

As skill in the European lace-making developed soon after the middle of
the 17th century, patterns and particular plaitings came to be
identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for instance, enjoyed a
high reputation for her productions. The chief technical features of
this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of the meshes, and the outlining of
the clothing or _toilé_ with a thread _cordonnet_. The ordinary Mechlin
mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the sides are of double twisted
threads, two are of four threads plaited three times (fig. 39).

[Illustration: FIG. 38--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a
design similar to such as was used for point d'Alençon of the Louis XV.
period.]

[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Mechlin Mesh.]

In Brussels pillow lace, which has greater variety of design, the mesh
is also hexagonal; but in contrast with the Mechlin mesh whilst four of
its sides are of double-twisted threads the other two are of four
threads plaited four times (fig. 41). The finer specimens of Brussels
lace are remarkable for the fidelity and grace with which the botanical
forms in many of its patterns are rendered (Pl. VI. fig. 23). These are
mainly reproductions or adaptations of designs for point d'Alençon, and
the soft quality imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace
contrasts with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint
lace. An example of dainty Brussels pillow lace is given in fig. 42. In
the Brussels pillow lace a delicate modelling effect is often imparted
to the close textures of the flowers by means of pressing them with a
bone instrument which gives concave shapes to petals and leaves, the
edges of which consist in part of slightly raised _cordonnet_ of compact
plaited work.

[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, end of the
18th century.]

[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Enlargement of Brussels Mesh.]

[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in. × 6 ft.
6 in., of Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late 18th century. The design
consists of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers
daintily festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over
the ground, which is of Brussels _vrai réseau_. In the centre upon a
more open ground of pillow-made hexagonal _brides_ is a group of two
birds, one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing
from its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow,
and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow
renderings of various _modes_, the _réseau rosacé_, star devices, &c.
The ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the
ground (Victoria and Albert Museum).]

Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels lace, but in most of the English
pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire) the _réseau_ is
of a simple character (fig. 43). As a rule, English lace is made with a
rather coarser thread than that used in the older Flemish laces. In real
Flemish Valenciennes lace there are no twisted sides to the mesh; all
are closely plaited (fig. 44) and as a rule the shape of the mesh is
diamond but without the openings as shown in fig. 44. No outline or
_cordonnet_ to define the pattern is used in Valenciennes lace (see fig.
45). Much lace of the Valenciennes type (fig. 54) is made at Ypres.
Besides these distinctive classes of pillow-like laces, there are others
in which equal care in plaiting and twisting threads is displayed,
though the character of the design is comparatively simple, as for
instance in ordinary pillow laces from Italy, from the Auvergne, from
Buckinghamshire, or rude and primitive as in laces from Crete, southern
Spain and Russia. Pillow lace-making in Crete is now said to be extinct.
The laces were made chiefly of silk. The patterns in many specimens are
outlined with one, two or three bright-coloured silken threads.
Uniformity in simple character of design may also be observed in many
Italian, Spanish, Bohemian, Swedish and Russian pillow laces (see the
lower edge of fig. 46).

[Illustration: FIG. 43.]

[Illustration: FIG. 44.]

[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Lappet of delicate Pillow-made Lace,
Valenciennes, about 1750. The peculiarity of Valenciennes lace is the
filmy cambric-like texture and the absence of any cordonnet to define
the separate parts of the ornament such as is used in needlepoint lace
of Alençon, and in pillow Mechlin and Brussels lace.]

_Guipure._--This name is often applied to needlepoint and pillow laces
in which the ground consists of ties or _brides_, but it more properly
designates a kind of lace or "passementerie," made with gimp of fine
wires whipped round with silk, and with cotton thread. An earlier kind
of gimp was formed with "Cartisane," a little strip of thin parchment or
vellum covered with silk, gold or silver thread. These stiff gimp
threads, formed into a pattern, were held together by stitches worked
with the needle. Gold and silver thread laces have been usually made on
the pillow, though gold thread has been used with fine effect in
17th-century Italian needlepoint laces.

[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Border to a Cloth. The wide part bearing the
double-headed eagle of Russia is of drawn thread embroidery: the
scalloped edging is of Russian pillow-made lace, though the style of its
pattern is often seen in pillow laces made by peasants in Danubian
provinces as well as in the south of Spain.]

[Illustration: FIG. 47.]

[Illustration: FIG. 48.]

[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Section of Lace Machine.]

[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of 16th-century
Needlepoint "Reticella" Lace.]

[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Border of Machine-made Lace in the style of
17th-century Pillow Guipure Lace.]

[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Border of Machine-made Lace in imitation of
17th-century Pillow Lace.]

[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Machine-made Trimming Border in imitation of
Irish Crochet Lace.]

[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A Piece of Hand-made Pillow Lace, Belgian
(Ypres), 20th century. (The machine imitation is given in fig. 55.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of the Hand-made
Specimen of fig. 54. (Nottingham, 20th century.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Small Borders (a) Hand-made and (b)
Machine-made Lace Valenciennes. (Nottingham, 20th century.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Specimen of Hand-made Pillow Lace.]

[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Specimen of Machine-made Lace in which the
twisting and plaiting of the threads are identical with those of the
hand-made specimen of fig. 57. (Nottingham, 20th century.)]

_Machine-made Lace._--We have already seen that a technical peculiarity
in making needlepoint lace is that a single thread and needle are alone
used to form the pattern, and that the buttonhole stitch and other
loopings which can be worked by means of a needle and thread mark a
distinction between lace made in this manner and lace made on the
pillow. For the process of pillow lace making a series of threads are in
constant employment, plaited and twisted the one with another. A
buttonhole stitch is not producible by it. The Leavers lace machine does
not make either a buttonhole stitch or a plait. An essential principle
of this machine-made work is that the threads are twisted together as in
stocking net. The Leavers lace machine is that generally in use at
Nottingham and Calais. French ingenuity has developed improvements in
this machine whereby laces of delicate thread are made; but as fast as
France makes an improvement England follows with another, and both
countries virtually maintain an equal position in this branch of
industry. The number of threads brought into operation in a Leavers
machine is regulated by the pattern to be produced, the threads being of
two sorts, beam or warp threads and bobbin or weft threads. Upwards of
8880 are sometimes used, sixty pieces of lace being made simultaneously,
each piece requiring 148 threads--100 beam threads and 48 bobbin
threads. The ends of both sets of threads are fixed to a cylinder upon
which as the manufacture proceeds the lace becomes wound. The supply of
the beam or warp threads is held upon reels, and that of the bobbins or
weft threads is held in bobbins. The beam or warp thread reels are
arranged in frames or trays beneath the stage, above which and between
it and the cylinder the twisting of the bobbin or weft with beam or warp
threads takes place. The bobbins containing the bobbin or weft threads
are flattened in shape so as to pass conveniently between the stretched
beam or warp threads. Each bobbin can contain about 120 yds. of thread.
By most ingenious mechanism varying degrees of tension can be imparted
to warp and weft threads as required. As the bobbins or weft threads
pass like pendulums between the warp threads the latter are made to
oscillate, thus causing them to become twisted with the bobbin threads.
As the twistings take place, combs passing through both warp and weft
threads compress the twistings. Thus the texture of the clothing or
_toilé_ in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed
appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads. Figs. 47 and 48 are
intended to show effects obtained by varying the tensions of weft and
warp threads. For instance, if the weft, as threads b, b, b, b in fig.
47, be tight and the warp thread slack, the warp thread a will be
twisted upon the weft threads. But if the warp thread a be tight and the
weft threads b, b, b, b, be slack, as in fig. 48, then the weft threads
will be twisted on the warp thread. At the same time the twisting in
both these cases arises from the conjunction of movements given to the
two sets of threads, namely, an oscillation or movement from side to
side of the beam or warp threads, and the swinging or pendulum-like
movement of the bobbin or weft threads between the warp threads. Fig. 49
is a diagram of a sectional elevation of a lace machine representing its
more essential parts. E is the cylinder or beam upon which the lace is
rolled as made, and upon which the ends of both warp and weft threads
are fastened at starting. Beneath are w, w, w, a series of trays or
beams, one above the other, containing the reels of the supplies of warp
threads; c, c represent the slide bars for the passage of the bobbin b
with its thread from k to k, the landing bars, one on each side of the
rank of warp threads; s, t are the combs which take it in turns to press
together the twistings as they are made. The combs come away clear from
the threads as soon as they have pressed them together and fall into
positions ready to perform their pressing operations again. The
contrivances for giving each thread a particular tension and movement at
a certain time are connected with an adaptation of the Jacquard system
of pierced cards. The machine lace pattern drafter has to calculate how
many holes shall be punched in a card, and to determine the position of
such holes. Each hole regulates the mechanism for giving movement to a
thread. Fig. 54 displays a piece of hand-made Valenciennes (Ypres) lace
and fig. 55 a corresponding piece woven by the machine. The latter shows
the advantage that can be gained by using very fine gauge machines, thus
enabling a very close imitation of the real lace to be made by securing
a very open and clear _réseau_ or net, such as would be made on a coarse
machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and solid and
standing out well from the net, as is the case with the real lace, which
cannot be done by using a coarse gauge machine. In this example the
machine used is a 16 point (that is 32 carriages to the inch), and the
ground is made half gauge, that is 8 point, and the weaving is made the
full gauge of the machine, that is 16 point. Fig. 56 gives other
examples of hand- and machine-made Valenciennes lace. The machine-made
lace (b) imitating the real (a) is made on a 14-point machine (that is
28 carriages to the inch), the ground being 7 point and the pattern
being full gauge or 14 point. Although the principle in these examples
of machine work is exactly the same, in so far that they use half gauge
net and full gauge clothing to produce the contrast as mentioned above,
the fabrication of these two examples is quite different, that in fig.
55 being an example of tight bobbins or weft, and slack warp threads as
shown in fig. 47. Whereas the example in fig. 56 is made with slack
bobbins or weft threads and tight warp threads as in fig. 48. In fig. 57
is a piece of hand-made lace of stout thread, very similar to much Cluny
lace made in the Auvergne and to the Buckinghamshire "Maltese" lace.
Close to it are specimens of lace (figs. 58 and 59) made by the new
patent circular lace machine of Messrs Birkin of Nottingham. This
machine although very slow in production actually reproduces the real
lace, at a cost slightly below that of the hand-made lace. In another
branch of lace-making by machinery, mechanical ingenuity, combined with
chemical treatment, has led to surprising results (figs. 53 and 50).
Swiss, German and other manufacturers use machines in which a principle
of the sewing-machine is involved. A fine silken tissue is thereby
enriched with an elaborately raised cotton or thread embroidery. The
whole fabric is then treated with chemical mordants which, whilst
dissolving the silky web, do not attack the cotton or thread embroidery.
A relief embroidery possessing the appearance of hand-made raised
needlepoint lace is thus produced. Figs. 60 and 61 give some idea of
the high quality to which this admirable counterfeit has been brought.

[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Specimens of Machine-made Torchon Lace, in the
same manner as such lace is made on the pillow by hand. (Nottingham,
20th century.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Machine-made Lace of Modern Design.]

[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Machine-made Lace in imitation of 17th-century
Needlepoint Lace, "Gros point de Venise."]

Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and technical
institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert Museum in London,
the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg,
Berlin, Turin and elsewhere. In such places the opportunity is presented
of tracing in chronological sequence the stages of pattern and texture
development.

  _Literature._--The literature of the art of lace-making is
  considerable. The series of 16th- and 17th-century lace pattern-books,
  of which the more important are perhaps those by F. Vinciolo (Paris,
  1587), Cesare Vecellio (Venice, 1592), and Isabetta Catanea Parasole
  (Venice, 1600), not to mention several kindred works of earlier and
  later date published in Germany and the Netherlands, supplies a large
  field for exploration. Signor Ongania of Venice published a limited
  number of facsimiles of the majority of such works. M. Alvin of
  Brussels issued a brochure in 1863 upon these patterns, and in the
  same year the marquis Girolamo d'Adda contributed two bibliographical
  essays upon the same subject to the _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (vol. xv.
  p. 342 seq., and vol. xvii. p. 421 seq.). In 1864 Cavaliere A. Merli
  wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled _Origine ed uso delle
  trine a filo di rete_; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and
  rather fanciful _Histoire de la dentelle_ in 1843, in which he
  reproduced statements to be found in Diderot's _Encyclopédie_,
  subsequently quoted by Roland de la Platière. The first _Report of the
  Department of Practical Art_ (1853) contains a "Report on Cotton
  Print Works and Lace-Making" by Octavius Hudson, and in the first
  _Report of the Department of Science and Art_ are some "Observations
  on Lace." Reports upon the International Exhibitions of 1851 (London)
  and 1867 (Paris), by M. Aubry, Mrs Palliser and others contain
  information concerning lace-making. The most important work first
  issued upon the history of lace-making is that by Mrs Bury Palliser
  (_History of Lace_, 1869). In this work the history is treated rather
  from an antiquarian than a technical point of view; and wardrobe
  accounts, inventories, state papers, fashionable journals, diaries,
  plays, poems, have been laid under contribution with surprising
  diligence. A new edition published in 1902 presents the work as
  entirely revised, rewritten and enlarged under the editorship of M.
  Jourdain and Alice Dryden. In 1875 the Arundel Society brought out
  _Ancient Needlepoint and Pillow Lace_, a folio volume of permanently
  printed photographs taken from some of the finest specimens of ancient
  lace collected for the International Exhibition of 1874. These were
  accompanied by a brief history of lace, written from the technical
  aspect of the art, by Alan S. Cole. At the same time appeared a bulky
  imperial 4to volume by Seguin, entitled _La Dentelle_, illustrated
  with wood-cuts and fifty photo-typographical plates. Seguin divides
  his work into four sections. The first is devoted to a sketch of the
  origin of laces; the second deals with pillow laces, bibliography of
  lace and a review of sumptuary edicts; the third relates to
  needle-made lace; and the fourth contains an account of places where
  lace has been and is made, remarks upon commerce in lace, and upon the
  industry of lace makers. Without sufficient conclusive evidence Seguin
  accords to France the palm for having excelled in producing
  practically all the richer sorts of laces, notwithstanding that both
  before and since the publication of his otherwise valuable work, many
  types of them have been identified as being Italian in origin.
  Descriptive catalogues are issued of the lace collections at South
  Kensington Museum, at the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, and at the
  Industrial Museum, Nuremberg. In 1881 a series of four Cantor Lectures
  on the art of lace-making were delivered before the Society of Arts by
  Alan S. Cole.

  _A Technical History of the Manufacture of Venetian Laces_, by G. M.
  Urbani de Gheltof, with plates, was translated by Lady Layard, and
  published at Venice by Signor Ongania. The _History of Machine-wrought
  Hosiery and Lace Manufacture_ (London, 1867), by Felkin, has already
  been referred to. There is also a technological essay upon lace made
  by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches and patterns
  (_Technologische Studien im sächsischen Erzgebirge_, Leipzig, 1878),
  by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard, Paris, published a
  _History of Point d'Alençon_, written by Madame G. Despierres, which
  gives a close and interesting account of the industry, together with a
  list, compiled from local records, of makers and dealers from 1602
  onwards.--_Embroidery and Lace: their manufacture and history from the
  remotest antiquity to the present day_, by Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker
  and administrator of the École des Arts Décoratifs, translated and
  enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was published in London in 1888.
  It is a well-illustrated handbook for amateurs, collectors and general
  readers.--Irish laces made from modern designs are illustrated in a
  _Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace-making_, published in 1888
  (London).--_Anciennes Dentelles belges formant la collection de feue
  madame Augusta Baronne Liedts et données au Musée de Grunthuis à
  Bruges_, published at Antwerp in 1889, consists of a folio volume
  containing upwards of 181 phototypes--many full size--of fine
  specimens of lace. The ascriptions of country and date of origin are
  occasionally inaccurate, on account of a too obvious desire to credit
  Bruges with being the birthplace of all sorts of lace-work, much of
  which shown in this work is distinctly Italian in style.--The
  _Encyclopaedia of Needlework_, by Thérèse de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace,
  1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds of embroidery, knitting,
  crochet, tatting, netting and most of the essential stitches for
  needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with wood-cuts and process
  blocks.--An exhaustive history of Russian lace-making is given in _La
  Dentelle russe_, by Madame Sophie Davidoff, published at Leipzig,
  1895. Russian lace is principally pillow-work with rather heavy
  thread, and upwards of eighty specimens are reproduced by
  photo-lithography in this book.

  A short account of the best-known varieties of _Point and Pillow
  Lace_, by A. M. S. (London, 1899), is illustrated with typical
  specimens of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as
  with magnified details of lace, enabling any one to identify the
  plaits, the twists and loops of threads in the actual making of the
  fabric.--_L'Industrie des tulles et dentelles mécaniques dans le
  Pas de Calais_, 1815-1900, by Henri Hénon (Paris, 1900), is an
  important volume of over 600 pages of letterpress, interspersed with
  abundant process blocks of the several kinds of machine nets and laces
  made at Calais since 1815. It opens with a short account of the Arras
  hand-made laces, the production of which is now almost extinct. The
  book was sold for the benefit of a public subscription towards the
  erection of a statue in Calais to Jacquard, the inventor of the
  apparatus by means of which all figured textile fabrics are
  manufactured. It is of some interest to note that machine net and
  lace-making at Calais owe their origin to Englishmen, amongst whom "le
  sieur R. Webster arrivé à St Pierre-les-Calais en Décembre, 1816,
  venant d'Angleterre, est l'un des premiers qui ont établi dans la
  communauté une fabrique de tulles," &c. _Lace-making in the Midlands:
  Past and Present_, by C. C. Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900)
  upon the lace-making industry in Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and
  Northamptonshire contains many illustrations of laces made in these
  counties from the 17th century to the present time. _Musée
  rétrospectif. Dentelles à l'exposition universelle internationale de
  1900 à Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre_ contains several good
  illustrations, especially of important specimens of Point de France of
  the 17th and 18th centuries. _Le Point de France et les autres
  dentelliers au XVII^e et au XVIII^e siècles_, by Madame Laurence de
  Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings together much hitherto scattered
  information throwing light upon operations in many localities in
  France where the industry has been carried on for considerable
  periods. The book is well and usefully illustrated.

  See also _Irische Spitzen_ (30 half-tone plates), with a short
  historical introduction by Alan S. Cole (Stuttgart, 1902); _Pillow
  Lace_, a practical handbook by Elizabeth Mincoff and Margaret S.
  Marriage (London, 1907); _The Art of Bobbin Lace_, a practical
  text-book of workmanship, &c., by Louisa Tebbs (London, 1907);
  _Antiche trine italiane_, by Elisa Ricci (Bergamo, 1908), well
  illustrated; _Seven Centuries of Lace_, by Mrs John Hungerford Pollen
  (London and New York, 1908), very fully illustrated.     (A. S. C.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The prevalence of fashion in the above-mentioned sorts of
    embroidery during the 16th century is marked by the number of
    pattern-books then published. In Venice a work of this class was
    issued by Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature,
    printed by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and
    La _Fleur de la science de pourtraicture et patrons de broderie,
    façon arabicque et ytalique_, was published at Paris in 1530. From
    these early dates until the beginning of the 17th century
    pattern-books for embroidery in Italy, France, Germany and England
    were published in great abundance. The designs contained in many of
    those dating from the early 16th century were to be worked for
    costumes and hangings, and consisted of scrolls, arabesques, birds,
    animals, flowers, foliage, herbs and grasses. So far, however, as
    their reproduction as laces might be concerned, the execution of
    complicated work was involved which none but practised lace-workers,
    such as those who arose a century later, could be expected to
    undertake.

  [2] A very complete account of how these conditions began and
    developed at Alençon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre's
    _Histoire du Point d'Alençon_ (1886) to which is appended an
    interesting and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of
    Point d'Alençon.

  [3] _E.g._ The family of Camusat at Alençon from 1602 until 1795.

  [4] The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably
    painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys.

  [5] See the poetical skit _Révolte des passements et broderies_,
    written by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sévigné, in
    the middle of the 17th century, which marks the favour which foreign
    laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion.
    It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, known as
    "bisette," "gueuse," "campane" and "mignonette," were small and
    comparatively insignificant works, without pretence to design.

  [6] Useful information has been communicated to the writer of the
    present article on lace by Mrs B. Wishaw of Seville.

  [7] See Felkin's _Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures_.

  [8] After 1650 the lace-workers at Alençon and its neighbourhood
    produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by
    the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal _bride_ grounds of Alençon
    laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average
    size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alençon (or
    so-called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each
    side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the
    minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a
    hexagon would be overcast with some nine or ten buttonhole stitches.




LACE-BARK TREE, a native of Jamaica, known botanically as _Lagetta
lintearia_, from its native name lagetto. The inner bark consists of
numerous concentric layers of interlacing fibres resembling in
appearance lace. Collars and other articles of apparel have been made of
the fibre, which is also used in the manufacture of whips, &c. The tree
belongs to the natural order Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in
Britain.




LACEDAEMON, in historical times an alternative name of LACONIA (q.v.).
Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it
the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae of later times, in contrast to the
lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, _Studien zur altspartanischen
Geschichte_, Göttingen, 1872, p. 34 foll.). It is described by the
epithets [Greek: koilê] (hollow) and [Greek: kêtôessa] (spacious or
hollow), and is probably connected etymologically with [Greek: lakkos],
_lacus_, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the name of a separate
department, which had in 1907 a population of 87,106.




LACÉPÈDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ÉTIENNE DE LA VILLE, COMTE DE (1756-1825),
French naturalist, was born at Agen in Guienne on the 26th of December
1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early
perusal of Buffon's _Natural History_ awakened his interest in that
branch of study, which absorbed his chief attention. His leisure he
devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer on the
piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of composition, two of
his operas (which were never published) meeting with the high approval
of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also brought out in two volumes his _Poétique
de la musique_. Meantime he wrote two treaties, _Essai sur
l'électricité_ (1781) and _Physique générale et particulière_
(1782-1784), which gained him the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785
appointed him subdemonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him
to become the continuator of his _Histoire naturelle_. This continuation
was published under the titles _Histoire des quadrupèdes ovipares et des
serpents_ (2 vols., 1788-1789) and _Histoire naturelle des reptiles_
(1789). After the Revolution Lacépède became a member of the legislative
assembly, but during the Reign of Terror he left Paris, his life having
become endangered by his disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin
du Roi was reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacépède was appointed
to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In 1798 he
published the first volume of _Histoire naturelle des poissons_, the
fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804 appeared his _Histoire des
cétacés_. From this period till his death the part he took in politics
prevented him making any further contribution of importance to science.
In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803
grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and
at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at
Épinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of his life he
wrote _Histoire générale physique et civile de l'Europe_, published
posthumously in 18 vols., 1826.

  A collected edition of his works on natural history was published in
  1826.




LACEWING-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the families
_Hemerobiidae_ and _Chrysopidae_, related to the ant-lions,
scorpion-flies, &c., with long filiform antennae, longish bodies and two
pairs of large similar richly veined wings. The larvae are short grubs
beset with hair-tufts and tubercles. They feed upon _Aphidae_ or "green
fly" and cover themselves with the emptied skins of their prey.
Lacewing-flies of the genus _Chrysopa_ are commonly called golden-eye
flies.




LA CHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE (1624-1709), father confessor of Louis XIV., was
born at the château of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being
the son of Georges d'Aix, seigneur de la Chaise, and of Renée de
Rochefort. On his mother's side he was a grandnephew of Père Coton, the
confessor of Henry IV. He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before
completing his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking
the final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by his
fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of Camille de
Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Père de la Chaise was nominated in 1674
confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him during the lifetime of Harlay
de Champvallon, archbishop of Paris, with the administration of the
ecclesiastical patronage of the crown. The confessor united his
influence with that of Madame de Maintenon to induce the king to abandon
his liaison with Madame de Montespan. More than once at Easter he is
said to have had a convenient illness which dispensed him from granting
absolution to Louis XIV. With the fall of Madame de Montespan and the
ascendancy of Madame de Maintenon his influence vastly increased. The
marriage between Louis XIV. and Madame de Maintenon was celebrated in
his presence at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that
the subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon arose from
his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the long strife over
the temporalities of the Gallican Church between Louis XIV. and Innocent
XI. Père de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used
his influence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be
held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but
not for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He
exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV.'s zeal against the
Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in most matters,
does full justice to his humane and honourable character. Père de la
Chaise had a lasting and unalterable affection for Fénelon, which
remained unchanged by the papal condemnation of the _Maximes_. In spite
of failing faculties he continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV.
to the end of his long life. He died on the 20th of January 1709. The
cemetery of Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the
Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally
granted to him.

  See R. Chantelauze, _Le Père de la Chaize. Études d'histoire
  religieuse_ (Paris and Lyons, 1859).




LA CHAISE-DIEU, a town of central France, in the department of Haute
Loire, 29 m. N.N.W. of Le Puy by rail. Pop. (1906) 1203. The town, which
is situated among fir and pine woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves
remains of its ramparts and some houses of the 14th and 15th centuries,
but owes its celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of
Clermont-Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne.
The west façade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two
massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height and are
separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The choir, terminating
in an apse with radiating chapel, contains the fine tomb and statue of
Clement VI., carved stalls and some admirable Flemish tapestries of the
early 16th century. There is a ruined cloister on the south side. The
church, which dates from the 14th century, was built at the expense of
Pope Clement VI., and belonged to a powerful Benedictine abbey founded
in 1043. There are spacious monastic buildings of the 18th century. The
abbey was formerly defended by fortifications, the chief survival of
which is a lofty rectangular keep to the south of the choir. Trade in
timber and the making of lace chiefly occupy the inhabitants of the
town.




LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENÉ DE CARADEUC DE (1701-1785), French jurist, was
born at Rennes, on the 6th of March 1701. He was for 60 years procureur
général at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the
Jesuits; drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the
constitutions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression in
France; and in 1763 published a remarkable "Essay on National
Education," in which he proposed a programme of scientific studies as a
substitute for those taught by the Jesuits. The same year began the
conflict between the Estates of Brittany and the governor of the
province, the duc d'Aiguillon (q.v.). The Estates refused to vote the
extraordinary imposts demanded by the governor in the name of the king.
La Chalotais was the personal enemy of d'Aiguillon, who had served him
an ill turn with the king, and when the parliament of Brittany sided
with the Estates, he took the lead in its opposition. The parliament
forbade by decrees the levy of imposts to which the Estates had not
consented. The king annulling these decrees, all the members of the
parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764 to May 1765). The
government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. At
this time the secretary of state who administered the affairs of the
province, Louis Philypeaux, duc de la Vrillière, comte de
Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received two anonymous and abusive letters.
La Chalotais was suspected of having written them, and three experts in
handwriting declared that they were by him. The government therefore
arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament. The
arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of "despotism."
Voltaire stated that the procureur général, in his prison of Saint Malo,
was reduced, for lack of ink, to write his defence with a toothpick
dipped in vinegar--which was apparently pure legend; but public opinion
all over France was strongly aroused against the government. On the 16th
of November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge of the
trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal; being
procureur général he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of
Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of Bordeaux, according to the
custom of the province. The judges did not dare to pronounce a
condemnation on the evidence of experts in handwriting, and at the end
of a year, things remained where they were at the first. Louis XV. then
decided on a sovereign act, and brought the affair before his council,
which without further formality decided to send the accused into exile.
That expedient but increased the popular agitation; _philosophes_,
members of the parliament, patriot Bretons and Jansenists all declared
that La Chalotais was the victim of the personal hatred of the duc
d'Aiguillon and of the Jesuits. The government at last gave way, and
consented to recall the members of the parliament of Brittany who had
resigned. This parliament, when it met again, after the formal
accusation of the duc d'Aiguillon, demanded the recall of La Chalotais.
This was accorded in 1775, and La Chalotais was allowed to transmit his
office to his son. In this affair public opinion showed itself stronger
than the absolutism of the king. The opposition to the royal power
gained largely through it, and it may be regarded as one of the preludes
to the revolution of 1789. La Chalotais, who was personally a violent,
haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 12th of July
1785.

  See, besides the _Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites_ and
  the _Essai d'éducation nationale_, the _Mémoires de la Chalotais_ (3
  vols., 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are
  Marion, _La Bretagne et le duc d'Aiguillon_ (Paris, 1893), and B.
  Pocquet, _Le Duc d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais_ (Paris, 1901). See also
  a controversy between these two authors in the _Bulletin critique_ for
  1902.




LA CHARITÉ, a town of central France in the department of Nièvre, on the
right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers on the
Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. La Charité possesses
the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, the church of Sainte-Croix,
dating from the 11th and early 12th centuries. The plan consists of a
nave, rebuilt at the end of the 17th century, transept and choir with
ambulatory and side chapels. Surmounting the transept is an octagonal
tower of one story, and a square Romanesque tower of much beauty flanks
the main portal. There are ruins of the ramparts, which date from the
14th century. The manufacture of hosiery, boots and shoes, files and
iron goods, lime and cement and woollen and other fabrics are among the
industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron.

  La Charité owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the
  8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in
  1052. It became the parent of many priories and monasteries, some of
  them in England and Italy. The possession of the town was hotly
  contested during the wars of religion of the 16th century, at the end
  of which its fortifications were dismantled.




LA CHAUSSÉE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE (1692-1754), French dramatist, was
born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 he published an _Épître à Clio_, a
didactic poem in defence of Lériget de la Faye in his dispute with
Antoine Houdart de la Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless
in tragedy. La Chaussée was forty years old before he produced his first
play, _La Fausse Antipathie_ (1734). His second play, _Le Préjugé à la
mode_ (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in
love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, according to La
Harpe, by La Chaussée's comedy. _L'École des amis_ (1737) followed, and,
after an unsuccessful attempt at tragedy in _Maximinien_, he returned to
comedy in _Mélanide_ (1741). In _Mélanide_ the type known as _comédie
larmoyante_ is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke
laughter, but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp
distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French
literature. Indications of this change had been already offered in the
work of Marivaux, and La Chaussée's plays led naturally to the domestic
drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new method found bitter enemies.
Alexis Piron nicknames the author "_le Révérend Père Chaussée_," and
ridiculed him in one of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained
that the _comédie larmoyante_ was a proof of the inability of the author
to produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he himself
produced a play of similar character in _L'Enfant prodigue_. The
hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shedding tears
nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussée's heroine. _L'École des mères_
(1744) and _La Gouvernante_ (1747) form, with those already mentioned,
the best of his work. The strict moral aims pursued by La Chaussée in
his plays seem hardly consistent with his private preferences. He
frequented the same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and
contributed to the _Recueils de ces messieurs_. La Chaussée died on the
14th of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic
verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of his
work, said he was "_un des premiers après ceux qui ont du génie_."

  For the _comédie larmoyante_ see G. Lanson, _Nivelle de la Chaussée et
  la comédie larmoyante_ (1887).




LACHES (from Anglo-French _lachesse_, negligence, from _lasche_, modern
_lâche_, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness or negligence, used
particularly in law to signify negligence on the part of a person in
doing that which he is by law bound to do, or unreasonable lapse of time
in asserting a right, seeking relief, or claiming a privilege. Laches is
frequently a bar to a remedy which might have been had if prosecuted in
proper time. Statutes of limitation specify the time within which
various classes of actions may be brought. Apart from statutes of
limitation courts of equity will often refuse relief to those who have
allowed unreasonable time to elapse in seeking it, on the principle
_vigilantibus ac non dormientibus jura subveniunt_.




LACHINE, an incorporated town in Jacques Cartier county, Quebec, Canada,
8 m. W. of Montreal, on Lake St Louis, an expansion of the St Lawrence
river, and at the upper end of the Lachine canal. Pop. (1901) 5561. It
is a station on the Grand Trunk railway and a port of call for steamers
plying between Montreal and the Great Lakes. It is a favourite summer
resort for the people of Montreal. It was named in 1669 in mockery of
its then owner, Robert Cavelier de la Salle (1643-1687), who dreamed of
a westward passage to China. In 1689 it was the scene of a terrible
massacre of the French by the Iroquois.




LACHISH, a town of great importance in S. Palestine, often mentioned in
the Tell el-Amarna tablets. It was destroyed by Joshua for joining the
league against the Gibeonites (Joshua x. 31-33) and assigned to the
tribe of Judah (xv. 39). Rehoboam fortified it (2 Chron. xi. 9). King
Amaziah having fled hither, was here murdered by conspirators (2 Kings
xiv. 19). Sennacherib here conducted a campaign (2 Kings xviii. 13)
during which Hezekiah endeavoured to make terms with him: the campaign
is commemorated by bas-reliefs found in Nineveh, now in the British
Museum (see G. Smith's _History of Sennacherib_, p. 69). It was one of
the last cities that resisted Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxxiv. 7). The
meaning of Micah's denunciation (i. 13) of the city is unknown. The
_Onomasticon_ places it 7 m. from Eleutheropolis on the S. road, which
agrees with the generally received identification, Tell el-Hesi, an
important mound excavated for the Palestine Exploration Fund by Petrie
and Bliss, 1890-1893. The name is preserved in a small Roman site in the
neighbourhood, Umm Lakis, which probably represents a later
dwelling-place of the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the
city.

  See W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Tell el-Hesy_, and F. J. Bliss, _A Mound
  of many Cities_, both published by the Palestine Exploration Fund.
       (R. A. S. M.)




LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1793-1851), German philologist
and critic, was born at Brunswick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at
Leipzig and Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies.
In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer _chasseur_ and
accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the enemy. In
1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich Werder gymnasium at
Berlin, and a _privat-docent_ at the university. The same summer he
became one of the principal masters in the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of
Königsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl
Köpke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' _Barlaam und
Josaphat_ (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition
of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818 he became
professor extraordinarius of classical philology in the university of
Königsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar
and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following
seven years to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in
1824 obtained leave of absence in order that he might search the
libraries of middle and south Germany for further materials. In 1825
Lachmann was nominated extraordinary professor of classical and German
philology in the university of Berlin (ordinary professor 1827); and in
1830 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. The remainder
of his laborious and fruitful life as an author and a teacher was
uneventful. He died on the 13th of March 1851.

  Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. Müller's
  _Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums_ (1816), is a figure of
  considerable importance in the history of German philology (see Rudolf
  von Raumer, _Geschichte der germanischen Philologie_, 1870). In his
  "Habilitationsschrift" _Über die ursprüngliche Gestalt des Gedichts
  der Nibelunge Not_ (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen's
  _Nibelungen_ and Benecke's _Bonerius_, contributed in 1817 to the
  _Jenaische Literaturzeitung_ he had already laid down the rules of
  textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles
  of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct advance in
  that branch of investigation. The rigidly scientific character of his
  method becomes increasingly apparent in the _Auswahl aus den
  hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1820), in the
  edition of Hartmann's _Iwein_ (1827), in those of Walther von der
  Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in the papers
  "Über das Hildebrandslied," "Über althochdeutsche Betonung und
  Verskunst," "Über den Eingang des Parzivals," and "Über drei
  Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte" published in the
  _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy, and in _Der Nibelunge Not und
  die Klage_ (1826, 11th ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical
  commentary in 1836. Lachmann's _Betrachtungen über Homer's Ilias_,
  first published in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Berlin Academy in 1837
  and 1841, in which he sought to show that the _Iliad_ consists of
  sixteen independent "lays" variously enlarged and interpolated, have
  had considerable influence on modern Homeric criticism (see HOMER),
  although his views are no longer accepted. His smaller edition of the
  New Testament appeared in 1831, 3rd ed. 1846; the larger, in two
  volumes, in 1842-1850. The plan of Lachmann's edition, explained by
  himself in the _Stud. u. Krit._ of 1830, is a modification of the
  unaccomplished project of Bentley. It seeks to restore the most
  ancient reading current in Eastern MSS., using the consent of the
  Latin authorities (Old Latin and Greek Western Uncials) as the main
  proof of antiquity of a reading where the oldest Eastern authorities
  differ. Besides _Propertius_ (1816), Lachmann edited _Catullus_
  (1829); _Tibullus_ (1829); _Genesius_ (1834); _Terentianus Maurus_
  (1836); _Babrius_ (1845); _Avianus_ (1845); _Gaius_ (1841-1842); the
  _Agrimensores Romani_ (1848-1852); _Lucilius_ (edited after his death
  by Vahlen, 1876); and _Lucretius_ (1850). The last, which was the main
  occupation of the closing years of his life, from 1845, was perhaps
  his greatest achievement, and has been characterized by Munro as "a
  work which will be a landmark for scholars as long as the Latin
  language continues to be studied." Lachmann also translated
  Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and _Macbeth_ (1829).

  See M. Hertz, _Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie_ (1851), where a full
  list of Lachmann's works is given; F. Leo, _Rede zur Säcularfeier K.
  Lachmanns_ (1893); J. Grimm, biography in _Kleine Schriften_; W.
  Scherer in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xvii., and J. E. Sandys,
  _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131.




LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM (mod. Capo delle Colonne), 7 m S.E. of Crotona
(mod. Cotrone); the easternmost point of Bruttii (mod. Calabria). On the
cape still stands a single column of the temple erected to Hera Lacinia,
which is said to have been fairly complete in the 16th century, but to
have been destroyed to build the episcopal palace at Cotrone. It is a
Doric column with capital, about 27 ft. in height. Remains of marble
roof-tiles have been seen on the spot (Livy xlii. 3) and architectural
fragments were excavated in 1886-1887 by the Archaeological Institute of
America. The sculptures found were mostly buried again, but a few
fragments, some decorative terra-cottas and a dedicatory inscription to
Hera of the 6th century B.C., in private possession at Cotrone, are
described by F. von Duhn in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1897, 343 seq. The
date of the erection of the temple may be given as 480-440 B.C.; it is
not recorded by any ancient writer.

  See R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, _Die griechischen Tempel in
  Unteritalien und Sicilien_ (Berlin 1899, 41).




LA CIOTAT, a coast town of south-eastern France in the department of
Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E.
of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,562. The port is easily accessible
and well sheltered. The large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of
the Messageries Maritimes Company give employment to between 2000 and
3000 workmen. Fishing and an active coasting trade are carried on; the
town is frequented for sea-bathing. La Ciotat was in ancient times the
port of the neighbouring town of _Citharista_ (now the village of
Ceyreste).




LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE ["Prince James Stuart"] (1644?-1669), a character
who was brought into the history of England by Lord Acton in 1862 (_Home
and Foreign Review_, i. 146-174: "The Secret History of Charles II.").
From information discovered by Father Boero in the archives of the
Jesuits in Rome, Lord Acton averred that Charles II., when a lad at
Jersey, had a natural son, James. The evidence follows. On the 2nd of
April 1668, as the register of the Jesuit House of Novices at Rome
attests, "there entered Jacobus de la Cloche." His baggage was exiguous,
his attire was clerical. He is described as "from the island of Jersey,
under the king of England, aged 24." He possessed two documents in
French, purporting to have been written by Charles II. at Whitehall, on
the 25th of September 1665, and on the 7th of February 1667. In both
Charles acknowledges James to be his natural son, he styles him "James
de la Cloche de Bourg du Jersey," and avers that to recognize him
publicly "would imperil the peace of the kingdoms"--why is not apparent.
A third certificate of birth, in Latin, undated, was from Christina of
Sweden, who declares that James, previously a Protestant, has been
received into the church of Rome at Hamburg (where in 1667-1668 she was
residing) on the 29th of July 1667. The next paper purports to be a
letter from Charles II. of August 3/13 to Oliva, general of the Jesuits.
The king writes, in French, that he has long wished to be secretly
received into the church. He therefore desires that James, his son by a
young lady "of the highest quality," and born to him when he was about
sixteen, should be ordained a priest, come to England and receive him.
Charles alludes to previous attempts of his own to be secretly admitted
(1662). James must be sent secretly to London at once, and Oliva must
say nothing to Christina of Sweden (then meditating a journey to Rome),
and must never write to Charles except when James carries the letter.
Charles next writes on August 29/September 9. He is most anxious that
Christina should not meet James; if she knows Charles's design of
changing his creed she will not keep it secret, and Charles will
infallibly lose his life. With this letter there is another, written
when the first had been sealed. Charles insists that James must not be
accompanied, as novices were, when travelling, by a Jesuit socius or
guardian. Charles's wife and mother have just heard that this is the
rule, but the rule must be broken. James, who is to travel as "Henri de
Rohan," must not come by way of France. Oliva will supply him with
funds. On the back of this letter Oliva has written the draft of his
brief reply to Charles (from Leghorn, October 14, 1668). He merely says
that the bearer, a French gentleman (James spoke only French), will
inform the king that his orders have been executed. Besides these two
letters is one from Charles to James, of date August 4/14. It is
addressed to "Le Prince Stuart," though none of Charles's bastards was
allowed to bear the Stuart name. James is told that he may desert the
clerical profession if he pleases. In that case "you may claim higher
titles from us than the duke of Monmouth." (There was no higher title
save prince of Wales!) If Charles and his brother, the duke of York, die
childless, "the kingdoms belong to you, and parliament cannot legally
oppose you, unless as, at present, they can only elect Protestant
kings." This letter ought to have opened the eyes of Lord Acton and
other historians who accept the myth of James de la Cloche. Charles knew
that the crown of England was not elective, that there was no Exclusion
Act, and that there were legal heirs if he and his brother died without
issue. The last letter of Charles is dated November 18/28, and purports
to have been brought from England to Oliva by James de la Cloche on his
return to Rome. It reveals the fact that Oliva, despite Charles's
orders, did send James by way of France, with a _socius_ or guardian
whom he was to pick up in France on his return to England. Charles says
that James is to communicate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at
once. Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles will
later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknowledges a debt to
Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the
king has never paid a penny to James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has
never communicated directly with Charles. The truth is that all of
Charles's letters are forgeries. This is certain because in all he
writes frequently as if his mother, Henrietta Maria, were in London, and
constantly in company with him. Now she had left England for France in
1665, and to England she never returned. As the letters--including that
to "Prince Stuart"--are all forged, it is clear that de la Cloche was an
impostor. His aim had been to get money from Oliva, and to pretend to
travel to England, meaning to enjoy himself. He did not quite succeed,
for Oliva sent a socius with him into France. His precautions to avoid a
meeting with Christina of Sweden were necessary. She knew no more of him
than did Charles, and would have exposed him.

The name of James de la Cloche appears no more in documents. He reached
Rome in December 1668, and in January a person calling himself "Prince
James Stuart" appears in Naples, accompanied by a _socius_ styling
himself a French knight of Malta. Both are on their way to England, but
Prince James falls ill and stays in Naples, while his companion departs.
The knight of Malta may be a Jesuit. In Naples, Prince James marries a
girl of no position, and is arrested on suspicion of being a coiner. To
his confessors (he had two in succession) he says that he is a son of
Charles II. Our sources are the despatches of Kent, the English agent at
Naples, and the _Lettere_, vol. iii., of Vincenzo Armanni (1674), who
had his information from one of the confessors of the "Prince." The
viceroy of Naples communicated with Charles II., who disowned the
impostor; Prince James, however, was released, and died at Naples in
August 1669, leaving a wild will, in which he claims for his son, still
unborn, the "apanage" of Monmouth or Wales, "which it is usual to bestow
on natural sons of the king." The son lived till about 1750, a penniless
pretender, and writer of begging letters.

It is needless to pursue Lord Acton's conjectures about later mysterious
appearances of James de la Cloche at the court of Charles, or to discuss
the legend that his mother was a lady of Jersey--or a sister of Charles!
The Jersey myths may be found in _The Man of the Mask_ (1908), by
Monsignor Barnes, who argued that James was the man in the iron mask
(see IRON MASK). Later Monsignor Barnes, who had observed that the
letter of Charles to Prince James Stuart is a forgery, noticed the
impossibility that Charles, in 1668, should constantly write of his
mother as resident in London, which she left for ever in 1665.

Who de la Cloche really was it is impossible to discover, but he was a
bold and successful swindler, who took in, not only the general of the
Jesuits, but Lord Acton and a generation of guileless historians.
     (A. L.)




LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE (1701-1774), French geographer and
mathematician, was born at Paris on the 28th of January 1701. He was
trained for the military profession, but turned his attention to science
and geographical exploration. After taking part in a scientific
expedition in the Levant (1731), he became a member with Louis Godin and
Pierre Bouguer of the expedition sent to Peru in 1735 to determine the
length of a degree of the meridian in the neighbourhood of the equator.
His associations with his principals were unhappy; the expedition was
beset by many difficulties, and finally La Condamine separated from the
rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon, ultimately reaching
Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. He
returned to Paris in 1744 and published the results of his measurements
and travels with a map of the Amazon in _Mém. de l'académie des
sciences_, 1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La
Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings with a view
to a precise determination of the length of the Roman foot. The journal
of his voyage to South America was published in Paris in 1751. He also
wrote in favour of inoculation, and on various other subjects, mainly
connected with his work in South America. He died at Paris on the 4th of
February 1774.




LACONIA (Gr. [Greek: Lakônikê]), the ancient name of the south-eastern
district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the capital. It has an
area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of
Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked zones running N. and S.
The valley of the Eurotas, which occupies the centre, is bounded W. by
the chain of Taygetus (mod. Pentedaktylon, 7900 ft.), which starts from
the Arcadian mountains on the N., and at its southern extremity forms
the promontory of Taenarum (Cape Matapan). The eastern portion of
Laconia consists of a far more broken range of hill country, rising in
Mt. Parnon to a height of 6365 ft. and terminating in the headland of
Malea. The range of Taygetus is well watered and was in ancient times
covered with forests which afforded excellent hunting to the Spartans,
while it had also large iron mines and quarries of an inferior bluish
marble, as well as of the famous _rosso antico_ of Taenarum. Far poorer
are the slopes of Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren
limestone uplands scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is
fertile, and produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and
mulberries in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance
except the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefína).
The coast, especially on the east, is rugged and dangerous. Laconia has
few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying off its shores with
the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape Malea. The most important
towns, besides Sparta and Gythium, were Bryseae, Amyclae and Pharis in
the Eurotas plain, Pellana and Belbina on the upper Eurotas, Sellasia on
the Oenus, Caryae on the Arcadian frontier, Prasiae, Zarax and Epidaurus
Limera on the east coast, Geronthrae on the slopes of Parnon, Boeae,
Asopus, Helos, Las and Teuthrone on the Laconian Gulf, and Hippola,
Messa and Oetylus on the Messenian Gulf.

The earliest inhabitants of Laconia, according to tradition, were the
autochthonous Leleges (q.v.). Minyan immigrants then settled at various
places on the coast and even appear to have penetrated into the interior
and to have founded Amyclae. Phoenician traders, too, visited the shores
of the Laconian Gulf, and there are indications of trade at a very early
period between Laconia and Crete, e.g. a number of blocks of green
Laconian porphyry from the quarries at Croceae have been found in the
palace of Minos at Cnossus. In the Homeric poems Laconia appears as the
realm of an Achaean prince, Menelaus, whose capital was perhaps Therapne
on the left bank of the Eurotas, S.E. of Sparta; the Achaean conquerors,
however, probably contented themselves with a suzerainty over Laconia
and part of Messenia (q.v.) and were too few to occupy the whole land.
The Achaean kingdom fell before the incoming Dorians, and throughout the
classical period the history of Laconia is that of its capital Sparta
(q.v.). In 195 B.C. the Laconian coast towns were freed from Spartan
rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became members of
the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 B.C., they remained
independent under the title of the "Confederation of the Lacedaemonians"
or "of the Free-Laconians" ([Greek: koinon tôn Lakedaimoniôn] or [Greek:
Eleutherolakônôn]), the supreme officer of which was a [Greek:
stratêgos] (general) assisted by a [Greek: tamias] (treasurer). Augustus
seems to have reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii.
21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which
originally composed the league, only eighteen remained as members by the
reign of Hadrian (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). In A.D. 395 a Gothic horde under
Alaric devastated Laconia, and subsequently it was overrun by large
bands of Slavic immigrants. Throughout the middle ages it was the scene
of vigorous struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and
Venetians, the chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of
Mistra near Sparta, Geráki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, "the
Gibraltar of Greece," on the east coast, and Passava near Gythium. A
prominent part in the War of Independence was played by the Maniates or
Mainotes, the inhabitants of the rugged peninsula formed by the southern
part of Taygetus. They had all along maintained a virtual independence
of the Turks and until quite recently retained their medieval customs,
living in fortified towers and practising the vendetta or blood-feud.

The district has been divided into two departments (nomes), Lacedaemon
and Laconia, with their capitals at Sparta and Gythium respectively.
Pop. of Laconia (1907) 61,522.

_Archaeology._--Until 1904 archaeological research in Laconia was
carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations undertaken at
Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (q.v.), the most important were those at the
Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by C. Tsountas in 1890 ([Greek:
Ephêm. archaiol.] 1892, 1 ff.) and in 1904 by A. Furtwängler. At Kampos,
on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of the "Mycenean"
age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great
interest, while at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was
unearthed in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at
Geronthrae (Geráki), notably five long fragments of the _Edictum
Diocletiani_, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological school
at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and
medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which the most important
are summarized in the article SPARTA, are published in the British
School _Annual_, x. ff. The acropolis of Geronthrae, a hero-shrine at
Angelona in the south-eastern highlands, and the sanctuary of
Ino-Pasiphae at Thalamae have also been investigated.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the Greek histories and many of the works cited
  under SPARTA, see W. M. Leake, _Travels in the Morea_ (London, 1830),
  cc. iv.-viii., xxii., xxiii.; E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (Gotha,
  1852), ii. 203 ff.; C. Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_
  (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the
  commentary in J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_
  (London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, _Peloponnesus_ (London, 1858),
  155 ff.; E. P. Boblaye, _Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de la
  Morée_ (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, _Reisen im Peloponnes_ (Berlin,
  1841), 158 ff.; W. Vischer, _Erinnerungen u. Eindrücke aus
  Griechenland_ (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de
  Saint-Vincent, _Relation du voyage de l'expédition scientifique de
  Morée_ (Paris, 1836), cc. 9, 10; G. A. Blouet, _Expédition
  scientifique de Morée_ (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson,
  _Der Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1892), 155 ff.; _Annual_ of British School
  at Athens, 1907-8.

  _Inscriptions_: Le Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archéologique: Inscriptions_,
  Nos. 160-290; _Inscriptiones Graecae_, v.; _Corpus Inscriptionum
  Graecarum_ (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung
  der griech. Dialektinschriften_, iii. 2 (Göttingen, 1898), Nos.
  4400-4613. _Coins: Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum:
  Peloponnesus_ (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff.; B. V. Head,
  _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. _Cults_: S. Wide,
  _Lakonische Kulte_ (Leipzig, 1893). _Ancient roads_: W. Loring, "Some
  Ancient Routes in the Peloponnese" in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
  xv. 25 ff.     (M. N. T.)




LACONIA, a city and the county-seat of Belknap county, New Hampshire,
U.S.A., on both sides of the Winnepesaukee river, 28 m. N.N.E. of
Concord. Pop. (1900) 8042 (1770 foreign-born); (1910) 10,183. Laconia is
served by two divisions of the Boston & Maine railway, which has a very
handsome granite passenger station (1892) and repair shops here. It is
pleasantly situated in the lake district of central New Hampshire, and
in the summer season Lake Winnisquam on the S. and W. and Lake
Winnepesaukee on the N.E. attract many visitors. The city covers an area
of 24.65 sq. m. (5.47 sq. m. annexed since 1890). Within the city
limits, and about 6 m. from its centre, are the grounds of the
Winnepesaukee Camp-Meeting Association, and the camping place for the
annual reunions of the New Hampshire Veterans of the Civil War, both at
The Weirs, the northernmost point in the territory claimed by colonial
Massachusetts; about 2 m. from the centre of Laconia is Lakeport (pop.
1900, 2137), which, like The Weirs, is a summer resort and a ward in the
city of Laconia. Among the public institutions are the State School for
Feeble-minded Children, a cottage hospital and the Laconia Public
Library, lodged in the Gale Memorial Library building (1903). Another
fine building is the Congregational Church (1906). The New Hampshire
State Fish Hatchery is in Laconia. Water-power is furnished by the
river. In 1905 Laconia ranked first among the cities of the state in the
manufacture of hosiery and knit goods, and the value of these products
for the year was 48.4% of the total value of the city's factory product;
among its other manufactures are yarn, knitting machines, needles,
sashes and blinds, axles, paper boxes, boats, gas and gasolene engines,
and freight, passenger and electric cars. The total value of the factory
products increased from $2,152,379 in 1900 to $3,096,878 in 1905, or
43.9%. The portion of the city N. of the river, formerly known as
Meredith Bridge, was set apart from the township of Meredith and
incorporated as a township under the name of Laconia in 1855; a section
S. of the river was taken from the township of Gilford in 1874; and
Lakeport was added in 1893, when Laconia was chartered as a city. The
same Laconia was first applied in New England to the region granted in
1629 to Mason and Gorges (see MASON, JOHN).




LACONICUM (i.e. Spartan, _sc. balneum_, bath), the dry sweating room of
the Roman thermae, contiguous to the caldarium or hot room. The name was
given to it as being the only form of warm bath that the Spartans
admitted. The laconicum was usually a circular room with niches in the
axes of the diagonals and was covered by a conical roof with a circular
opening at the top, according to Vitruvius (v. 10), "from which a
brazen shield is suspended by chains, capable of being so lowered and
raised as to regulate the temperature." The walls of the laconicum were
plastered with marble stucco and polished, and the conical roof covered
with plaster and painted blue with gold stars. Sometimes, as in the old
baths at Pompeii, the laconicum was provided in an apse at one end of
the caldarium, but as a rule it was a separate room raised to a higher
temperature and had no bath in it. In addition to the hypocaust under
the floor the wall was lined with flue tiles. The largest laconicum,
about 75 ft. in diameter, was that built by Agrippa in his thermae on
the south side of the Pantheon, and is referred to by Cassius (liii.
23), who states that, in addition to other works, "he constructed the
hot bath chamber which he called the Laconicum Gymnasium." All traces of
this building are lost; but in the additions made to the thermae of
Agrippa by Septimius Severus another laconicum was built farther south,
portions of which still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella.




LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI (1802-1861), French ecclesiastic and
orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Côte d'Or, on the 12th of March
1802. He was the second of a family of four, the eldest of whom, Jean
Théodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was
afterwards professor of comparative anatomy at Liége. For several years
Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this
led him to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates
he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on the stage,
but was induced to finish his legal training and began to practise as an
advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais had published his _Essai sur
l'Indifférence_,--a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular
for Roman Catholicism as necessary for the social progress of mankind.
Lacordaire read, and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the
theological negations of the Encyclopaedists, was convinced. In 1823 he
became a theological student at the seminary of Saint Sulpice; four
years later he was ordained and became almoner of the college Henri IV.
He was called from it to co-operate with Lamennais in the editorship of
_L'Avenir_, a journal established to advocate the union of the
democratic principle with ultramontanism. Lacordaire strove to show that
Catholicism was not bound up with the idea of dynasty, and definitely
allied it with a well-defined liberty, equality and fraternity. But the
new propagandism was denounced from Rome in an encyclical. In the
meantime Lacordaire and Montalembert, believing that, under the charter
of 1830, they were entitled to liberty of instruction, opened an
independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers
fined before the court of peers. These reverses Lacordaire accepted with
quiet dignity; but they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a
close. He now began the course of Christian _conférences_ at the Collége
Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he
went to Nôtre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of
the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of indefinite
modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive. He still preached
the gospel of the people's sovereignty in civil life and the pope's
supremacy in religion, but brought to his propagandism the full
resources of a mind familiar with philosophy, history and literature,
and indeed led the reaction against Voltairean scepticism. He was asked
to edit the _Univers_, and to take a chair in the university of Louvain,
but he declined both appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome,
revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old
order of St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching friar
and joined the monastery of Minerva. His _Mémoire pour le rétablissement
en France de l'ordre des frères prêcheurs_ was then prepared and
dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials
for the life of St Dominic. When he returned to France in 1841 he
resumed his preaching at Nôtre Dame, but he had small success in
re-establishing the order of which he ever afterwards called himself
monk. His funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any
delivered during his time, those devoted to Marshal Drouet and Daniel
O'Connell being especially marked by point and clearness. He next
thought that his presence in the National Assembly would be of use to
his cause; but being rebuked by his ecclesiastical superiors for
declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his
election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and was made provincial of the
order, and for four years laboured to make the Dominicans a religious
power. In 1854 he retired to Sorrèze to become director of a private
lyceum, and remained there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861.
He had been elected to the Academy in the preceding year.

  The best edition of Lacordaire's works is the _Oeuvres complètes_ (6
  vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which contains,
  besides the _Conférences_, the exquisitely written, but uncritical,
  Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful _Lettres à un jeune homme sur
  la vie chrétienne_. For a complete list of his published
  correspondence see L. Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et
  de la littérature française_, vii. 598.

  The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870).
  The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Père B.
  Chocarne's _Vie du Père Lacordaire_ (2 vols., Paris, 1866--English
  translation by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868); see also Count C. F. R. de
  Montalembert's _Un Moine au XIX^(ème) siècle_ (Paris, 1862--English
  translation by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L.
  Lear (London, 1882); by A. Ricard (1 vol. of _L'École menaisienne_,
  Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d'Haussonville (1 vol., _Les Grands
  écrivains Français_ series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris,
  1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the duc de Broglie (Paris,
  1889). The _Correspondance inédite du Père Lacordaire_, edited by H.
  Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint-Beuve in
  _Causeries de Lundi_. Several of Lacordaire's _Conférences_ have been
  translated into English, among these being, _Jesus Christ_ (1869);
  _God_ (1870); _God and Man_ (1872); _Life_ (1875). For a theological
  study of the _Conférences de Nôtre Dame_, see an article by Bishop J.
  C. Hedley in _Dublin Review_ (October 1870).




LACQUER, or LACKER, a general term for coloured and frequently opaque
varnishes applied to certain metallic objects and to wood. The term is
derived from the resin lac, which substance is the basis of lacquers
properly so called. Technically, among Western nations, lacquering is
restricted to the coating of polished metals or metallic surfaces, such
as brass, pewter and tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a
golden, bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East
Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised, large
articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays, toys and
papier-mâché objects, being decorated with bright-coloured and
variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East is, in general,
variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed and polished in a
heated condition; and by various devices intricate marbled, streaked and
mottled designs are produced. Quite distinct from these, and from all
other forms of lacquer, is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see
JAPAN, § _Art_.




LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE (1751-1824), French politician and writer,
was born at Metz on the 9th of October 1751. He practised as a barrister
in Paris; and under the Revolution was elected as a _député suppléant_
in the Constituent Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative
Assembly. He belonged to the moderate party known as the "Feuillants,"
but after the 10th of August 1792 he ceased to take part in public life.
In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, taking the place of La
Harpe. Under the Restoration he was one of the chief editors of the
_Minerve française_; he wrote also an essay, _Sur le 18 Brumaire_
(1799), some _Fragments politiques et littéraires_ (1817), and a
treatise _Des partis politiques et des factions de la prétendue
aristocratie d'aujourd'hui_ (1819).

His younger brother, JEAN CHARLES DOMINIQUE DE LACRETELLE, called
Lacretelle _le jeune_ (1766-1855), historian and journalist, was also
born at Metz on the 3rd of September 1766. He was called to Paris by his
brother in 1787, and during the Revolution belonged, like him, to the
party of the _Feuillants_. He was for some time secretary to the duc de
la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and
afterwards joined the staff of the _Journal de Paris_, then managed by
Suard, and where he had as colleagues André Chénier and Antoine Roucher.
He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and this, together
with the way in which he reported the trial and death of Louis XVI.,
brought him in peril of his life; to avoid this danger he enlisted in
the army, but after Thermidor he returned to Paris and to his newspaper
work. He was involved in the royalist movement of the 13th Vendémiaire,
and condemned to deportation after the 18th Fructidor; but, thanks to
powerful influence, he was left "forgotten" in prison till after the
18th Brumaire, when he was set at liberty by Fouché. Under the Empire he
was appointed a professor of history in the _Faculté des lettres_ of
Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Académie française (1811).
In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by the French Academy
against the minister Peyronnet's law on the press, which led to the
failure of that measure, but this step cost him, as it did Villemain,
his post as _censeur royal_. Under Louis Philippe he devoted himself
entirely to his teaching and literary work. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon;
but there, as in Paris, he was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he
was a wonderful causeur, and an equally good listener, and had many
interesting experiences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855.
His son Pierre Henri (1815-1899) was a humorous writer and politician of
purely contemporary interest.

  J. C. Lacretelle's chief work is a series of histories of the 18th
  century, the Revolution and its sequel: _Précis historique de la
  Révolution française_, appended to the history of Rabaud St Étienne,
  and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806);
  _Histoire de France pendant le XVIII^e siècle_ (6 vols., 1808);
  _Histoire de l'Assemblée Constituante_ (2 vols., 1821); _L'Assemblée
  Législative_ (1822); _La Convention Nationale_ (3 vols., 1824-1825);
  _Histoire de France depuis la restauration_ (1829-1835); _Histoire du
  consulat et de l'empire_ (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate
  and fair-minded man, but possessed neither great powers of style, nor
  striking historical insight, nor the special historian's power of
  writing minute accuracy of detail with breadth of view. Carlyle's
  sarcastic remark on Lacretelle's history of the Revolution, that it
  "exists, but does not profit much," is partly true of all his books.
  He had been an eyewitness of and an actor in the events which he
  describes, but his testimony must be accepted with caution.




LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS ALFRED (1863-   ), French mineralogist and
geologist, was born at Mâcon, Saône et Loire, on the 4th of February
1863. He took the degree of D. ès Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was
appointed professor of mineralogy at the _Jardin des Plantes_, Paris,
and in 1896 director of the mineralogical laboratory in the _École des
Hautes Études_. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with
volcanic phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism,
and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in the
Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific journals he dealt
with the mineralogy and petrology of Madagascar, and published an
elaborate and exhaustive volume on the eruptions in Martinique, _La
Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions_ (1904). He also issued an important
work entitled _Mineralogie de la France et de ses Colonies_ (1893-1898),
and other works in conjunction with A. Michel Lévy. He was elected
member of the Académie des sciences in 1904.




LACROIX, PAUL (1806-1884), French author and journalist, was born in
Paris on the 27th of April 1806, the son of a novelist. He is best known
under his pseudonym of P. L. Jacob, _bibliophile_, or "Bibliophile
Jacob," suggested by the constant interest he took in public libraries
and books generally. Lacroix was an extremely prolific and varied
writer. Over twenty historical romances alone came from his pen, and he
also wrote a variety of serious historical works, including a history of
Napoleon III., and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia.
He was the joint author with Ferdinand Séré of a five-volume work, _Le
Moyen Âge et La Renaissance_ (1847), a standard work on the manners,
customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of which lies in the
great number of illustrations it contains. He also wrote many monographs
on phases of the history of culture. Over the signature Pierre Dufour
was published an exhaustive _Histoire de la Prostitution_ (1851-1852),
which has always been attributed to Lacroix. His works on bibliography
were also extremely numerous. In 1885 he was appointed librarian of the
Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the 16th of October 1884.




LACROMA (Serbo-Croatian _Lokrum_), a small island in the Adriatic Sea,
forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia, and lying less than
half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely 1¼ m. in length, Lacroma is
remarkable for the beauty of its subtropical vegetation. It was a
favourite resort of the archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of
Mexico (1832-1867), who restored the château and park; and of the
Austrian crown prince Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an 11th-century
Benedictine monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very
doubtful local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England
(1157-1199), form part of the imperial château.

  See _Lacroma_, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess
  Stéphanie (afterwards Countess Lónyay) (Vienna, 1892).




LA CROSSE, a city and the county-seat of La Crosse county, Wisconsin,
U.S.A., about 180 m. W.N.W. of Milwaukee, and about 120 m. S.E. of St
Paul, Minnesota, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, at the mouth
of the Black and of the La Crosse rivers. Pop. (1900) 28,895; (1910
census) 30,417. Of the total population in 1900, 7222 were foreign-born,
3130 being German and 2023 Norwegian, and 17,555 were of
foreign-parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 7853 of German
parentage, 4422 of Norwegian parentage, and 1062 of Bohemian parentage.
La Crosse is served by the Chicago & North Western, the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the La Crosse &
South Eastern, and the Green Bay & Western railways, and by river
steamboat lines on the Mississippi. The river is crossed here by a
railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and wagon bridge. The city is situated on
a prairie, extending back from the river about 2½ m. to bluffs, from
which fine views may be obtained. Among the city's buildings and
institutions are the Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court
House (1902-1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes),
the City Hall (1891), the High School Building (1905-1906), the St
Francis, La Crosse and Lutheran hospitals, a Young Men's Christian
Association Building, a Young Women's Christian Association Building, a
U.S. Weather Station (1907), and a U.S. Fish Station (1905). La Crosse
is the seat of a state Normal School (1909). Among the city's parks are
Pettibone (an island in the Mississippi), Riverside, Burns, Fair Ground
and Myrick. The city is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. La Crosse is
an important lumber and grain market, and is the principal wholesale
distributing centre for a large territory in S.W. Wisconsin, N. Iowa and
Minnesota. Proximity to both pine and hardwood forests early made it one
of the most important lumber manufacturing places in the North-west; but
this industry has now been displaced by other manufactures. The city has
grain elevators, flour mills (the value of flour and grist mill products
in 1905 was $2,166,116), and breweries (product value in 1905,
$1,440,659). Other important manufactures are agricultural implements
($542,425 in 1905), lumber and planing mill products, leather, woollen,
knit and rubber goods, tobacco, cigars and cigarettes, carriages,
foundry and machine-shop products, copper and iron products, cooperage,
pearl buttons, brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory
product in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The city
owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon bridge (1890-1891)
across the Mississippi, and a toll road (2½ m. long) to the village of
La Crescent, Minn.

Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of La Crosse as
early as 1680, but it is possible that adventurous _coureurs-des-bois_
preceded them. The first permanent settlement was made in 1841, and La
Crosse was made the county-seat in 1855 and was chartered as a city in
1856.




LACROSSE, the national ball game of Canada. It derives its name from the
resemblance of its chief implement used, the curved netted stick, to a
bishop's crozier. It was borrowed from the Indian tribes of North
America. In the old days, according to Catlin, the warriors of two
tribes in their war-paint would form the sides, often 800 or 1000
strong. The goals were placed from 500 yds. to ½ m. apart with
practically no side boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after
which the ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch
it on "crosses," similar to those now in use. The medicine-men acted as
umpires, and the squaws urged on the men by beating them with switches.
The game attracted much attention from the early French settlers in
Canada. In 1763, after Canada had become British, the game was used by
the aborigines to carry out an ingenious piece of treachery. On the 4th
of June, when the garrison of Fort Michilimackinac (now Mackinac) was
celebrating the king's birthday, it was invited by the Ottawas, under
their chief Pontiac, to witness a game of "baggataway" (lacrosse). The
players gradually worked their way close to the gates, when, throwing
aside their crosses and seizing their tomahawks which the squaws
suddenly produced from under their blankets, they rushed into the fort
and massacred all the inmates except a few Frenchmen.

The game found favour among the British settlers, but it was not until
1867, the year in which Canada became a Dominion, that G. W. Beers, a
prominent player, suggested that Lacrosse should be recognized as the
national game, and the National Lacrosse Association of Canada was
formed. From that time the game has flourished vigorously in Canada and
to a less extent in the United States. In 1868 an English Lacrosse
Association was formed, but, although a team of Indians visited the
United Kingdom in 1867, it was not until sometime later that the game
became at all popular in Great Britain. Its progress was much encouraged
by visits of teams representing the Toronto Lacrosse Club in 1888 and
1902, the methods of the Canadians and their wonderful "short-passing"
exciting much admiration. In 1907 the Capitals of Ottawa visited
England, playing six matches, all of which were won by the Canadians.
The match North v. South has been played annually in England since 1882.
A county championship was inaugurated in 1905. A North of England
League, embracing ten clubs, began playing league matches in 1897; and a
match between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge has been played
annually since 1903. A match between England and Ireland was played
annually from 1881 to 1904.

[Illustration: The Crosse.]

  _Implements of the Game._--The ball is made of india-rubber sponge,
  weighs between 4¼ and 4½ oz., and measures 8 to 8½ in. in
  circumference. The "crosse" is formed of a light staff of hickory
  wood, the top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which
  a thong is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other
  end. The oval triangle thus formed is covered with a network of gut or
  rawhide, loose enough to hold the ball but not to form a bag. At no
  part must the crosse measure more than 12 in. in breadth, and no metal
  must be used in its manufacture. It may be of any length to suit the
  player. The goals are set up not less than 100 nor more than 150 yds.
  apart, the goal-posts being 6 ft. high and the same distance apart.
  They are set up in the middle of the "goal-crease," a space of 12 ft.
  square marked with chalk. A net extends from the top rail and sides of
  the posts back to a point 6 ft. behind the middle of the line between
  the posts. Boundaries are agreed upon by the captains. Shoes may have
  india-rubber soles, but must be without spikes.

  _The Game._--The object of the game is to send the ball, by means of
  the crosse, through the enemy's goal-posts as many times as possible
  during the two periods of play, precisely as in football and hockey.
  There are twelve players of each side. In every position save that of
  goal there are two men, one of each side, whose duties are to "mark"
  and neutralize each other's efforts. The game is opened by the act of
  "facing," in which the two centres, each with his left shoulder
  towards his opponents' goal, hold their crosses, wood downwards, on
  the ground, the ball being placed between them. When the signal is
  given the centres draw their crosses sharply inwards in order to gain
  possession of the ball. The ball may be kicked or struck with the
  crosse, as at hockey, but the goal-keeper alone may handle it, and
  then only to block and not to throw it. Although the ball may be
  thrown with the crosse for a long distance--220 yds. is about the
  limit--long throws are seldom tried, it being generally more
  advantageous for a player to run with the ball resting on the crosse,
  until he can pass it to a member of his side who proceeds with the
  attack, either by running, passing to another, or trying to throw the
  ball through the opponents' goal. The crosse, usually held in both
  hands, is made to retain the ball by an ingenious rocking motion only
  acquired by practice. As there is no "off-side" in Lacrosse, a player
  may pass the ball to the front, side or rear. No charging is allowed,
  but one player may interfere with another by standing directly in
  front of him ("body-check"), though without holding, tripping or
  striking with the crosse. No one may interfere with a player who is
  not in possession of the ball. Fouls are penalized either by the
  suspension of the offender until a goal has been scored or until the
  end of the game; or by allowing the side offended against a "free
  position." When a "free position" is awarded each player must stand in
  the position where he is, excepting the goal-keeper who may get back
  to his goal, and any opponent who may be nearer the player getting the
  ball than 5 yds.; this player must retire to that distance from the
  one who has been given the "free position," who then proceeds with the
  game as he likes when the referee says "play." This penalty may not be
  carried out nearer than 10 yds. from the goal. If the ball crosses a
  boundary the referee calls "stand," and all players stop where they
  are, the ball being then "faced" not less than 4 yds. within the
  boundary line by the two nearest players.

  See the official publications of the English Lacrosse Union; and
  _Lacrosse_ by W. C. Schmeisser, in Spalding's "Athletic Library." Also
  _Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American Indians_, by
  George Catlin.




LA CRUZ, RAMÓN DE (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on
the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the ministry of finance, and
is the author of three hundred _sainetes_, little farcical sketches of
city life, written to be played between the acts of a longer play. He
published a selection in ten volumes (Madrid, 1786-1791), and died on
the 5th of March 1794. The best of his pieces, such as _Las Tertulias de
Madrid_, are delightful specimens of satiric observation.

  See E. Cotardo y Mori, _Don Ramón de la Cruz y sus obras_ (Madrid,
  1899); C. Cambronero, _Sainetes inédites existentes en la Biblioteca
  Municipal de Madrid_ (Madrid, 1900).




LACRYMATORY (from Lat. _lacrima_, a tear), a class of small vessels of
terra-cotta, or, more frequently, of glass, found in Roman and late
Greek tombs, and supposed to have been bottles into which mourners
dropped their tears. They contained unguents, and to the use of unguents
at funeral ceremonies the finding of so many of these vessels in tombs
is due. They are shaped like a spindle, or a flask with a long small
neck and a body in the form of a bulb.




LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS (c. 260-c. 340), also called Lucius Caelius (or
Caecilius) Lactantius Firmianus, was a Christian writer who from the
beauty of his style has been called the "Christian Cicero." His history
is very obscure. He was born of heathen parents in Africa about 260, and
became a pupil of Arnobius, whom he far excelled in style though his
knowledge of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to
Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach rhetoric,
but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking city. In middle age
he became a convert to Christianity, and about 306 he went to Gaul
(Trèves) on the invitation of Constantine the Great, and became tutor to
his eldest son, Crispus. He probably died about 340.

Lactantius' chief work, _Divinarum Institutionum Libri Septem_, is an
"apology" for and an introduction to Christianity, written in exquisite
Latin, but displaying such ignorance as to have incurred the charge of
favouring the Arian and Manichaean heresies. It seems to have been begun
in Nicomedia about 304 and finished in Gaul before 311. Two long
eulogistic addresses and most of the brief apostrophes to the emperor
are from a later hand, which has added some dualistic touches. The seven
books of the institutions have separate titles given to them either by
the author or by a later editor. The first, _De Falsa Religione_, and
the second, _De Origine Erroris_, attack the polytheism of heathendom,
show the unity of the God of creation and providence, and try to explain
how men have been corrupted by demons. The third book, _De Falsa
Sapientia_, describes and criticizes the various systems of prevalent
philosophy. The fourth book, _De Vera Sapientia et Religione_, insists
upon the inseparable union of true wisdom and true religion, and
maintains that this union is made real in the person of Christ. The
fifth book, _De Justitia_, maintains that true righteousness is not to
be found apart from Christianity, and that it springs from piety which
consists in the knowledge of God. The sixth book, _De Vero Cultu_,
describes the true worship of God, which is righteousness, and consists
chiefly in the exercise of Christian love towards God and man. The
seventh book, _De Vita Beata_, discusses, among a variety of subjects,
the chief good, immortality, the second advent and the resurrection.
Jerome states that Lactantius wrote an epitome of these _Institutions_,
and such a work, which may well be authentic, was discovered in MS. in
the royal library at Turin in 1711 by C. M. Pfaff.

Besides the _Institutions_ Lactantius wrote several treatises: (1) _De
Ira Dei_, addressed to one Donatus and directed against the Epicurean
philosophy. (2) _De Opificio Dei sive de Formatione Hominis_, his
earliest work, and one which reveals very little Christian influence. He
exhorts a former pupil, Demetrianus, not to be led astray by wealth from
virtue; and he demonstrates the providence of God from the adaptability
and beauty of the human body. (3) A celebrated incendiary treatise, _De
Mortibus Persecutorum_, which describes God's judgments on the
persecutors of his church from Nero to Diocletian, and has served as a
model for numberless writings. _De Mort. Persecut._ is not in the
earlier editions of Lactantius; it was discovered and printed by Baluze
in 1679. Many critics ascribe it to an unknown Lucius Caecilius; there
are certainly serious differences of grammar, style and temper between
it and the writings already mentioned. It was probably composed in
Nicomedia, c. 315. Jerome speaks of Lactantius as a poet, and several
poems have been attributed to him:--_De Ave Phoenice_ (which Harnack
thinks makes use of 1 Clement), _De Passione Domini_ and _De
Resurrectione (Domini)_ or _De Pascha ad Felicem Episcopum_. The first
of these may belong to Lactantius's heathen days, the second is a
product of the Renaissance (c. 1500), the third was written by Venantius
Fortunatus in the 6th century.

  Editions: O. F. Fritzsche in E. G. Gersdorf's _Bibl. patr. eccl._ x.,
  xi. (Leipzig, 1842-1844); Migne, _Patr. Lat._ vi., vii.; S. Brandt and
  G. Laubmann in the Vienna _Corpus Script. Eccles. Lat._ xix., xxvii. 1
  and 2 (1890-93-97). Translation: W. Fletcher in _Ante-Nicene Fathers_,
  vii. Literature: the German histories of early Christian literature,
  by A. Harnack, O. Bardenhewer, A. Ebert, A. Ehrhard, G. Kruger's
  _Early Chr. Lit._ p. 307 and Hauck-Herzog's R_ealencyk._ vol. xi.,
  give guides to the copious literature on the subject.




LACTIC ACID (hydroxypropionic acid), C3H6O3. Two lactic acids are known,
differing from each other in the position occupied by the hydroxyl group
in the molecule; they are known respectively as [alpha]-hydroxypropionic
acid (fermentation or inactive lactic acid), CH3·CH(OH)·CO2H, and
[beta]-hydroxypropionic acid (hydracrylic acid), (q.v.),
CH2(OH)·CH2·CO2H. Although on structural grounds there should be only
two hydroxypropionic acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are
known. The third isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J.
v. Liebig), and may be prepared by the action of _Penicillium glaucum_
on a solution of ordinary ammonium lactate. It is identical with
[alpha]-hydroxypropionic acid in almost every respect, except with
regard to its physical properties. The fourth isomer, formed by the
action of _Bacillus laevo-lacti_ on cane-sugar, resembles sarcolactic
acid in every respect, except in its action on polarized light (see
STEREOISOMERISM).

  _Fermentation_, or _ethylidene lactic acid_, was isolated by K. W.
  Scheele (_Trans. Stockholm Acad._ 1780) from sour milk (Lat. _lac_,
  _lactis_, milk, whence the name). About twenty-four years later
  Bouillon Lagrange, and independently A. F. de Fourcroy and L. N.
  Vauquelin, maintained that Scheele's new acid was nothing but impure
  acetic acid. This notion was combated by J. Berzelius, and finally
  refuted (in 1832) by J. v. Liebig and E. Mitscherlich, who, by the
  elementary analyses of lactates, proved the existence of this acid as
  a distinct compound. It may be prepared by the lactic fermentation of
  starches, sugars, gums, &c., the sugar being dissolved in water and
  acidified by a small quantity of tartaric acid and then fermented by
  the addition of sour milk, with a little putrid cheese. Zinc carbonate
  is added to the mixture (to neutralize the acid formed), which is kept
  warm for some days and well stirred. On boiling and filtering the
  product, zinc lactate crystallizes out of the solution. The acid may
  also be synthesized by the decomposition of alanine
  ([alpha]-aminopropionic acid) by nitrous acid (K. Strecker, _Ann._,
  1850, 75, p. 27); by the oxidation of propylene glycol (A. Wurtz); by
  boiling [alpha]-chlorpropionic acid with caustic alkalis, or with
  silver oxide and water; by the reduction of pyruvic acid with sodium
  amalgam; or from acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J.
  Wislicenus, _Ann._, 1863, 128, p. 13)

    CH3·CHO --> CH3·CH(OH)·CN --> CH3·CH(OH)·CO2H.

  It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1.2485 (15°/4°), and
  decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric pressure; but at
  very low pressures (about 1 mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and then
  sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It possesses
  the properties both of an acid and of an alcohol. When heated with
  dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is resolved into
  formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid
  and carbon dioxide; potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic
  acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, and a mixture of manganese dioxide
  and sulphuric acid to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide. Hydrobromic
  acid converts it into [alpha]-brompropionic acid, and hydriodic acid
  into propionic acid.

                 CH(CH3)·CO
                /           \
    _Lactide_, O             O,
                \           /
                 CO·CH(CH3)

  a crystalline solid, of melting-point 124° C., is one of the products
  obtained by the distillation of lactic acid.




LACTONES, the cyclic esters of hydroxy acids, resulting from the
internal elimination of water between the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups,
this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its
salts by a mineral acid. The [alpha] and [beta]-hydroxy acids do not
form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with
the [gamma]-hydroxy acids, thus [gamma]-hydroxybutyric acid,
CH2OH·CH2·CH2·CO2H, yields [gamma]-butyrolactone,

  +--------------+
  |              |
  CH2·CH2·CH2·CO·O.

These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the
[gamma]-halogen fatty acids, or by the action of alkaline carbonates on
these acids, or from [beta][gamma]- or [gamma][delta]-unsaturated acids
by digestion with hydrobromic acid or dilute sulphuric acid. The
lactones are mostly liquids which are readily soluble in alcohol, ether
and water. On boiling with water, they are partially reconverted into
the hydroxy acids. They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis.

  On the behaviour of lactones with ammonia, see H. Meyer,
  _Monatshefte_, 1899, 20, p. 717; and with phenylhydrazine and
  hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, _Ber._, 1893, 26, p. 1273; L.
  Gattermann, _Ber._, 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p.
  1889.

  [gamma]-_Butyrolactone_ is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is
  miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam,
  [gamma]-_valerolactone_,

    +-----------------+
    |                 |
    CH3·CH·CH2·CH2·CO·O,

  is a liquid which boils at 207-208° C. [delta]-_lactones_ are also
  known, and may be prepared by distilling the [delta]-chlor acids.




LA CUEVA, JUAN DE (1550?-1609?), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at
Seville, and towards 1579 began writing for the stage. His plays,
fourteen in number, were published in 1588, and are the earliest
manifestations of the dramatic methods developed by Lope de Vega.
Abandoning the Senecan model hitherto universal in Spain, Cueva took for
his themes matters of national legend, historic tradition, recent
victories and the actualities of contemporary life: this amalgam of
epical and realistic elements, and the introduction of a great variety
of metres, prepared the way for the Spanish romantic drama of the 17th
century. A peculiar interest attaches to _El Infamador_, a play in which
the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an
initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his
epic poem, _La Conquista de Bética_ (1603), shows his weakness as an
artist. The last work to which his name is attached is the _Ejemplar
poético_ (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its
publication.

  See the editions of _Saco de Roma_ and _El Infamador_, by E. de Ochoa,
  in the _Tesoro del teatro español_ (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285;
  and of _Ejemplar poético_, by J. J. López de Sedano, in the _Parnaso
  español_, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, "Juan de la Cueva et
  son Ejemplar poético" in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_ (Lund,
  1904), vol. xxix.; "Poèmes inédits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de
  Sannio,)" edited by F. A. Wulff, in the _Acta Universitatis Lundensis_
  (Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, "De la rimas de Juan de
  la Cueva, Primera Parte" in the _Homenaje á Menéndez y Pelayo_
  (Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148.     (J. F.-K.)




LACUNAR, the Latin name in architecture for a panelled or coffered
ceiling or soffit. The word is derived from _lacuna_, a cavity or
hollow, a blank, hiatus or gap. The panels or coffers of a ceiling are
by Vitruvius called _lacunaria_.




LACUZON (O. Fr. _la cuzon_, disturbance), the name given to the
Franc-Comtois leader CLAUDE PROST (1607-1681), who was born at
Longchaumois (department of Jura) on the 17th of June 1607. He gained
his first military experience when the French invaded Burgundy in 1636,
harrying the French troops from the castles of Montaigu and St
Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and
Bugey with fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of
Franche-Comté by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any
effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis's second
invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; after the
capitulation of the town he took refuge in Italy. He died at Milan on
the 21st of December 1681.




LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, Count (1725-1801), Austrian field marshal, was born
at St Petersburg on the 21st of October 1725. His father, Peter, Count
Lacy, was a distinguished Russian soldier, who belonged to an Irish
family, and had followed the fortunes of the exiled James II. Franz
Moritz was educated in Germany for a military career, and entered the
Austrian service. He served in Italy, Bohemia, Silesia and the
Netherlands during the War of the Austrian Succession, was twice
wounded, and by the end of the war was a lieut.-colonel. At the age of
twenty-five he became full colonel and chief of an infantry regiment. In
1756 with the opening of the Seven Years' War he was again on active
service, and in the first battle (Lobositz) he distinguished himself so
much that he was at once promoted major-general. He received his third
wound on this occasion and his fourth at the battle of Prague in 1757.
Later in 1757 Lacy bore a conspicuous part in the great victory of
Breslau, and at Leuthen, where he received his fifth wound, he covered
the retreat of the defeated army. Soon after this began his association
with Field-Marshal Daun, the new generalissimo of the empress's forces,
and these two commanders, powerfully assisted later by the genius of
Loudon, made head against Frederick the Great for the remainder of the
war. A general staff was created, and Lacy, a lieutenant field-marshal
at thirty-two, was made chief of staff (quartermaster-general) to Daun.
That their cautiousness often degenerated into timidity may be
admitted--Leuthen and many other bitter defeats had taught the Austrians
to respect their great opponent--but they showed at any rate that,
having resolved to wear out the enemy by Fabian methods, they were
strong enough to persist in their resolve to the end. Thus for some
years the life of Lacy, as of Daun and Loudon, is the story of the war
against Prussia (see Seven Years' War). After Hochkirch (October 15,
1758) Lacy received the grand cross of the Maria Theresa order. In 1759
both Daun and Lacy fell into disfavour for failing to win victories, and
Lacy owed his promotion to Feldzeugmeister only to the fact that Loudon
had just received this rank for the brilliant conduct of his detachment
at Kunersdorf. His responsibilities told heavily on Lacy in the ensuing
campaigns, and his capacity for supreme command was doubted even by
Daun, who refused to give him the command when he himself was wounded at
the battle of Torgau.

After the peace of Hubertusburg a new sphere of activity was opened, in
which Lacy's special gifts had the greatest scope. Maria Theresa having
placed her son, the emperor Joseph II., at the head of Austrian military
affairs, Lacy was made a field-marshal, and given the task of reforming
and administering the army (1766). He framed new regulations for each
arm, a new code of military law, a good supply system. As the result of
his work the Austrian army was more numerous, far better equipped, and
cheaper than it had ever been before. Joseph soon became very intimate
with his military adviser, but this did not prevent his mother, after
she became estranged from the young emperor, from giving Lacy her full
confidence. His activities were not confined to the army. He was in
sympathy with Joseph's innovations, and was regarded by Maria Theresa as
a prime mover in the scheme for the partition of Poland. But his
self-imposed work broke down Lacy's health, and in 1773, in spite of the
remonstrances of Maria Theresa and of the emperor, he laid down all his
offices and went to southern France. On returning he was still unable to
resume office, though as an unofficial adviser in political and military
matters he was far from idle. In the brief and uneventful War of the
Bavarian Succession, Lacy and Loudon were the chief Austrian commanders
against the king of Prussia, and when Joseph II. at Maria Theresa's
death, became the sovereign of the Austrian dominions as well as
emperor, Lacy remained his most trusted friend. More serious than the
War of the Bavarian Succession was the Turkish war which presently broke
out. Lacy was now old and worn out, and his tenure of command therein
was not marked by any greater measure of success than in the case of the
other Austrian generals. His active career was at an end, although he
continued his effective interest in the affairs of the state and the
army throughout the reign of Joseph's successor, Leopold I. His last
years were spent in retirement at his castle of Neuwaldegg near Vienna.
He died at Vienna on the 24th of November 1801.

  See memoir by A. v. Arneth in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_
  (Leipzig, 1883).




LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874), English actress, was born in
London, the daughter of a tradesman named Taylor. Her first appearance
on the stage was at Bath in 1827 as Julia in _The Rivals_, and she was
immediately given leading parts there in both comedy and tragedy. Her
first London appearance was in 1830 as Nina, in Dimond's _Carnival of
Naples_. Her Rosalind, Aspatia (to Macready's Melantius) in _The
Bridal_, and Lady Teazle to the Charles Surface of Walter Lacy
(1809-1898)--to whom she was married in 1839--confirmed her position and
popularity. She was the original Helen in _The Hunchback_ (1832), and
also created Nell Gwynne in Jerrold's play of that name, and the heroine
in his _Housekeeper_. She was considered the first Ophelia of her day.
She retired in 1848.




LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795-1867), Irish musician, son of a merchant,
was born at Bilbao and appeared there in public as a violinist in 1801.
He was sent to study in Paris under Kreutzer, and soon began a
successful career, being known as "_Le Petit Espagnol_." He played in
London for some years after 1805, and then became an actor, but in 1818
resumed the musical profession, and in 1820 became leader of the ballet
at the King's theatre, London. He composed or adapted from other
composers a number of operas and an oratorio, _The Israelites in Egypt_.
He died in London on the 20th of September 1867.




LACYDES OF CYRENE, Greek philosopher, was head of the Academy at Athens
in succession to Arcesilaus about 241 B.C. Though some regard him as the
founder of the New Academy, the testimony of antiquity is that he
adhered in general to the theory of Arcesilaus, and, therefore, that he
belonged to the Middle Academy. He lectured in a garden called the
Lacydeum, which was presented to him by Attalus I. of Pergamum, and for
twenty-six years maintained the traditions of the Academy. He is said to
have written treatises, but nothing survives. Before his death he
voluntarily resigned his position to his pupils, Euander and Telecles.
Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic
humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined
character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to
Athenaeus (x. 438) and Diogenes Laërtius (iv. 60) he died from excessive
drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius
(_Praep. Ev._ xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate.

  See Cicero, _Acad._ ii. 6; and Aelian, _V.H._ ii. 41; also articles
  ACADEMY, ARCESILAUS, CARNEADES.




LADAKH AND BALTISTAN, a province of Kashmir, India. The name Ladak,
commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs
primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but
includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it;
the present limits are between 75° 40´ and 80° 30´ E., and between 32°
25´ and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of
the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or Little
Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British Himalayan territory, and E.
by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and Rudok. The whole region lies very
high, the valleys of Rupshu in the south-east being 15,000 ft., and the
Indus near Leh 11,000 ft., while the average height of the surrounding
ranges is 19,000 ft. The proportion of arable and even possible pasture
land to barren rock and gravel is very small. Pop., including Baltistan
(1901) 165,992, of whom 30,216 in Ladakh proper are Buddhists, whereas
the Baltis have adopted the Shiah form of Islam.

The natural features of the country may be best explained by reference
to two native terms, under one or other of which every part is included;
viz. _changtang_, i.e. "northern, or high plain," where the amount of
level ground is considerable, and _rong_, i.e. "deep valley," where the
contrary condition prevails. The former predominates in the east,
diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial
deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of
about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have
undergone immense denudation, and their débris now forms secondary
deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for
cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either
metamorphosed to a subcrystalline rock still showing the composition of
the strata, or simply consolidated by lime.

Grand scenery is exceptional, for the valleys are confined, and from the
higher points the view is generally of a confused mass of brown or
yellow hills, absolutely barren, and of no great apparent height. The
parallelism characteristic of the Himalayan ranges continues here, the
direction being north-west and south-east. A central range divides the
Indus valley, here 4 to 8 m. wide, from that of its north branch the
Shyok, which with its fertile tributary valley of Nubra is again bounded
on the north by the Karakoram. This central ridge is mostly syenitic
gneiss, and north-east from it are found, successively, Silurian slates,
Carboniferous shales and Triassic limestones, the gneiss recurring at
the Turkestan frontier. The Indus lies along the line which separates
the crystalline rocks from the Eocene sandstones and shales of the lower
range of hills on the left bank, the lofty mountains behind them
consisting of parallel bands of rocks from Silurian to Cretaceous.

Several lakes in the east districts at about 14,000 ft. have been of
much greater extent, and connected with the river systems of the
country, but they are now mostly without outlet, saline, and in process
of desiccation.

Leh is the capital of Ladakh, and the road to Leh from Srinagar lies up
the lovely Sind valley to the sources of the river at the Zoji La Pass
(11,300 ft.) in the Zaskar range. This is the range which, skirting the
southern edge of the upland plains of Deosai in Baltistan, divides them
from the valley of Kashmir, and then continues to Nanga Parbat (26,620
ft.) and beyond that mountain stretches to the north of Swat and Bajour.
To the south-east it is an unbroken chain till it merges into the line
of snowy peaks seen from Simla and the plains of India--the range which
reaches past Chini to the famous peaks of Gangotri, Nandadevi and Nampa.
It is the most central and conspicuous range in the Himalaya. The Zoji
La, which curves from the head of the Sind valley on to the bleak
uplands of Dras (where lies the road to the trough of the Indus and
Leh), is, in spite of its altitude, a pass on which little snow lies;
but for local accumulations, it would be open all the year round. It
affords a typical instance of that cutting-back process by which a
river-head may erode a channel through a watershed into the plateau
behind, there being no steep fall towards the Indus on the northern side
of the range. From the Zoji La the road continues by easy gradients,
following the line of the Dras drainage, to the Indus, when it turns up
the valley to Leh. From Leh there are many routes into Tibet, the best
known being that from the Indus valley to the Tibetan plateau, by the
Chang La, to Lake Pangkong and Rudok (14,000 ft.). Rudok occupies a
forward position on the western Tibetan border analogous to that of Leh
in Kashmir. The chief trade route to Lhasa from Leh, however, follows
the line offered by the valleys of the Indus and the Brahmaputra (or
Tsanpo), crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake
Manasarowar.

The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. "The
atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and
the heat of the sun is very great. There is generally a difference of
more than 60° between the reading of the exposed sun thermometer _in
vacuo_ and the air temperature in the shade, and this difference has
occasionally exceeded 90°.... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°,
that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°, but
it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it reaches 62°
with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that month and August, and an
average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and
afternoon. The mean highest temperature of the year is 90°, varying
between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other
hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below 0°,
and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of
recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. The air is as dry
as Quetta, and rather more uniformly so.... The amount of rain and snow
is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2.7 in. in
the year."[1] The winds are generally light, and depend on the local
direction of the valleys. At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the
valley leading to the Kardang Pass, the most common directions are
between south and west in the daytime and summer, and from north-east in
the night, especially in the later months of the year. In January and
February the air is generally calm, and April and May are the most windy
months of the year.

  Vegetation is confined to valleys and sheltered spots, where a stunted
  growth of tamarisk and _Myricaria_, _Hippophae_ and _Elaeagnus_,
  furze, and the roots of _burtsi_, a salsolaceous plant, supply the
  traveller with much-needed firewood. The trees are the pencil cedar
  (_Juniperus excelsa_), the poplar and willow (both extensively
  planted, the latter sometimes wild), apple, mulberry, apricot and
  walnut. Irrigation is skilfully managed, the principal products being
  wheat, a beardless variety of barley called _grim_, millet, buckwheat,
  pease, beans and turnips. Lucerne and prangos (an umbelliferous plant)
  are used as fodder.

  Among domestic animals are the famous shawl goat, two kinds of sheep,
  of which the larger (_huniya_) is used for carrying burdens, and is a
  principal source of wealth, the yak and the dso, a valuable hybrid
  between the yak and common cow. Among wild animals are the kiang or
  wild ass, ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, antelope (_Pantholops_),
  marmot, hare and other Tibetan fauna.

  The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet passing
  through Ladakh is inconsiderable. Ladakh, however, is improving in its
  trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that both Ladakh and
  Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure, for on the borders of
  western Tibet and within a radius of 100 or 200 m. of Leh there
  centres a gold-mining industry which apparently only requires
  scientific development to render it enormously productive. Here the
  surface soil has been for many centuries washed for gold by bands of
  Tibetan miners, who never work deeper than 20 to 50 ft., and whose
  methods of washing are of the crudest description. They work in
  winter, chiefly because of the binding power of frost on the friable
  soil, suffering great hardships and obtaining but a poor return for
  their labour. But the remoteness of Ladakh and its extreme altitude
  still continue to bar the way to substantial progress, though its
  central position naturally entitles it to be a great trade mart.

  The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of
  Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt
  southward bend in 74° 45´ E., and the mountains to the north and west,
  separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the
  fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the 16th century
  speak of Baltistan as "Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as "Great Tibet,"
  thus ignoring the really Great Tibet altogether. The Balti call Gilgit
  "a Tibet," and Dr Leitner says that the Chilasi call themselves Bot or
  Tibetans; but, although these districts may have been overrun by the
  Tibetans, or have received rulers of that race, the ethnological
  frontier coincides with the geographical one given. Baltistan is a
  mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing formation being gneiss. In the
  north is the Baltoro glacier, the largest out of the arctic regions,
  35 m. long, contained between two ridges whose highest peaks to the
  south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft. The Indus, as in Lower
  Ladakh, runs in a narrow gorge, widening for nearly 20 m. after
  receiving the Shyok. The capital, Skardu, a scattered collection of
  houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7250 ft. above the sea. The
  house roofs are flat, occupied only in part by a second story, the
  remaining space being devoted to drying apricots, the chief staple of
  the main valley, which supports little cultivation. But the rapid
  slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation. Birch, plane,
  spruce and _Pinus excelsa_ appear; the fruits are finer, including
  pomegranate, pear, peach, vine and melon, and where irrigation is
  available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the tributary
  valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied.

_History._--The earliest notice of Ladakh is by the Chinese pilgrim
Fa-hien, A.D. 400, who, travelling in search of a purer faith, found
Buddhism flourishing there, the only novelty to him being the
prayer-cylinder, the efficacy of which he declares is incredible. Ladakh
formed part of the Tibetan empire until its disruption in the 10th
century, and since then has continued ecclesiastically subject, and
sometimes tributary, to Lhasa. Its inaccessibility saved it from any
Mussulman invasion until 1531, when Sultan Said of Kashgar marched an
army across the Karakoram, one division fighting its way into Kashmir
and wintering there. Next year they invaded eastern Tibet, where nearly
all perished from the effects of the climate.

Early in the 17th century Ladakh was invaded by its Mahommedan
neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the temples and
monasteries; and again, in 1685-1688, by the Sokpa, who were expelled
only by the aid of the lieutenant of Aurangzeb in Kashmir, Ladakh
thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo or king then made a nominal
profession of Islam, and allowed a mosque to be founded at Leh, and the
Kashmiris have ever since addressed his successors by a Mahommedan
title. When the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh, dreading their approach,
offered allegiance to Great Britain. It was, however, conquered and
annexed in 1834-1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu--the unwar-like Ladakhis,
even with nature fighting on their side, and against indifferent
generalship, being no match for the Dogra troops. These next turned
their arms successfully against the Baltis (who in the 18th century were
subject to the Mogul), and were then tempted to revive the claims of
Ladakh to the Chinese provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however,
brought down an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the
Indian force was almost annihilated--chiefly indeed by frostbite and
other sufferings, for the battle was fought in mid-winter, 15,000 ft.
above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were soon driven out
again, and peace was finally made on the basis of the old frontier. The
widespread prestige of China is illustrated by the fact that tribute,
though disguised as a present, is paid to her, for Ladakh, by the
maharaja of Kashmir.

  The principal works to be consulted are F. Drew, _The Jummoo and
  Kashmir Territories_; Cunningham, _Ladak_; Major J. Biddulph, _The
  Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_; Ramsay, _Western Tibet_; Godwin-Austen,
  "The Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vol. vi., _Proc. R.G.S._
  (1884); W. Lawrence, _The Valley of Kashmir_ (1895); H. F. Blandford,
  _The Climate and Weather of India_ (1889).     (T. H. H.*)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] H. F. Blandford, _Climate and Weather of India_ (London, 1889).




LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL (1842-   ), American philosopher, was born in
Painesville, Lake county, Ohio, on the 19th of January 1842. He
graduated at Western Reserve College in 1864 and at Andover Theological
Seminary in 1869; preached in Edinburg, Ohio, in 1869-1871, and in the
Spring Street Congregational Church of Milwaukee in 1871-1879; and was
professor of philosophy at Bowdoin College in 1879-1881, and Clark
professor of metaphysics and moral philosophy at Yale from 1881 till
1901, when he took charge of the graduate department of philosophy and
psychology; he became professor emeritus in 1905. In 1879-1882 he
lectured on theology at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1883 at
Harvard, where in 1895-1896 he conducted a graduate seminary in ethics.
He lectured in Japan in 1892, 1899 (when he also visited the
universities of India) and 1906-1907. He was much influenced by Lotze,
whose _Outlines of Philosophy_ he translated (6 vols., 1877), and was
one of the first to introduce (1879) the study of experimental
psychology into America, the Yale psychological laboratory being founded
by him.

  PUBLICATIONS.--_The Principles of Church Polity_ (1882); _The Doctrine
  of Sacred Scripture_ (1884); _What is the Bible?_ (1888); _Essays on
  the Higher Education_ (1899), defending the "old" (Yale) system
  against the Harvard or "new" education, as praised by George H.
  Palmer; _Elements of Physiological Psychology_ (1889, rewritten as
  _Outlines of Physiological Psychology_, in 1890); _Primer of
  Psychology_ (1894); _Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory_ (1894);
  and _Outlines of Descriptive Psychology_ (1898); in a "system of
  philosophy," _Philosophy of the Mind_ (1891); _Philosophy of
  Knowledge_ (1897); _A Theory of Reality_ (1899); _Philosophy of
  Conduct_ (1902); and _Philosophy of Religion_ (2 vols., 1905); _In
  Korea with Marquis Ito_ (1908); and _Knowledge, Life and Reality_
  (1909).




LADDER, (O. Eng. _hlaeder_; of Teutonic origin, cf. Dutch _leer_, Ger.
_Leiter_; the ultimate origin is in the root seen in "lean," Gr. [Greek:
klimax]), a set of steps or "rungs" between two supports to enable one
to get up and down; usually made of wood and sometimes of metal or rope.
Ladders are generally movable, and differ from a staircase also in
having only treads and no "risers." The term "Jacob's ladder," taken
from the dream of Jacob in the Bible, is applied to a rope ladder with
wooden steps used at sea to go aloft, and to a common garden plant of
the genus _Polemonium_ on account of the ladder-like formation of the
leaves. The flower known in England as Solomon's seal is in some
countries called the "ladder of heaven."




LADING (from "to lade," O. Eng. _hladan_, to put cargo on board; cf.
"load"), BILL OF, the document given as receipt by the master of a
merchant vessel to the consignor of goods, as a guarantee for their safe
delivery to the consignee. (See AFFREIGHTMENT.)




LADISLAUS I, Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the son of Béla I.,
king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, was born in Poland,
whither his father had sought refuge, but was recalled by his elder
brother Andrew I. to Hungary (1047) and brought up there. He succeeded
to the throne on the death of his uncle Geza in 1077, as the eldest
member of the royal family, and speedily won for himself a reputation
scarcely inferior to that of Stephen I., by nationalizing Christianity
and laying the foundations of Hungary's political greatness.
Instinctively recognizing that Germany was the natural enemy of the
Magyars, Ladislaus formed a close alliance with the pope and all the
other enemies of the emperor Henry IV., including the anti-emperor
Rudolph of Swabia and his chief supporter Welf, duke of Bavaria, whose
daughter Adelaide he married. She bore him one son and three daughters,
one of whom, Piriska, married the Byzantine emperor John Comnenus. The
collapse of the German emperor in his struggle with the pope left
Ladislaus free to extend his dominions towards the south, and colonize
and Christianize the wildernesses of Transylvania and the lower Danube.
Hungary was still semi-savage, and her native barbarians were being
perpetually recruited from the hordes of Pechenegs, Kumanians and other
races which swept over her during the 11th century. Ladislaus himself
had fought valiantly in his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend
the land against the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia
as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and Gyula
Féhervár. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed
remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the Dnieper, and founded the
bishoprics of Nagy-Várad, or Gross-Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci
of Catholicism in south Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts
between the Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia,
though here his authority was questioned by the pope, the Venetian
republic and the Greek emperor. Ladislaus died suddenly in 1095 when
about to take part in the first Crusade. No other Hungarian king was so
generally beloved. The whole nation mourned for him for three years, and
regarded him as a saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of
legends is associated with his name.

  See J. Babik, _Life of St Ladislaus_ (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); György
  Pray, _Dissertatio de St Ladislao_ (Pressburg, 1774); Antál Gánóczy,
  _Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao_ (Vienna, 1775).     (R. N. B.)




LADISLAUS IV., The Kumanian (1262-1290), king of Hungary, was the son of
Stephen V., whom he succeeded in 1272. From his tenth year, when he was
kidnapped from his father's court by the rebellious vassals, till his
assassination eighteen years later, his whole life, with one bright
interval of military glory was unrelieved tragedy. His minority,
1272-1277, was an alternation of palace revolutions and civil wars, in
the course of which his brave Kumanian mother Elizabeth barely contrived
to keep the upper hand. In this terrible school Ladislaus matured
precociously. At fifteen he was a man, resolute, spirited, enterprising,
with the germs of many talents and virtues, but rough, reckless and very
imperfectly educated. He was married betimes to Elizabeth of Anjou, who
had been brought up at the Hungarian court. The marriage was a purely
political one, arranged by his father and a section of the Hungarian
magnates to counterpoise hostile German and Czech influences. During
the earlier part of his reign, Ladislaus obsequiously followed the
direction of the Neapolitan court in foreign affairs. In Hungary itself
a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil wars which
raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278 did not prevent
Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and Kumanians, from
co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the great battle of Durnkrüt
(August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, once for all, the empire of the
Premyslidae. A month later a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire
into the conduct of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and
many of his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumanian kinsfolk
and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really a pagan,
or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of Durnkrüt to the
building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, nor would he have
venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret. Political enmity was largely
responsible for the movement against him, yet the result of a very
careful investigation (1279-1281) by Philip, bishop of Fermo, more than
justified many of the accusations brought against Ladislaus. He clearly
preferred the society of the semi-heathen Kumanians to that of the
Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Kumanian dress; surrounded
himself with Kumanian concubines, and neglected and ill-used his
ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally compelled to take up
arms against his Kumanian friends, whom he routed at Hodmézö (May 1282)
with fearful loss; but, previously to this, he had arrested the legate,
whom he subsequently attempted to starve into submission, and his
conduct generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated
warnings, the Holy See resolved to supersede him by his Angevin
kinsfolk, whom he had also alienated, and on the 8th of August 1288 Pope
Nicholas IV. proclaimed a crusade against him. For the next two years
all Hungary was convulsed by a horrible civil war, during which the
unhappy young king, who fought for his heritage to the last with
desperate valour, was driven from one end of his kingdom to the other
like a hunted beast. On the 25th of December 1289 he issued a manifesto
to the lesser gentry, a large portion of whom sided with him, urging
them to continue the struggle against the magnates and their foreign
supporters; but on the 10th of July 1290 he was murdered in his camp at
Korosszeg by the Kumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them.

  See Karoly Szabó, _Ladislaus the Cumanian_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1886);
  and Acsády, _History of the Hungarian Realm_, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903).
  The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus.     (R. N. B.)




LADISLAUS V. (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia, the only son of
Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter of the emperor
Sigismund, was born at Komárom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months
after his father's death, and was hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The
estates of Hungary had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their
king, but Ladislaus's mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its
guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the infant
king at Székesfejérvár on the 15th of May 1440; whereupon, for safety's
sake, she placed the child beneath the guardianship of his uncle the
emperor Frederick III. On the death of Wladislaus III. (Nov. 10th,
1444), Ladislaus V. was elected king by the Hungarian estates, though
not without considerable opposition, and a deputation was sent to Vienna
to induce the emperor to surrender the child and the holy crown; but it
was not till 1452 that Frederick was compelled to relinquish both. The
child was then transferred to the pernicious guardianship of his
maternal grandfather Ulrich Cillei, who corrupted him soul and body and
inspired him with a jealous hatred of the Hunyadis. On the 28th of
October 1453 he was crowned king of Bohemia, and henceforth spent most
of his time at Prague and Vienna. He remained supinely indifferent to
the Turkish peril; at the instigation of Cillei did his best to hinder
the defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the
country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death of Hunyadi
he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of Futtak (October 1456),
and when that traitor paid with his life for his murderous attempt on
Laszló Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young
Hunyadi (16th of March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a
storm in Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly
(Nov. 23rd, 1457), while making preparations for his marriage with
Magdalena, daughter of Charles VII. of France. He is supposed to have
been poisoned by his political opponents in Bohemia.

  See F. Palacky, _Zeugenverhör über den Tod König Ladislaus von Ungarn
  u. Böhmen_ (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsády, _History of the Hungarian
  State_ (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903).




LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE (c. 1730-1791), French man of letters,
was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne). While still young he removed to
Paris, where the rest of his life was spent in literary activity. He
died on the 26th of November 1791. His numerous works include _Contes
philosophiques et moraux_ (1765), _Les Deux Âges du goût et du génie
sous Louis XIV. et sous Louis XV._ (1769), a parallel and contrast, in
which the decision is given in favour of the latter; _L'Espagne
littéraire_ (1774); _Éloge de Voltaire_ (1779) and _Éloge de Montaigne_
(1781).




LADO ENCLAVE, a region of the upper Nile formerly administered by the
Congo Free State, but since 1910 a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
It has an area of about 15,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at
250,000 and consisting of Bari, Madi, Kuku and other Nilotic Negroes.
The enclave is bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert
Nyanza--as far south as the port of Mahagi--E. by the western bank of
the Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected by
5° 30´ N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the Nile
westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier to 4° N., the
frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to the point nearest to
Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert Nyanza.

The country is a moderately elevated plateau sloping northward from the
higher ground marking the Congo-Nile watershed. The plains are mostly
covered with bush, with stretches of forest in the northern districts.
Traversing the plateau are two parallel mountainous chains having a
general north to south direction. One chain, the Kuku Mountains (average
height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen
from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places these
mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous line like a huge
wall. From Dufile in 3° 34´ N. to below the Bedden Rapids in 4° 40´ N.
the bed of the Nile is much obstructed and the river throughout this
reach is unnavigable (see Nile). Below the Bedden Rapids rises the
conical hill of Rejaf, and north of that point the Nile valley becomes
flat. Ranges of hill, however, are visible farther westwards, and a
little north of 5° N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft.
high and some 12 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the
district, being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some
1000 m. from Khartum. On the river at Rejaf, at Lado, and at Kiro, 28 m.
N. of Lado, are government stations and trading establishments. The
western chain of hills has loftier peaks than those of Kuku, Jebel Loka
being about 3000 ft. high. This western chain forms a secondary
watershed separating the basin of the Yei, a large river, some 400 m. in
length, which runs almost due north to join the Nile, from the other
streams of the enclave, which have an easterly or north-easterly
direction and join the Nile after comparatively short courses.

The northern part of the district was first visited by Europeans in
1841-1842, when the Nile was ascended by an expedition despatched by
Mehemet Ali to the foot of the rapids at Bedden. The neighbouring posts
of Gondokoro, on the east bank of the Nile, and Lado, soon became
stations of the Khartum ivory and slave traders. After the discovery of
Albert Nyanza by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864, the whole country was overrun
by Arabs, Levantines, Turks and others, whose chief occupation was slave
raiding. The region was claimed as part of the Egyptian Sudan, but it
was not until the arrival of Sir Samuel Baker at Gondokoro in 1870 as
governor of the equatorial provinces, that any effective control of the
slave traders was attempted. Baker was succeeded by General C. G.
Gordon, who established a separate administration for the
Bahr-el-Ghazal. In 1878 Emin Pasha became governor of the Equatorial
Province, a term henceforth confined to the region adjoining the main
Nile above the Sobat confluence, and the region south of the
Bahr-el-Ghazal province. (The whole of the Lado Enclave thus formed part
of Emin's old province.) Emin made his headquarters at Lado, whence he
was driven in 1885 by the Mahdists. He then removed to Wadelai, a
station farther south, but in 1889 the pasha, to whose aid H. M. Stanley
had conducted an expedition from the Congo, evacuated the country and
with Stanley made his way to the east coast. While the Mahdists remained
in possession at Rejaf, Great Britain in virtue of her position in
Uganda claimed the upper Nile region as within the British sphere; a
claim admitted by Germany in 1890. In February 1894 the union jack was
hoisted at Wadelai, while in May of the same year Great Britain granted
to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas
lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and
Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only
that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30´ N., and
in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was
thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the
Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not until 1897, when on the
17th of February Commandant Chaltin inflicted a decisive defeat on the
Mahdists at Rejaf, that their occupation of the Lado Enclave was
assured. After the withdrawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II.
revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in
1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new
agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see AFRICA, §
5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six
months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to
the Anglo-Sudanese government (see _Treaty Series_, No. 4, 1906).

  See _Le Mouvement géographique_ (Brussels) _passim_, and especially
  articles in the 1910 issues.




LADOGA (formerly NEVO), a lake of northern Russia, between 59° 56´ and
61° 46´ N., and 29° 53´ and 32° 50´ E., surrounded by the governments of
St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg in Finland. It has the form of
a quadrilateral, elongated from N.W. to S.E. Its eastern and southern
shores are flat and marshy, the north-western craggy and fringed by
numerous small rocky islands, the largest of which are Valamo and
Konnevitz, together having an area of 14 sq. m. Ladoga is 7000 sq. m. in
area, that is, thirty-one times as large as the Lake of Geneva; but, its
depth being less, it contains only nineteen times as much water as the
Swiss lake. The greatest depth, 730 ft., is in a trough in the
north-western part, the average depth not exceeding 250 to 350 ft. The
level of Lake Ladoga is 55 ft. above the Gulf of Finland, but it rises
and falls about 7 ft., according to atmospheric conditions, a phenomenon
very similar to the _seiches_ of the Lake of Geneva being observed in
connexion with this.

  The western and eastern shores consist of boulder clay, as well as a
  narrow strip on the southern shore, south of which runs a ridge of
  crags of Silurian sandstones. The hills of the north-western shore
  afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian
  system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian
  geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and
  marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used for
  buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkäranta mine
  are exported.

  No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the waters
  of numberless smaller lakes which lie at higher levels round it. The
  Volkhov, which conveys the waters of Lake Ilmen, is the largest; Lake
  Onega discharges its waters by the Svir; and the Saima system of lakes
  of eastern Finland contributes the Vuoxen and Taipale rivers; the Syas
  brings the waters from the smaller lakes and marshes of the Valdai
  plateau. Ladoga discharges its surplus water by means of the Neva,
  which flows from its south-western corner into the Gulf of Finland,
  rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second.

  The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold; in May the surface
  temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches
  only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at Valamo
  being 36.8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is only
  about the end of December that it is frozen in its deeper parts; and
  it remains ice-bound until the end of March, though broad icefields
  continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by gales.
  Only a small part of the Ladoga ice is discharged by the Neva; but it
  is enough to produce in the middle of June a return of cold in the
  northern capital. The thickness of the ice does not exceed 3 or 4 ft.;
  but during the alternations of cold and warm weather, with strong
  gales, in winter, stacks of ice, 70 and 80 ft. high, are raised on the
  shores and on the icefields. The water is in continuous rotatory
  motion, being carried along the western shore from north to south, and
  along the eastern from south to north. The vegetation on the shores is
  poor; immense forests, which formerly covered them, are now mostly
  destroyed. But the fauna of the lake is somewhat rich; a species of
  seal which inhabits its waters, as well as several species of arctic
  crustaceans, recall its former connexion with the Arctic Ocean. The
  sweet water _Diatomaceae_ which are found in great variety in the ooze
  of the deepest parts of the lake also have an arctic character.

  Fishing is very extensively carried on. Navigation, which is
  practicable for only one hundred and eighty days in the year, is
  rather difficult owing to fogs and gales, which are often accompanied,
  even in April and September, with snow-storms. The prevailing winds
  blow from N.W. and S.W.; N.E. winds cause the water to rise in the
  south-western part, sometimes 3 to 5 ft. Steamers ply regularly in two
  directions from St Petersburg--to the monasteries of Konnevitz and
  Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to
  Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber,
  firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and various
  small wares from the northern shore to Schlüsselburg, and thence to St
  Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too dangerous for small
  craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in
  1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101
  m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at Schlüsselburg
  the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the
  elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf
  of Finland.

  The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the
  towns--Schlüsselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144);
  Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol--are small. The monasteries of Valamo,
  founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on
  Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every year by many
  thousands of pilgrims.     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)




LADY (O. Eng. _hlaéfdige_, Mid. Eng. _láfdi_, _lavedi_; the first part
of the word is _hláf_, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding _hláford_,
lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to
knead, seen also in "dough"; the sense development from bread-kneader,
bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though not clearly to be traced
historically, may be illustrated by that of "lord"), a term of which the
main applications are two, (1) as the correlative of "lord" (q.v.) in
certain of the usages of that word, (2) as the correlative of
"gentleman" (q.v.). The primary meaning of mistress of a household is,
if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of
the word as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually "Our Lady," represents
the Lat. _Domina Nostra_. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the word is
properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. _hlaéfdigan_. As a title
of nobility the uses of "lady" are mainly paralleled by those of "lord."
It is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the
specific rank, of marchioness, countess, viscountess or baroness,
whether as the title of the husband's rank by right or courtesy, or as
the lady's title in her own right. In the case of the younger sons of a
duke or marquess, who by courtesy have lord prefixed to their Christian
and family name, the wife is known by the husband's Christian and family
name with Lady prefixed, e.g. Lady John B.; the daughters of dukes,
marquesses and earls are by courtesy Ladies; here that title is prefixed
to the Christian and family name of the lady, e.g. Lady Mary B., and
this is preserved if the lady marry a commoner, e.g. Mr and Lady Mary C.
"Lady" is also the customary title of the wife of a baronet or knight;
the proper title, now only used in legal documents or on sepulchral
monuments, is "dame" (q.v.); in the latter case the usage is to prefix
Dame to the Christian name of the wife followed by the surname of the
husband, thus Dame Eleanor B., but in the former, Lady with the surname
of the husband only, Sir A. and Lady B. During the 15th and 16th
centuries "princesses" or daughters of the blood royal were usually
known by their Christian names with "the Lady" prefixed, e.g. the Lady
Elizabeth.

While "lord" has retained its original application as a title of
nobility or rank without extension, an example which has been followed
in Spanish usage by "don," "lady" has been extended in meaning to be the
feminine correlative of "gentleman" throughout its sense developments,
and in this is paralleled by _Dame_ in German, _madame_ in French,
_donna_ in Spanish, &c. It is the general word for any woman of a
certain social position (see GENTLEMAN).




LADYBANK, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5½ m. S.W. of Cupar by
the North British railway, ½ m. from the left bank of the Eden. Pop.
(1901) 1340. Besides having a station on the main line to Dundee, it is
also connected with Perth and Kinross and is a railway junction of some
importance and possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial centre,
linen weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal industries.
KETTLE, a village 1 m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a fort. At
COLLESSIE, 2½ m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and traces of
ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been found. Between the
parishes of Collessie and Monimail the boundary line takes the form of a
crescent known as the Bow of Fife. MONIMAIL contains the Mount, the
residence of Sir David Lindsay the poet (1490-1555). Its lofty site is
now marked by a clump of trees. Here, too, is the Doric pillar, 100 ft.
high, raised to the memory of John Hope, 4th earl of Hopetoun. Melville
House, the seat of the earls of Leven, lies amidst beautiful woods.




LADYBRAND, a town of the Orange Free State, 80 m. E. of Bloemfontein by
rail. Another railway connects it with Natal via Harrismith. Pop. (1904)
3862, of whom 2334 were whites. The town is pleasantly situated at the
foot of a flat-topped hill (the Platberg), about 4 m. W. of the Caledon
river, which separates the province from Basutoland. Ladybrand is the
centre of a rich arable district, has a large wheat market and is also a
health resort, the climate, owing to the proximity of the Maluti
Mountains, being bracing even during the summer months (November-March).
Coal and petroleum are found in the neighbourhood. It is named after the
wife of Sir J. H. Brand, president of the Orange Free State.




LADY-CHAPEL, the chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and attached to
churches of large size. Generally the chapel was built eastward of the
high altar and formed a projection from the main building, as in
Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, St Albans, Chichester,
Peterborough and Norwich cathedrals,--in the two latter cases now
destroyed. The earliest Lady-chapel built was that in the Saxon
cathedral of Canterbury; this was transfered in the rebuilding by
Archbishop Lanfranc to the west end of the nave, and again shifted in
1450 to the chapel on the east side of the north transept. The
Lady-chapel at Ely cathedral is a distinct building attached to the
north transept; at Rochester the Lady-chapel is west of the south
transept. Probably the largest Lady-chapel was that built by Henry III.
in 1220 at Westminster Abbey, which was 30 ft. wide, much in excess of
any foreign example, and extended to the end of the site now occupied by
Henry VII.'s chapel. Among other notable English examples of
Lady-chapels are those at Ottery-St-Mary, Thetford, Bury St Edmund's,
Wimborne, Christ-church, Hampshire; in Compton Church, Surrey, and
Compton Martin, Somersetshire, and Darenth, Kent, it was built over the
chancel. At Croyland Abbey there were two Lady-chapels. Lady-chapels
exist in most of the French cathedrals and churches, where they form
part of the chevet; in Belgium they were not introduced before the 14th
century; in some cases they are of the same size as the other chapels of
the chevet, but in others, probably rebuilt at a later period, they
became much more important features, and in Italy and Spain during the
Renaissance period constitute some of its best examples.




LADY DAY, originally the name for all the days in the church calendar
marking any event in the Virgin Mary's life, but now restricted to the
feast of the Annunciation, held on the 25th of March in each year. Lady
Day was in medieval and later times the beginning of the legal year in
England. In 1752 this was altered to the 1st of January, but the 25th of
March remains one of the Quarter Days; though in some parts old Lady
Day, on the 6th of April, is still the date for rent paying. See
Annunciation.




LADYSMITH, a town of Natal, 189 m. N.W. of Durban by rail, on the left
bank of the Klip tributary of the Tugela. Pop. (1904) 5568, of whom 2269
were whites. It lies 3284 ft. above the sea and is encircled by hills,
while the Drakensberg are some 30 m. distant to the N.W. Ladysmith is
the trading centre of northern Natal, and is the chief railway junction
in the province, the main line from the south dividing here. One line
crosses Van Reenen's pass into the Orange Free State, the other runs
northwards to the Transvaal. There are extensive railway workshops.
Among the public buildings are the Anglican church and the town hall.
The church contains tablets with the names of 3200 men who perished in
the defence and relief of the town in the South African War (see below),
while the clock tower of the town hall, partially destroyed by a Boer
shell, is kept in its damaged condition.

Ladysmith, founded in 1851, is named after Juana, Lady Smith, wife of
Sir Harry Smith, then governor of Cape Colony. It stands near the site
of the camp of the Dutch farmers who in 1848 assembled for the purpose
of trekking across the Drakensberg. Here they were visited by Sir Harry
Smith, who induced the majority of the farmers to remain in Natal. The
growth of the town, at first slow, increased with the opening of the
railway from Durban in 1886 and the subsequent extension of the line to
Johannesburg.

In the first and most critical stage of the South African War of
1899-1902 (see TRANSVAAL) Ladysmith was the centre of the struggle.
During the British concentration on the town there were fought the
actions of Talana (or Dundee) on the 20th, Elandslaagte on the 21st and
Rietfontein on the 24th of October 1899. On the 30th of October the
British sustained a serious defeat in the general action of Lombard's
Kop or Farquhar's Farm, and Sir George White decided to hold the town,
which had been fortified, against investment and siege until he was
relieved directly or indirectly by Sir Redvers Buller's advance. The
greater portion of Buller's available troops were despatched to Natal in
November, with a view to the direct relief of Ladysmith, which meantime
the Boers had closely invested. His first attempt was repelled on the
15th of December in the battle of Colenso, his second on the 24th of
January 1900 by the successful Boer counterstroke against Spion Kop, and
his third was abandoned without serious fighting (Vaalkranz, Feb. 5).
But two or three days after Vaalkranz, almost simultaneously with Lord
Roberts's advance on Bloemfontein Sir Redvers Buller resumed the
offensive in the hills to the east of Colenso, which he gradually
cleared of the enemy, and although he was checked after reaching the
Tugela below Colenso (Feb. 24) he was finally successful in carrying the
Boer positions (Pieter's Hill) on the 27th and relieving Ladysmith,
which during these long and anxious months (Nov. 1-Feb. 28) had suffered
very severely from want of food, and on one occasion (Caesar's Camp,
Jan. 6, 1900) had only with heavy losses and great difficulty repelled a
powerful Boer assault. The garrison displayed its unbroken resolution on
the last day of the investment by setting on foot a mobile column,
composed of all men who were not too enfeebled to march out, in order to
harass the Boer retreat. This expedition was however countermanded by
Buller.




LAELIUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family, probably settled at Tibur
(Tivoli). The chief members were:--

GAIUS LAELIUS, general and statesman, was a friend of the elder Scipio,
whom he accompanied on his Spanish campaign (210-206 B.C.). In Scipio's
consulship (205), Laelius went with him to Sicily, whence he conducted
an expedition to Africa. In 203 he defeated the Massaesylian prince
Syphax, who, breaking his alliance with Scipio, had joined the
Carthaginians, and at Zama (202) rendered considerable service in
command of the cavalry. In 197 he was plebeian aedile and in 196 praetor
of Sicily. As consul in 190 he was employed in organizing the recently
conquered territory in Cisalpine Gaul. Placentia and Cremona were
repeopled, and a new colony founded at Bononia. He is last heard of in
170 as ambassador to Transalpine Gaul. Though little is known of his
personal qualities, his intimacy with Scipio is proof that he must have
been a man of some importance. Silius Italicus (_Punica_, xv. 450)
describes him as a man of great endowments, an eloquent orator and a
brave soldier.

  See Index to Livy; Polybius x. 3. 9, 39, xi. 32, xiv. 4. 8, xv. 9. 12,
  14; Appian, _Hisp._ 25-29; Cicero, _Philippica_, xi. 7.

His son, GAIUS LAELIUS, is known chiefly as the friend of the younger
Scipio, and as one of the speakers in Cicero's _De senectute_, _De
amicitia_ (or _Laelius_) and _De Republica_. He was surnamed _Sapiens_
("the wise"), either from his scholarly tastes or because, when tribune,
he "prudently" withdrew his proposal (151 B.C.) for the relief of the
farmers by distributions of land, when he saw that it was likely to
bring about disturbances. In the third Punic War (147) he accompanied
Scipio to Africa, and distinguished himself at the capture of the
Cothon, the military harbour of Carthage. In 145 he carried on
operations with moderate success against Viriathus in Spain; in 140 he
was elected consul. During the Gracchan period, as a staunch supporter
of Scipio and the aristocracy, Laelius became obnoxious to the
democrats. He was associated with P. Popillius Laenas in the prosecution
of those who had supported Tiberius Gracchus, and in 131 opposed the
bill brought forward by C. Papirius Carbo to render legal the election
of a tribune to a second year of office. The attempts of his enemies,
however, failed to shake his reputation. He was a highly accomplished
man and belonged to the so-called "Scipionic circle." He studied
philosophy under the Stoics Diogenes Babylonius and Panaetius of Rhodes;
he was a poet, and the plays of Terence, by reason of their elegance of
diction, were sometimes attributed to him. With Scipio he was mainly
instrumental in introducing the study of the Greek language and
literature into Rome. He was a gifted orator, though his refined
eloquence was perhaps less suited to the forum than to the senate. He
delivered speeches _De Collegiis_ (145) against the proposal of the
tribune C. Licinius Crassus to deprive the priestly colleges of their
right of co-optation and to transfer the power of election to the
people; _Pro Publicanis_ (139), on behalf of the farmers of the revenue;
against the proposal of Carbo noticed above; _Pro Se_, a speech in his
own defence, delivered in answer to Carbo and Gracchus; funeral
orations, amongst them two on his friend Scipio. Much information is
given concerning him in Cicero, who compares him to Socrates.

  See Index to Cicero; Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_, 8; Appian, _Punica_,
  126; Horace, _Sat._ ii. 1. 72; Quintilian, _Instit._ xii. 10. 10;
  Suetonius, _Vita Terentii_; Terence, _Adelphi_, Prol. 15, with the
  commentators.




LAENAS, the name of a plebeian family in ancient Rome, notorious for
cruelty and arrogance. The two most famous of the name[1] are:--

GAIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, consul in 172 B.C. He was sent to Greece in 174
to allay the general disaffection, but met with little success. He took
part in the war against Perseus, king of Macedonia (Livy xliii. 17, 22).
When Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, invaded Egypt, Laenas was sent
to arrest his progress. Meeting him near Alexandria, he handed him the
decree of the senate, demanding the evacuation of Egypt. Antiochus
having asked time for consideration, Laenas drew a circle round him with
his staff, and told him he must give an answer before he stepped out of
it. Antiochus thereupon submitted (Livy xlv. 12; Polybius xxix. 11;
Cicero, _Philippica_, viii. 8; Vell. Pat. i. 10).

PUBLIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, son of the preceding. When consul in 132 B.C.
he incurred the hatred of the democrats by his harsh measures as head of
a special commission appointed to take measures against the accomplices
of Tiberius Gracchus. In 123 Gaius Gracchus brought in a bill
prohibiting all such commissions, and declared that, in accordance with
the old laws of appeal, a magistrate who pronounced sentence of death
against a citizen, without the people's assent, should be guilty of
high treason. It is not known whether the bill contained a retrospective
clause against Laenas, but he left Rome and sentence of banishment from
Italy was pronounced against him. After the restoration of the
aristocracy the enactments against him were cancelled, and he was
recalled (121).

  See Cicero, _Brutus_, 25. 34, and _De domo sua_, 31; Vell. Pat. ii. 7;
  Plutarch, _C. Gracchus_, 4.


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The name is said by Cicero to be derived from _laena_, the
    sacerdotal cloak carried by Marcus Popillius (consul 359) when he
    went to the forum to quell a popular rising.




LAER (or LAAR), PIETER VAN (1613-c. 1675), Dutch painter, was born at
Laaren in Holland. The influence of a long stay in Rome begun at an
early age is seen in his landscape and backgrounds, but in his subjects
he remained true to the Dutch tradition, choosing generally lively
scenes from peasant life, as markets, feasts, bowling scenes, farriers'
shops, robbers, hunting scenes and peasants with cattle. From this
taste, or from his personal deformity, he was nicknamed Bamboccio by the
Italians. On his return to Holland about 1639, he lived chiefly at
Amsterdam and Haarlem, in which latter city he died in 1674 or 1675. His
pictures are marked by skilful composition and good drawing; he was
especially careful in perspective. His colouring, according to Crowe, is
"generally of a warm, brownish tone, sometimes very clear, but oftener
heavy, and his execution broad and spirited." Certain etched plates are
also attributed to him.




LAESTRYGONES, a mythical race of giants and cannibals. According to the
_Odyssey_ (x. 80) they dwelt in the farthest north, where the nights
were so short that the shepherd who was driving out his flock met
another driving it in. This feature of the tale contains some hint of
the long nightless summer in the Arctic regions, which perhaps reached
the Greeks through the merchants who fetched amber from the Baltic
coasts. Odysseus in his wanderings arrived at the coast inhabited by the
Laestrygones, and escaped with only one ship, the rest being sunk by the
giants with masses of rock. Their chief city was Telepylus, founded by a
former king Lamus, their ruler at that time being Antiphates. This is a
purely fanciful name, but Lamus takes us into a religious world where we
can trace the origin of the legend, and observe the god of an older
religion becoming the subject of fairy tales (see LAMIA) in a later
period.

  The later Greeks placed the country of the Laestrygones in Sicily, to
  the south of Aetna, near Leontini; but Horace (_Odes_, iii. 16. 34)
  and other Latin authors speak of them as living in southern Latium,
  near Formiae, which was supposed to have been founded by Lamus.




LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS [Giulio Pomponio Leto], (1425-1498), Italian
humanist, was born at Salerno. He studied at Rome under Laurentius
Valla, whom he succeeded (1457) as professor of eloquence in the
Gymnasium Romanum. About this time he founded an academy, the members of
which adopted Greek and Latin names, met on the Quirinal to discuss
classical questions and celebrated the birthday of Romulus. Its
constitution resembled that of an ancient priestly college, and Laetus
was styled pontifex maximus. The pope (Paul II.) viewed these
proceedings with suspicion, as savouring of paganism, heresy and
republicanism. In 1468 twenty of the academicians were arrested during
the carnival; Laetus, who had taken refuge in Venice, was sent back to
Rome, imprisoned and put to the torture, but refused to plead guilty to
the charges of infidelity and immorality. For want of evidence, he was
acquitted and allowed to resume his professorial duties; but it was
forbidden to utter the name of the academy even in jest. Sixtus IV.
permitted the resumption of its meetings, which continued to be held
till the sack of Rome (1527) by Constable Bourbon during the papacy of
Clement VII. Laetus continued to teach in Rome until his death on the
9th of June 1498. As a teacher, Laetus, who has been called the first
head of a philological school, was extraordinarily successful; in his
own words, like Socrates and Christ, he expected to live on in the
person of his pupils, amongst whom were many of the most famous scholars
of the period. His works, written in pure and simple Latin, were
published in a collected form (_Opera Pomponii Laeti varia_, 1521). They
contain treatises on the Roman magistrates, priests and lawyers, and a
compendium of Roman history from the death of the younger Gordian to
the time of Justin III. Laetus also wrote commentaries on classical
authors, and promoted the publication of the editio princeps of Virgil
at Rome in 1469.

  See _The Life of Leto_ by Sabellicus (Strassburg, 1510); G. Voigt,
  _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterthums_, ii.; F. Gregorovius,
  _Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_, vii. (1894), p. 576, for an
  account of the academy; Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_
  (1908), ii. 92.




LAEVIUS (? c. 80 B.C.), a Latin poet of whom practically nothing is
known. The earliest reference to him is perhaps in Suetonius (_De
grammaticis_, 3), though it is not certain that the Laevius Milissus
there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur
before the 2nd century (Fronto, _Ep. ad M. Caes._ i. 3; Aulus Gellius,
_Noct. Att._ ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9; Apuleius, _De magia_, 30;
Porphyrion, _Ad Horat. carm._ iii. 1, 2). Some sixty miscellaneous lines
are preserved (see Bährens, _Fragm. poët. rom._ pp. 287-293), from which
it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as
the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he
composed an _Erotopaegnia_, and in other sources he is credited with
_Adonis_, _Alcestis_, _Centauri_, _Helena_, _Ino_, _Protesilaudamia_,
_Sirenocirca_, _Phoenix_, which may, however, be only the parts of the
_Erotopaegnia_. They were not serious poems, but light and often
licentious skits on the heroic myths.

  See O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte der römischen Dichtung_, i.; H. de la
  Ville de Mirmont, _Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète
  Laevius_ (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and
  remarks on vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, _Poëtarum latinorum
  reliquiae_ (Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen
  Litteratur_ (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman
  Literature_ (Eng. tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis,
  _La Poésie latine_ (1909), pp. 139-142.




LAEVULINIC ACID ([beta]-acetopropionic acid), C5H8O3 or
CH3CO·CH2·CH2·CO2H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin,
starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric
acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with
monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester produced being then
hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid (M. Conrad, _Ann._, 1877, 188,
p. 222).

  CH3·CO·CH·Na   CH3·CO·CH·CH2·CO2R
         |   -->     |          -->CH3COCH2·CH2·CO2OH.
         CO2R        CO2R

It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of
[gamma]-methyloxy-glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by
oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in
plates, which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A.
Michael, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily
soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is
decomposed and yields [alpha]- and [beta]-angelica lactones. When heated
with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields n-valeric acid; and with
iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold.
With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of
concentrated sulphuric acid rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide
[CH2·CO]2N·CH3.




LA FARGE, JOHN (1835-1910), American artist, was born in New York, on
the 31st of March 1835, of French parentage. He received instruction in
drawing from his grandfather, Binsse de St Victor, a painter of
miniatures; studied law and architecture; entered the atelier of Thomas
Couture in Paris, where he remained a short time, giving especial
attention to the study and copying of old masters at the Louvre; and
began by making illustrations to the poets (1859). An intimacy with the
artist William M. Hunt had a strong influence on him, the two working
together at Newport, Rhode Island. La Farge painted landscape, still
life and figure alike in the early sixties. But from 1866 on he was for
some time incapacitated for work, and when he regained strength he did
some decorative work for Trinity church, Boston, in 1876, and turned his
attention to stained glass, becoming president of the Society of Mural
Painters. Some of his important commissions include windows for St
Thomas's church (1877), St Peter's church, the Paulist church, the Brick
church (1882), the churches of the Incarnation (1885) and the Ascension
(1887), New York; Trinity church, Buffalo, and the "Battle Window" in
Memorial Hall at Harvard; ceilings and windows for the house of
Cornelius Vanderbilt, windows for the houses of W. H. Vanderbilt and D.
O. Mills, and panels for the house of Whitelaw Reid, New York; panels
for the Congressional Library, Washington; Bowdoin College, the Capitol
at St Paul, Minn., besides designs for many stained glass windows. He
was also a prolific painter in oil and water colour, the latter seen
notably in some water-colour sketches, the result of a voyage in the
South Seas, shown in 1895. His influence on American art was powerfully
exhibited in such men as Augustus St Gaudens, Wilton Lockwood, Francis
Lathrop and John Humphreys Johnston. He became president of the Society
of American Artists, a member of the National Academy of Design in 1869;
an officer of the Legion of Honour of France; and received many medals
and decorations. He published _Considerations on Painting_ (New York,
1895), _Hokusai: A Talk about Hokusai_ (New York, 1897), and _An
Artist's Letters from Japan_ (New York, 1897).

  See Cecilia Waern, _John La Farge, Artist and Writer_ (London, 1896,
  No. 26 of _The Portfolio_).




LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE (1815-1863), Italian author and politician, was born
at Messina. On account of the part he took in the insurrection of 1837
he had to leave Sicily, but returning in 1839 he conducted various
newspapers of liberal tendencies, until his efforts were completely
interdicted, when he removed to Florence. In 1840 he had published
_Messina ed i suoi monumenti_, and after his removal to Florence he
brought out _La Germania coi suoi monumenti_ (1842), _L' Italia coi suoi
monumenti_ (1842), _La Svizzera storica ed artistica_ (1842-1843), La
China, 4 vols. (1843-1847), and _Storia d' Italia_, 7 vols. (1846-1854).
In 1847 he established at Florence a democratic journal, _L' Alba_, in
the interests of Italian freedom and unity, but on the outbreak of the
revolution in Sicily in 1848 he returned thither and was elected deputy
and member of the committee of war. In August of that year he was
appointed minister of public instruction and later of war and marine.
After vigorously conducting a campaign against the Bourbon troops, he
was forced into exile, and repaired to France in 1849. In 1850 he
published his _Storia documentata della Rivoluzione Siciliana del
1848-1849_, and in 1851-1852 his _Storia d' Italia dal 1815 al 1848_, in
6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at Turin, and in 1856
he founded the _Piccolo Corriere d' Italia_, an organ which had great
influence in propagating the political sentiments of the Società
Nazionale Italiana, of which he ultimately was chosen president. With
Daniele Manin (q.v.), one of the founders of that society, he advocated
the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom
at one time he had daily interviews, and organized the emigration of
volunteers from all parts of Italy into the Piedmontese army. He also
negotiated an interview between Cavour and Garibaldi, with the result
that the latter was appointed commander of the Cacciatori delle Alpi in
the war of 1859. Later he supported Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily,
where he himself went soon after the occupation of Palermo, but he
failed to bring about the immediate annexation of the island to Piedmont
as Cavour wished. In 1860 he was chosen a member of the first Italian
parliament and was subsequently made councillor of state. He died on the
5th of September 1863.

  See A. Franchi, _Epistolario di Giuseppe La Farina_ (2 vols., 1869)
  and L. Carpi, _Il Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. i. (Milan, 1884).




LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE (1380-1462), marshal of France, was
brought up at the court of Louis II., 3rd duke of Bourbon. He served
under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and on his return to France after the
evacuation of Genoa in 1409 became seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the
English wars he was with John I., 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of
Soubise in 1413, and of Compiègne in 1415. The duke then made him
lieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to defend Caen
and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (afterwards Charles VII.)
against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in the latter year he held Lyons
for some time against Jean sans Peur, duke of Burgundy. A series of
successes over the English and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in
1420 with the government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of
France. La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle of
Baugé (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay
Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424 he was taken
prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was released shortly
afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at Orleans and Patay in 1429.
The marshal had become a member of the grand council of Charles VII.,
and with the exception of a short disgrace about 1430, due to the
ill-will of Georges de la Trémouille, he retained the royal favour all
his life. He took an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles
VII., and the establishment of military posts for the suppression of
brigandage. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy in
1449. He died on the 23rd of February 1462. His line was continued by
Gilbert IV. de La Fayette, son of his second marriage with Jeanne de
Joyeuse.




LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE (c. 1616-1665), was one of the fourteen children
of John, comte de La Fayette, and Marguerite de Bourbon-Busset. Louise
became maid of honour to Anne of Austria, and Richelieu sought to
attract the attention of Louis XIII. to her in the hope that she might
counterbalance the influence exercised over him by Marie de Hautefort.
The affair did not turn out as the minister wished. The king did indeed
make her the confidante of his affairs and of his resentment against the
cardinal, but she, far from repeating his confidences to the minister,
set herself to encourage the king in his resistance to Richelieu's
dominion. She refused, nevertheless, to become Louis's mistress, and
after taking leave of the king in Anne of Austria's presence retired to
the convent of the Filles de Sainte-Marie in 1637. Here she was
repeatedly visited by Louis, with whom she maintained a correspondence.
Richelieu intercepted the letters, and by omissions and falsifications
succeeded in destroying their mutual confidence. The cessation of their
intercourse was regretted by the queen, who had been reconciled with her
husband through the influence of Louise. At the time of her death in
January 1665 Mlle de La Fayette was superior of a convent of her order
which she had founded at Chaillot.

  See _Mémoires de Madame de Motteville_; Victor Cousin, _Madame de
  Hautefort_ (Paris, 1868); L'Abbé Sorin, _Louise-Angèle de La Fayette_
  (Paris, 1893).




LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER. MARQUIS DE
(1757-1834), was born at the château of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France,
on the 6th of September 1757. His father[1] was killed at Minden in
1759, and his mother and his grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the
age of thirteen he was left an orphan with a princely fortune. He
married at sixteen Marie Adrienne Françoise de Noailles (d. 1807),
daughter of the duc d'Ayen and granddaughter of the duc de Noailles,
then one of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette
chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards.

La Fayette was nineteen and a captain of dragoons when the English
colonies in America proclaimed their independence. "At the first news of
this quarrel," he afterwards wrote in his memoirs, "my heart was
enrolled in it." The count de Broglie, whom he consulted, discouraged
his zeal for the cause of liberty. Finding his purpose unchangeable,
however, he presented the young enthusiast to Johann Kalb, who was also
seeking service in America, and through Silas Deane, American agent in
Paris, an arrangement was concluded, on the 7th of December 1776, by
which La Fayette was to enter the American service as major-general. At
this moment the news arrived of grave disasters to the American arms. La
Fayette's friends again advised him to abandon his purpose. Even the
American envoys, Franklin and Arthur Lee, who had superseded Deane,
withheld further encouragement and the king himself forbade his leaving.
At the instance of the British ambassador at Versailles orders were
issued to seize the ship La Fayette was fitting out at Bordeaux, and La
Fayette himself was arrested. But the ship was sent from Bordeaux to a
neighbouring port in Spain, La Fayette escaped from custody in disguise,
and before a second _lettre de cachet_ could reach him he was afloat
with eleven chosen companions. Though two British cruisers had been sent
in pursuit of him, he landed safely near Georgetown, S.C., after a
tedious voyage of nearly two months, and hastened to Philadelphia, then
the seat of government of the colonies.

When this lad of nineteen, with the command of only what little English
he had been able to pick up on his voyage, presented himself to Congress
with Deane's authority to demand a commission of the highest rank after
the commander-in-chief, his reception was a little chilly. Deane's
contracts were so numerous, and for officers of such high rank, that it
was impossible for Congress to ratify them without injustice to
Americans who had become entitled by their service to promotion. La
Fayette appreciated the situation as soon as it was explained to him,
and immediately expressed his desire to serve in the American army upon
two conditions--that he should receive no pay, and that he should act as
a volunteer. These terms were so different from those made by other
foreigners, they had been attended with such substantial sacrifices, and
they promised such important indirect advantages, that Congress passed a
resolution, on the 31st of July 1777, "that his services be accepted,
and that, in consideration of his zeal, illustrious family and
connexions, he have the rank and commission of major-general of the
United States." Next day La Fayette met Washington, whose lifelong
friend he became. Congress intended his appointment as purely honorary,
and the question of giving him a command was left entirely to
Washington's discretion. His first battle was Brandywine (q.v.) on the
11th of September 1777, where he showed courage and activity and
received a wound. Shortly afterwards he secured what he most desired,
the command of a division--the immediate result of a communication from
Washington to Congress of November 1, 1777, in which he said:--

  "The marquis de La Fayette is extremely solicitous of having a command
  equal to his rank. I do not know in what light Congress will view the
  matter, but it appears to me, from a consideration of his illustrious
  and important connexions, the attachment which he has manifested for
  our cause, and the consequences which his return in disgust might
  produce, that it will be advisable to gratify his wishes, and the more
  so as several gentlemen from France who came over under some
  assurances have gone back disappointed in their expectations. His
  conduct with respect to them stands in a favourable point of
  view--having interested himself to remove their uneasiness and urged
  the impropriety of their making any unfavourable representations upon
  their arrival at home. Besides, he is sensible, discreet in his
  manners, has made great proficiency in our language, and from the
  disposition he discovered at the battle of Brandywine possesses a
  large share of bravery and military ardour."

Of La Fayette's military career in the United States there is not much
to be said. Though the commander of a division, he never had many troops
in his charge, and whatever military talents he possessed were not of
the kind which appeared to conspicuous advantage on the theatre to which
his wealth and family influence rather than his soldierly gifts had
called him. In the first months of 1778 he commanded troops detailed for
the projected expedition against Canada. His retreat from Barren Hill
(May 28, 1778) was commended as masterly; and he fought at the battle of
Monmouth (June 28,) and received from Congress a formal recognition of
his services in the Rhode Island expedition (August 1778).

The treaties of commerce and defensive alliance, signed by the
insurgents and France on the 6th of February 1778, were promptly
followed by a declaration of war by England against the latter, and La
Fayette asked leave to revisit France and to consult his king as to the
further direction of his services. This leave was readily granted; it
was not difficult for Washington to replace the major-general, but it
was impossible to find another equally competent, influential and
devoted champion of the American cause near the court of Louis XVI. In
fact, he went on a mission rather than a visit. He embarked on the 11th
of January 1779, was received with enthusiasm, and was made a colonel in
the French cavalry. On the 4th of March following Franklin wrote to the
president of Congress: "The marquis de La Fayette ... is infinitely
esteemed and beloved here, and I am persuaded will do everything in his
power to merit a continuance of the same affection from America." He won
the confidence of Vergennes.

La Fayette was absent from America about six months, and his return was
the occasion of a complimentary resolution of Congress. From April until
October 1781 he was charged with the defence of Virginia, in which
Washington gave him the credit of doing all that was possible with the
forces at his disposal; and he showed his zeal by borrowing money on his
own account to provide his soldiers with necessaries. The battle of
Yorktown, in which La Fayette bore an honourable if not a distinguished
part, was the last of the war, and terminated his military career in the
United States. He immediately obtained leave to return to France, where
it was supposed he might be useful in negotiations for a general peace.
He was also occupied in the preparations for a combined French and
Spanish expedition against some of the British West India Islands, of
which he had been appointed chief of staff, and a formidable fleet
assembled at Cadiz, but the armistice signed on the 20th of January 1783
between the belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been
promoted (1781) to the rank of _maréchal de camp_ (major-general) in the
French army, and he received every token of regard from his sovereign
and his countrymen. He visited the United States again in 1784, and
remained some five months as the guest of the nation.

La Fayette did not appear again prominently in public life until 1787,
though he did good service to the French Protestants, and became
actively interested in plans to abolish slavery. In 1787 he took his
seat in the Assembly of Notables. He demanded, and he alone signed the
demand, that the king convoke the states-general, thus becoming a leader
in the French Revolution. He showed Liberal tendencies both in that
assembly and after its dispersal, and in 1788 was deprived, in
consequence, of his active command. In 1789 La Fayette was elected to
the states-general, and took a prominent part in its proceedings. He was
chosen vice-president of the National Assembly, and on the 11th of July
1789 presented a declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson's
Declaration of Independence in 1776. On the 15th of July, the second day
of the new régime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-general
of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed the combination of
the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the royal white, into the famous
tricolour cockade of modern France (July 17). For the succeeding three
years, until the end of the constitutional monarchy in 1792, his history
is largely the history of France. His life was beset with very great
responsibility and perils, for he was ever the minister of humanity and
order among a frenzied people who had come to regard order and humanity
as phases of treason. He rescued the queen from the hands of the
populace on the 5th and 6th of October 1789, saved many humbler victims
who had been condemned to death, and he risked his life in many
unsuccessful attempts to rescue others. Before this, disgusted with
enormities which he was powerless to prevent, he had resigned his
commission; but so impossible was it to replace him that he was induced
to resume it. In the Constituent Assembly he pleaded for the abolition
of arbitrary imprisonment, for religious tolerance, for popular
representation, for the establishment of trial by jury, for the gradual
emancipation of slaves, for the freedom of the press, for the abolition
of titles of nobility, and the suppression of privileged orders. In
February 1790 he refused the supreme command of the National Guard of
the kingdom. In May he founded the "Society of 1789" which afterwards
became the Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration
of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the
Bastille. After suppressing an _émeute_ in April 1791 he again resigned
his commission, and was again compelled to retain it. He was the friend
of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis XVI. fled to Varennes he
issued orders to stop him. Shortly afterwards he was made
lieutenant-general in the army. He commanded the troops in the
suppression of another _émeute_, on the occasion of the proclamation of
the constitution (September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his
task was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent his
friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in opposition to
Pétion.

When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the western frontier
to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in command of one of them. But
events moved faster than La Fayette's moderate and humane republicanism,
and seeing that the lives of the king and queen were each day more and
more in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance of
the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for the
restoration of a limited monarchy. On the 19th of August 1792 the
Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled to take refuge in the
neutral territory of Liége, whence as one of the prime movers in the
Revolution he was taken and held as a prisoner of state for five years,
first in Prussian and afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the
intercession of America and the pleadings of his wife. Napoleon,
however, though he had a low opinion of his capacities, stipulated in
the treaty of Campo Formio (1797) for La Fayette's release. He was not
allowed to return to France by the Directory. He returned in 1799; in
1802 voted against the life consulate of Napoleon; and in 1804 he voted
against the imperial title. He lived in retirement during the First
Empire, but returned to public affairs under the First Restoration and
took some part in the political events of the Hundred Days. From 1818 to
1824 he was deputy for the Sarthe, speaking and voting always on the
Liberal side, and even becoming a _carbonaro_. He then revisited America
(July 1824-September 1825) where he was overwhelmed with popular
applause and voted the sum of $200,000 and a township of land. From 1825
to his death he sat in the Chamber of Deputies for Meaux. During the
revolution of 1830 he again took command of the National Guard and
pursued the same line of conduct, with equal want of success, as in the
first revolution. In 1834 he made his last speech--on behalf of Polish
political refugees. He died at Paris on the 20th of May 1834. In 1876 in
the city of New York a monument was erected to him, and in 1883 another
was erected at Puy.

Few men have owed more of their success and usefulness to their family
rank than La Fayette, and still fewer have abused it less. He never
achieved distinction in the field, and his political career proved him
to be incapable of ruling a great national movement; but he had strong
convictions which always impelled him to study the interests of
humanity, and a pertinacity in maintaining them, which, in all the
strange vicissitudes of his eventful life, secured him a very unusual
measure of public respect. No citizen of a foreign country has ever had
so many and such warm admirers in America, nor does any statesman in
France appear to have ever possessed uninterruptedly for so many years
so large a measure of popular influence and respect. He had what
Jefferson called a "canine appetite" for popularity and fame, but in him
the appetite only seemed to make him more anxious to merit the fame
which he enjoyed. He was brave to rashness; and he never shrank from
danger or responsibility if he saw the way open to spare life or
suffering, to protect the defenceless, to sustain the law and preserve
order.

His son, GEORGES WASHINGTON MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1779-1849), entered
the army and was aide-de-camp to General Grouchy through the Austrian,
Prussian and Polish (1805-07) campaigns. Napoleon's distrust of his
father rendering promotion improbable, Georges de La Fayette retired
into private life in 1807 until the Restoration, when he entered the
Chamber of Representatives and voted consistently on the Liberal side.
He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830, but he took
an active part in the "campaign of the banquets," which led up to that
of 1848. He died in December of the next year. His son, OSCAR THOMAS
GILBERT MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1815-1881), was educated at the École
Polytechnique, and served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered
the Chamber of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with
the extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post in the
provisional government, and as a member of the Constituent Assembly he
became secretary of the war committee. After the dissolution of the
Legislative Assembly in 1851, he retired from public life, but emerged
on the establishment of the third republic, becoming a life senator in
1875. His brother EDMOND MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1818-1890) shared his
political opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent
Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888.

  See _Mémoires historiques et pièces authentiques sur M. de La Fayette
  pour servir à l'histoire des révolutions_ (Paris, An II., 1793-1794);
  B. Sarrans, _La Fayette et la Révolution de 1830, histoire des choses
  et des hommes de Juillet_ (Paris, 1834); _Mémoires, correspondances et
  manuscrits de La Fayette_, published by his family (6 vols., Paris,
  1837-1838); Regnault Warin, _Mémoires pour servir à la vie du général
  La Fayette_ (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, _La jeunesse de La Fayette_
  (Paris, 1892); _Les Dernières années de La Fayette_ (Paris, 1893); E.
  Charavaray, _Le Général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1895); A. Levasseur, _La
  Fayette en Amérique_ 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, _Souvenirs de la
  vie privée du général La Fayette_ (Paris, 1836); Max Büdinger, _La
  Fayette in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. Crawford, _The Wife
  of Lafayette_ (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, _Life of Lafayette_ (New York,
  1889); Charlemagne Tower, _The Marquis de La Fayette in the American
  Revolution_ (Philadelphia, 1895).


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The family of La Fayette, to the cadet branch of which he
    belonged, received its name from an estate in Aix, Auvergne, which
    belonged in the 13th century to the Motier family.




LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE, COMTESSE DE
(1634-1692), French novelist, was baptized in Paris, on the 18th of
March 1634. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre,
died when she was sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more
occupied with her own than her daughter's interests. Mme de la Vergne
married in 1651 the chevalier de Sévigné, and Marie thus became
connected with Mme de Sévigné, who was destined to be a lifelong friend.
She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and inspired in one of her tutors,
Gilles de Ménage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse
in three or four languages. Marie married in 1655 François Motier, comte
de La Fayette. They lived on the count's estates in Auvergne, according
to her own account (in a letter to Ménage) quite happily; but after the
birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually that it was
long supposed that he died about 1660, though he really lived until
1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned to Paris, and about 1665 contracted
an intimacy with the duc de la Rochefoucauld, then engaged on his
_Maximes_. The constancy and affection that marked this liaison on both
sides justified it in the eyes of society, and when in 1680 La
Rochefoucauld died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy.
Her first novel, _La Princesse de Montpensier_, was published
anonymously in 1662; _Zayde_ appeared in 1670 under the name of J. R. de
Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, _La Princesse de Clèves_, also
under the name of Segrais. The history of the modern novel of sentiment
begins with the _Princesse de Clèves_. The interminable pages of Mlle de
Scudéry with the _Précieuses_ and their admirers masquerading as
Persians or ancient Romans had already been discredited by the
burlesques of Paul Scarron and Antoine Furetière. It remained for Mme de
La Fayette to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something
more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the _roman comique_.
This she accomplished in a story offering in its shortness and
simplicity a complete contrast to the extravagant and lengthy romances
of the time. The interest of the story depends not on incident but on
the characters of the personages. They act in a perfectly reasonable way
and their motives are analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt
the semi-autobiographical character of the material partially explains
Mme de La Fayette's refusal to acknowledge the book. Contemporary
critics, even Mme de Sévigné amongst them, found fault with the avowal
made by Mme de Clèves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms,
which her anonymity prevented her from answering directly, Mme de La
Fayette wrote her last novel, the _Comtesse de Tende_.

The character of her work and her history have combined to give an
impression of melancholy and sweetness that only represents one side of
her character, for a correspondence brought to light comparatively
recently showed her as the acute diplomatic agent of Jeanne de Nemours,
duchess of Savoy, at the court of Louis XIV. She had from her early days
also been intimate with Henrietta of England, duchess of Orleans, under
whose immediate direction she wrote her _Histoire de Madame Henriette
d'Angleterre_, which only appeared in 1720. She wrote memoirs of the
reign of Louis XIV., which, with the exception of two chapters, for the
years 1688 and 1689 (published at Amsterdam, 1731), were lost through
her son's carelessness. Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May
1692.

  See Sainte-Beuve, _Portraits de femmes_; the comte d'Haussonville,
  _Madame de La Fayette_ (1891), in the series of _Grands écrivains
  français_; M. de Lescure's notice prefixed to an edition of the
  _Princesse de Clèves_ (1881); and a critical edition of the historical
  memoirs by Eugène Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, _Marie Madeleine,
  comtesse de La Fayette_ (1908).




LAFAYETTE, a city and the county-seat of Tippecanoe county, Indiana,
U.S.A., situated at the former head of navigation on the Wabash river,
about 64 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1900) 18,116, of whom 2266 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,081. It is served by the Chicago,
Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St
Louis, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Wabash railways, and by the
Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric), and the Fort Wayne &
Wabash Valley (electric) railways. The river is not now navigable at
this point. Lafayette is in the valley of the Wabash river, which is
sunk below the normal level of the plain, the surrounding heights being
the walls of the Wabash basin. The city has an excellent system of
public schools, a good public library, two hospitals, the Wabash Valley
Sanitarium (Seventh Day Adventist), St Anthony's Home for old people and
two orphan asylums. It is the seat of Purdue University, a
co-educational, technical and agricultural institution, opened in 1874
and named in honour of John Purdue (1802-1876), who gave it $150,000.
This university is under state control, and received the proceeds of the
Federal agricultural college grant of 1862 and of the second Morrill Act
of 1890; in connexion with it there is an agricultural experiment
station. It had in 1908-1909 180 instructors, 1900 students, and a
library of 25,000 volumes and pamphlets. Just outside the city is the
State Soldiers' Home, where provision is also made for the wives and
widows of soldiers; in 1908 it contained 553 men and 700 women. The city
lies in the heart of a rich agricultural region, and is an important
market for grain, produce and horses. Among its manufactures are beer,
foundry and machine shop products (the Chicago, Indianapolis &
Louisville railway has shops here), straw board, telephone apparatus,
paper, wagons, packed meats, canned goods, flour and carpets; the value
of the factory product increased from $3,514,276 in 1900 to $4,631,415
in 1905, or 31.8%. The municipality owns its water works.

Lafayette is about 5 m. N.E. of the site of the ancient Wea (Miami)
Indian village known as Ouiatanon, where the French established a post
about 1720. The French garrison gave way to the English about 1760; the
stockade fort was destroyed during the conspiracy of Pontiac, and was
never rebuilt. The headquarters of Tecumseh and his brother, the
"Prophet," were established 7 m. N. of Lafayette near the mouth of the
Tippecanoe river, and the settlement there was known as the "Prophet's
Town." Near this place, and near the site of the present village of
Battle Ground (where the Indiana Methodists now have a summer encampment
and a camp meeting in August), was fought on the 7th of November 1811
the battle of Tippecanoe, in which the Indians were decisively defeated
by Governor William Henry Harrison, the whites losing 188 in killed and
wounded and the Indians about an equal number. The battle ground is
owned by the state; in 1907 the state legislature and the United States
Congress each appropriated $12,500 for a monument, which took the form
of a granite shaft 90 ft. high. The first American settlers on the site
of Lafayette appeared about 1820, and the town was laid out in 1825, but
for many years its growth was slow. The completion of the Wabash and
Erie canal marked a new era in its development, and in 1854 Lafayette
was incorporated.




LA FERTÉ, the name of a number of localities in France, differentiated
by agnomens. La Ferté Imbault (department of Loir-et-Cher) was in the
possession of Jacques d'Étampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and
ambassador in England, who was known as the marquis of La Ferté
Imbault. La Ferté Nabert (the modern La Ferté Saint Aubin, department of
Loiret) was acquired in the 16th century by the house of Saint Nectaire
(corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy in the peerage of
France (_duché-pairie_) in 1665 for Henri de Saint Nectaire, marshal of
France. It was called La Ferté Lowendal after it had been acquired by
Marshal Lowendal in 1748.




LA FERTÉ-BERNARD, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe,
on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans, on the railway from Paris to that
town. Pop. (1906) 4358. La Ferté carries on cloth manufacture and
flour-milling and has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Nôtre
Dame has a choir (16th century) with graceful apse-chapels of
Renaissance architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the
remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The town hall
occupies the superstructure and flanking towers of a fortified gateway
of the 15th century.

La Ferté-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold (_fermeté_)
built about the 11th century and afterwards held by the family of
Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English troops till after a
four months' siege. It belonged in the 16th century to the family of
Guise and supported the League, but was captured by the royal forces in
1590.




LA FERTÉ-MILON, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne on
the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1906) 1563. The town
has imposing remains comprising one side flanked by four towers of an
unfinished castle built about the beginning of the 15th century by Louis
of Orleans, brother of Charles VI. The churches of St Nicholas and
Notre-Dame, chiefly of the 16th century, both contain fine old stained
glass. Jean Racine, the poet, was born in the town, and a statue by
David d'Augers has been erected to him.




LAFFITTE, JACQUES (1767-1844), French banker and politician, was born at
Bayonne on the 24th of October 1767, one of the ten children of a
carpenter. He became clerk in the banking house of Perregaux in Paris,
was made a partner in the business in 1800, and in 1804 succeeded
Perregaux as head of the firm. The house of Perregaux, Laffitte et Cie.
became one of the greatest in Europe, and Laffitte became regent (1809),
then governor (1814) of the Bank of France and president of the Chamber
of Commerce (1814). He raised large sums of money for the provisional
government in 1814 and for Louis XVIII. during the Hundred Days, and it
was with him that Napoleon deposited five million francs in gold before
leaving France for the last time. Rather than permit the government to
appropriate the money from the Bank he supplied two million from his own
pocket for the arrears of the imperial troops after Waterloo. He was
returned by the department of the Seine to the Chamber of Deputies in
1816, and took his seat on the Left. He spoke chiefly on financial
questions; his known Liberal views did not prevent Louis XVIII. from
insisting on his inclusion on the commission on the public finances. In
1818 he saved Paris from a financial crisis by buying a large amount of
stock, but next year, in consequence of his heated defence of the
liberty of the press and the electoral law of 1867, the governorship of
the Bank was taken from him. One of the earliest and most determined of
the partisans of a constitutional monarchy under the duke of Orleans, he
was deputy for Bayonne in July 1830, when his house in Paris became the
headquarters of the revolutionary party. When Charles X., after
retracting the hated ordinances, sent the comte d'Argout[1] to Laffitte
to negotiate a change of ministry, the banker replied, "It is too late.
There is no longer a Charles X.," and it was he who secured the
nomination of Louis Philippe as lieutenant-general of the kingdom. On
the 3rd of August he became president of the Chamber of Deputies, and on
the 9th he received in this capacity Louis Philippe's oath to the new
constitution. The clamour of the Paris mob for the death of the
imprisoned ministers of Charles X., which in October culminated in
riots, induced the more moderate members of the government--including
Guizot, the duc de Broglie and Casimir-Périer--to hand over the
administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence of the
revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position to save the
ministers from their fury. On the 5th of November, accordingly, Laffitte
became minister-president of a government pledged to progress
(_mouvement_), holding at the same time the portfolio of finance. The
government was torn between the necessity for preserving order and the
no less pressing necessity (for the moment) of conciliating the Parisian
populace; with the result that it succeeded in doing neither one nor the
other. The impeached ministers were, indeed, saved by the courage of the
Chamber of Peers and the attitude of the National Guard; but their
safety was bought at the price of Laffitte's popularity. His policy of a
French intervention in favour of the Italian revolutionists, by which he
might have regained his popularity, was thwarted by the diplomatic
policy of Louis Philippe. The resignation of Lafayette and Dupont de
l'Eure still further undermined the government, which, incapable even of
keeping order in the streets of Paris, ended by being discredited with
all parties. At length Louis Philippe, anxious to free himself from the
hampering control of the agents of his fortune, thought it safe to
parade his want of confidence in the man who had made him king.
Thereupon, in March 1831, Laffitte resigned, begging pardon of God and
man for the part he had played in raising Louis Philippe to the throne.
He left office politically and financially a ruined man. His affairs
were wound up in 1836, and next year he created a credit bank, which
prospered as long as he lived, but failed in 1848. He died in Paris on
the 26th of May 1844.

  See P. Thureau-Dangin, _La Monarchie de Juillet_ (vol. i. 1884).


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d'Argout (1782-1858),
    afterwards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of the
    Laffitte Casimir-Périer and Thiers cabinets.




LAFFITTE, PIERRE (1823-1903), French Positivist, was born on the 21st of
February 1823 at Béguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of
mathematics, he became a disciple of Comte, who appointed him his
literary executor. On the schism of the Positivist body which followed
Comte's death, he was recognized as head of the section which accepted
the full Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littré, who
rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the materialism
of Comte's earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte delivered Positivist
lectures in the room formerly occupied by Comte in the rue Monsieur le
Prince. He published _Les Grands Types de l'humanité_ (1875) and _Cours
de philosophie première_ (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new
chair founded at the Collège de France for the exposition of the general
history of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a
statue to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He died
on the 4th of January 1903.




LA FLÈCHE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop.
(1906) town 7800; commune 10,663. The chief interest of the town lies in
the Prytanée, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a
college founded for the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings,
including a fine chapel, were erected from 1620 to 1653 and are
surrounded by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the
marketplace. La Flèche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of
first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the
manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an
agricultural market.

The lords of La Flèche became counts of Maine about 1100, but the
lordship became separate from the county and passed in the 16th century
to the family of Bourbon and thus to Henry IV.




LAFONT, PIERRE CHÉRI (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on
the 15th of May 1797. Abandoning his profession as assistant ship's
doctor in the navy, he went to Paris to study singing and acting. He had
some experience at a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the
Opéra Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an
engagement. Here he made his _début_ in 1821 in _La Somnambule_, and his
good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into public favour.
After several years at the Nouveautés and the Vaudeville, on the burning
of the latter in 1838 he went to England, and married, at Gretna Green,
Jenny Colon, from whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he
joined the Variétés, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as
_Le Chevalier de Saint Georges_, _Le Lion empaillé_, _Une dernière
conquête_, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, and one at
the Gaiété, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part
of the noble father in such plays as Les _Vieux Garçons_ and _Nos bons
villageois_. He died in Paris on the 19th of April 1873.




LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE (1621-1695), French poet, was born at Château
Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of July 1621. His father was
Charles de La Fontaine, "maître des eaux et forêts"--a kind of
deputy-ranger--of the duchy of Château Thierry; his mother was Françoise
Pidoux. On both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle
class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy. Jean, the
eldest child, was educated at the _collège_ (grammar-school) of Reims,
and at the end of his school days he entered the Oratory in May 1641,
and the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October of the same year; but a
very short sojourn proved to him that he had mistaken his vocation. He
then apparently studied law, and is said to have been admitted as
_avocat_, though there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was,
however, settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat
early. In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and
arranged a marriage for him with Marie Héricart, a girl of sixteen, who
brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations. She seems to have
been both handsome and intelligent, but the two did not get on well
together. There appears to be absolutely no ground for the vague scandal
as to her conduct, which was, for the most part long afterwards, raised
by gossips or personal enemies of La Fontaine. All that is positively
said against her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate
novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from home, was
certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and was so bad a man
of business that his affairs became involved in hopeless difficulty, and
a _séparation de biens_ had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly
amicable transaction for the benefit of the family; by degrees, however,
the pair, still without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and
for the greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine's life he
lived in Paris while his wife dwelt at Château Thierry, which, however,
he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and was
educated and taken care of wholly by his mother.

Even in the earlier years of his marriage La Fontaine seems to have been
much at Paris, but it was not till about 1656 that he became a regular
visitor to the capital. The duties of his office, which were only
occasional, were compatible with this non-residence. It was not till he
was past thirty that his literary career began. The reading of Malherbe,
it is said, first awoke poetical fancies in him, but for some time he
attempted nothing but trifles in the fashion of the time--epigrams,
ballades, rondeaux, &c. His first serious work was a translation or
adaptation of the _Eunuchus of Terence_ (1654). At this time the
Maecenas of French letters was the Superintendant Fouquet, to whom La
Fontaine was introduced by Jacques Jannart, a connexion of his wife's.
Few people who paid their court to Fouquet went away empty-handed, and
La Fontaine soon received a pension of 1000 livres (1659), on the easy
terms of a copy of verses for each quarter's receipt. He began too a
medley of prose and poetry, entitled _Le Songe de Vaux_, on Fouquet's
famous country house. It was about this time that his wife's property
had to be separately secured to her, and he seems by degrees to have had
to sell everything of his own; but, as he never lacked powerful and
generous patrons, this was of small importance to him. In the same year
he wrote a ballad, _Les Rieurs du Beau-Richard_, and this was followed
by many small pieces of occasional poetry addressed to various
personages from the king downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal
displeasure, but La Fontaine, like most of his literary protégés, was
not unfaithful to him, the well-known elegy _Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux_,
being by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought
not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company with
Jannart, and of which we have an account written to his wife, was not
wholly spontaneous, as it certainly was not on Jannart's part. Just at
this time his affairs did not look promising. His father and himself had
assumed the title of esquire, to which they were not strictly entitled,
and, some old edicts on the subject having been put in force, an
informer procured a sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He
found, however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the
duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Château Thierry, and
nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine's liveliest
verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini, the youngest of
Mazarin's nieces, and it is even probable that the taste of the duke and
duchess for Ariosto had something to do with the writing of his first
work of real importance, the first book of the _Contes_, which appeared
in 1664. He was then forty-three years old, and his previous printed
productions had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was
handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published. It
was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux Colombier, so
famous in French literary history, was formed. It consisted of La
Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Molière, the last of whom was almost of
the same age as La Fontaine, the other two considerably younger.
Chapelle was also a kind of outsider in the coterie. There are many
anecdotes, some pretty obviously apocryphal, about these meetings. The
most characteristic is perhaps that which asserts that a copy of
Chapelain's unlucky _Pucelle_ always lay on the table, a certain number
of lines of which was the appointed punishment for offences against the
company. The coterie furnished under feigned names the personages of La
Fontaine's version of the Cupid and Psyche story, which, however, with
_Adonis_, was not printed till 1669. Meanwhile the poet continued to
find friends. In 1664 he was regularly commissioned and sworn in as
gentleman to the duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the
Luxembourg. He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have
something like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look
into some malpractices at Château Thierry. In the same year appeared the
second book of the _Contes_, and in 1668 the first six books of the
_Fables_, with more of both kinds in 1671. In this latter year a curious
instance of the docility with which the poet lent himself to any
influence was afforded by his officiating, at the instance of the
Port-Royalists, as editor of a volume of sacred poetry dedicated to the
prince de Conti. A year afterwards his situation, which had for some
time been decidedly flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for
the worse. The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up
his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was always a
providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sablière, a woman of great
beauty, of considerable intellectual power and of high character,
invited him to make his home in her house, where he lived for some
twenty years. He seems to have had no trouble whatever about his affairs
thenceforward; and could devote himself to his two different lines of
poetry, as well as to that of theatrical composition.

In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized as one of
the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sévigné, one of the
soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means given to praise
mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection of _Fables_
published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is pretty certain that
this was the general opinion. It was not unreasonable, therefore, that
he should present himself to the Academy, and, though the subjects of
his _Contes_ were scarcely calculated to propitiate that decorous
assembly, while his attachment to Fouquet and to more than one
representative of the old Frondeur party made him suspect to Colbert and
the king, most of the members were his personal friends. He was first
proposed in 1682, but was rejected for Dangeau. The next year Colbert
died and La Fontaine was again nominated. Boileau was also a candidate,
but the first ballot gave the fabulist sixteen votes against seven only
for the critic. The king, whose assent was necessary, not merely for
election but for a second ballot in case of the failure of an absolute
majority, was ill-pleased, and the election was left pending. Another
vacancy occurred, however, some months later, and to this Boileau was
elected. The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding,
"Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, il a promis d'être
sage." His admission was indirectly the cause of the only serious
literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place between the Academy
and one of its members, Antoine Furetière, on the subject of the
latter's French dictionary, which was decided to be a breach of the
Academy's corporate privileges. Furetière, a man of no small ability,
bitterly assailed those whom he considered to be his enemies, and among
them La Fontaine, whose unlucky _Contes_ made him peculiarly vulnerable,
his second collection of these tales having been the subject of a police
condemnation. The death of the author of the _Roman Bourgeois_, however,
put an end to this quarrel. Shortly afterwards La Fontaine had a share
in a still more famous affair, the celebrated Ancient-and-Modern
squabble in which Boileau and Perrault were the chiefs, and in which La
Fontaine (though he had been specially singled out by Perrault for
favourable comparison with Aesop and Phaedrus) took the Ancient side.
About the same time (1685-1687) he made the acquaintance of the last of
his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and Madame d'Hervart, and fell
in love with a certain Madame Ulrich, a lady of some position but of
doubtful character. This acquaintance was accompanied by a great
familiarity with Vendôme, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie
of the Temple; but, though Madame de la Sablière had long given herself
up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises, La Fontaine
continued an inmate of her house until her death in 1693. What followed
is told in one of the best known of the many stories bearing on his
childlike nature. Hervart on hearing of the death, had set out at once
to find La Fontaine. He met him in the street in great sorrow, and
begged him to make his home at his house. "J'y allais" was La Fontaine's
answer. He had already undergone the process of conversion during a
severe illness the year before. An energetic young priest, M. Poucet,
had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to acknowledge the
impropriety of the _Contes_, and it is said that the destruction of a
new play of some merit was demanded and submitted to as a proof of
repentance. A pleasant story is told of the young duke of Burgundy,
Fénelon's pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to
La Fontaine as a present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine
recovered for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new
hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they did very
carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, completing his _Fables_
among other things; but he did not survive Madame de la Sablière much
more than two years, dying on the 13th of April 1695, at the age of
seventy-three. He was buried in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His
wife survived him nearly fifteen years.

The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of some other
men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend by literary
tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and indifference to
business gave a subject to Tallemant des Réaux. His later contemporaries
helped to swell the tale, and the 18th century finally accepted it,
including the anecdotes of his meeting his son, being told who he was,
and remarking, "Ah, yes, I thought I had seen him somewhere!" of his
insisting on fighting a duel with a supposed admirer of his wife, and
then imploring him to visit at his house just as before; of his going
into company with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a
contrast, those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive
rudeness, in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the
unfavourable description by La Bruyère, that La Fontaine was a special
friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyère's chief literary enemy. But
after all deductions much will remain, especially when it is remembered
that one of the chief authorities for these anecdotes is Louis Racine, a
man who possessed intelligence and moral worth, and who received them
from his father, La Fontaine's attached friend for more than thirty
years. Perhaps the best worth recording of all these stories is one of
the Vieux Colombier quartette, which tells how Molière, while Racine and
Boileau were exercising their wits upon "le bonhomme" or "le bon" (by
both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly known), remarked to a
bystander, "Nos beaux esprits ont beau faire, ils n'effaceront pas le
bonhomme." They have not.

  The works of La Fontaine, the total bulk of which is considerable,
  fall no less naturally than traditionally into three divisions, the
  _Fables_, the _Contes_ and the miscellaneous works. Of these the first
  may be said to be known universally, the second to be known to all
  lovers of French literature, the third to be with a few exceptions
  practically forgotten. This distribution of the judgment of posterity
  is as usual just in the main, but not wholly. There are excellent
  things in the _Oeuvres Diverses_, but their excellence is only
  occasional, and it is not at the best equal to that of the _Fables_ or
  the _Contes_. It was thought by contemporary judges who were both
  competent and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and
  there is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are
  especially weak. The best pieces usually published under his
  name--_Ragotin_, _Le Florentin_, _La Coupe enchantée_, were originally
  fathered not by him but by Champmeslé, the husband of the famous
  actress who captivated Racine and Charles de Sévigné. His avowed work
  was chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value at its
  best. _Psyche_ has all the advantages of its charming story and of La
  Fontaine's style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays
  because of the framework of personal conversation already alluded to.
  The mingled prose and verse of the _Songe de Vaux_ is not
  uninteresting, but its best things, such as the description of night--

  "Laissant tomber les fleurs et ne les semant pas,"

  which has enchanted French critics, are little more than conceits,
  though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The elegies,
  the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things which
  would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de
  société, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of
  modern criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to
  their rank in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two
  great collections of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine's
  immortality.

  Between the actual literary merits of the two there is not much to
  choose, but the change of manners and the altered standard of literary
  decency have thrown the _Contes_ into the shade. These tales are
  identical in general character with those which amused Europe from the
  days of the early _fabliau_ writers. Light love, the misfortunes of
  husbands, the cunning of wives, the breach of their vows by
  ecclesiastics, constitute the staple of their subject. In some
  respects La Fontaine is the best of such tale-tellers, while he is
  certainly the latest who deserves such excuse as may be claimed by a
  writer who does not choose indecent subjects from a deliberate
  knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate
  desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the
  style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which
  contemporaries of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sévigné speak of
  his work shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it
  was not finally accepted. In the _Contes_ La Fontaine for the most
  part attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories
  (varying them, it is true, in detail not a little) from Boccaccio,
  from Marguerite, from the _Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles_, &c. He applies
  to them his marvellous power of easy sparkling narration, and his
  hardly less marvellous faculty of saying more or less outrageous
  things in the most polite and gentlemanly manner. These _Contes_ have
  indeed certain drawbacks. They are not penetrated by the half pagan
  ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates
  and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle
  mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which
  distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pléiade. They are
  emphatically _contes pour rire_, a genuine expression of the _esprit
  gaulois_ of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the
  grossness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A
  comparison of "La Fiancée du roi de Garbe" with its original in
  Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Émile Montégut's
  admirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything
  else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have pleaded
  hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort in such
  pieces as "La Courtisane amoureuse," but as a whole it must be
  admitted to be absent.

  The _Fables_, with hardly less animation and narrative art than the
  _Contes_, are free from disadvantages (according to modern notions) of
  subject, and exhibit the versatility and fecundity of the author's
  talent perhaps even more fully. La Fontaine had many predecessors in
  the fable and especially in the beast fable. In his first issue,
  comprising what are now called the first six books, he adhered to the
  path of these predecessors with some closeness; but in the later
  collections he allowed himself far more liberty, and it is in these
  parts that his genius is most fully manifested. The boldness of the
  politics is as much to be considered as the ingenuity of the
  moralizing, as the intimate knowledge of human nature displayed in the
  substance of the narratives, or as the artistic mastery shown in
  their form. It has sometimes been objected that the view of human
  character which La Fontaine expresses is unduly dark, and resembles
  too much that of La Rochefoucauld, for whom the poet certainly had a
  profound admiration. The discussion of this point would lead us too
  far here. It may only be said that satire (and La Fontaine is
  eminently a satirist) necessarily concerns itself with the darker
  rather than with the lighter shades. Indeed the objection has become
  pretty nearly obsolete with the obsolescence of what may be called the
  sentimental-ethicalschool of criticism. Its last overt expression was
  made by Lamartine, excellently answered by Sainte-Beuve. Exception has
  also been taken to the _Fables_ on more purely literary, but hardly
  less purely arbitrary grounds by Lessing. Perhaps the best criticism
  ever passed upon La Fontaine's _Fables_ is that of Silvestre de Sacy,
  to the effect that they supply three several delights to three several
  ages: the child rejoices in the freshness and vividness of the story,
  the eager student of literature in the consummate art with which it is
  told, the experienced man of the world in the subtle reflections on
  character and life which it conveys. Nor has any one, with the
  exception of a few paradoxers like Rousseau and a few sentimentalists
  like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh
  and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore
  naturally become the standard reading book of French both at home and
  abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the _Télémaque_ of
  Fénelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even
  this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity.

  The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance made
  for the difference of subject, visible equally in the _Fables_ and in
  the _Contes_. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature
  for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that
  "_Il y a dans La Fontaine une plénitude de poésie qu'on ne trouve
  nulle part dans les autres auteurs français._" The difficulty arises
  from the ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for
  diligent observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not
  the first, almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the
  oldest story becomes novel, the most hackneyed moral piquant, the most
  commonplace details fresh and appropriate. As to the second point
  there has not been such unanimous agreement. It used to be considered
  that La Fontaine's ceaseless diversity of metre, his archaisms, his
  licences in rhyme and orthography, were merely ingenious devices for
  the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the
  stately couplet and _rimes difficiles_ enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine
  in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the "vers boiteux,
  disloqués, inégaux, sans symmétrie ni dans l'oreille ni sur la page."
  This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by the most
  accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical
  practitioners that France has ever had, Théodore de Banville; and it
  is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any
  professional maker of verse. La Fontaine's irregularities are strictly
  regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may
  be said to be (though, of course, in a light and tripping measure
  instead of a stately one) similar to that of the stanzas of the
  English pindaric ode in the hands of Dryden or Collins. There is
  therefore nothing against La Fontaine on the score of invention and
  nothing on the score of art. But something more, at least according to
  English standards, is wanted to make up a "plenitude of poesy," and
  this something more La Fontaine seldom or never exhibits. In words
  used by Joubert himself elsewhere, he never "transports." The faculty
  of transporting is possessed and used in very different manners by
  different poets. In some it takes the form of passion, in some of half
  mystical enthusiasm for nature, in some of commanding eloquence, in
  some of moral fervour. La Fontaine has none of these things: he is
  always amusing, always sensible, always clever, sometimes even
  affecting, but at the same time always more or less prosaic, were it
  not for his admirable versification. He is not a great poet, perhaps
  not even a great humorist; but he is the most admirable teller of
  light tales in verse that has ever existed in any time or country; and
  he has established in his verse-tale a model which is never likely to
  be surpassed.

  La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of his
  works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions of
  them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have already
  been noticed. Others were the _Poëme de la captivité de St Malc_
  (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port-Royalists, the _Poëme
  du Quinquina_ (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a very
  different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small
  pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may be
  singled out the pieces published by the poet with the works of his
  friend Maucroix (1685). The year after his death some posthumous works
  appeared, and some years after his son's death the scattered poems,
  letters, &c., with the addition of some unpublished work bought from
  the family in manuscript, were carefully edited and published as
  _Oeuvres diverses_ (1729). During the 18th century two of the most
  magnificent illustrated editions ever published of any poet reproduced
  the two chief works of La Fontaine. The _Fables_ were illustrated by
  Oudry (1755-1759), the _Contes_ by Eisen (1762). This latter under the
  title of "Edition des Fermiers-Généraux" fetches a high price. During
  the first thirty years of the 19th century Walckenaer, a great student
  of French 17th-century classics, published for the house of Didot
  three successive editions of La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being
  perhaps entitled to the rank of the standard edition, as his _Histoire
  de la vie et des ouvrages de La Fontaine_ is the standard biography
  and bibliography. The later editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the
  _Bibliothèque elzévirienne_, A. Pauly in the _Collection des
  classiques françaises_ of M. Lemerre and L. Moland in that of M.
  Garnier supply in different forms all that can be wished. The second
  is the handsomest, the third, which is complete, perhaps the most
  generally useful. Editions, selections, translations, &c., of the
  _Fables_, especially for school use, are innumerable; but an
  illustrated edition published by the _Librairie des Bibliophiles_
  (1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century
  predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, _Documents inédits sur La
  Fontaine_ (1893); of G. Lafenestre, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1895); and
  of Émile Faguet, _Jean de La Fontaine_ (1900), should be mentioned.
       (G. Sa.)




LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE, BART. (1807-1864), Canadian statesman
and judge, third son of Antoine Ménard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and
Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was born at Boucherville in the province of
Quebec on the 4th of October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the
Collège de Montréal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was
called to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the 18th of August
1829. He married firstly Adèle, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and,
secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison, of Berthier, by whom he
had two sons. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Assembly
for the county of Terrebonne, and became an ardent supporter of Louis
Joseph Papineau in opposing the administration of the governor-in-chief,
which led to the rebellion of 1837. LaFontaine, however, did not approve
the violent methods of his leader, and after the hostilities at Saint
Denis he presented a petition to Lord Gosford requesting him to summon
the assembly and to adopt measures to stem the revolutionary course of
events in Lower Canada. The rebellion broke out afresh in the autumn of
1838; the constitution of 1791 was suspended; LaFontaine was imprisoned
for a brief period; and Papineau, who favoured annexation by the United
States, was in exile. At this crisis in Lower Canada the French
Canadians turned to LaFontaine as their leader, and under his direction
maintained their opposition to the special council, composed of nominees
of the crown. In 1839 Lord Sydenham, the governor-general, offered the
solicitor generalship to LaFontaine, which he refused; and after the
Union of 1841 LaFontaine was defeated in the county of Terrebonne
through the governor's influence. During the next year he obtained a
seat in the assembly of the province of Canada, and on the death of
Sydenham he was called by Sir Charles Bagot to form an administration
with Robert Baldwin. The ministry resigned in November 1843, as a
protest against the actions of Lord Metcalfe, who had succeeded Bagot.
In 1848 LaFontaine formed a new administration with Baldwin, and
remained in office until 1851, when he retired from public life. It was
during the ministry of LaFontaine-Baldwin that the Amnesty Bill was
passed, which occasioned grave riots in Montreal, personal violence to
Lord Elgin and the destruction of the parliament buildings. After the
death of Sir James Stuart in 1853 LaFontaine was appointed chief justice
of Lower Canada and president of the seigneurial court, which settled
the vexed question of land tenure in Canada; and in 1854 he was created
a baronet. He died at Montreal on the 26th of February 1864.

  LaFontaine was well versed in constitutional history and French law;
  he reasoned closely and presented his conclusions with directness. He
  was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of
  his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible
  government in Canada. His principal works are: _L'Analyse de
  l'ordonnance du conseil spécial sur les bureaux d'hypothèques_
  (Montreal, 1842); _Observations sur les questions seigneuriales_
  (Montreal, 1854); see _LaFontaine_, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906).
       (A. G. D.)




LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE (1640-1716), French painter, was born in Paris. He
was one of the most noted and least servile pupils of Le Brun, under
whose direction he shared in the chief of the great decorative works
undertaken in the reign of Louis XIV. Leaving France in 1662, he spent
two years in Rome and three in Venice, and the influence of his
prolonged studies of Veronese is evident in his "Finding of Moses"
(Louvre), and in his "Rape of Proserpine" (Louvre), which he presented
to the Royal Academy as his diploma picture in 1673. He was at once
named assistant professor, and in 1674 the full responsibilities of the
office devolved on him, but his engagements did not prevent his
accepting in 1689 the invitation of Lord Montagu to decorate Montagu
House. He visited London twice, remaining on the second
occasion--together with Rousseau and Monnoyer--more than two years.
William III. vainly strove to detain him in England by the proposal that
he should decorate Hampton Court, for Le Brun was dead, and Mansart
pressed Lafosse to return to Paris to take in hand the cupola of the
Invalides. The decorations of Montagu House are destroyed, those of
Versailles are restored, and the dome of the Invalides (engraved, Picart
and Cochin) is now the only work existing which gives a full measure of
his talent. During his latter years Lafosse executed many other
important decorations in public buildings and private houses, notably in
that of Crozat, under whose roof he died on the 13th of December 1716.




LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE (1827-1891), German biblical scholar and
orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of November 1827. His real
name was Bötticher, Lagarde being his mother's name. At Berlin
(1844-1846) and Halle (1846-1847) he studied theology, philosophy and
oriental languages. In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In
1854 he became a teacher at a Berlin public school, but this did not
interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the _Didascalia apostolorum
syriace_ (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum
and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years' leave of absence to
collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded Heinrich Ewald as
professor of oriental languages at Göttingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an
active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim,
the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited
the Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets according
to the Codex Reuchlinianus preserved at Carlsruhe, _Prophetae chaldaice_
(1872), the _Hagiographa chaldaice_ (1874), an Arabic translation of the
Gospels, _Die vier Evangelien, arabisch aus der Wiener Handschrift
herausgegeben_ (1864), a Syriac translation of the Old Testament
Apocrypha, _Libri V. T. apocryphi syriace_ (1861), a Coptic translation
of the Pentateuch, _Der Pentateuch koptisch_ (1867), and a part of the
Lucianic text of the Septuagint, which he was able to reconstruct from
manuscripts for nearly half the Old Testament. He devoted himself
ardently to oriental scholarship, and published _Zur Urgeschichte der
Armenier_ (1854) and _Armenische Studien_ (1877). He was also a student
of Persian, publishing _Isaias persice_ (1883) and _Persische Studien_
(1884). He followed up his Coptic studies with _Aegyptiaca_ (1883), and
published many minor contributions to the study of oriental languages in
_Gesammelte Abhandlungen_ (1866), _Symmicta_ (i. 1877, ii. 1880),
_Semitica_ (i. 1878, ii. 1879), _Orientalia_ (1879-1880) and
_Mittheilungen_ (1884). Mention should also be made of the valuable
_Onomastica sacra_ (1870; 2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in
politics. He belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a
violent anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his
writings. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of December 1891.

  See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_; and cf. Anna de
  Lagarde, _Paul de Lagarde_ (1894).




LAGASH, or SIRPURLA, one of the oldest centres of Sumerian civilization
in Babylonia. It is represented by a rather low, long line of ruin
mounds, along the dry bed of an ancient canal, some 3 m. E. of the
Shatt-el-Hai and a little less than 10 m. N. of the modern Turkish town
of Shatra. These ruins were discovered in 1877 by Ernest de Sarzec, at
that time French consul at Basra, who was allowed, by the Montefich
chief, Nasir Pasha, the first Wali-Pasha, or governor-general, of Basra,
to excavate at his pleasure in the territories subject to that official.
At the outset on his own account, and later as a representative of the
French government, under a Turkish firman, de Sarzec continued
excavations at this site, with various intermissions, until his death in
1901, after which the work was continued under the supervision of the
Commandant Cros. The principal excavations were made in two larger
mounds, one of which proved to be the site of the temple, E-Ninnu, the
shrine of the patron god of Lagash, Nin-girsu or Ninib. This temple had
been razed and a fortress built upon its ruins, in the Greek or Seleucid
period, some of the bricks found bearing the inscription in Aramaic and
Greek of a certain Hadad-nadin-akhe, king of a small Babylonian kingdom.
It was beneath this fortress that the numerous statues of Gudea were
found, which constitute the gem of the Babylonian collections at the
Louvre. These had been decapitated and otherwise mutilated, and thrown
into the foundations of the new fortress. From this stratum came also
various fragments of bas reliefs of high artistic excellence. The
excavations in the other larger mound resulted in the discovery of the
remains of buildings containing objects of all sorts in bronze and
stone, dating from the earliest Sumerian period onward, and enabling us
to trace the art history of Babylonia to a date some hundreds of years
before the time of Gudea. Apparently this mound had been occupied
largely by store houses, in which were stored not only grain, figs, &c.,
but also vessels, weapons, sculptures and every possible object
connected with the use and administration of palace and temple. In a
small outlying mound de Sarzec discovered the archives of the temple,
about 30,000 inscribed clay tablets, containing the business records,
and revealing with extraordinary minuteness the administration of an
ancient Babylonian temple, the character of its property, the method of
farming its lands, herding its flocks, and its commercial and industrial
dealings and enterprises; for an ancient Babylonian temple was a great
industrial, commercial, agricultural and stock-raising establishment.
Unfortunately, before these archives could be removed, the galleries
containing them were rifled by the Arabs, and large numbers of the
tablets were sold to antiquity dealers, by whom they have been scattered
all over Europe and America. From the inscriptions found at Tello, it
appears that Lagash was a city of great importance in the Sumerian
period, some time probably in the 4th millennium B.C. It was at that
time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nina and his successors, who were
engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of Kengi
and Kish on the north. With the Semitic conquest it lost its
independence, its rulers becoming _patesis_, dependent rulers, under
Sargon and his successors; but it still remained Sumerian and continued
to be a city of much importance, and, above all, a centre of artistic
development. Indeed, it was in this period and under the immediately
succeeding supremacy of the kings of Ur, Ur-Gur and Dungi, that it
reached its highest artistic development. At this period, also, under
its _patesis_, Ur-bau and Gudea, Lagash had extensive commercial
communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea
brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite
or dolorite from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and
southern Arabia and from Sinai, while his armies, presumably under his
overlord, Ur-Gur, were engaged in battles in Elam on the east. His was
especially the era of artistic development. Some of the earlier works of
Ur-Nina, En-anna-tum, Entemena and others, before the Semitic conquest,
are also extremely interesting, especially the famous stele of the
vultures and a great silver vase ornamented with what may be called the
coat of arms of Lagash, a lion-headed eagle with wings outspread,
grasping a lion in each talon. After the time of Gudea, Lagash seems to
have lost its importance; at least we know nothing more about it until
the construction of the Seleucid fortress mentioned, when it seems to
have become part of the Greek kingdom of Characene. The objects found at
Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to this time discovered in
Babylonia.

  See E. de Sarzec, _Découvertes en Chaldée_ (1887 foll.).
       (J. P. Pe.)




LAGHMAN, a district of Afghanistan, in the province of Jalalabad,
between Jalalabad and Kabul, on the northern side of the Peshawar road,
one of the richest and most fertile tracts in Afghanistan. It is the
valley of the Kabul river between the Tagao and the Kunar and merges on
the north into Kafiristan. The inhabitants, Ghilzais and Tajiks, are
supposed to be the cleverest business people in the country. Sugar,
cotton and rice are exported to Kabul. The Laghman route between Kabul
and India crossing the Kunar river into the Mohmand country is the
route followed by Alexander the Great and Baber; but it has now been
supplanted by the Khyber.




LAGOON (Fr. _lagune_, Lat. _lacuna_, a pool), a term applied to (1) a
sheet of salt or brackish water near the sea, (2) a sheet of fresh water
of no great depth or extent, (3) the expanse of smooth water enclosed by
an atoll. Sea lagoons are formed only where the shores are low and
protected from wave action. Under these conditions a bar may be raised
above sea-level or a spit may grow until its end touches the land. The
enclosed shallow water is then isolated in a wide stretch, the seaward
banks broaden, and the lagoon becomes a permanent area of still shallow
water with peculiar faunal features. In the old lake plains of Australia
there are occasional wide and shallow depressions where water collects
permanently. Large numbers of aquatic birds, black swans, wild duck,
teal, migrant spoon-bills or pelicans, resort to these fresh-water
lagoons.




LAGOS, the western province of Southern Nigeria, a British colony and
protectorate in West Africa. The province consists of three divisions:
(1) the coast region, including Lagos Island, being the former colony of
Lagos; (2) small native states adjacent to the colony; and (3) the
Yoruba country, farther inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or
about the size of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of
Guinea, (from 2° 46´ 55´´ to 4° 30´ E.); W. by the French colony of
Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria.

  _Physical Features._--The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and all
  along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf.
  Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are
  small islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3¾ sq. m. Beyond the
  lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval
  forest--"the bush"--which completely separates the arable lands from
  the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing north to
  the Niger, and south to the Gulf of Guinea, is the main physical
  feature. The general level of Yorubaland is under 2000 ft. But towards
  the east, about the upper course of the river Oshun, the elevation is
  higher. Southward from the divide the land, which is intersected by
  the nearly parallel courses of the rivers Ogun, Omi, Oshun, Oni and
  Oluwa, falls in continuous undulations to the coast, the open
  cultivated ground gradually giving place to forest tracts, where the
  most characteristic tree is the oil-palm. Flowering trees, certain
  kinds of rubber vines, and shrubs are plentiful. In the northern
  regions the shea-butter tree is found. The fauna resembles that of the
  other regions of the Guinea coast, but large game is becoming scarce.
  Leopards, antelopes and monkeys are common, and alligators infest the
  rivers.

  The lagoons, lying between the outer surf-beaten beach and the inner
  shore line, form a navigable highway of still waters, many miles in
  extent. They are almost entirely free from rock, though they are often
  shallow, with numerous mud banks. The most extensive are Lekki in the
  east, and Ikoradu (Lagos) in the west. At its N.W. extremity the Lagos
  lagoon receives the Ogun, the largest river in Yorubaland, whose
  current is strong enough to keep the seaward channel open throughout
  the year. Hence the importance of the port of Lagos, which lies in
  smooth water at the northern end of this channel. The outer entrance
  is obstructed by a dangerous sand bar.

  _Climate and Health._--The climate is unhealthy, especially for
  Europeans. The rainfall has not been ascertained in the interior. In
  the northern districts it is probably considerably less than at Lagos,
  where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very
  great. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures
  being respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of
  seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82.5° F., the range
  being from 68° to 91°. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls of wind
  and rain that last for a few hours are common. The hurricane and
  typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial fever,
  smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest diseases
  and guinea-worm. Fever not unfrequently assumes the dangerous form
  known as "black-water fever." The frequency of smallpox is being much
  diminished outside the larger towns in the interior, in which
  vaccination is neglected. The absence of plague, yellow fever,
  cholera, typhoid fever and scarlatina is noteworthy. A mild form of
  yaws is endemic.

_Inhabitants._--The population is estimated at 1,750,000. The Yoruba
people, a Negro race divided into many tribes, form the majority of the
inhabitants. Notwithstanding their political feuds and their proved
capacity as fighting men, the Yoruba are distinguished above all the
surrounding races for their generally peaceful disposition, industry,
friendliness, courtesy and hospitality towards strangers. They are also
intensely patriotic. Physically they resemble closely their Ewe and
Dahomey neighbours, but are of somewhat lighter complexion, taller and
of less pronounced Negro features. They exhibit high administrative
ability, possess a marked capacity for trade, and have made remarkable
progress in the industrial arts. The different tribes are distinguished
by tattoo markings, usually some simple pattern of two or more parallel
lines, disposed horizontally or vertically on the cheeks or other parts
of the face. The feeling for religion is deeply implanted among the
Yoruba. The majority are pagans, or dominated by pagan beliefs, but
Islam has made great progress since the cessation of the Fula wars,
while Protestant and Roman Catholic missions have been at work since
1848 at Abeokuta, Oyo, Ibadan and other large towns. Samuel Crowther,
the first Negro bishop in the Anglican church, who was distinguished as
an explorer, geographer and linguist, was a native of Yorubaland,
rescued (1822) by the English from slavery and educated at Sierra Leone
(see YORUBAS).

_Towns._--Besides Lagos (q.v.), pop. about 50,000, the chief towns in
the colony proper are Epe, pop. 16,000, on the northern side of the
lagoons, and Badagry (a notorious place during the slave-trade period)
and Lekki, both on the coast. Inland the chief towns are Abeokuta
(q.v.), pop. about 60,000, and Ibadan (q.v.), pop. estimated at 150,000.

_Agriculture and Trade._--The chief wealth of the country consists in
forest produce, the staple industries being the collection of
palm-kernels and palm oil. Besides the oil-palm forests large areas are
covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut for commercial purposes
being a kind of mahogany. The destruction of immature trees and the
fluctuations in price render this a very uncertain trade. The rubber
industry was started in 1894, and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued
at £347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines,
75% of the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve
the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection of rubber
recommenced in 1904 and the industry again became one of importance. A
considerable area is devoted to cocoa plantations, all owned by native
cultivators. Coffee and tobacco of good quality are cultivated and
shea-butter is largely used as an illuminant. The Yoruba country is the
greatest agricultural centre in West Africa. For home consumption the
Yoruba grow yams, maize and millet, the chief articles of food, cassava,
sweet potatoes, sesame and beans. Model farms have been established for
experimental culture and for the tuition of the natives. A palatable
wine is obtained from the _Raphia vinifera_ and native beers are also
brewed. Imported spirits are largely consumed. There are no manufactures
on a large scale save the making of "country cloths" (from cotton grown,
spun and woven in the country) and mats. Pottery and agricultural
implements are made, and tanning, dyeing and forging practised in the
towns, and along the rivers and lagoons boats and canoes are built.
Fishing is extensively engaged in, the fish being dried and sent up
country. Except iron there are no valuable minerals in the country.

The cotton plant from which the "country cloths" are made is native to
the country, the soil of which is capable of producing the very finest
grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba have always grown the
plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was valued at £76,957, but owing to
low prices the natives ceased to grow cotton for export, so that in 1879
the value of exported cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export
was recommenced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the
Abeokuta district with encouraging results.

The Yoruba profess to be unable to alienate land in perpetuity, but
native custom does not preclude leasing, and land concessions have been
taken up by Europeans on long leases. Some concessions are only for
cutting and removing timber; others permit of cultivation. The northern
parts of the protectorate are specially suitable for stock raising and
poultry culture.

The chief exports are palm-kernels, palm-oil, timber, rubber and cocoa.
Palm-kernels alone constitute more than a half in value of the total
exports, and with palm-oil over three-fourths. The trade in these
products is practically confined to Great Britain and Germany, the share
of the first-named being 25% to Germany's 75%. Minor exports are coffee,
"country cloths," maize, shea-butter and ivory.

Cotton goods are the most important of the imports, spirits coming next,
followed by building material, haberdashery and hardware and tobacco.
Over 90% of the cotton goods are imported from Great Britain, whilst
nearly the same proportion of the spirit imports come from Germany.
Nearly all the liquors consist of "Trade Spirits," chiefly gin, rum and
a concoction called "alcohol," introduced (1901) to meet the growing
taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90% of
pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder the sale of
this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903 prohibiting the
import of liquor containing more than ½% of fusel oil, whilst the states
of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited the importation of liquor stronger
than proof. The total trade of the country in 1905 was valued at
£2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a large
transit trade with Dahomey.

  _Communications._--Lagos is well supplied with means of communication.
  A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway starts from Iddo Island, and extends past
  Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123 m.), Oshogbo (175 m.), to
  Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is continued to
  Jebba and Zunguru (see NIGERIA). Abeokuta is served by a branch line,
  1½ m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo
  Island both with the mainland and with Lagos Island (see Lagos, town).
  This line was begun in 1896 and opened to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the
  building of the section Ibadan-Illorin was undertaken. The railway was
  built by the government and cost about £7000 per mile. The lagoons
  offer convenient channels for numerous small craft, which, with the
  exception of steam-launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes.
  Branch steamers run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos,
  and also between Lagos and Porto Novo, in French territory, and do a
  large transit trade. Various roads through the bush have been made by
  the government. There is telegraphic communication with Europe,
  Northern Nigeria and South Africa, and steamships ply regularly
  between Lagos and Liverpool, and Lagos and Hamburg (see LAGOS, town).

  _Administration, Justice, Education, &c._--The small part of the
  province which constitutes "the colony of Southern Nigeria" is
  governed as a crown colony. Elsewhere the native governments are
  retained, the chiefs and councils of elders receiving the advice and
  support of British commissioners. There is also an advisory native
  central council which meets at Lagos. The great majority of the civil
  servants are natives of the country, some of whom have been educated
  in England. The legal status of slavery is not recognized by the law
  courts and dealing in slaves is suppressed. As an institution slavery
  is dying out, and only exists in a domestic form.

  The cost of administration is met, mainly, by customs, largely derived
  from the duties on imported spirits. From the railways, a government
  monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Expenditure is mainly
  under the heads of railway administration, other public works,
  military and police, health, and education. The revenue increased in
  the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to £410,250. In the same period
  the expenditure rose from £144,484 to £354,254.

  The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of the
  West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the Colonial
  Office in London and composed of Hausa (four-fifths) and Yoruba. It is
  officered from the British army.

  The judicial system in the colony proper is based on that of England.
  The colonial supreme court, by agreement with the rulers of Abeokuta,
  Ibadan and other states in the protectorate, tries, with the aid of
  native assessors, all cases of importance in those countries. Other
  cases are tried by mixed courts, or, where Yoruba alone are concerned,
  by native courts.

  There is a government board of education which maintains a few schools
  and supervises those voluntarily established. These are chiefly those
  of various missionary societies, who, besides primary schools, have a
  few secondary schools. The Mahommedans have their own schools. Grants
  from public funds are made to the voluntary schools. Considerable
  attention is paid to manual training, the laws of health and the
  teaching of English, which is spoken by about one-fourth of the native
  population.

_History._--Lagos Island was so named by the Portuguese explorers of the
15th century, because of the numerous lagoons or lakes on this part of
the coast. The Portuguese, and after them the French, had settlements
here at various points. In the 18th century Lagos Lagoon became the
chief resort of slavers frequenting the Bight of Benin, this portion of
the Gulf of Guinea becoming known pre-eminently as the Slave Coast.
British traders established themselves at Badagry, 40 m. W. of Lagos,
where in 1851 they were attacked by Kosoko, the Yoruba king of Lagos
Island. As a result a British naval force seized Lagos after a sharp
fight and deposed the king, placing his cousin, Akitoye, on the throne.
A treaty was concluded under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the
slave trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye's son
and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his territorial
jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of cowries, afterwards
commuted to £1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885.
Immediately after the proclamation of the British annexation, a steady
current of immigration from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town
arose on Lagos Island. Iddo Island was acquired at the same time as
Lagos Island, and from 1862 to 1894 various additions by purchase or
cession were made to the colony. In 1879 the small kingdom of Kotonu was
placed under British protection. Kotonu lies south and east of the
Denham Lagoon (see DAHOMEY). In 1889 it was exchanged with the French
for the kingdom of Pokra which is to the north of Badagry. In the early
years of the colony Sir John Glover, R.N., who was twice governor
(1864-1866 and 1871-1872), did much pioneer work and earned the
confidence of the natives to a remarkable degree. Later Sir C. A.
Moloney (governor 1886-1890) opened up relations with the Yoruba and
other tribes in the hinterland. He despatched two commissioners whose
duty it was to conclude commercial treaties and use British influence to
put a stop to inter-tribal fighting and the closing of the trade routes.
In 1892 the Jebu, who acted as middlemen between the colony and the
Yoruba, closed several trade routes. An expedition sent against them
resulted in their subjugation and the annexation of part of their
country. An order in council issued in 1899 extended the protectorate
over Yorubaland. The tribes of the hinterland have largely welcomed the
British protectorate and military expeditions have been few and
unimportant. (For the history of the Yoruba states see YORUBAS.)

Lagos was made a separate government in 1863; in 1866 it was placed in
political dependence upon Sierra Leone; in 1874 it became (politically)
an integral part of the Gold Coast Colony, whilst in 1886 it was again
made a separate government, administered as a crown colony. In Sir
William Macgregor, M.D., formerly administrator of British New Guinea,
governor 1899-1904, the colony found an enlightened ruler. He
inaugurated the railway system, and drew much closer the friendly ties
between the British and the tribes of the protectorate. Meantime, since
1884, the whole of the Niger delta, lying immediately east of Lagos, as
well as the Hausa states and Bornu, had been acquired by Great Britain.
Unification of the British possessions in Nigeria being desirable, the
delta regions and Lagos were formed in 1906 into one government (see
NIGERIA).

  See C. P. Lucas, _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vol.
  iii. _West Africa_ (Oxford, 1896); the annual _Reports_ issued by the
  Colonial Office, London; A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples_
  (London, 1894); Lady Glover, _The Life of Sir John Hawley Glover_
  (London, 1897). Consult also the works cited under NIGERIA and
  DAHOMEY.




LAGOS, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony and
protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26´ N., 3° 23´ E. on an island
in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and the mainland is Iddo
Island. An iron bridge for road and railway traffic 2600 ft. long
connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and another iron bridge, 917 ft. long,
joins Iddo Island to the mainland. The town lies but a foot or two above
sea-level. The principal buildings are a large government house, the law
courts, the memorial hall erected to commemorate the services of Sir
John Glover, used for public meetings and entertainments, an elaborate
club-house provided from public funds, and the police quarters. There
are many substantial villas that serve as quarters for the officers of
the civil service, as well as numerous solidly-built handsome private
buildings. The streets are well kept; the town is supplied with electric
light, and there is a good water service. The chief stores and depôts
for goods are all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which
originally Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In
connexion with this work a canal, 25 ft. wide, has been cut right
through the island and a sea-wall built round its western half. There is
a commodious public hospital, of the cottage type, on a good site. There
is a racecourse, which also serves as a general public recreation
ground. Shifting banks of sand form a bar at the sea entrance of the
lagoon. Extensive works were undertaken in 1908 with a view to making
Lagos an open port. A mole has been built at the eastern entrance to the
harbour and dredgers are at work on the bar, which can be crossed by
vessels drawing 13 ft. Large ocean-going steamers anchor not less than 2
m. from land, and goods and passengers are there transhipped into
smaller steamers for Lagos. Heavy cargo is carried by the large steamers
to Forcados, 200 m. farther down the coast, transhipped there into
branch boats, and taken via the lagoons to Lagos. The port is 4279 m.
from Liverpool, 1203 from Freetown, Sierra Leone (the nearest safe port
westward), and 315 from Cape Coast.

The inhabitants, about 50,000, include, besides the native tribes,
Sierra Leonis, Fanti, Krumen and the descendants of some 6000 Brazilian
_emancipados_ who were settled here in the early days of British rule.
The Europeans number about 400. Rather more than half the populace are
Moslems.




LAGOS, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly
the province of Algarve); on the Atlantic Ocean, and on the estuary of
the small river Lagos, here spanned by a fine stone bridge. Pop. (1900)
8291. The city is defended by fortifications erected in the 17th
century. It is supplied with water by an aqueduct 800 yds. long. The
harbour is deep, capacious, and completely sheltered on the north and
west; it is frequently visited by the British Channel fleet. Vines and
figs are extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood, and Lagos is the
centre of important sardine and tunny fisheries. Its trade is chiefly
carried on by small coasting vessels, as there is no railway. Lagos is
on or near the site of the Roman _Lacobriga_. Since the 15th century it
has held the formal rank and title of city. Cape St Vincent, the ancient
_Promontorium Sacrum_, and the south-western extremity of the kingdom,
is 22 m. W. It is famous for its connexion with Prince Henry (q.v.), the
Navigator, who here founded the town of Sagres in 1421; and for several
British naval victories, the most celebrated of which was won in 1797 by
Admiral Jervis (afterwards Earl St Vincent) over a larger Spanish
squadron. In 1759 Admiral Boscawen defeated a French fleet off Lagos.
The great earthquake of 1755 destroyed a large part of the city.




LA GRÂCE, or LES GRÂCES, a game invented in France during the first
quarter of the 19th century and called there _le jeu des Grâces_. It is
played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and a wicker ring, which
is projected into the air by placing it over the sticks crossed and then
separating them rapidly. The ring is caught upon the stick of another
player and thrown back, the object being to prevent it from falling to
the ground.




LA GRAND' COMBE, a town of southern France, in the department of Gard on
the Gardon, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nîmes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406;
commune, 11,292. There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity.




LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813), French mathematician, was born at
Turin, on the 25th of January 1736. He was of French extraction, his
great grandfather, a cavalry captain, having passed from the service of
France to that of Sardinia, and settled in Turin under Emmanuel II. His
father, Joseph Louis Lagrange, married Maria Theresa Gros, only daughter
of a rich physician at Cambiano, and had by her eleven children, of whom
only the eldest (the subject of this notice) and the youngest survived
infancy. His emoluments as treasurer at war, together with his wife's
fortune, provided him with ample means, which he lost by rash
speculations, a circumstance regarded by his son as the prelude to his
own good fortune; for had he been rich, he used to say, he might never
have known mathematics.

The genius of Lagrange did not at once take its true bent. His earliest
tastes were literary rather than scientific, and he learned the
rudiments of geometry during his first year at the college of Turin,
without difficulty, but without distinction. The perusal of a tract by
Halley (_Phil. Trans._ xviii. 960) roused his enthusiasm for the
analytical method, of which he was destined to develop the utmost
capabilities. He now entered, unaided save by his own unerring tact and
vivid apprehension, upon a course of study which, in two years, placed
him on a level with the greatest of his contemporaries. At the age of
nineteen he communicated to Leonhard Euler his idea of a general method
of dealing with "isoperimetrical" problems, known later as the Calculus
of Variations. It was eagerly welcomed by the Berlin mathematician, who
had the generosity to withhold from publication his own further
researches on the subject, until his youthful correspondent should have
had time to complete and opportunity to claim the invention. This
prosperous opening gave the key-note to Lagrange's career. Appointed, in
1754, professor of geometry in the royal school of artillery, he formed
with some of his pupils--for the most part his seniors--friendships
based on community of scientific ardour. With the aid of the marquis de
Saluces and the anatomist G. F. Cigna, he founded in 1758 a society
which became the Turin Academy of Sciences. The first volume of its
memoirs, published in the following year, contained a paper by Lagrange
entitled _Recherches sur la nature et la propagation du son_, in which
the power of his analysis and his address in its application were
equally conspicuous. He made his first appearance in public as the
critic of Newton, and the arbiter between d'Alembert and Euler. By
considering only the particles of air found in a right line, he reduced
the problem of the propagation of sound to the solution of the same
partial differential equations that include the motions of vibrating
strings, and demonstrated the insufficiency of the methods employed by
both his great contemporaries in dealing with the latter subject. He
further treated in a masterly manner of echoes and the mixture of
sounds, and explained the phenomenon of grave harmonics as due to the
occurrence of beats so rapid as to generate a musical note. This was
followed, in the second volume of the _Miscellanea Taurinensia_ (1762)
by his "Essai d'une nouvelle méthode pour déterminer les maxima et les
minima des formules intégrales indéfinies," together with the
application of this important development of analysis to the solution of
several dynamical problems, as well as to the demonstration of the
mechanical principle of "least action." The essential point in his
advance on Euler's mode of investigating curves of maximum or minimum
consisted in his purely analytical conception of the subject. He not
only freed it from all trammels of geometrical construction, but by the
introduction of the symbol [delta] gave it the efficacy of a new
calculus. He is thus justly regarded as the inventor of the "method of
variations"--a name supplied by Euler in 1766.

By these performances Lagrange found himself, at the age of twenty-six,
on the summit of European fame. Such a height had not been reached
without cost. Intense application during early youth had weakened a
constitution never robust, and led to accesses of feverish exaltation
culminating, in the spring of 1761, in an attack of bilious
hypochondria, which permanently lowered the tone of his nervous system.
Rest and exercise, however, temporarily restored his health, and he gave
proof of the undiminished vigour of his powers by carrying off, in 1764,
the prize offered by the Paris Academy of Sciences for the best essay on
the libration of the moon. His treatise was remarkable, not only as
offering a satisfactory explanation of the coincidence between the lunar
periods of rotation and revolution, but as containing the first
employment of his radical formula of mechanics, obtained by combining
with the principle of d'Alembert that of virtual velocities. His success
encouraged the Academy to propose, in 1766, as a theme for competition,
the hitherto unattempted theory of the Jovian system. The prize was
again awarded to Lagrange; and he earned the same distinction with
essays on the problem of three bodies in 1772, on the secular equation
of the moon in 1774, and in 1778 on the theory of cometary
perturbations.

He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit to Paris,
where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing with such
mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d'Alembert, Condorcet and the Abbé
Marie. Illness prevented him from visiting London. The post of director
of the mathematical department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had
been a member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler to St
Petersburg, the latter and d'Alembert united to recommend Lagrange as
his successor. Euler's eulogium was enhanced by his desire to quit
Berlin, d'Alembert's by his dread of a royal command to repair thither;
and the result was that an invitation, conveying the wish of the
"greatest king in Europe" to have the "greatest mathematician" at his
court, was sent to Turin. On the 6th of November 1766, Lagrange was
installed in his new position, with a salary of 6000 francs, ample
leisure for scientific research, and royal favour sufficient to secure
him respect without exciting envy. The national jealousy of foreigners,
was at first a source of annoyance to him; but such prejudices were
gradually disarmed by the inoffensiveness of his demeanour. We are told
that the universal example of his colleagues, rather than any desire for
female society, impelled him to matrimony; his choice being a lady of
the Conti family, who, by his request, joined him at Berlin. Soon after
marriage his wife was attacked by a lingering illness, to which she
succumbed, Lagrange devoting all his time, and a considerable store of
medical knowledge, to her care.

The long series of memoirs--some of them complete treatises of great
moment in the history of science--communicated by Lagrange to the Berlin
Academy between the years 1767 and 1787 were not the only fruits of his
exile. His _Mécanique analytique_, in which his genius most fully
displayed itself, was produced during the same period. This great work
was the perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost
in boyhood, and clearly sketched in his first published essay.[1] Its
scope may be briefly described as the reduction of the theory of
mechanics to certain general formulae, from the simple development of
which should be derived the equations necessary for the solution of each
separate problem.[2] From the fundamental principle of virtual
velocities, which thus acquired a new significance, Lagrange deduced,
with the aid of the calculus of variations, the whole system of
mechanical truths, by processes so elegant, lucid and harmonious as to
constitute, in Sir William Hamilton's words, "a kind of scientific
poem." This unification of method was one of matter also. By his mode of
regarding a liquid as a material system characterized by the unshackled
mobility of its minutest parts, the separation between the mechanics of
matter in different forms of aggregation finally disappeared, and the
fundamental equation of forces was for the first time extended to
hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.[3] Thus a universal science of matter
and motion was derived, by an unbroken sequence of deduction, from one
radical principle; and analytical mechanics assumed the clear and
complete form of logical perfection which it now wears.

A publisher having with some difficulty been found, the book appeared at
Paris in 1788 under the supervision of A. M. Legendre. But before that
time Lagrange himself was on the spot. After the death of Frederick the
Great, his presence was competed for by the courts of France, Spain and
Naples, and a residence in Berlin having ceased to possess any
attraction for him, he removed to Paris in 1787. Marie Antoinette warmly
patronized him. He was lodged in the Louvre, received the grant of an
income equal to that he had hitherto enjoyed, and, with the title of
"veteran pensioner" in lieu of that of "foreign associate" (conferred in
1772), the right of voting at the deliberations of the Academy. In the
midst of these distinctions, a profound melancholy seized upon him. His
mathematical enthusiasm was for the time completely quenched, and during
two years the printed volume of his _Mécanique_, which he had seen only
in manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection with
miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry, which, in the
new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found "aisée comme l'algèbre." The
Revolution roused him once more to activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity
impelled him to remain and watch the progress of such a novel
phenomenon; but curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific
character of the phenomenon unfolded itself. He now bitterly regretted
his temerity in braving the danger. "Tu l'as voulu" he would repeat
self-reproachfully. Even from revolutionary tribunals, however, the name
of Lagrange uniformly commanded respect. His pension was continued by
the National Assembly, and he was partially indemnified for the
depreciation of the currency by remunerative appointments. Nominated
president of the Academical commission for the reform of weights and
measures, his services were retained when its "purification" by the
Jacobins removed his most distinguished colleagues. He again sat on the
commission of 1799 for the construction of the metric system, and by his
zealous advocacy of the decimal principle largely contributed to its
adoption.

Meanwhile, on the 31st of May 1792 he married Mademoiselle Lemonnier,
daughter of the astronomer of that name, a young and beautiful girl,
whose devotion ignored disparity of years, and formed the one tie with
life which Lagrange found it hard to break. He had no children by either
marriage. Although specially exempted from the operation of the decree
of October 1793, imposing banishment on foreign residents, he took alarm
at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared to resume
his former situation in Berlin. His design was frustrated by the
establishment of and his official connexion with the École Normale, and
the École Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral
existence; but amongst the benefits derived from the foundation of the
École Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,[4] was
the restoration of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his
teachings was long treasured by such of his auditors--amongst whom were
J. B. J. Delambre and S. F. Lacroix--as were capable of appreciating
them. In expounding the principles of the differential calculus, he
started, as it were, from the level of his pupils, and ascended with
them by almost insensible gradations from elementary to abstruse
conceptions. He seemed, not a professor amongst students, but a learner
amongst learners; pauses for thought alternated with luminous
exposition; invention accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his
_Théorie des fonctions analytiques_ (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of
this work was contained in a paper published in the _Berlin Memoirs_ for
1772.[5] Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds,
unsatisfactory conception of the infinite from the metaphysics of the
higher mathematics, and the substitution for the differential and
integral calculus of an analogous method depending wholly on the serial
development of algebraical functions. By means of this "calculus of
derived functions" Lagrange hoped to give to the solution of all
analytical problems the utmost "rigour of the demonstrations of the
ancients";[6] but it cannot be said that the attempt was successful. The
validity of his fundamental position was impaired by the absence of a
well-constituted theory of series; the notation employed was
inconvenient, and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of
his _Mécanique_; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical
investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long since
been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the keenness and
clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than in this brilliant
effort, which, if it failed in its immediate object, was highly
effective in secondary results. His purely abstract mode of regarding
functions, apart from any mechanical or geometrical considerations, led
the way to a new and sharply characterized development of the higher
analysis in the hands of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.[7] The
_Théorie des fonctions_ is divided into three parts, of which the first
explains the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its
application to geometry, and the third with its bearings on mechanics.

On the establishment of the Institute, Lagrange was placed at the head
of the section of geometry; he was one of the first members of the
Bureau des Longitudes; and his name appeared in 1791 on the list of
foreign members of the Royal Society. On the annexation of Piedmont to
France in 1796, a touching compliment was paid to him in the person of
his aged father. By direction of Talleyrand, then minister for foreign
affairs, the French commissary repaired in state to the old man's
residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son, whom
they declared "to have done honour to mankind by his genius, and whom
Piedmont was proud to have produced, and France to possess." Bonaparte,
who styled him "la haute pyramide des sciences mathématiques," loaded
him with personal favours and official distinctions. He became a
senator, a count of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour,
and just before his death received the grand cross of the order of
réunion.

The preparation of a new edition of his _Mécanique_ exhausted his
already falling powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage of a speedy
end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final interview with his
friends B. Lacépède, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the
utmost calm of his approaching death; "c'est une dernière fonction," he
said, "qui n'est ni pénible ni désagréable." He nevertheless looked
forward to a future meeting, when he promised to complete the
autobiographical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt. They
remained untold, for he died two days later on the 10th of April, and
was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being pronounced by
Laplace and Lacépède.

  Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnanimous
  rivalry contributed to accomplish the task of generalization and
  deduction reserved for the 18th century, Lagrange occupies an eminent
  place. It is indeed by no means easy to distinguish and apportion the
  respective merits of the competitors. This is especially the case
  between Lagrange and Euler on the one side, and between Lagrange and
  Laplace on the other. The calculus of variations lay undeveloped in
  Euler's mode of treating isoperimetrical problems. The fruitful
  method, again, of the variation of elements was introduced by Euler,
  but adopted and perfected by Lagrange, who first recognized its
  supreme importance to the analytical investigation of the planetary
  movements. Finally, of the grand series of researches by which the
  stability of the solar system was ascertained, the glory must be
  almost equally divided between Lagrange and Laplace. In analytical
  invention, and mastery over the calculus, the Turin mathematician was
  admittedly unrivalled. Laplace owned that he had despaired of
  effecting the integration of the differential equations relative to
  secular inequalities until Lagrange showed him the way. But Laplace
  unquestionably surpassed his rival in practical sagacity and the
  intuition of physical truth. Lagrange saw in the problems of nature so
  many occasions for analytical triumphs; Laplace regarded analytical
  triumphs as the means of solving the problems of nature. One mind
  seemed the complement of the other; and both, united in honourable
  rivalry, formed an instrument of unexampled perfection for the
  investigation of the celestial machinery. What may be called
  Lagrange's first period of research into planetary perturbations
  extended from 1774 to 1784 (see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The notable
  group of treatises communicated, 1781-1784, to the Berlin Academy was
  designed, but did not prove to be his final contribution to the theory
  of the planets. After an interval of twenty-four years the subject,
  re-opened by S. D. Poisson in a paper read on the 20th of June 1808,
  was once more attacked by Lagrange with all his pristine vigour and
  fertility of invention. Resuming the inquiry into the invariability of
  mean motions, Poisson carried the approximation, with Lagrange's
  formulae, as far as the squares of the disturbing forces, hitherto
  neglected, with the same result as to the stability of the system. He
  had not attempted to include in his calculations the orbital
  variations of the disturbing bodies; but Lagrange, by the happy
  artifice of transferring the origin of coordinates from the centre of
  the sun to the centre of gravity of the sun and planets, obtained a
  simplification of the formulae, by which the same analysis was
  rendered equally applicable to each of the planets severally. It
  deserves to be recorded as one of the numerous coincidences of
  discovery that Laplace, on being made acquainted by Lagrange with his
  new method, produced analogous expressions, to which his independent
  researches had led him. The final achievement of Lagrange in this
  direction was the extension of the method of the variation of
  arbitrary constants, successfully used by him in the investigation of
  periodical as well as of secular inequalities, to any system whatever
  of mutually interacting bodies.[8] "Not without astonishment," even
  to himself, regard being had to the great generality of the
  differential equations, he reached a result so wide as to include, as
  a particular case, the solution of the planetary problem recently
  obtained by him. He proposed to apply the same principles to the
  calculation of the disturbances produced in the rotation of the
  planets by external action on their equatorial protuberances, but was
  anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for the variation of the
  elements of rotation strictly corresponding with those found by
  Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolution. The revision
  of the _Mécanique analytique_ was undertaken mainly for the purpose of
  embodying in it these new methods and final results, but was
  interrupted, when two-thirds completed, by the death of its author.

  In the advancement of almost every branch of pure mathematics Lagrange
  took a conspicuous part. The calculus of variations is indissolubly
  associated with his name. In the theory of numbers he furnished
  solutions of many of P. Fermat's theorems, and added some of his own.
  In algebra he discovered the method of approximating to the real roots
  of an equation by means of continued fractions, and imagined a general
  process of solving algebraical equations of every degree. The method
  indeed fails for equations of an order above the fourth, because it
  then involves the solution of an equation of higher dimensions than
  they proposed. Yet it possesses the great and characteristic merit of
  generalizing the solutions of his predecessors, exhibiting them all as
  modifications of one principle. To Lagrange, perhaps more than to any
  other, the theory of differential equations is indebted for its
  position as a science, rather than a collection of ingenious artifices
  for the solution of particular problems. To the calculus of finite
  differences he contributed the beautiful formula of interpolation
  which bears his name; although substantially the same result seems to
  have been previously obtained by Euler. But it was in the application
  to mechanical questions of the instrument which he thus helped to form
  that his singular merit lay. It was his just boast to have transformed
  mechanics (defined by him as a "geometry of four dimensions") into a
  branch of analysis, and to have exhibited the so-called mechanical
  "principles" as simple results of the calculus. The method of
  "generalized coordinates," as it is now called, by which he attained
  this result, is the most brilliant achievement of the analytical
  method. Instead of following the motion of each individual part of a
  material system, he showed that, if we determine its configuration by
  a sufficient number of variables, whose number is that of the degrees
  of freedom to move (there being as many equations as the system has
  degrees of freedom), the kinetic and potential energies of the system
  can be expressed in terms of these, and the differential equations of
  motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. Besides this most
  important contribution to the general fabric of dynamical science, we
  owe to Lagrange several minor theorems of great elegance,--among which
  may be mentioned his theorem that the kinetic energy imparted by given
  impulses to a material system under given constraints is a maximum. To
  this entire branch of knowledge, in short, he successfully imparted
  that character of generality and completeness towards which his
  labours invariably tended.

  His share in the gigantic task of verifying the Newtonian theory would
  alone suffice to immortalize his name. His co-operation was indeed
  more indispensable than at first sight appears. Much as was done _by_
  him, what was done _through_ him was still more important. Some of his
  brilliant rival's most conspicuous discoveries were implicitly
  contained in his writings, and wanted but one step for completion. But
  that one step, from the abstract to the concrete, was precisely that
  which the character of Lagrange's mind indisposed him to make. As
  notable instances may be mentioned Laplace's discoveries relating to
  the velocity of sound and the secular acceleration of the moon, both
  of which were led close up to by Lagrange's analytical demonstrations.
  In the _Berlin Memoirs_ for 1778 and 1783 Lagrange gave the first
  direct and theoretically perfect method of determining cometary
  orbits. It has not indeed proved practically available; but his system
  of calculating cometary perturbations by means of "mechanical
  quadratures" has formed the starting-point of all subsequent
  researches on the subject. His determination[9] of maximum and minimum
  values for the slowly varying planetary eccentricities was the
  earliest attempt to deal with the problem. Without a more accurate
  knowledge of the masses of the planets than was then possessed a
  satisfactory solution was impossible; but the upper limits assigned by
  him agreed closely with those obtained later by U. J. J.
  Leverrier.[10] As a mathematical writer Lagrange has perhaps never
  been surpassed. His treatises are not only storehouses of ingenious
  methods, but models of symmetrical form. The clearness, elegance and
  originality of his mode of presentation give lucidity to what is
  obscure, novelty to what is familiar, and simplicity to what is
  abstruse. His genius was one of generalization and abstraction; and
  the aspirations of the time towards unity and perfection received, by
  his serene labours, an embodiment denied to them in the troubled world
  of politics.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lagrange's numerous scattered memoirs have been
  collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title
  _Oeuvres de Lagrange, publiées sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret_
  (Paris, 1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this
  publication comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to
  the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth
  includes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific
  collections, together with his additions to Euler's _Algebra_, and his
  _Leçons élémentaires_ at the École Normale in 1795. Delambre's notice
  of his life, extracted from the _Mém. de l'Institut_, 1812, is
  prefixed to the first volume. Besides the separate works already named
  are _Résolution des équations numériques_ (1798, 2nd ed., 1808, 3rd
  ed., 1826), and _Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions_ (1805, 2nd ed.,
  1806), designed as a commentary and supplement to the first part of
  the _Théorie des fonctions_. The first volume of the enlarged edition
  of the _Mécanique_ appeared in 1811, the second, of which the revision
  was completed by MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2
  vols., 4to, was issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the _Théorie des
  fonctions_ in 1813.

  See also J. J. Virey and Potel, _Précis historique_ (1813); Th.
  Thomson's _Annals of Philosophy_ (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv.; H.
  Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ (1873); E. Dühring, _Kritische
  Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik_ (1877, 2nd ed.); A.
  Gautier, _Essai historique sur le problème des trois corps_ (1817); R.
  Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, &c.; Pietro Cossali, _Éloge_
  (Padua, 1813); L. Martini, _Cenni biográfici_ (1840); _Moniteur du 26
  Février_ (1814); W. Whewell, _Hist. of the Inductive Sciences_, ii.
  _passim_; J. Clerk Maxwell, _Electricity and Magnetism_, ii. 184; A.
  Berry, _Short Hist. of Astr._, p. 313; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr.
  moderne_, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit.
  Handwörterbuch_.     (A. M. C.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] _Oeuvres_, i. 15.

  [2] _Méc. An._, Advertisement to 1st ed.

  [3] E. Dühring, _Kritische Gesch. der Mechanik_, 220, 367; Lagrange,
    _Méc. An._ i. 166-172, 3rd ed.

  [4] Notice by J. Delambre, _Oeuvres de Lagrange_, i. p. xlii.

  [5] _Oeuvres_, iii. 441.

  [6] _Théorie des fonctions_, p. 6.

  [7] H. Suter, _Geschichte der math. Wiss._ ii. 222-223.

  [8] _Oeuvres_, vi. 771.

  [9] _Oeuvres_, v. 211 seq.

  [10] Grant, _History of Physical Astronomy_, p. 117.




LAGRANGE-CHANCEL [CHANCEL], FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1677-1758), French
dramatist and satirist, was born at Périgueux on the 1st of January
1677. He was an extremely precocious boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was
educated, he produced a play when he was nine years old. Five years
later his mother took him to Paris, where he found a patron in the
princesse de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of _Jugurtha_ or,
as it was called later, _Adherbal_ (1694). Racine had given him advice
and was present at the first performance, although he had long lived in
complete retirement. Other plays followed: _Oreste et Pylade_ (1697),
_Méléagre_ (1699), _Amasis_ (1701), and _Ino et Mélicerte_ (1715).
Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by his precocity,
although his only serious rival on the tragic stage was Campistron, but
he obtained high favour at court, becoming _maître d'hôtel_ to the
duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended with the publication in 1720
of his _Philippiques_, odes accusing the regent, Philip, duke of
Orleans, of the most odious crimes. He might have escaped the
consequences of this libel but for the bitter enmity of a former patron,
the duc de La Force. Lagrange found sanctuary at Avignon, but was
enticed beyond the boundary of the papal jurisdiction, when he was
arrested and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He
contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain and
Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth _Philippiques_. On the
death of the Regent he was able to return to France. He was part author
of a _Histoire de Périgord_ left unfinished, and made a further
contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly, to romance, in a
letter to Élie Fréron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask.
Lagrange's family life was embittered by a long lawsuit against his son.
He died at Périgueux at the end of December 1758.

  He had collected his own works (5 vols., 1758) some months before his
  death. His most famous work, the _Philippiques_, was edited by M. de
  Lescure in 1858, and a sixth philippic by M. Diancourt in 1886.




LA GRANJA, or SAN ILDEFONSO, a summer palace of the kings of Spain; on
the south-eastern border of the province of Segovia, and on the western
slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 7 m. by road S.E. of the city of
Segovia. The royal estate is 3905 ft. above sea-level. The scenery of
this region, especially in the gorge of the river Lozoya, with its
granite rocks, its dense forest of pines, firs and birches, and its
red-tiled farms, more nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe
than any other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate,
with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above the palace
rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminating in the peak of
Peñalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend
northwards. The village of San Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate,
was founded in 1450 by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel
here. In 1477 the chapel was presented by Ferdinand and Isabella to the
monks of the Parral, a neighbouring Hieronymite monastery. The original
_granja_ (i.e. grange or farm), established by the monks, was purchased
in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his summer palace at
Valsain, the ancient _Vallis Sapinorum_, 2 m. S. Philip determined to
convert the estate into a second Versailles. The palace was built
between 1721 and 1723. Its façade is fronted by a colonnade in which the
pillars reach to the roof. The state apartments contain some valuable
18th-century furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was
removed to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del
Prado. At La Granja it is represented by facsimiles in plaster. The
collegiate church adjoining the palace dates from 1724, and contains the
tombs of Philip V. and his consort Isabella Farnese. An artificial lake
called El Mar, 4095 ft. above sea-level, irrigates the gardens, which
are imitated from those of Versailles, and supplies water for the
fountains. These, despite the antiquated and sometimes tasteless style
of their ornamentation, are probably the finest in the world; it is
noteworthy that, owing to the high level of the lake, no pumps or other
mechanism are needed to supply pressure. There are twenty-six fountains
besides lakes and waterfalls. Among the most remarkable are the group of
"Perseus, Andromeda and the Sea-Monster," which sends up a jet of water
110 ft. high, the "Fame," which reaches 125 ft., and the very elaborate
"Baths of Diana." It is of the last that Philip V. is said to have
remarked, "It has cost me three millions and amused me three minutes."
Most of the fountains were made by order of Queen Isabella in 1727,
during the king's absence. The glass factory of San Ildefonso was
founded by Charles III.

  It was in La Granja that Philip V. resigned the crown to his son in
  January 1724, to resume it after his son's death seven months later;
  that the treaties of 1777, 1778, 1796 and 1800 were signed (see SPAIN:
  _History_); that Ferdinand VII. summoned Don Carlos to the throne in
  1832, but was induced to alter the succession in favour of his own
  infant daughter Isabella, thus involving Spain in civil war; and that
  in 1836 a military revolt compelled the Queen-regent Christina to
  restore the constitution of 1812.




LAGRENÉE, LOUIS JEAN FRANÇOIS (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil
of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the 30th of December 1724, in 1755 he
became a member of the Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture
the "Rape of Deianira" (Louvre). He visited St Petersburg at the call of
the empress Elizabeth, and on his return was named in 1781 director of
the French Academy at Rome; he there painted the "Indian Widow," one of
his best-known works. In 1804 Napoleon conferred on him the cross of the
legion of honour, and on the 19th of June 1805 he died in the Louvre, of
which he was honorary keeper.




LA GUAIRA, or LA GUAYRA (sometimes LAGUAIRA, &c.), a town and port of
Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. by rail and 6½ m. in a direct
line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 14,000. It is situated between
a precipitous mountain side and a broad, semicircular indentation of the
coast line which forms the roadstead of the port. The anchorage was long
considered one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean coast, and landing
was attended with much danger. The harbour has been improved by the
construction of a concrete breakwater running out from the eastern shore
line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme depth of 46 ft. or from an
average depth of 29½ ft., and rising 19½ ft. above sea-level. This
encloses an area of 76½ acres, having an average depth of nearly 28 ft.
The harbour is further improved by 1870 ft. of concrete quays and 1397
ft. of retaining sea-wall, with several piers (three covered) projecting
into deep water. These works were executed by a British company, known
as the La Guaira Harbour Corporation, Ltd., and were completed in 1891
at a cost of about one million sterling. The concession is for 99 years
and the additional charges which the company is authorized to impose are
necessarily heavy. These improvements and the restrictions placed upon
the direct trade between West Indian ports and the Orinoco have greatly
increased the foreign trade of La Guaira, which in 1903 was 52% of that
of the four _puertos habilitados_ of the republic. The shipping entries
of that year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with general cargo and
14 with coal exclusively. The exports included 152,625 bags coffee,
114,947 bags cacao and 152,891 hides. For 1905-1906 the imports at La
Guaira were valued officially at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708.
The city stands on sloping ground stretching along the circular coast
line with a varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of
an amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of reclaimed land
to La Guaira's area, and the removal of old shore batteries likewise
increased its available breadth. In this narrow space is built the town,
composed in great part of small, roughly-made cabins, and narrow,
badly-paved streets, but with good business houses on its principal
street. From the mountain side, reddish-brown in colour and bare of
vegetation, the solar heat is reflected with tremendous force, the mean
annual temperature being 84° F. The seaside towns of Maiquetia, 2 m. W.
and Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary conditions
and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are the residences of many
of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira.

La Guaira was founded in 1588, was sacked by filibusters under Amias
Preston in 1595, and by the French under Grammont in 1680, was destroyed
by the great earthquake of the 26th of March 1812, and suffered severely
in the war for independence. In 1903, pending the settlement of claims
of Great Britain, Germany and Italy against Venezuela, La Guaira was
blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet.




LA GUÉRONNIÈRE, LOUIS ÉTIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HÉLION, VICOMTE DE
(1816-1875), French politician, was the scion of a noble Poitevin
family. Although by birth and education attached to Legitimist
principles, he became closely associated with Lamartine, to whose organ,
_Le Bien Public_, he was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of
this paper he wrote for _La Presse_, and in 1850 edited _Le Pays_. A
character sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences
with Lamartine, and La Guéronnière became more and more closely
identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the Empire he
was a member of the council of state (1853), senator (1861), ambassador
at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople (1870), and grand officer of
the legion of honour (1866). He died in Paris on the 23rd of December
1875. Besides his _Études et portraits politiques contemporains_ (1856)
his most important works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire:
_La France, Rome et Italie_ (1851), _L'Abandon de Rome_ (1862), _De la
politique intérieure et extérieure de la France_ (1862).

His elder brother, ALFRED DUBREUIL HÉLION, Comte de La Guéronnière
(1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist party, was also a
well-known writer and journalist. He was consistent in his opposition to
the July Monarchy and the Empire, but in a series of books on the crisis
of 1870-1871 showed a more favourable attitude to the Republic.




LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES (1858-   ), French lawyer and politician, was
born in Paris on the 24th of June 1858. Called to the bar in 1879, he
distinguished himself by brilliant pleadings in favour of socialist and
anarchist leaders, defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise
Michel in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague he
defended Ernest Roche and Duc Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville
strike. His strictures on the _procureur de la République_ on this
occasion being declared libellous he was suspended for six months and in
1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general,
Quesnay de Beaurepaire. He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases
of his time, though from 1893 onwards exclusively in the provinces, his
exclusion from the Parisian bar having been secured on the pretext of
his connexion with _La Presse_. He entered the Chamber of Deputies for
Apt in 1883 as a representative of the extreme revisionist programme,
and was one of the leaders of the Boulangist agitation. He had formerly
written for Georges Clemenceau's organ _La Justice_, but when Clemenceau
refused to impose any shibboleth on the radical party he became director
of _La Presse_. He rallied to the republican party in May 1801, some
months before General Boulanger's suicide. He was not re-elected to the
Chamber in 1893. Laguerre was an excellent lecturer on the revolutionary
period of French history, concerning which he had collected many
valuable and rare documents. He interested himself in the fate of the
"Little Dauphin" (Louis XVII.), whose supposed remains, buried at Ste
Marguerite, he proved to be those of a boy of fourteen.




LAGUNA, or LA LAGUNA, an episcopal city and formerly the capital of the
island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands.
Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N. by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain
1800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here,
and the mean annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very
heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The humidity of the
atmosphere, combined with the warm climate and rich volcanic soil,
renders the district exceptionally fertile; wheat, wine and tobacco,
oranges and other fruits, are produced in abundance. Laguna is the
favourite summer residence of the wealthier inhabitants of Santa Cruz.
Besides the cathedral, the city contains several picturesque convents,
now secularized, a fine modern town hall, hospitals, a large public
library and some ancient palaces of the Spanish nobility. Even the
modern buildings have often an appearance of antiquity, owing to the
decay caused by damp, and the luxuriant growth of climbing plants.




LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE (1739-1803), French critic, was born in Paris
of poor parents on the 20th of November 1739. His father, who signed
himself Delharpe, was a descendant of a noble family originally of Vaud.
Left an orphan at the age of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six
months by the sisters of charity, and his education was provided for by
a scholarship at the Collège d'Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned
for some months on the charge of having written a satire against his
protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt, but this
culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely in the position
of a dependent had possibly something to do with the bitterness he
evinced in later life. In 1763 his tragedy of _Warwick_ was played
before the court. This, his first play, was perhaps the best he ever
wrote. The many authors whom he afterwards offended were always able to
observe that the critic's own plays did not reach the standard of
excellence he set up. _Timoléon_ (1764), _Pharamond_ (1765) and _Gustave
Wasa_ (1766) were failures. _Mélanie_ was a better play, but was never
represented. The success of _Warwick_ led to a correspondence with
Voltaire, who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him to
correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter of a coffee
house keeper. This marriage, which proved very unhappy and was
dissolved, did not improve his position. They were very poor, and for
some time were guests of Voltaire at Ferney. When, after Voltaire's
death, La Harpe in his praise of the philosopher ventured on some
reasonable, but rather ill-timed, criticism of individual works, he was
accused of treachery to one who had been his constant friend. In 1768 he
returned from Ferney to Paris, where he began to write for the
_Mercure_. He was a born fighter and had small mercy on the authors
whose work he handled. But he was himself violently attacked, and
suffered under many epigrams, especially those of Lebrun-Pindare. No
more striking proof of the general hostility can be given than his
reception (1776) at the Academy, which Sainte-Beuve calls his
"execution." Marmontel, who received him, used the occasion to eulogize
La Harpe's predecessor, Charles Pierre Colardeau, especially for his
pacific, modest and indulgent disposition. The speech was punctuated by
the applause of the audience, who chose to regard it as a series of
sarcasms on the new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign
from the _Mercure_, which he had edited from 1770. On the stage he
produced _Les Barmécides_ (1778), _Philoctète_, _Jeanne de Naples_
(1781), _Les Brames_ (1783), _Coriolan_ (1784), _Virginie_ (1786). In
1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-established Lycée. In
these lectures, published as the _Cours de littérature ancienne et
moderne_, La Harpe is at his best, for he found a standpoint more or
less independent of contemporary polemics. He is said to be inexact in
dealing with the ancients, and he had only a superficial knowledge of
the middle ages, but he is excellent in his analysis of 17th-century
writers. Sainte-Beuve found in him the best critic of the French school
of tragedy, which reached its perfection in Racine. La Harpe was a
disciple of the "_philosophes_"; he supported the extreme party through
the excesses of 1792 and 1793. In 1793 he edited the _Mercure de France_
which adhered blindly to the revolutionary leaders. But in April 1794 he
was nevertheless seized as a "suspect." In prison he underwent a
spiritual crisis which he described in convincing language, and he
emerged an ardent Catholic and a reactionist in politics. When he
resumed his chair at the Lycée, he attacked his former friends in
politics and literature. He was imprudent enough to begin the
publication (1801-1807) of his _Correspondance littéraire_ (1774-1791)
with the grand-duke, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these
letters he surpassed the brutalities of the _Mercure_. He contracted a
second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his wife. He
died on the 11th of February 1803 in Paris, leaving in his will an
incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen to maintain peace and
concord. Among his posthumous works was a _Prophétie de Cazotte_ which
Sainte-Beuve pronounces his best work. It is a sombre description of a
dinner-party of notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques
Cazotte is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various
individuals of the company.

  Among his works not already mentioned are:--_Commentaire sur Racine_
  (1795-1796), published in 1807; _Commentaire sur le théâtre de
  Voltaire_ of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an
  epic poem _La Religion_ (1814). His _Cours de littérature_ has been
  often reprinted. To the edition of 1825-1826 is prefixed a notice by
  Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. v.;
  G. Peignot, _Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et littéraires
  ... sur La Harpe_ (1820).




LAHIRE, LAURENT DE (1606-1656), French painter, was born at Paris on the
27th of February 1606. He became a pupil of Lallemand, studied the works
of Primaticcio at Fontainebleau, but never visited Italy, and belongs
wholly to that transition period which preceded the school of Simon
Vouet. His picture of Nicolas V. opening the crypt in which he discovers
the corpse of St Francis of Assisi standing (Louvre) was executed in
1630 for the Capuchins of the Marais; it shows a gravity and sobriety of
character which marked Lahire's best work, and seems not to have been
without influence on Le Sueur. The Louvre contains eight other works,
and paintings by Lahire are in the museums of Strasburg, Rouen and Le
Mans. His drawings, of which the British Museum possesses a fine
example, "Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple," are treated as
seriously as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity of
effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed several other
works in Paris, Rouen and Fécamp, was followed by the goldsmiths'
company, for whom he produced in 1635 "St Peter healing the Sick"
(Louvre) and the "Conversion of St Paul" in 1637. In 1646, with eleven
other artists, he founded the French Royal Academy of Painting and
Sculpture. Richelieu called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor
Séguier, Tallemant de Réaux and many others entrusted him with important
works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of large
compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of portraits, and in
1654 united in one work for the town-hall of Paris those of the
principal dignitaries of the municipality. He died on the 28th of
December 1656.




LAHN, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. Its
source is on the Jagdberg, a summit of the Rothaar Mountains, in the
cellar of a house (Lahnhof), at an elevation of 1975 ft. It flows at
first eastward and then southward to Giessen, then turns south-westward
and with a winding course reaches the Rhine between the towns of
Oberlahnstein and Niederlahnstein. Its valley, the lower part of which
divides the Taunus hills from the Westerwald, is often very narrow and
picturesque; among the towns and sites of interest on its banks are
Marburg and Giessen with their universities, Wetzlar with its cathedral,
Runkel with its castle, Limburg with its cathedral, the castles of
Schaumburg, Balduinstein, Laurenburg, Langenau, Burgstein and Nassau,
and the well-known health resort of Ems. The Lahn is about 135 m. long;
it is navigable from its mouth to Giessen, and is partly canalized. A
railway follows the valley practically throughout. In 1796 there were
here several encounters between the French under General Jourdan and the
troops of the archduke Johan, which resulted in the retreat of the
French across the Rhine.




LAHNDA (properly _Lahnda_ or _Lahinda_, western, or _Lahnde-di boli_,
the language of the West), an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the western
Punjab. In 1901 the number of speakers was 3,337,917. Its eastern
boundary is very indefinite as the language gradually merges into the
Panjabi immediately to the east, but it is conventionally taken as the
river Chenab from the Kashmir frontier to the town of Ramnagar, and
thence as a straight line to the south-west corner of the district of
Montgomery. Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of
Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is
known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river
Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto
(Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Lahnda. In the Derajat,
however, Lahnda is the principal language of all classes in the plains
west of the river.

Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of
the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother-tongue it is.
In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of Hindus. In 1819
the Serampur missionaries published a Lahnda version of the New
Testament. They called the language Uchchi, from the important town of
Uch near the confluence of the Jhelam and the Chenab. This name is
commonly met with in old writings. It has numerous dialects, which fall
into two main groups, a northern and a southern, the speakers of which
are separated by the Salt Range. The principal varieties of the northern
group are Hindki (the same in meaning as Hindko) and Pothwari. In the
southern group the most important are Khetrani, Multani, and the dialect
of Shahpur. The language possesses no literature.

  Lahnda belongs to the north-western group of the outer band of
  Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.), the other members being Kashmiri (q.v.)
  and Sindhi, with both of which it is closely connected. See SINDHI;
  also HINDOSTANI.     (G. A. Gr.)




LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF, the name now given to a series of encounters which
took place from the 19th to the 23rd (O.S.) of May 1692, between an
allied British and Dutch fleet and a French force, on the northern and
eastern sides of the Cotentin in Normandy. A body of French troops, and
a number of Jacobite exiles, had been collected in the Cotentin. The
government of Louis XIV. prepared a naval armament to cover their
passage across the Channel. This force was to have been composed of the
French ships at Brest commanded by the count of Tourville, and of a
squadron which was to have joined him from Toulon. But the Toulon ships
were scattered by a gale, and the combination was not effected. The
count of Tourville, who had put to sea to meet them, had with him only
45 or 47 ships of the line. Yet when the reinforcement failed to join
him, he steered up Channel to meet the allies, who were known to be in
strength. On the 15th of May the British fleet of 63 sail of the line,
under command of Edward Russell, afterwards earl of Orford, was joined
at St Helens by the Dutch squadron of 36 sail under Admiral van
Allemonde. The apparent rashness of the French admiral in seeking an
encounter with very superior numbers is explained by the existence of a
general belief that many British captains were discontented, and would
pass over from the service of the government established by the
Revolution of 1688 to their exiled king, James II. It is said that
Tourville had orders from Louis XIV. to attack in any case, but the
story is of doubtful authority. The British government, aware of the
Jacobite intrigues in its fleet, and of the prevalence of discontent,
took the bold course of appealing to the loyalty and patriotism of its
officers. At a meeting of the flag-officers on board the "Britannia,"
Russell's flag-ship, on the 15th of May, they protested their loyalty,
and the whole allied fleet put to sea on the 18th. On the 19th of May,
when Cape Barfleur, the north-eastern point of the Cotentin, was 21 m.
S.W. of them, they sighted Tourville, who was then 20 m. to the north of
Cape La Hague, the north-western extremity of the peninsula, which must
not be confounded with La Houque, or La Hogue, the place at which the
fighting ended. The allies were formed in a line from S.S.W. to N.N.E.
heading towards the English coast, the Dutch forming the White or van
division, while the Red or centre division under Russell, and the Blue
or rear under Sir John Ashby, were wholly composed of British ships. The
wind was from the S.W. and the weather hazy. Tourville bore down and
attacked about mid-day, directing his main assault on the centre of the
allies, but telling off some ships to watch the van and rear of his
enemy. As this first encounter took place off Cape Barfleur, the battle
was formerly often called by the name. On the centre, where Tourville
was directly opposed to Russell, the fighting was severe. The British
flag-ship the "Britannia" (100), and the French, the "Soleil Royal"
(100), were both completely crippled. After several hours of conflict,
the French admiral, seeing himself outnumbered, and that the allies
could outflank him and pass through the necessarily wide intervals in
his extended line, drew off without the loss of a ship. The wind now
fell and the haze became a fog. Till the 23rd, the two fleets remained
off the north coast of the Cotentin, drifting west with the ebb tide or
east with the flood, save when they anchored. During the night of the
19th/20th some British ships became entangled, in the fog, with the
French, and drifted through them on the tide, with loss. On the 23rd
both fleets were near La Hague. About half the French, under
D'Amfreville, rounded the cape, and fled to St Malo through the
dangerous passage known as the Race of Alderney (le Ras Blanchard). The
others were unable to get round the cape before the flood tide set in,
and were carried to the eastward. Tourville now transferred his own
flag, and left his captains free to save themselves as they best could.
He left the "Soleil Royal," and sent her with two others to Cherbourg,
where they were destroyed by Sir Ralph Delaval. The others now ran round
Cape Barfleur, and sought refuge on the east side of the Cotentin at the
anchorage of La Houque, called by the English La Hogue, where the troops
destined for the invasion were encamped. Here 13 of them were burnt by
Sir George Rooke, in the presence of the French generals and of the
exiled king James II. From the name of the place where the last blow was
struck, the battle has come to be known by the name of La Hogue.

  Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard's _Naval
  History_ (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde's
  _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris, 1867). The escape of
  D'Amfreville's squadron is the subject of Browning's poem "Hervé
  Riel."     (D. H.)




LAHORE, an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab,
which gives its name to a district and division. It lies in 31° 35' N.
and 74° 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. above the
sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about the same
latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is considerably
hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in India in the
summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly cool and
bright. The native city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and
about ¾ m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early
times, and much of it stands high above the level of the surrounding
country, raised on the remains of a succession of former habitations.
Some old buildings, which have been preserved, stand now below the
present surface of the ground. This is well seen in the mosque now
called Masjid Niwin (or sunken) built in 1560, the mosque of Mullah
Rahmat, 7 ft. below, and the Shivali, a very old Hindu temple, about 12
ft. below the surrounding ground. Hindu tradition traces the origin of
Lahore to Loh or Lava, son of Rama, the hero of the _Ramayana_. The
absence of mention of Lahore by Alexander's historians, and the fact
that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins,
lead to the belief that it was not a place of any importance during the
earliest period of Indian history. On the other hand, Hsüan Tsang, the
Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his _Itinerary_ (A.D. 630); and it
seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence
between the 1st and 7th centuries A.D. Governed originally by a family
of Chauhan Rajputs, a branch of the house of Ajmere, Lahore fell
successively under the dominion of the Ghazni and Ghori sultans, who
made it the capital of their Indian conquests, and adorned it with
numerous buildings, almost all now in ruins. But it was under the Mogul
empire that Lahore reached its greatest size and magnificence. The
reigns of Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb form the
golden period in the annals and architecture of the city. Akbar enlarged
and repaired the fort, and surrounded the town with a wall, portions of
which remain, built into the modern work of Ranjit Singh. Lahore formed
the capital of the Sikh empire of that monarch. At the end of the second
Sikh War, with the rest of the Punjab, it came under the British
dominion.

The architecture of Lahore cannot compare with that of Delhi. Jahangir
in 1622-1627 erected the Khwabgah or "sleeping-place," a fine palace
much defaced by the Sikhs but to some extent restored in modern times;
the Moti Masjid or "pearl mosque" in the fort, used by Ranjit Singh and
afterwards by the British as a treasure-house; and also the tomb of
Anarkali, used formerly as the station church and now as a library. Shah
Jahan erected a palace and other buildings near the Khwabgah, including
the beautiful pavilion called the Naulakha from its cost of nine lakhs,
which was inlaid with precious stones. The mosque of Wazir Khan (1634)
provides the finest example of _kashi_ or encaustic tile work.
Aurangzeb's Jama Masjid, or "great mosque," is a huge bare building,
stiff in design, and lacking the detailed ornament typical of buildings
at Delhi. The buildings of Ranjit Singh, especially his mausoleum, are
common and meretricious in style. He was, moreover, responsible for much
of the despoiling of the earlier buildings. The streets of the native
city are narrow and tortuous, and are best seen from the back of an
elephant. Two of the chief features of Lahore lie outside its walls at
Shahdara and Shalamar Gardens respectively. Shahdara, which contains the
tomb of the emperor Jahangir, lies across the Ravi some 6 m. N. of the
city. It consists of a splendid marble cenotaph surrounded by a grove of
trees and gardens. The Shalamar Gardens, which were laid out in A.D.
1637 by Shah Jahan, lie 6 m. E. of the city. They are somewhat neglected
except on festive occasions, when the fountains are playing and the
trees are lit up by lamps at night.

The modern city of Lahore, which contained a population of 202,964 in
1901, may be divided into four parts: the native city, already
described; the civil station or European quarter, known as Donald Town;
the Anarkali bazaar, a suburb S. of the city wall; and the cantonment,
formerly called Mian Mir. The main street of the civil station is a
portion of the grand trunk road from Calcutta to Peshawar, locally known
as the Mall. The chief modern buildings along this road, west to east,
are the Lahore museum, containing a fine collection of Graeco-Buddhist
sculptures, found by General Cunningham in the Yusufzai country, and
arranged by Mr Lockwood Kipling, a former curator of the museum; the
cathedral, begun by Bishop French, in Early English style, and
consecrated in 1887; the Lawrence Gardens and Montgomery Halls,
surrounded by a garden that forms the chief meeting-place of Europeans
in the afternoon; and opposite this government house, the official
residence of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab; next to this is the
Punjab club for military men and civilians. Three miles beyond is the
Lahore cantonment, where the garrison is stationed, except a company of
British infantry, which occupies the fort. It is the headquarters of the
3rd division of the northern army. Lahore is an important junction on
the North-Western railway system, but has little local trade or
manufacture. The chief industries are silk goods, gold and silver lace,
metal work and carpets which are made in the Lahore gaol. There are also
cotton mills, flour mills, an ice-factory, and several factories for
mineral waters, oils, soap, leather goods, &c. Lahore is an important
educational centre. Here are the Punjab University with five colleges,
medical and law colleges, a central training college, the Aitchison
Chiefs' College for the sons of native noblemen, and a number of other
high schools and technical and special schools.

The DISTRICT OF LAHORE has an area of 3704 sq. m., and its population in
1901 was 1,162,109, consisting chiefly of Punjabi Mahommedans with a
large admixture of Hindus and Sikhs. In the north-west the district
includes a large part of the barren Rechna Doab, while south of the Ravi
is a desolate alluvial tract, liable to floods. The Manjha plateau,
however, between the Ravi and the Beas, has been rendered fertile by the
Bari Doab canal. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, millets, maize,
oil-seeds and cotton. There are numerous factories for ginning and
pressing cotton. Irrigation is provided by the main line of the Bari
Doab canal and its branches, and by inundation-cuts from the Sutlej. The
district is crossed in several directions by lines of the North-Western
railway. Lahore, Kasur, Chunian and Raiwind are the chief trade centres.

The DIVISION OF LAHORE extends along the right bank of the Sutlej from
the Himalayas to Multan. It comprises the six districts of Sialkot,
Gujranwala, Montgomery, Lahore, Amritsar and Gurdaspur. Total area,
17,154 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 5,598,463. The commissioner for the division
also exercises political control over the hill slate of Chamba. The
common language of the rural population and of artisans is Punjabi;
while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from
the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer
temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature in the
shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In midsummer the
thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the shade, and remains on some
occasions as high as 105° throughout the night. In winter the morning
temperature is sometimes as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain,
ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The country as a
whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on irrigation.




LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE (1630?-1710?), Spanish dramatist, was
born in Madrid. He became a knight of Santiago in 1653, and soon
afterwards succeeded his father as _regidor_ of Burgos. In 1665 he was
nominated to an important post at the Treasury, and in his later years
acted as official censor of the Madrid theatres. On the 13th of August
1709 he signed his play entitled _Josef, salvador de Egipto_, and is
presumed to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remarkable for
originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers
are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in
which he was held by his contemporaries. _El Montañés Juan Pascal_ and
_El castigo de la miseria_, reprinted in the _Biblioteca de Autores
Españoles_, give a just idea of his adaptable talent.




LAHR, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the Schutter, about 9 m. S.
of Offenburg, and on the railway Dinglingen-Lahr. Pop. (1900) 13,577.
One of the busiest towns in Baden, it carries on manufactures of tobacco
and cigars, woollen goods, chicory, leather, pasteboard, hats and
numerous other articles, has considerable trade in wine, while among its
other industries are printing and lithography. Lahr first appears as a
town in 1278, and after several vicissitudes it passed wholly to Baden
in 1803.

  See Stein, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr_ (Lahr, 1827);
  and Sütterlin, _Lahr und seine Umgebung_ (Lahr, 1904).




LAIBACH (Slovenian, _Ljubljana_), capital of the Austrian duchy of
Carniola, 237 m. S.S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 36,547, mostly
Slovene. It is situated on the Laibach, near its influx into the Save,
and consists of the town proper and eight suburbs. Laibach is an
episcopal see, and possesses a cathedral in the Italian style, several
beautiful churches, a town hall in Renaissance style and a castle, built
in the 15th century, on the Schlossberg, an eminence which commands the
town. Laibach is the principal centre of the national Slovenian
movement, and it contains a Slovene theatre and several societies for
the promotion of science and literature in the native tongue. The
Slovenian language is in general official use, and the municipal
administration is purely Slovenian. The industries include manufactures
of pottery, bricks, oil, linen and woollen cloth, fire-hose and paper.

  Laibach is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Emona or Aemona,
  founded by the emperor Augustus in 34 B.C. It was besieged by Alaric
  in 400, and in 451 it was desolated by the Huns. In 900 Laibach
  suffered much from the Magyars, who were, however, defeated there in
  914. In the 12th century the town passed into the hands of the dukes
  of Carinthia; in 1270 it was taken by Ottocar of Bohemia; and in 1277
  it came under the Habsburgs. In the early part of the 15th century the
  town was several times besieged by the Turks. The bishopric was
  founded in 1461. On the 17th of March 1797 and again on the 3rd of
  June 1809 Laibach was taken by the French, and from 1809 to 1813 it
  became the seat of their general government of the Illyrian provinces.
  From 1816 to 1849 Laibach was the capital of the kingdom of Illyria.
  The town is also historically known from the congress of Laibach,
  which assembled here in 1821 (see below). Laibach suffered severely on
  the 14th of April 1895 from an earthquake.

_Congress or Conference of Laibach._--Before the break-up of the
conference of Troppau (q.v.), it had been decided to adjourn it till the
following January, and to invite the attendance of the king of Naples,
Laibach being chosen as the place of meeting. Castlereagh, in the name
of Great Britain, had cordially approved this invitation, as "implying
negotiation" and therefore as a retreat from the position taken up in
the Troppau Protocol. Before leaving Troppau, however, the three
autocratic powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, had issued, on the 8th
of December 1820, a circular letter, in which they reiterated the
principles of the Protocol, i.e. the right and duty of the powers
responsible for the peace of Europe to intervene to suppress any
revolutionary movement by which they might conceive that peace to be
endangered (Hertslet, No. 105). Against this view Castlereagh once more
protested in a circular despatch of the 19th of January 1821, in which
he clearly differentiated between the objectionable general principles
advanced by the three powers, and the particular case of the unrest in
Italy, the immediate concern not of Europe at large, but of Austria and
of any other Italian powers which might consider themselves endangered
(Hertslet, No. 107).

The conference opened on the 26th of January 1821, and its constitution
emphasized the divergences revealed in the above circulars. The emperors
of Russia and Austria were present in person, and with them were Counts
Nesselrode and Capo d'Istria, Metternich and Baron Vincent; Prussia and
France were represented by plenipotentiaries. But Great Britain, on the
ground that she had no immediate interest in the Italian question, was
represented only by Lord Stewart, the ambassador at Vienna, who was not
armed with full powers, his mission being to watch the proceedings and
to see that nothing was done beyond or in violation of the treaties. Of
the Italian princes, Ferdinand of Naples and the duke of Modena came in
person; the rest were represented by plenipotentiaries.

It was soon clear that a more or less open breach between Great Britain
and the other powers was inevitable, Metternich was anxious to secure an
apparent unanimity of the powers to back the Austrian intervention in
Naples, and every device was used to entrap the English representative
into subscribing a formula which would have seemed to commit Great
Britain to the principles of the other allies. When these devices
failed, attempts were made unsuccessfully to exclude Lord Stewart from
the conferences on the ground of defective powers. Finally he was forced
to an open protest, which he caused to be inscribed on the journals, but
the action of Capo d'Istria in reading to the assembled Italian
ministers, who were by no means reconciled to the large claims implied
in the Austrian intervention, a declaration in which as the result of
the "intimate union established by solemn acts between all the European
powers" the Russian emperor offered to the allies "the aid of his arms,
should new revolutions threaten new dangers," an attempt to revive that
idea of a "universal union" based on the Holy Alliance (q.v.) against
which Great Britain had consistently protested.

The objections of Great Britain were, however, not so much to an
Austrian intervention in Naples as to the far-reaching principles by
which it was sought to justify it. King Ferdinand had been invited to
Laibach, according to the circular of the 8th of December, in order
that he might be free to act as "mediator between his erring peoples and
the states whose tranquillity they threatened." The cynical use he made
of his "freedom" to repudiate obligations solemnly contracted is
described elsewhere (see NAPLES, _History_). The result of this action
was the Neapolitan declaration of war and the occupation of Naples by
Austria, with the sanction of the congress. This was preceded, on the
10th of March, by the revolt of the garrison of Alessandria and the
military revolution in Piedmont, which in its turn was suppressed, as a
result of negotiations at Laibach, by Austrian troops. It was at
Laibach, too, that, on the 19th of March, the emperor Alexander received
the news of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which
heralded the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence, and from Laibach
Capo d'Istria addressed to the Greek leader the tsar's repudiation of
his action.

The conference closed on the 12th of May, on which date Russia, Austria
and Prussia issued a declaration (Hertslet, No. 108) "to proclaim to the
world the principles which guided them" in coming "to the assistance of
subdued peoples," a declaration which once more affirmed the principles
of the Troppau Protocol. In this lay the European significance of the
Laibach conference, of which the activities had been mainly confined to
Italy. The issue of the declaration without the signatures of the
representatives of Great Britain and France proclaimed the disunion of
the alliance, within which--to use Lord Stewart's words--there existed
"a triple understanding which bound the parties to carry forward their
own views in spite of any difference of opinion between them and the two
great constitutional governments."

  No separate history of the congress exists, but innumerable references
  are to be found in general histories and in memoirs, correspondence,
  &c., of the time. See Sir E. Hertslet, _Map of Europe_ (London, 1875);
  Castlereagh, _Correspondence_; Metternich, _Memoirs_; N. Bianchi,
  _Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia_ (8 vols.,
  Turin, 1865-1872); Gentz's correspondence (see GENTZ, F. VON).
  Valuable unpublished correspondence is preserved at the Record Office
  in the volumes marked F. O., Austria, Lord Stewart, January to
  February 1821, and March to September 1821.     (W. A. P.)




LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845), friend and amanuensis of Sir Walter Scott,
was born at Blackhouse, Selkirkshire, on the 19th of November 1780, the
son of a sheep farmer. After an elementary education in Peebles he
returned to work upon his father's farm. James Hogg, the shepherd poet,
who was employed at Blackhouse for some years, became Laidlaw's friend
and appreciative critic. Together they assisted Scott by supplying
material for his _Border Minstrelsy_, and Laidlaw, after two failures as
a farmer in Midlothian and Peebleshire, became Scott's steward at
Abbotsford. He also acted as Scott's amanuensis at different times,
taking down a large part of _The Bride of Lammermoor_, _The Legend of
Montrose_ and _Ivanhoe_ from the author's dictation. He died at Contin
near Dingwall, Ross-shire, on the 18th of May 1845. Of his poetry,
little is known except _Lucy's Flittin'_ in Hogg's _Forest Minstrel_.




LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON (1793-1826), Scottish explorer, the first
European to reach Timbuktu, was born at Edinburgh on the 27th of
December 1793. He was educated by his father, William Laing, a private
teacher of classics, and at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he went to
Barbados as clerk to his maternal uncle Colonel (afterwards General)
Gabriel Gordon. Through General Sir George Beckwith, governor of
Barbados, he obtained an ensigncy in the York Light Infantry. He was
employed in the West Indies, and in 1822 was promoted to a company in
the Royal African Corps. In that year, while with his regiment at Sierra
Leone, he was sent by the governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, to the
Mandingo country, with the double object of opening up commerce and
endeavouring to abolish the slave trade in that region. Later in the
same year Laing visited Falaba, the capital of the Sulima country, and
ascertained the source of the Rokell. He endeavoured to reach the source
of the Niger, but was stopped by the natives. He was, however, enabled
to fix it with approximate accuracy. He took an active part in the
Ashanti War of 1823-24, and was sent home with the despatches
containing the news of the death in action of Sir Charles MacCarthy.
Henry, 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary for the colonies, instructed
Captain Laing to undertake a journey, via Tripoli and Timbuktu, to
further elucidate the hydrography of the Niger basin. Laing left England
in February 1825, and at Tripoli on the 14th of July following he
married Emma Warrington, daughter of the British consul. Two days later,
leaving his bride behind, he started to cross the Sahara, being
accompanied by a sheikh who was subsequently accused of planning his
murder. Ghadames was reached, by an indirect route, in October 1825, and
in December Laing was in the Tuat territory, where he was well received
by the Tuareg. On the 10th of January 1826 he left Tuat, and made for
Timbuktu across the desert of Tanezroft. Letters from him written in May
and July following told of sufferings from fever and the plundering of
his caravan by Tuareg, Laing being wounded in twenty-four places in the
fighting. Another letter dated from Timbuktu on the 21st of September
announced his arrival in that city on the preceding 18th of August, and
the insecurity of his position owing to the hostility of the Fula
chieftain Bello, then ruling the city. He added that he intended leaving
Timbuktu in three days' time. No further news was received from the
traveller. From native information it was ascertained that he left
Timbuktu on the day he had planned and was murdered on the night of the
26th of September 1826. His papers were never recovered, though it is
believed that they were secretly brought to Tripoli in 1828. In 1903 the
French government placed a tablet bearing the name of the explorer and
the date of his visit on the house occupied by him during his
thirty-eight days' stay in Timbuktu.

  While in England in 1824 Laing prepared a narrative of his earlier
  journeys, which was published in 1825 and entitled _Travels in the
  Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima Countries, in Western Africa_.




LAING, DAVID (1793-1878), Scottish antiquary, the son of William Laing,
a bookseller in Edinburgh, was born in that city on the 20th of April
1793. Educated at the Canongate Grammar School, when fourteen he was
apprenticed to his father. Shortly after the death of the latter in
1837, Laing was elected to the librarianship of the Signet Library,
which post he retained till his death. Apart from an extraordinary
general bibliographical knowledge, Laing was best known as a lifelong
student of the literary and artistic history of Scotland. He published
no original volumes, but contented himself with editing the works of
others. Of these, the chief are--_Dunbar's Works_ (2 vols., 1834), with
a supplement added in 1865; _Robert Baillie's Letters and Journals_ (3
vols., 1841-1842); _John Knox's Works_ (6 vols., 1846-1864); _Poems and
Fables of Robert Henryson_ (1865); _Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale
Cronykil of Scotland_ (3 vols., 1872-1879); _Sir David Lyndsay's
Poetical Works_ (3 vols., 1879). Laing was for more than fifty years a
member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and he contributed
upwards of a hundred separate papers to their _Proceedings_. He was also
for more than forty years secretary to the Bannatyne Club, many of the
publications of which were edited by him. He was struck with paralysis
in 1878 while in the Signet Library, and it is related that, on
recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of
Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards,
on the 18th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold
by auction, and realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he
bequeathed his collection of MSS.

  See the Biographical Memoir prefixed to _Select Remains of Ancient,
  Popular and Romance Poetry of Scotland_, edited by John Small
  (Edinburgh, 1885); also T. G. Stevenson, _Notices of David Laing with
  List of his Publications, &c._ (privately printed 1878).




LAING, MALCOLM (1762-1818), Scottish historian, son of Robert Laing, and
elder brother of Samuel Laing the elder, was born on his paternal estate
on the Mainland of Orkney. Having studied at the grammar school of
Kirkwall and at Edinburgh University, he was called to the Scotch bar in
1785, but devoted his time mainly to historical studies. In 1793 he
completed the sixth and last volume of Robert Henry's _History of Great
Britain_, the portion which he wrote being in its strongly liberal tone
at variance with the preceding part of the work; and in 1802 he
published his _History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the
Union of the Kingdoms_, a work showing considerable research. Attached
to the _History_ was a dissertation on the Gowrie conspiracy, and
another on the supposed authenticity of Ossian's poems. In another
dissertation, prefixed to a second and corrected edition of the
_History_ published in 1804, Laing endeavoured to prove that Mary, queen
of Scots, wrote the Casket Letters, and was partly responsible for the
murder of Lord Darnley. In the same year he edited the _Life and
Historie of King James VI._, and in 1805 brought out in two volumes an
edition of Ossian's poems. Laing, who was a friend of Charles James Fox,
was member of parliament for Orkney and Shetland from 1807 to 1812. He
died on the 6th of November 1818.




LAING, SAMUEL (1810-1897), British author and railway administrator, was
born at Edinburgh on the 12th of December 1810. He was the nephew of
Malcolm Laing, the historian of Scotland; and his father, Samuel Laing
(1780-1868), was also a well-known author, whose books on Norway and
Sweden attracted much attention. Samuel Laing the younger entered St
John's College, Cambridge, in 1827, and after graduating as second
wrangler and Smith's prizeman, was elected a fellow, and remained at
Cambridge temporarily as a coach. He was called to the bar in 1837, and
became private secretary to Mr Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton), the
president of the Board of Trade. In 1842 he was made secretary to the
railway department, and retained this post till 1847. He had by then
become an authority on railway working, and had been a member of the
Dalhousie Railway Commission; it was at his suggestion that the
"parliamentary" rate of a penny a mile was instituted. In 1848 he was
appointed chairman and managing director of the London, Brighton & South
Coast Railway, and his business faculty showed itself in the largely
increased prosperity of the line. He also became chairman (1852) of the
Crystal Palace Company, but retired from both posts in 1855. In 1852 he
entered parliament as a Liberal for Wick, and after losing his seat in
1857, was re-elected in 1859, in which year he was appointed financial
secretary to the Treasury; in 1860 he was made finance minister in
India. On returning from India, he was re-elected to parliament for Wick
in 1865. He was defeated in 1868, but in 1873 he was returned for Orkney
and Shetland, and retained his seat till 1885. Meanwhile he had been
reappointed chairman of the Brighton line in 1867, and continued in that
post till 1894, being generally recognized as an admirable
administrator. He was also chairman of the Railway Debenture Trust and
the Railway Share Trust. In later life he became well known as an
author, his _Modern Science and Modern Thought_ (1885), _Problems of the
Future_ (1889) and _Human Origins_ (1892) being widely read, not only by
reason of the writer's influential position, experience of affairs and
clear style, but also through their popular and at the same time
well-informed treatment of the scientific problems of the day. Laing
died at Sydenham on the 6th of August 1897.




LAING'S [or LANG'S] NEK, a pass through the Drakensberg, South Africa,
immediately north of Majuba (q.v.), at an elevation of 5400 to 6000 ft.
It is the lowest part of a ridge which slopes from Majuba to the Buffalo
river, and before the opening of the railway in 1891 the road over the
nek was the main artery of communication between Durban and Pretoria.
The railway pierces the nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long. When the Boers
rose in revolt in December 1880 they occupied Laing's Nek to oppose the
entry of British reinforcements into the Transvaal. On the 28th of
January 1881 a small British force endeavoured to drive the Boers from
the pass, but was forced to retire.




LAIRD, MACGREGOR (1808-1861), Scottish merchant, pioneer of British
trade on the Niger, was born at Greenock in 1808, the younger son of
William Laird, founder of the Birkenhead firm of shipbuilders of that
name. In 1831 Laird and certain Liverpool merchants formed a company for
the commercial development of the Niger regions, the lower course of the
Niger having been made known that year by Richard and John Lander. In
1832 the company despatched two small ships to the Niger, one, the
"Alburkah," a paddle-wheel steamer of 55 tons designed by Laird, being
the first iron vessel to make an ocean voyage. Macgregor Laird went with
the expedition, which was led by Richard Lander and numbered forty-eight
Europeans, of whom all but nine died from fever or, in the case of
Lander, from wounds. Laird went up the Niger to the confluence of the
Benue (then called the Shary or Tchadda), which he was the first white
man to ascend. He did not go far up the river but formed an accurate
idea as to its source and course. The expedition returned to Liverpool
in 1834, Laird and Surgeon R. A. K. Oldfield being the only surviving
officers besides Captain (then Lieut.) William Allen, R.N., who
accompanied the expedition by order of the Admiralty to survey the
river. Laird and Oldfield published in 1837 in two volumes the
_Narrative of an Expedition into the Interior of Africa by the River
Niger ... in 1832, 1833, 1834_. Commercially the expedition had been
unsuccessful, but Laird had gained experience invaluable to his
successors. He never returned to Africa but henceforth devoted himself
largely to the development of trade with West Africa and especially to
the opening up of the countries now forming the British protectorates of
Nigeria. One of his principal reasons for so doing was his belief that
this method was the best means of stopping the slave trade and raising
the social condition of the Africans. In 1854 he sent out at his own
charges, but with the support of the British government, a small
steamer, the "Pleiad," which under W. B. Baikie made so successful a
voyage that Laird induced the government to sign contracts for annual
trading trips by steamers specially built for navigation of the Niger
and Benue. Various stations were founded on the Niger, and though
government support was withdrawn after the death of Laird and Baikie,
British traders continued to frequent the river, which Laird had opened
up with little or no personal advantage. Laird's interests were not,
however, wholly African. In 1837 he was one of the promoters of a
company formed to run steamships between England and New York, and in
1838 the "Sirius," sent out by this company, was the first ship to cross
the Atlantic from Europe entirely under steam. Laird died in London on
the 9th of January 1861.

His elder brother, JOHN LAIRD (1805-1874), was one of the first to use
iron in the construction of ships; in 1829 he made an iron lighter of 60
tons which was used on canals and lakes in Ireland; in 1834 he built the
paddle steamer "John Randolph" for Savannah, U.S.A., stated to be the
first iron ship seen in America. For the East India Company he built in
1839 the first iron vessel carrying guns and he was also the designer of
the famous "Birkenhead." A Conservative in politics, he represented
Birkenhead in the House of Commons from 1861 to his death.




LAÏS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as
follows. (1) The elder, a native of Corinth, born _c._ 480 B.C., was
famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname
of _Axine_ (the axe). Among her lovers were the philosophers Aristippus
and Diogenes, and Eubatas (or Aristoteles) of Cyrene, a famous runner.
In her old age she became a drunkard. Her grave was shown in the
Craneion near Corinth, surmounted by a lioness tearing a ram. (2) The
younger, daughter of Timandra the mistress of Alcibiades, born at
Hyccara in Sicily _c._ 420 B.C., taken to Corinth during the Sicilian
expedition. The painter Apelles, who saw her drawing water from the
fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model.
Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain
in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many
anecdotes are told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she
forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to
the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they
refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used as a general term for a
courtesan.

  See F. Jacobs, _Vermischte Schriften_, iv. (1830).




LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841-   ), French politician, was born at Nantes
on the 1st of November 1841, and was educated at the École Polytechnique
as a military engineer. He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of
Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned
his commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the
republican interest, and in 1879 he became director of the _Petit
Parisien_. For alleged libel on General Courtot de Cissey in this paper
he was heavily fined. In the Chamber he spoke chiefly on army questions;
and was chairman of a commission appointed to consider army legislation,
resigning in 1887 on the refusal of the Chamber to sanction the
abolition of exemptions of any kind. He then became an adherent of the
revisionist policy of General Boulanger and a member of the League of
Patriots. He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian
arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted
himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France
the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was attached to the staff of the
École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French
Association for the Advancement of Science.

  In addition to his political pamphlets _Pourquoi et comment je suis
  Boulangiste_ (1887) and _L'Anarchie bourgeoise_ (1887), he published
  mathematical works, among them _Introduction à l'étude des
  quarternions_ (1881) and _Théorie et applications des équipollences_
  (1887).




LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, in 37° N., 120°
55' E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the highway
running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-tsu harbour. It is
surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets
are spanned by large _pailous_ or monumental arches, some dating from
the time of the emperor Tai-ting-ti of the Yuan dynasty (1324). There
are extensive suburbs both to the north and south, and the total
population is estimated at 50,000. The so-called Ailanthus silk produced
by _Saturnia cynthia_ is woven at Lai-yang into a strong fabric; and the
manufacture of the peculiar kind of wax obtained from the la-shu or
wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity.




LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845), French politician, was born at Serres
(Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was
altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of
the teaching congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their
schools. When elected by his native department to the Convention in 1792
he was acting as vicar to his uncle Bernard Font (1723-1800), the
constitutional bishop of Pamiers. In the Convention he held apart from
the various party sections, although he voted for the death of Louis
XVI. He rendered great service to the Revolution by his practical
knowledge of education. He became a member of the Committee of Public
Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the
preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the
reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he
brought forward on the 26th of June his _Projet d'éducation nationale_
(printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden
or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary
education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public
festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational
questions. The scheme, in the main the work of Sieyès, was refused by
the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission
of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by
Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic death.
Lakanal, who was a member of the commission, now began to work for the
organization of higher education, and abandoning the principle of his
_Projet_ advocated the establishment of state-aided schools for primary,
secondary and university education. In October 1793 he was sent by the
Convention to the south-western departments and did not return to Paris
until after the revolution of Thermidor. He now became president of the
Education Committee and promptly abolished the system which had had
Robespierre's support. He drew up schemes for departmental normal
schools, for primary schools (reviving in substance the _Projet_) and
central schools. He presently acquiesced in the supersession of his own
system, but continued his educational reports after his election to the
Council of the Five Hundred. In 1799 he was sent by the Directory to
organize the defence of the four departments on the left bank of the
Rhine threatened by invasion. Under the Consulate he resumed his
professional work, and after Waterloo retired to America, where he
became president of the university of Louisiana. He returned to France
in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a
second time. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1845; his widow
survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the Institute of
France. He published in 1838 an _Exposé sommaire des travaux de Joseph
Lakanal_.

  His _éloge_ at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which he
  was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat (February 16,
  1845), and a _Notice historique_ by F. A. M. Mignet was read on the
  2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud (Paris, 1874),
  "Marcus" (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in _Hommes de la révolution_
  (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, _Lakanal et l'instruction publique_ (Paris,
  1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government
  see M. Tourneux, "Histoire de l'instruction publique, actes et
  déliberations de la convention, &c." in _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris_
  (vol. iii., 1900); also A. Robert and G. Cougny, _Dictionnaire des
  parlementaires_ (vol. ii., 1890).




LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808), British general, was born
on the 27th of July 1744. He entered the foot guards in 1758, becoming
lieutenant (captain in the army) 1762, captain (lieut.-colonel) in 1776,
major 1784, and lieut.-colonel in 1792, by which time he was a general
officer in the army. He served with his regiment in Germany in 1760-1762
and with a composite battalion in the Yorktown campaign of 1781. After
this he was equerry to the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. In
1790 he became a major-general, and in 1793 was appointed to command the
Guards Brigade in the duke of York's army in Flanders. He was in command
at the brilliant affair of Lincelles, on the 18th of August 1793, and
served on the continent (except for a short time when seriously ill)
until April 1794. He had now sold his lieut.-colonelcy in the guards,
and had become colonel of the 53rd foot and governor of Limerick. In
1797 he was promoted lieut.-general. In the following year the Irish
rebellion broke out. Lake, who was then serving in Ireland, succeeded
Sir Ralph Abercromby in command of the troops in April 1798, issued a
proclamation ordering the surrender of all arms by the civil population
of Ulster, and on the 21st of June routed the rebels at Vinegar Hill
(near Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford). He exercised great, but perhaps not
unjustified, severity towards all rebels found in arms. Lord Cornwallis
now assumed the chief command in Ireland, and in August sent Lake to
oppose the French expedition which landed at Killala Bay. On the 29th of
the same month Lake arrived at Castlebar, but only in time to witness
the disgraceful rout of the troops under General Hely-Hutchinson
(afterwards 2nd earl of Donoughmore); but he retrieved this disaster by
compelling the surrender of the French at Ballinamuck, near Cloone, on
the 8th of September. In 1799 Lake returned to England, and soon
afterwards obtained the command in chief in India. He took over his
duties at Calcutta in July 1801, and applied himself to the improvement
of the Indian army, especially in the direction of making all arms,
infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile and more manageable. In
1802 he was made a full general.

On the outbreak of war with the Mahratta confederacy in 1803 General
Lake took the field against Sindhia, and within two months defeated the
Mahrattas at Coel, stormed Aligahr, took Delhi and Agra, and won the
great victory of Laswari (November 1st, 1803), where the power of
Sindhia was completely broken, with the loss of thirty-one disciplined
battalions, trained and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of
ordnance. This defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur
Wellesley's victory at Argaum, compelled Sindhia to come to terms, and a
treaty with him was signed in December 1803. Operations were, however,
continued against his confederate, Holkar, who, on the 17th of November
1804, was defeated by Lake at Farrukhabad. But the fortress of Bhurtpore
held out against four assaults early in 1805, and Cornwallis, who
succeeded Wellesley as governor-general in July of that
year--superseding Lake at the same time as
commander-in-chief--determined to put an end to the war. But after the
death of Cornwallis in October of the same year, Lake pursued Holkar
into the Punjab and compelled him to surrender at Amritsar in December
1805. Wellesley in a despatch attributed much of the success of the war
to Lake's "matchless energy, ability and valour." For his services Lake
received the thanks of parliament, and was rewarded by a peerage in
September 1804. At the conclusion of the war he returned to England, and
in 1807 he was created a viscount. He represented Aylesbury in the House
of Commons from 1790 to 1802, and he also was brought into the Irish
parliament by the government as member for Armagh in 1799 to vote for
the Union. He died in London on the 20th of February 1808.

  See H. Pearse, _Memoir of the Life and Services of Viscount Lake_
  (London, 1908); G. B. Malleson, _Decisive Battles of India_ (1883); J.
  Grant Duff, _History of the Mahrattas_ (1873); short memoir in _From
  Cromwell to Wellington_, ed. Spenser Wilkinson.




LAKE. Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the science of
limnology (Gr. [Greek: limnê], a lake), defines a lake (Lat. _lacus_) as
a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without
direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to
widened parts of rivers, and sometimes to bodies of water which lie
along sea-coasts, even at sea-level and in direct communication with the
sea. The terms _pond_, _tarn_, _loch_ and _mere_ are applied to smaller
lakes according to size and position. Some lakes are so large that an
observer cannot see low objects situated on the opposite shore, owing to
the lake-surface assuming the general curvature of the earth's surface.
Lakes are nearly universally distributed, but are more abundant in high
than in low latitudes. They are abundant in mountainous regions,
especially in those which have been recently glaciated. They are
frequent along rivers which have low gradients and wide flats, where
they are clearly connected with the changing channel of the river. Low
lands in proximity to the sea, especially in wet climates, have numerous
lakes, as, for instance, Florida. Lakes may be either fresh or salt,
according to the nature of the climate, some being much more salt than
the sea itself. They occur in all altitudes; Lake Titicaca in South
America is 12,500 ft. above sea-level, and Yellowstone Lake in the
United States is 7741 ft. above the sea; on the other hand, the surface
of the Caspian Sea is 86 ft., the Sea of Tiberias 682 ft. and the Dead
Sea 1292 ft. below the level of the ocean.

The primary source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation, which may
reach the lakes through rain, melting ice and snow, springs, rivers and
immediate run-off from the land-surfaces. The surface of the earth, with
which we are directly in touch, is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere
and atmosphere, and these interpenetrate. Lakes, rivers, the
water-vapour of the atmosphere and the water of hydration of the
lithosphere, must all be regarded as outlying portions of the
hydrosphere, which is chiefly made up of the great oceans. Lakes may be
compared to oceanic islands. Just as an oceanic island presents many
peculiarities in its rocks, soil, fauna and flora, due to its isolation
from the larger terrestrial masses, so does a lake present peculiarities
and an individuality in its physical, chemical and biological features,
owing to its position and separation from the waters of the great
oceans.

  _Origin of Lakes._--From the geological point of view, lakes may be
  arranged into three groups: (A) Rock-Basins, (B) Barrier-Basins and
  (C) Organic Basins.

  A. ROCK-BASINS have been formed in several ways:--

  1. _By slow movements of the earth's crust_, during the formation of
  mountains; the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland and the Lake of Annecy in
  France are due to the subsidence or warping of part of the Alps; on
  the other hand, Lakes Stefanie, Rudolf, Albert Nyanza, Tanganyika and
  Nyasa in Africa, and the Dead Sea in Asia Minor, are all believed to
  lie in a great rift or sunken valley.

  2. _By Volcanic Agencies._--Crater-lakes formed on the sites of
  dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width,
  have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet.
  Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province of
  Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where M. Delebecque
  found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid
  crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern
  Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth.

  3. _By Subsidence due to Subterranean Channels and Caves in Limestone
  Rocks._--When the roofs of great limestone caves or underground lakes
  fall in, they produce at the surface what are called _limestone
  sinks_. Lakes similar to these are also found in regions abounding in
  rock-salt deposits; the Jura range offers many such lakes.

  4. _By Glacier Erosion._--A. C. Ramsay has shown that innumerable
  lakes of the northern hemisphere do not lie in fissures produced by
  underground disturbances, nor in areas of subsidence, nor in synclinal
  folds of strata, but are the results of glacial erosion. Many flat
  alluvial plains above gorges in Switzerland, as well as in the
  Highlands of Scotland, were, without doubt, what Sir Archibald Geikie
  calls glen-lakes, or true rock-basins, which have been filled up by
  sand and mud brought into them by their tributary streams.

  B. BARRIER-BASINS.--These may be due to the following causes:--

  1. _A landslip_ often occurs in mountainous regions, where strata,
  dipping towards the valley, rest on soft layers; the hard rocks slip
  into the valley after heavy rains, damming back the drainage, which
  then forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes high up in the Alps and
  Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way.

  2. _By a Glacier._--In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a
  glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing
  therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known lake
  of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch
  Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it
  is 2 or 3 m. long and 1 m. in width when at its highest level; it
  discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-sheet. The
  famous parallel roads of Glen Roy in Scotland are successive terraces
  formed along the shores of a glacial lake during the waning glacial
  epoch. Lake Agassiz, which during the glacial period occupied the
  valley of the Red River, and of which the present Lake Winnipeg is a
  remnant, was formed by an ice-dam along the margin of two great
  ice-sheets. It is estimated to have been 700 m. in length, and to have
  covered an area of 110,000 sq. m., thus exceeding the total area of
  the five great North American lakes: Superior (31,200), Michigan
  (22,450), Huron with Georgian Bay (23,800), Erie (9960) and Ontario
  (7240).

  3. _By the Lateral Moraine of an Actual Glacier._--These lakes
  sometimes occur in the Alps of Central Europe and in the Pyrenees
  Mountains.

  4. _By the Frontal Moraine of an Ancient Glacier._--The barrier in
  this case consists of the last moraine left by the retreating glacier.
  Such lakes are abundant in the northern hemisphere, especially in
  Scotland and the Alps.

  5. _By Irregular Deposition of Glacial Drift._--After the retreat of
  continental glaciers great masses of glacial drift are left on the
  land-surfaces, but, on account of the manner in which these masses
  were deposited, they abound in depressions that become filled with
  water. Often these lakes are without visible outlets, the water
  frequently percolating through the glacial drift. These lakes are so
  numerous in the north-eastern part of North America that one can trace
  the southern boundary of the great ice-sheet by following the southern
  limit of the lake-strewn region, where lakes may be counted by tens of
  thousands, varying from the size of a tarn to that of the great
  Laurentian lakes above mentioned.

  6. _By Sand drifted into Dunes._--It is a well-known fact that sand
  may travel across a country for several miles in the direction of the
  prevailing winds. When these sand-dunes obstruct a valley a lake may
  be formed. A good example of such a lake is found in Moses Lake in the
  state of Washington; but the sand-dunes may also fill up or submerge
  river-valleys and lakes, for instance, in the Sahara, where the Shotts
  are like vast lakes in the early morning, and in the afternoon, when
  much evaporation has taken place, like vast plains of white salt.

  7. _By Alluvial Matter deposited by Lateral Streams._--If the current
  of a main river be not powerful enough to sweep away detrital matter
  brought down by a lateral stream, a dam is formed causing a lake.
  These lakes are frequently met with in the narrow valleys of the
  Highlands of Scotland.

  8. _By Flows of Lava._--Lakes of this kind are met with in volcanic
  regions.

  C. ORGANIC BASINS.--In the vast tundras that skirt the Arctic Ocean in
  both the old and the new world, a great number of frozen ponds and
  lakes are met with, surrounded by banks of vegetation. Snow-banks are
  generally accumulated every season at the same spots. During summer
  the growth of the tundra vegetation is very rapid, and the snow-drifts
  that last longest are surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. When such
  accumulations of snow finally melt, the vegetation on the place they
  occupied is much less than along their borders. Year after year such
  places become more and more depressed, comparatively to the general
  surface, where vegetable growth is more abundant, and thus give origin
  to lakes.

  It is well known that in coral-reef regions small bays are cut off
  from the ocean by the growth of corals, and thus ultimately
  fresh-water basins are formed.

_Life History of Lakes._--From the time of its formation a lake is
destined to disappear. The historical period has not been long enough to
enable man to have watched the birth, life and death of any single lake
of considerable size, still by studying the various stages of
development a fairly good idea of the course they run can be obtained.

In humid regions two processes tend to the extinction of a lake, viz.
the deposition of detrital matter in the lake, and the lowering of the
lake by the cutting action of the outlet stream on the barrier. These
outgoing streams, however, being very pure and clear, all detrital
matter having been deposited in the lake, have less eroding power than
inflowing streams. One of the best examples of the action of the
filling-up process is presented by Lochs Doine, Voil and Lubnaig in the
Callander district of Scotland. In post-glacial times these three lochs
formed, without doubt, one continuous sheet of water, which subsequently
became divided into three different basins by the deposition of
sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones
laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an
alluvial flat that stretches for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river
and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates Loch
Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen Buckie,
by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on both sides
of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a point ¾ m. beyond its
present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 ft. by the
denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier.

In arid regions, where the rainfall is often less than 10 ins. in the
year, the action of winds in the transport of sand and dust is more in
evidence than that of rivers, and the effects of evaporation greater
than of precipitation. Salt and bitter lakes prevail in these regions.
Many salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake, are
descended from fresh-water ancestors, while others, like the Caspian and
Aral Seas, are isolated portions of the ocean. Lakes of the first group
have usually become salt through a decrease in the rainfall of the
region in which they occur. The water begins to get salt when the
evaporation from the lake exceeds the inflow. The inflowing waters bring
in a small amount of saline and alkaline matter, which becomes more and
more concentrated as the evaporation increases. In lakes of the second
group the waters were salt at the outset. If inflow exceeds evaporation
they become fresher, and may ultimately become quite fresh. If the
evaporation exceeds the inflow they diminish in size, and their waters
become more and more salt and bitter. The first lake which occupied the
basin of the Great Salt Lake of Utah appears to have been fresh, then
with a change of climate to have become a salt lake. Another change of
climate taking place, the level of the lake rose until it overflowed,
the outlet being by the Snake river; the lake then became fresh. This
expanded lake has been called Lake Bonneville, which covered an area of
about 17,000 sq. m. Another change of climate in the direction of
aridity reduced the level of the lake below the level of the outlet, the
waters became gradually salt, and the former great fresh-water lake has
been reduced gradually to the relatively small Great Salt Lake of the
present day. The sites of extinct salt lakes yield salt in commercial
quantities.

  _The Water of Lakes._--(a) _Composition._--It is interesting to
  compare the quantity of solid matter in, and the chemical composition
  of, the water of fresh and salt lakes:--

                                   Total Solids by Evaporation
                                  expressed in Grams per Litre.
    Great Salt Lake (Russell)                 238.12
    Lake of Geneva (Delebecque)                 0.1775

  The following analysis of a sample of the water of the Great Salt Lake
  (Utah, U.S.A.) is given by I. C. Russell:--

                Grams per Litre.         Probable Combination.

    Na              75.825        NaCl          192.860
    K                3.925        K2SO4           8.756
    Li               0.021        Li2SO4          0.166
    Mg               4.844        MgCl2          15.044
    Ca               2.424        MgSO4           5.216
    Cl             128.278        CaSO4           8.240
    SO3             12.522        Fe2O3 + Al2O3   0.004
    O in sulphate    2.494        SiO2            0.018
    Fe2O3 + Al2O3    0.004        Surplus SO_3    0.051
    SiO2             0.018
    Bo2O3            trace
    Br3        faint trace

  The following analyses of the waters of other salt lakes are given by
  Mr J. Y. Buchanan (Art. "Lake," _Ency. Brit._, 9th Ed.), an analysis
  of sea-water from the Suez Canal being added for comparison:--

    +-----------------------+---------+--------+-------------------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    |                       |         |        |    Caspian Sea.   |          |         |         |Suez Canal,|
    |                       |Koko-nor.|Aral Sea+--------+----------+Urmia Sea.|Dead Sea.|Lake Van.| Ismailia. |
    |                       |         |        |  Open. |Karabugas.|          |         |         |           |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    | Specific Gravity      | 1.00907 |   ..   | 1.01106|  1.26217 | 1.17500  |    ..   |  1.01800|  1.03898  |
    | Percentage of Salt    | 1.11    |   1.09 | 1.30   | 28.5     |22.28     | 22.13   |  1.73   |  5.1      |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    |      Name of Salt.    |                     Grams of Salt per 1000 Grams of Water.                      |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    | Bicarbonate of Lime   | 0.6804  | 0.2185 | 0.1123 |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |    ..   |  0.0072   |
    |      "      Iron      | 0.0053  |   ..   | 0.0014 |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |    ..   |  0.0069   |
    |      "      Magnesia  | 0.6598  |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  0.4031 |    ..     |
    | Carbonate of Soda     |   ..    |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  5.3976 |    ..     |
    | Phosphate of Lime     | 0.0028  |   ..   | 0.0021 |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  5.3976 |  0.0029   |
    | Sulphate of Lime      |   ..    | 1.3499 | 0.9004 |    ..    |  0.7570  |  0.8600 |    ..   |  1.8593   |
    |      "      Magnesia  | 0.9324  | 2.9799 | 3.0855 | 61.9350  | 13.5460  |    ..   |  0.2592 |  3.2231   |
    |      "      Soda      | 1.7241  |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  2.5673 |    ..     |
    |      "      Potash    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  0.5363 |    ..     |
    | Chloride of Sodium    | 6.9008  | 6.2356 | 8.1163 | 83.2840  |192.4100  | 76.5000 |  8.0500 | 40.4336   |
    |      "      Potassium | 0.2209  | 0.1145 | 0.1339 |  9.9560  |    ..    | 23.3000 |    ..   |  0.6231   |
    |      "      Rubidium  | 0.0055  |   ..   | 0.0034 |  0.2510  |    ..    |    ..   |    ..   |  0.0265   |
    |      "      Magnesium |   ..    | 0.0003 | 0.6115 |129.3770  | 15.4610  | 95.6000 |    ..   |  4.7632   |
    |      "      Calcium   |   ..    |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |  0.5990  | 22.4500 |    ..   |    ..     |
    | Bromide of Magnesium  | 0.0045  |   ..   | 0.0081 |  0.1930  |    ..    |  2.3100 |    ..   |  0.0779   |
    | Silica                | 0.0098  |   ..   | 0.0024 |    ..    |    ..    |  0.2400 |  0.0761 |  0.0027   |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    |   Total Solid Matter  |11.1463  |10.8987 |12.9773 |284.9960  |222.2600  |221.2600 | 17.2899 | 51.0264   |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+

  This table embraces examples of several types of salt lakes. In the
  Koko-nor, Aral and open Caspian Seas we have examples of the
  moderately salt, non-saturated waters. In the Karabugas, a branch gulf
  of the Caspian, Urmia and the Dead Seas we have examples of saturated
  waters containing principally chlorides. Lake Van is an example of the
  alkaline seas which also occur in Egypt, Hungary and other countries.
  Their peculiarity consists in the quantity of carbonate of soda
  dissolved in their waters, which is collected by the inhabitants for
  domestic and commercial purposes.

  The following analyses by Dr Bourcart give an idea of the chemical
  composition of the water of fresh-water lakes in grams per litre:--

    +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
    |               | Tanay. |  Bleu. |Märjelen.|St Gothard.|
    +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
    | SiO2          | 0.003  | 0.0042 | 0.0014  |  0.0008   |
    | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | 0.0012 | 0.0006 | 0.0008  |   trace   |
    | NaCl          | 0.0017 |   ..   |   ..    |    ..     |
    | Na2SO4        | 0.0011 | 0.0038 | 0.0031  |  0.00085  |
    | Na2CO3        |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |  0.00128  |
    | K2SO4         | 0.0021 | 0.0028 | 0.0044  |    ..     |
    | K2CO3         |   ..   |   ..   | 0.0003  |  0.00130  |
    | MgSO4         | 0.006  | 0.0305 |   ..    |    ..     |
    | MgCO3         | 0.0046 | 0.0158 | 0.0008  |  0.00015  |
    | CaSO4         |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |    ..     |
    | CaCO3         | 0.107  | 0.1189 | 0.0061  |  0.00178  |
    | MnO           | 0.001  |   ..   |   ..    |    ..     |
    +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+

  (b) _Movements and Temperature of Lake-Waters._--(1) In addition to
  the rise and fall of the surface-level of lakes due to rainfall and
  evaporation, there is a transference of water due to the action of
  wind which results in raising the level at the end to which the wind
  is blowing. In addition to the well-known progressive waves there are
  also stationary waves or "seiches" which are less apparent. A seiche
  is a standing oscillation of a lake, usually in the direction of the
  longest diameter, but occasionally transverse. In a motion of this
  kind every particle of the water of the lake oscillates synchronously
  with every other, the periods and phases being the same for all, and
  the orbits similar but of different dimensions and not similarly
  situated. Seiches were first discovered in 1730 by Fatio de Duillier,
  a well-known Swiss engineer, and were first systematically studied by
  Professor Forel in the Lake of Geneva. Large numbers of observations
  have been made by various observers in lakes in many parts of the
  world. Henry observed a fifteen-hour seiche in Lake Erie, which is 396
  kilometres in length, and Endros recorded a seiche of fourteen seconds
  in a small pond only 111 metres in length. Although these waves cause
  periodical rising and falling of the water-level, they are generally
  inconspicuous, and can only be recorded by a registering apparatus, a
  limnograph. Standard work has been done in the study of seiches by the
  Lake Survey of Scotland under the immediate direction of Professor
  Chrystal, who has given much attention to the hydrodynamical theories
  of the phenomenon. Seiches are probably due to several factors acting
  together or separately, such as sudden variations of atmospheric
  pressure, changes in the strength or direction of the wind.
  Explanations such as lunar attraction and earthquakes have been shown
  to be untenable as a general cause of seiches.

  2. _The water temperature of lakes_ may change with the season from
  place to place and from layer to layer; these changes are brought
  about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with the
  atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but
  the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial
  radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of
  39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats
  to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the water
  stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density point is
  much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type of
  fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the
  temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar type the
  temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature increases
  from the surface downwards. In the temperate type the distribution of
  temperature in winter resembles the polar type, and in summer the
  tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep Scottish lochs the
  temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., and is then nearly
  uniform from top to bottom. As the sun comes north, and the mean air
  temperature begins to be higher than the surface temperature, the
  surface waters gain heat, and this heating goes on till the month of
  August. About this time the mean air temperature falls below the
  surface temperature, and the loch begins to part with its heat by
  radiation and conduction. The temperature of the deeper layers beyond
  300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout the whole year. In the
  autumn the waters of the loch are divided into two compartments, the
  upper having a temperature from 49° to 55° F., the deeper a
  temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies the
  discontinuity-layer (_Sprungschicht_ of the Germans), where there is a
  rapid fall of temperature within a very short distance. In August this
  discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies at a depth of about 150
  ft.; as the season advances this layer gradually sinks deeper, and the
  layer of uniform temperature above it increases in depth, and slowly
  loses heat, until finally the whole loch assumes a nearly uniform
  temperature. Many years ago Sir John Murray showed by means of
  temperature observations the manner in which large bodies of water
  were transferred from the windward to the leeward end of a loch, and
  subsequent observations seem to show that, before the
  discontinuity-layer makes its appearance, the currents produced by
  winds are distributed through the whole mass of the loch. When,
  however, this layer appears, the loch is divided into two
  current-systems, as shown in the following diagram:--

  [Illustration: Current systems in a loch induced by wind at the
  surface. (After Wedderburn.)

    AB, Discontinuity layer.
    C, Surface current.
    D, Primary return current.
    E, Secondary surface current.
    F, Secondary return current.]

  Another effect of the separation of the loch into two compartments by
  the surface of discontinuity is to render possible the
  temperature-seiche. The surface-current produced by the wind transfers
  a large quantity of warm water to the lee end of the loch, with the
  result that the surface of discontinuity is deeper at the lee than at
  the windward end. When the wind ceases, a temperature-seiche is
  started, just as an ordinary seiche is started in a basin of water
  which has been tilted. This temperature-seiche has been studied
  experimentally and rendered visible by superimposing a layer of
  paraffin on a layer of water.

  Wedderburn estimates the quantity of heat that enters Loch Ness and is
  given out again during the year to be approximately sufficient to
  raise about 30,000 million gallons of water from freezing-point to
  boiling-point. Lakes thus modify the climate of the region in which
  they occur, both by increasing its humidity and by decreasing its
  range of temperature. They cool and moisten the atmosphere by
  evaporation during summer, and when they freeze in winter a vast
  amount of latent heat is liberated, and moderates the fall of
  temperature.

  Lakes act as reservoirs for water, and so tend to restrain floods, and
  to promote regularity of flow. They become sources of mechanical
  power, and as their waters are purified by allowing the sediment which
  enters them to settle, they become valuable sources of water-supply
  for towns and cities. In temperate regions small and shallow lakes are
  likely to freeze all over in winter, but deep lakes in similar regions
  do not generally freeze, owing to the fact that the low temperature of
  the air does not continue long enough to cool down the entire body of
  water to the maximum density point. Deep lakes are thus the best
  sources of water-supply for cities, for in summer they supply
  relatively cool water and in winter relatively warm water. Besides,
  the number of organisms in deep lakes is less than in small shallow
  lakes, in which there is a much higher temperature in summer, and
  consequently much greater organic growth. The deposits, which are
  formed along the shores and on the floors of lakes, depend on the
  geological structure and nature of the adjacent shores.

_Biology._--Compared with the waters of the ocean those of lakes may
safely be said to contain relatively few animals and plants. Whole
groups of organisms--the Echinoderms, for instance--are unrepresented.
In the oceans there is a much greater uniformity in the physical and
chemical conditions than obtains in lakes. In lakes the temperature
varies widely. To underground lakes light does not penetrate, and in
these some of the organisms may be blind, for example, the blind
crayfish (_Cambarus pellucidus_) and the blind fish (_Amblyopsis
spelaeus_) of the Kentucky caves. The majority of lakes are fresh, while
some are so salt that no organisms have been found in them. The peaty
matter in other lakes is so abundant that light does not penetrate to
any great depth, and the humic acids in solution prevent the development
of some species. Indeed, every lake has an individuality of its own,
depending upon climate, size, nature of the bottom, chemical composition
and connexion with other lakes. While the ocean contains many families
and genera not represented in lakes, almost every genus in lakes is
represented in the ocean.

  The vertebrates, insects and flowering plants inhabiting lakes vary
  much according to latitude, and are comparatively well known to
  zoologists and botanists. The micro-fauna and flora have only recently
  been studied in detail, and we cannot yet be said to know much about
  tropical lakes in this respect. Mr James Murray, who has studied the
  Scottish lakes, records in over 400 Scottish lochs 724 species (the
  fauna including 447 species, all invertebrates, and the flora
  comprising 277 species) belonging to the following groups; the list
  must not be regarded as in any way complete:--

        _Fauna._                     _Flora._

    Mollusca        7 species    Phanerogamia    65 species
    Hydrachnida    17    "       Equisetaceae     1    "
    Tardigrada     30    "       Selaginellaceae  1    "
    Insecta         7    "       Characeae        6    "
    Crustacea      78    "       Musci           18    "
    Bryozoa         7    "       Hepaticae        2    "
    Worms          25    "       Florideae        2    "
    Rotifera      181    "       Chlorophyceae  142    "
    Gastrotricha    2    "       Bacillariaceae  26    "
    Coelenterata    1    "       Myxophyceae     10    "
    Porifera        1    "       Peridiniaceae    4    "
    Protozoa       91    "
                  -----------                   -----------
                  447    "                      277    "

  These organisms are found along the shores, in the deep waters, and in
  the surface waters of the lakes.

  The _littoral region_ is the most populous part of lakes; the
  existence of a rooted vegetation is only possible there, and this in
  turn supports a rich littoral fauna. The greater heat of the water
  along the margins also favours growth. The great majority of the
  species in Scottish lochs are met with in this region. Insect larvae
  of many kinds are found under stones or among weeds. Most of the
  Cladocera, and the Copepoda of the genus _Cyclops_, and the
  Harpacticidae are only found in this region. Water-mites, nearly all
  the Rotifers, Gastrotricha, Tardigrada and Molluscs are found here,
  and Rhizopods are abundant. A large number of the littoral species in
  Loch Ness extends down to a depth of about 300 ft.

  _The abyssal region_, in Scottish lochs, lies, as a rule, deeper than
  300 ft., and in this deep region a well-marked association of animals
  appears in the muds on the bottom, but none of them are peculiar to
  it: they all extend into the littoral zone, from which they were
  originally derived. In Loch Ness the following sparse population was
  recorded:--

    1 Mollusc:    _Pisidium pusillum_ (Gmel).
    3 Crustacea:  _Cyclops viridis_, Jurine.
                  _Candona candida_ (Müll).
                  _Cypria ophthalmica_, Jurine.
    3 Worms:      _Stylodrilus gabreteae_, Vejd.
                  Oligochaete, not determined.
                  _Automolos morgiensis_ (Du Plessis).
    1 Insect:     _Chironomus_ (larva).
      Infusoria:  Several, ectoparasites on _Pisidium_ and _Cyclops_,
                    not determined.

  In addition, the following were found casually at great depths in Loch
  Ness: _Hydra_, _Limnaea peregra_, _Proales daphnicola_ and _Lynceus
  affinis_.

  The _pelagic region_ of the Scottish lakes is occupied by numerous
  microscopic organisms, belonging to the Zooplankton and Phytoplankton.
  Of the former group 30 species belonging to the Crustacea, Rotifera
  and Protozoa were recorded in Loch Ness. Belonging to the second group
  150 species were recorded, of which 120 were Desmids. Some of these
  species of plankton organisms are almost universal in the Scottish
  lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the
  year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in
  winter. The great development of Algae in the surface waters, called
  "flowering of the water" (_Wasserblüthe_), was observed in August in
  Loch Lomond; a distinct "flowering," due to Chlorophyceae, has been
  observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in
  August and September, but has also been observed in winter.

  The plankton animals which are dominant or common, both over Scotland
  and the rest of Europe, are:--

    _Diaptomus gracilis._
    _Daphnia kyalina._
    _Diaphanosoma brachyurum._
    _Leptodora kindtii._
    _Conochilus unicornis._
    _Asplanchna priodonta._
    _Polyarthra platyptera._
    _Anuraea cochlearis._
    _Notholca longispina._
    _Ceratium hirundinella._
    _Asterionella._

  All of these, according to Dr Lund, belong to the general plankton
  association of the European plain, or are even cosmopolitan.

  The Scottish plankton on the whole differs from the plankton of the
  central European plateau, and from the cosmopolitan fresh-water
  plankton, in the extraordinary richness of the Phytoplankton in
  species of Desmids, in the conspicuous arctic element among the
  Crustacea, in the absence or comparative rarity of the species
  commonest in the general European plankton. Another peculiarity is the
  local distribution of some of the Crustacea and many of the Desmids.

  The derivation of the whole lacustrine population of the Scottish
  lochs does not seem to present any difficulty. The abyssal forms have
  been traced to the littoral zone without any perceptible
  modifications. The plankton organisms are a mingling of European and
  arctic species. The cosmopolitan species may enter the lochs by
  ordinary migration. It is probable that if the whole plankton could be
  annihilated, it would be replaced by ordinary migration within a few
  years. The eggs and spores of many species can be dried up without
  injury, and may be carried through the air as dust from one lake to
  another; others, which would not bear desiccation, might be carried in
  mud adhering to the feet of aquatic birds and in various other ways.
  The arctic species may be survivors from a period when arctic
  conditions prevailed over a great part of Europe. What are known as
  "relicts" of a marine fauna have not been found in the Scottish
  fresh-water lochs.

  It is somewhat remarkable that none of the organisms living in
  fresh-water lochs has been observed to exhibit the phenomenon of
  phosphorescence, although similar organisms in the salt-water lochs a
  few miles distant exhibit brilliant phosphorescence. At similar depths
  in the sea-lochs there is usually a great abundance of life when
  compared with that found in fresh-water lochs.

_Length, Depth, Area and Volume of Lakes._--In the following table will
be found the length, depth, area and volume of some of the principal
lakes of the world.[1] Sir John Murray estimates The volume of water in
the 560 Scottish lochs recently surveyed at 7 cub. m., and the
approximate volume of water in all the lakes of the world at about 2000
cub. m., so that this last number is but a small fraction of the volume
of the ocean, which he previously estimated at 324 million cub. m. It
may be recalled that the total rainfall on the land of the globe is
estimated at 29,350 cub. m., and the total discharge from the rivers of
the globe at 6524 cub. m.

  BRITISH LAKES

  +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+
  |                    |Length |     Depth     |  Area  | Volume in |
  |                    |   in  |      in       |   in   |  million  |
  |                    | Miles.|     Feet.     | sq. m. |  cub. ft. |
  +--------------------+-------+------+--------+--------+-----------+
  |I. _England_--      |       | Max. | Mean.  |        |           |
  |   Windermere       | 10.50 |  219 |  78.5  |  5.69  |  12,250   |
  |   Ullswater        |  7.35 |  205 |  83    |  3.44  |   7,870   |
  |   Wastwater        |  3.00 |  258 | 134.5  |  1.12  |   4,128   |
  |   Coniston Water   |  5.41 |  184 |  79    |  1.89  |   4,000   |
  |   Crummock Water   |  2.50 |  144 |  87.5  |  0.97  |   2,343   |
  |   Ennerdale Water  |  2.40 |  148 |  62    |  1.12  |   1,978   |
  |   Bassenthwaite    |       |      |        |        |           |
  |    Water           |  3.83 |   70 |  18    |  2.06  |   1,023   |
  |   Derwentwater     |  2.87 |   72 |  18    |  2.06  |   1,010   |
  |   Haweswater       |  2.33 |  103 |  39.5  |  0.54  |     589   |
  |   Buttermere       |  1.26 |   94 |  54.5  |  0.36  |     537   |
  |II. _Wales_--       |       |      |        |        |           |
  |   Llyn Cawlyd      |  1.62 |  222 | 109.1  |  0.18  |     941   |
  |   Llyn Cwellyn     |  1.20 |  122 |  74.1  |  0.35  |     713   |
  |   Llyn Padarn      |  2.00 |   94 |  52.4  |  0.43  |     632   |
  |   Llyn Llydaw      |  1.11 |  190 |  77.4  |  0.19  |     409   |
  |   Llyn Peris       |  1.10 |  114 |  63.9  |  0.19  |     344   |
  |   Llyn Dulyn       |  0.31 |  189 | 104.2  |  0.05  |     156   |
  |III. _Scotland_--   |       |      |        |        |           |
  |   Ness             | 24.23 |  754 | 433.02 | 21.78  | 263,162   |
  |   Lomond           | 22.64 |  623 | 121.29 | 27.45  |  92,805   |
  |   Morar            | 11.68 | 1017 | 284.00 | 10.30  |  81,482   |
  |   Tay              | 14.55 |  508 | 199.08 | 10.19  |  56,550   |
  |   Awe              | 25.47 |  307 | 104.95 | 14.85  |  43,451   |
  |   Maree            | 13.46 |  367 | 125.30 | 11.03  |  38,539   |
  |   Lochy            |  9.78 |  531 | 228.95 |  5.91  |  37,726   |
  |   Rannoch          |  9.70 |  440 | 167.46 |  7.37  |  34,387   |
  |   Shiel            | 17.40 |  420 | 132.73 |  7.56  |  27,986   |
  |   Arkaig           | 12.00 |  359 | 152.71 |  6.24  |  26,573   |
  |   Earn             |  6.46 |  287 | 137.83 |  3.91  |  14,421   |
  |   Treig            |  5.10 |  436 | 207.37 |  2.41  |  13,907   |
  |   Shin             | 17.22 |  162 |  51.04 |  8.70  |  12,380   |
  |   Fannich          |  6.92 |  282 | 108.76 |  3.60  |  10,920   |
  |   Assynt           |  6.36 |  282 | 101.10 |  3.10  |   8,731   |
  |   Quoich           |  6.95 |  281 | 104.60 |  2.86  |   8,345   |
  |   Glass            |  4.03 |  365 | 159.07 |  1.86  |   8,265   |
  |   Fionn (Carnmore) |  5.76 |  144 |  57.79 |  3.52  |   5,667   |
  |   Laggan           |  7.04 |  174 |  67.68 |  2.97  |   5,601   |
  |   Loyal            |  4.46 |  217 |  65.21 |  2.55  |   4,628   |
  |IV. _Ireland_--     |       |      |        |        |           |
  |   Neagh            | 17    |  102 |  40    |153     | 161,000   |
  |   Erne (Lower)     | 24    |  226 |  43    | 43     |  62,000   |
  |   Erne (Upper)     | 13    |   89 |  10    | 15     |   5,000   |
  |   Corrib           | 27    |  152 |  30    | 68     |  59,000   |
  |   Mask             | 10    |  191 |  52    | 35     |  55,000   |
  |   Derg             | 24    |  119 |  30    | 49     |  47,000   |
  +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+

  EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL LAKES

  +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+
  |            |Length |     Depth    |  Area  | Volume in  |
  |            |   in  |       in     |   in   |  million   |
  |            | Miles.|      Feet.   | sq. m. |  cub. ft.  |
  +------------+-------+------+-------+--------+------------+
  |            |       | Max. | Mean. |        |            |
  | Ladoga     |  125  |  732 |  300  | 7000   | 43,200,000 |
  | Onega      |  145  |  740 |  200  | 3800   | 21,000,000 |
  | Vener      |   93  |  292 |  108  | 2149   |  6,357,000 |
  | Geneva     |   45  | 1015 |  506  |  225   |  3,175,000 |
  | Vetter     |   68  |  413 |  128  |  733   |  2,543,000 |
  | Mjösen     |   57  | 1483 |   ..  |  139   |  2,882,000 |
  | Garda      |   38  | 1124 |  446  |  143   |  1,766,000 |
  | Constance  |   42  |  827 |  295  |  208   |  1,711,000 |
  | Ochrida    |   19  |  942 |  479  |  105   |  1,391,000 |
  | Maggiore   |   42  | 1220 |  574  |   82   |  1,310,000 |
  | Como       |   30  | 1345 |  513  |   56   |    794,000 |
  | Hornafvan  |    7  | 1391 |  253  |   93   |    777,000 |
  +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+

  AFRICAN LAKES

  +----------------+------+-------------+--------+-------------+
  |                |Length|    Depth    |  Area  |  Volume in  |
  |                |  in  |     in      |   in   |   million   |
  |                |Miles.|    Feet.    | sq. m. |   cub. ft.  |
  +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+
  |                |      | Max. | Mean.|        |             |
  | Victoria Nyanza|  200 |  240 |  ..  | 26,200 |   5,800,000 |
  | Nyasa          |  350 | 2580 |  ..  | 14,200 | 396,000,000 |
  | Tanganyika     |  420 | 2100 |  ..  | 12,700 | 283,000,000 |
  +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+

  ASIATIC LAKES

  +----------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+
  |          |Length |    Depth    |  Area  | Volume in  |
  |          |  in   |     in      |   in   |  million   |
  |          | Miles.|    Feet.    | sq. m. |  cub. ft.  |
  +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+
  |          |       | Max. | Mean.|        |            |
  | Aral     |  265  |  222 |  52  | 24,400 | 43,600,000 |
  | Baikal   |  330  | 5413 |  ..  | 11,580 |274,000,000 |
  | Balkash  |  323  |   33 |  ..  |  7,000 |  4,880,000 |
  | Urmia    |   80  |   50 |  15  |  1,750 |    732,000 |
  +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+

  AMERICAN LAKES

  +------------+-------+-------------+--------+-------------+
  |            |Length |    Depth    |  Area  |  Volume in  |
  |            |  in   |     in      |   in   |   million   |
  |            | Miles.|    Feet.    | sq. m. |   cub. ft.  |
  +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+
  |            |       | Max. | Mean.|        |             |
  | Superior   |  412  | 1008 |  475 | 31,200 | 413,000,000 |
  | Huron      |  263  |  730 |  250 | 23,800 | 166,000,000 |
  | Michigan   |  335  |  870 |  325 | 22,450 | 203,000,000 |
  | Erie       |  240  |  210 |   70 |  9,960 |  19,500,000 |
  | Ontario    |  190  |  738 |  300 |  7,240 |  61,000,000 |
  | Titicaca   |  120  |  924 |  347 |  3,200 |  30,900,000 |
  +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+

  NEW ZEALAND LAKES

  +--------------+-------+-------------+--------+-----------+
  |              |Length |    Depth    |  Area  | Volume in |
  |              |  in   |     in      |   in   |  million  |
  |              | Miles.|    Feet.    | sq. m. |  cub. ft. |
  +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+
  |              |       | Max. | Mean.|        |           |
  | Taupo        | 25    |  534 |  367 |  238.0 | 2,435,000 |
  | Wakatipu     | 49    | 1242 |  707 |  112.3 | 2,205,000 |
  | Manapouri    | 19    | 1458 |  328 |   56.0 |   512,000 |
  | Rotorua      |  7.5  |  120 |   39 |   31.6 |    34,000 |
  | Waikarimoana |  7.25 |  846 |  397 |   14.7 |   166,000 |
  | Wairaumoana  |  5.25 |  375 |  175 |    6.1 |    30,000 |
  | Rotoiti      | 10.7  |  230 |   69 |   14.2 |    27,000 |
  +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+

  AUTHORITIES.--F. A. Forel, "Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine
  Limnologie," _Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher_ (Stuttgart, 1901), _Le
  Léman, monographie limnologique_ (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); A.
  Delebecque, _Les Lacs français_, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R.
  Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," _Geogr. Journ._
  vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, "Bathymetrical and Geological
  Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xl. p.
  419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, "Bathymetrical Survey
  of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland," _Geogr. Journ._ (1900 to 1908,
  re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); W. Halbfass, "Die
  Morphometrie der europäischen Seen," _Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde
  Berlin_ (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, _Lakes of
  North America_ (Boston and London, 1895); O. Zacharias,
  "Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Plön" (Stuttgart);
  F. E. Bourcart, _Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude chimique et physique_
  (Geneva, 1906); G. P. Magrini, _Limnologia_ (Milan, 1907).     (J. Mu.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Divergence between certain of these figures and those quoted
    elsewhere in this work may be accounted for by the slightly different
    results arrived at by various authorities.




LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Calcasieu Parish,
30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m. (by rail) W. of New
Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442, (1900) 6680 (2407 negroes);
(1910) 11,449. It is served by the Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific
System), the St Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the
Kansas City Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the
shore of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some
dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m. from the
Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal buildings are a
Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government building, the court
house, St Patrick's sanatorium, the masonic temple and the Elks' club.
Lake Charles is in the prairie region of southern Louisiana, to the N.
of which, covering a large part of the state, are magnificent forests of
long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland growths of oak, ash, magnolia,
cypress and other valuable timber. The Watkins railway extending to the
N.E. and the Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up
the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is largely
given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief centre of lumber
manufacture in the state, and has rice mills, car shops and an important
trade in wool. Ten miles W. are sulphur mines (product in 1907 about
362,000 tons), which with those of Sicily produce a large part of the
total product of the world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the
centre of oil fields, once very productive but now of diminishing
importance. Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others
lie to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by people
from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated as a town in 1857
under the name of Charleston and again in 1867 under its present name,
and was chartered as a city in 1886. The city suffered severely by fire
in April 1910.




LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Florida,
U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4013, of
whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910) 5032. Lake City is served by
the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern
& Florida railways. There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and
the town is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia
College (Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened
here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in 1905 was
abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits grown for the
northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco are important products
of the surrounding country, and Lake City has some trade in cotton,
lumber, phosphates and turpentine. The town was first settled about 1826
as Alligator; it was incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in
1859; and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated.




LAKE DISTRICT, in England, a district containing all the principal
English lakes, and variously termed the Lake Country, Lakeland and "the
Lakes." It falls within the north-western counties of Cumberland,
Westmorland and Lancashire (Furness district), about one-half being
within the first of these. Although celebrated far outside the confines
of Great Britain as a district of remarkable and strongly individual
physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius
of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within
this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point
in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, and
covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in
height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open
expanse and steep rock-bound shores to picturesque island-groups and
soft wooded banks; while the mountains have always a remarkable dignity,
less from the profile of their summits than from the bold sweeping lines
of their flanks, unbroken by vegetation, and often culminating in sheer
cliffs or crags. At their feet, the flat green valley floors of the
higher elevations give place in the lower parts to lovely woods. The
streams are swift and clear, and numerous small waterfalls are
characteristic of the district. To the north, west and south, a flat
coastal belt, bordering the Irish Sea, with its inlets Morecambe Bay and
Solway Firth, and broadest in the north, marks off the Lake District,
while to the east the valleys of the Eden and the Lune divide it from
the Pennine mountain system. Geologically, too, it is individual. Its
centre is of volcanic rocks, complex in character, while the
Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone appear round the edges. The district
as a whole is grooved by a main depression, running from north to south
along the valleys of St John, Thirlmere, Grasmere and Windermere,
surmounting a pass (Dunmail Raise) of only 783 ft.; while a secondary
depression, in the same direction, runs along Derwentwater, Borrowdale,
Wasdale and Wastwater, but here Sty Head Pass, between Borrowdale and
Wasdale, rises to 1600 ft. The centre of the 15-m. radius lies on the
lesser heights between Langstrath and Dunmail Raise, which may, however,
be the crown of an ancient dome of rocks, "the dissected skeleton of
which, worn by the warfare of air and rain and ice, now alone remains"
(Dr H. R. Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes,"
_Geographical Journal_, vi. 48). The principal features of the district
may be indicated by following this circle round from north, by west,
south and east.

  The river Derwent (q.v.), rising in the tarns and "gills" or "ghylls"
  (small streams running in deeply-grooved clefts) north of Sty Head
  Pass and the Scafell mass flows north through the wooded Borrowdale
  and forms Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These two lakes are in a
  class apart from all the rest, being broader for their length, and
  quite shallow (about 18 ft. average and 70 ft. maximum), as distinct
  from the long, narrow and deep troughs occupied by the other chief
  lakes, which average from 40 to 135 ft. deep. Derwentwater (q.v.),
  studded with many islands, is perhaps the most beautiful of all.
  Borrowdale is joined on the east by the bare wild dale of Langstrath,
  and the Greta joins the Derwent immediately below Derwentwater; the
  town of Keswick lying near the junction. Derwentwater and
  Bassenthwaite occupy a single depression, a flat alluvial plain
  separating them. From Seatoller in Borrowdale a road traverses
  Honister Pass (1100 ft.), whence it descends westward, beneath the
  majestic Honister Crags, where green slate is quarried, into the
  valley containing Buttermere (94 ft. max. depth) and Crummock Water
  (144 ft.), drained by the Cocker. Between this and the Derwent valley
  the principal height is Grasmoor (2791 ft.); southward a steep narrow
  ridge (High Style, 2643) divides it from Ennerdale, containing
  Ennerdale Water (148 ft. max. depth), which is fed by the Liza and
  drained by the Ehen. A splendid range separates this dale from Wasdale
  and its tributary Mosedale, including Great Gable (2949 ft.), Pillar
  (2927), with the precipitous Pillar Rock on the Ennerdale flank and
  Steeple (2746). Wasdale Head, between Gable and the Scafell range, is
  peculiarly grand, with dark grey screes and black crags frowning above
  its narrow bottom. On this side of Gable is the fine detached rock,
  Napes Needle. Wastwater, 3 m. in length, is the deepest lake of all
  (258 ft.), its floor, like those of Windermere and Ullswater, sinking
  below sea-level. Its east shore consists of a great range of screes.
  East of Wasdale lies the range of Scafell (q.v.), its chief points
  being Scafell (3162 ft.), Scafell Pike (3210), Lingmell (2649) and
  Great End (2984), while the line is continued over Esk Hause Pass
  (2490) along a fine line of heights (Bow Fell, 2960; Crinkle Crags,
  2816), to embrace the head of Eskdale. The line then descends to
  Wrynose Pass (1270 ft.), from which the Duddon runs south through a
  vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range
  continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with
  the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale
  drains south to Coniston Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east
  of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser
  lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (q.v.).
  This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of
  which, between Bow Fell and Langdale Pikes (2401 ft.), is very fine;
  and by the Rothay from Dunmail Raise and the small lakes of Grasmere
  and Rydal Water, embowered in woods. East of the Rothay valley and
  Thirlmere lies the mountain mass including Helvellyn (3118 ft.),
  Fairfield (2863) and other points, with magnificent crags at several
  places on the eastern side towards Grisedale and Patterdale. These
  dales drain to Ullswater (205 ft. max., second to Windermere in area),
  and so north-east to the Eden. To the east and south-east lies the
  ridge named High Street (2663 ft.), from the Roman road still
  traceable from south to north along its summit, and sloping east again
  to the sequestered Hawes Water (103 ft. max.), a curiously shaped lake
  nearly divided by the delta of the Measand Beck. There remains the
  Thirlmere valley. Thirlmere itself was raised in level, and adapted by
  means of a dam at the north end, as a reservoir for the water-supply
  of Manchester in 1890-1894. It drains north by St John's Vale into the
  Greta, north of which again rises a mountain-group of which the chief
  summits are Saddleback or Blencathra (2847 ft.) and the graceful peak
  of Skiddaw (3054). The most noteworthy waterfalls are--Scale Force
  (Dano-Norwegian _fors_, _foss_), beside Crummock, Lodore near
  Derwentwater, Dungeon Gill Force, beside Langdale, Dalegarth Force in
  Eskdale, Aira near Ullswater, sung by Wordsworth, Stock Gill Force and
  Rydal Falls near Ambleside.

  The principal centres in the Lake District are Keswick (Derwentwater),
  Ambleside, Bowness, Windermere and Lakeside (Windermere), Coniston and
  Boot (Eskdale), all of which, except Ambleside and Bowness (which
  nearly joins Windermere) are accessible by rail. The considerable
  village of Grasmere lies beautifully at the head of the lake of that
  name; and above Esthwaite is the small town of Hawkshead, with an
  ancient church, and picturesque houses curiously built on the
  hill-slope and sometimes spanning the streets. There are regular
  steamer services on Windermere and Ullswater. Coaches and cars
  traverse the main roads during the summer, but many of the finest
  dales and passes are accessible only on foot or by ponies. All the
  mountains offer easy routes to pedestrians, but some of them, as
  Scafell, Pillar, Gable (Napes Needle), Pavey Ark above Langdale and
  Dow Crags near Coniston, also afford ascents for experienced climbers.

  This mountainous district, having the sea to the west, records an
  unusually heavy rainfall. Near Seathwaite, below Styhead Pass, the
  largest annual rainfall in the British Isles is recorded, the average
  (1870-1899) being 133.53 in., while 173.7 was measured in 1903 and
  243.98 in. in 1872. At Keswick the annual mean is 60.02, at Grasmere
  about 80 ins. The months of maximum rainfall at Seathwaite are
  November, December and January and September.

  Fish taken in the lakes include perch, pike, char and trout in
  Windermere, Ennerdale, Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, &c., and the
  gwyniad or fresh-water herring in Ullswater. The industries of the
  Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining,
  and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making.

  Setting aside London and Edinburgh, no locality in the British Isles
  is so intimately associated with the history of English literature as
  the Lake District. In point of time the poet whose name is first
  connected with the region is Gray, who wrote a journal of his tour in
  1769. But it was Wordsworth, a native of Cumberland, born on the
  outskirts of the Lake District itself, who really made it a Mecca for
  lovers of English poetry. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty
  were spent amid its lakes and mountains, first as a schoolboy at
  Hawkshead, and afterwards as a resident at Grasmere (1799-1813) and
  Rydal Mount (1813-1850). In the churchyard of Grasmere the poet and
  his wife lie buried; and very near to them are the remains of Hartley
  Coleridge (son of the poet), who himself lived many years at Keswick,
  Ambleside and Grasmere. Southey, the friend of Wordsworth, was a
  resident of Keswick for forty years (1803-1843), and was buried in
  Crosthwaite churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived some time at
  Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at Grasmere. From 1807 to 1815
  Christopher North (John Wilson) was settled at Windermere. De Quincey
  spent the greater part of the years 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the
  first cottage which Wordsworth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its
  environs, was also the place of residence of Dr Arnold (of Rugby), who
  spent there the vacations of the last ten years of his life; and of
  Harriet Martineau, who built herself a house there in 1845. At Keswick
  Mrs Lynn Linton was born in 1822. Brantwood, a house beside Coniston
  Lake, was the home of Ruskin during the last years of his life. In
  addition to these residents or natives of the locality, Shelley,
  Scott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Clough, Crabb Robinson, Carlyle, Keats,
  Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Mrs Hemans, Gerald Massey and others of less
  reputation made longer or shorter visits, or were bound by ties of
  friendship with the poets already mentioned. The Vale of St John, near
  Keswick, recalls Scott's _Bridal of Triermain_. But there is a deeper
  connexion than this between the Lake District and English letters.
  German literature tells of several literary schools, or groups of
  writers animated by the same ideas, and working in the spirit of the
  same principles and by the same poetic methods. The most notable
  instance--indeed it is almost the only instance--of the kind in
  English literature is the Lake School of Poets. Of this school the
  acknowledged head and founder was Wordsworth, and the tenets it
  professed are those laid down by the poet himself in the famous
  preface to the edition of _The Lyrical Ballads_ which he published in
  1800. Wordsworth's theories of poetry--the objects best suited for
  poetic treatment, the characteristics of such treatment and the choice
  of diction suitable for the purpose--may be said to have grown out of
  the soil and substance of the lakes and mountains, and out of the
  homely lives of the people, of Cumberland and Westmoreland.

  See CUMBERLAND, LANCASHIRE, WESTMORLAND. The following is a selection
  from the literature of the subject: Harriet Martineau, _The English
  Lakes_ (Windermere, 1858); Mrs Lynn Linton, _The Lake Country_
  (London, 1864); E. Waugh, _Rambles in the Lake Country_ (1861) and _In
  the Lake Country_ (1880); W. Knight, _Through the Wordsworth Country_
  (London, 1890); H. D. Rawnsley, _Literary Associations of the English
  Lakes_ (2 vols., Glasgow, 1894) and _Life and Nature of the English
  Lakes_ (Glasgow, 1899); Stopford Brooke, _Dove Cottage, Wordsworth's
  Home from 1800 to 1808_; A. G. Bradley, _The Lake District, its
  Highways and Byeways_ (London, 1901); Sir John Harwood, _History of
  the Thirlmere Water Scheme_ (1895); for mountain-climbing, Col. J.
  Brown, _Mountain Ascents in Westmorland and Cumberland_ (London,
  1888); Haskett-Smith, _Climbing in the British Isles_, part, i.; Owen
  G. Jones, _Rock-climbing in the English Lake District_, 2nd ed. by W.
  M. Crook (Keswick, 1900).




LAKE DWELLINGS, the term employed in archaeology for habitations
constructed, not on the dry land, but within the margins of lakes or
creeks at some distance from the shore.

The villages of the Guajiros in the Gulf of Maracaibo are described by
Goering as composed of houses with low sloping roofs perched on lofty
piles and connected with each other by bridges of planks. Each house
consisted of two apartments; the floor was formed of split stems of
trees set close together and covered with mats; they were reached from
the shore by dug-out canoes poled over the shallow waters, and a notched
tree trunk served as a ladder. The custom is also common in the
estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon. A similar system prevails in New
Guinea. Dumont d'Urville describes four such villages in the Bay of
Dorei, containing from eight to fifteen blocks or clusters of houses,
each block separately built on piles, and consisting of a row of
distinct dwellings. C. D. Cameron describes three villages thus built on
piles in Lake Mohrya, or Moria, in Central Africa, the motive here being
to prevent surprise by bands of slave-catchers. Similar constructions
have been described by travellers, among the Dyaks of Borneo, in
Celebes, in the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast of Africa, and in
other places.

Hippocrates, writing in the 5th century B.C., says of the people of the
Phasis that their country is hot and marshy and subject to frequent
inundations, and that they live in houses of timber and reeds
constructed in the midst of the waters, and use boats of a single tree
trunk. Herodotus, writing also in the 5th century B.C., describes the
people of Lake Prasias as living in houses constructed on platforms
supported on piles in the middle of the lake, which are approached from
the land by a single narrow bridge. Abulfeda the geographer, writing in
the 13th century, notices the fact that part of the Apamaean Lake was
inhabited by Christian fishermen who lived on the lake in wooden huts
built on piles, and Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) mentions that the
Rumelian fishermen on Lake Prasias "still inhabit wooden cottages built
over the water, as in the time of Herodotus."

The records of the wars in Ireland in the 16th century show that the
petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strongholds
constructed in the "freshwater lochs" of the country, and there is
record evidence of a similar system in the western parts of Scotland.
The archaeological researches of the past fifty years have shown that
such artificial constructions in lakes were used as defensive dwellings
by the Celtic people from an early period to medieval times (see
CRANNOG). Similar researches have also established the fact that in
prehistoric times nearly all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the
adjoining countries--in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and
Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania--were peopled, so to speak, by
lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms
supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal
groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne,
Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes
Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain
range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also
found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted
up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of
settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of
Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake
of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake
dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a
parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in
breadth. The settlement at Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of
Geneva, is 1200 ft. long by 150 ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz,
one of the largest in the Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and
was connected with the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about
40 ft. wide.

The substructure which supported the platforms on which the dwellings
were placed was most frequently of piles driven into the bottom of the
lake. Less frequently it consisted of a stack of brushwood or fascines
built up from the bottom and strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass
so as to keep it from spreading. When piles were used they were the
rough stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water,
sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a point by
hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting the platforms were
laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted in mortices cut in the
heads of the piles. In some cases the whole construction was further
steadied and strengthened by cross beams, notched into the piles below
the supports of the platform. The platform itself was usually composed
of rough layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of
boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to afford
foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework of tree
trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake. On the other hand,
when the bottom was rocky so that the piles could not be driven, they
were steadied at their bases by being enveloped in a mound of loose
stones, in the manner in which the foundations of piers and breakwaters
are now constructed. In cases where piles have not been used, as at
Niederwil and Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots
laid parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers of
brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there being fixed
throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At Niederwil the
platform was formed of split boards, many of which were 2 ft. broad and
2 or 3 in. in thickness.

On these substructures were the huts composing the settlement; for the
peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they were pile villages, or
clusters of huts occupying a common platform. The huts themselves were
quadrilateral in form. The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked
by boards resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards
over the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which were
supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were formed of
wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of clay, and in each
floor there was a hearth constructed of flat slabs of stone. The roofs
were thatched with bark, straw, reeds or rushes. As the superstructures
are mostly gone, there is no evidence as to the position and form of the
doorways, or the size, number and position of the windows, if there were
any. In one case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong
quadrangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms by a
partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the two, was entered
by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south. The access to the inner
room was by a similar door through the partition. The walls were formed
of split tree-trunks set upright and plastered with clay; and the
flooring of similar timbers bedded in clay. In other cases the remains
of the gangways or bridges connecting the settlements with the shore
have been discovered, but often the village appears to have been
accessible only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been
found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest
width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty the
number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages may have
consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost contiguously on the
platform, the space between them not exceeding 3 ft. in width. The size
of the huts also varied considerably. At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long
and 12 ft. wide, while at Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by
about 22 ft. wide.

The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settlements
have been the dwellings of a people using no materials but stone, bone
and wood for their implements, ornaments and weapons; in others, of a
people using bronze as well as stone and bone; and in others again the
occasional use of iron is disclosed. But, though the character of the
relics is thus changed, there is no corresponding change in the
construction and arrangements of the dwellings. The settlement in the
Lake of Moosseedorf, near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a
lake dwelling of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50
ft. wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots
connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been destroyed by
fire. The implements found in the relic bed under it were axe-heads of
stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and wood; a flint saw, set in
a handle of fir wood and fastened with asphalt; flint flakes and
arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn with barbs; awls, needles, chisels,
fish-hooks and other implements of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long;
and a skate made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted
chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size,
others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were covered
with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels. Burnt wheat,
barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds and fruits, were
plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag, the ox, the swine, the
sheep and the goat, representing the ordinary food of the inhabitants,
while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the
horse, the elk and the bison were also found.

The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of
the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation
after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is
estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct
successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been
destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake by a
layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone and other
relics highly carbonized. The second is represented above the bottom by
a series of piles with burnt heads, and in the bottom by a layer of
charcoal mixed with corn, apples, cloth, bones, pottery and implements
of stone and bone, separated from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft.
of peaty sediment intermixed with relics of the occupation of the
platform. The piles of the third settlement do not reach down to the
shell marl, but are fixed in the layers representing the first and
second settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those of
the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood. The huts
of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls between them,
the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake bottom. The bones of
the animals consumed as food at this station were found in such numbers
that 5 tons were collected in the construction of a watercourse which
crossed the site. Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds
were tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last
for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of yew,
floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft. long. No
spindle-whorls were found, but there were many varieties of cloth,
platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls of string. Among the tools
of bone and stag's horn were awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and
haftings for stone axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly
axe-heads and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many
varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting
pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating
of the melted bronze.

The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the
richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded
four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads
and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an
anvil, sixty rings for the arms and legs, several highly ornate torques
or twisted neck rings, and upwards of two hundred hair pins of various
sizes up to 16 in. in length, some having spherical heads in which
plates of gold were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets
were found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five hundred
vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are indicated by the
fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac de Bourget, in Savoy,
has eight settlements, all of the Bronze age. These have yielded upwards
of 4000 implements, weapons and ornaments of bronze, among which were a
large proportion of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone
implements suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the
occasional occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin
indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times.

The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone and
Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing evidence. "We
may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller, "in an age when iron and
bronze had been long known, but had not come into our districts in such
plenty as to be used for the common purposes of household life, at a
time when amber had already taken its place as an ornament and had
become an object of traffic." It is now considered that the people who
erected the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who
were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamentation of the
implements and weapons of stone and bronze found in the lake dwellings
are the same as those of the implements and weapons in these materials
found in the soil of the adjacent regions, and both groups must
therefore be ascribed to the industry of one and the same people.
Whether dwelling on the land or dwelling in the lake, they have
exhibited so many indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and
social organization that they cannot be considered as presenting, even
in their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization.
Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block and ground to
the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in a socket of stag's
horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their knives and saws of flint
were mounted in wooden handles and fixed with asphalt. They made and
used an endless variety of bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly
finished, is well made, the vessels often of large size and capable of
standing the fire as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also
made wooden tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of
spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets and fishing
lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture, cultivating several
varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet and flax. They kept
horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Their clothing was partly of
linen and partly of woollen fabrics and the skins of their beasts. Their
food was nutritious and varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor
incommodious. They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social
organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and
progressive communities.

There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of stone to the
use of metal such as might have occurred had the knowledge of copper and
bronze, and the methods of working them, been introduced through the
conquest of the original inhabitants by an alien race of superior
culture and civilization. The improved cultural conditions become
apparent in the multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and
ornaments made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new
material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture in the lake
dwellings followed the same course as in the surrounding regions where
the people dwelt on the dry land is evident from the correspondence of
the types of implements, weapons, ornaments and utensils common to both
these conditions of life.

Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake dwellings
are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland. Both of these are
settlements of wooden huts erected on piles, not over the water, but on
flat land subject to inundations. The terremare (so named from the marly
soil of which they are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very
considerable extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic
beds of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the plains of
northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries, though similar
constructions have been found in Hungary in the valley of the Theiss.
These pile-villages were often surrounded by an earthen rampart within
which the huts were erected in more or less regular order. Many of them
present evidence of having been more than once destroyed by fire and
reconstructed, while others show one or more reconstructions at higher
levels on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that
they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in some
cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone age. Their
inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the common domestic animals,
while their tools, weapons and ornaments were mainly of similar
character to those of the contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining
regions. Some of the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions
made like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed
longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the
province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in the
pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina in Bosnia,
described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger houses had platforms
in front of them forming terraces at different levels descending towards
the river. There was a cemetery adjacent to the village in which both
unburnt and cremated interments occurred, the former predominating. From
the general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong
to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds somewhat
similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile structures, on low
or marshy lands subject to inundations from the sea. Unlike the
terremare and the lake dwellings they do not seem to belong to the
prehistoric ages, but yield indications of occupation in post-Roman and
medieval times.

  AUTHORITIES.--The materials for the investigation of this singular
  phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr
  Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in _Mittheilungen
  der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to
  (1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a
  separate work in England, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other
  parts of Europe_, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by
  John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on
  the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps
  anciens et modernes_ (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, _Les Palafittes ou
  constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor
  and L. Favre, _Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874);
  A. Perrin, _Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l'époque
  lacustre_ (_Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget_, Paris, 1870); Ernest
  Chantre, _Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru_
  (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, _Lake Habitations and
  prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and
  Central Italy_, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir John
  Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Prehistoric Times_ (4th ed., London, 1878);
  Robert Munro, _The Lake-Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with a
  bibliography of the subject.     (J. An.)




LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of
Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449;
(1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The
city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long
and 1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by
springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of
hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly
for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at
Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University
of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The
first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was
chartered in 1893.




LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the province of Ontario,
Canada, bordering west on the province of Manitoba, and south on the
state of Minnesota. It is of extremely irregular shape, and contains
many islands. Its length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m.
It lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes Winnipeg
and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains to it. It collects the
waters of many rivers, the chief being Rainy river from the east,
draining Rainy Lake. By the Winnipeg river on the north-east it
discharges into Lake Winnipeg. At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft.
above the sea, and drops 347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery
both on and around the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands
are largely occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora,
a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the centre of
the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of the vicinity.




LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the W.
shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid, about 42 m. N.W.
of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910) 1682. The village is served by
the Delaware & Hudson railway. The region is one of the most attractive
in the Adirondacks, and is a much frequented summer resort. There are
four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club
house, called the "Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow
strip of land (about 1/3 m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N.
and S., and 1/3 m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by
S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The
lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands--Moose, the
largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck--and is a beautiful
sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded
hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity are
Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N. end of the
lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about 1 m. to the W., and Pulpit
Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore. The summit of Whiteface Mountain
commands a fine view, with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.),
Basin (4825 ft.), Marcy (5344 ft.), and McIntyre (5210 ft.) mountains
about 10 m. to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may
be seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E. and S.
are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About 2 m. E. of the
village, at North Elba, is the grave of the abolitionist, John Brown,
with its huge boulder monument, and near it is another monument which
bears the names of the 20 persons who bought the John Brown farm and
gave it to the state. The railway to the village was completed in 1893.
The village was incorporated in 1900.




LAKEWOOD, a village of Ocean county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township
of Lakewood, 59 m. S. by W. of New York city, and 8 m. from the coast,
on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Pop. (1900) of the township,
including the village, 3094; (1905) 4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a
fashionable health and winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a
pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives.
In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, a
library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than
in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892.




LAKH (from the Sans. _laksha_, one hundred thousand), a term used in
British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees
(written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the rupee would be worth
£10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in
trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore.




LAKHIMPUR, a district of British India in the extreme east of the
province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4529 sq. m. It lies along
both banks of the Brahmaputra for about 400 m.; it is bounded N. by the
Daphla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills, E. by the Mishmi and Kachin hills,
S. by the watershed of the Patkai range and the Lohit branch of the
Brahmaputra, and W. by the districts of Darrang and Sibsagar. The
Brahmaputra is navigable for steamers in all seasons as far as
Dibrugarh, in the rainy season as far as Sadiya; its navigable
tributaries within the district are the Subansiri, Dibru and Dihing. The
deputy-commissioner in charge exercises political control over numerous
tribes beyond the inner surveyed border. The most important of these
tribes are the Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Kachins and Nagas. In
1901 the population was 371,396, an increase of 46% in the decade. The
district has enjoyed remarkable and continuous prosperity. At each
successive census the percentage of increase has been over 40, the
present population being more than three times as great as that of 1872.
This increase is chiefly due to the numerous tea gardens and to the coal
mines and other enterprises of the Assam Railways and Trading Company.
Lakhimpur was the first district into which tea cultivation was
introduced by the government, and the Assam Company began operations
here in 1840. The railway, known as the Dibru-Sadiya line, runs from
Dibrugarh to Makum, with two branches to Talap and Margherita, and has
been connected across the hills with the Assam-Bengal railway. The coal
is of excellent quality, and is exported by river as far as Calcutta.
The chief oil-wells are at Digboi. The oil is refined at Margherita,
producing a good quality of kerosene oil and first-class paraffin, with
wax and other by-products. The company also manufactures bricks and
pipes of various kinds. Another industry is cutting timber, for the
manufacture of tea-chests, &c.

  Lakhimpur figures largely in the annals of Assam as the region where
  successive invaders from the east first reached the Brahmaputra. The
  Bara Bhuiyas, originally from the western provinces of India, were
  driven out by the Chutias (a Shan race), and these in their turn gave
  place to their more powerful brethren, the Ahoms, in the 13th century.
  The Burmese, who had ruined the native kingdoms, at the end of the
  18th century, were in 1825 expelled by the British, who placed the
  southern part of the country, together with Sibsagar under the rule of
  Raja Purandhar Singh; but it was not till 1838 that the whole was
  taken under direct British administration. The headquarters are at
  Dibrugarh.

  See _Lakhimpur District Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1905).




LAKSHMI (Sans. for "mark," "sign," generally used in composition with
_punya_, "prosperous"; hence "good sign," "good fortune"), in Hindu
mythology, the wife of Vishnu worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty
and prosperity. She has many other names, the chief being _Loka mata_
("mother of the world"), _Padma_ ("the lotus"), _Padma laya_ ("she who
dwells on a lotus") and _Jaladhija_ ("the ocean-born"). She is
represented as of a bright golden colour and seated on a lotus. She is
said to have been born from the sea of milk when it was churned from
ambrosia. Many quaint myths surround her birth. In the Rig Veda her name
does not occur as a goddess.




LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453), Flemish knight, was originally in
the service of the duke of Cleves and afterwards in that of the duke of
Burgundy, Philip III., the Good, gaining great renown by his prowess in
the tiltyard. The duke of Burgundy entrusted him with embassies to the
pope and the king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put
down the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was
killed. His biography, _Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de
Lalaing_, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of
the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fèvre, better known as
_Toison d'or_; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the
herald Charolais also took part in its compilation.




LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was
born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents
sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel
Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy,
and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre
Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, and was about to
return to Bourg to practise there as an advocate, when Lemonnier
obtained permission to send him to Berlin, to make observations on the
lunar parallax in concert with those of N. L. Lacaille at the Cape of
Good Hope. The successful execution of his task procured for him, before
he was twenty-one, admission to the Academy of Berlin, and the post of
adjunct astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the
improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected
edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose
return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N.
Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the Collège de
France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six
years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils
were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own nephew Michel
Lalande. By his publications in connexion with the transit of 1769 he
won great and, in a measure, deserved fame. But his love of notoriety
and impetuous temper compromised the respect due to his scientific zeal,
though these faults were partially balanced by his generosity and
benevolence. He died on the 4th of April 1807.

  Although his investigations were conducted with diligence rather than
  genius, the career of Lalande must be regarded as of eminent service
  to astronomy. As a lecturer and writer he gave to the science
  unexampled popularity; his planetary tables, into which he introduced
  corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to
  the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him
  in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still
  testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. Amongst his
  voluminous works are _Traité d'astronomie_ (2 vols., 1764; enlarged
  edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); _Histoire
  céleste française_ (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars;
  _Bibliographie astronomique_ (1803), with a history of astronomy from
  1781 to 1802; _Astronomie des dames_ (1785); _Abrégé de navigation_
  (1793); _Voyage d'un françois en Italie_ (1769), a valuable record of
  his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty
  papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the _Connoissance des
  temps_ (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding 2
  vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's _Histoire des mathématiques_
  (1802).

  See _Mémoires de l'Institut_, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre);
  Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 547; _Magazin
  encyclopédique_, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de
  l'astr. moderne_, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, _Geschichte der
  Himmelskunde_, ii. 141; R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Astronomie_; J. J.
  Lalande, _Bibl. astr._ p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit.
  Handwörterbuch_; M. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, ix. 35.




LALÍN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra.
Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalín is the centre of the trade in agricultural
products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers.
The local industries are tanning and the manufacture of paper. Near
Lalín are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro.




LA LINEA, or LA LINEA DE LA CONCEPCION, a town of Spain, in the province
of Cadiz, between Gibraltar and San Roque. Pop. (1900) 31,802. La Linea,
which derives its name from the _line_ or boundary dividing Spanish
territory from the district of Gibraltar, is a town of comparatively
modern date and was formerly looked upon as a suburb of San Roque. It is
now a distinct frontier post and headquarters of the Spanish commandant
of the lines of Gibraltar. The fortifications erected here in the 16th
century were dismantled by the British in 1810, to prevent the landing
of French invaders, and all the existing buildings are modern. They
include barracks, casinos, a theatre and a bull-ring, much frequented by
the inhabitants and garrison of Gibraltar. La Linea has some trade in
cereals, fruit and vegetables; it is the residence of large numbers of
labourers employed in Gibraltar.




LALITPUR, a town of British India, in Jhansi district, United Provinces.
Pop. (1901) 11,560. It has a station on the Great Indian Peninsula
railway, and a large trade in oil-seeds, hides and _ghi_. It contains
several beautiful Hindu and Jain temples. It was formerly the
headquarters of a district of the same name, which was incorporated with
that of Jhansi in 1891. The Bundela chiefs of Lalitpur were among those
who most eagerly joined the Mutiny, and it was only after a severe
struggle that the district was pacified.




LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal (1702-1766), French
general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, in January 1702, being the son of
Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble
family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army
in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was present at
Dettingen (1743), and commanded the regiment de Lally in the famous
Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He was made a brigadier on the
field by Louis XV. He had previously been mixed up in several Jacobite
plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as
aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to
France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the
capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a _maréchal de camp_. When war
broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French
expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the
outset met with some trifling military success. He was a man of courage
and a capable general; but his pride and ferocity made him disliked by
his officers and hated by his soldiers, while he regarded the natives as
slaves, despised their assistance, and trampled on their traditions of
caste. In consequence everything went wrong with him. He was
unsuccessful in an attack on Tanjore, and had to retire from the siege
of Madras (1758) owing to the timely arrival of the British fleet. He
was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Wandiwash (1760), and besieged in
Pondicherry and forced to capitulate (1761). He was sent as a prisoner
of war to England. While in London, he heard that he was accused in
France of treachery, and insisted, against advice, on returning on
parole to stand his trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years
before the trial began; then, after many painful delays, he was
sentenced to death (May 6, 1766), and three days later beheaded. Louis
XV. tried to throw the responsibility for what was undoubtedly a
judicial murder on his ministers and the public, but his policy needed a
scapegoat, and he was probably well content not to exercise his
authority to save an almost friendless foreigner.

  See G. B. Malleson, _The Career of Count Lally_ (1865); "Z's" (the
  marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the _Biographie Michaud_; and
  Voltaire's _Oeuvres complètes_. The legal documents are preserved in
  the Bibliothèque Nationale.




LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at
Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte
de Lally and only discovered the secret of his birth on the day of his
father's execution, when he resolved to devote himself to clearing his
father's memory. He was supported by Voltaire, and in 1778 succeeded in
persuading Louis XVI. to annul the decree which had sentenced the comte
de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred
back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's guilt. The case was
retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence was never fully admitted
by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal bought the office of
_Grand bailli_ of Étampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the
states-general for the _noblesse_ of Paris. He played some part in the
early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in
sympathy with all even of its earlier developments. He threw himself
into opposition to the "tyranny" of Mirabeau, and condemned the epidemic
of renunciation which in the session of the 4th of August 1789 destroyed
the traditional institutions of France. Later in the year he emigrated
to England. During the trial of Louis XVI. by the National Convention
(1793) he offered to defend the king, but was not allowed to return to
France. He did not return till the time of the Consulate. Louis XVIII.
created him a peer of France, and in 1816 he became a member of the
French Academy. From that time until his death, on the 11th of March
1830, he devoted himself to philanthropic work, especially identifying
himself with prison reform.

  See his _Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI._ (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal
  was also in part responsible for the _Mémoires_, attributed to Joseph
  Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the
  article on his father in the _Biographie Michaud_; see also Arnault,
  _Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal
  le 13 mars 1830_ (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, _Nécrologie de M. le
  marquis de Lally-Tollendal_ (Paris, undated); Voltaire, _Oeuvres
  complètes_ (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of
  contents, vol. ii.




LALO, EDOUARD (1823-1892), French composer, was born at Lille, on the
27th of January 1823. He began his musical studies at the conservatoire
at Lille, and in Paris attended the violin classes of Habeneck. For
several years Lalo led a modest and retired existence, playing the viola
in the quartet party organized by Armingaud and Jacquard, and in
composing chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet,
and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an
operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled _Fiesque_,
obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This work was accepted for
production at the Paris Opéra, but delays occurred, and nothing was
done. _Fiesque_ was next offered to the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels,
and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt.
Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in
difficulties. _Fiesque_ was never performed, but the composer published
the pianoforte score, and eventually employed some of the music in other
works. After the Franco-German war French composers found their
opportunity in the concert-room. Lalo was one of these, and during the
succeeding ten years several interesting works from his pen were
produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a "divertissement" for
orchestra, a violin concerto and the _Symphonie Espagnole_ for violin
and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he
had written a second opera, _Le Roi d'Ys_, which he hoped would be
produced at the Opéra. The administration offered him the "scenario" of
a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to
work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet
being orchestrated by Gounod. _Namouna_, the ballet in question, was
produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888,
_Le Roi d'Ys_ was brought out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last
enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him
too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to _Néron_, a
pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two
works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act
when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. This opera, _La Jacquerie_,
was finished by Arthur Coquard, and was produced in 1895 at Monte Carlo,
Aix-les-Bains and finally in Paris. Lalo had distinct originality,
discernible in his employment of curious rhythmic devices. His music is
ever ingenious and brilliantly effective.




LA MADDALENA, an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop.
(1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson
made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval
station of the Italian fleet, the anchorage being good, and is strongly
fortified. A bridge and an embankment connect it with Caprera. It
appears to have been inhabited in Roman times.




LAMAISM, a system of doctrine partly religious, partly political.
Religiously it is the corrupt form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet and
Mongolia. It stands in a relationship to primitive Buddhism similar to
that in which Roman Catholicism, so long as the temporal power of the
pope was still in existence, stood to primitive Christianity. The
ethical and metaphysical ideas most conspicuous in the doctrines of
Lamaism are not confined to the highlands of central Asia, they are
accepted in great measure also in Japan and China. It is the union of
these ideas with a hierarchical system, and with the temporal
sovereignty of the head of that system in Tibet, which constitutes what
is distinctively understood by the term Lamaism. Lamaism has acquired a
special interest to the student of comparative history through the
instructive parallel which its history presents to that of the Church of
Rome.


  The "Great Vehicle."

The central point of primitive Buddhism was the doctrine of
"Arahatship"--a system of ethical and mental self-culture, in which
deliverance was found from all the mysteries and sorrows of life in a
change of heart to be reached here on earth. This doctrine seems to have
been held very nearly in its original purity from the time when it was
propounded by Gotama in the 6th century B.C. to the period in which
northern India was conquered by the Huns about the commencement of the
Christian era. Soon after that time there arose a school of Buddhist
teachers who called their doctrine the "Great Vehicle." It was not in
any contradiction to the older doctrine, which they contemptuously
called the "Little Vehicle," but included it all, and was based upon it.
The distinguishing characteristic of the newer school was the importance
which it attached to "Bodhisatship." The older school had taught that
Gotama, who had propounded the doctrine of Arahatship, was a Buddha,
that only a Buddha is capable of discovering that doctrine, and that a
Buddha is a man who by self-denying efforts, continued through many
hundreds of different births, has acquired the so-called _Ten Paramitas_
or cardinal virtues in such perfection that he is able, when sin and
ignorance have gained the upper hand throughout the world, to save the
human race from impending ruin. But until the process of perfection has
been completed, until the moment when at last the sage, sitting under
the Wisdom tree acquires that particular insight or wisdom which is
called Enlightenment or Buddhahood, he is still only a Bodhisat. The
link of connexion between the various Bodhisats in the future Buddha's
successive births is not a soul which is transferred from body to body,
but the _karma_, or character, which each successive Bodhisat inherits
from his predecessors in the long chain of existences. Now the older
school also held, in the first place, that, when a man had, in this
life, attained to Arahatship, his karma would not pass on to any other
individual in another life--or in other words, that after Arahatship
there would be no rebirth; and, secondly, that four thousand years after
the Buddha had proclaimed the _Dhamma_ or doctrine of Arahatship, his
teaching would have died away, and another Buddha would be required to
bring mankind once more to a knowledge of the truth. The leaders of the
Great Vehicle urged their followers to seek to attain, not so much to
Arahatship, which would involve only their own salvation, but to
Bodhisatship, by the attainment of which they would be conferring the
blessings of the Dhamma upon countless multitudes in the long ages of
the future. By thus laying stress upon Bodhisatship, rather than upon
Arahatship, the new school, though they doubtless merely thought
themselves to be carrying the older orthodox doctrines to their logical
conclusion, were really changing the central point of Buddhism, and were
altering the direction of their mental vision. It was of no avail that
they adhered in other respects in the main to the older teaching, that
they professed to hold to the same ethical system, that they adhered,
except in a few unimportant details, to the old regulations of the order
of the Buddhist mendicant recluses. The ancient books, preserved in the
_Pali Pitakas_, being mainly occupied with the details of Arahatship,
lost their exclusive value in the eyes of those whose attention was
being directed to the details of Bodhisatship. And the opinion that
every leader in their religious circles, every teacher distinguished
among them for his sanctity of life, or for his extensive learning, was
a Bodhisat, who might have and who probably had inherited the karma of
some great teacher of old, opened the door to a flood of superstitious
fancies.

It is worthy of note that the new school found its earliest professors
and its greatest expounders in a part of India outside the districts to
which the personal influence of Gotama and of his immediate followers
had been confined. The home of early Buddhism was round about Kosala and
Magadha; in the district, that is to say, north and south of the Ganges
between where Allahabad now lies on the west and Rajgir on the east. The
home of the Great Vehicle was, at first, in the countries farther to the
north and west. Buddhism arose in countries where Sanskrit was never
more than a learned tongue, and where the exclusive claims of the
Brahmins had never been universally admitted. The Great Vehicle arose in
the very stronghold of Brahminism, and among a people to whom Sanskrit,
like Latin in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary _lingua
franca_. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called
forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit--its principal
books of _Dharma_, or doctrine, being the following nine: (1)
_Prajña-paramita_; (2) _Ganda-vyuha_; (3) _Dasa-bhumis-vara_; (4)
_Samadhi-raja_; (5) _Lankavatara_; (6) _Saddharma-pundarika_; (7)
_Tathagata-guhyaka_; (8) _Lalita-vistara_; (9) _Suvarna-prabhasa_. The
date of none of these works is known with any certainty, but it is
highly improbable that any one of them is older than the 6th century
after the death of Gotama. Copies of all of them were brought to Europe
by Mr B. H. Hodgson, and other copies have been received since then; but
only one of them has as yet been published in Europe (the _Lalita
Vistara_, edited by Lofmann), and only two have been translated into any
European language. These are the _Lalita Vistara_, translated into
French, through the Tibetan, by M. Foucaux, and the _Saddharma
Pundarika_, translated into English by Professor Kern. The former is
legendary work, partly in verse, on the life of Gotama, the historical
Buddha; and the latter, also partly in verse, is devoted to proving the
essential identity of the Great and the Little Vehicles, and the equal
authenticity of both as doctrines enunciated by the master himself.

Of the authors of these nine works, as of all the older Buddhist works
with one or two exceptions, nothing has been ascertained. The founder of
the system of the Great Vehicle is, however, often referred to under the
name of Nagarjuna, whose probable date is about A.D. 200.

Together with Nagarjuna, other early teachers of the Great Vehicle whose
names are known are Vasumitra, Vasubandhu, Aryadeva, Dharmapala and
Gunamati--all of whom were looked upon as Bodhisats. As the newer school
did not venture so far as to claim as Bodhisats the disciples stated in
the older books to have been the contemporaries of Gotama (they being
precisely the persons known as Arahats), they attempted to give the
appearance of age to the Bodhisat theory by representing the Buddha as
being surrounded, not only by his human companions the Arahats, but also
by fabulous beings, whom they represented as the Bodhisats existing at
that time. In the opening words of each Mahayana treatise a list is
given of such Bodhisats, who were beginning, together with the
historical Bodhisats, to occupy a position in the Buddhist church of
those times similar to that occupied by the saints in the corresponding
period of the history of Christianity in the Church of Rome. And these
lists of fabulous Bodhisats have now a distinct historical importance.
For they grow in length in the later works; and it is often possible by
comparing them one with another to fix, not the date, but the
comparative age of the books in which they occur. Thus it is a fair
inference to draw from the shortness of the list in the opening words of
the _Lalita Vistara_, as compared with that in the first sections of the
_Saddharma Pundarika_, that the latter work is much the younger of the
two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations.

Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the _Saddharma Pundarika_, and not
mentioned in the _Lalita Vistara_, as attendant on the Buddha are
Mañju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints were already
acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of
the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India
about that time, says that "men of the Great Vehicle" were then
worshipping them at Mathura, not far from Delhi (F. H., chap. xvi.).
These were supposed to be celestial beings who, inspired by love of the
human race, had taken the so-called Great Resolve to become future
Buddhas, and who therefore descended from heaven when the actual Buddha
was on earth, to pay reverence to him, and to learn of him. The belief
in them probably arose out of the doctrine of the older school, which
did not deny the existence of the various creations of previous
mythology and speculation, but allowed of their actual existence as
spiritual beings, and only deprived them of all power over the lives of
men, and declared them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin
and ignorance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship.
Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous
Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to Mañju-sri as the
personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteswara as the personification
of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the
mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced
civilization into Tibet about two hundred and fifty years after the
death of the Buddha.


  The five mystic trinities.

The way was now open to a rapid fall from the simplicity of early
Buddhism, in which men's attention was directed to the various parts of
the system of self-culture, to a belief in a whole pantheon of saints or
angels, which appealed more strongly to the half-civilized races among
whom the Great Vehicle was now professed. A theory sprang up which was
supposed to explain the marvellous powers of the Buddhas by representing
them as only the outward appearance, the reflection, as it were, or
emanation, of ethereal Buddhas dwelling in the skies. These were called
_Dhyani Buddhas_, and their number was supposed to be, like that of the
Buddhas, innumerable. Only five of them, however, occupied any space in
the speculative world in which the ideas of the later Buddhists had now
begun to move. But, being Buddhas, they were supposed to have their
Bodhisats; and thus out of the five last Buddhas of the earlier teaching
there grew up five mystic trinities, each group consisting of one of
these five Buddhas, his prototype in heaven the Dhyani Buddha, and his
celestial Bodhisat. Among these hypothetical beings, the creations of a
sickly scholasticism, hollow abstractions without life or reality, the
particular trinity in which the historical Gotama was assigned a
subordinate place naturally occupied the most exalted rank. Amitabha,
the Dhyani-Buddha of this trinity, soon began to fill the largest place
in the minds of the new school; and Avalokiteswara, his Bodhisat, was
looked upon with a reverence somewhat less than his former glory. It is
needless to add that, under the overpowering influence of these vain
imaginations, the earnest moral teachings of Gotama became more and more
hidden from view. The imaginary saints grew and flourished. Each new
creation, each new step in the theory, demanded another, until the whole
sky was filled with forgeries of the brain, and the nobler and simpler
lessons of the founder of the religion were hidden beneath the
glittering stream of metaphysical subtleties.

Still worse results followed on the change of the earlier point of view.
The acute minds of the Buddhist pandits, no longer occupied with the
practical lessons of Arahatship, turned their attention, as far as it
was not engaged upon their hierarchy of mythological beings, to
questions of metaphysical speculation, which, in the earliest Buddhism,
are not only discouraged but forbidden. We find long treatises on the
nature of being, idealistic dreams which have as little to do with the
Bodhisatship that is concerned with the salvation of the world as with
the Arahatship that is concerned with the perfect life. Only one lower
step was possible, and that was not long in being taken. The animism
common alike to the untaught Huns and to their Hindu conquerors, but
condemned in early Buddhism, was allowed to revive. As the stronger side
of Gotama's teaching was neglected, the debasing belief in rites and
ceremonies, and charms and incantations, which had been the especial
object of his scorn, began to spread like the Birana weed warmed by a
tropical sun in marsh and muddy soil. As in India, after the expulsion
of Buddhism, the degrading worship of Siva and his dusky bride had been
incorporated into Hinduism from the savage devil worship of Aryan and of
non-Aryan tribes, so, as pure Buddhism died away in the north, the
_Tantra_ system, a mixture of magic and witchcraft and sorcery, was
incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism.


  The Tantra system.

The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an influential
monk of Peshawar, who wrote the first text-book of the creed, the
_Yogachchara Bhumi Sastra_, in the 6th century A.D. Hsüan Tsang, who
travelled in the first half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga
had lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand years after
the Buddha.[1] Asanga managed with great dexterity to reconcile the two
opposing systems by placing a number of Saivite gods or devils, both
male and female, in the inferior heavens of the then prevalent Buddhism,
and by representing them as worshippers and supporters of the Buddha and
of Avalokitesvara. He thus made it possible for the half-converted and
rude tribes to remain Buddhists while they brought offerings, and even
bloody offerings, to these more congenial shrines, and while their
practical belief had no relation at all to the Truths or the Noble
Eightfold Path, but busied itself almost wholly with obtaining magic
powers (_Siddhi_), by means of magic phrases (_Dharani_), and magic
circles (_Mandala_). Asanga's happy idea bore but too ample fruit. In
his own country and Nepal, the new wine, sweet and luscious to the taste
of savages, completely disqualified them from enjoying any purer drink;
and now in both countries Saivism is supreme, and Buddhism is even
nominally extinct, except in some outlying districts of Nepal. But this
full effect has only been worked out in the lapse of ages; the Tantra
literature has also had its growth and its development, and some unhappy
scholar of a future age may have to trace its loathsome history. The
nauseous taste repelled even the self-sacrificing industry of Burnouf,
when he found the later Tantra books to be as immoral as they are
absurd. "The pen," he says, "refuses to transcribe doctrines as
miserable in respect of form as they are odious and degrading in respect
of meaning."

Such had been the decline and fall of Buddhism considered as an ethical
system before its introduction into Tibet. The manner in which its order
of mendicant recluses, at first founded to afford better opportunities
to those who wished to carry out that system in practical life,
developed at last into a hierarchical monarchy will best be understood
by a sketch of the history of Tibet.


  Early political history.

Its real history commences with Srong Tsan Gampo, who was born a little
after 600 A.D., and who is said in the Chinese chronicles to have
entered, in 634, into diplomatic relationship with Tai Tsung, one of the
emperors of the Tang dynasty. He was the founder of the present capital
of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the year 622 (the same year as that
in which Mahomet fled from Mecca) he began the formal introduction of
Buddhism into Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi
Sambhota, afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Mañju-sri, to
India, there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate
them. Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the Tibetan
language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in use. And, aided by
the king, who is represented to have been an industrious student and
translator, he wrote the first books by which Buddhism became known in
his native land. The most famous of the works ascribed to him is the
_Mani Kambum_, "the Myriad of Precious Words"--a treatise chiefly on
religion, but which also contains an account of the introduction of
Buddhism into Tibet, and of the closing part of the life of Srong Tsan
Gampo. He is also very probably the author of another very ancient
standard work of Tibetan Buddhism, the _Samatog_, a short digest of
Buddhist morality, on which the civil laws of Tibet have been founded.
It is said in the _Mani Kambum_ to have fallen from heaven in a casket
(Tibetan, _samatog_), and, like the last-mentioned work, is only known
to us in meagre abstract.

King Srong Tsan Gampo's zeal for Buddhism was shared and supported by
his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepal, and Wen Ching, a
princess from China. They are related to have brought with them sacred
relics, books and pictures, for whose better preservation two large
monasteries were erected. These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang)
and Ra Moché, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred
abbeys in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become
semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of the two
_Dara-Eke_, the "glorious mothers," being regarded as incarnations of
the wife of Siva, representing respectively two of the qualities which
she personifies, divine vengeance and divine love. The former is
worshipped by the Mongolians as _Okkin Tengri_, "the Virgin Goddess";
but in Tibet and China the rôle of the divine virgin is filled by _Kwan
Yin_, a personification of Avalokitesvara as the heavenly word, who is
often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo has also
become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara;
and the description in the ecclesiastical historians of the measures he
took for the welfare of his subjects do great credit to their ideal of
the perfect Buddhist king. He is said to have spent his long reign in
the building of reservoirs, bridges and canals; in the promotion of
agriculture, horticulture and manufactures; in the establishment of
schools and colleges; and in the maintenance of justice and the
encouragement of virtue. But the degree of his success must have been
slight. For after the death of himself and of his wives Buddhism
gradually decayed, and was subjected by succeeding kings to cruel
persecutions; and it was not till more than half a century afterwards,
under King Kir Song de Tsan, who reigned 740-786, that true religion is
acknowledged by the ecclesiastical historians to have become firmly
established in the land.


  The Tibetan sacred books.

This monarch again sent to India to replace the sacred books that had
been lost, and to invite Buddhist pandits to translate them. The most
distinguished of those who came were Santa Rakshita, Padma Sambhava and
Kamala Sila, for whom, and for their companions, the king built a
splendid monastery still existing, at Samje, about three days' journey
south-east of Lhasa. It was to them that the Tibetans owed the great
collection of what are still regarded as their sacred books--the
_Kandjur_. It consists of 100 volumes containing 689 works, of which
there are two or three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India
Office library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been
published by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Körös, whose
authoritative work has been republished in French with complete indices
and very useful notes by M. Léon Feer. These volumes contain about a
dozen works of the oldest school of Buddhism, the Hinayana, and about
300 works, mostly very short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the
great bulk of the collection consists of Mahayana books, belonging to
all the previously existing varieties of that widely extended Buddhist
sect; and, as the Sanskrit originals of many of these writings are now
lost, the Tibetan translations will be of great value, not only for the
history of Lamaism, but also for the history of the later forms of
Indian Buddhism.

The last king's second son, Lang Darma, concluded in May 822 a treaty
with the then emperor of China (the twelfth of the Tang dynasty), a
record of which was engraved on a stone put up in the above-mentioned
great convent of La Brang (Jokhang), and is still to be seen there.[2]
He is described in the church chronicles as an incarnation of the evil
spirit, and is said to have succeeded in suppressing Buddhism throughout
the greater part of the land. The period from Srong Tsan Gampo down to
the death of Lang Darma, who was murdered about A.D. 850, in a civil
war, is called in the Buddhist books "the first introduction of
religion." It was followed by more than a century of civil disorder and
wars, during which the exiled Buddhist monks attempted unsuccessfully
again and again to return. Many are the stories of martyrs and
confessors who are believed to have lived in these troublous times, and
their efforts were at last crowned with success, for in the century
commencing with the reign of Bilamgur in 971 there took place "the
second introduction of religion" into Tibet, more especially under the
guidance of the pandit Atisha, who came to Tibet in 1041, and of his
famous native pupil and follower Brom Ston. The long period of
depression seems not to have been without a beneficial influence on the
persecuted Buddhist church, for these teachers are reported to have
placed the Tantra system more in the background, and to have adhered
more strongly to the purer forms of the Mahayana development of the
ancient faith.


  The temporal sovereignty of the Lamas.

For about three hundred years the Buddhist church of Tibet was left in
peace, subjecting the country more and more completely to its control,
and growing in power and in wealth. During this time it achieved its
greatest victory, and underwent the most important change in its
character and organization. After the reintroduction of Buddhism into
the "kingdom of snow," the ancient dynasty never recovered its power.
Its representatives continued for some time to claim the sovereignty;
but the country was practically very much in the condition of Germany at
about the same time--chieftains of almost independent power ruled from
their castles on the hill-tops over the adjacent valleys, engaged in
petty wars, and conducted plundering expeditions against the
neighbouring tenants, whilst the great abbeys were places of refuge for
the studious or religious, and their heads were the only rivals to the
barons in social state, and in many respects the only protectors and
friends of the people. Meanwhile Jenghiz Khan had founded the Mongol
empire, and his grandson Kublai Khan became a convert to the Buddhism of
the Tibetan Lamas. He granted to the abbot of the Sakya monastery in
southern Tibet the title of tributary sovereign of the country, head of
the Buddhist church, and overlord over the numerous barons and abbots,
and in return was officially crowned by the abbot as ruler over the
extensive domain of the Mongol empire. Thus was the foundation laid at
one and the same time of the temporal sovereignty of the Lamas of Tibet,
and of the suzerainty over Tibet of the emperors of China. One of the
first acts of the "head of the church" was the printing of a carefully
revised edition of the Tibetan Scriptures--an undertaking which occupied
altogether nearly thirty years and was not completed till 1306.

Under Kublai's successors in China the Buddhist cause flourished
greatly, and the Sakya Lamas extended their power both at home and
abroad. The dignity of abbot at Sakya became hereditary, the abbots
breaking so far the Buddhist rule of celibacy that they remained married
until they had begotten a son and heir. But rather more than half a
century afterwards their power was threatened by a formidable rival at
home, a Buddhist reformer.


  The Luther of Tibet.

Tsongkapa, the Luther of Tibet, was born about 1357 on the spot where
the famous monastery of Kunbum now stands. He very early entered the
order, and studied at Sakya, Brigung and other monasteries. He then
spent eight years as a hermit in Takpo in southern Tibet, where the
comparatively purer teaching of Atisha (referred to above) was still
prevalent. About 1390 he appeared as a public teacher and reformer in
Lhasa, and before his death in 1419 there were three huge monasteries
there containing 30,000 of his disciples, besides others in other parts
of the country. His voluminous works, of which the most famous are the
_Sumbun_ and the _Lam Nim Tshenpo_, exist in printed Tibetan copies in
Europe, but have not yet been translated or analysed. But the principal
lines on which his reformation proceeded are sufficiently attested. He
insisted in the first place on the complete carrying out of the ancient
rules of the order as to the celibacy of its members, and as to
simplicity in dress. One result of the second of these two reforms was
to make it necessary for every monk openly to declare himself either in
favour of or against the new views. For Tsongkapa and his followers wore
the yellow or orange-coloured garments which had been the distinguishing
mark of the order in the lifetime of its founder, and in support of the
ancient rules Tsongkapa reinstated the fortnightly rehearsal of the
_Patimokkha_ or "disburdenment" in regular assemblies of the order at
Lhasa--a practice which had fallen into desuetude. He also restored the
custom of the first disciples to hold the so-called _Vassa_ or yearly
retirement, and the public meeting of the order at its close. In all
these respects he was simply following the directions of the Vinaya, or
regulations of the order, as established probably in the time of Gotama
himself, and as certainly handed down from the earliest times in the
pitakas or sacred books. Further, he set his face against the Tantra
system, and against the animistic superstitions which had been allowed
to creep into life again. He laid stress on the self-culture involved in
the practice of the paramitas or cardinal virtues, and established an
annual national fast or week of prayer to be held during the first days
of each year. This last institution indeed is not found in the ancient
Vinaya, but was almost certainly modelled on the traditional account of
the similar assemblies convoked by Asoka and other Buddhist sovereigns
in India every fifth year. Laymen as well as monks take part in the
proceedings, the details of which are unknown to us except from the
accounts of the Catholic missionaries--Fathers Huc and Gabet--who
describe the principal ceremonial as, in outward appearance, wonderfully
like the high mass. In doctrine the great Tibetan teacher, who had no
access to the Pali Pitakas, adhered in the main to the purer forms of
the Mahayana school; in questions of church government he took little
part, and did not dispute the titular supremacy of the Sakya Lamas. But
the effects of his teaching weakened their power. The "orange-hoods," as
his followers were called, rapidly gained in numbers and influence,
until they so overshadowed the "red-hoods," as the followers of the
older sect were called, that in the middle of the 15th century the
emperor of China acknowledged the two leaders of the new sect at that
time as the titular overlords of the church and tributary rulers over
the realm of Tibet. These two leaders were then known as the _Dalai
Lama_ and the _Pantshen Lama_, and were the abbots of the great
monasteries at Gedun Dubpa, near Lhasa, and at Tashi Lunpo, in Farther
Tibet, respectively. Since that time the abbots of these monasteries
have continued to exercise the sovereignty over Tibet.


  Constitution of Lamaism.

As there has been no further change in the doctrine, and no further
reformation in discipline, we may leave the ecclesiastical history of
Lamaism since that date unnoticed, and consider some principal points on
the constitution of the Lamaism of to-day. And first as to the mode of
electing successors to the two Great Lamas. It will have been noticed
that it was an old idea of the northern Buddhists to look upon
distinguished members of the order as incarnations of Avalokitesvara, of
Mañju-sri, or of Amitabha. These beings were supposed to possess the
power, whilst they continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in
a _Nirmana-kaya_, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen
Lama is looked upon as an incarnation, the Nirmana-kaya, of Amitabha,
who had previously appeared under the outward form of Tshonkapa himself;
and the Dalai Lama is looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara.
Theoretically, therefore, the former, as the spiritual successor of the
great teacher and also of Amitabha, who occupies the higher place in the
mythology of the Great Vehicle, would be superior to the latter, as the
spiritual representative of Avalokitesvara. But practically the Dalai
Lama, owing to his position in the capital,[3] has the political
supremacy, and is actually called the _Gyalpo Rinpotshe_, "the glorious
king"--his companion being content with the title _Pantshen Rinpotshe_,
"the glorious teacher." When either of them dies it is necessary for the
other to ascertain in whose body the celestial being whose outward form
has been dissolved has been pleased again to incarnate himself. For that
purpose the names of all male children born just after the death of the
deceased Great Lama are laid before his survivor. He chooses three out
of the whole number; their names are thrown into a golden casket
provided for that purpose by a former emperor of China. The Chutuktus,
or abbots of the great monasteries, then assemble, and after a week of
prayer, the lots are drawn in their presence and in presence of the
surviving Great Lama and of the Chinese political resident. The child
whose name is first drawn is the future Great Lama; the other two
receive each of them 500 pieces of silver. The Chutuktus just mentioned
correspond in many respects to the Roman cardinals. Like the Great
Lamas, they bear the title of Rinpotshe or Glorious, and are looked upon
as incarnations of one or other of the celestial Bodhisats of the Great
Vehicle mythology. Their number varies from ten to a hundred; and it is
uncertain whether the honour is inherent in the abbacy of certain of the
greatest cloisters, or whether the Dalai Lama exercises the right of
choosing them. Under these high officials of the Tibetan hierarchy there
come the Chubil Khans, who fill the post of abbot to the lesser
monasteries, and are also incarnations. Their number is very large;
there are few monasteries in Tibet or in Mongolia which do not claim to
possess one of these living Buddhas. Besides these mystical persons
there are in the Tibetan church other ranks and degrees, corresponding
to the deacon, full priest, dean and doctor of divinity in the West. At
the great yearly festival at Lhasa they make in the cathedral an
imposing array, not much less magnificent than that of the clergy in
Rome; for the ancient simplicity of dress has disappeared in the growing
differences of rank, and each division of the spiritual army is
distinguished in Tibet, as in the West, by a special uniform. The
political authority of the Dalai Lama is confined to Tibet itself, but
he is the acknowledged head also of the Buddhist church throughout
Mongolia and China. He has no supremacy over his co-religionists in
Japan, and even in China there are many Buddhists who are not
practically under his control or influence.

  The best work on Lamaism is still Köppen's _Die Lamaische Hierarchie
  und Kirche_ (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, "The Early History of
  Tibet," in the _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1879-1880, vol.
  xii.; Sanang Setzen's _History of the East Mongols_ (in Mongolian,
  translated into German by J. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen_);
  "Analyse du Kandjur," by M. Léon Feer, in _Annales du Musée Gaimet_
  (1881); Schott, _Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien_; Gutzlaff,
  _Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches_; Hue and Gabet, _Souvenirs d'un
  voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine_ (Paris, 1858);
  Pallas's _Sammlung historischer Nachrichten über die Mongolischen
  Völkerschaften_; Babu Sarat Chunder Das's "Contributions on the
  Religion and History of Tibet," in the _Journal of the Bengal Asiatic
  Society_, 1881; L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895);
  A. H. Francke, _History of Western Tibet_ (London, 1907); A.
  Grünwedel, _Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei_
  (Berlin, 1900).     (T. W. R. D.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Watters's _Yuan Chwang_, edited by Rhys Davids and Bushell, i.
    210, 356, 271.

  [2] Published with facsimile and translation and notes in the
    _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ for 1879-1880, vol. xii.

  [3] This statement representing the substantial and historical
    position, is retained, in spite of the crises of March 1910, when the
    Dalai Lama took refuge from the Chinese in India, and of 1904, when
    the British expedition occupied Lhasa and the Dalai Lama fled to
    China (see TIBET).




LAMALOU-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of southern France in the department
of Hérault, 53½ m. W. of Montpellier by rail, in a valley of the
southern Cévennes. Pop. (1906) 720. The waters, which are both hot and
cold, are used in cases of rheumatism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and
nervous maladies.




LAMA-MIAO, or DOLON-NOR, a city of the province of Chih-li, China, 150
m. N. of Peking, in a barren sandy plain watered by the Urtingol, a
tributary of the Shang-tu-ko. The town proper, almost exclusively
occupied by Chinese, is about a mile in length by half a mile in
breadth, has narrow and dirty streets, and contains a population of
about 26,000. Unlike the ordinary Chinese town of the same rank, it is
not walled. A busy trade is carried on between the Chinese and the
Mongolians, who bring in their cattle, sheep, camels, hides and wool to
barter for tea, tobacco, cotton and silk. At some distance from the
Chinese town lies the Mongolian quarter, with two groups of lama temples
and villages occupied by about 2300 priests. Dr Williamson (_Journeys in
North China_, 1870) described the chief temple as a huge oblong building
with an interior not unlike a Gothic church. Lama-miao is the seat of a
manufactory of bronze idols and other articles of ritual, which find
their way to all parts of Mongolia and Tibet. The craftsmen work in
their own houses.




LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS (1825-1893), American statesman and
judge, was born at the old "Lamar Homestead," in Putnam county, Georgia,
on the 17th of September 1825. His father, Lucius Q. C. Lamar
(1797-1834), was an able lawyer, a judge of the superior court of
Georgia, and the compiler of the _Laws of Georgia from 1810 to 1819_
(1821). In 1845 young Lamar graduated from Emory College (Oxford, Ga.),
and in 1847 was admitted to the bar. In 1849 he removed to Oxford,
Mississippi, and in 1850-1852 was adjunct professor of mathematics in
the state university. In 1852 he removed to Covington, Ga., to practise
law, and in 1853 was elected a member of the Georgia House of
Representatives. In 1855 he returned to Mississippi, and two years later
became a member of the National House of Representatives, where he
served until December 1860, when he withdrew to become a candidate for
election to the "secession" convention of Mississippi. He was elected to
the convention, and drafted for it the Mississippi ordinance of
secession. In the summer of 1860 he had accepted an appointment to the
chair of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, but,
having been appointed a lieutenant-colonel in the Confederate Army in
the spring of 1861, he resigned his professorship. The colonel of his
regiment (Nineteenth Mississippi) was killed early in the battle of
Williamsburg, on the 5th of May 1862, and the command then fell to
Lamar, but in October he resigned from the army. In November 1862 he was
appointed by President Jefferson Davis special commissioner of the
Confederacy to Russia; but he did not proceed farther than Paris, and
his mission was soon terminated by the refusal of the Confederate Senate
to confirm his appointment. In 1866 he was again appointed to the chair
of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, and in the
next year was transferred to the chair of law, but in 1870, Republicans
having become trustees of the university upon the readmission of the
state into the Union, he resigned. From 1873 to 1877 he was again a
Democratic representative in Congress; from 1877 to 1885 he was a United
States senator; from 1885 to January 1888 he was secretary of the
interior; and from 1888 until his death at Macon, Ga., on the 23rd of
January 1893, he was an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the
United States. In Congress Lamar fought the silver and greenback craze
and argued forcibly against the protective tariff; in the department of
the interior he introduced various reforms; and on the Supreme Court
bench his dissenting opinion in the _Neagle Case_ (based upon a denial
that certain powers belonging to Congress, but not exercised, were by
implication vested in the department of justice) is famous. But he is
perhaps best known for the part he took after the Civil War in helping
to effect a reconciliation between the North and the South. During the
early secession movement he strove to arouse the white people of the
South from their indifference, declaring that secession alone could save
them from a doom similar to that of the former whites of San Domingo. He
probably never changed his convictions as to the righteousness of the
"lost cause"; but he accepted the result of the war as a final
settlement of the differences leading to it, and strove to restore the
South in the Union, and to effect the reunion of the nation in feeling
as well as in government. This is in part seen from such speeches as his
eulogy on Charles Sumner (27th of April 1874), his leadership in
reorganizing the Democratic party of his own state, and his counsels of
peace in the disputed presidential election of 1876.

  See Edward Mayes, _Lucius Q. C. Lamar: His Life, Times and Speeches_
  (Nashville, Tenn., 1896).




LAMARCK, JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET, CHEVALIER DE
(1744-1829), French naturalist, was born on the 1st of August 1744, at
Bazantin, a village of Picardy. He was an eleventh child; and his
father, lord of the manor and of old family, but of limited means,
having placed three sons in the army, destined this one for the church,
and sent him to the Jesuits at Amiens, where he continued till his
father's death. After this he would remain with the Jesuits no longer,
and, not yet seventeen years of age, started for the seat of war at
Bergen-op-Zoom, before which place one of his brothers had already been
killed. Mounted on an old horse, with a boy from the village as
attendant, and furnished by a lady with a letter of introduction to a
colonel, he reached his destination on the evening before a battle. Next
morning the colonel found that the new and very diminutive volunteer had
posted himself in the front rank of a body of grenadiers, and could not
be induced to quit the position. In the battle, the company which he had
joined became exposed to the fire of the enemy's artillery, and in the
confusion of retreat was forgotten. All the officers and subalterns were
killed, and not more than fourteen men were left, when the oldest
grenadiers seeing there were no more French in sight proposed to the
young volunteer so soon become commandant to withdraw his men. This he
refused to do without orders. These at last arrived; and for his bravery
he was made an officer on the spot, and soon after was named to a
lieutenancy.

After the peace, the regiment was sent to Monaco. There one of his
comrades playfully lifted him by the head, and to this it was imputed
that he was seized with disease of the glands of the neck, so severe as
to put a stop to his military career. He went to Paris and began the
study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker's office.
He early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical
speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength
into botany, and in 1778 published his _Flore française_, a work in
which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the
student with facility to determine species. This work, which went
through several editions and long kept the field, gained for its author
immediate popularity as well as admission to the Academy of Sciences.

In 1781 and 1782, under the title of botanist to the king, an
appointment obtained for him by Buffon, whose son accompanied him, he
travelled through various countries of Europe, extending his knowledge
of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate
contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science
principally rests, namely, the _Dictionnaire de Botanique_ and the
_Illustrations de Genres_, voluminous works contributed to the
_Encyclopédie Méthodique_ (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in
the organization of the natural history department at the Jardin du Roi,
where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, Lamarck was
presented to a zoological chair, and called on to lecture on the
_Insecta_ and _Vermes_ of Linnaeus, the animals for which he introduced
the term _Invertebrata_. Thus driven, comparatively late in life, to
devote his principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the
misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady
resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his greatest zoological
work, the _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres_, was published
from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his
eldest daughter and of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates
of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823
from his memoirs in the _Annales des Muséums_. He died on the 18th of
December 1829.

The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike for its
excellences and its defects. His excellences were width of scope,
fertility of ideas and a pre-eminent faculty of precise description,
arising not only from a singularly terse style, but from a clear insight
into both the distinctive features and the resemblances of forms. That
part of his zoological work which constitutes his solid claim to the
highest honour as a zoologist is to be found in his extensive and
detailed labours in the departments of living and fossil _Invertebrata_.
His endeavours at classification of the great groups were necessarily
defective on account of the imperfect knowledge possessed in his time in
regard to many of them, e.g. echinoderms, ascidians and intestinal
worms; yet they are not without interest, particularly on account of the
comprehensive attempt to unite in one great division as _Articulata_ all
those groups that appeared to present a segmented construction.
Moreover, Lamarck was the first to distinguish vertebrate from
invertebrate animals by the presence of a vertebral column, and among
the Invertebrata to found the groups _Crustacea_, _Arachnida_ and
_Annelida_. In 1785 (_Hist. del' Acad._) he evinced his appreciation of
the necessity of natural orders in botany by an attempt at the
classification of plants, interesting, though crude and falling
immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate
friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never been put more
philosophically than he subsequently put it in his _Animaux sans
vertèbres_: "What arrangement must be given to the general distribution
of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the
production of these beings?"

The most prominent defect in Lamarck must be admitted to have been want
of control in speculation. Doubtless the speculative tendency furnished
a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions
from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of
worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending
much time on fruitless meteorological predictions. His _Annuaires
Météorologiques_ were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not
discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from
Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented with one of
his works on natural history.

To the general reader the name of Lamarck is chiefly interesting on
account of his theory of the origin of life and of the diversities of
animal forms. The idea, which appears to have been favoured by Buffon
before him, that species were not through all time unalterable, and that
the more complex might have been developed from pre-existent simpler
forms, became with Lamarck a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration.
Spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as
resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small
gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a "singular
tension," a kind of "éréthisme" or "orgasme"; and, having thus accounted
for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of
animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to
his _Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres_, 1815):--

  1. "Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the volume
  of every body possessing it, and to enlarge its parts, up to a limit
  which it brings about.

  2. "The production of a new organ in an animal body results from the
  supervention of a new want (_besoin_) continuing to make itself felt,
  and a new movement which this want gives birth to and encourages.

  3. "The development of organs and their force of action are constantly
  in ratio to the employment of these organs.

  4. "All which has been acquired, laid down, or changed in the
  organization of individuals in the course of their life is conserved
  by generation and transmitted to the new individuals which proceed
  from those which have undergone those changes."

The second law is often referred to as Lamarck's hypothesis of the
evolution of organs in animals by appetence or longing, although he does
not teach that the animal's desires affect its conformation directly,
but that altered wants lead to altered habits, which result in the
formation of new organs as well as in modification, growth or dwindling
of those previously existing. Thus, he suggests that, ruminants being
pursued by carnivora, their legs have grown slender; and, their legs
being only fit for support, while their jaws are weak, they have made
attack with the crown of the head, and the determination of fluids
thither has led to the growth of horns. So also the stretching of the
giraffe's neck to reach the foliage he supposes to have led to its
elongation; and the kangaroo, sitting upright to support the young in
its pouch, he imagines to have had its fore-limbs dwarfed by disuse, and
its hind legs and tail exaggerated by using them in leaping. The fourth
law expresses the inheritance of acquired characters, which is denied by
August Weismann and his followers. For a more detailed account of
Lamarck's place in the history of the doctrine of evolution, see
EVOLUTION.




LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO, COUNT DEL (1792-1869), Piedmontese
statesman, was born at Mondovi. He studied law at Siena and Turin, but
Piedmont was at that time under French domination, and being devoted to
the house of Savoy he refused to take his degree, as this proceeding
would have obliged him to recognize the authority of the usurper; after
the restoration of the Sardinian kingdom, however, he graduated. In 1816
he entered the diplomatic service. Later he returned to Turin, and
succeeded in gaining the confidence and esteem of King Charles Albert,
who in 1835 appointed him minister of foreign affairs. A fervent Roman
Catholic, devoted to the pope and to the Jesuits, friendly to Austria
and firmly attached to the principles of autocracy, he strongly opposed
every attempt at political innovation, and was in consequence bitterly
hated by the liberals. When the popular agitation in favour of
constitutional reform first broke out the king felt obliged to dispense
with La Margherita's services, although he had conducted public affairs
with considerable ability and absolute loyalty, even upholding the
dignity of the kingdom in the face of the arrogant attitude of the
cabinet of Vienna. He expounded his political creed and his policy as
minister to Charles Albert (from February 1835 to October 1847) in his
_Memorandum storico-politico_, published in 1851, a document of great
interest for the study of the conditions of Piedmont and Italy at that
time. In 1853 he was elected deputy for San Quirico, but he persisted in
regarding his mandate as derived from the royal authority rather than as
an emanation of the popular will. As leader of the Clerical Right in the
parliament he strongly opposed Cavour's policy, which was eventually to
lead to Italian unity, and on the establishment of the kingdom of Italy
he retired from public life.




LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO (1804-1878), Italian general and statesman,
was born at Turin on the 18th of November 1804. He entered the Sardinian
army in 1823, and was a captain in March 1848, when he gained
distinction and the rank of major at the siege of Peschiera. On the 5th
of August 1848 he liberated Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, from the
Milan revolutionaries, and in October was promoted general and appointed
minister of war. After suppressing the revolt of Genoa in 1849, he again
assumed in November 1849 the portfolio of war, which, save during the
period of his command of the Crimean expedition, he retained until 1859.
Having reconstructed the Piedmontese army, he took part in the war of
1859 against Austria; and in July of that year succeeded Cavour in the
premiership. In 1860 he was sent to Berlin and St Petersburg to arrange
for the recognition of the kingdom of Italy, and subsequently he held
the offices of governor of Milan and royal lieutenant at Naples, until,
in September 1864, he succeeded Minghetti as premier. In this capacity
he modified the scope of the September Convention by a note in which he
claimed for Italy full freedom of action in respect of national
aspirations to the possession of Rome, a document of which Visconti
Venosta afterwards took advantage when justifying the Italian occupation
of Rome in 1870. In April 1866 La Marmora concluded an alliance with
Prussia against Austria, and, on the outbreak of war in June, took
command of an army corps, but was defeated at Custozza on the 23rd of
June. Accused of treason by his fellow-countrymen, and of duplicity by
the Prussians, he eventually published in defence of his tactics (1873)
a series of documents entitled _Un po' più di luce sugli eventi dell'
anno_ 1866 (More light on the events of 1866) a step which caused
irritation in Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated
state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to oppose the
French expedition to Rome, and in 1870, after the occupation of Rome by
the Italians, had been appointed lieutenant-royal of the new capital. He
died at Florence on the 5th of January 1878. La Marmora's writings
include _Un episodio del risorgimento italiano_ (Florence, 1875); and _I
segreti di stato nel governo constituzionale_ (Florence, 1877).

  See G. Massani, _Il generale Alfonso La Marmora_ (Milan, 1880).




LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE (1790-1869), French poet,
historian and statesman, was born at Mâcon on the 21st of October 1790.
The order of his surnames is a controversial matter, and they are
sometimes reversed. The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of
Prat was taken from an estate in Franche Comté. His father was
imprisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events of
the 9th Thermidor. Lamartine's early education was received from his
mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but not being happy
there was transferred to the care of the Pères de la Foi at Belley,
where he remained until 1809. For some time afterwards he lived at home,
reading romantic and poetical literature, but in 1811 he set out for
Italy, where he seems to have sojourned nearly two years. His family
having been steady royalists, he entered the Gardes du corps at the
return of the Bourbons, and during the Hundred Days he sought refuge
first in Switzerland and then at Aix-en-Savoie, where he fell in love,
with abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he returned
to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy and Italy, the
death of his beloved affording him new subjects for verse. After some
difficulties he had his first book, the _Méditations, poétiques et
religieuses_, published (1820). It was exceedingly popular, and helped
him to make a position. He had left the army for some time; he now
entered the diplomatic service and was appointed secretary to the
embassy at Naples. On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva
a young English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty, and
in the same year his _Nouvelles méditations poétiques_ appeared.

In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five years.
His _Last Canto of Childe Harold_ appeared in 1825, and he had to fight
a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian officer, Colonel Pepe,
in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X., on whose coronation he
wrote a poem, gave him the order of the Legion of Honour. The _Harmonies
poétiques et religieuses_ appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence.
Having refused an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he
went on a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same
year he was elected to the Academy. Lamartine was in Switzerland, not in
Paris, at the time of the Revolution of July, and, though he put forth a
pamphlet on "Rational Policy," he did not at that crisis take any active
part in politics, refusing, however, to continue his diplomatic services
under the new government. In 1832 he set out with his wife and daughter
for Palestine, having been unsuccessful in his candidature for a seat in
the chamber. His daughter Julia died at Beirut, and before long he
received the news of his election by a constituency (Bergues) in the
department of the Nord. He returned through Turkey and Germany, and made
his first speech shortly after the beginning of 1834. Thereafter he
spoke constantly, and acquired considerable reputation as an
orator,--bringing out, moreover, many books in prose and verse. His
Eastern travels (_Voyage en Orient_) appeared in 1835, his _Chute d'un
ange_ and _Jocelyn_ in 1837, and his _Recueillements_, the last
remarkable volume of his poetry, in 1839. As the reign of Louis Philippe
went on, Lamartine, who had previously been a liberal royalist,
something after the fashion of Chateaubriand, became more and more
democratic in his opinions. He set about his greatest prose work, the
_Histoire des Girondins_, which at first appeared periodically, and was
published as a whole in 1847. Like many other French histories, it was a
pamphlet as well as a chronicle, and the subjects of Lamartine's pen
became his models in politics.

At the revolution of February Lamartine was one of the first to declare
for a provisional government, and became a member of it, with the post
of minister for foreign affairs. He was elected for the new constituent
assembly in ten different departments, and was chosen one of the five
members of the Executive Committee. For a few months indeed Lamartine,
from being a distinguished man of letters, an official of inferior rank
in diplomacy, and an eloquent but unpractical speaker in parliament,
became one of the foremost men in Europe. His inexperience in the
routine work of government, the utterly unpractical nature of his
colleagues, and the turbulence of the Parisian mob, proved fatal to his
chances. He gave some proofs of statesmanlike ability, and his eloquence
was repeatedly called into requisition to pacify the Parisians. But no
one can permanently carry on the government of a great country by
speeches from the balcony of a house in the capital, and Lamartine found
himself in a dilemma. So long as he held aloof from Ledru-Rollin and the
more radical of his colleagues, the disunion resulting weakened the
government; as soon as he effected an approximation to them the middle
classes fell off from him. The quelling of the insurrection of the 15th
of May was his last successful act. A month later the renewal of active
disturbances brought on the fighting of June, and Lamartine's influence
was extinguished in favour of Cavaignac. Moreover, his chance of renewed
political pre-eminence was gone. He had been tried and found wanting,
having neither the virtues nor the vices of his situation. In January
1849, though he was nominated for the presidency, only a few thousand
votes were given to him, and three months later he was not even elected
to the Legislative Assembly.

The remaining story of Lamartine's life is somewhat melancholy. He had
never been a rich man, nor had he been a saving one, and during his
period of popularity and office he had incurred great expenses. He now
set to work to repair his fortune by unremitting literary labour. He
brought out in the _Presse_ (1849) a series of _Confidences_, and
somewhat later a kind of autobiography, entitled _Raphael_. He wrote
several historical works of more or less importance, the _History of the
Revolution of 1848_, _The History of the Restoration_, _The History of
Turkey_, _The History of Russia_, besides a large number of small
biographical and miscellaneous works. In 1858 a subscription was opened
for his benefit. Two years afterwards, following the example of
Chateaubriand, he supervised an elaborate edition of his own works in
forty-one volumes. This occupied five years, and while he was engaged on
it his wife died (1863). He was now over seventy; his powers had
deserted him, and even if they had not the public taste had entirely
changed. His efforts had not succeeded in placing him in a position of
independence; and at last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from
which he had perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it
necessary to adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and
Victor Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed in
April of that year for his benefit by Émile Ollivier. This was
creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished man
of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every claim to the
bounty of his country. But he was reproached for accepting it by the
extreme republicans and irreconcilables. He did not enjoy it long, dying
on the 28th of February 1869.

  As a statesman Lamartine was placed during his brief tenure of office
  in a position from which it would have been almost impossible for any
  man, who was not prepared and able to play the dictator, to emerge
  with credit. At no time in history were unpractical crotchets so rife
  in the heads of men as in 1848. But Lamartine could hardly have guided
  the ship of state safely even in much calmer weather. He was amiable
  and even estimable, the chief fault of his character being vanity and
  an incurable tendency towards theatrical effect, which makes his
  travels, memoirs and other personal records as well as his historical
  works radically untrustworthy. Nor does it appear that he had any
  settled political ideas. He did good by moderating the revolutionary
  and destructive ardour of the Parisian populace in 1848; but he had
  been perhaps more responsible than any other single person for
  bringing about the events of that year by the vague and frothy
  republican declamation of his _Histoire des Girondins_.

  More must be said of his literary position. Lamartine had the
  advantage of coming at a time when the literary field, at least in the
  departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school of
  descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists
  and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished could
  satisfy no one. Madame de Staël was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive,
  was something of a classic, and had not effected a full revolution.
  Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the Romantic
  revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed himself of the
  reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which was represented
  by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature worship of Rousseau and
  Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the sentimentalism of Madame de Staël,
  of the medievalism and the romance of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the
  _maladie du siècle_ of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter
  be very closely analysed it will be found that he added hardly
  anything of his own. But if the parts of the mixture were like other
  things the mixture itself was not. It seemed indeed to the immediate
  generation so original that tradition has it that the _Méditations_
  were refused by a publisher because they were in none of the accepted
  styles. They appeared when Lamartine was nearly thirty years old. The
  best of them, and the best thing that Lamartine ever did, is the
  famous _Lac_, describing his return to the little mountain tarn of Le
  Bourget after the death of his mistress, with whom he had visited it
  in other days. The verse is exquisitely harmonious, the sentiments
  conventional but refined and delicate, the imagery well chosen and
  gracefully expressed. There is an unquestionable want of vigour, but
  to readers of that day the want of vigour was entirely compensated by
  the presence of freshness and grace. Lamartine's chief misfortune in
  poetry was not only that his note was a somewhat weak one, but that he
  could strike but one. The four volumes of the _Méditations_, the
  _Harmonies_ and the _Recueillements_, which contained the prime of his
  verse, are perhaps the most monotonous reading to be found anywhere in
  work of equal bulk by a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but
  meditative lyrical pieces, almost any one of which is typical of the
  whole, though there is considerable variation of merit. The two
  narrative poems which succeeded the early lyrics, _Jocelyn_ and the
  _Chute d'un ange_, were, according to Lamartine's original plan, parts
  of a vast "Epic of the Ages," some further fragments of which survive.
  _Jocelyn_ had at one time more popularity in England than most French
  verse. _La Chute d'un ange_, in which the Byronic influence is more
  obvious than in any other of Lamartine's works, and in which some have
  also seen that of Alfred de Vigny, is more ambitious in theme, and
  less regulated by scrupulous conditions of delicacy in handling, than
  most of its author's poetry. It does, however, little more than prove
  that such audacities were not for him.

  As a prose writer Lamartine was very fertile. His characteristics in
  his prose fiction and descriptive work are not very different from
  those of his poetry. He is always and everywhere sentimental, though
  very frequently, as in his shorter prose tales (_The Stone Mason of
  Saint-Point_, _Graziella_, &c.), he is graceful as well as
  sentimental. In his histories the effect is worse. It has been hinted
  that Lamartine's personal narratives are doubtfully trustworthy; with
  regard to his Eastern travels some of the episodes were stigmatized as
  mere inventions. In his histories proper the special motive for
  embellishment disappears, but the habit of inaccuracy remains. As an
  historian he belongs exclusively to the rhetorical school as
  distinguished from the philosophical on the one hand and the
  documentary on the other.

  It is not surprising when these characteristics of Lamartine's work
  are appreciated to find that his fame declined with singular rapidity
  in France. As a poet he had lost his reputation many years before he
  died. He was entirely eclipsed by the brilliant and vigorous school
  who succeeded him with Victor Hugo at their head. His power of
  initiative in poetry was very small, and the range of poetic ground
  which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry the
  picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint Pierre and
  Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language and verse a
  little less antiquated than that of Chênedollé and Millevoye. He has
  been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds good in
  respect of versification and of his relative position to the more
  daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect of
  individual peculiarities. Lamartine in short occupied a kind of
  half-way house between the 18th century and the Romantic movement, and
  he never got any farther. When Matthew Arnold questioned his
  importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the answer was, "He is
  important to _us_," and it was a true answer; but the limitation is
  obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts have been made by
  Brunetière and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical
  as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and political
  unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and the extreme
  Romantics, have been the main agents in this. Lamartine has been
  extolled as a pattern of combined passion and restraint, as a model of
  nobility of sentiment, and as a harmonizer of pure French classicism
  in taste and expression with much, if not all, the better part of
  Romanticism itself. These oscillations of opinion are frequent, if not
  universal, and it is only after more than one or two swings that the
  pendulum remains at the perpendicular. The above remarks are an
  attempt to correct extravagance in either direction. But it is
  difficult to believe that Lamartine can ever permanently take rank
  among the first order of poets.

  The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there
  are many issues of his separate works. After his death some poems and
  _Mémoires inédits_ of his youth were published, and also two volumes
  of correspondence, while in 1893 Mlle V. de Lamartine added a volume
  of _Lettres_ to him. The change of views above referred to may be
  studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, Faguet, Lemaître,
  &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, _Lamartine_
  (1889); E. Deschanel, _Lamartine_ (1893); E. Zyrowski, _Lamartine_
  (1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis'
  Clarendon Press edition of _Jocelyn_ (1906), where a vigorous effort
  is made to combat the idea of Lamartine's sentimentality and
  femininity as a poet.     (G. Sa.)




LAMB, CHARLES (1775-1834), English essayist and critic, was born in
Crown Office Row, Inner Temple, London, on the 10th of February 1775.
His father, John Lamb, a Lincolnshire man, who filled the situation of
clerk and servant-companion to Samuel Salt, a member of parliament and
one of the benchers of the Inner Temple, was successful in obtaining for
Charles, the youngest of three surviving children, a presentation to
Christ's Hospital, where the boy remained from his eighth to his
fifteenth year (1782-1789). Here he had for a schoolfellow Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, his senior by rather more than two years, and a close and
tender friendship began which lasted for the rest of the lives of both.
When the time came for leaving school, where he had learned some Greek
and acquired considerable facility in Latin composition, Lamb, after a
brief stay at home (probably spent, as his school holidays had often
been, over old English authors in Salt's library) was condemned to the
labours of the desk--"an inconquerable impediment" in his speech
disqualifying him for the clerical profession, which, as the school
exhibitions were usually only given to those preparing for the church,
thus deprived him of the only means by which he could have obtained a
university education. For a short time he was in the office of Joseph
Paice, a London merchant, and then for twenty-three weeks, until the 8th
of February 1792, he held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the
South Sea House, where his brother John was established, a period which,
although his age was but sixteen, was to provide him nearly thirty years
later with materials for the first of the _Essays of Elia_. On the 5th
of April 1792, he entered the Accountant's Office in the East India
House, where during the next three and thirty years the hundred official
folios of what he used to call his true "works" were produced.

Of the years 1792-1795 we know little. At the end of 1794 he saw much of
Coleridge and joined him in writing sonnets in the _Morning Post_,
addressed to eminent persons: early in 1795 he met Southey and was much
in the company of James White, whom he probably helped in the
composition of the _Original Letters of Sir John Falstaff_; and at the
end of the year for a short time he became so unhinged mentally as to
necessitate confinement in an asylum. The cause, it is probable, was an
unsuccessful love affair with Ann Simmons, the Hertfordshire maiden to
whom his first sonnets are addressed, whom he would have seen when on
his visits as a youth to Blakesware House, near Widford, the country
home of the Plumer family, of which Lamb's grandmother, Mary Field, was
for many years, until her death in 1792, sole custodian.

It was in the late summer of 1796 that a dreadful calamity came upon the
Lambs, which seemed to blight all Lamb's prospects in the very morning
of life. On the 22nd of September his sister Mary, "worn down to a state
of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework by day and to her
mother at night," was suddenly seized with acute mania, in which she
stabbed her mother to the heart. The calm self-mastery and loving
self-renunciation which Charles Lamb, by constitution excitable, nervous
and self-mistrustful, displayed at this crisis in his own history and in
that of those nearest him, will ever give him an imperishable claim to
the reverence and affection of all who are capable of appreciating the
heroisms of common life. With the help of friends he succeeded in
obtaining his sister's release from the lifelong restraint to which she
would otherwise have been doomed, on the express condition that he
himself should undertake the responsibility for her safe keeping. It
proved no light charge: for though no one was capable of affording a
more intelligent or affectionate companionship than Mary Lamb during her
periods of health, there was ever present the apprehension of the
recurrence of her malady; and when from time to time the premonitory
symptoms had become unmistakable, there was no alternative but her
removal, which took place in quietness and tears. How deeply the whole
course of Lamb's domestic life must have been affected by his singular
loyalty as a brother needs not to be pointed out.

Lamb's first appearance as an author was made in the year of the great
tragedy of his life (1796), when there were published in the volume of
_Poems on Various Subjects_ by Coleridge four sonnets by "Mr Charles
Lamb of the India House." In the following year he contributed, with
Charles Lloyd, a pupil of Coleridge, some pieces in blank verse to the
second edition of Coleridge's _Poems_. In 1797 his short summer holiday
was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths,
William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only
his own death terminated. In 1798, under the influence of Henry
Mackenzie's novel _Julie de Roubigné_, he published a short and pathetic
prose tale entitled _Rosamund Gray_, in which it is possible to trace
beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the
author's own family, and many personal touches; and in the same year he
joined Lloyd in a volume of _Blank Verse_, to which Lamb contributed
poems occasioned by the death of his mother and his aunt Sarah Lamb,
among them being his best-known lyric, "The Old Familiar Faces." In this
year, 1798, he achieved the unexpected publicity of an attack by the
_Anti-Jacobin_ upon him as an associate of Coleridge and Southey (to
whose _Annual Anthology_ he had contributed) in their Jacobin
machinations. In 1799, on the death of her father, Mary Lamb came to
live again with her brother, their home then being in Pentonville; but
it was not until 1800 that they really settled together, their first
independent joint home being at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple,
where they lived until 1809. At the end of 1801, or beginning of 1802,
appeared Lamb's first play _John Woodvil_, on which he set great store,
a slight dramatic piece written in the style of the earlier Elizabethan
period and containing some genuine poetry and happy delineation of the
gentler emotions, but as a whole deficient in plot, vigour and
character; it was held up to ridicule by the _Edinburgh Review_ as a
specimen of the rudest condition of the drama, a work by "a man of the
age of Thespis." The dramatic spirit, however, was not thus easily
quenched in Lamb, and his next effort was a farce, _Mr H----_, the point
of which lay in the hero's anxiety to conceal his name "Hogsflesh"; but
it did not survive the first night of its appearance at Drury Lane, in
December 1806. Its author bore the failure with rare equanimity and good
humour--even to joining in the hissing--and soon struck into new and
more successful fields of literary exertion. Before, however, passing to
these it should be mentioned that he made various efforts to earn money
by journalism, partly by humorous articles, partly as dramatic critic,
but chiefly as a contributor of sarcastic or funny paragraphs, "sparing
neither man nor woman," in the _Morning Post_, principally in 1803.

In 1807 appeared _Tales founded on the Plays of Shakespeare_, written by
Charles and Mary Lamb, in which Charles was responsible for the
tragedies and Mary for the comedies; and in 1808, _Specimens of English
Dramatic Poets who lived about the time of Shakespeare_, with short but
felicitous critical notes. It was this work which laid the foundation of
Lamb's reputation as a critic, for it was filled with imaginative
understanding of the old playwrights, and a warm, discerning and novel
appreciation of their great merits. In the same year, 1808, Mary Lamb,
assisted by her brother, published _Poetry for Children_, and a
collection of short school-girl tales under the title _Mrs Leicester's
School_; and to the same date belongs _The Adventures of Ulysses_,
designed by Lamb as a companion to _The Adventures of Telemachus_. In
1810 began to appear Leigh Hunt's quarterly periodical, _The Reflector_,
in which Lamb published much (including the fine essays on the tragedies
of Shakespeare and on Hogarth) that subsequently appeared in the first
collective edition of his _Works_, which he put forth in 1818.

Between 1811, when _The Reflector_ ceased, and 1820, he wrote almost
nothing. In these years we may imagine him at his most social period,
playing much whist and entertaining his friends on Wednesday or Thursday
nights; meanwhile gathering that reputation as a conversationalist or
inspirer of conversation in others, which Hazlitt, who was at one time
one of Lamb's closest friends, has done so much to celebrate. When in
1818 appeared the _Works_ in two volumes, it may be that Lamb considered
his literary career over. Before coming to 1820, and an event which was
in reality to be the beginning of that career as it is generally
known--the establishment of the _London Magazine_--it should be recorded
that in the summer of 1819 Lamb, with his sister's full consent,
proposed marriage to Fanny Kelly, the actress, who was then in her
thirtieth year. Miss Kelly could not accept, giving as one reason her
devotion to her mother. Lamb bore the rebuff with characteristic humour
and fortitude.

The establishment of the _London Magazine_ in 1820 stimulated Lamb to
the production of a series of new essays (the _Essays of Elia_) which
may be said to form the chief corner-stone in the small but classic
temple of his fame. The first of these, as it fell out, was a
description of the old South Sea House, with which Lamb happened to have
associated the name of a "gay light-hearted foreigner" called Elia, who
was a clerk in the days of his service there. The pseudonym adopted on
this occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which
appeared collectively in a volume of essays called _Elia_, in 1823.
After a career of five years the _London Magazine_ came to an end; and
about the same period Lamb's long connexion with the India House
terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having been assigned to him.
The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not
prove favourable to literary production, which henceforth was limited to
a few trifling contributions to the _New Monthly_ and other serials, and
the excavation of gems from the mass of dramatic literature bequeathed
to the British Museum by David Garrick, which Lamb laboriously read
through in 1827, an occupation which supplied him for a time with the
regular hours of work he missed so much. The malady of his sister, which
continued to increase with ever shortening intervals of relief, broke in
painfully on his lettered ease and comfort; and it is unfortunately
impossible to ignore the deteriorating effects of an over-free
indulgence in the use of alcohol, and, in early life, tobacco, on a
temperament such as his. His removal on account of his sister to the
quiet of the country at Enfield, by tending to withdraw him from the
stimulating society of the large circle of literary friends who had
helped to make his weekly or monthly "at homes" so remarkable, doubtless
also tended to intensify his listlessness and helplessness. One of the
brightest elements in the closing years of his life was the friendship
and companionship of Emma Isola, whom he and his sister had adopted, and
whose marriage in 1833 to Edward Moxon, the publisher, though a source
of unselfish joy to Lamb, left him more than ever alone. While living at
Edmonton, whither he had moved in 1833 so that his sister might have the
continual care of Mr and Mrs Walden, who were accustomed to patients of
weak intellect, Lamb was overtaken by an attack of erysipelas brought on
by an accidental fall as he was walking on the London road. After a few
days' illness he died on the 27th of December, 1834. The sudden death of
one so widely known, admired and beloved, fell on the public as well as
on his own attached circle with all the poignancy of a personal calamity
and a private grief. His memory wanted no tribute that affection could
bestow, and Wordsworth commemorated in simple and solemn verse the
genius, virtues and fraternal devotion of his early friend.

Charles Lamb is entitled to a place as an essayist beside Montaigne, Sir
Thomas Browne, Steele and Addison. He unites many of the characteristics
of each of these writers--refined and exquisite humour, a genuine and
cordial vein of pleasantry and heart-touching pathos. His fancy is
distinguished by great delicacy and tenderness; and even his conceits
are imbued with human feeling and passion. He had an extreme and almost
exclusive partiality for earlier prose writers, particularly for Fuller,
Browne and Burton, as well as for the dramatists of Shakespeare's time;
and the care with which he studied them is apparent in all he ever
wrote. It shines out conspicuously in his style, which has an antique
air and is redolent of the peculiarities of the 17th century. Its
quaintness has subjected the author to the charge of affectation, but
there is nothing really affected in his writings. His style is not so
much an imitation as a reflexion of the older writers; for in spirit he
made himself their contemporary. A confirmed habit of studying them in
preference to modern literature had made something of their style
natural to him; and long experience had rendered it not only easy and
familiar but habitual. It was not a masquerade dress he wore, but the
costume which showed the man to most advantage. With thought and meaning
often profound, though clothed in simple language, every sentence of his
essays is pregnant.

He played a considerable part in reviving the dramatic writers of the
Shakesperian age; for he preceded Gifford and others in wiping the dust
of ages from their works. In his brief comments on each specimen he
displays exquisite powers of discrimination: his discernment of the true
meaning of his author is almost infallible. His work was a departure in
criticism. Former editors had supplied textual criticism and alternative
readings: Lamb's object was to show how our ancestors felt when they
placed themselves by the power of imagination in trying situations, in
the conflicts of duty or passion or the strife of contending duties;
what sorts of loves and enmities theirs were.

As a poet Lamb is not entitled to so high a place as that which can be
claimed for him as essayist and critic. His dependence on Elizabethan
models is here also manifest, but in such a way as to bring into all the
greater prominence his native deficiency in "the accomplishment of
verse." Yet it is impossible, once having read, ever to forget the
tenderness and grace of such poems as "Hester," "The Old Familiar
Faces," and the lines "On an infant dying as soon as born" or the quaint
humour of "A Farewell to Tobacco." As a letter writer Lamb ranks very
high, and when in a nonsensical mood there is none to touch him.

  Editions and memoirs of Lamb are numerous. The _Letters_, with a
  sketch of his life by Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd, appeared in 1837; the
  _Final Memorials of Charles Lamb_ by the same hand, after Mary Lamb's
  death, in 1848; Barry Cornwall's _Charles Lamb: A Memoir_, in 1866. Mr
  P. Fitzgerald's _Charles Lamb: his Friends, his Haunts and his Books_
  (1866); W. Carew Hazlitt's _Mary and Charles Lamb_ (1874). Mr
  Fitzgerald and Mr Hazlitt have also both edited the _Letters_, and Mr
  Fitzgerald brought Talfourd to date with an edition of Lamb's works in
  1870-1876. Later and fuller editions are those of Canon Ainger in 12
  volumes, Mr Macdonald in 12 volumes and Mr E. V. Lucas in 7 volumes,
  to which in 1905 was added _The Life of Charles Lamb_, in 2 volumes.
       (E. V. L.)




LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Lamm_), the young
of sheep. The Paschal Lamb or Agnus Dei is used as a symbol of Jesus
Christ, the Lamb of God (John i. 29), and "lamb," like "flock," is often
used figuratively of the members of a Christian church or community,
with an allusion to Jesus' charge to Peter (John xxi. 15). The "lamb and
flag" is an heraldic emblem, the dexter fore-leg of the lamb supporting
a staff bearing a banner charged with the St George's cross. This was
one of the crests of the Knights Templars, used on seals as early as
1241; it was adopted as a badge or crest by the Middle Temple, the Inner
Temple using another crest of the Templars, the winged horse or Pegasus.
The old Tangier regiment, now the Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment,
bore a Paschal Lamb as its badge. From their colonel, Percy Kirke
(q.v.), they were known as Kirke's Lambs. The exaggerated reputation of
the regiment for brutality, both in Tangier and in England after
Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname.




LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO, PRINCESSE DE
(1749-1792), fourth daughter of Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774)
(great-grandfather of King Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine
Henriette of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of
September 1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de
Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a grandson
of Louis XIV.'s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her husband dying the
following year, she retired with her father-in-law to Rambouillet, where
she lived until the marriage of the dauphin, when she returned to court.
Marie Antoinette, charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her
out for a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the
dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive temperament which
yields to force of environment, and the two became fast friends. After
her accession Marie Antoinette, in spite of the king's opposition, had
her appointed superintendent of the royal household. Between 1776 and
1785 the comtesse de Polignac succeeded in supplanting her; but when the
queen tired of the avarice of the Polignacs, she turned again to Madame
de Lamballe. From 1785 to the Revolution she was Marie Antoinette's
closest friend and the pliant instrument of her caprices. She came with
the queen to the Tuileries and as her salon served as a meeting-place
for the queen and the members of the Assembly whom she wished to gain
over, the people believed her to be the soul of all the intrigues. After
a visit to England in 1791 to appeal for help for the royal family she
made her will and returned to the Tuileries, where she continued her
services to the queen until the 10th of August, when she shared her
imprisonment in the Temple. On the 19th of August she was transferred to
La Force, and having refused to take the oath against the monarchy, she
was on the 3rd of September delivered over to the fury of the populace,
after which her head was placed on a pike and carried before the windows
of the queen.

  See George Bertin, _Madame de Lamballe_ (Paris, 1888); Austin Dobson,
  _Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); B. C. Hardy, _Princesse de Lamballe_
  (1908); Comte de Lescure, _La Princesse de Lamballe ... d'après des
  documents inédits_ (1864); some letters of the princess published by
  Ch. Schmidt in _La Révolution française_ (vol. xxxix., 1900); L.
  Lambeau, _Essais sur la mort de madame la princesse de Lamballe_
  (1902); Sir F. Montefiore, _The Princesse de Lamballe_ (1896). _The
  Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France ... now first published
  from the Journal, Letters and Conversations of the Princesse de
  Lamballe_ (London, 2 vols., 1826) have since appeared in various
  editions in English and in French. They are attributed to Catherine
  Hyde, Marchioness Govion-Broglio-Solari, and are apocryphal.




LAMBALLE, a town of north-western France, in the department of
Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop.
(1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on which the town is built is a
beautiful Gothic church (13th and 14th centuries), once the chapel of
the castle of the counts of Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot
leader, was mortally wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which
was dismantled in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church
of St Martin (11th, 15th and 16th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe has
an important _haras_ (depot for stallions) and carries on trade in
grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manufactured in the
environs. Lamballe was the capital of the territory of the counts of
Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes.




LAMBAYEQUE, a coast department of northern Peru, bounded N. by Piura, E.
and S. by Cajamarca and Libertad. Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate)
93,070. It belongs to the arid region of the coast, and is settled along
the river valleys where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief
sugar-producing departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially
near Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its
principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and Pimentel,
viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; Pimentel to
Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. The principal towns are
Chiclayo, the departmental capital, with a population (1906 estimate) of
10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500.




LAMBEAUX, JEF (JOSEPH MARIE THOMAS), (1852-1908), Belgian sculptor, was
born at Antwerp. He studied at the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts, and was
a pupil of Jean Geefs. His first work, "War," was exhibited in 1871, and
was followed by a long series of humorous groups, including "Children
dancing," "Say 'Good Morning,'" "The Lucky Number" and "An Accident"
(1875). He then went to Paris, where he executed for the Belgian salons
"The Beggar" and "The Blind Pauper," and produced "The Kiss" (1881),
generally regarded as his masterpiece. After visiting Italy, where he
was much impressed by the works of Jean Bologne, he showed a strong
predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works are
his fountain at Antwerp (1886), "Robbing the Eagle's Eyrie" (1890),
"Drunkenness" (1893), "The Triumph of Woman," "The Bitten Faun" (which
created a great stir at the Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905),
and "The Human Passions," a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from
a sketch exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned those
of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster of Brussels.
He died on the 6th of June 1908.




LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE, BARON (1819-1905), Belgian statesman, was born at
Dion-le-Val in Brabant on the 25th of March 1819. He came of a family of
small farmer proprietors, who had held land during three centuries. He
was intended for the priesthood and entered the seminary of Floreffe,
but his energies claimed a more active sphere. He left the monastery for
Louvain University. Here he studied law, and also prepared himself for
the military examinations. At that juncture the first Carlist war broke
out, and Lambermont hastened to the scene of action. His services were
accepted (April 1838) and he was entrusted with the command of two small
cannon. He also acted as A.D.C. to Colonel Durando. He greatly
distinguished himself, and for his intrepidity on one occasion he was
decorated with the Cross of the highest military Order of St Ferdinand.
Returning to Belgium he entered the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in
1842. He served in this department sixty-three years. He was closely
associated with several of the most important questions in Belgian
history during the last half of the 19th century--notably the freeing of
the Scheldt. He was one of the very first Belgians to see the importance
of developing the trade of their country, and at his own request he was
attached to the commercial branch of the foreign office. The tolls
imposed by the Dutch on navigation on the Scheldt strangled Belgian
trade, for Antwerp was the only port of the country. The Dutch had the
right to make this levy under treaties going back to the treaty of
Munster in 1648, and they clung to it still more tenaciously after
Belgium separated herself in 1830-1831 from the united kingdom of the
Netherlands--the London conference in 1839 fixing the toll payable to
Holland at 1.50 florins (3s.) per ton. From 1856 to 1863 Lambermont
devoted most of his energies to the removal of this impediment. In 1856
he drew up a plan of action, and he prosecuted it with untiring
perseverance until he saw it embodied in an international convention
seven years later. Twenty-one powers and states attended a conference
held on the question at Brussels in 1863, and on the 15th of July the
treaty freeing the Scheldt was signed. For this achievement Lambermont
was made a baron. Among other important conferences in which Lambermont
took a leading part were those of Brussels (1874) on the usages of war,
Berlin (1884-1885) on Africa and the Congo region, and Brussels (1890)
on Central African Affairs and the Slave Trade. He was joint reporter
with Baron de Courcel of the Berlin conference in 1884-1885, and on
several occasions he was chosen as arbitrator by one or other of the
great European powers. But his great achievement was the freeing of the
Scheldt, and in token of its gratitude the city of Antwerp erected a
fine monument to his memory. He died on the 7th of March 1905.




LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809), an Englishman famous for his great size,
was born near Leicester on the 13th of March 1770, the son of the keeper
of the jail, to which post he succeeded in 1791. About this time his
size and weight increased enormously, and though he had led an active
and athletic life he weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 lb.). In 1806
he resolved to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up
to London and exhibited himself. He died on the 21st of July 1809, and
at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed 52¾ stone (739
lb.). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn Museum, measures 102 in.
round the waist. His coffin contained 112 ft. of elm and was built on
wheels. His name has been used as a synonym for immensity. George
Meredith describes London as the "Daniel Lambert of cities," and Herbert
Spencer uses the phrase "a Daniel Lambert of learning." His enormous
proportions were depicted on a number of tavern signs, but the best
portrait of him, a large mezzotint, is preserved at the British Museum
in Lyson's _Collectanea_.




LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c. 1486-1530), Protestant reformer, was the son of a
papal official at Avignon, where he was born between 1485 and 1487. At
the age of 15 he entered the Franciscan monastery at Avignon, and after
1517 he was an itinerant preacher, travelling through France, Italy and
Switzerland. His study of the Scriptures shook his faith in Roman
Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became
known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He
did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or
Lutheranism; he disputed with Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made
his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He
returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of
the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the
neighbourhood. By the Germans he was distrusted, and in 1526 his
activities were prohibited by the city of Strassburg. He was, however,
befriended by Jacob Sturm, who recommended him to the Landgraf Philip of
Hesse, the most liberal of the German reforming princes. With Philip's
encouragement he drafted that scheme of ecclesiastical reform for which
he is famous. Its basis was essentially democratic and congregational,
though it provided for the government of the whole church by means of a
synod. Pastors were to be elected by the congregation, and the whole
system of canon-law was repudiated. This scheme was submitted by Philip
to a synod at Homburg; but Luther intervened and persuaded the Landgraf
to abandon it. It was far too democratic to commend itself to the
Lutherans, who had by this time bound the Lutheran cause to the support
of princes rather than to that of the people. Philip continued to favour
Lambert, who was appointed professor and head of the theological faculty
in the Landgraf's new university of Marburg. Patrick Hamilton (q.v.),
the Scottish martyr, was one of his pupils; and it was at Lambert's
instigation that Hamilton composed his _Loci communes_, or _Patrick's
Pleas_ as they were popularly called in Scotland. Lambert was also one
of the divines who took part in the great conference of Marburg in 1529;
he had long wavered between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian view of the
Lord's Supper, but at this conference he definitely adopted the
Zwinglian view. He died of the plague on the 18th of April 1530, and was
buried at Marburg.

  A catalogue of Lambert's writings is given in Haag's _La France
  protestante_. See also lives of Lambert by Baum (Strassburg, 1840); F.
  W. Hessencamp (Elberfeld, 1860), Stieve (Breslau, 1867) and Louis
  Ruffet (Paris, 1873); Lorimer, _Life of Patrick Hamilton_ (1857); A.
  L. Richter, _Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrh_.
  (Weimar, 1846); Hessencamp, _Hessische Kirchenordnungen im Zeitalter
  der Reformation_; Philip of _Hesse's Correspondence with Bucer_, ed.
  M. Lenz; Lindsay, _Hist. Reformation_; _Allgemeine deutsche
  Biographie_.     (A. F. P.)




LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728-1777), German physicist, mathematician
and astronomer, was born at Mulhausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August
1728. He was the son of a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction
he obtained at the free school of his native town was supplemented by
his own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard ironworks,
and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin, the editor of a
newspaper at Basel, who three years later recommended him as private
tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis of Coire. Coming thus into
virtual possession of a good library, Lambert had peculiar opportunities
for improving himself in his literary and scientific studies. In 1759,
after completing with his pupils a tour of two years' duration through
Göttingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his
tutorship and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig
became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he removed to
Berlin, where he received many favours at the hand of Frederick the
Great and was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of
Berlin, and in 1774 edited the Berlin _Ephemeris_. He died of
consumption on the 25th of September 1777. His publications show him to
have been a man of original and active mind with a singular facility in
applying mathematics to practical questions.

His mathematical discoveries were extended and overshadowed by his
contemporaries. His development of the equation x^m + px = q in an
infinite series was extended by Leonhard Euler, and particularly by
Joseph Louis Lagrange. In 1761 he proved the irrationality of [pi]; a
simpler proof was given somewhat later by Legendre. The introduction of
hyperbolic functions into trigonometry was also due to him. His
geometrical discoveries are of great value, his _Die freie Perspective_
(1759-1774) being a work of great merit. Astronomy was also enriched by
his investigations, and he was led to several remarkable theorems on
conics which bear his name. The most important are: (1) To express the
time of describing an elliptic arc under the Newtonian law of
gravitation in terms of the focal distances of the initial and final
points, and the length of the chord joining them. (2) A theorem relating
to the apparent curvature of the geocentric path of a comet.

  Lambert's most important work, _Pyrometrie_ (Berlin, 1779), is a
  systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full
  discussion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice
  also are _Photometria_ (Augsburg, 1760), _Insigniores orbitae
  cometarum proprietates_ (Augsburg, 1761), and _Beiträge zum Gebrauche
  der Mathematik und deren Anwendung_ (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772).

  The _Memoirs_ of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain many of
  his papers, which treat of such subjects as resistance of fluids,
  magnetism, comets, probabilities, the problem of three bodies,
  meteorology, &c. In the _Acta Helvetica_ (1752-1760) and in the _Nova
  acta erudita_ (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear. In
  Bode's _Jahrbuch_ (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of
  light, Saturn's rings and comets; in the _Nova acta Helvetica_ (1787)
  he has a long paper "Sur le son des corps élastiques," in Bernoulli
  and Hindenburg's _Magazin_ (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of
  equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg's _Archiv_
  (1798-1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces
  were published posthumously. Recognized as among the first
  mathematicians of his day, he was also widely known for the
  universality and depth of his philological and philosophical
  knowledge. The most valuable of his logical and philosophical memoirs
  were published collectively in 2 vols. (1782).

  See Huber's _Lambert nach seinem Leben und Wirken_; M. Chasles,
  _Geschichte der Geometrie_; and Baensch, Lamberts _Philosophie und
  seine Stellung zu Kant_ (1902).




LAMBERT [_alias_ NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538), English Protestant martyr,
was born at Norwich and educated at Cambridge, where he graduated B.A.
and was admitted in 1521 a fellow of Queen's College on the nomination
of Catherine of Aragon. After acting for some years as a "mass-priest,"
his views were unsettled by the arguments of Bilney and Arthur; and
episcopal persecution compelled him, according to his own account, to
assume the name Lambert instead of Nicholson. He likewise removed to
Antwerp, where he became chaplain to the English factory, and formed a
friendship with Frith and Tyndale. Returning to England in 1531, he came
under the notice of Archbishop Warham, who questioned him closely on his
religious beliefs. Warham's death in August 1532 relieved Lambert from
immediate danger, and he earned a living for some years by teaching
Latin and Greek near the Stocks Market in London. The duke of Norfolk
and other reactionaries accused him of heresy in 1536, but reforming
tendencies were still in the ascendant, and Lambert escaped. In 1538,
however, the reaction had begun, and Lambert was its first victim. He
singled himself out for persecution by denying the Real Presence: and
Henry VIII., who had just rejected the Lutheran proposals for a
theological union, was in no mood to tolerate worse heresies. Lambert
had challenged some views expressed by Dr John Taylor, afterwards bishop
of Lincoln; and Cranmer as archbishop condemned Lambert's opinions. He
appealed to the king as supreme head of the Church, and on the 16th of
November Henry heard the case in person before a large assembly of
spiritual and temporal peers. For five hours Lambert disputed with the
king and ten bishops; and then, as he boldly denied that the Eucharist
was the body of Christ, he was condemned to death by Cromwell as
vicegerent. Henry's condescension and patience produced a great
impression on his Catholic subjects; but Cromwell is said by Foxe to
have asked Lambert's pardon before his execution, and Cranmer eventually
adopted the views he condemned in Lambert. Lambert was burnt at
Smithfield on the 22nd of November.

  See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_;
  Froude, _History_; Dixon, _Church History_; Gairdner, _Lollardy and
  the Reformation_, _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and authorities there cited.
       (A. F. P.)




LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694), English general in the Great Rebellion, was
born at Calton Hall, Kirkby Malham, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His
family was of ancient lineage, and long settled in the county. He
studied law, but did not make it his profession. In 1639 he married
Frances, daughter of Sir William Lister. At the opening of the Civil War
he took up arms for the parliament, and in September 1642 was appointed
a captain of horse in the army commanded by Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax. A
year later he had become colonel of a regiment of horse, and he
distinguished himself at the siege of Hull in October, 1643. Early in
1644 he did good service at the battles of Nantwich and Bradford. At
Marston Moor Lambert's own regiment was routed by the charge of Goring's
horse; but he cut his way through with a few troops and joined Cromwell
on the other side of the field. When the New Model army was formed in
the beginning of 1645, Colonel Lambert was appointed to succeed Fairfax
in command of the northern forces. General Poyntz, however, soon
replaced him, and under this officer he served in the Yorkshire campaign
of 1645, receiving a wound before Pontefract. In 1646 he was given a
regiment in the New Model, serving with Fairfax in the west of England,
and he was a commissioner, with Cromwell and others, for the surrender
of Oxford in the same year. "It is evident," says C. H. Firth (_Dict.
Nat. Biog._), "that he was from the first regarded as an officer of
exceptional capacity and specially selected for semi-political
employments."

When the quarrel between the army and the parliament began, Lambert
threw himself warmly into the army's cause. He assisted Ireton in
drawing up the several addresses and remonstrances issued by the army,
both men having had some experience in the law, and being "of a subtle
and working brain." Early in August 1647 Lambert was sent by Fairfax as
major-general to take charge of the forces in the northern counties. His
wise and just managing of affairs in those parts is commended by
Whitelocke. He suppressed a mutiny among his troops, kept strict
discipline and hunted down the moss-troopers who infested the moorland
country.

When the Scottish army under the marquis of Hamilton invaded England in
the summer of 1648, Lambert was engaged in suppressing the Royalist
rising in his district. The arrival of the Scots obliged him to retreat;
but Lambert displayed the greatest energy and did not cease to harass
the invaders till Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the
Scottish army in the three days' fighting from Preston to Warrington.
After the battle Lambert's cavalry headed the chase, pursuing the
defeated army _à outrance_, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter,
where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the 25th of August. He then led
the advance of Cromwell's army into Scotland, where he was left in
charge on Cromwell's return. From December 1648 to March 1649 he was
engaged in the siege of Pontefract Castle; Lambert was thus absent from
London at the time of Pride's Purge and the trial and execution of the
king.

When Cromwell was appointed to the command of the war in Scotland (July
1650), Lambert went with him as major-general and second in command. He
was wounded at Musselburgh, but returned to the front in time to take a
conspicuous share in the victory of Dunbar. He himself defeated the
"Protesters" or "Western Whigs" at Hamilton, on the 1st of December
1650. In July 1651 he was sent into Fife to get in the rear and flank of
the Scottish army near Falkirk, and force them to decisive action by
cutting off their supplies. This mission, in the course of which Lambert
won an important victory at Inverkeithing, was executed with entire
success, whereupon Charles II., as Lambert had foreseen, made for
England. For the events of the Worcester campaign, which quickly
followed, see GREAT REBELLION. Lambert's part in the general plan was
carried out most brilliantly, and in the crowning victory of Worcester
he commanded the right wing of the English army, and had his horse shot
under him. Parliament now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland
worth £1000 per annum.

In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle the affairs of
Scotland, and on the death of Ireton he was appointed lord deputy of
Ireland (January 1652). He accepted the office with pleasure, and made
magnificent preparations; parliament, however, soon afterwards
reconstituted the Irish administration and Lambert refused to accept
office on the new terms. Henceforward he began to oppose the Rump. In
the council of officers he headed the party desiring representative
government, as opposed to Harrison who favoured a selected oligarchy of
"God-fearing" men, but both hated what remained of the Long parliament,
and joined in urging Cromwell to dissolve it by force. At the same time
Lambert was consulted by the parliamentary leaders as to the possibility
of dismissing Cromwell from his command, and on the 15th of March 1653
Cromwell refused to see him, speaking of him contemptuously as
"bottomless Lambert." On the 20th of April, however, Lambert accompanied
Cromwell when he dismissed the council of state, on the same day as the
forcible expulsion of the parliament. Lambert now favoured the formation
of a small executive council, to be followed by an elective parliament
whose powers should be limited by a written instrument of government.
Being at this time the ruling spirit in the council of state, and the
idol of the army, there were some who looked on him as a possible rival
of Cromwell for the chief executive power, while the royalists for a
short time had hopes of his support. He was invited, with Cromwell,
Harrison and Desborough, to sit in the nominated parliament of 1653; and
when the unpopularity of that assembly increased, Cromwell drew nearer
to Lambert. In November 1653 Lambert presided over a meeting of
officers, when the question of constitutional settlement was discussed,
and a proposal made for the forcible expulsion of the nominated
parliament. On the 1st of December he urged Cromwell to assume the title
of king, which the latter refused. On the 12th the parliament resigned
its powers into Cromwell's hands, and on the 13th Lambert obtained the
consent of the officers to the Instrument of Government (q.v.), in the
framing of which he had taken a leading part. He was one of the seven
officers nominated to seats in the council created by the Instrument. In
the foreign policy of the protectorate he was the most clamorous of
those who called for alliance with Spain and war with France in 1653,
and he firmly withstood Cromwell's design for an expedition to the West
Indies.

In the debates in parliament on the Instrument of Government in 1654
Lambert proposed that the office of protector should be made hereditary,
but was defeated by a majority which included members of Cromwell's
family. In the parliament of this year, and again in 1656, Lord Lambert,
as he was now styled, sat as member for the West Riding. He was one of
the major-generals appointed in August 1655 to command the militia in
the ten districts into which it was proposed to divide England, and who
were to be responsible for the maintenance of order and the
administration of the law in their several districts. Lambert took a
prominent part in the committee of council which drew up instructions to
the major-generals, and he was probably the originator, and certainly
the organizer, of the system of police which these officers were to
control. Gardiner conjectures that it was through divergence of opinion
between the protector and Lambert in connexion with these "instructions"
that the estrangement between the two men began. At all events, although
Lambert had himself at an earlier date requested Cromwell to take the
royal dignity, when the proposal to declare Oliver king was started in
parliament (February 1657) he at once declared strongly against it. A
hundred officers headed by Fleetwood and Lambert waited on the
protector, and begged him to put a stop to the proceedings. Lambert was
not convinced by Cromwell's arguments, and their complete estrangement,
personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal to take the oath
of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was deprived of his commissions,
receiving, however, a pension of £2000 a year. He retired to his garden
at Wimbledon, and appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell's
lifetime; but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation,
and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall.

When Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector his chief difficulty lay
with the army, over which he exercised no effective control. Lambert,
though holding no military commission, was the most popular of the old
Cromwellian generals with the rank and file of the army, and it was very
generally believed that he would instal himself in Oliver's seat of
power. Richard's adherents tried to conciliate him, and the royalist
leaders made overtures to him, even proposing that Charles II. should
marry Lambert's daughter. Lambert at first gave a lukewarm support to
Richard Cromwell, and took no part in the intrigues of the officers at
Fleetwood's residence, Wallingford House. He was a member of the
parliament which met in January 1659, and when it was dissolved in April
under compulsion of Fleetwood and Desborough, he was restored to his
commands. He headed the deputation to Lenthall in May inviting the
return of the Rump, which led to the tame retirement of Richard Cromwell
into obscurity; and he was appointed a member of the committee of safety
and of the council of state. When the parliament, desirous of
controlling the power of the army, withheld from Fleetwood the right of
nominating officers, Lambert was named one of a council of seven charged
with this duty. The parliament's evident distrust of the soldiers caused
much discontent in the army; while the entire absence of real authority
encouraged the royalists to make overt attempts to restore Charles II.,
the most serious of which, under Sir George Booth and the earl of Derby,
was crushed by Lambert near Chester on the 19th of August. He promoted a
petition from his army that Fleetwood might be made lord-general and
himself major-general. The republican party in the House took offence.
The Commons (October 12th, 1659) cashiered Lambert and other officers,
and retained Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the
authority of the speaker. On the next day Lambert caused the doors of
the House to be shut and the members kept out. On the 26th a "committee
of safety" was appointed, of which he was a member. He was also
appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland,
Fleetwood being general. Lambert was now sent with a large force to meet
Monk, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either
negotiate with him or force him to terms. Monk, however, set his army in
motion southward. Lambert's army began to melt away, and he was kept in
suspense by Monk till his whole army fell from him and he returned to
London almost alone. Monk marched to London unopposed. The "excluded"
Presbyterian members were recalled. Lambert was sent to the Tower (March
3rd, 1660), from which he escaped a month later. He tried to rekindle
the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth, but was speedily recaptured
and sent back to the Tower (April 24th). On the Restoration he was
exempted from danger of life by an address of both Houses to the king,
but the next parliament (1662) charged him with high treason.
Thenceforward for the rest of his life Lambert remained in custody in
Guernsey. He died in 1694.

  Lambert would have left a better name in history if he had been a
  cavalier. His genial, ardent and excitable nature, easily raised and
  easily depressed, was more akin to the royalist than to the puritan
  spirit. Vain and sometimes overbearing, as well as ambitious, he
  believed that Cromwell could not stand without him; and when Cromwell
  was dead, he imagined himself entitled and fitted to succeed him. Yet
  his ambition was less selfish than that of Monk. Lambert is accused of
  no ill faith, no want of generosity, no cold and calculating policy.
  As a soldier he was far more than a fighting general and possessed
  many of the qualities of a great general. He was, moreover, an able
  writer and speaker, and an accomplished negotiator and took pleasure
  in quiet and domestic pursuits. He learnt his love of gardening from
  Lord Fairfax, who was also his master in the art of war. He painted
  flowers, besides cultivating them, and incurred the blame of Mrs
  Hutchinson by "dressing his flowers in his garden and working at the
  needle with his wife and his maids." He made no special profession of
  religion; but no imputation is cast upon his moral character by his
  detractors. It has been said that he became a Roman Catholic before
  his death.




LAMBERT OF HERSFELD (d. c. 1088), German chronicler, was probably a
Thuringian by birth and became a monk in the Benedictine abbey of
Hersfeld in 1058. As he was ordained priest at Aschaffenburg he is
sometimes called Lambert of Aschaffenburg, or Schafnaburg. He made a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and visited various monasteries of his
order; but he is famous as the author of some _Annales_. From the
creation of the world until about 1040 these _Annales_ are a jejune copy
of other annals, but from 1040 to their conclusion in 1077 they are
interesting for the history of Germany and the papacy. The important
events during the earlier part of the reign of the emperor Henry IV.,
including the visit to Canossa and the battle of Hohenburg, are vividly
described. Their tone is hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the
papacy; their Latin style is excellent. The _Annales_ were first
published in 1525 and are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae
historica_, Bände iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly
Lambert's reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but
both qualities have been somewhat discredited.

  Lambert is also regarded as the author of the _Historia
  Hersfeldensis_, the extant fragments of which are published in Band v.
  of the _Monumenta_ of a _Vita Lulli_, Lullus, archbishop of Mainz,
  being the founder of the abbey of Hersfeld; and of a _Carmen de bello
  Saxonico_. His _Opera_ have been edited with an introduction by O.
  Holder-Egger (Hanover, 1894).

  See H. Delbrück, _Über die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld_
  (Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, _Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere
  Quellenforschung_ (Cassel, 1896); L. von Ranke, _Zur Kritik
  frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten_ (Berlin, 1854); W. Wattenbach,
  _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_ Band ii. (Berlin, 1906) and A.
  Potthast, _Bibliotheca Historica_ (Berlin, 1896).




LAMBESSA, the ancient Lambaesa, a village of Algeria, in the
arrondissement of Batna and department of Constantine, 7 m. S.E. of
Batna and 17 W. of Timgad. The modern village, the centre of an
agricultural colony founded in 1848, is noteworthy for its great convict
establishment (built about 1850). The remains of the Roman town, and
more especially of the Roman camp, in spite of wanton vandalism, are
among the most interesting ruins in northern Africa. They are now
preserved by the _Service des Monuments historiques_ and excavations
have resulted in many interesting discoveries. The ruins are situated on
the lower terraces of the Jebel Aures, and consist of triumphal arches
(one to Septimius Severus, another to Commodus), temples, aqueducts,
vestiges of an amphitheatre, baths and an immense quantity of masonry
belonging to private houses. To the north and east lie extensive
cemeteries with the stones standing in their original alignments; to the
west is a similar area, from which, however, the stones have been
largely removed for building the modern village. Of the temple of
Aesculapius only one column is standing, though in the middle of the
19th century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated to
Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of débris, has a
portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-thirds of a mile
from the centre of the ancient town stands the camp, its site now partly
occupied by the penitentiary and its gardens. It measures 1640 ft. N. to
S. by 1476 ft. E. to W., and in the middle rise the ruins of a building
commonly called, but incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building,
which dates from A.D. 268, is 92 ft. long by 66 ft. broad and 49 ft.
high; its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height of
the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns and an
engaged row of Corinthian pilasters. Behind this building (which was
roofed), is a large court giving access to other buildings, one being
the arsenal. In it have been found many thousands of projectiles. To the
S.E. are the remains of the baths. The ruins of both city and camp have
yielded many inscriptions (Renier edited 1500, and there are 4185 in the
_Corpus Inscr. Lat._ vol. viii.); and, though a very large proportion
are epitaphs of the barest kind, the more important pieces supply an
outline of the history of the place. Over 2500 inscriptions relating to
the camp have been deciphered. In a museum in the village are objects of
antiquity discovered in the vicinity. Besides inscriptions, statues,
&c., are some fine mosaics found in 1905 near the arch of Septimius
Severus. The statues include those of Aesculapius and Hygieia, taken
from the temple of Aesculapius.

  Lambaesa was a military foundation. The camp of the third legion
  (Legio III. Augusta), to which it owes its origin, appears to have
  been established between A.D. 123 and 129, in the time of Hadrian,
  whose address to his soldiers was found inscribed on a pillar in a
  second camp to the west of the great camp still extant. By 166 mention
  is made of the decurions of a vicus, 10 curiae of which are known by
  name; and the vicus became a municipium probably at the time when it
  was made the capital of the newly founded province of Numidia. The
  legion was removed by Gordianus, but restored by Valerianus and
  Gallienus; and its final departure did not take place till after 392.
  The town soon afterwards declined. It never became the seat of a
  bishop, and no Christian inscriptions have been found among the ruins.

  About 2 m. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient
  Verecunda, including two triumphal arches.

  See S. Gsell, _Les Monuments antiques de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1901) and
  _L'Algérie dans l'antiquité_ (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, _Inscriptions
  romaines de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, "Die röm.
  Lagerstadt Afrikas," in _Commentationes phil. in honorem Th. Mommseni_
  (Berlin, 1877); Sir L. Playfair, _Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce_
  (London, 1877); A. Graham, _Roman Africa_ (London, 1902).




LAMBETH, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded
N.W. by the river Thames, N.E. by Southwark, E. by Camberwell and W. by
Wandsworth and Battersea, and extending S. to the boundary of the county
of London. Pop. (1901) 301,895. The name is commonly confined to the
northern part of the borough, bordering the river; but the principal
districts included are Kennington and Vauxhall (north central), Brixton
(central) and part of Norwood (south). Four road-bridges cross the
Thames within the limits of the borough, namely Waterloo, Westminster,
Lambeth and Vauxhall, of which the first, a fine stone structure, dates
from 1817, and is the oldest Thames bridge standing within the county of
London. The main thoroughfare runs S. from Westminster Bridge Road as
Kennington Road, continuing as Brixton Road and Brixton Hill, Clapham
Road branching S.W. from it at Kennington. Several thoroughfares also
converge upon Vauxhall Bridge, and from a point near this down to
Westminster Bridge the river is bordered by the fine Albert Embankment.

Early records present the name _Lamb-hythe_ in various forms. The suffix
is common along the river in the meaning of a haven, but the prefix is
less clear; a Saxon word signifying mud is suggested. Brixton and
Kennington are mentioned in Domesday; and in Vauxhall is concealed the
name of Falkes de Breauté, an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of
John and Henry III. exiled in 1225. The manor of North Lambeth was given
to the bishopric of Rochester in the time of Edward the Confessor, and
the bishops had a house here till the 16th century. They did not,
however, retain the manor beyond the close of the 12th century, when it
was acquired by the see of Canterbury. The palace of the archbishops is
still here, and forms, with the parish church, a picturesque group of
buildings, lying close to the river opposite the majestic Houses of
Parliament, and to some extent joining with them to make of this reach
of the Thames one of the finest prospects in London. The oldest part of
the palace remaining is the Early English chapel. The so-called
Lollard's Tower, which retains evidence of its use as a prison, dates c.
1440. There is a fine Tudor gatehouse of brick, and the hall is dated
1663. The portion now inhabited by the archbishops was erected in 1834
and fronts a spacious quadrangle. Among the portraits of the archbishops
here are examples by Holbein, Van Dyck, Hogarth and Reynolds. There is a
valuable library. The church of St Mary was rebuilt c. 1850, though the
ancient monuments preserved give it an appearance of antiquity. Here are
tombs of some of the archbishops, including Bancroft (d. 1610), and of
the two Tradescants, collectors, and a memorial to Elias Ashmole, whose
name is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University, to which
he presented the collections of his friend the younger Tradescant (d.
1662). In the present Westminster Bridge Road was a circus, well known
in the later 18th and early 19th centuries as Astley's, and near
Vauxhall Bridge were the celebrated Vauxhall Gardens.

  The principal modern pleasure grounds are Kennington Park (20 acres),
  and Brockwell Park (127 acres) south of Brixton, and near the southern
  end of Kennington Road is Kennington Oval, the ground of the Surrey
  County Cricket Club, the scene of its home matches and of other
  important fixtures. Among institutions the principal is St Thomas'
  Hospital, the extensive buildings of which front the Albert
  Embankment. The original foundation dated from 1213, was situated in
  Southwark, and was connected with the priory of Bermondsey. The
  existing buildings, subsequently enlarged, were opened in 1871, are
  divided into a series of blocks, and include a medical school. Other
  hospitals are the Royal, for children and women, Waterloo Road, the
  Lying-in Hospital, York Road, and the South-western fever hospital in
  Stockwell. There are technical institutes in Brixton and Norwood; and
  on Brixton Hill is Brixton Prison. In the northern part of the borough
  are numerous factories, including the great Doulton pottery works. The
  parliamentary borough of Lambeth has four divisions, North,
  Kennington, Brixton and Norwood, each returning one member. The
  borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors.
  Area, 4080.4 acres.




LAMBETH CONFERENCES, the name given to the periodical assemblies of
bishops of the Anglican Communion (Pan-Anglican synods), which since
1867 have met at Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the archbishop
of Canterbury. The idea of these meetings was first suggested in a
letter to the archbishop of Canterbury by Bishop Hopkins of Vermont in
1851, but the immediate impulse came from the colonial Church in Canada.
In 1865 the synod of that province, in an urgent letter to the
archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Longley), represented the unsettlement of
members of the Canadian Church caused by recent legal decisions of the
Privy Council, and their alarm lest the revived action of Convocation
"should leave us governed by canons different from those in force in
England and Ireland, and thus cause us to drift into the status of an
independent branch of the Catholic Church." They therefore requested him
to call a "national synod of the bishops of the Anglican Church at home
and abroad," to meet under his leadership. After consulting both houses
of the Convocation of Canterbury, Archbishop Longley assented, and
convened all the bishops of the Anglican Communion (then 144 in number)
to meet at Lambeth in 1867. Many Anglican bishops (amongst them the
archbishop of York and most of his suffragans) felt so doubtful as to
the wisdom of such an assembly that they refused to attend it, and Dean
Stanley declined to allow Westminster Abbey to be used for the closing
service, giving as his reasons the partial character of the assembly,
uncertainty as to the effect of its measures and "the presence of
prelates not belonging to our Church." Archbishop Longley said in his
opening address, however, that they had no desire to assume "the
functions of a general synod of all the churches in full communion with
the Church of England," but merely to "discuss matters of practical
interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may
serve as safe guides to future action." Experience has shown how
valuable and wise this course was. The resolutions of the Lambeth
Conferences have never been regarded as synodical decrees, but their
weight has increased with each conference. Apprehensions such as those
which possessed the mind of Dean Stanley have long passed away.

Seventy-six bishops accepted the primate's invitation to the first
conference, which met at Lambeth on the 24th of September 1867, and sat
for four days, the sessions being in private. The archbishop opened the
conference with an address: deliberation followed; committees were
appointed to report on special questions; resolutions were adopted, and
an encyclical letter was addressed to the faithful of the Anglican
Communion. Each of the subsequent conferences has been first received in
Canterbury cathedral and addressed by the archbishop from the chair of
St Augustine. It has then met at Lambeth, and after sitting for five
days for deliberation upon the fixed subjects and appointment of
committees, has adjourned, to meet again at the end of a fortnight and
sit for five days more, to receive reports, adopt resolutions and to put
forth the encyclical letter.

  I. _First Conference_ (September 24-28, 1867), convened and presided
  over by Archbishop Longley. The proposed order of subjects was
  entirely altered in view of the Colenso case, for which urgency was
  claimed; and most of the time was spent in discussing it. Of the
  thirteen resolutions adopted by the conference, two have direct
  reference to this case; the rest have to do with the creation of new
  sees and missionary jurisdictions, commendatory letters, and a
  "voluntary spiritual tribunal" in cases of doctrine and the due
  subordination of synods. The reports of the committees were not ready,
  and were carried forward to the conference of 1878.

  II. _Second Conference_ (July 2-27, 1878), convened and presided over
  by Archbishop Tait. On this occasion no hesitation appears to have
  been felt; 100 bishops were present, and the opening sermon was
  preached by the archbishop of York. The reports of the five special
  committees (based in part upon those of the committee of 1867) were
  embodied in the encyclical letter, viz. on the best mode of
  maintaining union, voluntary boards of arbitration, missionary bishops
  and missionaries, continental chaplains and the report of a committee
  on difficulties submitted to the conference.

  III. _Third Conference_ (July 3-27, 1888), convened and presided over
  by Archbishop Benson; 145 bishops present; the chief subject of
  consideration being the position of communities which do not possess
  the historic episcopate. In addition to the encyclical letter,
  nineteen resolutions were put forth, and the reports of twelve special
  committees are appended upon which they are based, the subjects being
  intemperance, purity, divorce, polygamy, observance of Sunday,
  socialism, care of emigrants, mutual relations of dioceses of the
  Anglican Communion, home reunion, Scandinavian Church, Old Catholics,
  &c., Eastern Churches, standards of doctrine and worship. Perhaps the
  most important of these is the famous "Lambeth Quadrilateral," which
  laid down a fourfold basis for home reunion--the Holy Scriptures, the
  Apostles' and Nicene creeds, the two sacraments ordained by Christ
  himself and the historic episcopate.

  IV. _Fourth Conference_ (July 5-31, 1897), convened by Archbishop
  Benson, presided over by Archbishop Temple; 194 bishops present. One
  of the chief subjects for consideration was the creation of a
  "tribunal of reference"; but the resolutions on this subject were
  withdrawn, owing, it is said, to the opposition of the American
  bishops, and a more general resolution in favour of a "consultative
  body" was substituted. The encyclical letter is accompanied by
  sixty-three resolutions (which include careful provision for
  provincial organization and the extension of the title "archbishop" to
  all metropolitans, a "thankful recognition of the revival of
  brotherhoods and sisterhoods, and of the office of deaconess," and a
  desire to promote friendly relations with the Eastern Churches and the
  various Old Catholic bodies), and the reports of the eleven committees
  are subjoined.

  V. _Fifth Conference_ (July 6-August 5, 1908), convened by Archbishop
  Randall Davidson, who presided; 241 bishops were present. The chief
  subjects of discussion were: the relations of faith and modern
  thought, the supply and training of the clergy, education, foreign
  missions, revision and "enrichment" of the Prayer-Book, the relation
  of the Church to "ministries of healing" (Christian Science, &c.), the
  questions of marriage and divorce, organization of the Anglican
  Church, reunion with other Churches. The results of the deliberations
  were embodied in seventy-eight resolutions, which were appended to the
  encyclical issued, in the name of the conference, by the Archbishop of
  Canterbury on the 8th of August.

  The fifth Lambeth conference, following as it did close on the great
  Pan-Anglican congress, is remarkable mainly as a proof of the growth
  of the influence and many-sided activity of the Anglican Church, and
  as a conspicuous manifestation of her characteristic principles. Of
  the seventy-eight resolutions none is in any sense epoch-making, and
  their spirit is that of the traditional Anglican _via media_. In
  general they are characterized by a firm adherence to the fundamental
  articles of Catholic orthodoxy, tempered by a tolerant attitude
  towards those not of "the household of the faith." The report of the
  committee on faith and modern thought is "a faithful attempt to show
  how the claim of our Lord Jesus Christ, which the Church is set to
  present to each generation, may, under the characteristic conditions
  of our time, best command allegiance." On the question of education
  (Res. 11-19) the conference reaffirmed strongly the necessity for
  definite Christian teaching in schools, "secular systems" being
  condemned as "educationally as well as morally unsound, since they
  fail to co-ordinate the training of the whole nature of the child"
  (Res. 11). The resolutions on questions affecting foreign missions
  (20-26) deal with e.g. the overlapping of episcopal jurisdictions (22)
  and the establishment of Churches on lines of race or colour, which is
  condemned (20). The resolutions on questions of marriage and divorce
  (37-43) reaffirm the traditional attitude of the Church; it is,
  however, interesting to note that the resolution (40) deprecating the
  remarriage in church of the innocent party to a divorce was carried
  only by eighty-seven votes to eighty-four. In resolutions 44 to 53 the
  conference deals with the duty of the Church towards modern democratic
  ideals and social problems; affirms the responsibility of investors
  for the character and conditions of the concerns in which their money
  is placed (49); "while frankly acknowledging the moral gains sometimes
  won by war" strongly supports the extension of international
  arbitration (52); and emphasizes the duty of a stricter observance of
  Sunday (53). On the question of reunion, the ideal of corporate unity
  was reaffirmed (58). It was decided to send a deputation of bishops
  with a letter of greeting to the national council of the Russian
  Church about to be assembled (60) and certain conditions were laid
  down for inter-communion with certain of the Churches of the Orthodox
  Eastern Communion (62) and the "ancient separated Churches of the
  East" (63-65). Resolution 67 warned Anglicans from contracting
  marriages, under actual conditions, with Roman Catholics. By
  resolution 68 the conference stated its desire to "maintain and
  strengthen the friendly relations" between the Churches of the
  Anglican Communion and "the ancient Church of Holland" (Jansenist, see
  UTRECHT) and the old Catholic Churches; and resolutions 70-73 made
  elaborate provisions for a projected corporate union between the
  Anglican Church and the _Unitas Fratrum_ (Moravian Brethren). As to
  "home reunion," however, it was made perfectly clear that this would
  only be possible "on lines suggested by such precedents as those of
  1610," i.e. by the Presbyterian Churches accepting the episcopal
  model. So far as the organization of the Anglican Church is concerned,
  the most important outcome of the conference was the reconstruction of
  the Central Consultative Body on representative lines (54-56); this
  body to consist of the archbishop of Canterbury and seventeen bishops
  appointed by the various Churches of the Anglican Communion throughout
  the world. A notable feature of the conference was the presence of the
  Swedish bishop of Kalmar, who presented a letter from the archbishop
  of Upsala, as a tentative advance towards closer relations between the
  Anglican Church and the Evangelical Church of Sweden.

  See Archbishop R. T. Davidson, _The Lambeth Conferences of 1867, 1878
  and 1888_ (London, 1896); _Conference of Bishops of the Anglican
  Communion, Encyclical Letter_, &c. (London, 1897 and 1908).




LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS, the Latinized name of DENIS LAMBIN (1520-1572),
French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-sur-mer in Picardy. Having
devoted several years to classical studies during a residence in Italy,
he was invited to Paris in 1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in
the Collège de France, which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of
Greek. His lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and
the religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572) is
said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might share the
fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramée), who had been killed
in the massacre of St Bartholomew. Lambinus was one of the greatest
scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still
useful. In textual criticism he was a conservative, but by no means a
slavish one; indeed, his opponents accused him of rashness in
emendation. His chief defect is that he refers vaguely to his MSS.
without specifying the source of his readings, so that their relative
importance cannot be estimated. But his commentaries, with their wealth
of illustration and parallel passages, are a mine of information. In the
opinion of the best scholars, he preserved the happy mean in his
annotations, although his own countrymen have coined the word _lambiner_
to express trifling and diffuseness.

  His chief editions are: Horace (1561); Lucretius (1564), on which see
  H. A. J. Munro's preface to his edition; Cicero (1566); Cornelius
  Nepos (1569); Demosthenes (1570), completing the unfinished work of
  Guillaume Morel; Plautus (1576).

  See Peter Lazer, _De Dionysio Lambino narratio_, printed in Orelli's
  _Onomasticon Tullianum_ (i. 1836), and _Trium disertissimorum virorum
  praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti, Lambini, Regii_
  (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_ (1908,
  ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
  Encyclopädie_.




LAMBOURN, a market town in the Newbury parliamentary division of
Berkshire, England, 65 m. W. of London, the terminus of the Lambourn
Valley light railway from Newbury. Pop. (1901) 2071. It lies high up the
narrow valley of the Lambourn, a tributary of the Kennet famous for its
trout-fishing, among the Berkshire Downs. The church of St Michael is
cruciform and principally late Norman, but has numerous additions of
later periods and has been considerably altered by modern restoration.
The inmates of an almshouse founded by John Estbury, _c._ 1500, by his
desire still hold service daily at his tomb in the church. A
Perpendicular market-cross stands without the church. The town has
agricultural trade, but its chief importance is derived from large
training stables in the neighbourhood. To the north of the town is a
large group of _tumuli_ known as the Seven Barrows, ascertained by
excavation to be a British burial-place.




LAMECH [Hebrew: Lemech], the biblical patriarch, appears in each of the
antediluvian genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24 J., and Gen. v. P. In the
former he is a descendant of Cain, and through his sons the author of
primitive civilization; in the latter he is the father of Noah. But it
is now generally held that these two genealogies are variant adaptations
of the Babylonian list of primitive kings (see ENOCH). It is doubtful
whether Lamech is to be identified with the name of any one of these
kings; he may have been introduced into the genealogy from another
tradition.

In the older narrative in Gen. iv. Lamech's family are the originators
of various advances in civilization; he himself is the first to marry
more than one wife, 'Adah ("ornament," perhaps specially "dawn") and
Zillah ("shadow"). He has three sons Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal, the
last-named qualified by the addition of Cain (= "smith"[1]). The
assonance of these names is probably intentional, cf. the brothers Hasan
and Hosein of early Mahommedan history. Jabal institutes the life of
nomadic shepherds, Jubal is the inventor of music, Tubal-Cain the first
smith. Jabal and Jubal may be forms of a root used in Hebrew and
Phoenician for ram and ram's horn (i.e. trumpet), and underlying our
"jubilee." Tubal may be the eponymous ancestor of the people of that
name mentioned in Ezekiel in connexion with "vessels of bronze."[2] All
three names are sometimes derived from [Hebrew: yuval] in the sense of
offspring, so that they would be three different words for "son," and
there are numerous other theories as to their etymology. Lamech has also
a daughter Naamah ("gracious," "pleasant," "comely"; cf. No'mân, a name
of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly intends to account for the
origin of these various arts as they existed in the narrator's time; it
is not likely that he thought of these discoveries as separated from his
own age by a universal flood; nor does the tone of the narrative suggest
that the primitive tradition thought of these pioneers of civilization
as members of an accursed family. Probably the passage was originally
independent of the document which told of Cain and Abel and of the
Flood; Jabal may be a variant of Abel. An ancient poem is connected with
this genealogy:

  "Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;
   Ye wives of Lamech, give ear unto my speech.
   I slay a man for a wound,
   A young man for a stroke;
   For Cain's vengeance is sevenfold,
   But Lamech's seventy-fold and seven."

In view of the connexion, the poem is interpreted as expressing Lamech's
exultation at the advantage he expects to derive from Tubal-Cain's new
inventions; the worker in bronze will forge for him new and formidable
weapons, so that he will be able to take signal vengeance for the least
injury. But the poem probably had originally nothing to do with the
genealogy. It may have been a piece of folk-song celebrating the prowess
of the tribe of Lamech; or it may have had some relation to a story of
Cain and Abel in which Cain was a hero and not a villain.

The genealogy in Gen. v. belongs to the Priestly Code, _c._ 450 B.C.,
and may be due to a revision of ancient tradition in the light of
Babylonian archaeology. It is noteworthy that according to the numbers
in the Samaritan MSS. Lamech dies in the year of the Flood.

  The origin of the name Lamech and its original meaning are doubtful.
  It was probably the name of a tribe or deity, or both. According to C.
  J. Ball,[3] Lamech is an adaptation of the Babylonian _Lamga_, a title
  of Sin the moon god, and synonymous with _Ubara_ in the name
  Ubara-Tutu, the Otiartes of Berossus, who is the ninth of the ten
  primitive Babylonian kings, and the father of the hero of the
  Babylonian flood story, just as Lamech is the ninth patriarch, and the
  father of Noah. Spurrell[4] states that Lamech cannot be explained
  from the Hebrew, but may possibly be connected with the Arabic
  _yalmakun_, "a strong young man."

  Outside of Genesis, Lamech is only mentioned in the Bible in 1 Chron.
  i. 3, Luke iii. 36. Later Jewish tradition expanded and interpreted
  the story in its usual fashion.     (W. H. Be.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The text of Gen. iv. 22 is partly corrupt; and it is possible
    that the text used by the Septuagint did not contain Cain.

  [2] Gen. x. 2, Ezek. xxvii. 13.

  [3] _Genesis_, in Haupt's _Sacred Books of the Old Testament_ on iv.
    19, cf. also the notes on 20-22, for Lamech's family. The
    identification of Lamech with _Lamga_ is also suggested by Sayce,
    _Expository Times_, vii. 367. Cf. also Cheyne, "Cainites" in _Encyc.
    Biblica_.

  [4] _Notes on the Hebrew Text of Genesis, in loco._




LAMEGO, a city of northern Portugal, in the district of Vizeu and
formerly included in the province of Beira; 6 m. by road S. of the river
Douro and 42 m. E. of Oporto. Pop. (1900) 9471. The nearest railway
station is Peso da Regoa, on the opposite side of the Douro and on the
Barca d'Alva-Oporto railway. Lamego is an ancient and picturesque city,
in the midst of a beautiful mountain region. Its principal buildings are
the 14th-century Gothic cathedral, Moorish citadel, Roman baths and a
church which occupies the site of a mosque, and, though intrinsically
commonplace, is celebrated in Portugal as the seat of the legendary
cortes of 1143 or 1144 (see PORTUGAL, _History_). The principal
industries are viticulture and the rearing of swine, which furnish the
so-called "Lisbon hams." Lamego was a Moorish frontier fortress of some
importance in the 9th and 10th centuries. It was captured in 1057 by
Ferdinand I. of Castile and Leon.




LAMELLIBRANCHIA (Lat. _lamella_, a small or thin plate, and Gr. [Greek:
branchia], gills), the fourth of the five classes of animals
constituting the phylum Mollusca (q.v.). The Lamellibranchia are mainly
characterized by the rudimentary condition of the head, and the
retention of the primitive bilateral symmetry, the latter feature being
accentuated by the lateral compression of the body and the development
of the shell as two bilaterally symmetrical plates or valves covering
each one side of the animal. The foot is commonly a simple cylindrical
or ploughshare-shaped organ, used for boring in sand and mud, and more
rarely presents a crawling disk similar to that of Gastropoda; in some
forms it is aborted. The paired ctenidia are very greatly developed
right and left of the elongated body, and form the most prominent organ
of the group. Their function is chiefly not respiratory but nutritive,
since it is by the currents produced by their ciliated surface that
food-particles are brought to the feebly-developed mouth and buccal
cavity.

The Lamellibranchia present as a whole a somewhat uniform structure. The
chief points in which they vary are--(1) in the structure of the
ctenidia or branchial plates; (2) in the presence of one or of two chief
muscles, the fibres of which run across the animal's body from one valve
of the shell to the other (adductors); (3) in the greater or less
elaboration of the posterior portion of the mantle-skirt so as to form a
pair of tubes, by one of which water is introduced into the sub-pallial
chamber, whilst by the other it is expelled; (4) in the perfect or
deficient symmetry of the two valves of the shell and the connected soft
parts, as compared with one another; (5) in the development of the foot
as a disk-like crawling organ (_Arca_, _Nucula_, _Pectunculus_,
_Trigonia_, _Lepton_, _Galeomma_), as a simple plough-like or
tongue-shaped organ (_Unionidae_, &c.), as a re-curved saltatory organ
(_Cardium_, &c.), as a long burrowing cylinder (_Solenidae_, &c.), or
its partial (Mytilacea) or even complete abortion (Ostraeacea).

The essential Molluscan organs are, with these exceptions, uniformly
well developed. The mantle-skirt is always long, and hides the rest of
the animal from view, its dependent margins meeting in the middle line
below the ventral surface when the animal is retracted; it is, as it
were, slit in the median line before and behind so as to form two flaps,
a right and a left; on these the right and the left calcareous valves of
the shell are borne respectively, connected by an uncalcified part of
the shell called the ligament. In many embryo Lamellibranchs a
centro-dorsal primitive shell-gland or follicle has been detected. The
mouth lies in the median line anteriorly, the anus in the median line
posteriorly.

Both ctenidia, right and left, are invariably present, the axis of each
taking origin from the side of the body as in the schematic
archi-Mollusc (see fig. 15). A pair of renal tubes opening right and
left, rather far forward on the sides of the body, are always present.
Each opens by its internal extremity into the pericardium. A pair of
genital apertures, connected by genital ducts with the paired gonads,
are found right and left near the nephridial pores, except in a few
cases where the genital duct joins that of the renal organ
(_Spondylus_). The sexes are often, but not always, distinct. No
accessory glands or copulatory organs are ever present in
Lamellibranchs. The ctenidia often act as brood-pouches.

A dorsal contractile heart, with symmetrical right and left auricles
receiving aerated blood from the ctenidia and mantle-skirt, is present,
being unequally developed only in those few forms which are inequivalve.
The typical pericardium is well developed. It, as in other Mollusca, is
not a blood-space but develops from the coelom, and it communicates with
the exterior by the pair of renal tubes. As in Cephalopoda (and possibly
other Mollusca) water can be introduced through the nephridia into this
space. The alimentary canal keeps very nearly to the median vertical
plane whilst exhibiting a number of flexures and loopings in this plane.
A pair of large glandular outgrowths, the so-called "liver" or great
digestive gland, exists as in other Molluscs. A pair of pedal otocysts,
and a pair of osphradia at the base of the gills, appear to be always
present. A typical nervous system is present (fig. 19), consisting of a
cerebro-pleural ganglion-pair, united by connectives to a pedal
ganglion-pair and a visceral ganglion-pair (parieto-splanchnic).

A pyloric caecum connected with the stomach is commonly found,
containing a tough flexible cylinder of transparent cartilaginous
appearance, called the "crystalline style" (_Mactra_). In many
Lamellibranchs a gland is found on the hinder surface of the foot in the
mid line, which secretes a substance which sets into the form of
threads--the so-called "byssus"--by means of which the animal can fix
itself. Sometimes this gland is found in the young and not in the adult
(_Anodonta_, _Unio_, _Cyclas_). In some Lamellibranchs (_Pecten_,
_Spondylus_, _Pholas_, _Mactra_, _Tellina_, _Pectunculus_, _Galeomma_,
&c.), although cephalic eyes are generally absent, special eyes are
developed on the free margin of the mantle-skirt, apparently by the
modification of tentacles commonly found there. There are no pores in
the foot or elsewhere in Lamellibranchia by which water can pass into
and out of the vascular system, as formerly asserted.

The Lamellibranchia live chiefly in the sea, some in fresh waters. A
very few have the power of swimming by opening and shutting the valves
of the shell (_Pecten_, _Lima_); most can crawl slowly or burrow
rapidly; others are, when adult, permanently fixed to stones or rocks
either by the shell or the byssus. In development some Lamellibranchia
pass through a free-swimming trochosphere stage with pre-oral ciliated
band; other fresh-water forms which carry the young in brood-pouches
formed by the ctenidia have suppressed this larval phase.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagrams of the external form and anatomy of
_Anodonta cygnea_, the Pond-Mussel; in figures 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 the animal
is seen from the left side, the centro-dorsal region uppermost. (1)
Animal removed from its shell, a probe g passed into the sub-pallial
chamber through the excurrent siphonal notch. (2) View from the ventral
surface of an Anodon with its foot expanded and issuing from between the
gaping shells. (3) The left mantle-flap reflected upwards so as to
expose the sides of the body. (4) Diagrammatic section of Anodon to show
the course of the alimentary canal. (5) The two gill-plates of the left
side reflected upwards so as to expose the fissure between foot and gill
where the probe g passes. (6) Diagram to show the positions of the
nerve-ganglia, heart and nephridia.

  Letters in all the figures as follows:

  a, Centro-dorsal area.
  b, Margin of the left mantle-flap.
  c, Margin of the right mantle-flap.
  d, Excurrent siphonal notch of the mantle margin.
  e, Incurrent siphonal notch of the mantle margin.
  f, Foot.
  g, Probe passed into the superior division of the sub-pallial chamber
    through the excurrent siphonal notch, and issuing by the side of the
    foot into the inferior division of the sub-pallial chamber.
  h, Anterior (pallial) adductor muscle of the shells.
  i, Anterior retractor muscle of the foot.
  k, Protractor muscle of the foot.
  l, Posterior (pedal) adductor muscle of the shells.
  m, Posterior retractor muscle of the foot.
  n, Anterior labial tentacle.
  o, Posterior labial tentacle.
  p, Base-line of origin of the reflected mantle-flap from the side of
    the body.
  q, Left external gill-plate.
  r, Left internal gill-plate.
  rr, Internal lamella of the right inner gill-plate.
  rg, Right outer gill-plate.
  s, Line of concrescence of the outer lamella of the left outer
    gill-plate with the left mantle-flap.
  t, Pallial tentacles.
  u, The thickened muscular pallial margin which adheres to the shell
    and forms the pallial line of the left side.
  v, That of the right side.
  w, The mouth.
  x, Aperture of the left organ of Bojanus (nephridium) exposed by
    cutting the attachment of the inner lamella of the inner gill-plate.
  y, Aperture of the genital duct.
  z, Fissure between the free edge of the inner lamella of the inner
    gill-plate and the side of the foot, through which the probe g passes
    into the upper division of the sub-pallial space.
  aa, Line of concrescence of the inner lamella of the right inner
   gill-plate with the inner lamella of the left inner gill-plate.
  ab, ac, ad, Three pit-like depressions in the median line of the foot
    supposed by some writers to be pores admitting water into the vascular
    system.
  ae, Left shell valve.
  af, Space occupied by liver.
  ag, Space occupied by gonad.
  ah, Muscular substance of the foot.
  ai, Duct of the liver on the wall of the stomach.
  ak, Stomach.
  al, Rectum traversing the ventricle of the heart.
  am, Pericardium.
  an, Glandular portion of the left nephridium.
  ap, Ventricle of the heart.
  aq, Aperture by which the left auricle joins the ventricle.
  ar, Non-glandular portion of the left nephridium.
  as, Anus.
  at, Pore leading from the pericardium into the glandular sac of the
    left nephridium.
  au, Pore leading from the glandular into the non-glandular portion of
    the left nephridium.
  av, Internal pore leading from the non-glandular portion of the left
    nephridium to the external pore x.
  aw, Left cerebro-pleuro-visceral ganglion.
  ax, Left pedal ganglion.
  ay, Left otocyst.
  az, Left olfactory ganglion (parieto-splanchnic).
  bb, Floor of the pericardium separating that space from the
    non-glandular portion of the nephridia.]

As an example of the organization of a Lamellibranch, we shall review
the structure of the common pond-mussel or swan mussel (_Anodonta
cygnea_), comparing it with other Lamellibranchia.

  The swan-mussel has superficially a perfectly developed bilateral
  symmetry. The left side of the animal is seen as when removed from its
  shell in fig. 1 (1). The valves of the shell have been removed by
  severing their adhesions to the muscular areae h, i, k, l, m, u. The
  free edge of the left half of the mantle-skirt b is represented as a
  little contracted in order to show the exactly similar free edge of
  the right half of the mantle-skirt c. These edges are not attached to,
  although they touch, one another; each flap (right or left) can be
  freely thrown back in the way carried out in fig. 1 (3) for that of
  the left side. This is not always the case with Lamellibranchs; there
  is in the group a tendency for the corresponding edges of the
  mantle-skirt to fuse together by concrescence, and so to form a more
  or less completely closed bag, as in the Scaphopoda (_Dentalium_). In
  this way the notches d, e of the hinder part of the mantle-skirt of
  _Anodonta_ are in the siphonate forms converted into two separate
  holes, the edges of the mantle being elsewhere fused together along
  this hinder margin. Further than this, the part of the mantle-skirt
  bounding the two holes is frequently drawn out so as to form a pair of
  tubes which project from the shell (figs. 8, 29). In such
  Lamellibranchs as the oysters, scallops and many others which have the
  edges of the mantle-skirt quite free, there are numerous tentacles
  upon those edges. In _Anodonta_ these pallial tentacles are confined
  to a small area surrounding the inferior siphonal notch (fig. 1 [3],
  t). When the edges of the mantle ventral to the inhalant orifice are
  united, an anterior aperture is left for the protrusion of the foot,
  and thus there are three pallial apertures altogether, and species in
  this condition are called "Tripora." This is the usual condition in
  the Eulamellibranchia and Septibranchia. When the pedal aperture is
  small and far forward there may be a fourth aperture in the region of
  the fusion behind the pedal aperture. This occurs in _Solen_, and such
  forms are called "Quadrifora."

  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--View of the two Valves of the Shell of
  _Cytherea_ (one of the Sinupalliate Isomya), from the dorsal aspect.]

  The centro-dorsal point a of the animal of _Anodonta_ (fig. 1 [1]) is
  called the umbonal area; the great anterior muscular surface h is that
  of the anterior adductor muscle, the posterior similar surface i is
  that of the posterior adductor muscle; the long line of attachment u
  is the simple "pallial muscle,"--a thickened ridge which is seen to
  run parallel to the margin of the mantle-skirt in this Lamellibranch.
  In siphonate forms the pallial muscle is not simple, but is indented
  posteriorly by a sinus formed by the muscles which retract the
  siphons.

  It is the approximate equality in the size of the anterior and
  posterior adductor muscles which led to the name Isomya for the group
  to which _Anodonta_ belongs. The hinder adductor muscle is always
  large in Lamellibranchs, but the anterior adductor may be very small
  (Heteromya), or absent altogether (Monomya). The anterior adductor
  muscle is in front of the mouth and alimentary tract altogether, and
  must be regarded as a special and peculiar development of the median
  anterior part of the mantle-flap. The posterior adductor is ventral
  and anterior to the anus. The former classification based on these
  differences in the adductor muscles is now abandoned, having proved to
  be an unnatural one. A single family may include isomyarian,
  anisomyarian and monomyarian forms, and the latter in development pass
  through stages in which they resemble the first two. In fact all
  Lamellibranchs begin with a condition in which there is only one
  adductor, and that not the posterior but the anterior. This is called
  the protomonomyarian stage. Then the posterior adductor develops, and
  becomes equal to the anterior, and finally in some cases the anterior
  becomes smaller or disappears. The single adductor muscle of the
  Monomya is separated by a difference of fibre into two portions, but
  neither of these can be regarded as possibly representing the anterior
  adductor of the other Lamellibranchs. One of these portions is more
  ligamentous and serves to keep the two shells constantly attached to
  one another, whilst the more fleshy portion serves to close the shell
  rapidly when it has been gaping.

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Right Valve of the same Shell from the Outer
  Face.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Left Valve of the same Shell from the Inner
  Face. (Figs. 2, 3, 4 from Owen.)]

  In removing the valves of the shell from an _Anodonta_, it is
  necessary not only to cut through the muscular attachments of the
  body-wall to the shell but to sever also a strong elastic ligament, or
  spring resembling india-rubber, joining the two shells about the
  umbonal area. The shell of _Anodonta_ does not present these parts in
  the most strongly marked condition, and accordingly our figures (figs.
  2, 3, 4) represent the valves of the sinupalliate genus _Cytherea_.
  The corresponding parts are recognizable in _Anodonta_. Referring to
  the figures (2, 3) for an explanation of terms applicable to the parts
  of the valve and the markings on its inner surface--corresponding to
  the muscular areas already noted on the surface of the animal's
  body--we must specially note here the position of that denticulated
  thickening of the dorsal margin of the valve which is called the hinge
  (fig. 4). By this hinge one valve is closely fitted to the other.
  Below this hinge each shell becomes concave, above it each shell rises
  a little to form the umbo, and it is into this ridge-like upgrowth of
  each valve that the elastic ligament or spring is fixed (fig. 4). As
  shown in the diagram (fig. 5) representing a transverse section of the
  two valves of a Lamellibranch, the two shells form a double lever, of
  which the toothed-hinge is the fulcrum. The adductor muscles placed in
  the concavity of the shells act upon the long arms of the lever at a
  mechanical advantage; their contraction keeps the shells shut, and
  stretches the ligament or spring h. On the other hand, the ligament h
  acts upon the short arm formed by the umbonal ridge of the shells;
  whenever the adductors relax, the elastic substance of the ligament
  contracts, and the shells gape. It is on this account that the valves
  of a dead Lamellibranch always gape; the elastic ligament is no longer
  counteracted by the effort of the adductors. The state of closure of
  the valves of the shell is not, therefore, one of rest; when it is at
  rest--that is, when there is no muscular effort--the valves of a
  Lamellibranch are slightly gaping, and are closed by the action of the
  adductors when the animal is disturbed. The ligament is simple in
  _Anodonta_; in many Lamellibranchs it is separated into two layers, an
  outer and an inner (thicker and denser). That the condition of gaping
  of the shell-valves is essential to the life of the Lamellibranch
  appears from the fact that food to nourish it, water to aerate its
  blood, and spermatozoa to fertilize its eggs, are all introduced into
  this gaping chamber by currents of water, set going by the
  highly-developed ctenidia. The current of water enters into the
  sub-pallial space at the spot marked e in fig. 1 (1), and, after
  passing as far forward as the mouth w in fig. 1 (5), takes an outward
  course and leaves the sub-pallial space by the upper notch d. These
  notches are known in _Anodonta_ as the afferent and efferent siphonal
  notches respectively, and correspond to the long tube-like afferent
  inferior and efferent superior "siphons" formed by the mantle in many
  other Lamellibranchs (fig. 8).

  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Diagram of a section of a Lamellibranch's
  shells, ligament and adductor muscle. a, b, right and left valves of
  the shell; c, d, the umbones or short arms of the lever; e, f, the
  long arms of the lever; g, the hinge; h, the ligament; i, the adductor
  muscle.]

  Whilst the valves of the shell are equal in _Anodonta_ we find in many
  Lamellibranchs (_Ostraea_, _Chama_, _Corbula_, &c.) one valve larger,
  and the other smaller and sometimes flat, whilst the larger shell may
  be fixed to rock or to stones (_Ostraea_, &c.). A further variation
  consists in the development of additional shelly plates upon the
  dorsal line between the two large valves (_Pholadidae_). In _Pholas
  dactylus_ we find a pair of umbonal plates, a dors-umbonal plate and a
  dorsal plate. It is to be remembered that the whole of the cuticular
  hard product produced on the dorsal surface and on the mantle-flaps is
  to be regarded as the "shell," of which a median band-like area, the
  ligament, usually remains uncalcified, so as to result in the
  production of two valves united by the elastic ligament. But the
  shelly substance does not always in boring forms adhere to this form
  after its first growth. In _Aspergillum_ the whole of the tubular
  mantle area secretes a continuous shelly tube, although in the young
  condition two valves were present. These are seen (fig. 7) set in the
  firm substance of the adult tubular shell, which has even replaced the
  ligament, so that the tube is complete. In _Teredo_ a similar tube is
  formed as the animal elongates (boring in wood), the original
  shell-valves not adhering to it but remaining movable and provided
  with a special muscular apparatus in place of a ligament. In the shell
  of Lamellibranchs three distinct layers can be distinguished: an
  external chitinous, non-calcified layer, the periostracum; a middle
  layer composed of calcareous prisms perpendicular to the surface, the
  prismatic layer; and an internal layer composed of laminae parallel to
  the surface, the nacreous layer. The last is secreted by the whole
  surface of the mantle except the border, and additions to its
  thickness continue to be made through life. The periostracum is
  produced by the extreme edge of the mantle border, the prismatic layer
  by the part of the border within the edge. These two layers,
  therefore, when once formed cannot increase in thickness; as the
  mantle grows in extent its border passes beyond the formed parts of
  the two outer layers, and the latter are covered internally by a
  deposit of nacreous matter. Special deposits of the nacreous matter
  around foreign bodies form pearls, the foreign nucleus being usually
  of parasitic origin (see PEARL).

  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Shell of _Aspergillum vaginiferum_. (From
  Owen.)]

  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Shell of _Aspergillum vaginiferum_ to show the
  original valves a, now embedded in a continuous calcification of
  tubular form. (From Owen.)]

  Let us now examine the organs which lie beneath the mantle-skirt of
  _Anodonta_, and are bathed by the current of water which circulates
  through it. This can be done by lifting up and throwing back the left
  half of the mantle-skirt as is represented in fig. 1 (3). We thus
  expose the plough-like foot (f), the two left labial tentacles, and
  the two left gill-plates or left ctenidium. In fig. 1 (5), one of the
  labial tentacles n is also thrown back to show the mouth w, and the
  two left gill-plates are reflected to show the gill-plates of the
  right side (rr, rq) projecting behind the foot, the inner or median
  plate of each side being united by concrescence to its fellow of the
  opposite side along a continuous line (aa). The left inner gill-plate
  is also snipped to show the subjacent orifices of the left renal organ
  x, and of the genital gland (testis or ovary) y. The foot thus exposed
  in _Anodonta_ is a simple muscular tongue-like organ. It can be
  protruded between the flaps of the mantle (fig. 1 [1] [2]) so as to
  issue from the shell, and by its action the _Anodonta_ can slowly
  crawl or burrow in soft mud or sand. Other Lamellibranchs may have a
  larger foot relatively than has _Anodonta_. In _Arca_ it has a
  sole-like surface. In _Arca_ too and many others it carries a
  byssus-forming gland and a byssus-cementing gland. In the cockles, in
  _Cardium_ and in _Trigonia_, it is capable of a sudden stroke, which
  causes the animal to jump when out of the water, in the latter genus
  to a height of four feet. In _Mytilus_ the foot is reduced to little
  more than a tubercle carrying the apertures of these glands. In the
  oyster it is absent altogether.

  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Psammobia florida_, right side, showing
  expanded foot e, and g incurrent and g´ excurrent siphons. (From
  Owen.)]

  The labial tentacles or palps of _Anodonta_ (n, o in fig. 1 [3], [5])
  are highly vascular flat processes richly supplied with nerves. The
  left anterior tentacle (seen in the figure) is joined at its base in
  front of the mouth (w) to the right anterior tentacle, and similarly
  the left (o) and right posterior tentacles are joined behind the
  mouth. Those of _Arca_ (i, k in fig. 9) show this relation to the
  mouth (a). These organs are characteristic of all Lamellibranchs; they
  do not vary except in size, being sometimes drawn out to streamer-like
  dimensions. Their appearance and position suggest that they are in
  some way related morphologically to the gill-plates, the anterior
  labial tentacle being a continuation of the outer gill-plate, and the
  posterior a continuation of the inner gill-plate. There is no
  embryological evidence to support this suggested connexion, and, as
  will appear immediately, the history of the gill-plates in various
  forms of Lamellibranchs does not directly favour it. The palps are
  really derived from part of the velar area of the larva.

  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--View from the ventral (pedal) aspect of the
  animal of _Arca noae_, the mantle-flap and gill-filaments having been
  cut away. (Lankester.)

    a, Mouth.
    b, Anus.
    c, Free spirally turned extremity of the gill-axis or ctenidial axis
      of the right side.
    d, Do. of the left side.
    e, f, Anterior portions of these axes fused by concrescence to the
      wall of the body.
    g, Anterior adductor muscle.
    h, Posterior adductor.
    i, Anterior labial tentacle.
    k, Posterior labial tentacle.
    l, Base line of the foot.
    m, Sole of the foot.
    n, Callosity.]

  The gill-plates have a structure very different from that of the
  labial tentacles, and one which in _Anodonta_ is singularly
  complicated as compared with the condition presented by these organs
  in some other Lamellibranchs, and with what must have been their
  original condition in the ancestors of the whole series of living
  Lamellibranchia. The phenomenon of "concrescence" which we have
  already had to note as showing itself so importantly in regard to the
  free edges of the mantle-skirt and the formation of the siphons, is
  what, above all things, has complicated the structure of the
  Lamellibranch ctenidium. Our present knowledge of the interesting
  series of modifications through which the Lamellibranch gill-plates
  have developed to their most complicated form is due to R. H. Peck, K.
  Mitsukuri and W. G. Ridewood. The Molluscan ctenidium is typically a
  plume-like structure, consisting of a vascular axis, on each side of
  which is set a row of numerous lamelliform or filamentous processes.
  These processes are hollow, and receive the venous blood from, and
  return it again aerated into, the hollow axis, in which an afferent
  and an efferent blood-vessel may be differentiated. In the genus
  _Nucula_ (fig. 10) we have an example of a Lamellibranch retaining
  this plume-like form of gill. In the Arcacea (e.g. _Arca_ and
  _Pectunculus_) the lateral processes which are set on the axis of the
  ctenidium are not lamellae, but are slightly flattened, very long
  tubes or hollow filaments. These filaments are so fine and are set so
  closely together that they appear to form a continuous membrane until
  examined with a lens. The microscope shows that the neighbouring
  filaments are held together by patches of cilia, called "ciliated
  junctions," which interlock with one another just as two brushes may
  be made to do. In fig. 11, A a portion of four filaments of a
  ctenidium of the sea-mussel (_Mytilus_) is represented, having
  precisely the same structure as those of _Arca_. The filaments of the
  gill (ctenidium) of _Mytilus_ and _Arca_ thus form two closely set
  rows which depend from the axis of the gill like two parallel plates.
  Further, their structure is profoundly modified by the curious
  condition of the free ends of the depending filaments. These are
  actually reflected at a sharp angle--doubled on themselves in
  fact--and thus form an additional row of filaments (see fig. 11 B).
  Consequently, each primitive filament has a descending and an
  ascending ramus, and instead of each row forming a simple plate, the
  plate is double, consisting of a descending and an ascending lamella.
  As the axis of the ctenidium lies by the side of the body, and is very
  frequently connate with the body, as so often happens in Gastropods
  also, we find it convenient to speak of the two plate-like structures
  formed on each ctenidial axis as the outer and the inner gill-plate;
  each of these is composed of two lamellae, an outer (the reflected)
  and an adaxial in the case of the outer gill-plate, and an adaxial and
  an inner (the reflected) in the case of the inner gill-plate. This is
  the condition seen in _Arca_ and _Mytilus_, the so-called plates
  dividing upon the slightest touch into their constituent filaments,
  which are but loosely conjoined by their "ciliated junctions."
  Complications follow upon this in other forms. Even in _Mytilus_ and
  _Arca_ a connexion is here and there formed between the ascending and
  descending rami of a filament by hollow extensible outgrowths called
  "interlamellar junctions" (_il._ j in B, fig. 11). Nevertheless the
  filament is a complete tube formed of chitinous substance and clothed
  externally by ciliated epithelium, internally by endothelium and
  lacunar tissue--a form of connective tissue--as shown in fig. 11, C.
  Now let us suppose as happens in the genus _Dreissensia_--a genus not
  far removed from _Mytilus_--that the ciliated inter-filamentar
  junctions (fig. 12) give place to solid permanent inter-filamentar
  junctions, so that the filaments are converted, as it were, into a
  trellis-work. Then let us suppose that the interlamellar junctions
  already noted in _Mytilus_ become very numerous, large and irregular;
  by them the two trellis-works of filaments would be united so as to
  leave only a sponge-like set of spaces between them. Within the
  trabeculae of the sponge-work blood circulates, and between the
  trabeculae the water passes, having entered by the apertures left in
  the trellis-work formed by the united gill-filaments (fig. 14). The
  larger the intralamellar spongy growth becomes, the more do the
  original gill-filaments lose the character of blood-holding tubes, and
  tend to become dense elastic rods for the simple purpose of supporting
  the spongy growth. This is seen both in the section of _Dreissensia_
  gill (fig. 12) and in those of _Anodonta_ (fig. 13, A, B, C). In the
  drawing of _Dreissensia_ the individual filaments f, f, f are cut
  across in one lamella at the horizon of an inter-filamentar junction,
  in the other (lower in the figure) at a point where they are free. The
  chitinous substance ch is observed to be greatly thickened as compared
  with what it is in fig. 11, C, tending in fact to obliterate
  altogether the lumen of the filament. And in _Anodonta_ (fig. 13, C)
  this obliteration is effected. In _Anodonta_, besides being thickened,
  the skeletal substance of the filament develops a specially dense,
  rod-like body on each side of each filament. Although the structure of
  the ctenidium is thus highly complicated in _Anodonta_, it is yet more
  so in some of the siphonate genera of Lamellibranchs. The filaments
  take on a secondary grouping, the surface of the lamella being thrown
  into a series of half-cylindrical ridges, each consisting of ten or
  twenty filaments; a filament of much greater strength and thickness
  than the others may be placed between each pair of groups. In
  _Anodonta_, as in many other Lamellibranchs, the ova and hatched
  embryos are carried for a time in the ctenidia or gill apparatus, and
  in this particular case the space between the two lamellae of the
  outer gill-plate is that which serves to receive the ova (fig. 13, A).
  The young are nourished by a substance formed by the cells which cover
  the spongy interlamellar outgrowths.

  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Structure of the Ctenidia of _Nucula_. (After
  Mitsukuri.) See also fig. 2.

    A. Section across the axis of a ctenidium with a pair of
      plates--flattened and shortened filaments--attached.
    i, j, k, g, Are placed on or near the membrane which attaches the
      axis of the ctenidium to the side of the body.
    a, b, Free extremities of the plates (filaments).
    d, Mid-line of the inferior border.
    e, Surface of the plate.
    t, Its upper border.
    h, Chitinous lining of the plate.
    r, Dilated blood-space.
    u, Fibrous tract.
    o, Upper blood-vessel of the axis.
    n, Lower blood-vessel of the axis.
    s, Chitinous framework of the axis.
    cp, Canal in the same.
    A, B, Line along which the cross-section C of the plate is taken.
    B. Animal of a male _Nucula proxima_, Say, as seen when the left
      valve of the shell and the left half of the mantle-skirt are
      removed.
    a, a, Anterior adductor muscle.
    p.a, Posterior adductor muscle.
    v.m, Visceral mass.
    f, Foot.
    g, Gill.
    l, Labial Tentacle.
    l.a, Filamentous appendage of the labial tentacle.
    lb, Hood-like appendage of the labial tentacle.
    m, Membrane suspending the gill and attached to the body along the
      line x, y, z, w.
    p, Posterior end of the gill (ctenidium).
    C. Section across one of the gill-plates (A, B, in A) comparable
      with fig. 11 C.
    i.a, Outer border.
    d.a, Axial border.
    l.f, Latero-frontal epithelium.
    e, Epithelium of general surface.
    r, Dilated blood-space.
    h, Chitinous lining (compare A).]

  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Filaments of the Ctenidium of _Mytilus
  edulis_. (After R. H. Peck.)

    A, Part of four filaments seen from the outer face in order to show
      the ciliated junctions c.j.
    B, Diagram of the posterior face of a single complete filament with
      descending ramus and ascending ramus ending in a hook-like process;
      ep., ep., the ciliated junctions; il, j., interlamellar junction.
    C, Transverse section of a filament taken so as to cut neither a
      ciliated junction nor an interlamellar junction. f.e., Frontal
      epithelium; l.f.e´., l.f.e´´., the two rows of latero-frontal
      epithelial cells with long cilia; ch, chitinous tubular lining of
      the filament; lac., blood lacuna traversed by a few processes of
      connective tissue cells; b.c., blood-corpuscle.]

  Other points in the modification of the typical ctenidium must be
  noted in order to understand the ctenidium of _Anodonta_. The axis of
  each ctenidium, right and left, starts from a point well forward near
  the labial tentacles, but it is at first only a ridge, and does not
  project as a free cylindrical axis until the back part of the foot is
  reached. This is difficult to see in _Anodonta_, but if the
  mantle-skirt be entirely cleared away, and if the dependent lamellae
  which spring from the ctenidial axis be carefully cropped so as to
  leave the axis itself intact, we obtain the form shown in fig. 15,
  where g and h are respectively the left and the right ctenidial axes
  projecting freely beyond the body. In _Arca_ this can be seen with far
  less trouble, for the filaments are more easily removed than are the
  consolidated lamellae formed by the filaments of _Anodonta_, and in
  _Arca_ the free axes of the ctenidia are large and firm in texture
  (fig. 9, c, d).

  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Transverse Section of the Outer Gill-plate of
  _Dreissensia polymorpha_. (After R. H. Peck.)

    f, Constituent gill-filaments.
    ff, Fibrous sub-epidermic tissue.
    ch, Chitonous substance of the filaments.
    nch, Cells related to the chitonous substance.
    lac, Lacunar tissue.
    pig, Pigment-cells.
    bc, Blood-corpuscles.
    fe, Frontal epithelium.
    lfe´, lfe´´, Two rows of latero-frontal epithelial cells with long
      cilia.
    lrf, Fibrous, possibly muscular, substance of the inter-filamentar
      junctions.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Transverse Sections of Gill-plates of
  _Anodonta_. (After R. H. Peck.)

    A, Outer gill-plate.
    B, Inner gill-plate.
    C, A portion of B more highly magnified.
    o.l, Outer lamella.
    i.l, Inner lamella.
    v, Blood-vessel.
    f, Constituent filaments.
    lac, Lacunar tissue.
    ch, Chitonous substance of the filament.
    chr, Chitonous rod embedded in the softer substance ch.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Gill-lamellae of _Anodonta_. (After R. H.
  Peck.)

  Diagram of a block cut from the outer lamella of the outer gill-plate
  and seen from the interlamellar surface. f, Constituent filaments;
  trf, fibrous tissue of the transverse inter-filamentar junctions; v,
  blood-vessel _ilj_, Inter-lamellar junction. The series of oval holes
  on the back of the lamella are the water-pores which open between the
  filaments in irregular rows separated horizontally by the transverse
  inter-filamentar junctions.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Diagram of a view from the left side of the
  animal of _Anodonta cygnaea_, from which the mantle-skirt, the labial
  tentacles and the gill-filaments have been entirely removed so as to
  show the relations of the axis of the gill-plumes or ctenidia g, h.
  (Original.)

    a, Centro-dorsal area.
    b, Anterior adductor muscle.
    c, Posterior adductor muscle.
    d, Mouth.
    e, Anus.
    f, Foot.
    g, Free portion of the axis of left ctenidium.
    h, Axis of right ctenidium.
    k, Portion of the axis of the left ctenidium which is fused with the
      base of the foot, the two dotted lines indicating the origins of the
      two rows of gill-filaments.
    m, Line of origin of the anterior labial tentacle.
    n, Nephridial aperture.
    o, Genital aperture.
    r, Line of origin of the posterior labial tentacle.]

  If we were to make a vertical section across the long axis of a
  Lamellibranch which had the axis of its ctenidium free from its origin
  onwards, we should find such relations as are shown in the diagram
  fig. 16, A. The gill axis d is seen lying in the sub-pallial chamber
  between the foot b and the mantle c. From it depend the gill-filaments
  or lamellae--formed by united filaments--drawn as black lines f. On
  the left side these lamellae are represented as having only a small
  reflected growth, on the right side the reflected ramus or lamella is
  complete (fr and er). The actual condition in _Anodonta_ at the region
  where the gills begin anteriorly is shown in fig. 16, B. The axis of
  the ctenidium is seen to be adherent to, or fused by concrescence
  with, the body-wall, and moreover on each side the outer lamella of
  the outer gill-plate is fused to the mantle, whilst the inner lamella
  of the inner gill-plate is fused to the foot. If we take another
  section nearer the hinder margin of the foot, we get the arrangement
  shown diagrammatically in fig. 16, C, and more correctly in fig. 17.
  In this region the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates are no
  longer affixed to the foot. Passing still farther back behind the
  foot, we find in _Anodonta_ the condition shown in the section D, fig.
  16. The axes i are now free; the outer lamellae of the outer
  gill-plates (er) still adhere by concrescence to the mantle-skirt,
  whilst the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates meet one another
  and fuse by concrescence at g. In the lateral view of the animal with
  reflected mantle-skirt and gill-plates, the line of concrescence of
  the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates is readily seen; it is
  marked aa in fig. 1 (5). In the same figure the free part of the inner
  lamella of the inner gill-plate resting on the foot is marked z,
  whilst the attached part--the most anterior--has been snipped with
  scissors so as to show the genital and nephridial apertures x and y.
  The concrescence, then, of the free edge of the reflected lamellae of
  the gill-plates of Anodon is very extensive. It is important, because
  such a concrescence is by no means universal, and does not occur, for
  example, in _Mytilus_ or in _Arca_; further, because when its
  occurrence is once appreciated, the reduction of the gill-plates of
  _Anodonta_ to the plume-type of the simplest ctenidium presents no
  difficulty; and, lastly, it has importance in reference to its
  physiological significance. The mechanical result of the concrescence
  of the outer lamellae to the mantle-flap, and of the inner lamellae to
  one another as shown in section D, fig. 16, is that the sub-pallial
  space is divided into two spaces by a horizontal septum. The upper
  space (i) communicates with the outer world by the excurrent or
  superior siphonal notch of the mantle (fig. 1, d); the lower space
  communicates by the lower siphonal notch (e in fig. 1). The only
  communication between the two spaces, excepting through the
  trellis-work of the gill-plates, is by the slit (z in fig. 1 (5)) left
  by the non-concrescence of a part of the inner lamella of the inner
  gill-plate with the foot. A probe (g) is introduced through this
  slit-like passage, and it is seen to pass out by the excurrent
  siphonal notch. It is through this passage, or indirectly through the
  pores of the gill-plates, that the water introduced into the lower
  sub-pallial space must pass on its way to the excurrent siphonal
  notch. Such a subdivision of the pallial chamber, and direction of the
  currents set up within it do not exist in a number of Lamellibranchs
  which have the gill-lamellae comparatively free (_Mytilus_, _Arca_,
  _Trigonia_, &c.), and it is in these forms that there is least
  modification by concrescence of the primary filamentous elements of
  the lamellae.

  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Diagrams of Transverse Sections of a
  Lamellibranch to show the Adhesion, by Concrescence, of the
  Gill-Lamellae to the Mantle-flaps, to the foot and to one another.
  (Lankester.)

    A, Shows two conditions with free gill-axis.
    B, Condition at foremost region in _Anodonta_.
    C, Hind region of foot in _Anodonta_.
    D, Region altogether posterior to the foot in _Anodonta_.
    a, Visceral mass.
    b, Foot.
    c, Mantle flap.
    d, Axis of gill or ctenidium.
    e, Adaxial lamella of outer gill-plate.
    er, Reflected lamella of outer gill-plate.
    f, Adaxial lamella of inner gill-plate.
    fr, Reflected lamella of inner gill-plate.
    g, Line of concrescence of the reflected lamellae of the two inner
      gill-plates.
    h, Rectum.
    i, Supra-branchial space of the sub-pallial chamber.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Vertical Section through an _Anodonta_, about
  the mid-region of the Foot.

    m, Mantle-flap.
    br, Outer, b´r´, inner gill-plate--each composed of two lamellae.
    f, Foot.
    v, Ventricle of the heart.
    a, Auricle.
    p, p´, Pericardial cavity.
    i, Intestine.]

  In the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia Professor (Sir) E. R.
  Lankester suggested that these differences of gill-structure would
  furnish characters of classificatory value, and this suggestion has
  been followed out by Dr Paul Pelseneer in the classification now
  generally adopted.

  The alimentary canal of _Anodonta_ is shown in fig. 1 (4). The mouth
  is placed between the anterior adductor and the foot; the anus opens
  on a median papilla overlying the posterior adductor, and discharges
  into the superior pallial chamber along which the excurrent stream
  passes. The coil of the intestine in _Anodonta_ is similar to that of
  other Lamellibranchs. The rectum traverses the pericardium, and has
  the ventricle of the heart wrapped, as it were, around it. This is not
  an unusual arrangement in Lamellibranchs, and a similar disposition
  occurs in some Gastropoda (_Haliotis_). A pair of ducts (ai) lead from
  the first enlargement of the alimentary tract called stomach into a
  pair of large digestive glands, the so-called liver, the branches of
  which are closely packed in this region (af). The food of the
  _Anodonta_, as of other Lamellibranchs, consists of microscopic animal
  and vegetable organisms, brought to the mouth by the stream which sets
  into the sub-pallial chamber at the lower siphonal notch (e in fig.
  1). Probably a straining of water from solid particles is effected by
  the lattice-work of the ctenidia or gill-plates.

  The heart of _Anodonta_ consists of a median ventricle embracing the
  rectum (fig. 18, A), and giving off an anterior and a posterior
  artery, and of two auricles which open into the ventricle by orifices
  protected by valves.

  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Diagrams showing the Relations of Pericardium
  and Nephridia in a Lamellibranch such as _Anodonta_.

    A, Pericardium opened dorsally so as to expose the heart and the
      floor of the pericardial chamber d.
    B, Heart removed and floor of the pericardium cut away on the left
      side so as to open the non-glandular sac of the nephridium,
      exposing the glandular sac b, which is also cut into so as to show
      the probe f.
    C, Ideal pericardium and nephridium viewed laterally.
    D, Lateral view showing the actual relation of the glandular and
      non-glandular sacs of the nephridium. The arrows indicate the
      course of fluid from the pericardium outwards.
    a, Ventricle of the heart.
    b, Auricle.
    bb, Cut remnant of the auricle.
    c, Dorsal wall of the pericardium cut and reflected.
    e, Reno-pericardial orifice.
    f, Probe introduced into the left reno-pericardial orifice.
    g, Non-glandular sac of the left nephridium.
    h, Glandular sac of the left nephridium.
    i, Pore leading from the glandular into the non-glandular sac of
      the left nephridium.
    k, Pore leading from the non-glandular sac to the exterior.
    ac, Anterior.
    ab, Posterior, cut remnants of the intestine and ventricle.]

  The blood is colourless, and has colourless amoeboid corpuscles
  floating in it. In _Ceratisolen legumen_, various species of _Arca_
  and a few other species the blood is crimson, owing to the presence of
  corpuscles impregnated with haemoglobin. In _Anodonta_ the blood is
  driven by the ventricle through the arteries into vessel-like spaces,
  which soon become irregular lacunae surrounding the viscera, but in
  parts--e.g. the labial tentacles and walls of the gut--very fine
  vessels with endothelial cell-lining are found. The blood makes its
  way by large veins to a venous sinus which lies in the middle line
  below the heart, having the paired renal organs (nephridia) placed
  between it and that organ. Hence it passes through the vessels of the
  glandular walls of the nephridia right and left into the
  gill-lamellae, whence it returns through many openings into the
  widely-stretched auricles. In the filaments of the gill of
  Protobranchia and many Filibranchia the tubular cavity is divided by a
  more or less complete fibrous septum into two channels, for an
  afferent and efferent blood-current. The ventricle and auricles of
  _Anodonta_ lie in a pericardium which is clothed with a pavement
  endothelium (d, fig. 18). It does not contain blood or communicate
  directly with the blood-system; this isolation of the pericardium we
  have noted already in Gastropods and Cephalopods. A good case for the
  examination of the question as to whether blood enters the pericardium
  of Lamellibranchs, or escapes from the foot, or by the renal organs
  when the animal suddenly contracts, is furnished by the _Ceratisolen
  legumen_, which has red blood-corpuscles. According to observations
  made by Penrose on an uninjured _Ceratisolen legumen_, no red
  corpuscles are to be seen in the pericardial space, although the heart
  is filled with them, and no such corpuscles are ever discharged by the
  animal when it is irritated.

  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Nerve-ganglia and Cords of three
  Lamellibranchs. (From Gegenbaur.)

    A, Of _Teredo_.
    B, Of _Anodonta_.
    C, Of _Pecten_.
    a, Cerebral ganglion-pair (= cerebro-pleuro-visceral).
    b, Pedal ganglion-pair.
    c, Olfactory (osphradial) ganglion-pair.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Otocyst of _Cyclas_. (From Gegenbaur.)

    c, Capsule.
    e, Ciliated cells lining the same.
    o, Otolith.]

  The pair of renal organs of _Anodonta_, called in Lamellibranchs the
  organs of Bojanus, lie below the membranous floor of the pericardium,
  and open into it by two well-marked apertures (e and f in fig. 18).
  Each nephridium, after being bent upon itself as shown in fig. 18, C,
  D, opens to the exterior by a pore placed at the point marked x in
  fig. 1 (5) (6). One half of each nephridium is of a dark-green colour
  and glandular (h in fig. 18). This opens into the reflected portion
  which overlies it as shown in the diagram fig. 18, D, i; the latter
  has non-glandular walls, and opens by the pore k to the exterior. The
  renal organs may be more ramified in other Lamellibranchs than they
  are in _Anodonta_. In some they are difficult to discover. That of the
  common oyster was described by Hoek. Each nephridium in the oyster is
  a pyriform sac, which communicates by a narrow canal with the
  urino-genital groove placed to the front of the great adductor muscle;
  by a second narrow canal it communicates with the pericardium. From
  all parts of the pyriform sac narrow stalk-like tubes are given off,
  ending in abundant widely-spread branching glandular caeca, which form
  the essential renal secreting apparatus. The genital duct opens by a
  pore into the urino-genital groove of the oyster (the same arrangement
  being repeated on each side of the body) close to but distinct from
  the aperture of the nephridial canal. Hence, except for the formation
  of a urino-genital groove, the apertures are placed as they are in
  _Anodonta_. Previously to Hoek's discovery a brown-coloured investment
  of the auricles of the heart of the oyster had been supposed to
  represent the nephridia in a rudimentary state. This investment, which
  occurs also in many Filibranchia, forms the pericardial glands,
  comparable to the pericardial accessory glandular growths of
  Cephalopoda. In _Unionidae_ and several other forms the pericardial
  glands are extended into diverticula of the pericardium which
  penetrate the mantle and constitute the organ of Heber. The glands
  secrete hippuric acid which passes from the pericardium into the renal
  organs.

  _Nervous System and Sense-Organs._--In _Anodonta_ there are three
  well-developed pairs of nerve ganglia (fig. 19, B, and fig. 1 (6)). An
  anterior pair, lying one on each side of the mouth (fig. 19, B, a) and
  connected in front of it by a commissure, are the representatives of
  the cerebral and pleural ganglia of the typical Mollusc, which are not
  here differentiated as they are in Gastropods. A pair placed close
  together in the foot (fig. 19, B, b, and fig. 1 (6), ax) are the
  typical pedal ganglia; they are joined to the cerebro-pleural ganglia
  by connectives.

  Posteriorly beneath the posterior adductors, and covered only by a
  thin layer of elongated epidermal cells, are the visceral ganglia.
  United with these ganglia on the outer sides are the osphradial
  ganglia, above which the epithelium is modified to form a pair of
  sense-organs, corresponding to the osphradia of other Molluscs. In
  some Lamellibranchs the osphradial ganglia receive nerve-fibres, not
  from the visceral ganglia, but from the cerebral ganglia along the
  visceral commissure. Formerly the posterior pair of ganglia were
  identified as simply the osphradial ganglia, and the anterior pair as
  the cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united into a single pair.
  But it has since been discovered that in the Protobranchia the
  cerebral ganglia and the pleural are distinct, each giving origin to
  its own connective which runs to the pedal ganglion. The cerebro-pedal
  and pleuro-pedal connectives, however, in these cases are only
  separate in the initial parts of their course, and unite together for
  the lower half of their length, or for nearly the whole length.
  Moreover, in many forms, in which in the adult condition there is only
  a single pair of anterior ganglia and a single pedal connective, a
  pleural ganglion distinct from the cerebral has been recognized in the
  course of development. There is, however, no evidence of the union of
  a visceral pair with the cerebro-pleural.

  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Pallial Eye of _Spondylus_. (From Hickson.)

    a, Prae-corneal epithelium.
    b, Cellular lens.
    c, Retinal body.
    d, Tapetum.
    e, Pigment.
    f, Retinal nerve.
    g, Complementary nerve.
    h, Epithelial cells filled with pigment.
    k, Tentacle.]

  The sense-organs of _Anodonta_ other than the osphradia consist of a
  pair of otocysts attached to the pedal ganglia (fig. 1 (6), ay). The
  otocysts of _Cyclas_ are peculiarly favourable for study on account of
  the transparency of the small foot in which they lie, and may be taken
  as typical of those of Lamellibranchs generally. The structure of one
  is exhibited in fig. 20. A single otolith is present as in the veliger
  embryos of Opisthobranchia. In Filibranchia and many Protobranchia the
  otocyst (or statocyst) contains numerous particles (otoconia). The
  organs are developed as invaginations of the epidermis of the foot,
  and in the majority of the Protobranchia the orifice of invagination
  remains open throughout life; this is also the case in _Mytilus_
  including the common mussel.

  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Two Stages in the Development of _Anodonta_.
  (From Balfour.) Both figures represent the glochidium stage.

    A, When free swimming, shows the two dentigerous valves widely open.
    B, A later stage, after fixture to the fin of a fish.
    sh, Shell.
    ad, Adductor muscle.
    s, Teeth of the shell.
    by, Byssus.
    a.ad, Anterior adductor.
    p.ad, Posterior adductor.
    mt, Mantle-flap.
    f, Foot.
    br, Branchial filaments.
    au.v, Otocyst.
    al, Alimentary canal.]

  _Anodonta_ has no eyes of any sort, and the tentacles on the mantle
  edge are limited to its posterior border. This deficiency is very
  usual in the class; at the same time, many Lamellibranchs have
  tentacles on the edge of the mantle supplied by a pair of large
  well-developed nerves, which are given off from the cerebro-pleural
  ganglion-pair, and very frequently some of these tentacles have
  undergone a special metamorphosis converting them into
  highly-organized eyes. Such eyes on the mantle-edge are found in
  _Pecten_, _Spondylus_, _Lima_, _Pinna_, _Pectunculus_, _Modiola_,
  _Cardium_, _Tellina_, _Mactra_, _Venus_, _Solen_, _Pholas_ and
  _Galeomma_. They are totally distinct from the cephalic eyes of
  typical Mollusca, and have a different structure and historical
  development. They have originated not as pits but as tentacles. They
  agree with the dorsal eyes of _Oncidium_ (Pulmonata) in the curious
  fact that the optic nerve penetrates the capsule of the eye and passes
  in front of the retinal body (fig. 21), so that its fibres join the
  anterior faces of the nerve-end cells as in Vertebrates, instead of
  their posterior faces as in the cephalic eyes of Mollusca and
  Arthropoda; moreover, the lens is not a cuticular product but a
  cellular structure, which, again, is a feature of agreement with the
  Vertebrate eye. It must, however, be distinctly borne in mind that
  there is a fundamental difference between the eye of Vertebrates and
  of all other groups in the fact that in the Vertebrata the retinal
  body is itself a part of the central nervous system, and not a
  separate modification of the epidermis--myelonic as opposed to
  epidermic. The structure of the reputed eyes of several of the
  above-named genera has not been carefully examined. In _Pecten_ and
  _Spondylus_, however, they have been fully studied (see fig. 21, and
  explanation). Rudimentary cephalic eyes occur in the _Mytilidae_ and
  in _Avicula_ at the base of the first filament of the inner gill, each
  consisting of a pigmented epithelial fossa containing a cuticular
  lens. In the _Arcidae_ the pallial eyes are compound or faceted
  somewhat like those of Arthropods.

  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Development of the Oyster, _Ostrea edulis_.
  (Modified from Horst.)

    A, Blastula stage (one-cell-layered sac), with commencing
      invagination of the wall of the sac at bl, the blastopore.
    B, Optical section of a somewhat later stage, in which a second
      invagination has begun--namely, that of the shell-gland sk.
    bl, Blastopore.
    en, Invaginated endoderm (wall of the future arch-enteron).
    ec, Ectoderm.
    C, Similar optical section at a little later stage. The
      invagination connected with the blastopore is now more contracted,
      d; and cells, me, forming the mesoblast from which the coelom and
      muscular and skeleto-trophic tissues develop, are separated.
    D, Similar section of a later stage. The blastopore, bl, has
      closed; the anus will subsequently perforate the corresponding
      area. A new aperture, m, the mouth, has eaten its way into the
      invaginated endodermal sac, and the cells pushed in with it
      constitute the stomodaeum. The shell-gland, sk, is flattened out,
      and a delicate shell, s, appears on its surface. The ciliated velar
      ring is cut in the section, as shown by the two projecting cilia on
      the upper part of the figure. The embryo is now a Trochosphere.
    E, Surface view of an embryo at a period almost identical with that
      of D.
    F, Later embryo seen as a transparent object.
    m, Mouth.
    ft, Foot.
    a, Anus.
    e, Intestine.
    st, Stomach.
    tp, Velar area of the prostomium. The extent of the shell and
      commencing upgrowth of the mantle-skirt is indicated by a line
      forming a curve from a to F.

    _N.B._--In this development, as in that of _Pisidium_ (fig. 25), no
    part of the blastopore persists either as mouth or as anus, but the
    aperture closes--the pedicle of invagination, or narrow neck of the
    invaginated arch-enteron, becoming the intestine. The mouth and the
    anus are formed as independent in-pushings, the mouth with
    stomodaeum first, and the short anal proctodaeum much later. This
    interpretation of the appearances is contrary to that of Horst, from
    whom our drawings of the oyster's development are taken. The account
    given by the American William K. Brooks differs greatly as to matter
    of fact from that of Horst, and appears to be erroneous in some
    respects.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Embryo of _Pisidium pusillum_ in the
  diblastula stage, surface view (after Lankester). The embryo has
  increased in size by accumulation of liquid between the outer and the
  invaginated cells. The blastopore has closed.]

  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--B, Same embryo as fig. 24, in optical median
  section, showing the invaginated cells hy which form the arch-enteron,
  and the mesoblastic cells me which are budded off from the surface of
  the mass hy, and apply themselves to the inner surface of the
  epiblastic cell-layer ep. C. The same embryo focused so as to show the
  mesoblastic cells which immediately underlie the outer cell-layer.]

  _Generative Organs._--The gonads of _Anodonta_ are placed in distinct
  male and female individuals. In some Lamellibranchs--for instance, the
  European Oyster and the _Pisidium pusillum_--the sexes are united in
  the same individual; but here, as in most hermaphrodite animals, the
  two sexual elements are not ripe in the same individual at the same
  moment. It has been conclusively shown that the _Ostrea edulis_ does
  not fertilize itself. The American Oyster (_O. virginiana_) and the
  Portuguese Oyster (_O. angulata_) have the sexes separate, and
  fertilization is effected in the open water after the discharge of the
  ova and the spermatozoa from the females and males respectively. In
  the _Ostrea edulis_ fertilization of the eggs is effected at the
  moment of their escape from the uro-genital groove, or even before, by
  means of spermatozoa drawn into the sub-pallial chamber by the
  incurrent ciliary stream, and the embryos pass through the early
  stages of development whilst entangled between the gill-lamellae of
  the female parent (fig. 23). In _Anodonta_ the eggs pass into the
  space between the two lamellae of the outer gill-plate, and are there
  fertilized, and advance whilst still in this position to the
  glochidium phase of development (fig. 22). They may be found here in
  thousands in the summer and autumn months. The gonads themselves are
  extremely simple arborescent glands which open to the exterior by two
  simple ducts, one right and one left, continuous with the tubular
  branches of the gonads. In the most primitive Lamellibranchs there is
  no separate generative aperture but the gonads discharge into the
  renal cavity, as in _Patella_ among Gastropods. This is the case in
  the Protobranchia, e.g. _Solenomya_, in which the gonad opens into the
  reno-pericardial duct. But the generative products do not pass through
  the whole length of the renal tube: there is a direct opening from the
  pericardial end of the tube to the distal end, and the ova or sperms
  pass through this. In _Arca_, in _Anomiidae_ and in _Pectinidae_ the
  gonad opens into the external part of the renal tube. The next stage
  of modification is seen in _Ostraea_, _Cyclas_ and some _Lucinidae_,
  in which the generative and renal ducts open into a cloacal slit on
  the surface of the body. In _Mytilus_ the two apertures are on a
  common papilla, in other cases the two apertures are as in _Anodonta_.
  The Anatinacea and _Poromya_ among the Septibranchia are, however,
  peculiar in having two genital apertures on each side, one male and
  one female. These forms are hermaphrodite, with an ovary and testis
  completely separate from each other on each side of the body, each
  having its own duct and aperture.

  The development of _Anodonta_ is remarkable for the curious larval
  form known as _glochidium_ (fig. 22). The glochidium quits the
  gill-pouch of its parent and swims by alternate opening and shutting
  of the valves of its shell, as do adult _Pecten_ and _Lima_, trailing
  at the same time a long byssus thread. This byssus is not homologous
  with that of other Lamellibranchs, but originates from a single
  glandular epithelial cell embedded in the tissues on the dorsal
  anterior side of the adductor muscle. By this it is brought into
  contact with the fin of a fish, such as perch, stickleback or others,
  and effects a hold thereon by means of the toothed edge of its shells.
  Here it becomes encysted, and is nourished by the exudations of the
  fish. It remains in this condition for a period of two to six weeks,
  and during this time the permanent organs are developed from the cells
  of two symmetrical cavities behind the adductor muscle. The early
  larva of _Anodonta_ is not unlike the trochosphere of other
  Lamellibranchs, but the mouth is wanting. The glochidium is formed by
  the precocious development of the anterior adductor and the
  retardation of all the other organs except the shell. Other
  Lamellibranchs exhibit either a trochosphere larva which becomes a
  veliger differing only from the Gastropod's and Pteropod's veliger in
  having bilateral shell-calcifications instead of a single central one;
  or, like _Anodonta_, they may develop within the gill-plates of the
  mother, though without presenting such a specialized larva as the
  glochidium. An example of the former is seen in the development of the
  European oyster, to the figure of which and its explanation the reader
  is specially referred (fig. 23). An example of the latter is seen in a
  common little fresh-water bivalve, the _Pisidium pusillum_, which has
  been studied by Lankester. The gastrula is formed in this case by
  invagination. The embryonic cells continue to divide, and form an oval
  vesicle containing liquid (fig. 24); within this, at one pole, is seen
  the mass of invaginated cells (fig. 25, hy). These invaginated cells
  are the arch-enteron; they proliferate and give off branching cells,
  which apply themselves (fig. 25, C) to the inner face of the vesicle,
  thus forming the mesoblast. The outer single layer of cells which
  constitutes the surface of the vesicle is the ectoderm or epiblast.
  The little mass of hypoblast or enteric cell-mass now enlarges, but
  remains connected with the cicatrix of the blastopore or orifice of
  invagination by a stalk, the rectal peduncle. The enteron itself
  becomes bilobed and is joined by a new invagination, that of the mouth
  and stomodaeum. The mesoblast multiplies its cells, which become
  partly muscular and partly skeleto-trophic. Centro-dorsally now
  appears the embyronic shell-gland. The pharynx or stomodaeum is still
  small, the foot not yet prominent. A later stage is seen in fig. 26,
  where the pharynx is widely open and the foot prominent. No ciliated
  velum or pre-oral (cephalic) lobe ever develops. The shell-gland
  disappears, the mantle-skirt is raised as a ridge, the paired
  shell-valves are secreted, the anus opens by a proctodaeal ingrowth
  into the rectal peduncle, and the rudiments of the gills (br) and of
  the renal organs (B) appear (fig. 26, lateral view), and thus the
  chief organs and general form of the adult are acquired. Later changes
  consist in the growth of the shell-valves over the whole area of the
  mantle-flaps, and in the multiplication of the gill-filaments and
  their consolidation to form gill-plates. It is important to note that
  the gill-filaments are formed one by one _posteriorly_. The labial
  tentacles are formed late. In the allied genus _Cyclas_, a byssus
  gland is formed in the foot and subsequently disappears, but no such
  gland occurs in _Pisidium_.

  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagram of Embryo of _Pisidium_. The unshaded
  area gives the position of the shell-valve. (After Lankester.)

    m, Mouth.
    x, Anus.
    f, Foot.
    br, Branchial filaments.
    mn, Margin of the mantle-skirt.
    B, Organ of Bojanus.]

  [Illustration: After Drew, in Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. (A. &
  C. Black.)

  FIG. 27.--Surface view of a forty-five hour embryo of _Yoldia
  limatula_. a.c, Apical cilia. bl, Blastopore. x, Depression where the
  cells that form the cerebral ganglia come to the surface.]

  An extraordinary modification of the veliger occurs in the development
  of _Nucula_ and _Yoldia_ and probably other members of the same
  families. After the formation of the gastrula by epibole the larva
  becomes enclosed by an ectodermic test covering the whole of the
  original surface of the body, including the shell-gland, and leaving
  only a small opening at the posterior end in which the stomodaeum and
  proctodaeum are formed. In _Yoldia_ and _Nucula proxima_ the test
  consists of five rows of flattened cells, the three median rows
  bearing circlets of long cilia. At the anterior end of the test is the
  apical plate from the centre of which projects a long flagellum as in
  many other Lamellibranch larvae. In _Nucula delphinodonta_ the test is
  uniformly covered with short cilia, and there is no flagellum. When
  the larval development is completed the test is cast off, its cells
  breaking apart and falling to pieces leaving the young animal with a
  well-developed shell exposed and the internal organs in an advanced
  state. The test is really a ciliated velum developed in the normal
  position at the apical pole but reflected backwards in such a way as
  to cover the original ectoderm except at the posterior end. In
  _Yoldia_ and _Nucula proxima_ the ova are set free in the water and
  the test-larvae are free-swimming, but in _Nucula delphinodonta_ the
  female forms a thin-walled egg-case of mucus attached to the posterior
  end of the shell and in communication with the pallial chamber; in
  this case the eggs develop and the test-larva is enclosed. A similar
  modification of the velum occurs in _Dentalium_ and in _Myzomenia_
  among the Amphineura.


CLASSIFICATION OF LAMELLIBRANCHIA

The classification originally based on the structure of the gills by P.
Pelseneer included five orders, viz.: the Protobranchia in which the
gill-filaments are flattened and not reflected; the Filibranchia in
which the filaments are long and reflected, with non-vascular junctions;
the Pseudolamellibranchia in which the gill-lamellae are vertically
folded, the inter-filamentar and interlamellar junctions being vascular
or non-vascular; the Eulamellibranchia in which the inter-filamentar and
interlamellar junctions are vascular; and lastly the Septibranchia in
which the gills are reduced to a horizontal partition. The
Pseudolamellibranchia included the oyster, scallop and their allies
which formerly constituted the order Monomyaria, having only a single
large adductor muscle or in addition a very small anterior adductor. The
researches of W. G. Ridewood have shown that in gill-structure the
Pectinacea agree with the Filibranchia and the Ostraeacea with the
Eulamellibranchia, and accordingly the order Pseudolamellibranchia is
now suppressed and its members divided between the two other orders
mentioned. The four orders now retained exhibit successive stages in the
modification of the ctenidia by reflection and concrescence of the
filament, but other organs, such as the heart, adductors, renal organs,
may not show corresponding stages. On the contrary considerable
differences in these organs may occur within any single order. The
Protobranchia, however, possess several primitive characters besides
that of the branchiae. In them the foot has a flat ventral surface used
for creeping, as in Gastropods, the byssus gland is but slightly
developed, the pleural ganglia are distinct, there is a relic of the
pharyngeal cavity, in some forms with a pair of glandular sacs, the
gonads retain their primitive connexion with the renal cavities, and the
otocysts are open.


Order I. PROTOBRANCHIA

In addition to the characters given above, it may be noted that the
mantle is provided with a hypobranchial gland on the outer side of each
gill, the auricles are muscular, the kidneys are glandular through their
whole length, the sexes are separate.

  Fam. 1. _Solenomyidae._--One row of branchial filaments is directed
  dorsally, the other ventrally; the mantle has a long postero-ventral
  suture and a single posterior aperture; the labial palps of each side
  are fused together; shell elongate; hinge without teeth; periostracum
  thick. _Solenomya._

  Fam. 2. _Nuculidae._--Labial palps free, very broad, and provided with
  a posterior appendage; branchial filaments transverse; shell has an
  angular dorsal border; mantle open along its whole border. _Nucula.
  Acila. Pronucula._

  Fam. 3. _Ledidae._--Like the _Nuculidae_, but mantle has two posterior
  sutures and two united siphons. _Leda. Yoldia. Malletia._

  Fam. 4. _Ctenodontidae._--Extinct; Silurian.

  The fossil group Palaeoconcha is connected with the Protobranchia
  through the Solenomyidae. It contains the following extinct families.

  Fam. 1. _Praecardiidae._--Shell equivalve with hinge dentition as in
  _Arca. Praecardium_; Silurian and Devonian.

  Fam. 2. _Antipleuridae._--Shell inequivalve. _Antipleura_; Silurian.

  Fam. 3. _Cardiolidae._--Shell equivalve and ventricose; hinge without
  teeth. _Cardiola_; Silurian and Devonian.

  Fam. 4. _Grammysiidae._--Shell thin, equivalve, oval or elongate;
  hinge without teeth. _Grammysia_; Silurian and Devonian. _Protomya_;
  Devonian. _Cardiomorpha_; Silurian to Carboniferous.

  Fam. 5. _Vlastidae._--Shell very inequivalve; hinge without teeth.
  _Vlasta_; Silurian.

  Fam. 6. _Solenopsidae._--Shell equivalve, greatly elongated, umbones
  very far forward. _Solenopsis_; Devonian to Trias.


Order II. FILIBRANCHIA

Gill-filament ventrally directed and reflected, connected by ciliated
junctions. Foot generally provided with a highly developed byssogenous
apparatus.

  Sub-order I.--_Anomiacea._

  Very asymmetrical, with a single large posterior adductor. The heart
  is not contained in the pericardium, lies dorsad of the rectum and
  gives off a single aorta anteriorly. The reflected borders of the
  inner gill-plates of either side are fused together in the middle
  line. The gonads open into the kidneys and the right gonad extends
  into the mantle. Shell thin; animal fixed.

    Fam. 1. _Anomiidae._--Foot small; inferior (right) valve of adult
    perforated to allow passage of the byssus. _Anomia_; byssus large
    and calcified; British. _Placuna_; byssus atrophied in adult.
    _Hypotrema_. _Carolia_. _Ephippium_. _Placunanomia_.

  Sub-order II.--_Arcacea._

  Symmetrical; mantle open throughout its extent; generally with well
  developed anterior and posterior adductors. The heart lies in the
  pericardium and gives off two aortae. Gills without interlamellar
  junctions. Renal and genital apertures separate.

    Fam. 1. _Arcidae._--Borders of the mantle bear compound pallial
    eyes. The labial palps are direct continuations of the lips. Hinge
    pliodont, that is to say, it has numerous teeth on either side of
    the umbones and the teeth are perpendicular to the edge. _Arca_;
    foot byssiferous; British. _Pectunculus_; foot without byssus;
    British. _Scaphula_; freshwater; India. _Argina. Bathyarca.
    Barbatia. Senilia. Anadara. Adacnarca._

    Fam. 2. _Parallelodontidae._--Shell as in _Arca_, but the posterior
    hinge teeth elongated and parallel to the cardinal border.
    _Cucullaea_; recent and fossil from the Jurassic. All the other
    genera are fossil: _Parallelodon_; Devonian to Tertiary.
    _Carbonaria_; Carboniferous, &c.

    Fam. 3. _Limopsidae._--Shell orbicular, hinge curved, ligament
    longer transversely than antero-posteriorly; foot elongate, pointed
    anteriorly and posteriorly. _Limopsis. Trinacria_; Tertiary.

    Fam. 4. _Philobryidae._--Shell thin, very inequilateral, anterior
    part atrophied, umbones projecting. _Philobrya._

    Fam. 5. _Cyrtodontidae._--Extinct; shell equivalve and
    inequilateral, short, convex. _Cyrtodonta_; Silurian and Devonian.
    _Cypricardites_, Silurian. _Vanuxemia_; Silurian.

    Fam. 6. _Trigoniidae._--Shell thick; foot elongated, pointed in
    front and behind, ventral border sharp; byssus absent. _Trigonia_;
    shell sub-triangular, umbones directed backwards. This genus was
    very abundant in the Secondary epoch, especially in Jurassic seas.
    There are six living species, all in Australian seas. Living
    specimens were first discovered in 1827. _Schizodus_; Permian.
    _Myophoria_; Trias.

    Fam. 7. _Lyrodesmidae._--Extinct; shell inequilateral, posterior
    side shorter; hinge short, teeth in form of a fan. _Lyrodesma_;
    Silurian.

  Sub-order III.--_Mytilacea._

  Symmetrical, the anterior adductor small or absent. Heart gives off
  only an anterior aorta. Surface of gills smooth, gill-filaments all
  similar, with interlamellar junctions. Gonads generally extend into
  mantle and open at sides of kidneys. Foot linguiform and byssiferous.

    Fam. 1. _Mytilidae._--Shell inequilateral, anterior end short; hinge
    without teeth; ligament external. Mantle has a posterior suture.
    Cephalic eyes present. _Mytilus_; British. _Modiola_; British.
    _Lithodomus. Modiolaria_; British. _Crenella. Stavelia. Dacrydium.
    Myrina. Idas. Septifer._

    Fam. 2. _Modiolopsidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; adductor
    muscles sub-equal. _Modiolopsis.--Modiomorpha. Myoconcha._

    Fam. 3. _Pernidae._--Shell very inequilateral; ligament subdivided;
    mantle open throughout; anterior adductor absent. _Perna.
    Crenatula_; inhabits sponges. _Bakewellia. Gervilleia_; Trias to
    Eocene. _Odontoperna_; Trias. _Inoceramus_; Jurassic to Cretaceous.

  Sub-order IV.--_Pectinacea._

  Monomyarian, with open mantle. Gills folded and the filaments at
  summits and bases of the folds are different from the others. Gonads
  contained in the visceral mass and generally open into renal cavities.
  Foot usually rudimentary.

    Fam. 1. _Vulsellidae._--Shell high; hinge toothless; foot without
    byssus. _Vulsella._

    Fam. 2. _Aviculidae._--Shell very inequilateral; cardinal border
    straight with two auriculae, the posterior the longer. Foot with a
    very stout byssus. Gills fused to the mantle. _Avicula_; British.
    _Meleagrina._ Pearls are obtained from a species of this genus in
    the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, &c. _Malleus._ Several extinct
    genera.

    Fam. 3. _Prasinidae._--Shell inequilateral, with anterior umbones
    and prominent anterior auricula; cardinal border arched. _Prasina._

    Fam. 4. _Pterineidae._--Extinct; Palaeozoic.

    Fam. 5. _Lunulicardiidae._--Extinct; Silurian and Devonian.

    Fam. 6. _Conocardiidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Carboniferous.

    Fam. 7. _Ambonychiidae._--Extinct; Silurian and Devonian. The last
    two families are dimyarian, with small anterior adductor.

    Fam. 8. _Myalinidae._--Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; adductors
    sub-equal.

    Fam. 9. _Amussiidae._--Shell orbicular, smooth externally with
    radiating costae internally. Gills without interlamellar junctions.
    _Amussium._

    Fam. 10. _Spondylidae._--Shell very inequivalve, fixed by the right
    valve which is the larger. No byssus. _Spondylus_; shell with spiny
    ribs, adherent by the spines. _Plicatula._

    Fam. 11. _Pectinidae._--Shell with radiating ribs; dorsal border
    with two auriculae. Foot byssiferous. Mantle borders with well
    developed eyes. _Pecten_; shell orbicular, with equal auriculae;
    without a byssal sinus; British. _Chlamys_; anterior auricula the
    larger and with a byssal sinus; British. _Pedum. Hinnites.
    Pseudamussium. Camptonectes. Hyalopecten_; abyssal.

  Sub-order V.--_Dimyacea._

  Dimyarian, with orbicular and almost equilateral shell; adherent;
  hinge without teeth and ligament internal. Gills with free
  non-reflected filaments.

    Fam. _Dimyidae._--Characters of the sub-order. _Dimya_; recent in
    abyssal depths and fossil since the Jurassic.


Order III. EULAMELLIBRANCHIA

Edges of the mantle generally united by one or two sutures. Two
adductors usually present. Branchial filaments united by vascular
inter-filamentar junctions and vascular interlamellar junctions; the
latter contain the afferent vessels. The gonads always have their own
proper external apertures.

  Sub-order I.--_Ostraeacea._

  Monomyarian or with a very small anterior adductor. Mantle open; foot
  rather small; branchiae folded; shell inequivalve.

    Fam. 1. _Limidae._--Shell with auriculae. Foot digitiform, with
    byssus. Borders of mantle with long and numerous tentacles. Gills
    not united with mantle. _Lima_; members of this genus form a nest by
    means of the byssus, or swim by clapping the valves of the shell
    together. _Limaea._

    Fam. 2. _Ostraeidae._--Foot much reduced and without byssus. Heart
    usually on the ventral side of the rectum. Gills fused to the
    mantle. Shell irregular, fixed in the young by the left and larger
    valve. _Ostraea_; foot absent in the adult; edible and cultivated;
    some species, as the British _O. edulis_, are hermaphrodite.

    Fam. 3. _Eligmidae._--Extinct; Jurassic.

    Fam. 4. _Pinnidae._--Shell elongated, truncated and gaping
    posteriorly. Dimyarian, with a very small anterior adductor. Foot
    with byssus. _Pinna_; British. _Cyrtopinna. Aviculopinna_; fossil,
    Carboniferous and Permian. _Pinnigena_; Jurassic and Cretaceous.
    _Atrina_; fossil and recent, from Carboniferous to present day.

  Sub-order II.--_Submytilacea._

  Mantle only slightly closed; usually there is only a single suture.
  Siphons absent or very short. Gills smooth. Nearly always dimyarian.
  Shell equivalve, with an external ligament.

    Fam. 1. _Dreissensiidae._--Shell elongated; hinge without teeth;
    summits of valves with an internal septum. Siphons short.
    _Dreissensia_; lives in fresh water, but originated from the Caspian
    Sea; introduced into England about 1824.

    Fam. 2. _Modiolarcidae._--Foot with a plantar surface; the two
    branchial plates serve as incubatory pouches. _Modiolarca._

    Fam. 3. _Astartidae._--Shell concentrically striated; foot elongate,
    without byssus. _Astarte_; British. _Woodia. Opis_; Secondary.
    _Prosocoelus_; Devonian.

    Fam. 4. _Crassatellidae._--Shell thick, with concentric striae,
    ligament external; foot short. _Crassatella. Cuna._

    Fam. 5. _Carditidae._--Shell thick, with radiating costae; foot
    carinated, often byssiferous. _Cardita. Thecalia. Milneria._
    _Venericardia._

    Fam. 6. _Condylocardiidae._--Like _Carditidae_, but with an external
    ligament. _Condylocardia. Carditella. Carditopsis._

    Fam. 7. _Cyprinidae._--Mantle open in front, with two pallial
    sutures; external gill-plates smaller than the internal. _Cyprina_;
    British. _Cypricardia. Pleurophorus_; Devonian to Trias.
    _Anisocardia_; Jurassic to Tertiary. _Veniella_; Cretaceous to
    Tertiary.

    Fam. 8. _Isocardiidae._--Mantle largely closed, pedal orifice small;
    gill-plates of equal size; shell globular, with prominent and coiled
    umbones. _Isocardia_; British.

    Fam. 9. _Callocardiidae._--Siphons present; external gill-plate
    smaller than the internal; umbones not prominent. _Callocardia_;
    abyssal.

    Fam. 10. _Lucinidae._--Labial palps very small; gills without an
    external plate. _Lucina_; British. _Montacuta_; British.
    _Cryptodon._

    Fam. 11. _Corbidae._--Shell thick, with denticulated borders; anal
    aperture with valve but no siphon; foot elongated and pointed.
    _Corbis. Gonodon_; Trias and Jurassic. _Mutiella_; Upper Cretaceous.

    Fam. 12. _Ungulinidae._--Foot greatly elongated, vermiform, ending
    in a glandular enlargement. _Ungulina. Diplodonta_; British.
    _Axinus_; British.

    Fam. 13. _Cyrenellidae._--Two elongated, united, non-retractile
    siphons; freshwater. _Cyrenella. Joanisiella._

    Fam. 14. _Tancrediidae._--Shell elongate, sub-triangular. Extinct.
    _Tancredia_; Trias to Cretaceous. _Meekia_; Cretaceous.

    Fam. 15. _Unicardiidae._--Shell sub-orbicular, nearly equilateral,
    with concentric striae. Extinct, Carboniferous to Cretaceous.
    _Unicardium. Scaldia. Pseudedmondia._

    Fam. 16. _Leptonidae._--Shell thin; no siphons; foot long and
    byssiferous; marine; hermaphrodite and incubatory. _Kellya_;
    British. _Lepton_; commensal with the Crustacean _Gebia_; British.
    _Erycina_; Tertiary. _Pythina. Scacchia. Sportella. Cyamium._

    Fam. 17. _Galeommidae._--Mantle reflected over shell; shell thin,
    gaping; adductors much reduced. _Galeomma_; British. _Scintilla.
    Hindsiella. Ephippodonta_; commensal with shrimp _Axius_. The three
    following genera with an internal shell probably belong to this
    family:--_Chlamydoconcha_. _Scioberetia_; commensal with a
    Spatangid. _Entovalva_; parasitic in _Synapta_.

    Fam. 18. _Kellyellidae._--Shell ovoid; anal aperture with very short
    siphon; foot elongated. _Kellyella. Turtonia_; British. _Allopagus_;
    Eocene. _Lutetia_; Eocene.

  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Lateral view of a _Mactra_, the right valve
  of the shell and right mantle-flap removed, and the siphons retracted.
  (From Gegenbaur.)

    br, br´, Outer and inner gill-plates.
    t, Labial tentacle.
    ta, tr, Upper and lower siphons.
    ms, Siphonal muscle of the mantle-flap.
    ma, Anterior adductor muscle.
    mp, Posterior adductor muscle.
    p, Foot.
    c, Umbo.]

    Fam. 19. _Cyrenidae._--Two siphons, more or less united, with
    papillose orifices; pallial line with a sinus; freshwater. _Cyrena.
    Corbicula. Batissa. Velorita. Galatea. Fischeria._

    Fam. 20. _Cycladidae._--One siphon or two free siphons with simple
    orifices; pallial line simple; hermaphrodite, embryos incubated in
    external gill-plate; freshwater, _Cyclas_; British. _Pisidium_;
    British.

    Fam. 21. _Rangiidae._--Two short siphons, shell with prominent
    umbones and internal ligament. _Rangia_; brackish water, Florida.

    Fam. 22. _Cardiniidae._--Shell elongated, inequilateral. Extinct.
    _Cardinia_; Trias and Jurassic. _Anthracosia_; Carboniferous and
    Permian. _Anoplophora_; Trias. _Pachycardia_; Trias.

    Fam. 23. _Megalodontidae._--Shell inequilateral, thick; posterior
    adductor impression on a myophorous apophysis. Extinct. _Megalodon_;
    Devonian to Jurassic. _Pachyrisma_; Trias and Jurassic. _Durga_;
    Jurassic. _Dicerocardium_; Jurassic.

    Fam. 24. _Unionidae._--Shell equilateral; mantle with a single
    pallial suture and no siphons; freshwater; larva a glochidium.
    _Unio_; British. _Anodonta_; British. _Pseudodon. Quadrula.
    Arconaia. Monocondylea. Solenaia. Mycetopus._

    Fam. 25. _Mutelidae._--Differs from _Unionidae_ in having two
    pallial sutures; freshwater. _Muleta. Pliodon. Spatha. Iridina.
    Hyria. Castalia. Aplodon. Plagiodon._

    Fam. 26. _Aetheriidae._--Shell irregular, generally fixed in the
    adult; foot absent; freshwater. _Aetheria. Mulleria. Bartlettia._

  Sub-order III.--_Tellinacea._

  Mantle not extensively closed; two pallial sutures and two
  well-developed siphons. Gills smooth. Foot compressed and elongated.
  Labial palps very large. Dimyarian; pallial line with a deep sinus.

    Fam. 1. _Tellinidae._--External gill-plate directed upwards; siphons
    separate and elongated; foot with byssus; palps very large; ligament
    external. _Tellina_; British. _Gastrana_; British. _Capsa. Macoma._

    Fam. 2. _Scrobiculariidae._--External gill-plates directed upwards;
    siphons separate and excessively long; foot without byssus.
    _Scrobicularia_; estuarine; British. _Syndosmya_; British.
    _Cumingia_.

    Fam. 3. _Donacidae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally;
    siphons separate, of moderate length, anal siphon the longer.
    _Donax_; British. _Iphigeneia._

    Fam. 4. _Mesodesmatidae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally;
    siphons separate and equal. _Mesodesma. Ervilia_; British.

    [Illustration: FIG. 29.--The same animal as fig. 28, with its foot
    and siphons expanded. Letters as in fig. 28. (From Gegenbaur.)]

    Fam. 5. _Cardiliidae._--Shell very high and short; dimyarian;
    posterior adductor impression on a prominent apophysis. _Cardilia._

    Fam. 6. _Mactridae._--External gill-plate directed ventrally;
    siphons united, invested by a chitinous sheath; foot long, bent at
    an angle, without byssus. _Mactra_; British (figs. 28, 29).
    _Mulinia. Harvella. Raeta. Eastonia. Heterocardia. Vanganella._

  Sub-order IV.--_Veneracea._

  Two pallial sutures, siphons somewhat elongated and partially or
  wholly united. Gills slightly folded. A bulb on the posterior aorta.
  Ligament external.

    Fam. 1. _Veneridae._--Foot well developed; pallial sinus shallow or
    absent. _Venus_; British. _Dosinia_; British. _Tapes_; British.
    _Cyclina. Lucinopsis_; British. _Meretrix. Circe_; British.
    _Venerupis._

    Fam. 2. _Petricolidae._--Boring forms with a reduced foot; shell
    elongated, with deep pallial sinus. _Petricola. P. pholadiformis_,
    originally an inhabitant of the coast of the United States, has been
    acclimatized for some years in the North Sea.

    Fam. 3. _Glaucomyidae._--Siphons very long and united; foot small;
    shell thin, with deep pallial sinus; fresh or brackish water.
    _Glaucomya. Tanysiphon._

  Sub-order V.--_Cardiacea._

  Two pallial sutures. Siphons generally short. Foot cylindrical, more
  or less elongated, byssogenous. Gills much folded. Shell equivalve,
  with radiating costae and external ligament.

    Fam. 1. _Cardiidae._--Mantle slightly closed; siphons very short,
    surrounded by papillae which often bear eyes; foot very long,
    geniculated; pallial line without sinus; two adductors, _Cardium_;
    British. _Pseudo-kellya. Byssocardium_; Eocene. _Lithocardium_;
    Eocene.

    Fam. 2. _Limnocardiidae._--Siphons very long, united throughout;
    shell gaping; two adductors; brackish waters. _Limnocardium_;
    Caspian Sea and fossil from the Tertiary. _Archicardium_; Tertiary.

    Fam. 3. _Tridacnidae._--Mantle closed to a considerable extent;
    apertures distant from each other; no siphons; a single adductor;
    shell thick. _Tridacna. Hippopus._

  Sub-order VI.--_Chamacea._

  Asymmetrical, inequivalve, fixed, with extensive pallial sutures; no
  siphons. Two adductors. Foot reduced and without byssus. Shell thick,
  without pallial sinus.

    Fam. 1. _Chamidae._--Shell with sub-equal valves and prominent
    umbones more or less spirally coiled; ligament external. _Chama.
    Diceras_; Jurassic. _Requienia_; Cretaceous. _Matheronia_;
    Cretaceous.

    Fam. 2. _Caprinidae._--Shell inequivalve; fixed valve spiral or
    conical; free valve coiled or spiral; Cretaceous. _Caprina._
    _Caprotina. Caprinula_, &c.

    Fam. 3. _Monopleuridae._--Shell very inequivalve; fixed valve
    conical or spiral; free valve operculiform; Cretaceous.
    _Monopleuron. Baylea._ The two following families, together known
    as Rudistae, are closely allied to the preceding; they are extinct
    marine forms from Secondary deposits. They were fixed by the conical
    elongated right valve; the free left valve is not spiral, and is
    furnished with prominent apophyses to which the adductors were
    attached.

    Fam. 4. _Radiolitidae._--Shell conical or biconvex, without canals
    in the external layer. _Radiolites. Biradiolites._

    Fam. 5. _Hippuritidae._--Fixed valve long, cylindro-conical, with
    three longitudinal furrows which correspond internally to two
    pillars for support of the siphons. _Hippurites. Arnaudia._

  Sub-order VII.--_Myacea._

  Mantle closed to a considerable extent; siphons well developed; gills
  much folded and frequently prolonged into the branchial siphon. Foot
  compressed and generally byssiferous. Shell gaping, with a pallial
  sinus.

    Fam. 1. _Psammobiidae._--Siphons very long and quite separate; foot
    large; shell oval, elongated, ligament external. _Psammobia_;
    British. _Sanguinolaria. Asaphis. Elizia. Solenotellina._

    Fam. 2. _Myidae._--Siphons united for the greater part of their
    length, and with a circlet of tentacles near their extremities; foot
    reduced; shell gaping; ligament internal. _Mya_; British. _Sphenia_;
    British. _Tugonia. Platyodon. Cryptomya._

    Fam. 3. _Corbulidae._--Shell sub-trigonal, inequivalve; pallial
    sinus shallow; siphons short, united, completely retractile; foot
    large, pointed, often byssiferous. _Corbulomya. Paramya. Erodona_
    and _Himella_ are fluviatile forms from South America.

    Fam. 4. _Lutrariidae._--Mantle extensively closed; a fourth pallial
    aperture behind the foot; siphons long and united; shell elongated,
    a spoon-shaped projection for the ligament on each valve.
    _Lutraria_; British. _Tresus. Standella._

    Fam. 5. _Solenidae._--Elongated burrowing forms; foot cylindrical,
    powerful, without byssus; shell long, truncated and gaping at each
    end. _Solenocurtus_; British. _Tagelus_; estuarine. _Ceratisolen_;
    British. _Cultellus_; British. _Siliqua. Solen_; British. _Ensis_;
    British.

    Fam. 6. _Saxicavidae._--Mantle extensively closed, with a small
    pedal orifice; siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous sheath;
    gills prolonged into the branchial siphon; foot small; shell gaping.
    _Saxicava_; British. _Glycimeris. Cyrtodaria._

    Fam. 7. _Gastrochaenidae._--Shell thin, gaping widely at the
    posterior end; anterior adductor much reduced; mantle extensively
    closed; siphons long, united. _Gastrochaena_; British. _Fistulana._

  Sub-order VIII.--_Adesmacea._

  Ligament wanting; shell gaping, with a styloid apophysis in the
  umbonal cavities. Gills prolonged into the branchial siphon. Mantle
  largely closed, siphons long, united. Foot short, truncated, discoid,
  without byssus.

    Fam. 1. _Pholadidae._--Shell containing all the organs; heart
    traversed by the rectum; two aortae. Shell with a pallial sinus;
    dorsal region protected by accessory plates. _Pholas_; British.
    _Pholadidea_; British. _Jouannetia. Xylophaga_; British. _Martesia._

    Fam. 2. _Teredinidae._--Shell globular, covering only a small
    portion of the vermiform body; heart on ventral side of rectum; a
    single aorta; siphons long, united and furnished with two posterior
    calcareous "pallets." _Teredo_; British. _Xylotrya._

  Sub-order IX.--_Anatinacea._

  Hermaphrodite, the ovaries and testes distinct, with separate
  apertures. Foot rather small. Mantle frequently presents a fourth
  orifice. External gill-plate directed dorsally and without reflected
  lamella. Hinge without teeth.

    Fam. 1. _Thracidae._--Mantle with a fourth aperture; siphons long,
    quite separate, completely retractile and invertible. _Thracia_;
    British. _Asthenothaerus._

    Fam. 2. _Periplomidae._--Siphons separate, naked, completely
    retractile but not invertible. _Periploma. Cochlodesma. Tyleria._

    Fam. 3. _Anatinidae._--Siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous
    sheath, not completely retractile. _Anatina. Plectomya_; Jurassic
    and Cretaceous.

    Fam. 4. _Pholadomyidae._--Mantle with fourth aperture; siphons very
    long, completely united, naked, incompletely retractile; foot small,
    with posterior appendage. _Pholadomya._

    Fam. 5. _Arcomyidae._--Extinct; Secondary and Tertiary. _Arcomya._
    _Goniomya._

    Fam. 6. _Pholadellidae._--Extinct; Palaeozoic. _Pholadella.
    Phytimya. Allorisma._

    Fam. 7. _Pleuromyidae._--Extinct; Secondary. _Pleuromya. Gresslya._
    _Ceromya._

    Fam. 8. _Pandoridae._--Shell thin, inequivalve, free; ligament
    internal; siphons very short. _Pandora_; British. _Coelodon._
    _Clidiophora._

    Fam. 9. _Myochamidae._--Shell very inequivalve, solid, with a
    pallial sinus; siphons short; foot small. _Myochama. Myodora._

    Fam. 10. _Chamostraeidae._--A fourth pallial aperture present; pedal
    aperture small; siphons very short and separate; shell fixed by the
    right valve, irregular. _Chamostraea._

    Fam. 11. _Clavagellidae._--Pedal aperture very small, foot
    rudimentary; valves continued backwards into a calcareous tube
    secreted by the siphons. _Clavagella. Brechites (Aspergillum)._

    Fam. 12. _Lyonsiidae._--Foot byssiferous; siphons short, invertible.
    _Lyonsia_; British. _Entodesma. Mytilimeria._

    Fam. 13. _Verticordiidae._--Siphons short, gills papillose; foot
    small; shell globular. Many species abyssal. _Verlicordia._
    _Euciroa. Lyonsiella. Halicardia._


Order IV. SEPTIBRANCHIA

Gills have lost their respiratory function, and are transformed into a
muscular septum on each side between mantle and foot. All marine, live
at considerable depths, and are carnivorous.

  Fam. 1. _Poromyidae._--Siphons short and separate; branchial siphon
  with a large valve; branchial septum bears two groups of orifices on
  either side; hermaphrodite. _Poromya_; British. _Dermatomya.
  Liopistha_; Cretaceous.

  Fam. 2. _Cetoconchidae._--Branchial septum with three groups of
  orifices on each side; siphons short, separate, branchial siphon with
  a valve. _Cetoconcha (Silenia)._

  Fam. 3. _Cuspidariidae._--Branchial septum with four or five pairs of
  very narrow symmetrical orifices; siphons long, united, their
  extremities surrounded by tentacles; sexes separate. _Cuspidaria_;
  British.

  AUTHORITIES.--T. Barrois, "Le Stylet crystallin des Lamellibranches,"
  _Revue biol. Nord France_, i. (1890); Jameson, "On the Origin of
  Pearls," _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1902); R. H. Peck, "The Minute
  Structure of the Gills of Lamellibranch Mollusca," _Quart. Journ.
  Micr. Sci._ xvii. (1877); W. G. Ridewood, "On the Structure of the
  Gills of the Lamellibranchia," _Phil. Trans. B._ cxcv. (1903); K.
  Mitsukuri, "On the Structure and Significance of some aberrant forms
  of Lamellibranchiate Gills," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ xxi. (1881);
  A. H. Cooke, "Molluscs," _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. iii.; Paul
  Pelseneer, "Mollusca," _Treatise on Zoology_, edited by E. Ray
  Lankester, pt. v.     (E. R. L.; J. T. C.)








*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "L" TO "LAMELLIBRANCHIA" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.




========== eb11_42342.txt ==========

﻿The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Logarithm" to "Lord Advocate"
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Logarithm" to "Lord Advocate"

Author: Various

Release date: March 15, 2013 [eBook #42342]
                Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
        Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "LOGARITHM" TO "LORD ADVOCATE" ***

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE LOGARITHM: "... tangents and secants for every minute of
      the quadrant to 10 places; these were obtained by calculating the
      logarithms of the natural sines, &c. given in the Thesaurus
      mathematicus of Pitiscus (1613)." 'these' amended from 'there'.

    ARTICLE LOGARITHM: "The final step was made by John Newton in his
      Trigonometria Britannica (1658) ..." 'Trigonometria' amended from
      'Trigononometria'.

    ARTICLE LOGIC: "S is not P." 'P' amended from 'M'.

    ARTICLE LOGIC: "... Jevons proceeded to confuse analytic deduction
      from consequence to ground with hypothetical deduction from ground
      to consequence under the common term 'inverse deduction.'"
      'consequence' amended from 'conseguence'.

    ARTICLE LOGIC: "But in induction the given particulars are the
      evidence by which we discover the universal, e.g. particular
      magnets attracting iron are the origin of an inference that all do
      ..." 'attracting' amended from 'attracing'.

    ARTICLE LOGIC: "... but which is to other regards deductive as
      syllogism, is set up in contrast to syllogism 906 and enumeration
      alike." 'contrast' amended from 'constrast'

    ARTICLE LOGIC: "67a 39-63." '-63'-63' amended from '-b 3'.

    ARTICLE LOIRE: "Owing to the extreme irregularity of the river in
      different seasons these canals form the only certain navigable
      way." 'extreme' amended from 'exteme'.

    ARTICLE LOLLARDS: "He summed up their doctrines under eleven heads:
      they condemn the having and using of images in the churches ..."
      added 'of'.

    ARTICLE LOMBARDY: "G. T. Rivoira in Origini dell' Architettura
      Lombarda (2 vols. Rome, 1901-1907) ..." 'Architettura' amended from
      'Architetturo'.

    ARTICLE LONDONDERRY: "The scenery of the Roe valley, with the
      picturesque towns of Limavady and Dungiven, is also attractive, and
      the roads from the latter place to Draperstown and to Maghera ..."
      'attractive' amended from 'atrractive'.

    ARTICLE LONGOMONTANUS: "... Problemata duo Geometrica (1638) ..."
      'Geometrica' amended from 'Goemetrica'.

    ARTICLE LOOM: "... and, as appears from Grew (Mus. Reg. Soc. p.
      69), it was formerly given to the little grebe or dabchick (P.
      fluviatilis or minor)." 'as' amended from 'ns'.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


           VOLUME XVI, SLICE VIII

         Logarithm to Lord Advocate




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  LOGARITHM                         LONG, JOHN DAVIS
  LOGAU, FRIEDRICH                  LONG BRANCH
  LOGIA                             LONGCLOTH
  LOGIC                             LONG EATON
  LOGOCYCLIC CURVE, STROPHOID       LONGEVITY
  LOGOGRAPHI                        LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH
  LOGOS                             LONG FIVES
  LOGOTHETE                         LONGFORD (county of Ireland)
  LOGROÑO (province of Spain)       LONGFORD (town of Ireland)
  LOGROÑO (Spanish town)            LONGHI, PIETRO
  LOGROSCINO, NICOLA                LONGINUS, CASSIUS
  LOGWOOD                           LONG ISLAND
  LOHARU                            LONG ISLAND CITY
  LÖHE, JOHANN KONRAD WILHELM       LONGITUDE
  LOHENGRIN                         LONGLEY, CHARLES THOMAS
  LOIN                              LONGMANS
  LOIRE (river of France)           LONGOMONTANUS, CHRISTIAN SEVERIN
  LOIRE (department of France)      LONGSTREET, JAMES
  LOIRE-INFÉRIEURE                  LONGTON
  LOIRET                            LONGUEVILLE
  LOIR-ET-CHER                      LONGUEVILLE, ANNE GENEVIÈVE
  LOISY, ALFRED FIRMIN              LONGUS
  LOJA                              LONGWY
  LOKEREN                           LÖNNROT, ELIAS
  LOKOJA                            LONSDALE, EARLS OF
  LOLLARDS                          LONSDALE, WILLIAM
  LOLLIUS, MARCUS                   LONS-LE-SAUNIER
  LOLOS                             LOO
  LOMBARD LEAGUE                    LOOE
  LOMBARDO                          LOOM (water-birds)
  LOMBARDS                          LOOM (weaving machine)
  LOMBARDY                          LOÓN
  LOMBOK                            LOOP
  LOMBROSO, CESARE                  LOOSESTRIFE
  LOMÉNIE, ÉTIENNE CHARLES DE       LOOT
  LOMOND, LOCH                      LOPES, FERNÃO
  LOMONÓSOV, MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH    LOPEZ, CARLOS ANTONIO
  LOMZA (government of Russian)     LOPEZ DE GÓMARA, FRANCISCO
  LOMZA (town of Russia)            LOP-NOR
  LONAULI                           LOQUAT
  LONDON (Canada)                   LORAIN
  LONDON (capital of England)       LORALAI
  LONDON CLAY                       LORCA
  LONDONDERRY, EARLS OF             LORCH (Prussian town)
  LONDONDERRY, STEWART (VANE)       LORCH (town of kingdom of Württemberg)
  LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART       LORD, JOHN
  LONDONDERRY (county of Ireland)   LORD
  LONDONDERRY (town of Ireland)     LORD ADVOCATE
  LONG, GEORGE




LOGARITHM (from Gr. [Greek: logos], word, ratio, and [Greek: arithmos],
number), in mathematics, a word invented by John Napier to denote a
particular class of function discovered by him, and which may be defined
as follows: if a, x, m are any three quantities satisfying the equation
a^x = m, then a is called the base, and x is said to be the logarithm of
m to the base a. This relation between x, a, m, may be expressed also by
the equation x = log(a) m.

_Properties._--The principal properties of logarithms are given by the
equations

  log(a) (mn) = log(a)m + log(a)n,   log(a)(m/n) = log(a)m - log(a)n,
  log(a)m^(r) = r log(a)m,           log(a)[root r]m = (1/r)log(a)m,


which may be readily deduced from the definition of a logarithm. It
follows from these equations that the logarithm of the product of any
number of quantities is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the
quantities, that the logarithm of the quotient of two quantities is
equal to the logarithm of the numerator diminished by the logarithm of
the denominator, that the logarithm of the rth power of a quantity is
equal to r times the logarithm of the quantity, and that the logarithm
of the rth root of a quantity is equal to (1/r)th of the logarithm of
the quantity.

Logarithms were originally invented for the sake of abbreviating
arithmetical calculations, as by their means the operations of
multiplication and division may be replaced by those of addition and
subtraction, and the operations of raising to powers and extraction of
roots by those of multiplication and division. For the purpose of thus
simplifying the operations of arithmetic, the base is taken to be 10,
and use is made of tables of logarithms in which the values of x, the
logarithm, corresponding to values of m, the number, are tabulated. The
logarithm is also a function of frequent occurrence in analysis, being
regarded as a known and recognized function like sin x or tan x; but in
mathematical investigations the base generally employed is not 10, but a
certain quantity usually denoted by the letter e, of value 2.71828
18284....

Thus in arithmetical calculations if the base is not expressed it is
understood to be 10, so that log m denotes log10 m; but in analytical
formulae it is understood to be e.

The logarithms to base 10 of the first twelve numbers to 7 places of
decimals are

  log 1 = 0.0000000    log 5 = 0.6989700     log 9 = 0.9542425
  log 2 = 0.3010300    log 6 = 0.7781513    log 10 = 1.0000000
  log 3 = 0.4771213    log 7 = 0.8450980    log 11 = 1.0413927
  log 4 = 0.6020600    log 8 = 0.9030900    log 12 = 1.0791812

The meaning of these results is that

   1 = 10^0,     2 = 10^(0.3010300),     3 = 10^(0.4771213), ...
  10 = 10^1,    11 = 10^(1.0413927),    12 = 10^(1.0791812).

The integral part of a logarithm is called the index or characteristic,
and the fractional part the mantissa. When the base is 10, the
logarithms of all numbers in which the digits are the same, no matter
where the decimal point may be, have the same mantissa; thus, for
example,

  log 2.5613 = 0.4084604,    log 25.613 = 1.4084604,    log 2561300 =
  6.4084604, &c.

In the case of fractional numbers (i.e. numbers in which the integral
part is 0) the mantissa is still kept positive, so that, for example,
               _                         _
  log .25613 = 1.4084604, log .0025613 = 3.4084604, &c.

the minus sign being usually written over the characteristic, and not
before it, to indicate that the characteristic only, and not the whole
expression, is negative; thus
  _
  1.4084604 stands for -1 + .4084604.

The fact that when the base is 10 the mantissa of the logarithm is
independent of the position of the decimal point in the number affords
the chief reason for the choice of 10 as base. The explanation of this
property of the base 10 is evident, for a change in the position of the
decimal points amounts to multiplication or division by some power of
10, and this corresponds to the addition or subtraction of some integer
in the case of the logarithm, the mantissa therefore remaining intact.
It should be mentioned that in most tables of trigonometrical
functions, the number 10 is added to all the logarithms in the table in
order to avoid the use of negative characteristics, so that the
characteristic 9 denotes in reality ~1, 8 denotes ~2, 10 denotes 0, &c.
Logarithms thus increased are frequently referred to for the sake of
distinction as _tabular logarithms_, so that the tabular logarithm = the
true logarithm + 10.

In tables of logarithms of numbers to base 10 the mantissa only is in
general tabulated, as the characteristic of the logarithm of a number
can always be written down at sight, the rule being that, if the number
is greater than unity, the characteristic is less by unity than the
number of digits in the integral portion of it, and that if the number
is less than unity the characteristic is negative, and is greater by
unity than the number of ciphers between the decimal point and the first
significant figure.

It follows very simply from the definition of a logarithm that

  log(a) b × log(b) a = 1, log(b) m = log(a) m × (1/log(a) b).

The second of these relations is an important one, as it shows that from
a table of logarithms to base a, the corresponding table of logarithms
to base b may be deduced by multiplying all the logarithms in the former
by the constant multiplier 1/log(a)b, which is called the _modulus_ of
the system whose base is b with respect to the system whose base is a.

The two systems of logarithms for which extensive tables have been
calculated are the Napierian, or hyperbolic, or natural system, of which
the base is e, and the Briggian, or decimal, or common system, of which
the base is 10; and we see that the logarithms in the latter system may
be deduced from those in the former by multiplication by the constant
multiplier 1/log(e)10, which is called the modulus of the common system
of logarithms. The numerical value of this modulus is 0.43429 44819
03251 82765 11289 ..., and the value of its reciprocal, log^(e) 10 (by
multiplication by which Briggian logarithms may be converted into
Napierian logarithms) is 2.30258 50929 94045 68401 79914 ....

The quantity denoted by e is the series,

       1     1      1        1
  1 + --- + --- + ----- + ------- + ...
       1    1·2   1·2·3   1·2·3·4

the numerical value of which is,

  2.71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 ....

  _The logarithmic Function._--The mathematical function log x or log(e)
  x is one of the small group of transcendental functions, consisting
  only of the circular functions (direct and inverse) sin x, cos x, &c.,
  arc sin x or sin^{-1} x,&c., log x and e^(x) which are universally
  treated in analysis as known functions. The notation log x is
  generally employed in English and American works, but on the continent
  of Europe writers usually denote the function by lx or lg x. The
  logarithmic function is most naturally introduced into analysis by the
  equation
      _
     / x        dt
     |  log x = ---, (x > 0).
    _/ 1         t

  This equation defines log x for positive values of x; if x <= 0 the
  formula ceases to have any meaning. Thus log x is the integral
  function of 1/x, and it can be shown that log x is a genuinely new
  transcendent, not expressible in finite terms by means of functions
  such as algebraical or circular functions. A connexion with the
  circular functions, however, appears later when the definition of log
  x is extended to complex values of x.

  A relation which is of historical interest connects the logarithmic
  function with the quadrature of the hyperbola, for, by considering the
  equation of the hyperbola in the form xy = const., it is evident that
  the area included between the arc of a hyperbola, its nearest
  asymptote, and two ordinates drawn parallel to the other asymptote
  from points on the first asymptote distant a and b from their point of
  intersection, is proportional to log b/a.

  The following fundamental properties of log x are readily deducible
  from the definition

  (i.) log xy = log x + log y.

  (ii.) Limit of (x^(h)-1)/h = log x, when h is indefinitely diminished.

  Either of these properties might be taken as itself the definition of
  log x.

  There is no series for log x proceeding either by ascending or
  descending powers of x, but there is an expansion for log (1 + x),
  viz.

    log (1 + x) = x - 1/2 x^2 + 1/3 x^3 - 1/4 x^4 + ...;

  the series, however, is convergent for real values of x only when x
  lies between +1 and -1. Other formulae which are deducible from this
  equation are given in the portion of this article relating to the
  calculation of logarithms.

  The function log x as x increases from 0 towards [oo] steadily
  increases from -[oo] towards +[oo]. It has the important property that
  it tends to infinity with x, but more slowly than any power of x, i.e.
  that x^{-m} log x tends to zero as x tends to [oo] for every positive
  value of m however small.

  The _exponential function_, exp x, may be defined as the inverse of
  the logarithm: thus x = exp y if y = log x. It is positive for all
  values of y and increases steadily from 0 toward [oo] as y increases
  from -[oo] towards +[oo]. As y tends towards [oo], exp y tends towards
  [oo] more rapidly than any power of y.

  The exponential function possesses the properties

    (i.) exp (x + y) = exp x × exp y.

           d
    (ii.) --- exp x = exp x.
          dx

    (iii.) exp x = 1 +x + x²/2! + x³/3! + ...

  From (i.) and (ii.) it may be deduced that

    exp x = (1 + 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + ... )^x

  where the right-hand side denotes the positive xth power of the number
  1 + 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + ... usually denoted by e. It is customary,
  therefore, to denote the exponential function by e^x and the result

    e^x = 1 + x + x²/2! + x³/3! ...

  is known as the _exponential theorem_.

  The definitions of the logarithmic and exponential functions may be
  extended to complex values of x. Thus if x = [xi] + i[eta]
             _
            / x dt
    log x = |   ---
           _/ 1  t

  where the path of integration in the plane of the complex variable t
  is any curve which does not pass through the origin; but now log x is
  not a uniform function, that is to say, if x describes a closed curve
  it does not follow that log x also describes a closed curve: in fact
  we have

    log ([xi] + i[eta]) = log [root]([xi]² + [eta]²) + i([alpha] + 2n[pi]),

  where [alpha] is the numerically least angle whose cosine and sine are
  [xi]/[root]([xi]² + [eta]²) and [eta]/[root]([xi]² + [eta]²), and n
  denotes any integer. Thus even when the argument is real log x has an
  infinite number of values; for putting [eta] = 0 and taking [xi]
  positive, in which case [alpha] = 0, we obtain for log [xi] the
  infinite system of values log [xi] + 2n[pi]i. It follows from this
  property of the function that we cannot have for log x a series which
  shall be convergent for all values of x, as is the case with sin x and
  cos x, for such a series could only represent a uniform function, and
  in fact the equation

    log(1 + x) = x - ½x^2 + {1/3}x^3 - ¼x^4 + ...

  is true only when the analytical modulus of x is less than unity. The
  exponential function, which may still be defined as the inverse of the
  logarithmic function, is, on the other hand, a uniform function of x,
  and its fundamental properties may be stated in the same form as for
  real values of x. Also

    exp ([xi] - i[eta]) = e^{[xi]}(cos [eta] + i sin [eta]).

  An alternative method of developing the theory of the exponential
  function is to start from the definition

    exp x = 1 + x + x²/2! + x³/3! + ...,

  the series on the right-hand being convergent for all values of x and
  therefore defining an analytical function of x which is uniform and
  regular all over the plane.

_Invention and Early History of Logarithms._--The invention of
logarithms has been accorded to John Napier, baron of Merchiston in
Scotland, with a unanimity which is rare with regard to important
scientific discoveries: in fact, with the exception of the tables of
Justus Byrgius, which will be referred to further on, there seems to
have been no other mathematician of the time whose mind had conceived
the principle on which logarithms depend, and no partial anticipations
of the discovery are met with in previous writers.

The first announcement of the invention was made in Napier's _Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio ..._ (Edinburgh, 1614). The work is a
small quarto containing fifty-seven pages of explanatory matter and a
table of ninety pages (see NAPIER, JOHN). The nature of logarithms is
explained by reference to the motion of points in a straight line, and
the principle upon which they are based is that of the correspondence of
a geometrical and an arithmetical series of numbers. The table gives the
logarithms of sines for every minute of seven figures; it is arranged
semi-quadrantally, so that the _differentiae_, which are the differences
of the two logarithms in the same line, are the logarithms of the
tangents. Napier's logarithms are not the logarithms now termed
Napierian or hyperbolic, that is to say, logarithms to the base e where
e = 2.7182818...; the relation between N (a sine) and L its logarithm,
as defined in the _Canonis Descriptio_, being N = 10^7e^{-L/(l0^7)}, so
that (ignoring the factors 10^7, the effect of which is to render sines
and logarithms integral to 7 figures), the base is e^{-l}. Napier's
logarithms decrease as the sines increase. If l denotes the logarithm to
base e (that is, the so-called "Napierian" or hyperbolic logarithm) and
L denotes, as above, "Napier's" logarithm, the connexion between l and L
is expressed by

  L = 10^7 log(e) 10^7 - 10^7 l or e^(l) = 10^7 e^(-L/10^7)

Napier's work (which will henceforth in this article be referred to as
the _Descriptio_) immediately on its appearance in 1614 attracted the
attention of perhaps the two most eminent English mathematicians then
living--Edward Wright and Henry Briggs. The former translated the work
into English; the latter was concerned with Napier in the change of the
logarithms from those originally invented to decimal or common
logarithms, and it is to him that the original calculation of the
logarithmic tables now in use is mainly due. Both Napier and Wright died
soon after the publication of the _Descriptio_, the date of Wright's
death being 1615 and that of Napier 1617, but Briggs lived until 1631.
Edward Wright, who was a fellow of Caius College, Cambridge, occupies a
conspicuous place in the history of navigation. In 1599 he published
_Certaine errors in Navigation detected and corrected_, and he was the
author of other works; to him also is chiefly due the invention of the
method known as Mercator's sailing. He at once saw the value of
logarithms as an aid to navigation, and lost no time in preparing a
translation, which he submitted to Napier himself. The preface to
Wright's edition consists of a translation of the preface to the
_Descriptio_, together with the addition of the following sentences
written by Napier himself: "But now some of our countreymen in this
Island well affected to these studies, and the more publique good,
procured a most learned Mathematician to translate the same into our
vulgar English tongue, who after he had finished it, sent the Coppy of
it to me, to bee seene and considered on by myselfe. I having most
willingly and gladly done the same, finde it to bee most exact and
precisely conformable to my minde and the originall. Therefore it may
please you who are inclined to these studies, to receive it from me and
the Translator, with as much good will as we recommend it unto you."
There is a short "preface to the reader" by Briggs, and a description of
a triangular diagram invented by Wright for finding the proportional
parts. The table is printed to one figure less than in the _Descriptio_.
Edward Wright died, as has been mentioned, in 1615, and his son, Samuel
Wright, in the preface states that his father "gave much commendation of
this work (and often in my hearing) as of very great use to mariners";
and with respect to the translation he says that "shortly after he had
it returned out of Scotland, it pleased God to call him away afore he
could publish it." The translation was published in 1616. It was also
reissued with a new title-page in 1618.

Henry Briggs, then professor of geometry at Gresham College, London, and
afterwards Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, welcomed the
_Descriptio_ with enthusiasm. In a letter to Archbishop Usher, dated
Gresham House, March 10, 1615, he wrote, "Napper, lord of Markinston,
hath set my head and hands a work with his new and admirable logarithms.
I hope to see him this summer, if it please God, for I never saw book
which pleased me better, or made me more wonder.[1] I purpose to
discourse with him concerning eclipses, for what is there which we may
not hope for at his hands," and he also states "that he was wholly taken
up and employed about the noble invention of logarithms lately
discovered." Briggs accordingly visited Napier in 1615, and stayed with
him a whole month.[2] He brought with him some calculations he had
made, and suggested to Napier the advantages that would result from the
choice of 10 as a base, an improvement which he had explained in his
lectures at Gresham College, and on which he had written to Napier.
Napier said that he had already thought of the change, and pointed out a
further improvement, viz., that the characteristics of numbers greater
than unity should be positive and not negative, as suggested by Briggs.
In 1616 Briggs again visited Napier and showed him the work he had
accomplished, and, he says, he would gladly have paid him a third visit
in 1617 had Napier's life been spared.

Briggs's _Logarithmorum chilias prima_, which contains the first
published table of decimal or common logarithms, is only a small octavo
tract of sixteen pages, and gives the logarithms of numbers from unity
to 1000 to 14 places of decimals. It was published, probably privately,
in 1617, after Napier's death,[3] and there is no author's name, place
or date. The date of publication is, however, fixed as 1617 by a letter
from Sir Henry Bourchier to Usher, dated December 6, 1617, containing
the passage--"Our kind friend, Mr Briggs, hath lately published a
supplement to the most excellent tables of logarithms, which I presume
he has sent to you." Briggs's tract of 1617 is extremely rare, and has
generally been ignored or incorrectly described. Hutton erroneously
states that it contains the logarithms to 8 places, and his account has
been followed by most writers. There is a copy in the British Museum.

Briggs continued to labour assiduously at the calculation of logarithms,
and in 1624 published his _Arithmetica logarithmica_, a folio work
containing the logarithms of the numbers from l to 20,000, and from
90,000 to 100,000 (and in some copies to 101,000) to 14 places of
decimals. The table occupies 300 pages, and there is an introduction of
88 pages relating to the mode of calculation, and the applications of
logarithms.

There was thus left a gap between 20,000 and 90,000, which was filled up
by Adrian Vlacq (or Ulaccus), who published at Gouda, in Holland, in
1628, a table containing the logarithms of the numbers from unity to
100,000 to 10 places of decimals. Having calculated 70,000 logarithms
and copied only 30,000, Vlacq would have been quite entitled to have
called his a new work. He designates it, however, only a second edition
of Briggs's _Arithmetica logarithmica_, the title running _Arithmetica
logarithmica sive Logarithmorum Chiliades centum, ... editio secunda
aucta per Adrianum Vlacq, Goudanum_. This table of Vlacq's was
published, with an English explanation prefixed, at London in 1631 under
the title _Logarithmicall Arithmetike ... London, printed by George
Miller_, 1631. There are also copies with the title-page and
introduction in French and in Dutch (Gouda, 1628).

Briggs had himself been engaged in filling up the gap, and in a letter
to John Pell, written after the publication of Vlacq's work, and dated
October 25, 1628, he says:--

  "My desire was to have those chiliades that are wantinge betwixt 20
  and 90 calculated and printed, and I had done them all almost by my
  selfe, and by some frendes whom my rules had sufficiently informed,
  and by agreement the busines was conveniently parted amongst us; but I
  am eased of that charge and care by one Adrian Vlacque, an Hollander,
  who hathe done all the whole hundred chiliades and printed them in
  Latin, Dutche and Frenche, 1000 bookes in these 3 languages, and hathe
  sould them almost all. But he hathe cutt off 4 of my figures
  throughout; and hathe left out my dedication, and to the reader, and
  two chapters the 12 and 13, in the rest he hath not varied from me at
  all."

The original calculation of the logarithms of numbers from unity to
101,000 was thus performed by Briggs and Vlacq between 1615 and 1628.
Vlacq's table is that from which all the hundreds of tables of
logarithms that have subsequently appeared have been derived. It
contains of course many errors, which were gradually discovered and
corrected in the course of the next two hundred and fifty years.

The first calculation or publication of Briggian or common logarithms of
trigonometrical functions was made in 1620 by Edmund Gunter, who was
Briggs's colleague as professor of astronomy in Gresham College. The
title of Gunter's book, which is very scarce, is _Canon triangulorum_,
and it contains logarithmic sines and tangents for every minute of the
quadrant to 7 places of decimals.

The next publication was due to Vlacq, who appended to his logarithms of
numbers in the _Arithmetica logarithmica_ of 1628 a table giving log
sines, tangents and secants for every minute of the quadrant to 10
places; these were obtained by calculating the logarithms of the natural
sines, &c. given in the _Thesaurus mathematicus_ of Pitiscus (1613).

During the last years of his life Briggs devoted himself to the
calculation of logarithmic sines, &c. and at the time of his death in
1631 he had all but completed a logarithmic canon to every hundredth of
a degree. This work was published by Vlacq at his own expense at Gouda
in 1633, under the title _Trigonometria Britannica_. It contains log
sines (to 14 places) and tangents (to 10 places), besides natural sines,
tangents and secants, at intervals of a hundredth of a degree. In the
same year Vlacq published at Gouda his _Trigonometria artificialis_,
giving log sines and tangents to every 10 seconds of the quadrant to 10
places. This work also contains the logarithms of numbers from unity to
20,000 taken from the _Arithmetica logarithmica_ of 1628. Briggs
appreciated clearly the advantages of a centesimal division of the
quadrant, and by dividing the degree into hundredth parts instead of
into minutes, made a step towards a reformation in this respect, and but
for the appearance of Vlacq's work the decimal division of the degree
might have become recognized, as is now the case with the corresponding
division of the second. The calculation of the logarithms not only of
numbers but also of the trigonometrical functions is therefore due to
Briggs and Vlacq; and the results contained in their four fundamental
works--_Arithmetica logarithmica_ (Briggs), 1624; _Arithmetica
logarithmica_ (Vlacq), 1628; _Trigonometria Britannica_ (Briggs), 1633;
_Trigonometria artificialis_ (Vlacq), 1633--have not been superseded by
any subsequent calculations.

In the preceding paragraphs an account has been given of the actual
announcement of the invention of logarithms and of the calculation of
the tables. It now remains to refer in more detail to the invention
itself and to examine the claims of Napier and Briggs to the capital
improvement involved in the change from Napier's original logarithms to
logarithms to the base 10.

The _Descriptio_ contained only an explanation of the use of the
logarithms without any account of the manner in which the canon was
constructed. In an "Admonitio" on the seventh page Napier states that,
although in that place the mode of construction should be explained, he
proceeds at once to the use of the logarithms, "ut praelibatis prius
usu, et rei utilitate, caetera aut magis placeant posthac edenda, aut
minus saltem displiceant silentio sepulta." He awaits therefore the
judgment and censure of the learned "priusquam caetera in lucem temerè
prolata lividorum detrectationi exponantur"; and in an "Admonitio" on
the last page of the book he states that he will publish the mode of
construction of the canon "si huius inventi usum eruditis gratum fore
intellexero." Napier, however, did not live to keep this promise. In
1617 he published a small work entitled _Rabdologia_ relating to
mechanical methods of performing multiplications and divisions, and in
the same year he died.

The proposed work was published in 1619 by Robert Napier, his second son
by his second marriage, under the title _Mirifici logarithmorum canonis
constructio_.... It consists of two pages of preface followed by
sixty-seven pages of text. In the preface Robert Napier says that he has
been assured from undoubted authority that the new invention is much
thought of by the ablest mathematicians, and that nothing would delight
them more than the publication of the mode of construction of the canon.
He therefore issues the work to satisfy their desires, although, he
states, it is manifest that it would have seen the light in a far more
perfect state if his father could have put the finishing touches to it;
and he mentions that, in the opinion of the best judges, his father
possessed, among other most excellent gifts, in the highest degree the
power of explaining the most difficult matters by a certain and easy
method in the fewest possible words.

It is important to notice that in the _Constructio_ logarithms are
called artificial numbers; and Robert Napier states that the work was
composed several years (_aliquot annos_) before Napier had invented the
name logarithm. The _Constructio_ therefore may have been written a good
many years previous to the publication of the _Descriptio_ in 1614.

Passing now to the invention of common or decimal logarithms, that is,
to the transition from the logarithms originally invented by Napier to
logarithms to the base 10, the first allusion to a change of system
occurs in the "Admonitio" on the last page of the _Descriptio_ (1614),
the concluding paragraph of which is "Verùm si huius inventi usum
eruditis gratum fore intellexero, dabo fortasse brevi (Deo aspirante)
rationem ac methodum aut hunc canonem emendandi, aut emendatiorem de
novo condendi, ut ita plurium Logistarum diligentia, limatior tandem et
accuratior, quàm unius opera fieri potuit, in lucem prodeat. Nihil in
ortu perfectum." In some copies, however, this "Admonitio" is absent. In
Wright's translation of 1616 Napier has added the sentence--"But because
the addition and subtraction of these former numbers may seeme somewhat
painfull, I intend (if it shall please God) in a second Edition, to set
out such Logarithmes as shall make those numbers above written to fall
upon decimal numbers, such as 100,000,000, 200,000,000, 300,000,000,
&c., which are easie to be added or abated to or from any other number"
(p. 19); and in the dedication of the _Rabdologia_ (1617) he wrote
"Quorum quidem Logarithmorum speciem aliam multò praestantiorem nunc
etiam invenimus, & creandi methodum, unà cum eorum usu (si Deus
longiorem vitae & valetudinis usuram concesserit) evulgare statuimus;
ipsam autem novi canonis supputationem, ob infirmam corporis nostri
valetudinem, viris in hoc studii genere versatis relinquimus: imprimis
verò doctissimo viro D. Henrico Briggio Londini publico Geometriae
Professori, et amico mihi longè charissimo."

Briggs in the short preface to his _Logarithmorum chilias_ (1617) states
that the reason why his logarithms are different from those introduced
by Napier "sperandum, ejus librum posthumum, abunde nobis propediem
satisfacturum." The "liber posthumus" was the _Constructio_ (1619), in
the preface to which Robert Napier states that he has added an appendix
relating to another and more excellent species of logarithms, referred
to by the inventor himself in the _Rabdologia_, and in which the
logarithm of unity is 0. He also mentions that he has published some
remarks upon the propositions in spherical trigonometry and upon the new
species of logarithms by Henry Briggs, "qui novi hujus Canonis
supputandi laborem gravissimum, pro singulari amicitiâ quae illi cum
Patre meo L. M. intercessit, animo libentissimo in se suscepit; creandi
methodo, et usuum explanatione Inventori relictis. Nunc autem ipso ex
hâc vitâ evocato, totius negotii onus doctissimi Briggii humeris
incumbere, et Sparta haec ornanda illi sorte quadam obtigisse videtur."

In the address prefixed to the _Arithmetica logarithmica_ (1625) Briggs
bids the reader not to be surprised that these logarithms are different
from those published in the _Descriptio_:--

  "Ego enim, cum meis auditoribus Londini, publice in Collegio
  Greshamensi horum doctrinam explicarem; animadverti multo futurum
  commodius, si Logarithmus sinus totius servaretur 0 (ut in Canone
  mirifico), Logarithmus autem partis decimae ejusdem sinus totius,
  nempe sinus 5 graduum, 44, m. 21, s., esset 10000000000. atque ea de
  re scripsi statim ad ipsum authorem, et quamprimum per anni tempus, et
  vacationem a publico docendi munere licuit, profectus sum Edinburgum;
  ubi humanissime ab eo acceptus haesi per integrum mensem. Cum autem
  inter nos de horum mutatione sermo haberetur; ille se idem dudum
  sensisse, et cupivisse dicebat: veruntamen istos, quos jam paraverat
  edendos curasse, donec alios, si per negotia et valetudinem liceret,
  magis commodos confecisset. Istam autem mutationem ita faciendam
  censebat, ut 0 esset Logarithmus unitatis, et 10000000000 sinus
  totius: quod ego longe commodissimum esse non potui non agnoscere.
  Coepi igitur, ejus hortatu, rejectis illis quos anteà paraveram, de
  horum calculo serio cogitare; et sequenti aestate iterum profectus
  Edinburgum, horum quos hic exhibeo praecipuos, illi ostendi, idem
  etiam tertia aestate libentissime facturus, si Deus illum nobis tamdiu
  superstitem esse voluisset."

There is also a reference to the change of the logarithms on the
title-page of the work.

These extracts contain all the original statements made by Napier,
Robert Napier and Briggs which have reference to the origin of decimal
logarithms. It will be seen that they are all in perfect agreement.
Briggs pointed out in his lectures at Gresham College that it would be
more convenient that 0 should stand for the logarithm of the whole sine
as in the _Descriptio_, but that the logarithm of the tenth part of the
whole sine should be 10,000,000,000. He wrote also to Napier at once;
and as soon as he could he went to Edinburgh to visit him, where, as he
was most hospitably received by him, he remained for a whole month. When
they conversed about the change of system, Napier said that he had
perceived and desired the same thing, but that he had published the
tables which he had already prepared, so that they might be used until
he could construct others more convenient. But he considered that the
change ought to be so made that 0 should be the logarithm of unity and
10,000,000,000 that of the whole sine, which Briggs could not but admit
was by far the most convenient of all. Rejecting therefore, those which
he had prepared already, Briggs began, at Napier's advice, to consider
seriously the question of the calculation of new tables. In the
following summer he went to Edinburgh and showed Napier the principal
portion of the logarithms which he published in 1624. These probably
included the logarithms of the first chiliad which he published in 1617.

It has been thought necessary to give in detail the facts relating to
the conversion of the logarithms, as unfortunately Charles Hutton in his
history of logarithms, which was prefixed to the early editions of his
_Mathematical Tables_, and was also published as one of his
_Mathematical Tracts_, has charged Napier with want of candour in not
telling the world of Briggs's share in the change of system, and he
expresses the suspicion that "Napier was desirous that the world should
ascribe to him alone the merit of this very useful improvement of the
logarithms." According to Hutton's view, the words, "_it is to be hoped_
that his posthumous work" ... which occur in the preface to the
_Chilias_, were a modest hint that the share Briggs had had in changing
the logarithms should be mentioned, and that, as no attention was paid
to it, he himself gave the account which appears in the _Arithmetica_ of
1624. There seems, however, no ground whatever for supposing that Briggs
meant to express anything beyond his hope that the reason for the
alteration would be explained in the posthumous work; and in his own
account, written seven years after Napier's death and five years after
the appearance of the work itself, he shows no injured feeling whatever,
but even goes out of his way to explain that he abandoned his own
proposed alteration in favour of Napier's, and, rejecting the tables he
had already constructed, began to consider the calculation of new ones.
The facts, as stated by Napier and Briggs, are in complete accordance,
and the friendship existing between them was perfect and unbroken to the
last. Briggs assisted Robert Napier in the editing of the "posthumous
work," the _Constructio_, and in the account he gives of the alteration
of the logarithms in the _Arithmetica_ of 1624 he seems to have been
more anxious that justice should be done to Napier than to himself;
while on the other hand Napier received Briggs most hospitably and
refers to him as "amico mihi longè charissimo."

Hutton's suggestions are all the more to be regretted as they occur as a
history which is the result of a good deal of investigation and which
for years was referred to as an authority by many writers. His prejudice
against Napier naturally produced retaliation, and Mark Napier in
defending his ancestor has fallen into the opposite extreme of
attempting to reduce Briggs to the level of a mere computer. In
connexion with this controversy it should be noticed that the
"Admonitio" on the last page of the _Descriptio_, containing the
reference to the new logarithms, does not occur in all the copies. It is
printed on the back of the last page of the table itself, and so cannot
have been torn out from the copies that are without it. As there could
have been no reason for omitting it after it had once appeared, we may
assume that the copies which do not have it are those which were first
issued. It is probable, therefore, that Briggs's copy contained no
reference to the change, and it is even possible that the "Admonitio"
may have been added after Briggs had communicated with Napier. As
special attention has not been drawn to the fact that some copies have
the "Admonitio" and some have not, different writers have assumed that
Briggs did or did not know of the promise contained in the "Admonitio"
according as it was present or absent in the copies they had themselves
referred to, and this has given rise to some confusion. It may also be
remarked that the date frequently assigned to Briggs's first visit to
Napier is 1616, and not 1615 as stated above, the reason being that
Napier was generally supposed to have died in 1618 until Mark Napier
showed that the true date was 1617. When the _Descriptio_ was published
Briggs was fifty-seven years of age, and the remaining seventeen years
of his life were devoted with steady enthusiasm to extend the utility of
Napier's great invention.

The only other mathematician besides Napier who grasped the idea on
which the use of logarithm depends and applied it to the construction of
a table is Justus Byrgius (Jobst Bürgi), whose work _Arithmetische und
geometrische Progress-Tabulen_ ... was published at Prague in 1620, six
years after the publication of the _Descriptio_ of Napier. This table
distinctly involves the principle of logarithms and may be described as
a modified table of antilogarithms. It consists of two series of
numbers, the one being an arithmetical and the other a geometrical
progression: thus

    0, 1,0000 0000
   10, 1,0001 0000
   20, l,0002 0001
    .  .  .  .
  990, l,0099 4967
    .  .  .  .

In the arithmetical column the numbers increase by 10, in the
geometrical column each number is derived from its predecessor by
multiplication by 1.0001. Thus the number 10x in the arithmetical column
corresponds to 10^8 (1.0001)^x in the geometrical column; the
intermediate numbers being obtained by interpolation. If we divide the
numbers in the geometrical column by 10^8 the correspondence is between
10x and (1.0001)^x, and the table then becomes one of antilogarithms,
the base being (1.0001)^{1/10}, viz. for example (l.0001)^{1/10·990} =
1.00994967. The table extends to 230270 in the arithmetical column, and
it is shown that 230270.022 corresponds to 9.9999 9999 or 109 in the
geometrical column; this last result showing that (1.0001)^{23027.022} =
10. The first contemporary mention of Byrgius's table occurs on page 11
of the "Praecepta" prefixed to Kepler's _Tabulae Radolphinae_ (1627);
his words are: "apices logistici J. Byrgio multis annis ante editionem
Neperianam viam praeiverent ad hos ipsissimos logarithmos. Etsi homo
cunctator et secretorum suorum custos foetum in partu destituit, non ad
usus publicos educavit." Another reference to Byrgius occurs in a work
by Benjamin Bramer, the brother-in-law and pupil of Byrgius, who,
writing in 1630, says that the latter constructed his table twenty years
ago or more.[4]

As regards priority of publication, Napier has the advantage by six
years, and even fully accepting Bramer's statement, there are grounds
for believing that Napier's work dates from a still earlier period.

The power of 10, which occurs as a factor in the tables of both Napier
and Byrgius, was rendered necessary by the fact that the decimal point
was not yet in use. Omitting this factor in the case of both tables,
the connexion between N a number and L its "logarithm" is

  N = (e^-1)^L (Napier), L =(1.0001)^[(1/10)N] (Byrgius),

viz. Napier gives logarithms to base e^{-1}, Byrgius gives
antilogarithms to base (1.0001)^{1/10}.

There is indirect evidence that Napier was occupied with logarithms as
early as 1594, for in a letter to P. Crügerus from Kepler, dated
September 9, 1624 (Frisch's _Kepler_, vi. 47), there occurs the
sentence: "Nihil autem supra Neperianam rationem esse puto: etsi quidem
Scotus quidam literis ad Tychonem 1594 scriptis jam spem fecit Canonis
illius Mirifici." It is here distinctly stated that some Scotsman in the
year 1594, in a letter to Tycho Brahe, gave him some hope of the
logarithms; and as Kepler joined Tycho after his expulsion from the
island of Huen, and had been so closely associated with him in his work,
he would be likely to be correct in any assertion of this kind. In
connexion with Kepler's statement the following story, told by Anthony
wood in the _Athenae Oxonienses_, is of some importance:--

  "It must be now known, that one Dr Craig, a Scotchman ... coming out
  of Denmark into his own country, called upon Joh. Neper, Baron of
  Mercheston, near Edinburgh, and told him, among other discourses, of a
  new invention in Denmark (by Longomontanus, as 'tis said), to save the
  tedious multiplication and division in astronomical calculations.
  Neper being solicitous to know farther of him concerning this matter,
  he could give no other account of it than that it was by proportional
  numbers. Which hint Neper taking, he desired him at his return to call
  upon him again. Craig, after some weeks had passed, did so, and Neper
  then showed him a rude draught of what he called _Canon mirabilis
  logarithmorum_. which draught, with some alterations, he printing in
  1614, it came forthwith into the hands of our author Briggs, and into
  those of Will. Oughtred, from whom the relation of this matter came."

This story, though obviously untrue in some respects, gives valuable
information by connecting Dr Craig with Napier and Longomontanus, who
was Tycho Brahe's assistant. Dr Craig was John Craig, the third son of
Thomas Craig, who was one of the colleagues of Sir Archibald Napier,
John Napier's father, in the office of justice-depute. Between John
Craig and John Napier a friendship sprang up which may have been due to
their common taste for mathematics. There are extant three letters from
Dr John Craig to Tycho Brahe, which show that he was on the most
friendly terms with him. In the first letter, of which the date is not
given, Craig says that Sir William Stuart has safely delivered to him,
"about the beginning of last winter," the book which he sent him. Now
Mark Napier found in the library of the university of Edinburgh a
mathematical work bearing a sentence in Latin which he translates, "To
Doctor John Craig of Edinburgh, in Scotland, a most illustrious man,
highly gifted with various and excellent learning, professor of
medicine, and exceedingly skilled in the mathematics, Tycho Brahe hath
sent this gift, and with his own hand written this at Uraniburg, 2d
November 1588." As Sir William Stuart was sent to Denmark to arrange the
preliminaries of King James's marriage, and returned to Edinburgh on the
15th of November 1588, it would seem probable that this was the volume
referred to by Craig. It appears from Craig's letter, to which we may
therefore assign the date 1589, that, five years before, he had made an
attempt to reach Uranienburg, but had been baffled by the storms and
rocks of Norway, and that ever since then he had been longing to visit
Tycho. Now John Craig was physician to the king, and in 1590 James VI.
spent some days at Uranienburg, before returning to Scotland from his
matrimonial expedition. It seems not unlikely therefore that Craig may
have accompanied the king in his visit to Uranienburg.[5] In any case it
is certain that Craig was a friend and correspondent of Tycho's, and it
is probable that he was the "Scotus quidam."

We may infer therefore that as early as 1594 Napier had communicated to
some one, probably John Craig, his hope of being able to effect a
simplification in the processes of arithmetic. Everything tends to show
that the invention of logarithms was the result of many years of labour
and thought,[6] undertaken with this special object, and it would seem
that Napier had seen some prospect of success nearly twenty years before
the publication of the _Descriptio_. It is very evident that no mere
hint with regard to the use of proportional numbers could have been of
any service to him, but it is possible that the news brought by Craig of
the difficulties placed in the progress of astronomy by the labour of
the calculations may have stimulated him to persevere in his efforts.

The "new invention in Denmark" to which Anthony Wood refers as having
given the hint to Napier was probably the method of calculation called
prosthaphaeresis (often written in Greek letters [Greek:
prosthaphairesis]), which had its origin in the solution of spherical
triangles.[7] The method consists in the use of the formula

  sin a sin b = ½{cos (a - b) - cos (a + b)},

by means of which the multiplication of two sines is reduced to the
addition or subtraction of two tabular results taken from a table of
sines; and, as such products occur in the solution of spherical
triangles, the method affords the solution of spherical triangles in
certain cases by addition and subtraction only. It seems to be due to
Wittich of Breslau, who was assistant for a short time to Tycho Brahe;
and it was used by them in their calculations in 1582. Wittich in 1584
made known at Cassel the calculation of one case by this
prosthaphaeresis; and Justus Byrgius proved it in such a manner that
from his proof the extension to the solution of all triangles could be
deduced.[8] Clavius generalized the method in his treatise _De
astrolabio_ (1593), lib. i. lemma liii. The lemma is enunciated as
follows:--

  "Quaestiones omnes, quae per sinus, tangentes, atque secantes absolvi
  solent, per solam prosthaphaeresim, id est, per solam additionem,
  subtractionem, sine laboriosa numerorum multiplicatione divisioneque
  expedire."

Clavius then refers to a work of Raymarus Ursus Dithmarsus as containing
an account of a particular case. The work is probably the _Fundamentum
astronomicum_ (1588). Longomontanus, in his _Astronomia Danica_ (1622),
gives an account of the method, stating that it is not to be found in
the writings of the Arabs or Regiomontanus. As Longomontanus is
mentioned in Anthony Wood's anecdote, and as Wittich as well as
Longomontanus were assistants of Tycho, we may infer that Wittich's
prosthaphaeresis is the method referred to by Wood.

It is evident that Wittich's prosthaphaeresis could not be a good method
of practically effecting multiplications unless the quantities to be
multiplied were sines, on account of the labour of the interpolations.
It satisfies the condition, however, equally with logarithms, of
enabling multiplication to be performed by the aid of a table of single
entry; and, analytically considered, it is not so different in principle
from the logarithmic method. In fact, if we put xy = [phi](X + Y), X
being a function of x only and Y a function of y only, we can show that
we must have X = Ae^(qx), y = Be^(qy); and if we put xy = [phi](X + Y) -
[phi](X - Y), the solutions are [phi](X + Y) = ¼(x + y)², and x = sin X,
y = sin Y, [phi](X + Y) = -½cos(X + Y). The former solution gives a
method known as that of quarter-squares; the latter gives the method of
prosthaphaeresis.

An account has now been given of Napier's invention and its publication,
the transition to decimal logarithms, the calculation of the tables by
Briggs, Vlacq and Gunter, as well as of the claims of Byrgius and the
method of prosthaphaeresis. To complete the early history of logarithms
it is necessary to return to Napier's _Descriptio_ in order to describe
its reception on the continent, and to mention the other logarithmic
tables which were published while Briggs was occupied with his
calculations.

John Kepler, who has been already quoted in connexion with Craig's visit
to Tycho Brahe, received the invention of logarithms almost as
enthusiastically as Briggs. His first mention of the subject occurs in a
letter to Schikhart dated the 11th of March 1618, in which he
writes-"Extitit Scotus Baro, cujus nomen mihi excidit, qui praeclari
quid praestitit, necessitate omni multiplicationum et divisionum in
meras additiones et subtractiones commutata, nec sinibus utitur; at
tamen opus est ipsi tangentium canone: et varietas, crebritas,
difficultasque additionum subtractionumque alicubi laborem multiplicandi
et dividendi superat." This erroneous estimate was formed when he had
seen the _Descriptio_ but had not read it; and his opinion was very
different when he became acquainted with the nature of logarithms. The
dedication of his _Ephemeris_ for 1620 consists of a letter to Napier
dated the 28th of July 1619, and he there congratulates him warmly on
his invention and on the benefit he has conferred upon astronomy
generally and upon Kepler's own Rudolphine tables. He says that,
although Napier's book had been published five years, he first saw it at
Prague two years before; he was then unable to read it, but last year he
had met with a little work by Benjamin Ursinus[9] containing the
substance of the method, and he at once recognized the importance of
what had been effected. He then explains how he verified the canon, and
so found that there were no essential errors in it, although there were
a few inaccuracies near the beginning of the quadrant, and he proceeds,
"Haec te obiter scire volui, ut quibus tu methodis incesseris, quas non
dubito et plurimas et ingeniosissimas tibi in promptu esse, eas publici
juris fieri, mihi saltem (puto et caeteris) scires fore gratissimum;
eoque percepto, tua promissa folio 57, in debitum cecidisse
intelligeres." This letter was written two years after Napier's death
(of which Kepler was unaware), and in the same year as that in which the
_Constructio_ was published. In the same year (1620) Napier's
_Descriptio_ (1614) and _Constructio_ (1619) were reprinted by
Bartholomew Vincent at Lyons and issued together.[10]

Napier calculated no logarithms of numbers, and, as already stated, the
logarithms invented by him were not to base e. The first logarithms to
the base e were published by John Speidell in his _New Logarithmes_
(London, 1619), which contains hyperbolic log sines, tangents and
secants for every minute of the quadrant to 5 places of decimals.

In 1624 Benjamin Ursinus published at Cologne a canon of logarithms
exactly similar to Napier's in the _Descriptio_ of 1614, only much
enlarged. The interval of the arguments is 10´´, and the results are
given to 8 places; in Napier's canon the interval is 1', and the number
of places is 7. The logarithms are strictly Napierian, and the
arrangement is identical with that in the canon of 1614. This is the
largest Napierian canon that has ever been published.

In the same year (1624) Kepler published at Marburg a table of Napierian
logarithms of sines with certain additional columns to facilitate
special calculations.

The first publication of Briggian logarithms on the continent is due to
Wingate, who published at Paris in 1625 his _Arithmétique
logarithmétique_, containing seven-figure logarithms of numbers up to
1000, and log sines and tangents from Gunter's _Canon_ (1620). In the
following year, 1626, Denis Henrion published at Paris a _Traicté des
Logarithmes_, containing Briggs's logarithms of numbers up to 20,001 to
10 places, and Gunter's log sines and tangents to 7 places for every
minute. In the same year de Decker also published at Gouda a work
entitled _Nieuwe Telkonst, inhoudende de Logarithmi voor de Ghetallen
beginnende van 1 tot 10,000_, which contained logarithms of numbers up
to 10,000 to 10 places, taken from Briggs's _Arithmetica_ of 1624, and
Gunter's log sines and tangents to 7 places for every minute.[11] Vlacq
rendered assistance in the publication of this work, and the privilege
is made out to him.

The invention of logarithms and the calculation of the earlier tables
form a very striking episode in the history of exact science, and, with
the exception of the _Principia_ of Newton, there is no mathematical
work published in the country which has produced such important
consequences, or to which so much interest attaches as to Napier's
_Descriptio_. The calculation of tables of the natural trigonometrical
functions may be said to have formed the work of the last half of the
16th century, and the great canon of natural sines for every 10 seconds
to 15 places which had been calculated by Rheticus was published by
Pitiscus only in 1613, the year before that in which the _Descriptio_
appeared. In the construction of the natural trigonometrical tables
Great Britain had taken no part, and it is remarkable that the discovery
of the principles and the formation of the tables that were to
revolutionize or supersede all the methods of calculation then in use
should have been so rapidly effected and developed in a country in which
so little attention had been previously devoted to such questions.

  For more detailed information relating to Napier, Briggs and Vlacq,
  and the invention of logarithms, the reader is referred to the life of
  Briggs in Ward's _Lives of the Professors of Gresham College_ (London,
  1740); Thomas Smith's _Vitae quorundam eruditissimorum et illustrium
  virorum_ (Vita Henrici Briggii) (London, 1707); Mark Napier's _Memoirs
  of John Napier_ already referred to, and the same author's _Naperi
  libri qui supersunt_ (1839); Hutton's _History_; de Morgan's article
  already referred to; Delambre's _Histoire de l'Astronomie moderne_;
  the report on mathematical tables in the _Report of the British
  Association_ for 1873; and the _Philosophical Magazine_ for October
  and December 1872 and May 1873. It may be remarked that the date
  usually assigned to Briggs's first visit to Napier is 1616 and not
  1615 as stated above, the reason being that Napier was generally
  supposed to have died in 1618; but it was shown by Mark Napier that
  the true date is 1617.

In the years 1791-1807 Francis Maseres published at London, in six
volumes quarto "Scriptores Logarithmici, or a collection of several
curious tracts on the nature and construction of logarithms, mentioned
in Dr Hutton's historical introduction to his new edition of Sherwin's
mathematical tables ...," which contains reprints of Napier's
_Descriptio_ of 1614, Kepler's writings on logarithms (1624-1625), &c.
In 1889 a translation of Napier's _Constructio_ of 1619 was published by
Walter Rae Macdonald. Some valuable notes are added by the translator,
in one of which he shows the accuracy of the method employed by Napier
in his calculations, and explains the origin of a small error which
occurs in Napier's table. Appended to the Catalogue is a full and
careful bibliography of all Napier's writings, with mention of the
public libraries, British and foreign, which possess copies of each. A
facsimile reproduction of Bartholomew Vincent's Lyons edition (1620) of
the _Constructio_ was issued in 1895 by A. Hermann at Paris (this
imprint occurs on page 62 after the word "Finis").

It now remains to notice briefly a few of the more important events in
the history of logarithmic tables subsequent to the original
calculations.

  _Common or Briggian Logarithms of Numbers._--Nathaniel Roe's _Tabulae
  logarithmicae_ (1633) was the first complete seven-figure table that
  was published. It contains seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 1
  to 100,000, with characteristics unseparated from the mantissae, and
  was formed from Vlacq's table (1628) by leaving out the last three
  figures. All the figures of the number are given at the head of the
  columns, except the last two, which run down the extreme columns--1 to
  50 on the left-hand side, and 50 to 100 on the right-hand side. The
  first four figures of the logarithms are printed at the top of the
  columns. There is thus an advance half way towards the arrangement now
  universal in seven-figure tables. The final step was made by John
  Newton in his _Trigonometria Britannica_ (1658), a work which is also
  noticeable as being the only extensive eight-figure table that until
  recently had been published; it contains logarithms of sines, &c., as
  well as logarithms of numbers.

  In 1705 appeared the original edition of Sherwin's tables, the first
  of the series of ordinary seven-figure tables of logarithms of numbers
  and trigonometrical functions such as are in general use now. The work
  went through several editions during the 18th century, and was at
  length superseded in 1785 by Hutton's tables, which continued in
  successive editions to maintain their position for a century.

  In 1717 Abraham Sharp published in his _Geometry Improv'd_ the
  Briggian logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100, and of primes from 100
  to 1100, to 61 places; these were copied into the later editions of
  Sherwin and other works.

  In 1742 a seven-figure table was published in quarto form by Gardiner,
  which is celebrated on account of its accuracy and of the elegance of
  the printing. A French edition, which closely resembles the original,
  was published at Avignon in 1770.

  In 1783 appeared at Paris the first edition of François Callet's
  tables, which correspond to those of Hutton in England. These tables,
  which form perhaps the most complete and practically useful collection
  of logarithms for the general computer that has been published, passed
  through many editions.

  In 1794 Vega published his _Thesaurus logarithmorum completus_, a
  folio volume containing a reprint of the logarithms of numbers from
  Vlacq's _Arithmetica logarithmica_ of 1628, and _Trigonometria
  artificialis_ of 1633. The logarithms of numbers are arranged as in an
  ordinary seven-figure table. In addition to the logarithms reprinted
  from the _Trigonometria_, there are given logarithms for every second
  of the first two degrees, which were the result of an original
  calculation. Vega devoted great attention to the detection and
  correction of the errors in Vlacq's work of 1628. Vega's _Thesaurus_
  has been reproduced photographically by the Italian government. Vega
  also published in 1797, in 2 vols. 8vo, a collection of logarithmic
  and trigonometrical tables which has passed through many editions, a
  very useful one volume stereotype edition having been published in
  1840 by Hülsse. The tables in this work may be regarded as to some
  extent supplementary to those in Callet.

  If we consider only the logarithms of numbers, the main line of
  descent from the original calculation of Briggs and Vlacq is Roe, John
  Newton, Sherwin, Gardiner; there are then two branches, viz. Hutton
  founded on Sherwin and Callet on Gardiner, and the editions of Vega
  form a separate offshoot from the original tables. Among the most
  useful and accessible of modern ordinary seven-figure tables of
  logarithms of numbers and trigonometrical functions may be mentioned
  those of Bremiker, Schrön and Bruhns. For logarithms of numbers only
  perhaps Babbage's table is the most convenient.[12]

  In 1871 Edward Sang published a seven-figure table of logarithms of
  numbers from 20,000 to 200,000, the logarithms between 100,000 and
  200,000 being the result of a new calculation. By beginning the table
  at 20,000 instead of at 10,000 the differences are halved in
  magnitude, while the number of them in a page is quartered. In this
  table multiples of the differences, instead of proportional parts, are
  given.[13] John Thomson of Greenock (1782-1855) made an independent
  calculation of logarithms of numbers up to 120,000 to 12 places of
  decimals, and his table has been used to verify the errata already
  found in Vlacq and Briggs by Lefort (see _Monthly Not. R.A.S._ vol.
  34, p. 447). A table of ten-figure logarithms of numbers up to 100,009
  was calculated by W. W. Duffield and published in the _Report of the
  U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1895-1896_ as Appendix 12, pp.
  395-722. The results were compared with Vega's _Thesaurus_ (1794)
  before publication.

  _Common or Briggian Logarithms of Trigonometrical Functions._--The
  next great advance on the Trigonometria artificialis took place more
  than a century and a half afterwards, when Michael Taylor published in
  1792 his seven-decimal table of log sines and tangents to every second
  of the quadrant; it was calculated by interpolation from the
  _Trigonometria_ to 10 places and then contracted to 7. On account of
  the great size of this table, and for other reasons, it never came
  into very general use, Bagay's _Nouvelles tables astronomiques_
  (1829), which also contains log sines and tangents to every second,
  being preferred; this latter work, which for many years was difficult
  to procure, has been reprinted with the original title-page and date
  unchanged. The only other logarithmic canon to every second that has
  been published forms the second volume of Shortrede's _Logarithmic
  Tables_ (1849). In 1784 the French government decided that new tables
  of sines, tangents, &c., and their logarithms, should be calculated in
  relation to the centesimal division of the quadrant. Prony was charged
  with the direction of the work, and was expressly required "non
  seulement à composer des tables qui ne laissassent rien à désirer
  quant à l'exactitude, mais à en faire le monument de calcul le plus
  vaste et le plus imposant qui eût jamais été exécuté ou même conçu."
  Those engaged upon the work were divided into three sections: the
  first consisted of five or six mathematicians, including Legendre, who
  were engaged in the purely analytical work, or the calculation of the
  fundamental numbers; the second section consisted of seven or eight
  calculators possessing some mathematical knowledge; and the third
  comprised seventy or eighty ordinary computers. The work, which was
  performed wholly in duplicate, and independently by two divisions of
  computers, occupied two years. As a consequence of the double
  calculation, there are two manuscripts, one deposited at the
  Observatory, and the other in the library of the Institute, at Paris.
  Each of the two manuscripts consists essentially of seventeen large
  folio volumes, the contents being as follows:--

    Logarithms of numbers up to 200,000                       8 vols.

    Natural sines                                             1   "

    Logarithms of the ratios of arcs to sines from 0^q.00000
      to 0^q.05000, and log sines throughout the quadrant     4   "

    Logarithms of the ratios of arcs to tangents from
      0^q.00000 to 0^q.05000, and log tangents throughout
      the quadrant                                            4   "

  The trigonometrical results are given for every hundred-thousandth of
  the quadrant (10´´ centesimal or 3´´.24 sexagesimal). The tables were
  all calculated to 14 places, with the intention that only 12 should be
  published, but the twelfth figure is not to be relied upon. The tables
  have never been published, and are generally known as the _Tables du
  Cadastre_, or, in England, as the great French manuscript tables.

  A very full account of these tables, with an explanation of the
  methods of calculation, formulae employed, &c., was published by
  Lefort in vol. iv. of the _Annales de l'observatoire de Paris_. The
  printing of the table of natural sines was once begun, and Lefort
  states that he has seen six copies, all incomplete, although including
  the last page. Babbage compared his table with the _Tables du
  Cadastre_, and Lefort has given in his paper just referred to most
  important lists of errors in Vlacq's and Briggs's logarithms of
  numbers which were obtained by comparing the manuscript tables with
  those contained in the _Arithmetica logarithmica_ of 1624 and of 1628.

  As the _Tables du Cadastre_ remained unpublished, other tables
  appeared in which the quadrant was divided centesimally, the most
  important of these being Hobert and Ideler's _Nouvelles tables
  trigonométriques_ (1799), and Borda and Delambre's _Tables
  trigonométriques décimales_ (1800-1801), both of which are
  seven-figure tables. The latter work, which was much used, being
  difficult to procure, and greater accuracy being required, the French
  government in 1891 published an eight-figure centesimal table, for
  every ten seconds, derived from the _Tables du Cadastre_.

  _Decimal or Briggian Antilogarithms._--In the ordinary tables of
  logarithms the natural numbers are all integers, while the logarithms
  tabulated are incommensurable. In an antilogarithmic table, the
  logarithms are exact quantities such as .00001, .00002, &c., and the
  numbers are incommensurable. The earliest and largest table of this
  kind that has been constructed is Dodson's _Antilogarithmic canon_
  (1742), which gives the numbers to 11 places, corresponding to the
  logarithms from .00001 to .99999 at intervals of .00001.
  Antilogarithmic tables are few in number, the only other extensive
  tables of the same kind that have been published occurring in
  Shortrede's _Logarithmic tables_ already referred to, and in
  Filipowski's _Table of antilogarithms_ (1849). Both are similar to
  Dodson's tables, from which they were derived, but they only give
  numbers to 7 places.

  _Hyperbolic or Napierian logarithms_ (i.e. to base e).--The most
  elaborate table of hyperbolic logarithms that exists is due to
  Wolfram, a Dutch lieutenant of artillery. His table gives the
  logarithms of all numbers up to 2200, and of primes (and also of a
  great many composite numbers) from 2200 to 10,009, to 48 decimal
  places. The table appeared in Schulze's _Neue und erweiterte Sammlung
  logarithmischer Tafeln_ (1778), and was reprinted in Vega's
  _Thesaurus_ (1794), already referred to. Six logarithms omitted in
  Schulze's work, and which Wolfram had been prevented from computing by
  a serious illness, were published subsequently, and the table as given
  by Vega is complete. The largest hyperbolic table as regards range was
  published by Zacharias Dase at Vienna in 1850 under the title _Tafel
  der natürlichen Logarithmen der Zahlen_.

  _Hyperbolic antilogarithms_ are simple exponentials, i.e. the
  hyperbolic antilogarithm of x is e^x. Such tables can scarcely be said
  to come under the head of logarithmic tables. See TABLES,
  MATHEMATICAL: _Exponential Functions_.

  _Logistic or Proportional Logarithms._--The old name for what are now
  called ratios or fractions are _logistic numbers_, so that a table of
  log (a/x) where x is the argument and a a constant is called a table
  of logistic or proportional logarithms; and since log (a/x) = log a -
  log x it is clear that the tabular results differ from those given in
  an ordinary table of logarithms only by the subtraction of a constant
  and a change of sign. The first table of this kind appeared in
  Kepler's work of 1624 which has been already referred to. The object
  of a table of log (a/x) is to facilitate the working out of
  proportions in which the third term is a constant quantity a. In most
  collections of tables of logarithms, and especially those intended for
  use in connexion with navigation, there occurs a small table of
  logistic logarithms in which a = 3600´´ (= 1° or 1^h), the table
  giving log 3600 - log x, and x being expressed in minutes and seconds.
  It is also common to find tables in which a = 10800´´ (= 3° or 3^h),
  and x is expressed in degrees (or hours), minutes and seconds. Such
  tables are generally given to 4 or 5 places. The usual practice in
  books seems to be to call logarithms logistic when a is 3600´´, and
  proportional when a has any other value.

  _Addition and Subtraction, or Gaussian Logarithms._--_Gaussian
  logarithms_ are intended to facilitate the finding of the logarithms
  of the sum and difference of two numbers whose logarithms are known,
  the numbers themselves being unknown; and on this account they are
  frequently called addition and subtraction logarithms. The object of
  the table is in fact to give log (a ± b) by only one entry when log a
  and log b are given. The utility of such logarithms was first pointed
  out by Leonelli in a book entitled _Supplément logarithmique_, printed
  at Bordeaux in the year XI. (1802/3); he calculated a table to 14
  places, but only a specimen of it which appeared in the _Supplément_
  was printed. The first table that was actually published is due to
  Gauss, and was printed in Zach's _Monatliche Correspondenz_, xxvi. 498
  (1812). Corresponding to the argument log x it gives the values of log
  (1 + x^-1) and log (1 + x).

  _Dual Logarithms._--This term was used by Oliver Byrne in a series of
  works published between 1860 and 1870. Dual numbers and logarithms
  depend upon the expression of a number as a product of 1.1, 1.01,
  1.001 ... or of .9, .99, .999....

  In the preceding _résumé_ only those publications have been mentioned
  which are of historic importance or interest.[14] For fuller details
  with respect to some of these works, for an account of tables
  published in the latter part of the 19th century, and for those which
  would now be used in actual calculation, reference should be made to
  the article TABLES, MATHEMATICAL.

  _Calculation of Logarithms._--The name logarithm is derived from the
  words [Greek: logon arithmos], the number of the ratios, and the way
  of regarding a logarithm which justifies the name may be explained as
  follows. Suppose that the ratio of 10, or any other particular number,
  to 1 is compounded of a very great number of equal ratios, as, for
  example, 1,000,000, then it can be shown that the ratio of 2 to 1 is
  very nearly equal to a ratio compounded of 301,030 of these small
  ratios, or _ratiunculae_, that the ratio of 3 to 1 is very nearly
  equal to a ratio compounded of 477,121 of them, and so on. The small
  ratio, or _ratiuncula_, is in fact that of the millionth root of 10 to
  unity, and if we denote it by the ratio of a to 1, then the ratio of 2
  to 1 will be nearly the same as that of a^{301,030} to 1, and so on;
  or, in other words, if a denotes the millionth root of 10, then 2 will
  be nearly equal to a^{301,030}, 3 will be nearly equal to a^{477,121},
  and so on.

  Napier's original work, the _Descriptio Canonis_ of 1614, contained,
  not logarithms of numbers, but logarithms of sines, and the relations
  between the sines and the logarithms were explained by the motions of
  points in lines, in a manner not unlike that afterwards employed by
  Newton in the method of fluxions. An account of the processes by which
  Napier constructed his table was given in the _Constructio Canonis_ of
  1619. These methods apply, however, specially to Napier's own kind of
  logarithms, and are different from those actually used by Briggs in
  the construction of the tables in the _Arithmetica Logarithmica_,
  although some of the latter are the same in principle as the processes
  described in an appendix to the _Constructio_.

  The processes used by Briggs are explained by him in the preface to
  the _Arithmetica Logarithmica_ (1624). His method of finding the
  logarithms of the small primes, which consists in taking a great
  number of continued geometric means between unity and the given
  primes, may be described as follows. He first formed the table of
  numbers and their logarithms:--

    Numbers.         Logarithms.

    10               1
     3.162277...     0.5
     1.778279...     0.25
     1.333521...     0.125
     1.154781...     0.0625

  each quantity in the left-hand column being the square root of the one
  above it, and each quantity in the right-hand column being the half
  of the one above it. To construct this table Briggs, using about
  thirty places of decimals, extracted the square root of 10 fifty-four
  times, and thus found that the logarithm of 1.00000 00000 00000 12781
  91493 20032 35 was 0.00000 00000 00000 05551 11512 31257 82702, and
  that for numbers of this form (i.e. for numbers beginning with 1
  followed by fifteen ciphers, and then by seventeen or a less number of
  significant figures) the logarithms were proportional to these
  significant figures. He then by means of a simple proportion deduced
  that log (1.00000 00000 00000 1) = 0.00000 00000 00000 04342 94481
  90325 1804, so that, a quantity 1.00000 00000 00000 x (where x
  consists of not more than seventeen figures) having been obtained by
  repeated extraction of the square root of a given number, the
  logarithm of 1.00000 00000 00000 x could then be found by multiplying
  x by .00000 00000 00000 04342....

  To find the logarithm of 2, Briggs raised it to the tenth power, viz.
  1024, and extracted the square root of 1.024 forty-seven times, the
  result being 1.00000 00000 00000 16851 60570 53949 77. Multiplying the
  significant figures by 4342 ... he obtained the logarithm of this
  quantity, viz. 0.00000 00000 00000 07318 55936 90623 9336, which
  multiplied by 2^47 gave 0.01029 99566 39811 95265 277444, the
  logarithm of 1.024, true to 17 or 18 places. Adding the characteristic
  3, and dividing by 10, he found (since 2 is the tenth root of 1024)
  log 2 = .30102 99956 63981 195. Briggs calculated in a similar manner
  log 6, and thence deduced log 3.

  It will be observed that in the first process the value of the modulus
  is in fact calculated from the formula.

       h           1
    -------- = ---------,
    10^h - 1   log(e) 10

  the value of h being 1/2^54, and in the second process log10 2 is in
  effect calculated from the formula.

                                        1       2^47
    log(10) 2 = [2^(10/2^47) - 1] × --------- × ----.
                                    log(e) 10    10

  Briggs also gave methods of forming the mean proportionals or square
  roots by differences; and the general method of constructing
  logarithmic tables by means of differences is due to him.

  The following calculation of log 5 is given as an example of the
  application of a method of mean proportionals. The process consists in
  taking the geometric mean of numbers above and below 5, the object
  being to at length arrive at 5.000000. To every geometric mean in the
  column of numbers there corresponds the arithmetical mean in the
  column of logarithms. The numbers are denoted by A, B, C, &c., in
  order to indicate their mode of formation.

                     Numbers.    Logarithms.

    A =              1.000000     0.0000000
    B =             10.000000     1.0000000
    C = [root](AB) = 3.162277     0.5000000
    D = [root](BC) = 5.623413     0.7500000
    E = [root](CD) = 4.216964     0.6250000
    F = [root](DE) = 4.869674     0.6875000
    G = [root](DF) = 5.232991     0.7187500
    H = [root](FG) = 5.048065     0.7031250
    I = [root](FH) = 4.958069     0.6953125
    K = [root](HI) = 5.002865     0.6992187
    L = [root](IK) = 4.980416     0.6972656
    M = [root](KL) = 4.991627     0.6982421
    N = [root](KM) = 4.997242     0.6987304
    O = [root](KN) = 5.000052     0.6989745
    P = [root](NO) = 4.998647     0.6988525
    Q = [root](OP) = 4.999350     0.6989135
    R = [root](OQ) = 4.999701     0.6989440
    S = [root](OR) = 4.999876     0.6989592
    T = [root](OS) = 4.999963     0.6989668
    V = [root](OT) = 5.000008     0.6989707
    W = [root](TV) = 4.999984     0.6989687
    X = [root](WV) = 4.999997     0.6989697
    Y = [root](VX) = 5.000003     0.6989702
    Z = [root](XY) = 5.000000     0.6989700

  Great attention was devoted to the methods of calculating logarithms
  during the 17th and 18th centuries. The earlier methods proposed were,
  like those of Briggs, purely arithmetical, and for a long time
  logarithms were regarded from the point of view indicated by their
  name, that is to say, as depending on the theory of compounded ratios.
  The introduction of infinite series into mathematics effected a great
  change in the modes of calculation and the treatment of the subject.
  Besides Napier and Briggs, special reference should be made to Kepler
  (_Chilias_, 1624) and Mercator (_Logarithmotechnia_, 1668), whose
  methods were arithmetical, and to Newton, Gregory, Halley and Cotes,
  who employed series. A full and valuable account of these methods is
  given in Hutton's "Construction of Logarithms," which occurs in the
  introduction to the early editions of his _Mathematical Tables_, and
  also forms tract 21 of his _Mathematical Tracts_ (vol. i., 1812). Many
  of the early works on logarithms were reprinted in the _Scriptores
  logarithmici_ of Baron Maseres already referred to.

  In the following account only those formulae and methods will be
  referred to which would now be used in the calculation of logarithms.

  Since

    log(e)(1 + x) = x - ½x² + (1/3)x³ - ¼x^4 + &c.,

  we have, by changing the sign of x,

    log(e)(1 - x) = -x - ½x² - (1/3)x³ - ¼x^4 - &c.;

  whence

           1 + x
    log(e) ----- = 2(x + (1/3)x³ + (1/5)x^5 + &c.),
           1 - x

                                 p - q
  and, therefore, replacing x by -----,
                                 p + q
                    _                                              _
            p      |  p - q         /p - q\³         /p - q\^5      |
    log(e) --- = 2 |  ----- + (1/3)( ----- ) + (1/5)( ----- ) + &c. |,
            q      |_ p + q         \p + q/          \p + q/       _|

  in which the series is always convergent, so that the formula affords
  a method of deducing the logarithm of one number from that of another.

  As particular cases we have, by putting q = 1,
                  _                                              _
                 |  p - 1         /p - 1\³         /p - 1\^5      |
    log(e) p = 2 |  ----- + (1/3)( ----- ) + (1/5)( ----- ) + &c. |,
                 |_ p + 1         \p + 1/          \p + 1/       _|

  and by putting q = p + 1,
                                   _                                                  _
                                  |    1               1                  1            |
    log(e)(p + 1) - log(e)(p) = 2 |  ------ + (1/3)---------  + (1/5)----------- + &c. |;
                                  |_ 2p + 1        (2p + 1)³          (2p + 1)^5      _|

  the former of these equations gives a convergent series for log(e)p,
  and the latter a very convergent series by means of which the
  logarithm of any number may be deduced from the logarithm of the
  preceding number.

  From the formula for log(e)(p/q) we may deduce the following very
  convergent series for log(e)2, log(e)3 and log(e)5, viz.:--

    log(e)2 = 2( 7P +  5Q + 3R),
    log(e)3 = 2(11P +  8Q + 5R),
    log(e)5 = 2(16P + 12Q + 7R),

  where

        1               1                1
    P = -- + (1/3) ·  ------ + (1/5) · ------ + &c.
        31            (31)^3           (31)^5

        1               1                1
    Q = -- + (1/3) ·  ------ + (1/5) · ------ + &c.
        49            (49)^3           (49)^5

         1               1                 1
    R = --- + (1/3) · ------- + (1/5) · ------- + &c.
        161           (161)^3           (161)^5

  The following still more convenient formulae for the calculation of
  log(e)2, log(e)3, &c. were given by J. Couch Adams in the _Proc. Roy.
  Soc._, 1878, 27, p. 91. If

            10         /    1  \           25         /     4  \
    a = log -- = -log ( 1 - --  ), b = log -- = -log ( 1 - ---  ),
            9          \    10 /           24         \    100 /

            81        /    1  \            50         /     2  \
    c = log -- = log ( 1 + --  ),  d = log -- = -log ( 1 - ---  ),
            80        \    80 /            49         \    100 /

            126        /     8   \
    e = log --- = log ( 1 + ----  ),
            125        \    1000 /

  then

    log 2 = 7a - 2b + 3c, log 3 = 11a - 3b + 5c, log 5 = 16a - 4b + 7c,

  and

    log 7 = ½(39a - 10b + 17c - d) or = 19a - 4b + 8c + e,

  and we have the equation of condition,

    a - 2b + c = d + 2e.

  By means of these formulae Adams calculated the values of log(e)2,
  log(e)3, log(e)5, and log(e)7 to 276 places of decimals, and deduced
  the value of log(e)10 and its reciprocal M, the modulus of the
  Briggian system of logarithms. The value of the modulus found by Adams
  is

    Mo = 0.43429  44819  03251  82765  11289
           18916  60508  22943  97005  80366
           65661  14453  78316  58646  49208
           87077  47292  24949  33843  17483
           18706  10674  47663  03733  64167
           92871  58963  90656  92210  64662

           81226  58521  27086  56867  03295
           93370  86965  88266  88331  16360
           77384  90514  28443  48666  76864
           65860  85135  56148  21234  87653
           43543  43573  17253  83562  21868
           25

  which is true certainly to 272, and probably to 273, places (_Proc.
  Roy. Soc._, 1886, 42, p. 22, where also the values of the other
  logarithms are given).

  If the logarithms are to be Briggian all the series in the preceding
  formulae must be multiplied by M, the modulus; thus,

   log(10) (1 + x) = M (x - ½x² + (1/3)x³ - ¼x^4 + &c.),

  and so on.

  As has been stated, Abraham Sharp's table contains 61-decimal
  Briggian logarithms of primes up to 1100, so that the logarithms of
  all composite numbers whose greatest prime factor does not exceed this
  number may be found by simple addition; and Wolfram's table gives
  48-decimal hyperbolic logarithms of primes up to 10,009. By means of
  these tables and of a factor table we may very readily obtain the
  Briggian logarithm of a number to 61 or a less number of places or of
  its hyperbolic logarithm to 48 or a less number of places in the
  following manner. Suppose the hyperbolic logarithm of the prime number
  43,867 required. Multiplying by 50, we have 50 × 43,867 = 2,193,350,
  and on looking in Burckhardt's _Table des diviseurs_ for a number near
  to this which shall have no prime factor greater than 10,009, it
  appears that

    2,193,349 = 23 × 47 × 2029;

  thus

    43,867 = (1/50)(23 × 47 × 2029 + 1),

  and therefore

    log(e) 43,867 = log(e) 23 + log(e) 47 + log(e) 2029 - log(e) 50

          1              1                  1
    + --------- - ½ ------------ + (1/3) ---------- - &c.
      2,193,349     (2,193,349)²         (193,349)³

  The first term of the series in the second line is

    0.00000  04559  23795  07319  6286;

  dividing this by 2 ×2,193,349 we obtain

    0.00000  00000  00103  93325  3457,

  and the third term is

    0.00000  00000  00000  00003  1590,

  so that the series =

  0.00000 04559 23691 13997 4419;

  whence, taking out the logarithms from Wolfram's table,

    log(e) 43,867 = 10.68891  76079  60568  10191  3661.

  The principle of the method is to multiply the given prime (supposed
  to consist of 4, 5 or 6 figures) by such a factor that the product may
  be a number within the range of the factor tables, and such that, when
  it is increased by 1 or 2, the prime factors may all be within the
  range of the logarithmic tables. The logarithm is then obtained by use
  of the formula

                               d      d²         d³
    log(e)(x + d) = log(e)x + --- - ½ -- + (1/3) -- - &c.,
                               x      x²         x³

  in which of course the object is to render d/x as small as possible.
  If the logarithm required is Briggian, the value of the series is to
  be multiplied by M.

  If the number is incommensurable or consists of more than seven
  figures, we can take the first seven figures of it (or multiply and
  divide the result by any factor, and take the first seven figures of
  the result) and proceed as before. An application to the hyperbolic
  logarithm of [pi] is given by Burckhardt in the introduction to his
  _Table des diviseurs_ for the second million.

  The best general method of calculating logarithms consists, in its
  simplest form, in resolving the number whose logarithm is required
  into factors of the form 1 - .1^(r)n, where n is one of the nine
  digits; and making use of subsidiary tables of logarithms of factors
  of this form. For example, suppose the logarithm of 543839 required to
  twelve places. Dividing by 10^5 and by 5 the number becomes 1.087678,
  and resolving this number into factors of the form 1 - .1^(r)n we find
  that

    543839 = 10^5 × 5(1-.1²8)(1-.1^(4)6)(1-.1^(5)6)(1-.1^(6)3)(1-.1^(7)3)
                  × (1-.1^(8)5)(1-.1^(9)7)(1-.1^(10)9)(1-.1^(11)3)(1-.1^(12)2),

  where 1-1²8 denotes 1-.08, 1-.1^(4)6 denotes 1-.0006, &c., and so on.
  All that is required therefore in order to obtain the logarithm of any
  number is a table of logarithms, to the required number of places, of
  .n, .9n, .99n, .999n, &c., for n = 1, 2, 3, ... 9.

  The resolution of a number into factors of the above form is easily
  performed. Taking, for example, the number 1.087678, the object is to
  destroy the significant figure 8 in the second place of decimals; this
  is effected by multiplying the number by 1-.08, that is, by
  subtracting from the number eight times itself advanced two places,
  and we thus obtain 1.00066376. To destroy the first 6 multiply by 1 -
  .0006 giving 1.000063361744, and multiplying successively by 1 -
  .00006 and 1 - .000003, we obtain 1.000000357932, and it is clear that
  these last six significant figures represent without any further work
  the remaining factors required. In the corresponding antilogarithmic
  process the number is expressed as a product of factors of the form 1
  + .1^(n)x.

  This method of calculating logarithms by the resolution of numbers
  into factors of the form 1 - .1^(r)n is generally known as Weddle's
  method, having been published by him in _The Mathematician_ for
  November 1845, and the corresponding method for antilogarithms by
  means of factors of the form 1 + (.1)^(r)n is known by the name of
  Hearn, who published it in the same journal for 1847. In 1846 Peter
  Gray constructed a new table to 12 places, in which the factors were
  of the form 1-(.01)^(r)n, so that n had the values 1, 2, ... 99; and
  subsequently he constructed a similar table for factors of the form 1
  + (.01)^(r)n. He also devised a method of applying a table of Hearn's
  form (i.e. of factors of the form 1 +.1^(r)n) to the construction of
  logarithms, and calculated a table of logarithms of factors of the
  form 1 + (.001)^(r)n to 24 places. This was published in 1876 under
  the title _Tables for the formation of logarithms and antilogarithms
  to twenty-four or any less number of places_, and contains the most
  complete and useful application of the method, with many improvements
  in points of detail. Taking as an example the calculation of the
  Briggian logarithm of the number 43,867, whose hyperbolic logarithm
  has been calculated above, we multiply it by 3, giving 131,601, and
  find by Gray's process that the factors of 1.31601 are

    (1) 1.316          (5) 1.(001)^(4)002
    (2) 1.000007       (6) 1.(001)^(5)602
    (3) 1.(001)²598    (7) 1.(001)^(6)412
    (4) 1.(001)³780    (8) 1.(001)^(7)340

  Taking the logarithms from Gray's tables we obtain the required
  logarithm by addition as follows:--

      522  878  745  280  337  562  704  972 = colog 3
      119  255  889  277  936  685  553  913 = log (1)
             3  040  050  733  157  610  239 = log (2)
                259  708  022  525  453  597 = log (3)
                     338  749  695  752  424 = log (4)
                               868  588  964 = log (5)
                               261  445  278 = log (6)
                                    178  929 = log (7)
                                         148 = log (8)
    --------------------------------------------------------
    4.642  137  934  655  780  757  288  464 = log(10)43,867

  In Shortrede's _Tables_ there are tables of logarithms and factors of
  the form 1 ± (.01)^(r)n to 16 places and of the form 1 ± (.1)^(r)n to
  25 places; and in his _Tables de Logarithmes à 27 Décimales_ (Paris,
  1867) Fédor Thoman gives tables of logarithms of factors of the form 1
  ± .1^(r)n. In the _Messenger of Mathematics_, vol. iii. pp. 66-92,
  1873, Henry Wace gave a simple and clear account of both the
  logarithmic and antilogarithmic processes, with tables of both
  Briggian and hyperbolic logarithms of factors of the form 1 ± .1^(r)n
  to 20 places.

  Although the method is usually known by the names of Weddle and Hearn,
  it is really, in its essential features, due to Briggs, who gave in
  the _Arithmetica logarithmica_ of 1624 a table of the logarithms of 1
  + .1^(r)n up to r = 9 to 15 places of decimals. It was first formally
  proposed as an independent method, with great improvements, by Robert
  Flower in _The Radix_, _a new way of making Logarithms_, which was
  published in 1771; and Leonelli, in his _Supplement logarithmique_
  (1802-1803), already noticed, referred to Flower and reproduced some
  of his tables. A complete bibliography of this method has been given
  by A. J. Ellis in a paper "on the potential radix as a means of
  calculating logarithms," printed in the _Proceedings of the Royal
  Society_, vol. xxxi., 1881, pp. 401-407, and vol. xxxii., 1881, pp.
  377-379. Reference should also be made to Hoppe's _Tafeln zur
  dreissigstelligen logarithmischen Rechnung_ (Leipzig, 1876), which
  give in a somewhat modified form a table of the hyperbolic logarithm
  of 1 + .1^(r)n.

  The preceding methods are only appropriate for the calculation of
  isolated logarithms. If a complete table had to be reconstructed, or
  calculated to more places, it would undoubtedly be most convenient to
  employ the method of differences. A full account of this method as
  applied to the calculation of the _Tables du Cadastre_ is given by
  Lefort in vol. iv. of the _Annales de l'Observatoire de Paris_.
       (J. W. L. G.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Dr Thomas Smith thus describes the ardour with which Briggs
    studied the _Descriptio_: "Hunc in deliciis habuit, in sinu, in
    manibus, in pectore gestavit, oculisque avidissimis, et mente
    attentissima, iterum iterumque perlegit,..." _Vitae quorundam
    eruditissimorum et illustrium virorum_ (London, 1707).

  [2] William Lilly's account of the meeting of Napier and Briggs at
    Merchiston is quoted in the article NAPIER.

  [3] It was certainly published after Napier's death, as Briggs
    mentions his "librum posthumum." This _liber posthumus_ was the
    _Constructio_ referred to later in this article.

  [4] Frisch's _Kepleri opera omnia_, ii. 834. Frisch thinks Bramer
    possibly relied on Kepler's statement quoted in the text ("Quibus
    forte confisus Kepleri verbis Benj. Bramer...."). See also vol. vii.
    p. 298.

    The claims of Byrgius are discussed in Kästner's _Geschichte der
    Mathematik_, ii. 375, and iii. 14; Montucla's _Histoire des
    mathématiques_, ii. 10; Delambre's _Histoire de l'astronomie
    moderne_, i. 560; de Morgan's article on "Tables" in the _English
    Cyclopaedia_; Mark Napier's _Memoirs of John Napier of Merchiston_
    (1834), p. 392, and Cantor's _Geschichte der Mathematik_, ii. (1892),
    662. See also Gieswald, _Justus Byrg als Mathematiker und dessen
    Einleitung in seine Logarithmen_ (Danzig, 1856).

  [5] See Mark Napier's _Memoirs of John Napier of Merchiston_ (1834),
    p. 362.

  [6] In the _Rabdologia_ (1617) he speaks of the canon of logarithms
    as "a me longo tempore elaboratum."

  [7] A careful examination of the history of the method is given by
    Scheibel in his _Einleitung zur mathematischen Bücherkenntniss_,
    Stück vii. (Breslau, 1775), pp. 13-20; and there is also an account
    in Kästner's _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i. 566-569 (1796); in
    Montucla's _Histoire des mathématiques_, i. 583-585 and 617-619; and
    in Klügel's _Wörterbuch_ (1808), article "Prosthaphaeresis."

  [8] Besides his connexion with logarithms and improvements in the
    method of prosthaphaeresis, Byrgius has a share in the invention of
    decimal fractions. See Cantor, _Geschichte_, ii. 567. Cantor
    attributes to him (in the use of his prosthaphaeresis) the first
    introduction of a subsidiary angle into trigonometry (vol. ii. 590).

  [9] The title of this work is--_Benjaminis Ursini_ ... _cursus
    mathematici practici volumen primum continens illustr. & generosi Dn.
    Dn. Johannis Neperi Baronis Merchistonij &c. Scoti trigonometriam
    logarithmicam usibus discentium accommodatam_ ... _Coloniae_ ...
    _CI[~C] I[~C]C XIX_. At the end, Napier's table is reprinted, but to
    two figures less. This work forms the earliest publication of
    logarithms on the continent.

  [10] The title is _Logarithmorum canonis descriptio, seu
    arithmeticarum supputationum mirabilis abbreviatio_. _Ejusque usus in
    utraque trigonometria ut etiam in omni logistica mathematica,
    amplissimi, facillimi & expeditissimi explicatio. Authore ac
    inventore Ioanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c. Scoto. Lugduni_....
    It will be seen that this title is different from that of Napier's
    work of 1614; many writers have, however, erroneously given it as the
    title of the latter.

  [11] In describing the contents of the works referred to, the
    language and notation of the present day have been adopted, so that
    for example a table to radius 10,000,000 is described as a table to 7
    places, and so on. Also, although logarithms have been spoken of as
    to the base e, &c., it is to be noticed that neither Napier nor
    Briggs, nor any of their successors till long afterwards, had any
    idea of connecting logarithms with exponents.

  [12] The smallest number of entries which are necessary in a table of
    logarithms in order that the intermediate logarithms may be
    calculable by proportional parts has been investigated by J. E. A.
    Steggall in the _Proc. Edin. Math. Soc._, 1892, 10, p. 35. This
    number is 1700 in the case of a seven-figure table extending to
    100,000.

  [13] Accounts of Sang's calculations are given in the _Trans. Roy.
    Soc. Edin._, 1872, 26, p. 521, and in subsequent papers in the
    _Proceedings_ of the same society.

  [14] In vol. xv. (1875) of the _Verhandelingen_ of the Amsterdam
    Academy of Sciences, Bierens de Haan has given a list of 553 tables
    of logarithms. A previous paper of the same kind, containing notices
    of some of the tables, was published by him in the _Verslagen en
    Mededeelingen_ of the same academy (Afd. Natuurkunde) deel. iv.
    (1862), p. 15.




LOGAU, FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON (1604-1655), German epigrammatist, was
born at Brockut, near Nimptsch, in Silesia, in June 1604. He was
educated at the gymnasium of Brieg and subsequently studied law. He then
entered the service of the duke of Brieg. In 1644 he was made "ducal
councillor." He died at Liegnitz on the 24th of July 1655. Logau's
epigrams, which appeared in two collections under the pseudonym "Salomon
von Golaw" (an anagram of his real name) in 1638 (_Erstes Hundert
Teutscher Reimensprüche_) and 1654 (_Deutscher Sinngedichte drei
Tausend_), show a marvellous range and variety of expression. He had
suffered bitterly under the adverse conditions of the time; but his
satire is not merely the outcome of personal feeling. In the turbulent
age of the Thirty Years' War he was one of the few men who preserved
intact his intellectual integrity and judged his contemporaries fairly.
He satirized with unsparing hand the court life, the useless bloodshed
of the war, the lack of national pride in the German people, and their
slavish imitation of the French in customs, dress and speech. He
belonged to the _Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft_ under the name _Der
Verkleinernde_, and regarded himself as a follower of Martin Opitz; but
he did not allow such ties to influence his independence or originality.

  Logau's _Sinngedichte_ were edited in 1759 by G. E. Lessing and K. W.
  Ramler, who first drew attention to their merits; a second edition
  appeared in 1791. A critical edition was published by G. Eitner in
  1872, who also edited a selection of Logau's epigrams for the
  _Deutsche Dichter des XVII. Jahrhunderts_ (vol. iii., 1870); there is
  also a selection by H. Oesterley in Kürschner's _Deutsche
  Nationalliteratur_, vol. xxviii. (1885). See H. Denker, _Beiträge zur
  literarischen Würdigung Logaus_ (1889); W. Heuschkel, _Untersuchungen
  über Ränders und Lessings Bearbeitung Logauscher Sinngedichte_ (1901).




LOGIA, a title used to describe a collection of the sayings of Jesus
Christ ([Greek: logia Iêsou]) and therefore generally applied to the
"Sayings of Jesus" discovered in Egypt by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt.
There is some question as to whether the term is rightly used for this
purpose. It does not occur in the Papyri in this sense. Each "saying" is
introduced by the phrase "Jesus says" ([Greek: legei]) and the
collection is described in the introductory words of the 1903 series as
[Greek: logoi] not as [Greek: logia]. Some justification for the
employment of the term is found in early Christian literature. Several
writers speak of the [Greek: logia tou kuriou] or [Greek: ta kuriaka
logia], i.e. oracles of (or concerning) the Lord. Polycarp, for
instance, speaks of "those who pervert the oracles of the Lord."
(Philipp. 7), and Papias, as Eusebius tells us, wrote a work with the
title "Expositions of the Oracles of the Lord." The expression has been
variously interpreted. It need mean no more (Lightfoot, _Essays on
Supernatural Religion_, 172 seq.) than narratives of (or concerning) the
Lord; on the other hand, the phrase is capable of a much more definite
meaning, and there are many scholars who hold that it refers to a
document which contained a collection of the sayings of Jesus. Some such
document, we know, must lie at the base of our Synoptic Gospels, and it
is quite possible that it may have been known to and used by Papias. It
is only on this assumption that the use of the term Logia in the sense
described above can be justified.

"The Sayings," to which the term Logia is generally applied, consist of
(a) a papyrus leaf containing seven or eight sayings of Jesus discovered
in 1897, (b) a second leaf containing five more sayings discovered in
1903, (c) two fragments of unknown Gospels, the former published in
1903, the latter in 1907. All these were found amongst the great mass of
papyri acquired by the Egyptian Exploration Fund from the ruins of
Oxyrhynchus, one of the chief early Christian centres in Egypt, situated
some 120 m. S. of Cairo.

The eight "sayings" discovered in 1897 are as follows:--

  1. ... [Greek: kai tote diablepseis ekbalein to karphos to en tô
  ophthalmô tou adelphou sou].

  2. [Greek: Legei Iêsous ean mê nêsteusête ton kosmon ou mê eurête tên
  basileian tou theou. kai ean mê sabbatisête to sabbaton ouk opsesthe
  ton patera].

  3. [Greek: Legei Iêsous e[s]tên en mesô tou kosmou kai en sarki
  ôpsthên autois, kai euron pantas methuontas kai oudena euron dipsônta
  en autois, kai ponei ê psychê mou epi tois huiois tôn anthrôpôn, hoti
  typhloi eisin tê kardia autô[n] k[ai] ou ble[pousin]]....

  4. [Illegible: possibly joins on to 3] ... [Greek: [t]ên ptôcheian].

  5. [Greek: [Leg]ei [Iêsous hop]ou ean ôsin [b, ouk] e[isi]n atheoi kai
  h[o]pou e[is] estin monos, [le]gô, egô eimi met aut[ou] egei[r]on ton
  lithon kakei heurêseis me, schison to xylon kagô ekei eimi].

  6. [Greek: Legei Iêsous ouk estin dektos prophêtês en tê patridi
  aut[o]u, oude iatpos poiei therapeias eis tous ginôskontas auton].

  7. [Greek: Legei Iêsous polisoi kodomêmenê ep' akron [o]rous hypsêlou
  kai estêrigmenê oute pe[s]ein dynatai oute kry[b]ênai].

  8. [Greek: Legei Iêsous akoueis [e]is to hen ôtion sou to [de eteron
  synekleisas]].

  Letters in brackets are missing in the original: letters which are
  dotted beneath are doubtful.

  1. "... and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote that is
  in thy brother's eye."

  2. "Jesus saith, Except ye fast to the world, ye shall in no wise find
  the kingdom of God; and except ye make the sabbath a real sabbath, ye
  shall not see the Father."

  3. "Jesus saith, I stood in the midst of the world and in the flesh
  was I seen of them, and I found all men drunken, and none found I
  athirst among them, and my soul grieveth over the sons of men, because
  they are blind in their heart, and see not...."

  4. "... poverty...."

  5. "Jesus saith, Wherever there are two, they are not without God, and
  wherever there is one alone, I say, I am with him. Raise the stone and
  there thou shalt find me, cleave the wood and there am I."

  6. "Jesus saith, A prophet is not acceptable in his own country,
  neither doth a physician work cures upon them that know him."

  7. "Jesus saith, A city built upon the top of a high hill and
  stablished can neither fall nor be hid."

  8. "Jesus saith, Thou hearest with one ear [but the other ear hast
  thou closed]."

The "sayings" of 1903 were prefaced by the following introductory
statement:--

  [Greek: hoi toioi hoi logoi hoi [... hous elalêsen Iê(sou)s ho zôn
  k[yrios? ... kai Thôma kai eipen [autois; pas hostis an tôn logôn
  tout[ôn akousê thanatou ou mê geusêtai.]

  "These are the (wonderful?) words which Jesus the living (Lord) spake
  to ... and Thomas and he said unto (them) every one that hearkens to
  these words shall never taste of death."

The "sayings" themselves are as follows:--

  (1) [Greek: [legei Iê(sou)s· mê pausasthô ho zê[tôn...
  heôs an heurê kai hotan heurê [thambêthêsetai
  kai thambêtheis basileusei ka[i basileusas
  anapaêsetai.]

  (2) [Greek: legei I[ê(sous ... tines ...
  hoi helkontes hêmas [eis tên basileian ei
  hê basileia en oura[nô estin;
  ta peteina tou our[anou kai tôn thêriôn ho
  ti hypo tên gên est[in ê epi tês gês kai
  hoi ichthyes tês thala[ssês houtoi hoi helkon-
  tes hymas kai hê bas[ileia tôn ouranôn
  entos hymôn [e]sti [kai hostis an heauton
  gnô tautên heurê[sei...
  heautous gnôsesthe [kai eidêsete hoti huioi
  este humeis tou patros tou t[...
  gnôs(es)the heautous en[...
  kai hu eis este êpto[]

  (3) [Greek:       [      legei      Iê(sou)s
  ouk apoknêsei anth[rôpos...
  rôn eperôtêsai pa[...
  rôn peri tou topou tê[s...
  sete hoti polloi esontai p[rôtoi eschatoi kai
  hoi eschatoi prôtoi kai [...
  sin.]

  (4) [Greek: legei Iê(sou)s· [pan to mê empros-
  then tês opseôs sou kai [to kekrummenon
  apo sou apokalyph(th)êset{ai soi. ou gar es-
  tin krypton ho ou phane[ron genêsetai
  kai tethammenon ho o[uk egerthêsetai.]

  (5) [Greek: [ex] etazousin auton ho[i mathêtai autou kai
  [le]gousin; pôs nêsteu[somen kai pôs...
  [ ... ] metha kai pôs [ ...
  [ ... k]ai ti paratêrês{omen...
  [ ... ]n? legei Iê(sou)s; [ ...
  [ ... ]eitai mê poeit[e...
  [ ... ]ês alêtheias an[ ...
  [ ... ]n a[p]okekr[y...
  [ ... ma] kari[os] estin [ ...
  [ ... ]ô est[i...
  [ ... ]in [ ... ]

  1. "Jesus saith, Let not him who seeks ... cease until he finds and
  when he finds he shall be astonished; astonished he shall reach the
  kingdom and having reached the kingdom he shall rest."

  2. "Jesus saith (ye ask? who are those) that draw us (to the kingdom
  if) the kingdom is in Heaven? ... the fowls of the air and all beasts
  that are under the earth or upon the earth and the fishes of the sea
  (these are they which draw) you and the kingdom of Heaven is within
  you and whosoever shall know himself shall find it. (Strive
  therefore?) to know yourselves and ye shall be aware that ye are the
  sons of the (Almighty?) Father; (and?) ye shall know that ye are in
  (the city of God?) and ye are (the city?)."

  3. "Jesus saith, A man shall not hesitate ... to ask concerning his
  place (in the kingdom. Ye shall know) that many that are first shall
  be last and the last first and (they shall have eternal life?)."

  4. "Jesus saith, Everything that is not before thy face and that which
  is hidden from thee shall be revealed to thee. For there is nothing
  hidden which shall not be made manifest nor buried which shall not be
  raised."

  5. "His disciples question him and say, How shall we fast and how
  shall we (pray?) ... and what (commandment) shall we keep ... Jesus
  saith ... do not ... of truth ... blessed is he ..."

_The fragment of a lost Gospel_ which was discovered in 1903 contained
originally about fifty lines, but many of them have perished and others
are undecipherable. The translation, as far as it can be made out, is as
follows:--

  1-7. "(Take no thought) from morning until even nor from evening until
  morning either for your food what ye shall eat or for your raiment
  what ye shall put on. 7-13. Ye are far better than the lilies which
  grow but spin not. Having one garment what do ye (lack)?... 13-15. Who
  could add to your stature? 15-16. He himself will give you your
  garment. 17-23. His disciples say unto him, When wilt thou be manifest
  unto us and when shall we see thee? He saith, When ye shall be
  stripped and not be ashamed ... 41-46. He said, The key of knowledge
  ye hid: ye entered not in yourselves, and to them that were entering
  in, ye opened not."

_The second Gospel fragment_ discovered in 1907 "consists of a single
vellum leaf, practically complete except at one of the lower corners and
here most of the lacunae admit of a satisfactory solution." The
translation is as follows:--

  ... before he does wrong makes all manner of subtle excuse. But give
  heed lest ye also suffer the same things as they: for the evil doers
  among men receive their reward not among the living only, but also
  await punishment and much torment. And he took them and brought them
  into the very place of purification and was walking in the temple. And
  a certain Pharisee, a chief priest, whose name was Levi, met them and
  said to the Saviour, Who gave thee leave to walk in this place of
  purification, and to see these holy vessels when thou hast not washed
  nor yet have thy disciples bathed their feet? But defiled thou hast
  walked in this temple, which is a pure place, wherein no other man
  walks except he has washed himself and changed his garments neither
  does he venture to see these holy vessels. And the Saviour straightway
  stood still with his disciples and answered him, Art thou then, being
  here in the temple, clean? He saith unto him, I am clean; for I washed
  in the pool of David and having descended by one staircase, I ascended
  by another and I put on white and clean garments, and then I came and
  looked upon these holy vessels. The Saviour answered and said unto
  him, Woe ye blind, who see not. Thou hast washed in these running
  waters wherein dogs and swine have been cast night and day and hast
  cleansed and wiped the outside skin which also the harlots and
  flute-girls anoint and wash and wipe and beautify for the lust of men;
  but within they are full of scorpions and all wickedness. But I and my
  disciples who thou sayest have not bathed have been dipped in the
  waters of eternal life which come from.... But woe unto thee....

These documents have naturally excited considerable interest and raised
many questions. The papyri of the "sayings" date from the 3rd century
and most scholars agree that the "sayings" themselves go back to the
2nd. The year A.D. 140 is generally assigned as the _terminus ad quem_.
The problem as to their origin has been keenly discussed. There are two
main types of theory. (1) Some suppose that they are excerpts from an
uncanonical Gospel. (2) Others think that they represent an independent
and original collection of sayings. The first theory has assumed three
main forms. (a) Harnack maintains that they were taken from the Gospel
according to the Egyptians. This theory, however, is based upon a
hypothetical reconstruction of the Gospel in question which has found
very few supporters. (b) Others have advocated the Gospel of the Hebrews
as the source of the "sayings," on the ground of the resemblance between
the first "saying" of the 1903 series and a well-authenticated fragment
of that Gospel. The resemblance, however, is not sufficiently clear to
support the conclusion. (c) A third view supposes that they are extracts
from the Gospel of Thomas--an apocryphal Gospel dealing with the boyhood
of Jesus. Beyond the allusion to Thomas in the introductory paragraph to
the 1903 series, there seems to be no tangible evidence in support of
this view. The second theory, which maintains that the papyri represent
an independent collection of "sayings," seems to be the opinion which
has found greatest favour. It has won the support of W. Sanday, H. B.
Swete, Rendel Harris, W. Lock, Heinrici, &c. There is a considerable
diversity of judgment, however, with regard to the value of the
collection. (a) Some scholars maintain that the collection goes back to
the 1st century and represents one of the earliest attempts to construct
an account of the teaching of Jesus. They are therefore disposed to
admit to a greater or less extent and with widely varying degrees of
confidence the presence of genuine elements in the new matter. (b)
Sanday and many others regard the sayings as originating early in the
2nd century and think that, though not "directly dependent on the
Canonical Gospels," they have "their origin under conditions of thought
which these Gospels had created." The "sayings" must be regarded as
expansions of the true tradition, and little value is therefore to be
attached to the new material.

With the knowledge at our disposal, it is impossible to reach an assured
conclusion between these two views. The real problem, to which at
present no solution has been found, is to account for the new material
in the "sayings." There seems to be no motive sufficient to explain the
additions that have been made to the text of the Gospels. It cannot be
proved that the expansions have been made in the interests of any sect
or heresy. Unless new discoveries provide the clue, or some reasonable
explanation can otherwise be found, there seems to be no reason why we
should not regard the "sayings" as containing material which ought to be
taken into account in the critical study of the teaching of Jesus.

The 1903 Gospel fragment is so mutilated in many of its parts that it is
difficult to decide upon its character and value. It appears to be
earlier than 150, and to be taken from a Gospel which followed more or
less closely the version of the teaching of Jesus given by Matthew and
Luke. The phrase "when ye shall be stripped and not be ashamed" contains
an idea which has some affinity with two passages found respectively in
the Gospel according to the Egyptians and the so-called Second Epistle
of Clement. The resemblance, however, is not sufficiently close to
warrant the deduction that either the Gospel of the Egyptians or the
Gospel from which the citation in 2 Clement is taken (if these two are
distinct) is the source from which our fragment is derived.

The second Gospel fragment (1907) seems to be of later origin than the
documents already mentioned. Grenfell and Hunt date the Gospel, from
which it is an excerpt, about 200. There is considerable difficulty with
regard to some of the details. The statement that an ordinary Jew was
required to wash and change his clothes before visiting the inner court
of the temple is quite unsupported by any other evidence. Nothing is
known about "the place of purification" ([Greek: agneutêrion]) nor "the
pool of David" ([Greek: limnê tou Daueid]). Nor does the statement that
"the sacred vessels" were visible from the place where Jesus was
standing seem at all probable. Grenfell and Hunt conclude therefore--"So
great indeed are the divergences between this account and the extant and
no doubt well-informed authorities with regard to the topography and
ritual of the Temple that it is hardly possible to avoid the conclusion
that much of the local colour is due to the imagination of the author
who was aiming chiefly at dramatic effect and was not really well
acquainted with the Temple. But if the inaccuracy of the fragment in
this important respect is admitted the historical character of the whole
episode breaks down and it is probably to be regarded as an apocryphal
elaboration of Matt. xv. 1-20 and Mark vii. 1-23."

  See the _Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, part i. (1897), part iv. (1904), part v.
  (1908).     (H. T. A.)




LOGIC ([Greek: logikê], sc. [Greek: technê], the art of reasoning), the
name given to one of the four main departments of philosophy, though its
sphere is very variously delimited. The present article is divided into
1. _The Problems of Logic_, II. _History_.


I. _The Problems of Logic._

_Introduction._--Logic is the science of the processes of inference,
what, then, is inference? It is that mental operation which proceeds by
combining two premises so as to cause a consequent conclusion. Some
suppose that we may infer from one premise by a so-called "immediate
inference." But one premise can only reproduce itself in another form,
e.g. all men are some animals; therefore some animals are men. It
requires the combination of at least two premises to infer a conclusion
different from both. There are as many kinds of inference as there are
different ways of combining premises, and in the main three types:--

1. _Analogical Inference_, from particular to particular: e.g.
border-war between Thebes and Phocis is evil; border-war between Thebes
and Athens is similar to that between Thebes and Phocis; therefore,
border-war between Thebes and Athens is evil.

2. _Inductive Inference_, from particular to universal: e.g. border-war
between Thebes and Phocis is evil; all border-war is like that between
Thebes and Phocis; therefore, all border-war is evil.

3. _Deductive or Syllogistic Inference_, from universal to particular,
e.g. all border-war is evil; border-war between Thebes and Athens is
border-war; therefore border-war between Thebes and Athens is evil.

In each of these kinds of inference there are three mental judgments
capable of being expressed as above in three linguistic propositions;
and the two first are the premises which are combined, while the third
is the conclusion which is consequent on their combination. Each
proposition consists of two terms, the subject and its predicate, united
by the copula. Each inference contains three terms. In syllogistic
inference the subject of the conclusion is the minor term, and its
predicate the major term, while between these two extremes the term
common to the two premises is the middle term, and the premise
containing the middle and major terms is the major premise, the premise
containing the middle and minor terms the minor premise. Thus in the
example of syllogism given above, "border-war between Thebes and Athens"
is the minor term, "evil" the major term, and "border-war" the middle
term. Using S for minor, P for major and M for middle, and preserving
these signs for corresponding terms in analogical and inductive
inferences, we obtain the following formula of the three inferences:--

   _Analogical._     |   _Inductive._   | _Deductive or Syllogistic._
                     |                  |
     S^1 is P        |    S is P        |       Every M is P
     S^2 is similar  |   Every M is     |             S is M
       to S^1        |     similar to S |
  :. S^2 is P.       |:. Every M is P.  |          :. S is P.

The love of unity has often made logicians attempt to resolve these
three processes into one. But each process has a peculiarity of its own;
they are similar, not the same. Analogical and inductive inference alike
begin with a particular premise containing one or more instances; but
the former adds a particular premise to draw a particular conclusion,
the latter requires a universal premise to draw a universal conclusion.
A citizen of Athens, who had known the evils of the border-war between
Thebes and Phocis, would readily perceive the analogy of a similar war
between Thebes and Athens, and conclude analogously that it would be
evil; but he would have to generalize the similarity of all border-wars
in order to draw the inductive conclusion that all alike are evil.
Induction and deduction differ still more, and are in fact opposed, as
one makes a particular premise the evidence of a universal conclusion,
the other makes a universal premise evidence of a particular conclusion.
Yet they are alike in requiring the generalization of the universal and
the belief that there are classes which are whole numbers of similars.
On this point both differ from inference by analogy, which proceeds
entirely from particular premises to a particular conclusion. Hence we
may redivide inference into particular inference by analogy and
universal inference by induction and deduction. Universal inference is
what we call reasoning; and its two species are very closely connected,
because universal conclusions of induction become universal premises of
deduction. Indeed, we often induce in order to deduce, ascending from
particular to universal and descending from universal to particular in
one act as it were; so that we may proceed either directly from
particular to particular by analogical inference, or indirectly from
particular through universal to particular by an inductive-deductive
inference which might be called "perduction." On the whole, then,
analogical, inductive and deductive inferences are not the same but
three similar and closely connected processes.

The three processes of inference, though different from one another,
rest on a common principle of similarity of which each is a different
application. Analogical inference requires that one particular is
similar to another, induction that a whole number or class is similar to
its particular instances, deduction that each particular is similar to
the whole number or class. Not that these inferences require us to
believe, or assume, or premise or formulate this principle either in
general, or in its applied forms: the premises are all that any
inference needs the mind to assume. The principle of similarity is used,
not assumed by the inferring mind, which in accordance with the
similarity of things and the parity of inference spontaneously concludes
in the form that similars are similarly determined ("similia similibus
convenire"). In applying this principle of similarity, each of the three
processes in its own way has to premise both that something is somehow
determined and that something is similar, and by combining these
premises to conclude that this is similarly determined to that. Thus the
very principle of inference by similarity requires it to be a
combination of premises in order to draw a conclusion.

The three processes, as different applications of the principle of
similarity, consisting of different combinations of premises, cause
different degrees of cogency in their several conclusions. Analogy
hardly requires as much evidence as induction. Men speculate about the
analogy between Mars and the earth, and infer that it is inhabited,
without troubling about all the planets. Induction has to consider more
instances, and the similarity of a whole number or class. Even so,
however, it starts from a particular premise which only contains many
instances, and leaves room to doubt the universality of its conclusions.
But deduction, starting from a premise about all the members of a class,
compels a conclusion about every and each of necessity. One border-war
may be similar to another, and the whole number may be similar, without
being similarly evil; but if all alike are evil, each is evil of
necessity. Deduction or syllogism is superior to analogy and induction
in combining premises so as to involve or contain the conclusion. For
this reason it has been elevated by some logicians above all other
inferences, and for this very same reason attacked by others as no
inference at all. The truth is that, though the premises contain the
conclusion, neither premise alone contains it, and a man who knows both
but does not combine them does not draw the conclusion; it is the
synthesis of the two premises which at once contains the conclusion and
advances our knowledge; and as syllogism consists, not indeed in the
discovery, but essentially in the synthesis of two premises, it is an
inference and an advance on each premise and on both taken separately.
As again the synthesis contains or involves the conclusion, syllogism
has the advantage of compelling assent to the consequences of the
premises. Inference in general is a combination of premises to cause a
conclusion; deduction is such a combination as to compel a conclusion
involved in the combination, and following from the premises of
necessity.

Nevertheless, deduction or syllogism is not independent of the other
processes of inference. It is not the primary inference of its own
premises, but constantly converts analogical and inductive conclusions
into its particular and universal premises. Of itself it causes a
necessity of consequence, but only a hypothetical necessity; if these
premises are true, then this conclusion necessarily follows. To
eliminate this "if" ultimately requires other inferences before
deduction. Especially, induction to universals is the warrant and
measure of deduction from universals. So far as it is inductively true
that all border-war is evil, it is deductively true that a given
border-war is therefore evil. Now, as an inductive combination of
premises does not necessarily involve the inductive conclusion,
induction normally leads, not to a necessary, but to a probable
conclusion; and whenever its probable conclusions become deductive
premises, the deduction only involves a probable conclusion. Can we then
infer any certainty at all? In order to answer this question we must
remember that there are many degrees of probability, and that induction,
and therefore deduction, draw conclusions more or less probable, and
rise to the point at which probability becomes moral certainty, or that
high degree of probability which is sufficient to guide our lives, and
even condemn murderers to death. But can we rise still higher and infer
real necessity? This is a difficult question, which has received many
answers. Some noölogists suppose a mental power of forming necessary
principles of deduction a priori; but fail to show how we can apply
principles of mind to things beyond mind. Some empiricists, on the other
hand, suppose that induction only infers probable conclusions which are
premises of probable deductions; but they give up all exact science.
Between these extremes there is room for a third theory, empirical yet
providing a knowledge of the really necessary. In some cases of
induction concerned with objects capable of abstraction and
simplification, we have a power of identification, by which, not a
priori but in the act of inducing a conclusion, we apprehend that the
things signified by its subject and predicate are one and the same
thing which cannot exist apart from itself. Thus by combined induction
and identification we apprehend that one and one are the same as two,
that there is no difference between a triangle and a three-sided
rectilineal figure, that a whole must be greater than its part by being
the whole, that inter-resisting bodies necessarily force one another
apart, otherwise they would not be inter-resisting but occupy the same
place at the same moment. Necessary principles, discovered by this
process of induction and identification, become premises of deductive
demonstration to conclusions which are not only necessary consequents on
the premises, but also equally necessary in reality. Induction thus is
the source of deduction, of its truth, of its probability, of its moral
certainty; and induction, combined with identification, is the origin of
the necessary principles of demonstration or deduction to necessary
conclusions.

Analogical inference in its turn is as closely allied with induction.
Like induction, it starts from a particular premise, containing one or
more examples or instances; but, as it is easier to infer a particular
than a universal conclusion, it supplies particular conclusions which in
their turn become further particular premises of induction. Its second
premise is indeed merely a particular apprehension that one particular
is similar to another, whereas the second premise of induction is a
universal apprehension that a whole number of particulars is similar to
those from which the inference starts; but at bottom these two
apprehensions of similarity are so alike as to suggest that the
universal premise of induction has arisen as a generalized analogy. It
seems likely that man has arrived at the apprehension of a whole
individual, e.g. a whole animal including all its parts, and thence has
inferred by analogy a whole number, or class, e.g. of animals including
all individual animals; and accordingly that the particular analogy of
one individual to another has given rise to the general analogy of every
to each individual in a class, or whole number of individuals, contained
in the second premise of induction. In this case, analogical inference
has led to induction, as induction to deduction. Further, analogical
inference from particular to particular suggests inductive-deductive
inference from particular through universal to particular.

Newton, according to Dr Pemberton, thought in 1666 that the moon moves
so like a falling body that it has a similar centripetal force to the
earth, 20 years before he demonstrated this conclusion from the laws of
motion in the _Principia_. In fact, analogical, inductive and deductive
inferences, though different processes of combining premises to cause
different conclusions, are so similar and related, so united in
principle and interdependent, so consolidated into a system of
inference, that they cannot be completely investigated apart, but
together constitute a single subject of science. This science of
inference in general is logic.

Logic, however, did not begin as a science of all inference. Rather it
began as a science of reasoning ([Greek: logos]), of syllogism ([Greek:
syllogismos]), of deductive inference. Aristotle was its founder. He was
anticipated of course by many generations of spontaneous thinking
(_logica naturalis_). Many of the higher animals infer by analogy:
otherwise we cannot explain their thinking. Man so infers at first:
otherwise we cannot explain the actions of young children, who before
they begin to speak give no evidence of universal thinking. It is likely
that man began with particular inference and with particular language;
and that, gradually generalizing thought and language, he learnt at last
to think and say "all," to infer universally, to induce and deduce, to
reason, in short, and raise himself above other animals. In ancient
times, and especially in Egypt, Babylon and Greece, he went on to
develop reason into science or the systematic investigation of definite
subjects, e.g. arithmetic of number, geometry of magnitude, astronomy of
stars, politics of government, ethics of goods. In Greece he became more
and more reflective and conscious of himself, of his body and soul, his
manners and morals, his mental operations and especially his reason. One
of the characteristics of Greek philosophers is their growing tendency,
in investigating any subject, to turn round and ask themselves what
should be the method of investigation. In this way the Presocratics and
Sophists, and still more Socrates and Plato, threw out hints on sense
and reason, on inferential processes and scientific methods which may be
called anticipations of logic. But Aristotle was the first to conceive
of reasoning itself as a definite subject of a special science, which he
called analytics or analytic science, specially designed to analyse
syllogism and especially demonstrative syllogism, or science, and to be
in fact a science of sciences. He was therefore the founder of the
science of logic.

  Among the Aristotelian treatises we have the following, which together
  constitute this new science of reasoning:--

  1. The _Categories_, or names signifying things which can become
  predicates;

  2. The _De Interpretatione_, or the enumeration of conceptions and
  their combinations by (1) nouns and verbs (names), (2) enunciations
  (propositions);

  3. The _Prior Analytics_, on syllogism;

  4. The _Posterior Analytics_, on demonstrative syllogism, or science;

  5. The _Topics_, on dialectical syllogism; or argument;

  6. The _Sophistical Elenchi_, on sophistical or contentious syllogism,
  or sophistical fallacies.

  So far as we know, Aristotle had no one name for all these
  investigations. "Analytics" is only applied to the _Prior_ and
  _Posterior Analytics_, and "logical," which he opposed to
  "analytical," only suits the _Topics_ and at most the _Sophistical
  Elenchi_; secondly, while he analyzed syllogism into premises, major
  and minor, and premises into terms, subject and predicate, he
  attempted no division of the whole science; thirdly, he attempted no
  order and arrangement of the treatises into a system of logic, but
  only of the _Analytics_, _Topics_ and _Sophistical Elenchi_ into a
  system of syllogisms. Nevertheless, when his followers had arranged
  the treatises into the _Organon_, as they called it to express that it
  is an instrument of science, then there gradually emerged a system of
  syllogistic logic, arranged in the triple division--terms,
  propositions and syllogisms--which has survived to this day as
  technical logic, and has been the foundation of all other logics, even
  of those which aim at its destruction.

The main problem which Aristotle set before him was the analysis of
syllogism, which he defined as "reasoning in which certain things having
been posited something different from them of necessity follows by their
being those things" (_Prior Analytics_, i. 1). What then did he mean by
reasoning, or rather by the Greek word [Greek: logos] of which
"reasoning" is an approximate rendering? It was meant (cf. _Post. An._
i. 10) to be both internal, in the soul ([Greek: ho esô logos, en tê
psychê]), and external, in language ([Greek: ho exo logos]): hence after
Aristotle the Stoics distinguished [Greek: logos endiathetos] and
[Greek: prophorikos]. It meant, then, both reason and discourse of
reason (cf. Shakespeare, _Hamlet_, i. 2). On its mental side, as reason
it meant combination of thoughts. On its linguistic side, as discourse
it was used for any combination of names to form a phrase, such as the
definition "rational animal," or a book, such as the _Iliad_. It had
also the mathematical meaning of _ratio_; and in its use for definition
it is sometimes transferred to essence as the object of definition, and
has a mixed meaning, which may be expressed by "account." In all its
uses, however, the common meaning is combination. When Aristotle called
syllogism [Greek: logos], he meant that it is a combination of premises
involving a conclusion of necessity. Moreover, he tended to confine the
term [Greek: logos] to syllogistic inference. Not that he omitted other
inferences ([Greek: pisteis]). On the contrary, to him (cf. _Prior
Analytics_, ii. 24) we owe the triple distinction into inference from
particular to particular ([Greek: paradeigma], example, or what we call
"analogy"), inference from particular to universal ([Greek: epagôgê],
induction), and inference from universal to particular ([Greek:
syllogismos], syllogism, or deduction). But he thought that inferences
other than syllogism are imperfect; that analogical inference is
rhetorical induction; and that induction, through the necessary
preliminary of syllogism and the sole process of ascent from sense,
memory and experience to the principles of science, is itself neither
reasoning nor science. To be perfect he thought that all inference must
be reduced to syllogism of the first figure, which he regarded as the
specially scientific inference. Accordingly, the syllogism appeared to
him to be the rational process ([Greek: meta logou]), and the
demonstrative syllogism from inductively discovered principles to be
science ([Greek: epistêmê]). Hence, without his saying it in so many
words, Aristotle's logic perforce became a logic of deductive reasoning,
or syllogism. As it happened this deductive tendency helped the
development of logic. The obscurer premises of analogy and induction,
together with the paucity of experience and the backward state of
physical science in Aristotle's time would have baffled even his
analytical genius. On the other hand, the demonstrations of mathematical
sciences of his time, and the logical forms of deduction evinced in
Plato's dialogues, provided him with admirable examples of deduction,
which is also the inference most capable of analysis. Aristotle's
analysis of the syllogism showed man how to advance by combining his
thoughts in trains of deductive reasoning. Nevertheless, the wider
question remained for logic: what is the nature of all inference, and
the special form of each of its three main processes?

  As then the reasoning of the syllogism was the main problem of
  Aristotle's logic, what was his analysis of it? In distinguishing
  inner and outer reason, or reasoning and discourse, he added that it
  is not to outer reason but to inner reason in the soul that
  demonstration and syllogism are directed (_Post. An._ i. 10). One
  would expect, then, an analysis of mental reasoning into mental
  judgments ([Greek: kriseis]) as premises and conclusion. In point of
  fact, he analysed it into premises, but then analysed a premise into
  terms, which he divided into subject and predicate, with the addition
  of the copula "is" or "is not." This analysis, regarded as a whole and
  as it is applied in the _Analytics_ and in the other logical
  treatises, was evidently intended as a linguistic analysis. So in the
  _Categories_, he first divided things said ([Greek: ta legomena]) into
  uncombined and combined, or names and propositions, and then divided
  the former into categories; and in the _De interpretatione_ he
  expressly excluded mental conceptions and their combinations, and
  confined himself to nouns and verbs and enunciations, or, as we should
  say, to names and propositions. Aristotle apparently intended, or at
  all events has given logicians in general the impression, that he
  intended to analyse syllogism into propositions as premises, and
  premise into names as terms. His logic therefore exhibits the curious
  paradox of being an analysis of mental reasoning into linguistic
  elements. The explanation is that outer speech is more obvious than
  inner thought, and that grammar and poetic criticism, rhetoric and
  dialectic preceded logic, and that out of those arts of language arose
  the science of reasoning. The sophist Protagoras had distinguished
  various kinds of sentences, and Plato had divided the sentence into
  noun and verb, signifying a thing and the action of a thing.
  Rhetoricians had enumerated various means of persuasion, some of which
  are logical forms, e.g. probability and sign, example and enthymeme.
  Among the dialecticians, Socrates had used inductive arguments to
  obtain definitions as data of deductive arguments against his
  opponents, and Plato had insisted on the processes of ascending to and
  descending from an unconditional principle by the power of giving and
  receiving argument. All these points about speech, eloquence and
  argument between man and man were absorbed into Aristotle's theory of
  reasoning, and in particular the grammar of the sentence consisting of
  noun and verb caused the logic of the proposition consisting of
  subject and predicate. At the same time, Aristotle was well aware that
  the science of reasoning is no art of language and must take up a
  different position towards speech as the expression of thought. In the
  _Categories_ he classified names, not, however, as a grammarian by
  their structure, but as a logician by their signification. In the _De
  interpretatione_, having distinguished the enunciation, or
  proposition, from other sentences as that in which there is truth or
  falsity, he relegated the rest to rhetoric or poetry, and founded the
  logic of the proposition, in which, however, he retained the
  grammatical analysis into noun and verb. In the _Analytics_ he took
  the final step of originating the logical analysis of the proposition
  as premise into subject and predicate as terms mediated by the copula,
  and analysed the syllogism into these elements. Thus did he become the
  founder of the logical but linguistic analysis of reasoning as
  discourse ([Greek: ho exô logos]) into propositions and terms.
  Nevertheless, the deeper question remained, what is the logical but
  mental analysis of reasoning itself ([Greek: ho esô logos]) into its
  mental premises and conclusion?

Aristotle thus was the founder of logic as a science. But he laid too
much stress on reasoning as syllogism or deduction, and on deductive
science; and he laid too much stress on the linguistic analysis of
rational discourse into proposition and terms. These two defects remain
ingrained in technical logic to this day. But in the course of the
development of the science, logicians have endeavoured to correct those
defects, and have diverged into two schools. Some have devoted
themselves to induction from sense and experience and widened logic till
it has become a general science of inference and scientific method.
Others have devoted themselves to the mental analysis of reasoning, and
have narrowed logic into a science of conception, judgment and
reasoning. The former belong to the school of empirical logic, the
latter to the school of conceptual and formal logic. Both have started
from points which Aristotle indicated without developing them. But we
shall find that his true descendants are the empirical logicians.

Aristotle was the first of the empiricists. He consistently maintained
that sense is knowledge of particulars and the origin of scientific
knowledge of universals. In his view, sense is a congenital form of
judgment ([Greek: dynamis symphytos kritikê], _Post. An._ ii. 19); a
sensation of each of the five senses is always true of its proper
object; without sense there is no science; sense is the origin of
induction, which is the origin of deduction and science. The _Analytics_
end (_Post. An._ ii. 19) with a detailed system of empiricism, according
to which sense is the primary knowledge of particulars, memory is the
retention of a sensation, experience is the sum of many memories,
induction infers universals, and intelligence is the true apprehension
of the universal principles of science, which is rational, deductive,
demonstrative, from empirical principles.

  This empirical groundwork of Aristotle's logic was accepted by the
  Epicureans, who enunciated most distinctly the fundamental doctrine
  that all sensations are true of their immediate objects, and falsity
  begins with subsequent opinions, or what the moderns call
  "interpretation." Beneath deductive logic, in the logic of Aristotle
  and the canonic of the Epicureans, there already lay the basis of
  empirical logic: sensory experience is the origin of all inference and
  science. It remained for Francis Bacon to develop these beginnings
  into a new logic of induction. He did not indeed accept the
  infallibility of sense or of any other operation unaided. He thought,
  rather, that every operation becomes infallible by method. Following
  Aristotle in this order--sense, memory, intellect--he resolved the
  whole process of induction into three ministrations:--

  1. The ministration to sense, aided by observation and experiment.

  2. The ministration to memory, aided by registering and arranging the
  data, of observation and experiment in tables of instances of
  agreement, difference and concomitant variations.

  3. The ministration to intellect or reason, aided by the negative
  elimination by means of contradictory instances of whatever in the
  instances is not always present, absent and varying with the given
  subject investigated, and finally by the positive inference that
  whatever in the instances is always present, absent and varying with
  the subject is its essential cause.

  Bacon, like Aristotle, was anticipated in this or that point; but, as
  Aristotle was the first to construct a system of deduction in the
  syllogism and its three figures, so Bacon was the first to construct a
  system of induction in three ministrations, in which the requisites of
  induction, hitherto recognized only in sporadic hints, were combined
  for the first time in one logic of induction. Bacon taught men to
  labour in inferring from particular to universal, to lay as much
  stress on induction as on deduction, and to think and speak of
  inductive reasoning, inductive science, inductive logic. Moreover,
  while Aristotle had the merit of discerning the triplicity of
  inference, to Bacon we owe the merit of distinguishing the three
  processes without reduction:--

  1. Inference from particular to particular by Experientia Literata, in
  plano;

  2. Inference from particular to universal by Inductio, ascendendo;

  3. Inference from universal to particular by Syllogism, descendendo.

  In short, the comprehensive genius of Bacon widened logic into a
  general science of inference.

  On the other hand, as Aristotle over-emphasized deduction so Bacon
  over-emphasized induction by contending that it is the only process of
  discovering universals (_axiomata_), which deduction only applies to
  particulars. J. S. Mill in his _Logic_ pointed out this defect, and
  without departing from Baconian principles remedied it by quoting
  scientific examples, in which deduction, starting from inductive
  principles, applies more general to less general universals, e.g. when
  the more general law of gravitation is shown to include the less
  general laws of planetary gravitation. Mill's logic has the great
  merit of copiously exemplifying the principles of the variety of
  method according to subject-matter. It teaches us that scientific
  method is sometimes induction, sometimes deduction, and sometimes the
  consilience of both, either by the inductive verification of previous
  deductions, or by the deductive explanation of previous inductions.

  It is also most interesting to notice that Aristotle saw further than
  Bacon in this direction. The founder of logic anticipated the latest
  logic of science, when he recognized, not only the deduction of
  mathematics, but also the experience of facts followed by deductive
  explanations of their causes in physics.

The consilience of empirical and deductive processes was an Aristotelian
discovery, elaborated by Mill against Bacon. On the whole, however,
Aristotle, Bacon and Mill, purged from their errors, form one empirical
school, gradually growing by adapting itself to the advance of science;
a school in which Aristotle was most influenced by Greek deductive
Mathematics, Bacon by the rise of empirical physics at the Renaissance,
and Mill by the Newtonian combination of empirical facts and
mathematical principles in the _Principia_. From studying this
succession of empirical logicians, we cannot doubt that sense, memory
and experience are the real origin of inference, analogical, inductive
and deductive. The deepest problem of logic is the relation of sense and
inference. But we must first consider the mental analysis of inference,
and this brings us to conceptual and formal logic.

Aristotle's logic has often been called formal logic; it was really a
technical logic of syllogism analysed into linguistic elements, and of
science rested on an empirical basis. At the same time his psychology,
though maintaining his empiricism, contained some seeds of conceptual
logic, and indirectly of formal logic. Intellectual development, which
according to the logic of the _Analytics_ consists of sense, memory,
experience, induction and intellect, according to the psychology of the
_De Anima_ consists of sense, imagination and intellect, and one
division of intellect is into conception of the undivided and
combination of conceptions as one (_De An._ iii. 6). The _De
Interpretatione_ opens with a reference to this psychological
distinction, implying that names represent conceptions, propositions
represent combinations of conceptions. But the same passage relegates
conceptions and their combinations to the _De Anima_, and confines the
_De Interpretatione_ to names and propositions in conformity with the
linguistic analysis which pervades the logical treatises of Aristotle,
who neither brought his psychological distinction between conceptions
and their combinations into his logic, nor advanced the combinations of
conceptions as a definition of judgment ([Greek: krisis]), nor employed
the mental distinction between conceptions and judgments as an analysis
of inference, or reasoning, or syllogism: he was no conceptual logician.
The history of logic shows that the linguistic distinction between terms
and propositions was the sole analysis of reasoning in the logical
treatises of Aristotle; that the mental distinction between conceptions
([Greek: ennoiai]) and judgments ([Greek: axiômata] in a wide sense) was
imported into logic by the Stoics; and that this mental distinction
became the logical analysis of reasoning under the authority of St
Thomas Aquinas. In his commentary on the _De Interpretatione_, St
Thomas, after citing from the _De Anima_ Aristotle's "duplex operatio
intellectus," said, "Additur autem et tertia operatio, scilicet
ratiocinandi," and concluded that, since logic is a rational science
(_rationalis scientia_), its consideration must be directed to all these
operations of reason. Hence arose conceptual logic; according to which
conception is a simple apprehension of an idea without belief in being
or not being, e.g. the idea of man or of running; judgment is a
combination of conceptions, adding being or not being, e.g. man is
running or not running; and reasoning is a combination of judgments:
conversely, there is a mental analysis of reasoning into judgments, and
judgment into conceptions, beneath the linguistic analysis of rational
discourse into propositions, and propositions into terms. Logic,
according to this new school, which has by our time become an old
school, has to co-ordinate these three operations, direct them, and,
beginning with conceptions, combine conceptions into judgments, and
judgments into inference, which thus becomes a complex combination of
conceptions, or, in modern parlance, an extension of our ideas.
Conceptual logicians were, indeed, from the first aware that sense
supplies the data, and that judgment and therefore inference contains
belief that things are or are not. But they held, and still hold that
sensation and conception are alike mere apprehensions, and that the
belief that things are or are not arises somehow after sensation and
conception in judgment, from which it passes into inference. At first,
they were more sanguine of extracting from these unpromising beginnings
some knowledge of things beyond ideas. But at length many of them became
formal logicians, who held that logic is the investigation of formal
thinking, or consistent conception, judgment and reasoning; that it
shows how we infer formal truths of consistency without material truth
of signifying things; that, as the science of the form or process, it
must entirely abstract from the matter, or objects, of thought; and that
it does not tell us how we infer from experience. Thus has logic drifted
further and further from the real and empirical logic of Aristotle the
founder and Bacon the reformer of the science.

The great merit of conceptual logic was the demand for a mental analysis
of mental reasoning, and the direct analysis of reasoning into judgments
which are the sole premises and conclusions of reasoning and of all
mental inferences. Aristotle had fallen into the paradox of resolving a
mental act into verbal elements. The Schoolmen, however, gradually came
to realize that the result to their logic was to make it a
_sermocionalis scientia_, and to their metaphysics the danger of
nominalism. St Thomas made a great advance by making logic throughout a
_rationalis scientia_; and logicians are now agreed that reasoning
consists of judgments, discourse of propositions. This distinction is,
moreover, vital to the whole logic of inference, because we always think
all the judgments of which our inference consists, but seldom state all
the propositions by which it is expressed. We omit propositions, curtail
them, and even express a judgment by a single term, e.g. "Good!"
"Fire!". Hence the linguistic expression is not a true measure of
inference; and to say that an inference consists of two propositions
causing a third is not strictly true. But to say that it is two
judgments causing a third is always true, and the very essence of
inference, because we must think the two to conclude the third in "the
sessions of sweet silent thought." Inference, in short, consists of
actual judgments capable of being expressed in propositions.

  Inference always consists of judgments. But judgment does not always
  consist of conceptions. It is not a combination of conceptions; it
  does not arise from conceptions, nor even at first require conception.
  Sense is the origin of judgment. One who feels pained or pleased, who
  feels hot or cold or resisting in touch, who tastes the flavoured, who
  smells the odorous, who hears the sounding, who sees the coloured, or
  is conscious, already believes that something sensible exists before
  conception, before inference, and before language; and his belief is
  true of the immediate object of sense, the sensible thing, e.g. the
  hot felt in touch. But a belief in the existence of something is a
  judgment and a categorical judgment of existence. Sense, then, outer
  and inner, or sensation and consciousness, is the origin of sensory
  judgments which are true categorical beliefs in the existence of
  sensible things; and primary judgments are such true categorical
  sensory beliefs that things exist, and neither require conception nor
  are combinations of conceptions. Again, since sense is the origin of
  memory and experience, memorial and experiential judgments are
  categorical and existential judgments, which so far as they report
  sensory judgments are always true. Finally, since sense, memory and
  experience are the origin of inference, primary inference is
  categorical and existential, starting from sensory, memorial and
  experiential judgments as premises, and proceeding to inferential
  judgments as conclusions, which are categorical and existential, and
  are true, so far as they depend on sense, memory and experience.

  Sense, then, is the origin of judgment; and the consequence is that
  primary judgments are true, categorical and existential judgments of
  sense, and primary inferences are inferences from categorical and
  existential premises to categorical and existential conclusions, which
  are true so far as they arise from outer and inner sense, and proceed
  to things similar to sensible things. All other judgments and
  inferences about existing things, or ideas, or names, whether
  categorical or hypothetical, are afterthoughts, partly true and partly
  false.

  Sense, then, because it involves a true belief in existence is fitted
  to be the origin of judgment. Conception on the other hand is the
  simple apprehension of an idea, particular or universal, but without
  belief that anything is or is not, and therefore is unfitted to beget
  judgment. Nor could a combination of conceptions make a difference so
  fundamental as that between conceiving and believing. The most that it
  could do would be to cause an ideal judgment, e.g. that the idea of a
  centaur is the idea of a man-horse; and even here some further origin
  is needed for the addition of the copula "is."

  So far from being a cause, conception is not even a condition of all
  judgments; a sensation of hot is sufficient evidence that hot exists,
  before the idea of hot is either present or wanted. Conception is,
  however, a condition of a memorial judgment: in order to remember
  being hot, we require an idea of hot. Memory, however, is not that
  idea, but involves a judgment that there previously existed the hot
  now represented by the idea, which is about the sensible thing beyond
  the conceived idea; and the cause of this memorial judgment is past
  sense and present memory. So sense, memory and experience, the sum of
  sense and memory, though requiring conception, are the causes of the
  experiential judgment that there exist and have existed many similar,
  sensible things, and these sensory, memorial and experiential
  judgments about the existence of past and present sensible things
  beyond conceived ideas become the particular premises of primary
  inference. Starting from them, inference is enabled to draw
  conclusions which are inferential judgments about the existence of
  things similar to sensible things beyond conceived ideas. In rising,
  however, from particular to universal inference, induction, as we have
  seen, adds to its particular premise, S is P, a universal premise,
  every M is similar to S, in order to infer the universal conclusion,
  every M is P. This universal premise requires a universal conception
  of a class or whole number of similar particulars, as a condition. But
  the premise is not that conception; it is a belief that there is a
  whole number of particulars similar to those already experienced. The
  generalization of a class is not, as the conceptual logic assumes, the
  abstraction of a general idea, but an inference from the analogy of a
  whole individual thing, e.g. a whole man, to a whole number of similar
  individuals, e.g. the whole of men. The general idea of all men or the
  combination that the idea of all men is similar to the idea of
  particular men would not be enough; the universal premise that all men
  in fact are similar to those who have died is required to induce the
  universal conclusion that all men in fact die. Universal inference
  thus requires particular and universal conceptions as its condition;
  but, so far as it arises from sense, memory, experience, and involves
  generalization, it consists of judgments which do not consist of
  conceptions, but are beliefs in things existing beyond conception.
  Inference then, so far as it starts from categorical and existential
  premises, causes conclusions, or inferential judgments, which require
  conceptions, but are categorical and existential judgments beyond
  conception. Moreover, as it becomes more deductive, and causes
  conclusions further from sensory experience, these inferential
  judgments become causes of inferential conceptions. For example, from
  the evidence of molar changes due to the obvious parts of bodies,
  science first comes to believe in molecular changes due to
  imperceptible particles, and then tries to conceive the ideas of
  particles, molecules, atoms, electrons. The conceptual logic supposes
  that conception always precedes judgment; but the truth is that
  sensory judgment begins and inferential judgment ends by preceding
  conception. The supposed triple order--conception, judgment,
  reasoning--is defective and false. The real order is sensation and
  sensory judgment, conception, memory and memorial judgment, experience
  and experiential judgment, inference, inferential judgment,
  inferential conception. This is not all: inferential conceptions are
  inadequate, and finally fail. They are often symbolical; that is, we
  conceive one thing only by another like it, e.g. atoms by minute
  bodies not nearly small enough. Often the symbol is not like. What
  idea can the physicist form of intraspatial ether? What believer in
  God pretends to conceive Him as He really is? We believe many things
  that we cannot conceive; as Mill said, the inconceivable is not the
  incredible; and the point of science is not what we can conceive but
  what we should believe on evidence. Conception is the weakest,
  judgment the strongest power of man's mind. Sense before conception is
  the original cause of judgment; and inference from sense enables
  judgment to continue after conception ceases. Finally, as there is
  judgment without conception, so there is conception without judgment.
  We often say "I understand, but do not decide." But this suspension of
  judgment is a highly refined act, unfitted to the beginning of
  thought. Conception begins as a condition of memory, and after a long
  continuous process of inference ends in mere ideation. The conceptual
  logic has made the mistake of making ideation a stage in thought prior
  to judgment.

  It was natural enough that the originators of conceptual logic, seeing
  that judgments can be expressed by propositions, and conceptions by
  terms, should fall into the error of supposing that, as propositions
  consist of terms, so judgments consist of conceptions, and that there
  is a triple mental order--conception, judgment, reasoning--parallel to
  the triple linguistic order--term, proposition, discourse. They
  overlooked the fact that man thinks long before he speaks, makes
  judgments which he does not express at all, or expresses them by
  interjections, names and phrases, before he uses regular propositions,
  and that he does not begin by conceiving and naming, and then proceed
  to believing and proposing. Feeling and sensation, involving believing
  or judging, come before conception and language. As conceptions are
  not always present in judgment, as they are only occasional
  conditions, and as they are unfitted to cause beliefs or judgments,
  and especially judgments of existence, and as judgments both precede
  conceptions in sense and continue after them in inference, it follows
  that conceptions are not the constituents of judgment, and judgment is
  not a combination of conceptions. Is there then any analysis of
  judgment? Paradoxical as it may sound, the truth seems to be that
  primary judgment, beginning as it does with the simplest feeling and
  sensation, is not a combination of two mental elements into one, but
  is a division of one sensible thing into the thing itself and its
  existence and the belief that it is determined as existing, e.g. that
  hot exists, cold exists, the pained exists, the pleased exists. Such a
  judgment has a cause, namely sense, but no mental elements.
  Afterwards come judgments of complex sense, e.g. that the existing hot
  is burning or becoming more or less hot, &c. Thus there is a
  combination of sensations causing the judgment; but the judgment is
  still a division of the sensible thing into itself and its being, and
  a belief that it is so determined. Afterwards follow judgments arising
  from more complex causes, e.g. memory, experience, inference. But
  however complicated these mental causes, there still remain these
  points common to all judgment:--(1) The mental causes of judgment are
  sense, memory, experience and inference; while conception is a
  condition of some judgments. (2) A judgment is not a combination
  either of its causes or of its conditions, e.g. it is not a
  combination of sensations any more than of ideas. (3) A judgment is a
  unitary mental act, dividing not itself but its object into the object
  itself and itself as determined, and signifying that it is so
  determined. (4) A primary judgment is a judgment that a sensible thing
  is determined as existing; but later judgments are concerned with
  either existing things, or with ideas, or with words, and signify that
  they are determined in all sorts of ways. (5) When a judgment is
  expressed by a proposition, the proposition expresses the results of
  the division by two terms, subject and predicate, and by the copula
  that what is signified by the subject is what is signified by the
  predicate; and the proposition is a combination of the two terms; e.g.
  border war is evil. (6) A complex judgment is a combination of two
  judgments, and may be copulative, e.g. you and I are men, or
  hypothetical, or disjunctive, &c.

Empirical logic, the logic of Aristotle and Bacon, is on the right way.
It is the business of the logician to find the causes of the judgments
which form the premises and the conclusions of inference, reasoning and
science. What knowledge do we get by sense, memory and experience, the
first mental causes of judgment? What is judgment, and what its various
kinds? What is inference, how does it proceed by combining judgments as
premises to cause judgments as conclusions, and what are its various
kinds? How does inference draw conclusions more or less probable up to
moral certainty? How does it by the aid of identification convert
probable into necessary conclusions, which become necessary principles
of demonstration? How is categorical succeeded by conditional inference?
What is scientific method as a system of inferences about definite
subjects? How does inference become the source of error and fallacy? How
does the whole process from sense to inference discover the real truth
of judgments, which are true so far as they signify things known by
sense, memory, experience and inference? These are the fundamental
questions of the science of inference. Conceptual logic, on the other
hand, is false from the start. It is not the first business of logic to
direct us how to form conceptions signified by terms, because sense is a
prior cause of judgment and inference. It is not the second business of
logic to direct us how out of conceptions to form judgments signified by
propositions, because the real causes of judgments are sense, memory,
experience and inference. It is, however, the main business of logic to
direct us how out of judgments to form inferences signified by
discourse; and this is the one point which conceptual logic has
contributed to the science of inference. But why spoil the further
mental analysis of inference by supposing that conceptions are
constituents of judgment and therefore of inference, which thus becomes
merely a complex combination of conceptions, an extension of ideas? The
mistake has been to convert three operations of mind into three
processes in a fixed order--conception, judgment, inference. Conception
and judgment are decisions: inference alone is a process, from decisions
to decision, from judgments to judgment. Sense, not conception, is the
origin of judgment. Inference is the process which from judgments about
sensible things proceeds to judgments about things similar to sensible
things. Though some conceptions are its conditions and some judgments
its causes, inference itself in its conclusions causes many more
judgments and conceptions. Finally, inference is an extension, not of
ideas, but of beliefs, at first about existing things, afterwards about
ideas, and even about words; about anything in short about which we
think, in what is too fancifully called "the universe of discourse."

Formal logic has arisen out of the narrowness of conceptual logic. The
science of inference no doubt has to deal primarily with formal truth or
the consistency of premises and conclusion. But as all truth, real as
well as formal, is consistent, formal rules of consistency become real
rules of truth, when the premises are true and the consistent conclusion
is therefore true. The science of inference again rightly emphasizes the
formal thinking of the syllogism in which the combination of premises
involves the conclusion. But the combinations of premises in analogical
and inductive inference, although the combination does not involve the
conclusion, yet causes us to infer it, and in so similar a way that the
science of inference is not complete without investigating all the
combinations which characterize different kinds of inference. The
question of logic is how we infer in fact, as well as perfectly; and we
cannot understand inference unless we consider inferences of probability
of all kinds. Moreover, the study of analogical and inductive inference
is necessary to that of the syllogism itself, because they discover the
premises of syllogism. The formal thinking of syllogism alone is merely
necessary consequence; but when its premises are necessary principles,
its conclusions are not only necessary consequents but also necessary
truths. Hence the manner in which induction aided by identification
discovers necessary principles must be studied by the logician in order
to decide when the syllogism can really arrive at necessary conclusions.
Again, the science of inference has for its subject the form, or
processes, of thought, but not its matter or objects. But it does not
follow that it can investigate the former without the latter. Formal
logicians say that, if they had to consider the matter, they must either
consider all things, which would be impossible, or select some, which
would be arbitrary. But there is an intermediate alternative, which is
neither impossible nor arbitrary; namely, to consider the general
distinctions and principles of all things; and without this general
consideration of the matter the logician cannot know the form of
thought, which consists in drawing inferences about things on these
general principles. Lastly, the science of inference is not indeed the
science of sensation, memory and experience, but at the same time it is
the science of using those mental operations as data of inference; and,
if logic does not show how analogical and inductive inferences directly,
and deductive inferences indirectly, arise from experience, it becomes a
science of mere thinking without knowledge.

Logic is related to all the sciences, because it considers the common
inferences and varying methods used in investigating different subjects.
But it is most closely related to the sciences of metaphysics and
psychology, which form with it a triad of sciences. Metaphysics is the
science of being in general, and therefore of the things which become
objects apprehended by our minds. Psychology is the science of mind in
general, and therefore of the mental operations, of which inference is
one. Logic is the science of the processes of inference. These three
sciences, of the objects of mind, of the operations of mind, of the
processes used in the inferences of mind, are differently, but closely
related, so that they are constantly confused. The real point is their
interdependence, which is so intimate that one sign of great philosophy
is a consistent metaphysics, psychology and logic. If the world of
things is _known_ to be partly material and partly mental, then the mind
must have powers of sense and inference enabling it to know these
things, and there must be processes of inference carrying us from and
beyond the sensible to the insensible world of matter and mind. If the
whole world of things is matter, operations and processes of mind are
themselves material. If the whole world of things is mind, operations
and processes of mind have only to recognize their like all the world
over. It is clear then that a man's metaphysics and psychology must
colour his logic. It is accordingly necessary to the logician to know
beforehand the general distinctions and principles of things in
metaphysics, and the mental operations of sense, conception, memory and
experience in psychology, so as to discover the processes of inference
from experience about things in logic.

The interdependence of this triad of sciences has sometimes led to their
confusion. Hegel, having identified being with thought, merged
metaphysics in logic. But he divided logic into objective and
subjective, and thus practically confessed that there is one science of
the objects and another of the processes of thought. Psychologists,
seeing that inference is a mental operation, often extemporize a theory
of inference to the neglect of logic. But we have a double consciousness
of inference. We are conscious of it as one operation among many, and of
its omnipresence, so to speak, to all the rest. But we are also
conscious of the processes of the operation of inference. To a certain
extent this second consciousness applies to other operations: for
example, we are conscious of the process of association by which various
mental causes recall ideas in the imagination. But how little does the
psychologist know about the association of ideas, compared with what the
logician has discovered about the processes of inference! The fact is
that our primary consciousness of all mental operations is hardly equal
to our secondary consciousness of the processes of the one operation of
inference from premises to conclusions permeating long trains and
pervading whole sciences. This elaborate consciousness of inferential
process is the justification of logic as a distinct science, and is the
first step in its method. But it is not the whole method of logic, which
also and rightly considers the mental process necessary to language,
without substituting linguistic for mental distinctions.

Nor are consciousness and linguistic analysis all the instruments of the
logician. Logic has to consider the things we know, the minds by which
we know them from sense, memory and experience to inference, and the
sciences which systematize and extend our knowledge of things; and
having considered these facts, the logician must make such a science of
inference as will explain the power and the poverty of human knowledge.


GENERAL TENDENCIES OF MODERN LOGIC

There are several grounds for hope in the logic of our day. In the first
place, it tends to take up an intermediate position between the extremes
of Kant and Hegel. It does not, with the former, regard logic as purely
formal in the sense of abstracting thought from being, nor does it
follow the latter in amalgamating metaphysics with logic by identifying
being with thought. Secondly, it does not content itself with the mere
formulae of thinking, but pushes forward to theories of method,
knowledge and science; and it is a hopeful sign to find this
epistemological spirit, to which England was accustomed by Mill,
animating German logicians such as Lotze, Dühring, Schuppe, Sigwart and
Wundt. Thirdly, there is a determination to reveal the psychological
basis of logical processes, and not merely to describe them as they are
in adult reasoning, but to explain also how they arise from simpler
mental operations and primarily from sense. This attempt is connected
with the psychological turn given to recent philosophy by Wundt and
others, and is dangerous only so far as psychology itself is
hypothetical. Unfortunately, however, these merits are usually connected
with a less admirable characteristic--contempt for tradition, Writing
his preface to his second edition in 1888, Sigwart says: "Important
works have appeared by Lotze, Schuppe, Wundt and Bradley, to name only
the most eminent; and all start from the conception which has guided
this attempt. That is, logic is grounded by them, not upon an effete
tradition but upon a new investigation of thought as it actually is in
its psychological foundations, in its significance for knowledge, and
its actual operation in scientific methods." How strange! The spirit of
every one of the three reforms above enumerated is an unconscious return
to Aristotle's _Organon_. Aristotle's was a logic which steered, as
Trendelenburg has shown, between Kantian formalism and Hegelian
metaphysics; it was a logic which in the Analytics investigated the
syllogism as a means to understanding knowledge and science: it was a
logic which, starting from the psychological foundations of sense,
memory and experience, built up the logical structure of induction and
deduction on the profoundly Aristotelian principle that "there is no
process from universals without induction, and none by induction without
sense." Wundt's comprehensive view that logic looks backwards to
psychology and forward to epistemology was hundreds of years ago one of
the many discoveries of Aristotle.


JUDGMENT

1. _Judgment and Conception._--The emphasis now laid on judgment, the
recovery from Hume's confusion of beliefs with ideas and the association
of ideas, and the distinction of the mental act of judging from its
verbal expression in a proposition, are all healthy signs in recent
logic. The most fundamental question, before proceeding to the
investigation of inference, is not what we say but what we think in
making the judgments which, whether we express them in propositions or
not, are both the premises and the conclusion of inference; and, as this
question has been diligently studied of late, but has been variously
answered, it will be well to give a list of the more important theories
of judgment as follows:--

  a. It expresses a relation between the content of two ideas, not a
  relation of these ideas (Lotze).

  b. It is consciousness concerning the objective validity of a
  subjective combination of ideas, i.e. whether between the
  corresponding objective elements an analogous combination exists
  (Ueberweg).

  c. It is the synthesis of ideas into unity and consciousness of their
  objective validity, not in the sense of agreement with external
  reality but in the sense of the logical necessity of their synthesis
  (Sigwart).

  d. It is the analysis of an aggregate idea (_Gesammtvorstellung_) into
  subject and predicate; based on a previous association of ideas, on
  relating and comparing, and on the apperceptive synthesis of an
  aggregate idea in consequence; but itself consisting in an
  apperceptive analysis of that aggregate idea; and requiring will in
  the form of apperception or attention (Wundt).

  e. It requires an idea, because every object is conceived as well as
  recognized or denied; but it is itself an assertion of actual fact,
  every perception counts for a judgment, and every categorical is
  changeable into an existential judgment without change of sense
  (Brentano, who derives his theory from Mill except that he denies the
  necessity of a combination of ideas, and reduces a categorical to an
  existential judgment).

  f. It is a decision of the validity of an idea requiring will
  (Bergmann, following Brentano).

  g. Judgment (_Urtheil_) expresses that two ideas belong together:
  "by-judgment" (_Beurtheilung_) is the reaction of will expressing the
  validity or invalidity of the combination of ideas (Windelband,
  following Bergmann, but distinguishing the decision of validity from
  the judgment).

  h. Judgment is consciousness of the identity or difference and of the
  causal relations of the given; naming the actual combinations of the
  data, but also requiring a priori categories of the understanding, the
  notions of identity, difference and causality, as principles of
  thought or laws, to combine the plurality of the given into a unity
  (Schuppe).

  i. Judgment is the act which refers an ideal content recognized as
  such to a reality beyond the act, predicating an idea of a reality, a
  what of a that; so that the subject is reality and the predicate the
  meaning of an idea, while the judgment refers the idea to reality by
  an identity of content (Bradley and Bosanquet).

  k. Judgment is an assertion of reality, requiring comparison and ideas
  which render it directly expressible in words (Hobhouse, mainly
  following Bradley).

These theories are of varying value in proportion to their proximity to
Aristotle's point that predication is about things, and to Mill's point
that judgments and propositions are about things, not about ideas. The
essence of judgment is belief that something is (or is not) determined,
either as existing (e.g. "I am," "A centaur is not") or as something in
particular (e.g. "I am a man," "I am not a monkey"). Neither Mill,
however, nor any of the later logicians whose theories we have quoted,
has been able quite to detach judgment from conception; they all suppose
that an idea, or ideas, is a condition of all judgment. But judgment
starts from sensation (_Empfindung_) and feeling (_Gefühl_), and not
from idea (_Vorstellung_). When I feel pleased or pained, or when I use
my senses to perceive a pressure, a temperature, a flavour, an odour, a
colour, a sound, or when I am conscious of feeling and perceiving, I
cannot resist the belief that something sensible is present; and this
belief that something exists is already a judgment, a judgment of
existence, and, so far as it is limited to sense without inference, a
true judgment. It is a matter of words whether or not we should call
this sensory belief a judgment; but it is no matter of choice to the
logician, who regards all the constituents of inference as judgments;
for the fundamental constituents are sensory beliefs, which are
therefore judgments in the logical sense. Sense is the evidence of
inference; directly of analogical and inductive, directly or indirectly
of deductive, inference; and therefore, if logic refuses to include
sensory beliefs among judgments, it will omit the fundamental
constituents of inference, inference will no longer consist of judgments
but of sensory beliefs plus judgments, and the second part of logic, the
logic of judgment, the purpose of which is to investigate the
constituents of inference, will be like _Hamlet_ without the prince of
Denmark. If, on the other hand, all the constituents of inference are
judgments, there are judgments of sense; and the evidence of the senses
means that a judgment of sense is true, while a judgment of inference is
true so far as it is directly or indirectly concluded from judgments of
sense. Now a sensory judgment, e.g. that a sensible pressure is
existing, is explained by none of the foregoing theories, because it
requires nothing but sensation and belief. It requires no will, but is
usually involuntary, for the stimulus forces one's attention, which is
not always voluntary; not all judgment then requires will, as Wundt
supposes. It requires no reference to reality beyond the sensible
pressure, because it is merely a belief that this exists without
inference of the external stimulus or any inference at all: not all
judgment then requires the reference of subjective to objective supposed
by Ueberweg, or the consciousness of logical necessity supposed by
Sigwart. It requires in addition to the belief that something exists, no
consideration as to whether the belief itself be true, because a man who
feels pressure believes in the thing without further question about the
belief: not all judgment then requires a decision of validity, as
Bergmann supposes. It requires nothing beyond the sensation and belief
in the given existence of the given pressure: not all judgment then
requires categories of understanding, or notions of identity, difference
and causality, or even of existence, such as Schuppe supposes. It
requires no comparison in order to express it in words, for a judgment
need not be expressed, and a sensory judgment of pressure is an
irresistible belief that a real pressure exists, without waiting for
words, or for a comparison which is wanted not to make a sensation a
judgment, but to turn a judgment into language: not all judgment then
requires comparison with a view to its expression, as supposed by
Hobhouse. Lastly, all the authors of the above-quoted theories err in
supposing that all judgment requires conception; for even Mill thinks a
combination of ideas necessary, and Brentano, who comes still nearer to
the nature of sensory judgment when he says, "Every perception counts
for a judgment," yet thinks that an idea is necessary at the same time
in order to understand the thing judged. In reality, the sensation and
the belief are sufficient; when I feel a sensible pressure, I cannot
help believing in its reality, and therefore judging that it is real,
without any _tertium quid_--an idea of pressure, or of existence or of
pressure existing--intervening between the sensation and the belief.
Only after sensation has ceased does an idea, or representation of what
is not presented, become necessary as a substitute for a sensation and
as a condition not of the first judgment that there is, but of a second
judgment that there was, something sensible. Otherwise there would be no
judgment of sensible fact, for the first sensation would not give it,
and the idea following the sensation would be still farther off. The
sensory judgment then, which is nothing but a belief that at the moment
of sense something sensible exists, is a proof that not all judgment
requires conception, or synthesis or analysis of ideas, or decision
about the content, or about the validity, of ideas, or reference of an
ideal content to reality, as commonly, though variously, supposed in the
logic of our day.

Not, however, that all judgment is sensory: after the first judgments of
sense follow judgments of memory, and memory requires ideas. Yet memory
is not mere conception, as Aristotle, and Mill after him, have
perceived. To remember, we must have a present idea; but we must also
have a belief that the thing, of which the idea is a representation, was
(or was not) determined; and this belief is the memorial judgment.
Originally such judgments arise from sensory judgments followed by
ideas, and are judgments of memory after sense that something sensible
existed, e.g. pressure existed: afterwards come judgments of memory
after inference, e.g. Caesar was murdered. Finally, most judgments are
inferential. These are conclusions which primarily are inferred from
sensory and memorial judgments; and so far as inference starts from
sense of something sensible in the present, and from memory after sense
of something sensible in the past, and concludes similar things,
inferential judgments are indirect beliefs in being and in existence
beyond ideas. When from the sensible pressures between the parts of my
mouth, which I feel and remember and judge that they exist and have
existed, I infer another similar pressure (e.g. of the food which
presses and is pressed by my mouth in eating), the inferential judgment
with which I conclude is a belief that the latter exists as well as the
former (e.g. the pressure of food without as well as the sensible
pressures within). Inference, no doubt, is closely involved with
conception. So far as it depends on memory, an inferential judgment
presupposes memorial ideas in its data; and so far as it infers
universal classes and laws, it produces general ideas. But even so the
part played by conception is quite subordinate to that of belief. In the
first place, the remembered datum, from which an inference of pressure
starts, is not the conceived idea, but the belief that the sensible
pressure existed. Secondly, the conclusion in which it ends is not the
general idea of a class, but the belief that a class, represented by a
general idea, exists, and is (or is not) otherwise determined (e.g. that
things pressing and pressed exist and move). Two things are certain
about inferential judgment: one, that when inference is based on sense
and memory, inferential judgment starts from a combination of sensory
and memorial judgment, both of which are beliefs that things exist; the
other, that in consequence inferential judgment is a belief that similar
things exist. There are thus three primary judgments: judgments of
sense, of memory after sense, and of inference from sense. All these are
beliefs in being and existence, and this existential belief is first in
sense, and afterwards transferred to memory and inference. Moreover, it
is transferred in the same irresistible way: frequently we cannot help
either feeling pressure, or remembering it, or inferring it; and as
there are involuntary sensation and attention, so there are involuntary
memory and inference. Again, in a primary judgment existence need not be
expressed; but if expressed, it may be expressed either by the
predicate, e.g. "I exist," or by the subject, e.g. "I who exist think."
There are indeed differences between primary judgments, in that the
sensory is a belief in present, the memorial in past, and the
inferential in present, past and future existence. But these differences
in detail do not alter the main point that all these are beliefs in the
existing, in the real as opposed to the ideal, in actual things which
are not ideas. In short, a primary judgment is a belief in something
existing apart from our idea of it; and not because we have an idea of
it, or by comparing an idea with, or referring an idea to, reality; but
because we have a sensation of it, or a memory of it or an inference of
it. Sensation, not conception, is the origin of judgment.

2. _Different Significations of Being in different Kinds of
Judgment._--As Aristotle remarked both in the _De Interpretatione_ and
in the _Sophistici Elenchi_, "not-being is thinkable" does not mean
"not-being exists." In the latter treatise he added that it is a
_fallacia a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter_ to argue from the
former to the latter; "for," as he says, "it is not the same thing to be
something and to exist absolutely." Without realizing their debt to
tradition, Herbart, Mill and recently Sigwart, have repeated Aristotle's
separation of the copula from the verb of existence, as if it were a
modern discovery that "is" is not the same as "exists." It may be added
that they do not quite realize what the copula exactly signifies: it
does not signify existence, but it does signify a fact, namely, that
something is (or is not) determined, either absolutely in a categorical
judgment, or conditionally in a conditional judgment. Now we have seen
that all primary judgments signify more than this fact; they are also
beliefs in the existence of the thing signified by the subject. But, in
the first place, primary judgments signify this existence never by the
copula, but sometimes by the predicate, and sometimes by the subject;
and, secondly, it does not follow that all judgments whatever signify
existence. Besides inference of existence there is inference of
non-existence, of things inconsistent with the objects of primary
judgments. Hence secondary judgments, which no longer contain a belief
that the thing exists, e.g. the judgment, "not-being is thinkable,"
cited by Aristotle; the judgment, "A square circle is impossible," cited
by Herbart; the judgment, "A centaur is a fiction of the poets," cited
by Mill. These secondary judgments of non-existence are partly like and
partly unlike primary judgments of existence. They resemble them in that
they are beliefs in being signified by the copula. They are beliefs in
things of a sort; for, after all, ideas and names are things; their
objects, even though non-existent, are at all events things conceivable
or nameable; and therefore we are able to make judgments that things,
non-existent but conceivable or nameable, are (or are not) determined in
a particular manner. Thus the judgment about a centaur is the belief, "A
conceivable centaur is a fiction of the poets," and the judgment about a
square circle is the belief, "A so-called square circle is an
impossibility." But, though beliefs that things of some sort are (or are
not) determined, these secondary judgments fall short of primary
judgments of existence. Whereas in a primary judgment there is a further
belief, signified by subject or predicate, that the thing is an existing
thing in the sense of being a real thing (e.g. a man), different from
the idea of it as well as from the name for it; in a secondary judgment
there is no further belief that the thing has any existence beyond the
idea (e.g. a centaur), or even beyond the name (e.g. a square circle):
though the idea or name exists, there is no belief that anything
represented by idea or name exists. Starting, then, from this
fundamental distinction between judgments of existence and judgments of
non-existence, we may hope to steer our way between two extreme views
which emanate from two important thinkers, each of whom has produced a
flourishing school of psychological logic.

On the one hand, early in the 19th century Herbart started the view that
a categorical judgment is never a judgment of existence, but always
hypothetical; on the other hand, in the latter part of the century
Brentano started the view that all categorical judgments are
existential. The truth lies between these contraries. The view of
Herbart and his school is contradicted by our primary judgments of and
from sense, in which we cannot help believing existence; and it gives an
inadequate account even of our secondary judgments in which we no longer
indeed believe existence, but do frequently believe that a non-existent
thing is (or is not) somehow determined unconditionally. It is true, as
Herbart says, that the judgment, "A square circle is an impossibility,"
does not contain the belief, "A square circle is existent"; but when he
goes on to argue that it means, "If a square circle is thought, the
conception of impossibility must be added in thought," he falls into a
_non-sequitur_. To be categorical, a judgment does not require a belief
in existence, but only that something, existent or not, is (or is not)
determined; and there are two quite different attitudes of mind even to
a non-existent thing, such as a square circle, namely, unconditional and
conditional belief. The judgment, "A non-existent but so-called square
circle is an impossibility," is an unconditional, or categorical
judgment of non-existence, quite different from any hypothetical
judgment, which depends on the conditions "if it is thought," or "if it
exists," or any other "if." On the other hand, the view of Brentano and
his school is contradicted by these very categorical judgments of
non-existence; and while it applies only to categorical judgments of
existence, it does so inadequately. To begin with the latter objection,
Brentano proposed to change the four Aristotelian forms of judgment, A,
E, I, O, into the following existential forms:--

  A. "There is not an immortal man."
  E. "There is not a live stone."
  I. "There is a sick man."
  O. "There is an unlearned man."

This reconstruction, which merges subject and predicate in one
expression, in order to combine it with the verb of existence, is
repeated in similar proposals of recent English logicians. Venn, in his
_Symbolic Logic_, proposes the four forms, xy = 0, xy = 0, xy> 0, xy> 0
(where y means "not-y"), but only as alternative to the ordinary forms.
Bradley says that "'S-P is real' attributes S-P, directly or indirectly,
to the ultimate reality," and agrees with Brentano that "'is' never
stands for anything but 'exists'"; while Bosanquet, who follows Bradley,
goes so far as to define a categorical judgment as "that which affirms
the existence of its subject, or, in other words, asserts a fact." Now
it is true that our primary judgments do contain a belief in existence;
but they do not all contain it in the same way, but are beliefs
sometimes that something is determined as existing, and sometimes that
something existing is particularly determined. Brentano's forms do not
express such a judgment of existence, as "All existing men are mortal":
nor does Bradley's form, "Reality includes S-P." Metaphysically, all
realities are parts of one ultimate reality; but logically, even
philosophers think more often only of finite realities, existing men,
dogs, horses, &c.; and children know that their parents exist long
before they apprehend ultimate reality. The normal form, then, of a
judgment of existence is either "S is a real P," or "A real S is P."
Hence the reconstruction of all categorical judgments by merging subject
and predicate, either on Brentano's or on Bradley's plan, is a
misrepresentation even of normal categorical judgments of existence.
Secondly, it is much more a misrepresentation of categorical judgments
of non-existence. No existential form suits a judgment such as "A
centaur is a fiction," when we do not believe that there is a centaur,
or that reality includes a centaur. As Mill pointed out, it cannot be
implied that a centaur exists, since the very thing asserted is that the
thing has no real existence. In a correspondence with Mill, Brentano
rejoined that the centaur exists in imagination; Bradley says, "inside
our heads." According to one, then, the judgment becomes "There is an
imaginary centaur"; according to the other "Reality includes an
imaginary centaur." The rejoinder, however, though partly true, is not
to the point. The idea of the centaur does exist in our imagination, and
inside our heads, and the name of it in our mouths. But the point is
that the centaur conceived and named does not exist beyond the idea of
it and the name for it; it is not, like a man, a real thing which is
neither the idea of it nor the name for it. No amount of subtlety will
remove the difference between a categorical judgment of existence, e.g.
"An existing man is mortal," and a categorical judgment of
non-existence, e.g. "A conceivable centaur is a fiction," because in the
former we believe and mean that the thing exists beyond the idea, and in
the latter we do not. If, contrary to usage, we choose to call the
latter a judgment of existence, there is no use in quarrelling about
words; but we must insist that new terms must in that case be invented
to express so fundamental a difference as that between judgments about
real men and judgments about ideal centaurs. So long, however, as we use
words in the natural sense, and call the former judgments of existence,
and the latter judgments of non-existence, then "is" will not be, as
Bradley supposes, the same as "exists," for we use "is" in both
judgments, but "exists" only in the first kind. Bosanquet's definition
of a categorical judgment contains a similar confusion. To assert a fact
and to affirm the existence of a subject are not, as he makes out, the
same thing: a judgment often asserts a fact and denies existence in the
same breath, e.g. "Jupiter is non-existent." Here, as usual in logic,
tradition is better than innovation. All categorical judgment is an
unconditional belief in the fact, signified by the copula, that a thing
of some sort is (or is not) determined; but some categorical judgments
are also beliefs that the thing is an existing thing, signified either
by the subject or by the predicate, while others are not beliefs that
the thing exists at all, but are only beliefs in something conceivable,
or nameable, or in something or other, without particularizing what.
Judgment then always signifies being, but not always existence.

3. _Particular and Universal Judgments._--Aristotle, by distinguishing
affirmative and negative, particular and universal, made the fourfold
classification of judgments, A, E, I and O, the foundation both of
opposition and of inference. With regard to inference, he remarked that
a universal judgment means by "all," not every individual we know, but
every individual absolutely, so that, when it becomes a major premise,
we know therein every individual universally, not individually, and
often do not know a given individual individually until we add a minor
premise in a syllogism. Whereas, then, a particular judgment is a belief
that some, a universal judgment is a belief that all, the individuals of
a kind or total of similar individuals, are similarly determined,
whether they are known or unknown individuals. Now, as we have already
seen, what is signified by the subject may be existing or not, and in
either case a judgment remains categorical so long as it is a belief
without conditions. Thus, "Some existing men are poets," "All existing
men are mortal," "Some conceivable centaurs are human in their
forequarters," "All conceivable centaurs are equine in their
hindquarters," are all categorical judgments, while the two first are
also categorical judgments of existence. Nevertheless these obvious
applications of Aristotelian traditions have been recently challenged,
especially by Sigwart, who holds in his _Logic_ (secs. 27, 36) that,
while a particular is a categorical judgment of existence, a universal
is hypothetical, on the ground that it does not refer to a definite
number of individuals, or to individuals at all, but rather to general
ideas, and that the appropriate form of "all M is P" is "if anything is
M it is P." This view, which has influenced not only German but also
English logicians, such as Venn, Bradley and Bosanquet, destroys the
fabric of inference, and reduces scientific laws to mere hypotheses. In
reality, however, particular and universal judgments are too closely
connected to have such different imports. In opposition, a categorical
particular is the contradictory of a universal, which is also
categorical, not hypothetical, e.g., "not all M is P" is the
contradictory of "all M is P," not of "if anything is M it is P." In
inference, a particular is an example of a universal which in its turn
may become a particular example of a higher universal. For instance, in
the history of mechanics it was first inferred from some that all
terrestrial bodies gravitate, and then from these as some that all
ponderable bodies, terrestrial and celestial, gravitate. How absurd to
suppose that here we pass from a particular categorical to a universal
hypothetical, and then treat this very conclusion as a particular
categorical to pass to a higher universal hypothetical! Sigwart, indeed,
is deceived both about particulars and universals. On the one hand, some
particulars are not judgments of existence, e.g. "some imaginary deities
are goddesses"; on the other hand, some universals are not judgments of
non-existence, e.g. "every existing man is mortal." Neither kind is
always a judgment of existence, but each is sometimes the one and
sometimes the other. In no case is a universal hypothetical, unless we
think it under a condition; for in a universal judgment about the
non-existing, e.g. about all conceivable centaurs, we do not think, "If
anything is a centaur," because we do not believe that there are any;
and in a universal judgment about the existent, e.g. about all existing
men, we do not think, "If anything is a man," because we believe that
there is a whole class of men existing at different times and places.
The cause of Sigwart's error is his misconception of "all." So far as he
follows Aristotle in saying that "all" does not mean a definite number
of individuals he is right; but when he says that we mean no individuals
at all he deserts Aristotle and goes wrong. By "all" we mean every
individual whatever of a kind; and when from the experience of sense and
memory we start with particular judgments of existence, and infer
universal judgments of existence and scientific laws, we further mean
those existing individuals which we have experienced, and every
individual whatever of the kind which exists. We mean neither a definite
number of individuals, nor yet an infinite number, but an incalculable
number, whether experienced or inferred to exist. We do not mean
existing here and now, nor yet out of time and place, but at any time
and place (_semper et ubique_)--past, present and future being treated
as simply existing, by what logicians used to call _suppositio
naturalis_. We mean then by "all existing" every similar individual
whatever, whenever, and wherever existing. Hence Sigwart is right in
saying that "All bodies are extended" means "Whatever is a body is
extended," but wrong in identifying this form with "If anything is a
body it is extended." "Whatever" is not "if anything." For the same
reason it is erroneous to confuse "all existing" with a general idea.
Nor does the use of abstract ideas and terms make any difference. When
Bosanquet says that in "Heat is a mode of motion" there is no reference
to individual objects, but "a pure hypothetical form which absolutely
neglects the existence of objects," he falls far short of expressing the
nature of this scientific judgment, for in his _Theory of Heat_ Clerk
Maxwell describes it as "believing heat as it exists in a hot body to be
in the form of kinetic energy." As Bacon would say, it is a belief that
all individual bodies _qua_ hot are individually but similarly moving in
their particles. When, again, Bradley and Bosanquet speak of the
universal as if it always meant one ideal content referred to reality,
they forget that in universal judgments of existence, such as "All men
existing are mortal," we believe that every individually existing man
dies his own death individually, though similarly to other men; and that
we are thinking neither of ideas nor of reality; but of all existent
individual men being individually but similarly determined. A universal
is indeed one whole; but it is one whole of many similars, which are not
the same with one another. This is indeed the very essence of
distribution, that a universal is predicable, not singly or
collectively, but severally and similarly of each and every individual
of a kind, or total of similar individuals. So also the essence of a
universal judgment is that every individual of the kind is severally but
similarly determined. Finally, a universal judgment is often
existential; but whether it is so or not it remains categorical, so long
as it introduces no hypothetical antecedent about the existence of the
thing signified by the subject. It is true that even in universal
judgments of existence there is often a hypothetical element; for
example, "All men are mortal" contains a doubt whether every man
whatever, whenever and wherever existing, must die. But this is only a
doubt whether all the things signified by the subject are similarly
determined as signified by the predicate, and not a doubt whether there
are such things at all. Hence the hypothetical element is not a
hypothetical antecedent "If anything is a man," but an uncertain
conclusion that "All existing men are mortal." In other words, a
categorical universal is often problematic, but a problematic is not the
same as a hypothetical judgment.

4. _The Judgment and the Proposition._--Judgment in general is the
mental act of believing that something is (or is not) determined. A
proposition is the consequent verbal expression of such a belief, and
consists in asserting that the thing as signified by the subject is (or
is not) determined as signified by the predicate. But the expression is
not necessary. Sensation irresistibly produces a judgment of existence
without needing language. Children think long before they speak; and
indeed, as mere vocal sounds are not speech, and as the apprehension
that a word signifies a thing is a judgment, judgment is originally not
an effect, but a cause of significant language. At any rate, even when
we have learnt to speak, we do not express all we think, as we may see
not only from the fewness of words known to a child, but also from our
own adult consciousness. The principle of thought is to judge enough to
conclude. The principle of language is to speak only so far as to
understand and be understood. Hence speech is only a curtailed
expression of thought. Sometimes we express a whole judgment by one
word, e.g. "Fire!" or by a phrase, e.g. "What a fire!" and only usually
by a proposition. But even the normal proposition in the syllogistic
form _tertii adjacentis_, with subject, predicate and copula, is seldom
a complete expression of the judgment. The consequence is that the
proposition, being different from a judgment arising after a judgment,
and remaining an imperfect copy of judgment, is only a superficial
evidence of its real nature. Fortunately, we have more profound
evidences, and at least three evidences in all: the linguistic
expression of belief in the proposition; the consciousness of what we
mentally believe; and the analysis of reasoning, which shows what we
must believe, and have believed, as data for inference. In these ways we
find that a judgment is both different from, and more than, a
proposition. But recent logicians, although they perceive the
difference, nevertheless tend to make the proposition the measure of the
judgment. This makes them omit sensory judgments, and count only those
which require ideas, and even general ideas expressed in general terms.
Sigwart, for example, gives as instances of our most elementary
judgments, "This is Socrates," "This is snow"--beliefs in things
existing beyond ourselves which require considerable inferences from
many previous judgments of sense and memory. Worse still, logicians seem
unable to keep the judgment apart from the proposition. Herbart says
that the judgment "A is B" does not contain the usually added thought
that A is, because there is no statement of A's existence; as if the
statement mattered to the thought. So Sigwart, in order to reduce
universals to hypotheticals, while admitting that existence is usually
thought, argues that it is not stated in the universal judgment; so also
Bosanquet. But in the judgment the point is not what we state, but what
we think; and so long as the existence of A is added in thought, the
judgment in question must contain the thought that A exists as well as
that A is B, and therefore is a judgment that something is determined
both as existing and in a particular manner. The statement only affects
the proposition; and whenever we believe the existence of the thing, the
belief in existence is part of the judgment thought, whether it is part
of the proposition stated or not.

  Here Sir William Hamilton did a real service to logic in pointing out
  that "Logic postulates to be allowed to state explicitly in language
  all that is implicitly contained in the thought." Not that men should
  or can carry this logical postulate out in ordinary life; but it is
  necessary in the logical analysis of judgments, and yet logicians
  neglect it. This is why they confuse the categorical and the universal
  with the hypothetical. Taking the carelessly expressed propositions of
  ordinary life, they do not perceive that similar judgments are often
  differently expressed, e.g. "I, being a man, am mortal," and "If I am
  a man, I am mortal"; and conversely, that different judgments are
  often similarly expressed. In ordinary life we may say, "All men are
  mortal," "All centaurs are figments," "All square circles are
  impossibilities," "All candidates arriving five minutes late are
  fined" (the last proposition being an example of the identification of
  categorical with hypothetical in Keynes's _Formal Logic_). But of
  these universal propositions the first imperfectly expresses a
  categorical belief in existing things, the second in thinkable things,
  and the third in nameable things, while the fourth is a slipshod
  categorical expression of the hypothetical belief, "If any candidates
  arrive late they are fined." The four judgments are different, and
  therefore logically the propositions fully expressing them are also
  different. The judgment, then, is the measure of the proposition, not
  the proposition the measure of the judgment. On the other hand, we may
  go too far in the opposite direction, as Hamilton did in proposing the
  universal quantification of the predicate. If the quantity of the
  predicate were always thought, it ought logically to be always stated.
  But we only sometimes think it. Usually we leave the predicate
  indefinite, because, as long as the thing in question is (or is not)
  determined, it does not matter about other things, and it is vain for
  us to try to think all things at once. It is remarkable that in
  _Barbara_, and therefore in many scientific deductions, to think the
  quantity of the predicate is not to the point either in the premises
  or in the conclusion; so that to quantify the propositions, as
  Hamilton proposes, would be to express more than a rational man thinks
  and judges. In judgments, and therefore in propositions, indefinite
  predicates are the rule, quantified predicates the exception.
  Consequently, A E I O are the normal propositions with indefinite
  predicates; whereas propositions with quantified predicates are only
  occasional forms, which we should use whenever we require to think the
  quantity of the predicate, e.g. (1) in conversion, when we must think
  that all men are some animals, in order to judge that some animals are
  men; (2) in syllogisms of the 3rd figure, when the predicate of the
  minor premise must be particularly quantified in thought in order to
  become the particularly quantified subject of the conclusion; (3) in
  identical propositions including definitions, where we must think both
  that 1 + 1 are 2 and 2 are 1 + 1. But the normal judgment, and
  therefore the normal proposition, do not require the quantity of the
  predicate. It follows also that the normal judgment is not an
  equation. The symbol of equality (=) is not the same as the copula
  (is); it means "is equal to," where "equal to" is part of the
  predicate, leaving "is" as the copula. Now, in all judgment we think
  "is," but in few judgments predicate "equal to." In quantitative
  judgments we may think x = y, or, as Boole proposes, x = vy = (0/0)y
  or, as Jevons proposes, x = xy, or, as Venn proposes, x which is not y
  = 0; and equational symbolic logic is useful whenever we think in this
  quantitative way. But it is a byway of thought. In most judgments all
  we believe is that x is (or is not) y, that a thing is (or is not)
  determined, and that the thing signified by the subject is a thing
  signified by the predicate, but not that it is the only thing, or
  equal to everything signified by the predicate. The symbolic logic,
  which confuses "is" with "is equal to," having introduced a particular
  kind of predicate into the copula, falls into the mistake of reducing
  all predication to the one category of the quantitative; whereas it is
  more often in the substantial, e.g. "I am a man," not "I am equal to a
  man," or in the qualitative, e.g. "I am white," not "I am equal to
  white," or in the relative, e.g. "I am born in sin," not "I am equal
  to born in sin." Predication, as Aristotle saw, is as various as the
  categories of being. Finally, the great difficulty of the logic of
  judgment is to find the mental act behind the linguistic expression,
  to ascribe to it exactly what is thought, neither more nor less, and
  to apply the judgment thought to the logical proposition, without
  expecting to find it in ordinary propositions. Beneath Hamilton's
  postulate there is a deeper principle of logic--_A rational being
  thinks only to the point, and speaks only to understand and be
  understood_.


INFERENCE

The nature and analysis of inference have been so fully treated in the
Introduction that here we may content ourselves with some points of
detail.

1. _False Views of Syllogism arising from False Views of Judgment._--The
false views of judgment, which we have been examining, have led to false
views of inference. On the one hand, having reduced categorical
judgments to an existential form, Brentano proposes to reform the
syllogism, with the results that it must contain four terms, of which
two are opposed and two appear twice; that, when it is negative, both
premises are negative; and that, when it is affirmative, one premise, at
least, is negative. In order to infer the universal affirmative that
every professor is mortal because he is a man, Brentano's existential
syllogism would run as follows:--

     There is not a not-mortal man.
     There is not a not-human professor.
  :. There is not a non-mortal professor.

On the other hand, if on the plan of Sigwart categorical universals were
reducible to hypothetical, the same inference would be a pure
hypothetical syllogism, thus:--

     If anything is a man it is mortal.
     If anything is a professor it is a man.
  :. If anything is a professor it is mortal.

But both these unnatural forms, which are certainly not analyses of any
conscious process of categorical reasoning, break down at once, because
they cannot explain those moods in the third figure, e.g. _Darapti_,
which reason from universal premises to a particular conclusion. Thus,
in order to infer that some wise men are good from the example of
professors, Brentano's syllogism would be the following
_non-sequitur_:--

  There is not a not-good professor.
  There is not a not-wise professor.
  There is a wise good (_non-sequitur_).

So Sigwart's syllogism would be the following _non-sequitur_:--

  If anything is a professor, it is good.
  If anything is a professor, it is wise.
  Something wise is good (_non-sequitur_).

But as by the admission of both logicians these reconstructions of
_Darapti_ are illogical, it follows that their respective reductions of
categorical universals to existentials and hypotheticals are false,
because they do not explain an actual inference. Sigwart does not indeed
shrink from this and greater absurdities; he reduces the first figure to
the _modus ponens_ and the second to the _modus tollens_ of the
hypothetical syllogism, and then, finding no place for the third figure,
denies that it can infer necessity; whereas it really infers the
necessary consequence of particular conclusions. But the crowning
absurdity is that, if all universals were hypothetical, _Barbara_ in the
first figure would become a purely hypothetical syllogism--a consequence
which seems innocent enough until we remember that all universal
affirmative conclusions in all sciences would with their premises
dissolve into mere hypothesis. No logic can be sound which leads to the
following analysis:--

     If anything is a body it is extended.
     If anything is a planet it is a body.
  :. If anything is a planet it is extended.

Sigwart, indeed, has missed the essential difference between the
categorical and the hypothetical construction of syllogisms. In a
categorical syllogism of the first figure, the major premise, "Every M
whatever is P," is a universal, which we believe on account of previous
evidence without any condition about the thing signified by the subject
M, which we simply believe sometimes to be existent (e.g. "Every man
existent"), and sometimes not (e.g., "Every centaur conceivable"); and
the minor premise, "S is M," establishes no part of the major, but adds
the evidence of a particular not thought of in the major at all. But in
a hypothetical syllogism of the ordinary mixed type, the first or
hypothetical premise is a conditional belief, e.g. "If anything is M it
is P," containing a hypothetical antecedent, "If anything is M," which
is sometimes a hypothesis of existence (e.g. "If anything is an angel"),
and sometimes a hypothesis of fact (e.g. "If an existing man is wise");
and the second premise or assumption, "Something is M," establishes part
of the first, namely, the hypothetical antecedent, whether as regards
existence (e.g. "Something is an angel"), or as regards fact (e.g. "This
existing man is wise"). These very different relations of premises are
obliterated by Sigwart's false reduction of categorical universals to
hypotheticals. But even Sigwart's errors are outdone by Lotze, who not
only reduces "Every M is P" so "If S is M, S is P," but proceeds to
reduce this hypothetical to the disjunctive, "If S is M, S is P¹ or P²
or P³," and finds fault with the Aristotelian syllogism because it
contents itself with inferring "S is P" without showing what P. Now
there are occasions when we want to reason in this disjunctive manner,
to consider whether S is P¹ or P² or P³, and to conclude that "S is a
particular P"; but ordinarily all we want to know is that "S is P"; e.g.
in arithmetic, that 2 + 2 are 4, not any particular 4, and in life that
all our contemporaries must die, without enumerating all their
particular sorts of deaths. Lotze's mistake is the same as that of
Hamilton about the quantification of the predicate, and that of those
symbolists who held that reasoning ought always to exhaust all
alternatives by equations. It is the mistake of exaggerating exceptional
into normal forms of thought, and ignoring the principle that a rational
being thinks only to the point.

2. _Quasi-syllogisms._--Besides reconstructions of the syllogistic
fabric, we find in recent logic attempts to extend the figures of the
syllogism beyond the syllogistic rules. An old error that we may have a
valid syllogism from merely negative premises (_ex omnibus negativis_),
long ago answered by Alexander and Boethius, is now revived by Lotze,
Jevons and Bradley, who do not perceive that the supposed second
negative is really an affirmative containing a "not" which can only be
carried through the syllogism by separating it from the copula and
attaching it to one of the extremes, thus:--

     The just are not unhappy (_negative_).
     The just are not-recognized (_affirmative_).
  :. Some not-recognized are not unhappy (_negative_).

Here the minor being the infinite term "not-recognized" in the
conclusion, must be the same term also in the minor premise. Schuppe,
however, who is a fertile creator of quasi-syllogisms, has managed to
invent some examples from two negative premises of a different kind:--

         (1)          |       (2)       |      (3)
       No M is P.     |    No M is P.   |    No P is M.
       S is not P.    |    S is not M.  |    S is not M.
  :. Neither S nor M  | :. S may be P.  | :. S may be P.
       is P.          |                 |

But (1) concludes with a mere repetition, (2) and (3) with a contingent
"may be," which, as Aristotle says, also "may not be," and therefore
_nihil certo colligitur_. The same answer applies to Schuppe's supposed
syllogisms from two particular premises:--

          (1)         |        (2)
     Some M is P.     |    Some M is P.
     Some S is M.     |    Some M is S.
  :. Some S may be P. | :. Some S may be P.

The only difference between these and the previous examples (2) and (3)
is that, while those break the rule against two negative premises, these
break that against undistributed middle. Equally fallacious are two
other attempts of Schuppe to produce syllogisms from invalid moods:--

    (1) 1st Fig.  |            (2) 2nd Fig.
     All M is P.  |    P is M.
     No S is M.   |    S is M.
  :. S may be P.  | :. S is partially identical with P.

In the first the fallacy is the indifferent contingency of the
conclusion caused by the _non-sequitur_ from a negative premise to an
affirmative conclusion; while the second is either a mere repetition of
the premises if the conclusion means "S is like P in being M," or, if it
means "S is P," a _non-sequitur_ on account of the undistributed middle.
It must not be thought that this trifling with logical rules has no
effect. The last supposed syllogism, namely, that having two affirmative
premises and entailing an undistributed middle in the second figure, is
accepted by Wundt under the title "Inference by Comparison"
(_Vergleichungsschluss_), and is supposed by him to be useful for
abstraction and subsidiary to induction, and by Bosanquet to be useful
for analogy. Wundt, for example, proposes the following premises:--

  Gold is a shining, fusible, ductile, simple body.
  Metals are shining, fusible, ductile, simple bodies.

But to say from these premises, "Gold and metal are similar in what is
signified by the middle term," is a mere repetition of the premises; to
say, further, that "Gold may be a metal" is a _non-sequitur_, because,
the middle being undistributed, the logical conclusion is the contingent
"Gold may or may not be a metal," which leaves the question quite open,
and therefore there is no syllogism. Wundt, who is again followed by
Bosanquet, also supposes another syllogism in the third figure, under
the title of "Inference by Connexion" (_Verbindungsschluss_), to be
useful for induction. He proposes, for example, the following
premises:--

  Gold, silver, copper, lead, are fusible.
  Gold, silver, copper, lead, are metals.

Here there is no syllogistic fallacy in the premises; but the question
is what syllogistic conclusion can be drawn, and there is only one which
follows without an illicit process of the minor, namely, "Some metals
are fusible." The moment we stir a step further with Wundt m the
direction of a more general conclusion (_ein allgemeinerer Satz_), we
cannot infer from the premises the conclusion desired by Wundt, "Metals
and fusible are connected"; nor can we infer "All metals are fusible,"
nor "Metals are fusible," nor "Metals may be fusible," nor "All metals
may be fusible," nor any assertory conclusion, determinate or
indeterminate, but the indifferent contingent, "All metals may or may
not be fusible," which leaves the question undecided, so that there is
no syllogism. We do not mean that in Wundt's supposed "inferences of
relation by comparison and connexion" the premises are of no further
use; but those of the first kind are of no syllogistic use in the second
figure, and those of the second kind of no syllogistic use beyond
particular conclusions in the third figure. What they really are in the
inferences proposed by Wundt is not premises for syllogism, but data for
induction parading as syllogism. We must pass the same sentence on
Lotze's attempt to extend the second figure of the syllogism for
inductive purposes, thus:--

     S is M.
     Q is M.
     R is M.
  :. Every [Sigma], which is common to S, Q, R, is M.

We could not have a more flagrant abuse of the rule _Ne esto plus
minusque in conclusione quam in praemissis_. As we see from Lotze's own
defence, the conclusion cannot be drawn without another premise or
premises to the effect that "S, Q, R, are [Sigma], and [Sigma] is the
one real subject of M." But how is all this to be got into the second
figure? Again, Wundt and B. Erdmann propose new moods of syllogism with
convertible premises, containing definitions and equations. Wundt's
_Logic_ has the following forms:--

    (1) 1st Fig.  | (2) 2nd Fig. | (3) 3rd Fig.
     Only M is P. |    x = y.    |    y = x.
     No S is M.   |    z = y.    |    y = z.
  :. No S is P.   | :. x = z.    | :. x = z.

Now, there is no doubt that, especially in mathematical equations,
universal conclusions are obtainable from convertible premises expressed
in these ways. But the question is how the premises must be thought, and
they must be thought in the converse way to produce a logical
conclusion. Thus, we must think in (1) "All P is M" to avoid illicit
process of the major, in (2) "All y is z" to avoid undistributed middle,
in (3) "All x is y" to avoid illicit process of the minor. Indeed, it is
the very essence of a convertible judgment to think it in both orders,
and especially to think it in the order necessary to an inference from
it. Accordingly, however expressed, the syllogisms quoted above are, as
thought, ordinary syllogisms, (1) being _Camestres_ in the second
figure, (2) and (3) _Barbara_ in the first figure. Aristotle, indeed,
was as well aware as German logicians of the force of convertible
premises; but he was also aware that they require no special syllogisms,
and made it a point that, in a syllogism from a definition, the
definition is the middle, and the _definitum_ the major in a convertible
major premise of _Barbara_ in the first figure, e.g.:--

     The interposition of an opaque body is (essentially) deprivation
       of light.
     The moon suffers the interposition of the opaque earth.
  :. The moon suffers deprivation of light.

It is the same with all the recent attempts to extend the syllogism
beyond its rules, which are not liable to exceptions, because they
follow from the nature of syllogistic inference from universal to
particular. To give the name of syllogism to inferences which infringe
the general rules against undistributed middle, illicit process, two
negative premises, _non-sequitur_ from negative to affirmative, and the
introduction of what is not in the premises into the conclusion, and
which consequently infringe the special rules against affirmative
conclusions in the second figure, and against universal conclusions in
the third figure, is to open the door to fallacy, and at best to confuse
the syllogism with other kinds of inference, without enabling us to
understand any one kind.

3. _Analytic and Synthetic Deduction._--Alexander the Commentator
defined synthesis as a progress from principles to consequences,
analysis as a regress from consequences to principles; and Latin
logicians preserved the same distinction between the _progressus a
principiis ad principiata_, and the _regressus a principiatis ad
principia_. No distinction is more vital in the logic of inference in
general and of scientific inference in particular; and yet none has been
so little understood, because, though analysis is the more usual order
of discovery, synthesis is that of instruction, and therefore, by
becoming more familiar, tends to replace and obscure the previous
analysis. The distinction, however, did not escape Aristotle, who saw
that a progressive syllogism can be reversed thus:--

   1. _Progression._ |         2. _Regression._
                     |        (1)               (2)
       All M is P.   |    All P is M.   |    All S is P.
       All S is M.   |    All S is P.   |    All M is S.
    :. All S is P.   | :. All S is M.   | :. All M is P.

Proceeding from one order to the other, by converting one of the
premises, and substituting the conclusion as premise for the other
premise, so as to deduce the latter as conclusion, is what he calls
circular inference; and he remarked that the process is fallacious
unless it contains propositions which are convertible, as in
mathematical equations. Further, he perceived that the difference
between the progressive and regressive orders extends from mathematics
to physics, and that there are two kinds of syllogism: one progressing a
priori from real ground to consequent fact ([Greek: ho tou dioti
syllogismos]), and the other regressing a posteriori from consequent
fact to real ground ([Greek: ho tou hoti syllogismos]). For example, as
he says, the sphericity of the moon is the real ground of the fact of
its light waxing; but we can deduce either from the other, as follows:--

       1. _Progression._      |      2. _Regression._
     What is spherical waxes. |    What waxes is spherical.
     The moon is spherical.   |    The moon waxes.
  :. The moon waxes.          | :. The moon is spherical.

These two kinds of syllogism are synthesis and analysis in the ancient
sense. Deduction is analysis when it is regressive from consequence to
real ground, as when we start from the proposition that the angles of a
triangle are equal to two right angles and deduce analytically that
therefore (1) they are equal to equal angles made by a straight line
standing on another straight line, and (2) such equal angles are two
right angles. Deduction is synthesis when it is progressive from real
ground to consequence, as when we start from these two results of
analysis as principles and deduce synthetically the proposition that
therefore the angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles, in the
order familiar to the student of Euclid. But the full value of the
ancient theory of these processes cannot be appreciated until we
recognize that as Aristotle planned them Newton used them. Much of the
_Principia_ consists of synthetical deductions from definitions and
axioms. But the discovery of the centripetal force of the planets to the
sun is an analytic deduction from the facts of their motion discovered
by Kepler to their real ground, and is so stated by Newton in the first
regressive order of Aristotle--P-M, S-P, S-M. Newton did indeed first
show synthetically what kind of motions by mechanical laws have their
ground in a centripetal force varying inversely as the square of the
distance (all P is M); but his next step was, not to deduce
synthetically the planetary motions, but to make a new start from the
planetary motions as facts established by Kepler's laws and as examples
of the kind of motions in question (all S is P); and then, by combining
these two premises, one mechanical and the other astronomical, he
analytically deduced that these facts of planetary motion have their
ground in a centripetal force varying inversely as the squares of the
distances of the planets from the sun (all S is M). (See _Principia_ I.
prop. 2; 4 coroll. 6; III. Phaenomena, 4-5; prop. 2.) What Newton did,
in short, was to prove by analysis that the planets, revolving by
Kepler's astronomical laws round the sun, have motions such as by
mechanical laws are consequences of a centripetal force to the sun. This
done, as the major is convertible, the analytic order--P-M, S-P,
S-M--was easily inverted into the synthetic order--M-P, S-M, S-P; and in
this progressive order the deduction as now taught begins with the
centripetal force of the sun as real ground, and deduces the facts of
planetary motion as consequences. Thereupon the Newtonian analysis which
preceded this synthesis, became forgotten; until at last Mill in his
_Logic_, neglecting the _Principia_, had the temerity to distort
Newton's discovery, which was really a pure example of analytic
deduction, into a mere hypothetical deduction; as if the author of the
saying "_Hypotheses non fingo_" started from the hypothesis of a
centripetal force to the sun, and thence deductively explained the facts
of planetary motion, which reciprocally verified the hypothesis. This
gross misrepresentation has made hypothesis a kind of logical fashion.
Worse still, Jevons proceeded to confuse analytic deduction from
consequence to ground with hypothetical deduction from ground to
consequence under the common term "inverse deduction." Wundt attempts,
but in vain, to make a compromise between the old and the new. He
re-defines analysis in the very opposite way to the ancients; whereas
they defined it as a regressive process from consequence to ground,
according to Wundt it is a progressive process of taking for granted a
proposition and deducing a consequence, which being true verifies the
proposition. He then divides it into two species: one categorical, the
other hypothetical. By the categorical he means the ancient analysis
from a given proposition to more general propositions. By the
hypothetical he means the new-fangled analysis from a given proposition
to more particular propositions, i.e. from a hypothesis to consequent
facts. But his account of the first is imperfect, because in ancient
analysis the more general propositions, with which it concludes, are not
mere consequences, but the real grounds of the given proposition; while
his addition of the second reduces the nature of analysis to the utmost
confusion, because hypothetical deduction is progressive from hypothesis
to consequent facts whereas analysis is regressive from consequent facts
to real ground. There is indeed a sense in which all inference is from
ground to consequence, because it is from logical ground (_principium
cognoscendi_) to logical consequence. But in the sense in which
deductive analysis is opposed to deductive synthesis, analysis is
deduction from real consequence as logical ground (_principiatum_ as
_principium cognoscendi_) to real ground (_principium essendi_), e.g.
from the consequential facts of planetary motion to their real ground,
i.e. centripetal force to the sun. Hence Sigwart is undoubtedly right in
distinguishing analysis from hypothetical deduction, for which he
proposes the name "reduction." We have only further to add that many
scientific discoveries about sound, heat, light, colour and so forth,
which it is the fashion to represent as hypotheses to explain facts, are
really analytical deductions from the facts to their real grounds in
accordance with mechanical laws. Recent logic does scant justice to
scientific analysis.

4. _Induction._--As induction is the process from particulars to
universals, it might have been thought that it would always have been
opposed to syllogism, in which one of the rules is against using
particular premises to draw universal conclusions. Yet such is the
passion for one type that from Aristotle's time till now constant
attempts have been made to reduce induction to syllogism. Aristotle
himself invented an inductive syllogism in which the major (P) is to be
referred to the middle (M) by means of the minor (S), thus:--

     A, B, C magnets (S) attract iron (P).
     A, B, C magnets (S) are all magnets whatever (M).
  :. All magnets whatever (M) attract iron (P).

As the second premise is supposed to be convertible, he reduced the
inductive to a deductive syllogism as follows:--

     Every S is P.               |    Every S is P.
     Every S is M (convertibly). |    Every M is S.
  :. Every M is P.               | :. Every M is P.

In the reduced form the inductive syllogism was described by Aldrich as
"_Syllogismus in Barbara cujus minor_ (i.e. every M is S) _reticetur_."
Whately, on the other hand, proposed an inductive syllogism with the
major suppressed, that is, instead of the minor premise above, he
supposed a major premise, "Whatever belongs to A, B, C magnets belongs
to all." Mill thereupon supposed a still more general premise, an
assumption of the uniformity of nature. Since Mill's time, however, the
logic of induction tends to revert towards syllogisms more like that of
Aristotle. Jevons supposed induction to be inverse deduction,
distinguished from direct deduction as analysis from synthesis, e.g. as
division from multiplication; but he really meant that it is a deduction
from a hypothesis of the law of a cause to particular effects which,
being true, verify the hypothesis. Sigwart declares himself in agreement
with Jevons; except that, being aware of the difference between
hypothetical deduction and mathematical analysis, and seeing that,
whereas analysis (e.g. in division) leads to certain conclusions,
hypothetical deduction is not certain of the hypothesis, he arrives at
the more definite view that induction is not analysis proper but
hypothetical deduction, or "reduction," as he proposes to call it.
Reduction he defines as "the framing of possible premises for given
propositions, or the construction of a syllogism when the conclusion and
one premise is given." On this view induction becomes a reduction in the
form: all M is P (hypothesis), S is M (given), :. S is P (given). The
views of Jevons and Sigwart are in agreement in two main points.
According to both, induction, instead of inferring from A, B, C magnets
the conclusion "Therefore all magnets attract iron," infers from the
hypothesis, "Let every magnet attract iron," to A, B, C magnets, whose
given attraction verifies the hypothesis. According to both, again, the
hypothesis of a law with which the process starts contains more than is
present in the particular data: according to Jevons, it is the
hypothesis of a law of a cause from which induction deduces particular
effects; and according to Sigwart, it is a hypothesis of the ground from
which the particular data necessarily follow according to universal
laws. Lastly, Wundt's view is an interesting piece of eclecticism, for
he supposes that induction begins in the form of Aristotle's inductive
syllogism, S-P, S-M, M-P, and becomes an inductive method in the form of
Jevons's inverse deduction, or hypothetical deduction, or analysis, M-P,
S-M, S-P. In detail, he supposes that, while an "inference by
comparison," which he erroneously calls an affirmative syllogism in the
second figure, is preliminary to induction, a second "inference by
connexion," which he erroneously calls a syllogism in the third figure
with an indeterminate conclusion, is the inductive syllogism itself.
This is like Aristotle's inductive syllogism in the arrangement of
terms; but, while on the one hand Aristotle did not, like Wundt, confuse
it with the third figure, on the other hand Wundt does not, like
Aristotle, suppose it to be practicable to get inductive data so wide as
the convertible premise, "All S is M, and all M is S," which would at
once establish the conclusion, "All M is P." Wundt's point is that the
conclusion of the inductive syllogism is neither so much as all, nor so
little as some, but rather the indeterminate "M and P are connected."
The question therefore arises, how we are to discover "All M is P," and
this question Wundt answers by adding an inductive method, which
involves inverting the inductive syllogism in the style of Aristotle
into a deductive syllogism from a hypothesis in the style of Jevons,
thus:--

             (1)                   (2)
     S is P.                | Every M is P.
     S is M.                |       S is M.
  :. M and P are connected. |    :. S is P.

He agrees with Jevons in calling this second syllogism analytical
deduction, and with Jevons and Sigwart in calling it hypothetical
deduction. It is, in fact, a common point of Jevons, Sigwart and Wundt
that the universal is not really a conclusion inferred from given
particulars, but a hypothetical major premise from which given
particulars are inferred, and that this major contains presuppositions
of causation not contained in the particulars.

It is noticeable that Wundt quotes Newton's discovery of the centripetal
force of the planets to the sun as an instance of this supposed
hypothetical, analytic, inductive method; as if Newton's analysis were a
hypothesis of the centripetal force to the sun, a deduction of the given
facts of planetary motion, and a verification of the hypothesis by the
given facts, and as if such a process of hypothetical deduction could be
identical with either analysis or induction. The abuse of this instance
of Newtonian analysis betrays the whole origin of the current confusion
of induction with deduction. One confusion has led to another. Mill
confused Newton's analytical deduction with hypothetical deduction; and
thereupon Jevons confused induction with both. The result is that both
Sigwart and Wundt transform the inductive process of adducing particular
examples to induce a universal law into a deductive process of
presupposing a universal law as a ground to deduce particular
consequences. But we can easily extricate ourselves from these
confusions by comparing induction with different kinds of deduction. The
point about induction is that it starts from experience, and that,
though in most classes we can experience only some particulars
individually, yet we infer all. Hence induction cannot be reduced to
Aristotle's inductive syllogism, because experience cannot give the
convertible premise, "Every S is M, and every M is S"; that "All A, B, C
are magnets" is, but that "All magnets are A, B, C" is not, a fact of
experience. For the same reason induction cannot be reduced to
analytical deduction of the second kind in the form, S-P, M-S, :. M-P;
because, though both end in a universal conclusion, the limits of
experience prevent induction from such inference as:--

     Every experienced magnet attracts iron.
     Every magnet whatever is every experienced magnet.
  :. Every magnet whatever attracts iron.


Still less can induction be reduced to analytical deduction of the first
kind in the form--P-M, S-P, :. S-M, of which Newton has left so
conspicuous an example in his _Principia_. As the example shows, that
analytic process starts from the scientific knowledge of a universal and
convertible law (every M is P, and every P is M), e.g. a mechanical law
of all centripetal force, and ends in a particular application, e.g.
this centripetal force of planets to the sun. But induction cannot start
from a known law. Hence it is that Jevons, followed by Sigwart and
Wundt, reduces it to deduction from a hypothesis in the form "Let every
M be P, S is M, :. S is P." There is a superficial resemblance between
induction and this hypothetical deduction. Both in a way use given
particulars as evidence. But in induction the given particulars are the
evidence by which we discover the universal, e.g. particular magnets
attracting iron are the origin of an inference that all do; in
hypothetical deduction, the universal is the evidence by which we
explain the given particulars, as when we suppose undulating aether to
explain the facts of heat and light. In the former process, the given
particulars are the data from which we infer the universal; in the
latter, they are only the consequent facts by which we verify it. Or
rather, there are two uses of induction: inductive discovery before
deduction, and inductive verification after deduction. But neither use
of induction is the same as the deduction itself: the former precedes,
the latter follows it. Lastly, the theory of Mill, though frequently
adopted, e.g. by B. Erdmann, need not detain us long. Most inductions
are made without any assumption of the uniformity of nature; for,
whether it is itself induced, or a priori or postulated, this like every
assumption is a judgment, and most men are incapable of judgment on so
universal a scale, when they are quite capable of induction. The fact is
that the uniformity of nature stands to induction as the axioms of
syllogism do to syllogism; they are not premises, but conditions of
inference, which ordinary men use spontaneously, as was pointed out in
_Physical Realism_, and afterwards in Venn's _Empirical Logic_. The
axiom of contradiction is not a major premise of a judgment: the _dictum
de omni et nullo_ is not a major premise of a syllogism: the principle
of uniformity is not a major premise of an induction. Induction, in
fact, is no species of deduction; they are opposite processes, as
Aristotle regarded them except in the one passage where he was reducing
the former to the latter, and as Bacon always regarded them. But it is
easy to confuse them by mistaking examples of deduction for inductions.
Thus Whewell mistook Kepler's inference that Mars moves in an ellipse
for an induction, though it required the combination of Tycho's and
Kepler's observations, as a minor, with the laws of conic sections
discovered by the Greeks, as a major, premise. Jevons, in his
_Principles of Science_, constantly makes the same sort of mistake. For
example, the inference from the similarity between solar spectra and the
spectra of various gases on the earth to the existence of similar gases
in the sun, is called by him an induction; but it really is an
analytical deduction from effect to cause, thus:--

     Such and such spectra are effects of various gases.
     Solar spectra are such spectra.
  :. Solar spectra are effects of those gases.

In the same way, to infer a machine from hearing the regular tick of a
clock, to infer a player from finding a pack of cards arranged in suits,
to infer a human origin of stone implements, and all such inferences
from patent effects to latent causes, though they appear to Jevons to be
typical inductions, are really deductions which, besides the minor
premise stating the particular effects, require a major premise
discovered by a previous induction and stating the general kind of
effects of a general kind of cause. B. Erdmann, again, has invented an
induction from particular predicates to a totality of predicates which
he calls "ergänzende Induction," giving as an example, "This body has
the colour, extensibility and specific gravity of magnesium; therefore
it is magnesium." But this inference contains the tacit major, "What has
a given colour, &c., is magnesium," and is a syllogism of recognition. A
deduction is often like an induction, in inferring from particulars; the
difference is that deduction combines a law in the major with the
particulars in the minor premise, and infers syllogistically that the
particulars of the minor have the predicate of the major premise,
whereas induction uses the particulars simply as instances to generalize
a law. An infallible sign of an induction is that the subject and
predicate of the universal conclusion are merely those of the particular
instances generalized; e.g. "These magnets attract iron, :. all do."

This brings us to another source of error. As we have seen, Jevons,
Sigwart and Wundt all think that induction contains a belief in
causation, in a cause, or ground, which is not present in the particular
facts of experience, but is contributed by a hypothesis added as a major
premise to the particulars in order to explain them by the cause or
ground. Not so; when an induction is causal, the particular instances
are already beliefs in particular causes, e.g. "My right hand is
exerting pressure reciprocally with my left," "A, B, C magnets attract
iron"; and the problem is to generalize these causes, not to introduce
them. Induction is not introduction. It would make no difference to the
form of induction, if, as Kant thought, the notion of causality is a
priori; for even Kant thought that it is already contained in
experience. But whether Kant be right or wrong, Wundt and his school are
decidedly wrong in supposing "supplementary notions which are not
contained in experience itself, but are gained by a process of logical
treatment of this experience"; as if our behalf in causality could be
neither a posteriori nor a priori, but beyond experience wake up in a
hypothetical major premise of induction. Really, we first experience
that particular causes have particular effects; then induce that causes
similar to those have effects similar to these; finally, deduce that
when a particular cause of the kind occurs it has a particular effect of
the kind by synthetic deduction, and that when a particular effect of
the kind occurs it has a particular cause of the kind by analytic
deduction with a convertible premise, as when Newton from planetary
motions, like terrestrial motions, analytically deduced a centripetal
force to the sun like centripetal forces to the earth. Moreover, causal
induction is itself both synthetic and analytic: according as experiment
combines elements into a compound, or resolves a compound into elements,
it is the origin of a synthetic or an analytic generalization. Not,
however, that all induction is causal; but where it is not, there is
still less reason for making it a deduction from hypothesis. When from
the fact that the many crows in our experience are black, we induce the
probability that all crows whatever are black, the belief in the
particulars is quite independent of this universal. How then can this
universal be called, as Sigwart, for example, calls it, the ground from
which these particulars follow? I do not believe that the crows I have
seen are black because all crows are black, but vice versa. Sigwart
simply inverts the order of our knowledge. In all induction, as
Aristotle said, the particulars are the evidence, or ground of our
knowledge (_principium cognoscendi_), of the universal. In causal
induction, the particulars further contain the cause, or ground of the
being (_principium essendi_), of the effect, as well as the ground of
our inducing the law. In all induction the universal is the conclusion,
in none a major premise, and in none the ground of either the being or
the knowing of the particulars. Induction is generalization. It is not
syllogism in the form of Aristotle's or Wundt's inductive syllogism,
because, though starting only from some particulars, it concludes with a
universal; it is not syllogism in the form called inverse deduction by
Jevons, reduction by Sigwart, inductive method by Wundt, because it
often uses particular facts of causation to infer universal laws of
causation; it is not syllogism in the form of Mill's syllogism from a
belief in uniformity of nature, because few men have believed in
uniformity, but all have induced from particulars to universals. Bacon
alone was right in altogether opposing induction to syllogism, and in
finding inductive rules for the inductive process from particular
instances of presence, absence in similar circumstances, and comparison.

5. _Inference in General._--There are, as we have seen (_ad init._),
three types--syllogism, induction and analogy. Different as they are,
the three kinds have something in common: first, they are all processes
from similar to similar; secondly, they all consist in combining two
judgments so as to cause a third, whether expressed in so many
propositions or not; thirdly, as a judgment is a belief in being, they
all proceed from premises which are beliefs in being to a conclusion
which is a belief in being. Nevertheless, simple as this account
appears, it is opposed in every point to recent logic. In the first
place, the point of Bradley's logic is that "similarity is not a
principle which works. What operates is identity, and that identity is a
universal." This view makes inference easy: induction is all over before
it begins; for, according to Bradley, "every one of the instances is
already a universal proposition; and it is not a particular fact or
phenomenon at all," so that the moment you observe that this magnet
attracts iron, you _ipso facto_ know that every magnet does so, and all
that remains for deduction is to identify a second magnet as the same
with the first, and conclude that it attracts iron. In dealing with
Bradley's works we feel inclined to repeat what Aristotle says of the
discourses of Socrates: they all exhibit excellence, cleverness, novelty
and inquiry, but their truth is a difficult matter; and the Socratic
paradox that virtue is knowledge is not more difficult than the
Bradleian paradox that as two different things are the same, inference
is identification. The basis of Bradley's logic is the fallacious
dialectic of Hegel's metaphysics, founded on the supposition that two
things, which are different, but have something in common, are the same.
For example, according to Hegel, being and not-being are both
indeterminate and therefore the same. "If," says Bradley, "A and B, for
instance, both have lungs or gills, they are so far the same." The
answer to Hegel is that being and not-being are at most similarly
indeterminate, and to Bradley that each animal has its own different
lungs, whereby they are only similar. If they were the same, then in
descending, two things, one of which has healthy and the other diseased
lungs, would be the same; and in ascending, two things, one of which has
lungs and the other has not, but both of which have life, e.g. plants
and animals, would be so far the same. There would be no limit to
identity either downwards or upwards; so that a man would be the same as
a man-of-war, and all things would be the same thing, and not different
parts of one universe. But a thing which has healthy lungs and a thing
which has diseased lungs are only similar individuals numerically
different. Each individual thing is the same only with itself, although
related to other things; and each individual of a class has its own
individual, though similar, attributes. The consequence of this true
metaphysics to logic is twofold: on the one hand, one singular or
particular judgment, e.g. "this magnet attracts iron," is not another,
e.g. "that magnet attracts iron," and neither is universal; on the other
hand, a universal judgment, e.g. "every magnet attracts iron," means,
distributively, that each individual magnet exerts its individual
attraction, though it is similar to other magnets exerting similar
attractions. A universal is not "one identical point," but one
distributive whole. Hence in a syllogism, a middle term, e.g. magnets,
is "absolutely the same," not in the sense of "one identical point"
making each individual the same as any other, as Bradley supposes, but
only in the sense of one whole class, or total of many similar
individuals, e.g. magnets, each of which is separately though similarly
a magnet, not magnet in general. Hence also induction is a real process,
because, when we know that this individual magnet attracts iron, we are
very far from knowing that all alike do so similarly; and the question
of inductive logic, how we get from some similars to all similars,
remains, as before, a difficulty, but not to be solved by the fallacy
that inference is identification.

Secondly, a subordinate point in Bradley's logic is that there are
inferences which are not syllogisms; and this is true. But when he goes
on to propose, as a complete independent inference, "A is to the right
of B, B is to the right of C, therefore A is to the right of C," he
confuses two different operations. When A, B and C are objects of sense,
their relative positions are matters, not of inference, but of
observation; when they are not, there is an inference, but a syllogistic
inference with a major premise induced from previous observations,
"whenever of three things the first is to the right of the second, and
the second to the right of the third, the first is to the right of the
third." To reply that this universal judgment is not expressed, or that
its expression is cumbrous, is no answer, because, whether expressed or
not, it is required for the thought. As Aristotle puts it, the syllogism
is directed "not to the outer, but to the inner discourse," or as we
should say, not to the expression but to the thought, not to the
proposition but to the judgment, and to the inference not verbally but
mentally. Bradley seems to suppose that the major premise of a syllogism
must be explicit, or else is nothing at all. But it is often thought
without being expressed, and to judge the syllogism by its mere explicit
expression is to commit an _ignoratio elenchi_; for it has been known
all along that we express less than we think, and the very purpose of
syllogistic logic is to analyse the whole thought necessary to the
conclusion. In this syllogistic analysis two points must always be
considered: one, that we usually use premises in thought which we do not
express; and the other, that we sometimes use them unconsciously, and
therefore infer and reason unconsciously, in the manner excellently
described by Zeller in his _Vorträge_, iii. pp. 249-255. Inference is a
deeper thinking process from judgments to judgment, which only
occasionally and partially emerges in the linguistic process from
propositions to proposition. We may now then reassert two points about
inference against Bradley's logic: the first, that it is a process from
similar to similar, and not a process of identification, because two
different things are not at all the same thing; the second, that it is
the mental process from judgments to judgment rather than the linguistic
process from propositions to proposition, because, besides the judgments
expressed in propositions, it requires judgments which are not always
expressed, and are sometimes even unconscious.

Our third point is that, as a process of judgments, inference is a
process of concluding from two beliefs in being to another belief in
being, and not an ideal construction, because a judgment does not always
require ideas, but is always a belief about things, existing or not.
This point is challenged by all the many ideal theories of judgment
already quoted. If, for example, judgment were an analysis of an
aggregate idea as Wundt supposes, it would certainly be true with him to
conclude that "as judgment is an _immediate_, inference is a _mediate_,
reference of the members of an aggregate of ideas to one another." But
really a judgment is a belief that something, existing, or thinkable, or
nameable or what not, is (or is not) determined; and inference is a
process from and to such beliefs in being. Hence the fallacy of those
who, like Bosanquet, or like Paulsen in his _Einleitung in die
Philosophie_, represent the realistic theory of inference as if it meant
that knowledge starts from ideas and then infers that ideas are copies
of things, and who then object, rightly enough, that we could not in
that case compare the copy with the original, but only be able to infer
from idea to idea. But there is another realism which holds that
inference is a process neither from ideas to ideas, nor from ideas to
things, but from beliefs to beliefs, from judgments about things in the
premises to judgments about similar things in the conclusion. Logical
inference never goes through the impossible process of premising nothing
but ideas, and concluding that ideas are copies of things. Moreover, as
we have shown, our primary judgments of sense are beliefs founded on
sensations without requiring ideas, and are beliefs, not merely that
something is determined, but that it is determined as existing; and,
accordingly, our primary inferences from these sensory judgments of
existence are inferences that other things beyond sense are similarly
determined as existing. First press your lips together and then press a
pen between them: you will not be conscious of perceiving any ideas: you
will be conscious first of perceiving one existing lip exerting pressure
reciprocally with the other existing lip; then, on putting the pen
between your lips, of perceiving each lip similarly exerting pressure,
but not with the other; and consequently of inferring that each existing
lip is exerting pressure reciprocally with another existing body, the
pen. Inference then, though it is accompanied by ideas, is not an ideal
construction, nor a process from idea to idea, nor a process from idea
to thing, but a process from direct to indirect beliefs in things, and
originally in existing things. Logic cannot, it is true, decide what
these things are, nor what the senses know about them, without appealing
to metaphysics and psychology. But, as the science of inference, it can
make sure that inference, on the one hand, starts from sensory judgments
about sensible things and logically proceeds to inferential judgments
about similar things beyond sense, and, on the other hand, cannot
logically go beyond the similar. These are the limits within which
logical inference works, because its nature essentially consists in
proceeding from two judgments to another about similar things, existing
or not.

6. _Truth._--Finally, though sensory judgment is always true of its
sensible object, inferential judgments are not always true, but are true
so far as they are logically inferred, however indirectly, from sense;
and knowledge consists of sense, memory after sense and logical
inference from sense, which, we must remember, is not merely the outer
sense of our five senses, but also the inner sense of ourselves as
conscious thinking persons. We come then at last to the old
question--what is truth? Truth proper, as Aristotle said in the
_Metaphysics_, is in the mind: it is not being, but one's signification
of being. Its requisites are that there are things to be known and
powers of knowing things. It is an attribute of judgments and
derivatively of propositions. That judgment is true which apprehends a
thing as it is capable of being known to be; and that proposition is
true which so asserts the thing to be. Or, to combine truth in thought
and in speech, the true is what signifies a thing as it is capable of
being known. Secondarily, the thing itself is ambiguously said to be
true in the sense of being signified as it is. For example, as I am
weary and am conscious of being weary, my judgment and proposition that
I am weary are true because they signify what I am and know myself to be
by direct consciousness; and my being weary is ambiguously said to be
true because it is so signified. But it will be said that Kant has
proved that real truth, in the sense of the "agreement of knowledge with
the object," is unattainable, because we could compare knowledge with
the object only by knowing both. Sigwart, indeed, adopting Kant's
argument, concludes that we must be satisfied with consistency among the
thoughts which presuppose an existent; this, too, is the reason why he
thinks that induction is reduction, on the theory that we can show the
necessary consequence of the given particular, but that truth of fact is
unattainable. But Kant's criticism and Sigwart's corollary only derive
plausibility from a false definition of truth. Truth is not the
agreement of knowledge with an object beyond itself, and therefore _ex
hypothesi_ unknowable, but the agreement of our judgments with the
objects of our knowledge. A judgment is true whenever it is a belief
that a thing is determined as it is known to be by sense, or by memory
after sense, or by inference from sense, however indirect the inference
may be, and even when in the form of inference of non-existence it
extends consequently from primary to secondary judgments. Thus the
judgments "this sensible pressure exists," "that sensible pressure
existed," "other similar pressures exist," "a conceivable centaur does
not exist but is a figment," are all equally true, because they are in
accordance with one or other of these kinds of knowledge. Consequently,
as knowledge is attainable by sense, memory and inference, truth is also
attainable, because, though we cannot test what we know by something
else, we can test what we judge and assert by what we know. Not that all
inference is knowledge, but it is sometimes. The aim of logic in general
is to find the laws of all inference, which, so far as it obeys those
laws, is always consistent, but is true or false according to its data
as well as its consistency; and the aim of the special logic of
knowledge is to find the laws of direct and indirect inferences from
sense, because as sense produces sensory judgments which are always true
of the sensible things actually perceived, inference from sense produces
inferential judgments which, so far as they are consequent on sensory
judgments, are always true of things similar to sensible things, by the
very consistency of inference, or, as we say, by parity of reasoning.
We return then to the old view of Aristotle, that truth is believing in
being; that sense is true of its immediate objects, and reasoning from
sense true of its mediate objects; and that logic is the science of
reasoning with a view to truth, or _Logica est ars ratiocinandi, ut
discernatur verum a falso_. All we aspire to add is that, in order to
attain to real truth, we must proceed gradually from sense, memory and
experience through analogical particular inference, to inductive and
deductive universal inference or reasoning. Logic is the science of all
inference, beginning from sense and ending in reason.

In conclusion, the logic of the last quarter of the 19th century may be
said to be animated by a spirit of inquiry, marred by a love of paradox
and a corresponding hatred of tradition. But we have found, on the
whole, that logical tradition rises superior to logical innovation.
There are two old logics which still remain indispensable, Aristotle's
_Organon_ and Bacon's _Novum Organum_. If, and only if, the study of
deductive logic begins with Aristotle, and the study of inductive logic
with Aristotle and Bacon, it will be profitable to add the works of the
following recent German and English authors:--

  AUTHORITIES.--J. Bergmann, _Reine Logik_ (Berlin, 1879); _Die
  Grundprobleme der Logik_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1895); B. Bosanquet,
  _Logic_ (Oxford, 1888); _The Essentials of Logic_ (London, 1895); F.
  H. Bradley, _The Principles of Logic_ (London, 1883); F. Brentano,
  _Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkte_ (Vienna, 1874); R. F.
  Clarke, _Logic_ (London, 1889); W. L. Davidson, _The Logic of
  Definition_ (London, 1885); E. Dühring, _Logik und
  Wissenschaftstheorie_ (Leipzig, 1878); B. Erdmann, _Logik_ (Halle,
  1892); T. Fowler, _Bacon's Novum Organum_, edited, with introduction,
  notes, &c. (2nd ed., Oxford, 1889); T. H. Green, _Lectures on Logic_,
  in _Works_, vol. iii. (London, 1886); J. G. Hibben, _Inductive Logic_
  (Edinburgh and London, 1896); F. Hillebrand, _Die neuen Theorien der
  kategorischen Schlüsse_ (Vienna, 1891); L. T. Hobhouse, _The Theory of
  Knowledge_ (London, 1896); H. Hughes, _The Theory of Inference_
  (London, 1894); E. Husserl, _Logische Untersuchungen_ (Halle, 1891,
  1901); W. Jerusalem, _Die Urtheilsfunction_ (Vienna and Leipzig,
  1895); W. Stanley Jevons, _The Principles of Science_ (3rd ed.,
  London, 1879); _Studies in Deductive Logic_ (London, 1880); H. W. B.
  Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_ (1906); E. E. Constance Jones,
  _Elements of Logic_ (Edinburgh, 1890); G. H. Joyce, _Principles of
  Logic_ (1908); J. N. Keynes, _Studies and Exercises in Formal Logic_
  (2nd ed., London, 1887); F. A. Lange, _Logische Studien_ (2nd ed.,
  Leipzig, 1894); T. Lipps, _Grundzüge der Logik_ (Hamburg and Leipzig,
  1893); R. H. Lotze, _Logik_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881, English
  translation edited by B. Bosanquet, Oxford, 1884); _Grundzüge der
  Logik (Diktate)_ (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1891, English translation by G. T.
  Ladd, Boston, 1887); Werner Luthe, _Beiträge zur Logik_ (Berlin, 1872,
  1877); Members of Johns Hopkins University, _Studies in Logic_ (edited
  by C. S. Peirce, Boston, 1883); J. B. Meyer, _Ueberweg's System der
  Logik_, fünfte vermehrte Auflage (Bonn, 1882); Max Müller, _Science of
  Thought_ (London, 1887); Carveth Read, _On the Theory of Logic_
  (London, 1878); _Logic, Deductive and Inductive_ (2nd ed., London,
  1901); E. Schröder, _Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik_ (Leipzig,
  1890, 1891, 1895); W. Schuppe, _Erkenntnistheoretische Logik_ (Bonn,
  1878); _Grundriss der Erkenntnistheorie und Logik_ (Berlin, 1894); R.
  Shute, _A Discourse on Truth_ (London, 1877); Alfred Sidgwick,
  _Fallacies_ (London, 1883); _The Use of Words in Reasoning_ (London,
  1901); C. Sigwart, _Logik_ (2nd ed., Freiburg-i.-Br. and Leipzig,
  1889-1893, English translation by Helen Dendy, London, 1895); K.
  Uphues, _Grundlehren der Logik_ (Breslau, 1883); J. Veitch,
  _Institutes of Logic_ (Edinburgh and London, 1885); J. Venn, _Symbolic
  Logic_ (2nd ed., London, 1894); _The Principles of Empirical or
  Inductive Logic_ (London, 1889); J. Volkelt, _Erfahren und Denken_
  (Hamburg and Leipzig, 1886); T. Welton, _A Manual of Logic_ (London,
  1891, 1896); W. Windelband, _Präludien_ (Freiburg-i.-Br., 1884); W.
  Wundt, _Logik_ (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1893-1895). Text-books are not
  comprised in this list.     (T. Ca.)


II. HISTORY

Logic cannot dispense with the light afforded by its history so long as
counter-solutions of the same fundamental problems continue to hold the
field. A critical review of some of the chief types of logical theory,
with a view to determine development, needs no further justification.

Logic arose, at least for the Western world, in the golden age of Greek
speculation which culminated in Plato and Aristotle. There is an Indian
logic, it is true, but its priority is more than disputable. In any case
no influence upon Greek thought can be shown. The movement which ends in
the logic of Aristotle is demonstrably self-contained. When we have
shaken ourselves free of the prejudice that all stars are first seen in
the East, Oriental attempts at analysis of the structure of thought may
be treated as negligible.

It is with Aristotle that the bookish tradition begins to dominate the
evolution of logic. The technical perfection of the analysis which he
offers is, granted the circle of presuppositions within which it works,
so decisive, that what precedes, even Plato's logic, is not unnaturally
regarded as merely preliminary and subsidiary to it. What follows is
inevitably, whether directly or indirectly, by sympathy or by
antagonism, affected by the Aristotelian tradition.


A. GREEK LOGIC

i. _Before Aristotle_

  The physical philosophers.

Logic needs as its presuppositions that thought should distinguish
itself from things and from sense, that the problem of validity should
be seen to be raised in the field of thought itself, and that analysis
of the structure of thought should be recognized as the one way of
solution. Thought is somewhat late in coming to self-consciousness.
Implied in every contrast of principle and fact, of rule and
application, involved as we see after the event, most decisively when we
react correctly upon a world incorrectly perceived, thought is yet not
reflected on in the common experience. Its so-called natural logic is
only the potentiality of logic. The same thing is true of the first
stage of Greek philosophy. In seeking for a single material principle
underlying the multiplicity of phenomena, the first nature-philosophers,
Thales and the rest, did indeed raise the problem of the one and the
many, the endeavour to answer which must at last lead to logic. But it
is only from a point of view won by later speculation that it can be
said that they sought to determine the predicates of the single
subject-reality, or to establish the permanent subject of varied and
varying predicates.[1] The direction of their inquiry is persistently
outward. They hope to explain the opposed appearance and reality wholly
within the world of things, and irrespective of the thought that thinks
things. Their universal is still a material one. The level of thought on
which they move is still clearly pre-logical. It is an advance on this
when Heraclitus[2] opposes to the eyes and ears which are bad witnesses
"for such as understand not their language" a common something which we
would do well to follow; or again when in the incommensurability of the
diagonal and side of a square the Pythagoreans stumbled upon what was
clearly neither thing nor image of sense, but yet was endowed with
meaning, and henceforth were increasingly at home with symbol and
formula. So far, however, it might well be that thought,
contradistinguished from sense with its illusions, was itself
infallible. A further step, then, was necessary, and it was taken at any
rate by the Eleatics, when they opposed their thought to the thought of
others, as the way of truth in contrast to the way of opinion. If
Eleatic thought stands over against Pythagorean thought as what is valid
or grounded against what is ungrounded or invalid, we are embarked upon
dialectic, or the debate in which thought is countered by thought.
Claims to a favourable verdict must now be substantiated in this field
and in this field alone. It was Zeno, the controversialist of the
Eleatic school, who was regarded in after times as the "discoverer" of
dialectic.[3]

  Zeno's amazing skill in argumentation and his paradoxical conclusions,
  particular and general, inaugurate a new era. "The philosophical
  mind," says waiter Pater,[4] "will perhaps never be quite in health,
  quite sane or natural again." The give and take of thought had by a
  swift transformation of values come by something more than its own.
  Zeno's paradoxes, notably, for example, the puzzle of Achilles and the
  Tortoise, are still capable of amusing the modern world. In his own
  age they found him imitators. And there follows the sophistic
  movement.


    The Sophists.

  The sophists have other claims to consideration than their service to
  the development of logic. In the history of the origins of logic the
  sophistic age is simply the age of the free play of thought in which
  men were aware that in a sense anything can be debated and not yet
  aware of the sense in which all things cannot be so. It is the age of
  discussion used as a universal solvent, before it has been brought to
  book by a deliberate unfolding of the principles of the structure of
  thought determining and limiting the movement of thought itself. The
  sophists furthered the transition from dialectic to logic in two ways.
  In the first place they made it possible. Incessant questioning leads
  to answers. Hair-splitting, even when mischievous in intent, leads to
  distinctions of value. Paradoxical insistence on the accidents of
  speech-forms and thought-forms leads in the end to perception of the
  essentials. Secondly they made it necessary. The spirit of debate run
  riot evokes a counter-spirit to order and control it. The result is a
  self-limiting dialectic. This higher dialectic is a logic. It is no
  accident that the first of the philosophical sophists, Gorgias, on the
  one hand, is Eleatic in his affinities, and on the other raises in the
  characteristic formula of his intellectual nihilism[5] issues which
  are as much logical and epistemological as ontological. The meaning of
  the copula and the relation of thoughts to the objects of which they
  are the thoughts are as much involved as the nature of being. It is
  equally no accident that the name of Protagoras is to be connected, in
  Plato's view at least, with the rival school of Heracliteans. The
  problems raised by the relativism of Protagoras are no less
  fundamentally problems of the nature of knowledge and of the structure
  of thought. The _Theaetetus_ indeed, in which Plato essays to deal
  with them, is in the broad sense of the word logical, the first
  distinctively logical treatise that has come down to us. Other
  sophists, of course, with more practical interests, or of humbler
  attainments, were content to move on a lower plane of philosophical
  speculation. As presented to us, for example, in Plato's surely not
  altogether hostile caricature in the _Euthydemus_, they mark the
  intellectual preparation for, and the moral need for, the advance of
  the next generation.


  Socrates.

  Among the pioneers of the sophistic age Socrates stands apart. He has
  no other instrument than the dialectic of his compeers, and he is as
  far off as the rest from a criticism of the instrument, but he uses it
  differently and with a difference of aim. He construes the give and
  take of the debate-game with extreme rigour. The rhetorical element
  must be exorcised. The set harangue of teacher to pupil, in which
  steps in argument are slurred and the semblance of co-inquiry is
  rendered nugatory, must be eliminated. The interlocutors must in truth
  render an account under the stimulus of organized heckling from their
  equals or superiors in debating ability. And the aim is heuristic,
  though often enough the search ends in no overt positive conclusion.
  Something can be found and something is found. Common names are fitted
  for use by the would-be users being first delivered from abortive
  conceptions, and thereupon enabled to bring to the birth living and
  organic notions.

  Aristotle would assign to Socrates the elaboration of two logical
  functions:--general definition and inductive method.[6] Rightly, if we
  add that he gives no theory of either, and that his practical use of
  the latter depends for its value on selection.[7] It is rather in
  virtue of his general faith in the possibility of construction, which
  he still does not undertake, and because of his consequent insistence
  on the elucidation of general concepts, which in common with some of
  his contemporaries, he may have thought of as endued with a certain
  objectivity, that he induces the controversies of what are called the
  Socratic schools as to the nature of predication. These result in the
  formulation of a new dialectic or logic by Plato. Manifestly Socrates'
  use of certain forms of argumentation, like their abuse by the
  sophists, tended to evoke their logical analysis. The use and abuse,
  confronted one with the other, could not but evoke it.


     Antisthenes.

  The one in the many, the formula which lies at the base of the
  possibility of predication, is involved in the Socratic doctrine of
  general concepts or ideas. The nihilism of Gorgias from the Eleatic
  point of view of bare identity, and the speechlessness of Cratylus
  from the Heraclitean ground of absolute difference, are alike
  disowned. But the one in the many, the identity in difference, is so
  far only postulated, not established. When the personality of Socrates
  is removed, the difficulty as to the nature of the Socratic universal,
  developed in the medium of the individual processes of individual
  minds, carries disciples of diverse general sympathies, united only
  through the practical inspiration of the master's life, towards the
  identity-formula or the difference-formula of other teachers. The
  paradox of predication, that it seems to deny identity, or to deny
  difference, becomes a _pons asinorum_. Knowledge involves synthesis or
  nexus. Yet from the points of view alike of an absolute pluralism, of
  a flux, and of a formula of bare identity--and _a fortiori_ with any
  blending of these principles sufficiently within the bounds of
  plausibility to find an exponent--all knowledge, because all
  predication of unity, in difference, must be held to be impossible.
  Plato's problem was to find a way of escape from this impasse, and
  among his Socratic contemporaries he seems to have singled out
  Antisthenes[8] as most in need of refutation. Antisthenes, starting
  with the doctrine of identity without difference, recognizes as the
  only expression proper to anything its own peculiar sign, its name.
  This extreme of nominalism for which predication is impossible is,
  however, compromised by two concessions. A thing can be described as
  like something else. And a compound can have a [Greek: logos] or
  account given of it by the (literally) adequate enumeration of the
  names of its simple elements or [Greek: prôta].[9] This analytical
  [Greek: logos] he offers as his substitute for knowledge.[10] The
  simple elements still remain, sensed and named but not known. The
  expressions of them are simply the speech-signs for them. The account
  of the compound simply sets itself taken piecemeal as equivalent to
  itself taken as aggregate. The subject-predicate relation fails really
  to arise. Euclides[11] found no difficulty in fixing Antisthenes' mode
  of illustrating his simple elements by comparison, and therewith
  perhaps the "induction" of Socrates, with the dilemma; so far as the
  example is dissimilar, the comparison is invalid; so far as it is
  similar, it is useless. It is better to say what the thing is. Between
  Euclides and Antisthenes the Socratic induction and universal
  definition were alike discredited from the point of view of the
  Eleatic logic. It is with the other point of doctrine that Plato comes
  to grips, that which allows of a certainty or knowledge consisting in
  an analysis of a compound into simple elements themselves not known.
  The syllable or combination is, he shows, not known by resolution of
  it into letters or elements themselves not known. An aggregate
  analysed into its mechanical parts is as much and as little known as
  they. A whole which is more than its parts is from Antisthenes' point
  of view inconceivable. Propositions analytical of a combination in the
  sense alleged do not give knowledge. Yet knowledge is possible. The
  development of a positive theory of predication has become quite
  crucial.


  Plato.

Plato's logic supplies a theory of universals in the doctrine of ideas.
Upon this it bases a theory of predication, which, however, is
compatible with more than one reading of the metaphysical import of the
ideas. And it sets forth a dialectic with a twofold movement, towards
differentiation and integration severally, which amounts to a
formulation of inference. The more fully analysed movement, that which
proceeds downward from less determinate to more determinate universals,
is named Division. Its associations, accordingly, are to the modern ear
almost inevitably those of a doctrine of classification only. Aristotle,
however, treats it as a dialectical rival to syllogism, and it
influenced Galilei and Bacon in their views of inference after the
Renaissance. If we add to this logic of "idea," judgment and inference,
a doctrine of categories in the modern sense of the word which makes the
_Theaetetus_, in which it first occurs, a forerunner of Kant's _Critique
of Pure Reason_, we have clearly a very significant contribution to
logic even in technical regard. Its general philosophical setting may be
said to enhance its value even as logic.


  The "Idea."

(a) Of the idea we may say that whatever else it is, and apart from all
puzzles as to ideas of relations such as smallness, of negative
qualities such as injustice, or of human inventions such as beds, it is
opposed to that of which it is the idea as its intelligible formula or
law, the truth or validity--Herbart's word--of the phenomenon from the
point of view of nexus or system. The thing of sense in its relative
isolation is unstable. It is and is not. What gives stability is the
insensible principle or principles which it holds, as it were, in
solution. These are the ideas, and their mode of being is naturally
quite other than that of the sensible phenomena which they order. The
formula for an indefinite number of particular things in particular
places at particular times, and all of them presentable in sensuous
imagery of a given time and place, is not itself presentable in sensuous
imagery side by side with the individual members of the group it orders.
The law, e.g., of the equality of the radii of a circle cannot be
exhibited to sense, even if equal radii may be so exhibited. It is the
wealth of illustration with which Plato expresses his meaning, and the
range of application which he gives the idea--to the class-concepts of
natural groups objectively regarded, to categories, to aesthetic and
ethical ideals, to the concrete aims of the craftsman as well as to
scientific laws--that have obscured his doctrine, viz. that wherever
there is law, there is an idea.


  The one in the many.

(b) The paradox of the one in the many is none, if the idea may be
regarded as supplying a principle of nexus or organization to an
indefinite multiplicity of particulars. But if Antisthenes is to be
answered, a further step must be taken. The principle of difference must
be carried into the field of the ideas. Not only sense is a principle of
difference. The ideas are many. The multiplicity in unity must be
established within thought itself. Otherwise the objection stands: man
is man and good is good, but to say that man is good is clearly to say
the thing that is not. Plato replies with the doctrine of the
interpenetration of ideas, obviously not of all with all, but of some
with some, the formula of identity in difference within thought itself.
Nor can the opponent fairly refuse to admit it, if he affirms the
participation of the identical with being, and denies the participation
of difference with being, or affirms it with not-being. The _Sophistes_
shows among other things that an identity-philosophy breaks down into a
dualism of thought and expression, when it applies the predicate of
unity to the real, just as the absolute pluralism on the other hand
collapses into unity if it affirms or admits any form of relation
whatsoever. Identity and difference are all-pervasive categories, and
the speech-form and the corresponding thought-form involve both. For
proposition and judgment involve subject and predicate and exhibit what
a modern writer calls "identity of reference with diversity of
characterization." Plato proceeds to explain by his principle of
difference both privative and negative predicates, and also the
possibility of false predication. It is obvious that without the
principle of difference error is inexplicable. Even Plato, however,
perhaps scarcely shows that with it, and nothing else but it, error is
explained.


  Division.

(c) Plato's Division, or the articulation of a relatively indeterminate
and generic concept into species and sub-species with resultant
determinate judgments, presumes of course the doctrine of the
interpenetration of ideas laid down in the _Sophistes_ as the basis of
predication, but its use precedes the positive development of that
formula, though not, save very vaguely, the exhibition of it,
negatively, in the antinomies of the one and the many in the
_Parmenides_. It is its use, however, not the theory of it, that
precedes. The latter is expounded in the _Politicus_ (260 sqq.) and
_Philebus_ (16c sqq.). The ideal is progressively to determine a
universe of discourse till true _infimae species_ are reached, when no
further distinction in the determinate many is possible, though there is
still the numerical difference of the indefinite plurality of
particulars. The process is to take as far as possible the form of a
continuous disjunction of contraries. We must bisect as far as may be,
but the division is after all to be into limbs, not parts. The later
examples of the _Politicus_ show that the permission of three or more
co-ordinate species is not nugatory, and that the precept of dichotomy
is merely in order to secure as little of a _saltus_ as possible; to
avoid e.g. the division of the animal world into men and brutes. It is
the middle range of the [Greek: mesa] of _Philebus_ 17a that appeals to
Bacon, not only this but their mediating quality that appeals to
Aristotle. The _media axiomata_ of the one and the _middle term_ of the
other lie in the phrase. Plato's division is nevertheless neither
syllogism nor _exclusiva_. It is not syllogism because it is based on
the disjunctive, not on the hypothetical relation, and so extends
horizontally where syllogism strikes vertically downward. Again it is
not syllogism because it is necessarily and finally dialectical. It
brings in the choice of an interlocutor at each stage, and so depends on
a concession for what it should prove.[12] Nor is it Bacon's method of
exclusions, which escapes the imputation of being dialectical, if not
that of being unduly cumbrous, in virtue of the cogency of the negative
instance. The Platonic division was, however, offered as the scientific
method of the school. A fragment of the comic poet Epicrates gives a
picture of it at work.[13] And the movement of disjunction as truly has
a place in the scientific specification of a concept in all its
differences as the linking of lower to higher in syllogism. The two are
complementary, and the reinstatement of the disjunctive judgment to the
more honourable rôle in inference has been made by so notable a modern
logician as Lotze.


  Combination.

(d) The correlative process of Combination is less elaborately sketched,
but in a luminous passage in the _Politicus_ (§ 278), in explaining by
means of an example the nature and use of examples, Plato represents it
as the bringing of one and the same element seen in diverse settings to
conscious realization, with the result that it is viewed as a single
truth of which the terms compared are now accepted as the differences.
The learner is to be led forward to the unknown by being made to hark
back to more familiar groupings of the alphabet of nature which he is
coming to recognize with some certainty. To lead on, [Greek: epagein],
is to refer back, [Greek: anagein],[14] to what has been correctly
divined of the same elements in clearer cases. Introduction to
unfamiliar collocations follows upon this, and, only so, is it possible
finally to gather scattered examples into a conspectus as instances of
one idea or law. This is not only of importance in the history of the
terminology of logic, but supplies a philosophy of induction.


  Mental synthesis.

(e) Back of Plato's illustration and explanation of predication and
dialectical inference there lies not only the question of their
metaphysical grounding in the interconnexion of ideas, but that of their
epistemological presuppositions. This is dealt with in the Theaetetus
(184b sqq.). The manifold affections of sense are not simply aggregated
in the individual, like the heroes in the Trojan horse. There must be
convergence in a unitary principle, soul or consciousness, which is that
which really functions in perception, the senses and their organs being
merely its instruments. It is this unity of apperception which enables
us to combine the data of more than one sense, to affirm reality,
unreality, identity, difference, unity, plurality and so forth, as also
the good, the beautiful and their contraries. Plato calls these
pervasive factors in knowledge [Greek: koina], and describes them as
developed by the soul in virtue of its own activity. They are objects of
its reflection and made explicit in the few with pains and
gradually.[15] That they are not, however, psychological or acquired
categories, due to "the workmanship of the mind" as conceived by Locke,
is obvious from their attribution to the structure of mind[16] and from
their correlation with immanent principles of the objective order.
Considered from the epistemological point of view, they are the implicit
presuppositions of the construction or [Greek: syllogismos][17] in which
knowledge consists. But as ideas,[18] though of a type quite apart,[19]
they have also a constitutive application to reality. Accordingly, of
the selected "kinds" by means of which the interpenetration of ideas is
expounded in the _Sophistes_, only motion and rest, the ultimate "kinds"
in the physical world, have no counterparts in the "categories" of the
_Theaetetus_. In his doctrine as to [Greek: en to poioun] or [Greek:
krinon], as generally in that of the activity of the [Greek: nous
apathês], Aristotle in the _de Anima_[20] is in the main but echoing the
teaching of Plato.[21]


ii. _Aristotle._

Plato's episodic use of logical distinctions[22] is frequent. His
recourse to such logical analysis as would meet the requirements of the
problem in hand[23] is not rare. In the "dialectical" dialogues the
question of method and of the justification of its postulates attains at
least a like prominence with the ostensible subject matter. There is
even formal recognition of the fact that to advance in dialectic is a
greater thing than to bring any special inquiry to a successful
issue.[24] But to the end there is a lack of interest in, and therefore
a relative immaturity of, technique as such. In the forcing atmosphere,
however, of that age of controversy, seed such as that sown in the
master's treatment of the uttered [Greek: logos][25] quickly germinated.
Plato's successors in the Academy must have developed a system of
grammatico-logical categories which Aristotle could make his own. Else
much of his criticism of Platonic doctrine[26] does, indeed, miss fire.
The gulf too, which the _Philebus_[27] apparently left unbridged between
the sensuous apprehension of particulars and the knowledge of universals
of even minimum generality led with Speusippus to a formula of knowledge
in perception ([Greek: epistêmonikê aisthêsis]). These and like
developments, which are to be divined from references in the
Aristotelian writings, jejune, and, for the most part, of probable
interpretation only, complete the material which Aristotle could utilize
when he seceded from the Platonic school and embarked upon his own
course of logical inquiry.


  Syllogism.

This is embodied in the group of treatises later known as the
_Organon_[28] and culminates in the theory of syllogism and of
demonstrative knowledge in the _Analytics_. All else is finally
subsidiary. In the well-known sentences with which the _Organon_
closes[29] Aristotle has been supposed to lay claim to the discovery of
the principle of syllogism. He at least claims to have been the first to
dissect the procedure of the debate-game, and the larger claim may be
thought to follow. In the course of inquiry into the formal
consequences from probable premises, the principle of mediation or
linking was so laid bare that the advance to the analytic determination
of the species and varieties of syllogism was natural. Once embarked
upon such an analysis, where valid process from assured principles gave
truth, Aristotle could find little difficulty in determining the formula
of demonstrative knowledge or science. It must be grounded in principles
of assured certainty and must demonstrate its conclusions with the use
of such middle or linking terms only as it is possible to equate with
the real ground or cause in the object of knowledge. Hence the account
of axioms and of definitions, both of substances and of derivative
attributes. Hence the importance of determining how first principles are
established. It is, then, a fair working hypothesis as to the structure
of the _Organon_ to place the _Topics_, which deal with dialectical
reasoning, before the _Analytics_.[30] Of the remaining treatises
nothing of fundamental import depends on their order. One, however, the
_Categories_, may be regarded with an ancient commentator,[31] as
preliminary to the dialectical inquiry in the _Topics_. The other, on
thought as expressed in language ([Greek: Peri ermêneias]) is possibly
spurious, though in any case a compilation of the Aristotelian school.
If genuine, its naïve theory that thought copies things and other
features of its contents would tend to place it among the earliest works
of the philosopher.


  The logical treatises.

Production in the form of a series of relatively self-contained
treatises accounts for the absence of a name and general definition of
their common field of inquiry. A more important lack which results is
that of any clear intimation as to the relation in which Aristotle
supposed it to stand to other disciplines. In his definite
classification of the sciences,[32] into First Philosophy, Mathematics
and Physics, it has no place. Its axioms, such as the law of
contradiction, belong to first philosophy, but the doctrine as a whole
falls neither under this head nor yet, though the thought has been
entertained, under that of mathematics, since logic orders mathematical
reasoning as well as all other. The speculative sciences, indeed, are
classified according to their relation to form, pure, abstract or
concrete, i.e. according to their objects. The logical inquiry seems to
be conceived as dealing with the thought of which the objects are
objects. It is to be regarded as a propaedeutic,[33] which, although it
is in contact with reality in and through the metaphysical import of the
axioms, or again in the fact that the categories, though primarily taken
as forms of predication, must also be regarded as kinds of being, is not
directly concerned with object-reality, but with the determination for
the thinking subject of what constitutes the knowledge correlative to
being. Logic, therefore, is not classed as one, still less as a branch
of one, among the 'ologies, ontology not excepted.

The way in which logical doctrine is developed in the Aristotelian
treatises fits in with this view. Doubtless what we have is in the main
a reflex of the heuristic character of Aristotle's own work as pioneer.
But it at least satisfies the requirement that the inquiry shall carry
the plain man along with it. Actual modes of expression are shown to
embody distinctions which average intelligence can easily recognize and
will readily acknowledge, though they may tend by progressive
rectification fundamentally to modify the assumption natural to the
level of thought from which he begins. Thus we start[34] from the point
of view of a world of separate persons and things, in which thought
mirrors these concrete realities, taken as ultimate subjects of
predicates. It is a world of communication of thought, where persons as
thinkers need to utter in language truths objectively valid for the
_mundus communis_. In these truths predicates are accepted or rejected
by subjects, and therefore depend on the reflection of fact in [Greek:
logoi] (propositions). These are combinatory of parts, attaching or
detaching predicates, and so involving subject, predicate and
copula.[35] At this stage we are as much concerned with speech-forms as
the thought-forms of which they are conventional symbols, with Plato's
analysis, for instance, into a noun and a verb, whose connotation of
time is as yet a difficulty. The universal of this stage is the
universal of fact, what is recognized as predicable of a plurality of
subjects. The dialectical doctrine of judgment as the declaration of one
member of a disjunction by contradiction, which is later so important,
is struggling with one of its initial difficulties,[36] viz. the
contingency of particular events future, the solution of which remains
imperfect.[37]


  The Categories.

The doctrine of the _Categories_ is still on the same level of
thought,[38] though its grammatico-logical analysis is the more advanced
one which had probably been developed by the Academy before Aristotle
came to think of his friends there as "them" rather than "us." It is
what in one direction gave the now familiar classification of parts of
speech, in the other that of thought-categories underlying them. If we
abstract from any actual combination of subject and predicate and
proceed to determine the types of predicate asserted in simple
propositions of fact, we have on the one hand a subject which is never
object, a "first substance" or concrete thing, of which may be
predicated in the first place "second substance" expressing that it is a
member of a concrete class, and in the second place quantity, quality,
correlation, action and the like. The list follows the forms of the
Greek language so closely that a category emerges appropriated to the
use of the perfect tense of the middle voice to express the relation of
the subject to a garb that it dons. In all this the individual is the
sole self-subsistent reality. Truth and error are about the individual
and attach or detach predicates correctly and incorrectly. There is no
committal to the metaphysics in the light of which the logical inquiry
is at last to find its complete justification. The point of view is to
be modified profoundly by what follows--by the doctrine of the
class-concept behind the class, of the form or idea as the constitutive
formula of a substance, or, again, by the requirement that an essential
attribute must be grounded in the nature or essence of the substance of
which it is predicated, and that such attributes alone are admissible
predicates from the point of view of the strict ideal of science. But we
are still on the ground of common opinion, and these doctrines are not
yet laid down as fundamental to the development.


  The Topics.

Dialectic then, though it may prove to be the ultimate method of
establishing principles in philosophy,[39] starts from probable and
conceded premises,[40] and deals with them only in the light of common
principles such as may be reasonably appealed to or easily established
against challenge. To the expert, in any study which involves contingent
matter, i.e. an irreducible element of indetermination, e.g. to the
physician, there is a specific form of this, but the reflection that
this is so is something of an afterthought. We start with what is prima
facie given, to return upon it from the ground of principles clarified
by the sifting process of dialectic[41] and certified by [Greek: nous].
The _Topics_ deal with dialectic and constitute an anatomy of
argumentation, or, according to what seems to be Aristotle's own
metaphor, a survey of the tactical vantage-points ([Greek: topoi]) for
the conflict of wits in which the prize is primarily victory, though it
is a barren victory unless it is also knowledge. It is in this treatise
that what have been called "the conceptual categories"[42] emerge, viz.
the _predicables_, or heads of predication as it is analysed in relation
to the provisional theory of definition that dialectic allows and
requires. A predicate either is expressive of the essence or part of the
essence of the subject, viz. that original group of mutually underivable
attributes of which the absence of any one destroys its right to the
class-name, or it is not. Either it is convertible with the subject or
it is not. Here then judgment, though still viewed as combinatory, has
the types which belong to coherent systems of implication discriminated
from those that predicate coincidence or accident, i.e. any happening
not even derivatively essential from the point of view of the grouping
in which the subject has found a place. In the theory of dialectic any
predicate may be suggested for a subject, and if not affirmed of it,
must be denied of it, if not denied must be affirmed. The development of
a theory of the ground on which subjects claim their predicates and
disown alien predicates could not be long postponed. In practical
dialectic the unlimited possibility was reduced to manageable
proportions in virtue of the groundwork of received opinion upon which
the operation proceeded. It is in the _Topics_, further, that we clearly
have a first treatment of syllogism as formal implication, with the
suggestion that advance must be made to a view of its use for material
implication from true and necessary principles. It is in the
_Topics_,[43] again, that we have hints at the devices of an inductive
process, which, as dialectical, throw the burden of producing
contradictory instances upon the other party to the discussion. In
virtue of the common-stock of opinion among the interlocutors and their
potentially controlling audience, this process was more valuable than
appears on the face of things. Obviously tentative, and with limits and
ultimate interpretation to be determined elsewhere, it failed to bear
fruit till the Renaissance, and then by the irony of fate to the
discrediting of Aristotle. In any case, however, definition, syllogism,
induction all invited further determination, especially if they were to
take their place in a doctrine of truth or knowledge. The problem of
analytic, i.e. of the resolution of the various forms of inference into
their equivalents in that grouping of terms or premises which was most
obviously cogent, was a legacy of the _Topics_. The debate-game had
sought for diversion and found truth, and truth raised the logical
problem on a different plane.


  Class concept.

  The Prior Analytics.

At first the problem of formal analysis only. We proceed with the talk
of instances and concern ourselves first with relations of inclusion and
exclusion. The question is as to membership of a class, and the dominant
formula is the _dictum de omni et nullo_. Until the view of the
individual units with which we are so far familiar has undergone radical
revision, the primary inquiry must be into the forms of a
class-calculus. Individuals fall into groups in virtue of the possession
of certain predicates. Does one group include, or exclude, or intersect
another with which it is compared? We are clearly in the field of the
diagrams of the text-books, and much of the phraseology is based upon an
original graphic representation in extension. The middle term, though
conceived as an intermediary or linking term, gets its name as
intermediate in a homogeneous scheme of quantity, where it cannot be of
narrower extension than the subject nor wider than the predicate of the
conclusion.[44] It is also, as Aristotle adds,[45] middle in position in
the syllogism that concludes to a universal affirmative.[45] Again, so
long as we keep to the syllogism as complete in itself and without
reference to its place in the great structure of knowledge, the nerve of
proof cannot be conceived in other than a formal manner. In analytic we
work with an ethos different from that of dialectic. We presume truth
and not probability or concession, but a true conclusion can follow from
false premises, and it is only in the attempt to derive the premises in
turn from their grounds that we unmask the deception. The passage to the
conception of system is still required. The _Prior Analytics_ then are
concerned with a formal logic to be knit into a system of knowledge of
the real only in virtue of a formula which is at this stage still to
seek. The forms of syllogism, however, are tracked successfully through
their figures, i.e. through the positions of the middle term that
Aristotle recognizes as of actual employment, and all their moods, i.e.
all differences of affirmative and negative, universal and particular
within the figures, the cogent or legitimate forms are alone left
standing, and the formal doctrine of syllogism is complete. Syllogism
already defined[46] becomes through exhibition in its valid forms clear
in its principle. It is a speech-and-thought-form ([Greek: logos]) in
which certain matters being posited something other than the matters
posited necessarily results because of them, and, though it still needs
to receive a deeper meaning when presumed truth gives way to necessary
truth of premises, the notion of the class to that of the class-concept,
collective fact to universal law, its formal claim is manifest. "Certain
matters being posited." Subject and predicate not already seen to be
conjoined must be severally known to be in relation with that which
joins them, so that more than one direct conjunction must be given. "Of
necessity." If what are to be conjoined are severally in relation to a
common third it does perforce relate or conjoin them. "Something other."
The conjunction was by hypothesis not given, and is a new result by no
means to be reached, apart from direct perception save by use of at
least two given conjunctions. "Because of them," therefore. Yet so long
as the class-view is prominent, there is a suggestion of a begging of
the question. The class is either constituted by enumeration of its
members, and, passing by the difficulty involved in the thought of "its"
members, is an empirical universal of fact merely, or it is grounded in
the class-concept. In the first case it is a formal scheme which helps
knowledge and the theory of knowledge not at all. We need then to
develop the alternative, and to pass from the external aspect of
all-ness to the intrinsic ground of it in the universal [Greek: kath'
auto kai ê auto], which, whatsoever the assistance it receives from
induction in some sense of the word, in the course of its development
for the individual mind, is secured against dependence on instances by
the decisive fiat or guarantee of [Greek: nous], insight into the
systematic nexus of things. The conception of linkage needs to be
deepened by the realization of the middle term as the ground of nexus in
a real order which is also rational.


  Problem of inference.

  Nous.

Aristotle's solution of the paradox of inference, viz. of the fact that
in one sense to go beyond what is in the premises is fallacy, while in
another sense not to go beyond them is futility, lies in his formula of
implicit and explicit, potential and actual.[47] The real nexus
underlying the thought-process is to be articulated in the light of the
voucher by intelligence as to the truth of the principles of the various
departments of knowledge which we call sciences, and at the ideal limit
it is possible to transform syllogism into systematic presentation, so
that, differently written down, it is definition. But for human thought
sense, with its accidental setting in matter itself incognizable is
always with us. The activity of [Greek: nous] is never so perfectly
realized as to merge implication in intuition. Syllogism must indeed be
objective, i.e. valid for any thinker, but it is also a process in the
medium of individual thinking, whereby new truth is reached. A man may
know that mules are sterile and that the beast before him is a mule, and
yet believe her to be in foal "not viewing the several truths in
connexion."[48] The doctrine, then, that the universal premise contains
the conclusion not otherwise than potentially is with Aristotle
cardinal. The datum of sense is only retained through the universal.[49]
It is possible to take a universal view with some at least of the
particular instances left uninvestigated.[50] Recognition that the
class-concept is applicable may be independent of knowledge of much that
it involves. Knowledge of the implications of it does not depend on
observation of all members of the class. Syllogism as formula for the
exhibition of truth attained, and construction or what not as the
instrumental process by which we reach the truth, have with writers
since Hegel and Herbart tended to fall apart. Aristotle's view is other.
Both are syllogisms, though in different points of view. For this
reason, if for no other, the conception of movement from the potential
possession of knowledge to its actualization remains indispensable.
Whether this is explanation or description, a problem or its solution,
is of course another matter.


  Posterior Analytics.

In the _Posterior Analytics_ the syllogism is brought into decisive
connexion with the real by being set within a system in which its
function is that of material implication from principles which are
primary, immediate and necessary truths. Hitherto the assumption of the
probable as true rather than as what will be conceded in debate[51] has
been the main distinction of the standpoint of analytic from that of
dialectic. But the true is true only in reference to a coherent system
in which it is an immediate ascertainment of [Greek: nous], or to be
deduced from a ground which is such. The ideal of science or
demonstrative knowledge is to exhibit as flowing from the definitions
and postulates of a science, from its special principles, by the help
only of axioms or principles common to all knowledge, and these not as
premises but as guiding rules, all the properties of the subject-matter,
i.e. all the predicates that belong to it in its own nature. In the case
of any subject-kind, its definition and its existence being avouched by
[Greek: nous], "heavenly body" for example, the problem is, given the
fact of a non-self-subsistent characteristic of it, such as the eclipse
of the said body, to find a ground, a [Greek: meson] which expressed the
[Greek: aition], in virtue of which the adjectival concept can be
exhibited as belonging to the subject-concept [Greek: kath auto] in the
strictly adequate sense of the phrase in which it means also [Greek: hê
auto].[52] We are under the necessity then of revising the point of view
of the syllogism of all-ness. We discard the conception of the universal
as a predicate applicable to a plurality, or even to all, of the members
of a group. To know merely [Greek: kata pantos] is not to know, save
accidentally. The exhaustive judgment, if attainable, could not be known
to be exhaustive. The universal is the ground of the empirical "all" and
not conversely. A formula such as the equality of the interior angles of
a triangle to two right angles is only scientifically known when it is
not of isosceles or scalene triangle that it is known, nor even of all
the several types of triangle collectively, but as a predicate of
triangle recognized as the widest class-concept of which it is true, the
first stage in the progressive differentiation of figure at which it can
be asserted.[53]

Three points obviously need development, the nature of definition, its
connexion with the syllogism in which the middle term is cause or
ground, and the way in which we have assurance of our principles.


  Definition.

  The middle term.

Definition is either of the subject-kind or of the property that is
grounded in it. Of the self-subsistent definition is [Greek: ousias tis
gnôrismos][54] by exposition of genus and differentia.[55] It is
indemonstrable. It presumes the reality of its subject in a postulate of
existence. It belongs to the principles of demonstration. _Summa genera_
and groups below _infimae species_ are indefinable. The former are
susceptible of elucidation by indication of what falls under them. The
latter are only describable by their accidents. There can here be no
true differentia. The artificiality of the limit to the articulation of
species was one of the points to which the downfall of Aristotle's
influence was largely due. Of a non-self-subsistent or attributive
conception definition in its highest attainable form is a recasting of
the syllogism, in which it was shown that the attribute was grounded in
the substance or self-subsistent subject of which it is. Eclipse of the
moon, e.g. is privation of light from the moon by the interposition of
the earth between it and the sun. In the scientific syllogism the
interposition of the earth is the middle term, the cause or "because"
([Greek: dioti]), the residue of the definition is conclusion. The
difference then is in verbal expression, way of putting, inflexion.[56]
If we pluck the fruit of the conclusion, severing its nexus with the
stock from which it springs, we have an imperfect form of definition,
while, if further we abandon all idea of making it adequate by
exhibition of its ground, we have, with still the same form of words, a
definition merely nominal or lexicographical. In the aporematic
treatment of the relation of definition and syllogism identical as to
one form and in one view, distinct as to another form and in another
view, much of Aristotle's discussion consists. The rest is a
consideration of scientific inquiry as converging in [Greek: mesou
zêtêsis], the investigation of the link or "because" as ground in the
nature of things. [Greek: To men gar aition to meson][57] real ground
and thought link fall together. The advance from syllogism as formal
implication is a notable one. It is not enough to have for middle term a
_causa cognoscendi_ merely. We must have a _causa essendi_. The planets
are near, and we know it by their not twinkling,[58] but science must
conceive their nearness as the cause of their not twinkling and make the
_prius_ in the real order the middle term of its syllogism. In this
irreversible catena proceeding from ground to consequent, we have left
far behind such things as the formal parity of genus and differentia
considered as falling under the same predicable,[59] and hence justified
in part Porphyry's divergence from the scheme of predicables. We need
devices, indeed, to determine priority or superior claim to be "better
known absolutely or in the order of nature," but on the whole the
problem is fairly faced.[60]

Of science Aristotle takes for his examples sometimes celestial physics,
more often geometry or arithmetic, sometimes a concrete science, e.g.
botany.[61] In the field of pure form, free from the disconcerting
surprises of sensible matter and so of absolute necessity, no difficulty
arises as to the deducibility of the whole body of a science from its
first principles. In the sphere of abstract form, mathematics, the like
may be allowed, abstraction being treated as an elimination of matter
from the [Greek: synolon] by one act. When we take into account relative
matter, however, and traces of a conception of abstraction as admitting
of degree,[62] the question is not free from difficulty. In the sphere
of the concrete sciences where law obtains only [Greek: hôs epi to polu]
this ideal of science can clearly find only a relative satisfaction with
large reserves. In any case, however, the problem as to first principles
remains fundamental.


  Formal and scientific principles.

  Induction and dialectic.

  Knowledge and reality.

  Conclusions as to induction.

If we reject the infinite regress and the circle in proof (_circulus in
probando_) which resolves itself ultimately into proving A by B and B by
A,[63] we are confronted by the need for principles of two kinds, those
which condition all search for truth, and those which are the peculiar
or proper principles of special sciences, their "positions," viz. the
definitions of their subjects and the postulates of the existence of
these. All are indemonstrable and cannot be less sure than the body of
doctrine that flows from them. They must indeed be recognized as true,
primary, causative and the like. But[64] they are not congenitally
present in the individual in a determinate shape. The doctrine of
latency is mystical and savours of Plato's reminiscence (_anamnesis_).
Yet they must have something to develop from, and thereupon Aristotle
gives an account of a process in the psychological mechanism which he
illustrates by comparative psychology, wherein a [Greek: logos] or
meaning emerges, a "first" universal recognized by induction. Yet
[Greek: nous], intelligence, is the principle of first principles. It is
infallible, while, whatever the case with perception of the special
sensibles,[65] the process which combines particulars is not. On the
side of induction we find that experience is said to give the specific
principles,[66] "the phenomena being apprehended in sufficiency." On the
side of intuition, self-evidence of scientific principles is spoken
of.[67] Yet dialectic is auxiliary and of methodological importance in
their establishment.[68] Mutually limiting statements occur almost or
quite side by side. We cannot take first principles "as the bare
precipitate of a progressively refined analysis"[69] nor on the other as
constitutive a priori forms. The solution seems to lie in the conception
of a process that has a double aspect. On the one hand we have
confrontation with fact, in which, in virtue of the rational principle
which is the final cause of the phenomenal order, intelligence will find
satisfaction. On the other we have a stage at which the rational but as
yet not reasoned concepts developed in the medium of the psychological
mechanism are subjected to processes of reflective comparison and
analysis, and, with some modification, maintained against challenge,
till at length the ultimate universals emerge, which rational insight
can posit as certain, and the whole hierarchy of concepts from the
"first" universals to [Greek: ta amerê] are intuited in a coherent
system. Aristotle's terminology is highly technical, but, as has often
been observed, not therefore clear. Here two words at least are
ambiguous, "principle" and "induction." By the first he means any
starting-point, "that from which the matter in question is primarily to
be known,"[70] particular facts therefore, premises, and what not. What
then is meant by principles when we ask in the closing chapter of his
logic how they become known? The data of sense are clearly not the
principles in question here. The premises of scientific syllogisms may
equally be dismissed. Where they are not derivative they clearly are
definitions or immediate transcripts from definitions. There remain,
then, primary definitions and the postulates of their realization, and
the axioms or common principles, "which he must needs have who is to
reach any knowledge."[71] In the case of the former, special each to its
own science, Aristotle may be thought to hold that they are the product
of the psychological mechanism, but are ascertained only when they have
faced the fire of a critical dialectic and have been accepted from the
point of view of the integral rationality of the system of concepts.
Axioms, on the other hand, in which the sciences interconnect[72]
through the employment of them in a parity of relation, seem to be
implicit indeed in the psychological mechanism, but to come to a kind of
explicitness in the first reflective reaction upon it, and without
reference to any particular content of it. They are not to be used as
premises but as immanent laws of thought, save only when an inference
from true or admitted premises and correct in form is challenged. The
challenge must be countered in a _reductio ad impossibile_ in which the
dilemma is put. Either this conclusion or the denial of rationality.
Even these principles, however, may get a greater explicitness by
dialectical treatment.[73] The relation, then, of the two orders of
principle to the psychological mechanism is different. The kind of
warrant that intelligence can give to specific principles falls short of
infallibility. Celestial physics, with its pure forms and void of all
matter save extension, is not such an exemplary science after all.
Rationality is continuous throughout. A [Greek: logos] emerges with some
beings in direct sequence upon the persistence of impressions.[74] Sense
is of the "first" universal, the form, though not of the ultimate
universal. The rally from the rout in Aristotle's famous metaphor is of
units that already belong together, that are of the same regiment or
order. On the other hand, rationality has two stages. In the one it is
relatively immersed in sense, in the other relatively free. The same
break is to be found in the conception of the relation of receptive to
active mind in the treatise _Of the Soul_.[75] The one is impressed by
things and receives their form without their matter. The other is free
from impression. It thinks its system of concepts freely on the occasion
of the affections of the receptivity. Aristotle is fond of declaring
that knowledge is of the universal, while existence or reality is
individual. It seems to follow that the cleavage between knowledge and
reality is not bridged by the function of [Greek: nous] in relation to
"induction." What is known is not real, and what is real is not known.
The _nodus_[76] has its cause in the double sense of the word
"universal" and a possible solution in the doctrine of [Greek: eidos].
The "form" of a thing constitutes it what it is, and at the same time,
therefore, is constitutive of the group to which it belongs. It has both
individual and universal reference. The individual is known in the
[Greek: eidos], which is also the first universal in which by analysis
higher universals are discoverable. These are predicates of the object
known, ways of knowing it, rather than the object itself. The suggested
solution removes certain difficulties, but scarcely all. On seeing
Callias my perception is of man, not Callias, or even man-Callias. The
recognition of the individual is a matter of his accidents, to which
even sex belongs, and the gap from lowest universal to individual may
still be conceived as unbridged. It is in induction, which claims to
start from particulars and end in universals,[77] that we must, if
anywhere within the confines of logical inquiry, expect to find the
required bridge. The Aristotelian conception of induction, however, is
somewhat ambiguous. He had abandoned for the most part the Platonic
sense of the corresponding verb, viz. to lead forward to the as yet
unknown, and his substitute is not quite clear. It is scarcely the
military metaphor. The adducing of a witness for which he uses the
verb[78] is not an idea that covers all the uses.[79] Perhaps
confrontation with facts is the general meaning. But how does he
conceive of its operation? There is in the first place the action of the
psychological mechanism in the process from discriminative sense upwards
wherein we realize "first" universals.[80] This is clearly an
unreflective, pre-logical process, not altogether lighted up by our
retrojection upon it of our view of dialectical induction based thereon.
The immanent rationality of this first form, in virtue of which at the
stage when intelligence acts freely on the occasion of the datum
supplied it recognizes continuity with its own self-conscious process,
is what gives the dialectical type its meaning. Secondly we have this
dialectical "induction as to particulars by grouping of similars"[81]
whose liability to rebuttal by an exception has been already noted in
connexion with the limits of dialectic. This is the incomplete induction
by simple enumeration which has so often been laughed to scorn. It is a
heuristic process liable to failure, and its application by a nation of
talkers even to physics where non-expert opinion is worthless somewhat
discredited it. Yet it was the fundamental form of induction as it was
conceived throughout the scholastic period. Thirdly we have the limiting
cases of this in the inductive syllogism [Greek: dia pantôn],[82] a
syllogism in the third figure concluding universally, and yet valid
because the copula expresses equivalence, and in analogy[83] in which,
it has been well said, instances are weighed and not counted. In the
former it has been noted[84] that Aristotle's illustration does not
combine particular facts into a lowest concept, but specific concepts
into a generic concept, and[85] that in the construction of definite
inductions the ruling thought with Aristotle is already, though vaguely,
that of causal relation. It appears safer, notwithstanding, to take the
less subtle interpretation[86] that dialectical induction struggling
with instances is formally justified only at the limit, and that this,
where we have exhausted and know that we have exhausted the cases, is in
regard to individual subjects rarely and accidentally reached, so that
we perforce illustrate rather from the definite class-concepts falling
under a higher notion. After all, Aristotle must have had means by
which he reached the conclusions that horses are long-lived and lack
gall. It is only then in the rather mystical relation of [Greek: nous]
to the first type of induction as the process of the psychological
mechanism that an indication of the direction in which the bridge from
individual being to universal knowledge is to be found can be held to
lie.


  Summary.

Enough has been said to justify the great place assigned to Aristotle in
the history of logic. Without pressing metaphysical formulae in logic
proper, he analysed formal implication grounded implication as a mode of
knowledge in the rationality of the real, and developed a justificatory
metaphysic. He laid down the programme which the after history of logic
was to carry out. We have of course abandoned particular logical
positions. This is especially to be noted in the theory of the
proposition. The individualism with which he starts, howsoever
afterwards mitigated by his doctrine of [Greek: to ti ên einai] or
[Greek: eidos] constituting the individual in a system of intelligible
relations, confined him in an inadmissible way to the subject-attribute
formula. He could not recognize such vocables as the impersonals for
what they were, and had perforce to ignore the logical significance of
purely reciprocal judgments, such as those of equality. There was
necessarily a "sense" or direction in every proposition, with more than
the purely psychological import that the advance was from the already
mastered and familiar taken as relatively stable, to the new and
strange. Many attributes, too, were predicable, even to the end, in an
external and accidental way, not being derivable from the essence of the
subject. The thought of contingency was too easily applied to these
attributes, and an unsatisfactory treatment of modality followed. It is
indeed the doctrine of the intractability of matter to form that lies at
the base of the paradox as to the disparateness of knowledge and the
real already noted. On the one hand Aristotle by his doctrine of matter
admitted a surd into his system. On the other, he assigned to [Greek:
nous] with its insight into rationality too high a function with regard
to the concrete in which the surd was present, a power to certify the
truth of scientific principles. The example of Aristotle's view of
celestial physics as a science of pure forms exhibits both points. On
the Copernican change the heavenly bodies were recognized as concrete
and yet subject to calculable law. Intelligence had warranted false
principles. The moral is that of the story of the heel of Achilles.

To return to logic proper. The Aristotelian theory of the universal of
science as secure from dependence on its instances and the theory of
linking in syllogism remain a heritage for all later logic, whether
accepted in precisely Aristotle's formula or no. It is because the
intervening centuries had the Aristotelian basis to work on, sometimes
in reduced quantity and corrupt form, but always in some quantity and
some form, that the rest of our logical tradition is what it is. We
stand upon his shoulders.


  iii. _Later Greek Logic._

  After Aristotle we have, as regards logic, what the verdict of after
  times has rightly characterized as an age of _Epigoni_. So far as the
  Aristotelian framework is accepted we meet only minor corrections and
  extensions of a formal kind. If there is conscious and purposed
  divergence from Aristotle, inquiry moves, on the whole, within the
  circle of ideas where Aristotelianism had fought its fight and won its
  victory. Where new conceptions emerge, the imperfection of the
  instruments, mechanical and methodological, of the sciences renders
  them unfruitful, until their rediscovery in a later age. We have
  activity without advance, diversity without development. Attempts at
  comprehensiveness end in the compromises of eclecticism.


    The Peripatetics.

  Illustrations are not far to seek. Theophrastus and in general the
  elder Peripatetics, before the rise of new schools with new lines of
  cleavage and new interests had led to new antagonisms and new
  alliances, do not break away from the Aristotelian metaphysic. Their
  interests, however, lie in the sublunary sciences in which the
  substantive achievement of the school was to be found. With
  Theophrastus, accordingly, in his botanical inquiries, for example,
  the alternatives of classification, the normal sequence of such and
  such a character upon such another, the conclusion of rational
  probability, are what counts. It is perhaps not wholly fanciful to
  connect with this attitude the fact that Aristotle's pupils dealt with
  a surer hand than the master with the conclusions from premises of
  unlike modality, and that a formal advance of some significance
  attributable to Theophrastus and Eudemus is the doctrine of the
  hypothetical and disjunctive syllogisms.


    The Stoics.

  The Stoics are of more importance. Despite the fact that their
  philosophic interests lay rather in ethics and physics, their activity
  in what they classified as the third department of speculation was
  enormous and has at least left ineffaceable traces on the terminology
  of philosophy. Logic is their word, and consciousness, impression and
  other technical words come to us, at least as technical words, from
  Roman Stoicism. Even inference, though apparently not a classical
  word, throws back to the Stoic name for a conclusion.[87] In the
  second place, it is in the form in which it was raised in connexion
  with the individualistic theory of perception with which the Stoics
  started, that one question of fundamental importance, viz. that of the
  criterion of truth, exercised its influence on the individualists of
  the Renaissance. Perception, in the view of the Stoics, at its highest
  both revealed and guaranteed the being of its object. Its hold upon
  the object involved the discernment that it could but be that which it
  purported to be. Such "psychological certainty" was denied by their
  agnostic opponents, and in the history of Stoicism we have apparently
  a modification of the doctrine of [Greek: phantasia katalêptikê] with
  a view to meet the critics, an approximation to a recognition that the
  primary conviction might meet with a counter-conviction, and must then
  persist undissipated in face of the challenge and in the last resort
  find verification in the haphazard instance, under varying conditions,
  in actual working. The controversy as to the self-evidence of
  perception in which the New Academy effected some sort of conversion
  of the younger Stoics, and in which the Sceptics opposed both, is one
  of the really vital issues of the decadence.

  Another doctrine of the Stoics which has interest in the light of
  certain modern developments is their insistence on the place of the
  [Greek: lekton] in knowledge. Distinct alike from thing and mental
  happening, it seems to correspond to "meaning" as it is used as a
  technical phrase now-a-days. This anticipation was apparently sterile.
  Along the same lines is their use of the hypothetical form for the
  universal judgment, and their treatment of the hypothetical form as
  the typical form of inference.

  The Stoical categories, too, have an historical significance. They are
  apparently offered in place of those of Aristotle, an acquaintance
  with whose distinctions they clearly presume. Recognizing a linguistic
  side to "logical" theory with a natural development in rhetoric, the
  Stoics endeavour to exorcise considerations of language from the
  contrasted side. They offer pure categories arising in series, each
  successive one presupposing those that have gone before. Yet the
  substance, quality, condition absolute ([Greek: pôs echon]) and
  condition relative of Stoicism have no enduring influence outside the
  school, though they recur with eclectics like Galen. The Stoics were
  too "scholastic" in their speculations.


    Epicureans.

  In Epicureanism logic is still less in honour. The practical end,
  freedom from the bondage of things with the peace it brings, is all in
  all, and even scientific inquiry is only in place as a means to this
  end. Of the apparatus of method the less the better. We are in the
  presence of a necessary evil. Yet, in falling back, with a difference,
  upon the atomism of Democritus, Epicurus had to face some questions of
  logic. In the inference from phenomena to further phenomena positive
  verification must be insisted on. In the inference from phenomena to
  their non-phenomenal causes, the atoms with their inaccessibility to
  sense, a different canon of validity obtains, that of
  non-contradiction.[88] He distinguishes too between the inference to
  combination of atoms as universal cause, and inference to special
  causes beyond the range of sense. In the latter case alternatives may
  be acquiesced in.[89] The practical aim of science is as well achieved
  if we set forth possible causes as in showing the actual cause. This
  pococurantism might easily be interpreted as an insight into the
  limitations of inverse method as such or as a belief in the plurality
  of causes in Mill's sense of the phrase. More probably it reflects the
  fact that Epicurus was, according to tradition through Nausiphanes, on
  the whole dominated by the influences that produced Pyrrhonism.
  Democritean physics without a calculus had necessarily proved sterile
  of determinate concrete results, and this was more than enough to
  ripen the naturalism of the utilitarian school into scepticism. Some
  reading between the lines of Lucretius has led the "logic" of Epicurus
  to have an effect on the modern world, but scarcely because of its
  deserts.


    The Sceptics.

  The school of Pyrrho has exercised a more legitimate influence. Many
  of the arguments by which the Sceptics enforced their advocacy of a
  suspense of judgment are antiquated in type, but many also are, within
  the limits of the individualistic theory of knowledge, quite
  unanswerable. Hume had constant recourse to this armoury. The major
  premise of syllogism, says the Pyrrhonist, is established inductively
  from the particular instances. If there be but one of these uncovered
  by the generalization, this cannot be sound. If the crocodile moves
  its upper, not its lower, jaw, we may not say that all animals move
  the lower jaw. The conclusion then is really used to establish the
  major premise, and if we still will infer it therefrom we fall into
  the circular proof.[90] Could Mill say more? But again. The inductive
  enumeration is either of all cases or of some only. The former is in
  an indeterminate or infinite subject-matter impossible. The latter is
  invalid.[91] Less familiar to modern ears is the contention that proof
  needs a standard or criterion, while this standard or criterion in
  turn needs proof. Or still more the dialectical device by which the
  sceptic claims to escape the riposte that his very argument presumes
  the validity of this or that principle, viz. the doctrine of the
  equipollence of counter-arguments. Of course the counter-contention is
  no less valid! So too when the reflection is made that scepticism is
  after all a medicine that purges out itself with the disease, the
  disciple of Pyrrho and Aenesidemus bows and says, Precisely! The
  sceptical suspension of judgment has its limits, however. The
  Pyrrhonist will act upon a basis of probabilities. Nay, he even treats
  the idea of cause[92] as probable enough so long as nothing more than
  action upon expectation is in question. He adds, however, that any
  attempt to establish it is involved in some sort of dilemma. That, for
  instance, cause as the correlate of effect only exists with it, and
  accordingly, cause which is come while effect is still to come is
  inconceivable.[93] From the subjectivist point of view, which is
  manifestly fundamental through most of this, such arguments suasory of
  the Pyrrhonist suspense of judgment ([Greek: epochê]) are indeed hard
  to answer. It is natural, then, that the central contribution of the
  Sceptics to the knowledge controversy lies in the modes ([Greek:
  tropoi]) in which the relativity of phenomena is made good, that these
  are elaborated with extreme care, and that they have a modern ring and
  are full of instruction even to-day. Scepticism, it must be confessed,
  was at the least well equipped to expose the bankruptcy of the
  post-Aristotelian dogmatism.

  It was only gradually that the Sceptic's art of fence was developed.
  From the time of Pyrrho overlapping Aristotle himself, who seems to
  have been well content to use the feints of more than one school among
  his predecessors, while showing that none of them could claim to get
  past his guard, down through a period in which the decadent academy
  under Carneades, otherwise dogmatic in its negations, supplied new
  thrusts and parries, to Aenesidemus in the late Ciceronian age, and
  again to Sextus Empiricus, there seems to have been something of
  plasticity and continuous progress. In this matter the dogmatic
  schools offer a marked contrast. In especial it is an outstanding
  characteristic of the younger rivals to Aristotelianism that as they
  sprang up suddenly into being to contest the claims of the
  Aristotelian system in the moment of its triumph, so they reached
  maturity very suddenly, and thereafter persisted for the most part in
  a stereotyped tradition, modified only when convicted of indefensible
  weakness. The 3rd century B.C. saw in its first half the close of
  Epicurus' activity, and the life-work of Chrysippus, the refounder of
  Stoicism, is complete before its close. And subsequent variations seem
  to have been of a negligible where not of an eclectic character. In
  the case of Epicureanism we can happily judge of the tyranny of the
  literal tradition by a comparison of Lucretius with the recorded
  doctrine of the master. But the rule apparently obtains throughout
  that stereotype and compromise offer themselves as the exhaustive
  alternative. This is perhaps fortunate for the history of doctrine,
  for it produces the commentator, your Aspasius or Alexander of
  Aphrodisias, and the substitute for the critic, your Cicero, or your
  Galen with his attempt at comprehension of the Stoic categories and
  the like while starting from Aristotelianism. Cicero in particular is
  important as showing the effect or philosophical eclecticism upon
  Roman cultivation, and as the often author and always popularizer of
  the Latin terminology of philosophy.

  The cause of the stereotyping of the systems, apart from political
  conditions, seems to have been the barrenness of science. Logic and
  theory of knowledge go together, and without living science, theory of
  knowledge loses touch with life, and logic becomes a perfunctory
  thing. Under such circumstances speculative interest fritters itself
  and sooner or later the sceptic has his way. Plato is full of the
  faith of mathematical physics. Aristotle is optimistic of achievement
  over the whole range of the sciences. But the divorce of science of
  nature from mathematics, the failure of biological inquiry to reach so
  elementary a conception as that of the nerves, the absence of
  chemistry from the circle of the sciences, disappointed the promise of
  the dawn and the relative achievement of the noon-day. There is no
  development. Physical science remains dialectical, and a physical
  experiment is as rare in the age of Lucretius as in that of
  Empedocles. The cause of eclecticism is the unsatisfying character of
  the creeds of such science, in conjunction with the familiar law that,
  in triangular or plusquam-triangular controversies a common hatred
  will produce an alliance based on compromise. A bastard Platonism
  through hostility to Stoicism may become agnostic. Stoicism through
  hostility to its sceptical critics may prefer to accept some of the
  positions of the dogmatic nihilist.


    Neoplatonism.

  Of the later schools the last to arise was Neoplatonism. The
  mathematical sciences, at least, had not proved disappointing. For
  those of the school of Plato who refused the apostasy of the new
  academy, there was hope either in the mathematical side of the
  Pythagoreo-Platonic tradition, or in its ritual and theological side.
  Neoplatonism is philosophy become theosophy, or it is the sermon on
  the text that God geometrizes. It is of significance in the general
  history of thought as the one great school that developed after the
  decadence had set in. In its metaphysic it showed no failure in
  dialectical constructiveness. In the history of logic it is of
  importance because of its production of a whole series of commentators
  on the Aristotelian logic. Not only the _Introduction_ of Porphyry,
  which had lasting effects on the Scholastic tradition, but the
  commentaries of Themistius, and Simplicius. It was the acceptance of
  the Aristotelian logic by Neoplatonism that determined the
  Aristotelian complexion of the logic of the next age. If Alexander is
  responsible for such doctrines as that of the _intellectus
  acquisitus_, it is to Porphyry, with his characteristically Platonist
  preference for the doctrine of universals, and for classification,
  that we owe the scholastic preoccupation with the realist controversy,
  and with the _quinque voces_, i.e. the Aristotelian predicables as
  restated by Porphyry.


B. SCHOLASTICISM

The living force in the spiritual life of the Roman empire was, after
all, not philosophy, but religion, and specifically Christianity. With
the extension of Christianity to the Gentile world it at length became
necessary for it to orientate itself towards what was best in Greek
culture. There is a Stoic element in the ethic of the Pauline epistles,
but the theological affinity that the Johannine gospel, with its
background of philosophic ideas, exhibits to Platonic and Neoplatonist
teaching caused the effort at absorption to be directed rather in that
direction. Neoplatonism had accepted the Aristotelian logic with its
sharper definition than anything handed down from Plato, and, except the
logic of the Sceptics, there was no longer any rival discipline of the
like prestige. The logic of the Stoics had been discredited by the
sceptical onset, but in any case there was no organon of a fitness even
comparable to Aristotle's for the task of drawing out the implications
of dogmatic premises. Aristotelian logic secured the imprimatur of the
revived Platonism, and it was primarily because of this that it passed
into the service of Christian theology. The contact of the Church with
Platonism was on the mystical side. Orthodoxy needed to counter
heretical logic not with mysticism, itself the fruitful mother of
heresies, but with argument. Aristotelianism approved itself as the
controversial instrument, and in due course held the field alone. The
upshot is what is called Scholasticism. Scholasticism is the
Aristotelianism of medieval orthodoxy as taught in the "schools" or
universities of Western Europe. It takes form as a body of doctrine
drawing its premises from authority, sometimes in secular matters from
that of Aristotle, but normally from that of the documents and
traditions of systematic theology, while its method it draws from
Aristotle, as known in the Latin versions,[94] mainly by Boethius, of
some few treatises of the _Organon_ together with the _Isagoge_ of
Porphyry. It dominates the centres of intellectual life in the West
because, despite its claim to finality in its principles or premises,
and to universality for its method, it represents the only culture of a
philosophic kind available to the adolescent peoples of the Western
nations just becoming conscious of their ignorance. Christianity was the
one organizing principle that pulsed with spiritual life. The vocation
of the student could find fulfilment only in the religious orders.
Scholasticism embodied what the Christian community had saved from the
wreckage of Greek dialectic. Yet with all its effective manipulation of
the formal technique of its translated and mutilated Aristotle,
Scholasticism would have gone under long before it did through the
weakness intrinsic to its divorce of the form and the matter of
knowledge, but for two reasons. The first is the filtering through of
some science and some new Aristotelian learning from the Arabs. The
second is the spread of Greek scholarship and Greek manuscripts
westward, which was consequent on the Latin occupation of Constantinople
in 1204. It was respited by the opportunity which was afforded it of
fresh draughts from the Aristotle of a less partial and purer tradition,
and we have, accordingly, a golden age of revived Scholasticism
beginning in the 13th century, admitting now within itself more
differences than before. It is to the schoolmen of the two centuries
preceding the Turkish capture of Constantinople that the controversial
refinements usually associated with the name of Scholasticism are
attributable. The _Analytics_ of Aristotle now entered quite definitely
into the logical thought of Scholasticism and we have the contrast of a
_logica vetus_ and _logica nova_. That other matters, the _parva
logicalia_ and Mnemonics adapted from Psellus and possibly of Stoic
origin, entered too did not outweigh this advantage. Confrontation with
the historical Aristotle may have brought but little comfort to the
orthodox system, but it was a stimulus to dialectical activity within
the schools. It provoked the distinction of what was true _secundum
fidem_ and what was true _secundum rationem_ among even sincere
champions of orthodoxy, and their opponents accepted with a smile so
admirable a mask for that thinking for themselves to which the revival
of hope of progress had spurred them. The pioneers of the Renaissance
owe something of their strength to their training in the developments
which the system that they overthrew underwent during this period. The
respite, however, was short. The flight of Byzantine scholarship
westward in the 15th century revealed, and finally, that the philosophic
content of the Scholastic teaching was as alien from Aristotle as from
the spirit of the contemporary revolt of science, with its cry for a new
medicine, a new nautical astronomy and the like. The doom of the
Scholastic Aristotle was nevertheless not the rehabilitation of the
Greek Aristotle. Between him and the tide of feeling at the Renaissance
lay the whole achievement of Arab science. That impatience of authority
to which we owe the Renaissance, the Reformation and the birth of
Nationalism, is not stilled by the downfall of Aristotle as the _nomen
appellativum_ of the schools. The appeal is to experience, somewhat
vaguely defined, as against all authority, to the book of nature and no
other. At last the world undertakes to enlarge the circle of its ideas.


C. THE RENAISSANCE

Accordingly what is in one sense the revival of classical learning is in
another a recourse to what inspired that learning, and so is a new
beginning. There is no place for a reformed Aristotelian logic, though
the genius of Zabarella was there to attempt it. Nor for revivals of the
competing systems, though all have their advocates. Scientific discovery
was in the air. The tradition of the old world was too heavily weighted
with the Ptolemaic astronomy and the like to be regarded as other than a
bar to progress. But from the new point of view its method was
inadequate too, its contentment with an induction that merely leaves an
opponent silent, when experiment and the application of a calculus were
within the possibilities. The transformation of logic lay with the man
of science, hindered though he might be by the enthusiasm of some of the
philosophers of nature. Henceforth the Aristotelian logic, the genuine
no less than the traditional, was to lie on the other side of the
Copernican change.

The demand is for a new organon, a scientific method which shall face
the facts of experience and justify itself by its achievement in the
reduction of them to control. It is a notable feature of the new
movement, that except verbally, in a certain licence of nominalist
expression, due to the swing of the pendulum away from the realist
doctrine of universals, there is little that we can characterize as
Empiricism. Facts are opposed to abstract universals. Yes. Particulars
to controlling formulae. No. Experience is appealed to as fruitful where
the formal employment of syllogism is barren. But it is not mere
induction, with its "unanalysed concretes taken as ultimate" that is set
up as the substitute for deduction. Rather a scientific process, which
as experiential may be called inductive, but which is to other regards
deductive as syllogism, is set up in contrast to syllogism and
enumeration alike. This is to be seen in Zabarella,[95] in Galilei,[96]
and in Bacon. The reformed Aristotelian logic of the first-named with
its _inductio demonstrativa_, the mathematico-physical analysis followed
by synthesis of the second, the _exclusiva_, or method of exclusions of
the last, agree at least in this, that the method of science is one and
indivisible, while containing both an inductive and a deductive moment.
That what, e.g., Bacon says of his method may run counter to this is an
accident of the tradition of the quarrel with realism. So, too, with the
scholastic universals. Aristotle's forms had been correlated, though
inadequately, with the idea of function. Divorced from this they are
fairly stigmatized as mental figments or branded as ghostly entities
that can but block the path. But consider Bacon's own doctrine of forms.
Or watch the mathematical physicist with his formulae. The faith of
science looks outward as in the dawn of Greek philosophy, and
subjectivism such as Hume's has as yet no hold. Bacon summing up the
movement so far as he understood it, in a rather belated way, has no
theory of knowledge beyond the metaphor of the mirror held up to nature.
Yet he offers an ambitious logic of science, and the case is typical.


  Galilei.

The science of the Renaissance differs from that of the false dawn in
Greek times in the fact of fruitfulness. It had the achievement of the
old world in the field of mathematics upon which to build. It was in
reaction against a dialectic and not immediately to be again entrapped.
In scientific method, then, it could but advance, provided physics and
mathematics did not again fail of accord. Kepler and Galilei secured it
against that disaster. The _ubi materia ibi geometria_ of the one is the
battle-cry of the mathematico-physical advance. The scientific
instrument of the other, with its moments of analysis and construction,
_metodo risolutivo_ and _metodo compositivo_, engineers the road for the
advance. The new method of physics is verifiable by its fruitfulness,
and so free of any immediate danger from dialectic. Its germinal thought
may not have been new, but, if not new, it had at least needed
rediscovery from the beginning. For it was to be at once certain and
experiential. A mathematico-physical calculus that would work was in
question. The epistemological problem as such was out of the purview.
The relation of physical laws to the mind that thought them was for the
time a negligible constant. When Descartes, having faithfully and
successfully followed the mathematico-physical inquiry of his more
strictly scientific predecessors, found himself compelled to raise the
question how it was possible for him to know what in truth he seemed to
know so certainly, the problem entered on a new phase. The scientific
movement had happily been content for the time with a half which, then
and there at least, was more than the whole.


  Bacon.

Bacon was no mathematician, and so was out of touch with the main army
of progress. By temperament he was rather with the Humanists. He was
content to voice the cry for the overthrow of the dominant system as
such, and to call for a new beginning, with no realist presuppositions.
He is with the nominalists of the later Scholasticism and the
naturalists of the early Renaissance. He echoes the cry for recourse to
nature, for induction, for experiment. He calls for a logic of
discovery. But at first sight there is little sign of any greater
contribution to the reconstruction than is to be found in Ramus or many
another dead thinker. The syllogism is ineffective, belonging to
argumentation, and constraining assent where what we want is control of
things. It is a mechanical combination of propositions as these of terms
which are counters to express concepts often ill-defined. The flight
from a cursory survey of facts to wide so-called principles must give
way to a gradual progress upward from propositions of minimum to those
of medium generality, and in these consists the fruitfulness of science.
Yet the induction of the Aristotelians, the dialectical induction of the
_Topics_, content with imperfect enumeration and with showing the burden
of disproof upon the critic, is puerile, and at the mercy of a single
instance to the contrary. In all this there is but little promise for a
new organon. It is neither novel nor instrumental. On a sudden Bacon's
conception of a new method begins to unfold itself. It is inductive only
in the sense that it is identical in purpose with the ascent from
particulars. It were better called exclusiva or elimination of the
alternative, which Bacon proposes to achieve, and thereby guarantee his
conclusion against the possibility of instance to the contrary.


    His three Methods.

  Bacon's method begins with a digest into three tables of the facts
  relevant to any inquiry. The first contains cases of the occurrence of
  the quality under investigation, colour, e.g., or heat, in varying
  combinations. The second notes its absence in combinations so allied
  to certain of these that its presence might fairly have been looked
  for. The third registers its quantitative variation according to
  quantitative changes in its concomitants. The method now proceeds on
  the basis of the first table to set forth the possible suggestions as
  to a general explanatory formula for the quality in question. In
  virtue of the remaining tables it rejects any suggestion qualitatively
  or quantitatively inadequate. If one suggestion, and one alone,
  survives the process of attempted rejection it is the explanatory
  formula required. If none, we must begin afresh. If more than one,
  recourse is to be had to certain devices of method, in the enumeration
  of which the methods of agreement, difference and concomitant
  variations[97] find a place, beside the crucial experiment, the
  glaring instance and the like. An appeal, however, to such devices,
  though a permissible "first vintage" is relatively an imperfection of
  method, and a proof that the tables need revision. The positive
  procedure by hypothesis and verification is rejected by Bacon, who
  thinks of hypothesis as the will o' the wisp of science, and prefers
  the cumbrous machinery of negative reasoning.

  Historically he appears to have been under the dominance of the
  Platonic metaphor of an alphabet of nature, with a consequent belief
  in the relatively small number of ultimate principles to be
  determined, and of Plato's conception of Division, cleared of its
  dialectical associations and used experientially in application to his
  own molecular physics. True it is that the rejection of all the
  cospecies is a long process, but what if therein their simultaneous or
  subsequent determination is helped forward? They, too, must fall to be
  determined sometime, and the ideal of science is fully to determine
  all the species of the genus. This will need co-operative effort as
  described in the account of Solomon's House in the _New Atlantis_.[98]
  But once introduce the conception of division of labour as between the
  collector of data on the one hand and the expert of method, the
  interpreter of nature at headquarters, on the other, and Bacon's
  attitude to hypothesis and to negative reasoning is at least in part
  explained. The hypothesis of the collector, the man who keeps a
  rain-gauge, or the missionary among savages, is to be discounted from
  as a source of error. The expert on the other hand may be supposed, in
  the case of facts over which he has not himself brooded in the course
  of their acquisition, to approach them without any presumption this
  way or that. He will, too, have no interest in the isolation of any
  one of several co-ordinate inquiries. That Bacon underestimates the
  importance of selective and of provisional explanatory hypotheses even
  in such fields as that of chemistry, and that technically he is open
  to some criticism from the point of view that negative judgment is
  derivate as necessarily resting on positive presuppositions, may be
  true enough. It seems, however, no less true that the greatness of his
  conception of organized common effort in science has but rarely met
  with due appreciation.


    Forms.

  In his doctrine of _forms_, too, the "universals" of his logic, Bacon
  must at least be held to have been on a path which led forward and not
  back. His forms are principles whose function falls entirely within
  knowledge. They are formulae for the control of the activities and the
  production of the qualities of bodies. Forms are qualities and
  activities expressed in terms of the ultimates of nature, i.e.
  normally in terms of collocations of matter or modes of motion. (The
  human soul is still an exception.) Form is bound up with the molecular
  structure and change of structure of a body, one of whose qualities or
  activities it expresses in wider relations. A mode of motion, for
  instance, of a certain definite kind, is the form of heat. It is the
  recipe for, and at the same time is, heat, much as H2O is the formula
  for and is water. Had Bacon analysed bodies into their elements,
  instead of their qualities and ways of behaviour, he would have been
  the logician of the chemical formula. Here, too, he has scarcely
  received his meed of appreciation.

  His influence on his successors has rather lain in the general
  stimulus of his enthusiasm for experience, or in the success with
  which he represents the cause of nominalism and in certain special
  devices of method handed down till, through Hume or Herschel, they
  affected the thought of Mill. For the rest he was too Aristotelian, if
  we take the word broadly enough, or, as the result of his Cambridge
  studies, too Ramist,[99] when the interest in scholastic issues was
  fading, to bring his original ideas to a successful market.

  Bacon's Logic, then, like Galilei's, intended as a contribution to
  scientific method, a systematization of discovery by which, given the
  fact of knowledge, new items of knowledge may be acquired, failed to
  convince contemporaries and successors alike of its efficiency as an
  instrument. It was an ideal that failed to embody itself and justify
  itself by its fruits. It was otherwise with the mathematical
  instrument of Galilei.


  Descartes.

Descartes stands in the following of Galilei. It is concurrently with
signal success in the work of a pioneer in the mathematical advance that
he comes to reflect on method, generalizes the method of mathematics to
embrace knowledge as a whole, and raises the ultimate issues of its
presuppositions. In the mathematics we determine complex problems by a
construction link by link from axioms and simple data clearly and
distinctly conceived. Three moments are involved. The first is an
_induction_, i.e. an exhaustive enumeration of the simple elements in
the complex phenomenon under investigation. This resolution or analysis
into simple, because clear and distinct, elements may be brought to a
standstill again and again by obscurity and indistinctness, but patient
and repeated revision of all that is included in the problem should
bring the analytic process to fruition. It is impatience, a perversity
of will, that is the cause of error. Upon the analysis there results
_intuition_ of the simple data. With Descartes intuition does not
connote givenness, but its objects are evident at a glance when
induction has brought them to light. Lastly we have _deduction_ the
determination of the most complex phenomena by a continuous synthesis or
combination of the simple elements. Synthesis is demonstrative and
complete. It is in virtue of this view of derived or mediate knowledge
that Descartes speaks of the (subsumptive) syllogism as "of avail rather
in the communication of what we already know." Syllogism is not the
synthesis which together with analysis goes to constitute the new
instrument of science. The celebrated _Regulae_ of Descartes are
precepts directed to the achievement of the new methodological ideal in
any and every subject matter, however reluctant.

It is the paradox involved in the function of intuition, the acceptance
of the psychological characters of clearness and distinctness as
warranty of a truth presumed to be trans-subjective, that leads to
Descartes's distinctive contribution to the theory of knowledge. In
order to lay bare the ground of certainty he raises the universal doubt,
and, although, following Augustine,[100] he finds its limit in the
thought of the doubter, this of itself is not enough. _Cogito, ergo
sum._ _That_ I think may be admitted. _What_ I think may still need
validation. Descartes's guarantee of the validity of my clear and
distinct perceptions is the veracity of God.[101] Does the existence of
God in turn call for proof? An effect cannot contain more than its
cause, nor the idea of a perfect Being find adequate source save in the
actuality of such a Being. Thus the intuition of the casual axiom is
used to prove the existence of that which alone gives validity to
intuitions. Though the logical method of Descartes has a great and
enduring influence, it is the dualism and the need of God to bridge it,
the doctrine of "innate" ideas, i.e. of ideas not due to external causes
nor to volition but only to our capacity to think, our disposition to
develop them, and finally the ontological proof, that affect the thought
of the next age most deeply. That essence in the supreme case involves
existence is a thought which comes to Spinoza more easily, together with
the tradition of the _ordo geometricus_.


D. MODERN LOGIC

i. _The Logic of Empiricism_

The path followed by English thought was a different one. Hobbes
developed the nominalism which had been the hallmark of revolt against
scholastic orthodoxy, and, when he brings this into relation with the
analysis and synthesis of scientific method, it is at the expense of
the latter.[102] Locke, when Cartesianism had raised the problem of the
contents of consciousness, and the spirit of Baconian positivism could
not accept of anything that bore the ill-omened name of innate ideas,
elaborated a theory of knowledge which is psychological in the sense
that its problem is how the simple data with which the individual is in
contact in sensation are worked up into a system. Though he makes his
bow to mathematical method, he, even more than Hobbes, misses its
constructive character. The clue of mathematical certainty is discarded
in substance in the English form of "the new way of ideas."


  Hobbes.

With Hobbes logic is a calculus of marks and signs in the form of names.
Naming is what distinguishes man from the brutes. It enables him to fix
fleeting memories and to communicate with his fellows. He alone is
capable of truth in the due conjunction or disjunction of names in
propositions. Syllogism is simply summation of propositions, its
function being communication merely. Analysis is the sole way of
invention or discovery. There is more, however, in Hobbes, than the
paradox of nominalism. Spinoza could draw upon him for the notion of
genetic definition.[103] Leibnitz probably owes to him the thought of a
calculus of symbols, and the conception of demonstration as essentially
a chain of definitions.[104] His psychological account of syllogism[105]
is taken over by Locke. Hume derived from him the explanatory formula of
the association of ideas,[106] which is, however, still with Hobbes a
fact to be accounted for, not a theory to account for facts, being
grounded physically in "coherence of the matter moved." Finally Mill
took from him his definition of cause as sum of conditions,[107] which
played no small part in the applied logic of the 19th century.


  Locke.

Locke is of more importance, if not for his logical doctrine, at least
for the theory of knowledge from which it flows. With Locke the mind is
comparable to white paper on which the world of things records itself in
ideas of sensation. Simple ideas of sensation are the only points of
contact we have with things. They are the atomic elements which "the
workmanship of the understanding" can thereafter do no more than
systematically compound and the like. It is Locke's initial attribution
of the primary rôle in mental process to the simple ideas of sensation
that precludes him from the development of the conception of another
sort of ideas, or mental contents that he notes, which are produced by
reflection on "the operations of our own mind within us." It is in the
latter group that we have the explanation of all that marks Locke as a
forerunner of the critical philosophy. It contains in germ a doctrine of
categories discovered but not generated in the psychological processes
of the individual. Locke, however, fails to "deduce" his categories. He
has read Plato's _Theaetetus_ in the light of Baconian and individualist
preconceptions. Reflection remains a sort of "internal sense," whose
ideas are of later origin than those of the external sense. His
successors emphasize the sensationist elements, not the workmanship of
the mind. When Berkeley has eliminated the literal materialism of
Locke's metaphors of sense-perception, Hume finds no difficulty in
accepting the sensations as present virtually in their own right, any
nonsensible ground being altogether unknown. From a point of view purely
subjectivist he is prepared to explain all that is to be left standing
of what Locke ascribes to the workmanship of the mind by the principle
of association or customary conjunction of ideas, which Locke had added
a chapter to a later edition of his _Essay_ explicitly to reject as an
explanatory formula. Condillac goes a step farther, and sees no
necessity for the superstructure at all, with its need of explanation
valid or invalid. Drawing upon Gassendi for his psychological atomism
and upon Hobbes for a thoroughgoing nominalism, he reproduces, as the
logical conclusion from Locke's premises, the position of Antisthenes.
The last word is that "une science bien traitée n'est qu'une langue
bien faite."[108]

Locke's logic comprises, amid much else, a theory of general terms[109]
and of definition, a view of syllogism[110] and a declaration as to the
possibility of inference from particular to particular,[111] a
distinction between propositions which are certain but trifling, and
those which add to our knowledge though uncertain, and a doctrine of
mathematical certainty.[112] As to the first, "words become general by
being made the signs of general ideas, and ideas become general by
separating from them" all "that may determine them to this or that
particular existence. By this way of abstraction they are made capable
of representing more individuals than one." This doctrine has found no
acceptance. Not from the point of view for which idea means image.
Berkeley, though at length the _notions_ of spirits, acts and
relations[113] give him pause, prefers the formula which Hume expresses
in the phrase that "some ideas are particular in their nature but
general in their representation,"[114] and the after-history of
"abstraction" is a discussion of the conditions under which one idea
"stands for" a group. Not from those for whom general ideas mean
schematic concepts, not imageable. The critic from this side has little
difficulty in showing that abstraction of the kind alleged still leave
the residuum particular _this_ redness, e.g. not _redness_. It is,
however, of the sorts constituted by the representation which his
abstraction makes possible that definition is given, either by
enumeration of the simple ideas combined in the significance of the
sortal name, or "to save the labour of enumerating," and "for quickness
and despatch sake," by giving the next wider general name and the
proximate difference. We define essences of course in a sense, but the
essences of which men talk are abstractions, "creatures of the
understanding." Man determines the sorts or nominal essences, nature the
similitudes. The fundamentally enumerative character of the process is
clearly not cancelled by the recognition that it is possible to
abbreviate it by means of technique. So long as the relation of the
nominal to the real essence has no other background than Locke's
doctrine of perception, the conclusion that what Kant afterwards calls
analytical judgments a priori and synthetic judgments a posteriori
exhaust the field follows inevitably, with its corollary, which Locke
himself has the courage to draw, that the natural sciences are in
strictness impossible. Mathematical knowledge is not involved in the
same condemnation, solely because of the "archetypal" character, which,
not without indebtedness to Cumberland, Locke attributes to its ideas.
The reality of mathematics, equally with that of the ideals of morals
drawn from within, does not extend to the "ectypes" of the outer world.
The view of reasoning which Locke enunciates coheres with these views.
Reasoning from particular to particular, i.e. without the necessity of a
general premise, must be possible, and the possibility finds warranty in
a consideration of the psychological order of the terms in syllogism. As
to syllogism specifically, Locke in a passage,[115] which has an
obviously Cartesian ring, lays down four stages or degrees of reasoning,
and points out that syllogism serves us in but one of these, and that
not the all-important one of finding the intermediate ideas. He is
prepared readily to "own that all right reasoning may be reduced to
Aristotle's forms of syllogism," yet holds that "a man knows first, and
then he is able to prove syllogistically." The distance from Locke to
Stuart Mill along this line of thought is obviously but small.


  Hume.

Apart from the adoption by Hume of the association of ideas as the
explanatory formula of the school--it had been allowed by Malebranche
within the framework of his mysticism and employed by Berkeley in his
theory of vision--there are few fresh notes struck in the logic of
sensationalism. The most notable of these are Berkeley's treatment of
"abstract" ideas and Hume's change of front as to mathematical
certainty. What, however, Hume describes as "all the _logic_ I think
proper to employ in my reasoning," viz. his "rules by which to judge
cause and effects,"[116] had, perhaps, farther-reaching historical
effects than either. In these the single method of Bacon is already
split up into separate modes. We have Mill's inductive methods in the
germ, though with an emphasis quite older than Mill's. Bacon's _form_
has already in transmission through Hobbes been transmuted into _cause_
as antecedent in the time series. It may, perhaps, be accounted to Hume
for righteousness that he declares--whether consistently or not is
another matter--that "the same effect never arises but from the same
cause," and that he still follows Bacon in the conception of _absentia
in proximo_. It is "when in any instance we find our expectation
disappointed" that the effect of one of "two resembling objects" will be
like that of the other that Hume proposes to apply his method of
difference.

No scientific discipline, however, with the doubtful exception of
descriptive psychology, stands to gain anything from a temper like that
of Hume. The whittling away of its formal or organizing rubrics, as
e.g., sameness into likeness, is disconcerting to science wherever the
significance of the process is realized. It was because the aftermath of
Newtonian science was so rich that the scientific faith of naturalism
was able to retain a place besides its epistemological creed that a
logician of the school could arise whose spirit was in some sort
Baconian, but who, unlike Bacon, had entered the modern world, and faced
the problems stated for it by Hume and by Newton.


  J. S. Mill.

Stuart Mill's _System of Logic_ marked a fresh stage in the history of
empiricism, for the reason that it made the effort to hold an even
balance between the two moments in the thought of the school. Agreement
in the use of a common watchword had masked as it seems a real
divergence of meaning and purpose. The apostles of inductive method had
preached recourse to experience, but had meant thereby nature as a
constituted order. They had devised canons for the investigation of the
concrete problems of this, but had either ignored altogether the need to
give an account of the mirroring mind, or, in the alternative had been,
with some naïveté, content to assume that their nominalist friends,
consistently their allies in the long struggle with traditionalism, had
adequately supplied or could adequately supply the need. The exponents
of psychological atomism, on the other hand, with the association of
ideas for their one principle of agglutination had come to mean by
experience the mental phantasmagoria of the individual. They had
undermined the foundations of scientific certainty, and so far as the
fecundity of contemporary science did not give them pause, were ready,
notwithstanding the difference of their starting-point, to acquiesce in
the formula as well as the temper of Pyrrhonism. They could concede the
triumphant achievement of science only with the proviso that it must be
assumed to fall within the framework of their nominalism. Mill aspired
after a doctrine of method such as should satisfy the needs of the
natural sciences, notably experimental physics and chemistry as
understood in the first half of the 19th century and, _mutatis
mutandis_, of the moral sciences naturalistically construed. In uniting
with this the Associationism which he inherited, through his father,
from Hume, he revealed at once the strength and weakness of the dual
conception of naturalism. His rare thoroughness and rarer candour made
it at once unnecessary and impossible that the work should be done
again.

If judged by what he denies, viz. the formal logic of Hamilton and
Mansel, whose Aristotelian and scholastic learning did but accentuate
their traditionalism, and whose acquiescence in consistency constituted
in Mill's view a discouragement of research, such as men now incline to
attribute at the least equally to Hume's idealism, Mill is only
negatively justified. If judged by his positive contribution to the
theory of method he may claim to find a more than negative justification
for his teaching in its success. In the field covered by scholastic
logic Mill is frankly associationist. He aims at describing what he
finds given, without reference to insensible implications of doubtful
validity and value. The upshot is a psychological account of what from
one aspect is evidence, from the other, belief. So he explains "concepts
or general notions"[117] by an abstraction which he represents as a sort
of alt-relief operated by attention and fixed by naming, association
with the name giving to a set of attributes a unity they otherwise lack.
This is manifestly, when all is said, a particular psychological event,
a collective fact of the associative consciousness. It can exercise no
organizing or controlling function in knowledge. So again in determining
the "import" of propositions, it is no accident that in all save
existential propositions it is to the familiar rubrics of
associationism--co-existence, sequence, causation and resemblance--that
he refers for classification, while his general formula as to the
conjunctions of connotations is associationist through and through. It
follows consistently enough that inference is from particular to
particular. Mill holds even the ideas of mathematics to be hypothetical,
and in theory knows nothing of a non-enumerative or non-associative
universal. A premise that has the utmost universality consistent with
this view can clearly be of no service for the establishment of a
proposition that has gone to the making of it. Nor again of one that has
not. Its use, then, can only be as a memorandum. It is a shorthand
formula of registration. Mill's view of ratiocinative process clearly
stands and falls with the presumed impossibility of establishing the
necessity for universals of another type than his, for what may be
called principles of construction. His critics incline to press the
point that association itself is only intelligible so far as it is seen
to depend on universals of the kind that he denies.

In Mill's inductive logic, the nominalistic convention has, through his
tendency to think in relatively watertight compartments,[118] faded
somewhat into the background. Normally he thinks of what he calls
phenomena no longer as psychological groupings of sensations, as "states
of mind," but as things and events in a physical world howsoever
constituted and apprehended. His free use of relating concepts, that of
sameness, for instance, bears no impress of his theory of the general
notion, and it is possible to put out of sight the fact that, taken in
conjunction with his nominalism, it raises the whole issue of the
possibility of the equivocal generation of formative principles from the
given contents of the individual consciousness, in any manipulation of
which they are already implied. Equally, too, the deductive character,
apparently in intention as well as in actual fact, of Mill's
experimental methods fails to recall the point of theory that the
process is essentially one from particular to particular. The nerve of
proof in the processes by which he establishes causal conjunctions of
unlimited application is naturally thought to lie in the special canons
of the several processes and the axioms of universal and uniform
causation which form their background. The conclusions seem not merely
to fall within, but to depend on these organic and controlling formulae.
They follow not merely according to them but from them. The reference to
the rule is not one which may be made and normally is made as a
safeguard, but one which must be made, if thought is engaged in a
forward and constructive movement at all. Yet Mill's view of the
function of "universal" propositions had been historically suggested by
a theory--Dugald Stewart's--of the use of axioms![119] Once more, it
would be possible to forget that Mill's ultimate laws or axioms are not
in his view intuitions, nor forms constitutive of the rational order,
nor postulates of all rational construction, were it not that he has
made the endeavour to establish them on associationist lines. It is
because of the failure of this endeavour to bring the technique of
induction within the setting of his Humian psychology of belief that the
separation of his contribution to the applied logic of science from his
sensationism became necessary, as it happily was easy. Mill's device
rested special inductions of causation upon the laws that every event
has a cause, and every cause has always the same effect. It rested these
in turn upon a general induction enumerative in character of enormous
and practically infinite range and always uncontradicted. Though
obviously not exhaustive, the unique extent of this induction was held
to render it competent to give practical certainty or psychological
necessity. A vicious circle is obviously involved. It is true, of
course, that ultimate laws need discovery, that they are discovered in
some sense in the medium of the psychological mechanism, and that they
are nevertheless the grounds of all specific inferences. But that truth
is not what Mill expounds, nor is it capable of development within the
limits imposed by the associationist formula.

It is deservedly, nevertheless, that Mill's applied logic has retained
its pride of place amid what has been handed on, if in modified shape,
by writers, e.g., Sigwart, and Professor Bosanquet, whose theory of
knowledge is quite alien from his. He prescribed regulative or limiting
formulae for research as it was actually conducted in his world. His
grasp of the procedure by which the man of science manipulated his
particular concrete problems was admirable. In especial he showed clear
understanding of the functions of hypothesis and verification in the
investigations of the solitary worker, with his facts still in course of
accumulation and needing to be lighted up by the scientific imagination.
He was therefore enabled to formulate the method of what Bacon had
tended to despise as merely the "first vintage." Bacon spent his
strength upon a dream of organization for all future discovery. Mill was
content to codify. The difference between Bacon and Mill lies chiefly in
this, and it is because of this difference that Mill's contribution,
spite of its debt to the Baconian tradition, remains both characteristic
and valuable. It is of course possible to criticise even the
experimental canons with some severity. The caveats, however, which are
relevant within the circle of ideas within which Mill's lesson can be
learned and improved on,[120] seem to admit of being satisfied by
relatively slight modifications in detail, or by explanations often
supplied or easily to be supplied from points brought out amid the
wealth of illustration with which Mill accompanied his formal or
systematic exposition of method. The critic has the right of it when he
points out, for example, that the practical difficulty in the Method of
Agreement is not due to plurality of causes, as Mill states, but rather
to intermixture of effects, while, if the canon could be satisfied
exactly, the result would not be rendered uncertain in the manner or to
the extent which he supposes. Again the formula of the Joint-Method,
which contemplates the enumeration of cases "which have nothing in
common but the absence of one circumstance," is ridiculously unsound as
it stands. Or, on rather a different line of criticism, the use of
corresponding letters in the two series of antecedents and consequents
raises, it is said, a false presumption of correlation. Nay, even the
use of letters at all suggests that the sort of analysis that actually
breaks up its subject-matter is universally or all but universally
applicable in nature, and this is not the case. Finally, the conditions
of the methods are either realized or not. If they are realized, the
work of the scientist falls entirely within the field of the processes
preliminary to the satisfaction of the canon. The latter becomes a mere
memorandum or formula of registration. So is it possible "to have the
enginer hoist with his own petar." But the conditions are not realized,
and in an experiential subject-matter are not realizable. Not one
circumstance only in common but "apparently one relevant circumstance
only in common" is what we are able to assert. If we add the
qualification of relevance we destroy the cogency of the method. If we
fail to add it, we destroy the applicability.

The objections turn on two main issues. One is the exaggeration of the
possibilities of resolution into separate elements that is due to the
acceptance of the postulate of an alphabet of nature. This so soon as
noted can be allowed for. It is to the combination of this doctrine
with a tendency to think chiefly of experiment, of the controlled
addition or subtraction of these elements one at a time, that we owe the
theoretically premature linking of a as effect to _A_ as cause. This too
can be met by a modification of form. The other issue is perhaps of more
significance. It is the oscillation which Mill manifests between the
conception of his formula as it is actually applicable to concrete
problems in practice, and the conception of it as an expression of a
theoretical limit to practical procedure. Mill seems most often to think
of the former, while tending to formulate in terms of the latter. At any
rate, if relevance _in proximo_ is interpolated in the peccant clause of
the canon of the Joint-Method, the practical utility of the method is
rehabilitated. So too, if the canon of the Method of Agreement is never
more than approximately satisfied, intermixture of effects will in
practice mean that we at least often do not know the cause or antecedent
equivalent of a given effect, without the possibility of an alternative.
Finally, it is on the whole in keeping with Mill's presuppositions to
admit even in the case of the method of difference that in practice it
is approximative and instructive, while the theoretical formula, to
which it aims at approaching asymptotically as limit, if exact, is in
some sense sterile. Mill may well have himself conceived his methods as
practically fruitful and normally convincing with the limiting formula
in each case more cogent in form but therewith merely the skeleton of
the process that but now pulsed with life.

Enough has been said to show why the advance beyond the letter of Mill
was inevitable while much in the spirit of Mill must necessarily affect
deeply all later experientialism. After Mill experientialism takes
essentially new forms. In part because of what Mill had done. In part
also because of what he had left undone. After Mill means after Kant and
Hegel and Herbart, and it means after the emergence of evolutionary
naturalism. Mill, then, marks the final stage in the achievement of a
great school of thought.


ii. _The Logic of Rationalism._

  Spinoza.

A fundamental contrast to the school of Bacon and of Locke is afforded
by the great systems of reason, owning Cartesian inspiration, which are
identified with the names of Spinoza and Leibnitz. In the history of
logic the latter thinker is of the more importance. Spinoza's philosophy
is expounded _ordine geometrico_ and with Euclidean cogency from a
relatively small number of definitions, axioms and postulates. But how
we reach our assurance of the necessity of these principles is not made
specifically clear. The invaluable tractate _De Intellectus
emendatione_, in which the agreement with and divergence from Descartes
on the question of method could have been fully elucidated, is unhappily
not finished. We know that we need to pass from what Spinoza terms
_experientia vaga_,[121] where imagination with its fragmentary
apprehension is liable to error and neither necessity nor impossibility
can be predicated, right up to that which _fictionem terminat_--namely,
_intellectio_. And what Spinoza has to say of the requisites of
definition and the marks of intellection makes it clear that insight
comes with coherence, and that the work of method on the "inductive"
side is by means of the unravelling of all that makes for artificial
limitation to lay bare what can then be seen to exhibit nexus in the one
great system. When all is said, however, the geometric method as
universalized in philosophy is rather used by Spinoza than expounded.


  Leibnitz.

With Leibnitz, on the other hand, the logical problem holds the foremost
place in philosophical inquiry.[122] From the purely logical thesis,
developed at quite an early stage of his thinking,[123] that in any true
proposition the predicate is contained in the subject, the main
principles of his doctrine of Monads are derivable with the minimum of
help from his philosophy of dynamics. _Praedicatum inest subjecto._ All
valid propositions express in the last resort the relation of predicate
or predicates to a subject, and this Leibnitz holds after considering
the case of relational propositions where either term may hold the
position of grammatical subject, A = B and the like. There is a subject
then, or there are subjects which must be recognized as not possible to
be predicated, but as absolute. For reasons not purely logical Leibnitz
declares for the plurality of such subjects. Each contains all its
predicates: and this is true not only in the case of truths of reason,
which are necessary, and ultimately to be exhibited as coming under the
law of contradiction, "or, what comes to the same thing, that of
identity," but also in the case of truths of fact which are contingent,
though a sufficient reason can be given for them which "inclines"
without importing necessity. The extreme case of course is the human
subject. "The individual notion of each person includes once for all
what is to befall it, world without end," and "it would not have been
our Adam but another, if he had had other events." Existent subjects,
containing eternally all their successive predicates in the time-series,
are substances, which when the problems connected with their activity,
or dynamically speaking their force, have been resolved, demand--and
supply--the metaphysic of the Monadology.

Complex truths of reason or essence raise the problem of definition,
which consists in their analysis into simpler truths and ultimately into
simple--i.e. indefinable ideas, with primary principles of another
kind--axioms, and postulates that neither need nor admit of proof. These
are identical in the sense that the opposite contains an express
contradiction.[124] In the case of non-identical truths, too, there is a
priori proof drawn from the notion of the terms, "though it is not
always in our power to arrive at this analysis,"[125] so that the
question arises, specially in connexion with the possibility of a
calculus, whether the contingent is reducible to the necessary or
identical at the ideal limit. With much that suggests an affirmative
answer, Leibnitz gives the negative. Even in the case of the Divine
will, though it be always for the best possible, the sufficient reason
will "incline without necessitating." The propositions which deal with
actual existence are still of a unique type, with whatever limitation to
the calculus.

Leibnitz's treatment of the primary principles among truths of reason as
identities, and his examples drawn _inter alia_ from the "first
principles" of mathematics, influenced Kant by antagonism. Identities
some of them manifestly were not. The formula of identity passed in
another form to Herbart and therefore to Lotze. In recognizing, further,
that the relation of an actual individual fact to its sufficient ground
was not reducible to identity, he set a problem diversely treated by
Kant and Herbart. He brought existential propositions, indeed, within a
rational system through the principle that it must be feasible to assign
a sufficient reason for them, but he refused to bring them under the
conception of identity or necessity, i.e. to treat their opposites as
formally self-contradictory. This bore interest in the Kantian age in
the treatment alike of cause and effect, and of the ontological proof of
existence from essence. Not that the Law of Sufficient Reason is quite
free from equivoque. Propositions concerning the _possible_ existence of
individuals put Leibnitz to some shifts, and the difficulty accounts for
the close connexion established in regard to our actual world between
the law of sufficient reason and the doctrine of the final cause. This
connexion is something of an afterthought to distinguish from the
potential contingency of the objectively possible the real contingency
of the actual, for which the "cause or reason" of Spinoza[126] could not
account. The law, however, is not invalidated by these considerations,
and with the degree of emphasis and the special setting that Leibnitz
gives the law, it is definitely his own.

If we may pass by the doctrine of the Identity of Indiscernibles, which
played a part of some importance in subsequent philosophy, and the Law
of Continuity, which as Leibnitz represents it is, if not sheer dogma,
reached by something very like a fallacy, we have as Leibnitz's
remaining legacy to later logicians the conception of _Characteristica
Universalis_ and _Ars Combinatoria_, a universal denoting by symbols and
a calculus working by substitutions and the like. The two positions that
a subject contains all its predicates and that all non-contingent
propositions--i.e. all propositions not concerned with the existence of
individual facts ultimately analyse out into identities--obviously lend
themselves to the design of this algebra of thought, though the
mathematician in Leibnitz should have been aware that a significant
equation is never an identity. Leibnitz, fresh from the battle of the
calculus in the mathematical field, and with his conception of logic, at
least in some of its aspects, as a generalized mathematic,[127] found a
fruitful inspiration, harmonizing well with his own metaphysic, in
Bacon's alphabet of nature. He, too, was prepared to offer a new
instrument. That the most important section, the list of forms of
combination, was never achieved--this too was after the Baconian example
while the mode of symbolization was crude with a = _ab_ and the
like--matters little. A new technique of manipulation--it is, of course,
no more--had been evolved.

It may be said that among Leibnitz's successors there is no Leibnitzian.
The system as a whole is something too artificial to secure
whole-hearted allegiance. Wolff's formalism is the bastard outcome of
the speculation of Leibnitz, and is related to it as remotely as
Scholasticism is to Aristotle. Wolff found a sufficient reason for
everything and embodied the results of his inquiries in systematic
treatises, sometimes in the vernacular. He also, by a transparent
_petitio principii_, brought the law of the sufficient reason under that
of non-contradiction. Wolff and his numerous followers account for the
charge of dogmatism against "the Leibnitzio-Wolffian school." They are
of importance in the history of logic for two reasons only: they
affected strongly the German vocabulary of philosophy and they
constituted the intellectual environment in which Kant grew to manhood.

A truer continuator of Leibnitz in the spirit was Herbart.


iii. _Kant's Logic._

Herbart's admitted allegiance, however, was Kantian with the
qualification, at a relatively advanced stage of his thinking, that it
was "of the year 1828"--that is, after controversy had brought out
implications of Kant's teaching not wholly contemplated by Kant himself.
The critical philosophy had indeed made it impossible to hark back to
Leibnitz or any other master otherwise than with a difference.

Yet it is not a single and unambiguous logical movement that derives
from Kant. Kant's lesson was variously understood. Different moments in
it were emphasized, with a large diversity of result. As interpreted it
was acquiesced in or revolted from and revolt ranged from a desire for
some modifications of detail or expression to the call for a radical
transformation. Grounds for a variety of developments are to be found in
the imperfect harmonization of the rationalistic heritage from the
Wolffian tradition which still dominates Kant's pure general logic with
the manifest epistemological intention of his transcendental theory. Or
again, within the latter in his admission of a duality of thought and
"the given" in knowledge, which within knowledge was apparently
irreducible, concurrently with hints as to the possibility, upon a wider
view, of the sublation of their disparateness at least hypothetically
and speculatively. The sense in which there must be a ground of the
unity of the supersensible[128] while yet the transcendent use of
Reason--i.e. its use beyond the limits of experience was denied
theoretical validity--was not unnaturally regarded as obscure.


  Formal Logic.

Kant's treatment of technical logic was wholly traditional, and in
itself is almost negligible. It is comprised[129] in an early essay on
the mistaken subtlety of the syllogistic figures, and a late compilation
by a pupil from the introductory matter and running annotations with
which the master had enriched his interleaved lecture-room copy of
Meyer's _Compendium_ of 1752. Wolff's general logic, "the best," said
Kant, "that we possess," had been abridged by Baumgarten and the
abridgment then subjected to commentation by Meyer. With this
traditional body of doctrine Kant was, save for matters of minor detail,
quite content. Logic was of necessity formal, dealing as it must with
those rules without which no exercise of the understanding would be
possible at all. Upon abstraction from all particular methods of thought
these rules were to be discerned a priori or without dependence on
experience by reflection solely upon the use of the understanding in
general. The science of the form of thought abstracted in this way from
its matter or content was regarded as of value both as propaedeutic and
as canon. It was manifestly one of the disciplines in which a position
of finality was attainable. Aristotle might be allowed, indeed, to have
omitted no essential point of the understanding, what the moderns had
achieved consisted in an advance in accuracy and methodical
completeness. "Indeed, we do not require any new discoverers in
logic,"[130] said the discoverer of a priori synthesis, "since it
contains merely the form of thought." Applied logic is merely
psychology, and not properly to be called logic at all. The technical
logic of Kant, then, justifies literally a movement among his successors
in favour of a formal conception of logic with the law of contradiction
and the doctrine of formal implication for its equipment. Unless the
doctrine of Kant's "transcendental logic" must be held to supply a point
of view from which a logical development of quite another kind is
inevitable, Kant's mantle, so far as logic is concerned, must be
regarded as having fallen upon the formal logicians.


  Definition of "Transcendental."

Kant's transcendental teaching is summarily as follows: "Transcendental"
is his epithet for what is neither empirical--i.e. to be derived from
experience--nor yet transcendent--i.e. applicable beyond the limits of
experience, the mark of experience being the implication of sense or of
something which thought contra-distinguishes from its own spontaneous
activity as in some sense "the given." Those features in our organized
experience are to be regarded as transcendentally established which are
the presuppositions of our having that experience at all. Since they are
not empirical they must be structural and belong to "the mind"--i.e. the
normal human intelligence, and to like intelligence so far as like. If
we set aside such transcendental conditions as belong to sensibility or
to the receptive phase of mind and are the presuppositions of
juxtaposition of parts, the remainder are ascribable to spontaneity or
understanding, to thought with its unifying, organizing or focussing
function, and their elucidation is the problem of transcendental
analytic. It is still logic, indeed, when we are occupied with the
transcendent objects of the discursive faculty as it is employed beyond
the limits of experience where it cannot validate its ideas. Such a
logic, however, is a dialectic of illusion, perplexed by paralogisms and
helpless in the face of antinomies. In transcendental analytic on the
other hand we concern ourselves only with the transcendental "deduction"
or vindication of the conditions of experience, and we have a logic of
cognition in which we may establish our epistemological categories with
complete validity. Categories are the forms according to which the
combining unity of self-consciousness (synthetic unity of apperception)
pluralizes itself through the various functions involved in the
constitution of objectivity in different types of the one act of
thought, viz. judgment. The clue to the discovery of transcendental
conditions Kant finds in the existence of judgments, most manifest in
mathematics and in the pure science of nature, which are certain, yet
not trifling, necessary and yet not reducible to identities, synthetic
therefore and a priori, and so accounted for neither by Locke nor by
Leibnitz. "There lies a transcendental condition at the basis of every
necessity."


  Form of Matter of Thought.

Kant's mode of conceiving the activity of thought in the constitution of
objects and of their connexion in experience was thought to lie open to
an interpretation in conformity with the spirit of his logic, in the
sense that the form and the content in knowledge are not merely
distinguishable functions within an organic whole, but either separable,
or at least indifferent one to the other in such a way as to be clearly
independent. Thought as form would thus be a factor or an element in a
composite unit. It would clearly have its own laws. It would be the
whole concern of logic, which, since in it thought has itself for
object, would have no reference to the other term of the antithesis, nor
properly and immediately to the knowledge which is compact of thought in
conjunction with something which, whatever it may be, is prima facie
other than thought. There is too much textual warrant for this
interpretation of Kant's meaning. Doubtless there are passages which
make against an extreme dualistic interpretation. Even in his "logic"
Kant speaks of abstraction from all particular objects of thought rather
than of a resolution of concrete thinking into thought and its "other"
as separable co-operating factors in a joint product. He spoke
throughout, however, as if form and content were mutually indifferent,
so that the abstraction of form from content implied nothing of
falsification or mutilation. The reserve, therefore, that it was
abstraction and not a decomposing that was in question remained to the
admirers of his logic quite nugatory. They failed to realize that
permissible abstraction from specific contents or methods of knowledge
does not obliterate reference to matter or content. They passed easily
from the acceptance of a priori forms of thinking to that of forms of a
priori thinking, and could plead the example of Kant's logic.

Kant's theory of knowledge, then, needed to be pressed to other
consequences for logic which were more consonant with the spirit of the
_Critique_. The forms of thought and what gives thought its particular
content in concrete acts of thinking could not be regarded as subsisting
in a purely external and indifferent relation one to the other. "Laws
according to which the subject thinks" and "laws according to which the
object is known" cannot be the concern of separate departments of
inquiry. As soon divorce the investigation of the shape and material of
a mirror from the laws of the incidence of the rays that form images in
it, and call it a science of reflection! An important group of writers
developed the conception of an adaptation between the two sides of
Kant's antithesis, and made the endeavour to establish some kind of
correlation between logical forms and the process of "the given." There
was a tendency to fall back upon the conception of some kind of
parallelism, whether it was taken to be interpretative or rather
corrective of Kant's meaning. This device was never remote from the
constructions of writers for whom the teaching of Spinoza and Leibnitz
was an integral part of their intellectual equipment. Other modes of
correlation, however, find favour also, and in some variety. Kant is
seldom the sole source of inspiration. His unresolved antithesis[131] is
interpreted either diversely or with a difference of emphasis. And the
light that later writers bring to bear on Kant's logic and epistemology
from other sides of his speculation varies in kind and in degree.

Another logical movement springs from those whom a correlation of fact
within the unity of a system altogether failed to satisfy. There must
also be development of the correlated terms from a single principle.
Form and content must not only correspond one to the other. They must be
exhibited as distinguishable moments within a unity which can at one and
the same time be seen to be the ground from which the distinction
springs and the ground in virtue of which it is over-ruled. Along this
line of speculation we have a logic which claims that whatsoever is in
one plane or at one stage in the development of thought a residuum that
apparently defies analysis must at another stage and on a higher plane
be shown so to be absorbed as to fall altogether within thought. This is
the view of Hegel upon which logic comes to coincide with the
progressive self-unfolding of thought in that type of metaphysic which
is known as absolute, i.e. all-inclusive idealism. The exponent of logic
as metaphysic, for whom the rational is the real is necessarily in
revolt against all that is characteristically Kantian in the theory of
knowledge, against the transcendental method itself and against the
doctrine of limits which constitutes the nerve of "criticism." Stress
was to be laid upon the constructive character of the act of thought
which Kant had recognized, and without Kant's qualifications of it. In
all else the claim is made to have left the Kantian teaching behind as a
cancelled level of speculation.


  Limitation of Transcendental Method.

Transcendental method is indeed not invulnerable. A principle is
transcendentally "deduced" when it and only it can explain the validity
of some phase of experience, some order of truths. The order of truths,
the phase of experience and its certainty had to be taken for granted.
The sense, for example, in which the irreversibility of sequence which
is the more known _in ordine ad hominem_ in the case of the causal
principle differs from merely psychological conviction is not made fully
clear. Even so the inference to the a priori ground of its necessity is,
it has been often pointed out, subject to the limitation inherent in any
process of reduction, in any regress, that is, from conditionate to
condition, viz. that in theory an alternative is still possible. The
inferred principle may hold the field as explanation without obvious
competitor potential or actual. Nevertheless its claim to be the sole
possible explanation can in nowise be validated. It has been established
after all by dialectic in the Aristotelian sense of the word. But if
transcendental method has no special pride of place, Kant's conclusion
as to the limits of the competence of intellectual faculty falls with
it. Cognition manifestly needs the help of Reason even in its
theoretical use. Its speculation can no longer be stigmatized as
vaticination _in vacuo_, nor its results as illusory.


  Logic and Psychology.

Finally, to logic as metaphysic the polar antithesis is psychology as
logic. The turn of this also was to come again. If logic were treated as
merely formal, the stress of the problem of knowledge fell upon the
determination of the processes of the psychological mechanism. If
alleged a priori constituents of knowledge--such rubrics as substance,
property, relation--come to be explained psychologically, the formal
logic that has perforce to ignore all that belongs to psychology is
confined within too narrow a range to be able to maintain its place as
an independent discipline, and tends to be merged in psychology. This
tendency is to be seen in the activity of Fries and Herbart and Beneke,
and was actualized as the aftermath of their speculation. It is no
accident that it was the psychology of apperception and the voluntaryist
theory or practice of Herbart, whose logical theory was so closely
allied to that of the formal logicians proper, that contributed most to
the development of the post-Kantian psychological logic. Another
movement helped also; the exponents of naturalistic evolution were
prepared with Spencer to explain the so-called _a priori_ in knowledge
as in truth _a posteriori_, if not to the individual at any rate to the
race. It is of course a newer type of psychological logic that is in
question, one that is aware of Kant's "answer to Hume." Stuart Mill,
despite of his relation of antagonism to Hamilton and Mansel, who held
themselves to be Kantian in spirit, is still wholly pre-Kantian in his
outlook.


  Summary.

Kant's influence, then, upon subsequent logic is least of all to be
measured by his achievement in his professed contribution to technical
logic. It may be attributed in some slight degree, perhaps, to
incidental flashes of logical insight where his thought is least of what
he himself calls logic, e.g. his exposition of the significance of
synthetic judgments _a priori_, or his explanation of the function of
imagery in relation to thought, whereby he offers a solution of the
problem of the conditions under which one member of a group unified
through a concept can be taken to stand for the rest, or again the way
in which he puts his finger on the vital issue in regard to the alleged
proof from essence to existence, and illustrations could be multiplied.
But much more it belongs to his transformation of the epistemological
problem, and to the suggestiveness of his philosophy as a whole for an
advance in the direction of a speculative construction which should be
able to cancel all Kant's surds, and in particular vindicate a "ground
of the unity of the supersensible which lies back of nature with that
which the concept of freedom implies in the sphere of practice,"[132]
which is what Kant finally asserts.


iv. _After Kant._

Starting from the obvious antithesis of thought and that of which it is
the thought, it is possible to view the ultimate relation of its term as
that of mutual indifference or, secondly, as that of a correspondence
such that while they retain their distinct character modification of the
one implies modification of the other, or thirdly and lastly, as that of
a mergence of one in the other of such a nature that the merged term,
whichever it be, is fully accounted for in a complete theory of that in
which it is merged.


  The Formal Logicians.

The first way is that of the purely formal logicians, of whom
Twesten[133] and in England H. L. Mansel may be regarded as typical.
They take thought and "the given" as self-contained units which, if not
in fact separable, are at any rate susceptible of an abstraction the one
from the other so decisive as to constitute an ideal separation. The
laws of the pure activity of thought must be independently determined,
and since the contribution of thought to knowledge is form they must be
formal only. They cannot go beyond the limits of formal consistency or
analytic correctness. They are confined to the determination of what the
truth of any matter of thought, taken for granted upon grounds
psychological or other, which are extraneous to logic, includes or
excludes. The unit for logic is the concept taken for granted. The
function of logic is to exhibit its formal implications and repulsions.
It is questionable whether even this modest task could be really
achieved without other reference to the content abstracted from than
Mansel, for example, allows. The analogy of the resolution of a chemical
compound with its elements which is often on the lips of those who would
justify the independence of thought and the real world, with an agnostic
conclusion as to non-phenomenal or trans-subjective reality, is not
really applicable. The oxygen and hydrogen, for example, into which
water may be resolved are not in strictness indifferent one to the
other, since both are members of an order regulated according to laws of
combination in definite ratios. Or, if applicable, it is double-edged.
Suppose oxygen to be found only in water. Were it to become conscious,
would it therefore follow that it could infer the laws of a separate or
independent activity of its own? Similarly forms of thinking, the law of
contradiction not excepted, have their meaning only in reference to
determinate content, even though distributively all determinate contents
are dispensable. The extreme formalist is guilty of a fallacy of
composition in regard to abstraction.

It does not follow, however, that the laws asserted by the formal
logicians are invalid or unimportant. There is a permissible
abstraction, and in general they practise this, and although they narrow
its range unduly, it is legitimately to be applied to certain characters
of thinking. As the living organism includes something of mechanism--the
skeleton, for example--so an organic logic doubtless includes
determinations of formal consistency. The skeleton is meaningless apart
from reference to its function in the life of an organism, yet there are
laws of skeleton structure which can be studied with most advantage if
other characters of the organism are relegated to the background. To
allow, however, that abstraction admits of degrees, and that it never
obliterates all reference to that from which it is abstracted, is to
take a step forward in the direction of the correlation of logical forms
with the concrete processes of actual thinking. What was true in formal
logic tended to be absorbed in the correlationist theories.

Those formal logicians of the Kantian school, then, may be summarily
dismissed, though their undertaking was a necessary one, who failed to
raise the epistemological issue at all, or who, raising it, acquiesced
in a naïve dualism agnostic of the real world as Kant's essential
lesson. They failed to develop any view which could serve either in fact
or in theory as a corrective to the effect of their formalism. What they
said with justice was said as well or better elsewhere.

Among them it is on the whole impossible not to include the names of
Hamilton and Mansel. The former, while his erudition in respect to the
history of philosophical opinion has rarely been equalled, was not a
clear thinker. His general theory of knowledge deriving from Kant and
Reid, and including among other things a _contaminatio_ of their
theories of perception,[134] in no way sustains or mitigates his narrow
view of logic. He makes no effective use of his general formula that to
think is to condition. He appeals to the direct testimony of
consciousness in the sense in which the appeal involves a fallacy. He
accepts an ultimate antinomy as to the finiteness or infinity of "the
unconditioned," yet applies the law of the excluded middle to insist
that one of the two alternatives must be true, wherefore we must make
the choice. And what is to be said of the judgment of a writer who
considers the relativity of thought demonstrated by the fact that every
judgment unites two members? Hamilton's significance for the history of
logic lies in the stimulus that he gave to the development of symbolic
logic in England by his new analytic based upon his discovery or
adoption of the principle of the quantification of the predicate.
Mansel, too, was learned, specially in matters of Aristotelian exegesis,
and much that is of value lies buried in his commentation of the dry
bones of the _Artis Logicae Rudimenta_ of Locke's contemporary Aldrich.
And he was a clearer thinker than Hamilton. Formal logic of the
extremest rigour is nowhere to be found more adequately expressed in all
its strength, and it must be added in all its weakness, than in the
writings of Mansel. But if the view maintained above that formal logic
must compromise or mitigate its rigour and so fail to maintain its
independence, be correct, the logical consistency of Mansel's logic of
consistency does but emphasize its barrenness. It contains no germ for
further development. It is the end of a movement.


  Herbart.

The brief logic of Herbart[135] is altogether formal too. Logical forms
have for him neither psychological nor metaphysical reference, we are
concerned in logic solely with the systematic clarification of concepts
which are wholly abstract, so that they are not merely not ultimate
realities, but also in no sense actual moments of our concrete thinking.
The first task of logic is to distinguish and group such concepts
according to their marks, and from their classification there naturally
follows their connexion in judgment. It is in the logic of judgment that
Herbart inaugurates a new era. He is not, of course, the first to note
that even categorical judgments do not assert the realization of their
subject. That is a thought which lies very near the surface for formal
logic. He had been preceded too by Maimon in the attempt at a reduction
of the traditional types of judgment. He was, however, the first whose
analysis was sufficiently convincing to exorcise the tyranny of
grammatical forms. The categorical and disjunctive judgment reduce to
the hypothetical. By means of the doctrine of the quantification of the
predicate, in which with his Leibnitzian conception of identity he
anticipated Beneke and Hamilton alike, universal and particular
judgments are made to pull together. Modal, impersonal, existential
judgments are all accounted for. Only the distinction of affirmative and
negative judgments remains unresolved, and the exception is a natural
one from the point of view of a philosophy of pluralism. There was
little left to be done here save in the way of an inevitable _mutatis
mutandis_, even by Lotze and F. H. Bradley. From the judgment viewed as
hypothetical we pass by affirmation of the antecedent or denial of the
consequent to inference. This point of departure is noteworthy, as also
is the treatment of the inductive syllogism as one in which the middle
term is resoluble into a group or series (_Reihe_). In indicating
specifically, too, the case of conclusion from a copulative major
premise with a disjunctive minor, Herbart seems to have suggested the
cue for Sigwart's exposition of Bacon's method of exclusions.

That it was the formal character of Herbart's logic which was ultimately
fatal to its acceptance outside the school as an independent discipline
is not to be doubted. It stands, however, on a different footing from
that of the formal logic hitherto discussed, and is not to be condemned
upon quite the same grounds. In the first place, Herbart is quite aware
of the nature of abstraction. In the second, there is no claim that
thought at one and the same time imposes form on "the given" and is
susceptible of treatment in isolation by logic. With Herbart the forms
of common experience, and indeed all that we can regard as his
categories, are products of the psychological mechanism and destitute of
logical import. And lastly, Herbart's logic conforms to the exigencies
of his system as a whole and the principle of the bare or absolute
self-identity of the ultimate "reals" in particular. It is for this
reason that it finally lacks real affinity to the "pure logic" of Fries.
For at the basis of Herbart's speculation there lies a conception of
identity foreign to the thought of Kant with his stress on synthesis, in
his thoroughgoing metaphysical use of which Herbart goes back not merely
to Wolff but to Leibnitz. It is no mere coincidence that his treatment
of all forms of continuance and even his positive metaphysic of "reals"
show affinity to Leibnitz. It was in the pressing to its extreme
consequences of the conception of uncompromising identity which is to be
found in Leibnitz, that the contradictions took their rise which Herbart
aimed at solving, by the method of relations and his doctrine of the
ultimate plurality of "reals." The logic of relations between conceptual
units, themselves unaltered by the relation, seems a kind of reflection
of his metaphysical method. To those, of course, for whom the only real
identity is identity in difference, while identity without difference,
like difference without identity, is simply a limit or a vanishing
point, Herbart's logic and metaphysic will alike lack plausibility.

The setting of Herbart's logic in his thought as a whole might of itself
perhaps justify separate treatment. His far-reaching influence in the
development of later logic must certainly do so. Directly he affected a
school of thought which contained one logician of first-rate importance
in Moritz Wilhelm Drobisch (1802-1896), professor at Leipzig. In less
direct relation stands Lotze, who, although under other influences he
developed a different view even in logic, certainly let no point in the
doctrine of his great predecessor at Göttingen escape him. A Herbartian
strain is to be met with also in the thought of writers much further
afield, for example F. H. Bradley, far though his metaphysic is removed
from Herbart's. Herbart's influence is surely to be found too in the
evolution of what is called _Gegenstandstheorie_. Nor did he affect the
logic of his successors through his logic alone. Reference has been made
above to the effect upon the rise of the later psychological logic
produced by Herbart's psychology of apperception, when disengaged from
the background of his metaphysic taken in conjunction with his treatment
in his practical philosophy of the judgment of value or what he calls
the aesthetic judgment. Emerson's verdict upon a greater thinker--that
his was "not a mind to nestle in"--may be true of Herbart, but there can
be no doubt as to the stimulating force of this master.


  Logic as the rationale of knowledge.

  Schleiermacher.

The second way of interpreting the antithesis of thought to what is
thought of, was taken by a group of thinkers among whom a central and
inspiring figure was Schleiermacher. They in no sense constitute a
school and manifest radical differences among themselves. They are
agreed, however, in the rejection, on the one hand, of the subjectivist
logic with its intrinsic implication that knowledge veils rather than
reveals the real world, and, on the other hand, of the logic of the
speculative construction with its pretension to "deduce," to determine,
and finally at once to cancel and conserve any antithesis in its
all-embracing dialectic. They agree, then, in a maintenance of the
critical point of view, while all alike recognize the necessity of
bringing the thought-function in knowledge into more intimate relation
with its "other" than Kant had done, by means of some formula of
correlation or parallelism. Such an advance might have taken its cue
directly from Kant himself. As an historical fact it tended rather to
formulate itself as a reaction towards Kant in view of the course taken
by the speculative movement. Thus Schleiermacher's posthumously
published _Dialektik_ (1839) may be characterized as an appeal from the
absolutist element in Schelling's philosophy to the conception of that
correlation or parallelism which Schelling had exhibited as flowing from
and subsisting within his absolute, and therein as a return upon Kant's
doctrine of limits. Schleiermacher's conception of dialectic is to the
effect that it is concerned with the principles of the art of
philosophizing, as these are susceptible of a relatively independent
treatment by a permissible abstraction. Pure thinking or philosophizing
is with a view to philosophy or knowledge as an interconnected system of
all sciences or departmental forms of knowledge, the mark of knowledge
being its identity for all thinking minds. Dialectic then investigates
the nexus which must be held to obtain between all thoughts, but also
that agreement with the nexus in being which is the condition of the
validity of the thought-nexus. In knowing there are two functions
involved, the "organic" or animal function of sensuous experience in
virtue of which we are in touch with being, directly in inner
perception, mediately in outer experience, and the "intellectual"
function of construction. Either is indispensable, though in different
departments of knowledge the predominant rôle falls to one or other,
e.g. we are more dependent in physics, less so in ethics. The idea of a
perfect harmony of thinking and being is a presupposition that underlies
all knowing but cannot itself be realized in knowledge. In terms of the
agreement of thought and being, the logical forms of the part of
dialectic correspondent to knowledge statically considered have
parallels and analogies in being, the concept being correlated to
substance, the judgment to causal nexus. Inference, curiously enough,
falls under the technical side of dialectic concerned with knowledge in
process or becoming, a line of cleavage which Ueberweg has rightly
characterized as constituting a rift within Schleiermacher's
parallelism.

Schleiermacher's formula obviously ascribes a function in knowledge to
thought as such, and describes in a suggestive manner a duality of the
intellectual and organic functions, resting on a parallelism of thought
and being whose collapse into identity it is beyond human capacity to
grasp. It is rather, however, a statement of a way in which the
relations of the terms of the problem may be conceived than a system of
necessity. It may indeed be permitted to doubt whether its influence
upon subsequent theory would have been a great one apart from the
spiritual force of Schleiermacher's personality. Some sort of
correlationist conception, however, was an inevitable development, and
the list[136] of those who accepted it in something of the spirit of
Schleiermacher is a long one and contains many distinguished names,
notably those of Trendelenburg and Ueberweg. The group is loosely
constituted however. There was scope for diversity of view and there was
diversity of view, according as the vital issue of the formula was held
to lie in the relation of intellectual function to organic function or
in the not quite equivalent relation of thinking to being. Moreover, few
of the writers who, whatsoever it was that they baptized with the name
of logic, were at least earnestly engaged in an endeavour to solve the
problem of knowledge within a circle of ideas which was on the whole
Kantian, were under the dominance of a single inspiration. Beneke's
philosophy is a striking instance of this, with application to Fries and
affinity to Herbart conjoined with obligations to Schelling both
directly and through Schleiermacher. Lotze again wove together many
threads of earlier thought, though the web was assuredly his own.
Finally it must not be forgotten that the host of writers who were in
reaction against Hegelianism tended to take refuge in some formula of
correlation, as a half-way house between that and formalism or
psychologism or both, without reference to, and often perhaps without
consciousness of, the way in which historically it had taken shape to
meet the problem held to have been left unresolved by Kant.


  Lotze.

Lotze on the one hand held the Hegelian "deduction" to be untenable, and
classed himself with those who in his own phrase "passed to the order of
the day," while on the other hand he definitely raised the question, how
an "object" could be brought into forms to which it was not in some
sense adapted. Accordingly, though he regards logic as formal, its forms
come into relation to objectivity in some sort even within the logical
field itself, while when taken in the setting of his system as a whole,
its formal character is not of a kind that ultimately excludes
psychological and metaphysical reference, at least speculatively. As a
logician Lotze stands among the masters. His _flair_ for the essentials
in his problem, his subtlety of analysis, his patient willingness to
return upon a difficulty from a fresh and still a fresh point of view,
and finally his fineness of judgment, make his logic[137] so essentially
logic of the present, and of its kind not soon to be superseded, that
nothing more than an indication of the historical significance of some
of its characteristic features need be attempted here.

In Lotze's pure logic it is the Herbartian element that tends to be
disconcerting. Logic is formal. Its unit, the logical concept, is a
manipulated product and the process of manipulation may be called
abstraction. Processes of the psychological mechanism lie below it. The
paradox of the theory of judgment is due to the ideal of identity, and
the way in which this is evaded by supplementation to produce a
non-judgmental identity, followed by translation of the introduced
accessories with conditions in the hypothetical judgment, is thoroughly
in Herbart's manner. The reduction of judgments is on lines already
familiar. Syllogism is no instrumental method by which we compose our
knowledge, but an ideal to the form of which it should be brought. It
is, as it were, a schedule to be filled in, and is connected with the
disjunctive judgment as a schematic setting forth of alternatives, not
with the hypothetical, and ultimately the apodictic judgment with their
suggestion that it is the real movement of thought that is subjected to
analysis. Yet the resultant impression left by the whole treatment is
not Herbartian. The concept is accounted for in Kantian terms. There is
no discontinuity between the pre-logical or sub-logical conversion of
impressions into "first universals" and the formation of the logical
concept. Abstraction proves to be synthesis with compensatory universal
marks in the place of the particular marks abstracted from. Synthesis as
the work of thought always supplies, beside the mere conjunction or
disjunction of ideas, a ground of their coherence or non-coherence. It
is evident that thought, even as dealt with in pure logic, has an
objectifying function. Its universals have objective validity, though
this does not involve direct real reference. The formal conception of
pure logic, then, is modified by Lotze in such a way as not only to be
compatible with a view of the structural and functional adequacy of
thought to that which at every point at which we take thinking is still
distinguishable from thought, but even inevitably to suggest it. That
the unit for logic is the concept and not the judgment has proved a
stumbling-block to those of Lotze's critics who are accustomed to think
in terms of the act of thought as unit. Lotze's procedure is, indeed,
analogous to the way in which, in his philosophy of nature, he starts
from a plurality of real beings, but by means of a reductive movement,
an application of Kant's transcendental method, arrives at the postulate
or fact of a law of their reciprocal action which calls for a monistic
and idealist interpretation. He starts, that is in logic, with
conceptual units apparently self-contained and admitting of nothing but
external relation, but proceeds to justify the intrinsic relation
between the matter of his units by an appeal to the fact of the
coherence of all contents of thought. Indeed, if thought admits
irreducible units, what can unite? Yet he is left committed to his
puzzle as to a reduction of judgment to identity, which partially
vitiates his treatment of the theory of judgment. The outstanding
feature of this is, nevertheless, not affected, viz. the attempt that he
makes, inspired clearly by Hegel, "to develop the various forms of
judgment systematically as members of a series of operations, each of
which leaves a part of its problem unmastered and thereby gives rise to
the next."[138] As to inference, finally, the ideal of the articulation
of the universe of discourse, as it is for complete knowledge, when its
disjunctions have been thoroughly followed out and it is exhaustively
determined, carried the day with him against the view that the organon
for gaining knowledge is syllogism. The Aristotelian formula is "merely
the expression, formally expanded and complete, of the truth already
embodied in disjunctive judgment, namely, that every S which is a
specific form of M possesses as its predicate a particular modification
of each of the universal predicates of M to the exclusion of the rest."
Schleiermacher's separation of inference from judgment and his
attribution of the power to knowledge in process cannot find acceptance
with Lotze. The psychologist and the formal logician do indeed join
hands in the denial of a real movement of thought in syllogism. Lotze's
logic then, is formal in a sense in which a logic which does not find
the conception of synthetic truth embarrassing is not so. It is canon
and not organon. In the one case, however, where it recognizes what is
truly synthesis, i.e. in its account of the concept, it brings the
statics of knowledge, so to speak, into integral relation with the
dynamics. And throughout, wherever the survival from 1843, the identity
bug-bear, is for the moment got rid of in what is really a more liberal
conception, the statical doctrine is developed in a brilliant and
informing manner. Yet it is in the detail of his logical investigations,
something too volatile to fix in summary, that Lotze's greatness as a
logician more especially lies.

With Lotze the ideal that at last the forms of thought shall be realized
to be adequate to that which at any stage of actual knowledge always
proves relatively intractable is an illuminating projection of faith. He
takes courage from the reflection that to accept scepticism is to
presume the competence of the thought that accepts. He will, however,
take no easy way of parallelism. Our human thought pursues devious and
circuitous methods. Its forms are not unseldom scaffolding for the house
of knowledge rather than the framework of the house itself. Our task is
not to realise correspondence with something other than thought, but to
make explicit those justificatory notions which condition the form of
our apprehension. "However much we may presuppose an original reference
of the forms of thought to that nature of things which is the goal of
knowledge, we must be prepared to find in them many elements which do
not directly reproduce the actual reality to the knowledge of which they
are to lead us."[139] The impulse of thought to reduce coincidence to
coherence reaches immediately only to objectivity or validity. The sense
in which the presupposition of a further reference is to be interpreted
and in which justificatory notions for it can be adduced is only
determinable in a philosophic system as a whole, where feeling has a
place as well as thought, value equally with validity.

Lotze's logic then represents the statical aspect of the function of
thought in knowledge, while, so far as we go in knowledge thought is
always engaged in the unification of a manifold, which remains
contradistinguished from it, though not, of course, completely alien to
and unadapted to it. The further step to the determination of the ground
of harmony is not to be taken in logic, where limits are present and
untranscended.


  Logic as Metaphysic.

The position of the search for truth, for which knowledge is a growing
organism in which thought needs, so to speak, to feed on something other
than itself, is conditioned in the post-Kantian period by antagonism to
the speculative movement which culminated in the dialectic of Hegel. The
radical thought of this movement was voiced in the demand of
Reinhold[140] that philosophy should "deduce" it all from a single
principle and by a single method. Kant's limits that must needs be
thought and yet cannot be thought must be thought away. An earnest
attempt to satisfy this demand was made by Fichte whose single principle
was the activity of the pure Ego, while his single method was the
assertion of a truth revealed by reflection on the content of conscious
experience, the characterization of this as a half truth and the
supplementation of it by its other, and finally the harmonization of
both. The pure ego is inferred from the fact that the non-ego is
realized only in the act of the ego in positing it. The ego posits
itself, but reflection on the given shows that we must add that it
posits also the non-ego. The two positions are to be conciliated in the
thought of reciprocal limitation of the posited ego and non-ego. And so
forth. Fichte cannot be said to have developed a logic, but this rhythm
of thesis, antithesis and synthesis, foreshadowed in part for Fichte in
Spinoza's formula, "omnis determinatio est negatio" and significantly in
Kant's triadic grouping of his categories, gave a cue to the thought of
Hegel. Schelling, too, called for a single principle and claimed to have
found it in his Absolute, "the night" said Hegel, "in which all cows are
black," but his historical influence lay, as we have seen, in the
direction of a parallelism within the unity, and he also developed no
logic. It is altogether otherwise with Hegel.


  Hegel.

Hegel's logic,[141] though it involves inquiries which custom regards as
metaphysical, is not to be characterized as a metaphysic with a method.
It is logic or a rationale of thought by thought, with a full
development among other matters of all that the most separatist of
logicians regards as thought forms. It offers a solution of what has
throughout appeared as the logical problem. That solution lies doubtless
in the evolution of the Idea, i.e. an all-inclusive in which mere or
pure thought is cancelled in its separateness by a transfiguration,
while logic is nothing but the science of the Idea viewed in the medium
of pure thought. But, whatever else it be, this _Panlogismus_, to use
the word of J. E. Erdmann, is at least a logic. Thought in its
progressive unfolding, of which the history of philosophy taken in its
broad outline offers a pageant, necessarily cannot find anything
external to or alien from itself, though that there is something
external for it is another matter. As Fichte's Ego finds that its
_non-ego_ springs from and has its home within its very self, so with
Hegel thought finds itself in its "other," both subsisting in the Idea
which is both and neither. Either of the two is the all, as, for
example, the law of the convexity of the curve is the law of the curve
and the law of its concavity. The process of the development of the Idea
or Absolute is in one regard the immanent process of the all. Logically
regarded, i.e. "in the medium of mere thought," it is dialectical
method. Any abstract and limited point of view carries necessarily to
its contradictory. This can only be atoned with the original
determination by fresh negation in which a new thought-determination is
born, which is yet in a sense the old, though enriched, and valid on a
higher plane. The limitations of this in turn cause a contradiction to
emerge, and the process needs repetition. At last, however, no swing
into the opposite, with its primarily conflicting, if ultimately
complementary function, is any longer possible. That in which no further
contradiction is possible is the absolute Idea. Bare or indeterminate
being, for instance, the first of the determinations of Hegel's logic,
as the being of that which is not anything determinate, of Kant's
thing-in-itself, for example, positively understood, implicated at once
the notion of not-being, which negates it, and is one with it, yet with
a difference, so that we have the transition to determinate being, the
transition being baptized as becoming. And so forth. It is easy to raise
difficulties not only in regard to the detail in Hegel's development of
his categories, especially the higher ones, but also in regard to the
essential rhythm of his method. The consideration that mere double
negation leaves us precisely where we were and not upon a higher plane
where the dominant concept is richer, is, of course, fatal only to
certain verbal expressions of Hegel's intent. There is a differentiation
in type between the two negations. But if we grant this it is no longer
obviously the simple logical operation indicated. It is inferred then
that Hegel complements from the stuff of experience, and fails to make
good the pretension of his method to be by itself and of itself the
means of advance to higher and still higher concepts till it can rest in
the Absolute. He discards, as it were, and takes in from the stock while
professing to play from what he has originally in his hand. He
postulates his unity in senses and at stages in which it is
inadmissible, and so supplies only a schema of relations otherwise won,
a view supported by the way in which he injects certain determinations
in the process, e.g. the category of chemism. Has he not cooked the
process in the light of the result? In truth the Hegelian logic suffers
from the fact that the good to be reached is presupposed in the
beginning. Nature, e.g., is not deduced as real because rational, but
being real its rationality is presumed and, very imperfectly, exhibited
in a way to make it possible to conceive it as in its essence the reflex
of Reason. It is a vision rather than a construction. It is a
"theosophical logic." Consider the rational-real in the unity that must
be, and this is the way of it, or an approximation to the way of it! It
was inevitable that the epistemologists of the search for truth would
have none of it. The ideal in whatsoever sense real still needs to be
realized. It is from the human standpoint regulative and only
hypothetically or formally constitutive. We must not confuse [Greek:
ousia] with [Greek: einai], nor [Greek: einai] with [Greek: gignesthai].

Yet in a less ambitious form the fundamental contentions of Hegel's
method tend to find a qualified acceptance. In any piece of presumed
knowledge its partial or abstract character involves the presence of
loose edges which force the conviction of inadequacy and the development
of contradictions. Contradictions must be annulled by complementation,
with resultant increasing coherence in ascending stages. At each
successive stage in our progress fresh contradictions break out, but the
ideal of a station at which the thought-process and its other, if not
one, are at one, is permissible as a limiting conception. Yet if Hegel
meant only this he has indeed succeeded in concealing his meaning.

Hegel's treatment of the categories or thought determinations which
arise in the development of the immanent dialectic is rich in flashes of
insight, but most of them are in the ordinary view of logic wholly
metaphysical. In the stage, however, of his process in which he is
concerned with the notion are to be found concept, judgment, syllogism.
Of the last he declares that it "is the reasonable and everything
reasonable" (_Encyk._ § 181), and has the phantasy to speak of the
definition of the Absolute as being "at this stage" simply the
syllogism. It is, of course, the rhythm of the syllogism that attracts
him. The concept goes out from or utters itself in judgment to return to
an enhanced unity in syllogism. Ueberweg (_System_ § 101) is, on the
whole, justified in exclaiming that Hegel's rehabilitation of syllogism
"did but slight service to the Aristotelian theory of syllogism," yet
his treatment of syllogism must be regarded as an acute contribution to
logical criticism in the technical sense. He insists on its objectivity.
The transition from judgment is not brought about by our subjective
action. The syllogism of "all-ness" is convicted of a _petitio
principii_ (_Encyk._ § 190), with consequent lapse into the inductive
syllogism, and, finally, since inductive syllogism is involved in the
infinite process, into analogy. "The syllogism of necessity," on the
contrary, does not presuppose its conclusion in its premises. The
detail, too, of the whole discussion is rich in suggestion, and
subsequent logicians--Ueberweg himself perhaps, Lotze certainly in his
genetic scale of types of judgment and inference, Professor Bosanquet
notably in his systematic development of "the morphology of knowledge,"
and others--have with reason exploited it.

Hegel's logic as a whole, however, stands and falls not with his
thoughts on syllogism, but with the claim made for the dialectical
method that it exhibits logic in its integral unity with metaphysic, the
thought-process as the self-revelation of the Idea. The claim was
disallowed. To the formalist proper it was self-condemned in its
pretension to develop the content of thought and its rejection of the
formula of bare-identity. To the epistemologist it seemed to confuse
foundation and keystone, and to suppose itself to build upon the latter
in a construction illegitimately appropriative of materials otherwise
accumulated. At most it was thought to establish a schema of formal
unity which might serve as a regulative ideal. To the methodologist of
science in genesis it appeared altogether to fail to satisfy any
practical interest. Finally, to the psychologist it spelt the failure of
intellectualism, and encouraged, therefore, some form of rehabilitated
experientialism.

In the Hegelian school in the narrower sense the logic of the master
receives some exegesis and defence upon single points of doctrine rather
than as a whole. Its effect upon logic is rather to be seen in the
rethinking of the traditional body of logical doctrine in the light of
an absolute presupposed as ideal, with the postulate that a regulative
ideal must ultimately exhibit itself as constitutive, the justification
of the postulate being held to lie in the coherence and
all-inclusiveness of the result. In such a logic, if and so far as
coherence should be attained, would be found something akin to the
spirit of what Hegel achieves, though doubtless alien to the letter of
what it is his pretension to have achieved. There is perhaps no serious
misrepresentation involved in regarding a key-thought of this type,
though not necessarily expressed in those verbal forms, as pervading
such logic of the present as coheres with a philosophy of the absolute
conceived from a point of view that is intellectualist throughout. All
other contemporary movements may be said to be in revolt from Hegel.


v. _Logic from 1880-1910_

Logic in the present exhibits, though in characteristically modified
shapes, all the main types that have been found in its past history.
There is an intellectualist logic coalescent with an absolutist
metaphysic as aforesaid. There is an epistemological logic with sometimes
formalist, sometimes methodological leanings. There is a formal-symbolic
logic engaged with the elaboration of a relational calculus. Finally,
there is what may be termed psychological-voluntaryist logic. It is in
the rapidity of development of logical investigations of the third and
fourth types and the growing number of their exponents that the present
shows most clearly the history of logic in the making. All these
movements are logic of the present, and a very brief indication may be
added of points of historical significance.

Of intellectualist logic Francis Herbert Bradley[142] (b. 1846) and
Bernard Bosanquet[143] (1848) may be taken as typical exponents. The
philosophy of the former concludes to an Absolute by the annulment of
contradictions, though the ladder of Hegel is conspicuous by its
absence. His metaphysical method, however, is like Herbart's, not
identifiable with his logic, and the latter has for its central
characteristic its thorough restatement of the logical forms traditional
in language and the text-books, in such a way as to harmonize with the
doctrine of a reality whose organic unity is all-inclusive. The thorough
recasting that this involves, even of the thought of the masters when it
occasionally echoes them, has resulted in a phrasing uncouth to the ear
of the plain man with his world of persons and things in which the
former simply think about the latter, but it is fundamentally necessary
for Bradley's purpose. The negative judgment, for example, cannot be
held in one and the same undivided act to presuppose the unity of the
real, project an adjective as conceivably applicable to it and assert
its rejection. We need, therefore, a restatement of it. With Bradley
reality is the one subject of all judgment immediate or mediate. The act
of judgment "which refers an ideal content (recognized as such) to a
reality beyond the act" is the unit for logic. Grammatical subject and
predicate necessarily both fall under the rubric of the adjectival, that
is, within the logical idea or ideal content asserted. This is a meaning
or universal, which can have no detached or abstract self-subsistence.
As found in judgment it may exhibit differences within itself, but it is
not two, but one, an articulation of unity, not a fusion, which could
only be a confusion, of differences. With a brilliant subtlety Bradley
analyses the various types of judgment in his own way, with results that
must be taken into account by all subsequent logicians of this type. The
view of inference with which he complements it is only less satisfactory
because of a failure to distinguish the principle of nexus in syllogism
from its traditional formulation and rules, and because he is hampered
by the intractability which he finds in certain forms of relational
construction.

Bosanquet had the advantage that his logic was a work of a slightly
later date. He is, perhaps, more able than Bradley has shown himself, to
use material from alien sources and to penetrate to what is of value in
the thought of writers from whom, whether on the whole or on particular
issues, he disagrees. He treats the book-tradition, however, a debt to
which, nowadays inevitable, he is generous in acknowledging,[144] with a
judicious exercise of freedom in adaptation, i.e. constructively as
datum, never eclectically. In his fundamental theory of judgment his
obligation is to Bradley. It is to Lotze, however, that he owes most in
the characteristic feature of his logic, viz., the systematic
development of the types of judgment, and inference from less adequate
to more adequate forms. His fundamental continuity with Bradley may be
illustrated by his definition of inference. "Inference is the indirect
reference to reality of differences within a universal, by means of the
exhibition of this universal in differences directly referred to
reality."[145] Bosanquet's _Logic_ will long retain its place as an
authoritative exposition of logic of this type.

Of epistemological logic in one sense of the phrase Lotze is still to be
regarded as a typical exponent. Of another type Chr. Sigwart (q.v.) may
be named as representative. Sigwart's aim was "to reconstruct logic from
the point of view of methodology." His problem was the claim to arrive
at propositions universally valid, and so true of the object, whosoever
the individual thinker. His solution, within the Kantian circle of
ideas, was that such principles as the Kantian principle of causality
were justified as "postulates of the endeavour after complete
knowledge." "What Kant has shown is not that irregular fleeting changes
can never be the object of consciousness, but only that the ideal
consciousness of complete science would be impossible without the
knowledge of the necessity of all events."[146] "The universal
presuppositions which form the outline of our ideal of knowledge are not
so much laws which the understanding prescribes to nature ... as laws
which the understanding lays down for its own regulation in its
investigation and consideration of nature. They are a priori because no
experience is sufficient to reveal or confirm them in unconditional
universality; but they are a priori ... only in the sense of
presuppositions without which we should work with no hope of success and
merely at random and which therefore we must believe." Finally they are
akin to our ethical principles. With this coheres his dictum, with its
far-reaching consequences for the philosophy of induction, that "the
logical justification of the inductive process rests upon the fact that
it is an inevitable postulate of our effort after knowledge, that the
given is necessary, and can be known as proceeding from its grounds
according to universal laws."[147] It is characteristic of Sigwart's
point of view that he acknowledges obligation to Mill as well as to
Ueberweg. The transmutation of Mill's induction of inductions into a
postulate is an advance of which the psychological school of logicians
have not been slow to make use. The comparison of Sigwart with Lotze is
instructive, in regard both to their agreement and their divergence as
showing the range of the epistemological formula.

Of the formal-symbolic logic all that falls to be said here is, that
from the point of view of logic as a whole, it is to be regarded as a
legitimate praxis as long as it shows itself aware of the sense in which
alone form is susceptible of abstraction, and is aware that in itself it
offers no solution of the logical problem. "It is not an algebra," said
Kant[148] of his technical logic, and the kind of support lent recently
to symbolic logic by the _Gegenstandstheorie_ identified with the name
of Alexius Meinong (b. 1853)[149] is qualified by the warning that the
real activity of thought tends to fall outside the calculus of relations
and to attach rather to the subsidiary function of denoting. The future
of symbolic logic as coherent with the rest of logic, in the sense which
the word has borne throughout its history seems to be bound up with the
question of the nature of the analysis that lies behind the symbolism,
and of the way in which this is justified in the setting of a doctrine
of validity. The "theory of the object," itself, while affecting logic
alike in the formal and in the psychological conception of it very
deeply, does not claim to be regarded as logic or a logic, apart from a
setting supplied from elsewhere.

Finally we have a logic of a type fundamentally psychological, if it be
not more properly characterized as a psychology which claims to cover
the whole field of philosophy, including the logical field. The central
and organizing principle of this is that knowledge is in genesis, that
the genesis takes place in the medium of individual minds, and that this
fact implies that there is a necessary reference throughout to interests
or purposes of the subject which thinks because it wills and acts.
Historically this doctrine was formulated as the declaration of
independence of the insurgents in revolt against the pretensions of
absolutist logic. It drew for support upon the psychological movement
that begins with Fries and Herbart. It has been chiefly indebted to
writers, who were not, or were not primarily, logicians, to Avenarius,
for example, for the law of the economy of thought, to Wundt, whose
system, and therewith his logic,[150] is a pendant to his psychology,
for the volitional character of judgment, to Herbert Spencer and others.
A judgment is practical, and not to be divorced without improper
abstraction from the purpose and will that informs it. A concept is
instrumental to an end beyond itself, without any validity other than
its value for action. A situation involving a need of adaptation to
environment arises and the problem it sets must be solved that the will
may control environment and be justified by success. Truth is the
improvised machinery that is interjected, so far as this works. It is
clear that we are in the presence of what is at least an important
half-truth, which intellectuallism with its statics of the rational
order viewed as a completely articulate system has tended to ignore. It
throws light on many phases of the search for truth, upon the plain
man's claim to start with a subject which he knows whose predicate which
he does not know is still to be developed, or again upon his use of the
negative form of judgment, when the further determination of his
purposive system is served by a positive judgment from without, the
positive content of which is yet to be dropped as irrelevant to the
matter in hand. The movement has, however, scarcely developed its
logic[151] except as polemic. What seems clear is that it cannot be the
whole solution. While man must confront nature from the human and
largely the practical standpoint, yet his control is achieved only by
the increasing recognition of objective controls. He conquers by
obedience. So truth works and is economical because it is truth. Working
is proportioned to inner coherence. It is well that the view should be
developed into all its consequences. The result will be to limit it,
though perhaps also to justify it, save in its claim to reign alone.

There is, perhaps, an increasing tendency to recognize that the organism
of knowledge is a thing which from any single viewpoint must be seen in
perspective. It is of course a postulate that all truths harmonize, but
to give the harmonious whole in a projection in one plane is an
undertaking whose adequacy in one sense involves an inadequacy in
another. No human architect can hope to take up in succession all
essential points of view in regard to the form of knowledge or to logic.
"The great campanile is still to finish."

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Historical: No complete history of logic in the sense
  in which it is to be distinguished from theoretical philosophy in
  general has as yet been written. The history of logic is indeed so
  little intelligible apart from constant reference to tendencies in
  philosophical development as a whole, that the historian, when he has
  made the requisite preparatory studies, inclines to essay the more
  ambitious task. Yet there are, of course, works devoted to the history
  of logic proper.

  Of these Prantl's _Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande_ (4 vols.,
  1855-1870), which traces the rise, development and fortunes of the
  Aristotelian logic to the close of the middle ages, is monumental.
  Next in importance are the works of L. Rabus, _Logik und Metaphysik_,
  i. (1868) (pp. 123-242 historical, pp. 453-518 bibliographical, pp.
  514 sqq. a section on apparatus for the study of the history of
  logic), _Die neuesten Bestrebungen auf dem Gebiete der Logik bei den
  Deutschen_ (1880), _Logik_ (1895), especially for later writers § 17.
  Ueberweg's _System der Logik und Geschichte der logischen Lehren_ (4th
  ed. and last revised by the author, 1874, though it has been reissued
  later, Eng. trans., 1871) is alone to be named with these. Harms'
  posthumously published _Geschichte der Logik_ (1881) (_Die Philosophie
  in ihrer Geschichte_, ii.) was completed by the author only so far as
  Leibnitz. Blakey's _Historical Sketch of Logic_ (1851), though, like
  all this writer's works, closing with a bibliography of some
  pretensions, is now negligible. Franck, _Esquisse d'une histoire de la
  logique_ (1838) is the chief French contribution to the subject as a
  whole.

  Of contributions towards the history of special periods or schools of
  logical thought the list, from the opening chapters of Ramus's
  _Scholae Dialecticae_ (1569) downwards (v. Rabus _loc. cit._) would be
  endless. What is of value in the earlier works has now been absorbed.
  The _System der Logik_ (1828) of Bachmann (a Kantian logician of
  distinction) contains a historical survey (pp. 569-644), as does the
  _Denklehre_ (1822) of van Calker (allied in thought to Fries) pp. 12
  sqq.; Eberstein's _Geschichte der Logik und Metaphysik bei den
  Deutschen von Leibniz bis auf gegenwärtige Zeit_ (latest edition,
  1799) is still of importance in regard to logicians of the school of
  Wolff and the origines of Kant's logical thought. Hoffmann, the editor
  and disciple of von Baader, published _Grundzüge einer Geschichte der
  Begriffe der Logik in Deutschland von Kant bis Baader_ (1851).
  Wallace's prolegomena and notes to his _Logic of Hegel_ (1874, revised
  and augmented 1892-1894) are of use for the history and terminology,
  as well as the theory. Riehl's article entitled _Logik in Die Kultur
  der Gegenwart_, vi. 1. _Systematische Philosophie_ (1907), is
  excellent, and touches on quite modern developments. Liard, _Les
  Logiciens Anglais Contemporains_ (5th ed., 1907), deals only with the
  19th-century inductive and formal-symbolic logicians down to Jevons,
  to whom the book was originally dedicated. Venn's _Symbolic Logic_
  (1881) gave a careful history and bibliography of that development.
  The history of the more recent changes is as yet to be found only in
  the form of unshaped material in the pages of review and
  _Jahresbericht_.     (H. W. B.*)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Cf. Heidel, "The Logic of the Pre-Socratic Philosophy," in
    Dewey's _Studies in Logical Theory_ (Chicago, 1903).

  [2] Heraclitus, _Fragmm._ 107 (Diels, _Fragmente der Vorsokratiker_)
    and 2, on which see Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_, p. 153 note
    (ed. 2).

  [3] e.g. Diog. Laërt. ix. 25, from the lost _Sophistes_ of Aristotle.

  [4] _Plato and Platonism_, p. 24.

  [5] Nothing is. If anything is, it cannot be known. If anything is
    known it cannot be communicated.

  [6] _Metaphys. [mu]. 1078b_ 28 sqq.

  [7] Cf. Arist. _Top. [theta]_. i. 1 _ad fin_.

  [8] For whom see Dümmler, _Antisthenica_ (1882, reprinted in his
    _Kleine Schriften_, 1901).

  [9] Aristotle, _Metaphys._ 1024b 32 sqq.

  [10] Plato, _Theaetetus_, 201 E. sqq., where, however, Antisthenes is
    not named, and the reference to him is sometimes doubted. But cf.
    Aristotle, _Met._ H 3. 1043b 24-28.

  [11] Diog. Laërt. ii. 107.

  [12] Aristotle, _An. Pr._ i. 31, 46a 32 sqq.; cf. 91b 12 sqq.

  [13] Athenaeus ii. 59c. See Usener, _Organisation der wissenschaftl.
    Arbeit_ (1884; reprinted in his _Vorträge und Aufsätze_, 1907).

  [14] Socrates' reference of a discussion to its presuppositions
    (Xenophon, _Mem._ iv. 6, 13) is not relevant for the history of the
    terminology of induction.

  [15] _Theaetetus_, 186c.

  [16] Timaeus, 37a, b (quoted in H. F. Carlill's translation of the
    _Theaetetus_, p. 60).

  [17] _Theaetetus_, 186d.

  [18] Sophistes, 253d.

  [19] _Ib. id._; cf. _Theaetetus_, 197d.

  [20] Aristotle, _de An._ 430b 5, and generally iii. 2, iii. 5.

  [21] For Plato's Logic, the controversies as to the genuineness of
    the dialogues may be treated summarily. The _Theaetetus_ labours
    under no suspicion. The _Sophistes_ is apparently matter for
    animadversion by Aristotle in the _Metaphysics_ and elsewhere, but
    derives stronger support from the testimonies to the _Politicus_
    which presumes it. The _Politicus_ and _Philebus_ are guaranteed by
    the use made of them in Aristotle's Ethics. The rejection of the
    _Parmenides_ would involve the paradox of a nameless contemporary of
    Plato and Aristotle who was inferior as a metaphysician to neither.
    No other dialogue adds anything to the _logical_ content of these.

    Granted their genuineness, the relative dating of three of them is
    given, viz. _Theaetetus_, _Sophistes_ and _Politicus_ in the order
    named. The _Philebus_ seems to presuppose _Politicus_, 283-284, but
    if this be an error, it will affect the logical theory not at all.
    There remains the _Parmenides_. It can scarcely be later than the
    _Sophistes_. The antinomies with which it concludes are more
    naturally taken as a prelude to the discussion of the _Sophistes_
    than as an unnecessary retreatment of the doctrine of the one and the
    many in a more negative form. It may well be earlier than the
    _Theaetetus_ in its present form. The stylistic argument shows the
    _Theaetetus_ relatively early. The maturity of its philosophic
    outlook tends to give it a place relatively advanced in the Platonic
    canon. To meet the problem here raised, the theory has been devised
    of an earlier and a later version. The first may have linked on to
    the series of Plato's dialogues of search, and to put the
    _Parmenides_ before it is impossible. The second, though it might
    still have preceded the _Parmenides_ might equally well have followed
    the negative criticism of that dialogue, as the beginning of
    reconstruction. For Plato's logic this question only has interest on
    account of the introduction of an [Greek: Aristotelês] in a
    non-speaking part in the _Parmenides_. If this be pressed as
    suggesting that the philosopher Aristotle was already in full
    activity at the date of writing, it is of importance to know what
    Platonic dialogues were later than the début of his critical pupil.

    On the stylistic argument as applied to Platonic controversies
    Janell's _Quaestiones Platonicae_ (1901) is important. On the whole
    question of genuineness and dates of the dialogues, H. Raeder,
    _Platons philosophische Entwickelung_ (1905), gives an excellent
    conspectus of the views held and the grounds alleged. See also PLATO.

  [22] E.g. that of essence and accident. Republic, 454.

  [23] E.g. the discussion of correlation, ib. 437 sqq.

  [24] _Politicus_, 285d.

  [25] _Sophistes_, 261c sqq.

  [26] E.g. in _Nic. Eth._ i. 6.

  [27] _Philebus_, 16d.

  [28] Principal edition still that of Waitz, with Latin commentary, (2
    vols., 1844-1846). Among the innumerable writers who have thrown
    light upon Aristotle's logical doctrine, St Hilaire, Trendelenburg,
    Ueberweg, Hamilton, Mansel, G. Grote may be named. There are,
    however, others of equal distinction. Reference to Prantl, op. cit.,
    is indispensable. Zeller, _Die philosophie der Griechen_, ii. 2,
    "Aristoteles" (3rd ed., 1879), pp. 185-257 (there is an Eng. trans.),
    and Maier, _Die Syllogistik des Aristoteles_ (2 vols., 1896, 1900)
    (some 900 pp.), are also of first-rate importance.

  [29] _Sophist. Elench._ 184, espec. b 1-3, but see Maier, _loc. cit._
    i. 1.

  [30] References such as 18b 12 are the result of subsequent editing
    and prove nothing. See, however, ARISTOTLE.

  [31] Adrastus is said to have called them [Greek: pro tôn topikôn].

  [32] _Metaphys._ E. 1.

  [33] _De Part. Animal._ A. 1, 639a 1 sqq.; cf. _Metaphys._ 1005b 2
    sqq.

  [34] _De Interpretatione_ 16a sqq.

  [35] _De Interpretatione_ 16a 24-25.

  [36] _Ib._ 18a 28 sqq.

  [37] _Ib._ 19a 28-29.

  [38] As shown e.g. by the way in which the relativity of sense and
    the object of sense is conceived, 7b 35-37.

  [39] _Topics_ 101a 27 and 36-b 4.

  [40] _Topics_ 100.

  [41] _Politics_ 1282a 1 sqq.

  [42] 103b 21.

  [43] _Topics_ 160a 37-b 5.

  [44] This is the explanation of the formal definition of induction,
    _Prior Analytics_, ii. 23, 68b 15 sqq.

  [45] 25b 36.

  [46] _Prior Analytics_, i. 1. 24a 18-20, [Greek: Syllogismos de esti
    logos en ô tethentôn tinôn eteron ti tôn keimenôn ex anankês
    snmbainei tô tauta einai]. The equivalent previously in _Topics_ 100a
    25 sqq.

  [47] _Prior Analytics_, ii. 21; _Posterior Analytics_, i. 1.

  [48] 67a 33-37, [Greek: mê syntheôrôn to kath' ekateron].

  [49] 67a 39-63.

  [50] 79a 4-5.

  [51] 24b 10-11.

  [52] _Posterior Analytics_, i. 4 [Greek: kath auto] means (1)
    contained in the definition of the subject; (2) having the subject
    contained in its definition, as being an alternative determination of
    the subject, crooked, e.g. is _per se_ of line; (3) self-subsistent;
    (4) connected with the subject as consequent to ground. Its needs
    stricter determination therefore.

  [53] 73b 26 sqq., 74a 37 sqq.

  [54] 90b 16.

  [55] _Metaphys. Z._ 12, H. 6 ground this formula metaphysically.

  [56] 94a 12, 75b 32.

  [57] 90a 6. Cf. Ueberweg, _System der Logik_, § 101.

  [58] 78a 30 sqq.

  [59] _Topics_, 101b 18, 19.

  [60] _Posterior Analytics_, ii. 13.

  [61] _Posterior Analytics_, ii. 16.

  [62] _Posterior Analytics_, i. 13 ad. fin., and i. 27. The form which
    a mathematical science treats as relatively self-subsistent is
    certainly not the constitutive idea.

  [63] _Posterior Analytics_, i. 3.

  [64] _Posterior Analytics_, ii. 19.

  [65] _De Anima_, 428b 18, 19.

  [66] _Prior Analytics_, i. 30, 46a 18.

  [67] _Topics_, 100b 20, 21.

  [68] _Topics_, 101a 25, 36-37, b1-4, &c.

  [69] Zeller (_loc. cit._ p. 194), who puts this formula in order to
    reject it.

  [70] _Metaphys._ [Delta] 1, 1013a 14.

  [71] _Posterior Analytics_, 72a 16 seq.

  [72] _Posterior Analytics_, 77a 26, 76a 37 sqq.

  [73] _Metaphys._ [Gamma].

  [74] _Posterior Analytics_, ii. 19.

  [75] _de Anima_, iii. 4-6.

  [76] _Metaphys._ M. 1087a 10-12; Zeller loc. cit. 304 sqq.; McLeod
    Innes, _The Universal and Particular in Aristotle's Theory of
    Knowledge_ (1886).

  [77] _Topics_, 105a 13.

  [78] _Metaphys._ 995a 8.

  [79] E.g., _Topics_, 108b 10, "to induce" the universal.

  [80] _Posterior Analytics_, ii. 19, 100b 3, 4.

  [81] _Topics_, i. 18, 108b 10.

  [82] _Prior Analytics_, ii. 23.

  [83] [Greek: Paradeigma], Prior Analytics, ii. 24.

  [84] Sigwart, _Logik_, Eng. trans. vol. ii. p. 292 and elsewhere.

  [85] Ueberweg, _System_, § 127, with a ref. to _de Partibus
    Animalium_, 667a.

  [86] See 67a 17 [Greek: ex hapantôn tôn atomôn].

  [87] [Greek: Epiphora]. [Greek: Epi] = "in" as in [Greek: epagôgê],
    inductio, and [Greek: -phora] = -ferentia, as in [Greek: diaphora],
    dif_ferentia_.

  [88] Diog. Laërt. x. 33 seq.; Sext. Emp. Adv. Math. vii. 211.

  [89] Diog. Laërt. x. 87; cf. Lucretius, vi. 703 sq., v. 526 sqq. (ed.
    Munro).

  [90] Sextus Empiricus, _Pyrrhon. Hypotyp._ ii. 195, 196.

  [91] Sextus, _op. cit._ ii. 204.

  [92] _Op. cit._ iii. 17 sqq., and especially 28.

  [93] The point is raised by Aristotle, 95A.

  [94] See Jourdain, _Recherches critiques sur l'âge et l'origine des
    traductions latines d'Aristote_ (1843).

  [95] See E. Cassirer, _Das Erkenntnisproblem_, i. 134 seq., and the
    justificatory excerpts, pp. 539 sqq.

  [96] See Riehl in _Vierteljahrschr. f. wiss. Philos._ (1893).

  [97] Bacon, _Novum Organum_, ii. 22, 23; cf. also Aristotle, _Topics_
    i. 12. 13, ii. 10. 11 (Stewart, ad _Nic. Eth._ 1139b 27) and Sextus
    Empiricus, _Pyrr. Hypot._ iii. 15.

  [98] Bacon's _Works_, ed. Ellis and Spedding, iii. 164-165.

  [99] A notable formula of Bacon's _Novum Organum_ ii. 4 § 3 turns
    out, _Valerius Terminus_, cap. 11, to come from Aristotle, _Post.
    An._ i. 4 _via_ Ramus. See Ellis in Bacon's _Works_, iii. 203 sqq.

  [100] _De Civitate Dei_, xi. 26. "Certum est me esse, si fallor."

  [101] Cf. Plato, _Republic_, 381E seq.

  [102] _Elementa Philosophiæ_, i. 3. 20, i. 6. 17 seq.

  [103] Hobbes, _Elementa Philosophiæ_, i. 1. 5.

  [104] _Id. ib._ i. 6. 16.

  [105] _Id. ib._ i. 4. 8; cf. Locke's _Essay of Human Understanding_,
    iv. 17.

  [106] _Id. Leviathan_, i. 3.

  [107] _Id. Elem. Philos._ i. 6. 10.

  [108] Condillac, _Langue des Calculs_, p. 7.

  [109] Locke, _Essay_, iii. 3.

  [110] _Id. ib._ iv. 17.

  [111] _Loc. cit._ § 8.

  [112] _Id. ib._ iv. 4, §§ 6 sqq.

  [113] Berkeley, _Of the Principles of Human Knowledge_, § 142.

  [114] Hume, _Treatise of Human Nature_, i. 1. 7 (from Berkeley, _op.
    cit._, introd., §§ 15-16).

  [115] _Essay_, iv. 17, § 3.

  [116] Hume, _Treatise of Human Nature_, i. 3. 15.

  [117] Mill, _Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy_, cap.
    17.

  [118] Cf. Mill, _Autobiography_, p. 159. "I grappled at once with the
    problem of Induction, postponing that of Reasoning." _Ib._ p. 182
    (when he is preoccupied with syllogism), "I could make nothing
    satisfactory of Induction at this time."

  [119] _Autobiography_, p. 181.

  [120] The insight, for instance, of F. H. Bradley's criticism,
    _Principles of Logic_, II. ii. 3, is somewhat dimmed by a lack of
    sympathy due to extreme difference in the point of view adopted.

  [121] Bacon, _Novum organum_, i. 100.

  [122] Russell's _Philosophy of Leibnitz_, capp. 1-5.

  [123] See especially remarks on the letter of M. Arnauld (Gerhardt's
    edition of the philosophical works, ii. 37 sqq.).

  [124] Gerhardt, vi. 612, quoted by Russell, _loc. cit._, p. 19.

  [125] Ibid., ii. 62, Russell, p. 33.

  [126] Spinoza, ed. van Vloten and Land, i. 46 (_Ethica_, i. 11).

  [127] _Nouveaux essais_, iv. 2 § 9, 17 § 4 (Gerhardt v. 351, 460).

  [128] _Critique of Judgment_, Introd. § 2, _ad. fin._ (_Werke_,
    Berlin Academy edition, vol. v. p. 176, l. 10).

  [129] _Kant's Introduction to Logic and his Essay on the Mistaken
    Subtlety of the Four Figures_, trans. T. K. Abbott (1885).

  [130] _Loc. cit._, p. 11.

  [131] Or antitheses. Kant follows, for example, a different line of
    cleavage between form and content from that developed between thought
    and the "given." And these are not his only unresolved dualities,
    even in the _Critique of Pure Reason_. For the logical inquiry,
    however, it is permissible to ignore or reduce these differences.

    The determination too of the sense in which Kant's theory of
    knowledge involves an unresolved antithesis is for the logical
    purpose necessary so far only as it throws light upon his logic and
    his influence upon logical developments. Historically the question of
    the extent to which writers adopted the dualistic interpretation or
    one that had the like consequences is of greater importance.

    It may be said summarily that Kant holds the antithesis between
    thought and "the given" to be unresolved and within the limits of
    theory of knowledge irreducible. The dove of thought falls lifeless
    if the resistant atmosphere of "the given" be withdrawn (_Critique of
    Pure Reason_, ed. 2 Introd. Kant's _Werke_, ed. of the Prussian
    Academy, vol. iii. p. 32, ll. 10 sqq.). Nevertheless the
    thing-in-itself is a problematic conception and of a limiting or
    negative use merely. He "had woven," according to an often quoted
    phrase of Goethe, "a certain sly element of irony into his method;
    ... he pointed as it were with a side gesture beyond the limits which
    he himself had drawn." Thus (_loc. cit._ p. 46, ll. 8, 9) he declares
    that "there are two lineages united in human knowledge, which perhaps
    spring from a common stock, though to us unknown--namely sense and
    understanding." Some indication of the way in which he would
    hypothetically and speculatively mitigate the antithesis is perhaps
    afforded by the reflection that the distinction of the mental and
    what appears as material is an external distinction in which the one
    appears outside to the other. "Yet what as thing-in-itself lies back
    of the phenomenon may perhaps not be so wholly disparate after all"
    (ib. p. 278, ll. 26 sqq.).

  [132] _Critique of Judgment_, Introd. § 2 (_Werke_, v., 276 ll. 9
    sqq.); cf. Bernard's "Prolegomena" to his translation of this, (pp.
    xxxviii. sqq.).

  [133] _Die Logik, insbesondere die Analytik_ (Schleswig, 1825).
    August Detlev Christian Twesten (1789-1876), a Protestant theologian,
    succeeded Schleiermacher as professor in Berlin in 1835.

  [134] See _Sir William Hamilton: The Philosophy of Perception_, by J.
    Hutchison Stirling.

  [135] _Hauptpunkte der Logik_, 1808 (_Werke_, ed. Hartenstein, i. 465
    sqq.), and specially _Lehrbuch der Einleitung in die Philosophie_
    (1813), and subsequently §§ 34 sqq. (_Werke_, i. 77 sqq.).

  [136] See Ueberweg, _System of Logic and History of Logical
    Doctrines_, § 34.

  [137] _Drei Bücher der Logik_, 1874 (E.T., 1884). The Book on Pure
    Logic follows in essentials the line of thought of an earlier work
    (1843).

  [138] _Logic_, Eng. trans. 35 _ad. fin._

  [139] _Logic_, Introd. § ix.

  [140] For whom see Höffding, _History of Modern Philosophy_, Eng.
    trans., vol. ii. pp. 122 sqq.; invaluable for the logical methods of
    modern philosophers.

  [141] _Wissenschaft der Logik_ (1812-1816), in course of revision at
    Hegel's death in 1831 (_Werke_, vols. iii.-v.), and _Encyklopädie der
    philosophischen Wissenschaften_, i.; _Die Logik_ (1817; 3rd ed.,
    1830); _Werke_, vol. vi., Eng. trans., Wallace (2nd ed., 1892).

  [142] _The Principles of Logic_ (1883).

  [143] _Logic, or The Morphology of Thought_ (2 vols., 1888).

  [144] _Logic_, Pref. pp. 6 seq.

  [145] _Id._ vol. ii. p. 4.

  [146] _Logik_ (1873, 1889), Eng. trans. ii. 17.

  [147] _Op. cit._ ii. 289.

  [148] _Introd. to Logic._, trans. Abbott, p. 10.

  [149] _Ueber Annahmen_ (1902, &c.)

  [150] _Logik_ (1880, and in later editions).

  [151] Yet see _Studies in Logic_, by John Dewey and others (1903).




LOGOCYCLIC CURVE, STROPHOID or FOLIATE, a cubic curve generated by
increasing or diminishing the radius vector of a variable point Q on a
straight line AB by the distance QC of the point from the foot of the
perpendicular drawn from the origin to the fixed line. The polar
equation is r cos[theta] = a(1 ± sin[theta]), the upper sign referring
to the case when the vector is increased, the lower when it is
diminished. Both branches are included in the Cartesian equation (x² +
y²)(2a - x) = a²x, where a is the distance of the line from the origin.
If we take for axes the fixed line and the perpendicular through the
initial point, the equation takes the form y [root](a - x) = x [root](a
+ x). The curve resembles the folium of Descartes, and has a node
between x = 0, x = a, and two branches asymptotic to the line x = 2a.

[Illustration.]




LOGOGRAPHI ([Greek: logos], [Greek: graphô], writers of prose histories
or tales), the name given by modern scholars to the Greek
historiographers before Herodotus.[1] Thucydides, however, applies the
term to all his own predecessors, and it is therefore usual to make a
distinction between the older and the younger logographers. Their
representatives, with one exception, came from Ionia and its islands,
which from their position were most favourably situated for the
acquisition of knowledge concerning the distant countries of East and
West. They wrote in the Ionic dialect, in what was called the unperiodic
style, and preserved the poetic character of their epic model. Their
criticism amounts to nothing more than a crude attempt to rationalize
the current legends and traditions connected with the founding of
cities, the genealogies of ruling families, and the manners and customs
of individual peoples. Of scientific criticism there is no trace
whatever. The first of these historians was probably Cadmus of Miletus
(who lived, if at all, in the early part of the 6th century), the
earliest writer of prose, author of a work on the founding of his native
city and the colonization of Ionia (so Suïdas); Pherecydes of Leros, who
died about 400, is generally considered the last. Mention may also be
made of the following: Hecataeus of Miletus (550-476); Acusilaus of
Argos,[2] who paraphrased in prose (correcting the tradition where it
seemed necessary) the genealogical works of Hesiod in the Ionic dialect;
he confined his attention to the prehistoric period, and made no attempt
at a real history; Charon of Lampsacus (c. 450), author of histories of
Persia, Libya, and Ethiopia, of annals ([Greek: hôroi]) of his native
town with lists of the prytaneis and archons, and of the chronicles of
Lacedaemonian kings; Xanthus of Sardis in Lydia (c. 450), author of a
history of Lydia, one of the chief authorities used by Nicolaus of
Damascus (_fl._ during the time of Augustus); Hellanicus of Mytilene;
Stesimbrotus of Thasos, opponent of Pericles and reputed author of a
political pamphlet on Themistocles, Thucydides and Pericles; Hippys and
Glaucus, both of Rhegium, the first the author of histories of Italy and
Sicily, the second of a treatise on ancient poets and musicians, used by
Harpocration and Plutarch; Damastes of Sigeum, pupil of Hellanicus,
author of genealogies of the combatants before Troy (an ethnographic and
statistical list), of short treatises on poets, sophists, and
geographical subjects.

  On the early Greek historians, see G. Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_
  (1893), i. 147-153; C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das Studium der alten
  Geschichte_ (1895); A. Schäfer, _Abriss der Quellenkunde der
  griechischen und römischen Geschichte_ (ed. H. Nissen, 1889); J. B.
  Bury, _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909), lecture i.; histories of
  Greek literature by Müller-Donaldson (ch. 18) and W. Mure (bk. iv. ch.
  3), where the little that is known concerning the life and writings of
  the logographers is exhaustively discussed. The fragments will be
  found, with Latin notes, translation, prolegomena, and copious
  indexes, in C. W. Müller's _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_
  (1841-1870).

  See also GREECE: _History, Ancient_ (section, "Authorities").


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The word is also used of the writers of speeches for the use of
    the contending parties in the law courts, who were forbidden to
    employ advocates.

  [2] There is some doubt as to whether this Acusilaus was of
    Peloponnesian or Boeotian Argos. Possibly there were two of the name.
    For an example of the method of Acusilaus see Bury, _op. cit._ p. 19.




LOGOS [Greek: logos], a common term in ancient philosophy and theology.
It expresses the idea of an immanent reason in the world, and, under
various modifications, is met with in Indian, Egyptian and Persian
systems of thought. But the idea was developed mainly in Hellenic and
Hebrew philosophy, and we may distinguish the following stages:

1. _The Hellenic Logos._--To the Greek mind, which saw in the world a
[Greek: kosmos] (ordered whole), it was natural to regard the world as
the product of reason, and reason as the ruling principle in the world.
So we find a Logos doctrine more or less prominent from the dawn of
Hellenic thought to its eclipse. It rises in the realm of physical
speculation, passes over into the territory of ethics and theology, and
makes its way through at least three well-defined stages. These are
marked off by the names of Heraclitus of Ephesus, the Stoics and Philo.

It acquires its first importance in the theories of Heraclitus (6th
century B.C.), who, trying to account for the aesthetic order of the
visible universe, broke away to some extent from the purely physical
conceptions of his predecessors and discerned at work in the cosmic
process a [Greek: logos] analogous to the reasoning power in man. On the
one hand the Logos is identified with [Greek: gnômê] and connected with
[Greek: dikê], which latter seems to have the function of correcting
deviations from the eternal law that rules in things. On the other hand
it is not positively distinguished either from the ethereal fire, or
from the [Greek: heimarmenê] and the [Greek: anankê] according to which
all things occur. Heraclitus holds that nothing material can be thought
of without this Logos, but he does not conceive the Logos itself to be
immaterial. Whether it is regarded as in any sense possessed of
intelligence and consciousness is a question variously answered. But
there is most to say for the negative. This Logos is not one above the
world or prior to it, but in the world and inseparable from it. Man's
soul is a part of it. It is _relation_, therefore, as Schleiermacher
expresses it, or reason, not speech or word. And it is objective, not
subjective, reason. Like a law of nature, objective in the world, it
gives order and regularity to the movement of things, and makes the
system rational.[1]

The failure of Heraclitus to free himself entirely from the physical
hypotheses of earlier times prevented his speculation from influencing
his successors. With Anaxagoras a conception entered which gradually
triumphed over that of Heraclitus, namely, the conception of a supreme,
intellectual principle, not identified with the world but independent of
it. This, however, was [Greek: nous], not Logos. In the Platonic and
Aristotelian systems, too, the theory of ideas involved an absolute
separation between the material world and the world of higher reality,
and though the term Logos is found the conception is vague and
undeveloped. With Plato the term selected for the expression of the
principle to which the order visible in the universe is due is [Greek:
nous] or [Greek: sophia], not [Greek: logos]. It is in the
pseudo-Platonic _Epinomis_ that [Greek: logos] appears as a synonym for
[Greek: nous]. In Aristotle, again, the principle which sets all nature
under the rule of thought, and directs it towards a rational end, is
[Greek: nous], or the divine spirit itself; while [Greek: logos] is a
term with many senses, used as more or less identical with a number of
phrases, [Greek: ou heneka], [Greek: energeia], [Greek: entelecheia],
[Greek: ousia], [Greek: eidos], [Greek: morphê], &c.

In the reaction from Platonic dualism, however, the Logos doctrine
reappears in great breadth. It is a capital element in the system of the
Stoics. With their teleological views of the world they naturally
predicated an active principle pervading it and determining it. This
operative principle is called both Logos and God. It is conceived of as
material, and is described in terms used equally of nature and of God.
There is at the same time the special doctrine of the [Greek: logos
spermatikos], the seminal Logos, or the law of generation in the world,
the principle of the active reason working in dead matter. This parts
into [Greek: logoi spermatikoi], which are akin, not to the Platonic
ideas, but rather to the [Greek: logoi enuloi] of Aristotle. In man,
too, there is a Logos which is his characteristic possession, and which
is [Greek: endiathetos], as long as it is a thought resident within his
breast, but [Greek: prophorikos] when it is expressed as a word. This
distinction between Logos as ratio and Logos as _oratio_, so much used
subsequently by Philo and the Christian fathers, had been so far
anticipated by Aristotle's distinction between the [Greek: exô logos]
and the [Greek: logos en tê psychê]. It forms the point of attachment by
which the Logos doctrine connected itself with Christianity. The Logos
of the Stoics (q.v.) is a reason in the world gifted with intelligence,
and analogous to the reason in man.

2. _The Hebrew Logos._--In the later Judaism the earlier anthropomorphic
conception of God and with it the sense of the divine nearness had been
succeeded by a belief which placed God at a remote distance, severed
from man and the world by a deep chasm. The old familiar name Yahweh
became a secret; its place was taken by such general expressions as the
Holy, the Almighty, the Majesty on High, the King of Kings, and also by
the simple word "Heaven." Instead of the once powerful confidence in the
immediate presence of God there grew up a mass of speculation regarding
on the one hand the distant future, on the other the distant past.
Various attempts were made to bridge the gulf between God and man,
including the angels, and a number of other hybrid forms of which it is
hard to say whether they are personal beings or abstractions. The
wisdom, the Shekinah or Glory, and the Spirit of God are intermediate
beings of this kind, and even the Law came to be regarded as an
independent spiritual entity. Among these conceptions that of the word
of God had an important place, especially the creative word of Genesis
i. Here as in the other cases we cannot always say whether the Word is
regarded as a mere attribute or activity of God, or an independent
being, though there is a clear tendency towards the latter. The
ambiguity lies in the twofold purpose of these activities: (1) to
establish communication with God; (2) to prevent direct connexion
between God and the world. The word of the God of revelation is
represented as the creative principle (e.g. Gen. i. 3; Psalm xxxiii. 6),
as the executor of the divine judgments (Hosea vi. 5), as healing (Psalm
cvii. 20), as possessed of almost personal qualities (Isaiah lv. 11;
Psalm cxlvii. 15). Along with this comes the doctrine of the angel of
Yahweh, the angel of the covenant, the angel of the presence, in whom
God manifests Himself, and who is sometimes identified with Yahweh or
Elohim (Gen. xvi. 11, 13; xxxii. 29-31; Exod. iii. 2; xiii. 21),
sometimes distinguished from Him (Gen. xxii. 15, &c.; xxiv. 7; xxviii.
12, &c.), and sometimes presented in both aspects (Judges ii., vi.;
Zech. i.). To this must be added the doctrine of Wisdom, given in the
books of Job and Proverbs. At one time it is exhibited as an attribute
of God (Prov. iii. 19). At another it is strongly personified, so as to
become rather the creative thought of God than a quality (Prov. viii.
22). Again it is described as proceeding from God as the principle of
creation and objective to Him. In these and kindred passages (Job xv. 7,
&c.) it is on the way to become hypostatized.

  The Hebrew conception is partially associated with the Greek in the
  case of Aristobulus, the predecessor of Philo, and, according to the
  fathers, the founder of the Alexandrian school. He speaks of Wisdom in
  a way reminding us of the book of Proverbs. The pseudo-Solomonic _Book
  of Wisdom_ (generally supposed to be the work of an Alexandrian
  flourishing somewhere between Aristobulus and Philo) deals both with
  the Wisdom and with the Logos. It fails to hypostatize either. But it
  represents the former as the framer of the world, as the power or
  spirit of God, active alike in the physical, the intellectual, and the
  ethical domain, and apparently objective to God. In the Targums, on
  the other hand, the three doctrines of the word, the angel, and the
  wisdom of God converge in a very definite conception. In the Jewish
  theology God is represented as purely transcendent, having no likeness
  of nature with man, and making no personal entrance into history.
  Instead of the immediate relation of God to the world the Targums
  introduce the ideas of the _Memra_ (word) and the _Shechina_ (real
  presence). This Memra (= Ma'amar) or, as it is also designated,
  _Dibbura_, is a hypostasis that takes the place of God when direct
  intercourse with man is in view. In all those passages of the Old
  Testament where anthropomorphic terms are used of God, the Memra is
  substituted for God. The Memra proceeds from God, and retains the
  creaturely relation to God. It does not seem to have been identified
  with the Messiah.[2]


3. _Philo._--In the Alexandrian philosophy, as represented by the
Hellenized Jew Philo, the Logos doctrine assumes a leading place and
shapes a new career for itself. Philo's doctrine is moulded by three
forces--Platonism, Stoicism and Hebraism. He detaches the Logos idea
from its connexion with Stoic materialism and attaches it to a
thoroughgoing Platonism. It is Plato's idea of the Good regarded as
creatively active. Hence, instead of being merely immanent in the
Cosmos, it has an independent existence. Platonic too is the doctrine of
the divine architect who seeks to realize in the visible universe the
archetypes already formed in his mind. Philo was thus able to make the
Logos theory a bridge between Judaism and Greek philosophy. It preserved
the monotheistic idea yet afforded a description of the Divine activity
in terms of Hellenic thought; the word of the Old Testament is one with
the [Greek: logos] of the Stoics. And thus in Philo's conception the
Logos is much more than "the principle of reason, informing the infinite
variety of things, and so creating the World-Order"; it is also the
divine dynamic, the energy and self-revelation of God. The Stoics indeed
sought, more or less consciously, by their doctrine of the Logos as the
Infinite Reason to escape from the belief in a divine Creator, but
Philo, Jew to the core, starts from the Jewish belief in a supreme,
self-existing God, to whom the reason of the world must be subordinated
though related. The conflict of the two conceptions (the Greek and the
Hebrew) led him into some difficulty; sometimes he represents the Logos
as an independent and even personal being, a "second God," sometimes as
merely an aspect of the divine activity. And though passages of the
first class must no doubt be explained figuratively--for Philo would not
assert the existence of two Divine agents--it remains true that the two
conceptions cannot be fused. The Alexandrian philosopher wavers between
the two theories and has to accord to the Logos of Hellas a
semi-independent position beside the supreme God of Judaea. He speaks of
the Logos (1) as the agency by which God reveals Himself, in some
measure to all men, in greater degree to chosen souls. The appearances
recorded in the Old Testament are manifestations of the Logos, and the
knowledge of God possessed by the great leaders and teachers of Israel
is due to the same source; (2) as the agency whereby man, enmeshed by
illusion, lays hold of the higher spiritual life and rising above his
partial point of view participates in the universal reason. The Logos is
thus the means of redemption; those who realize its activity being
emancipated from the tyranny of circumstance into the freedom of the
eternal.

4. _The Fourth Gospel._--Among the influences that shaped the Fourth
Gospel that of the Alexandrian philosophy must be assigned a distinct,
though not an exaggerated importance. There are other books in the New
Testament that bear the same impress, the epistles to the Ephesians and
the Colossians, and to a much greater degree the epistle to the Hebrews.
The development that had thus begun in the time of Paul reaches maturity
in the Fourth Gospel, whose dependence on Philo appears (1) in the use
of the allegorical method, (2) in many coincident passages, (3) in the
dominant conception of the Logos. The writer narrates the life of Christ
from the point of view furnished him by Philo's theory. True, the Logos
doctrine is only mentioned in the prologue to the Gospel, but it is
presupposed throughout the whole book. The author's task indeed was
somewhat akin to that of Philo, "to transplant into the world of
Hellenic culture a revelation originally given through Judaism." This is
not to say that he holds the Logos doctrine in exactly the same form as
Philo. On the contrary, the fact that he starts from an actual knowledge
of the earthly life of Jesus, while Philo, even when ascribing a real
personality to the Logos, keeps within the bounds of abstract
speculation, leads him seriously to modify the Philonic doctrine. Though
the Alexandrian idea largely determines the evangelist's treatment of
the history, the history similarly reacts on the idea. The prologue is
an organic portion of the Gospel and not a preface written to conciliate
a philosophic public. It assumes that the Logos idea is familiar in
Christian theology, and vividly summarizes the main features of the
Philonic conception--the eternal existence of the Logos, its relation to
God ([Greek: pros ton theon], yet distinct), its creative, illuminative
and redemptive activity. But the adaptation of the idea to John's
account of a historical person involved at least three profound
modifications:--(1) the Logos, instead of the abstraction or
semi-personification of Philo, becomes fully personified. The word that
became flesh subsisted from all eternity as a distinct personality
within the divine nature. (2) Much greater stress is laid upon the
redemptive than upon the creative function. The latter indeed is glanced
at ("All things were made by him"), merely to provide a link with
earlier speculation, but what the writer is concerned about is not the
mode in which the world came into being but the spiritual life which
resides in the Logos and is communicated by him to men. (3) The idea of
[Greek: logos] as Reason becomes subordinated to the idea of [Greek:
logos] as Word, the expression of God's will and power, the outgoing of
the divine energy, life, love and light. Thus in its fundamental thought
the prologue of the Fourth Gospel comes nearer to the Old Testament (and
especially to Gen. i.) than to Philo. As speech goes out from a man and
reveals his character and thought, so Christ is "sent out from the
Father," and as the divine word is also, in accordance with the Hebrew
idea, the medium of God's quickening power.

What John thus does is to take the Logos idea of Philo and use it for a
practical purpose--to make more intelligible to himself and his readers
the divine nature of Jesus Christ. That this endeavour to work into the
historical tradition of the life and teaching of Jesus--a hypothesis
which had a distinctly foreign origin--led him into serious difficulties
is a consideration that must be discussed elsewhere.

  5. _The Early Church._--In many of the early Christian writers, as
  well as in the heterodox schools, the Logos doctrine is influenced by
  the Greek idea. The Syrian Gnostic Basilides held (according to
  Irenaeus i. 24) that the Logos or Word emanated from the [Greek:
  nous], or personified reason, as this latter emanated from the
  unbegotten Father. The completest type of Gnosticism, the Valentinian,
  regarded Wisdom as the last of the series of aeons that emanated from
  the original Being or Father, and the Logos as an emanation from the
  first two principles that issued from God, Reason ([Greek: nous]) and
  Truth. Justin Martyr, the first of the sub-apostolic fathers, taught
  that God produced of His own nature a rational power([Greek: dynamin
  tina logikên]), His agent in creation, who now became man in Jesus
  (_Dial. c. Tryph._ chap. 48, 60). He affirmed also the action of the
  [Greek: logos spermatikos], (_Apol._ i. 46; ii. 13, &c.). With Tatian
  (_Cohort. ad. Gr._ chap. 5, &c.) the Logos is the beginning of the
  world, the reason that comes into being as the sharer of God's
  rational power. With Athenagoras (_Suppl._ chap. 9, 10) He is the
  prototype of the world and the energizing principle ([Greek: idea kai
  energeia]) of things. Theophilus (Ad _Autolyc._ ii. 10, 24) taught
  that the Logos was in eternity with God as the [Greek: logos
  endiathetos], the counsellor of God, and that when the world was to be
  created God sent forth this counsellor ([Greek: symboulos]) from
  Himself as the [Greek: logos prophorikos], yet so that the begotten
  Logos did not cease to be a part of Himself. With Hippolytus (_Refut._
  x. 32, &c.) the Logos, produced of God's own substance, is both the
  divine intelligence that appears in the world as the Son of God, and
  the idea of the universe immanent in God. The early Sabellians (comp.
  Eusebius, _Hist. Eccl._ vi. 33; Athanasius, _Contra Arian._ iv.) held
  that the Logos was a faculty of God, the divine reason, immanent in
  God eternally, but not in distinct personality prior to the historical
  manifestation in Christ. Origen, referring the act of creation to
  eternity instead of to time, affirmed the eternal personal existence
  of the Logos. In relation to God this Logos or Son was a copy of the
  original, and as such inferior to that. In relation to the world he
  was its prototype, the [Greek: idea ideôn] and its redeeming power
  (_Contra Cels._ v. 608; _Frag. de princip._ i. 4; _De princip._ i.
  109, 324).

  In the later developments of Hellenic speculation nothing essential
  was added to the doctrine of the Logos. Philo's distinction between
  God and His rational power or Logos in contact with the world was
  generally maintained by the eclectic Platonists and Neo-Platonists. By
  some of these this distinction was carried out to the extent of
  predicating (as was done by Numenius of Apamea) three Gods:--the
  supreme God; the second God, or Demiurge or Logos; and the third God,
  or the world. Plotinus explained the logoi as constructive forces,
  proceeding from the ideas and giving form to the dead matter of
  sensible things (_Enneads_, v. 1. 8 and Richter's _Neu-Plat.
  Studien_).

  See the histories of philosophy and theology, and works quoted under
  HERACLITUS, STOICS, PHILO, JOHN, THE GOSPEL OF, &c., and for a general
  summary of the growth of the Logos doctrine, E. Caird, _Evolution of
  Theology in the Greek Philosophers_ (1904), vol. ii.; A. Harnack,
  _History of Dogma_; E. F. Scott, _The Fourth Gospel_, ch. v. (1906);
  J. M. Heinze, _Die Lehre vom Logos in der griech. Philosophie_ (1872);
  J. Réville, _La Doctrine du Logos_ (1881); Aal, _Gesch. d. Logos-Idee_
  (1899); and the _Histories of Dogma_, by A. Harnack, F. Loofs, R.
  Seeberg.     (S. D. F. S.; A. J. G.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Cf. Schleiermacher's _Herakleitos der Dunkle_; art. HERACLITUS
    and authorities there quoted.

  [2] Cf. the Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch under Gen. vii. 16,
    xvii. 2, xxi. 20; Exod. xix. 16, etc.; the Jerusalem Targum on Numb.
    vii. 89, &c. For further information regarding the Hebrew _Logos_
    see, beside Dr Kaufmann Kohler, s.v. "Memra," _Jewish Encyc._ viii.
    464-465, Bousset, _Die Religion des Judenthums_ (1903), p. 341, and
    Weber, _Jüdische Theologie_ (1897), pp. 180-184. The hypostatizing of
    the Divine word in the doctrine of the Memra was probably later than
    the time of Philo, but it was the outcome of a mode of thinking
    already common in Jewish theology. The same tendency is of course
    expressed in the "Logos" of the Fourth Gospel.




LOGOTHETE (Med. Lat. _logotheta_, Gr. [Greek: logothetês], from [Greek:
logos], word, account, calculation, and [Greek: tithenai], to set, i.e.
"one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates"), originally the title of
a variety of administrative officials in the Byzantine Empire, e.g. the
[Greek: logothetês tou dromou], who was practically the equivalent of
the modern postmaster-general; and the [Greek: logothetês tou
stratiôtikou], the logothete of the military chest. Gibbon defines the
great Logothete as "the supreme guardian of the laws and revenues," who
"is compared with the chancellor of the Latin monarchies." From the
Eastern Empire the title was borrowed by the west, though it only became
firmly established in Sicily, where the _logotheta_ occupied the
position of chancellor elsewhere, his office being equal if not superior
to that of the _magnus cancellarius_. Thus the title was borne by Pietro
della Vigna, the all-powerful minister of the emperor Frederick II.,
king of Sicily.

  See DU CANGE, _Glossarium_, s.v. _Logotheta_.




LOGROÑO, an inland province of northern Spain, the smallest of the eight
provinces formed in 1833 out of Old Castile; bounded N. by Burgos, Álava
and Navarre, W. by Burgos, S. by Soria and E. by Navarre and Saragossa.
Pop. (1900) 189,376; area, 1946 sq. m. Logroño belongs entirely to the
basin of the river Ebro, which forms its northern boundary except for a
short distance near San Vicente; it is drained chiefly by the rivers
Tiron, Oja, Najerilla, Iregua, Leza, Cidacos and Alhama, all flowing in
a north-easterly direction. The portion skirting the Ebro forms a
spacious and for the most part fertile undulating plain, called La
Rioja, but in the south Logroño is considerably broken up by offshoots
from the sierras which separate that river from the Douro. In the west
the Cerro de San Lorenzo, the culminating point of the Sierra de la
Demanda, rises 7562 ft., and in the south the Pico de Urbion reaches
7388 ft. The products of the province are chiefly cereals, good oil and
wine (especially in the Rioja), fruit, silk, flax and honey. Wine is the
principal export, although after 1892 this industry suffered greatly
from the protective duties imposed by France. Great efforts have been
made to keep a hold upon French and English markets with light red and
white Rioja wines. No less than 128,000 acres are covered with vines,
and 21,000 with olive groves. Iron and argentiferous lead are mined in
small quantities and other ores have been discovered. The manufacturing
industries are insignificant. A railway along the right bank of the Ebro
connects the province with Saragossa, and from Miranda there is railway
communication with Madrid, Bilbao and France; but there is no railway in
the southern districts, where trade is much retarded by the lack even of
good roads. The town of Logroño (pop. 1900, 19,237) and the city of
Calahorra (9475) are separately described. The only other towns with
upwards of 5000 inhabitants are Haro (7914), Alfaro (5938) and Cervera
del Río Alhama (5930).




LOGROÑO, the capital of the Spanish province of Logroño, on the right
bank of the river Ebro and on the Saragossa-Miranda de Ebro railway.
Pop. (1900) 19,237. Logroño is an ancient walled town, finely situated
on a hill 1204 ft. high. Its bridge of twelve arches across the Ebro was
built in 1138, but has frequently been restored after partial
destruction by floods. The main street, arcaded on both sides, and the
crooked but highly picturesque alleys of the older quarters are in
striking contrast with the broad, tree-shaded avenues and squares laid
out in modern times. The chief buildings are a bull-ring which
accommodates 11,000 spectators, and a church, Santa Maria de Palacio,
called "the imperial," from the tradition that its founder was
Constantine the Great (274-337). As the commercial centre of the fertile
and well-cultivated plain of the Rioja, Logroño has an important trade
in wine.

The district of Logroño was in ancient times inhabited by the _Berones_
or _Verones_ of Strabo and Pliny, and their _Varia_ is to be identified
with the modern suburb of the city of Logroño now known as Varea of
Barea. Logroño was named by the Romans _Juliobriga_ and afterwards
_Lucronius_. It fell into the hands of the Moors in the 8th century, but
was speedily retaken by the Christians, and under the name of Lucronius
appears with frequency in medieval history. It was unsuccessfully
besieged by the French in 1521, and occupied by them from 1808 to 1813.
It was the birthplace of the dumb painter Juan Fernandez Navarrete
(1526-1579).




LOGROSCINO (or LO GROSCINO), NICOLA (1700?-1763?), Italian musical
composer, was born at Naples and was a pupil of Durante. In 1738 he
collaborated with Leo and others in the hasty production of _Demetrio_;
in the autumn of the same year he produced a comic opera _L'inganno per
inganno_, the first of a long series of comic operas, the success of
which won him the name of "il Dio dell' opera buffa." He went to
Palermo, probably in 1747, as a teacher of counterpoint; as an opera
composer he is last heard of in 1760, and is supposed to have died about
1763. Logroscino has been credited with the invention of the concerted
operatic finale, but as far as can be seen from the score of _Il
Governatore_ and the few remaining fragments of other operas, his
finales show no advance upon those of Leo. As a musical humorist,
however, he deserves remembrance, and may justly be classed alongside of
Rossini.




LOGWOOD (so called from the form in which it is imported), the
heart-wood of a leguminous tree, _Haematoxylon campechianum_, native of
Central America, and grown also in the West Indian Islands. The tree
attains a height not exceeding 40 ft., and is said to be ready for
felling when about ten years old. The wood, deprived of its bark and the
sap-wood, is sent into the market in the form of large blocks and
billets. It is very hard and dense, and externally has a dark
brownish-red colour; but it is less deeply coloured within. The best
qualities come from Campeachy, but it is obtained there only in small
quantity.

Logwood is used in dyeing (q.v.), in microscopy, in the preparation of
ink, and to a small extent in medicine on account of the tannic acid it
contains, though it has no special medicinal value, being much inferior
to kino and catechu. The wood was introduced into Europe as a dyeing
substance soon after the discovery of America, but from 1581 to 1662 its
use in England was prohibited by legislative enactment on account of the
inferior dyes which at first were produced by its employment.

  The colouring principle of logwood exists in the timber in the form of
  a glucoside, from which it is liberated as haematoxylin by
  fermentation. Haematoxylin, C16H14O6, was isolated by M. E. Chevreul
  in 1810. It forms a crystalline hydrate, C16H14O6 + 3H2O, which is a
  colourless body very sparingly soluble in cold water, but dissolving
  freely in hot water and in alcohol. By exposure to the air, especially
  in alkaline solutions, haematoxylin is rapidly oxidized into
  haematein, C16H12O6, with the development of a fine purple colour.
  This reaction of haematoxylin is exceedingly rapid and delicate,
  rendering that body a laboratory test for alkalis. By the action of
  hydrogen and sulphurous acid, haematein is easily reduced to
  haematoxylin. It is chemically related to brazilin, found in
  brazil-wood. Haematoxylin and brazilin, and also their oxidation
  products, haematin and brazilin, have been elucidated by W. H. Perkin
  and his pupils (see _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1908, 1909).




LOHARU, a native state of India, in the south-east corner of the Punjab,
between Hissar district and Rajputana. Area, 222 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
15,229; estimated gross revenue, £4800. The chief, whose title is nawab,
is a Mahommedan, of Afghan descent. The nawab Sir Amir-ud-din-Ahmad
Khan, K.C.I.E., who is a member of the viceroy's legislative council,
was until 1905 administrator and adviser of the state of Maler Kotla.
The town of Loharu had a population in 1901 of 2175.




LÖHE, JOHANN KONRAD WILHELM ( 1808-1872), German divine and
philanthropist, was born on the 21st of February 1808 in Fürth near
Nuremberg, and was educated at the universities of Erlangen and Berlin.
In 1831 he was appointed vicar at Kirchenlamitz, where his fervent
evangelical preaching attracted large congregations and puzzled the
ecclesiastical authorities. A similar experience ensued at Nuremberg,
where he was assistant pastor of St Egidia. In 1837 he became pastor in
Neuendettelsau, a small and unattractive place, where his life's work
was done, and which he transformed into a busy and influential
community. He was interested in the spiritual condition of Germans who
had emigrated to the United States, and built two training homes for
missionaries to them. In 1849 he founded the Lutheran Society of Home
Missions and in 1853 an institution of deaconesses. Other institutions
were added to these, including a lunatic asylum, a Magdalen refuge, and
hospitals for men and women. In theology Löhe was a strict Lutheran, but
his piety was of a most attractive kind. Originality of conception,
vividness of presentation, fertility of imagination, wide knowledge of
Scripture and a happy faculty of applying it, intense spiritual fervour,
a striking physique and a powerful voice made him a great pulpit force.
He wrote a good deal, amongst his books being _Drei Bücher von der
Kirche_ (1845), _Samenkörner des Gebetes_ (over 30 editions) and several
volumes of sermons. He died on the 2nd of January 1872.

  See his _Life_, by J. Deinzer (3 vols., Gütersloh, 1873, 3rd ed.,
  1901).




LOHENGRIN, the hero of the German version of the legend of the knight of
the swan. The story of Lohengrin as we know it is based on two principal
motives common enough in folklore: the metamorphosis of human beings
into swans, and the curious wife whose question brings disaster.
Lohengrin's guide (the swan) was originally the little brother who, in
one version of "the Seven Swans," was compelled through the destruction
of his golden chain to remain in swan form and attached himself to the
fortunes of one of his brothers. The swan played a part in classical
mythology as the bird of Apollo, and in Scandinavian lore the swan
maidens, who have the gift of prophecy and are sometimes confused with
the Valkyries, reappear again and again. The wife's desire to know her
husband's origin is a parallel of the myth of Cupid and Psyche, and bore
in medieval times a similar mystical interpretation. The Lohengrin
legend is localized on the Lower Rhine, and its incidents take place at
Antwerp, Nijmwegen, Cologne and Mainz. In its application it falls into
sharp division in the hands of German and French poets. By the Germans
it was turned to mystical use by being attached loosely to the Grail
legend (see GRAIL and PERCEVAL); in France it was adapted to glorify the
family of Godfrey de Bouillon.

The German story makes its appearance in the last stanzas of Wolfram von
Eschenbach's _Parzival_, where it is related how Parzival's son,
Loherangrîn,[1] was sent from the castle of the Grail to the help of the
young duchess of Brabant. Guided by the swan he reached Antwerp, and
married the lady on condition that she should not ask his origin. On the
breach of this condition years afterwards Loherangrîn departed, leaving
sword, horn and ring behind him. Between 1283 and 1290, a Bavarian
disciple of Wolfram's[2] adopted the story and developed it into an epic
poem of nearly 8000 lines, incorporating episodes of Lohengrin's prowess
in tournament, his wars with Henry I. against the heathen Hungarians and
the Saracens,[3] and incidentally providing a detailed picture of the
everyday life of people of high condition. The epic of Lohengrin is put
by the anonymous writer into the mouth of Wolfram, who is made to relate
it during the Contest of the Singers at the Wartburg in proof of his
superiority in knowledge of sacred things over Klingsor the magician,
and the poem is thus linked on to German tradition. Its connexion with
Parzival implies a mystic application. The consecrated wafer shared by
Lohengrin and the swan on their voyage is one of the more obvious means
taken by the poet to give the tale the character of an allegory of the
relations between Christ, the Church and the human soul. The story was
followed closely in its main outlines by Richard Wagner in his opera
_Lohengrin_.

The French legend of the knight of the swan is attached to the house of
Bouillon, and although William of Tyre refers to it about 1170 as fable,
it was incorporated without question by later annalists. It forms part
of the cycle of the _chansons de geste_ dealing with the Crusade, and
relates how Helyas, knight of the swan, is guided by the swan to the
help of the duchess of Bouillon and marries her daughter Ida or Beatrix
in circumstances exactly parallel to the adventures of Lohengrin and
Elsa of Brabant, and with the like result. Their daughter marries
Eustache, count of Boulogne, and had three sons, the eldest of whom,
Godefroid (Godfrey), is the future king of Jerusalem. But in French
story Helyas is not the son of Parzival, but of the king and queen of
Lillefort, and the story of his birth, of himself, his five brothers and
one sister is, with variations, that of "the seven swans" persecuted by
the wicked grandmother, which figures in the pages of Grimm and Hans
Andersen. The house of Bouillon was not alone in claiming the knight of
the swan as an ancestor, and the tradition probably originally belonged
to the house of Cleves.

  _German Versions._--See _Lohengrin_, ed. Rückert (Quedlinburg and
  Leipzig, 1858); another version of the tale, _Lorengel_, is edited in
  the _Zeitschr. für deutsches Altertum_ (vol. 15); modern German
  translation of _Lohengrin_, by H. A. Junghaus (Leipzig, 1878); Conrad
  von Würzburg's fragmentary _Schwanritter_, ed. F. Roth (Frankfurt,
  1861). Cf. Elster, _Beiträge zur Kritik des Lohengrin_ (Halle, 1884),
  and R. Heinrichs, _Die Lohengrindichtung und ihre Deutung_ (Hamm i.
  West., 1905).

  _French Versions._--Baron de Reiffenberg, _Le Chevalier au cygne et
  Godfrey de Bouillon_ (Brussels, 2 vols., 1846-1848), in _Mon. pour
  servir à l'hist. de la province de Namur_; C. Hippeau, _La Chanson du
  chevalier au cygne_ (1874); H. A. Todd, _La Naissance du chevalier au
  cygne, an inedited French poem of the 12th cent._ (Mod. Lang. Assoc.,
  Baltimore, 1889); cf. the Latin tale by Jean de Haute Seille (Johannes
  de Alta Silva) in his _Dolopathos_ (ed. Oesterley, Strassburg, 1873).

  _English Versions._--In England the story first appears in a short
  poem preserved among the Cotton MSS. of the British Museum and
  entitled _Chevelere assigne_. This was edited by G. E. V. Utterson in
  1820 for the Roxburghe Club, and again by H. H. Gibbs in 1868 for the
  Early English Text Society. The E.E.T.S. edition is accompanied by a
  set of photographs of a 14th-century ivory casket, on which the story
  is depicted in 36 compartments. An English prose romance, _Helyas
  Knight of the Swan_, translated by Robert Copland, and printed by W.
  Copland about 1550, is founded on a French romance _La Génealogie ...
  de Godeffroy de Boulin_ (printed 1504) and is reprinted by W. J. Thoms
  in _Early Prose Romances_, vol. iii. It was also printed by Wynkyn de
  Worde in 1512. A modern edition was issued in 1901 from the Grolier
  Club, New York.


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] i.e. Garin le Loherin (q.v.), or Garin of Lorraine.

  [2] Elster (_Beiträge_) says that the poem is the work of two poets:
    the first part by a Thuringian wandering minstrel, the second--which
    differs in style and dialect--by a Bavarian official.

  [3] Based on material borrowed from the _Sächsische Weltchronik_
    (formerly called _Repgowische Chronik_ from its dubious assignment to
    Eime von Repgow), the oldest prose chronicle of the world in German
    (c. 1248 or 1260).




LOIN (through O. Fr. _loigne_ or _logne_, mod. _longe_, from Lat.
_lumbus_), that part of the body in an animal which lies between the
upper part of the hip-bone and the last of the false ribs on either side
of the back-bone, hence in the plural the general term for the lower
part of the human body at the junction with the legs, covered by the
loin-cloth, the almost universal garment among primitive peoples. There
are also figurative uses of the word, chiefly biblical, due to the loins
being the supposed seat of male vigour and power of generation. Apart
from these uses the word is a butcher's term for a joint of meat cut
from this part of the body. The upper part of a loin of beef is known as
the "surloin" (Fr. _surlonge_, i.e. upper loin). This has been commonly
corrupted into "sirloin," and a legend invented, to account for the
name, of a king, James I. or Charles II., knighting a prime joint of
beef "Sir Loin" in pleasure at its excellence. A double surloin,
undivided at the back-bone, is known as a "baron of beef," probably from
an expansion of the legend of the "Sir Loin."




LOIRE, the longest river of France, rising in the Gerbier de Jonc in the
department of Ardèche, at a height of 4500 ft. and flowing north and
west to the Atlantic. After a course of 18 m. in Ardèche it enters
Haute-Loire, in which it follows a picturesque channel along the foot
of basaltic rocks, through narrow gorges and small plains. At Vorey,
where it is joined by the Arzon, it becomes navigable for rafts. Four
miles below its entrance into the department of Loire, at La Noirie,
river navigation is officially reckoned to begin, and breaking through
the gorges of Saint Victor, the Loire enters the wide and swampy plain
of Forez, after which it again penetrates the hills and flows out into
the plain of Roanne. As in Haute-Loire, it is joined by a large number
of streams, the most important being the Coise on the right and the
Lignon du Nord or du Forez and the Aix on the left. Below Roanne the
Loire is accompanied on its left bank by a canal to Digoin (35 m.) in
Saône-et-Loire, thence by the so-called "lateral canal of the Loire" to
Briare in Loiret (122 m.). Owing to the extreme irregularity of the
river in different seasons these canals form the only certain navigable
way. At Digoin the Loire receives the Arroux, and gives off the canal du
Centre (which utilizes the valley of the Bourbince) to Chalon-sur-Saône.
At this point its northerly course begins to be interrupted by the
mountains of Morvan, and flowing north-west it enters the department of
Nièvre. Just beyond Nevers it is joined by the Allier; this river rises
30 m. S.W. of the Loire in the department of Lozère, and following an
almost parallel course has at the confluence a volume equal to
two-thirds of that of the main stream. Above Nevers the Loire is joined
by the Aron, along which the canal du Nivernais proceeds northward, and
the Nièvre, and below the confluence of the Allier gives off the canal
du Berry to Bourges and the navigable part of the Cher. About this point
the valley becomes more ample and at Briare (in Loiret) the river leaves
the highlands and flows between the plateaus of Gatinais and the Beauce
on the right and the Sologne on the left. In Loiret it gives off the
canal de Briare northward to the Seine and itself bends north-west to
Orléans, whence the canal d'Orléans, following the little river Cens,
communicates with the Briare canal. At Orléans the river changes its
north-westerly for a south-westerly course. A striking peculiarity of
the affluents of the Loire in Loiret and the three subsequent
departments is that they frequently flow in a parallel channel to the
main stream and in the same valley. Passing Blois in Loir-et-Cher, the
Loire enters Indre-et-Loire and receives on the right the Cisse, and,
after passing Tours, the three important left-hand tributaries of the
Cher, Indre and the Vienne. At the confluence of the Vienne the Loire
enters Maine-et-Loire, in its course through which department it is
frequently divided by long sandy islands fringed with osiers and
willows; while upon arriving at Les Ponts-de-Cé it is split into several
distinct branches. The principal tributaries are: left, the Thouet at
Saumur, the Layon and the Evre; right: the Authion, and, most important
tributary of all, the Maine, formed by the junction of the rivers
Mayenne, Sarthe and Loir. Through Loire-Inférieure the river is studded
with islands until below Nantes, where the largest of them, called
Belle-Ile, is found. It receives the Erdre on the right at Nantes and on
the opposite shore the Sèvre-Nantaise, and farther on the canalized
Achenau on the left and the navigable Etier de Méan on the right near
Saint Nazaire. Below Nantes, between which point and La Martinière
(below Pellerin) the channel is embanked, the river is known as the
Loire Maritime and widens out between marshy shores, passing Paimboeuf
on the left and finally Saint-Nazaire, where it is 1½ m. broad. The
length of the channel of the Loire is about 625 m.; its drainage area is
46,700 sq. m. A lateral canal (built in 1881-1892 at a cost of about
£1,000,000) known as the Maritime Canal of the Loire between Le Carnet
and La Martinière enables large ships to ascend to Nantes. It is 9½ m.
long, and 19½ (capable of being increased to 24) ft. deep. At each end
is a lock 405 ft. long by 59 ft. wide. The canal de Nantes à Brest
connects this city with Brest.

  The Loire is navigable only in a very limited sense. During the
  drought of summer thin and feeble streams thread their way between the
  sandbanks of the channel; while at other times a stupendous flood
  submerges wide reaches of land. In the middle part of its course the
  Loire traverses the western portion of the undulating Paris basin,
  with its Tertiary marls, sands and clays, and the alluvium carried
  off from these renders its lower channel inconstant; the rest of the
  drainage area is occupied by crystalline rocks, over the hard surface
  of which the water, undiminished by absorption, flows rapidly into the
  streams. When the flood waters of two or more tributaries arrive at
  the same time serious inundations result. Attempts to control the
  river must have begun at a very early date, and by the close of the
  middle ages the bed between Orléans and Angers was enclosed by dykes
  10 to 13 ft. high. In 1783 a double line of dykes or _turcies_ 23 ft.
  high was completed from Bec d'Allier downwards. The channel was,
  however, so much narrowed that the embankments are almost certain to
  give way as soon as the water rises 16 ft. (the average rise is about
  14, and in 1846 and 1856 it was more than 22). In modern times
  embankments, aided by dredging operations extending over a large
  number of years, have ensured a depth of 18 ft. in the channel between
  La Martinière and Nantes. Several towns have constructed special works
  to defend themselves against the floods; Tours, the most exposed of
  all, is surrounded by a circular dyke.

  Various schemes for the systematic regulation of the Loire have been
  discussed. It has been proposed to construct in the upper valleys of
  the several affluents a number of gigantic dams or reservoirs from
  which the water, stored during flood, could be let off into the river
  as required. A dam of this kind (built in 1711) at the village of
  Pinay, about 18 m. above Roanne, and capable of retaining from 350 to
  450 million cub. ft. of water, has greatly diminished the force of the
  floods at Roanne, and maintained the comparative equilibrium of the
  current during the dry season. Three other dams of modern construction
  are also in existence, one near Firminy, the other two near St
  Étienne.




LOIRE, a department of central France, made up in 1793 of the old
district of Forez and portions of Beaujolais and Lyonnais, all formerly
included in the province of Lyonnais. Pop. (1906) 643,943. Area 1853 sq.
m. It is bounded N. by the department of Saône-et-Loire, E. by those of
Rhône and Isère, S. by Ardèche and Haute-Loire, and W. by Puy-de-Dôme and
Allier. From 1790 to 1793 it constituted, along with that of Rhône, a
single department (Rhône-et-Loire). It takes its name from the river
which bisects it from south to north. The Rhone skirts the S.E. of the
department, about one-eighth of which belongs to its basin. After
crossing the southern border the Loire runs through wild gorges, passing
the picturesque crag crowned by the old fortress of St Paul-en-Cornillon.
At St Rambert it issues into the broad plain of Fotez, flows north as far
as its confluence with the Aix where the plain ends, and then again
traverses gorges till it enters the less extensive plain of Roanne in the
extreme north of the department. These two plains, the beds of ancient
lakes, are enclosed east and west by chains of mountains running parallel
with the river. In the west are the Forez mountains, which separate the
Loire basin from that of the Allier; their highest point (Pierre sur
Haute, 5381 ft.) is 12 m. W. of Montbrison. They sink gradually towards
the north, and are successively called Bois Noirs (4239 ft.), from their
woods, and Monts de la Madeleine (3822 to 1640 ft.). In the east the
Rhone and Loire basins are separated, by Mont Pilat (4705 ft.) at the
north extremity of the Cévennes, and by the hills of Lyonnais, Tarare,
Beaujolais and Charolais, none of which rise higher than 3294 ft. Of the
affluents of the Loire the most important are the Lignon du Nord, the
beautiful valley of which has been called "La Suisse Forezienne," and the
Aix on the left, and on the right the Ondaine (on which stand the
industrial towns of Chambon-Feugerolles and Firminy), the Furens and the
Rhin. The Gier forms a navigable channel to the Rhone at Givors, and has
on its banks the industrial towns of St Chamond and Rive-de-Gier. From
Mont Pilat descends the Déôme, in the valley of which are the workshops
of Annonay (q.v.). The climate on the heights is cold and healthy, it is
unwholesome in the marshy plain of Forez, mild in the valley of the
Rhone. The annual rainfall varies from 39 to 48 in. on the Forez
mountains, but only reaches 20 to 24 in. in the vicinity of Montbrison.

  The plains of Forez and Roanne are the two most important agricultural
  districts, but the total production of grain within the department is
  insufficient for the requirements of the population. The pasture lands
  of the plain of Forez, the western portion of which is irrigated by
  the canal of Forez, support a large number of live stock. Good
  pasturage is also found on the higher levels of the Forez mountains,
  on the north-eastern plateaus, where oxen of the famous Charolais
  breed are raised, and on the uplands generally. Wheat and rye are the
  leading cereal crops; oats come next in importance, barley and colza
  occupying a relatively small area. The vine is cultivated in the
  valley of the Rhone, on the lower slopes of the Forez mountains and on
  the hills west of the plain of Roanne. The forests of Mont Pilat and
  the Forez chain yield good-sized pines and wood for mining purposes.
  The so-called Lyons chestnuts are to a large extent obtained from
  Forez; the woods and pasture lands of Mont Pilat yield medicinal
  plants, such as mint. Poultry-rearing and bee-keeping are considerable
  industries. The department is rich in mineral springs, the waters of
  St Galmier, Sail-sous-Couzan, St Romain-le-Puy and St Alban being
  largely exported. The chief wealth of the department lies in the coal
  deposits of the basin of St Étienne (q.v.), the second in importance
  in France, quarrying is also active. Metal-working industries are
  centred in the S.E. of the department, where are the great
  manufacturing towns of St Étienne, Rive-de-Gier, St Chamond and
  Firminy. At St Étienne there is a national factory of arms, in which
  as many as 10,000 have been employed; apart from other factories of
  the same kind carried on by private individuals, the production of
  hardware, locks, edge-tools, common cutlery, chain cables for the
  mines, files, rails, &c., occupies thousands of hands. Cast steel is
  largely manufactured, and the workshops of the department supply the
  heaviest constructions required in naval architecture, as well as war
  material and machinery of every description. The glass industry is
  carried on at Rive-de-Gier and St Galmier. St Étienne and St Chamond
  are centres for the fabrication of silk ribbons, elastic ribbons and
  laces, and the dressing of raw silks. Between 50,000 and 60,000 people
  are employed in the last-named industries. The arrondissement of
  Roanne manufactures cotton stuffs, muslins and the like. That of
  Montbrison produces table linen. The department has numerous
  dye-works, flour-mills, paper works, tanyards, brick-works,
  silk-spinning works and hat factories. It is served by the Paris-Lyon
  railway, Roanne being the junction of important lines from Paris to
  Lyons and St Étienne. Within the department the Loire is hardly used
  for commercial navigation; the chief waterways are the canal from
  Roanne to Digoin (13 m. in the department), that from Givors to
  Rive-de-Gier (7 m.) and the Rhone (7 m.).

Loire comprises three arrondissements--St Étienne, Montbrison and
Roanne--with 31 cantons and 335 communes. It falls within the region of
the XIII. army corps and the _diocèse_ and _académie_ (educational
circumscription) of Lyons, where also is its court of appeal. St Étienne
is the capital, other leading towns being Roanne, Montbrison,
Rive-de-Gier, St Chamond, Firminy and Le Chambon, all separately
noticed. St Bonnet-le-Château, besides old houses, has a church of the
15th and 16th centuries, containing paintings of the 15th century; St
Rambert and St Romain-le-Puy have priory churches of the 11th and 12th
centuries; and at Charlieu there are remains of a Benedictine abbey
founded in the 9th century, including a porch decorated with fine
Romanesque carving.




LOIRE-INFÉRIEURE, a maritime department of western France, made up in
1790 of a portion of Brittany on the right and of the district of Retz
on the left of the Loire, and bounded W. by the ocean, N. by Morbihan
and Ille-et-Vilaine, E. by Maine-et-Loire and S. by Vendée. Pop. (1906)
666,748. Area 2694 sq. m. The surface is very flat, and the highest
point, in the north on the borders of Ille-et-Vilaine, reaches only 377
ft. The line of hillocks skirting the right bank of the Loire, and known
as the _sillon de Bretagne_, scarcely exceeds 250 ft.; below Savenay
they recede from the river, and meadows give place to peat bogs. North
of St Nazaire and Grande Brière, measuring 9 m. by 6, and rising hardly
10 ft. above the sea-level, still supplies old trees which can be used
for joiners' work. A few scattered villages occur on the more elevated
spots, but communication is effected chiefly by the canals which
intersect it. The district south of the Loire lies equally low; its most
salient feature is the lake of Grandlieu, covering 27 sq. m., and
surrounded by low and marshy ground, but so shallow (6½ ft. at most)
that drainage would be comparatively easy. The Loire (q.v.) has a course
of 70 m. within the department. On the left bank a canal stretches for 9
m. between Pellerin, where the dikes which protect the Loire valley from
inundation terminate, and Paimboeuf, and vessels drawing 17 or 18 ft.
can reach Nantes. The principal towns on the river within the department
are Ancenis, Nantes and St Nazaire (one of the most important commercial
ports of France) on the right, and Paimboeuf on the left. The chief
affluents are, on the right the Erdre and on the left the Sèvre, both
debouching at Nantes. The Erdre in its lower course broadens in places
into lakes which give it the appearance of a large river. Four miles
below Nort it coalesces with the canal from Nantes to Brest. The Sèvre
is hemmed in by picturesque hills; at the point where it enters the
department it flows past the beautiful town of Clisson with its imposing
castle of the 13th century. Apart from the Loire, the only navigable
channel of importance within the department is the Nantes and Brest
canal, fed by the Isac, a tributary of the Vilaine, which separates
Loire-Inférieure from Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbihan. The climate is
humid, mild and equable. At Nantes the mean annual temperature is 54.7°
Fahr., and there are one hundred and twenty-two rainy days, the annual
rainfall being 25.6 in.

  Horse and cattle raising prospers, being carried on chiefly in the
  west of the department and in the Loire valley. Good butter and cheese
  are produced. Poultry also is reared, and there is a good deal of
  bee-keeping. Wheat, oats, buckwheat and potatoes are produced in great
  abundance; leguminous plants are also largely cultivated, especially
  near Nantes. Wine, cider and forage crops are the chief remaining
  agricultural products. The woods are of oak in the interior and pine
  on the coast. The department has deposits of tin, lead and iron. N.W.
  of Ancenis coal is obtained from a bed which is a prolongation of that
  of Anjou. The salt marshes, about 6000 acres in all, occur for the
  most part between the mouth of the Vilaine and the Loire, and on the
  Bay of Bourgneuf, and salt-refining, of which Guérande is the centre,
  is an important industry. The granite of the sea-coast and of the
  Loire up to Nantes is quarried for large blocks. Steam-engines are
  built for the government at Indret, a few miles below Nantes; the
  forges of Basse-Indre are in good repute for the quality of their
  iron; and the production of the lead-smelting works at Couëron amounts
  to several millions of francs annually. There are also considerable
  foundries at Nantes, Chantenay, close to Nantes, and St Nazaire, and
  shipbuilding yards at Nantes and St Nazaire. Among other industries
  may be mentioned the preparation of pickles and preserved meats at
  Nantes, the curing of sardines at Le Croisic and in the neighbouring
  communes, the manufacture of sugar, brushes, tobacco, macaroni and
  similar foods, soap and chemicals at Nantes, and of paper, sugar and
  soap at Chantenay. Fishing is prosecuted along the entire coast,
  particularly at Le Croisic. Among the seaside resorts Le Croisic,
  Pornichet and Pornic, where there are megalithic monuments, may be
  mentioned. The department is traversed by the railways of the state,
  the Orléans company and the Western company. The department is divided
  into five arrondissements--Nantes, Ancenis, Châteaubriant, Paimboeuf
  and St Nazaire--45 cantons and 219 communes. It has its appeal court
  at Rennes, which is also the centre of the _académie_ (educational
  division) to which it belongs.

The principal places are Nantes, the capital, St Nazaire and
Châteaubriant, which receive separate treatment. On the west coast the
town of Batz, and the neighbouring villages, situated on the peninsula
of Batz, are inhabited by a small community possessed of a distinct
costume and dialect, and claiming descent from a Saxon or Scandinavian
stock. Its members are employed for the most part in the salt marshes
N.E. of the town. Guérande has well-preserved ramparts and gates of the
15th century, a church dating from the 12th to the 16th centuries, and
other old buildings. At St Philbert-de-Grandlieu there is a church,
rebuilt in the 16th and 17th centuries, but preserving remains of a
previous edifice belonging at least to the beginning of the 11th
century.




LOIRET, a department of central France, made up of the three districts
of the ancient province of Orléanais--Orléanais proper, Gâtinais and
Dunois--together with portions of those of Île-de-France and Berry. It
is bounded N. by Seine-et-Oise, N.E. by Seine-et-Marne, E. by Yonne, S.
by Nièvre and Cher, S.W. and W. by Loir-et-Cher and N.W. by
Eure-et-Loir. Area, 2629 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 364,999. The name is
borrowed from the Loiret, a stream which issues from the ground some
miles to the south of Orléans, and after a course of about 7 m. falls
into the Loire; its large volume gives rise to the belief that it is a
subterranean branch of that river. The Loire traverses the south of the
department by a broad valley which, though frequently devastated by
disastrous floods, is famed for its rich tilled lands, its castles, its
towns and its vine-clad slopes. To the north of the Loire are the
Gâtinais (capital Montargis) and the Beauce; the former district is so
named from its _gâtines_ or wildernesses, of which saffron is, along
with honey, the most noteworthy product; the Beauce (q.v.), a monotonous
tract of corn-fields without either tree or river, has been called the
granary of France. Between the Beauce and the Loire is the extensive
forest of Orléans, which is slowly disappearing before the advances of
agriculture. South of the Loire is the Sologne, long barren and
unhealthy from the impermeability of its subsoil, but now much improved
in both respects by means of pine plantation and draining and manuring
operations. The highest point (on the borders of Cher) is 900 ft. above
sea-level, and the lowest (on the borders of Seine-et-Marne) is 220 ft.
The watershed on the plateau of Orléans between the basins of the Seine
and Loire, which divide Loiret almost equally between them, is almost
imperceptible. The lateral canal of the Loire from Roanne stops at
Briare; from the latter town a canal (canal de Briare) connects with the
Seine by the Loing valley, which is joined by the Orléans canal below
Montargis. The only important tributary of the Loire within the
department is the Loiret; the Loing, a tributary of the Seine, has a
course of 40 m. from south to north, and is accompanied first by the
Briare canal and afterwards by that of the Loing. The Essonne, another
important affluent of the Seine, leaving Loiret below Malesherbes, takes
its rise on the plateau of Orléans, as also does its tributary the
Juine. The department has the climate of the Sequanian region, the mean
temperature being a little above that of Paris; the rainfall varies from
18.5 to 27.5 in., according to the district, that of the exposed Beauce
being lower than that of the well-wooded Sologne. Hailstorms cause much
destruction in the Loire valley and the neighbouring regions.

  The department is essentially agricultural in character. A large
  number of sheep, cattle, horses and pigs are reared; poultry,
  especially geese, and bees are plentiful. The yield of wheat and oats
  is in excess of the consumption; rye, barley, meslin, potatoes,
  beetroot, colza and forage plants are also cultivated. Wine in
  abundance, but of inferior quality, is grown on the hills of the Loire
  valley. Buckwheat supports bees by its flowers, and poultry by its
  seeds. Saffron is another source of profit. The woods consist of oak,
  elm, birch and pine; fruit trees thrive in the department, and Orléans
  is a great centre of nursery gardens. The industries are brick and
  tile making, and the manufacture of faience, for which Gien is one of
  the most important centres in France. The Briare manufacture of
  porcelain buttons and pearls employs many workmen. Flour-mills are
  very numerous. There are iron and copper foundries, which, with
  agricultural implement making, bell-founding and the manufacture of
  pins, nails and files, represent the chief metal-working industries.
  The production of hosiery, wool-spinning and various forms of wool
  manufacture are also engaged in. A large quantity of the wine grown is
  made into vinegar (vinaigre d'Orléans). The tanneries produce
  excellent leather; and paper-making, sugar-refining, wax-bleaching and
  the manufacture of caoutchouc complete the list of industries. The
  four arrondissements are those of Orléans, Gien, Montargis and
  Pithiviers, with 31 cantons and 349 communes. The department forms
  part of the _académie_ (educational division) of Paris.

Besides Orléans, the capital, the more noteworthy places, Gien,
Montargis, Beaugency, Pithiviers, Briare and St Benoît-sur-Loire, are
separately noticed. Outside these towns notable examples of architecture
are found in the churches of Cléry (15th century), of Ferrières (13th
and 14th centuries), of Puiseaux (12th and 13th centuries) and Meung
(12th century). At Germigny-des-Prés there is a church built originally
at the beginning of the 9th century and rebuilt in the 19th century, on
the old plan and to some extent with the old materials. Yèvre-le-Châtel
has an interesting château of the 13th century, and Sully-sur-Loire the
fine medieval château rebuilt at the beginning of the 17th century by
Maximilien de Béthune, duke of Sully, the famous minister of Henry IV.
There are remains of a Gallo-Roman town (perhaps the ancient
_Vellaunodunum_) at Triguères and of a Roman amphitheatre near Montbouy.




LOIR-ET-CHER, a department of central France, formed in 1790 from a
small portion of Touraine, the Perche, but chiefly from the Dunois,
Vendômois and Blésois, portions of Orléanais. It is bounded N. by
Eure-et-Loir, N.E. by Loiret, S.E. by Cher, S. by Indre, S.W. by
Indre-et-Loire and N.W. by Sarthe. Pop. (1906) 276,019. Area, 2479 sq.
m. The department takes its name from the Loir and the Cher by which it
is traversed in the north and south respectively. The Loir rises on the
eastern border of the Perche and joins the Maine after a course of 195
m.; the Cher rises on the Central Plateau near Aubusson, and reaches the
Loire after a course of 219 m. The Loire flows through the department
from north-east to south-west, and divides it into two nearly equal
portions. To the south-east is the district of the Sologne, to the
north-west the rich wheat-growing country of the Beauce (q.v.) which
stretches to the Loir. Beyond that river lies the Perche. The surface of
this region, which contains the highest altitude in the department (840
ft.), is varied by hills, valleys, hedged fields and orchards. The
Sologne was formerly a region of forests, of which those in the
neighbourhood of Chambord are the last remains. Its soil, once barren
and marshy, has been considerably improved by draining and
afforestation, though pools are still very numerous. The district is
much frequented by sportsmen. The Cher and Loir traverse pleasant
valleys, occasionally bounded by walls of tufa in which dwellings have
been excavated, as at Les Roches in the Loir valley; the stone, hardened
by exposure to the air, is also used for building purposes. The Loire
and, with the help of the Berry canal, the Cher are navigable. The chief
remaining rivers of the department are the Beuvron, which flows into the
Loire on the left, and the Sauldre, a right-hand affluent of the Cher.
The climate is temperate and mild, though that of the Beauce tends to
dryness and that of the Sologne to dampness. The mean annual temperature
is between 52° and 53° F.

  The department is primarily agricultural, yielding abundance of wheat
  and oats. Besides these the chief products are rye, wheat and
  potatoes. Vines thrive on the valley slopes, the vineyards falling
  into four groups--those of the Cher, which yield fine red wines, the
  Sologne, the Blésois and the Vendômois. In the valleys fruit-trees and
  nursery gardens are numerous; the asparagus of Romorantin and Vendôme
  is well-known. The Sologne supplies pine and birch for fuel, and there
  are extensive forests around Blois and on both sides of the Loir.
  Pasture is of good quality in the valleys. Sheep are the chief stock;
  the Perche breed of horses is much sought after for its combination of
  lightness and strength. Bee-farming is of some importance in the
  Sologne. Formerly the speciality of Loir-et-Cher was the production of
  gun-flints. Stone-quarries are numerous. The chief industries are the
  cloth-manufacture of Romorantin, and leather-dressing and glove-making
  at Vendôme; and lime-burning, flour-milling, distilling, saw-milling,
  paper-making and the manufacture of "sabots" and boots and shoes,
  hosiery and linen goods, are carried on. The department is served
  chiefly by the Orléans railway.

The arrondissements are those of Blois, Romorantin and Vendôme, with 24
cantons and 297 communes. Loir-et-Cher forms part of the educational
division (_académie_) of Paris. Its court of appeal and the headquarters
of the V. army corps, to the regions of which it belongs, are at
Orléans. Blois, the capital, Vendôme, Romorantin and Chambord are
noticed separately. In addition to those of Blois and Chambord there are
numerous fine châteaux in the department, of which that of Montrichard
with its donjon of the 11th century, that of Chaumont dating from the
15th and 16th centuries, and that of Cheverny (17th century) in the late
Renaissance style are the most important. Those at St Aignan, Lassay,
Lavardin and Cellettes may also be mentioned. Churches wholly or in part
of Romanesque architecture are found at Faverolles, Selles-sur-Cher, St
Aignan and Suèvres. The village of Trôo is built close to ancient tumuli
and has an interesting church of the 12th century, and among other
remains those of a lazar-house of the Romanesque period. At Pontlevoy
are the church, consisting of a fine choir in the Gothic style, and the
buildings of a Benedictine abbey. At La Poissonnière (near Montoire) is
a small Renaissance manor-house, in which Ronsard was born in 1524.




LOISY, ALFRED FIRMIN (1857-   ), French Catholic theologian, was born at
Ambrières in French Lorraine of parents who, descended from a long line
of resident peasantry, tilled there the soil themselves. The physically
delicate boy was put into the ecclesiastical school of St Dizier, without
any intention of a clerical career; but he decided for the priesthood,
and in 1874 entered the Grand Seminaire of Chalons-sur-Marne. Mgr
Meignan, then bishop of Chalons, afterwards cardinal and archbishop of
Tours, ordained him priest in 1879. After being _curé_ successively of
two villages in that diocese, Loisy went in May 1881, to study and take a
theological degree, to the Institut Catholique in Paris. Here he was
influenced, as to biblical languages and textual criticism, by the
learned and loyal-minded Abbé Paulin Martin, and as to a vivid
consciousness of the true nature, gravity and urgency of the biblical
problems and an Attic sense of form by the historical intuition and the
mordant irony of Abbé Louis Duchesne. At the governmental institutions,
Professors Oppert and Halévy helped further to train him. He took his
theological degree in March 1890, by the oral defence of forty Latin
scholastic theses and by a French dissertation, _Histoire du canon de
l'ancien testament_, published as his first book in that year.

Professor now at the Institut Catholique, he published successively his
lectures: _Histoire du canon du N.T._ (1891); _Histoire critique du
texte et des versions de la Bible_ (1892); and _Les Évangiles
synoptiques_ (1893, 1894). The two latter works appeared successively in
the bi-monthly _L'Enseignement biblique_, a periodical written
throughout and published by himself. But already, on the occasion of the
death of Ernest Renan, October 1892, the attempts made to clear up the
main principles and results of biblical science, first by Mgr d'Hulst,
rector of the Institut Catholique, in his article "La Question biblique"
(_Le Correspondant_, Jan. 25th, 1893), and then by Loisy himself, in his
paper "La Question biblique et l'inspiration des Écritures"
(_L'Enseignement biblique_, Nov.-Dec. 1893), promptly led to serious
trouble. The latter article was immediately followed by Loisy's
dismissal, without further explanation, from the Institut Catholique.
And a few days later Pope Leo XIII. published his encyclical
_Providentissimus Deus_, which indeed directly condemned not Abbé
Loisy's but Mgr d'Hulst's position, yet rendered the continued
publication of consistently critical work so difficult that Loisy
himself suppressed his _Enseignement_ at the end of 1893. Five further
instalments of his _Synoptiques_ were published after this, bringing the
work down to the Confession of Peter inclusively.

Loisy next became chaplain to a Dominican convent and girls' school at
Neuilly-sur-Seine (Oct. 1894-Oct. 1899), and here matured his apologetic
method, resuming in 1898 the publication of longer articles, under the
pseudonyms of Desprès and Firmin in the _Revue du clergé français_, and
of Jacques Simon in the lay _Revue d'histoire et de littérature
religieuses_. In the former review, a striking paper upon development of
doctrine (Dec. 1st, 1898) headed a series of studies apparently taken
from an already extant large apologetic work. In October 1899 he
resigned his chaplaincy for reasons of health, and settled at Bellevue,
somewhat farther away from Paris. His notable paper, "La Religion
d'Israël" (_Revue du clergé français_, Oct. 15th, 1900), the first of a
series intended to correct and replace Renan's presentation of that
great subject, was promptly censured by Cardinal Richard, archbishop of
Paris; and though scholarly and zealous ecclesiastics, such as the
Jesuit Père Durand and Monseigneur Mignot, archbishop of Albi, defended
the general method and several conclusions of the article, the aged
cardinal never rested henceforward till he had secured a papal
condemnation also. At the end of 1900 Loisy secured a government
lectureship at the École des Hautes Études Pratiques, and delivered
there in succession courses on the Babylonian myths and the first
chapters of Genesis; the Gospel parables; the narrative of the ministry
in the synoptic Gospels; and the Passion narratives in the same. The
first course was published in the _Revue d'histoire et de littérature
religieuses_; and here also appeared instalments of his commentary on St
John's Gospel, his critically important _Notes sur la Genèse_, and a
_Chronique biblique_ unmatched in its mastery of its numberless subjects
and its fearless yet delicate penetration.

It was, however, two less erudite little books that brought him a
European literary reputation and the culmination of his ecclesiastical
troubles. _L'Évangile et l'église_ appeared in November 1902 (Eng.
trans., 1903). Its introduction and six chapters present with rare
lucidity the earliest conceptions of the Kingdom of Heaven, the Son of
God, the Church, Christian dogma and Catholic worship; and together form
a severely critico-historical yet strongly Catholic answer to Harnack's
still largely pietistic _Wesen des Christentums_. It develops throughout
the principles that "what is essential in Jesus' Gospel is what occupies
the first and largest place in His authentic teaching, the ideas for
which He fought and died, and not only that idea which we may consider
to be still a living force to day"; that "it is supremely arbitrary to
decree that Christianity must be essentially what the Gospel did not
borrow from Judaism, as though what the Gospel owes to Judaism were
necessarily of secondary worth"; that "whether we trust or distrust
tradition, we know Christ only by means of, athwart and within the
Christian tradition"; that "the _essence of Christianity_ resides in the
fulness and totality of its life"; and that "the adaptation of the
Gospel to the changing conditions of humanity is to-day a more pressing
need than ever." The second edition was enlarged by a preliminary
chapter on the sources of the Gospels, and by a third section for the
Son of God chapter. The little book promptly aroused widespread
interest, some cordial sympathy and much vehement opposition; whilst its
large companion the _Études évangéliques_, containing the course on the
parables and four sections of his coming commentary on the Fourth
Gospel, passed almost unnoticed. On the 21st of January 1903 Cardinal
Richard publicly condemned the book, as not furnished with an
_imprimatur_, and as calculated gravely to trouble the faith of the
faithful in the fundamental Catholic dogmas. On the 2nd of February
Loisy wrote to the archbishop: "I condemn, as a matter of course, all
the errors which men have been able to deduce from my book, by placing
themselves in interpreting it at a point of view entirely different from
that which I had to occupy in composing it." The pope refused to
interfere directly, and the nuncio, Mgr Lorenzelli, failed in securing
more than ten public adhesions to the cardinal's condemnation from among
the eighty bishops of France.

Pope Leo had indeed, in a letter to the Franciscan minister-general
(November 1898), and in an encyclical to the French clergy (September
1899), vigorously emphasized the traditionalist principles of his
encyclical _Providentissimus_ of 1893; he had even, much to his prompt
regret, signed the unfortunate decree of the Roman Inquisition, January
1897, prohibiting all doubt as to the authenticity of the "Three
Heavenly witnesses" passage, 1 John v. 7, a text which, in the wake of a
line of scholars from Erasmus downwards, Abbé Paulin Martin had, in
1887, exhaustively shown to be no older than the end of the 4th century
A.D. Yet in October 1902 he established a "Commission for the Progress
of Biblical Studies," preponderantly composed of seriously critical
scholars; and even one month before his death he still refused to sign a
condemnation of Loisy's _Études évangéliques_.

Cardinal Sarto became Pope Pius X. on the 4th of August 1903. On the 1st
of October Loisy published three new books, _Autour d'un petit livre_,
_Le Quatrième Évangile_ and _Le Discours sur la Montagne_. _Autour_
consists of seven letters, on the origin and aim of _L'Évangile et
l'Église_; on the biblical question; the criticism of the Gospels; the
Divinity of Christ; the Church's foundation and authority; the origin
and authority of dogma, and on the institution of the sacraments. The
second and third, addressed respectively to a cardinal (Perraud) and a
bishop (Le Camus), are polemical or ironical in tone; the others are all
written to friends in a warm, expansive mood; the fourth letter
especially, appropriated to Mgr Mignot, attains a grand elevation of
thought and depth of mystical conviction. _Le Quatrième Évangile_, one
thousand large pages long, is possibly over-confident in its detailed
application of the allegorical method; yet it constitutes a rarely
perfect sympathetic reproduction of a great mystical believer's
imperishable intuitions. _Le Discours sur la Montagne_ is a fragment of
a coming enlarged commentary on the synoptic Gospels. On the 23rd of
December the pope ordered the publication of a decree of the
Congregation of the Index, incorporating a decree of the Inquisition,
condemning Loisy's _Religion d'Israël_, _L'Évangile et l'Église_,
_Études évangéliques_, _Autour d'un petit livre_ and _Le Quatrième
Évangile_. The pope's secretary of state had on the 19th December, in a
letter to Cardinal Richard, recounted the causes of the condemnation in
the identical terms used by the latter himself when condemning the
_Religion d'Israël_ three years before. On the 12th of January 1904
Loisy wrote to Cardinal Merry del Val that he received the condemnation
with respect, and condemned whatever might be reprehensible in his
books, whilst reserving the rights of his conscience and his opinions as
an historian, opinions doubtless imperfect, as no one was more ready to
admit than himself, but which were the only form under which he was able
to represent to himself the history of the Bible and of religion. Since
the Holy See was not satisfied, Loisy sent three further declarations to
Rome; the last, despatched on the 17th of March, was addressed to the
pope himself, and remained unanswered. And at the end of March Loisy
gave up his lectureship, as he declared, "on his own initiative, in view
of the pacification of minds in the Catholic Church." In the July
following he moved into a little house, built for him by his pupil and
friend, the Assyriologist François Thureau Dangin, within the latter's
park at Garnay, by Dreux. Here he continued his important reviews,
notably in the _Revue d'histoire et de littérature religieuses_, and
published _Morceaux d'exégèse_ (1906), six further sections of his
synoptic commentary. In April 1907 he returned to his native Lorraine,
to Ceffonds by Montier-en-Der, and to his relatives there.

Five recent Roman decisions are doubtless aimed primarily at Loisy's
teaching. The Biblical Commission, soon enlarged so as to swamp the
original critical members, and which had become the simple mouthpiece of
its presiding cardinals, issued two decrees. The first, on the 27th of
June 1906, affirmed, with some significant but unworkable reservations,
the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch; and the second (29th of May
1907) strenuously maintained the Apostolic Zebedean authorship of the
fourth Gospel, and the strictly historical character of the events and
speeches recorded therein. The Inquisition, by its decree _Lamentabili
sane_ (2nd of July 1907), condemned sixty-five propositions concerning
the Church's _magisterium_; biblical inspiration and interpretation; the
synoptic and fourth Gospels; revelation and dogma; Christ's divinity,
human knowledge and resurrection; and the historical origin and growth
of the Sacraments, the Church and the Creed. And some forty of these
propositions represent, more or less accurately, certain sentences or
ideas of Loisy, when torn from their context and their reasons. The
encyclical _Pascendi Dominici Gregis_ (Sept. 6th, 1907), probably the
longest and most argumentative papal utterance extant, also aims
primarily at Loisy, although here the vehemently scholastic redactor's
determination to piece together a strictly coherent, complete a priori
system of "Modernism" and his self-imposed restriction to medieval
categories of thought as the vehicles for describing essentially modern
discoveries and requirements of mind, make the identification of precise
authors and passages very difficult. And on the 21st of November 1907 a
papal _motu proprio_ declared all the decisions of the Biblical
Commission, past and future, to be as binding upon the conscience as
decrees of the Roman Congregations.

Yet even all this did not deter Loisy from publishing three further
books. _Les Évangiles synoptiques_, two large 8vo volumes of 1009 and
798 pages, appeared "chez l'auteur, à Ceffonds, Montier-en-Der,
Haute-Marne," in January 1908. An incisive introduction discusses the
ecclesiastical tradition, modern criticism; the second, the first and
the third Gospels; the evangelical tradition; the career and the
teaching of Jesus; and the literary form, the tradition of the text and
the previous commentaries. The commentary gives also a careful
translation of the texts. Loisy recognizes two eye-witness documents, as
utilized by all three synoptists, while Matthew and Luke have also
incorporated Mark. His chief peculiarity consists in clearly tracing a
strong Pauline influence, especially in Mark, which there remodels
certain sayings and actions as these were first registered by the
eye-witness documents. These doctrinal interpretations introduce the
economy of blinding the Jews into the parabolic teaching; the
declaration as to the redemptive character of the Passion into the
sayings; the sacramental, institutional words into the account of the
Last Supper, originally, a solemnly simple Messianic meal; and the
formal night-trial before Caiaphas into the original Passion-story with
its informal, morning decision by Caiaphas, and its one solemn
condemnation of Jesus, by Pilate. Mark's narratives of the sepulture by
Joseph of Arimathea and of the empty tomb are taken as posterior to St
Paul; the narratives of the infancy in Matthew and Luke as later still.
Yet the great bulk of the sayings remain substantially authentic; if the
historicity of certain words and acts is here refused with unusual
assurance, that of other sayings and deeds is established with stronger
proofs; and the redemptive conception of the Passion and the sacramental
interpretation of the Last Supper are found to spring up promptly and
legitimately from our Lord's work and words, to saturate the Pauline and
Johannine writings, and even to constitute an element of all three
synoptic Gospels.

_Simples Réflexions sur le décret Lamentabili et sur l'encyclique
Pascendi_, 12mo, 277 pages, was published from Ceffonds a few days after
the commentary. Each proposition of the decree is carefully tracked to
its probable source, and is often found to modify the latter's meaning.
And the study of the encyclical concludes: "Time is the great teacher
... we would do wrong to despair either of our civilization or of the
Church."

The Church authorities were this time not slow to act. On the 14th of
February Mgr Amette, the new archbishop of Paris, prohibited his
diocesans to read or defend the two books, which "attack and deny
several fundamental dogmas of Christianity," under pain of
excommunication. The abbé again declared "it is impossible for me
honestly and sincerely to make the act of absolute retractation and
submission exacted by the sovereign pontiff." And the Holy Office, on
the 7th of March, pronounced the major excommunication against him. At
the end of March Loisy published _Quelques Lettres_ (December
1903-February 1908), which conclude: "At bottom I have remained in my
last writings on the same line as in the earlier ones. I have aimed at
establishing principally the historical position of the various
questions, and secondarily the necessity for reforming more or less the
traditional concepts."

Three chief causes appear jointly to have produced M. Loisy's very
absolute condemnation. Any frank recognition of the abbé's even general
principles involves the abandonment of the identification of theology
with scholasticism or even with specifically ancient thought in general.
The abbé's central position, that our Lord himself held the
proximateness of His second coming, involves the loss by churchmen of
the prestige of directly divine power, since Church and Sacraments,
though still the true fruits and vehicles of his life, death and spirit,
cannot thus be immediately founded by the earthly Jesus himself. And the
Church policy, as old as the times of Constantine, to crush utterly the
man who brings more problems and pressure than the bulk of traditional
Christians can, at the time, either digest or resist with a fair
discrimination, seemed to the authorities the one means to save the very
difficult situation.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Autobiographical passages in M. Loisy's _Autour d'un
  petit livre_ (Paris, 1903), pp. xv. xvi. 1, 2, 157, 218. A full
  account of his literary activity and ecclesiastical troubles will be
  found in Abbé Albert Houtin's _La Question biblique au XIX^e siècle_
  (Paris, 2nd ed., 1902) and _La Question biblique au XX^e siècle_
  (Paris, 1906), but the latter especially is largely unfair to the
  conservatives and sadly lacking in religious feeling. The following
  articles and booklets concerning M. Loisy and the questions raised by
  him are specially remarkable. France: Père Durand, S.J., _Études
  religieuses_ (Paris, Nov. 1901) frankly describes the condition of
  ecclesiastical biblical studies; Monseigneur Mignot, archbishop of
  Albi, _Lettres sur les études ecclésiastiques 1900-1901_ (collected
  ed., Paris, 1908) and "Critique et tradition" in _Le Correspondant_
  (Paris, 10th January 1904), the utterances of a finely trained
  judgment; Mgr Le Camus, bishop of La Rochelle, _Fausse Exégèse,
  mauvaise théologie_ (Paris, 1902), a timid, mostly rhetorical,
  scholar's protest; Père Lagrange, a Dominican who has done much for
  the spread of Old Testament criticism, _La Méthode historique, surtout
  à propos de l'Ancien Testament_ (Paris, 1903) and _Éclaircissement_ to
  same (ibid. 1903); P. Lagrange, Mgr P. Batiffol, P. Portalié, S.J.,
  "Autour des fondements de la Foi" in the _Bulletin de litt. eccl.
  Toulouse_ (Paris, December 1903, January 1904), very suggestive
  papers; Professor Maurice Blondel's "Histoire et dogma," in _La
  Quinzaine_ (Paris January 16, February 16, 1904), F. de Hugel's "Du
  Christ éternel et des christologies successives" (ibid. June 1, 1904),
  the Abbé J. Wehrle's "Le Christ et la conscience catholique" (ibid.
  August 16, 1904) and F. de Hügel's "Correspondance" (ibid. Sept. 16,
  1904) discuss the relations between faith and the affirmation of
  phenomenal happenings; Paul Sabatier, "Les Derniers Ouvrages de l'Abbé
  Loisy," in the _Revue chrétienne_ (Dôle, 1904) and Paul Desjardins'
  _Catholicisme et critique_ (Paris, 1905), a Broad Church Protestant's
  and a moralist agnostic's delicate appreciations; a revue of _Les
  Évangiles synoptiques_ by the Abbé Mangenot, in _Revue du Clergé
  français_ (Feb. 15, 1908) containing some interesting discriminations;
  a revue by L. in the _Revue biblique_ (1908), pp. 608-620, a mixture
  of unfair insinuation, powerful criticism and discriminating
  admissions; and a paper by G. P. B. and Jacques Chevalier in the
  _Annales de philosophie chrétienne_ (Paris, Jan. 1909) seeks to trace
  and to refute certain philosophical presuppositions at work in the
  book's treatment, especially of the Miracles, the Resurrection and the
  Institution of the Church. Italy: "Lettres Romaines" in _Annales de
  philosophie chrétienne_ (Paris, January-March 1904), an Italian
  theologian's fearless defence of Loisy's main New Testament positions;
  Rev. P. Louis Billot S.J., _De sacra traditione_ (Freiburg i. Br.
  1905), the ablest of the scholastic criticisms of the historical
  method by a highly influential French professor of theology, now many
  years in Rome; _Quello che vogliamo_ (Rome, 1907, Eng. trans., What we
  want, by A. L. Lilley, London, 1907), and _Il Programma dei
  Modernisti_ (ibid. 1908), Eng. trans., _The Programme of Modernism_
  ed. by Lilley (London, eloquent 1098), pleadings by Italian priest,
  substantially on M. Loisy's lines; "L'Abate Loisy e il Problema dei
  Vangeli Sinottici," four long papers signed "H." in _Il Rinnovamento_
  (Milan, 1908, 1909) are candid and circumspect. Germany: Professor E.
  Troeltsch, "Was heisst Wesen des Christentums?" 6 arts. in _Die
  christliche Welt_ (Leipzig, autumn 1903), a profound criticism of M.
  Loisy's developmental defence of Catholicism; Professor Harnack's
  review of _L'Évangile et l'Église_ in the _Theol. Literatur-Zeitung_
  (Leipzig, 23rd January 1904) is generous and interesting; Professor H.
  J. Holtzmann's "Urchristentum u. Reform-Katholizismus," in the _Prot.
  Monatshefte_, vii. 5 (Berlin, 1903), "Der Fall Loisy," ibid. ix. 1,
  and his review of "Les Évangiles synoptiques" in _Das zwanzigste
  Jahrhundert_ (Munich, May 3, 1908) are full of facts and of deep
  thought; Fr. F. von Hummelauer, _Exegetisches zur Inspirationsfrage_
  (Freiburg i. Br. 1904) is a favourable specimen of present-day German
  Roman Catholic scholarship. America: Professor C. A. Briggs, "The Case
  of the Abbé Loisy," _Expositor_ (London, April 1905), and C. A. Briggs
  and F. von Hügel, _The Papal Commission and the Pentateuch_ (London,
  1907) discuss Rome's attitude towards biblical science. England: The
  Rev. T. A. Lacey's _Harnack and Loisy_, with introduction by Viscount
  Halifax (London, 1904); "The Encyclical and M. Loisy" (_Church Times_,
  Feb. 20, 1908); "Recent Roman Catholic Biblical Criticism" (_The Times
  Literary Supplement_ for January 15th, 22nd, 29th, 1904), and "The
  Synoptic Gospels" (review in _The Times Literary Supplement_, March
  26, 1908) are interesting pronouncements respectively of two
  Tractarian High Churchmen and of a disciple of Canon Sanday. Professor
  Percy Gardner's paper in the _Hibbert Journal_, vol. i. (1903) p. 603,
  is the work of a Puritan-minded, cultured Broad Church layman.
  (F. v. H.)




LOJA (formerly written _Loxa_), a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Granada, on the Granada-Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900)
19,143. The narrow and irregular streets of Loja wind up the sides of a
steep hill surmounted by a Moorish citadel; many of the older buildings,
including a fine Moorish bridge, were destroyed by an earthquake in
December 1884, although two churches of the early 16th century remained
intact. An iron bridge spans the river Genil, which flows past the town
on the north, forcing a passage through the mountains which encircle the
fertile and beautiful Vega of Granada. This passage would have afforded
easy access to the territory still held by the Moors in the last half of
the 15th century, had not Loja been strongly fortified; and the place
was thus of great military importance, ranking with the neighbouring
town of Alhama as one of the keys of Granada. Its manufactures consist
chiefly of coarse woollens, silk, paper and leather. Salt is obtained in
the neighbourhood.

Loja, which, has sometimes been identified with the ancient _Ilipula_,
or with the _Lacibi_ (_Lacibis_) of Pliny and Ptolemy, first clearly
emerges in the Arab chronicles of the year 890. It was taken by
Ferdinand III. in 1226, but was soon afterwards abandoned, and was not
finally recaptured until the 28th of May, 1486, when it surrendered to
Ferdinand and Isabella after a siege.




LOKEREN, an important industrial town of Belgium between Ghent and
Antwerp (in East Flanders on the Durme). Pop. (1904) 21,869. It lies at
the southern point of the district called Pays de Waes, which in the
early part of the 19th century was only sandy moorland, but is now the
most highly cultivated and thickly populated tract in Belgium. The
church of St Laurence is of some interest.




LOKOJA, a town of Nigeria, at the junction of the Niger and Benue
rivers, founded in 1860 by the British consul, W. B. Baikie, and
subsequently the military centre of the Royal Niger Company. It is in
the province of Kabba, 250 m. from the mouth of the Niger, and is of
considerable commercial importance (see NIGERIA and KABBA).




LOLLARDS, the name given to the English followers of John Wycliffe; they
were the adherents of a religious movement which was widespread in the
end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries, and to some extent
maintained itself on to the Reformation. The name is of uncertain
origin; some derive it from _lolium_, tares, quoting Chaucer (_C.T._,
Shipman's Prologue):--

  "This Loller heer wil prechen us somwhat ...
   He wolde sowen som difficultee
   Or springen cokkel in our clene corn";

but the most generally received explanation derives the words from
_lollen_ or _lullen_, to sing softly. The word is much older than its
English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at the beginning of
the 14th century, who were akin to the Fratricelli, Beghards and other
sectaries of the recusant Franciscan type. The earliest official use of
the name in England occurs in 1387 in a mandate of the bishop of
Worcester against five "poor preachers," _nomine seu ritu Lollardorum
confoederatos_. It is probable that the name was given to the followers
of Wycliffe because they resembled those offshoots from the great
Franciscan movement which had disowned the pope's authority and set
before themselves the ideal of _Evangelical poverty_.

The 14th century, so full of varied religious life, made it manifest
that the two different ideas of a life of separation from the world
which in earlier times had lived on side by side within the medieval
church were irreconcilable. The church chose to abide by the idea of
Hildebrand and to reject that of Francis of Assisi; and the revolt of
Ockham and the Franciscans, of the Beghards and other spiritual
fraternities, of Wycliffe and the Lollards, were all protests against
that decision. Gradually there came to be facing each other a great
political Christendom, whose rulers were statesmen, with aims and policy
of a worldly type, and a religious Christendom, full of the ideas of
separation from the world by self-sacrifice and of participation in the
benefits of Christ's work by an ascetic imitation. The war between the
two ideals was fought out in almost every country in Europe in the 14th
century. In England Wycliffe's whole life was spent in the struggle, and
he bequeathed his work to the Lollards. The main practical thought with
Wycliffe was that the church, if true to her divine mission, must aid
men to live that life of evangelical poverty by which they could be
separate from the world and imitate Christ, and if the church ceased to
be true to her mission she ceased to be a church. Wycliffe was a
metaphysician and a theologian, and had to invent a metaphysical
theory--the theory of _Dominium_--to enable him to transfer, in a way
satisfactory to himself, the powers and privileges of the church to his
company of poor Christians; but his followers were content to allege
that a church which held large landed possessions, collected tithes
greedily and took money from starving peasants for baptizing, burying
and praying, could not be the church of Christ and his apostles.

Lollardy was most flourishing and most dangerous to the ecclesiastical
organization of England during the ten years after Wycliffe's death. It
had spread so rapidly and grown so popular that a hostile chronicler
could say that almost every second man was a Lollard. Wycliffe left
three intimate disciples:--Nicolas Hereford, a doctor of theology of
Oxford, who had helped his master to translate the Bible into English;
John Ashton, also a fellow of an Oxford college; and John Purvey,
Wycliffe's colleague at Lutterworth, and a co-translator of the Bible,
with these were associated more or less intimately, in the first age of
Lollardy, John Parker, the strange ascetic William Smith, the restless
fanatic Swynderly, Richard Waytstract and Crompe. Wycliffe had organized
in Lutterworth an association for sending the gospel through all
England, a company of poor preachers somewhat after the Wesleyan method
of modern times. "To be poor without mendicancy, to unite the flexible
unity, the swift obedience of an order, with free and constant mingling
among the poor, such was the ideal of Wycliffe's 'poor priests'" (cf.
Shirley, _Fasc. Ziz._ p. xl.), and, although proscribed, these "poor
preachers" with portions of their master's translation of the Bible in
their hand to guide them, preached all over England. In 1382, two years
before the death of Wycliffe, the archbishop of Canterbury got the
Lollard opinions condemned by convocation, and, having been promised
royal support, he began the long conflict of the church with the
followers of Wycliffe. He was able to coerce the authorities of the
university of Oxford, and to drive out of it the leading Wycliffite
teachers, but he was unable to stifle Oxford sympathies or to prevent
the banished teachers preaching throughout the country. Many of the
nobles, like Lords Montacute and Salisbury, supported the poor
preachers, took them as private chaplains, and protected them against
clerical interference. Country gentlemen like Sir Thomas Latimer of
Braybrooke and Sir Richard Stury protected them, while merchants and
burgesses supported them with money. When Richard II. issued an
ordinance (July 1382) ordering every bishop to arrest all Lollards, the
Commons compelled him to withdraw it. Thus protected, the "poor
preachers" won masses of the people to their opinions, and Leicester,
London and the west of England became their headquarters.

The organization must have been strong in numbers, but only those who
were seized for heresy are known by name, and it is only from the
indictments of their accusers that their opinions can be gathered. The
preachers were picturesque figures in long russet dress down to the
heels, who, staff in hand, preached in the mother tongue to the people
in churches and graveyards, in squares, streets and houses, in gardens
and pleasure grounds, and then talked privately with those who had been
impressed. The Lollard literature was very widely circulated--books by
Wycliffe and Hereford and tracts and broadsides--in spite of many edicts
proscribing it. In 1395 the Lollards grew so strong that they petitioned
parliament through Sir Thomas Latimer and Sir R. Stury to reform the
church on Lollardist methods. It is said that the Lollard Conclusions
printed by Canon Shirley (p. 360) contain the substance of this
petition. If so, parliament was told that temporal possessions ruin the
church and drive out the Christian graces of faith, hope and charity;
that the priesthood of the church in communion with Rome was not the
priesthood Christ gave to his apostles; that the monk's vow of celibacy
had for its consequence unnatural lust, and should not be imposed; that
transubstantiation was a feigned miracle, and led people to idolatry;
that prayers made over wine, bread, water, oil, salt, wax, incense,
altars of stone, church walls, vestments, mitres, crosses, staves, were
magical and should not be allowed; that kings should possess the _jus
episcopale_, and bring good government into the church; that no special
prayers should be made for the dead; that auricular confession made to
the clergy, and declared to be necessary for salvation, was the root of
clerical arrogance and the cause of indulgences and other abuses in
pardoning sin; that all wars were against the principles of the New
Testament, and were but murdering and plundering the poor to win glory
for kings; that the vows of chastity laid upon nuns led to child murder;
that many of the trades practised in the commonwealth, such as those of
goldsmiths and armourers, were unnecessary and led to luxury and waste.
These Conclusions really contain the sum of Wycliffite teaching; and, if
we add that the principal duty of priests is to preach, and that the
worship of images, the going on pilgrimages and the use of gold and
silver chalices in divine service are sinful (_The Peasants' Rising and
the Lollards_, p. 47), they include almost all the heresies charged in
the indictments against individual Lollards down to the middle of the
15th century. The king, who had hitherto seemed anxious to repress the
action of the clergy against the Lollards, spoke strongly against the
petition and its promoters, and Lollardy never again had the power in
England which it wielded up to this year.

If the formal statements of Lollard creed are to be got from these
Conclusions, the popular view of their controversy with the church may
be gathered from the ballads preserved in the _Political Poems and Songs
relating to English History_, published in 1859 by Thomas Wright for the
Master of the Rolls series, and in the Piers Ploughman poems. _Piers
Ploughman's Creed_ (see LANGLAND) was probably written about 1394, when
Lollardy was at its greatest strength; the ploughman of the _Creed_ is a
man gifted with sense enough to see through the tricks of the friars,
and with such religious knowledge as can be got from the creed, and from
Wycliffe's version of the Gospels. The poet gives us a "portrait of the
fat friar with his double chin shaking about as big as a goose's egg,
and the ploughman with his hood full of holes, his mittens made of
patches, and his poor wife going barefoot on the ice so that her blood
followed" (_Early English Text Society_, vol. xxx., pref., p. 16); and
one can easily see why farmers and peasants turned from the friars to
the poor preachers. The _Ploughman's Complaint_ tells the same tale. It
paints popes, cardinals, prelates, rectors, monks and friars, who call
themselves followers of Peter and keepers of the gates of heaven and
hell, and pale poverty-stricken people, cotless and landless, who have
to pay the fat clergy for spiritual assistance, and asks if these are
Peter's priests. "I trowe Peter took no money, for no sinners that he
sold.... Peter was never so great a fole, to leave his key with such a
losell."

In 1399 the Lancastrian Henry IV. overthrew the Plantagenet Richard II.,
and one of the most active partisans of the new monarch was Arundel,
archbishop of Canterbury and the most determined opponent of Lollardy.
Richard II. had aided the clergy to suppress Lollardy without much
success. The new dynasty supported the church in a similar way and not
more successfully. The strength of the anti-clerical party lay in the
House of Commons, in which the representatives of the shires took the
leading part. Twice the Commons petitioned the crown to seize the
temporalities of the church and apply them to such national purposes as
relief of taxation, maintenance of the poor and the support of new lords
and knights. Their anti-clerical policy was not continuous, however. The
court party and the clergy proposed statutes for the suppression of
heresy, and twice at least secured the concurrence of the Commons. One
of these was the well-known statute _De heretico comburendo_ passed in
1401.

In the earlier stages of Lollardy, when the court and the clergy managed
to bring Lollards before ecclesiastical tribunals backed by the civil
power, the accused generally recanted and showed no disposition to
endure martyrdom for their opinions. They became bolder in the beginning
of the 15th century, William Sawtrey (Chartris), caught and condemned,
refused to recant and was burnt at St Paul's Cross (March 1401), and
other martyrdoms followed. The victims usually belonged to the lower
classes. In 1410 John Badby, an artisan, was sent to the stake. His
execution was memorable from the part taken in it by the prince of
Wales, who himself tried to reason the Lollard out of his convictions.
But nothing said would make Badby confess that "Christ sitting at supper
did give to His disciples His living body to eat." The Lollards, far
from daunted, abated no effort to make good their ground, and united a
struggle for social and political liberty to the hatred felt by the
peasants towards the Romish clergy. Jak Upland (John Countryman) took
the place of Piers Ploughman, and upbraided the clergy, and especially
the friars, for their wealth and luxury. Wycliffe had published the rule
of St Francis, and had pointed out in a commentary upon the rule how far
friars had departed from the maxims of their founder, and had persecuted
the _Spirituales_ (the Fratricelli, Beghards, Lollards of the
Netherlands) for keeping them to the letter (cf. Matthews, _English
Works of Wyclif hitherto unprinted_, Early Eng. Text Soc., vol. lxxiv.,
1880). Jak Upland put all this into rude nervous English verse:

  "Freer, what charitie is this
   To fain that whoso liveth after your order
   Liveth most perfectlie,
   And next followeth the state of the Apostles
   In povertie and pennance:
   And yet the wisest and greatest clerkes of you
   Wend or send or procure to the court of Rome,
   ... and to be assoiled of the vow of povertie."


The archbishop, having the power of the throne behind him, attacked that
stronghold of Lollardy the university of Oxford. In 1406 a document
appeared purporting to be the testimony of the university in favour of
Wycliffe; its genuineness was disputed at the time, and when quoted by
Huss at the council of Constance it was repudiated by the English
delegates. The archbishop treated Oxford as if it had issued the
document, and procured the issue of severe regulations in order to purge
the university of heresy. In 1408 Arundel in convocation proposed and
carried the famous _Constitutiones Thomae Arundel_ intended to put down
Wycliffite preachers and teaching. They provided amongst other things
that no one was to be allowed to preach without a bishop's licence, that
preachers preaching to the laity were not to rebuke the sins of the
clergy, and that Lollard books and the translation of the Bible were to
be searched for and destroyed.

When Henry V. became king a more determined effort was made to crush
Lollardy. Hitherto its strength had lain among the country gentlemen who
were the representatives of the shires. The court and clergy had been
afraid to attack this powerful class. The new king determined to overawe
them, and to this end selected one who had been a personal friend and
whose life had been blameless. This was Sir John Oldcastle, in right of
his wife, Lord Cobham, "the good Lord Cobham" as the common people
called him. Henry first tried personal persuasion, and when that failed
directed trial for heresy. Oldcastle was convicted, but was imprisoned
for forty days in the Tower in hope that he might recant. He escaped,
and summoned his co-religionists to his aid. A Lollard plot was formed
to seize the king's person. In the end Oldcastle was burnt for an
obstinate heretic (Dec. 1417). These persecutions were not greatly
protested against; the wars of Henry V. with France had awakened the
martial spirit of the nation, and little sympathy was felt for men who
had declared that all war was but the murder and plundering of poor
people for the sake of kings. Mocking ballads were composed upon the
martyr Oldcastle, and this dislike to warfare was one of the chief
accusations made against him (comp. Wright's _Political Poems_, ii.
244). But Arundel could not prevent the writing and distribution of
Lollard books and pamphlets. Two appeared about the time of the
martyrdom of Oldcastle--_The Ploughman's Prayer_ and the _Lanthorne of
Light_. _The Ploughman's Prayer_ declared that true worship consists in
three things--in loving God, and dreading God and trusting in God above
all other things; and it showed how Lollards, pressed by persecution,
became further separated from the religious life of the church. "Men
maketh now great stonen houses full of glasen windows, and clepeth
thilke thine houses and churches. And they setten in these houses
mawmets of stocks and stones, to fore them they knelen privilich and
apert and maken their prayers, and all this they say is they worship....
For Lorde our belief is that thine house is man's soul." Notwithstanding
the repression, Lollardy fastened in new parts of England, and Lollards
abounded in Somerset, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Lincoln and
Buckinghamshire.

The council of Constance (1414-1418) put an end to the papal schism, and
also showed its determination to put down heresy by burning John Huss.
When news of this reached England the clergy were incited to still more
vigorous proceedings against Lollard preachers and books. From this time
Lollardy appears banished from the fields and streets, and takes refuge
in houses and places of concealment. There was no more wayside
preaching, but instead there were _conventicula occulta_ in houses, in
peasants' huts, in sawpits and in field ditches, where the Bible was
read and exhortations were given, and so Lollardy continued. In 1428
Archbishop Chichele confessed that the Lollards seemed as numerous as
ever, and that their literary and preaching work went on as vigorously
as before. It was found also that many of the poorer rectors and parish
priests, and a great many chaplains and curates, were in secret
association with the Lollards, so much so that in many places
processions were never made and worship on saints' days was abandoned.
For the Lollards were hardened by persecution, and became fanatical in
the statement of their doctrines. Thomas Bagley was accused of declaring
that if in the sacrament a priest made bread into God, he made a God
that can be eaten by rats and mice; that the pharisees of the day, the
monks, and the nuns, and the friars and all other privileged persons
recognized by the church were limbs of Satan; and that auricular
confession to the priest was the will not of God but of the devil. And
others held that any priest who took salary was excommunicate; and that
boys could bless the bread as well as priests.

From England Lollardy passed into Scotland. Oxford infected St Andrews,
and we find traces of more than one vigorous search made for Lollards
among the teaching staff of the Scottish university, while the Lollards
of Kyle in Ayrshire were claimed by Knox as the forerunners of the
Scotch Reformation.

  The opinions of the later Lollards can best be gathered from the
  learned and unfortunate Pecock, who wrote his elaborate _Repressor_
  against the "Bible-men," as he calls them. He summed up their
  doctrines under eleven heads: they condemn the having and using images
  in the churches, the going on pilgrimages to the memorial or "mynde
  places" of the saints, the holding of landed possessions by the
  clergy, the various ranks of the hierarchy, the framing of
  ecclesiastical laws and ordinances by papal and episcopal authority,
  the institution of religious orders, the costliness of ecclesiastical
  decorations, the ceremonies of the mass and the sacraments, the taking
  of oaths and the maintaining that war and capital punishment are
  lawful. When these points are compared with the Lollard Conclusions of
  1395, it is plain that Lollardy had not greatly altered its opinions
  after fifty-five years of persecution. All the articles of Pecock's
  list, save that on capital punishment, are to be found in the
  Conclusions; and, although many writers have held that Wycliffe's own
  views differed greatly from what have been called the "exaggerations
  of the later and more violent Lollards," all these views may be traced
  to Wycliffe himself. Pecock's idea was that all the statements which
  he was prepared to impugn came from three false opinions or
  "trowings," viz. that no governance or ordinance is to be esteemed a
  law of God which is not founded on Scripture, that every humble-minded
  Christian man or woman is able without "fail and defaut" to find out
  the true sense of Scripture, and that having done so he ought to
  listen to no arguments to the contrary; he elsewhere adds a fourth (i.
  102), that if a man be not only meek but also keep God's law he shall
  have a true understanding of Scripture, even though "no man ellis
  teche him saue God." These statements, especially the last, show us
  the connexion between the Lollards and those mystics of the 14th
  century, such as Tauler and Ruysbroeck, who accepted the teachings of
  Nicholas of Basel, and formed themselves into the association of the
  Friends of God.

The persecutions were continued down to the reign of Henry VIII., and
when the writings of Luther began to appear in England the clergy were
not so much afraid of Lutheranism as of the increased life they gave to
men who for generations had been reading Wycliffe's _Wickette_. "It is,"
wrote Bishop Tunstall to Erasmus in 1523, "no question of pernicious
novelty, it is only that new arms are being added to the great band of
Wycliffite heretics." Lollardy, which continued down to the Reformation,
did much to shape the movement in England. The subordination of clerical
to laic jurisdiction, the reduction in ecclesiastical possessions, the
insisting on a translation of the Bible which could be read by the
"common" man were all inheritances bequeathed by the Lollards.

  LITERATURE.--_Fasciculi Zizaniorum Magistri Johannis Wyclif cum
  Tritico_, edited for the Rolls Series by W. W. Shirley (London, 1858);
  the _Chronicon Angliae, auctore monacho quodam Sancti Albani_, ed. by
  Sir E. Maunde Thompson (London, 1874); _Historia Anglicana_ of Thomas
  Walsingham, ed. by H. T. Riley, vol. iii. (London. 1869); _Chronicon_
  of Henry Knighton, ed. by J. R. Lumby (London, 1895); R. L. Poole,
  _Wycliffe and Movements for Reform_ (London, 1889); R. Pecock,
  _Repressor of overmuch Blaming of the Clergy_ (2 vols., London, 1860);
  F. D. Matthew, _The English Works of John Wyclif_ (Early English Text
  Society, London, 1880); T. Wright, _Political Poems and Songs_ (2
  vols., London, 1859); G. V. Lechler, _Johann von Wiclif_, ii. (1873);
  J. Loserth, _Hus und Wycliffe_ (Prague, 1884, English translation by
  J. Evans, London, 1884); D. Wilkins, _Concilia Magnae Britanniae et
  Hiberniae_, iii. (London, 1773); E. Powell and G. M. Trevelyan, _The
  Peasants' Rising and the Lollards, a Collection of Unpublished
  Documents_ (London, 1899); G. M. Trevelyan, _England in the Age of
  Wycliffe_ (London, 1898, 3rd ed., 1904); the publications of the
  Wiclif Society; H. S. Cronin, "The Twelve Conclusions of the
  Lollards," in the _English Historical Review_ (April 1907, pp. 292
  ff.); and J. Gairdner, _Lollardy and the Reformation in England_
  (1908).     (T. M. L.)





LOLLIUS, MARCUS, Roman general, the first governor of Galatia (25 B.C.),
consul in 21. In 16, when governor of Gaul, he was defeated by the
Sigambri (Sygambri), Usipetes and Tencteri, German tribes who had
crossed the Rhine. This defeat is coupled by Tacitus with the disaster
of Varus, but it was disgraceful rather than dangerous. Lollius was
subsequently (2 B.C.) attached in the capacity of tutor and adviser to
Gaius Caesar (Augustus's grandson) on his mission to the East. He was
accused of extortion and treachery to the state, and denounced by Gaius
to the emperor. To avoid punishment he is said to have taken poison.
According to Velleïus Paterculus and Pliny, he was a hypocrite and cared
for nothing but amassing wealth. It was formerly thought that this was
the Lollius whom Horace described as a model of integrity and superior
to avarice in _Od._ iv. 9, but it seems hardly likely that this Ode, as
well as the two Lollian epistles of Horace (i. 2 and 18), was addressed
to him. All three must have been addressed to the same individual, a
young man, probably the son of this Lollius.

  See Suetonius, _Augustus_, 23, _Tiberius_, 12; Vell. Pat. ii. 97. 102;
  Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 10, iii. 48; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ix. 35 (58);
  Dio Cassius, liv. 6; see also J. C. Tarver, _Tiberius the Tyrant_
  (1902), pp. 200 foll.




LOLOS, the name given by the Chinese to a large tribe of aborigines who
inhabit the greater part of southern Szechuen. Their home is in the
mountainous country called Taliang shan, which lies between the Yangtsze
river on the east and the Kien ch'ang valley on the west, in south
Szechuen, but they are found in scattered communities as far south as
the Burmese frontier, and west to the Mekong. There seems no reason to
doubt that they were, like the Miaotze, one of the aboriginal tribes of
China, driven southwards by the advancing flood of Chinese. The name is
said to be a Chinese corruption of Lulu, the name of a former chieftain
of a tribe who called themselves Nersu. Their language, like the
Chinese, is monosyllabic and probably ideographic, and the characters
bear a certain resemblance to Chinese. No literature, however, worthy of
the name is known to exist, and few can read and write. Politically they
are divided into tribes, each under the government of a hereditary
chieftain. The community consists of three classes, the "blackbones" or
nobles, the "whitebones" or plebeians, and the _watze_ or slaves. The
last are mostly Chinese captured in forays, or the descendants of such
captives. Within Lolo-land proper, which covers some 11,000 sq. m., the
Chinese government exercises no jurisdiction. The Lolos make frequent
raids on their unarmed Chinese neighbours. They cultivate wheat, barley
and millet, but little rice. They have some knowledge of metals, making
their own tools and weapons. Women are said to be held in respect, and
may become chiefs of the tribes. They do not intermarry with Chinese.

  See A. F. Legendre, "Les Lolos. Étude ethnologique et
  anthropologique," in _T'oung Pao II._, vol. x. (1909); E. C. Baber,
  _Royal Geog. Society Sup. Papers_, vol. i. (London, 1882); F. S. A.
  Bourne, _Blue Book, China, No. 1_ (1888); A. Hosie, _Three Years in
  Western China_ (London, 1897).




LOMBARD LEAGUE, the name given in general to any league of the cities of
Lombardy, but applied especially to the league founded in 1167, which
brought about the defeat of the emperor Frederick I. at Legnano, and the
consequent destruction of his plans for obtaining complete authority
over Italy.

Lacking often the protection of a strong ruler, the Lombard cities had
been accustomed to act together for mutual defence, and in 1093 Milan,
Lodi, Piacenza and Cremona formed an alliance against the emperor Henry
IV., in favour of his rebellious son Conrad. The early years of the
reign of Frederick I. were largely spent in attacks on the privileges of
the cities of Lombardy. This led to a coalition, formed in March 1167,
between the cities of Cremona, Mantua, Bergamo and Brescia to confine
Frederick to the rights which the emperors had enjoyed for the past
hundred years. This league or _concordia_ was soon joined by other
cities, among which were Milan, Parma, Padua, Verona, Piacenza and
Bologna, and the allies began to build a fortress near the confluence of
the Tanaro and the Bormida, which, in honour of Pope Alexander III.,
was called Alessandria. During the absence of Frederick from Italy from
1168 to 1174, the relations between the pope and the league became
closer, and Alexander became the leader of the alliance. Meetings of the
league were held in 1172 and 1173 to strengthen the bond, and to concert
measures against the emperor, the penalties of the church being invoked
to prevent defection. The decisive struggle began when Frederick
attacked Alessandria in 1174. The fortress was bravely defended, and the
siege was raised on the approach of succour from the allied cities.
Negotiations for peace failed, and the emperor, having marched against
Milan, suffered a severe defeat at Legnano on the 29th of May 1176.
Subsequently Pope Alexander was detached from his allies, and made peace
with Frederick, after which a truce for six years was arranged between
the emperor and the league. Further negotiations ripened into the peace
of Constance signed on the 25th of June 1183, which granted almost all
the demands of the cities, and left only a shadowy authority to the
emperor (see ITALY).

In 1226, when the emperor Frederick II. avowed his intention of
restoring the imperial authority in Italy, the league was renewed, and
at once fifteen cities, including Milan and Verona, were placed under
the ban. Frederick, however, was not in a position to fight, and the
mediation of Pope Honorius III. was successful in restoring peace. In
1231 the hostile intentions of the emperor once more stirred the cities
into activity. They held a meeting at Bologna and raised an army, but as
in 1226, the matter ended in mutual fulminations and defiances. A more
serious conflict arose in 1234. The great question at issue, the nature
and extent of the imperial authority over the Lombard cities, was still
unsettled when Frederick's rebellious son, the German king Henry VII.,
allied himself with them. Having crushed his son and rejected the
proffered mediation of Pope Gregory IX., the emperor declared war on the
Lombards in 1236; he inflicted a serious defeat upon their forces at
Cortenuova in November 1237 and met with other successes, but in 1238 he
was beaten back from before Brescia. In 1239 Pope Gregory joined the
cities and the struggle widened out into the larger one of the Empire
and the Papacy. This was still proceeding when Frederick died in
December 1250 and it was only ended by the overthrow of the Hohenstaufen
and the complete destruction of the imperial authority in Italy.

  For a full account of the Lombard League see C. Vignati, _Storia
  diplomata della Lega Lombarda_ (Milan, 1866); H. Prutz, _Kaiser
  Friedrich I._, Band ii. (Danzig, 1871-1874); W. von Giesebrecht,
  _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); and J.
  Ficker, _Zur Geschichte des Lombardenbundes_ (Vienna, 1868).




LOMBARDO, the name of a family of Venetian sculptors and architects;
their surname was apparently Solaro, and the name of Lombardo was given
to the earliest known, Martino, who emigrated from Lombardy to Venice in
the middle of the 15th century and became celebrated as an architect. He
had two sons, Moro and Pietro, of whom the latter (_c._ 1435-1515) was
one of the greatest sculptors and architects of his time, while his sons
Antonio (d. 1516) and Tullio (d. 1559) were hardly less celebrated.
Pietro's work as an architect is seen in numerous churches, the
Vendramini-Calargi palace (1481), the doge's palace (1498), the façade
(1485) of the _scuola_ of St Mark and the cathedral of Cividale del
Friuli (1502); but he is now more famous as a sculptor, often in
collaboration with his sons; he executed the tomb of the doge Mocenigo
(1478) in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo at Venice, and a bas-relief
for the tomb of Dante at Ravenna, and in 1483 began the beautiful
decorations in the church of Sta Maria de' Miracoli at Venice, which is
associated with his workshop (see also VENICE for numerous references to
the work of the Lombardi). Antonio's masterpiece is the marble relief of
St Anthony making a new-born child speak in defence of its mother's
honour, in the Santo at Padua (1505). Tullio's best-known works are the
four kneeling angels (1484) in the church of San Martino, Venice, a
coronation of the Virgin in San Giovanni Crisostomo and two bas-reliefs
in the Santo, Padua, besides two others formerly in the Spitzer
collection, representing Vulcan's Forge and Minerva disputing with
Neptune.




LOMBARDS, or LANGOBARDI, a Suevic people who appear to have inhabited
the lower basin of the Elbe and whose name is believed to survive in the
modern Bardengau to the south of Hamburg. They are first mentioned in
connexion with the year A.D. 5, at which time they were defeated by the
Romans under Tiberius, afterwards emperor. In A.D. 9, however, after the
destruction of Varus's army, the Romans gave up their attempt to extend
their frontier to the Elbe. At first, with most of the Suevic tribes,
they were subject to the hegemony of Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni,
but they revolted from him in his war with Arminius, chief of the
Cherusci, in the year 17. We again hear of their interference in the
dynastic strife of the Cherusci some time after the year 47. From this
time they are not mentioned until the year 165, when a force of
Langobardi, in alliance with the Marcomanni, was defeated by the Romans,
apparently on the Danubian frontier. It has been inferred from this
incident that the Langobardi had already moved southwards, but the force
mentioned may very well have been sent from the old home of the tribe,
as the various Suevic peoples seem generally to have preserved some form
of political union. From this time onwards we hear no more of them until
the end of the 5th century.

In their own traditions we are told that the Langobardi were originally
called Winnili and dwelt in an island named Scadinavia (with this story
compare that of the Gothic migration, see GOTHS). Thence they set out
under the leadership of Ibor and Aio, the sons of a prophetess called
Gambara, and came into conflict with the Vandals. The leaders of the
latter prayed to Wodan for victory, while Gambara and her sons invoked
Frea. Wodan promised to give victory to those whom he should see in
front of him at sunrise. Frea directed the Winnili to bring their women
with their hair let down round their faces like beards and turned
Wodan's couch round so that he faced them. When Wodan awoke at sunrise
he saw the host of the Winnili and said, "_Qui sunt isti
Longibarbi?_"--"Who are these long-beards?"--and Frea replied, "As thou
hast given them the name, give them also the victory." They conquered in
the battle and were thenceforth known as Langobardi. After this they are
said to have wandered through regions which cannot now be identified,
apparently between the Elbe and the Oder, under legendary kings, the
first of whom was Agilmund, the son of Aio.

Shortly before the end of the 5th century the Langobardi appear to have
taken possession of the territories formerly occupied by the Rugii whom
Odoacer had overthrown in 487, a region which probably included the
present province of Lower Austria. At this time they were subject to
Rodulf, king of the Heruli, who, however, took up arms against them;
according to one story, owing to the treacherous murder of Rodulf's
brother, according to another through an irresistible desire for
fighting on the part of his men. The result was the total defeat of the
Heruli by the Langobardi under their king Tato and the death of Rodulf
at some date between 493 and 508. By this time the Langobardi are said
to have adopted Christianity in its Arian form. Tato was subsequently
killed by his nephew Waccho. The latter reigned for thirty years, though
frequent attempts were made by Ildichis, a son or grandson of Tato, to
recover the throne. Waccho is said to have conquered the Suabi, possibly
the Bavarians, and he was also involved in strife with the Gepidae, with
whom Ildichis had taken refuge. He was succeeded by his youthful son
Walthari, who reigned only seven years under the guardianship of a
certain Audoin. On Walthari's death (about 546?) Audoin succeeded. He
also was involved in hostilities with the Gepidae, whose support of
Ildichis he repaid by protecting Ustrogotthus, a rival of their king
Thorisind. In these quarrels both nations aimed at obtaining the support
of the emperor Justinian, who, in pursuance of his policy of playing off
one against the other, invited the Langobardi into Noricum and Pannonia,
where they now settled.

A large force of Lombards under Audoin fought on the imperial side at
the battle of the Apennines against the Ostrogothic king Totila in 553,
but the assistance of Justinian, though often promised, had no effect on
the relations of the two nations, which were settled for the moment
after a series of truces by the victory of the Langobardi, probably in
554. The resulting peace was sealed by the murder of Ildichis and
Ustrogotthus, and the Langobardi seem to have continued inactive until
the death of Audoin, perhaps in 565, and the accession of his son
Alboin, who had won a great reputation in the wars with the Gepidae. It
was about this time that the Avars, under their first Chagun Baian,
entered Europe, and with them, Alboin is said to have made an alliance
against the Gepidae under their new king Cunimund. The Avars, however,
did not take part in the final battle, in which the Langobardi were
completely victorious. Alboin, who had slain Cunimund in the battle, now
took Rosamund, daughter of the dead king, to be his wife.

In 568 Alboin and the Langobardi, in accordance with a compact made with
Baian, which is recorded by Menander, abandoned their old homes to the
Avars and passed southwards into Italy, were they were destined to found
a new and mighty kingdom.     (F. G. M. B.)

_The Lombard Kingdom in Italy._--In 568 Alboin, king of the Langobards,
with the women and children of the tribe and all their possessions, with
Saxon allies, with the subject tribe of the Gepidae and a mixed host of
other barbarians, descended into Italy by the great plain at the head of
the Adriatic. The war which had ended in the downfall of the Goths had
exhausted Italy; it was followed by famine and pestilence; and the
government at Constantinople made but faint efforts to retain the
province which Belisarius and Narses had recovered for it. Except in a
few fortified places, such as Ticinum or Pavia, the Italians did not
venture to encounter the new invaders; and, though Alboin was not
without generosity, the Lombards, wherever resisted, justified the
opinion of their ferocity by the savage cruelty of the invasion. In 572,
according to the Lombard chronicler, Alboin fell a victim to the revenge
of his wife Rosamund, the daughter of the king of the Gepidae, whose
skull Alboin had turned into a drinking cup, out of which he forced
Rosamund to drink. By this time the Langobards had established
themselves in the north of Italy. Chiefs were placed, or placed
themselves, first in the border cities, like Friuli and Trent, which
commanded the north-eastern passes, and then in other principal places;
and this arrangement became characteristic of the Lombard settlement.
The principal seat of the settlement was the rich plain watered by the
Po and its affluents, which was in future to receive its name from them;
but their power extended across the Apennines into Liguria and Tuscany,
and then southwards to the outlying dukedoms of Spoleto and Benevento.
The invaders failed to secure any maritime ports or any territory that
was conveniently commanded from the sea. Ticinum (Pavia), the one place
which had obstinately resisted Alboin, became the seat of their kings.

After the short and cruel reign of Cleph, the successor of Alboin, the
Lombards (as we may begin for convenience sake to call them) tried for
ten years the experiment of a national confederacy of their dukes (as,
after the Latin writers, their chiefs are styled), without any king. It
was the rule of some thirty-five or thirty-six petty tyrants, under
whose oppression and private wars even the invaders suffered. With
anarchy among themselves and so precarious a hold on the country, hated
by the Italian population and by the Catholic clergy, threatened also by
an alliance of the Greek empire with their persistent rivals the Franks
beyond the Alps, they resolved to sacrifice their independence and elect
a king. In 584 they chose Authari, the grandson of Alboin, and endowed
the royal domain with a half of their possessions. From this time till
the fall of the Lombard power before the arms of their rivals the Franks
under Charles the Great, the kingly rule continued. Authari, "the
Long-haired," with his Roman title of Flavius, marks the change from the
war king of an invading host to the permanent representative of the
unity and law of the nation, and the increased power of the crown, by
the possession of a great domain, to enforce its will. The independence
of the dukes was surrendered to the king. The dukedoms in the
neighbourhood of the seat of power were gradually absorbed, and their
holders transformed into royal officers. Those of the northern marches,
Trent and Friuli, with the important dukedom of Turin, retained longer
the kind of independence which marchlands usually give where invasion is
to be feared. The great dukedom of Benevento in the south, with its
neighbour Spoleto, threatened at one time to be a separate principality,
and even to the last resisted, with varying success, the full claims of
the royal authority at Pavia.

The kingdom of the Lombards lasted more than two hundred years, from
Alboin (568) to the fall of Desiderius (774)--much longer than the
preceding Teutonic kingdom of Theodoric and the Goths. But it differed
from the other Teutonic conquests in Gaul, in Britain, in Spain. It was
never complete in point of territory: there were always two, and almost
to the last three, capitals--the Lombard one, Pavia; the Latin one,
Rome; the Greek one, Ravenna; and the Lombards never could get access to
the sea. And it never was complete over the subject race: it profoundly
affected the Italians of the north; in its turn it was entirely
transformed by contact with them; but the Lombards never amalgamated
with the Italians till their power as a ruling race was crushed by the
victory given to the Roman element by the restored empire of the Franks.
The Langobards, German in their faults and in their strength, but
coarser, at least at first, than the Germans whom the Italians had
known, the Goths of Theodoric and Totila, found themselves continually
in the presence of a subject population very different from anything
which the other Teutonic conquerors met with among the provincials--like
them, exhausted, dispirited, unwarlike, but with the remains and memory
of a great civilization round them, intelligent, subtle, sensitive,
feeling themselves infinitely superior in experience and knowledge to
the rough barbarians whom they could not fight, and capable of hatred
such as only cultivated races can nourish. The Lombards who, after they
had occupied the lands and cities of Upper Italy, still went on sending
forth furious bands to plunder and destroy where they did not care to
stay, never were able to overcome the mingled fear and scorn and
loathing of the Italians. They adapted themselves very quickly indeed to
many Italian fashions. Within thirty years of the invasions, Authari
took the imperial title of Flavius, even while his bands were leading
Italian captives in leash like dogs under the walls of Rome, and under
the eyes of Pope Gregory; and it was retained by his successors. They
soon became Catholics; and then in all the usages of religion, in church
building, in founding monasteries, in their veneration for relics, they
vied with Italians. Authari's queen, Theodelinda, solemnly placed the
Lombard nation under the patronage of St John the Baptist, and at Monza
she built in his honour the first Lombard church, and the royal palace
near it. King Liutprand (712-744) bought the relics of St Augustine for
a large sum to be placed in his church at Pavia. Their Teutonic speech
disappeared; except in names and a few technical words all traces of it
are lost. But to the last they had the unpardonable crime of being a
ruling barbarian race or caste in Italy. To the end they are
"nefandissimi," execrable, loathsome, filthy. So wrote Gregory the Great
when they first appeared. So wrote Pope Stephen IV., at the end of their
rule, when stirring up the kings of the Franks to destroy them.

Authari's short reign (584-591) was one of renewed effort for conquest.
It brought the Langobards face to face, not merely with the emperors at
Constantinople, but with the first of the great statesmen popes, Gregory
the Great (590-604). But Lombard conquest was bungling and wasteful;
when they had spoiled a city they proceeded to tear down its walls and
raze it to the ground. Authari's chief connexion with the fortunes of
his people was an important, though an accidental one. The Lombard
chronicler tells a romantic tale of the way in which Authari sought his
bride from Garibald, duke of the Bavarians, how he went incognito in the
embassy to judge of her attractions, and how she recognized her
disguised suitor. The bride was the Christian Theodelinda, and she
became to the Langobards what Bertha was to the Anglo-Saxons and
Clotilda to the Franks. She became the mediator between the Lombards
and the Catholic Church. Authari, who had brought her to Italy, died
shortly after his marriage. But Theodelinda had so won on the Lombard
chiefs that they bid her as queen choose the one among them whom she
would have for her husband and for king. She chose Agilulf, duke of
Turin (592-615). He was not a true Langobard, but a Thuringian. It was
the beginning of peace between the Lombards and the Catholic clergy.
Agilulf could not abandon his traditional Arianism, and he was a very
uneasy neighbour, not only to the Greek exarch, but to Rome itself. But
he was favourably disposed both to peace and to the Catholic Church.
Gregory interfered to prevent a national conspiracy against the
Langobards, like that of St Brice's day in England against the Danes, or
that later uprising against the French, the Sicilian Vespers. He was
right both in point of humanity and of policy. The Arian and Catholic
bishops went on for a time side by side; but the Lombard kings and
clergy rapidly yielded to the religious influences around them, even
while the national antipathies continued unabated and vehement. Gregory,
who despaired of any serious effort on the part of the Greek emperors to
expel the Lombards, endeavoured to promote peace between the Italians
and Agilulf; and, in spite of the feeble hostility of the exarchs of
Ravenna, the pope and the king of the Lombards became the two real
powers in the north and centre of Italy. Agilulf was followed, after two
unimportant reigns, by his son-in-law, the husband of Theodelinda's
daughter, King Rothari (636-652), the Lombard legislator, still an Arian
though he favoured the Catholics. He was the first of their kings who
collected their customs under the name of laws--and he did this, not in
their own Teutonic dialect, but in Latin. The use of Latin implies that
the laws were to be not merely the personal law of the Lombards, but the
law of the land, binding on Lombards and Romans alike. But such rude
legislation could not provide for all questions arising even in the
decayed state of Roman civilization. It is probable that among
themselves the Italians kept to their old usages and legal precedents
where they were not overridden by the conquerors' law, and by degrees a
good many of the Roman civil arrangements made their way into the
Lombard code, while all ecclesiastical ones, and they were a large
class, were untouched by it.

  There must have been much change of property; but appearances are
  conflicting as to the terms on which land generally was held by the
  old possessors or the new comers, and as to the relative legal
  position of the two. Savigny held that, making allowance for the
  anomalies and usurpations of conquest, the Roman population held the
  bulk of the land as they had held it before, and were governed by an
  uninterrupted and acknowledged exercise of Roman law in their old
  municipal organization. Later inquirers, including Leo, Troya and
  Hegel, have found that the supposition does not tally with a whole
  series of facts, which point to a Lombard territorial law ignoring
  completely any parallel Roman and personal law, to a great restriction
  of full civil rights among the Romans, analogous to the condition of
  the rayah under the Turks, and to a reduction of the Roman occupiers
  to a class of half-free "aldii," holding immovable tenancies under
  lords of superior race and privilege, and subject to the sacrifice
  either of the third part of their holdings or the third part of the
  produce. The Roman losses, both of property and rights, were likely to
  be great at first; how far they continued permanent during the two
  centuries of the Lombard kingdom, or how far the legal distinctions
  between Rome and Lombard gradually passed into desuetude, is a further
  question. The legislation of the Lombard kings, in form a territorial
  and not a personal law, shows no signs of a disposition either to
  depress or to favour the Romans, but only the purpose to maintain, in
  a rough fashion, strict order and discipline impartially among all
  their subjects.

From Rothari (d. 652) to Liutprand (712-744) the Lombard kings,
succeeding one another in the irregular fashion of the time, sometimes
by descent, sometimes by election, sometimes by conspiracy and violence,
strove fitfully to enlarge their boundaries, and contended with the
aristocracy of dukes inherent in the original organization of the
nation, an element which, though much weakened, always embarrassed the
power of the crown, and checked the unity of the nation. Their old
enemies the Franks on the west, and the Slavs or Huns, ever ready to
break in on the north-east, and sometimes called in by mutinous and
traitorous dukes of Friuli and Trent, were constant and serious dangers.
By the popes, who represented Italian interests, they were always
looked upon with dislike and jealousy, even when they had become zealous
Catholics, the founders of churches and monasteries; with the Greek
empire there was chronic war. From time to time they made raids into the
unsubdued parts of Italy, and added a city or two to their dominions.
But there was no sustained effort for the complete subjugation of Italy
till Liutprand, the most powerful of the line. He tried it, and failed.
He broke up the independence of the great southern duchies, Benevento
and Spoleto. For a time, in the heat of the dispute about images, he won
the pope to his side against the Greeks. For a time, but only for a
time, he deprived the Greeks of Ravenna. Aistulf, his successor, carried
on the same policy. He even threatened Rome itself, and claimed a
capitation tax. But the popes, thoroughly irritated and alarmed, and
hopeless of aid from the East, turned to the family which was rising
into power among the Franks of the West, the mayors of the palace of
Austrasia. Pope Gregory III. applied in vain to Charles Martel. But with
his successors Pippin and Charles the popes were more successful. In
return for the transfer by the pope of the Frank crown from the decayed
line of Clovis to his own, Pippin crossed the Alps, defeated Aistulf and
gave to the pope the lands which Aistulf had torn from the empire,
Ravenna and the Pentapolis (754-756). But the angry quarrels still went
on between the popes and the Lombards. The Lombards were still to the
Italians a "foul and horrid" race. At length, invited by Pope Adrian I.,
Pippin's son Charlemagne once more descended into Italy. As the Lombard
kingdom began, so it ended, with a siege of Pavia. Desiderius, the last
king, became a prisoner (774), and the Lombard power perished.
Charlemagne, with the title of king of the Franks and Lombards, became
master of Italy, and in 800 the pope, who had crowned Pippin king of the
Franks, claimed to bestow the Roman empire, and crowned his greater son
emperor of the Romans (800).

_Effects of the Carolingian Conquest._--To Italy the overthrow of the
Lombard kings was the loss of its last chance of independence and unity.
To the Lombards the conquest was the destruction of their legal and
social supremacy. Henceforth they were equally with the Italians the
subjects of the Frank kings. The Carolingian kings expressly recognized
the Roman law, and allowed all who would be counted Romans to "profess"
it. But Latin influences were not strong enough to extinguish the
Lombard name and destroy altogether the recollections and habits of the
Lombard rule; Lombard law was still recognized, and survived in the
schools of Pavia. Lombardy remained the name of the finest province of
Italy, and for a time was the name for Italy itself. But what was
specially Lombard could not stand in the long run against the Italian
atmosphere which surrounded it. Generation after generation passed more
and more into real Italians. Antipathies, indeed, survived, and men even
in the 10th century called each other Roman or Langobard as terms of
reproach. But the altered name of Lombard also denoted henceforth some
of the proudest of Italians; and, though the Lombard speech had utterly
perished their most common names still kept up the remembrance that
their fathers had come from beyond the Alps.

But the establishment of the Frank kingdom, and still more the
re-establishment of the Christian empire as the source of law and
jurisdiction in Christendom, had momentous influence on the history of
the Italianized Lombards. The Empire was the counterweight to the local
tyrannies into which the local authorities established by the Empire
itself, the feudal powers, judicial and military, necessary for the
purposes of government, invariably tended to degenerate. When they
became intolerable, from the Empire were sought the exemptions,
privileges, immunities from that local authority, which, anomalous and
anarchical as they were in theory, yet in fact were the foundations of
all the liberties of the middle ages in the Swiss cantons, in the free
towns of Germany and the Low Countries, in the Lombard cities of Italy.
Italy was and ever has been a land of cities; and, ever since the
downfall of Rome and the decay of the municipal system, the bishops of
the cities had really been at the head of the peaceful and industrial
part of their population, and were a natural refuge for the oppressed,
and sometimes for the mutinous and the evil doers, from the military and
civil powers of the duke or count or judge, too often a rule of cruelty
or fraud. Under the Carolingian empire, a vast system grew up in the
North Italian cities of episcopal "immunities," by which a city with its
surrounding district was removed, more or less completely, from the
jurisdiction of the ordinary authority, military or civil, and placed
under that of the bishop. These "immunities" led to the temporal
sovereignty of the bishops; under it the spirit of liberty grew more
readily than under the military chief. Municipal organization, never
quite forgotten, naturally revived under new forms, and with its
"consuls" at the head of the citizens, with its "arts" and "crafts" and
"gilds," grew up secure under the shadow of the church. In due time the
city populations, free from the feudal yoke, and safe within the walls
which in many instances the bishops had built for them, became impatient
also of the bishop's government. The cities which the bishops had made
thus independent of the dukes and counts next sought to be free from the
bishops; in due time they too gained their charters of privilege and
liberty. Left to take care of themselves, islands in a sea of
turbulence, they grew in the sense of self-reliance and independence;
they grew also to be aggressive, quarrelsome and ambitious. Thus, by the
11th century, the Lombard cities had become "communes," commonalties,
republics, managing their own affairs, and ready for attack or defence.
Milan had recovered its greatness, ecclesiastically as well as
politically; it scarcely bowed to Rome, and it aspired to the position
of a sovereign city, mistress over its neighbours. At length, in the
12th century, the inevitable conflict came between the republicanism of
the Lombard cities and the German feudalism which still claimed their
allegiance in the name of the Empire. Leagues and counter-leagues were
formed; and a confederacy of cities, with Milan at its head, challenged
the strength of Germany under one of its sternest emperors, Frederick
Barbarossa. At first Frederick was victorious; Milan, except its
churches, was utterly destroyed; everything that marked municipal
independence was abolished in the "rebel" cities; and they had to
receive an imperial magistrate instead of their own (1158-1162). But the
Lombard league was again formed. Milan was rebuilt, with the help even
of its jealous rivals, and at Legnano (1176) Frederick was utterly
defeated. The Lombard cities had regained their independence; and at the
peace of Constance (1183) Frederick found himself compelled to confirm
it.

  From the peace of Constance the history of the Lombards is merely part
  of the history of Italy. Their cities went through the ordinary
  fortunes of most Italian cities. They quarrelled and fought with one
  another. They took opposite sides in the great strife of the time
  between pope and emperor, and were Guelf and Ghibelline by old
  tradition, or as one or other faction prevailed in them. They swayed
  backwards and forwards between the power of the people and the power
  of the few; but democracy and oligarchy passed sooner or later into
  the hands of a master who veiled his lordship under various titles,
  and generally at last into the hands of a family. Then, in the larger
  political struggles and changes of Europe, they were incorporated into
  a kingdom, or principality or duchy, carved out to suit the interest
  of a foreigner, or to make a heritage for the nephew of a pope. But in
  two ways especially the energetic race which grew out of the fusion of
  Langobards and Italians between the 9th and the 12th centuries has
  left the memory of itself. In England, at least, the enterprising
  traders and bankers who found their way to the West, from the 13th to
  the 16th centuries, though they certainly did not all come from
  Lombardy, bore the name of Lombards. In the next place, the Lombards
  or the Italian builders whom they employed or followed, the "masters
  of Como," of whom so much is said in the early Lombard laws,
  introduced a manner of building, stately, solemn and elastic, to which
  their name has been attached, and which gives a character of its own
  to some of the most interesting churches in Italy.     (R. W. C.)




LOMBARDY, a territorial division of Italy, bounded N. by the Alps, S. by
Emilia, E. by Venetia and W. by Piedmont. It is divided into eight
provinces, Bergamo, Brescia, Como, Cremona, Mantua, Milan, Pavia and
Sondrio, and has an area of 9386 sq. m. Milan, the chief city, is the
greatest railway centre of Italy; it is in direct communication not only
with the other principal towns of Lombardy and the rest of Italy but
also with the larger towns of France, Germany and Switzerland, being
the nearest great town to the tunnels of the St Gothard and the Simplon.
The other railway centres of the territory are Mortara, Pavia and
Mantua, while every considerable town is situated on or within easy
reach of the railway, this being rendered comparatively easy owing to
the relative flatness of the greater part of the country. The line from
Milan to Porto Ceresio is worked in the main by electric motor driven
trains, while on that from Lecco to Colico and Chiavenna over-head wires
are adopted. The more remote districts and the immediate environs of the
larger town are served by steam tramways and electric railways. The most
important rivers are the Po, which follows, for the most part, the
southern boundary of Lombardy, and the Ticino, one of the largest
tributaries of the Po, which forms for a considerable distance the
western boundary. The majority of the Italian lakes, those of Garda,
Idro, Iseo, Como, Lugano, Varese and Maggiore, lie wholly or in part
within it. The climate of Lombardy is thoroughly continental; in summer
the heat is greater than in the south of Italy, while the winter is very
cold, and bitter winds, snow and mist are frequent. In the summer rain
is rare beyond the lower Alps, but a system of irrigation, unsurpassed
in Europe, and dating from the middle ages, prevails, so that a failure
of the crops is hardly possible. There are three zones of cultivation:
in the mountains, pasturage; the lower slopes are devoted to the culture
of the vine, fruit-trees (including chestnuts) and the silkworm; while
in the regions of the plain, large crops of maize, rice, wheat, flax,
hemp and wine are produced, and thousands of mulberry-trees are grown
for the benefit of the silkworms, the culture of which in the province
of Milan has entirely superseded the sheep-breeding for which it was
famous during the middle ages. Milan is indeed the principal silk market
in the world. In 1905 there were 490 mills reeling silk in Lombardy,
with 35,407 workers, and 276 throwing-mills with 586,000 spindles. The
chief centre of silk weaving is Como, but the silk is commercially dealt
with at Milan, and there is much exportation. A considerable amount of
cotton is manufactured, but most of the raw cotton (600,000 bales) is
imported, the cultivation being insignificant in Italy. There are 400
mills in Lombardy, 277 of which are in the province of Milan. The
largest linen and woollen mills in Italy are situated at Fara d'Adda.
Milan also manufactures motor-cars, though Turin is the principal centre
in Italy for this industry. There are copper, zinc and iron mines, and
numerous quarries of marble, alabaster and granite. In addition to the
above industries the chief manufactures are hats, rope and paper-making,
iron-casting, gun-making, printing and lithography. Lombardy is indeed
the most industrial district of Italy. In parts the peasants suffer much
from _pellagra_.

The most important towns with their communal population in the
respective provinces, according to the census of 1901, are Bergamo
(46,861), Treviglio (14,897), total of province 467,549, number of
communes 306; Brescia (69,210), Chiari (10,749), total of province
541,765, number of communes 280; Como (38,174), Varese (17,666), Cantù
(10,725), Lecco (10,352), total of province 594,304, number of communes
510; Cremona (36,848), Casalmaggiore (16,407), Soresina (10,358), total
of province 329,471, number of communes 133; Mantua (30,127), Viadana
(16,082), Quistello (11,228), Suzzara (11,502), St Benedetto Po
(10,908), total of province 315,448, number of communes 68; Milan
(490,084), Monza (42,124), Lodi (26,827), Busto Arsizio (20,005),
Legnano (18,285), Seregno (12,050), Gallarate (11,952), Codogno
(11,925), total of province 1,450,214, number of communes 297; Pavia
(33,922), Vigevano (23,560), Voghera (20,442), total of province
504,382, number of communes 221; Sondrio (7077), total of province
130,966, number of communes 78. The total population of Lombardy was
4,334,099. In most of the provinces of Lombardy there are far more
villages than in other parts of Italy except Piedmont; this is
attributable partly to their mountainous character, partly perhaps to
security from attack by sea (contrast the state of things in Apulia).

Previous to the fall of the Roman republic Lombardy formed a part of
Gallia Transpadana, and it was Lombardy, Venetia and Piedmont, the
portion of the Italian peninsula N. of the Po, that did not receive
citizenship in 89 B.C. but only Latin rights. The gift of full
citizenship in 49 B.C. made it a part of Italy proper, and Lombardy and
Piedmont formed the 11th region of Augustus (Transpadana) while Venetia
and Istria formed the 10th. It was the second of the regions of Italy in
size, but the last in number of towns; it appears, however, to have been
prosperous and peaceful, and cultivation flourished in its fertile
portions. By the end of the 4th century A.D. the name Liguria had been
extended over it, and Milan was regarded as the capital of both.
Stranger still, in the 6th century the old Liguria was separated from
it, and under the name of _Alpes Cottiae_ formed the 5th Lombard
province of Italy.

  For details of subsequent history see LOMBARDS and ITALY; and for
  architecture see ARCHITECTURE. G. T. Rivoira in _Origini dell'
  Architettura_ Lombarda (2 vols. Rome, 1901-1907), successfully
  demonstrates the classical origin of much that had hitherto been
  treated by some authorities as "Byzantine." In the development of
  Renaissance architecture and art Lombardy played a great part,
  inasmuch as both Bramante and Leonardo da Vinci resided in Milan at
  the end of the 15th century.




LOMBOK (called by the natives _Sasak_), one of the Lesser Sunda Islands,
in the Dutch East Indies, E. of Java, between 8° 12´ and 9° 1´ S. and
115° 46´ and 116° 40´ E., with an area of 3136 sq. m. It is separated
from Bali by the Strait of Lombok and from Sumbawa by the Strait of
Alas. Rising out of the sea with bold and often precipitous coasts,
Lombok is traversed by two mountain chains. The northern chain is of
volcanic formation, and contains the peak of Lombok (11,810 ft.), one of
the highest volcanoes in the Malay Archipelago. It is surrounded by a
plateau (with lower summits, and a magnificent lake, Segara Anak) 8200
ft. high. The southern chain rises a little over 3000 ft. Between the
two chains is a broad valley or terrace with a range of low volcanic
hills. Forest-clad mountains and stretches of thorny jungle alternating
with rich alluvial plains, cultivated like gardens under an ancient and
elaborate system of irrigation, make the scenery of Lombok exceedingly
attractive. The small rivers serve only for irrigation and the growing
of rice, which is of superior quality. In the plains are also grown
coffee, indigo, maize and sugar, katyang (native beans), cotton and
tobacco. All these products are exported. To the naturalist Lombok is of
particular interest as the frontier island of the Australian region,
with its cockatoos and megapods or mound-builders, its peculiar
bee-eaters and ground thrushes. The Sasaks must be considered the
aborigines, as no trace of an earlier race is found. They are
Mahommedans and distinct in many other respects from the Hindu Balinese,
who vanquished but could not convert them. The island was formerly
divided into the four states of Karang-Asam Lombok on the W. side,
Mataram in the N.W., Pagarawan in the S.W. and Pagutan in the E.
Balinese supremacy dated from the conquest by Agong Dahuran in the
beginning of the 19th century; the union under a single raja tributary
to Bali dated from 1839. In July 1894 a Dutch expedition landed at
Ampanam, and advanced towards Mataram, the capital of the Balinese
sultan, who had defied Dutch authority and refused to send the usual
delegation to Batavia. The objects of that expedition were to punish
Mataram and to redress the grievances of the Sasaks whom the Balinese
held in cruel subjection. The first Dutch expedition met with reverses,
and ultimately the invaders were forced back upon Ampanam. The Dutch at
once despatched a much stronger expedition, which landed at Ampanam in
September. Mataram was bombarded by the fleet, and the troops stormed
the sultan's stronghold, and Tjakra Negara, another chieftain's citadel,
both after a desperate resistance. The old sultan of Mataram was
captured, and he and other Balinese chiefs were exiled to different
parts of the Malay Archipelago, whilst the sultan's heir fell at the
hands of his warriors. Thus ended the Balinese domination of Lombok, and
the island was placed under direct Dutch-Indian control, an assistant
resident being appointed at Ampanam. Lombok is now administered from
Bali by the Dutch resident on that island. The people, however, are in
undisturbed exercise of their own laws, religions, customs and
institutions. Disturbances between the Sasaks and the Lombok Balinese
frequently occur. Lombok has been divided since 1898 into the West,
Middle and East Lombok. Its chief towns are Mataram, Praya and Sisi. On
the west coast the harbour of Ampanam is the most frequented, though, on
account of heavy breakers, it is often difficult of approach. The Sasaks
are estimated at 320,000, the Balinese at 50,000, Europeans number about
40, Chinese 300, and Arabs 170.

  See A. R. Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_ (London, 1869, and later
  editions). The famous "Wallace's Line" runs immediately west of
  Lombok, which therefore has an important part in the work. Captain W.
  Cool, _With the Dutch in the East_ (Amsterdam and London, 1897), in
  Dutch and English, is a narrative of the events sketched above, and
  contains many particulars about the folklore and dual religions of
  Lombok, which, with Bali, forms the last stronghold of Hinduism east
  of Java.




LOMBROSO, CESARE (1836-1909), Italian criminologist, was born on the
18th of November 1836 at Verona, of a Jewish family. He studied at
Padua, Vienna and Paris, and was in 1862 appointed professor of
psychiatry at Pavia, then director of the lunatic asylum at Pesaro, and
later professor of forensic medicine and of psychiatry at Turin, where
he eventually filled the chair of criminal anthropology. His works,
several of which have been translated into English, include _L'Uomo
delinquente_ (1889); _L'Uomo di genio_ (1888); _Genio e follia_ (1877)
and _La Donna delinquente_ (1893). In 1872 he had made the notable
discovery that the disorder known as _pellagra_ was due (but see
PELLAGRA) to a poison contained in diseased maize, eaten by the
peasants, and he returned to this subject in _La Pellagra in Italia_
(1885) and other works. Lombroso, like Giovanni Bovio (b. 1841), Enrico
Ferri (b. 1856) and Colajanni, well-known Italian criminologists, and
his sons-in-law G. Ferrero and Carrara, was strongly influenced by
Auguste Comte, and owed to him an exaggerated tendency to refer all
mental facts to biological causes. In spite of this, however, and a
serious want of accuracy and discrimination in handling evidence, his
work made an epoch in criminology; for he surpassed all his predecessors
by the wide scope and systematic character of his researches, and by the
practical conclusions he drew from them. Their net theoretical results
is that the criminal population exhibits a higher percentage of
physical, nervous and mental anomalies than non-criminals; and that
these anomalies are due partly to degeneration, partly to atavism. The
criminal is a special type of the human race, standing midway between
the lunatic and the savage. This doctrine of a "criminal type" has been
gravely criticized, but is admitted by all to contain a substratum of
truth. The practical reform to which it points is a classification of
offenders, so that the born criminal may receive a different kind of
punishment from the offender who is tempted into crime by circumstances
(see also CRIMINOLOGY). Lombroso's biological principles are much less
successful in his work on Genius, which he explains as a morbid,
degenerative condition, presenting analogies to insanity, and not
altogether alien to crime. In 1899 he published in French a book which
gives a résumé of much of his earlier work, entitled _Le Crime, causes
et remèdes_. Later works are: _Delitti vecchi e delitti nuovi_ (Turin,
1902); _Nuovi studi sul genio_ (2 vols., Palermo, 1902); and in 1908 a
work on spiritualism (Eng. trans., _After Death--What?_ 1909), to which
subject he had turned his attention during the later years of his life.
He died suddenly from a heart complaint at Turin on the 19th of October
1909.

  See Kurella, _Cesare Lombroso und die Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers_
  (Hamburg, 1892); and a biography, with an analysis of his works, and a
  short account of their general conclusions by his daughters, Paola
  Carrara and Gina Ferrero, written in 1906 on the occasion of the sixth
  congress of criminal anthropology at Turin.




LOMÉNIE DE BRIENNE, ÉTIENNE CHARLES DE (1727-1794), French politician
and ecclesiastic, was born at Paris on the 9th of October 1727. He
belonged to a Limousin family, dating from the 15th century, and after a
brilliant career as a student entered the Church, as being the best way
to attain to a distinguished position. In 1751 he became a doctor of
theology, though there were doubts as to the orthodoxy of his thesis. In
1752 he was appointed grand vicar to the archbishop of Rouen. After
visiting Rome, he was made bishop of Condom (1760), and in 1763 was
translated to the archbishopric of Toulouse. He had many famous friends,
among them A. R. J. Turgot, the Abbé A. Morellet and Voltaire, and in
1770 became an academician. He was on three occasions the head of the
_bureau de jurisdiction_ at the general assembly of the clergy; he also
took an interest in political and social questions of the day, and
addressed to Turgot a number of _mémoires_ on these subjects, one of
them, treating of pauperism, being especially remarkable. In 1787 he was
nominated as president of the Assembly of Notables, in which capacity he
attacked the fiscal policy of Calonne, whom he succeeded as head of the
_conseil des finances_ on the 1st of May 1787. Once in power, he
succeeded in making the parlement register edicts dealing with internal
free trade, the establishment of provincial assemblies and the
redemption of the _corvée_; on their refusal to register edicts on the
stamp duty and the proposed new general land-tax, he persuaded the king
to hold a _lit de justice_, to enforce their registration. To crush the
opposition to these measures, he persuaded the king to exile the
parlement to Troyes (August 15th, 1787). On the agreement of the
parlement to sanction a prolongation for two years to the tax of the two
_vingtièmes_ (a direct tax on all kinds of income), in lieu of the above
two taxes, he recalled the councillors to Paris. But a further attempt
to force the parlement to register an edict for raising a loan of 120
million _livres_ met with determined opposition. The struggle of the
parlement against the incapacity of Brienne ended on the 8th of May in
its consenting to an edict for its own abolition; but with the proviso
that the states-general should be summoned to remedy the disorders of
the state. Brienne, who had in the meantime been made archbishop of
Sens, now found himself face to face with almost universal opposition;
he was forced to suspend the _Cour plénière_ which had been set up to
take the place of the parlement, and himself to promise that the
states-general should be summoned. But even these concessions were not
able to keep him in power, and on the 29th of August he had to retire,
leaving the treasury empty. On the 15th of December following, he was
made a cardinal, and went to Italy, where he spent two years. After the
outbreak of the Revolution he returned to France, and took the oath of
the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). He
was repudiated by the pope, and in 1791 had to give up the biretta at
the command of Pius VI. Both his past and present conduct made him an
object of suspicion to the revolutionaries; he was arrested at Sens on
the 9th of November 1793, and died in prison, either of an apoplectic
stroke or by poison, on the 16th of February 1794.

  The chief works published by Brienne are: _Oraison funèbre du Dauphin_
  (Paris, 1766); _Compte-rendu au roi_ (Paris, 1788); _Le Conciliateur_,
  in collaboration with Turgot (Rome, Paris, 1754). See also J. Perrin,
  _Le Cardinal Loménie de Brienne ... épisodes de la Révolution_ (Sens,
  1896).




LOMOND, LOCH, the largest and most beautiful of Scottish lakes, situated
in the counties of Stirling and Dumbarton. It is about 23 m. long; its
width varies from 5 m. towards the south end to {1/3} m. at the narrows
to the north of the Isle of the Vow; its area is 27 sq. m., and the
greatest depth 630 ft. It is only 23 ft. above the sea, of which
doubtless it was at one time an arm. It contains 30 islands, the largest
of which is Inchmurrin, a deer park belonging to the duke of Montrose.
Among other islands are Inch Cailliach (the "Island of Women," from the
fact that a nunnery once stood there), Inchfad ("Long Island"),
Inchcruin ("Round Island"), Inchtavannach ("Monks' Isle"), Inchconnachan
("Colquhoun's Isle"), Inchlonaig ("Isle of the Yews," where Robert Bruce
caused yews to be planted to provide arms for his bowmen), Creinch,
Torrinch and Clairinch (which gave the Buchanans their war-cry). From
the west the loch receives the Inveruglas, the Douglas, the Luss, the
Finlas and the Fruin. From Balloch in the south it sends off the Leven
to the Clyde; from the east it receives the Endrick, the Blair, the
Cashell and the Arklet; and from the north the Falloch. Ben Lomond (3192
ft.), the ascent of which is made with comparative ease from
Rowardennan, dominates the landscape; but there are other majestic
hills, particularly on the west and north-west banks. The fish are
sea-trout, lake-trout, pike and perch. Part of the shore is skirted by
the West Highland railway, opened in 1894, which has stations on the
loch at Tarbet and Ardlui, and Balloch is the terminus of the lines from
Dumbarton and from Stirling via Buchlyvie. Steamers make the tour of the
loch, starting from Balloch and calling at Balmaha, Luss, Rowardennan,
Tarbet, Inversnaid and Ardlui. LUSS has a considerable population, and
there is some stone quarried near it. INVERSNAID is the point of arrival
and departure for the Trossachs coaches, and here, too, there is a
graceful waterfall, fed by the Arklet from the loch of that name, 2½ m.
to the east, commemorated in Wordsworth's poem of the "Highland Girl."
Inversnaid was in the heart of the Macgregor country, and the name of
Rob Roy is still given to his cave on the loch side a mile to the north
and to his prison 3 m. to the south. Inversnaid was the site of a fort
built in 1713 to reduce the clan to subjection. Craig Royston, a tract
lying between Inversnaid and Ben Lomond, was also associated with Rob
Roy.




LOMONÓSOV, MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH (1711-1765), Russian poet and man of
science, was born in the year 1711, in the village of Denisovka (the
name of which was afterwards changed in honour of the poet), situated on
an island not far from Kholmogorî, in the government of Archangel. His
father, a fisherman, took the boy when he was ten years of age to assist
him in his calling; but the lad's eagerness for knowledge was unbounded.
The few books accessible to him he almost learned by heart; and, seeing
that there was no chance of increasing his stock of knowledge in his
native place, he resolved to betake himself to Moscow. An opportunity
occurred when he was seventeen, and by the intervention of friends he
obtained admission into the Zaikonospasski school. There his progress
was very rapid, especially in Latin, and in 1734 he was sent from Moscow
to St Petersburg. There again his proficiency, especially in physical
science, was marked, and he was one of the young Russians chosen to
complete their education in foreign countries. He accordingly commenced
the study of metallurgy at Marburg; he also began to write poetry,
imitating German authors, among whom he is said to have especially
admired Günther. His _Ode on the Taking of Khotin from the Turks_ was
composed in 1739, and attracted a great deal of attention at St
Petersburg. During his residence in Germany Lomonósov married a native
of the country, and found it difficult to maintain his increasing family
on the scanty allowance granted to him by the St Petersburg Academy,
which, moreover, was irregularly sent. His circumstances became
embarrassed, and he resolved to leave the country secretly and to return
home. On his arrival in Russia he rapidly rose to distinction, and was
made professor of chemistry in the university of St Petersburg; he
ultimately became rector, and in 1764 secretary of state. He died in
1765.

  The most valuable of the works of Lomonósov are those relating to
  physical science, and he wrote upon many branches of it. He everywhere
  shows himself a man of the most varied learning. He compiled a Russian
  grammar, which long enjoyed popularity, and did much to improve the
  rhythm of Russian verse.




LOMZA, or LOMZHA, a government of Russian Poland, bounded N. by Prussia
and the Polish government of Suwalki, E. by the Russian government of
Grodno, S. by the Polish governments of Siedlce and Warsaw and W. by
that of Plock. It covers 4666 sq. m. It is mostly flat or undulating,
with a few tracts in the north and south-west where the deeply cut
valleys give a hilly aspect to the country. Extensive marshes overspread
it, especially on the banks of the Narev, which flows from east to
south-west, joining the Bug in the south-western corner of the
government. The Bug flows along the southern border, joining the Vistula
20 m. below its confluence with the Narev. There are forests in the east
of the government. The inhabitants numbered 501,385 in 1872 and 585,033
in 1897, of whom 279,279 were women, and 69,834 lived in towns. The
estimated population in 1906 was 653,100. By religion 77½% are Roman
Catholics, 15½% Jews and 5½% members of the Orthodox Church. Agriculture
is the predominant industry, the chief crops being rye, oats, wheat,
barley, buckwheat, peas, potatoes, flax and hemp. Bees are extensively
kept, and large numbers of poultry, especially geese, are reared. Stock
raising is carried on to some extent. The wood trade is important; other
industries are the production of pottery, beer, flour, leather, bricks,
wooden wares, spirits, tobacco and sugar. There is only one railway
(between Grodno and Warsaw); the Bug is navigable, but wood only is
floated down the Narev. The government is divided into seven districts,
of which the chief towns, with their populations in 1897, are Lomza
(q.v.), Ostrolenka (8679), Mazowiec (3900), Ostrów (11,264), Maków
(7232), Kolno (4941) and Szczuczyn (5725).




LOMZA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on
the Narew, 103 m. by rail N.E. from Warsaw. Pop. (1872), 13,860, (1900)
22,428. Lomza is an old town, one of its churches having been erected
before 1000. In the 16th century it carried on a brisk trade with
Lithuania and Prussia. It was well fortified and had two citadels, but
nevertheless often suffered from the invasions of the Germans and
Tatars, and in the 17th century it was twice plundered by the Cossacks
of the Ukraine. In 1795 it fell under the dominion of Prussia, and after
the peace of Tilsit (1807) it came under Russian rule.




LONAULI, a town of India, in the Poona district of Bombay, at the top of
the Bhor Ghat pass in the Western Ghats, by which the Great Indian
Peninsula railway climbs from Bombay to Poona. Pop. (1901), 6686. It
contains the locomotive works of the railway. Lonauli is a place of
resort from Bombay during the hot season.




LONDON, a city and port of entry of Middlesex county, Ontario, Canada,
situated 121 m. N.W. of Toronto, on the river Thames and the Grand
Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Michigan Central railways. Pop. (1901),
37,981; but several suburbs, not included in these figures, are in
reality part of the city. The local nomenclature is largely a
reproduction of that of the great city whose name it has borrowed.
Situated in a fertile agricultural district, it is a large distributing
centre. Among the industries are breweries, petroleum refineries, and
factories for the manufacture of agricultural implements and of railway
carriages. The educational institutions include the Hellmuth Ladies'
College and the Western University (founded in 1878 under the patronage
of the Church of England). London was founded in 1825-1826.




LONDON, the capital of England and of the British Empire, and the
greatest city in the world, lying on each side of the river Thames 50 m.
above its mouth.[1] The "City," so called both formally and popularly,
is a small area (673 acres) on the north bank of the river, forming the
heart of the metropolis, and constituting within its boundaries one
only, and one of the smallest, of twenty-nine municipal divisions which
make up the administrative County of London. The twenty-eight remaining
divisions are the Metropolitan Boroughs. The county thus defined has an
extreme length (E. to W.) of 16 m., an extreme breadth (N. to S.) of 11½
m., and an area of 74,839 acres or about 117 sq. m. The boroughs are as
follows:--

1. _North of the Thames._--Touching the northern boundary of the county,
from W. to E.--Hammersmith, Kensington, Paddington, Hampstead, St
Pancras, Islington, Stoke Newington, Poplar.

Bounded by the Thames--Fulham, Chelsea, the City of Westminster (here
the City of London intervenes), Stepney, Poplar.

Between Westminster, the City and Stepney, and the northern boroughs--St
Marylebone (commonly Marylebone), Holborn, Finsbury, Shoreditch, Bethnal
Green.

2. _South of the Thames._--Wandsworth, Battersea, Lambeth, Southwark,
Camberwell, Bermondsey, Deptford, Lewisham, Greenwich, Woolwich (with a
small part of the north bank).

These names are all in common use, though their formal application is in
some cases extended over several districts of which the ancient names
remain familiar. Each borough is noticed in a separate article.


I. EXTENT AND SITE

The County of London is bounded N. and W. by Middlesex, E. by Essex and
Kent, S. by Kent and Surrey. The Metropolitan police area, or "Greater
London," however, embraces the whole of Middlesex, with parts of the
other three counties and of Hertfordshire. Its extent is 443,419 acres
or nearly 693 sq. m., and its population is about seven millions. Only
here and there upon its fringe the identity of this great area with the
metropolis is lost to the eye, where open country remains unbroken by
streets or close-set buildings.

_Site._--North of the Thames, and west of its tributary the Lea, which
partly bounds the administrative county on the east, London is built
upon a series of slight undulations, only rarely sufficient to make the
streets noticeably steep. On the northern boundary of the county a
height of 443 ft. is found on the open Hampstead Heath. The lesser
streams which flow from this high ground to the Thames are no longer
open. Some, however, as well as other natural features effaced by the
growth of the city, retain an historical interest through the survival
of their names in streets and districts, or through their relation to
the original site of London (in the present City). South of the Thames a
broken amphitheatre of low hills, approaching the river near Greenwich
and Woolwich on the east and Putney and Richmond on the west, encloses a
tract flatter than that to the north, and rises more abruptly in the
southern districts of Streatham, Norwood and Forest Hill.

In attempting to picture the site of London in its original condition,
that is, before any building took place, it is necessary to consider (1)
the condition of the Thames unconfined between made banks, (2) the
slopes overlooking it, (3) the tributary streams which watered these
slopes. The low ground between the slight hills flanking the Thames
valley, and therefore mainly south of the present river, was originally
occupied by a shallow lagoon of estuarine character, tidal, and
interspersed with marshy tracts and certain islets of relatively firm
land. Through this the main stream of the Thames pursued an ill-defined
course. The tributary streams entered through marshy channels. The
natural process of sedimentation assisted the gradual artificial
drainage of the marshes by means of embankments confining the river. The
breadth of this low tract, from Chelsea downward, was from 2 to 3 m. The
line of the foot of the southern hills, from Putney, where it nearly
approaches the present river, lies through Stockwell and Camberwell to
Greenwich, where it again approaches the river. On the north there is a
flat tract between Chelsea and Westminster, covering Pimlico, but from
Westminster down to the Tower there is a marked slope directly up from
the river bank. Lower still, marshes formerly extended far up the valley
of the Lea. The higher slopes of the hills were densely forested (cf.
the modern district-name St John's Wood), while the lower slopes, north
of the river, were more open (cf. Moor-gate). The original city grew up
on the site of the City of London of the present day, on a slight
eminence intersected by the Wal- or Wall-brook, and flanked on the west
by the river Fleet.

[Illustration: Map of The County of LONDON.]

These and other tributary streams have been covered in and built over
(in some cases serving as sewers), but it is possible to trace their
valleys at various points by the fall and rise of streets crossing them,
and their names survive, as will be seen, in various modern
applications. The Wallbrook rose in a marsh in the modern district of
Finsbury, and joined the Thames close to the Cannon Street railway
bridge. A street named after it runs south from the Mansion House
parallel with its course. The Fleet was larger, rising in, and
collecting various small streams from, the high ground of Hampstead. It
passed Kentish Town, Camden Town and King's Cross, and followed a line
approximating to King's Cross Road. The slope of Farringdon Road, where
crossed by Holborn Viaduct, and of New Bridge Street, Blackfriars, marks
its course exactly, and that of Fleet Street and Ludgate Hill its steep
banks. The name also appears in Fleet Road, Hampstead. From King's Cross
downward the banks were so steep and high that the stream was called
Hollow or Hole-bourne, this name surviving in Holborn; and it was fed
by numerous springs (Bagnigge Well, Clerkenwell and others) in this
vicinity. It entered a creek which was navigable for a considerable
distance, and formed a subsidiary harbour for the City, but by the 14th
century this was becoming choked with refuse, and though an attempt was
made to clear it, and wharves were built in 1670, it was wholly arched
over in 1737-1765 below Holborn Bridge. Continuing westward, the most
important stream was Tyburn (q.v.), which rose at Hampstead, and joined
the Thames through branches on either side of Thorney Island, on which
grew up the great ecclesiastical foundation of St Peter, Westminster,
better known as Westminster Abbey. There is no modern survival of the
name of Tyburn, which finds, indeed, its chief historical interest as
attaching to the famous place of execution which lay near the modern
Marble Arch. The residential district in this vicinity was known at a
later date as Tyburnia. The next stream westward was the Westbourne, the
name of which is perpetuated in Westbourne Grove and elsewhere in
Paddington. It rose on the heights of Hampstead, traversed Paddington,
may be traced in the course of the Serpentine lake in Hyde Park, ran
parallel to and east of Sloane Street, and joined the Thames close to
Chelsea Bridge. The main tributaries of the Thames from the north, to
east and west of those described, are not covered, nor is any tributary
of importance from the south entirely concealed.

  _Geology._--London lies within the geological area known as the London
  basin. Within the confines of Greater London the chalk which forms the
  basement of this area appears at the surface in isolated patches about
  Greenwich, while its main line approaches within 10 m. of the City to
  the south and within 15 to the north-west. In the south and north-west
  the typical London clay is the principal formation. In the south-east,
  however, the Blackheath and Woolwich pebble-beds appear, with their
  belts of Thanet sands bordering the chalk. Valley gravel borders the
  Thames, with some interruptions, from Kingston to Greenwich, and
  extends to a wide belt, with ramifications, from Wandsworth south to
  Croydon, and in a narrower line from Greenwich towards Bromley. Brick
  earth overlies it from Kensington to Brentford and west thereof, and
  appears in Chelsea and Fulham, Hornsey and Stoke Newington, and in
  patches south of the Thames between Battersea and Richmond. The main
  deposits of alluvium occur below Lambeth and Westminster, and in the
  valley of the Wandle, which joins the Thames from the south near
  Putney. In the north and west the clay is interspersed with patches of
  plateau gravel in the direction of Finchley (where boulder clay also
  appears), Enfield and Barnet; and of Bagshot sands on Hampstead Heath
  and Harrow Hill. Gravel is found on the high ground about Richmond
  Park and Wimbledon. (See further MIDDLESEX.)

  _Climate._--The climate is equable (though excessive heat is sometimes
  felt for short periods during the summer) and moist, but healthy. Snow
  is most common in the early months of the year. The fogs of London
  have a peculiar and perhaps an exaggerated notoriety. They are apt to
  occur at all seasons, are common from September to February, and most
  common in November. The atmosphere of London is almost invariably
  misty in a greater or less degree, but the denser fogs are generally
  local and of no long duration. They sometimes cause a serious
  dislocation of railway and other traffic. Their principal cause is the
  smoke from the general domestic use of coal. The evil is of very long
  standing, for in 1306 the citizens petitioned Edward I. to prohibit
  the use of sea-coal, and he made it a capital offence. The average
  temperature of the hottest month, July, is 64°.4 F.; of the coldest,
  January, 37°.9; and the mean annual 50°.4. The mean annual rainfall
  ranges in different parts of the metropolis from about 20½ to 27½ in.


II. TOPOGRAPHY

London as a whole owes nothing in appearance to the natural
configuration of its site. Moreover, the splendid building is nearly
always a unit; seldom, unless accidentally, a component part of a broad
effect. London has not grown up along formal lines; nor is any large
part of it laid out according to the conceptions of a single generation.
Yet not a few of the great thoroughfares and buildings are individually
worthy of London's preeminence as a city. The most notable of these fall
within a circumscribed area, and it is therefore necessary to preface
their consideration with a statement of the broader characteristic
divisions of the metropolis.

_Characteristic Divisions._--In London north of the Thames, the salient
distinction lies between West and East. From the western boundary of the
City proper, an area covering the greater part of the city of
Westminster, and extending into Chelsea, Kensington, Paddington and
Marylebone, is exclusively associated with the higher-class life of
London. Within the bounds of Westminster are the royal palaces, the
government offices and many other of the finest public buildings, and
the wider area specified includes the majority of the residences of the
wealthier classes, the most beautiful parks and the most fashionable
places of recreation. "Mayfair," north of Piccadilly, and "Belgravia,"
south of Knightsbridge, are common though unofficial names for the
richest residential districts. The "City" bears in the great commercial
buildings fringing its narrow streets all the marks of a centre of the
world's exchanges. East of it there is an abrupt transition to the
district commonly known as the "East End," as distinguished from the
wealthy "West End," a district of mean streets, roughly coincident with
the boroughs of Stepney and Poplar, Shoreditch and Bethnal Green, and
primarily (though by no means exclusively) associated with the problems
attaching to the life of the poor. On the Thames below London Bridge,
London appears in the aspect of one of the world's great ports, with
extensive docks and crowded shipping. North London is as a whole
residential: Hackney, Islington and St Pancras consist mainly of
dwellings of artisans and the middle classes; while in Hampstead, St
Marylebone and Paddington are many terraces and squares of handsome
houses. Throughout the better residential quarters of London the number
of large blocks of flats has greatly increased in modern times. But even
in the midst of the richest quarters, in Westminster and elsewhere,
small but well-defined areas of the poorest dwellings occur.

London south of the Thames has none of the grander characteristics of
the wealthy districts to the north. Poor quarters lie adjacent to the
river over the whole distance from Battersea to Greenwich, merging
southward into residential districts of better class. London has no
single well-defined manufacturing quarter.

  _Suburbs._--Although the boundary of the county of London does not, to
  outward appearance, enclose a city distinct from its suburbs, London
  outside that boundary may be conveniently considered as suburban.
  Large numbers of business men and others who must of necessity live in
  proximity to the metropolis have their homes aloof from its centre. It
  is estimated that upwards of a million daily enter and leave the City
  alone as the commercial heart of London, and a great proportion of
  these travel in and out by the suburban railways. In this aspect the
  principal extension of London has been into the counties of Kent and
  Surrey, to the pleasant hilly districts about Sydenham, Norwood and
  Croydon, Chislehurst and Orpington, Caterham, Redhill and Reigate,
  Epsom, Dorking and Leatherhead; and up the valley of the Thames
  through Richmond to Kingston and Surbiton, Esher and Weybridge, and
  the many townships on both the Surrey and the Middlesex shores of the
  river. On the west and north the residential suburbs immediately
  outside the county include Acton and Ealing, Willesden, Highgate,
  Finchley and Hornsey; from the last two a densely populated district
  extends north through Wood Green and Southgate to Barnet and Enfield;
  while the "residential influence" of the metropolis far exceeds these
  limits, and may be observed at Harrow and Pinner, Bushey and Boxmoor,
  St Albans, Harpenden, Stevenage and many other places. To the
  north-east the beauty of Epping Forest attracts numerous residents to
  Woodford, Chingford and Loughton. The valley of the Lea is also
  thickly populated, but chiefly by an industrial population working in
  the numerous factories along this river. The Lea separates the county
  of London from Essex, but the townships of West Ham and Stratford,
  Barking and Ilford, Leyton and Walthamstow continue the metropolis in
  this direction almost without a break. Their population is also
  largely occupied in local manufacturing establishments; while numerous
  towns on either bank of the lower Thames share in the industries of
  the port of London.

_Streets._--The principal continuous thoroughfares within the
metropolis, though each bears a succession of names, are coincident with
the main roads converging upon the capital from all parts of England. On
the north of the Thames two great thoroughfares from the west meet in
the heart of the City. The northern enters the county in Hammersmith as
Uxbridge Road, crosses Kensington and borders the north side of
Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park as Bayswater Road. It then bears
successively the names of Oxford Street, New Oxford Street and High
Holborn; enters the City, becomes known as Holborn Viaduct from the fact
that it is there carried over other streets which lie at a lower level,
and then as Newgate Street and Cheapside. The southern highway enters
Hammersmith, crosses the centre of Kensington as Kensington Road and
High Street, borders Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park as Kensington Gore
and Knightsbridge, with terraces of fine residences, and merges into
Piccadilly. This beautiful street, with its northward branches, Park
Lane, from which splendid houses overlook Hyde Park, and Bond Street,
lined with handsome shops, may be said to focus the fashionable life of
London. The direct line of the thoroughfare is interrupted after
Piccadilly Circus (the term "circus" is frequently applied to the open
space--not necessarily round--at the junction of several roads), but is
practically resumed in the Strand, with its hotels, shops and numerous
theatres, and continued through the City in Fleet Street, the centre of
the newspaper world, and Ludgate Hill, at the head of which is St Paul's
Cathedral. Thence it runs by commercial Cannon Street to the junction
with Cheapside and several other busy streets. At this junction stand
the Royal Exchange, the Mansion House (the official residence of the
Lord Mayor of London) and the Bank of England, from which this important
point in the communications of London is commonly known as "Bank." From
the east two main roads similarly converge upon the City, which they
enter by Aldgate (the suffix in this and other names indicating the
former existence of one of the City gates). The southern of these
highways, approaching through the eastern suburbs as Barking Road,
becomes East India Docks Road in Poplar and Commercial Road East in
Stepney. The continuous thoroughfare of 12 m. between Hammersmith and
the East India Docks illustrates successively every phase of London
life. The northern road enters from Stratford and is called Bow Road,
Mile End Road, Whitechapel Road and High Street, Whitechapel. From the
north of England two roads preserve communication-lines from the
earliest times. The Old North Road, entering London from the Lea valley
through Hackney and Shoreditch as Stamford Hill, Stoke Newington Road
and Kingsland Road, reaches the City by Bishopsgate. The straight
highway from the north-west which as Edgware Road joins Oxford Street at
the Marble Arch (the north-eastern entrance to Hyde Park) is coincident
with the Roman Watling Street. The Holyhead and Great North Roads,
uniting at Barnet, enter London by branches through Hampstead and
through Highgate, between the Old North and Edgware roads. South of the
Thames the thoroughfares crossing the river between Lambeth and
Bermondsey converge upon two circuses, St George's and the Elephant and
Castle. At the second of these points the majority of the chief roads
from the southern suburbs and the south of England are collected. Among
them, the Old Kent Road continues the southern section of Watling
Street, from Dover and the south-east, through Woolwich and across
Blackheath. The road through Streatham, Brixton and Kennington, taking
name from these districts successively, is the principal southern
highway. The Portsmouth Road from the south-west is well marked as far
as Lambeth, under the names of Wandsworth, High Street, St John's Hill,
Lavender Hill and Wandsworth Road.

_Thames Embankments._--The Thames follows a devious course through
London, and the fine embankments on its north side, nowhere continuing
uninterruptedly for more than 2 m., do not form important thoroughfares,
with the exception of the Victoria Embankment. Mostly they serve rather
as beautiful promenades. One of them begins over against Battersea
Bridge. Its finest portion is the Chelsea Embankment, fronting Battersea
Park across the river, shaded by a pleasant avenue and lined with
handsome houses. It continues, with some interruptions, nearly as far as
the Houses of Parliament. Below these the grandest of the embankments
extends to the City at Blackfriars. It was formed in 1864-1870, and is
named the Victoria Embankment, though its popular title is "The
Embankment" simply. Open gardens fringe it in part on the landward side,
and it is lined with fine public and private buildings. The bold sweep
of the Thames, here some 300 yds. wide, the towers of Westminster on the
one hand and the dome of St Paul's on the other, make up a fine
prospect. Below London Bridge the river is embanked for a short distance
in front of the Tower of London, and above Westminster Bridge the Albert
Embankment extends for nearly 1 m. along the south bank.

_Bridges._--Fourteen road-bridges cross the Thames within the county of
London. Of these London Bridge, connecting the City with Southwark and
Bermondsey, stands first in historical interest and in importance as a
modern highway. The old bridge, famous for many generations, bearing its
rows of houses and its chapel in the centre, was completed early in the
13th century. It was 308 yds. long and had twenty narrow arches, through
which the tides formed dangerous rapids. It stood just below the
existing bridge, which was built of granite by John Rennie and his son
Sir John Rennie, and completed in 1831. A widening to accommodate the
growth of traffic, after being frequently discussed for many years, was
completed in 1904, by means of corbels projecting on either side,
without arresting traffic during the work. There was no bridge over the
Thames below London Bridge until 1894, when the Tower Bridge was opened.
This is a suspension bridge with a central portion, between two lofty
and massive stone towers, consisting of bascules which can be raised by
hydraulic machinery to admit the passage of vessels. The bridge is both
a remarkable engineering work, and architecturally one of the finest
modern structures in London. The bridges in order above London Bridge
are as follows, railway-bridges being bracketed--Southwark, (Cannon
Street), (Blackfriars), Blackfriars, Waterloo, (Hungerford--with a
footway), Westminster, Lambeth, Vauxhall, (Grosvenor), Victoria, Albert,
Battersea, (Battersea), Wandsworth, (Putney), Putney and Hammersmith.
Waterloo Bridge, the oldest now standing within London, is the work of
John Rennie, and was opened in 1817. It is a massive stone structure of
nine arches, carrying a level roadway, and is considered one of the
finest bridges of its kind in the world. The present Westminster Bridge,
of iron on granite piers, was opened in 1862, but another preceded it,
dating from 1750; the view from which was appreciated by Wordsworth in
his sonnet beginning "Earth has not anything to show more fair." The
complete reconstruction of Vauxhall Bridge was undertaken in 1902, and
the new bridge was opened in 1906. Some of the bridges were built by
companies, and tolls were levied at their crossing until modern times;
thus Southwark Bridge was made toll-free in 1866, and Waterloo Bridge
only in 1878, on being acquired by the City Corporation and the
Metropolitan Board of Works respectively. The road-bridges mentioned
(except the City bridges) are maintained by the London County Council,
who expended for this purpose a sum of £9149 in 1907-1908. The following
table shows the capital expenditure on the more important bridges and
their cost of maintenance in 1907-1908:--

                            Net Capital    Cost of Maintenance
                            Expenditure.        1907-1908.

  Albert Bridge               £120,774            £1296
  Battersea Bridge             312,193              512
  Hammersmith Bridge           204,250              421
  Lambeth Bridge                47,555              496
  Putney Bridge                430,052              653
  Vauxhall Bridge (temporary)  270,749               73
  Vauxhall Bridge (new)        457,108             1109
  Wandsworth Bridge             65,661              410
  Waterloo Bridge              552,867             1102
  Westminster Bridge           393,189             1491

The properties entrusted to the Corporation for the upkeep of London
Bridge are managed by the Bridge House Estates Committee, the revenues
from which are also used in the maintenance of the other three City
bridges, £26,989 being thus expended in 1907, the Tower bridge absorbing
£17,735 of this amount.

_Thames Tunnels._--Some of the metropolitan railway lines cross the
river in tunnels beneath its bed. There are also several tunnels under
the river below London Bridge, namely: Tower Subway, constructed in 1870
for foot-passengers, but no longer used, Greenwich Tunnel (1902) for
foot-passengers, Blackwall Tunnel (1897), constructed by the County
Council between Greenwich and Poplar, and Woolwich Tunnel, begun in
1910. A tunnel between Rotherhithe and Ratcliff was authorized in 1897
and opened in 1908. The Thames Tunnel (1825-1843), 2 m. below London
Bridge, became a railway tunnel in 1865. The County Council maintains a
free ferry at Woolwich for passengers and vehicular traffic. The capital
expenditure on this undertaking was £185,337 and the expense of
maintenance in 1907-1908 £20,881. The Greenwich Tunnel (capital
expenditure £179,293) in the same year had expended on it for
maintenance £3725, and the Blackwall Tunnel (capital expenditure
£1,268,951) £11,420. The capital expenditure on the Rotherhithe Tunnel
was £1,414,561.

_Parks._--The administration and acreage of parks and open spaces, and
their provisions for the public recreation, fall for consideration
later, but some of them are notable features in the topography of
London. The royal parks, namely St James's, Green and Hyde Park, and
Kensington Gardens, stretch in an irregular belt for nearly 3 m. between
Whitehall (Westminster) and Kensington. St James's Park was transformed
from marshy land into a deer park, bowling green and tennis court by
Henry VIII., extended and laid out as a pleasure garden by Charles II.,
and rearranged according to the designs of John Nash in 1827-1829. Its
lake, the broad Mall leading up to Buckingham Palace, and the proximity
of the government buildings in Whitehall, combine to beautify it. Here
was established, by licence from James I., the so-called Milk Fair,
which remained, its ownership always in the same family, until 1905,
when, on alterations being made to the Mall, a new stall was erected for
the owners during their lifetime, though the cow or cows kept here were
no longer allowed. St James's Park is continued between the Mall and
Piccadilly by the Green Park. Hyde Park, to the west, belonged
originally to the manor of Hyde, which was attached to Westminster
Abbey, but was taken by Henry VIII. on the dissolution of the
monasteries. Two of its gateways are noteworthy, namely that at Hyde
Park Corner at the south-east and the Marble Arch at the north-east. The
first was built in 1828 from designs of Decimus Burton, and comprises
three arches with a frieze above the central arch copied from the Elgin
marbles in the British Museum. The Marble Arch was intended as a
monument to Nelson, and first stood in front of Buckingham Palace, being
moved to its present site in 1851. It no longer forms an entrance to the
park, as in 1908 a corner of the park was cut off and a roadway was
formed to give additional accommodation for the heavy traffic between
Oxford Street, Edgware Road and Park Lane. The Marble Arch was thus left
isolated. Hyde Park contains the Serpentine, a lake 1500 yds. in length,
from the bridge over which one of the finest prospects in London is
seen, extending to the distant towers of Westminster. Since the 17th
century this park has been one of the most favoured resorts of
fashionable society, and at the height of the "season," from May to the
end of July, its drives present a brilliant scene. In the 17th and 18th
centuries it was a favourite duelling-ground, and in the present day it
is not infrequently the scene of political and other popular
demonstrations (as is also Trafalgar Square), while the neighbourhood of
Marble Arch is the constant resort of orators on social and religious
topics. Kensington Gardens, originally attached to Kensington Palace,
were subsequently much extended; they are magnificently timbered, and
contain plantations of rare shrubs and flowering trees. Regent's Park,
mainly in the borough of Marylebone, owes its preservation to the
intention of George III. to build a palace here. The other most notable
open spaces wholly or partly within the county are Hampstead Heath in
the north-west, a wild, high-lying tract preserved to a great extent in
its natural state, and in the south-west Wimbledon Common, Putney Heath
and the royal demesne of Richmond Park, which from its higher parts
commands a wonderful view up the rich valley of the Thames. The outlying
parts of the county to east, south and north are not lacking in open
spaces, but there is an extensive inner area where at most only small
gardens and squares break the continuity of buildings, and where in some
cases old churchyards serve as public grounds.

  _Architecture._--While stone is the material used in the construction
  of the majority of great buildings of London, some modern examples
  (notably the Westminster Roman Catholic cathedral) are of red brick
  with stone dressings; and brick is in commonest use for general
  domestic building. The smoke-laden atmosphere has been found not
  infrequently to exercise a deleterious effect upon the stonework of
  important buildings; and through the same cause the appearance of
  London as a whole is by some condemned as sombre. Bright colour, in
  truth, is wanting, though attempts are made in a few important modern
  erections to supply it, a notable instance being the Savoy Hotel
  buildings (1904) in the Strand. Portland stone is frequently employed
  in the larger buildings, as in St Paul's Cathedral, and under the
  various influences of weather and atmosphere acquires strongly
  contrasting tones of light grey and black. Owing to the by-laws of the
  County Council, the method of raising commercial or residential
  buildings to an extreme height is not practised in London; the block
  known as Queen Anne's Mansions, Westminster, is an exception, though
  it cannot be called high in comparison with American high buildings.


    Ecclesiastical architecture.

  Architectural remains of earlier date than the Norman period are very
  few, and of historical rather than topographical importance. In
  architecture of the Norman and Gothic periods London must be
  considered rich, though its richness is poverty when its losses,
  particularly during the great fire of 1666, are recalled. These losses
  were confined within the City, but, to go no farther, included the
  Norman and Gothic cathedral of St Paul, perhaps a nobler monument of
  its period than any which has survived it, much as it had suffered
  from injudicious restoration. Ancient architecture in London is
  principally ecclesiastical. Westminster Abbey is pre-eminent; in part,
  it may be, owing to the reverence felt towards it in preference to the
  classical St Paul's by those whose ideal of a cathedral church is
  essentially Gothic, but mainly from the fact that it is the
  burial-place of many of the English monarchs and their greatest
  subjects, as well as the scene of their coronations (see WESTMINSTER).
  In the survey of London (1598) by John Stow, 125 churches, including
  St Paul's and Westminster Abbey, are named; of these 89 were destroyed
  by the great fire. Thirteen large conventual churches were mentioned
  by Fitzstephen in the time of Henry II., and of these there are some
  remains.

  The church of St Bartholomew the Great, Smithfield, is the finest
  remnant of its period in London. It was founded in 1123 by Rahere,
  who, probably a Breton by birth, was a courtier in the reign of
  William II. He is said to have been the king's minstrel, and to have
  spent the earlier part of his life in frivolity. Subsequently he
  entered holy orders, and in _c._ 1120, being stricken with fever while
  on a pilgrimage to Rome, vowed that he would found a hospital in
  London. St Bartholomew, appearing to him in a vision, bade him add a
  church to his foundation. He became an Augustinian canon, and founded
  his hospital, which is now, as St Bartholomew's Hospital, one of the
  principal medical institutions in the metropolis. He became its first
  master. Later he erected the priory, for canons of his order, of which
  the nave and transepts of the church remain. The work is in the main
  very fine Norman, with triforium, ambulatory and apsidal eastern end.
  An eastern lady chapel dates from c. 1410, but the upper part is
  modern, for the chapel was long desecrated. There are remains of the
  cloisters north of the church,--and praiseworthy efforts have been
  made since 1903 towards their restoration. The western limit of the
  former nave of the church is marked by a fine Early English doorway,
  now forming an entrance to the churchyard. Rahere's tomb remains in
  the church; the canopy is Perpendicular work, but the effigy is
  believed to be original. He died in 1144.

  The Temple Church (see INNS OF COURT), serving for the Inner and
  Middle Temples, belonged to the Knights Templars. It is the finest of
  the four ancient round churches in England, dating from 1185, but an
  Early English choir opens from the round church. St Saviour's in
  Southwark (q.v.), the cathedral church of the modern bishopric of
  Southwark, was the church of the priory of St Mary Overy, and is a
  large cruciform building mainly Early English in style. There may be
  mentioned also an early pier in the church of St Katherine Cree or
  Christ Church, Leadenhall Street, belonging to the priory church of
  the Holy Trinity; old monuments in the vaults beneath St James's
  Church, Clerkenwell, formerly attached to a Benedictine nunnery; and
  the Perpendicular gateway and the crypt of the church of the priory of
  St John of Jerusalem (see FINSBURY). Among other ancient churches
  within the City, that of All Hallows Barking, near the Tower of
  London, is principally Perpendicular and contains some fine brasses.
  It belonged to the convent at Barking, Essex, and was the burial-place
  of many who were executed at the scaffold on Tower Hill. St Andrew
  Undershaft, so named because a Maypole used to be set up before the
  former church on May-day, is late Perpendicular (c. 1530); and
  contains a monument to John Stow the chronicler (d. 1605). The church
  of Austin Friars, originally belonging to a friary founded in 1253,
  became a Dutch church under a grant of Edward VI., and still remains
  so; its style is principally Decorated, but through various
  vicissitudes little of the original work is left. St Giles,
  Cripplegate, was founded _c._ 1090, but the existing church is late
  Perpendicular. It is the burial-place of Fox the martyrologist and
  Milton the poet, and contains some fine wood-carving by Grinling
  Gibbons. St Helen's, Bishopsgate, belonged to a priory of nuns founded
  c. 1212, but the greater part of the building is later. It has two
  naves parallel, originally for the use of the nuns and the
  parishioners respectively. The church of St Mary-le-Bow, in Cheapside,
  is built upon a Norman crypt, and that of St Olave's, Hart Street,
  which was Pepys's church and contains a modern memorial to him, is of
  the 15th century. Other ancient churches outside the City are few; but
  there may be noted St Margaret's, under the shadow of Westminster
  Abbey; and the beautiful Ely Chapel in Holborn (q.v.), the only
  remnant of a palace of the bishops of Ely, now used by the Roman
  Catholics. The Chapel Royal, Savoy, near the Strand, was rebuilt by
  Henry VII. on the site of Savoy Palace, which was erected by Peter,
  earl of Savoy and Richmond, in 1245, and destroyed in the insurrection
  of Wat Tyler in 1381. In 1505 Henry VII. endowed here a hospital of St
  John the Baptist for the poor. The chapel was used as the parish
  church of St Mary-le-Strand (1564-1717) and constituted a Chapel Royal
  in 1773; but there are no remains of the rest of the foundation.


    Sir Christopher Wren.

    Later churches.

  The architect to whom, after the great fire of 1666, the opportunity
  fell of leaving the marks of his influence upon London was Sir
  Christopher Wren. Had all his schemes been followed out, that
  influence would have extended beyond architecture alone. He, among
  others, prepared designs for laying out the City anew. But no such
  model city was destined to be built; the necessity for haste and the
  jealous guardianship of rights to old foundations resulted in the old
  lines being generally followed. It is characteristic of London that St
  Paul's Cathedral (q.v.) should be closely hemmed in by houses, and its
  majestic west front approached obliquely by a winding thoroughfare.
  The cathedral is Wren's crowning work. It is the scene from time to
  time of splendid ceremonies, and contains the tombs of many great men;
  but in this respect it cannot compete with the peculiar associations
  of Westminster Abbey. Of Wren's other churches it is to be noted that
  the necessity of economy usually led him to pay special attention to a
  single feature. He generally chose the steeple, and there are many
  fine examples of his work in this department. The steeple of St
  Mary-le-Bow, commonly called Bow Church, is one of the most
  noteworthy. This church has various points of interest besides its
  Norman crypt, from which it took the name of Bow, being the first
  church in London built on arches. The ecclesiastical Court of Arches
  sat here formerly. "Bow bells" are famous, and any person born within
  hearing of them is said to be a "Cockney," a term now applied
  particularly to the dialect of the lower classes in London. Wren
  occasionally followed the Gothic model, as in St Antholin. The classic
  style, however, was generally adopted in the period succeeding his
  own. Some fine churches belong to this period, such as St
  Martin's-in-the-Fields (1726), the Corinthian portico of which rises
  on the upper part of Trafalgar Square; but other examples are
  regrettable. While the architecture of the City churches, with the
  exceptions mentioned, is not as a rule remarkable, many are notable
  for the rich and beautiful wood-carving they contain. A Gothic style
  has been most commonly adopted in building modern churches; but of
  these the most notable, the Roman Catholic Westminster Cathedral (see
  WESTMINSTER), is Byzantine, and built principally of brick, with a
  lofty campanile. The only other ecclesiastical building to be
  specially mentioned is Lambeth Palace, opposite to the Houses of
  Parliament across the Thames. It has been a seat of the archbishops of
  Canterbury since 1197, and though the present residential portion
  dates only from the early 19th century, the chapel, hall and other
  parts are of the 13th century and later (see LAMBETH).


    Tower of London.

  Among secular buildings, there is none more venerable than the Tower
  of London (q.v.), the moated fortress which overlooks the Thames at
  the eastern boundary of the City. It presents fine examples of Norman
  architecture; its historical associations are of the highest interest,
  and its armoury and the regalia of England, which are kept here,
  attract great numbers of visitors.


    Government buildings.

  The Houses of Parliament, with Westminster Abbey and St Margaret's
  Church, complete the finest group of buildings which London possesses;
  a group essentially Gothic, for the Houses of Parliament, completed in
  1867 from the designs of Barry, are in a late Perpendicular style.
  They cover a great area, the east front giving immediately upon the
  Thames. The principal external features are the huge Victoria Tower at
  the south, and the clock tower, with its well-known chimes and the
  hour-bell "Big Ben," on the north. Some of the apartments are
  magnificently adorned within, and the building incorporates the
  ancient Westminster Hall, belonging to the former royal palace on the
  site (see WESTMINSTER). The government offices are principally in
  Whitehall, the fine thoroughfare which connects Parliament Square, in
  the angle between the Houses and the Abbey, with Trafalgar Square.
  Somerset House (1776-1786), a massive range of buildings by Sir
  William Chambers, surrounding a quadrangle, and having its front upon
  the Strand and back upon the Victoria Embankment, occupies the site of
  a palace founded by the protector Somerset, c. 1548. It contains the
  Exchequer and Audit, Inland Revenue, Probate, Registrar-General's and
  other offices, and one wing houses King's College. Other offices are
  the New Record Office, the repository of State papers and other
  records, and the Patent Office in Chancery Lane. The Heralds' College
  or College of Arms, the official authority in matters of armorial
  bearings and pedigrees, occupies a building in Queen Victoria Street,
  City, erected subsequently to the great fire (1683). The Royal Courts
  of Justice or Law Courts stand adjacent to the Inns of Court, facing
  the Strand at the point where a memorial marks the site of Old Temple
  Bar (1672), at the entrance to the City, removed in 1878 and later
  re-erected at Theobald's Park, near Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. The Law
  Courts (1882) were erected from the designs of G. E. Street, in a
  Gothic style.

  The buildings connected with local government in London are with one
  exception modern, and handsome town-halls have been erected for some
  of the boroughs. The exception is the Guildhall (q.v.) of the City
  Corporation, with its splendid hall, the scene of meetings and
  entertainments of the corporation, its council chamber, library and
  crypt (partly opened to the public in 1910). In 1906 the London County
  Council obtained parliamentary sanction for the erection of a county
  hall on the south bank of the Thames, immediately east of Westminster
  Bridge, and in 1908 a design submitted by Mr Ralph Knott was accepted
  in competition. The style prescribed was English Renaissance. Several
  of the great livery companies or gilds of the City possess fine halls,
  containing portraits and other collections of high interest and value.
  Among the more notable of these halls are those of the Mercers,
  Drapers, Fishmongers, Clothworkers, Armourers and Stationers.


    Royal palaces.

  The former royal palaces of Westminster and of Whitehall, of which the
  fine Jacobean banqueting hall remains, are described under
  WESTMINSTER. The present London residence of the sovereign is
  Buckingham Palace, on the west side of St James's Park, with beautiful
  gardens behind it. Buckingham House was built in 1705 for the duke of
  Buckinghamshire, and purchased by George III. in 1762. The existing
  palace was finished by John Nash in 1835, but did not meet with
  approval, and was considerably altered before Queen Victoria occupied
  it in 1837. As regards its exterior appearance it is one of the least
  satisfactory of London's great buildings, though the throne room and
  other state apartments are magnificent within. The picture gallery
  contains valuable works of Dutch masters and others. The front of the
  palace forms the background to the public memorial to Queen Victoria,
  at the head of the Mall. Provision was made in the design, by Sir
  Aston Webb, for the extension of the Mall to open upon Trafalgar
  Square, through gateways in a semicircular range of buildings to be
  occupied by government offices, and for a wide circular space in front
  of the Palace, with a statue of the Queen by Thomas Brock in its
  centre. St James's Palace, at the north side of St James's Park, was
  acquired and rebuilt by Henry VIII., having been formerly a hospital
  founded in the 12th century for leprous maidens. It was the royal
  residence after the destruction of Whitehall by fire in the time of
  William III. until a fire in 1809 destroyed the greater part. Only the
  gateway and certain apartments remain of the Tudor building.
  Marlborough House, adjacent to the palace, was built by the first duke
  of Marlborough in 1710 from the designs of Wren, came into possession
  of the Crown in 1817, and has been occupied since 1863 by the prince
  of Wales. In Kensington (q.v.), on the west side of Kensington
  Gardens, is the palace acquired by William III. as a country seat, and
  though no longer used by the sovereign, is in part occupied by members
  of the royal family, and possesses a deeper historical interest than
  the other royal palaces, as the birthplace of Queen Victoria and her
  residence in youth.

  There are few survivals of ancient domestic architecture in London,
  but the gabled and timbered front of Staple Inn, Holborn (q.v.) is a
  picturesque fragment. In Bishopsgate Street, City, stood Crosby Hall,
  which belonged to Crosby Place, the mansion of Sir John Crosby (d.
  1475). Richard III. occupied the mansion as duke of Gloucester and
  Lord Protector (cf. Shakespeare's _Richard III._, Act i. Sc. 3, &c.)
  The hall was removed in 1908, in spite of strong efforts to preserve
  it, which resulted in its re-erection on a site in Chelsea. The hall
  of the Middle Temple is an admirable example of a refectory of later
  date (1572).

  A fine though circumscribed group of buildings is that in the heart of
  the City which includes the Bank of England, the Royal Exchange and
  the Mansion House. The Bank is a characteristic building,
  quadrilateral, massive and low, but covering a large area, without
  external windows, and almost wholly unadorned; though the north-west
  corner is copied from the Temple of the Sibyl at Tivoli. The building
  is mainly the work of Sir John Soane (c. 1788). The first building for
  the Royal Exchange was erected and presented to the City by Sir Thomas
  Gresham (1565-1570) whose crest, a grasshopper, appears in the
  wind-vane above the present building. Gresham's Exchange was destroyed
  in the great fire of 1666; and the subsequent building was similarly
  destroyed in 1838. The present building has an imposing Corinthian
  portico, and encloses a court surrounded by an ambulatory adorned with
  historical paintings by Leighton, Seymour Lucas, Stanhope Forbes and
  others. The Mansion House was erected c. 1740.

  The only other public buildings, beyond those at Westminster, which
  fall into a great group are the modern museums, the Imperial
  Institute, London University and other institutions, and Albert Hall,
  which lie between Kensington Gore and Brompton and Cromwell Roads, and
  these, together with the National Gallery (in Trafalgar Square) and
  other art galleries, and the principal scientific, educational and
  recreative institutions, are considered in Section V.

  _Monuments and Memorials._--The Monument (1677), Fish Street Hill,
  City, erected from the designs of Wren in commemoration of the great
  fire of 1666, is a Doric column surmounted by a gilt representation of
  a flaming urn. The Nelson Column, the central feature of Trafalgar
  Square, is from the designs of William Railton (1843), crowned with a
  statue of Nelson by Baily, and has at its base four colossal lions in
  bronze, modelled by Sir Edwin Landseer. A statue of the duke of
  Cambridge, by Captain Adrian Jones, was unveiled in 1907 in front of
  the War Office, Whitehall. The duke of York's Column, Carlton House
  Terrace (1833), an Ionic pillar, is surmounted by a bronze statue by
  Sir Richard Westmacott. The Westminster Column, outside the entrance
  to Dean's Yard, was erected to the memory of the old pupils of
  Westminster School who died in the Russian and Indian wars of
  1854-1859. The Guards Memorial, Waterloo Place, commemorates the foot
  guards who died in the Crimea. The Albert Memorial, Kensington
  Gardens, was erected (1872) by "Queen Victoria and her People to the
  memory of Albert, Prince Consort," from the designs of Sir Gilbert
  Scott, with a statue of the Prince (1876) by John Henry Foley beneath
  a huge ornate Gothic canopy. At the eastern end of the Strand a
  memorial with statue by Hamo Thorneycroft of William Ewart Gladstone
  was unveiled in 1905. In Parliament Square and elsewhere are numerous
  statues, some of high merit, but it cannot be said that statuary
  occupies an important place in the adornment of streets and open
  places in London. Cleopatra's Needle, an ancient Egyptian monument,
  was presented to the government by Mehemet Ali in 1819, brought from
  Alexandria in 1878, and erected on the Victoria embankment on a
  pedestal of grey granite.

_Nomenclature._--Having regard to the destruction of visible evidences
of antiquity in London, both through accidental agencies such as the
great fire, and through inevitable modernizing influences, it is well
that historical associations in nomenclature are preserved in a great
measure unimpaired. The City naturally offers the richest field for
study in this direction. The derivations of names may here be grouped
into two classes, those having a commercial connexion, and those
associated with ancient buildings, particularly the City wall and
ecclesiastical foundations. Among examples of the first group, Cheapside
is prominent. This modern thoroughfare of shops was in early times the
Chepe (O. Eng. _ceap_, bargain), an open place occupied by a market,
having, until the 14th century, a space set apart for popular
entertainments. There was a Queen Eleanor cross here, and conduits
supplied the city with water. Modern Cheapside merges eastward into the
street called the Poultry, from the poulterers' stalls "but lately
departed from thence," according to Stow, at the close of the 16th
century. Cornhill, again, recalls the cornmarket "time out of mind there
holden" (Stow), and Gracechurch Street was corrupted from the name of
the church of St Benet Grasschurch (destroyed by the great fire,
rebuilt, and removed in 1868), which was said to be derived from a
herb-market held under its walls. The Jews had their quarter near the
commercial centre, their presence being indicated by the street named
Old Jewry, though it is probable that they did not reoccupy this
locality after their expulsion in 1290. Lombard Street similarly points
to the residence of Lombard merchants, the name existing when Edward II.
confirmed a grant to Florentine merchants in 1318, while the Lombards
maintained their position until Tudor times. Paternoster Row, still
occupied by booksellers, takes name from the sellers of prayer-books and
writers of texts who collected under the shadow of St Paul's Cathedral.
As regards names derived from ancient buildings, instances are the
streets called London Wall and Barbican, and those named after the
numerous gates. Of those associated with ecclesiastical foundations
several occur in the course of this article (Section II.,
_Ecclesiastical Architecture_, &c.). Such are Austin Friars, Crutched
Friars, Blackfriars and Whitefriars. To this last district a curious
alternative name, Alsatia, was given, probably in the 17th century, with
reference to its notoriety as a hiding-place of debtors. A derivation is
suggested from the disputed territory of Alsace, pointing the contrast
between this lawless district and the adjacent Temple, the home of the
law itself. The name Bridewell came from a well near the Fleet (New
Bridge Street), dedicated to St Bride, and was attached to a house built
by Henry VIII. (1522), but is most familiar in its application to the
house of correction instituted by Edward VI., which remained a prison
till 1863. The Minories, a street leading south from Aldgate, takes name
from an abbey of nuns of St Clare (_Sorores Minores_) founded in 1293.
Apart from the City an interesting ecclesiastical survival is the name
Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, recalling the place of sanctuary which
long survived the monastery under the protection of which it originally
existed. Covent Garden, again, took its name from a convent garden
belonging to Westminster. Among the survivals of names of
non-ecclesiastical buildings Castle Baynard may be noted; it stood in
the City on the banks of the Thames, and was held by Ralph Baynard, a
Norman, in the time of william the Conqueror; a later building being
erected in 1428 by Humphrey duke of Gloucester. Here Richard III. was
acclaimed king, and the mansion was used by Henry VII. and Henry VIII.
Its name is kept in a wharf and a ward of the City.

The survival of names of obliterated physical features or
characteristics is illustrated in Section I.; but additional instances
are found in the Strand, which originally ran close to the sloping bank
of the Thames, and in Smithfield, now the central meat market, but for
long the "smooth field" where a cattle and hay market was held, and the
scene of tournaments and games, and also of executions. Here in 1381 Wat
Tyler the rebel was killed by Sir William Walworth during the parley
with Richard II. In the West End of London the majority of important
street-names are naturally of a later derivation than those in the
ancient City, though Charing Cross (q.v.) is an instance of an
exception. The derivation commonly accepted for Piccadilly is from
_pickadil_, a stiff collar or hem in fashion in the early part of the
17th century (Span. _picca_, a spear-head). In Pall Mall and the
neighbouring Mall in St James' Park is found the title of a game
resembling croquet (Fr. _paille maille_) in favour at or before the time
of Charles I., though the Mall was laid out for the game by Charles II.
Other names pointing to the existence of pastimes now extinct are found
elsewhere in London, as in Balls Pond Road, Islington, where in the 17th
century was a proprietary pond for the sport of duck-hunting. An
entertainment of another form is recalled in the name of Spring Gardens,
St James' Park, where at the time of James I. there was a fountain or
spring so arranged as to besprinkle those who trod unwarily on the valve
which opened it. Many of the names of the rich residential streets and
squares in the west have associations with the various owners of the
properties; but Mayfair is so called from a fair held on this ground in
May as early as the reign of Charles II. Finally there are several
survivals, in street-names, of former private mansions and other
buildings. Thus the district of the Adelphi, south of Charing Cross,
takes name from the block of dwellings and offices erected in 1768 by
the brothers (Gr. _adelphi_) Robert and William Adam, Scottish
architects. In Piccadilly Clarendon House, erected in 1664 by Edward
Hyde, earl of Clarendon, became Albemarle House when acquired by the
duke of Albemarle in 1675. Northumberland House, from which is named
Northumberland Avenue, opening upon Trafalgar Square, was built _c._
1605 by Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, and was acquired by marriage
by Algernon Percy, earl of Northumberland, in 1642. It took name from
this family, and stood until 1874. Arundel House, originally a seat of
the bishops of Bath, was the residence of Thomas Howard, earl of
Arundel, whose famous collection of sculpture, the Arundel Marbles, was
housed here until presented to Oxford University in 1667. The site of
the house is marked by Arundel Street, Strand.


III. COMMUNICATIONS

  _Railways._--The trunk railways leaving London, with their termini,
  are as follows: (1) _Northern_. The Great Northern, Midland and London
  & North-Western systems have adjacent termini, namely King's Cross, St
  Pancras and Euston, in Euston Road, St Pancras. The terminus of the
  Great Central railway is Marylebone, in the road of that name. (2)
  _Western_. The terminus of the Great Western railway is Paddington
  (Praed Street); and that of the London & South-Western, Waterloo,
  south of the Thames in Lambeth. (3) _Southern._ The London, Brighton &
  South Coast railway has its western terminus at Victoria, and its
  central terminus at London Bridge, on the south side of the Thames.
  The South-Eastern & Chatham railway has four terminal stations, all on
  or close to the north bank of the river--Victoria, Charing Cross,[2]
  Holborn Viaduct and Cannon Street (City). St Paul's Station on the
  Holborn branch is also terminal in part. (4) _Eastern._ The principal
  terminus of the Great Eastern Railway is in Liverpool Street (City),
  but the company also uses Fenchurch Street (City), the terminus of the
  London, Tilbury & Southend railway, and St Pancras. These lines,
  especially the southern lines, the Great Eastern, Great Northern and
  South-Western carry a very heavy suburban traffic. Systems of joint
  lines and running powers are maintained to afford communication
  between the main lines. Thus the West London Extension line carries
  local traffic between the North Western and Great Western and the
  Brighton and South-Western systems, while the Metropolitan Extension
  through the City connects the Midland and Great Northern with the
  South-Eastern & Chatham lines.

  The railways whose systems are mainly or wholly confined within the
  metropolitan area are as follows. The North London railway has a
  terminal station at Broad Street, City, and serves the parts of London
  implied by its name. The company possesses running powers over the
  lines of various other companies: thus its trains run as far north as
  Potter's Bar on the Great Northern line, while it serves Richmond on
  the west and Poplar on the east. The East London line connects
  Shoreditch with New Cross (Deptford) by way of the Thames Tunnel, a
  subway under the river originally built for foot-passengers. The
  London & India Docks line connects the city with the docks on the
  north bank of the river as far as North Woolwich. The Metropolitan
  railway has a line from Baker Street through north-west London to
  Harrow, continuing to Uxbridge, while the original main line runs on
  to Rickmansworth, Aylesbury and Verney Junction, but has been worked
  by the Metropolitan and Great Central companies jointly since 1906.
  Another line serves the western outskirts (Hammersmith, Richmond, &c.)
  from the city. Metropolitan trains also connect at New Cross with the
  south-eastern railway system. This company combines with the
  Metropolitan District to form the Inner Circle line, which has
  stations close to all the great railway termini north of the Thames.
  The Metropolitan District (commonly called the District) system serves
  Wimbledon, Richmond, Ealing and Harrow on the west, and passes
  eastward by Earl's Court, South Kensington, Victoria and Mansion House
  (City) to Whitechapel and Bow. The Metropolitan and the District lines
  within London are for the most part underground (this feature
  supplying the title of "the Underground" familiarly applied to both
  systems); the tunnels being constructed of brick. The earliest part of
  the system was opened in 1863. Although these railways, as far as
  concerns the districts they serve, form the fastest method of
  communication from point to point, their discomfort, arising mainly
  from the impossibility of proper ventilation, and various other
  disadvantages attendant upon the use of steam traction, led to a
  determination to adapt the lines to electrical working. Experiments on
  a short section of the line were made in 1900, and later schemes were
  set on foot to electrify the District system and bring under one
  general control this railway, other lines in deep level "tubes"
  between Baker Street and Waterloo, between Charing Cross, Euston and
  Hampstead, and between Hammersmith, Brompton, Piccadilly, King's Cross
  and Finsbury Park, and the London United Tramways Company. The
  Underground Electric Railways Company, which acquired a controlling
  influence over these concerns, undertook the construction of a great
  power station at Chelsea; while the Metropolitan Company, which had
  fallen into line with the District (not without dispute over the
  system of electrification to be adopted) erected a station at Neasden
  on the Aylesbury branch. Electric traction was gradually introduced on
  the Metropolitan and the District lines in 1906. The former company
  combined with the Great Western Company as regards the electrification
  of, and provision of stock for, the lines which they had previously
  worked jointly, from Edgware Road by Bishop's Road to Hammersmith, &c.
  The Baker Street & Waterloo railway (known as the "Bakerloo") was
  opened in 1906 and subsequently extended in one direction to
  Paddington and in the other to the Elephant and Castle. The Great
  Northern, Piccadilly & Brompton line, from Finsbury Park to
  Hammersmith, was opened early in 1907, and the Charing Cross, Euston &
  Hampstead line later in the same year. Deep-level electric railways
  ("tubes"), communicating with the surface by lifts, were already
  familiar in London. The first opened was the City & South London
  (1890), subsequently extended to run between Euston, the Angel,
  Islington, the Bank (City) and Clapham. Others are the Waterloo & City
  (1898) running from the terminus of the South-Western railway without
  intermediate stations to the Bank; the Central London (1900), from the
  Bank to Shepherd's Bush, Hammersmith; and the Great Northern & City
  (1904) from Finsbury Park (which is an important suburban junction on
  the Great Northern railway) to Moorgate Street.

  _Tramways._--The surface tramway system of London cannot be complete,
  as, within an area roughly represented by the boroughs of Chelsea,
  Kensington and Fulham, the city of Westminster and a considerable
  district north thereof, and the city of London, the existing streets
  could not accommodate tram lines along with other traffic over any
  great distance consecutively, and in point of fact there are few,
  beyond the embankment line from Blackfriars Bridge to Westminster
  Bridge, which connects with the southern system. Another line, running
  south from Islington, uses the shallow-level subway under Kingsway and
  connects with the embankment line. The northern, western and eastern
  outskirts and London south of the Thames are extensively served by
  trams. On the formation of the London County Council there were
  thirteen tramway companies in existence. Powers under the Tramways Act
  of 1870 were given to the council, enabling it to acquire possession
  of these undertakings, and within the county of London they have been
  for the most part so acquired, and are worked by the council. Outside
  the county both companies and local authorities own and work tramways.
  Both electric and horse traction are used; the latter, however, has
  been in great part displaced by the former. The total mileage for
  greater London is about 240.

  _Omnibuses._--The omnibus system is very extensive, embracing all the
  principal streets throughout the county and extending over a large
  part of Greater London. The two principal omnibus companies are the
  London General Omnibus and the London Road Car. The first omnibus ran
  between the Bank and Paddington in 1829. In 1905 and following years
  motor omnibuses (worked mostly by internal combustion engines) began
  to a large extent to supplant horse traction. The principal existing
  companies adopted them, and new companies were formed to work them
  exclusively. With their advantages of greater speed and carrying
  capacity over the horsed vehicles, their introduction was a most
  important development, though their working at first imposed a severe
  financial strain on many companies.

  _Cabs._--The horse-drawn cabs which ply for hire in the streets, or
  wait at authorized "cab-stands," are of two kinds, the "hansom," a
  two-wheeled vehicle so named after its inventor (1834) and the
  "four-wheeler." "Hackney coaches" for hire are first mentioned in
  1625, when they were kept at inns, and numbered 20. Until 1832 their
  numbers were restricted, in 1662 to 400, in 1694 to 700, in 1771 to
  1000. In some cases a driver owns his cab, but the majority of
  vehicles are let to drivers by owners, and the adjustment of terms
  between them has led to disputes from time to time. In 1894 a dispute
  necessitated the formulation of the "Asquith award" by the Rt. Hon. H.
  H. Asquith as home secretary, and subsequent modifications of this
  were only arrived at, as in 1904, after a strike of the drivers
  affected. A long-standing cause of complaint on the part of the public
  has been the common refusal of cab-drivers to accept their legal
  fares, but, on the other hand, several attempts to introduce cabs with
  an automatic taximeter failed, until the introduction of motor cabs,
  of which a few had already been plying for some time when in 1907 a
  large number, provided with taximeters, were put into service.
  Subsequently, as the number of "taxicabs" (see MOTOR VEHICLES)
  increased, that of horse-cabs decreased.


    Traffic commission 1903.

  _Traffic Problem._--One of the most serious administrative problems
  met with in London is that of locomotion, especially as regards the
  regulation of traffic in the principal thoroughfares and at the
  busiest crossings. The police have powers of control over vehicles and
  exercise them admirably; their work in this respect is a constant
  source of wonder to foreign visitors. But this control does not meet
  the problem of actually lessening the number of vehicles in the main
  arteries of traffic. At such crossings as that of the Strand and
  Wellington Street, Ludgate Circus and south of the Thames, the
  Elephant and Castle, as also in the narrow streets of the City,
  congestion is often exceedingly severe, and is aggravated when any
  main street is under repair, and diversion of traffic through narrow
  side streets becomes necessary. Many street improvements were carried
  out, it is true, in the last half of the 19th century, the dates of
  the principal being as follows: 1854, Cannon Street; 1864, Southwark
  Street; 1870, Holborn Viaduct; 1871, Hamilton Place, Queen Victoria
  Street; 1876, Northumberland Avenue; 1882, Tooley Street; 1883, Hyde
  Park Corner; 1884, Eastcheap; 1886, Shaftesbury Avenue; 1887, Charing
  Cross Road; 1890-1892, Rosebery Avenue. At the beginning of the 20th
  century several important local widenings of streets were put in hand,
  as for example between Sloane Street and Hyde Park Corner, in the
  Strand and at the Marble Arch (1908). At the same period a great work
  was undertaken to meet the want of a proper central communication
  between north and south, namely, the construction of a broad
  thoroughfare, called Kingsway in honour of King Edward VII., from High
  Holborn opposite Southampton Row southward to the Strand, connexion
  with which is established at two points through a crescent named
  Aldwych. The idea of such a thoroughfare is traceable back to the time
  of William IV. The magnitude of the traffic problem as a whole may be
  best appreciated by examples of the vast schemes of improvement which
  from time to time have been put forward by responsible individuals.
  Thus Sir John Wolfe Barry, as chairman of the Council of the Society
  of Arts in 1899, proposed to alleviate congestion of traffic by
  bridges over and tunnels under the streets at six points, namely--Hyde
  Park Corner, Piccadilly Circus, Ludgate Circus, Oxford Street and
  Tottenham Court Road, Strand and Wellington Street, and Southwark
  Bridge and Upper Thames Street. Another scheme seriously suggested in
  1904, to meet existing disabilities of communication between north and
  south by linking the northern and southern tramway services, involved
  the removal of the Charing Cross terminus of the South Eastern and
  Chatham railway to the south side of the river, and the construction
  of a new bridge in place of the railway bridge. The mere control of
  existing traffic, local street improvements and provision of new means
  of communication between casual points, were felt to miss the root of
  the problem, and in 1903 a Royal Commission was appointed to consider
  the whole question of locomotion and transport in London, expert
  evidence being taken from engineers, representatives of the various
  railway and other companies, of the County Council, borough councils
  and police, and others. The commission reported in 1905.[3] With
  regard to street improvements the most important recommendation was
  that of the construction of two main avenues 140 ft. wide, one running
  west and east, from Bayswater Road to Whitechapel, and passing through
  the city in the neighbourhood of London Wall, and another from
  Holloway to the Elephant and Castle, to cross the Thames by a new
  bridge above Blackfriars. Four lines of surface tramways and four
  railway lines in shallow tunnels were proposed along these avenues.
  Many widenings and other improvements of existing thoroughfares, and
  extensions of tramways were proposed, and detailed recommendations
  were made as regards urban and suburban railways, and the rehousing of
  the working population on the outskirts of London. Finally, the
  commission made the important recommendation that a traffic board
  should be established for London, to exercise a general supervision of
  traffic, and to act as a tribunal to which all schemes of railway and
  tramway construction should be referred.

  _Thames Steamers._--A local passenger steamboat service on the Thames
  suffers from the disadvantage that the river does not provide the
  shortest route between points at any great distance apart, and that
  the main thoroughfares between east and west do not touch its banks,
  so that passengers along those thoroughfares are not tempted to use it
  as a channel of communication. High pier dues, moreover, contributed
  to the decline of the traffic, and attempts to overcome the
  disinclination of passengers to use the river (at any rate in winter)
  show a record of failure. The London, Westminster and Vauxhall
  Steamboat Company established in 1840 a service of seven steamboats
  between London Bridge and Vauxhall. This company was bought up by the
  Citizen and Iron Steamboat Companies in 1865. The City Steamboat
  Company, established in 1848, began with eight boats, and by 1865 had
  increased their fleet to seventeen, running from London Bridge to
  Chelsea. This company was taken over by the London Steamboat Company
  in 1875. The sinking of the "Princess Alice" in 1878 was a serious
  blow to the London Steamboat Company, which collapsed, and was
  succeeded by the River Thames Steamboat Navigation Company, which went
  into liquidation in 1887. The fleet was bought by a syndicate and sold
  to the Victoria Steamboat Association. The Thames Steamboat Company
  then took up the service, but early in 1902 announced that it would be
  discontinued, although in 1904 it was temporarily resumed. Meanwhile,
  however, in 1902 the London County Council had promoted a bill in
  Parliament to enable them to run a service of boats on the Thames. The
  bill was thrown out on this occasion, but was revived and passed in
  1904, and on the 17th of June 1905 the service was put into operation.
  The boats, however, were worked at a loss, and the service was
  discontinued in 1909.

  _Foreign Communications._--A large pleasure traffic is maintained by
  the steamers of the New Palace Company and others in summer between
  London Bridge and Southend, Clacton and Harwich, Ramsgate, Margate and
  other resorts of the Kent coast, and Calais and Boulogne. Passenger
  steamers sail from the port of London to the principal ports of the
  British Isles and northern Europe, and to all parts of the world, but
  the most favoured passenger services to and from Europe and North
  America pass through other ports, to which the railways provide
  special services of trains from London. The principal travelling
  agency in London is that of Messrs Cook, whose head office is at
  Ludgate Circus. A number of sub-offices of large steamship lines are
  congregated in Cockspur Street, Trafalgar Square, and several of the
  principal railway companies have local offices throughout the centre
  of the metropolis for the issue of tickets and the collection and
  forwarding of luggage and parcels.

  _Post Office._--The General Post Office lies in the centre of the City
  on either side of the street called St Martin's le Grand. The oldest
  portion of the buildings, Ionic in style, was designed by Sir Robert
  Smirke and erected in 1829. Here are the central offices of the
  letter, newspaper and telegraph departments, with the office of the
  Postmaster General; but the headquarters of the parcels department are
  at Mount Pleasant, Clerkenwell; those of the Post Office Savings Bank
  at Blythe Road, West Kensington, and those of the Money Order
  department in Queen Victoria Street. The postal area is divided into
  eight districts, commonly designated by initials (which it is
  customary to employ in writing addresses)--East Central (E.C., the
  City, north to Pentonville and City Roads, west to Gray's Inn Road and
  the Law Courts); West Central (W.C., from Euston Road to the Thames,
  and west to Tottenham Court Road); West (W., from Piccadilly and Hyde
  Park north to Marylebone and Edgware Roads; the greater part of
  Paddington and Kensington, north part of Fulham and Hammersmith);
  South-west (S.W., City of Westminster south of Piccadilly, Chelsea,
  South Kensington, the greater part of Fulham, and London south of the
  Thames and west of Vauxhall Bridge); South-east (S.E., remainder of
  London south of the Thames); East (E., east of the City and Kingsland
  Road); North (N., west of Kingsland Road; Islington); North-west
  (N.W., greater part of St Pancras and St Marylebone, and Hampstead).
  The postal area excludes part of Woolwich within the county; but
  includes considerable areas outside the county in other directions, as
  West Ham, Leyton, &c., on the east; Woodford, Chingford, &c., on the
  north-east; Wood Green, Southgate and Finchley on the north; Hendon
  and Willesden on the north-west; Acton and Ealing, Barnes and
  Wimbledon on the west; and Penge and Beckenham on the south, wholly or
  in part. There are ten district head offices and about a thousand
  local offices in the metropolitan district.

  _Telephones._--The National Telephone Company, working under licence
  expiring on the 31st of December 1911, had until 1901 practically a
  monopoly of telephonic communication within London, though the Post
  Office owned all the trunk lines connecting the various telephone
  areas of the company. The company's management did not give
  satisfaction, and the use of the telephone was consequently restricted
  in the metropolis, when in 1898 a Select Committee on Telephones
  reported that "general immediate and effective" competition by either
  the government or local authority was necessary to ensure efficient
  working. The Post Office thereupon instituted a separate system of
  exchanges and lines, intercommunication between the two systems being
  arranged. Charges were reduced and efficiency benefited by this
  movement. The area covered by the local as distinct from the trunk
  service is about 630 sq. m. extending to Romford, Enfield, Harrow,
  &c., north of the Thames, and to Dartford Reigate, Epsom, &c., south
  of it. Public call offices are provided in numerous shops, railway
  stations and other public places, and at many post offices. The
  District Messengers Company affords facilities through local offices
  for the use of special messengers.


IV. POPULATION, PUBLIC HEALTH, &c.

The population of Greater London by the census of 1901 was 6,581,402.

The following table gives comparisons between the figures of certain
census returns for Greater London and its chief component parts, namely,
the City, the county and the outer ring (i.e. Greater London outside the
county). All the figures before those of 1901 are adjusted to these
areas.

  +------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------------+
  | Year.|  City.  |  County.  | Outer Ring. | Greater London. |
  +------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------------+
  | 1801 | 128,129 |   831,181 |    155,334  |    1,114,644    |
  | 1841 | 123,563 | 1,825,714 |    286,067  |    2,235,344    |
  | 1881 |  50,569 | 3,779,728 |    936,364  |    4,766,661    |
  | 1901 |  26,923 | 4,509,618 |  2,044,864  |    6,581,402    |
  +------+---------+-----------+-------------+-----------------+

The reason for the decrease in the resident City population is to be
found in the rapid extension of business premises, while the widening
ramifications of the outer residential areas are illustrated by the
increase in the later years of the population of the Outer Ring. The
growth and population of London previous to the 19th century is
considered under _History_, _ad. fin._


    Aliens.

  The foreign-born population of London was 60,252 in 1881, and 135,377
  in 1901. During 1901, 27,070 aliens (excluding sailors) arrived at the
  port, and in 1902, 33,060. Of these last Russians and Poles numbered
  21,013; Germans, 3386; Austrians and Hungarians, 2197; Dutch, 1902;
  Norwegians, Swedes and Danes, 1341; and Rumanians, 1016. Other
  nationalities numbered below one thousand each. The foreign-born
  population shows a large increase in percentage to the whole, being
  1.57 in 1881 and 2.98 in 1901. Residents of Irish birth have decreased
  since 1851; those of Scottish birth have increased steadily, and
  roughly as the population. German residents are found mainly in the
  western and west central districts; French mainly in the City of
  Westminster (especially the district of Soho), St Pancras and St
  Marylebone; Italians in Holborn (Saffron Hill), Soho and Finsbury; and
  Russians and Poles in Stepney and Bethnal Green.

  _Vital Statistics._--The following table shows the average birth rate
  and death-rate per thousand at stated periods.

    +------------+---------+---------+
    |   Years.   | Births. | Deaths. |
    +------------+---------+---------+
    | 1861-1880* |   35.4  |   23.4  |
    | 1891-1900* |   30.3  |   19.2  |
    | 1901-1904* |   28.5  |   16.5  |
    |     1905   |   27.1  |   15.6  |
    +------------+---------+---------+
      * Average.

  A comparison of the death-rate of London and those of other great
  towns in England and abroad is given here:--

    +---------------+-----------+-------+
    |               |  Average  | 1905. |
    |               | 1895-1904.|       |
    +---------------+-----------+-------+
    | Leicester     |   16.7    | 13.3  |
    | Brussels      |   16.7    | 14.5  |
    | Bristol       |   16.9    | 14.6  |
    | Bradford      |   17.7    | 15.2  |
    | Leeds         |   19.1    | 15.2  |
    | LONDON        |   18.2    | 15.6  |
    | Birmingham    |   20.2    | 16.2  |
    | Nottingham    |   18.4    | 16.5  |
    | Newcastle     |   20.9    | 16.8  |
    | Sheffield     |   19.6    | 17.0  |
    | Berlin        |   17.8    | 17.2  |
    | Paris         |   19.2    | 17.4  |
    | Manchester    |   22.6    | 18.0  |
    | New York      |   20.2    | 18.3  |
    | Vienna        |   20.0    | 19.0  |
    | Liverpool     |   23.2    | 19.6  |
    | Rome          |   19.1    | 20.6  |
    | St Petersburg |   25.9    | 25.3  |
    +---------------+-----------+-------+

  In 1905 the lowest death-rates among the metropolitan boroughs were
  returned by Hampstead (9.3), Lewisham (11.7), Wandsworth (12.6),
  Woolwich (12.8), Stoke Newington (12.9), and the highest by Shoreditch
  (19.7), Finsbury (19.0), Bermondsey (18.7), Bethnal Green (18.6) and
  Southwark (18.5). A return of the percentage of inhabitants dwelling
  in over-crowded tenements shows 2.7 for Lewisham, 4.5 for Wandsworth,
  5.5 for Stoke Newington, and 6.4 for Hampstead, against 35.2 for
  Finsbury and 29.9 for Shoreditch.

  _Sanitation._--As regards sanitation London is under special
  regulations. When the statutes relating to public health were
  consolidated and amended in 1875 London was excluded; and the law
  applicable to it was specially consolidated and amended in 1891. The
  London County Council is a central sanitary authority; the City and
  metropolitan boroughs are sanitary districts, and the Corporation and
  borough councils are local sanitary authorities. The County Council
  deals directly with matters where uniformity of administration is
  essential, e.g. main drainage, housing of working classes, infant life
  protection, common lodging-houses and shelters, and contagious
  diseases of animals. With a further view to uniformity it has certain
  powers of supervision and control over local authorities, and can make
  by-laws respecting construction of local sewers, sanitary
  conveniences, offensive trades, slaughter-houses and dairies, and
  prevention of nuisances outside the jurisdiction of local authorities.
  A medical officer of health for the whole county is appointed by the
  Council, which also pays half the salaries of local medical officers
  and sanitary inspectors. The Council may also act in cases of default
  by the local authorities, or may make representations to the Local
  Government Board respecting such default, whereupon the Board may
  direct the Council to withhold payment due to the local authority
  under the Equalization of Rates Act 1894.


    Drainage.

  The first act providing for a commission of sewers in London dates
  from 1531. Various works of a more or less imperfect character were
  carried out, such as the bridging over in 1637 of the river Fleet,
  which as early as 1307 had become inaccessible to shipping through the
  accumulation of filth. Scavengers were employed in early times, and
  sewage was received into wells and pumped into the kennels of the
  streets. A system of main drainage was inaugurated by the
  Commissioners of Sewers in 1849, but their work proceeded very slowly.
  It was carried on more effectively by the Metropolitan Board of Works
  (1856-1888) which expended over six-and-a-half millions sterling on
  the work. The London County Council maintained, completed and improved
  the system. The length of sewers in the main system is about 288 m.,
  and their construction has cost about eight millions. The system
  covers the county of London, West Ham, Penge, Tottenham, Wood Green,
  and parts of Beckenham, Hornsey, Croydon, Willesden, East Ham and
  Acton. There are actually two distinct systems, north and south of the
  Thames, having separate outfall works on the north and south banks of
  the river, at Barking and Crossness. The clear effluent flows into the
  Thames, and the sludge is taken 50 m. out to sea. The annual cost of
  maintenance of the system exceeds £250,000. The sanitary authorities
  are concerned only with the supervision of house drainage, and the
  construction and maintenance of local sewers discharging into the main
  system. The Thames and the Lea Conservancies have powers to guard
  against the pollution of the rivers.


    Metropolitan Asylums Board.

  _Hospitals._--The Metropolitan Asylums Board, though established in
  1867 purely as a poor-law authority for the relief of the sick, insane
  and infirm paupers, has become a central hospital authority for
  infectious diseases, with power to receive into its hospitals persons,
  who are not paupers, suffering from fever, smallpox or diphtheria.
  Both the Board and the County Council have certain powers and duties
  of sanitary authority for the purpose of epidemic regulations. The
  local sanitary authorities carry out the provisions of the Infectious
  Diseases (Notification and Prevention) Acts, which for London are
  embodied in the Public Health (London) Act 1891. The Board has asylums
  for the insane at Tooting Bec (Wandsworth), Ealing (for children);
  King's Langley, Hertfordshire; Caterham, Surrey; and Darenth, Kent.
  There are twelve fever hospitals, including northern and southern
  convalescent hospitals. For smallpox the Board maintains hospital
  ships moored in the Thames at Dartford, and a land establishment at
  the same place. There are land and river ambulance services.

  There are three regular funds in London for the support of hospitals.
  (1) King Edward's Hospital Fund (1897) founded by King Edward VII. as
  Prince of Wales in commemoration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen
  Victoria. The League of Mercy, under royal charter, operates in
  conjunction with the Fund in the collection of small subscriptions.
  The Order of Mercy was instituted by the King as a reward for
  distinguished personal service. (2) The Metropolitan Hospital Sunday
  Fund, founded in 1873, draws the greater part of its revenue from
  collections in churches on stated occasions. (3) The Metropolitan
  Hospital Saturday Fund was founded in 1873, and is made up chiefly of
  small sums collected in places of business, &c. The following is a
  list of the principal London hospitals, with dates of foundation:--

  1. _General Hospitals with Medical Schools_ (all of which, with the
  exception of that of the Seamen's Hospital, are schools of London
  University):--

    Charing Cross; Agar Street, Strand (1820).
    Guy's; St Thomas Street, Southwark (1724).
    King's College; Lincoln's Inn Fields (1839).
    London; Whitechapel (1740).
    Middlesex; Mortimer Street, Marylebone (1745).
    North London, or University College; Gower Street (1833).
    Royal Free; Gray's Inn Road (1828; on present site, 1842).
      London School of Medicine for Women.
    St Bartholomew's; Smithfield (1123; refounded 1547).
    St George's; Hyde Park Corner (1733).
    St Mary's; Paddington (1845).
    St Thomas'; Lambeth (1213; on present site, 1871).
    Seamen's Hospital Society; Greenwich (1821).
    Westminster, facing the Abbey. (1720; on present site, 1834).

  2. _General Hospitals without Schools_:--

    Great Northern Central; Islington (1856; on present site, 1887).
    Metropolitan; Hackney (1836).
    Poplar Hospital for Accidents (1854).
    West London; Hammersmith Road (1856).

  3. _Hospitals for Special Purposes_:--

    Brompton Consumption Hospital (1841).
    Cancer Hospital; Brompton (1851).
    City of London Hospital for diseases of the chest; Bethnal Green
      (1848).
    East London Hospital for Children and Dispensary for Women; Shadwell
      (1868).
    Hospital for Sick Children; Bloomsbury (1852).
    London Fever Hospital; Islington (1802).
    National Hospital for Paralysed and Epileptics; Bloomsbury (1859).
    Royal Hospital for Incurables; Putney (1854).
    Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital; City Road (1804; on present site,
      1899).

  (See also separate articles on boroughs.)

  _Water Supply._--In the 12th century London was supplied with water
  from local streams and wells, of which Holy Well, Clerk's Well
  (Clerkenwell) and St Clement's Well, near St Clement's Inn, were
  examples. In 1236 the magistrates purchased the liberty to convey the
  waters of the Tyburn from Paddington to the City by leaden pipes, and
  a great conduit was erected in West Cheap in 1285. Other conduits were
  subsequently built (cf. Conduit Street off Bond Street, Lamb's Conduit
  Street, Bloomsbury); and water was also supplied by the company of
  water-bearers in leathern panniers borne by horses. In 1582 Peter
  Moris, a Dutchman, erected a "forcier" on an arch of London Bridge,
  which he rented for 10s. per annum for 500 years. His works succeeded
  and increased, and continued in his family till 1701, when a company
  took over the lease. Other forciers had been set up, and in 1609, on
  an act of 1605, Sir Hugh Myddelton undertook the task of supplying
  reservoirs at Clerkenwell through the New river from springs near
  Ware, Hertfordshire; and these were opened in 1613. In 1630 a scheme
  to bring water from Hoddesdon on the Lea was promoted by aid of a
  lottery licensed by Charles I. The Chelsea Water Company opened its
  supply from the Thames in 1721; the Lambeth waterworks were erected in
  1783; the Vauxhall Company was established in 1805, the West
  Middlesex, near Hammersmith, and the East London on the river Lea in
  1806, the Kent on the Ravensbourne (Deptford) in 1810, the Grand
  Junction in 1811, and the Southwark (which amalgamated with the
  Vauxhall) in 1822.


  Metropolitan Water Board.

  For many years proposals to amalgamate the working of the companies
  and displace them by a central public authority were put forward from
  time to time. The difficulty of administration lay in the fact that of
  the area of 620 sq. m. constituting what is known as "Water London"
  (see map in _London Statistics_, vol. xix., issued by the L.C.C.,
  1909) the London County Council has authority over little more than
  one-third, and therefore when the Council proposed to acquire the
  eight undertakings concerned its scheme was opposed not only by the
  companies but by the county councils and local authorities outside the
  County of London. The Council had a scheme of bringing water to London
  from Wales, in view of increasing demands on a stationary supply. This
  involved impounding the headwaters of the Wye, the Towey and the Usk,
  and the total cost was estimated to exceed fifteen millions sterling.
  The capacity of existing sources, however, was deemed sufficient by a
  Royal Commission under Lord Balfour of Burleigh in 1893, and this
  opinion was endorsed by a further Commission under Lord Llandaff. The
  construction of large storage reservoirs was recommended, and this
  work was put in hand jointly by the New River, West Middlesex and
  Grand Junction companies at Staines on the Thames. As regards
  administration, Lord Llandaff's Commission recommended the creation of
  a Water Trust, and in 1902 the Metropolis Water Act constituted the
  Metropolitan Water Board to purchase and carry on the undertakings of
  the eight companies, and of certain local authorities. It consists of
  66 members, appointed by the London County Council (14), the City of
  London and the City of Westminster (2 each), the other Metropolitan
  boroughs (1 each), the county councils of Middlesex, Hertfordshire,
  Essex, Kent and Surrey (l each), borough of West Ham (2), various
  groups of other boroughs and urban districts, and the Thames and the
  Lea Conservancies. The first election of the Board took place in 1903.
  The 24th of June, 1904, was the date fixed on which control passed to
  the Board, and in the meantime a Court of Arbitration adjudicated the
  claims of the companies for compensation for the acquisition of their
  properties.

  "Water London" is an irregular area extending from Ware in
  Hertfordshire to Sevenoaks in Kent, and westward as far as Ealing and
  Sunbury.

  A constant supply is maintained generally throughout "Water London,"
  although a suspension between certain hours has been occasionally
  necessitated, as in 1895 and 1898, when, during summer droughts, the
  East London supply was so affected. During these periods other
  companies had a surplus of water, and in 1899 an act was passed
  providing for the interconnexion of systems. The Thames and Lea are
  the principal sources of supply, but the Kent and (partially) the New
  River Company draw supplies from springs. The systems of filtration
  employed by the different companies varied in efficacy, but both the
  Royal Commissions decided that water as supplied to the consumer was
  generally of a very high standard of purity. The expenditure of the
  Water Board for 1907-1908 amounted to £2,846,265. Debt charges
  absorbed £1,512,718 of this amount.

  Public baths and washhouses are provided by local authorities under
  various acts between 1846 and 1896, which have been adopted by all the
  borough councils.

  _Lighting._--From 1416 citizens were obliged to hang out candles
  between certain hours on dark nights to illuminate the streets. An act
  of parliament enforced this in 1661; in 1684 Edward Heming, the
  inventor of oil lamps, obtained licence to supply public lights; and
  in 1736 the corporation took the matter in hand, levying a rate.
  Gas-lighting was introduced on one side of Pall Mall in 1807, and in
  1810 the Gas Light & Coke Company received a charter, and developed
  gas-lighting in Westminster. The City of London Gas Company followed
  in 1817, and seven other companies soon after. Wasteful competition
  ensued until in 1857 an agreement was made between the companies to
  restrict their services to separate localities, and the Gas Light &
  Coke Company, by amalgamating other companies, then gradually acquired
  all the gas-lighting north of the Thames, while a considerable area in
  the south was provided for by another great gas company, the South
  Metropolitan. Various acts from 1860 onwards have laid down laws as to
  the quality and cost of gas. Gas must be supplied at 16-candle
  illuminating power, and is officially tested by the chemists'
  department of the London County Council. The amalgamations mentioned
  were effected subsequently to 1860, and there are now three principal
  companies within the county, the Gas Light & Coke, South Metropolitan
  and Commercial, though certain other companies supply some of the
  outlying districts. As regards street lighting, the extended use of
  burners with incandescent mantles has been of good effect. The
  Metropolitan Board of Works, and the commissioners of sewers in the
  City, began experiments with electric light. At the close of the 19th
  and the beginning of the 20th century a large number of electric light
  companies came into existence, and some of the metropolitan borough
  councils, and local authorities within Greater London, also undertook
  the supply. An extensive use of the light resulted in the principal
  streets and in shops, offices and private houses.

  _Fire._--In 1832 the fire insurance companies united to maintain a
  small fire brigade, and continued to do so until 1866. The brigade was
  confined to the central part of the metropolis; for the rest, the
  parochial authorities had charge of protection from fire. The central
  brigade came under the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works; and
  the County Council now manages the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, under a
  chief officer and a staff numbering about 1300. The cost of
  maintenance exceeds £200,000 annually; contributions towards this are
  made by the Treasury and the fire insurance companies. The Council
  controls the provision of fire escapes in factories employing over 40
  persons, under an act of 1901; it also compels the maintenance of
  proper precautions against fire in theatres and places of
  entertainments. A Salvage Corps is independently maintained by the
  Insurance Companies.

  _Cemeteries._--The administrative authorities of cemeteries for the
  county are the borough councils and the City Corporation and private
  companies. The large cemetery at Brompton is the property of the
  government. Kensal Green cemetery, the burial-place of many famous
  persons, is of great extent, but several large cemeteries outside the
  metropolis have come into use. Such are that of the London Necropolis
  Company at Brookwood near Woking, Surrey, and that of the parishes of
  St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St George, Hanover Square, at Hanwell,
  Middlesex. Crematoria are provided at certain of the companies'
  cemeteries, and the Cremation Act 1902 enabled borough councils to
  provide crematoria.


V. EDUCATION AND RECREATION

    Elementary education.

    Technical education.

  _Education._--The British and Foreign School Society (1808) and the
  National Society (1811), together with the Ragged Schools Union
  (1844), were the only special organizations providing for the
  education of the poorer classes until 1870. To meet the demand for
  elementary education, increasing as it did with population, was beyond
  the powers of these societies, the churches and the various charitable
  institutions. Thus a return of 1871 showed that the schools were
  capable of accommodating only 39% of the children of school-going age.
  In 1870, however, a School Board had been created in addition, and
  this body carried out much good work during its thirty-four years of
  existence. In 1903 the Education (London) Act was passed in pursuance
  of the general system, put into operation by the Education Act (1902)
  of bringing education within the scope of municipal government. The
  County Council was created a local education authority, and given
  control of secular education in both board and voluntary schools. It
  appoints an education committee in accordance with a scheme approved
  by the Board of Education. This scheme must allow of the Council
  selecting at least a majority of the committee, and must provide for
  the inclusion of experts and women. Each school or group of schools is
  under a body of managers, in the appointment of whom the borough
  council and the County Council share in the following
  proportions:--(a) _Board or provided schools_; borough council,
  two-thirds; county council, one-third: (b) _Voluntary or non-provided
  schools_; the foundation, two-thirds; borough council and county
  council, each one-sixth. The total number of public elementary schools
  was 963 in 1905, with 752,487 scholars on the register. Other
  institutions include higher elementary schools for pupils certified to
  be able to profit by higher instruction; and schools for blind, deaf
  and defective children. Instruction for teachers is provided in pupil
  teachers' centres (preparatory), and in residential and day training
  colleges. There are about 15 such colleges. Previous to the act of
  1903 the County Council had educational powers under the Technical
  Instructions Acts which enabled it to provide technical education
  through a special board, merged by the act of 1903 in the education
  committee. The City and Guilds of London Institute, Gresham College,
  also maintains various technical institutions. The establishment of
  polytechnics was provided for by the City of London Parochial
  Charities Act 1883; the charities being administered by trustees. The
  model institution was that of Mr Quintin Hogg (1880) in Regent Street,
  where a striking statue by George Frampton (1906) commemorates him.
  The general scope of the polytechnics is to give instruction both in
  general knowledge and special crafts or trades by means of classes,
  lectures and laboratories, instructive entertainments and exhibitions,
  and facilities for bodily and mental exercise (gymnasia, libraries,
  &c.). Other similar institutions exist primarily for special purposes,
  as the St Bride Foundation Institute, near Fleet Street, in immediate
  proximity to the great newspaper offices, for the printing trade, and
  the Herolds' Institute, a branch of the Borough Polytechnic situated
  in Bermondsey, for the purposes of the leather trade. The County
  Council also aids numerous separate schools of art, both general and
  special, such as the Royal School of Art Needlework and the School of
  Art Woodcarving; the City and Guilds Institute maintains similar
  establishments at some of its colleges, and art schools are also
  generally attached to the polytechnics.


    Philanthropical institutions.

  The London County Council maintains a number of industrial schools and
  reformatories, both in London and in the country, for children who
  have shown or are likely to be misled into a tendency towards
  lawlessness. The City Corporation has separate responsibilities in the
  same direction, but has no schools of its own. The expenditure of the
  London County Council on education for 1907-1908 was £4,281,291 for
  elementary education, and £742,962 for higher education.

  The work of private philanthropists and philanthropical bodies among
  the poor of East London, Southwark and Bermondsey, and elsewhere,
  fails to be noticed at this point. The labours of the regular clergy
  here lie largely in the direction of social reform, and churches and
  missions have been established and are maintained by colleges, such as
  Christ Church, Oxford, schools and other bodies. There are, further,
  "settlements" where members of the various bodies may reside in order
  to devote themselves to philanthropical work; and these include clubs,
  recreation rooms and other institutions for the use of the poor. Such
  are the Oxford House, Bethnal Green; the Cambridge House, Camberwell
  Road; Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel; Mansfield House, Canning Town; the
  Robert Browning Settlement, Southwark; and the Passmore Edwards
  Settlement, St Pancras. There are also several women's settlements of
  a similar character. The People's Palace, Mile End Road, opened in
  1887, is both a recreative and an educational institution (called East
  London College) erected and subsequently extended mainly through the
  liberality of the Drapers' Company and of private donors.


    Public schools.

  In early times the priories and other religious houses had generally
  grammar schools attached to them. Those at St Peter's, Westminster,
  and St Paul's, attained a fame which has survived, while other similar
  foundations lapsed, such as St Anthony's (Threadneedle Street, City),
  at which Sir Thomas More, Archbishop Whitgift and many other men of
  eminence received education. Certain of the schools were re-endowed
  after the dissolution of the monasteries. St Peter's College or
  Westminster School (see WESTMINSTER) is unique among English public
  schools of the highest rank in maintaining its original situation in
  London. Other early metropolitan foundations have been moved in
  accordance with modern tendencies either into the country or to sites
  aloof from the heart of London. Thus Charterhouse school, part of the
  foundation of Sir Thomas Sutton (1611), was moved from Finsbury to
  Godalming, Surrey; St Paul's School occupies modern buildings at
  Hammersmith, and Christ's Hospital is at Horsham, Sussex. Of other
  schools, Merchant Taylors' was founded by the Company of that name in
  1561, and has occupied, since 1875, the premises vacated by
  Charterhouse School. The Mercers' School, Dowgate, was originally
  attached to the hospital of St Thomas of Acon, which was sold to the
  Mercers' Company in 1522, on condition that the company should
  maintain the school. The City of London School, founded in Milk
  Street, Cheapside, by the City Corporation in 1835, occupies modern
  buildings on the Victoria Embankment. Dulwich College originated in
  the foundation of the College of God's Gift by Edward Alleyn in 1626,
  and is now constituted as one of the principal English public schools.
  St Olave's and St Saviour's grammar school, Southwark, received its
  charter in 1571. Both classical and modern education is provided; a
  large number of scholarships are maintained out of the foundation, and
  exhibitions from the school to the universities and other higher
  educational institutions.

  _London University._--The University of London was incorporated by
  royal charter in 1836, as an examining body for conferring degrees.
  Its scope and powers were extended by subsequent charters, and in
  1900, under the University of London Act 1898, it was reorganized as
  both a teaching and an examining body. The function of the academic
  department is to control the teaching branch, internal examinations,
  &c., and that of the external department to control external
  examinations, while the university extension system occupies a third
  department. The university is governed by a senate consisting of a
  chancellor, chairman of convocation and 54 members, whose appointment
  is shared by the Crown, convocation, the Royal Colleges of Physicians
  and of Surgeons, the Inns of Court, the Law Society, the London County
  Council, City Corporation, City and Guilds Institute, University and
  King's Colleges and the faculties. The faculties are theology, arts,
  law, music, medicine, science, engineering and economics. The schools
  of the University include University College, Gower Street, and King's
  College, Somerset House (with both of which preparatory schools are
  connected), East London College and numerous institutions devoted to
  special faculties both within and without London. The university in
  part occupies buildings which formerly belonged to the Imperial
  Institute.

  _Other Educational Institutions._--The Board of Education directly
  administers the following educational institutions--the Victoria and
  Albert Museum, South Kensington, with its branch at Bethnal Green,
  from both of which objects are lent to various institutions for
  educational purposes; the Royal College of Science, South Kensington,
  with which is incorporated the Royal School of Mines; the Geological
  Survey of the United Kingdom and the Museum of Practical Geology,
  Jermyn Street; the Solar Physics Observatory, South Kensington; and
  the Royal College of Art, South Kensington. At Gresham College,
  Basinghall Street, City, founded in 1597 by Sir Thomas Gresham, and
  moved to its present site in 1843, lectures are given in the principal
  branches of science, law, divinity, medicine, &c.

  Some further important establishments and institutions may be
  tabulated here:--

  _Architecture._--The Royal Institute of British Architects, Conduit
  Street, conducts examinations and awards diplomas.

  _Education._--The College of Preceptors, Bloomsbury, conducts
  examinations of persons engaged in education and awards diplomas.

  _Engineering._--A School of Practical Engineering is maintained at the
  Crystal Palace, Sydenham.

  _Law._--The Inns of Court are four--Middle Temple, Inner Temple,
  Lincoln's Inn, Gray's Inn. A joint board of examiners examines
  students previous to admission. The Council of Legal Education
  superintends the education and subsequent examination of students.
  (See INNS OF COURT.) The Law Society is the superintending body for
  examination and admission in the case of solicitors.

  _Medical._--The Royal College of Physicians is in Pall Mall East, and
  the Royal College of Surgeons is in Lincoln's Inn Fields. The Society
  of Apothecaries is in Water Lane, City. The Royal College of
  Veterinary Surgeons is in Red Lion Square, and the Royal Veterinary
  College at Camden Town. (The principal hospitals having schools are
  noted in the list of hospitals, Section VII.)

  _Military and Naval._--The Royal Military College and the Ordnance
  College are at Woolwich; the Royal Naval College at Greenwich.

  _Music._--The principal educational institutions are--the Royal
  Academy of Music, Tenterden Street, Hanover Square; the Royal College
  of Music, South Kensington; Guildhall School, City, near the Victoria
  Embankment; London College, Great Marlborough Street; Trinity College,
  Manchester Square; Victoria College, Berners Street; and the Royal
  College of Organists, Bloomsbury.

  _Scientific Societies._--Numerous learned societies have their
  headquarters in London, and the following may especially be noticed
  here. Burlington House, in Piccadilly, built in 1872 on the site of a
  mansion of the earls of Burlington, houses the Royal Society, the
  Chemical, Geological, Linnaean and Royal Astronomical Societies, the
  Society of Antiquaries and the British Association for the Advancement
  of Science, of which the annual meetings take place at different
  British or colonial towns in succession. The Royal Society, the most
  dignified and influential of all, was incorporated by Charles II. in
  1663. It originally occupied rooms in Crane Court, City, and was moved
  in 1780 to Somerset House, where others of the societies named were
  also located. The Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi, was
  established in 1754 for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and
  commerce. The Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, was founded in
  1799, maintains a library and laboratories and promotes research in
  connexion with the experimental sciences. The Royal Geographical
  Society, occupying a building close to Burlington House in Savile Row,
  maintains a map-room open to the public, holds lectures by prominent
  explorers and geographers, and takes a leading part in the promotion
  of geographical discovery. The Royal Botanic Society has private
  gardens in the midst of Regent's Park, where flower shows and general
  entertainments are held. The Royal Horticultural Society maintains
  gardens at Wisley, Surrey, and has an exhibition hall in Vincent
  Square, Westminster. The exhibitions of the Royal Agricultural Society
  are held at Park Royal, near Willesden. The Zoological Society
  maintains a magnificent collection of living specimens in the
  Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, a popular resort.

  _Museums, Art Galleries, Libraries._--In the British Museum London
  possesses one of the most celebrated collections in the world,
  originated in 1753 by the purchase of Sir Hans Sloane's collection and
  library by the government. The great building in Bloomsbury
  (1828-1852) with its massive Ionic portico, houses the collections of
  antiquities, coins, books, manuscripts and drawings, and contains the
  reading-rooms for the use of readers. The natural history branch was
  removed to a building at South Kensington (the Natural History Museum)
  in 1881, where the zoological, botanical and mineralogical exhibits
  are kept. Close to this museum is the Victoria and Albert Museum
  (formerly South Kensington Museum, 1857) for which an extension of
  buildings, from a fine design by Sir Aston Webb, was begun in 1899 and
  completed in ten years. Here are collections of pictures and drawings,
  including the Raphael cartoons, objects of art of every description,
  mechanical and scientific collections, and Japanese, Chinese and
  Persian collections, and an Indian section. In the vicinity, also, is
  the fine building of the Imperial Institute, founded in 1887 as an
  exhibition to illustrate the resources of all parts of the Empire, as
  well as an institution for the furtherance of imperial intercourse;
  though not developed on the scale originally intended. Other museums
  are Sir John Soane's collection in Lincoln's Inn Fields and the Museum
  of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, while the scientific societies
  have libraries and in some cases collections of a specialized
  character, such as the museums of the Royal College of Surgeons, the
  Royal Architectural Society, and the Society of Art and the Parkes
  Museum of the Sanitary Institute. Among permanent art collections the
  first place is taken by the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square. This
  magnificent collection was originated in 1824, and the building dates
  from 1838, but has been more than once enlarged. The building of the
  National Portrait Gallery, adjoining it, dates from 1896, but the
  nucleus of the collection was formed in 1858. The munificence of Sir
  Henry Tate provided the gallery, commonly named after him, by the
  Thames near Vauxhall Bridge, which contains the national collection of
  British art. The Wallace collection of paintings and objects of art,
  in Hertford House, Manchester Square, was bequeathed to the nation by
  the widow of Sir Richard Wallace in 1897. Dulwich College possesses a
  fine series of paintings, of the Dutch and other schools, bequeathed
  by Sir P. F. Bourgeois in 1811. There are also notable collections of
  pictures in several of the mansions of the nobility, government
  buildings, halls of the City Companies and elsewhere. No gallery in
  London is exclusively or especially devoted to sculpture. Of the
  periodical art exhibitions that of the Royal Academy is most
  noteworthy. It is held annually at Burlington House from the first
  Monday in May to the first Monday in August. It consists mainly of
  paintings, but includes a few drawings and examples of sculpture.
  Earlier in each year exhibitions of works by deceased British artists
  and by old masters are held, and the Gibson and Diploma Galleries are
  permanent exhibitions. At the Guildhall special exhibitions are held
  from time to time. There are a number of art galleries in and about
  Bond Street and Piccadilly, Regent Street and Pall Mall, such as the
  New Gallery, where periodical exhibitions are given by the New English
  Art Club, the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours, the Royal
  Institute of Painters in Water-Colours, other societies and art
  dealers.

  Municipal provision of public libraries under acts of 1892 and 1893 is
  general throughout London, and these institutions are exceedingly
  popular for purposes both of reference and of loan. The acts are
  extended to include the provisions of museums and art galleries, but
  the borough councils have not as a rule availed themselves of this
  extension. The London County Council administers the Horniman Museum
  at Forest Hill, Lewisham. The City Corporation maintains the fine
  Guildhall library and museum. A few free libraries are supported by
  donations and subscriptions or charities. Besides the Government
  reference libraries at the British Museum and South Kensington there
  are other such libraries, of a specialized character, as at the Patent
  Office and the Record Office. Among lending libraries should be
  noticed the London Library in St James's Square, Pall Mall.

  _Theatres and Places of Entertainment._--The principal London theatres
  lie between Piccadilly and Temple Bar, and High Holborn and Victoria
  Street, the majority being in Shaftesbury Avenue, the Haymarket, the
  neighbourhood of Charing Cross and the Strand. At these central
  theatres successful plays are allowed to "run" for protracted periods,
  but there are numerous fine houses in other parts of London which are
  generally occupied by a succession of touring companies presenting
  either revivals of popular plays or plays successful at the moment in
  the central theatres. The principal music halls (variety theatres) are
  in Shaftesbury Avenue, Piccadilly Circus, Leicester Square and the
  Strand. The Covent Garden theatre is the principal home of grand
  opera; the building, though spacious, suffers by comparison with the
  magnificence of opera houses in some other capitals, but during the
  opera season the scene within the theatre is brilliant. The chief
  halls devoted mainly to concerts are the Royal Albert Hall, close to
  the South Kensington museums, and Queen's Hall in Langham Place,
  Regent Street. For a long time St James's Hall (demolished in 1905)
  between Regent Street and Piccadilly was the chief concert hall.
  Oratorio is given usually in the Albert Hall, the vast area of which
  is especially suited for a large chorus and orchestra, and at the
  Crystal Palace (q.v.). This latter building, standing on high ground
  at Sydenham, and visible from far over the metropolis, is devoted not
  only to concerts, but to general entertainment, and the extensive
  grounds give accommodation for a variety of sports and amusements.
  Among other popular places of entertainment may be mentioned the
  exhibition grounds and buildings at Earl's Court; similar grounds at
  Shepherd's Bush, where a Franco-British Exhibition was held in 1908,
  an Imperial Exhibition in 1909, and an Anglo-Japanese in 1910; the
  great Olympia hall, West Kensington; the celebrated wax-work
  exhibition of Madame Tussaud in Marylebone Road; the Alexandra Palace,
  Muswell Hill, an institution resembling the Crystal Palace; and the
  Agricultural Hall, Islington, where agricultural and other exhibitions
  are held. The well-known Egyptian Hall in Piccadilly was taken down in
  1906, and the permanent conjuring entertainment for which (besides
  picture exhibitions) it was noted was removed elsewhere. Theatres,
  music halls, concert halls and other places of entertainment are
  licensed by the County Council, except that the licence for
  stage-plays is granted by the lord chamberlain under the Theatres Act
  1843. The council provides for inspection of places of entertainment
  in respect of precautions against fire, structural safety, &c. The
  principal clubs are in and about Piccadilly and Pall Mall (see CLUB).
  A club for soldiers, sailors and marines in London, called the Union
  Jack Club, was opened in Waterloo Road by King Edward VII. in 1907.

  _Parks and Open Spaces: Administration._--The administration of parks
  and open spaces in and round London, topographical details of the
  principal of which are given in Section I., is divided between the
  Office of Works, the London County Council, the City Corporation and
  the borough councils. The Office of Works controls the Royal parks,
  the County Council controls the larger parks and open spaces not under
  Government or City control, and the borough councils the smaller;
  while the City Corporation controls certain public grounds outside the
  County of London. There are a few other bodies controlling particular
  open spaces, as the following list of public grounds exceeding 50
  acres (in 1910) will show:--

    1. _Under the Office of Works:_--

      Green Park                         52¾ acres
      Greenwich Park                    185    "
      Hyde Park                         363¾   "
      Kensington Gardens                274½   "
      Regent's Park                     472¼   "
      St James's Park                    93    "

    2. _Under the War Office:_--

      Woolwich Common                   159    "

    3. _Under the London County Council:_--

      Avery Hill, Eltham                 80    "
      Battersea Park                    199½   "
      Blackheath                        267    "
      Bostall Heath and Woods, Woolwich 133¾   "
      Brockwell Park, Herne Hill        127¼   "
      Clapham Common                    205    "
      Clissold Park                      54½   "
      Dulwich Park                       72    "
      Finsbury Park                     115    "
      Hackney Marsh                     339    "
      Hainault Forest, Essex            805    "
      Hampstead Heath                   320½   "
      Ladywell Ground, Lewisham          51½   "
      Marble Hill, Twickenham            66    "
      Millfields, Hackney                62½   "
      Parliament Hill                   267¼   "
      Peckham Rye and Park              112¾   "
      Plumstead Common                  103    "
      Southwark Park                     63    "
      Streatham Common                   66¼   "
      Tooting Bec Common                151¾   "
      Tooting Graveney Common            66    "
      Victoria Park, East London        217    "
      Wandsworth Common                 155    "
      Wormwood Scrubbs                  193    "

    4. _Under the City Corporation:_--

      Burnham Beeches, Buckinghamshire  375    "
      Coulsdon Commons, Surrey          347    "
      Epping Forest, Essex             5559½   "
      Highgate Woods                     69    "
      West Ham Park                      77    "

  Wimbledon and Putney Commons are under a board of conservators. The
  London County Council's parks and open spaces increased in number from
  40 in 1890 to 114 in 1907, and in acreage from 2656 to 5006 in the
  same years. The expenditure in 1907-1908 was £131,582, which sum
  included £11,987 for bands. (See also separate articles on boroughs.)

  Bathing (at certain hours) and boating are permitted in the ornamental
  waters in several of the parks, music is provided and much attention
  is paid to the protection of waterfowl and other birds, while herds of
  deer are maintained in some places, and also botanical gardens.
  Surplus plants and cuttings are generally distributed without charge
  to educational or charitable institutions, and to the poor. Provision
  is made for cricket, football and other games in a number of the
  parks. Large gatherings of spectators are attracted to the first-class
  cricket matches played at Lord's ground, St John's Wood, by the
  Marylebone Club and the Middlesex County teams, Eton College against
  Harrow School, and Oxford against Cambridge University; to the
  Kennington Oval for the matches of the Surrey club, and the Leyton
  ground for those of the Essex club. In the Crystal Palace grounds the
  final match for the English Association Football cup is generally
  played, and huge crowds from both the metropolis and the provinces
  witness the game. At Queen's Club, West Kensington, the annual Oxford
  and Cambridge athletic meeting and others take place, besides football
  matches, and there is covered accommodation for tennis and other
  games. Professional association football teams are maintained locally
  in several parts of London, and much popular interest is taken in
  their matches. Rugby football is upheld by such notable teams as
  Blackheath and Richmond. Fashionable society takes its pastimes at
  such centres as the grounds of the Hurlingham and Ranelagh clubs, at
  Fulham and Barnes respectively, where polo and other games are played;
  and Rotten Row, the horse-track in Hyde Park, is the favourite resort
  of riders. In summer, boating on the lovely reaches of the Thames
  above the metropolis forms the recreation of thousands. The growth of
  popularity of the cycle, and later of the motor-car, has been a
  principal factor in the wide development of a tendency to leave London
  during the "week-end," that is to say, as a rule, for Saturday
  afternoon and Sunday. With many this is a practice at all seasons, and
  the railway companies foster the habit by means of tickets at reduced
  fares to all parts. The watering-places of the Sussex, Kent and Essex
  coasts, and pre-eminently Brighton, are specially favoured for these
  brief holidays.


VI. COMMERCE

_Port of London._--The extent of the Port of London has been variously
defined for different purposes, but for those of the Port Authority it
is taken to extend from Teddington Lock to a line between Yantlet Creek
in Kent and the City Stone opposite Canvey Isle and in Essex. London
Bridge is to outward appearance the up-river limit of the port. There
are wharves and a large carrying trade in barges above this point, but
below it the river is crowded with shipping, and extensive docks open on
either hand.

Towards the close of the 19th century evidence was accumulating that the
development of the Port of London was not keeping pace with that of
shipping generally. In 1900 a Royal Commission was appointed to
investigate the existing administration of the port, the alleged
inadequacy of accommodation for vessels and kindred questions, and to
advance a scheme of reform. The report, issued in 1902, showed
apprehension to be well founded. The river, it was ascertained, was not
kept sufficiently dredged; the re-export trade was noted as showing an
especially serious decline, and the administration was found to suffer
from decentralization. The recommendations of the Commission included
the creation of a single controlling authority to take over the powers
of the Thames Conservancy Watermen's Company, and Trinity House and the
docks of the companies already detailed. This authority, it was advised,
should consist of 40 members, of whom 11 should be nominated by the
London County Council and 3 by the Corporation of the City (supposing
these bodies to accept certain financial responsibilities proposed in
the direction of river improvements), 5 by the governors of the Bank of
England from the mercantile community, 2 by the London Chamber of
Commerce, and 1 each by the Admiralty, Board of Trade and Trinity House.
The remaining members should be elected by various groups, e.g.
shipowners, barge owners, the railway companies interested, &c. Rival
schemes, however, were proposed by the London County Council, which
proposed to take over the entire control through a committee, by the
City Corporation, which suggested that it should appoint 10 instead of 3
members to the new board; and by the London Chamber of Commerce, which
proposed a Harbour Trust of _ex-officio_ and elected members. The Thames
Conservancy also offered itself as the public authority. In 1902 a
Mansion House Conference was convened by the lord mayor and a deputation
was appointed which in 1903 pressed the solution of the matter upon the
government.


  Thames barrage scheme.

A noteworthy scheme to improve the condition of the Thames, first put
forward in 1902-1903, was that of constructing a dam with four locks
across the river between Gravesend and Tilbury. The estimated cost was
between three and four millions sterling, to be met by a toll, and it
was urged that a uniform depth, independent of tides, would be ensured
above the dam, that delay of large vessels wishing to proceed up river
would thus be obviated, that the river would be relieved of pollution by
the tides, and the necessity for constant dredging would be abolished.
This "barrage scheme" was discussed at considerable length, and its
theoretical advantages were not universally admitted. The scheme
included a railway tunnel beneath the dam, for which, incidentally, a
high military importance was claimed.


  Port authorities before 1909.

In 1904 the Port of London Bill, embodying the recommendations of the
Royal Commission with certain exceptions, was brought forward, but it
was found impossible to carry it through. In 1908, however, the Port of
London Act was passed, and came into force in 1909. This act provided
for the establishment of a Port Authority, the constitution of which is
detailed below, which took over the entire control of the port, together
with the docks and other property of the several existing companies.

  The principal dock companies, with the docks owned by them, were as
  follows:--

  1. _London and India Company._--This company had amalgamated all the
  docks on the north side of the river except the Millwall Docks.
  Following the river down from the Tower these docks, with dates of
  original opening and existing extent, are--St Katherine's (1828; 10½
  acres), London (1805; 57½ acres), West India, covering the northern
  part of the peninsula called the Isle of Dogs (1802; 121½ acres), East
  India, Blackwall (1806; 38 acres), Royal Victoria and Albert Docks
  (1876 and 1880 respectively), parallel with the river along Bugsby's
  and Woolwich Reaches, nearly 3 m. in distance (181 acres) and Tilbury
  Docks, 25 m. below London Bridge, constructed in 1886 by the East and
  West India Docks Company (65 acres). Tilbury Docks are used by the
  largest steamers trading with the port.

  2. _Millwall Docks_ (1868), in the south part of the Isle of Dogs, are
  36 acres in extent.

  3. _Surrey Commercial Docks_, Rotherhithe (Bermondsey), occupy a
  peninsula between the Lower Pool and Limehouse Reach. There have been
  docks at Rotherhithe since the middle of the 17th century. The total
  area is 176 acres, a large new dock, the Greenland, being opened in
  1904.

  The principal railways have wharves and through connexions for goods
  traffic, and huge warehouses are attached to the docks. The custom
  house stands on the north bank, a short distance from London Bridge,
  in Lower Thames Street. It dates from 1817, the body of the building
  being by Laing, but the Corinthian façade was added by Smirke. It
  includes a museum containing ancient documents and specimens of
  articles seized by the customs authorities.

  The chief authorities concerned in the government of the Port of
  London till 1909 were:--

  1. _Thames Conservancy._--For conservancy purposes, regulation of
  navigation, removal of obstruction, dredging, &c.

  2. _City Corporation._--Port sanitary purposes from Teddington Lock
  seawards.

  3. _Trinity House._--Pilotage, lighting and buoying from London Bridge
  seawards.

  4. _The Watermen's and Lightermen's Company._--The licensing authority
  for watermen and lightermen.

  Besides these authorities, the London County Council, the Board of
  Trade, the Admiralty, the Metropolitan and City Police, police of
  riparian boroughs, Kent and Essex Fisheries Commissioners, all the
  dock companies and others played some part in the government and
  public services of the port.

_Port Authority._--The Port of London Authority, as constituted by the
act of 1908, is a body corporate consisting of a chairman,
vice-chairman, 17 members elected by payers of dues, wharfingers and
owners of river craft, 1 member elected by wharfingers exclusively, and
10 members appointed by the following existing bodies--Admiralty (one);
Board of Trade (two); London County Council (two from among its own
members and two others); City Corporation (one from among its own
members and one other); Trinity House (one). The Board of Trade and the
County Council must each, under the act, consult with representatives of
labour as to the appointment of one of the members, in order that labour
may be represented on the Port Authority. The first "elected" members
were actually, under the act, appointed by the Board of Trade. The
undertakings of the three dock companies mentioned above were
transferred to and vested in the Port Authority, an equivalent amount of
port stock created under the act being issued to each. The Port
Authority has full powers to authorize construction works. All the
rights, powers and duties of the Thames Conservancy, so far as concerns
the Thames below Teddington Lock, were transferred to the Port Authority
under the act, as also were the powers of the Watermen's Company in
respect of the registration and licensing of vessels, and the regulation
of lightermen and watermen. The Port Authority fixes the port rates,
which, however, must not in any two consecutive years exceed
one-thousandth part of the value of all imports and exports, or a
three-thousandth of the value of goods discharged from or taken on board
vessels not within the premises of a dock. Preferential dock charges are
prohibited and a port fund established under the act. The authority has
powers to borrow money, but for certain purposes in this connexion, as
in other matters, it can only act subject to the approval of the Board
of Trade.

  _Commerce._--The following figures may be quoted for purposes of
  comparison at different periods:--

  _Value of Exports of Home Produce_ (1840), £11,586,037; (1874),
  £60,232,118; (1880), £52,600,929; (1902-1905 average), £60,095,294.
  Imports (1880), £141,442,907; (1902-1905), £174,059,316. These figures
  point to the fact that London is essentially a mart, and neither is
  itself, nor is the especial outlet for, a large manufacturing centre;
  hence imports greatly exceed exports.

  _Vessels entered and cleared_ (foreign and colonial trade):--

    +-----------+--------------+------------+
    |    Year.  |   Entered.   |  Cleared.  |
    +-----------+--------------+------------+
    |           |   Tonnage.   |  Tonnage.  |
    |   1694    |    135,972   |    81,148  |
    |   1750    |    511,680   |   179,860  |
    |   1800    |    796,632   |   729,554  |
    | 1841-1850 |  1,596,453   | 1,124,793  |
    | (average) |              |            |
    |   1881    |  5,810,043   | 4,478,960  |
    |   1895    |  8,435,676   | 6,110,325  |
    |   1905    | 10,814,115   | 7,913,115  |
    +-----------+--------------+------------+

  In the coastwise trade, in 1881, 38,953 vessels of 4,545,904 tons
  entered; in 1895, 43,704 vessels of 6,555,618 tons; but these figures
  include vessels trading within the Thames estuary (ports of London,
  Rochester, Colchester and Faversham), which later returns do not.
  Omitting such vessels, therefore, the number which entered in the
  coastwise trade in 1905 was 16,358 of 6,374,832 tons.

_Business._--The City has been indicated as the business centre of the
metropolis. Besides the Royal Exchange, in the building of which are
numerous offices, including "Lloyd's," the centre of the shipping
business and marine insurance, there are many exchanges for special
articles. Among these are the Corn Exchange in Mark Lane, where the
privilege of a fair was originally granted by Edward I.; the Wool
Exchange, Coleman Street; the Coal Exchange, Lower Thames Street; the
Shipping Exchange, Billiter Street; and the auction mart for landed
property in Tokenhouse Yard. The Hop Exchange is across the river in
Southwark. In Mincing Lane are the commercial salerooms. Besides the
Bank of England there are many banking houses; and the name of Lombard
Street, commemorating the former money dealers of Lombardy, is
especially associated with them. The majority of the banks are members
of the Clearing House, Post Office Court, where a daily exchange of
drafts representing millions of pounds sterling is effected. The Royal
Mint is on Tower Hill. The Stock Exchange is in Capel Court, and numbers
of brokers have their offices in the vicinity of the Royal Exchange and
the Bank of England.

  _Manufactures and Retail Trade._--No part of London can be pointed out
  as essentially a manufacturing quarter, and there is a strong tendency
  for manufacturing firms to establish their factories outside the
  metropolis. There are, however, several large breweries, among which
  that of Messrs Barclay & Perkins, on the riverside in Southwark, may
  be mentioned; engineering works are numerous in East London by the
  river, where there are also shipbuilding yards; the leather industry
  centres in Bermondsey, the extensive pottery works of Messrs Doulton
  are in Lambeth, there are chemical works on the Lea, and paper-mills
  on the Wandle. Certain industries (not confined to factories) have
  long been associated with particular localities. Thus, clock-makers
  and metal-workers are congregated in Finsbury, especially Clerkenwell
  and in Islington; Hatton Garden, near Holborn Viaduct, is a centre for
  diamond merchants; cabinet-making is carried on in Bethnal Green,
  Shoreditch and the vicinity; and large numbers in the East End are
  employed in the match industry. Silk-weaving is still carried on in
  the district of Spitalfields (see STEPNEY). West of the City certain
  streets are essentially connected with certain trades. The
  old-established collection of second-hand book-shops in Holywell
  Street was only abolished by the widening of the Strand, and a large
  proportion then removed to Charing Cross Road. In the Strand, and more
  especially in Fleet Street and its offshoots, are found the offices of
  the majority of the most important daily newspapers and other
  journals. Carriage and motor-car warehouses congregate in Long Acre.
  In Tottenham Court Road are the showrooms of several large
  upholstering and furnishing firms. Of the streets most frequented on
  account of their fashionable shops Bond Street, Regent Street, Oxford
  Street, Sloane Street and High Street, Kensington, may be selected. In
  the East End and other poor quarters a large trade in second-hand
  clothing, flowers and vegetables, and many other commodities is
  carried on in the streets on movable stalls by costermongers and
  hawkers.

  _Markets._--The City Corporation exercises a control over the majority
  of the London markets, which dates from the close of the 14th century,
  when dealers were placed under the governance of the mayor and
  aldermen. The markets thus controlled are:

  _Central Markets_, Smithfield, for meat, poultry, provisions, fruit,
  vegetables, flowers and fish. These extend over a great area north of
  Newgate Street and east of Farringdon Road. Beneath them are extensive
  underground railway sidings. A market for horses and cattle existed
  here at least as early as the time of Henry II.

  _Leadenhall Market_, Leadenhall Street, City, for poultry and meat.
  This market was in existence before 1411 when it came into the
  possession of the City.

  _Billingsgate Market_, by the Thames immediately above the custom
  house, for fish. Formerly a point of anchorage for small vessels, it
  was made a free market in 1699.

  _Smithfield Hay Market._

  _Metropolitan Cattle Market_, Copenhagen Fields, Islington.

  _Deptford Cattle Market (foreign cattle)._

  _Spitalfields Market_ (fruit, vegetables and flowers).

  _Shadwell Market_ (fish).

  Of other markets, the Whitechapel Hay Market and Borough Market,
  Southwark, are under the control of trustees; and Woolwich Market is
  under the council of that borough. Covent Garden, the great mart in
  the west of London for flowers, fruit and vegetables, is in the hands
  of private owners. It appears to have been used as a market early in
  the 17th century. Scenes of remarkable activity may be witnessed here
  and at Billingsgate in the early hours of the morning when the stock
  is brought in and the wholesale distributions are carried on.


VII. GOVERNMENT

  Vestries.

  Metropolitan Board of Works.

_Administration before 1888._--The middle of the 19th century found the
whole local administration of London still of a medieval character.
Moreover, as complete reform had always been steadily resisted,
homogeneity was entirely wanting. Outside the City itself a system of
local government can hardly be said to have existed. Greater London (in
the sense in which that name might then have been applied) was governed
by the inhabitants of each parish in vestry assembled, save that in some
instances parishes had elected select vestries under the provisions of
the Vestries Act 1831. In neither case had the vestry powers of town
management. To meet the needs of particular localities, commissioners or
trustees having such powers had been from time to time created by local
acts. The resulting chaos was remarkable. In 1855 these local acts
numbered 250, administered by not less than 300 bodies, and by a number
of persons serving on them computed at 10,448. These persons were either
self-elected, or elected for life, or both, and therefore in no degree
responsible to the ratepayers. There were two bodies having jurisdiction
over the whole metropolis except the City, namely, the officers
appointed under the Metropolitan Building Act of 1844, and the
Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, appointed under the Commissioners
of Sewers Act 1848. Neither body was responsible to the ratepayers. To
remedy this chaotic state of affairs, the Metropolis Management Act 1855
was passed. Under that act a vestry elected by the ratepayers of the
parish was established for each parish in the metropolis outside the
City. The vestries so elected for the twenty-two larger parishes were
constituted the local authorities. The fifty-six smaller parishes were
grouped together in fifteen districts, each under a district board, the
members of which were elected by the vestries of the constituent
parishes. A central body, styled the Metropolitan Board of Works, having
jurisdiction over the whole metropolis (including the City) was also
established, the members of which were elected by the Common Council of
the City, the vestries and district boards, and the previously
established local board of Woolwich (q.v.). Further the area of the
metropolis for local government purposes was for the first time defined,
being the same as that adopted in the Commissioners of Sewers Act, which
had been taken from the area of the weekly bills of mortality. The
Metropolitan Board of Works was also given certain powers of supervision
over the vestries and district boards, and superseded the commissioners
of sewers as authority for main drainage. By an act of the same session
it became the central authority for the administration of the Building
Acts, and subsequently had many additional powers and duties conferred
upon it. The vestries and district boards became the authorities for
local drainage, paving, lighting, repairing and maintaining streets, and
for the removal of nuisances, &c.


  London County Council.

  Metropolitan boroughs.

_Acts of 1888 and 1899._--An objection to the Metropolitan Board of
Works soon became manifest, inasmuch as the system of election was
indirect. Moreover, some of its actions were open to such suspicion that
a royal commission was appointed to inquire into certain matters
connected with the working of the board. This commission issued an
interim report in 1888 (the final report did not appear until 1891),
which disclosed the inefficiency of the board in certain respects, and
also indicated the existence of corruption. Reform followed immediately.
Already in 1884 Sir William Harcourt had attempted to constitute the
metropolis a municipal borough under the government of a single council.
But in 1888 the Local Government Act, dealing with the area of the
metropolis as a separate county, created the London County Council as
the central administrative body, possessing not only the powers of an
ordinary county council, but also extensive powers of town management,
transferred to it from the abolished Board of Works. Here, then, was the
central body, under their direct control, which inhabitants of London
had hitherto lacked. The question of subsidiary councils remained to be
settled. The wealthier metropolitan parishes became discontented with
the form of local government to which they remained subject, and in 1897
Kensington and Westminster petitioned to be created boroughs by the
grant of charters under the Municipal Corporation Acts. These, however,
were inapplicable to London, and it was realized that the bringing of
special legislation to bear on special cases (as the petition of these
two boroughs would have demanded) would be inexpedient as making against
homogeneity. Instead, the London Government Act of 1899 was evolved. It
brought into existence the twenty-eight Metropolitan boroughs enumerated
at the outset of this article. The county of London may thus be regarded
from the administrative standpoint as consisting of twenty-nine
contiguous towns, counting the City of London. As regards the
distribution of powers and duties between the County Council and the
Borough Councils, and the constitution and working of each, the
underlying principle may be briefly indicated as giving all powers and
duties which require uniformity of action throughout the whole of London
to the County Council, and powers and duties that can be locally
administered to the Borough Councils.

  _Summary of Administrative Bodies._--The administrative bodies of the
  County of London may now be summarized:

  1. _London County Council._--Consists of 118 councillors, 2 elected by
  each parliamentary division (but the City of London elects 4); and 19
  aldermen, with chairman, vice-chairman and deputy-chairman, elected in
  council. Triennial elections of councillors by householders (male and
  female) on the rate-books. Aldermen hold office for 6 years.

  2. _Metropolitan Boroughs._--Councils consist of a mayor and aldermen
  and councillors in proportion as 1 to 6. The commonest numbers, which
  cannot be exceeded, are 10 and 60 (see separate article on each
  borough). Triennial elections.

  3. _Corporation of the City of London._--The legislation of 1855, 1888
  and 1899 left the government of the small area of the City in the
  hands of an unreformed Corporation. Here at least the medieval system,
  in spite of any anomalies with respect to modern conditions, has
  resisted reform, and no other municipal body shares the traditions and
  peculiar dignity of the City Corporation. This consists of a Lord
  Mayor, 26 aldermen and 206 common councilmen, forming the Court of
  Common Council, which is the principal administrative body. Its scope
  may be briefly indicated as including (a) duties exercised elsewhere
  by the Borough Councils, and by the London County Council (although
  that body is by no means powerless within the City boundaries); and
  (b) peculiar duties such as control of markets and police. The
  election of common councilmen, whose institution dates from the reign
  of Edward I., takes place annually, the electors being the ratepayers,
  divided among the twenty-five wards of the City. An alderman (q.v.) of
  each ward (save that the wards of Cripplegate within and without,
  share one) is elected for life. The Lord Mayor (q.v.) is elected by
  the Court of Aldermen from two aldermen nominated in the Court of
  Common Hall by the Livery, an electorate drawn from the members of the
  ancient trade gilds or Livery Companies (q.v.), which, through their
  control over the several trades or manufactures, had formerly an
  influence over the government of the city which from the time of
  Edward III. was paramount.

  _Non-administrative Arrangements._--The Local Government Act of 1888
  dealt with the metropolis for non-administrative purposes as it did
  for administrative, that is to say, as a separate county. The
  arrangements of quarter-sessions, justices, coroners, sheriffs, &c.,
  were thus brought into line with other counties, except in so far as
  the ordinary organization is modified by the existence of the central
  criminal court, the metropolitan police, police courts and
  magistrates, and a paid chairman of quarter-sessions. The powers of
  the governing body of the City, moreover, are as peculiar in this
  direction as in that of municipal administration, and the act left the
  City as a county of a city practically unchanged. Thus the Lord Mayor
  and aldermen possess judicial authority, and the police of London are
  divided into two separate bodies, the Metropolitan and the City Police
  (see POLICE).


  Courts.

The chief courts for the trial of criminal cases are the Central
Criminal Court and the Court of Quarter-sessions. The Central Criminal
Court, taking the place of the provincial Assizes, was established by an
act of 1834. There are twelve sessions annually, under the Lord Mayor,
aldermen and judges. They were formerly held in the "Old Bailey"
sessions-house, but a fine new building from designs of E. W. Mountford
took the place of this in 1906. Quarter-sessions for the county of
London are held thirty-six times annually, for the north side of the
Thames at the Sessions-house in Clerkenwell (Finsbury) and for the south
side at that in Newington Causeway, Southwark. For judicial purposes
Westminster was merged with the county of London in 1889, and the
Liberty of the Tower was abolished in 1894. The separate court of the
Lord Mayor and Aldermen is held at the Guildhall. The Metropolitan
police courts are fourteen in number, namely--Bow Street, Covent
Garden; Clerkenwell; Great Marlborough Street (Westminster); Greenwich
and Woolwich; Lambeth; Marylebone; North London, Stoke Newington Road;
Southwark; South Western, Lavender Hill (Battersea); Thames, Arbour
Street East (Stepney); West Ham; West London, Vernon Street (Fulham);
Westminster, Vincent Square; Worship Street (Shoreditch). The police
courts of the City are held at the Mansion House, the Lord Mayor or an
alderman sitting as magistrate, and at the Guildhall, where the aldermen
preside in rotation. The prisons within the metropolis are Brixton,
Holloway, Pentonville, Wandsworth and Wormwood Scrubbs. In the county of
London there are 12 coroners' districts, 19 petty sessional divisions
(the City forming a separate one) and 13 county court districts (the
City forming a separate one). The boundaries of these divisions do not
in any way correspond with each other, or with the police divisions, or
with the borough or parish boundaries. The registration county of London
coincides with the administrative county.

_Parliamentary Representation._--The London Government Act contains a
saving clause by which "nothing in or done under this act shall be
construed as altering the limits of any parliamentary borough or
parliamentary county." The parliamentary boroughs are thus in many cases
named and bounded differently from the metropolitan boroughs. The
parliamentary arrangements of each metropolitan borough are indicated in
the separate articles on the boroughs. In the following list the
boroughs which extend outside the administrative county of London are
noted. Each division of each borough, or each borough where not divided,
returns one member, save that the City of London returns two members.

  (a) _North of the Thames._ (1) Bethnal Green--_Divs._: North-eastern,
  South-western. (2) Chelsea (detached portion in administrative county
  of Middlesex, Kensal Town). (3) Finsbury (detached portion in
  Middlesex, Muswell Hill)--_Divs._: Holborn, Central, Eastern. (5)
  Fulham. (6) Hackney--_Divs._: North, Central, South. (7) Hammersmith.
  (8) Hampstead. (9) Islington--_Divs._: Northern, Southern, Eastern,
  Western. (10) Kensington--_Divs._: Northern, Southern. (11) City of
  London. (12) Marylebone--_Divs._: Eastern, Western. (13) Paddington
  (extending into Middlesex)--_Divs._: Northern, Southern. (14) St
  George's Hanover Square. (15) St Pancras--_Divs._: Northern, Southern,
  Eastern, Western. (16) Shoreditch--_Divs._: Hoxton, Haggerston. (17)
  Strand. (18) Tower Hamlets--_Divs._: Bow and Bromley, Limehouse, Mile
  End, Poplar, St George, Stepney, Whitechapel. (19) Westminster.

  A detached portion of the parliamentary division of Hornsey,
  Middlesex, is in the metropolitan borough of Hackney. London
  University returns a member.

  (b) _South of the Thames._ (1) Battersea and Clapham--_Divs._:
  Battersea, Clapham. (2) Camberwell (extending into Kent)--_Divs._:
  Northern, Peckham, Dulwich. (3) Deptford. (4) Greenwich. (5)
  Lambeth--_Divs._: Northern, Kennington, Brixton, Norwood. (6)
  Lewisham. (7) Newington--_Divs._: Western, Walworth. (8)
  Southwark--_Divs._: Western, Rotherhithe, Bermondsey. (9) Wandsworth.
  (10) Woolwich.

  Part of the Wimbledon parliamentary division of Surrey is in the
  metropolitan borough of Wandsworth.

_Ecclesiastical Divisions and Denominations._--London north of the
Thames is within the Church of England bishopric of London, the bishop's
palace being at Fulham. In this diocese, which covers nearly the whole
of Middlesex and a very small portion of Hertfordshire, are the
suffragan bishoprics of Islington, Kensington and Stepney. The bishopric
of Southwark was created in 1904, having been previously a suffragan
bishopric in the diocese of Rochester. The county contains 612
ecclesiastical parishes. Westminster is the seat of the Roman Catholic
archbishopric in England, and Southwark is a bishopric. Among the
numerous chapels of dissenting bodies there may be mentioned the City
Temple, Congregational, on Holborn Viaduct; the Metropolitan Tabernacle,
Baptist, in Southwark, the creation of which was the outcome of the
labours of the famous preacher Charles Spurgeon (d. 1892); and Wesley's
Chapel, City Road, in the graveyard of which is the tomb of John Wesley;
his house, which adjoins the chapel, being open as a memorial museum. In
1903 the Wesleyans acquired the site of the Royal Aquarium, near
Westminster Abbey, for the erection of a central hall. The Great
Synagogue of the Jews is in St James' Place, Aldgate. The headquarters
of the Salvation Army are in Queen Victoria Street, City. There are
numerous foreign churches, among which may be mentioned the French
Protestant churches in Monmouth Road, Bayswater and Soho Square; the
Greek church of St Sophia, Moscow Road, Bayswater; and the German
Evangelical church in Montpelier Place, Brompton Road, opened in 1904.
     (O. J. R. H.)


VIII. FINANCE

  In addition to the provisions that have been mentioned above (Section
  VII.), the London Government Act 1899 simplified administration in two
  respects. The duties of overseers in London had been performed by most
  diverse bodies. In some parishes overseers were appointed in the
  ordinary manner; in others the vestry, by local acts and by orders
  under the Local Government Act 1894, was appointed to act as, or
  empowered to appoint, overseers, whilst in Chelsea the guardians acted
  as overseers. The act of 1899 swept away all these distinctions, and
  constituted the new borough councils in every case the overseers for
  every parish within their respective boroughs, except that the town
  clerk of each borough performs the duties of overseers with respect to
  the registration of electors.[4] Again, with regard to rates, there
  were in all cases three different rates leviable in each parish--the
  poor rate, the general rate and the sewers rate--whilst in many
  parishes in addition there was a separate lighting rate. From the
  sewers rate and lighting rate, land, as opposed to buildings, was
  entitled to certain exemptions. Under the act of 1899 all these rates
  are consolidated into a single rate, called the general rate, which is
  assessed, made, collected and levied as the poor rate, but the
  interests of persons previously entitled to exemptions are
  safeguarded. Further, every precept sent by an authority in London for
  the purpose of obtaining money (these authorities include the London
  County Council, the receiver of the Metropolitan Police, the Central
  Unemployed Body and the Boards of Guardians) which has ultimately to
  be raised out of a rate within a borough is sent direct to the council
  of the borough instead of filtering through other authorities before
  reaching the overseers. The only exceptions to this rule are: (1)
  precepts issued by the local government board for raising the sums to
  be contributed to the metropolitan common poor fund; and (2) precepts
  issued by poor law authorities representing two or more poor-law
  unions; in both these cases the precept has of necessity to be first
  sent to the guardians. The metropolitan borough councils make one
  general rate, which includes the amount necessary to meet their own
  expenditure, as well as to meet the demands of the various precepting
  authorities. There was thus raised in the year 1906-1907 a sum of
  £15,393,956 (in 1898-1899 the amount was £10,401,441); of this
  £11,012,424 was for central rates, which was subdivided into
  £7,930,275 for county services and £3,082,149 for local services,
  leaving a balance of £4,381,532, strictly local rates. The total local
  expenditure of London for the year 1906-1907 was £24,703,087 (in
  1898-1899 it was only £14,768,757), the balance of £9,761,734 being
  made up by receipts-in-aid and imperial subventions. This expenditure
  was divided among the following bodies:

    London County Council                     £9,491,271
    Metropolitan Borough Councils              5,009,982
    Boards of Guardians                        3,587,429
    Metropolitan Water Board                   2,318,618
    Metropolitan Police                        1,903,441
    City Corporation                           1,270,406
    Metropolitan Asylums Board                   934,463
    Central (Unemployed) Body                    141,284
    Overseers--City of London                     34,757
    Market Trustees (Southwark)                   10,680
    Local Government Board--Common Poor Fund         756
                                              ----------
                                             £24,703,087


    +----------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+
    |                         (1) _Rate and Debt Accounts._                            |
    |                                        |                                         |
    |           _Estimated Income._          |         _Estimated Expenditure._        |
    |                                        |                                         |
    | Balances                      £967,740 | Debt (including management)  £3,905,135 |
    | Receipts in aid of expenditure         | Grants (mostly guardians)       645,913 |
    |   (local taxation licences and         | Pensions                         75,665 |
    |   estate duty, beer and spirit         | Establishment charges           232,045 |
    |   duties, &c.)                 513,541 | Judicial expenses                52,515 |
    | Government grants in aid of            | Services--                              |
    |   education                  1,515,663 |   Main drainage      £295,650           |
    | Interest on loans advanced             |   Fire brigade        263,575           |
    |   to local authorities, &c.    586,065 |   Parks and                             |
    | Rents, &c.                     427,767 |     open spaces       140,715           |
    | Contributions from                     |   Bridges, tunnels,                     |
    |   revenue-producing                    |     ferry              49,925           |
    |   undertaking for interest             |   Embankments          14,940           |
    |   and repayment of debt        685,948 |   Pauper lunatics      78,870           |
    | Miscellaneous                    3,633 |   Inebriates Acts      14,045           |
    | Rate contributions--                   |   Coroners             30,925           |
    |   General, for other than              |   Weights and measures 14,830           |
    |     education                2,698,610 |   Gas testing          13,785           |
    |   For education              3,675,694 |   Building Acts        25,595           |
    | Special                        407,946 |   Diseases of Animals                   |
    |                                        |     Acts               19,260           |
    |                                        |   Miscellaneous        63,060           |
    |                                        |                    ----------           |
    |                                        |                    £1,025,175           |
    |                                        | Education           4,837,442           |
    |                                        | Steamboats             14,805           |
    |                                        | Works Dept.            12,100 5,889,522 |
    |                                        | Parliamentary expenses           22,675 |
    |                                        | Miscellaneous                     6,214 |
    |                                        |                              ---------- |
    |                                        |     Total expenditure        10,829,684 |
    |                                        |     Balances                    652,923 |
    |                            ----------- |                             ----------- |
    |                            £11,482,607 |                             £11,482,607 |
    |                                        |                                         |
    |                       (2) _Revenue Producing Undertakings._                      |
    |                                        |                                         |
    |           _Estimated Income._          |         _Estimated Expenditure._        |
    |                                        |                                         |
    | Balances                        £4,055 | Working expenses--                      |
    | Receipts--                             |   Working class                         |
    |   Working class                        |     dwellings        £56,060            |
    |     dwellings       £173,443           |   Tramways         1,318,620            |
    |   Tramways         2,089,955           |   Small Holdings                        |
    |   Small Holdings                       |     and Allotments       621            |
    |     and Allotments       410           |   Parks boating        2,965 £1,378,266 |
    |   Parks boating        5,100 2,268,908 | Renewals                        163,828 |
    | Transfers                        6,214 | Reserve                          44,557 |
    |                                        | Interest on and repayment of            |
    |                                        |   debts                         685,946 |
    |                                        | Transfer in relief of rates             |
    |                                        |   (parks boating)                 2,000 |
    |                                        | Balances                          4,580 |
    |                             ---------- |                              ---------- |
    |                             £2,279,177 |                              £2,279,177 |
    +----------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+

  The total expenditure was equal to a rate in the pound of 11s. 4.4d.;
  the actual amount raised in rates was equivalent to a rate of 7s.
  1.0d., receipts-in-aid were equivalent to a rate of 3s. 2.5d., and
  imperial subventions to a rate of 1s. 3.4d. Practically the whole
  amount contributed towards the support of public local expenditure,
  and a considerable amount of that contributed to public national
  expenditure is based on the estimated annual value of the immovable
  property situated within the county of London, which in 1876 was
  £23,240,070; in 1886 £30,716,719; in 1896 £35,793,672; and in 1909
  £44,666,651. The produce of a penny rate was, in the metropolitan
  police district in 1908-1909, £226,739, and in the county of London
  (excluding the City) £161,806. A complete re-valuation of properties
  in the county of London is made every five years, valuation lists
  being prepared in duplicate by the borough councils acting as
  overseers of the parishes in their respective boroughs. They are
  revised by statutory assessment committees, who hear any objections by
  ratepayers against their valuation. These lists when revised are sent
  to the clerk of the County Council, who publishes the totals. By the
  Metropolitan Poor Act 1867, the metropolitan common poor fund, to
  which each union in London contributes in proportion to its rateable
  value, was established. Out of this fund certain expenses of guardians
  in connexion with the maintenance of indoor paupers and lunatics, the
  salaries of officers, the maintenance of children in poor-law schools,
  valuation, vaccination, registration, &c., are paid. The payments
  amounted in 1906-1907 to £1,662,942. Under the Local Government Act
  1888, the London County Council makes grants to boards of guardians,
  sanitary authorities and overseers in London in respect of certain
  services. This grant is in lieu of the grants formerly made out of the
  exchequer grant in aid of local rates, and amounted in 1906-1907 to
  £619,489. Finally, in 1894, the fund called the Equalization Fund was
  established. This fund is raised by the rate of 6d. in the pound on
  the assessable value of the county of London, and redistributed among
  the boroughs in proportion to their population. It amounted in
  1906-1907 to £1,094,946. But, in spite of attempts at equalization,
  rates remain very unequal in London, and varied in 1908 from 6s. 2d.
  in St Anne's, Westminster, to 11s. 6d. in Poplar. The London County
  Council levied in 1909-1910 to meet its estimated expenditure for the
  year a total rate of 36.75d.; 14.50d. of this was for general county
  purposes, 19.75d. for education purposes and 2.50d. for special county
  purposes. The preceding tables show the estimated income and
  expenditure of the London County Council for 1909-1910.

  Besides the annual expenditure of the various authorities large sums
  have been borrowed to defray the cost of works of a permanent nature.
  The debt of London, like that of other municipalities, has
  considerably increased and shows a tendency to go on increasing,
  although certain safeguards against too ready borrowing have been
  imposed. Every local authority has to obtain the sanction of some
  higher authority before raising a loan, and there are in addition
  certain statutory limits of borrowing. Metropolitan borough councils
  have to obtain the sanction of the Local Government Board to loans for
  baths, washhouses, public libraries, sanitary conveniences and certain
  other purposes under the Public Health Acts; for cemeteries the
  sanction of the Treasury is required, and for all other purposes that
  of the London County Council; poor law authorities, the metropolitan
  asylums board, the metropolitan water board and the central
  (unemployed) body require the sanction of the Local Government Board;
  the receiver for the metropolitan police district that of the Home
  Office, and the London County Council that of parliament and the
  Treasury. The following table gives the net loans outstanding of the
  several classes of local authorities in London at the 31st of March
  1908:

    +------------------------------------------+-------------------+
    |            Local Authorities.            | Loans outstanding |
    |                                          |  31st March 1908. |
    +------------------------------------------+-------------------+
    | London County Council (excluding loans   |                   |
    |   advanced to other authorities)         |    £49,938,131    |
    | Metropolitan Asylums Board               |      3,113,612    |
    | Metropolitan Police (London's proportion)|        226,131    |
    | Metropolitan Water Board (proportion)    |     38,726,514    |
    | Central (Unemployed) Body                |         31,845    |
    | City of London Corporation               |      5,553,173    |
    | Metropolitan Borough Councils            |     12,551,204    |
    | Guardians and sick asylum managers       |      4,029,013    |
    |                                          +-------------------+
    |                                          |   £114,169,623    |
    +------------------------------------------+-------------------+

  AUTHORITIES.--Full details and figures relating to the finance of
  London will be found in the parliamentary papers _Local Taxation
  Returns_ (_England and Wales_), part iv. published annually; _Returns
  relating to the London County Council_, published annually; the annual
  report and accounts of the Metropolitan Water Board, and the
  metropolitan police accounts. The publications of the London County
  Council, especially the tramways accounts, the annual estimates,
  _London Statistics_, and the _Financial Abstract_ (10 years ended 31st
  March 1908) have much valuable information.     (T. A. I.)


IX. HISTORY

1. _British and Roman to A.D. 449._--There is practically no record of
British London, and considerable difference of opinion exists among
antiquaries as to its very existence. Bishop Stillingfleet held that
London was of Roman foundation and not older than the time of Claudius
(_Origines Brit._, 1685, p. 43); and Dr Guest affirmed that the notion
of a British town having "preceded the Roman camp has no foundation to
rest upon" (_Archaeological Journal_, xxiii. 180). J. R. Green expressed
the same opinion in _The Making of England_ (p. 101). On the other side
Kemble held that it was difficult to believe that Cair Lunden was an
unimportant place even in Caesar's day (_Saxons in England_, ii. 266);
and Thomas Lewin believed that London had attained prosperity before the
Romans came; and held that it was probably the capital of
Cassivellaunus, which was taken and sacked by Julius Caesar
(_Archaeologia_, xl. 59). The origin of London will probably always
remain a subject of dispute for want of decisive facts.

The strongest reason for believing in a British London is to be found in
the name, which is undoubtedly Celtic, adopted with little alteration by
the Romans. It is also difficult to believe that Londinium had come to
be the important commercial centre described by Tacitus (A.D. 61) if it
had only been founded a few years before the conquest of Claudius.

The discovery by General Pitt Rivers in 1867 of the remains of pile
dwellings both on the north and on the south of the Thames gives ground
for an argument of some force in favour of the date of the foundation of
London having been before the Roman occupation of Britain. Of Roman
London we possess so many remains that its appearance can be conjectured
with little difficulty.

During the centuries when Britain was occupied by the Romans (A.D.
43-409) there was ample time for cities to grow up from small
beginnings, to overflow their borders and to be more than once rebuilt.
The earliest Roman London must have been a comparatively small place,
but it probably contained a military fort of some kind intended to cover
the passage of the river.


  Extent of Roman London.

The Roman general Paulinus Suetonius, after marching rapidly from Wales
to put down a serious insurrection, found Londinium unfitted for a base
of military operations, and therefore left the place to the mercy of
Boadicea, who entirely destroyed it, and killed the inhabitants. After
this the need of fortifying Londinium must have been apparent, and a
walled city of small dimensions arose soon after the defeat of the
British queen. The earliest Roman city probably extended as far as Tower
Hill on the east, and there is reason to believe that it did not include
any ground to the west of Leadenhall. The excavations at the latter
place in 1881 threw great light upon the early history of London. The
foundation walls of a basilica were discovered, and from the time when
that was built until the present day the ground has always been devoted
to public uses. How far north the first wall was placed it is difficult
to guess. One help towards a settlement of the question may be found in
the discovery of burial places. As it was illegal in Roman times to bury
within the walls, we are forced to the conclusion that the places where
these sepulchral remains have been found were at one time extramural.
Now no such remains have been found between Gracechurch Street and the
Tower. The northern wall was placed by Roach Smith somewhere along the
course of Cornhill and Leadenhall Street. The second extension of the
city westwards was probably to Wallbrook.

In the latest or third Roman enclosure the line of the wall ran straight
from the Tower to Aldgate, where it bent round somewhat to Bishopsgate.
On the east it was bordered by the district subsequently called the
Minories and Houndsditch. The line from Bishopsgate ran eastward to St
Giles's churchyard (Cripplegate), where it turned to the south as far as
Falcon square; again westerly by Aldersgate round the site of the
Greyfriars (afterwards Christ's Hospital) towards Giltspur Street, then
south by the Old Bailey to Ludgate, and then down to the Thames, where
Dr Edwin Freshfield suggests that a Roman fortress stood on the site of
Baynard's Castle. This is most probable, because the Romans naturally
required a special protection on the river at the west as well as at the
east. So in later times when William the Conqueror planned the Tower he
gave the site at the western extremity to his follower Ralph Baynard,
where was erected the stronghold known as Baynard's Castle. Roach Smith
pointed out that the enclosure indicated above gives dimensions far
greater than those of any other town in Britain. There can be no doubt
that within the walls there was originally much unoccupied space, for
with the single exception of the larger circuit south of Ludgate, up to
where the river Fleet ran, made in 1276 for the benefit of the Black
Friars, the line of the walls, planned by the later Romans, remained
complete until the Great Fire (1666). The Thames formed the natural
barrier on the south, but the Romans do not appear to have been content
with this protection, for they built a wall here in addition, which
remained for several centuries. Portions of this wall have been
discovered at various times.

It is difficult even to guess when the third wall was erected. The
emperor Theodosius came to London from Boulogne to mature his plan for
the restoration of the tranquillity of the province. As Theodosius is
said to have left Britain in a sound and secure condition it has been
suggested that to him was due the wall of the later Londinium, but there
is little or no evidence for this opinion, and according to an old
tradition Constantine the Great walled the city at the request of his
mother Helena, presumed to be a native of Britain. There is, however,
some evidence in favour of the supposition that the wall was built at a
much earlier date. It is not improbable that early in the 2nd century
the wall was finished at the west portion and enclosed a cemetery near
Newgate. Sir William Tite, in describing a tessellated pavement found in
1854 on the site of the Excise Office (Bishopsgate Street), expresses
the opinion that the finished character of the pavement points to a
period of security and wealth, and fixes on the reign of Hadrian (A.D.
117-138), to which the silver coin found on the floor belongs, as the
date of its foundation.

The historians of the Roman Empire have left us some particulars of the
visits of emperors and generals to Britain, but little or nothing about
what happened in London, and we should be more ignorant than we are of
the condition of Londinium if it had not been that a large number of
excavations have been made in various parts of the city which have
disclosed a considerable amount of its early history. From these remains
we may guess that London was a handsome city in the reign of Hadrian,
and probably then in as great a position of importance as it ever
attained. This being so, there seems to be reason in attributing the
completed walls to this period.


  Remains of Roman Wall.

The persistence of the relics of the walls of London is one of the most
remarkable facts of history. Pieces of the wall are to be seen in
various parts of the city, and are frequently found when extensive
excavations are made for new buildings. In some places where the Roman
wall is not to be seen there still exist pieces of the old wall that
stand upon Roman foundations. In Amen Court, where the residences of
canons of St Paul's and the later houses of the minor canons are
situated, there stretches such a piece of wall, dividing the gardens of
the Court from the Old Bailey. Of the few accessible fragments of the
Roman wall still existing special mention may be made of the bastion in
the churchyard of St Giles's, Cripplegate; a little farther west is a
small fragment in St Martin's Court, Ludgate Hill (opposite the Old
Bailey), but the best specimen can be seen near Tower Hill just out of
George Street, Trinity Square. Early in the 20th century a fragment
nearly 40 ft. long, together with the base of a bastion, was brought to
light in digging for the foundation of some large warehouses in Camomile
Street, at a depth of 10 ft. below the level of the present street. A
considerable portion of the old wall was laid bare by the excavations
for the new Post Office in St Martin's-le-Grand. From a comparison of
these fragments with the descriptions of Woodward, Maitland and others,
who in the early part of the 18th century examined portions of the wall
still standing, we learn that the wall was from 9 to 12 ft. thick, and
formed of a core of rough rubble cemented together with mortar
(containing much coarse gravel) of extraordinary hardness and tenacity,
and a facing for the most part of stone--Kentish rag, freestone or
ironstone--but occasionally of flints; about 2 ft. apart are double
layers of tiles or bricks which serve as bonding courses. The wall
appears to have been about 20 ft. high, the towers from 40 to 50 ft.,
but when described only the base was Roman. Upon that was raised a wall
of rough rubble rudely faced with stone and flint, evidently a medieval
work and about 2½ ft. thick; then succeeded a portion wholly of brick,
terminating in battlements topped with copings of stone.


  Gates and buildings.

Although the course of the later Roman walls is clear, we do not know
with any certainty the position of the Roman gates. They were not the
same as the medieval gates which have left the record of their names in
modern London nomenclature. It follows, therefore, that the main streets
also are not in line with the Roman ways, except perhaps in a few
instances. Many ineffectual attempts have been made to connect the
Watling street in the city with the great Roman road so named in
medieval times. The name of the small street is evidently a corruption,
and in the valuable Report of the MSS. of the Dean and Chapter of St
Paul's (_Ninth Report of the Historical MSS. Commission_, Appendix, p.
4) the original name is given as "Atheling Street," and instances of
this spelling are common in the 13th century. The form Watling Street
seems to occur first in 1307. Stow spells it Watheling Street
(Kingsford's edition of Stow's _Survey_, 1908, vol. ii. p. 352). Sir
William Tite gave reasons for believing that Bishopsgate Street was not
a Roman thoroughfare, and in the excavations at Leadenhall the basilica
to which allusion has already been made was found apparently crossing
the present thoroughfare of Gracechurch Street. Tite also agreed with Dr
Stukeley's suggestion that on the site of the Mansion House (formerly
Stocks Market) stood the Roman forum, and he states that a line drawn
from that spot as a centre would pass by the pavements found on the site
of the Excise Office. Besides the forum Stukeley suggested the sites of
seven other buildings--the _Arx Palatina_ guarding the south-eastern
angle of the city where the Tower now stands, the grove and temple of
Diana on the site of St Paul's, &c. No traces of any of these buildings
have been found, and they are therefore purely conjectural. Stukeley's
industrious researches into the history of Roman London cannot be said
to have any particular value, although at one time they enjoyed
considerable vogue. As to the Temple of Diana, Sir Christopher Wren
formed an opinion strongly adverse to the old tradition of its existence
(_Parentalia_, p. 266). Although we know that the Christian church was
established in Britain during the later period of the Roman domination,
there is little to be learnt respecting it, and the bishop Restitutus,
who is said to have attended an Ecclesiastical Council, is a somewhat
mythical character. In respect to the discovery of the position of the
Roman gates, the true date of the _Antonini Itinerarium_ (q.v.) is of
great importance, as it will be seen from it that Londinium was either a
starting-point or a terminus in nearly half the routes described in the
portion relating to Britain. This would be remarkable if the work dated
back to the 2nd century. Probably in the later, as in the earlier time,
Londinium had the usual four gates of a Roman city, with the main roads
to them. The one on the east was doubtless situated near where Aldgate
afterwards stood. On the south the entrance to Londinium must always
have been near where London Bridge was subsequently built. On the west
the gate could not have been far from the place afterwards occupied by
Newgate. As to Ludgate there is reason to believe that if there was an
opening there in Roman times it was merely a postern. On the north the
gate may have been near Bishopsgate or at Aldersgate. If we take from
the _Itinerary_ the last station before Londinium in all the routes we
shall be able to obtain some idea of the position of the gate entered
from each route by drawing a line on the map of London to the nearest
point. Ammianus Marcellinus (about A.D. 390) speaks twice of Londinium
as an ancient town to which the honourable title of Augusta had been
accorded. Some writers have been under the misapprehension that this
name for a time superseded that of Londinium. The anonymous Chorographer
of Ravenna calls the place Londinium Augusta, and doubtless this was the
form adopted.


  London Stone.

The most interesting Roman relic is "London Stone." It has generally
been supposed to be a "milliarium" or central point for measuring
distances, but Sir Christopher Wren believed it was part of some more
considerable monuments in the forum (_Parentalia_, pp. 265, 266).
Holinshed (who was followed by Shakespeare in _2 Henry VI._, act 4 sc.
6) tells us that when Cade, in 1450, forced his way into London, he
first of all proceeded to London Stone, and having struck his sword upon
it, said in reference to himself and in explanation of his own action,
"Now is Mortimer lord of this city." Mr H. C. Coote, in a paper
published in the _Trans. London and Middlesex Arch. Soc._ for 1878,
points out that this act meant something to the mob who followed the
rebel chief, and was not a piece of foolish acting. Mr Laurence Gomme
(_Primitive Folk-Moots_, pp. 155, 156) takes up the matter at this
point, and places the tradition implied by Cade's significant action as
belonging to times when the London Stone was, as other great stones
were, the place where the suitors of an open-air assembly were
accustomed to gather together and to legislate for the government of the
city. Corroborative facts have been gathered from other parts of the
country, and, although more evidence is required, such as we have is
strongly in favour of the supposition that the London Stone is a
prehistoric monument.


  The first London Bridge.

One of the most important questions in the history of London that
requires settlement is the date of the building of the first bridge,
that is whether it was constructed by Britons or by Romans. If the
Britons had not already made the bridge before the Romans arrived it
must have been one of the first Roman works. As long as there was no
bridge to join the north and south banks of the Thames the great object
of Roman rule remained unfulfilled. This object was the completion of a
system of roads connecting all parts of the Empire with Rome.

Dio Cassius, who lived in the early part of the 3rd century (_Hist.
Rom._ lib. lx. c. 20), states that there was a bridge over the Thames at
the time of the invasion of Claudius (A.D. 43), but he places it a
little above the mouth of the river ("higher up"). The position is
vague, but the mouth of the Thames in these early times may be
considered as not far from the present position of London Bridge. Sir
George Airy held that this bridge was not far from the site of London
Bridge (_Proceedings of Institut. Civil Engineers_, xlix. 120), but Dr
Guest was not prepared to allow that the Britons were able to construct
a bridge over a tidal river such as the Thames, some 300 yds. wide, with
a difference of level at high and low water of nearly 20 ft. He
therefore suggested that the bridge was constructed over the marshy
valley of the Lea, probably near Stratford. It needs some temerity to
differ from so great an authority as Dr Guest, but it strikes one as
surprising that, having accepted the fact of a bridge made by the
Britons, he should deny that these Britons possessed a town or village
in the place to which he supposes that Aulus Plautius retired.

As the Welsh word for "bridge" is "pont," and this was taken directly
from the Latin, the inference is almost conclusive that the Britons
acquired their knowledge of bridges from the Romans. Looking at the
stage of culture which the Britons had probably reached, it would
further be a natural inference that there was no such thing as a bridge
anywhere in Britain before the Roman occupation; but, if Dion's
statement is correct, it may be suggested as a possible explanation that
the increased intercourse with Gaul during the hundred years that
elapsed between Julius Caesar's raids and Claudius Caesar's invasion may
have led to the construction of a bridge of some kind across the Thames
at this point, through the influence and under the guidance of Roman
traders and engineers. If so, the word "pont" may have been borrowed by
the Britons before the commencement of the Roman occupation. Much
stronger are the reasons for believing that there was a bridge in Roman
times. Remains of Roman villas are found in Southwark, which was
evidently a portion of Londinium, and it therefore hardly seems likely
that a bridge-building people such as the Romans would remain contented
with a ferry. Roach Smith is a strong advocate for the bridge, and
remarks, "It would naturally be erected somewhere in the direct line of
road into Kent, which I cannot but think pointed towards the site of Old
London Bridge, both from its central situation, from the general
absence of the foundations of buildings in the approaches on the
northern side, and from discoveries recently made in the Thames on the
line of the old bridge" (_Archaeologia_, xxix. 160). Smith has, however,
still stronger arguments, which he states as follows: "Throughout the
entire line of the old bridge, the bed of the river was found to contain
ancient wooden piles; and when these piles, subsequently to the erection
of the new bridge, were pulled up to deepen the channel of the river,
many thousands of Roman coins, with abundance of broken Roman tiles and
pottery, were discovered, and immediately beneath some of the central
piles brass medallions of Aurelius, Faustina and Commodus. All these
remains are indicative of a bridge. The enormous quantities of Roman
coins may be accounted for by consideration of the well-known practice
of the Romans to make these imperishable monuments subservient towards
perpetuating the memory, not only of their conquests, but also of those
public works which were the natural result of their successes in remote
parts of the world. They may have been deposited either upon the
building or repairs of the bridge, as well as upon the accession of a
new emperor" (_Archaeological Journal_, i. 113).

At the beginning of the 5th century the Roman legions left Britain, and
the _Saxon Chronicle_ gives the exact date, stating that never since
A.D. 409 "have the Romans ruled in Britain"--the chronicler setting down
the Roman sway at 470 winters and dating from Julius Caesar's invasion.
We learn that in the year 418 "the Romans collected all the treasures
that were in Britain, and hid some of them in the earth, that no man
might afterwards find them, and conveyed some with them into Gaul."

2. _Saxon_ (449-1066).--We are informed in the _Saxon Chronicle_ that
about A.D. 449 or 450 the invaders settled in Britain, and in 457
Hengist and Aesc fought against the Britons at Crayford, driving them
out of Kent. The vanquished fled to London in terror and apparently
found a shelter there. After this entry there is no further mention of
London in the _Chronicle_ for a century and a half. This silence has
been taken by some historians of weight to imply that London practically
ceased to exist. Dr Guest asserted "that good reason may be given for
the belief that even London itself for a while lay desolate and
uninhabited" (_Archaeological Journal_, xix. 219). J. R. Green and Mr
Loftie strongly supported this view, and in Sir Walter Besant's _Early
London_ (1908) the idea of the desolation of the city is taken for
granted.

In answer to this contention it may be said that, although the silence
of the _Chronicle_ is difficult to understand, it is almost impossible
to believe that the very existence of the most important city in the
country could suddenly cease and the inhabitants disappear without some
special notice. Battles and scenes of destruction are so fully described
in other instances that one must believe that when nothing is related
nothing special occurred. No doubt the coming of the Saxons, which
entirely changed the condition of the country, must have greatly injured
trade, but although there was not the same freedom of access to the
roads, the Londoners had the highway of the river at their doors.
Although the Saxons hated towns and refused to settle in London, they
may have allowed the original inhabitants to continue their trade on
condition that they received some share of the profits or a tribute. The
only question really is whether London being an exceptional city
received exceptional treatment.


  Saxon Settlement.

Along the banks of the Thames are several small havens whose names have
remained to us, such as Rotherhithe, Lambhith (Lambeth), Chelchith
(Chelsea), &c., and it is not unlikely that the Saxons, who would not
settle in the city itself, associated themselves with these small open
spots. Places were thus founded over a large space which otherwise might
have remained unsettled.


  Origin of the Liberties.

If what is here suggested really occurred it may be that this separation
of London from the surrounding country originated the remarkable
position of London with its unparalleled privileges, which were
continued for many centuries and kept it not only the leader among
cities but distinct from all others. Laurence Gomme, in _The Governance
of London_ (1907), opposes the view that the city was for a time left
deserted (a view which, it may be remarked, is a comparatively modern
one, probably originating with Dr Guest). H. C. Coote in his _Romans of
Britain_ elaborated a description of the survival of Roman influence in
English institutions, but his views did not obtain much support from
London historians. Mr Gomme's contention is to some extent a
modification of Mr Coote's view, but it is original in the illustrations
that give it force. Londinium was a Roman city, and (as in the case of
all such cities) was formed on the model of ancient Rome. It may
therefore be expected to retain evidence of the existence of a Pomoerium
and Territorium as at Rome. The Pomoerium marked the unbuilt space
around the walls. Gomme refers to an open space outside the western wall
of Dorchester still called the Pummery as an indication of the Pomoerium
in that place; and he considers that the name of Mile End, situated 1 m.
from Aldgate and the city walls, marks the extent of the open space
around the walls of London known as the Pomoerium. This fact throws a
curious light upon the growth of the "Liberties." It has always been a
puzzle that no note exists of the first institution of these liberties.
If this open space was from the earliest times attached to the city
there would be no need when it was built upon for any special act to be
passed for its inclusion in London. "The _Territorium_ of the city was
its special property, and it extended as far as the limits of the
territorium of the nearest Roman city or as near thereto as the natural
boundaries." This explains the position of Middlesex in relation to
London. In connexion with these two features of a Roman city supposed to
be found in Ancient London the author argues for the continuity of the
city through the changes of Roman and Saxon dominion.

One of the most striking illustrations of the probable continuity of
London history is to be found in the contrast between York and London.
This is only alluded to in Gomme's book, but it is elaborated in an
article in the _Cornhill Magazine_ (November 1906). These two were the
chief Roman cities in Britain, one in the north and the other in the
south. They are both equally good examples of important cities under
Roman domination. York was conquered and occupied by the Saxons, and
there not only are the results of English settlement clear but all
records of Roman government were destroyed. In London the Saxon stood
outside the government for centuries, and the acceptance of the Roman
survival explains much that is otherwise unintelligible.


  Independence of London.

Gomme finds important evidence of the independence of London in the
existence of a merchant law which was opposed to Anglo-Saxon law. He
reprints and discusses the celebrated _Judicia Civitatis Lundoniae_ of
King Æthelstan's reign--"the ordinance" (as it declares itself) "which
the bishop and the reeves belonging to London have ordained." He holds
that the Londoners passed "their own laws by their own citizens without
reference to the king at all," and in the present case of a king who
according to Kemble "had carried the influence of the crown to an extent
unexampled in any of his predecessors." He adds: "What happened
afterwards was evidently this: that the code passed by the Londoners was
sent to the king for him to extend its application throughout the
kingdom, and this is done by the eleventh section." The view originated
by Gomme certainly explains many difficulties in the history of the
transition from Roman to English London, which have hitherto been
overlooked by historians.


  Arrival of Christianity.

When the city is next referred to in the _Saxon Chronicle_ it appears to
have been inhabited by a population of heathens. Under the date 604 we
read: "This year Augustine consecrated two bishops: Mellitus and Justus.
He sent Mellitus to preach baptism to the East Saxons, whose king was
called Sebert, son of Ricole the sister of Æthelbert, and whom Æthelbert
had then appointed king. And Æthelbert gave Mellitus a bishop's see in
Lundenevic and to Justus he gave Rochester, which is twenty-four miles
from Canterbury." The Christianity of the Londoners was of an
unsatisfactory character, for, after the death of Sebert, his sons who
were heathens stirred up the multitude to drive out their bishop.
Mellitus became archbishop of Canterbury, and London relapsed into
heathenism. In this, the earliest period of Saxon history recorded,
there appears to be no relic of the Christianity of the Britons, which
at one time was well in evidence. What became of the cathedral which we
may suppose to have existed in London during the later Roman period we
cannot tell, but we may guess that it was destroyed by the heathen
Saxons. Bede records that the church of St Paul was built by Æthelbert,
and from that time to this a cathedral dedicated to St Paul has stood
upon the hill looking down on Ludgate.

After the driving out of Mellitus London remained without a bishop until
the year 656, when Cedda, brother of St Chad of Lichfield, was invited
to London by Sigebert, who had been converted to Christianity by Finan,
bishop of the Northumbrians. Cedda was consecrated bishop of the East
Saxons by Finan and held the see till his death on the 26th of October
664. He was succeeded by Wini, bishop of Winchester, and then came
Earconuald (or St Erkenwald), whose shrine was one of the chief glories
of old St Paul's. He died on the 30th of April 693, a day which was kept
in memory in his cathedral for centuries by special offices. The list of
bishops from Cedda to William (who is addressed in the Conqueror's
Charter) is long, and each bishop apparently held a position of great
importance in the government of the city.


  Danish Invasions.

In the 7th century the city seems to have settled down into a prosperous
place and to have been peopled by merchants of many nationalities. We
learn that at this time it was the great mart of slaves. It was in the
fullest sense a free-trading town; neutral to a certain extent between
the kingdoms around, although the most powerful of the kings conquered
their feebler neighbours. During the 8th century, when a more settled
condition of life became possible, the trade and commerce of London
increased in volume and prosperity. A change, however, came about
towards the end of the century, when the Scandinavian freebooters known
as Danes began to harry the coasts. The Saxons had become law-abiding,
and the fierce Danes treated them in the same way as in former days they
had treated the Britons. In 871 the chronicler affirms that Alfred
fought nine great battles against the Danes in the kingdom south of the
Thames, and that the West Saxons made peace with them. In the next year
the Danes went from Reading to London, and there took up their winter
quarters. Then the Mercians made peace with them. In 886 Alfred overcame
the Danes, restored London to its inhabitants, rebuilt its walls,
reannexed the city to Mercia, and committed it to Ethelred, alderman of
Mercia. Then, as the chronicler writes, "all the Angle race turned to
him (Alfred) that were not in bondage of the Danish men." In 896 the
Londoners came off victorious in their encounters with the Danes. The
king obstructed the river so that the enemy could not bring up their
ships, and they therefore abandoned them. The Londoners broke up some,
and brought the strongest and best to London. In 912 Æthelred, the
alderman of the Mercians, who had been placed in authority by Alfred,
died, and Edward the Elder took possession of London and Oxford, "and
all the lands which thereto belonged."

Under Æthelstan we find the city increasing in importance and general
prosperity. There were then eight mints at work, a fact which exhibits
evidence of great activity and the need of coin for the purposes of
trade. The folk-moot met in the precincts of St Paul's at the sound of
the bell of the famous bell-tower, which also rang out when the armed
levy was required to march under St Paul's banner. For some years after
the decisive battle of Brunanburh (A.D. 937) the Danes ceased to trouble
the country. Fire, however, was almost as great an enemy to London as
the Dane. Fabyan when recording the entire destruction of London by fire
in the reign of Æthelred (981) makes this remarkable statement--"Ye
shall understand that this daye the cytie of London had more housynge
and buyldinge from Ludgate toward Westmynstre and lytel or none wher
the chief or hart of the citie is now, except (that) in dyvers places
were housyng, but they stod without order."

In the reign of Æthelred II., called the Unready (but more correctly the
Redeless), the Danes were more successful in their operations against
London, but the inhabitants resisted stoutly. Snorre the Icelander tells
us that the Danes fortified Southwark with ditch and rampart, which the
English assailed in vain. In 982 London was burnt, and in 994 Olaf and
Sweyn (the father of Canute) came with ninety-four ships to besiege it.
They tried to set the city on fire, but the townsmen did them more harm
than they "ever weened." The chronicler piously adds that "the holy
Mother of God on that day manifested her mercy to the townsmen, and
delivered them from their foes." The Danes went from the town and
ravaged the neighbourhood, so that in the end the king and his witan
agreed to give sixteen thousand pounds to be relieved of the presence of
the enemy. This was the origin of the Danegelt. In the year 1009 the
Danes frequently attacked London, but they had no success, and fared ill
in their attempts. The Londoners withstood Sweyn in 1013, but in the end
they submitted and gave him hostages. Three years after this, Æthelred
died in London, and such of the witan as were there and the townsmen
chose Edmund Ironside for king, although the witan outside London had
elected Canute. Canute's ships were then at Greenwich on their way to
London, where they soon afterwards arrived. The Danes at once set to
work to dig a great ditch by Southwark, and then dragged their ships
through to the west side of the bridge. They were able after this to
keep the inhabitants from going either in or out of the town. In spite
of all this, after fighting obstinately both by land and by water, the
Danes had to raise the siege of London and take the ships to the river
Orwell. After a glorious reign of seven months Edmund died in London,
and Canute became master of England. The tribute which the townsmen of
London had to pay was £10,500, about one-seventh of the amount which was
paid by all the rest of the English nation. This shows the growing
importance of the city. From this time there appears to have been a
permanent Danish settlement in London, probably Aldwich, referred to
below.

There is little more to be said of the history of Saxon London than that
Edward the Confessor held his Witanagemot there. On his death the Witan
which had attended his funeral elected to succeed him Harold, the
foremost man in England, and the leader who had attempted to check the
spread of the Norman influence fostered by the Confessor. After his
defeat and death on the hill on the Sussex Downs then called Senlac, the
duke of Normandy had the country at his mercy, but he recognized the
importance of London's position, and moved forward with the greatest
caution and tact.

Before proceeding with the history of London during the Norman period it
is necessary to say something of the counties more especially connected
with London.


  The "Home Counties."

The walled city of London was a distinct political unit, although it
owed a certain allegiance to that one of the kingdoms around it which
was the most powerful for the time being. This allegiance therefore
frequently changed, but London retained its identity and individuality
all through. Essex seems seldom to have held an independent position,
for when London first appears as connected with the East Saxons the real
power was in the hands of the king of Kent. According to Bede, Wini,
being expelled from his bishopric of Wessex in 635, took refuge with
Wulfhere, king of the Mercians, of whom he purchased the see of London.
Hence the Mercian king must then have been the overlord of London. Not
many years afterwards the king of Kent again seems to have held some
jurisdiction here. From the laws of the Kentish kings Lhothhere and
Eadric (673-685) we learn that the Wic-reeve was an officer of the king
of Kent, who exercised a jurisdiction over the Kentish men trading with
or at London, or was appointed to watch over their interests.

The origin of the two counties in which London is chiefly situated opens
up an interesting question. It is necessary to remember that London is
older than these counties, whose names, Middlesex and Surrey, indicate
their relative positions to the city and the surrounding county. We have
neither record of their settlement nor of the origin of their names.
Both must have been peopled from the river. The name Middle Saxons
plainly shows that Middlesex must have been settled after the East and
West Saxons had given their names to their respective districts. The
name Surrey clearly refers to the southern position of the county.


  Aldwich.

Reference has already been made to a Danish settlement, and there seems
some reason for placing it on the ground now occupied by the parishes of
St Clement Danes and St Giles's. For many centuries this district
between London and Westminster was a kind of "no man's land" having
certain archaic customs. Gomme in his _Governance of London_ (1907)
gives an account of the connexion of this with the old village of
Aldwich, a name that survived in Wych Street, and has been revived by
the London County Council in Aldwych, the crescent which leads to
Kingsway.


  The Conquest.

3. _Norman_ (1066-1154).--To return to the condition of things after the
great battle. The citizens of London were a divided body, and Duke
William knowing that he had many friends in the city saw that a waiting
game was the best for his cause in the end. The defeated chiefs retired
on the city, led by Ansgar the Staller, under whom as sheriff the
citizens of London had marched to fight for Harold at Senlac. They
elected Edgar Atheling, the grandson of Edmund Ironside, as king, which
the _Saxon Chronicle_ says "was indeed his natural right." On hearing of
this action William marched towards London, when the citizens sallied
forth to meet him. They were repulsed by the Norman horse, but with such
loss to the latter that the duke thought it imprudent to lay siege to
the city at that time, and he retired to Berkhampstead.[5] It is
reported that William sent a private message to Ansgar asking for his
support. The result was that Edgar and Earls Edwin and Morkere and "the
best men of London" repaired to Berkhampstead, where they submitted
themselves and swore fealty to the Conqueror.


  Changes in the City.

Thus ends the Saxon period, and the Norman period in London begins with
the submission of the citizens as distinct from the action of the rest
of the kingdom, which submission resulted soon afterwards in the
Conqueror's remarkable charter to William the bishop and Gosfrith the
portreeve, supposed to be the elder Geoffrey de Mandeville. A great
change was at once made both in the appearance and in the government of
the city under Norman rule. One of the earliest acts of the Conqueror
was to undertake the erection of a citadel which should overawe the
citizens and give him the command of the city. The Tower was situated at
the eastern limit of the city, and not far from the western extremity
Castle Baynard was built.

The position of the city grew in importance, but the citizens suffered
from severe laws and from serious restrictions upon their liberties. In
August 1077 occurred a most extensive fire, such a one, says the
_Chronicle_, as "never was before since London was founded." This
constant burning of large portions of the city is a marked feature of
its early history, and we must remember that, although stone buildings
were rising on all sides, these were churches, monasteries, and other
public edifices; the ordinary houses remained as before, small wooden
structures. The White Tower, the famous keep of the Tower of London, was
begun by Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, c. 1078. In 1083 the old
cathedral of St Paul's was begun on the site of the church which
Æthelbert is said to have founded in 610. But four years afterwards the
chronicler tells us "the holy monastery of St Paul, the episcopal see of
London, was burnt, and many other monasteries, and the greatest and
fairest part of the whole city." In this same year (1087) william the
Conqueror died. In 1090 a tremendous hurricane passed over London, and
blew down six hundred houses and many churches. The Tower was injured,
and a portion of the roof of the church of St Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside,
was carried off and fell some distance away, being forced into the
ground as much as 20 ft., a proof of the badness of the thoroughfares as
well as of the force of the wind, William Rufus inherited from his
father a love for building, and in the year 1097 he exacted large sums
of money from his subjects with the object of carrying on some of the
undertakings he had in hand. These were the walling round of the Tower
and the rebuilding of London Bridge, which had been almost destroyed by
a flood. In 1100 Rufus was slain, and Henry I. was crowned in London.
This king granted the citizens their first real charter, but this was
constantly violated, when Stephen seized the crown on the death of Henry
I., he tried successfully to obtain the support of the people of London.
He published a charter confirming in general terms the one granted by
Henry, and commanding that the good laws of Edward the Confessor should
be observed. The citizens, however, did not obtain their rights without
paying for them, and in 1139 they paid Stephen one hundred marks of
silver to enable them to choose their own sheriffs. In this reign the
all-powerfulness of the Londoners is brought prominently forward.
Stephen became by the shifting fortune of war a prisoner, and the
empress Matilda might, if she had had the wisdom to favour the citizens,
have held the throne, which was hers by right of birth. She, however,
made them her enemies by delivering up the office of justiciary of
London and the sheriffwick to her partisan Geoffrey, earl of Essex, and
attempting to reduce the citizens to the enslaved condition of the rest
of the country. This made her influential enemies, who soon afterwards
replaced Stephen upon the throne. The Norman era closes with the death
of Stephen in 1154.


  Early parishes.

  Religious foundations.

One of the most striking changes in the appearance of Norman London was
caused by the rebuilding of old churches and the building of new ones,
and also by the foundation of the great monastic establishments. The
early history of the parishes of London is one of great difficulty and
complexity. Although some of the parishes must be of great antiquity, we
have little authentic information respecting them before the Conquest.
The dedications of many of the churches indicate their great age, but
the constant fires in London destroyed these buildings. The original
churches appear to have been very small, as may be judged from their
number. It is not easy, however, to understand how it was that when the
first parishes were formed so small an area was attached to each. The
parish church of which we have the most authentic notice before the
Conquest is St Helen's, Bishopsgate. It was in existence many years
before the priory of the nuns of St Helen's was founded. Bishop Stubbs
in his Introduction to the Historical Works of Ralph de Diceto writes:
"St Paul's stood at the head of the religious life of London, and by its
side, at some considerable interval, however, St Martin's le Grand
(1056), St Bartholomew's, Smithfield (1123) and the great and ancient
foundation of Trinity, Aldgate" (1108). The great Benedictine monastery
of Black Monks was situated away from the city at Westminster, and it
was the only monastic house subject to the rule of St Benedict in the
neighbourhood of London, although the houses of nuns, of which there
were many dotted over the suburbs of London, were governed by this rule.
In course of time there was a widespread desire in Europe for a stricter
rule among the monks, and reforms of the Benedictine rule were
instituted at Cluni (910), Chartreuse (about 1080) and Citeaux (1098).
All these reforms were represented in London.

  _Cluniac Order._--This order was first brought to England by William,
  earl of Warren (son-in-law of William the Conqueror), who built the
  first house at Lewes in Sussex about 1077. The priory of Bermondsey in
  Surrey was founded by Aylwin Child, citizen of London about 1082.

  _Carthusians._--When this order was brought to England in 1178 the
  first house was founded at Witham in Somersetshire. In all there were
  nine houses of the order in England. One of these was the Charterhouse
  of London which was not founded until 1371 by Sir Walter Manny, K.G.

  _Cistercians._--It was usual to plant these monasteries in solitary
  and uncultivated places, and no other house, even of their own order,
  was allowed to build within a certain distance of the original
  establishment. This makes it surprising to learn that there were two
  separate houses of this order in the near neighbourhood of London. A
  branch of the order came to England about 1128 and the first house was
  founded at Waverley in Surrey. Very shortly after (about 1134) the
  abbey of Stratford Langthorne in Essex was founded by William de
  Montfichet, who endowed it with all his lordship in West Ham. It was
  not until two centuries afterwards that the second Cistercian house in
  the immediate neighbourhood of London was founded. This was the Abbey
  of St Mary Graces, East-Minster or New Abbey without the walls of
  London, beyond Tower Hill, which Edward III. instituted in 1350 after
  a severe scourge of plague (the so-called Black Death).

  The two great Military Orders--the Knights Hospitallers of St John of
  Jerusalem and the Templars--followed the Augustinian rule and were
  both settled in London. The Hospital or Priory of St John was founded
  in 1100 by Jordan Briset and his wife Muriel, outside the northern
  wall of London, and the original village of Clerkenwell grew up around
  the buildings of the knights. A few years after this the Brethren of
  the Temple of Solomon at Jerusalem or Knights of the Temple came into
  being at the Holy City, and they settled first on the south side of
  Holborn near Southampton Row. They removed to Fleet Street or the New
  Temple in 1184. On the suppression of the order by command of the pope
  the house in Fleet Street was given in 1313 by Edward II. to Aymer de
  Valence, earl of Pembroke, at whose death in 1324 the property passed
  to the knights of St John, who leased the new Temple to the lawyers,
  still the occupants of the district.

  The queen of Henry I. (Matilda or Maud) was one of the chief founders
  of religious houses, and so great was the number of monasteries built
  in this king's reign that it was said almost all the labourers became
  bricklayers and carpenters and there was much discontent in
  consequence.


  Fitzstephen's description of London.

4. _Plantagenet (1154-1485)._--Henry II. appears to have been to a
certain extent prejudiced against the citizens of London on account of
their attitude towards his mother, and he treated them with some
severity. In 1176 the rebuilding of London Bridge with stone was begun
by Peter of Colechurch. This was the bridge which was pulled down early
in the 19th century. It consisted of twenty stone arches and a
drawbridge. There was a gatehouse at each end and a chapel or crypt in
the centre, dedicated to St Thomas of Canterbury, in which Peter of
Colechurch was buried in 1205. The large amount of building at this time
proves that the citizens were wealthy. Fitzstephen, the monk of
Canterbury, has left us the first picture of London. He speaks of its
wealth, commerce, grandeur and magnificence--of the mildness of the
climate, the beauty of the gardens, the sweet, clear and salubrious
springs, the flowing streams, and the pleasant clack of the watermills.
Even the vast forest of Middlesex, with its densely wooded thickets, its
coverts of game, stags, fallow deer, boars and wild bulls is pressed
into the description to give a contrast which shall enhance the beauty
of the city itself. Fitzstephen tells how, when the great marsh that
washed the walls of the city on the north (Moorfields) was frozen over,
the young men went out to slide and skate and sport on the ice. Skates
made of bones have been dug up in this district. This sport was allowed
to fall into disuse, and was not again prevalent until it was introduced
from Holland after the Restoration.

In spite of Fitzstephen's glowing description we must remember that the
houses of London were wholly built of wood and thatched with straw or
reeds. These houses were specially liable to be destroyed by fire, and
in order to save the city from this imminent danger the famous Assize of
Building known as "Fitz-Ailwyne's Assize" was drawn up in 1189. In this
document the following statement was made: "Many citizens, to avoid such
danger, built according to their means, on their ground, a stone house
covered and protected by thick tiles against the fury of fire, whereby
it often happened that when a fire arose in the city and burnt many
edifices and had reached such a house, not being able to injure it, it
then became extinguished, so that many neighbours' houses were wholly
saved from fire by that house."

Various privileges were conceded to those who built in stone, but no
provision was made as to the material to be used in roofing tenements.
This Assize, which has been described as the earliest English Building
Act, is of great value from an historical point of view, but
unfortunately it had little practical effect, and in 1212 what was
called "Fitz-Ailwyne's Second Assize," with certain compulsory
regulations, was enacted. Thenceforth everyone who built a house was
strictly charged not to cover it with reeds, rushes, stubble or straw,
but only with tiles, shingle boards or lead. In future, in order to stop
a fire, houses could be pulled down in case of need with an alderman's
hook and cord. For the speedy removal of burning houses each ward was to
provide a strong iron hook, with a wooden handle, two chains and two
strong cords, which were to be left in the charge of the bedel of the
ward, who was also provided with a good horn, "loudly sounding."

Richard I. was a popular king, but his fighting in the Holy Land cost
his subjects much. London had to pay heavily towards his ransom; and,
when the king made his triumphal entry into London after his release
from imprisonment, a German nobleman is said to have remarked that had
the emperor known of the wealth of England he would have insisted on a
larger sum. The Londoners were the more glad to welcome Richard back in
that the head of the regency, Longchamp, bishop of Ely, was very
unpopular from the encroachments he made upon the city with his works at
the Tower.

The first charter by which the city claims the jurisdiction and
conservancy of the river Thames was granted by Richard I. John granted
several charters to the city, and it was expressly stipulated in Magna
Charta that the city of London should have all its ancient privileges
and free customs. The citizens opposed the king during the wars of the
barons. In the year 1215 the barons having received intelligence
secretly that they might enter London with ease through Aldgate, which
was then in a very ruinous state, removed their camp from Bedford to
Ware, and shortly after marched into the city in the night-time. Having
succeeded in their object, they determined that so important a gate
should no longer remain in a defenceless condition. They therefore
spoiled the religious houses and robbed the monastery coffers in order
to have means wherewith to rebuild it. Much of the material was obtained
from the destroyed houses of the unfortunate Jews, but the stone for the
bulwarks was obtained from Caen, and the small bricks or tiles from
Flanders.

Allusion has already been made to the great change in the aspect of
London and its surroundings made during the Norman period by the
establishment of a large number of monasteries. A still more important
change in the configuration of the interior of London was made in the
13th century, when the various orders of the friars established
themselves there. The Benedictine monks preferred secluded sites; the
Augustinians did not cultivate seclusion so strictly; but the friars
chose the interior of towns by preference. At the beginning of the 13th
century the remarkable evangelical revival, instituted almost
simultaneously by St Dominic and St Francis, swept over Europe.

  The four chief orders of Mendicant friars were magnificently housed in
  London:--


    Mendicant friars.

  _Blackfriars._--The Black, Preaching or Dominican Friars came to
  England in 1221 and their first house was at Oxford. Shortly after
  this they came London and settled in Holborn near Lincoln's Inn, where
  they remained for more than fifty years. In 1276 they removed to the
  neighbourhood of Baynard Castle, and their house gave a name to a
  London district which it still retains.

  _Greyfriars._--The Greyfriars, Minorites or Franciscans, first settled
  in Cornhill, and in 1224 John Ewin made over to them an estate
  situated in the ward of Farringdon Within and in the parish of St
  Nicholas in the Shambles, where their friary was built. Christ Church,
  Newgate Street, occupies the site of the choir of the great church of
  the Greyfriars.

  _Austin Friars._--The house of the Austin Friars or Friars Eremites
  was founded in Broad Street ward in 1253.

  _White Friars._--The Friars of the Blessed Virgin of Mount Carmel or
  Carmelites or Whitefriars came to London in 1241, and made their home
  on land between Fleet Street and the Thames given by Edward I.

  Besides the four chief orders of friars there were the Crutched Friars
  in the parish of St Olave, Hart Street (about 1298), and the Friars
  of the Sac first outside Aldersgate (about 1257) and afterwards in the
  Old Jewry.

The names of places in London form valuable records of the habitations
of different classes of the population. The monasteries and friaries are
kept in memory by their names in various parts of London. In the same
way the residences of the Jews have been marked. When Edward I. expelled
the Jews from England in 1290 the district in which they had lived since
William the Conqueror's day came to be called the Old Jewry. On their
return after many centuries of exile most of them settled in the
neighbourhood of Aldgate and Aldersgate. There is a reminder of them in
the names of Jewry Street near the former and of Jewin Street near the
latter place. Jewin Street was built on the site of the burying-place of
the Jews before the expulsion.


  Pageants.

In the middle ages there was a constant succession of pageants,
processions and tournaments. The royal processions arranged in connexion
with coronations were of great antiquity, but one of the earliest to be
described is that of Henry III. in 1236, which was chronicled by Matthew
Paris. After the marriage at Canterbury of the king with Eleanor of
Provence the royal personages came to London, and were met by the mayor,
aldermen and principal citizens to the number of 360, sumptuously
apparelled in silken robes embroidered, riding upon stately horses.
After the death of Henry III. (1272) the country had to wait for their
new king, who was then in the Holy Land. Edward I. came to London on the
2nd of August 1274, when he was received with the wildest expressions of
joy. The streets were hung with rich cloths of silk arras and tapestry;
the aldermen and principal men of the city threw out of their windows
handsful of gold and silver, to signify their gladness at the king's
return; and the conduits ran with wine, both white and red.

Dr Jessopp gives a vivid picture of what occurred when King Edward III.
entered London in triumph on the 14th of October 1347. He was the
foremost man in Europe, and England had reached a height of power and
glory such as she had never attained before. Ten years after this, one
of the most famous scenes in the streets of London occurred, when Edward
the Black Prince brought the French King John and other prisoners after
the battle of Poitiers to England. This was a scene unequalled until
Henry V. returned from the glorious field of Agincourt in 1415. The
mayor and aldermen apparelled in orient-grained scarlet, and four
hundred commoners in murrey, well mounted, with rich collars and chains,
met the king at Blackheath. At the entrance to London Bridge the towers
were adorned with banners of the royal arms, and in the front of them
was inscribed _Civitas Regis Justicie_.

During the troubles of the 15th century the authorities had seen the
necessity of paying more attention to the security of the gates and
walls of the city, and when Thomas Nevill, son of William, Lord
Fauconberg, made his attack upon London in 1471 he experienced a
spirited resistance. He first attempted to land from his ships in the
city, but the Thames side from Baynard's Castle to the Tower was so well
fortified that he had to seek a quieter and less prepared position. He
then set upon the several gates in succession, and was repulsed at all.
On the 11th of May he made a desperate attack upon Aldgate, followed by
500 men. He won the bulwarks and some of his followers entered into the
city, but the portcullis being let down these were cut off from their
own party and were slain by the enemy. The portcullis was drawn up, and
the besieged issued forth against the rebels, who were soon forced to
flee.

When Richard, duke of Gloucester, laid his plans for seizing the crown,
he obtained the countenance of the lord mayor, Sir Edmund Shaw, whose
brother Dr Shaw praised Richard at Paul's Cross. Crosby Hall, in
Bishopsgate Street, then lately built, was made the lodging of the
Protector. There he acted the accessible prince in the eyes of the
people, for the last of the Plantagenets was another of the usurpers who
found favour in the eyes of the men of London. His day, however, was
short, and with the battle of Bosworth ends Plantagenet London.


  First maps of London.

5. _Tudor (1485-1603)._--It was during this period that the first maps
of London were drawn. No representation of the city earlier than the
middle of the 16th century has been discovered, although it seems more
than probable that some plans must have been produced at an earlier
period.[6] The earliest known view is the drawing of Van den Wyngaerde
in the Bodleian Library (dated 1550). Braun and Hogenberg's map was
published in 1572-1573, and the so-called Agas's map was probably
produced soon afterwards, and was doubtless influenced by the
publication of Braun and Hogenberg's excellent engraving; Norden's maps
of London and Westminster are dated 1593. Some of these maps were pasted
upon walls, and must have been largely destroyed by ordinary wear and
tear. It is curious that the only two existing copies of Agas's map[7]
were published in the reign of James I., although apparently they had
not been altered from the earlier editions of Elizabeth's reign which
have been lost. By the help of these maps we are able to obtain a clear
notion of the extent and chief characteristics of Tudor London. Henry
VII. did little to connect his name with the history of London, although
the erection of the exquisite specimen of florid Gothic at Westminster
Abbey has carried his memory down in its popular name of Henry VII.'s
chapel. Soon after this king obtained the throne he borrowed the sum of
3000 marks from the city, and moreover founded the excellent precedent
of repaying it at the appointed time. The citizens were so pleased at
this unexpected occurrence that they willingly lent the king £6000 in
1488, which he required for military preparations against France. In
1497 London was threatened by the rebels favourable to Perkin Warbeck,
who encamped on Blackheath on the 17th of June. At first there was a
panic among the citizens, but subsequently the city was placed in a
proper state of defence, and the king himself encamped in St George's
Fields. On June 22 he entirely routed the rebels; and some time
afterwards Perkin Warbeck gave himself up, and was conducted in triumph
through London to the Tower.


  Suppression of religious houses.

As the chief feature of Norman London was the foundation of monasteries,
and that of Plantagenet London was the establishment of friaries, so
Tudor London was specially characterized by the suppression of the whole
of these religious houses, and also of the almost numberless religious
gilds and brotherhoods. When we remember that more than half of the area
of London was occupied by these establishments, and that about a third
of the inhabitants were monks, nuns and friars, it is easy to imagine
how great must have been the disorganization caused by this root and
branch reform. One of the earliest of the religious houses to be
suppressed was the hospital of St Thomas of Acon (or Acre) on the north
side of Cheapside, the site of which is now occupied by Mercers' Hall.
The larger houses soon followed, and the Black, the White and the Grey
Friars, with the Carthusians and many others, were all condemned in
November 1538.

Love of show was so marked a characteristic of Henry VIII. that we are
not surprised to find him encouraging the citizens in the same expensive
taste. On the occasion of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon the city
was gorgeously ornamented with rich silks and tapestry, and Goldsmiths'
Row (Cheapside) and part of Cornhill were hung with golden brocades.
When on the eve of St John's Day, 1510, the king in the habit of a
yeoman of his own guard saw the famous march of the city watch, he was
so delighted that on the following St Peter's Eve he again attended in
Cheapside to see the march, but this time he was accompanied by the
queen and the principal nobility. The cost of these two marches in the
year was very considerable, and, having been suspended in 1528 on
account of the prevalence of the sweating sickness, they were soon
afterwards forbidden by the king, and discontinued during the remainder
of his reign. Sir John Gresham, mayor in 1548, revived the march of the
city watch, which was made more splendid by the addition of three
hundred light horsemen raised by the citizens for the king's service.

The best mode of utilizing the buildings of the suppressed religious
houses was a difficult question left unsolved by Henry VIII. That king,
shortly before his death, refounded Rahere's St Bartholomew's Hospital,
"for the continual relief and help of an hundred sore and diseased," but
most of the large buildings were left unoccupied to be filled by his
successor. The first parliament of Edward's reign gave all the lands and
possessions of colleges, chantries, &c., to the king, when the different
companies of London redeemed those which they had held for the payment
of priests' wages, obits and lights at the price of £20,000, and applied
the rents arising from them to charitable purposes. In 1550 the citizens
purchased the manor of Southwark, and with it they became possessed of
the monastery of St Thomas, which was enlarged and prepared for the
reception of "poor, sick and helpless objects." Thus was refounded St
Thomas's Hospital, which was moved to Lambeth in 1870-1871. Shortly
before his death Edward founded Christ's Hospital in the Grey Friars,
and gave the old palace of Bridewell to the city "for the lodging of
poor wayfaring people, the correction of vagabonds and disorderly
persons, and for finding them work." On the death of Edward VI. Lady
Jane Grey was received at the Tower as queen, she having gone there by
water from Durham House in the Strand. The citizens, however, soon found
out their mistake, and the lord mayor, aldermen and recorder proclaimed
Queen Mary at Cheapside. London was then gay with pageants, but when the
queen made known her intention of marrying Philip of Spain the
discontent of the country found vent in the rising of Sir Thomas Wyat,
and the city had to prepare itself against attack. Wyat took possession
of Southwark, and expected to have been admitted into London; but
finding the gates shut against him and the drawbridge cut down he
marched to Kingston, the bridge at which place had been destroyed. This
he restored, and then proceeded towards London. In consequence of the
breakdown of some of his guns he imprudently halted at Turnham Green.
Had he not done so it is probable that he might have obtained possession
of the city. He planted his ordnance on Hay Hill, and then marched by St
James's Palace to Charing Cross. Here he was attacked by Sir John Gage
with a thousand men, but he repulsed them and reached Ludgate without
further opposition. He was disappointed at the resistance which was
made, and after musing a while "upon a stall over against the Bell
Savadge Gate" he turned back. His retreat was cut off, and he
surrendered to Sir Maurice Berkeley, we have somewhat fully described
this historical incident here because it has an important bearing on the
history of London, and shows also the small importance of the districts
outside the walls at that period.


  Tudor London.

We now come to consider the appearance of London during the reign of the
last of the Tudors. At no other period were so many great men associated
with its history; the latter years of Elizabeth's reign are specially
interesting to us because it was then that Shakespeare lived in London,
and introduced its streets and people into his plays. In those days the
frequent visitation of plagues made men fear the gathering together of
multitudes. This dread of pestilence, united with a puritanic hatred of
plays, made the citizens do all they could to discountenance theatrical
entertainments. The queen acknowledged the validity of the first reason,
but she repudiated the religious objection provided ordinary care was
taken to allow "such plays only as were fitted to yield honest
recreation and no example of evil." On April 11, 1582, the lords of the
council wrote to the lord mayor to the effect that, as "her Majesty
sometimes took delight in those pastimes, it had been thought not unfit,
having regard to the season of the year and the clearance of the city
from infection, to allow of certain companies of players in London,
partly that they might thereby attain more dexterity and perfection the
better to content her Majesty" (Analytical Index to the _Remembrancia_).
When theatres were established the lord mayor took care that they should
not be built within the city. The "Theatre" and the "Curtain" were
situated at Shoreditch; the "Globe," the "Swan," the "Rose" and the
"Hope" on the Bankside; and the Blackfriars theatre, although within the
walls, was without the city jurisdiction.

In 1561 St Paul's steeple and roof were destroyed by lightning, and the
spire was never replaced. This circumstance allows us to test the date
of certain views; thus Wyngaerde's map has the spire, but Agas's map is
without it. In 1566 the first stone was laid of the "Burse," which owed
its origin to Sir Thomas Gresham. In 1571 Queen Elizabeth changed its
name to the Royal Exchange. The Strand was filled with noble mansions
washed by the waters of the Thames, but the street, if street it could
be called, was little used by pedestrians. Londoners frequented the
river, which was their great highway. The banks were crowded with stairs
for boats, and the watermen of that day answered to the chairmen of a
later date and the cabmen of to-day. The Bankside was of old a favourite
place for entertainments, but two only--the bull-baiting and the
bear-baiting--were in existence when Agas's map was first planned. On
Norden's map,[8] however, we find the gardens of Paris Garden, the
bearhouse and the playhouse.

  The settled character of the later years of Elizabeth's reign appears
  to have caused a considerable change in the habits of the people. Many
  of the chief citizens followed the example of the courtiers, and built
  for themselves country residences in Middlesex, Essex and Surrey; thus
  we learn from Norden that Alderman Roe lived at Muswell Hill, and we
  know that Sir Thomas Gresham built a fine house and planned a
  beautiful park at Osterley. The maps show us much that remains
  somewhat the same as it was, but also much that has greatly altered.
  St Giles's was literally a village in the fields; Piccadilly was "the
  waye to Redinge," Oxford Street "the way to Uxbridge," Covent Garden
  an open field or garden, and Leicester Fields lammas land. Moorfields
  was drained and laid out in walks in Elizabeth's reign. At
  Spitalfields crowds used to congregate on Easter Monday and Tuesday to
  hear the Spital sermons preached from the pulpit cross. The ground was
  originally a Roman Cemetery, and about the year 1576 bricks were
  largely made from the clayey earth, the recollection of which is kept
  alive in the name of Brick Lane. Citizens went to Holborn and
  Bloomsbury for change of air, and houses were there prepared for the
  reception of children, invalids and convalescents. In the north were
  sprinkled the outlying villages of Islington, Hoxton and Clerkenwell.

6. _Stuart (1603-1714)._--The Stuart period, from the accession of James
I. to the death of Queen Anne, extends over little more than a century,
and yet greater changes occurred during those years than at any previous
period. The early years of Stuart London may be said to be closely
linked with the last years of Elizabethan London, for the greatest men,
such as Raleigh, Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, lived on into James's
reign. Much of the life of the time was then in the City, but the last
years of Stuart London take us to the 18th century, when social life had
permanently shifted to the west end. In the middle of the period
occurred the civil wars, and then the fire which changed the whole
aspect of London. When James came to the throne the term suburbs had a
bad name, as all those disreputable persons who could find no shelter in
the city itself settled in these outlying districts. Stubbs denounced
suburban gardens and garden houses in his _Anatomy of Abuses_, and
another writer observed "how happy were cities if they had no suburbs."

The preparations for the coronation of King James were interrupted by a
severe visitation of the plague, which killed off as many as 30,578
persons, and it was not till March 15, 1604, that the king, the queen
and Prince Henry passed triumphantly from the Tower to Westminster. The
lord mayor's shows, which had been discontinued for some years, were
revived by order of the king in 1609. The dissolved monastery of the
Charterhouse, which had been bought and sold by the courtiers several
times, was obtained from Thomas, earl of Suffolk, by Thomas Sutton for
£13,000. The new hospital chapel and schoolhouse were begun in 1611,
and in the same year Sutton died.


  Social life.

With the death of James I. in 1625 the older history of London may be
said to have closed. During the reign of his successor the great change
in the relative positions of London within and without the walls had set
in. Before going on to consider the chief incidents of this change it
will be well to refer to some features of the social life of James's
reign. Ben Jonson places one of the scenes of _Every Man in his Humour_
in Moorfields, which at the time he wrote the play had, as stated above,
lately been drained and laid out in walks. Beggars frequented the place,
and travellers from the village of Hoxton, who crossed it in order to
get into London, did so with as much expedition as possible. Adjoining
Moorfields were Finsbury Fields, a favourite practising ground for the
archers. Mile End, a common on the Great Eastern Road, was long famous
as a rendezvous for the troops. These places are frequently referred to
by the old dramatists; Justice Shallow boasts of his doings at Mile End
Green when he was Dagonet in Arthur's Show. Fleet Street was the
show-place of London, in which were exhibited a constant succession of
puppets, naked Indians and strange fishes. The great meeting-place of
Londoners in the day-time was the nave of old St Paul's. Crowds of
merchants with their hats on transacted business in the aisles, and used
the font as a counter upon which to make their payments; lawyers
received clients at their several pillars; and masterless serving-men
waited to be engaged upon their own particular bench. Besides those who
came on business there were gallants dressed in fashionable finery, so
that it was worth the tailor's while to stand behind a pillar and fill
his table-books with notes. The middle or Mediterranean aisle was the
Paul's walk, also called the Duke's Gallery from the erroneous
supposition that the tomb of Sir Guy Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, was
that of the "good" Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. After the Restoration a
fence was erected on the inside of the great north door to hinder a
concourse of rude people, and when the cathedral was being rebuilt Sir
Christopher Wren made a strict order against any profanation of the
sacred building. St Paul's churchyard was from the earliest days of
printing until the end of the 18th century the headquarters of the book
trade, when it shifted to Paternoster Row. Another of the favourite
haunts of the people was the garden of Gray's Inn, where the choicest
society was to be met. There, under the shadow of the elm trees which
Bacon had planted, Pepys and his wife constantly walked. Mrs Pepys went
on one occasion specially to observe the fashions of the ladies because
she was then "making some clothes."


  Taverns.

In those days of public conviviality, and for many years afterwards, the
taverns of London held a very important place. The Boar's Head in Great
Eastcheap was an inn of Shakespeare's own day, and the characters he
introduces into his plays are really his own contemporaries. The
"Mermaid" is sometimes described as in Bread Street, and at other times
in Friday Street and also in Cheapside. We are thus able to fix its
exact position; for a little to the west of Bow church is Bread Street,
then came a block of houses, and the next thoroughfare was Friday
Street. It was in this block that the "Mermaid" was situated, and there
appear to have been entrances from each street. What makes this fact
still more certain is the circumstance that a haberdasher in Cheapside
living "'twixt Wood Street and Milk Street," two streets on the north
side opposite Bread and Friday Streets, described himself as "over
against the Mermaid tavern in Cheapside." The Windmill tavern occupies a
prominent position in the action of _Every Man in his Humour_.[9] The
Windmill stood at the corner of the Old Jewry towards Lothbury, and the
Mitre close by the Mermaid in Bread Street. The Mitre in Fleet Street,
so intimately associated with Dr Johnson, also existed at this time. It
is mentioned in a comedy entitled _Ram Alley_ (1611) and Lilly the
astrologer frequented it in 1640. At the Mermaid Ben Jonson had such
companions as Shakespeare, Raleigh, Beaumont, Fletcher, Carew, Donne,
Cotton and Selden, but at the Devil in Fleet Street, where he started
the Apollo Club, he was omnipotent. Herrick, in his well-known _Ode to
Ben_, mentions several of the inns of the day.


  Theatres.

Under James I. the theatre, which established itself so firmly in the
latter years of Elizabeth, had still further increased its influence,
and to the entertainments given at the many playhouses may be added the
masques so expensively produced at court and by the lawyers at the inns
of court. In 1613 _The Masque of Flowers_ was presented by the members
of Gray's Inn in the Old Banqueting House in honour of the marriage of
the infamous Carr, earl of Somerset, and the equally infamous Lady
Frances, daughter of the earl of Suffolk. The entertainment was prepared
by Sir Francis Bacon at a cost of about £2000.


  The "West End."

It was during the reign of Charles I. that the first great exodus of the
wealthy and fashionable was made to the West End. The great square or
piazza of Covent Garden was formed from the designs of Inigo Jones about
1632. The neighbouring streets were built shortly afterwards, and the
names of Henrietta, Charles, James, King and York Streets were given
after members of the royal family. Great Queen Street, Lincoln's Inn
Fields, was built about 1629, and named in honour of Henrietta Maria.
Lincoln's Inn Fields had been planned some years before. With the
Restoration the separation of fashionable from city life became
complete.

When the Civil War broke out London took the side of the parliament, and
an extensive system of fortification was at once projected to protect
the town against the threatened attack of the royal army. A strong
earthen rampart, flanked with bastions and redoubts, surrounded the
City, its liberties, Westminster and Southwark, making an immense
enclosure.


  The Plague.

  The Great Fire.

  Rebuilding: Wren's scheme.

London had been ravaged by plague on many former occasions, but the
pestilence that began in December 1664 lives in history as "the Plague
of London." On the 7th of June 1665 Samuel Pepys for the first time saw
two or three houses marked with the red cross and the words "Lord, have
mercy upon us," on the doors. The deaths daily increased, and business
was stopped. Grass grew in the area of the Royal Exchange, at Whitehall,
and in the principal streets of the city. On the 4th of September 1665
Pepys writes an interesting letter to Lady Carteret from Woolwich: "I
have stayed in the city till above 7400 died in one week, and of them
about 6000 of the plague, and little noise heard day or night but
tolling of bells." The plague was scarcely stayed before the whole city
was in flames, a calamity of the first magnitude, but one which in the
end caused much good, as the seeds of disease were destroyed, and London
has never since been visited by such an epidemic. On the 2nd of
September 1666 the fire broke out at one o'clock in the morning at a
house in Pudding Lane. A violent east wind fomented the flames, which
raged during the whole of Monday and great part of Tuesday. On Tuesday
night the wind fell somewhat, and on Wednesday the fire slackened. On
Thursday it was extinguished, but on the evening of that day the flames
again burst forth at the Temple. Some houses were at once blown up by
gunpowder, and thus the fire was finally mastered. Many interesting
details of the fire are given in Pepys's _Diary_. The river swarmed with
vessels filled with persons carrying away such of their goods as they
were able to save. Some fled to the hills of Hampstead and Highgate, but
Moorfields was the chief resort of the houseless Londoner. Soon paved
streets and two-storey houses were seen in that swampy place. The people
bore their troubles heroically, and Henry Oldenburg, writing to the Hon.
Robert Boyle on September 10, says: "The citizens, instead of
complaining, discoursed almost of nothing but of a survey for rebuilding
the city with bricks and large streets." Within a few days of the fire
three several plans were presented to the king for the rebuilding of the
city, by Christopher Wren, John Evelyn and Robert Hooke. Wren proposed
to build main thoroughfares north and south, and east and west, to
insulate all the churches in conspicuous positions, to form the most
public places into large piazzas, to unite the halls of the twelve chief
companies into one regular square annexed to Guildhall and to make a
fine quay on the bank of the river from Blackfriars to the Tower. His
streets were to be of three magnitudes--90 ft., 60 ft. and 30 ft. wide
respectively. Evelyn's plan differed from Wren's chiefly in proposing a
street from the church of St Dunstan's in the East to the cathedral, and
in having no quay or terrace along the river. In spite of the best
advice, however, the jealousies of the citizens prevented any systematic
design from being carried out, and in consequence the old lines were in
almost every case retained. But though the plans of Wren and Hooke were
not adopted, it was to these two fellows of the Royal Society that the
labour of rebuilding London was committed. Wren's great work was the
erection of the cathedral of St Paul's, and the many churches ranged
round it as satellites. Hooke's task was the humbler one of arranging as
city surveyor for the building of the houses. He laid out the ground of
the several proprietors in the rebuilding of the city, and had no rest
early or late from persons soliciting him to set out their ground for
them at once. The first great impetus of change in the configuration of
London was given by the great fire, and Evelyn records and regrets that
the town in his time had grown almost as large again as it was within
his own memory. Although for several centuries attempts had been made in
favour of building houses with brick or stone, yet the carpenters
continued to be the chief house-builders. As late as the year 1650 the
Carpenters' Company drew up a memorial in which they "gave their reasons
that tymber buildings were more commodious for this citie than brick
buildings were." The Act of Parliament "for rebuilding the city of
London" passed after the great fire, gave the _coup de grâce_ to the
carpenters as house-builders. After setting forth that "building with
brick was not only more comely and durable, but also more safe against
future perils of fire," it was enacted "that all the outsides of all
buildings in and about the city should be made of brick or stone, except
doorcases and window-frames, and other parts of the first story to the
front between the piers," for which substantial oaken timber might be
used "for conveniency of shops." In the winter of 1683-1684 a fair was
held for some time upon the Thames. The frost, which began about seven
weeks before Christmas and continued for six weeks after, was the
greatest on record; the ice was 11 in. thick.

The revocation of the edict of Nantes in October 1685, and the
consequent migration of a large number of industrious French
Protestants, caused a considerable growth in the east end of London. The
silk manufactories at Spitalfields were then established.

During the short reign of James II. the fortunes of the city were at
their lowest, and nowhere was the arrival of the prince of Orange more
welcomed.

William III. cared little for London, the smoke of which gave him
asthma, and when a great part of Whitehall was burnt in 1691 he
purchased Nottingham House and made it into Kensington Palace.
Kensington was then an insignificant village, but the arrival of the
court soon caused it to grow in importance.

Although the spiritual wants of the city were amply provided for by the
churches built by Wren, the large districts outside the city and its
liberties had been greatly neglected. The act passed in the reign of
Queen Anne for building fifty new churches (1710) for a time supplied
the wants of large districts.

7. _Eighteenth Century._--London had hitherto grown up by the side of
the Thames. In the 18th century other parts of the town were more
largely built upon. The inhabitants used coaches and chairs more than
boats, and the banks of the river were neglected. London could no longer
be seen as a whole, and became a mere collection of houses. In spite of
this the 18th century produced some of the most devoted of
Londoners--men who considered a day lived out of London as one lost out
of their lives. Of this class Dr Johnson and Hogarth are striking
examples. The exhibitions of vice and cruelty that were constantly to
be seen in the capital have been reproduced by Hogarth, and had they not
been set down by so truthful an observer it would have been almost
impossible to believe that such enormities could have been committed in
the streets of a great city. A few days after his accession George I.
addressed the representatives of the city in these words: "I have lately
been made sensible of what consequence the city of London is, and
therefore shall be sure to take all their privileges and interests into
my particular protection." On the following lord mayor's day the king
witnessed the show in Cheapside and attended the banquet at Guildhall.
Queen Anne and the first three Georges were all accommodated, on the
occasions of their visits to the city to see the show, at the same house
opposite Bow church. In the time of Queen Anne and George I. David
Barclay (the son of the famous apologist for the Quakers) was an
apprentice in the house, but he subsequently became master, and had the
honour of receiving George II. and George III. as his guests. There was
a large balcony extending along the front of the house which was fitted
with a canopy and hangings of crimson damask silk. The building, then
numbered 108 Cheapside, was pulled down in 1861.


  Extension in the 18th century.

Early in the 18th century there was a considerable extension of building
operations in the West End. Still, however, the north of London remained
unbuilt upon. In 1756 and for some years subsequently the land behind
Montague House (now the British Museum) was occupied as a farm, and when
in that year a proposal was made to plan out a new road the tenant and
the duke of Bedford strongly opposed it. In 1772 all beyond Portland
Chapel in Great Portland Street was country. Bedford House in Bloomsbury
Square had its full view of Hampstead and Highgate from the back, and
Queen's Square was built open to the north in order that the inhabitants
might obtain the same prospect.

In 1737 the Fleet ditch between Holborn Bridge and Fleet Bridge was
covered over, and Stocks Market was removed from the site of the Mansion
House to the present Farringdon Street, and called Fleet market. On
October 25, 1739, the first stone of the Mansion House was laid.
Previously the first magistrates lived in several different houses. A
frost almost as severe as the memorable one of 1683-1684 occurred in the
winter of 1739-1740, and the Thames was again the scene of a busy fair.
In 1758 the houses on London Bridge were cleared away, and in 1760-1762
several of the city gates were taken down and sold. Moorgate is said to
have fetched £166, Aldersgate £91, Aldgate £177, Cripplegate £90, and
Ludgate £148. The statue of Queen Elizabeth which stood on the west side
of Ludgate was purchased by Alderman Gosling and set up against the east
end of St Dunstan's church in Fleet Street, where it still remains.

8. _Nineteenth Century._--In 1806 London saw the public funerals of
three of England's greatest men. On the 8th February the body of Nelson
was borne with great pomp from the Admiralty to St Paul's Cathedral,
where it was interred in the presence of the prince of Wales and the
royal dukes. Pitt was buried on the 22nd of February, and Fox on the
10th of October, both in Westminster Abbey.

The first exhibition of Winsor's system of lighting the streets with gas
took place on the king's birthday (June 4) 1807, and was made in a row
of lamps in front of the colonnade before Carlton House. Finsbury Square
was the first public place in which gas lighting was actually adopted,
and Grosvenor Square the last. In the winter of 1813-1814 the Thames was
again frozen over. The frost began on the evening of December 27, 1813,
with a thick fog. After it had lasted for a month, a thaw of four days,
from the 26th to the 29th of January, took place, but this thaw was
succeeded by a renewal of the frost, so severe that the river soon
became one immovable sheet of ice. There was a street of tents called
the City Road, which was daily thronged with visitors. In 1838 the
second Royal Exchange was destroyed by fire; and on October 28, 1844,
the Queen opened the new Royal Exchange, built by Mr (afterwards Sir
William) Tite. The Great Exhibition of 1851 brought a larger number of
visitors to London than had ever been in it before at one time. The
great and continuous increase in the buildings and the enlargement of
London on all sides dates from this period.

London within the walls has been almost entirely rebuilt, although in
the neighbourhood of the Tower there are still many old houses which
have only been refronted. From the upper rooms of the houses may be seen
a large number of old tiled roofs.

Unlike many capitals of Europe which have shifted their centres the city
of London in spite of all changes and the continued enlargement of the
capital remains the centre and headquarters of the business of the
country. The Bank of England, the Royal Exchange and the Mansion House
are on the site of Ancient London.

In 1863 on the occasion of the marriage of King Edward VII. (when prince
of Wales) the streets of London were illuminated as they had never been
before. Among other events which made the streets gay and centred in
processions to St Paul's may be specially mentioned the Thanksgiving Day
on the 27th of February 1872 for the recovery of the prince of Wales
after his dangerous illness; and the rejoicings at the Jubilee of Queen
Victoria in 1887, and the Diamond Jubilee in 1897.

The first great emigration of the London merchants westward was about
the middle of the 18th century, but only those who had already secured
large fortunes ventured so far as Hatton Garden. At the beginning of the
19th century it had become common for the tradesmen of the city to live
away from their businesses, but it was only about the middle of the 19th
century that it became at all usual for those in the West End to do the
same.

During the first half of the 19th century the position of the City
Corporation had somewhat fallen in public esteem, and some of the most
influential men in the city were unconnected with it, but a considerable
change took place in the latter half of the century. Violent attacks
were made upon the Livery Companies, but of late years, largely owing to
the public spirit of the companies in devoting large sums of money
towards the improvement of the several industries in connexion with
which they were founded, and the establishment of the City and Guilds of
London Technical Institute, a complete change has taken place as to the
public estimation in which they are held.


  GROWTH AND POPULATION

    Medieval Population.

  Much has been written upon the population of medieval London, but
  little certainty has resulted therefrom. We know the size of London at
  different periods and are able to guess to some extent as to the
  number of its inhabitants, but most of the figures which have come
  down to us are mere guesses. The results of the poll-tax have often
  been considered as trustworthy substitutes for population returns, but
  Professor Oman has shown that little trust can be placed in these
  results. As an instance he states that the commissioners of the
  poll-tax reported that there were only two-thirds as many
  contributaries in 1381 as in 1377. The adult population of the realm
  had ostensibly fallen from 1,355,201 to 896,481. These figures were
  monstrous and incredible.[10]

  The Bills of Mortality of the 16th and 17th centuries are of more
  value, and they have been considered and revised by such able
  statisticians as John Graunt and Sir William Petty. It was not,
  however, before the 19th century that accurate figures were
  obtainable. The circuit of the walls of London which were left by the
  Romans was never afterwards enlarged, and the population did not
  overflow into the suburbs to any extent until the Tudor period.
  Population was practically stationary for centuries owing to
  pestilences and the large proportion of deaths among infants. We have
  no materials to judge of the number of inhabitants before the Norman
  Conquest, but we can guess that there were many open spaces within the
  walls that were afterwards filled up. It is scarcely worth while to
  guess as to the numbers in Saxon London, but it is possible that in
  the early period there were about 10,000 inhabitants, growing later to
  about 20,000. During the latter part of the Saxon period the numbers
  of the population of the country began to decay; this decay, however,
  was arrested by the Norman Conquest. The population increased during
  ten peaceful years of Henry III., and increased slowly until the death
  of Edward II., and then it began to fall off, and continued to
  decrease during the period of the Wars of the Roses and of the Barons
  until the accession of the first Tudor monarch. The same causes that
  operated to bring about these changes in the whole kingdom were of
  course also at work in the case of the City of London.

  One of the earliest statements as to the population of London occurs
  in a letter of about the year 1199 written to Pope Innocent III. by
  Peter of Blois, then archdeacon of London, and therefore a man of some
  authority on the subject. He states that the City contained 120 parish
  churches and 40,000 inhabitants. These numbers have been very
  generally accepted as fairly correct, and Dr Creighton[11] comes to
  the conclusion after careful consideration that the population of
  London from the reign of Richard I. to that of Henry VII. varied
  within a limit of about forty to fifty thousand inhabitants.


    Plagues and Mortality.

  Dr Creighton points out that the number given by certain chroniclers
  of the deaths from the early pestilences in London are incredible;
  such for instance as the statement that forty or fifty thousand bodies
  were buried in Charterhouse churchyard at the time of the Black Death
  in 1348-1349. These numbers have been taken as a basis for calculation
  of population, and one statistician reasoned that if 50,000 were
  buried in one churchyard 100,000 should represent the whole mortality
  of London. If this were allowed the population at this time must have
  been at least 200,000, an impossible amount.

  Although the mortality caused by the different plagues had a great
  effect upon the population of the country at large the city soon
  recovered the losses by reason of the numbers who came to London from
  outside in hopes of obtaining work. Although there were fluctuations
  in the numbers at different periods there is evidence to show that on
  the average the amount of forty to fifty thousand fixed by Dr
  Creighton for the years between 1189 and 1509 is fairly correct. The
  medieval period closed with the accession of the Tudor dynasty, and
  from that time the population of London continued to increase, in
  spite of attempts by the government to prevent it. One of the first
  periods of increase was after the dissolution of the religious houses;
  another period of increase was after the Restoration.


    Bills of Mortality.

  A proclamation was issued in 1580 prohibiting the erection within 3 m.
  of the city gates of any new houses or tenements "where no former
  house hath been known to have been." In a subsequent proclamation
  Queen Elizabeth commanded that only one family should live in one
  house, that empty houses erected within seven years were not to be let
  and that unfinished buildings on new foundations were to be pulled
  down. In spite of these restrictions London continued to grow. James
  I. and Charles I. were filled with the same fear of the increasing
  growth of London. In 1630 a similar proclamation to that of 1580 was
  published. During the greater part of the 18th century there was a
  serious check to the increase of population, but at the end of the
  century a considerable increase occurred, and in the middle of the
  19th century the enormous annual increase became particularly marked.
  To return to the 16th century when the Bills of Mortality came into
  existence.[12] Mention is made of these bills as early as 1517, but
  the earliest series now known dates from 1532. Dr Creighton had access
  to the manuscript returns of burials and christenings for five years
  from 1578 to 1582 preserved in the library at Hatfield House. The
  history of the Bills of Mortality which in the early years were
  intermittent in their publication is of much interest, and Dr
  Creighton has stated it with great clearness. The Company of Parish
  Clerks is named in an ordinance of 1581 (of which there is a copy in
  the Record Office) as the body responsible for the bills, and their
  duties were then said to be "according to the Order in that behalf
  heretofore provided." John Bell, clerk to the company, who wrote an
  essay during the great plague of 1665, had no records in his office of
  an earlier date than 1593, and he was not aware that his company had
  been engaged in registering births and deaths before that year. The
  fire of 1666 destroyed all the documents of the Parish Clerks Company,
  and in its hall in Silver Street only printed tables from about the
  year 1700 are to be found. There is a set of Annual Bills from 1658
  (with the exception of the years 1756 to 1764) in the library of the
  British Museum.[13]

  These bills were not analysed and general results obtained from them
  until 1662, when Captain John Graunt first published his valuable
  _Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality_. Sir
  William Petty followed with his important inquiries upon the
  population (_Essay on Political Arithmetic_, 1683).

  It is not worth while to refer to all the wild guesses that were made
  by various writers, but Dr Creighton shows the absurdity of one of
  these calculations made in 1554 by Soranzo, the Venetian ambassador
  for the information of the doge and senators of Venice. He estimates
  the population to have been 180,000 persons, which Dr Creighton
  affirms to be nearly three times the number that we obtain by a
  moderate calculation from the bills of mortality in 1532 and 1535.


  Population in 16th and 17th centuries.

  Following on his calculations from 1509, when the population may be
  supposed to have been about 50,000, Dr Creighton carries on his
  numbers to the Restoration in the following table:--

    1532-1535    62,400  |  1605     224,275
    1563         93,276  |  1622     272,207
    1580        123,034  |  1634     339,824
    1593-1595   152,478  |  1661     460,000

  The numbers for 1661 are those arrived at by Graunt, and they are just
  about half the population given authoritatively in the first census
  1801 (864,845). It therefore took 140 years to double the numbers,
  while in 1841 the numbers of 1801 were more than doubled.

  These numbers were arrived at with much care and may be considered as
  fairly accurate although some other calculations conflict with a few
  of the figures. The first attempt at a census was in August 1631 when
  the lord mayor returned the number of mouths in the city of London and
  Liberties at 130,268, which is only about half the number given above.
  This is accounted for by the larger area contained in the bills of
  mortality compared with that containing only the city and its
  liberties.[14] Howell's suggestion that the population of London in
  1631 was a million and a half need only be mentioned as a specimen of
  the wildest of guesses.


    18th century.

  Petty's numbers for 1682 are 670,000 and those of Gregory King for
  1696, 530,000. The latter are corroborated by those of 1700, which are
  given as 550,000. Maitland gives the numbers in 1737 as 725,903. with
  regard to the relative size of great cities Petty affirms that before
  the Restoration the people of Paris were more in number than those of
  London and Dublin, whereas in 1687 the people of London were more than
  those of Paris and Rome or of Paris and Rouen.

  It is not necessary to give any further numbers for the population of
  the 18th century, as that has been already stated to have been almost
  stationary. This is proved by Gregory King's figures for 1696
  (530,000) when compared with those of the first census for 1801
  (864,035). A corroboration is also to be found in the report of the
  first census for 1801, where a calculation is made of the probable
  population of the years 1700 and 1750. These are given respectively as
  674,350 and 676,250. These figures include (1) the City of London
  within and (2) without the walls, (3) the City and Liberties of
  Westminster, (4) the outparishes within the bills of mortality and (5)
  the parishes not within the bills of mortality. No. 5 is given as 9150
  in 1700, and 22,350 in 1750. It is curious to find that already in the
  18th century a considerable reduction in the numbers of the city of
  London is supposed to have taken place, as is seen in the following
  figures:--

                                         1700.   1750.

    City of London within the walls     139,300  87,000
        "     "    without the walls     69,000  57,300

  As the increase in Westminster is not great (130,000 in 1700 and
  152,000 in 1750) and there is little difference in the totals it will
  be seen that the amount is chiefly made up by the increase in the
  parishes without the bills of mortality. The extraordinary growth of
  London did not come into existence until about the middle of the 19th
  century (see § IV. above).


  GOVERNMENT

    Saxon Period.

  We know little of the government of London during the Saxon period,
  and it is only incidentally that we learn how the Londoner had become
  possessed of special privileges which he continued to claim with
  success through many centuries. One of the chief of these was the
  claim to a separate voice in the election of the king. The citizens
  did not dispute the right of election by the kingdom but they held
  that that election did not necessarily include the choice of London.

  An instance of this is seen in the election of Edmund Ironside,
  although the Witan outside London had elected Canute. The remarkable
  instance of this after the Conquest was the election of Stephen, but
  William the Conqueror did not feel secure until he had the sanction of
  the Londoners to his kingship, and his attitude towards London when he
  hovered about the neighbourhood of the city for a time shows that he
  was anxious to obtain this sanction freely rather than by compulsion.
  His hopes and expectations were fulfilled when the gates of London
  were opened to receive him, as already related. Athelstan's acceptance
  of the London-made law for the whole kingdom, as pointed out by Mr
  Gomme, is another instance of the independence of the Londoner. When
  William the Conqueror granted the first charter to London he addressed
  the bishop and the portreeve--the bishop as the ecclesiastical
  governor and the portreeve as the representative of the civil power.

  The word "port" in the title "portreeve" does not indicate the Port of
  London as might naturally be supposed, for Stubbs has pointed out that
  it is _porta_ not _portus_, and "although used for the city generally,
  seems to refer to it specially in its character of a Mart or City of
  Merchants." The Saxon title of reeve was continued during the Norman
  period and the shire-reeve or sheriff has continued to our own time.
  There were originally several distinct reeves, all apparently officers
  appointed by the king. Some writers have supposed that a succession of
  portreeves continued in London, but J. H. Round holds that this title
  disappeared after the Conqueror's charter. Henry I. granted to the
  city by charter the right of appointing its own sheriffs; this was a
  great privilege, which, however, was recalled in the reigns of Henry
  II. and Richard I., to be restored by John in 1199.

  J. H. Round holds that the office of Justiciar was created by Henry
  I.'s charter, and as he was the chief authority in the city this
  somewhat takes off from the value of the privilege of appointing
  sheriffs.

  In the 12th century there was a great municipal movement over Europe.
  Londoners were well informed as to what was going on abroad, and
  although the rulers were always willing to wait for an opportunity of
  enlarging their liberties, they remained ready to take advantage of
  such circumstances as might occur. Their great opportunity occurred
  while Richard I. was engaged abroad as a crusader.

  In 1889 a medal was struck to commemorate the 700th anniversary of the
  mayoralty which according to popular tradition was founded in 1189.
  With respect to this tradition Round writes (_Commune of London_, p.
  223): "The assumption that the mayoralty of London dates from the
  accession of Richard I. is an absolute perversion of history," and he
  adds that "there is record evidence which completely confirms the
  remarkable words of Richard of Devizes, who declares that on no terms
  whatever would King Richard or his father have ever assented to the
  establishment of the _Communa_ in London."


    The Commune.

  In October 1191 the conflict between John the king's brother and
  Longchamp the king's representative became acute. The latter bitterly
  offended the Londoners, who, finding that they could turn the scales
  to either side, named the Commune as the price of their support of
  John. A small party of the citizens under Henry of Cornhill remained
  faithful to the chancellor Longchamp, but at a meeting held at St
  Paul's on the 8th of October, the barons welcomed the archbishop of
  Rouen as chief justiciar (he having produced the king's sign manual
  appointing a new commission), and they saluted John as regent. Stubbs,
  in his introduction to the Chronicle of Roger de Hoveden, writes:
  "This done, oaths were largely taken: John, the Justiciar and the
  Barons swore to maintain the _Communa_ of London; the oath of fealty
  to Richard was then sworn, John taking it first, then the two
  archbishops, the bishops, the barons, and last the burghers with the
  express understanding that should the king die without issue they
  would receive John as his successor." Referring to this important
  event Mr Round writes: "The excited citizens, who had poured out
  overnight, with lanterns and torches, to welcome John to the capital,
  streamed together on the morning of the eventful 8th of October at the
  well-known sound of the great bell swinging out from its campanile in
  St Paul's Churchyard. There they heard John take the oath to the
  'Commune' like a French king or lord; and then London for the first
  time had a municipality of her own."


    The Mayor and Échevins.

  Little is known as to what the Commune then established really was.
  Round's remarkable discovery among the manuscripts of the British
  Museum of the Oath of the Commune proves for the first time that
  London in 1193 possessed a fully developed "Commune" of the
  continental pattern. A striking point in this municipal revolution is
  that the new privileges extended to the city of London were entirely
  copied from those of continental cities, and Mr Round shows that there
  is conclusive proof of the assertion that the Commune of London
  derived its origin from that of Rouen. This MS. gives us information
  which was unknown before, but upsets the received opinions as to the
  early governing position of the aldermen. From this we learn that the
  government of the city was in the hands of a mayor and twelve échevins
  (_skivini_); both these names being French, seem for a time to have
  excluded the Saxon aldermen.

  Twelve years later (1205-1206) we learn from another document,
  preserved in the same volume as the oath, that _alii probi homines_
  were associated with the mayor and échevins to form a body of
  twenty-four (that is, twelve _skivini_ and an equal number of
  councillors). Round holds that the Court of Skivini and _alii probi
  homines_, of which at present we know nothing further than what is
  contained in the terms of the oaths, was the germ of the Common
  Council. We must not suppose that when the city of London obtained the
  privilege of appointing a mayor, and a citizen could boast in 1194
  that "come what may the Londoners shall have no king but their
  mayor," that the king did not occasionally exert his power in
  suspending the liberties of the city. There were really constant
  disagreements, and sometimes the king degraded the mayor and appointed
  a custos or warden in his place. Several instances of this are
  recorded in the 13th and 14th centuries. It is very important to bear
  in mind that the mayors of London besides holding a very onerous
  position were mostly men of great distinction. They often held rank
  outside the city, and naturally took their place among the rulers of
  the country. They were mostly representatives of the landed interests
  as well as merchant princes.

  There is no definite information as to when the mayor first received
  the title of lord. A claim has been set up for Thomas Legge, mayor for
  the second time in 1354, that he was the first lord mayor, but there
  is positively no authority whatever for this claim, although it is
  boldly stated that he was created lord mayor by Edward III. in this
  year. Apparently the title was occasionally used, and the use
  gradually grew into a prescriptive right. There is no evidence of any
  grant, but after 1540 the title had become general.


    Aldermen.

  No record has been found of the date when the aldermen became the
  official advisers of the mayor. The various wards were each presided
  over by an alderman from an early period, but we cannot fix the time
  when they were united as a court of aldermen. Stubbs writes: "The
  governing body of London in the 13th century was composed of the
  mayor, twenty-five aldermen of the wards and two sheriffs."

  As we do not find any further evidence than the oath of the Commune
  alluded to of the existence of "échevins" in London, it is possible
  that aldermen were elected on the mayor's council under this title.
  This, however, is not the opinion of Mr Round, who, as before stated,
  is inclined to believe that the body of échevins became in course of
  time the Court of Common Council. The aldermen are not mentioned as
  the colleagues of the mayor until the very end of the 13th century,
  except in the case of Fitz-Ailwin's Assize of 1189, and this, of
  course, related specially to the duties of aldermen as heads of the
  wards of the city.

  In March 1298-1299 letters were sent from "the Mayor and Commune of
  the City of London" to the municipalities of Bruges, Caen and Cambray.
  Although the official form of "The Mayor and Commune" was continued
  until the end of the 13th century, and it was not until early in the
  14th century that the form "Mayor, Aldermen and Common Council" came
  into existence, there is sufficient evidence to show that the aldermen
  and common council before that time were acting with the mayor as
  governors of the city. In 1377 it was ordered that aldermen could be
  elected annually, but in 1384 the rule was modified so as to allow an
  alderman to be re-elected for his ward at the expiration of his year
  of office without any interval.

  In 1394 the Ordinance respecting annual elections was repealed by the
  king (Richard II.). Distinct rank was accorded to aldermen, and in the
  _Liber Albus_ we are told that "it is a matter of experience that ever
  since the year of our Lord 1350, at the sepulture of aldermen, the
  ancient custom of interment with baronial honours was observed." When
  the poll-tax of 1379 was imposed the mayor was assessed as an earl and
  the aldermen as barons.


    Sheriffs.

  The government of the city by reeves dates back to a very early
  period, and these reeves were appointed by the king. The prefix of the
  various kinds of reeves made but little difference in the duties of
  the office, although the area of these duties might be different.
  There was slight difference between the office of sheriff and that of
  portreeve, which latter does not appear to have survived the Conquest.

  After the establishment of the Commune and the appointment of a mayor
  the sheriffs naturally lost much of their importance, and they became
  what they are styled in _Liber Albus_ "the Eyes of the Mayor." When
  Middlesex was in farm to London the two sheriffs were equally sheriffs
  of London and Middlesex. There is only one instance in the city
  records of a sheriff of Middlesex being mentioned as distinct from the
  sheriffs, and this was in 1283 when Anketin de Betteville and Walter
  le Blond are described as sheriffs of London, and Gerin as sheriff of
  Middlesex. By the Local Government Act of 1888 the citizens of London
  were deprived of all right of jurisdiction over the county of
  Middlesex, which had been expressly granted by various charters.

  In 1383 it was ordained and agreed "that no person shall from
  henceforth be mayor in the said city if he have not first been sheriff
  of the said city, to the end that he may be tried in governance and
  bounty before he attains such estate of the mayoralty."


    Common Council.

  The two courts--that of aldermen and that of the common council--were
  probably formed about the same time, but it is remarkable that we have
  no definite information on the subject. The number of members of the
  common council varied greatly at different times, but the right to
  determine the number was indirectly granted by the charter of Edward
  III. (1341) which enables the city to amend customs and usages which
  have become hard.

  There have also been many changes in the mode of election. The common
  council were chosen by the wards until 1351, when the appointments
  were made by certain companies. In 1376 an ordinance was made by the
  mayor and aldermen, with the assent of the whole commons, to the
  effect that the companies should select men with whom they were
  content, and none other should come to the elections of mayors and
  sheriffs; that the greater companies should not elect more than six,
  the lesser four and the least two. Forty-seven companies nominated 156
  members. In 1383 the right of election reverted to the wards, but was
  obtained again by the livery companies in 1467.


    Common Hall.

  The Common Hall was the successor of the folkmote, the meetings of
  which were originally held in the open air at the east end of St
  Paul's and afterwards in the Guildhall. These general assemblies of
  the citizens are described in the old city records as _immensa
  communitas_ or _immensa multitudo_ civium. The elections in Common
  Hall were by the whole body of citizens until Edward I.'s reign,
  citizens were then specially summoned to Common Hall by the mayor. In
  Edward IV.'s reign the elections of mayor, sheriffs and other officers
  and members of parliament were transferred to liverymen. Various
  alterations were subsequently made and now the qualification of
  electors at the election of the corporate offices of lord mayor,
  sheriffs, chamberlain and minor offices in Common Hall is that of
  being a liveryman of a livery company and an enrolled freeman of
  London. The election of aldermen and common councilmen takes place in
  the wardmotes.


    Officials of the city.

  The recorder, the chief official, is appointed for life. He was
  formerly appointed by the city, but since the Local Government Act of
  1888 he is nominated by the city and approved by the lord chancellor.
  The common sergeant was formerly appointed by the city, but since 1888
  by the lord chancellor. The town clerk is appointed by the city and
  re-elected annually.

  The chamberlain or comptroller of the king's chamber is appointed by
  the livery. He was originally a king's officer and the office was
  probably instituted soon after the Conquest. The remembrancer is
  appointed by the common council.

  The common hunt, an office abolished in 1807, was filled by John
  Courtenay in 1417. The sword-bearer is noticed in the _Liber Albus_
  (1419) and the first record of an appointment is dated 1426.


    Later history of the corporation.

  Few fundamental alterations have been made in the constitution of the
  city, but in the reign of Charles II. the most arbitrary proceedings
  were taken against its liberties. The king and his brother had long
  entertained designs against the city, and for the purpose of crushing
  them two pretexts were set up--(1) that a new rate of market tolls had
  been levied by virtue of an act of common council, and (2) that a
  petition to the king, in which it was alleged that by the prorogation
  of parliament public justice had been interrupted, had been printed by
  order of the Court of Common Council. Charles directed a writ _quo
  warranto_ against the corporation of London in 1683, and the Court of
  King's Bench declared its charter forfeited. Soon afterwards all the
  obnoxious aldermen were displaced and others appointed in their room
  by royal commission. When James II. found himself in danger from the
  landing of the Prince of Orange he sent for the lord mayor and
  aldermen and informed them of his determination to restore the city
  charter and privileges, but he had no time to do anything before his
  flight. The Convention which was summoned to meet on the 22nd of
  January 1689 was converted by a formal act into a true parliament
  (February 23). One of the first motions put to the House was that a
  special Committee should be appointed to consider the violations of
  the liberties and franchises of all the corporations of the kingdom
  "and particularly of the City of London." The motion was lost but the
  House resolved to bring in a bill for repealing the Corporation Act,
  and ten years later (March 5) the Grand Committee of Grievances
  reported to the House its opinion (1) that the rights of the City of
  London in the election of sheriffs in the year 1682 were invaded and
  that such invasion was illegal and a grievance, and (2) that the
  judgment given upon the _Quo Warranto_ against the city was illegal
  and a grievance. The committee's opinion on these two points (among
  others) was endorsed by the House and on the 16th of March it ordered
  a Bill to be brought in to restore all corporations to the state and
  condition they were in on the 29th of May 1660, and to confirm the
  liberties and franchises which at that time they respectively held and
  enjoyed.[15]

  When the Act for the reform of Municipal Corporations was passed in
  1835 London was specially excepted from its provisions. When the
  Metropolitan Board of Works was formed by the Metropolis Management
  Act of 1855 the city was affected to a certain extent, but by the
  Local Government Act of 1888 which founded the London County Council
  the right of appointing a sheriff for Middlesex was taken away from
  the city of London.

  When the county of Middlesex was dissociated from the city of London
  one portion was joined to the administrative county of London, and the
  other to the county of Middlesex.


    Privileges of the lord mayor.

  The lord mayor of London has certain very remarkable privileges which
  have been religiously guarded and must be of great antiquity. It is
  only necessary to mention these here, but each of the privileges
  requires an exhaustive examination as to its origin. They all prove
  the remarkable position of Old London, and mark it off from all other
  cities of modern Europe. Shortly stated the privileges are four:

  1. The closing of Temple Bar to the sovereign.

  2. The mayor's position in the city, where he is second only to the
  king.

  3. His summons to the Privy Council on the accession of a new
  sovereign.

  4. His position of butler at the coronation banquets.

  The last may be considered in abeyance as there has not been any
  coronation banquet since that of George IV. In the case of the
  coronation of King Edward VII. the claim was excluded from the
  consideration of the Court of Claims under the royal proclamation. The
  terms of the judgment on a further claim are as follows: "The Court
  considers and adjudges that the lord mayor has by usage a right,
  subject to His Majesty's pleasure, to attend the Abbey during the
  coronation and bear the crystal mace."

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The earliest description of London is that written by
  the monk Fitzstephen in 1174 as an introduction to his life of
  Archbishop Thomas à Becket. This was first printed by Stow in his
  Survey. It was reprinted by Strype in his editions of Stow; by Hearne
  in his edition of Leland's _Itinerary_ (vol. 8), by Samuel Pegge in
  1772, and elsewhere. The first history is contained in _A Survey of
  London_ by John Stow (1598, 1603). The author died in 1605, and his
  work was continued by Anthony Munday and others (1618, 1633) and in
  the next century by John Strype (1720, 1754-1755). Stow's original
  work was reprinted by W. J. Thoms in 1842 and a monumental edition has
  been published by C. L. Kingsford (Oxford, 1908).

  The following are the most important of subsequent histories arranged
  in order of publication; James Howell, _Londinopolis_ (1657); W. Stow,
  _Remarks on London and Westminster_ (1722); Robert Seymour (John
  Mottley), _Survey of the Cities of London and Westminster_ (1734,
  another edition 1753); William Maitland, _History of London_ (1739,
  other editions 1756, 1760, 1769, continued by John Entick 1775); John
  Entick, _A New and Accurate History of London, Westminster, Southwark_
  (1766); The City Remembrancer, _Narratives of the Plague 1665, Fire
  1666 and Great Storm 1703_ (1769); _A New and Compleat History and
  Survey_, by a Society of Gentlemen (1770, revised by H. Chamberlain,
  folio revised by W. Thornton 1784); J. Noorthouck, _A New History_
  (1773); Walter Harrison, _A New and Universal History_ (1775); J. P.
  Malcolm, _Londinium Redivivum or an Ancient History and Modern
  Description of London_ (1803); David Hughson (E. Pugh), _London_
  (1805-1809); B. Lambert, _History and Survey of London_ (1806); Henry
  Hunter, _History of London_ (1811); J. W. Abbott, _History of London_
  (1821); Thomas Allen, _History and Antiquities of London_ (1827-1829,
  continued by Thomas Wright 1839); William Smith, _A New History of
  London_ (1833); Charles Mackay, _A History of London_ (1838); _The
  History of London_, illustrated by W. G. Fearnside (1838); George
  Grant, _A Comprehensive History of London_ (Dublin, 1849); John Timbs,
  _Curiosities of London_ (1855, later editions 1855, 1868, 1875, 1876);
  _Old London Papers, Archaeological Institute_ (1867); W. J. Loftie, _A
  History of London_ (1883); W. J. Loftie, _Historic Towns_ (London,
  1887); Claude de la Roche Francis, _London, Historic and Social_
  (Philadelphia, 1902); Sir Walter Besant, _The Survey of London_
  (1902-1908)--_Early London, Prehistoric, Roman, Saxon and Norman_
  (1908); _Medieval London_, vol. 1, _Historical and Social_ (1906),
  vol. 2, _Ecclesiastical_ (1906); _London in the Time of the Tudors_
  (1904); _London in the Time of the Stuarts_ (1903); _London in the
  Eighteenth Century_ (1902); H. B. Wheatley, _The Story of London_
  [Medieval Towns] (London, 1904).

  The following are some of the Chronicles of London which have been
  printed, arranged in order of publication: R. Grafton, _Chronicle
  1189-1558_ (1809); R. Arnold, _London Chronicle_ (1811); _A Chronicle
  of London from 1089 to 1483 written in the Fifteenth Century_ (1827);
  _William Gregory's Chronicle of London, 1189-1469_ (1876); _Historical
  Collections of a Citizen of London_, edited by James Gairdner (Camden
  Society, 1876); _Chronicles of London [1200-1516]_, edited by C. L.
  Kingsford (Oxford, 1905).

  Many books have been published on the government of London, of which
  the following is a selection: _City Law_ (1647, 1658); _Lex
  Londinensis or the City Law_ (1680); W. Bohun, _Privilegia Londini_
  (1723); Giles Jacob, _City Liberties_ (1733); _Laws and Customs,
  Rights, Liberties and Privileges of the City of London_ (1765); David
  Hughson, _Epitome of the Privileges of London_ (1816); George Norton,
  _Commentaries on the History, Constitution and Chartered Franchises of
  the City of London_ (1829, 3rd ed. 1869); _Munimenta Gildhallae
  Londoniensis_, edited by H. T. Riley--vol. 1, _Liber Albus_ (1419),
  vol. 2, _Liber Custumarum_ (1859); _Liber Albus: the White Book of the
  City of London_, translated by H. T. Riley (1861); H. T. Riley,
  _Memorials of London and London Life in the 13th, 14th and 15th
  centuries_ (1868); _De Antiquis Legibus Liber. Curante Thoma
  Stapleton_ (Camden Society, 1846); _Chronicles of the Mayors and
  Sheriffs of London 1188-1274_, translated from the _Liber de Antiquis
  Legibus_ by H. T. Riley. _French Chronicle of London_ 1259-1343
  (1863); _Analytical Index to the Series of Records known as the
  Remembrancia 1579-1664_ (1888); _Calendar of Letter-Books_ [_circa
  1275-1399_] preserved among the Archives of the Corporation of London
  at the Guildhall, edited by Reginald R. Sharpe, D.C.L. (1899-1907); W.
  and R. Woodcock, _Lives of Lord Mayors_ (1846); J. F. B. Firth,
  _Municipal London_ (1876); Walter Delgray Birch, _Historical Charters
  and_ _Constitutional Documents of the City of London_ (1884, 1887);
  J. H. Round, _The Commune of London and other Studies_ (1899);
  Reginald R. Sharpe, _London and the Kingdom; a History derived mainly
  from the Archives at Guildhall_ (1894); G. L. Gomme, _The Governance
  of London. Studies on the Place occupied by London in English
  Institutions_ (1907); Alfred B. Beaven, _The Aldermen of the City of
  London temp. Henry III._ (1908).

  In connexion with the government of London may be noted works on the
  following: Inns of Court. William Herbert, _Antiquities of the Inns of
  Court and Chancery_ (1804); Robert P. Pearce, _History_ (1848).
  Artillery Company, Anthony Highmore, _History of the Hon. Artillery
  Co. of London to 1802_ (1804); G. A. Raikes, _History of the Hon.
  Artillery Co._ (1878). William Herbert published in 1837 _History of
  the Twelve great Livery Companies of London_, and in 1869 Thomas
  Arundell published _Historical Reminiscences of the City and its
  Livery Companies_. Since then have appeared _The Livery Companies of
  the City of London_, by W. Carew Hazlitt (1892); _The City Companies
  of London_, by P. H. Ditchfield (1904); _The Gilds and Companies of
  London_, by George Unwin (1908). Separate histories have been
  published of the chief London companies.

  The following are some of the chief works connected with the
  topography of London: Thomas Pennant, _Of London_ (1790, 1793, 1805,
  1813, translated into German 1791); John T. Smith, _Antient Topography
  of London_ (1815); David Hughson [E. Pugh], _Walks through London_
  (1817); _London_ (edited by Charles Knight 1841-1844, reprinted 1851,
  revised by E. Walford 1875-1877); J. H. Jesse, _Literary and
  Historical Memorials of London_ (1847); Leigh Hunt, _The Town, its
  Memorable Character and Events_ (1848, new ed. 1859); Peter
  Cunningham, _A Handbook of London past and present_ (1849, 2nd ed.
  1850, enlarged into a new work in 1891); Henry B. Wheatley, _London
  past and present; Vestiges of Old London, etchings_ by J. W. Archer
  (1851); _A New Survey of London_ (1853); G. W. Thornbury, _Haunted
  London_ (1865, new ed. by E. Walford 1880); _Old and New London_,
  vols. i.-ii. by G. W. Thornbury, vols. iii.-vi. by Edward Walford
  (1873-1878); Walter Besant, _London, Westminster, South London, East
  London_ (1891-1902); _East London Antiquities_, edited by Walter A.
  Locks (_East London Advertiser_, 1902); Philip Norman, _London
  vanished and vanishing_ (1905); _Records of the London Topographical
  Society; Monographs of the Committee for the Survey of the Memorials
  of Greater London._

  The following books on the population of London have been published:
  John Graunt, _Natural and Political Observations on the Bills of
  Mortality_ (1661, other editions 1662, 1665, 1676); _Essay in
  Political Arithmetick_ (1683); _Five Essays on Political Arithmetick_
  (1687); _Several Essays in Political Arithmetick_ (1699, 1711, 1751,
  1755); _Essay concerning the Multiplication of Mankind_ (1682, 1683,
  1686), all by Sir William Petty; Corbyn Morris, _Observations on the
  past Growth and present State of the City of London_ (1751);
  _Collection of the Yearly Bills of Mortality from 1657 to 1758_ (ed.
  by T. Birch, D.D. 1759); Graunt's _Observations_, Petty's _Another
  Essay_ and C. Morris's _Observations_ are reprinted in this
  collection. Graunt and Petty's _Essays_ are reprinted in _Economic
  Writings_ of Sir W. Petty (1899).     (H. B. W.*)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] See map in _London Statistics_ (vol. xix., 1909), an annual
    publication of the London County Council, which besides these
    divisions shows "Water London," the London main drainage area, and
    the Central Criminal Court district.

  [2] Charing Cross station was the scene of a remarkable catastrophe
    on the 5th of December 1905, when a large part of the roof collapsed,
    and the falling débris did very serious damage to the Avenue theatre,
    which stands close to the station at a lower level.

  [3] The report appeared in eight volumes, the first of which,
    containing the general conclusions to which allusion is here made,
    bore the number, as a blue-book. Cd. 2597.

  [4] Over 200 local acts were repealed by schemes made under the act
    of 1899.

  [5] A valuable article on "The Conqueror's Footprints in Domesday"
    was published in the _English Historical Review_ in 1898 (vol. xiii.
    p. 17). This article contains an account of Duke William's movements
    after the battle of Senlac between Enfield, Edmonton, Tottenham and
    Berkhampstead.

  [6] "A map of London engraved on copper-plate, dated 1497," which was
    bought by Ferdinand Columbus during his travels in Europe about
    1518-1525, is entered in the catalogue of Ferdinand's books, maps,
    &c., made by himself and preserved in the Cathedral Library at
    Seville, but there is no clue to its existence.

  [7] One is in the Guildhall Library, and the other among the Pepysian
    maps in Magdalene College, Cambridge.

  [8] This map of London by Norden is dated 1593, as stated above. The
    same topographer published in his _Middlesex_ a map of Westminster as
    well as this one of the City of London.

  [9] Various changes in the names of the taverns are made in the folio
    edition of this play (1616) from the quarto (1601); thus the Mermaid
    of the quarto becomes the Windmill in the folio, and the Mitre of the
    quarto is the Star of the folio.

  [10] _The Great Revolt of 1381_ (Oxford, 1906), p. 27.

  [11] In a valuable paper on "The Population of Old London" in
    _Blackwood's Magazine_ for April 1891.

  [12] The old Bills of Mortality, although of value from being the
    only authority on the subject, were never complete owing to various
    causes: one being that large numbers of Roman Catholics and
    Dissenters were not registered in the returns of the parish clerk who
    was a church officer. The bills were killed by the action of the
    Registration Act for England and Wales, which came into operation
    July 1, 1837. The weekly Returns of the Registrar-General began in
    1840.

  [13] "The invention of 'bills of mortality' is not so modern as has
    been generally supposed, for their proper designation may be found in
    the language of ancient Rome. Libitina was the goddess of funerals;
    her officers were the Libitinarii _our_ undertakers; her temple in
    which all business connected with the last rites was transacted, in
    which the account of deaths--_ratio Libitinae_--was kept, served the
    purpose of a register office."--_Journal Statistical Society_, xvii.
    117 (1854).

  [14] The return was made "by special command from the Right
    Honourable the Lords of His Majesty's Privy Council." The Privy
    Council were at this time apprehensive of an approaching scarcity of
    food. The numbers (130,268) were made up as follows: London Within
    the Walls 71,029, London Without the Walls 40,579, Old Borough of
    Southwark (Bridge Without) 18,660.

  [15] R. R. Sharpe, _London and the Kingdom_ (1894), i. 541.




LONDON CLAY, in geology, the most important member of the Lower Eocene
strata in the south of England. It is well developed in the London
basin, though not frequently exposed, partly because it is to a great
extent covered by more recent gravels and partly because it is not often
worked on a large scale. It is a stiff, tenacious, bluish clay that
becomes brown on weathering, occasionally it becomes distinctly sandy,
sometimes glauconitic, especially towards the top; large calcareous
septarian concretions are common, and have been used in the manufacture
of cement, being dug for this purpose at Sheppey, near Southend, and at
Harwich, and dredged off the Hampshire coast. Nodular lumps of pyrites
and crystals of selenite are of frequent occurrence. The clay has been
employed for making bricks, tiles and coarse pottery, but it is usually
too tenacious for this purpose except in well-weathered or sandy
portions. The base of the clay is very regularly indicated by a few
inches of rounded flint pebbles with green and yellowish sand, parts of
this layer being frequently cemented by carbonate of lime. The average
thickness of the London Clay in the London basin is about 450 ft.; at
Windsor it is 400 ft. thick; beneath London it is rather thicker, while
in the south of Essex it is over 480 ft. In Wiltshire it only reaches a
few feet in thickness, while in Berkshire it is some 50 or 60 ft. It is
found in the Isle of Wight, where it is 300 ft. thick at Whitecliff
Bay--here the beds are vertical and even slightly reversed--and in Alum
Bay it is 220 ft. thick. In Hampshire it is sometimes known as the
Bognor Beds, and certain layers of calcareous sandstone within the clays
are called Barnes or Bognor Rock. In the eastern part of the London
basin in east Kent the pebbly basement bed becomes a thick deposit (60
ft.), forming part of the Oldhaven and Blackheath Beds.

  The London Clay is a marine deposit, and its fossils indicate a
  moderately warm climate, the flora having a tropical aspect. Among the
  fossils may be mentioned _Panopoea intermedia_, _Ditrupa plana_,
  _Teredina personata_, _Conus concinnus_, _Rostellaria ampla_,
  _Nautilus centralis_, _Belosepia_, foraminifera and diatoms. Fish
  remains include _Otodus obliquus_, _Sphyroenodus crassidens_; birds
  are represented by _Halcyornis Toliapicus_, _Lithornis_ and
  _Odontopteryx_, and reptiles by _Chelone gigas_, and other turtles,
  _Palaeophis_, a serpent and crocodiles. _Hyracotherium leporinum_,
  _Palaeotherium_ and a few other mammals are recorded. Plant remains in
  a pyritized condition are found in great abundance and perfection on
  the shore of Sheppey; numerous species of palms, screw pines, water
  lilies, cypresses, yews, leguminous plants and many others occur; logs
  of coniferous wood bored through by annelids and _Teredo_ are common,
  and fossil resin has been found at Highgate.

  See EOCENE; also W. Whitaker, "The Geology of London and part of the
  Thames Valley," _Mem. Geol. Survey_ (1889), and _Sheet Memoirs of the
  Geol. Survey_, London, Nos. 314, 315, 268, 329, 332, and _Memoirs on
  the Geology of the Isle of Wight_ (1889).




LONDONDERRY, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The 1st earl of Londonderry was
Thomas Ridgeway (c. 1565-1631), a Devon man, who was treasurer in
Ireland from 1606 to 1616 and was engaged in the plantation of Ulster.
Ridgeway was made a baronet in 1611, Baron Ridgeway in 1616 and earl of
Londonderry in 1623. The Ridgeways held the earldom until March 1714,
when Robert, the 4th earl, died without sons. In 1726 Robert's
son-in-law, Thomas Pitt (c. 1688-1729), son of Thomas Pitt, "Diamond
Pitt," governor at Madras and uncle of the great earl of Chatham, was
created earl of Londonderry, the earldom again becoming extinct when his
younger son Ridgeway, the 3rd earl of this line, died unmarried in
January 1765. In 1796 Robert Stewart (1739-1821), of Mount Stewart, Co.
Down, was made earl of Londonderry in the Irish peerage. He had been
created Baron Londonderry in 1789 and Viscount Castlereagh in 1795; in
1816 he was advanced to the rank of marquess of Londonderry. The 3rd
marquess married the heiress of the Vane-Tempests and took the name of
Vane instead of Stewart; the 5th marquess called himself Vane-Tempest
and the 6th marquess Vane-Tempest-Stewart.




LONDONDERRY, CHARLES WILLIAM STEWART (VANE), 3RD MARQUESS OF
(1778-1854), British soldier and diplomatist, was the son of the 1st
marquess by a second marriage with the daughter of the 1st Earl Camden.
He entered the army and served in the Netherlands (1794), on the Rhine
and Danube (1795), in the Irish rebellion (1798), and Holland (1799),
rising to be colonel; and having been elected to parliament for Kerry he
became under secretary for war under his half-brother Castlereagh in
1807. In 1808 he was given a cavalry command in the Peninsula, where he
brilliantly distinguished himself. In 1809, and again in the campaigns
of 1810, 1811, having become a major-general, he served under Wellington
in the Peninsula as his adjutant-general, and was at the capture of
Ciudad Rodrigo, but at the beginning of 1812 he was invalided home.
Castlereagh (see LONDONDERRY, 2nd Marquess of) then sent him to Berlin
as minister, to represent Great Britain in the allied British, Russian
and Prussian armies; and as a cavalry leader he played an important part
in the subsequent fighting, while ably seconding Castlereagh's
diplomacy. In 1814 he was made a peer as Baron Stewart, and later in the
year was appointed ambassador at Vienna, and was a member of the
important congresses which followed. In 1822 his half-brother's death
made him 3rd marquess of Londonderry, and shortly afterwards,
disagreeing with Canning, he resigned, being created Earl Vane (1823),
and for some years lived quietly in England, improving his Seaham
estates. In 1835 he was for a short time ambassador at St Petersburg. In
1852, after the death of Wellington, when he was one of the
pall-bearers, he received the order of the Garter. He died on the 6th of
March 1854. He was twice married, first in 1808 to the daughter of the
earl of Darnley, and secondly in 1819 to the heiress of Sir Harry
Vane-Tempest (a descendant of Sir Piers Tempest, who served at
Agincourt, and heir to Sir Henry Vane, Bart.), when he assumed the name
of Vane. Frederick William Robert (1805-1872), his son by the first
marriage, became 4th marquess; and on the latter's death in 1872, George
Henry (1821-1884), the eldest son by the second marriage, after
succeeding as Earl Vane (according to the patent of 1823), became 5th
marquess. In 1884 he was succeeded as 6th marquess by his son Charles
Stewart Vane-Tempest-Stewart (b. 1852), a prominent Conservative
politician, who was viceroy of Ireland (1886-1889), chairman of the
London School Board (1895-1897), postmaster-general (1900-1902),
president of the Board of Education (1902-1905) and lord president of
the Council (1903-1905).




LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART, 2ND MARQUESS OF (1769-1822), British
statesman, was the eldest son of Robert Stewart of Ballylawn Castle, in
Donegal, and Mount Stewart in Down, an Ulster landowner, of kin to the
Galloway Stewarts, who became baron, viscount, earl and marquess in the
peerage of Ireland. The son, known in history as Lord Castlereagh, was
born on the 18th of June in the same year as Napoleon and Wellington.
His mother was Lady Sarah Seymour, daughter of the earl of Hertford. He
went from Armagh school to St John's College, Cambridge, but left at the
end of his first year. With Lord Downshire, then holding sway over the
County Down, Lord Stewart had a standing feud, and he put forward his
son, in July 1790, for one of the seats. Young Stewart was returned, but
at a vast cost to his family, when he was barely twenty-one. He took his
seat in the Irish House of Commons at the same time as his friend,
Arthur Wellesley, M.P. for Trim, but sat later for two close boroughs in
England, still remaining member for Down at College Green.

From 1796, when his father became an earl, he took the courtesy title of
Viscount Castlereagh, and becoming keeper of the privy seal in Ireland,
he acted as chief secretary, during the prolonged absence of Mr Pelham,
from February 1797. Castlereagh's conviction was that, in presence of
threatened invasion and rebellion, Ireland could only be made safe by
union with Great Britain. In Lord Camden, as afterwards in Lord
Cornwallis, Castlereagh found a congenial chief; though his favour with
these statesmen was jealously viewed both by the Irish oligarchy and by
the English politicians who wished to keep the machine of Irish
administration in their own hands. Pitt himself was doubtful of the
expediency of making an Irishman chief secretary, but his view was
changed by the influence of Cornwallis. In suppressing Lord Edward
Fitzgerald's conspiracy, and the rebellion which followed in 1798,
Castlereagh's vigilance and firmness were invaluable. His administration
was denounced by a faction as harsh and cruel--a charge afterwards
repudiated by Grattan and Plunket--but he was always on the side of
lenity. The disloyal in Ireland, both Jacobins and priest-led, the
Protestant zealots and others who feared the consequence of the Union,
coalesced against him in Dublin. Even there Castlereagh, though defeated
in a first campaign (1799), impressed Pitt with his ability and tact,
with Cornwallis he joined in holding out, during the second Union
campaign (1800), the prospect of emancipation to the Roman Catholics.
They were aided by free expenditure of money and promises of honours,
methods too familiar in Irish politics. When the Act of Union was
carried through the Irish parliament, in the summer of 1800,
Castlereagh's official connexion with his native land practically ended.
Before the Imperial Parliament met he urged upon Pitt the measures which
he and Cornwallis thought requisite to make the Union effective. In
spite of his services and of Pitt's support, disillusion awaited him.
The king's reluctance to yield to the Roman Catholic claims was
underestimated by Pitt, while Cornwallis imprudently permitted himself
to use language which, though not amounting to a pledge, was construed
as one. George III. resented the arguments brought forward by
Castlereagh--"this young man" who had come over to talk him out of his
coronation oath. He peremptorily refused to sanction emancipation, and
Pitt and his cabinet made way for the Addington administration.
Thereupon Castlereagh resigned, with Cornwallis. He took his seat at
Westminster for Down, the constituency he had represented for ten years
in Dublin. The leadership of an Irish party was offered to him, but he
declined so to limit his political activity. His father accepted, at
Portland's request, an Irish marquessate, on the understanding that in
the future he or his heirs might claim the same rank in the Imperial
Legislature; so that Castlereagh was able to sit in the House of Commons
as Marquess in 1821-1822. Wilberforce discussed with Pitt the
possibility of sending out Castlereagh to India as governor-general,
when the friction between Lord Wellesley and the directors became grave;
but Pitt objected, as the plan would remove Castlereagh from the House
of Commons, which should be "the theatre of his future fame."

In 1802, Castlereagh, at Pitt's suggestion, became president of the
Board of Control in the Addington cabinet. He had, though not in office,
taken charge of Irish measures under Addington, including the repression
of the Rebellion Bill, and the temporary suspension of the Habeas Corpus
in 1801, and continued to advocate Catholic relief, tithe reform, state
payment of Catholic and dissenting clergy and "the steady application of
authority in support of the laws." To Lord Wellesley's Indian policy he
gave a staunch support, warmly recognized by the governor-general. On
Pitt's return to office (May 1804), Castlereagh retained his post, and,
next year, took over also the duties of secretary for war and the
colonies. Socially and politically, the gifts of his wife, Lady Emily
Hobart, daughter of a former Irish viceroy, whom he had married in 1794,
assisted him to make his house a meeting-place of the party; and his
influence in parliament grew notwithstanding his defects of style,
spoken and written. As a manager of men he had no equal. After Pitt's
death his surviving colleagues failed to form a cabinet strong enough to
face the formidable combination known as "All the Talents," and
Castlereagh acquiesced in the resignation. But to the foreign policy of
the Fox-Greville ministry and its conduct of the war he was always
opposed. His objections to the Whig doctrine of withdrawal from
"Continental entanglements" and to the reduction of military expenditure
were justified when Fox himself was compelled "to nail his country's
colours to the mast."

The cabinet of "All the Talents," weakened by the death of Fox and the
renewed quarrel with the king, went out in April 1807. Castlereagh
returned to the War Office under Portland, but grave difficulties arose,
though Canning at the Foreign Office was then thoroughly at one with him.
A priceless opportunity had been missed after Eylau. The Whigs had
crippled the transport service, and the operations to avert the ruin of
the coalition at Friedland came too late. The Tsar Alexander believed
that England would no longer concern herself with the Continental
struggle, and Friedland was followed by Tilsit. The secret articles of
that compact, denied at the time by the Opposition and by French
apologists, have now been revealed from official records in M. Vandal's
work, _Napoléon et Alexandre_. Castlereagh and Canning saw the vital
importance of nullifying the aim of this project. The seizure of the
Danish squadron at Copenhagen, and the measures taken to rescue the
fleets of Portugal and Sweden from Napoleon, crushed a combination as
menacing as that defeated at Trafalgar. The expedition to Portugal,
though Castlereagh's influence was able only to secure Arthur Wellesley a
secondary part at first, soon dwarfed other issues. In the debates on the
Convention of Cintra, Castlereagh defended Wellesley against
parliamentary attacks: "A brother," the latter wrote, "could not have
done more." The depression produced by Moore's campaign in northern
Spain, and the king's repugnance to the Peninsular operations, seemed to
cut short Wellesley's career; but early in 1809, Castlereagh, with no
little difficulty, secured his friend's appointment as commander-in-chief
of the second Portuguese expedition. The merit has been claimed for
Canning by Stapleton, but the evidence is all the other way.

Meanwhile, Castlereagh's policy led to a crisis that clouded his own
fortunes. The breach between him and Canning was not due to his
incompetence in the conduct of the Walcheren expedition, In fact,
Castlereagh's ejection was decided by Canning's intrigues, though
concealed from the victim, months before the armament was sent out to
the Scheldt. In the selection of the earl of Chatham as commander the
king's personal preference was known, but there is evidence also that it
was one of Canning's schemes, as he reckoned, if Chatham succeeded, on
turning him into a convenient ministerial figurehead. Canning was not
openly opposed to the Walcheren expedition, and on the Peninsular
question he mainly differed from Castlereagh and Wellington in fixing
his hopes on national enthusiasm and popular uprisings. Military opinion
is generally agreed that the plan of striking from Walcheren at Antwerp,
the French naval base, was sound. Napoleon heard the news with dismay;
in principle Wellington approved the plan. Castlereagh's proposal was
for a _coup de main_, under strict conditions of celerity and secrecy,
as Antwerp was unable to make any adequate defence. But Chatham, the
naval authorities and the cabinet proceeded with a deliberation
explained by the fact that the war secretary had been condemned in
secret. The expedition, planned at the end of March, did not reach
Walcheren till the end of July 1809; and more time was lost in movements
against Batz and Flushing, protracted until an unhealthy autumn
prostrated the army, which was withdrawn, discredited and disabled, in
September. Public opinion threw the whole blame upon Castlereagh, who
then found that, in deference to Canning, his colleagues had decreed his
removal half a year earlier, though they kept silence till the troops
were brought back from Walcheren. When Castlereagh learned from Percival
that the slur cast on him had its origin in a secret attack on him many
months before, he was cruelly hurt. The main charge against him was, he
says, that he would not throw over officers on whom unpopularity fell,
at the first shadow of ill-fortune. His refusal to rush into censure of
Moore, following Canning's sudden change from eulogy to denunciation,
requires no defence. According to the ideas then prevailing Castlereagh
held himself justified in sending a challenge to the original author, as
he held, of a disloyal intrigue against a colleague. In the subsequent
duel Canning was wounded and the rivals simultaneously resigned. In
private letters to his father and brother, Castlereagh urged that he was
bound to show that he "was not privy to his own disgrace." When Canning
published a lengthy explanation of his conduct, many who had sided with
him were convinced that Castlereagh had been much wronged. The excuse
that the protest upon which the cabinet decided against Castlereagh did
not mention the minister's name was regarded as a quibble. Men widely
differing in character and opinions--Walter Scott, Sidney Smith,
Brougham and Cobbett--took this view. Castlereagh loyally supported the
government in parliament, after Lord Wellesley's appointment to the
Foreign Office. Though Wellington's retreat after Talavera had been
included, with the disasters of the Corunna and Walcheren campaigns, in
the censures on Castlereagh, and though ministers were often depressed
and doubtful, Castlereagh never lost faith in Wellington's genius. Lord
Wellesley's resignation in 1812, when the Whigs failed to come to terms
with the regent, led to Castlereagh's return to office as foreign
secretary (March 1812). The assassination of Percival soon threw upon
him the leadership of the House of Commons, and this double burden he
continued to bear during the rest of his life.

From March 1812 to July 1822 Castlereagh's biography is, in truth, the
history of England. Though never technically prime minister, during
these years he wielded a power such as few ministers have exercised.
Political opponents and personal ill-wishers admitted that he was the
ablest leader who ever controlled the House of Commons for so long a
period. As a diplomatist, nobody save Marlborough had the same influence
over men or was given equal freedom by his colleagues at home.
Foreigners saw in him the living presence of England in the camp of the
Allies. At the War Office he had been hampered by the lack of technical
knowledge, while nature had not granted him, as an organizer, the powers
of a Carnot or Roon. But in diplomacy his peculiar combination of
strength and charm, of patience and conciliatory adroitness, was
acknowledged by all. At the Foreign Office he set himself at once to
meet Napoleon's designs in northern Europe, where Russia was preparing
for her life-and-death struggle. Lord Wellesley paid a high tribute to
Castlereagh's conduct in this situation, and Wellington declared that he
had then "rendered to the world the most important service that ever
fell to the lot of any individual to perform." Castlereagh wisely
rejected Napoleon's insincere overtures for peace. After the Moscow
_débâcle_ Napoleon's fate was affected not only by Wellington's progress
in Spain, but by the attitude of the northern powers and by the action
of Turkey, due to Castlereagh's opportune disclosure to the Porte of the
scheme of partition at Tilsit. At home, the repeal of the Orders in
Council was carried, the damage to British trade plainly outweighing the
injury inflicted on France by the restrictive system. The British
subsidies to the Allies were largely increased as the operations of 1813
developed, but all Castlereagh's skill was needed to keep the Coalition
together. The Allied powers were willing, even after Leipzig, to treat
with France on the basis of restoring her "natural frontiers"--the
Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenees; but Castlereagh protested. He would
not allow the enemy to take ground for another tiger-spring. Before the
Conference of Châtillon, where Napoleon sent Caulaincourt to negotiate
for peace--with the message scribbled on the margin of his instructions,
"Ne signez rien"--Aberdeen wrote to hasten Castlereagh's coming:
"Everything which has been so long smothered is now bursting forth"; and
again, "Your presence has done much and would, I have no doubt, continue
to sustain them (the Allies) in misfortune." The Liverpool cabinet then
and later were as urgent in pressing him to return to lead the House of
Commons. He had lost his seat for Down in 1805, and afterwards sat for
British boroughs; but in 1812 he was re-elected by his old constituents;
and again in 1818 and 1820, sitting, after he became marquess of
Londonderry in 1821, for Orford. Early in 1814 his colleagues
reluctantly consented to his visit to the allied headquarters. The Great
Alliance showed signs of weakness and division. Austria was holding
back; Prussia had almost broken away; above all, the ambiguous conduct
of Alexander bred alarm and doubt. This situation became increasingly
serious while Napoleon was giving daily proofs that his military genius,
confronting a hesitant and divided enemy, was at its best. Castlereagh
strove to keep the Allies together, to give no excuse for those separate
arrangements upon which Napoleon was reckoning, to assert no selfish
policy for England, to be tied by no theoretical consistency. At the
Châtillon conferences England was represented by others, but Castlereagh
was present with supreme authority over all, and it was he who
determined the result. He declined to commit his country either to a
blank refusal to negotiate with Napoleon or to the advocacy of a Bourbon
restoration. He was ready to give up almost the whole of England's
conquests, but he insisted on the return of France within her ancient
limits as the basis of a settlement. Caulaincourt's advice was to take
advantage of these overtures; but his master was not to be advised. The
counter-projects that he urged Caulaincourt to submit to were advanced
after his victory at Montereau, when he boasted that he was nearer to
Munich than the Allies were to Paris. Even before the Châtillon
conference was dissolved (March 18th), Castlereagh saw that
Caulaincourt's efforts would never bend Napoleon's will. The Allies
adopted his view and signed the treaty of Chaumont (March 1st), "my
treaty," as Castlereagh called it, with an unusual touch of personal
pride; adding "Upon the face of the treaty this year our engagement is
equivalent to theirs united." The power of England when she threw her
purse into the scale had been just exhibited at Bar-sur-Aube, when at a
council of all the representatives of the powers the retreat of the
allied armies was discussed. Bernadotte, playing a waiting game in
Holland, was unwilling to reinforce Blücher, then in a dangerous
position, by the Russian and Prussian divisions of Winzingerode and
Bülow, temporarily placed under his orders. Having asked for and
received the assurance that the military leaders were agreed in holding
the transfer necessary, Castlereagh declared that he took upon himself
the responsibility of bringing the Swedish prince to reason. The
withholding of the British subsidies was a vital matter, not only with
Bernadotte but with all the powers. Castlereagh's avowed intention to
take this step without waiting for sanction from his cabinet put an end
to evasion and delay. Blücher was reinforced by the two divisions; the
battle of Laon was fought and won, and the allies occupied the French
capital. In April 1814 Castlereagh arrived in Paris. He did not disguise
his discontent with Napoleon's position at Elba, close to the French
coast, though he advised England not to separate herself at this crisis
from her allies. His uneasiness led him to summon Wellington from the
south to the Embassy in Paris. He hastened himself to London during the
visit of the allied sovereigns, and met with a splendid reception. He
was honoured with the Garter, being one of the few commoners ever
admitted to that order. When the House of Commons offered to the Crown
its congratulations upon the treaty of peace, Castlereagh's triumph was
signalized by a brilliantly eloquent panegyric from Canning, and by a
recantation of his former doubts and denunciations from Whitbread. His
own dignified language vindicated his country from the charge of selfish
ambition.

His appointment as British representative at Vienna, where the congress
was to meet in September, was foreseen; but meanwhile he was not idle.
The war with the United States, originating in the non-intercourse
dispute and the Orders in Council, did not cease with the repeal of the
latter. It lasted through 1814 till the signing of the treaty of Ghent,
soon before the flight from Elba. In parliament the ministry, during
Castlereagh's absence, had been poorly championed. Canning had thrown
away his chance by his unwise refusal of the Foreign Office. None of the
ministers had any pretension to lead when Castlereagh was busy abroad
and Canning was sulking at home, and Castlereagh's letters to
Vansittart, the chancellor of the exchequer, show how these difficulties
weighed upon him in facing the position at Vienna, where it was
imperative for him to appear. At Vienna he realized at once that the
ambition of Russia might be as formidable to Europe and to Great Britain
as that of the fallen tyrant. His aim throughout had been to rescue
Europe from military domination; and when he found that Russia and
Prussia were pursuing ends incompatible with the general interest, he
did not hesitate to take a new line. He brought about the secret treaty
(Jan. 3, 1815) between Great Britain, Austria and France, directed
against the plans of Russia in Poland and of Prussia in Saxony. Through
Castlereagh's efforts, the Polish and Saxon questions were settled on
the basis of compromise. The threat of Russian interference in the Low
Countries was dropped.

While the Congress was still unfinished, Napoleon's escape from Elba
came like a thunderclap. Castlereagh had come home for a short visit
(Feb. 1815), at the urgent request of the cabinet, just before the
flight was known. The shock revived the Great Alliance under the compact
of Chaumont. All energies were directed to preparing for the campaign of
Waterloo. Castlereagh's words in parliament were, "Whatever measures you
adopt or decision you arrive at must rest on your own power and not on
reliance on this man." Napoleon promptly published the secret treaty
which Castlereagh had concluded with Metternich and Talleyrand, and the
last left in the French archives. But Russia and Prussia, though much
displeased, saw that, in the face of Bonaparte's return, they dared not
weaken the Alliance. British subsidies were again poured out like water.
After Napoleon's overthrow, Castlereagh successfully urged his removal
to St Helena, where his custodians were charged to treat him "with all
the respect due to his rank, but under such precautions as should render
his escape a matter of impossibility." Some of the continental powers
demanded, after Waterloo, fines and cessions that would have crushed
France; but in November a peace was finally concluded, mainly by
Castlereagh's endeavours, minimising the penalties exacted, and
abandoning on England's part the whole of her share of the indemnity.
The war created an economic situation at home which strengthened the
Whigs and Radicals, previously discredited by their hostility to a
patriotic struggle. In 1816 the Income Tax was remitted, despite
Castlereagh's contention that something should first be done to reduce
the Debt Charge. His policy, impressed upon British representatives
abroad, was "to turn the confidence Great Britain inspired to the
account of peace, by exercising a conciliatory influence in Europe."
Brougham's action, at the end of 1815, denouncing the Holy Alliance,
even in its early form, was calculated to embarrass England, though she
was no party to what Castlereagh described as a "piece of sublime
mysticism and nonsense."

While he saw no reason in this for breaking up the Grand Alliance, which
he looked upon as a convenient organ of diplomatic intercourse and as
essential for the maintenance of peace, he regarded with alarm "the
little spirit of German intrigue," and agreed with Wellington that to
attempt to crush France, as the Prussians desired, or to keep her in a
perpetual condition of tutelage under a European concert from which she
herself should be excluded, would be to invite the very disaster which
it was the object of the Alliance to avoid. It was not till Metternich's
idea of extending the scope of the Alliance, by using it to crush "the
revolution" wherever it should raise its head, began to take shape, from
the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) onward, that Great Britain's
separation from her continental allies became inevitable. Against this
policy of the reactionary powers Castlereagh from the first vigorously
protested. As little was he prepared to accept the visionary schemes of
the emperor Alexander for founding an effective "confederation of
Europe" upon the inclusive basis of the Holy Alliance (see ALEXANDER I.
of Russia).

Meanwhile financial troubles at home, complicated by the resumption of
cash payments in 1819, led to acute social tension. "Peterloo" and the
"Six Acts" were furiously denounced, though the bills introduced by
Sidmouth and Castlereagh were carried in both Houses by overwhelming
majorities. The danger that justified them was proved beyond contest by
the Cato Street Conspiracy in 1820. It is now admitted by Liberal
writers that the "Six Acts," in the circumstances, were reasonable and
necessary. Throughout, Castlereagh maintained his tranquil ascendancy in
the House of Commons, though he had few colleagues who were capable of
standing up against Brougham. Canning, indeed, had returned to office
and had defended the "Six Acts," but Castlereagh bore the whole burden
of parliamentary leadership, as well as the enormous responsibilities of
the Foreign Office. His appetite for work caused him to engage in
debates and enquiries on financial and legal questions when he might
have delegated the task to others. Althorp was struck with his
unsleeping energy on the Agricultural Distress Committee; "His
exertions, coupled with his other duties--and unfortunately he was
always obstinate in refusing assistance--strained his constitution
fearfully, as was shown by his careworn brow and increasing paleness."
In 1821, on Sidmouth's retirement, he took upon himself the laborious
functions of the Home Office. The diplomatic situation had become
serious. The policy of "intervention," with which Great Britain had
consistently refused to identify herself, had been proclaimed to the
world by the famous Troppau Protocol, signed by Russia, Austria and
Prussia (see TROPPAU, CONGRESS OF). The immediate occasion was the
revolution at Naples, where the egregious Spanish constitution of 1812
had been forced on the king by a military rising. With military revolts,
as with paper constitutions of an unworkable type, Castlereagh had no
sympathy; and in this particular case the revolution, in his opinion,
was wholly without excuse or palliation. He was prepared to allow the
intervention of Austria, if she considered her rights under the treaty
of 1813 violated, or her position as an Italian Power imperilled. But he
protested against the general claim, embodied in the Protocol, of the
European powers to interfere, uninvited, in the internal concerns of
sovereign states; he refused to make Great Britain, even tacitly, a
party to such interference, and again insisted that her part in the
Alliance was defined by the letter of the treaties, beyond which she was
not prepared to go. In no case, he affirmed, would Great Britain
"undertake the moral responsibility for administering a general European
police," which she would never tolerate as applied to herself.

To Troppau, accordingly, no British plenipotentiary was sent, since the
outcome of the conferences was a foregone conclusion; though Lord
Stewart came from Vienna to watch the course of events. At Laibach an
attempt to revive the Troppau proposals was defeated by the firm
opposition of Stewart; but a renewal of the struggle at Verona in the
autumn of 1822 was certain. Castlereagh, now marquess of Londonderry,
was again to be the British representative, and he drew up for himself
instructions that were handed over unaltered by Canning, his successor
at the Foreign Office, to the new plenipotentiary, Wellington. In the
threatened intervention of the continental powers in Spain, as in their
earlier action towards Naples and Sardinia, England refused to take
part. The Spanish revolutionary movement, Castlereagh wrote, "was a
matter with which, in the opinion of the English cabinet, no foreign
power had the smallest right to interfere." Before, however, the
question of intervention in Spain had reached its most critical stage
the development of the Greek insurrection against the Ottoman government
brought up the Eastern Question in an acute form, which profoundly
modified the relations of the powers within the Alliance, and again drew
Metternich and Castlereagh together in common dread of an isolated
attack by Russia upon Turkey. A visit of King George IV. to Hanover, in
October 1821, was made the occasion of a meeting between Lord
Londonderry and the Austrian chancellor. A meeting so liable to
misinterpretation was in Castlereagh's opinion justified by the urgency
of the crisis in the East, "a practical consideration of the greatest
moment," which had nothing in common with the objectionable
"theoretical" question with which the British government had refused to
concern itself. Yet Castlereagh, on this occasion, showed that he could
use the theories of others for his own practical ends; and he joined
cordially with Metternich in taking advantage of the emperor Alexander's
devotion to the principles of the Alliance to prevent his taking an
independent line in the Eastern Question. It was, indeed, the belief
that this question would be made the matter of common discussion at the
congress that led Castlereagh to agree to be present at Verona; and in
his _Instructions_ he foreshadowed the policy afterwards carried out by
Canning, pointing out that the development of the war had made the
recognition of the belligerent rights of the Greeks inevitable, and
quoting the precedent of the Spanish American colonies as exactly
applicable. With regard to the Spanish colonies, moreover, though he was
not as yet prepared to recognize their independence _de jure_, he was
strongly of opinion that the Spanish government should do so since
"other states would acknowledge them sooner or later, and it is to the
interest of Spain herself to find the means of restoring an intercourse
when she cannot succeed in restoring a dominion."

But the tragic ending of Castlereagh's strenuous life was near; and the
credit of carrying out the policy foreshadowed in the _Instructions_ was
to fall to his rival Canning. Lord Londonderry's exhaustion became
evident during the toilsome session of 1822. Both the king and
Wellington were struck by his overwrought condition, which his family
attributed to an attack of the gout and the lowering remedies employed.
Wellington warned Dr Bankhead that Castlereagh was unwell, and, perhaps,
mentally disordered. Bankhead went down to North Cray and took due
precautions. Castlereagh's razors were taken away, but a penknife was
forgotten in a drawer, and with this he cut his throat (August 12,
1822). He had just before said, "My mind, my mind, is, as it were,
gone"; and, when he saw his wife and Bankhead talking together, he
moaned "there is a conspiracy laid against me." It was as clear a case
of brain disease as any on record. But this did not prevent his enemies
of the baser sort from asserting, without a shadow of proof, that the
suicide was caused by terror at some hideous and undefined charge. The
testimony of statesmen of the highest character and of all parties to
Castlereagh's gifts and charm is in strong contrast with the flood of
vituperation and calumny poured out upon his memory by those who knew
him not.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Castlereagh's correspondence and papers were published
  by his brother and successor (1850-1853) in twelve volumes. Sir
  Archibald Alison's _Biography_ in three volumes came out in 1861, with
  copious extracts from the manuscripts preserved at Wynyard. It was
  made the subject of an interesting essay in the _Quarterly Review_ for
  January 1862, reprinted in _Essays by the late Marquis of Salisbury_
  (London, 1905). A graceful sketch by Theresa, Marchioness of
  Londonderry (London, 1904), originally brought out in the _Anglo-Saxon
  Review_, contains some extracts from Castlereagh's unpublished
  correspondence with his wife, the record of an enduring and passionate
  attachment which throws a new light on the man.     (E. D. J. W.)




LONDONDERRY, a northern county of Ireland in the province of Ulster,
bounded N. by the Atlantic, W. by Lough Foyle and Donegal, E. by Antrim
and Lough Neagh, and S. by Tyrone. The area is 522,315 acres, or about
816 sq. m. The county consists chiefly of river valleys surrounded by
elevated table-lands rising occasionally into mountains, while on the
borders of the sea-coast the surface is generally level. The principal
river is the Roe, which flows northward from the borders of Tyrone into
Lough Foyle below Newton-Limavady, and divides the county into two
unequal parts. Farther west the Faughan also falls into Lough Foyle, and
the river Foyle passes through a small portion of the county near its
north-western boundary. In the south-east the Moyola falls into Lough
Neagh, and the Lower Bann from Lough Neagh forms for some distance its
eastern boundary with Antrim. The only lake in the county is Lough Finn
on the borders of Tyrone, but Lough Neagh forms about 6 m. of its
south-eastern boundary. The scenery of the shores of Lough Foyle and the
neighbouring coast is attractive, and Castlerock, Downhill, Magilligan
and Portstewart are favourite seaside resorts. On the flat Magilligan
peninsula, which forms the eastern horn of Lough Foyle, the base-line of
the trigonometrical survey of Ireland was measured in 1826. The scenery
of the Roe valley, with the picturesque towns of Limavady and Dungiven,
is also attractive, and the roads from the latter place to Draperstown
and to Maghera, traversing the passes of Evishgore and Glenshane
respectively, afford fine views of the Sperrin and Slieve Gallion
mountains.

  The west of this county consists of Dalradian mica-schist, with some
  quartzite, and is a continuation of the northern region of Tyrone. An
  inlier of these rocks appears in the rising ground east of Dungiven,
  including dark grey crystalline limestone. Old Red Sandstone and Lower
  Carboniferous Sandstone overlie these old rocks in the south and east,
  meeting the igneous "green rocks" of Tyrone, and the granite intrusive
  in them, at the north end of Slieve Gallion. Triassic sandstone covers
  the lower slope of Slieve Gallion on the south-east towards Moneymore,
  and rises above the Carboniferous Sandstone from Dungiven northward.
  At Moneymore we reach the western scarp of the white Limestone (Chalk)
  and the overlying basalt of the great plateaus, which dip down
  eastward under Lough Neagh. The basalt scarp, protecting chalk and
  patches of Liassic and Rhaetic strata, rises to 1260 ft. in Benevenagh
  north of Limavady, and repeats the finest features of the Antrim
  coast. A raised shelf with post-glacial marine clays forms the flat
  land west of Limavady. Haematite has been mined on the south flank of
  Slieve Gallion.

  The excessive rainfall and the cold and uncertain climate are
  unfavourable for agriculture. Along the sea-coast there is a district
  of red clay formed by the decomposition of sandstone, and near the
  mouth of the Roe there is a tract of marl. Along the valleys the soil
  is often fertile, and the elevated districts of the clay-slate region
  afford pasture for sheep. The acreage of pasture-land does not greatly
  exceed that of tillage. Oats, potatoes and turnips are chiefly grown,
  with some flax; and cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are kept in
  considerable numbers. The staple manufacture of the county is linen.
  The manufacture of coarse earthenware is also carried on, and there
  are large distilleries and breweries and some salt-works. There are
  fisheries for salmon and eels on the Bann, for which Coleraine is the
  headquarters. The deep-sea and coast fisheries are valuable, and are
  centred at Moville in Co. Donegal. The city of Londonderry is an
  important railway centre. The Northern Counties (Midland) main line
  reaches it by way of Coleraine and the north coast of the county, and
  the same railway serves the eastern part of the county, with branches
  from Antrim to Magherafelt, and Magherafelt to Cookstown (Co. Tyrone),
  to Draperstown and to Coleraine, and from Limavady to Dungiven. The
  Great Northern railway reaches Londonderry from the south, and the
  city is also the starting-point of the County Donegal, and the
  Londonderry and Lough Swilly railways.

  The population decreases (152,009 in 1891; 144,404 in 1901) and
  emigration is extensive, though both decrease and emigration are well
  below the average of the Irish counties. Of the total, about 43% are
  Roman Catholics, and nearly 50% Presbyterians or Protestant
  Episcopalians. Londonderry (pop. 38,892), Coleraine (6958) and
  Limavady (2692) are the principal towns, while Magherafelt and
  Moneymore are lesser market towns. The county comprises six baronies.
  Assizes are held at Londonderry, and quarter sessions at Coleraine,
  Londonderry and Magherafelt. The county is represented in parliament
  by two members, for the north and south divisions respectively. The
  Protestant and Roman Catholic dioceses of Armagh, Derry and Down each
  include parts of the county.

At an early period the county was inhabited by the O'Cathans or
O'Catrans, who were tributary to the O'Neills. Towards the close of the
reign of Elizabeth the county was seized, with the purpose of checking
the power of the O'Neills, when it received the name of Coleraine,
having that town for its capital. In 1609, after the confiscation of the
estates of the O'Neills, the citizens of London obtained possession of
the towns of Londonderry and Coleraine and adjoining lands, 60 acres out
of every 1000 being assigned for church lands. The common council of
London undertook to expend £20,000 on the reclamation of the property,
and elected a body of twenty-six for its management, who in 1613 were
incorporated as the Irish Society, and retained possession of the towns
of Londonderry and Coleraine, the remainder of the property being
divided among twelve of the great livery companies. Their estates were
sequestrated by James I., and in 1637 the charter of the Irish Society
was cancelled. Cromwell restored the society to its former position, and
Charles II. at the Restoration granted it a new charter, and confirmed
the companies in their estates. In the insurrection of 1641 Moneymore
was seized by the Irish, and Magherafelt and Bellaghy, then called
Vintner's Town, burned, as well as other towns and villages. There are
several stone circles, and a large number of artificial caves. The most
ancient castle of Irish origin is that of Carrickreagh; and of the
castles erected by the English those of Dungiven and Muff are in good
preservation. The abbey of Dungiven, founded in 1109, and standing on a
rock about 200 ft. above the river Roe, is a picturesque ruin.




LONDONDERRY, or DERRY, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough
(returning one member) and the chief town of Co. Londonderry, Ireland, 4
m. from the junction of the river Foyle with Lough Foyle, and 95 m.
N.N.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 38,892. The city is situated on an
eminence rising abruptly from the west side of the river to a height of
about 120 ft. The eminence is surrounded by hills which reach, a few
miles to the north, an elevation of upwards of 1500 ft., and the river
and lough complete an admirable picture. The city is surrounded by an
ancient rampart about a mile in circumference, having seven gates and
several bastions, but buildings now extend beyond this boundary. The
summit of the hill, at the centre of the town, is occupied by a
quadrangular area from which the main streets diverge. Some old houses
with high pyramidal gables remain but are much modernized. The
Protestant cathedral of St Columba, in Perpendicular style, was
completed from the design of Sir John Vanbrugh in 1633, at a cost of
£4000 contributed by the city of London, and was enlarged and restored
in 1887. The spire was added in 1778 and rebuilt in 1802. The bishop's
palace, erected in 1716, occupies the site of the abbey founded by
Columba. The abbot of this monastery, on being made bishop, erected in
1164 Temple More or the "Great Church," one of the finest buildings in
Ireland previous to the Anglo-Norman invasion. The original abbey church
was called the "Black Church," but both it and the "Great Church" were
demolished in 1600 and their materials used in fortifying the city.
There is a large Roman Catholic cathedral, erected c. 1870 and dedicated
to St Eugenius. For Foyle College, founded in 1617, a new building was
erected in 1814. This and the Academical Institution, a foundation of
1868, were amalgamated in 1896. Magee College, taking its name from its
foundress, Mrs Magee of Dublin, was instituted in 1857 as a
training-school for the Presbyterian ministry.

The staple manufacture of the town is linen (especially shirt-making),
and there are also shipbuilding yards, iron-foundries, saw-mills,
manure-works, distilleries, breweries and flour-mills. The salmon
fishery on the Foyle is valuable. The river affords a commodious
harbour, its greatest depth being 33 ft. at high tide, and 12 ft. at low
tide. It is under the jurisdiction of the Irish Society. The port has a
considerable shipping trade with Great Britain, exporting agricultural
produce and provisions. Regular services of passenger steamers serve
Londonderry from Glasgow, Liverpool, Morecambe, Belfast and local coast
stations. In 1898 Londonderry was constituted one of the six county
boroughs which have separate county councils.

About 5 m. W. of the city, on a hill 803 ft. high, is a remarkable fort,
consisting of three concentric ramparts, and an interior fortification
of stone. It is named the Grianan of Aileach, and was a residence of the
O'Neills, kings of Ulster. It was restored in 1878.

Derry, the original name of Londonderry, is derived from _Doire_, the
"place of oaks." It owes its origin to the monastery founded by Columba
about 546. With the bishopric which arose in connexion with this
foundation, that of Raphoe was amalgamated in 1834. From the 9th to the
11th century the town was frequently in the possession of the Danes, and
was often devastated, but they were finally driven from it by Murtagh
O'Brien about the beginning of the 12th century. In 1311 it was granted
by Edward II. to Richard de Burgh. After the Irish Society of London
obtained possession of it, it was incorporated in 1613 under the name of
Londonderry. From this year until the Union in 1800 two members were
returned to the Irish parliament. The fortifications, which were begun
in 1600, were completed in 1618. In 1688 Derry had become the chief
stronghold of the Protestants of the north. On the 7th of December
certain of the apprentices in the city practically put themselves and it
in a stage of siege by closing the gates, and on the 19th of April 1689
the forces of James II. began in earnest the famous siege of Derry. The
rector of Donaghmore, George Walker, who, with Major Baker, was chosen
to govern Derry, established fame for himself for his bravery and
hopefulness during this period of privation, and the historic answer of
"No surrender," which became the watchword of the men of Derry, was
given to the proposals of the besiegers. The garrison was at the last
extremity when, on the 30th of July, ships broke through the obstruction
across the harbour and brought relief. Walker and the siege are
commemorated by a lofty column (1828), bearing a statue of the governor,
on the Royal Bastion, from which the town standards defied the enemy;
and the anniversary of the relief is still observed.




LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879), English classical scholar, was born at
Poulton, Lancashire, on the 4th of November 1800, and educated at
Macclesfield grammar-school and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was
Craven university scholar in 1821 (bracketed with Lord Macaulay and
Henry Malden), wrangler and senior chancellor's medallist in 1822 and
became a fellow of Trinity in 1823. In 1824 he was elected professor of
ancient languages in the new university of Virginia at Charlottesville,
U.S.A., but after four years returned to England as the first Greek
professor at the newly founded university of London. In 1842 he
succeeded T. H. Key as professor of Latin at University College; in
1846-1849 he was reader in jurisprudence and civil law in the Middle
Temple, and finally (1849-1871) classical lecturer at Brighton College.
Subsequently he lived in retirement at Portfield, Chichester, in receipt
(from 1873) of a Civil List pension of £100 a year obtained for him by
Gladstone. He was one of the founders (1830), and for twenty years an
officer, of the Royal Geographical Society; an active member of the
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for which he edited the
quarterly _Journal of Education_ (1831-1835) as well as many of its
text-books; the editor (at first with Charles Knight, afterwards alone)
of the _Penny Cyclopaedia_ and of Knight's _Political Dictionary_; and a
member of the Society for Central Education instituted in London in
1837. He contributed the Roman law articles to Smith's _Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Antiquities_, and wrote also for the companion
dictionaries of _Biography and Geography_. He is remembered, however,
mainly as the editor of the _Bibliotheca Classica_ series--the first
serious attempt to produce scholarly editions of classical texts with
English commentaries--to which he contributed the edition of Cicero's
_Orations_ (1851-1862). He died on the 10th of August 1879.

  Among his other works are: _Summary of Herodotus_ (1829); editions of
  Herodotus (1830-1833) and Xenophon's _Anabasis_ (1831); revised
  editions of J. A. Macleane's Juvenal and Persius (1867) and Horace
  (1869); the _Civil Wars of Rome_; a translation with notes of thirteen
  of Plutarch's _Lives_ (1844-1848); translations of the _Thoughts of
  Marcus Aurelius_ (1862) and the _Discourses of Epictetus_ (1877);
  _Decline of the Roman Republic_ (1864-1874), 5 vols. See H. J.
  Matthews, "In Memoriam," reprinted from the _Brighton College
  Magazine_, 1879.




LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838-   ), American lawyer and political leader, was
born in Buckfield, Oxford county, Maine, on the 27th of October 1838. He
graduated at Harvard in 1857, studied law at the Harvard Law School and
in 1861 was admitted to the bar. He practised in Boston, became active
in politics as a Republican, was a member of the Massachusetts House of
Representatives in 1875-1878 and its speaker in 1876-1878,
lieutenant-governor of the state in 1879, and governor in 1880-1882. In
1883-1889 he was a member of the National House of Representatives, and
from March 1897 to May 1902 was secretary of the navy, in the cabinet,
first of President McKinley and then of President Roosevelt. In 1902 he
became president of the Board of Overseers of Harvard College. His
publications include a version of the _Aeneid_ (1879), _After-Dinner and
Other Speeches_ (1895) and _The New American Navy_ (1903).




LONG BRANCH, a city of Monmouth county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the
easternmost or "long" branch of the Shrewsbury river and on the Atlantic
coast, about 30 m. S. of New York City. Pop. (1890) 7231; (1900) 8872,
of whom 1431 were foreign-born and 987 were negroes; (1910 census)
13,298. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Central of New Jersey, the
New York & Long Branch, and electric railways, and by steamboats to New
York. The carriage roads in the vicinity are unusually good. Long Branch
is one of the oldest American watering-places. It is situated on a bluff
which rises abruptly 20-35 ft. above the beach, and along the front of
which bulkheads and jetties have been erected as a protection from the
waves; along or near the edge of the bluff, Ocean Avenue, 60 ft. wide
and about 5 m. long (from Seabright to Deal), commands delightful views
of the ocean. A "bluff walk" runs above the water for 2 m. The city has
one public park, Ocean Park (about 10 acres), and two privately owned
parks, one of which is Pleasure Bay Park (25 acres), on the Shrewsbury
river, where operas are given in the open air. The principal public
institutions are the Monmouth Memorial Hospital and the Long Branch
Circulating Library. In Long Branch the Monmouth County Horse Show is
held annually in July. The southern part of Long Branch, known as
Elberon, contains some beautiful summer residences--in one of its
cottages General U. S. Grant spent his summers for many years, and in
another, the Francklyn, President J. A. Garfield died in 1881. In 1909 a
monument to Garfield was erected in Ocean Park. Adjoining Long Branch on
the N. is the borough of Monmouth Beach (incorporated in 1906;
population, 1910, 485). Before the War of Independence the site of Long
Branch was owned by Colonel White, a British officer. It was confiscated
as a result of the war, and late in the century its development as a
watering-place began. Long Branch was chartered as a city in 1904.

_LONGCHAMP, WILLIAM_ (d. 1197), chancellor of England and bishop of Ely,
entered public life at the close of Henry II.'s reign as official to the
king's son Geoffrey, for the archdeaconry of Rouen. Henry II., who
disliked him, called him the "son of two traitors." He soon deserted
Geoffrey for Richard, who made him chancellor of the duchy of Aquitaine.
He always showed himself an able diplomatist. He first distinguished
himself at Paris, as Richard's envoy, when he defeated Henry II.'s
attempt to make peace with Philip Augustus (1189). On Richard's
accession William became chancellor of the kingdom and bishop of Ely.
When Richard left England (Dec. 1189), he put the tower of London in his
hands and chose him to share with Hugh de Puiset, the great bishop of
Durham, the office of chief justiciar. William immediately quarrelled
with Hugh, and by April 1190 had managed to oust him completely from
office. In June 1190 he received a commission as legate from Pope
Celestine. He was then master in church as well as state. But his
disagreeable appearance and manners, his pride, his contempt for
everything English made him detested. His progresses through the country
with a train of a thousand knights were ruinous to those on whom
devolved the burden of entertaining him. Even John seemed preferable to
him. John returned to England in 1191; he and his adherents were
immediately involved in disputes with William, who was always worsted.
At last (June 1191) Geoffrey, archbishop of York and William's earliest
benefactor, was violently arrested by William's subordinates on landing
at Dover. They exceeded their orders, which were to prevent the
archbishop from entering England until he had sworn fealty to Richard.
But this outrage was made a pretext for a general rising against
William, whose legatine commission had now expired, and whose power was
balanced by the presence of the archbishop of Rouen, Walter Coutances,
with a commission from the king, William shut himself up in the Tower,
but he was forced to surrender his castles and expelled from the
kingdom. In 1193 he joined Richard in Germany, and Richard seems to have
attributed the settlement soon after concluded between himself and the
emperor, to his "dearest chancellor." For the rest of the reign
Longchamp was employed in confidential and diplomatic missions by
Richard all over the continent, in Germany, in France and at Rome. He
died in January 1197. His loyalty to Richard was unswerving, and it was
no doubt through his unscrupulous devotion to the royal interest that he
incurred the hatred of Richard's English subjects.

  AUTHORITIES.--Benedictus, _Gesta Henrici_, vol. ii.; Giraldus
  Cambrensis, _De Vita Galfridi_; Stubbs' Preface to Roger of Hoveden,
  vol. iii.; L. Bovine-Champeaux, _Notice sur Guillaume de Longchamp_
  (Évreux, 1885).




LONGCLOTH, a plain cotton cloth originally made in comparatively long
pieces. The name was applied particularly to cloth made in India.
Longcloth, which is now commonly bleached, comprehends a number of
various qualities. It is heavier than cambric, and finer than medium or
Mexican. As it is used principally for underclothing and shirts, most of
the longcloth sold in Great Britain passes through the hands of the
shirt and underclothing manufacturers, who sell to the shopkeepers,
though there is still a considerable if decreasing retail trade in
piece-goods. The lower kinds of longcloth, which are made from American
cotton, correspond in quality to the better kinds of "shirting" made for
the East, but the best longcloths are made from Egyptian cotton, and are
fine and fairly costly goods.




LONG EATON, an urban district in the Ilkeston parliamentary division of
Derbyshire, England, 10 m. E.S.E. of Derby, on the Midland railway. Pop.
(1891) 9636; (1901) 13,045. It lies in the open valley of the Trent, at
a short distance from the river, and near the important Trent Junction
on the Midland railway system. The church of St Lawrence has Norman
portions, and an arch and window apparently of pre-Conquest date. The
large industrial population of the town is occupied in the manufacture
of lace, which extended hither from Nottingham; there are also railway
carriage works. To the north is the township of SANDIACRE (pop. 2954),
where the church has a fine Decorated chancel.




LONGEVITY, a term applied to express either the length or the duration
of life in any organism, but, as cases of long duration excite most
interest, frequently used to denote a relatively unusual prolongation of
life. There is no reason to suppose that protoplasm, the living material
of organisms, has a necessarily limited duration of life, provided that
the conditions proper to it are maintained, and it has been argued that
since every living organism comes into existence as a piece of the
protoplasm of a pre-existing living organism, protoplasm is potentially
immortal. Living organisms exist, however, as particles or communities
of particles of protoplasm (see LIFE), and as such have a limited
duration of life. Longevity, as E. Ray Lankester pointed out in 1869,
for practical purposes must be understood to mean the "length of time
during which life is exhibited in an individual." The word "individual"
must be taken in its ordinary sense as a wholly or partially
independent, organized mass produced from a pre-existing organized mass,
as otherwise the problem will be confused by arguments as to the meaning
of biological individuality.

_Empirical Data._--A multitude of observations show that only a very
brief life, ranging from a few hours to a few days, is the normal fate
of the vast majority of single-celled organisms, whether these be animal
or vegetable or on the border-line between the two kingdoms. Death comes
to them rapidly from internal or external causes, or the individual life
ends in conjugation or division or spore-formation. Under special
conditions, natural or artificial, the individual life may be prolonged
by desiccation, or freezing, or by some similar arrest of functional
activity.

The duration of life among plants is varied. The popular division into
annuals, biennials and perennials is not absolute, for natural and
artificial conditions readily prolong the lives of annuals and biennials
for several seasons, whereas the case of perennials is much complicated
by the mode of growth, and the problem of individuality, however we
desire to exclude it, obtrudes itself. In the vast majority of cases
where a plant is obviously a simple individual, its life is short,
ranging from a few days in the case of fungi, to two seasons in the case
of biennial herbs. Most of the simple algae are annual, their life
enduring only for part of the year; the branching algae are more often
perennial, but in their cases not only are observations as to duration
lacking, but however simply we may use the term individual, its
application is difficult. The larger terrestrial plants with woody
tissues which we denote roughly as shrubs and trees have an
individuality which, although different from that of a hyacinth or
carrot, is usually obvious. Shrubs live from four to ten or more years,
and it apparently is the case that odoriferous shrubs such as sage and
lavender display the longer duration. Trees with soft wood, such as
poplars and willows, last for about fifty years, fruit-trees rather
longer. Estimates of the age which large trees can attain, based partly
on attempts to count the annual rings, have been given by many writers,
and range from about three hundred years in the case of the elm to three
to five thousand years in the case of _Sequoia gigantea_ of California,
and over five thousand years in that of the baobab (_Adansonia
digitata_) of Cape Verde. It is impossible to place exact reliance on
these estimates, but it is at least certain that very many trees have a
duration of life exceedingly great in comparison with the longest-lived
animals.

The duration of life amongst multicellular invertebrate animals is
little known, except in the frequent instances where it is normally
brief. Many sponges and polyps die at the end of the season, leaving
winter eggs or buds. The much-branched masses of the larger sponges and
compound hydrozoa certainly may be perennial. A sea-anemone (_Actinia
mesembryanthemum_), captured in 1828 by Sir John Dalyell, a Scottish
naturalist, and then guessed to be about seven years old, lived in
captivity in Edinburgh until 1887, the cause of death being unknown. As
other instances of great ages attained by sea-anemones are on record, it
is plain that these animals, although simple polyps, are long-lived.
Echinoderms are inferred to live to considerable ages, as they grow
slowly and as there is great difference in size amongst fully adult
specimens. On similar reasoning, considerable age is attributed to the
larger annulates and crustacea, but the smaller forms in many cases are
known to have very short lives. The variation in the length of life of
molluscs appears to be great. Many species of gastropods live only a few
years; others, such as _Natica heros_, have reached thirty years, whilst
the large _Tridacna gigas_ is stated to live from sixty to a hundred
years. Among insects, the adult stage has usually only a very short
duration of life, extending from a few hours to a few months, but the
larval stages may last much longer. Including these latter, the range of
duration among insects, taking the whole life from hatching to death,
appears to lie between the limits of a few weeks in the case of
plant-lice to seventeen years in the case of the American _Cicada
septemdecim_, the larva of which lives seventeen years, the adult only a
month. Most butterflies are annuals, but those which fail to copulate
may hibernate and live through a second season, whilst the lives of some
have been preserved artificially for seven years. Worker bees and drones
do not survive the season, but queens may live from two to five years.
In the case of vertebrates, the duration of life appears to be greater
among fish and reptiles than among birds and mammals. The ancient Romans
have noted that eels, kept in aquaria, could reach the age of sixty
years. Estimates based on size and rate of growth have led to the
inference that salmon may live to the age of a hundred years, whilst G.
L. L. Buffon set down the period of life of carp in ponds as one hundred
and fifty years, and there is evidence for a pike having reached the age
of over two centuries. More recently it has been claimed that the age of
fish can be ascertained exactly by counting the annual rings of the
otoliths. No great ages have as yet been recorded by this method,
whilst, on the other hand, by revealing great variations of weight and
size in fishes with the same number of annual rings, it has thrown doubt
on the validity of estimates of age based on size and rate of growth.
The evidence as a whole is unsatisfactory, but it is highly probable
that in the absence of accidents most fish can attain very great ages.
The duration of life among batrachia is little known, but small frogs
have been recorded as living over twelve years, and toads up to
thirty-six years.

Almost nothing is known as to the longevity of snakes and lizards, but
it is probable that no great ages are reached. Crocodiles, alligators
and caymans grow slowly and are believed to live very long. There is
exact evidence as to alligators in captivity in Europe reaching forty
years without signs of senescence, and some of the sacred crocodiles of
India are believed to be more than a hundred years old. Chelonians live
still longer. A tortoise has lived for eighty years in the garden of the
governor of Cape Town, and is believed to be at least two hundred years
old. There are records of small land-tortoises that have been kept in
captivity for over a century, whilst the very large tortoises of the
Galapagos Islands certainly attain ages of at least two centuries and
possibly much more. A considerable body of information exists regarding
the longevity of birds, and much of this has been brought together by J.
H. Gurney. From his lists, which include more than fifty species, it
appears that the duration is least in the case of small passerine and
picarian birds, where it ranges from eight or nine years (goat-suckers
and swifts) to a maximum of twenty-five years, the latter age having
been approached by larks, canaries and goldfinch. Gulls have been
recorded as living over forty years, ducks and geese over fifty years
(the duchess of Bedford has recorded the case of a Chinese goose having
been in possession of the same family for fifty-seven years). Parrots
frequently live over eighty years, swans nearly as long, ravens and owls
rather less, whilst there is excellent evidence of eagles and falcons
considerably exceeding a hundred years. Notwithstanding their relatively
large size, struthious birds do not reach great ages. The records for
cassowaries and rheas do not exceed thirty years, and the maximum for
ostriches is fifty years, and that on doubtful evidence.

Exact records regarding the longevity of mammals are surprisingly few.
There is no evidence as to Monotremes. The life of Marsupials in
captivity is seldom long; a phalanger has lived in the London Zoological
Gardens and showed no signs of age at more than ten years old; it may be
inferred that the larger forms are capable of living longer. Reliable
records as to Edentates do not exist; those in captivity have short
lives, but the size and structure of some of the extinct forms suggests
that they may have reached a great age. Nothing is known regarding the
longevity of Sirenians, except that they do not live long in captivity.
In the case of Cetaceans, estimates based on the growth of whale-bone
assign an age of several centuries to whale-bone whales; exact records
do not exist. More is known regarding Ungulates, as many of these are
domesticated, semi-domesticated or are frequently kept in captivity.
Great length of life has been assigned to the rhinoceros, but the
longest actual record is that of an Indian rhinoceros which lived for
thirty-seven years in the London Zoological Gardens. The usual duration
of life in the case of horses, asses and zebras is from fifteen to
thirty years, but instances of individuals reaching fifty years are
fairly well authenticated. Domestic cattle may live from twenty-five to
thirty years, sheep and goats from twelve to fourteen years, antelopes
rather longer, especially in the case of the larger forms. A giraffe has
lived for nineteen years in the London Zoological Gardens. Deer are
reputed to live longer than sheep, and records of individuals at the
London Gardens confirm this, but it is doubtful if they live as long as
cattle. Camels are long-lived, according to repute, but actual records
show no great age; a llama which died in the London Gardens at the age
of seventeen years showed unmistakable signs of senility. The
hippopotamus is another large ungulate to which great longevity has been
assigned, but the longest actual record is the case of a female born in
the London Gardens which died in its thirty-fifth year. The duration of
life assigned to domestic swine is about twenty years; an Indian wild
boar, alive in the London Zoological Gardens in 1910, and apparently in
full vigour, was fifteen years old. Elephants are usually supposed
capable of reaching great ages, but the actual records of menagerie and
military animals show that thirty to forty years is a normal limit.
Facts as to rodents are not numerous; the larger forms such as hares and
rabbits may live for ten years, smaller forms such as rats and mice, for
five or six years. Bats have a reputation for long duration of life, and
tropical fruit-bats are known to have lived for seventeen years. No
great ages have been recorded for Carnivora, but the average is fairly
high. Twenty-five years appears to be a limit very rarely exceeded by
lions, tigers or bears; domestic cats may live for from twelve to
twenty-three years, and dogs from sixteen to eighteen years, though
cases of as many as thirty-four years have been noted. Less is known of
the smaller forms, but menagerie records show that ages between twelve
and twenty are frequently reached. There were in 1910 in the London
Zoological Gardens, apparently in good health, a meerkat at least twelve
years old, a sand-badger fourteen years and a ratel nineteen years of
age. Records regarding monkeys are unsatisfactory, for these creatures
are notoriously delicate in captivity, and it is practically certain
that under such circumstances they rarely die of old age. A grey lemur
eleven years old and a chimpanzee eleven and a half, both in good health
in the London Zoological Gardens, appear to be the oldest primates
definitely recorded. Estimates based on size, condition of the skull and
so forth obtained by examination of wild specimens that have been killed
would seem to establish a rough correspondence between the size of
monkeys and their duration of life, and to set the limits as between
seven or eight and thirty years.

With regard to the human race, there seems to be almost no doubt but
that the average duration of life has increased with civilization; the
generally improved conditions of life, the greater care of the young and
of the aged and the advance in medical and surgical science far more
than outweigh any depressing effect caused by the more strenuous and
nervous activity required by modern social organization. The expectation
of life of those who attain the age of sixty varies with race, sex and
occupation, but is certainly increasing, and an increasing number of
persons have a chance of reaching and do reach ages between ninety and
one hundred. Careful investigation has thrown doubt almost amounting to
disproof on the much-quoted cases of great longevity, such as that of
Thomas Parr, the Shropshire peasant, who was supposed to have reached
his hundred and fifty-third year, and, although the existence of
centenarians is thoroughly established, any ages exceeding a hundred by
more than two or three years are, at the most, dubious.

A survey of the facts of longevity, so far as these are established on
reasonable evidence, discloses that the recorded ages both of men and
animals are much shorter than those assigned in popular belief. The
duration of life is usually brief in the animal kingdom, and except for
some fish and reptiles, and possibly whales, it is certain that a man
enjoys the longest average duration of life and that centenarians occur
more frequently amongst men than amongst most of the lower animals.

_Theories of Longevity._--Ray Lankester has pointed out that several
meanings are attached to the word longevity. It may be used of an
individual, and in this sense has little importance, partly because of
the inevitable variability of the individual, and partly because there
may be individuals that are abnormal in duration of life, just as there
are abnormalities in weight or height. It may be used for the average
duration of life of all the individuals of a species and so be another
way of expressing the average mortality that affects the species, and
that varies not only with structure and constitution but with the kind
of enemies, accidents and conditions to which the members of the species
are subject. If we reflect on the large incidence of mortality from
external causes affecting a species and particularly the young of a
species, we shall see that we must conclude that intrinsic,
physiological causes can have relatively little weight in determining
the average mortality rate. Finally, longevity may be used, and is most
conveniently used, to denote the specific potential longevity, that is
to say the duration of life that would be attained by normal individuals
of a species if the conditions were most favourable. It is necessary to
keep in mind these various applications of the term when considering the
theoretical explanations that have been associated with the empirical
facts.

There is a certain relation between size and longevity. As a general
rule small animals do not live so long as larger creatures. Whales
survive elephants, elephants live longer than camels, horses and deer,
and these again than rabbits and mice. But the relation is not absolute;
parrots, ravens and geese live longer than most mammals and than many
larger birds. G. L. L. Buffon tried to find a more definite measure of
longevity, and believed that it was given by the ratio between the whole
period of life and the period of growth. He believed that the possible
duration of life was six or seven times that of the period of growth.
Man, he said, takes fourteen years to grow, and his duration of life is
ninety to one hundred years; the horse has reached its full size at four
years of age and may live for a total period of twenty-five to thirty
years. M. J. P. Flourens attempted to make Buffon's suggestion more
exact; he took the end of the period of growth as the time at which the
epiphyses of the long bones united with the bones themselves, and on
this basis held that the duration of life was five times the length of
the period of growth. The theories of Buffon and Flourens, however, do
not apply to all vertebrates and have no meaning in the case of
invertebrates. Y. Bunge has suggested that in the case of mammals the
period taken by the new-born young to double in weight is an index of
the rapidity of growth and is in a definite relation to the possible
duration of life. M. Oustalet has discussed the existence of definite
relations between duration of life and size, rate of growth, period of
gestation and so forth, and found so many exceptions that no general
conclusion could be drawn. He finally suggested that diet was the chief
factor in determining the span of life. E. Metchnikoff has provided the
most recent and fullest criticism and theory of the physiological causes
of longevity. He admits that many factors must be involved, as the
results vary so much in different kinds of animals. He thinks that too
little is known of the physiological processes of invertebrates to draw
any valid conclusions in their case. With regard to vertebrates, he
calls attention to the gradual reduction of longevity as the scale of
life is ascended. On the whole, reptiles live much longer than birds,
and birds than mammals, the contrast being specially notable when birds
and mammals are compared. He dismisses the effect of the reproductive
tax from possible causes of short duration of life, for the obvious
reason that longevity is nearly equal in the two sexes, although females
have a much greater reproductive drain. He points out that the hind-gut
or large intestine is least developed in fishes, relatively small in
reptiles, still small but relatively larger in birds and largest in
mammals, relatively and absolutely, the caecum or caeca being reckoned
as part of the hind-gut. The area of the intestinal tract in question is
of relatively little importance in digestion, although a considerable
amount of absorption may take place from it. It serves chiefly as a
reservoir of waste matter and is usually the seat of extensive
putrefactive change. The products of putrefaction are absorbed by the
blood and there results a constant auto-intoxication of the body which
Metchnikoff believes to be the principal agent in senile degeneration.
Mammals, if they escape from enemies, diseases and accidents, fall
victims to premature senility as the result of the putrefactive changes
in their intestines, and the average mortality of the species is much
too high, the normal specific longevity being rarely if ever attained.
Metchnikoff urges, and so far probably is followed by all competent
authorities, that improvements in the conditions of life, greater
knowledge of disease and of hygiene and simplification of habits are
tending to reduce the average mortality of man and the domestic animals,
and to bring the average longevity nearer the specific longevity. He
adds to this, however, a more special theory, which, although it appears
rapidly to be gaining ground, is yet far from being accepted. The theory
is that duration of life may be prolonged by measures directed against
intestinal putrefaction.

The process of putrefaction takes place in masses of badly-digested
food, and may be combated by careful dieting, avoidance of rich foods of
all kinds and particularly of flesh and alcohol. Putrefaction, however,
cannot take place except in the presence of a particular group of
bacteria, the entrance of which to the body can be prevented to a
certain extent. But it would be impossible or impracticable to secure a
sterilized diet, and Metchnikoff urges that the bacteria of putrefaction
can be replaced or suppressed by another set of microbes. He found that
there was a widely spread popular belief in the advantage of diet
consisting largely of products of soured milk and that there was a fair
parallel between unusual longevity and such a diet. Experimentally he
showed that the presence of the bacilli which produce lactic acid
inhibited the process of putrefaction. Accordingly he recommends that
the diet of human beings should include preparations of milk soured by
cultures of selected lactic acid bacilli, or that the spores of such
bacilli should be taken along with food favourable to their development.
In a short time the bacilli establish themselves in the large intestine
and rapidly stop putrefactive change. The treatment has not yet been
persisted in sufficiently long by a sufficient number of different
persons to be accepted as universally satisfactory, and there is even
more difference of opinion as to Metchnikoff's theory that the chief
agent in senile degeneration is the stimulation of phagocytes by the
products of putrefaction with the resulting destruction of the specific
cells of the tissues. Metchnikoff, however, gave it to the world, not as
a proved and completed doctrine, but as the line of inquiry that he
himself had found most promising. He has suggested further that if the
normal specific longevity were attained by human beings, old and not
degenerate individuals would lose the instinct for life and acquire an
instinct for death, and that as they had fulfilled the normal cycle of
life, they would accept death with the same relieved acquiescence that
they now accept sleep.

The various writers whose opinions have been briefly discussed agree in
supposing that there is a normal specific longevity, although
Metchnikoff alone has urged that this differs markedly from the average
longevity, and has propounded a theory of the causes of the divergence.
It is common ground that they believe the organism to be wound up, so to
say, for a definite period, but have no very definite theory as to how
this period is determined. A. Weismann, on the other hand, in a
well-known essay on the duration of life, has developed a theory to
explain the various fashions in which the gift of life is measured out
to different kinds of creatures. He accepts the position that purely
physiological conditions set a limit to the number of years that can be
attained by each kind of multicellular organism, but holds that these
conditions leave room for a considerable amount of variation. Duration
of life, in fact, according to Weismann, is a character that can be
influenced by the environment and that by a process of natural selection
can be adapted to the conditions of existence of different species.

If a species is to maintain its existence or to increase, it is obvious
that its members must be able to replace the losses caused by death. It
is necessary, moreover, for the success of the species, that an average
population of full vigour should be maintained. Weismann argues that
death itself is an adaptation to secure the removal of useless and
worn-out individuals and that it comes as soon as may be after the
period of reproductive activity. It is understood that the term
reproductive activity covers not merely the production of new
individuals but the care of these by the parents until they are
self-sufficient. The average longevity, according to Weismann, is
adapted to the needs of the species; it is sufficiently long to secure
that the requisite number of new individuals is produced and protected.
He has brought together a large number of instances which show that
there is a relation between duration of life and fertility. Birds of
prey, which breed slowly, usually producing an annual brood of no more
than one or two, live to great ages, whilst rabbits which produce large
litters at frequent intervals have relatively short lives. Allowance has
to be made in cases where the young are largely preyed upon by enemies,
for this counteracts the effect of high fecundity. In short, the
duration of life is so adapted that a pair of individuals on the average
succeed in rearing a pair of offspring. Metchnikoff, however, has
pointed out that the longevity of such fecund creatures must have arisen
independently, as otherwise species subject to high risks of this nature
would have ceased to exist and would have disappeared, as many species
have vanished in the past of the world's history.

The normal specific longevity, the age to which all normal individuals
of a species would survive under the most favourable conditions, must
depend on constitution and structure. No doubt selection is involved, as
it is obvious that creatures would perish if their constitution and
structure were not such that they could live long enough to reproduce
their kind. The direct explanation, however, must be sought for in size,
complexity of structure, length of period of growth, capacity to
withstand the wear and tear of life and such other intrinsic qualities.
The average specific longevity, on the other hand, depends on a
multitude of extrinsic conditions operating on the intrinsic
constitution; these extrinsic conditions are given by the environment of
the species as it affects the young and the adults, enemies, diseases,
abundance of food, climatic conditions and so forth. It would seem most
natural to suppose that in all cases, except perhaps those of
intelligent man and the domestic animals or plants he harbours, the
average longevity must vary enormously with changing conditions, and
must be a factor of greater importance in the survival of the species
than the ideal normal specific longevity. It also seems more probable
that the reproductive capacity, which is extremely variable, has been
adapted to the average longevity of the species, than that, as Weismann
supposed, it should itself be the determining cause of the duration of
life.

  REFERENCES.--G. L. L. Buffon, _Histoire naturelle générale et
  particulière_, vol. ii. (Paris, 1749); Y. Bunge, _Archiv. f. die
  gesammte Physiologie_, vol. xcv. (Bonn, 1903); M. J. P. Flourens, _De
  la longévité humaine et de la quantité de vie sur le globe_ (Paris,
  1855); J. H. Gurney, _On the Comparative Ages to which Birds live_,
  _Ibis_, p. 19 (1899); Sir E. Ray Lankester, _Comparative Longevity in
  Man and the Lower Animals_ (London, 1870); E. Metchnikoff, _The
  Prolongation of Life_ (London, 1908); M. Oustalet, _La Nature_, p. 378
  (1900); A. Weismann, _Essays upon Heredity_ (Oxford, 1889).     (P. C. M.)




LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH (1807-1882), American poet, was born on the
27th of February 1807, at Portland, Maine. His ancestor, William
Longfellow, had immigrated to Newbury, Massachusetts, in 1676, from
Yorkshire, England. His father was Stephen Longfellow, a lawyer and
United States congressman, and his mother, Zilpha Wadsworth, a
descendant of John Alden and of "Priscilla, the Puritan maiden."

Longfellow's external life presents little that is of stirring interest.
It is the life of a modest, deep-hearted gentleman, whose highest
ambition was to be a perfect man, and, through sympathy and love, to
help others to be the same. His boyhood was spent mostly in his native
town, which he never ceased to love, and whose beautiful surroundings
and quiet, pure life he has described in his poem "My Lost Youth." Here
he grew up in the midst of majestic peace, which was but once broken,
and that by an event which made a deep impression on him--the war of
1812. He never forgot

          "the sea-fight far away.
      How it thundered o'er the tide.
  And the dead captains as they lay
  In their graves o'erlooking the tranquil bay.
      Where they in battle died."

The "tranquil bay" is Casco Bay, one of the most beautiful in the world,
studded with bold, green islands, well fitted to be the Hesperides of a
poet's boyish dreams. At the age of fifteen Longfellow entered Bowdoin
College at Brunswick, a town situated near the romantic falls of the
Androscoggin river, about 25 m. from Portland, and in a region full of
Indian scenery and legend. Here he had among his classfellows Nathaniel
Hawthorne, George B. Cheever and J. S. C. Abbott. During the latter
years of his college life he contributed to the _United States Literary
Gazette_ some half-dozen poems, which are interesting for two
reasons--(1) as showing the poet's early, book-mediated sympathy with
nature and legendary heroisms, and (2) as being almost entirely free
from that supernatural view of nature which his subsequent residence in
Europe imparted to him. He graduated in 1825, at the age of eighteen,
with honours, among others that of writing the "class poem"--taking the
fourth place in a class of thirty-eight. He then entered his father's
law office, without intending, however, it would appear, to devote
himself to the study of the law. For this profession he was, both by
capacity and tastes, utterly unfitted, and it was fortunate that,
shortly after his graduation, he received an offer of a professorship of
modern languages at Bowdoin College. In order the better to qualify
himself for this appointment, he went to Europe (May 15th, 1826) and
spent three years and a half travelling in France, Italy, Spain,
Germany, Holland and England, learning languages, for which he had
unusual talent, and drinking in the spirit of the history and life of
these countries. The effect of Longfellow's visit was twofold. On the
one hand, it widened his sympathies, gave him confidence in himself and
supplied him with many poetical themes; on the other, it traditionalized
his mind, coloured for him the pure light of nature and rendered him in
some measure unfit to feel or express the spirit of American nature and
life. His sojourn in Europe fell exactly in the time when, in England,
the reaction against the sentimental atheism of Shelley, the pagan
sensitivity of Keats, and the sublime, Satanic outcastness of Byron was
at its height; when, in the Catholic countries, the negative
exaggerations of the French Revolution were inducing a counter current
of positive faith, which threw men into the arms of a half-sentimental,
half-aesthetic medievalism; and when, in Germany, the aristocratic
paganism of Goethe was being swept aside by that tide of dutiful,
romantic patriotism which flooded the country, as soon as it began to
feel that it still existed after being run over by Napoleon's
war-chariot. He returned to America in 1829, and remained six years at
Bowdoin College (1829-1835), during which he published various
text-books for the study of modern languages. In his twenty-fourth year
(1831) he married Miss Mary Story Potter, one of his "early loves." In
1833 he made a series of translations from the Spanish, with an essay on
the moral and devotional poetry of Spain, and these were incorporated in
1835 in _Outre-mer: a Pilgrimage beyond the Sea_.

In 1835 Longfellow was chosen to succeed George Ticknor as professor of
modern languages and belles-lettres in Harvard. On receiving this
appointment, he paid a second visit of some fifteen months to Europe,
this time devoting special attention to the Scandinavian countries and
Switzerland. During this visit he lost his wife, who died at Rotterdam,
on the 29th of November 1835.

On his return to America in December 1836, Longfellow took up his
residence in Cambridge, and began to lecture at Harvard and to write. In
his new home he found himself amid surroundings entirely congenial to
him. Its spaciousness and free rural aspect, its old graveyards and
towering elms, its great university, its cultivated society and its
vicinity to humane, substantial, busy Boston, were all attractions for
such a man. In 1837-1838 several essays of Longfellow's appeared in the
_North American Review_, and in 1839 he published _Hyperion: a Romance_,
and his first volume of original poetry, entitled _Voices of the Night_.
_Hyperion_, a poetical account of his travels, had, at the time of its
publication, an immense popularity, due mainly to its sentimental
romanticism. At present few persons beyond their teens would care to
read it through, so unnatural and stilted is its language, so thin its
material and so consciously mediated its sentiment. Nevertheless it has
a certain historical importance, for two reasons--(1) because it marks
that period in Longfellow's career when, though he had left nature, he
had not yet found art, and (2) because it opened the sluices through
which the flood of German sentimental poetry flowed into the United
States. The _Voices of the Night_ contains some of his best minor poems,
e.g. "The Psalm of Life" and "Footsteps of Angels." In 1842 Longfellow
published a small volume of _Ballads and other Poems_, containing some
of his most popular pieces, e.g. "The Skeleton in Armour," "The Wreck of
the Hesperus," "The Village Blacksmith," "To a Child," "The Bridge,"
"Excelsior." In the same year he paid a third brief visit to Europe,
spending the summer on the Rhine. During his return-passage across the
Atlantic he wrote his _Poems on Slavery_ (1842), with a dedication to
Channing. These poems went far to wake in the youth of New England a
sense of the great national wrong, and to prepare them for that bitter
struggle in which it was wiped out at the expense of the lives of so
many of them. In 1843 he married again, his wife being Miss Frances
Elizabeth Appleton of Boston, a daughter of Hon. Nathan Appleton, one of
the founders of Lowell, and a sister of Thomas G. Appleton, himself no
mean poet.

About the same time he bought, and fixed his residence in, the Craigie
House, where he had formerly only been a lodger, an old "revolutionary
house," built about the beginning of the 18th century, and occupied by
General Washington in 1776. This quaint old wooden house, in the midst
of a large garden full of splendid elms, continued to be his chief
residence till the day of his death. Of the lectures on Dante which he
delivered about this time, James Russell Lowell says: "These lectures,
illustrated by admirable translations, are remembered with grateful
pleasure by many who were thus led to learn the full significance of the
great Christian poet." Indeed, as a professor, Longfellow was eminently
successful. Shortly after the _Poems on Slavery_, there appeared in 1843
a more ambitious work, _The Spanish Student, a Play in Three Acts_, a
kind of sentimental "Morality," without any special merit but good
intention. If published nowadays it would hardly attract notice; but in
those gushing, emotion-craving times it had considerable popularity, and
helped to increase the poet's now rapidly widening fame. A huge
collection of translations of foreign poetry edited by him, and entitled
_The Poets and Poetry of Europe_, appeared in 1845, and, in 1846, a few
minor poems--songs and sonnets--under the title _The Belfry of Bruges_.
In 1847 he published at Boston the greatest of all his works,
_Evangeline, a Tale of Acadie_. It was, in some degree, an imitation of
Goethe's _Hermann and Dorothea_, and its plot, which was derived from
Hawthorne's _American Note-Books_, is even simpler than that of the
German poem, not to say much more touching. At the violent removal by
the British government of a colony of French settlers from Acadie (Nova
Scotia) in 1755, a young couple, on the very day of their wedding, were
separated and carried in different directions, so that they lost all
trace of each other. The poem describes the wanderings of the bride in
search of her lover, and her final discovery of him as an old man on his
death-bed, in a public hospital which she had entered as a nurse. Slight
as the story is, it is worked out into one of the most affecting poems
in the language, and gives to literature one of its most perfect types
of womanhood and of "affection that hopes and endures and is patient."
Though written in a metre deemed foreign to English ears, the poem
immediately attained a wide popularity, which it has never lost, and
secured to the dactylic hexameter a recognized place among English
metres.

In 1849 Longfellow published a novel of no great merit, _Kavanagh_, and
also a volume of poems entitled _The Seaside and the Fireside_, a title
which has reference to his two homes, the seaside one on the charming
peninsula of Nahant, the fireside one in Cambridge. One of the poems in
this collection, "Resignation," has taken a permanent place in
literature; another, "Hymn for my Brother's Ordination," shows plainly
the nature of the poet's Christianity. His brother, the Rev. Samuel
Longfellow, was a minister of the Unitarian Church.

Longfellow's genius, in its choice of subjects, always oscillated
between America and Europe, between the colonial period of American
history and the Middle and Romantic Ages of European feeling. When tired
of the broad daylight of American activity, he sought refuge and rest in
the dim twilight of medieval legend and German sentiment. In 1851
appeared _The Golden Legend_, a long lyric drama based upon Hartmann von
Aue's beautiful story of self-sacrifice, _Der arme Heinrich_. Next to
_Evangeline_, this is at once the best and the most popular of the
poet's longer works, and contains many passages of great beauty.
Bringing his imagination back to America, he next applied himself to the
elaboration of an Indian legend. In 1854 he resigned his professorship.
In the following year he gave to the world the Indian Edda, _The Song of
Hiawatha_, a conscious imitation, both in subject and metre, of the
Finnish epic, the _Kalevala_, with which he had become acquainted during
his second visit to Europe. The metre is monotonous and easily
ridiculed, but it suits the subject, and the poem is very popular. In
1858 appeared _The Courtship of Miles Standish_, based on a charming
incident in the early history of the Plymouth colony, and, along with
it, a number of minor poems, included under the modest title, _Birds of
Passage_. One of these is "My Lost Youth."

Two events now occurred which served to cast a gloom over the poet's
life and to interrupt his activity,--the outbreak of the Civil war, and
the tragic fate of his wife, who, having accidentally allowed her dress
to catch fire, was burnt to death in her own house in 1861. It was long
before he recovered from the shock caused by this terrible event, and in
his subsequent published poems he never ventured even to allude to it.
When he did in some measure find himself again, he gave to the world his
charming _Tales of a Wayside Inn_ (1863), and in 1865 his _Household
Poems_. Among the latter is a poem entitled "The Children's Hour," which
affords a glance into the home life of the widowed poet, who had been
left with five children--two sons, Ernest and Charles, and three
daughters,

  "Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra,
     And Edith with golden hair."

A small volume entitled _Flower de Luce_ (1867) contains, among other
fine things, the beautiful "threnos" on the burial of Hawthorne, and
"The Bells of Lynn." Once more the poet sought refuge in medieval life
by completing his translation of the _Divina Commedia_, parts of which
he had rendered into English as much as thirty years before. This work
appeared in 1867, and gave a great impulse to the study of Dante in
America. It is a masterpiece of literal translation. Next came the _New
England Tragedies_ (1868) and _The Divine Tragedy_ (1871), which found
no large public. In 1868-1869 the poet visited Europe, and was
everywhere received with the greatest honour. In 1872 appeared _Three
Books of Song_, containing translated as well as original pieces, in
1873 _Aftermath_ and in 1875 _The Mask of Pandora, and other Poems_.
Among these "other poems" were "The Hanging of the Crane," "Morituri
Salutamus" and "A Book of Sonnets." _The Mask of Pandora_ is a proof of
that growing appreciation of pagan naturalism which marked the poet's
later years. Though not a great poem, it is full of beautiful passages,
many of which point to the riddle of life as yet unsolved, a conviction
which grew ever more and more upon the poet, as the ebulliency of
romanticism gave way to the calm of classic feeling. In the "Book of
Sonnets" are some of the finest things he ever wrote, especially the
five sonnets entitled "Three Friends of Mine." These "three friends"
were Cornelius Felton, Louis Agassiz and Charles Sumner, whom he calls

                   "The noble three,
  Who half my life were more than friends to me."

The loss of Agassiz was a blow from which he never entirely recovered;
and, when Sumner also left him, he wrote:--

  "Thou hast but taken thy lamp and gone to bed;
   I stay a little longer, as one stays
   To cover up the embers that still burn."

He did stay a little longer; but the embers that still burnt in him
refused to be covered up. He would fain have ceased writing, and used to
say, "It's a great thing to know when to stop"; but he could not stop,
and did not stop, till the last. He continued to publish from time to
time, in the magazines, poems which showed a clearness of vision and a
perfection of workmanship such as he never had equalled at any period of
his life. Indeed it may be said that his finest poems were his last. Of
these a small collection appeared under the title of _Keramos, and other
Poems_ (1878). Besides these, in the years 1875-1878 he edited a
collection of _Poems of Places_ in thirty-one small volumes. In 1880
appeared _Ultima Thule_, meant to be his last work, and it was nearly
so. In October 1881 he wrote a touching sonnet on the death of President
Garfield, and in January 1882, when the hand of death was already upon
him, his poem, _Hermes Trismegistus_, in which he gives utterance, in
language as rich as that of the early gods, to that strange feeling of
awe without fear, and hope without form, with which every man of
spotless life and upright intellect withdraws from the phenomena of time
to the realities of eternity.

In the last years of his life he suffered a great deal from rheumatism,
and was, as he sometimes cheerfully said, "never free from pain." Still
he remained as sunny and genial as ever, looking from his Cambridge
study windows across the Brighton meadows to the Brookline hills, or
enjoying the "free wild winds of the Atlantic," and listening to "The
Bells of Lynn" in his Nahant home. He still continued to receive all
visitors, and to take occasional runs up to Castine and Portland, the
homes of his family. About the beginning of 1882, however, a serious
change took place in his condition. Dizziness and want of strength
confined him to his room for some time, and, although after some weeks
he partially recovered, his elasticity and powers were gone. On the 19th
of March he was seized with what proved to be peritonitis, and he died
on the 24th. The poet was buried two days afterwards near his "three
friends" in Mount Auburn cemetery. The regret for his loss was
universal; for no modern man was ever better loved or better deserved to
be loved.

Longfellow was made an LL.D. of Bowdoin College in 1828, at the age of
twenty-one, of Harvard in 1859 and of Cambridge (England) in 1868, and
D.C.L. of Oxford in 1869. In 1873 he was elected a member of the Russian
Academy of Science, and in 1877 of the Spanish Academy.

In person, Longfellow was rather below middle height, broad shouldered
and well built. His head and face were extremely handsome, his forehead
broad and high, his eyes full of clear, warming fire, his nose straight
and graceful, his chin and lips rich and full of feeling as those of the
Praxitelean Hermes, and his voice low, melodious and full of tender
cadences. His hair, originally dark, became, in his later years, silvery
white, and its wavy locks combined with those of his flowing beard to
give him that leonine appearance so familiar through his later
portraits. Charles Kingsley said of Longfellow's face that it was the
most beautiful human face he had ever seen. A bust to his memory was
erected in the Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey in 1884.

  In Longfellow, the poet was the flower and fruit of the man. His
  nature was essentially poetic, and his life the greatest of his poems.
  Those who knew only the poems he wrote could form but a faint notion
  of the harmony, the sweetness, the manliness and the tenderness of
  that which he lived. What he would have been as a poet, if, instead of
  visiting Europe in early life and drinking in the spirit of the middle
  ages under the shadows of cathedral towers, he had, like Whittier,
  grown old amid American scenery and life, we can only guess from his
  earlier poems, which are as naturalistic, fresh and unmystical as
  could be desired; but certain it is that, from his long familiarity
  with the medieval view of nature, and its semi-pagan offspring, the
  romantic view, he was brought, for the greater part of his life, to
  look upon the world of men and things either as the middle scene of a
  miracle play, with a heaven of rewarding happiness above and a
  purgatory of purifying pain below, or else as a garment concealing,
  while it revealed, spiritual forms of unfathomed mystery. During this
  time he could hear "the trailing garments of the night sweep through
  her marble halls," and see "the stars come out to listen to the music
  of the seas." Later on, as he approached his second youth (he was
  spared a second childhood), he tended to a more pagan view. About the
  time when he was writing _The Mask of Pandora_, he could see "in the
  sunset Jason's fleece of gold," and hear "the waves of the distracted
  sea piteously calling and lamenting" his lost friend. But through all
  the periods of his life his view of the world was essentially
  religious and subjective, and, consequently, his manner of dealing
  with it hymnal or lyric. This fact, even more than his merits as an
  artist, serves to account for his immense popularity. Too
  well-informed, too appreciative and too modest to deem himself the
  peer of the "grand old masters," or one of "those far stars that come
  in sight once in a century," he made it his aim to write something
  that should "make a purer faith and manhood shine in the untutored
  heart," and to do this in the way that should best reach that heart.
  This aim determined at once his choice of subjects and his mode of
  treating them.

  The subjects of Longfellow's poetry are, for the most part, aspects of
  nature as influencing human feeling, either directly or through
  historical association, the tender or pathetic sides and incidents of
  life, or heroic deeds preserved in legend or history. He had a special
  fondness for records of human devotion and self-sacrifice, whether
  they were monkish legends, Indian tales, Norse _drápas_ or bits of
  American history. His mode of treatment is subjective and lyric. No
  matter what form his works assume, whether the epic, as in Evangeline,
  _The Courtship of Miles Standish_ and _Hiawatha_, the dramatic, as in
  _The Spanish Student_, _The Golden Legend_ and _The Mask of Pandora_,
  or the didactic, as in _The Psalm of Life_ and many of the minor
  poems; they are all subjective. This is not the highest praise that
  can be given to works of art; but it implies less dispraise in
  Longfellow's case than in almost any other, by reason of his noble
  subjectivity.

  If we look in Longfellow's poetry for originality of thought, profound
  psychological analysis or new insights into nature, we shall be
  disappointed. Though very far from being hampered by any dogmatic
  philosophical or religious system of the past, his mind, until near
  the end, found sufficient satisfaction in the Christian view of life
  to make it indifferent to the restless, inquiring spirit of the
  present, and disinclined to play with any more recent solution of
  life's problems. He had no sympathy with either scepticism or formal
  dogmatism, and no need to hazard rash guesses respecting man's
  destiny. He disliked the psychological school of art, believing it to
  be essentially morbid and unhealthy. He had no sympathy with the
  tendency represented by George Eliot, or with any attempt to be
  analytic in art. He held art to be essentially synthetic, creative and
  manifesting, not analytic, destructive or questioning. Hence he never
  strove to draw from nature some new secret, or to show in her
  relations never discovered before. His aim was to impress upon her
  familiar facts and aspects the seal of his own gracious nature. A man
  in intellect and courage, yet without conceit or bravado; a woman in
  sensibility and tenderness, yet without shrinking or weakness; a saint
  in purity of life and devotion of heart, yet without asceticism or
  religiosity; a knight-errant in hatred of wrong and contempt of
  baseness, yet without self-righteousness or cynicism; a prince in
  dignity and courtesy, yet without formality or condescension; a poet
  in thought and feeling, yet without jealousy or affectation; a scholar
  in tastes and habits, yet without aloofness or bookishness; a dutiful
  son, a loving husband, a judicious father, a trusty friend, a useful
  citizen and an enthusiastic patriot,--he united in his strong,
  transparent humanity almost every virtue under heaven. A thoroughly
  healthy, well-balanced, harmonious nature, accepting life as it came,
  with all its joys and sorrows, and living it beautifully and
  hopefully, without canker and without uncharity. No man ever lived
  more completely in the light than Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

  Perhaps the most remarkable traits in Longfellow's character were his
  accessibility and his charity. Though a great worker, he seemed always
  to have time for anything he was asked to do. He was never too busy to
  see a caller, to answer a letter, or to assist, by word or deed, any
  one that needed assistance. His courtesy to all visitors, even to
  strangers and children who called to look at him, or who, not
  venturing to call, hung about his garden-gate in order to catch a
  glimpse of him, was almost a marvel. He always took it for granted
  that they had come to see Washington's study, and, accordingly, took
  the greatest interest in showing them that. He never, as long as he
  could write, was known to refuse his autograph, and so far was he from
  trying to protect himself from intruders that he rarely drew the
  blinds of his study windows at night, though that study was on the
  ground floor and faced the street. His acts of charity, though
  performed in secret, were neither few nor small. Of him it may be
  said with perfect truth, "He went about doing good"; and not with his
  money merely, but also with his presence and his encouragement. To how
  many sad hearts did he come like an angel, with the rich tones of his
  voice waking harmonics of hope, where before there had been despair
  and silence? How many young literary people, disappointed at the
  unsuccess of their first attempts, did he comfort and spur on to
  renewed and higher efforts! How careful he was to quench no smoking
  flax! How utterly free he was from jealousy or revengefulness! While
  poor, morbid Edgar Allan Poe was writing violent and scurrilous
  articles upon him, accusing him of plagiarism and other literary
  misdemeanours, he was delivering enthusiastic lectures to his classes
  on Poe's poetry. His charity was unbounded. Once, when the present
  writer proposed to the president of the Harvard University Visiting
  Committee that Longfellow should be placed on that committee, the
  president replied: "What would be the use? Longfellow could never be
  brought to find fault with anybody or anything." And it was true. His
  whole life was bathed in that sympathy, that love which suffers long
  and envies not, which forgives unto seventy times seven times, and as
  many more if need be. Even in his last years, when loss of friends and
  continual physical pain made life somewhat "cold, and dark and dreary"
  for him, he never complained, lamented or blamed the arrangements of
  nature, and the only way in which it was possible to know that he
  suffered was through his ever-increasing delight in the health and
  strength of younger men. His whole nature was summed up in the lines
  of his favourite poet:--

    "Luce intellettual, piena d'amore.
     Amor di vero ben, pien di letizia.
     Letizia che trascende ogni dolzore."

  See his _Life ... with Extracts from his Journals and Correspondence_,
  by Samuel Longfellow, and the "Riverside" edition of the prose and
  poems (Boston, 11 vols., 1886-1890). An enlarged edition of the _Life_
  (3 vols., 1891) included the journals and correspondence, 1866-1882,
  published in 1887 as _Final Memorials_ (Boston and New York). Also the
  volume by T. W. Higginson in the "American Men of Letters" series
  (1902); E. C. Stedman's criticism in _Poets of America_; and an
  article in W. D. Howells' _My Literary Friends and Acquaintance_ (New
  York, 1900) which contains a valuable account of Longfellow's later
  life.     (T. Da.)




LONG FIVES. This game, though played in a tennis-court, bears but a
slight resemblance to tennis, but is nevertheless a valuable form of
preparatory practice. The game is 8 or 11 points, each stroke won
counting one point to the winner. The server gives 3 points in 8, or 4
points in 11 to the striker-out. There are no chases. The winning
openings count as at tennis. If a ball be struck into any other gallery
or opening, it may be counted, by arrangement, either as a "let" (the
rest being annulled) or against the striker; a similar arrangement is
made for balls that make any chase on the hazard-side, or a chase of the
last gallery on the service-side.




LONGFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, bounded N.W.
by Leitrim, N.E. by Cavan, E. and S. by Westmeath and W. by Lough Ree
and Roscommon. With the exception of Carlow, Louth and Dublin, it is the
smallest county in Ireland, the area being 269,408 acres, or about 421
sq. m. The general level surface is broken occasionally by low hills,
which cover a considerable area at its northern angle. The principal
rivers are the Camlin, which rises near Granard and flows past Longford
to the Shannon, and the Inny, which entering the county from Westmeath
crosses its southern corner and falls into Lough Ree. Lough Ree is
partly included in Longford, and the other principal lakes are Lough
Gowna, Derrylough, Lough Drum and Lough Bannow.

  The Silurian axis of Newry reaches the north of this county, where
  Lough Gowna lies upon it. The rest of the county, but for anticlinals
  which bring up Old Red Sandstone at Longford town and Ardagh, belongs
  to the Carboniferous Limestone plain, in which Lough Ree forms a very
  characteristic lake, with signs of extension by solution along its
  shores. Marble of fine quality has been raised. In the north
  indications of iron are abundant, and there are also some traces of
  lead.

  The climate is somewhat moist and cold, and there is a large extent of
  marsh and bog. The soil in the southern districts resting on the
  limestone is a deep loam well adapted for pasture, but in the north it
  is often poor. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as 1 to
  2. Oats and potatoes, in decreasing quantities, are the principal
  crops. The numbers of cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are well
  maintained. The population is almost wholly rural, but the principal
  industry of agriculture is supplemented by a slight manufacture of
  coarse woollens and linen. The Midland Great Western line from
  Mullingar to Sligo crosses the centre of the county by way of the
  county town of Longford; and the Cavan branch touches the extreme
  east. The Royal Canal enters the county in the south at Abbeyshrule,
  and joins the Shannon near Cloondara.

  The population (52,647 in 1891; 46,672 in 1901) decreases seriously,
  owing to emigration. About 90% of the total are Roman Catholics. The
  only towns of any importance are Longford (the county town, pop. 3747)
  and Granard (1622). The county includes six baronies. Assizes are held
  at Longford, and quarter sessions at Ballymahon, Granard and Longford.
  The county is in the Protestant diocese of Ardagh, and the Roman
  Catholic dioceses of Ardagh and Meath. It is divided into two
  parliamentary divisions, north and south, each returning one member.

The early name of Longford was Annaly or Analé, and it was a
principality of the O'Farrels. Along with the province of Meath, in
which it was then included, it was granted by Henry II. to Hugh de Lacy,
who planted an English colony. On the division of Meath into two
counties in 1543, Annaly was included in Westmeath, but under a statute
of 1569, for the shiring of countries not already shired, it was made
shire ground under the name of Longford.

Among antiquarian remains the chief ruin is the rath called the Moat of
Granard, at the end of the main street of that town. There are monastic
remains at Ardagh, a former bishopric, Longford, Moydow and on several
of the islands of Lough Ree. The principal old castles are those of
Rathcline near Lanesborough, and Ballymahon on the Inny. The principal
modern seats are those of Carrickglass on the Camlin, and Castle Forbes,
the seat of the earls of Granard. Oliver Goldsmith was born at Pallas, a
village near Ballymahon, in this county; and at Edgeworthstown the
family of Edgeworth, of which the famous novelist Maria Edgeworth was a
member, established themselves in the 16th century.




LONGFORD, the county town of Co. Longford, Ireland, on the river Camlin,
and on a branch of the Midland Great Western railway, 75 m. W.N.W. of
Dublin. Pop. (1901) 3747. The principal building is St Mel's Roman
Catholic cathedral for the diocese of Ardagh, one of the finest Roman
Catholic churches in Ireland. The town has a considerable trade in
grain, butter and bacon. There are corn-mills, a spool factory and
tanneries. Longford is governed by an urban district council. The
ancient name of the town was Athfada, and here a monastery is said to
have been founded by St Idus, a disciple of St Patrick. The town
obtained a fair and market from James I. and a charter of incorporation
from Charles II., as well as the right to return two members to
parliament. It was disfranchised at the Union in 1800.




LONGHI, PIETRO (1702-1762), Venetian painter, was born in Venice. He was
a pupil of Antonio Palestra and Giuseppe Maria Crespi at Bologna, and
devoted himself to the painting of the elegance of the social life in
18th-century Venice. The republic was dying fast, but her sons, even in
this period of political decline, retained their love of pageants and
ceremonies and of extravagant splendour in attire. The art of Venice was
vanishing like her political power; and the only painters who attempted
to stem the tide of artistic decadence were the Canaletti, Guardi,
Tiepolo and Longhi. But whilst the Canaletti and Guardi dwelt upon the
architectural glories of Venice, and Tiepolo applied himself to
decorative schemes in which he continued the tradition of Paolo Veronese
and Tintoretto, Longhi became the chronicler of the life of his
compatriots. In a way his art may be set beside Hogarth's, though the
Venetian did not play the part of a satirical moralist. He has aptly
been called the Goldoni of painting. His sphere is that of light social
comedy--the life at the café, the hairdresser's, at the dancing-school,
at the dressmaker's. The tragic, or even the serious, note is hardly
sounded in his work, which, in its colour, is generally distinguished by
a rich mellow quality of tone. Most of his paintings are in the public
and private collections of Venice. They are generally on a small scale,
but the staircase of the Palazzo Grassi in Venice is decorated by him
with seven frescoes, representing scenes of fashionable life. At the
Venice academy are a number of his genre pictures and a portrait of the
architect Temanza; at the Palazzo Quirini-Stampalia the portrait of
Daniele Dolfino, "The Seven Sacraments" (etched by Pitteri), a
"Temptation of St Anthony," a "Circus," a "Gambling Scene," and several
other genre pictures and portraits; at the Museo Correr a dozen scenes
of Venetian life and a portrait of Goldoni. In England the National
Gallery owns "The Exhibition of a Rhinoceros in an Arena," a "Domestic
Group," "The Fortune-Teller," and the portrait of the Chevalier Andrea
Tron; two genre pictures are at Hampton Court Palace, and others in the
Richter and Mond collections. Many of his works have been engraved by
Alessandro Longhi, Bartolozzi, Cattini, Faldoni and others. Longhi died
in Venice in 1762.




LONGINUS, CASSIUS (c. A.D. 213-273), Greek rhetorician and philosophical
critic, surnamed PHILOLOGUS. The origin of his gentile name Cassius is
unknown; it can only be conjectured that he adopted it from a Roman
patron. He was perhaps a native of Emesa (Homs) in Syria, the birthplace
of his uncle Fronto the rhetorician. He studied at Alexandria under
Origen the heathen, and taught for thirty years at Athens, one of his
pupils being the Neoplatonist Porphyry. Longinus did not embrace the new
speculations then being developed by Plotinus, but continued a Platonist
of the old type. He upheld, in opposition to Plotinus, the doctrine that
the Platonic ideas existed outside the divine [Greek: Nous (hoti exô tou
nou hyphestêke ta noêta]: see F. Überweg, _Grundriss der Geschichte der
Philosophie_, 9th ed., 1903, i. § 72). Plotinus, after reading his
treatise [Greek: Peri archôn] (_On First Principles_), remarked that
Longinus might be a scholar ([Greek: philologos]), but that he was no
philosopher ([Greek: philosophos]). The reputation which Longinus
acquired by his learning was immense; he is described by Porphyry as
"the first of critics," and by Eunapius as "a living library and a
walking museum" or encyclopaedia. During a visit to the East he became
teacher in Greek, and subsequently chief counsellor in state affairs, to
Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. It was by his advice that she endeavoured to
regain her independence; Aurelian, however, crushed the attempt, and
while Zenobia was led captive to Rome to grace Aurelian's triumph,
Longinus paid the forfeit of his life.

Longinus was the author of a large number of works, nearly all of which
have perished. Among those mentioned by Suïdas are _Quaestiones
Homericae_, _An Homerus fuerit philosophus_, _Problemata Homeri et
solutiones_, _Atticorum vocabulorum editiones duae_; the most important
of his philological works, [Greek: philologoi homiliai] (_Philological
Discourses_) consisting of at least 21 books, is omitted. A considerable
fragment of the [Greek: Peri telous] (_De finibus, On the Chief End_) is
preserved in the _Life of Plotinus_ by Porphyry (§ 20). Under his name
there are also extant Prolegomena to the _Encheiridion_ of Hephaestion
on metre (printed in R. Westphal, _Scriptores Metrici Graeci_, i. 1866)
and the fragment of a treatise on rhetoric (L. Spengel, _Rhetores
Graeci_, i. pp. 299-320), inserted in the middle of a similar treatise
by Apsines. It gives brief practical hints on invention, arrangement,
style, memory and other things useful to the student. Some important
excerpts [Greek: ek tôn Logginou] (Spengel, i. 325-328) may possibly be
from the [Greek: philologoi homiliai].

  It is as the reputed author of the well-known and remarkable work
  [Greek: Peri hypsous] (generally, but inadequately, rendered _On the
  Sublime_) that Longinus is best known. Modern scholars, however, with
  few exceptions, are agreed that it cannot with any certainty be
  ascribed to him, and that the question of authorship cannot be
  determined (see Introduction to Roberts's edition). The following are
  the chief arguments against Longinus. (1) The treatise is not
  mentioned by any classical author, nor in any lists of the works
  attributed to him. (2) The evidence of the MSS. shows that doubts
  existed even in early times. In the most important (No. 2036 in the
  Paris Library, 10th century) the heading is [Greek: Dionysiou ê
  Logginou], thus giving an alternative author Dionysius; in the
  Laurentian MS. at Florence the title has [Greek: anônymou], implying
  that the author was unknown. The ascription in the Paris MS. led to
  the addition of Dionysius to the name of the reputed author--Dionysius
  Cassius Longinus, accounted for by the supposition that his early name
  was Dionysius, Cassius Longinus being subsequently adopted from a
  Roman patron whose client he had been. (3) The absence of any
  reference to the famous writers on rhetoric of the age of the
  Antonines, such as Hermogenes and Alexander son of Numenius. (4) The
  opening sentences show that the [Greek: Peri hypsous] was written with
  a view of correcting the faults of style and method in a treatise by
  Caecilius (q.v.) of Calacte on the same subject. As Caecilius
  flourished during the reign of Augustus, it is hardly likely that his
  work would have been selected for purposes of criticism in the 3rd
  century. (5) General considerations of style and language and of the
  point of view from which the work is written. In favour of Longinus:
  (1) The traditional ascription, which held its ground unchallenged
  till the beginning of the 18th century. (2) The philosophical
  colouring of the first chapter and the numerous quotations from Plato
  are in accordance with what is known of his philosophical opinions.
  (3) The treatise is the kind of work to be expected from one who was
  styled "the first of critics." (4) The Ammonius referred to (xiii. 3)
  is supposed to be Ammonius Saccas (c. 175-242), but it appears from
  the Venetian scholia to the _Iliad_ that there was an earlier Ammonius
  (fl. c. 140 B.C.), a pupil and successor of Aristarchus at Alexandria,
  who, judging from the context, is no doubt the writer in question. The
  reference is therefore an argument against Longinus.

  The work is dedicated to a certain Terentianus, of whom nothing is
  known (see Roberts's edition, p. 18).

  The alternative author Dionysius of the MSS. has been variously
  identified with the rhetorician and historian Dionysius of
  Halicarnassus, the Atticist Aelius Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
  Dionysius Atticus of Pergamum, Dionysius of Miletus. Other suggested
  claimants to the authorship are Plutarch (L. Vaucher in _Études
  critiques sur le traité du sublime_ (Geneva, 1854) and Aelius Theon of
  Alexandria (W. Christ), the author of a work on the _Arrangement of
  Speech_. But it seems most probable that the author was an unknown
  writer who flourished in the 1st century soon after Caecilius and
  before Hermogenes. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff gives his date as about A.D.
  40.

  The rendering _On the Sublime_ implies more than is intended by the
  Greek [Greek: Peri hypsous] ("impressiveness in style," Jebb). Nothing
  abnormal, such as is associated with the word "sublime," is the
  subject of discussion; it is rather a treatise on style. According to
  the author's own definitions, "Sublimity is a certain distinction and
  excellence in expression," "sublimity consists in elevation,"
  "sublimity is the echo (or expression) of a great soul" (see note in
  Roberts).

  The treatise is especially valuable for the numerous quotations from
  classical authors, above all, for the preservation of the famous
  fragment of Sappho, the ode to Anactoria, beginning

    [Greek: phainetai moi kênos isos theoisin],

  imitated by Catullus (li.) _Ad Lesbiam_,

    "Ille mi par esse deo videtur."

  "Its main object is to point out the essential elements of an
  impressive style which, avoiding all tumidity, puerility, affectation
  and bad taste, finds its inspiration in grandeur of thought and
  intensity of feeling, and its expression in nobility of diction and in
  skilfully ordered composition" (Sandys).

  A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the edition by W.
  R. Roberts (Cambridge, 2nd ed., 1907), containing an Introduction,
  Analysis, Translation and Appendices (textual, linguistic, literary
  and bibliographical), to which may be added F. Marx, _Wiener Studien_,
  xx. (1898), and F. Kaibel, _Hermes_, xxxiv. (1899), who respectively
  advocate and reject the claims of Longinus to the authorship; J. E.
  Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (2nd ed., 1906), pp. 288,
  338, should also be consulted. The number of translations in all the
  languages of Europe is large, including the famous one by Boileau,
  which made the work a favourite text-book of the bellelettristic
  critics of the 18th century. A text and translation was published by
  A. O. Prickard (1907-1908).




LONG ISLAND, an island, 118 m. long and 12 to 23 m. wide, with its axis
E.N.E. and W.S.W., roughly parallel with the S. shore of Connecticut,
U.S.A., from which it is separated by Long Island Sound (115 m. long and
20-25 m. wide) and lying S.E. of the mainland of New York state, of
which it is a part, and immediately E. of Manhattan Island. Area, 1682
sq. m. The east end is divided into two narrow peninsulas (the northern
culminating in Orient Point about 25 m. long, the southern ending in
Montauk Point, the eastern extremity of the island, about 40 m. long) by
the three bays, Great Peconic, Little Peconic (in which lies Shelter
Island) and Gardiners (in which lies Gardiners Island). The N. shore is
broken in its western half by the fjords of Flushing Bay, Little Neck
Bay, Manhasset Bay, Cold Spring Harbor; Huntington Bay (nearly
landlocked), Smithtown Bay and Port Jefferson Harbor, which also is
nearly landlocked. East of Port Jefferson the N. shore is comparatively
unbroken. The S. shore has two bays, Jamaica Bay with many low islands
and nearly cut off from the ocean by the narrow spur of Rockaway Beach;
and the ill-defined Great South Bay, which is separated from the
Atlantic by the narrow Long Beach, Jones Beach and Oak Island Beach, and
by the long peninsula (35 or 40 m.), called Fire Island or Great South
Beach. Still farther E. and immediately S. of Great Peconic Bay is
Shinnecock Bay, about 10 m. long and cut off from the ocean by a narrow
beach.

  The N. side of the island was largely built by deposits along the
  front of the continental glacier, and its peculiar surface is due to
  such deposits. At Astoria the dark gneiss bed rock is visible. The S.
  half of the island is mostly built of a light sandy or loamy soil and
  is low, except for the hills (140-195 ft.) of Montauk peninsula, which
  are a part of the "back-bone" of the island elsewhere running through
  the centre from E. to W. and reaching its highest point in its western
  extremity, Oakley's High Hill (384 ft.) and Hempstead Harbor Hill, W.
  of which are the flat and fertile Hempstead Plains. North of the
  back-bone or central ridge the country is hilly with glacial drift and
  many boulders along the coast and with soil stonier and more fertile
  than that of the "South Side." There is good clay at Whitestone and at
  Lloyd's Point on the north side. This north shore is comparatively
  well wooded; the middle of the island is covered with stunted oaks and
  scrubby pines; the south side is a floral mean between the other
  divisions. It is cut in its middle part by a few creeks and tidal
  rivers[1] flowing into the Great South Bay. Another "river," the
  Peconic, about 15 m. long, runs E. into Peconic Bay. On the north side
  there are few waterways save Nissequoge river, partly tidal, which
  runs N. into Smithtown Bay. Near the centre of the island is Lake
  Ronkonkoma, which is well below the level of the surrounding country,
  and whose deep cold waters with their unexplained ebb and flow are
  said to have been so feared by the Indians that they would not fish
  there. There are salt marshes (probably 100 sq. m. in all) on the
  shore of the Sound and of the Great South Bay.

  As regards its fauna Long Island is a meeting-place for equatorial and
  arctic species of birds and fish; in winter it is visited occasionally
  by the auk and in summer sometimes by the turkey buzzard. James E.
  DeKay in his botanical and zoological survey (1842-1849) of New York
  state estimated that on Long Island there were representatives of
  two-thirds of the species of land birds of the United States and
  seven-eighths of the water birds--probably an exaggerated estimate for
  the time and certainly not true now. There is snipe and duck shooting,
  especially on the shores of the Great South Bay; there is good deer
  hunting, especially in Islip town; and there are several private
  preserves, some stocked with English game birds, within 50 m. of New
  York City. There are many excellent trout streams and the island was
  known in aboriginal times for its fresh and salt water fish. Indian
  names referring to fishing places are discussed in Wm. W. Tooker's
  _Some Indian Fishing Stations upon Long Island_. Long Island wampum
  was singularly good--the Indian name, Seawanhacky (Seawanhaka, &c.),
  of the island has been interpreted to mean "shell treasury"--and black
  wampum was made from the purple part of the shell of the quahaug. Soft
  clams are dug on the north shore at low tide and hard clams are found
  along the southern shore, where (at Islip) they were first
  successfully canned; scallops and other small shell fish are taken,
  especially at the E. end of the island. But the most important shell
  fishery is that of oysters. The famous Blue Points grow in the Great
  South Bay, particularly at Sayville and Bellport, where seed oysters
  planted from Long Island Sound develop into the Blue Points with
  characteristics of no other variety of oyster. Farther west, on the S.
  shore are grown the well-known Rockaway oysters. The New York State
  Fish Commission has a hatchery at Cold Spring Harbor on the N. shore.
  The largest commercial fisheries are on the south side, in the ocean
  off Fire Island Beach, where there are great "pounds" in which
  captured fish are kept alive before shipment to market. Sag Harbor and
  East Hampton on the E. end of the island were important whaling ports
  in the 18th century and the first part of the 19th, and they and other
  fishing villages afterward did a large business in the capture of
  menhaden (_Brevoortia tyrannus_), a small shad-like fish, which,
  following the custom of the Indians, they manufactured into
  fertilizer. At Glen Cove there are now great starch factories.

  The west end of the island has been called New York's market garden.
  On the Hempstead Plains and immediately E. of them along the north
  shore great quantities of cabbage and cucumbers are grown and
  manufactured into sauerkraut and pickles. There are large cranberry
  fields near the village of Calverton, immediately W. of Riverhead.

There are a few large farms on Long Island, mostly on the north side,
but it is becoming more and more a place of suburban residence. This
change is due in part to cool summer and warm winter winds from the
ocean, which makes the July mean temperature 68° to 70° F. at the east
end and the south side, and 72° on the north shore, as contrasted with
74° for the west end and New York City. The range of temperature is said
to be less than in any other place in the United States with the
exception of Corpus Christi (Tex.), Eureka (California), Galveston
(Texas), and Key West (Florida). Even on the south shore the humidity
for August and September is less than that of any location on the
Atlantic coast, or Los Angeles and San Diego on the Pacific, according
to Dr Le Grand N. Denslow in a paper, "The Climate of Long Island"
(1901). Surf-bathing on the south shore, yachting and boating on the
Sound, the Great South Bay and the Ocean, and hunting and fishing are
attractions. At Garden City, Nassau (Glen Cove), Great River and
Shinnecock Hills are well-known golf links; there are several hunt
clubs; and at Southampton are some of the best turf tennis-courts in the
United States. Few parts of the island are summer resorts in the
ordinary use of the word; there are large hotels hardly anywhere save on
Coney Island, at Far Rockaway, on Long Beach and on Shelter Island; and
a large part of the summer population lives in private mansions. Some
Long Island "country places" are huge estates with game and fish
preserves and luxurious "châteaux." The roads are good. The course of
the Vanderbilt automobile races is along the roads of the Hempstead
Plains. Also on the Hempstead Plains are the Creedmoor Rifle Range,
where, in an Interstate Park, E. of Jamaica, annual international rifle
shooting tournaments for the championship of America were held until
1909; Garden City, which was founded by A. T. Stewart for the purpose of
providing comfortable homes at low cost to his employés and others, and
where are the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of the Incarnation, St
Paul's School for Boys and St Mary's School for Girls; and, near
Hempstead, the grounds of the Meadowbrook (hunt and polo) Club and those
of the Farm Kennel Club. The only railway is the Long Island Railroad
(owned by the Pennsylvania Railroad) with western termini on Manhattan
and in Long Island City and Brooklyn, whence lines meet at Jamaica, and
thence three principal lines branch, the north shore to Wading River,
the main line to Greenport, and the south side to Montauk.

Long Island is a part of New York State, its western third forming
Brooklyn and Queens boroughs of New York City--these boroughs were
formed respectively from Kings county and from the w. half of Queens
county upon the erection of Greater New York, what was formerly the E.
half of Queens county then became Nassau county (area 252 sq. m.; pop.,
in 1900, 55,448, in 1905, 69,477), whose county-seat is Mineola. The
eastern and the larger part of the island is the less thickly settled
Suffolk county with an area of 918 sq. m. and a population in 1900 of
77,582 and in 1905 of 81,653. The county-seat of Suffolk county is
Riverhead, so named from its position at the head of the Peconic river
on the W. end of Great Peconic Bay. The ten townships of Suffolk county
are large governmental units, showing, by their similarity to the towns
of New England, the relation of the early settlers to New England. The
largest in area is Brookhaven, which reaches all the way across the
island near its central part. The townships of Suffolk county with their
population in 1905 were: Huntington (10,236). Babylon (7919), Smithtown
(3325), Islip (13,721), Brookhaven (16,050), Riverhead (4950), Shelter
Island (1105), Easthampton (4303), Southold (8989) and Southampton
(11,024). The total population of Long Island was 1,452,611 in 1900, and
1,718,056 in 1905 (state census), the population of the borough of
Brooklyn alone for these years being 1,166,582 and 1,358,686.

_History._--The principal Indian tribes on Long Island at the time of
the first settlement by the whites were the Montauk, on the eastern end
of the island, where they gave their name to the "point" and where their
last "king," David Pharoah, died in 1785; the Shinnecock, who, much
admixed with negro blood, now live on the reservation between Canoe
Place and Shinnecock Hills; the Manhasset, on what is now Shelter
Island; the Patchogue, near the present village of that name; the
Massapequa, between the Hempstead Plains and what is now Islip, who were
defeated and practically exterminated in 1653 by John Underhill; the
Canarsie, who lived near the present Jamaica; and on the north side the
Nessaquague or Nissequoge (in the present town of Smithtown), and the
Sealtocot who gave their name to Setauket in Brookhaven town. The first
pastor of the church (Presbyterian-Congregational) at Easthampton,
Thomas James (c. 1620-1696), is supposed to have translated a catechism
and parts of the Bible into the dialect of the Montauk, among whom
Samson Occum had a school between 1755 and 1765.

The territory of Long Island was included in the grant of 1620 by James
I. to the Plymouth Company and in 1635 was conveyed to William
Alexander, earl of Stirling. The conflicting claims of English and Dutch
were the subject of the treaty concluded at Hartford, Connecticut, in
1650, by which the Dutch were to hold everything west of Oyster Bay, the
English everything east--a provision which accomplished no agreement,
since Oyster Bay itself was the matter of contention, and English
settlers on what the Dutch called the west side of Oyster Bay refused to
remove. Long Island was included in the territory assigned to the duke
of York in 1663-1664, when the New England towns on the island objected
to separation from Connecticut. On the recovery of New York by the Dutch
in 1673 the eastern towns refused to submit to the Dutch governor. In
1674 by the treaty of Westminster Long Island became a part of the
British colony of New York. The Dutch settlements were more important
ethnically than historically; on the west end of the Island the Dutch
Reformed Church is still strong and there are many Dutch names; at West
Sayville, on the "south side," about 50 m. from New York, in a
settlement made about 1786 by Gustav Tukker, who did much to develop the
oyster fisheries, Holland Dutch was the common speech until the last
quarter of the 19th century. The "Five Dutch Towns" were: Nieuw
Amersfoord (after 1801 officially called Flatlands), on Jamaica Bay,
where the first settlement was made about 1623 and the first grant in
1636; Midwout (later Vlackte-Bosch and Flatbush), settled between 1645
and 1650 and having in 1654 the first Dutch church; Nieuw Utrecht,
settled soon after 1650 and incorporated in 1660; Breuckelen (now
Brooklyn), which was settled a little before its organization as a town
in 1646; and Boswijck (Bushwick), first settled by Swedes and Norwegians
and incorporated in 1660. These five towns became one administrative
district in 1661.

Apparently the earliest English settlement was at Hempstead in 1640 by
colonists from Lynn, Massachusetts, who based their claim on the patent
(1621) of Nova Scotia to Lord Stirling, but were almost immediately
driven out by the Dutch. In 1643 another English settlement was made at
Hempstead by men from Stamford, Connecticut, who in 1644 secured a
patent from Governor Kieft of New Netherland. In 1645 Kieft granted land
at Gravesend to Lady Deborah Moody, who had settled there about 1643,
when she had left Lynn and the Salem church because of her
anti-pedobaptist views. At Gravesend in 1664 Colonel Richard Nicolls
first landed the English troops which occupied the island; and in 1693
it became one of its three ports of entry. The Connecticut towns on Long
Island were as follows: Southampton was settled in 1640 by the Lynn men
driven out of Hempstead by the Dutch, and in 1644-1664 was in the
Connecticut jurisdiction. Southold (the "South Hold of New Haven"),
called from 1640 until 1644 by the Indian name Yennicock, had a church
in 1640, and a court based on the Levitical law, which was abolished in
1643 upon the remonstrance of the authorities of New Haven. The Southold
settlers were from Hingham, Norfolk and New Haven, and the colony joined
New Haven in 1648, in which year the colony of Forrett's (now Shelter)
Island also submitted to New Haven. Easthampton was settled in 1648 from
Lynn. Oyster Bay was also settled by Lynn men in 1640 and contested by
the Dutch and English. Newtown, officially called Middleburgh, was
settled in 1652, purchased from the Indians in 1656, "annexed to the
other side of the Sound" in 1662, in the same year took the name of
Hastings, in 1706 was the scene of the arrest of the Presbyterian
itinerants Francis Mackemie and John Hampton, and in 1766 was the site
of the Methodist Episcopal Society at Middle Village, the second oldest
of that denomination in America. Huntington was settled in 1653 from New
Haven, Hempstead, Southold and Southampton. Other early settlements
were: Jamaica, about 1657; Brookhaven, first settled at Ashford (now
Setauket) from Boston in 1655, and Smithtown, patented in 1677 to
Richard Smith of Setauket, who was said to be a soldier of Cromwell, and
of whom there is a story that having bargained with the Indians for as
much land as a bull could cover in a day he rode his trained bull in a
great circuit about the land he coveted and was thereafter known as
"Bull" Smith. Almost all these English settlements were made by
Presbyterians and from Jamaica east this was the prevailing
denomination. During the war of Independence the battle of Long Island
(see below) was fought within what is now the borough of Brooklyn.

  AUTHORITIES.--Benj. F. Thompson, _The History of Long Island_ (New
  York, 2nd ed. 1843); Nathaniel S. Prime, _History of Long Island_ (New
  York, 1845), especially valuable for ecclesiastical history,
  particularly of the Presbyterian church; Martha B. Flint, _Early Long
  Island_ (New York, 1896); Gabriel Furman, _Antiquities of Long Island_
  (New York, 1875), edited by Frank Moore; and the publications of the
  Long Island Historical Society (of Brooklyn) and of the Suffolk County
  Historical Society (of Riverhead).     (R. We.)

_Battle of Long Island, 1776._--The interest of this battle lies in the
fact that it was the first engagement in the campaign of 1776 (see
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE) and was expected in England to be decisive
of the contest in the colonies. After the evacuation of Boston (March
1776), Lord Howe moved against New York City, which he thought would
afford a better base of operations for the future. The Americans
undertook its defence although recognizing the difficulties in the case,
as the bay and rivers adjoining would enable the British fleet to
co-operate effectively with the army. To protect his left flank
Washington was forced to throw a portion of his troops over to the Long
Island side of the East river; they fortified themselves there on the
site of the present Borough of Brooklyn. Lord Howe, who had encamped on
Staten Island at the entrance to the harbour, determined to attack this
isolated left wing, and on the 22nd of August landed at Gravesend Bay,
Long Island, with about 20,000 men. The Americans maintained strong
outposts in the wooded hills in advance of their fortified lines. On the
morning of the 27th Howe, after four days' reconnaissance, attacked
these posts with three columns, the left and centre delivering the
holding attack, and the right and strongest column turning the enemy's
left by a détour. Howe himself, accompanied by Generals (Sir H.) Clinton
and Lord Cornwallis, led the turning movement, which came upon the rear
of the enemy at the moment when they were engaged with the two other
columns. By noon the Americans had been driven back into the Brooklyn
lines in considerable confusion, and with the loss of about half their
number. This constituted the battle. The completeness of the English
victory was due to the neglect of the Americans in guarding the left of
their outposts. Howe has been criticized for not immediately assaulting
the American works which he might have carried on the evening of the
battle. In view of the fact that he had only defeated a small portion of
the American forces, and that the works were of considerable strength,
he decided to make a formal siege, and Washington took advantage of the
delay in operations to retreat across the river to New York on the night
of the 29th. This successful movement repaired to some extent the bad
moral effect of the defeat of the 27th in the American camp. In the
engagement of Long Island Washington lost about 1200 prisoners and 30
guns, and 400 killed and wounded; of the latter the British lost nearly
the same number.     (C. F. A.)


FOOTNOTE:

  [1] G. K. Gilbert, in an article, "The Deflection of Streams" in the
    _American Journal of Science_ (xxvii. 427-432), points out that each
    of these streams is "bounded on the west or right side by a bluff 10
    to 20 ft. high."




LONG ISLAND CITY, formerly a city of Queens county, New York, U.S.A.,
and since the 1st of January 1898 the first ward of the Borough of
Queens, New York City. Pop. (1880) 17,129, (1890) 30,506, (1900) 48,272,
of whom 15,899 were foreign-born. It has a river front, on East river
and Long Island Sound, of 10 m., and is the eastern terminal and the
headquarters of the Long Island railway, having a large Y.M.C.A.
building (the gift of Mrs Russell Sage) for employees of this railway.
Among manufactures are chemicals, pottery, varnish, silk, &c., and there
are oil-storage warehouses. Most of the borough offices of Queens
borough are in Long Island City, which was formerly the county-seat of
Queens county. The first settlement within the limits of what
subsequently became Long Island City was made in 1640 by a Dutch
blacksmith, Hendrick Harmensen, who soon afterward was murdered by an
Indian. Other settlers, both Dutch and English, soon followed, and
established detached villages, which became known as Hunter's Point,
Blissville, Astoria, Ravenswood, Dutch Kills, Middleton and Steinway.
In 1853 this group of villages, by that time virtually one community,
was called Long Island City, and it was formally incorporated under that
name in 1870. In 1871-1872 the city was laid out by a commission of
which General W. B. Franklin was president. Political convictions,
economic considerations and fear combined to make the residents in this
region largely loyalist in their attitude during the War of
Independence. From 1776 to 1783 British troops occupied Newtown, a
village to the S. E. In January 1776 the committee on the state of New
York in Congress reported a resolution that "Whereas a majority of the
inhabitants of Queens county, in the colony of New York, being incapable
of resolving to live and die free men,... all such persons as voted
against sending deputies to the present convention in New York ... be
put out of the protection of the United Colonies," &c., an action which
led to the arrest and imprisonment of many of the accused persons.

  See J. S. Kelsey, _History of Long Island City_ (Long Island City,
  1896).




LONGITUDE (from Lat. _longitudo_, "length"), the angle which the
terrestrial meridian from the pole through a point on the earth's
surface makes with some standard meridian, commonly that of Greenwich.
It is equal to the difference between local time on the standard
meridian, and at the place defined, one hour of time corresponding to
15° difference of longitude. Formerly each nation took its own capital
or principal observatory as the standard meridian from which longitudes
were measured. Another system had a meridian passing through or near the
island of Ferro, defined as 20° W. of Paris, as the standard. While the
system of counting from the capital of the country is still used for
local purposes, the tendency in recent years is to use the meridian of
Greenwich for nautical and international purposes. France, however, uses
the meridian of the Paris observatory as its standard for all nautical
and astronomical purposes (see TIME). In astronomy, the longitude of a
celestial body is the distance of its projection upon the ecliptic from
the vernal equinox, counted in the direction west to east from 0° to
360°.




LONGLEY, CHARLES THOMAS (1794-1868), archbishop of Canterbury, was born
at Rochester, and educated at Westminster and Oxford. He was ordained in
1818, and was appointed vicar of Cowley, Oxford, in 1823. In 1827 he
received the rectory of west Tytherley, Hampshire, and two years later
he was elected headmaster of Harrow. This office he held until 1836,
when he was consecrated bishop of the new see of Ripon. In 1856 he was
translated to the see of Durham, and in 1860 he became archbishop of
York. In 1862 he succeeded John Bird Sumner as archbishop of Canterbury.
Soon afterwards the questions connected with the deposition of Bishop
Colenso were referred to him, but, while regarding Colenso's opinions as
heretical and his deposition as justifiable, he refused to pronounce
upon the legal difficulties of the case. The chief event of his primacy
was the meeting at Lambeth, in 1867, of the first Pan-Anglican
conference of British, colonial and foreign bishops (see LAMBETH
CONFERENCES). His published works include numerous sermons and
addresses. He died on the 27th of October 1868 at Addington Park, near
Croydon.




LONGMANS, a firm of English publishers. The founder of the firm, Thomas
Longman (1) (1699-1755), born in 1699, was the son of Ezekiel Longman
(d. 1708), a gentleman of Bristol. Thomas was apprenticed in 1716 to
John Osborn, a London bookseller. At the expiration of his
apprenticeship he married Osborn's daughter, and in August 1724
purchased the stock and household goods of William Taylor, the first
publisher of _Robinson Crusoe_, for £2282 9s. 6d. Taylor's two shops
were known respectively as the Black Swan and the Ship, and occupied the
ground in Paternoster Row upon which the present publishing house
stands. Osborn, who afterwards entered into partnership with his
son-in-law, held one-sixth of the shares in Ephraim Chambers's
_Cyclopaedia of the Arts and Sciences_, and Thomas Longman was one of
the six booksellers who undertook the responsibility of Samuel Johnson's
_Dictionary_. In 1754 Thomas Longman took his nephew into partnership,
the title of the firm becoming T. and T. Longman.

Upon the death of his uncle in 1755, Thomas Longman (2) (1730-1797)
became sole proprietor. He greatly extended the colonial trade of the
firm. He had three sons. Of these, Thomas Norton Longman (3) (1771-1842)
succeeded to the business. In 1794 Owen Rees became a partner, and
Thomas Brown, who was for many years after 1811 a partner, entered the
house as an apprentice. Brown died in 1869 at the age of 92. In 1799
Longman purchased the copyright of Lindley Murray's _English Grammar_,
which had an annual sale of about 50,000 copies; he also purchased,
about 1800, the copyright, from Joseph Cottle, of Bristol, of Southey's
_Joan of Arc_ and Wordsworth's _Lyrical Ballads_. He published the works
of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey and Scott, and acted as London agent
for the _Edinburgh Review_, which was started in 1802. In 1804 two more
partners were admitted; and in 1824 the title of the firm was changed to
Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green. In 1814 arrangements were
made with Thomas Moore for the publication of _Lalla Rookh_, for which
he received £3000; and when Archibald Constable failed in 1826, Longmans
became the proprietors of the _Edinburgh Review_. They issued in 1829
Lardner's _Cabinet Encyclopaedia_, and in 1832 M'Culloch's _Commercial
Dictionary_.

Thomas Norton Longman (3) died on the 29th of August 1842, leaving his
two sons, Thomas (4) (1804-1879) and William Longman (1813-1877), in
control of the business in Paternoster Row. Their first success was the
publication of Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_, which was followed in
1849 by the issue of the first two volumes of his _History of England_,
which in a few years had a sale of 40,000 copies. The two brothers were
well known for their literary talent; Thomas Longman edited a
beautifully illustrated edition of the New Testament, and William
Longman was the author of several important books, among them a _History
of the Three Cathedrals dedicated to St Paul_ (1869) and a work on the
_History of the Life and Times of Edward III._ (1873). In 1863 the firm
took over the business of Mr J. W. Parker, and with it _Fraser's
Magazine_, and the publication of the works of John Stuart Mill and J.
A. Froude; while in 1890 they incorporated with their own all the
publications of the old firm of Rivington, established in 1711. The
family control of the firm (now Longmans, Green & Co.) was continued by
Thomas Norton Longman (5), son of Thomas Longman (4).




LONGOMONTANUS (or LONGBERG), CHRISTIAN SEVERIN(1562-1647), Danish
astronomer, was born at the village of Longberg in Jutland, Denmark, on
the 4th of October 1562. The appellation Longomontanus was a Latinized
form of the name of his birthplace. His father, a poor labourer called
Sören, or Severin, died when he was eight years old. An uncle thereupon
took charge of him, and procured him instruction at Lemvig; but after
three years sent him back to his mother, who needed his help in
field-work. She agreed, however, to permit him to study during the
winter months with the clergyman of the parish; and this arrangement
subsisted until 1577, when the illwill of some of his relatives and his
own desire for knowledge impelled him to run away to Viborg. There he
attended the grammar-school, defraying his expenses by manual labour,
and carried with him to Copenhagen in 1588 a high reputation for
learning and ability. Engaged by Tycho Brahe in 1589 as his assistant in
his great astronomical observatory of Uraniborg, he rendered him
invaluable services there during eight years. He quitted the island of
Hveen with his master, but obtained his discharge at Copenhagen on the
1st of June 1597, for the purpose of studying at some German
universities. He rejoined Tycho at Prague in January 1600, and having
completed the Tychonic lunar theory, turned homeward again in August. He
visited Frauenburg, where Copernicus had made his observations, took a
master's degree at Rostock, and at Copenhagen found a patron in
Christian Friis, chancellor of Denmark, who gave him employment in his
household. Appointed in 1603 rector of the school of Viborg, he was
elected two years later to a professorship in the university of
Copenhagen, and his promotion to the chair of mathematics ensued in
1607. This post he held till his death, on the 8th of October 1647.

Longomontanus, although an excellent astronomer, was not an advanced
thinker. He adhered to Tycho's erroneous views about refraction, held
comets to be messengers of evil and imagined that he had squared the
circle. He found that the circle whose diameter is 43 has for its
circumference the square root of 18252--which gives 3.14185... for the
value of [pi]. John Pell and others vainly endeavoured to convince him
of his error. He inaugurated, at Copenhagen in 1632, the erection of a
stately astronomical tower, but did not live to witness its completion.
Christian IV. of Denmark, to whom he dedicated his _Astronomia Danica_,
an exposition of the Tychonic system of the world, conferred upon him
the canonry of Lunden in Schleswig.

  The following is a list of his more important works in mathematics and
  astronomy: _Systematis Mathematici_, &c. (1611); _Cyclometria e
  Lunulis reciproce demonstrata_, &c. (1612); _Disputatio de Eclipsibus_
  (1616); _Astronomia Danica_, &c. (1622); _Disputationes quatuor
  Astrologicae_ (1622); _Pentas Problematum Philosophiae_ (1623); _De
  Chronolabio Historico, seu de Tempore Disputationes tres_ (1627);
  _Geometriae quaesita XIII. de Cyclometria rationali et vera_ (1631);
  _Inventio Quadraturae Circuli_ (1634); _Disputatio de Matheseos
  Indole_ (1636); _Coronis Problematica ex Mysteriis trium Numerorum_
  (1637); _Problemata duo Geometrica_ (1638); _Problema contra Paulum
  Guldinum de Circuli Mensura_ (1638); _Introductio in Theatrum
  Astronomicum_ (1639); _Rotundi in Plano_, &c. (1644); _Admiranda
  Operatio trium Numerorum 6, 7, 8_, &c. (1645); _Caput tertium Libri
  primi de absoluta Mensura Rotundi plani_, &c. (1646).

  See E. P. F. Vindingius, _Regia Academia Havinensis_, p. 212 (1665);
  R. Nyerup and Kraft, _Almindeligt Litteraturlexikon_, p. 350 (1820);
  Ch. G. Jöcher, _Allgemeines Gelehrten-lexikon_, ii. 2518, iii. 2111;
  Jens Worm, _Forsög til et Lexikon over danske, norske og islandske
  laerde Maend_, p. 617, 1771, &c.; P. Bayle, _Hist. and Crit.
  Dictionary_, iii. 861 (2nd ed. 1736); J. B. J. Delambre, _Hist. de
  l'astr. moderne_, i. 262; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_,
  ii. 141; J. L. E. Dreyer, _Tycho Brahe_, pp. 126, 259, 288, 299; F.
  Hoeffer, _Hist. de l'astronomie_, p. 391; J. Mädler, _Geschichte der
  Himmelskunde_, i. 195; J. F. Weidler, _Hist. Astronomiae_, p. 451.




LONGSTREET, JAMES (1821-1904), American soldier, lieutenant-general in
the Confederate army, was born on the 8th of February 1821 in Edgefield
district, South Carolina, and graduated at West Point in 1842. He served
in the Mexican War, was severely wounded, and received two brevets for
gallantry. In 1861, having attained the rank of major, he resigned when
his state seceded, and became a brigadier-general in the Confederate
army. In this rank he fought at the first battle of Bull Run, and
subsequently at the head of a division in the Peninsular campaign and
the Seven Days. This division subsequently became the nucleus of the I.
corps, Army of Northern Virginia, which was commanded throughout the war
by Longstreet. This corps took part in the battles of second Bull Run
and Antietam, and held the left of Lee's front at Fredericksburg. Most
of the corps was absent in North Carolina when the battle of
Chancellorsville took place, but Longstreet, now a lieutenant-general,
returned to Lee in time to take part in the campaign of Gettysburg. At
that battle he disapproved of the attack because of the exceptionally
strong position of the Federals. He has been charged with tardiness in
getting into the action, but his delay was in part authorized by Lee to
await an absent brigade, and in part was the result of instructions to
conceal his movements, which caused circuitous marching. The most
conspicuous fighting in the battle was conducted by Longstreet. In
September 1863 he took his corps to the west and bore a conspicuous part
in the great battle of Chickamauga. In November he commanded the
unsuccessful expedition against Knoxville. In 1864 he rejoined Lee's
army in Virginia, and on the 6th of May arrived upon the field of the
Wilderness as the Confederate right had been turned and routed. His
attack was a model of impetuosity and skill, and drove the enemy back
until their entire force upon that flank was in confusion. At this
critical moment, as Longstreet in person, at the head of fresh troops,
was pushing the attack in the forest, he was fired upon by mistake by
his own men and desperately wounded. This mischance stayed the
Confederate assault for two hours, and enabled the enemy to provide
effective means to meet it. In October 1864 he resumed command of his
corps, which he retained until the surrender, although paralysed in his
right arm. During the period of Reconstruction Longstreet's attitude
towards the political problem, and the discussion of certain military
incidents, notably the responsibility for the Gettysburg failure,
brought the general into extreme unpopularity, and in the course of a
controversy, which lasted for many years, much was said and written by
both sides which could be condoned only by irritation. His acceptance of
a Federal office at New Orleans brought him, in a riot, into armed
conflict with his old Confederate soldiers. His admiration for General
Grant and his loyalty to the Republican party accentuated the
ill-feeling of the Southern people. But in time his services in former
days were recalled, and he became once more "General Lee's war-horse" to
his old soldiers and the people of the South. He held several civil
offices, among them being that of minister to Turkey under Grant and
that of commissioner of Pacific railways under Presidents McKinley and
Roosevelt. In 1896 he published _From Manassas to Appomattox_, and in
his later years he prepared an account of Gettysburg, which was
published soon after his death, with notes and reminiscences of his
whole military career. General Longstreet died at Gainesville, Georgia,
on the 2nd of January 1904.

  See _Lee and Longstreet at High Tide_, by Helen D. Longstreet
  (Gainesville, Ga., 1904).




LONGTON, a market-town of Staffordshire, England, on the North
Staffordshire railway, 2½ m. S.E. of Stoke-on-Trent, within which
parliamentary and municipal borough it is included. Pop. (1901) 35,815.
The town is in the Potteries district, and in the neighbourhood of coal
and iron mines. It was governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30
councillors until under the "Potteries Federation" scheme (1908) it
became part of the borough of Stoke-on-Trent in 1910.




LONGUEVILLE, the name of a French family which originated with Jean,
count of Dunois, the "Bastard of Orleans," to whom Charles VII. gave the
countship of Longueville in Normandy in 1443. François of Orleans, count
of Longueville, was created duke in 1505. The marriage of his brother
Louis with Jeanne, daughter and heiress of Philip, count of
Baden-Hochberg-Sausenberg (d. 1503), added considerable estates to the
house of Longueville. Henry, duc de Longueville (d. 1663), took an
important part in the Fronde, and for a long time held the royal troops
in check in Normandy. His wife, Anne Geneviève (see below), was a
leading figure in the political dissensions of the time. The last of the
family was Jean Louis, the Abbé d'Orléans, who died in 1694. The
numismatist, Charles d'Orléans-Rothelin (1691-1744), belonged to a
bastard branch of the family.




LONGUEVILLE, ANNE GENEVIÈVE, DUCHESSE DE (1619-1679), was the only
daughter of Henri de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, and his wife Charlotte
Marguerite de Montmorency, and the sister of Louis, the great Condé. She
was born on the 28th of August 1619, in the prison of Vincennes, into
which her father and mother had been thrown for opposition to Marshal
D'Ancre, the favourite of Marie de' Medici, who was then regent in the
minority of Louis XIII. She was educated with great strictness in the
convent of the Carmelites in the Rue St Jacques at Paris. Her early
years were clouded by the execution of the duc de Montmorency, her
mother's only brother, for intriguing against Richelieu in 1631, and
that of her mother's cousin the comte de Montmorency-Boutteville for
duelling in 1635; but her parents made their peace with Richelieu, and
being introduced into society in 1635 she soon became one of the stars
of the Hôtel Rambouillet, at that time the centre of all that was
learned, witty and gay in France. In 1642 she was married to the duc de
Longueville, governor of Normandy, a widower twice her age. The marriage
was not happy. After Richelieu's death her father became chief of the
council of regency during the minority of Louis XIV., her brother Louis
won the great victory of Rocroy in 1643 (see CONDÉ), and the duchess
became of political importance. In 1646 she accompanied her husband to
Münster, where he was sent by Mazarin as chief envoy, and where she
charmed the German diplomatists who were making the treaty of
Westphalia, and was addressed as the "goddess of peace and concord." On
her return she fell in love with the duc de la Rochefoucauld, the
author of the _Maxims_, who made use of her love to obtain influence
over her brother, and thus win honours for himself. She was the guiding
spirit of the first Fronde, when she brought over Armand, Prince de
Conti, her second brother, and her husband to the malcontents, but she
failed to attract Condé himself, whose loyalty to the court overthrew
the first Fronde. It was during the first Fronde that she lived at the
Hôtel de Ville and took the city of Paris as god-mother for the child
born to her there. The peace did not satisfy her, although La
Rochefoucauld won the titles he desired. The second Fronde was largely
her work, and in it she played the most prominent part in attracting to
the rebels first Condé and later Turenne. In the last year of the war
she was accompanied into Guienne by the duc de Nemours, her intimacy
with whom gave La Rochefoucauld an excuse for abandoning her, and who
himself immediately returned to his old mistress the duchesse de
Chevreuse. Thus abandoned, and in disgrace at court, the duchess betook
herself to religion. She accompanied her husband to his government at
Rouen, and devoted herself to good works. She took for her director M.
Singlin, famous in the history of Port Royal. She chiefly lived in
Normandy till 1663, when her husband died, and she came to Paris. There
she became more and more Jansenist in opinion, and her piety and the
remembrance of her influence during the disastrous days of the Fronde,
and above all the love her brother, the great Condé, bore her, made her
conspicuous. The king pardoned her and in every way showed respect for
her. She became the great protectress of the Jansenists; it was in her
house that Arnauld, Nicole and De Lane were protected; and to her
influence must be in great part attributed the release of Lemaistre De
Sacy from the Bastille, the introduction of Pomponne into the ministry
and of Arnauld to the king. Her famous letters to the pope are part of
the history of PORT ROYAL (q.v.), and as long as she lived the nuns of
Port Royal des Champs were left in safety. Her elder son resigned his
title and estates, and became a Jesuit under the name of the Abbé
d'Orléans, while the younger, after leading a debauched life, was killed
leading the attack in the passage of the Rhine in 1673. As her health
failed she hardly ever left the convent of the Carmelites in which she
had been educated. On her death in 1679 she was buried with great
splendour by her brother Condé, and her heart, as she had directed, was
sent to the nuns of the Port Royal des Champs.

  The chief authority for Madame de Longueville's life is a little book
  in two volumes by Villefore the Jansenist, published in 1738. Victor
  Cousin has devoted four volumes to her, which, though immensely
  diffuse, give a vivid picture of her time. See also Sainte-Beuve,
  _Portraits des femmes_ (1840). Her connexion with Port Royal should be
  studied in Arnauld's _Memoirs_, and in the different histories of that
  institution.




LONGUS, Greek sophist and romancer, author of _Daphnis and Chloë_.
Nothing is known of his life, and all that can be said is that he
probably lived at the end of the 2nd or the beginning of the 3rd century
A.D. It has been suggested that the name Longus is merely a misreading
of the last word of the title [Greek: Lesbiakôn erôtikôn logoi d'] in
the Florentine MS.; Seiler also observes that the best MS. begins and
ends with [Greek: logou] (not [Greek: loggou]) [Greek: poimenikôn]. If
his name was really Longus, he was probably a freedman of some Roman
family which bore it. Longus's style is rhetorical, his shepherds and
shepherdesses are wholly conventional, but he has imparted human
interest to a purely fanciful picture. As an analysis of feeling,
_Daphnis and Chloë_ makes a nearer approach to the modern novel than its
chief rival among Greek erotic romances, the _Aethiopica_ of Heliodorus,
which is remarkable mainly for the ingenious succession of incidents.
Daphnis and Chloë, two children found by shepherds, grow up together,
nourishing a mutual love which neither suspects. The development of this
simple passion forms the chief interest, and there are few incidents.
Chloë is carried off by a pirate, and ultimately regains her family.
Rivals alarm the peace of mind of Daphnis; but the two lovers are
recognized by their parents, and return to a happy married life in the
country. _Daphnis and Chloë_ was the model of _La Sireine_ of Honoré
d'Urfé, the _Diana enamorada_ of Montemayor, the _Aminta of Tasso_, and
_The Gentle Shepherd_ of Allan Ramsay. The celebrated _Paul et Virginie_
is an echo of the same story.

  See J. Dunlop's _History of Prose Fiction_ (1888), and especially E.
  Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900). Longus found an incomparable
  translator in Jacques Amyot, bishop of Auxerre, whose French version,
  as revised by Paul Louis Courier, is better known than the original.
  It appeared in 1559, thirty-nine years before the publication of the
  Greek text at Florence by Columbani. The chief subsequent editions are
  those by G. Jungermann (1605), J. B. de Villoison (1778, the first
  standard text with commentary), A. Coraes (Coray) (1802), P. L.
  Courier (1810, with a newly discovered passage), E. Seiler (1835), R.
  Hercher (1858), N. Piccolos (Paris, 1866) and Kiefer (Leipzig, 1904),
  W. D. Lowe (Cambridge, 1908). A. J. Pons's edition (1878) of Courier's
  version contains an exhaustive bibliography. There are English
  translations by G. Thorneley (1733, reprinted 1893), C. V. Le Grice
  (1803), R. Smith (in Bohn's _Classical Library_), and the rare
  Elizabethan version by Angel Day from Amyot's translation (ed. J.
  Jacobs in _Tudor Library_, 1890). The illustrated editions, generally
  of Amyot's version, are numerous and some are beautiful, Prudhon's
  designs being especially celebrated.




LONGWY, a fortified town of north-eastern France in the department of
Meurthe-et-Moselle, 89 m. N.N.W of Nancy by rail. Pop. (1906) 8523.
Longwy is situated on a plateau overlooking the Chiers, a right-bank
affluent of the Meuse, near the frontiers of Belgium and Luxemburg. It
comprises an upper and a lower town; the former, on a hill, 390 ft.
above the Chiers valley, commands the Luxemburg road, and is
strengthened by an enceinte and a few outlying fortifications. There is
garrison accommodation for 5000 men and 800 horses, but the permanent
garrison is small. The lower town is the industrial centre. The
17th-century church has a lofty square tower, the hôtel de ville dates
from 1730, and there is a fine hospital. Iron is extensively mined in
the district, and supplies numerous blast furnaces. Several iron and
steel works are in operation, and metal utensils, fire-proof ware and
porcelain are manufactured. Longwy (_Longus vicus_) came into the
possession of the French in 1678 and was at once fortified by Vauban. It
was captured by the Prussians in 1792, 1815 and 1871.




LÖNNROT, ELIAS (1802-1884), Finnish philologist and discoverer of the
_Kalevala_, was born at Nyland in Finland on the 9th of April 1802. He
was an apothecary's assistant, but entered the university of Åbo in
1822, and after taking his successive degrees became a physician in
1832. But before this, as early as 1827, he had begun to publish
contributions to the study of the ancient Finnish language, and to
collect the national ballads and folklore, a field which was at that
time uncultivated. In 1833 he settled as a doctor in the country
district of Kajana, and began to travel throughout Finland and the
adjoining Russian provinces in his leisure time, collecting songs and
legends. In this way he was able to put together the great epic of
Finland, the _Kalevala_, the first edition of which he published in
1835; he continued to add to it, and in 1849 issued a larger and
completer text. In 1840 Lönnrot issued his important collection of the
Kanteletar, or folk-songs of ancient Finland, which he had taken down
from oral tradition. The _Proverbs of Finland_ followed in 1842. In
1853, on the death of Castrén, Lönnrot became professor of the Finnish
language and literature at the high school of Helsingfors; he retired
from this chair in 1862. He died on the 19th of March 1884.




LONSDALE, EARLS OF. This English earldom is held by the ancient family
of Lowther, which traces its descent to Sir Hugh Lowther, who flourished
in the reign of Edward I. Sir Hugh's descendant Sir Richard Lowther
(1529-1607) received Mary queen of Scots on her flight into England in
1568, and in the two following years was concerned with his brother
Gerard in attempts to release her from captivity. He was sheriff of
Cumberland and lord warden of the west marches. A house built by Gerard
Lowther at Penrith is now the "Two Lions Inn." Sir Richard's eldest son,
Sir Christopher Lowther (d. 1617), was the ancestor of the later
Lowthers, and another son. Sir Gerard Lowther (d. 1624), was judge of
the common pleas in Ireland.

One of Sir Christopher's descendants was Sir John Lowther, Bart. (d.
1706), the founder of the trade of Whitehaven, and another was John
Lowther (1655-1700), who was created Viscount Lonsdale in 1696. Before
this creation John had succeeded his grandfather, another Sir John
Lowther (d. 1675), as a baronet, and had been member of parliament for
Westmorland from 1675 to 1696. In 1688 he was serviceable in securing
Cumberland and Westmorland for William of Orange; in 1690 he was first
lord of the treasury, and he was lord privy seal from March 1699 until
his death in July 1700. Lonsdale wrote: _Memoirs of the Reign of James
II._, which were printed in 1808 and again in 1857. His family became
extinct when his son Henry, the 3rd viscount (1694-1751), died unmarried
in March 1751.

James Lowther, 1st earl of Lonsdale (1736-1802), was a son of Robert
Lowther (d. 1745) of Maulds Meaburn, Westmorland, who was for some time
governor of Barbados, and was descended from Sir Christopher Lowther;
through his mother Catherine Pennington, James was a great-grandson of
the 1st viscount Lonsdale. He inherited one of the family baronetcies in
1751, and from three sources he obtained immense wealth, being the heir
of the 3rd viscount Lonsdale, of Sir James Lowther, Bart. (d. 1755) of
Whitehaven, and of Sir William Lowther, Bart. (d. 1756). From 1757 to
1784 he was a member of parliament, exercising enormous influence on
elections in the north of England and usually controlling nine seats in
the House of Commons, where his nominees were known as "Sir James's
ninepins." He secured the election of William Pitt as member for his
borough of Appleby in 1781, and his dispute with the 3rd duke of
Portland over the possession of the socage manor of Carlisle and the
forest of Inglewood gave rise to lengthy proceedings, both in parliament
and in the law courts. In 1784 Lowther was created earl of Lonsdale and
in 1797 Viscount Lowther with an extended remainder. The earl's enormous
wealth enabled him to gratify his political ambitions. Sir N. W. Wraxall
(_Historical and Posthumous Memoirs_, ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1884), who
gives interesting glimpses of his life, speaks of his "prodigious
property" and quotes Junius, who called him "the little contemptible
tyrant of the north." He was known as the "bad earl," and Horace Walpole
and others speak slightingly of him; he was, however, a benefactor to
Whitehaven, where he boasted he owned the "land, fire and water."

He married Mary (1768-1824) daughter of George III.'s favourite, John
Stuart, 3rd earl of Bute, but died childless on the 24th of May 1802,
when the earldom became extinct; but a kinsman, Sir William Lowther,
Bart. (1757-1844), of Swillington, became 2nd viscount Lowther. This
viscount, who was created earl of Lonsdale in 1807, is chiefly famous as
the friend of Wordsworth and the builder of Lowther Castle, Penrith. His
son, William Lowther, 3rd earl of Lonsdale (1787-1872), held several
subordinate positions in various Tory ministries, and was lord president
of the council in 1852. He died unmarried, and was succeeded by his
nephew Henry (1818-1876), whose son Hugh Cecil (b. 1857) succeeded his
brother as 6th earl of Lonsdale in 1882.

Other prominent members of the Lowther family are the Right Hon. James
William Lowther (b. 1855), who became speaker of the House of Commons in
1905; Sir Gerard Augustus Lowther (b. 1858), who became British
ambassador at Constantinople in 1908; and the Right Hon. James Lowther
(1840-1904), who was a well-known Conservative member of parliament from
1865, onwards, and chief secretary for Ireland from 1878 to 1880.




LONSDALE, WILLIAM (1794-1871), English geologist and palaeontologist,
was born at Bath on the 9th of September 1794. He was educated for the
army and in 1810 obtained a commission as ensign in the 4th (King's Own)
regiment. He served in the Peninsular War at the battles of Salamanca
and Waterloo, for both of which he received medals; and he retired as
lieutenant. Residing afterwards for some years at Batheaston he
collected a series of rocks and fossils which he presented to the
Literary and Scientific Institution of Bath. He became the first
honorary curator of the natural history department of the museum, and
worked until 1829 when he was appointed assistant secretary and curator
of the Geological Society of London at Somerset House. There he held
office until 1842, when ill-health led him to resign. The ability with
which he edited the publications of the society and advised the council
"on every obscure and difficult point" was commented on by Murchison in
his presidential address (1843). In 1829 Lonsdale read before the
society an important paper "On the Oolitic District of Bath" (_Trans.
Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol. iii.), the results of a survey begun in 1827;
later he was engaged in a survey of the Oolitic strata of
Gloucestershire (1832), at the instigation of the Geological Society,
and he laid down on the one-inch ordnance maps the boundaries of the
various geological formations. He gave particular attention to the study
of corals, becoming the highest authority in England on the subject, and
he described fossil forms from the Tertiary and Cretaceous strata of
North America and from the older strata of Britain and Russia. In 1837
he suggested from a study of the fossils of the South Devon limestones
that they would prove to be of an age intermediate between the
Carboniferous and Silurian systems. This suggestion was adopted by
Sedgwick and Murchison in 1839, and may be regarded as the basis on
which they founded the Devonian system. Lonsdale's paper, "Notes on the
Age of the Limestones of South Devonshire" (read 1840), was published in
the same volume of the _Transactions of the Geological Society_ (ser. 2,
vol. v.) with Sedgwick and Murchison's famous paper "On the Physical
Structure of Devonshire," and these authors observe that "the conclusion
arrived at by Mr Lonsdale, we now apply without reserve both to the five
groups of our North Devon section, and to the fossiliferous slates of
Cornwall." The later years of Lonsdale's life were spent in retirement,
and he died at Bristol on the 11th of November 1871.     (H. B. Wo.)




LONS-LE-SAUNIER, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of
Jura, 76 m. N.N.E. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyons railway, on which it is a
junction for Chalon-sur-Saône, Dôle, Besançon and Champagnole. Pop.
(1906) 10,648. The town is built on both sides of the river Vallière and
is surrounded by the vine-clad hills of the western Jura. It owes its
name to the salt mines of Montmorot, its western suburb, which have been
used from a very remote period. The church of St Désiré, a building of
the 12th and 15th centuries, preserves a huge Romanesque crypt. The town
is the seat of a prefects and of a court of assizes, and there are
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce,
lycées and training-colleges for both sexes, and a branch of the Bank of
France. There is an establishment for the use of the mineral waters,
which are sodio-chlorinated and have strengthening properties. The
principal industry of the place is the manufacture of sparkling wines,
the Étoile growth being the best for this purpose. Trade is in cheese,
cereals, horses, cattle, wood, &c.

Lons-le-Saunier, known as _Ledo_ in the time of the Gauls, was fortified
by the Romans, who added the surname _Salinarius_ to the Gallic name. An
object of contention owing to the value of its salt, it belonged for a
long time during the medieval period to the powerful house of Chalon, a
younger branch of that of Burgundy. It was burned in 1364 by the
English, and again in 1637, when it was seized by the duke of
Longueville for Louis XIII. It became definitively French in 1674. It
was here that the meeting between Ney and Napoleon took place, on the
return of the latter from Elba in 1815. Rouget de l'Isle, the author of
the _Marseillaise_, was born at Montaigu near this town, where there is
a statue erected to him.




LOO (formerly called "Lanterloo," Fr. _lanturlu_, the refrain of a
popular 17th-century song), a round game of cards, played by any number
of persons; from five to seven makes the best game. "Three-card loo" is
the game usually played. An ordinary pack of fifty-two cards is used and
the deal passes after each round. Each player must have the same number
of deals; but if there is a "loo" (the sum forfeited by a player who
plays, but does not win a trick) in the last deal of a round, the game
continues till there is a hand without a loo. The dealer deals three
cards face downwards, one by one, to each player and an extra hand
called "miss," and turns up the top of the undealt cards for trumps.
Each player contributes to the pool a sum previously agreed upon. The
unit for a single stake should be divisible by three without a
remainder, e.g. three counters or three pence. The players are bound to
put in the stake before the deal is completed. Each player in rotation,
beginning from the dealer's left, looks at his cards, and declares
whether he will play, or pass, or take "miss." If the former, he says "I
play." If he takes miss he places his cards face downwards in the middle
of the table, and takes up the extra hand. If he passes, he similarly
places his cards face downwards in the middle of the table. If miss is
taken, the subsequent players only have the option of playing or
passing. A player who takes miss must play. Those who are now left in
play one card each in rotation, beginning from the dealer's left, the
cards thus played constituting a trick. The trick is won by the highest
card of the suit led, or, if trumped, by the highest trump, the cards
ranking as at whist. The winner of the trick leads to the next, and so
on, until the hand is played out. The cards remain face upwards in front
of the persons placing them.

If the leader holds ace of trumps he must lead it (or king, if ace is
turned up). If the leader has two trumps he must lead one of them, and
if one is ace (or king, ace being turned up) he must lead it. With this
exception the leader is not bound to lead his highest trump if more than
two declare to play; _but if there are only two declared players_ the
leader with more than one trump must lead the highest. Except with
trumps as above stated he may lead any card he chooses. The subsequent
players must head the trick if able, and must follow suit if able.
Holding none of the suit led, they must head the trick with a trump, if
able. Otherwise they may play any card they please. The winner of the
first trick is subject to the rules already stated respecting the lead,
and in addition he must lead a trump if able (called _trump after
trick_).

When the hand has been played out, the winners of the tricks divide the
pool, each receiving one-third of the amount for each trick. If only one
has declared to play, the dealer plays miss either for himself or for
the pool. If he plays for the pool he must declare before seeing miss
that he does not play for himself. Any tricks he may win, when playing
for the pool, remain there as an addition to the next pool. Other rules
provide that the dealer must play, if only one player stands, with his
own cards or with "miss." If miss is gone and against him, he may defend
with the three top cards of the pack, excluding the trump card; these
cards are called "master."

If each declared player wins at least one trick it is a _single_, i.e. a
fresh pool is made as already described; but if one of the declared
players fails to make a trick he is looed. Then only the player who is
looed contributes to the next pool. If more than one player is looed,
each has to contribute.

  At _unlimited loo_ each player looed has to put in the amount there
  was in the pool. But it is often agreed to limit the loo, so that it
  shall not exceed a certain fixed sum. Thus, at eighteen-penny loo, the
  loo is generally limited to half a guinea. If there is less than the
  limit in the pool the payment is regulated as before; but if there is
  more than the limit, the loo is the fixed sum agreed on.

  The game is sometimes varied by "forces," i.e. by compelling every one
  to play in the first deal, or when there is no loo the previous deal,
  or whenever clubs are trumps ("club law"). When there is a force no
  miss is dealt. "Irish loo" is played by allowing declared players to
  exchange some or all of their cards for cards dealt from the top of
  the pack. There is no miss, and it is not compulsory to lead a trump
  with two trumps, unless there are only two declared players. At
  "five-card loo" each player has five cards instead of three, and a
  single stake should be divisible by five. "Pam" (knave of clubs) ranks
  as the highest trump, whatever suit is turned up. There is no miss,
  and cards may be exchanged as at Irish loo. If ace of trumps is led,
  the leader says "Pam be civil," when the holder of that card must pass
  the trick if he can do so without revoking. A flush (five cards of the
  same suit, or four with Pam) "loos the board," i.e. the holder
  receives the amount of a loo from every one, and the hand is not
  played. A trump flush takes precedence of flushes in other suits. If
  more than one flush is held, or if Pam is held, the holder is exempted
  from payment. As between two flushes which do not take precedence, the
  elder hand wins. A single stake should be divisible by five.




LOOE, a seaport and market town in the Bodmin parliamentary division of
Cornwall, England, 17 m. by sea W. of Plymouth, a terminus of the
Liskeard & Looe light railway. Pop. (1901) 2548. It is divided by the
river into East Looe and West Looe; and is sheltered so completely by
the surrounding hills that myrtles, geraniums, fuchsias and other
delicate plants flourish at all seasons in the open air. Its lanes are
narrow, steep and winding; many of the houses are entered by wooden
staircases; and though considerably modernized the town has a medieval
air. Inland, the shores of the river are richly wooded; and towards the
sea they rise on the south into rugged cliffs. The parish church of St
Martin, which stands 1 m. outside the town, has a Norman doorway and
font. Among other buildings may be mentioned the ancient chapel of St
Nicholas in West Looe, restored in 1862; and the old town-hall, where
the ancient pillory is preserved. A considerable export trade in copper,
tin and granite was formerly carried on, and the last is still exported,
but the chief trade is in grain; while timber, coal and limestone are
imported. There are also thriving fisheries, the Looe fishermen being
particularly expert with the seine on a rocky bottom. The inlet of
Trelawne is one of the most exquisite wooded coombes in Cornwall. At its
head are the remains of a camp, connected with the Giant's Hedge, a
raised earthwork which extends for 7 m. in a straight line, as far as a
larger camp, on Bury Down, and is of Danish or Saxon construction.
Trelawne, a fine old mansion belonging to the family of Trelawny, dates
in part from the 15th century, but has been very largely restored.

The harbourage was probably the original cause of settlement at Looe. At
the time of the Domesday Survey East Looe was assessed under Pendrym,
which was of the king's demesne and West Looe under Hamelin's manor of
Trelowia. In the 14th century the former manor was held by the family of
Bodrugan; the latter by that of Dauney, who had inherited it from the
Treverbyns. In 1237 Henry Bodrugan received the grant of a market on
Fridays and a fair at Michaelmas in his manor of Pendrym. In 1301 his
grandson and namesake granted to East Looe a market and fair, view of
frank pledge, ducking stool and pillory and assize of bread and ale.
Otto Bodrugan in 1320 granted the burgesses the privilege of electing
their own portreeve and controlling the trade of the town. A charter of
incorporation was granted in 1558 under which the common council was to
consist of a mayor and 8 chief burgesses. There was to be a court of
record, a market on Saturdays and fairs at Michaelmas and Candlemas. In
1685 James II. provided that there should be a mayor and 11 aldermen, 36
free burgesses, 4 fairs and a court of pie powder. East Looe was
governed under this charter until 1885. West Looe (known also as
Porpighan or Porbuan) benefited by a charter granted by Richard king of
the Romans to Odo Treverbyn and ratified in 1325 constituting it a free
borough whose burgesses were to be free of all custom throughout
Cornwall. Residence for a year and a day within the borough conferred
freedom from servitude. There were to be a market on Wednesdays and a
fair at Michaelmas. Hugh son of Odo Treverbyn gave West Looe the
privileges enjoyed by Helston and Launceston. Upon the attainder of the
earl of Devon in 1539 the borough fell to the crown and was annexed to
the duchy. In 1574 a charter of incorporation was granted, providing for
a mayor and 11 burgesses, also for a market on Wednesdays and two fairs.
West Looe continued to be administered under this charter until 1869,
when the death of the mayor deprived the council of its only surviving
member and elector. Parliamentary representation was conferred upon East
Looe in 1571 and upon West Looe in 1553. In the debate on the reform
bill O'Connell stated that there was but one borough more rotten than
East Looe and that was West Looe. Looe was second only to Fowey as a
port in the 15th century. It furnished 20 ships for the siege of Calais.
Of the markets and fairs only the markets on Wednesdays and Saturdays
and a fair on the 6th of May remain.




LOOM, or LOON (Icelandic, _Lómr_), a name applied to water-birds of
three distinct families, remarkable for their clumsy gait on land.[1]
The first is the _Colymbidae_, to which the term diver (q.v.) is
usually restricted in books; the second the _Podicipedidae_, or grebes
(q.v.); and the third the _Alcidae_. The form loon is most commonly used
both in the British Islands and in North America for all species of the
genus _Colymbus_, or _Eudytes_ according to some ornithologists,
frequently with the prefix sprat, indicating the fish on which they are
supposed to prey; though it is the local name of the great crested grebe
(_Podiceps cristatus_) wherever that bird is sufficiently well known to
have one; and, as appears from Grew (_Mus. Reg. Soc._ p. 69), it was
formerly given to the little grebe or dabchick (_P. fluviatilis_ or
_minor_). The other form loo_m_ seems more confined in its application
to the north, and is said by T. Edmonston (_Etym. Gloss. Shetl. and
Orkn. Dialect_, p. 67) to be the proper name in Shetland of _Colymbus
septentrionalis_;[2] but it has come into use among Arctic seamen as the
name of the guillemot (_Alca arra_ or _bruennichi_) which throngs the
cliffs of northern lands, from whose "loomeries" they obtain a wholesome
food; while the writer believes he has heard the word locally applied to
the razorbill (q.v.).     (A. N.)


FOOTNOTES:

  [1] The word also takes the form "lumme" (_fide_ Montagu), and, as
    Professor Skeat observes, is probably connected with _lame_. The
    signification of _loon_, a clumsy fellow, and metaphorically a
    simpleton, is obvious to any one who has seen the attempt of the
    birds to which the name is given to walk.

  [2] Dunn and Saxby, however, agree in giving "rain-goose" as the name
    of the species in Scotland.




LOOM, a machine for weaving fabrics by intersecting the longitudinal
threads, the "warp," i.e. "that which is thrown across" (O.E. _wearp_,
from _weorpan_, to throw, cf. Ger. _werfen_) with the transverse
threads, the "weft," i.e. "that which is woven" (O.E. _wefta_, from
_wefan_, to weave, cf. Ger. _weben_). The O.E. _geloma_ and M.E. _lome_
meant an implement or tool of any kind. In the sense of property,
furniture, &c., it appears in heirloom (q.v.). The earliest example with
its specific meaning quoted by the _New English Dictionary_ is from the
_Nottingham Records_ of 1404 (see WEAVING).

  "Loom" in the sense of "to appear indistinctly," to come into view in
  an exaggerated indistinct shape, must be distinguished from the above
  word. This appears to have been a sailor's term for the indistinct or
  exaggerated appearance of land, a vessel or other object through haze
  or darkness at sea. It is of obscure origin, but has been connected
  through the O. Fr. _lumer_, modern _allumer_, with Lat. _lumen_,
  light, and with the root seen in "lame," in the sense of "moving
  slowly towards one."




LOÓN, the largest town of the province of Bohol, island of Bohol,
Philippine Islands, on the extreme W. coast. Pop. (1903) 18,114. Loón is
picturesquely situated on the W. slope of a hill, and is reached from
the sea by steps cut in the rocks. The harbour is in a sheltered bay on
the N. side of the town. The cultivation of coco-nuts, coffee, cocoa,
maguey, tobacco, cotton and Indian corn, and the raising of livestock
are the principal industries; there is also considerable commerce and
some manufacturing. The language is chiefly Bohol-Visayan.




LOOP. (1) A curve or bend, particularly a bend in a string, rope, &c.,
formed by doubling back one part so as to leave an opening; similarly a
ring of metal or other material leaving an aperture. (2) In architecture
or fortification, "loop," more usually in the form "loophole," is an
opening in the wall of a building, very narrow on the outside and
splayed within, from which arrows or darts might be discharged on an
enemy, or through which light might be admitted. They are often in the
form of a cross, and generally have round holes at the ends (see
OILLETS). (3) The word is also a term in iron and steel manufacturing
for a mass of metal ready for hammering or rolling, a "bloom."

  This last word is represented in French by _loupe_, from which it is
  probably adapted. The earlier English form was also _loupe_, and it
  was also applied to precious stones which were of inferior brilliancy;
  the same also appears in French. Of the word in its two first
  meanings, a bend or circle in a line of string, metal, rails, &c., and
  "loophole," the derivation is uncertain. Skeat takes the word in both
  meanings to be the same and to be of Scandinavian origin, the old
  Norwegian _hlaup_, a leap, being the direct source. The base is the
  Teutonic _hlaufan_, to run, to leap, German _laufen_. The _New English
  Dictionary_ considers the Swedish example, _löp-knut_, "running knot,"
  and others given by Skeat in support of his derivation to be
  Germanisms, and also that the pronunciation of the word would have
  been _lowp_ rather than _lup_. "Loop" in meaning (2) "loophole" is
  also taken to be a different word, and is derived from Dutch _luipen_,
  to peer, watch. In modern Dutch the word for a narrow opening is
  _gluip_.




LOOSESTRIFE, in botany, the common name of _Lysimachia vulgaris_, an
erect plant, 2 to 4 ft. high, common on river banks in England; the
branched stem bears tapering leaves in pairs or whorls, and terminal
panicles of rather large deep yellow flowers. It is a member of the
primrose family. _L. nemorum_, yellow pimpernel, or wood loosestrife, a
low-growing plant with slender spreading stem, and somewhat similar
yellow flowers standing singly in the leaf-axils, is frequent in copses.
_L. Nummularia_ is the well-known creeping jenny or money-wort, a larger
plant with widely creeping stem, pairs of shining leaves and large
solitary yellow flowers; it is found on banks of rivers and damp woods,
and is a common rockery plant. Purple loosestrife, _Lythrum Salicaria_,
belongs to a different family, _Lythraceae_. It is a handsome plant
growing 2 to 6 ft. high on river banks and ditches, with a branched
angled stem bearing whorls of narrow pointed stalkless leaves and ending
in tall tapering spikes of beautiful rose-purple flowers. The flowers
are trimorphic, that is to say, exist in three forms which differ in the
relative length of the styles and stamens and are known as long-styled,
mid-styled and short-styled forms respectively; the size and colour of
the pollen also differ. These differences play an important part in the
pollination of the flower.




LOOT, plunder or spoil taken from an enemy in war, especially the
indiscriminate plunder taken by the victor after the capture of a city.
The word came into English from India. It is adapted from the Hindi
_lut_, which is either from Sanskrit _lunt_, to rob, plunder, or
_lotra_, _loptra_, booty.




LOPES, FERNÃO (1380?-1459?), the patriarch of Portuguese historians, was
appointed keeper of the royal archives, then housed in the castle of St
George in Lisbon, by King John I. in November 1418. He acted as private
secretary to the Infants D. Duarte and D. Fernando, and when the former
ascended the throne he charged Lopes, by letter of the 19th of March
1434, with the work of "putting into chronicles the stories of the kings
of old time as well as the great and lofty actions of the most virtuous
king my lord and father" (John I.). The form of the appointment marked
its limits, and is a sufficient reply to those modern critics who have
censured Lopes for partiality. Notwithstanding his official title of
chief chronicler of the realm, he was the king's man (_Vassallo del
Rei_), and received his salary from the royal treasury. King Alphonso V.
confirmed him in his post by letter of the 3rd of June 1449, and in
1454, after thirty-six years' service in the archives and twenty as
chronicler, he resigned in favour of Gomez Eannes de Azurara. The latter
pays a tribute to his predecessor as "a notable person, a man of rare
knowledge and great authority," and the modern historian Herculano says,
"there is not only history in the chronicles of Fernão Lopes, there is
poetry and drama as well; there is the middle age with its faith, its
enthusiasm, its love of glory." Lopes has been called the Portuguese
Froissart, and that rare gift, the power of making their subjects live,
is common to the two writers; indeed, had the former written in a
better-known language, there can be little doubt that the general
opinion of critics would have confirmed that of Robert Southey, who
called Lopes "beyond all comparison the best chronicler of any age or
nation." Lopes was the first to put in order the stories of the earlier
Portuguese monarchs, and he composed a general chronicle of the kingdom,
which, though it never appeared under his name, almost certainly served
as a foundation for the chronicles of Ruy de Pina (q.v.). Lopes prepared
himself for his work with care and diligence, as he tells us, not only
by wide reading of books in different languages, but also by a study of
the archives belonging to municipalities, monasteries and churches, both
in Portugal and Spain. He is usually a trustworthy guide in facts, and
charms the reader by the naïve simplicity of his style.

  His works that have come down are: (1) _Chronica del Rei D. João I. de
  boa memoria_, parts 1 and 2 (Lisbon, 1644). The third part relating
  the capture of Ceuta was added by Azurara. A corrected text of the
  chronicle has been issued by instalments in the _Archivo Historico
  Portuguez_. (2) "Chronica do senhor rei D. Pedro I.," in vol. iv. of
  the _Colleccão de Livros Ineditos da Historia Portugueza_, published
  by the Academy of Sciences (Lisbon, 1816); a much better text than
  that published by Father Bayão in his edition of the same chronicle
  (Lisbon, 1760). (3) _Chronica do senhor rei D. Fernando_ published in
  the same volume and collection. The British Museum has some important
  16th-century MSS. of the chronicles.

  See Damião de Goes, _Chronica del Rei Dom Manoel_, part iv. ch. 38;
  Araãgo Morato, introduction to vol. iv. of the above collection;
  Herculano, _Opusculos_, vol. v.     (E. Pr.)




LOPEZ, CARLOS ANTONIO (1790-1862), Paraguayan autocrat, was born at
Asuncion on the 4th of November 1790, and was educated in the
ecclesiastical seminary of that city. He attracted the hostility of the
dictator, Francia, and he was forced to keep in hiding for several
years. He acquired, however, so unusual a knowledge of law and
governmental affairs that, on Francia's death in 1840, he obtained an
almost undisputed control of the Paraguayan state, which he maintained
uninterruptedly until his death on the 10th of September 1862. He was
successively secretary of the ruling military _junta_ (1840-1841), one
of the two consuls (1841-1844), and president with dictatorial powers
(1844-1862) by successive elections for ten and three years, and in 1857
again for ten years, with power to nominate his own successor. Though
nominally a president acting under a republican constitution, he ruled
despotically. His government was in general directed with wise energy
towards developing the material resources and strengthening the military
power of the country. His jealousy of foreign approach several times
involved him in diplomatic disputes with Brazil, England, and the United
States, which nearly resulted in war, but each time he extricated
himself by skilful evasions.

His eldest son, FRANCISCO SOLANO LOPEZ (1826-1870), was born near
Asuncion on the 24th of July 1826. When in his nineteenth year he was
made commander-in-chief of the Paraguayan army, during the spasmodic
hostilities then prevailing with the Argentine Republic. He was sent in
1853 as minister to England, France and Italy, and spent a year and a
half in Europe. He purchased large quantities of arms and military
supplies, together with several steamers, and organized a project for
building a railroad and establishing a French colony in Paraguay. He
also formed the acquaintance of Madame Lynch, an Irish adventuress of
many talents and popular qualities, who became his mistress, and
strongly influenced his later ambitious schemes. Returning to Paraguay,
he became in 1855 minister of war, and on his father's death in 1862 at
once assumed the reins of government as vice-president, in accordance
with a provision of his father's will, and called a congress by which he
was chosen president for ten years. In 1864, in his self-styled capacity
of "protector of the equilibrium of the La Plata," he demanded that
Brazil should abandon her armed interference in a revolutionary struggle
then in progress in Uruguay. No attention being paid to his demand, he
seized a Brazilian merchant steamer in the harbour of Asuncion, and
threw into prison the Brazilian governor of the province of Matto Grosso
who was on board. In the following month (December 1864) he despatched a
force to invade Matto Grosso, which seized and sacked its capital
Cuyabá, and took possession of the province and its diamond mines. Lopez
next sought to send an army to the relief of the Uruguayan president
Aguirro against the revolutionary aspirant Flores, who was supported by
Brazilian troops. The refusal of the Argentine president, Mitre, to
allow this force to cross the intervening province of Corrientes, was
seized upon by Lopez as an occasion for war with the Argentine Republic.
A congress, hastily summoned, and composed of his own nominees, bestowed
upon Lopez the title of marshal, with extraordinary war powers, and on
April 13, 1865, he declared war, at the same time seizing two Argentine
war-vessels in the bay of Corrientes, and on the next day occupied the
town of Corrientes, instituted a provisional government of his Argentine
partisans, and summarily announced the annexation to Paraguay of the
provinces of Corrientes and Entre Rios. Meantime the party of Flores had
been successful in Uruguay, and that state on April the 18th united with
the Argentine Republic in a declaration of war on Paraguay. On the 1st
of May Brazil joined these two states in a secret alliance, which
stipulated that they should unitedly prosecute the war "until the
existing government of Paraguay should be overthrown," and "until no
arms or elements of war should be left to it." This agreement was
literally carried out. The war which ensued, lasting until the 1st of
April 1870, was carried on with great stubbornness and with alternating
fortunes, though with a steadily increasing tide of disasters to Lopez
(see PARAGUAY). In 1868, when the allies were pressing him hard, his
mind, naturally suspicious and revengeful, led him to conceive that a
conspiracy had been formed against his life in his own capital and by
his chief adherents. Thereupon several hundred of the chief Paraguayan
citizens were seized and executed by his order, including his brothers
and brothers-in-law, cabinet ministers, judges, prefects, military
officers, bishops and priests, and nine-tenths of the civil officers,
together with more than two hundred foreigners, among them several
members of the diplomatic legations. Lopez was at last driven with a
mere handful of troops to the northern frontier of Paraguay, where, on
the 1st of April 1870, he was surprised by a Brazilian force and killed
as he was endeavouring to escape by swimming the river Aquidaban.




LOPEZ DE GÓMARA, FRANCISCO (1510?-1555?), Spanish historian, was
educated at the university of Alcalá, where he took orders. Soon after
1540 he entered the household of the famous Cortés, who supplied him
with most of the material for his _Historia de las Indias_ (1552), and
_Crónica de la conquista de Nueva España_ (1552). The pleasing style and
novel matter enchanted the Spanish public, but the unmeasured laudation
of Cortés at the expense of his lieutenants and companions brought about
a violent reaction. Though the _Historia_ was dedicated to Charles V.,
both works were forbidden on the 17th of November 1553, and no editions
of them were issued between 1554 and 1727. Italian and French versions
of his books were published in 1556 and 1578 respectively.




LOP-NOR or Lob-nor, a lake of Central Asia, in the Gobi Desert, between
the Astin-tagh (Altyn-tagh) on the south and the Kuruk-tagh on the
north. Previous to 1876 it was placed in nearly all maps at 42° 30´ N.,
a position which agreed with the accounts and the maps of ancient
Chinese geographers. In the year mentioned the Russian explorer
Przhevalsky discovered two closely connected lake-basins, Kara-buran and
Kara-koshun, fully one degree farther south, and considerably east of
the site of the old Lop-nor, which lake-basins he nevertheless regarded
as being identical with the old Lop-nor of the Chinese. But the water
they contained he pronounced to be fresh water. This identification was
disputed by Baron von Richthofen, on the ground that the Lop-nor, the
"Salt Lake" of the Chinese geographers, could not be filled with fresh
water; moreover, being the final gathering basin of the desert stream,
the Tarim, it was bound to be salt, more especially as the lake had no
outflow. Przhevalsky visited the Lop-nor region again in 1885, and
adhered to his opinion. But ten years later it was explored anew by Dr
Sven Hedin, who ascertained that the Tarim empties part of its waters
into another lake, or rather string of lakes (Avullu-köl, Kara-köl,
Tayek-köl and Arka-köl), which _are_ situated in 42° 30´ N., and thus so
far justified the views of von Richthofen, and confirmed the Chinese
accounts. At the same time he advanced reasons for believing that
Przhevalsky's lake-basins, the southern Lop-nor, are of quite recent
origin--indeed, he fixed upon 1720 as the probably approximate date of
their formation, a date which von Richthofen would alter to 1750.
Besides this, Sven Hedin argued that there exists a close inter-relation
between the northern Lop-nor lakes and the southern Lop-nor lakes, so
that as the water in the one group increases, it decreases to the same
proportion and volume in the other. He also argued that the four lakes
of northern Lop-nor are slowly moving westwards under the incessant
impetus of wind and sandstorm (_buran_). These conclusions were
afterwards controverted by the Russian traveller, P. K. Kozlov, who
visited the Lop-nor region in 1893-1894--that is, before Dr Sven Hedin's
examination. He practically only reiterated Przhevalsky's contention,
that the ancient Chinese maps were erroneously drawn, and that the
Kara-koshun, in spite of the freshness of its water, was the old
Lop-nor, _the_ Salt Lake _par excellence_ of the Chinese. Finally, in
1900, Dr Sven Hedin, following up the course of the Kum-darya,
discovered--at the foot of the Kuruk-tagh, and at the E. (lowest)
extremity of the now desiccated Kuruk-darya, with traces of dead forest
and other vegetation beside it and beside the river-bed--the basin of a
desiccated salt lake, which he holds to be the true ancient Lop-nor of
the Chinese geographers, and at the same time he found that the
Kara-koshun or Lop-nor of Przhevalsky had extended towards the north,
but shrunk on the south. Thus the old Lop-nor no longer exists, but in
place of it there are a number of much smaller lakes of newer formation.
It may fairly be inferred that, owing to the uniform level of the
region, the sluggish flow of the Tarim, its unceasing tendency to divide
and reunite, conjoined with the violence and persistency of the winds
(mostly from the east and north-east), and the rapid and dense growth of
the reed-beds in the shallow marshes, the drainage waters of the Tarim
basin gather now in greater volume in one depression, and now in greater
volume in another; and this view derives support from the extreme
shallowness of the lakes in both Sven Hedin's northern Lop-nor and
Przhevalsky's southern Lop-nor, together with the uniformly horizontal
level of the entire region.

  See Delmar Morgan's translation of Przhevalsky's _From Kuja across the
  Tian-shan to Lop-nor_ (London, 1879); Von Richthofen's "Bemerkungen zu
  den Ergebnissen von Oberst-Leutenant Prjewalskis Reise nach dem
  Lop-nor" in _Verhandl. der Gesch. f. Erdkunde zu Berlin_ (1878), pp.
  121 seq.; Sven Hedin's _Scientific Results of a Journey in Central
  Asia, 1899-1902_ (vols. i. and ii., Stockholm, 1905-1906), where
  Kozlov's share of the controversy is summarized (cf. ii., 270-280).
       (J. T. Be.)




LOQUAT, JAPANESE PLUM or JAPANESE MEDLAR, known botanically as
_Eriobotrya japonica_, small evergreen tree belonging to the natural
order Rosaceae, with large thick oval-oblong leaves borne near the ends
of the branches, and dark green above with a rusty tomentum on the lower
face. The fruit is pear-shaped, yellow, about 1½ in. long and contains
large stony seeds; it has an agreeable acid flavour. The plant is a
native of China and Japan, but is widely grown for its fruit and as a
decorative plant. It is a familiar object in the Mediterranean region
and in the southern United States.




LORAIN, a city of Lorain county, Ohio, U.S.A., on Lake Erie, at the
mouth of the Black river, and about 25 m. W. by S. of Cleveland. Pop.
(1890) 4863; (1900) 16,028, of whom 4730 were foreign-born and 359
negroes; (1910 census) 28,883. Lorain is served by the New York, Chicago
& St. Louis, and the Baltimore & Ohio railways, by the Lake Shore
Electric railway, and by several of the more important steamboat lines
on the Great Lakes. It has a Carnegie library, the Lake View Hospital
and the Saint Joseph's Hospital. There is a good harbour, and the city's
chief interests are in the shipping of great quantities of coal,
iron-ore, grain and lumber, in the building of large steel vessels, in
railway shops, and in the manufacture of iron pipes, gas engines, stoves
and automatic steam shovels. The value of the factory products increased
from $9,481,388 in 1900 to $14,491,091 in 1905, or 52.8%. The
municipality owns and operates the waterworks. A Moravian mission was
established here in 1787-1788, and a trading post in 1807, but no
permanent settlement was made until several years later. In 1836 the
place was incorporated as a village under the name "Charleston"; in 1874
the present name was adopted, and in 1896 Lorain became a city of the
second class.




LORALAI, a town and district of India, in Baluchistan. The town, which
is situated 4700 ft. above the sea, 35 m. by road from the railway
station of Harnai, was occupied as a military station in 1886, and has
quarters for a native cavalry and a native infantry regiment. Pop.
(1901) 3561.

The DISTRICT OF LORALAI was formed in 1903. It consists of a series of
long, narrow valleys, hemmed in by rugged mountains, and bordered E. by
Dera Ghazi Khan district of the Punjab. Area 7999 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
67,864, of whom the majority are Afghans. The principal crops are wheat
and millet; but the chief wealth of the inhabitants is derived from
their herds of cattle, sheep and goats.




LORCA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on the right
bank of the river Sangonera (here called the Guadalantin or Guadalentin)
and on the Murcia-Baza railway. Pop. (1900) 69,836. It occupies a height
crowned by a medieval fortress, among the foothills of the Sierra del
Caño. Its older parts, Moorish in many features and with narrow
irregular streets, contrast with the modern parts, which have broad
streets and squares, and many fine public buildings--theatre, town hall,
hospitals, courts of justice and a bridge over the Sangonera. There is
an important trade in agricultural products and live stock, as well as
manufactures of woollen stuffs, leather, gunpowder, chemicals and
porcelain. Silver, sulphur and lead are found in the neighbourhood.

Lorca is the Roman _Eliocroca_ (perhaps also the _Ilorci_ of Pliny,
_N.H._ iii. 3) and the Moorish _Lurka_. It was the key of Murcia during
the Moorish wars, and was frequently taken and retaken. On the 30th of
April 1802 it suffered severely by the bursting of the reservoir known
as the Pantano de Puentes, in which the waters of the Sangonera were
stored for purposes of irrigation (1775-1785); the district adjoining
the river, known as the Barrio de San Cristobal, was completely ruined,
and more than six hundred persons perished. In 1810 Lorca suffered
greatly from the French invasion. In 1886 the Pantano, which was one of
the largest of European reservoirs, being formed by a dam 800 ft. long
and 160 ft. high, was successfully rebuilt.




LORCH, a town in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, romantically
situated on the right bank of the Rhine, 8 m. below Rüdesheim by the
railway Frankfort-on-Main-Wiesbaden-Cologne. Pop. (1905) 2269. It has a
fine Gothic Roman Catholic church--St Martin's--dating from the 14th
century. The slopes of the hills descending to the Rhine are covered
with vineyards, which produce excellent wine. In the neighbourhood of
Lorch, which was mentioned as early as 832, is the ruined castle of
Nollich.




LORCH, a town in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the Rems, 26 m. E. from
Stuttgart by the railway to Nördlingen. Pop. (1905) 3033. It possesses a
fine Protestant church dating from the 12th century. Its industries
include carriage-building and the manufacture of cement and paper. On
the Marienberg lying above the town stands the former Benedictine
monastery of Lorch, founded about 1108 by Frederick of Hohenstaufen, and
in 1563 converted into an Evangelical college. Here Schiller passed a
portion of his school days. The church contains several tombs of the
Hohenstaufen family. The Roman _limes_ began at Lorch and Roman remains
have been found in the neighbourhood of the town.

  See Kirn, _Führer durch das Kloster Lorch_ (Lorch, 1888); and Steimle,
  _Kastell Lorch_ (Heidelberg, 1897).




LORD, JOHN (1810-1894), American historical writer and lecturer, was
born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1810. He was
the nephew of Nathan Lord (1792-1870), president of Dartmouth College
from 1828 to 1863. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1833, and at Andover
Theological Seminary in 1837. His course at the Seminary was interrupted
by a period of teaching--at Windham, Connecticut (1834), and at Norwich
(1834-1835)--and by a tour in 1836 through New York and Ohio, in which
he lectured on the dark ages. He was agent and lecturer for the American
Peace Society (1837-1839), and for a brief time was a Congregational
pastor in turn at New Marlboro and West Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and
at Utica, New York. About 1840 he became a professional lecturer on
history. He lectured extensively for fifty years, especially in the
United States and Great Britain, and introduced, with success, the
mid-day lecture. He was lecturer on history in Dartmouth from 1869 to
1876. He received, in 1864, the degree of LL.D. from the University of
the City of New York. From 1854 he made his home in Stamford,
Connecticut, where he died on the 15th of December 1894. His works
include, besides several school and college histories, _The Old Roman
World: the Grandeur and Failure of Civilization_ (1867); _Ancient
States and Empires_ (1869); _Two German Giants: Frederick the Great and
Bismarck_ (1885); and _Beacon Lights of History_ (8 vols., 1884-1896),
his chief contribution to historical literature.

  See _The Life of John Lord_ (1896) by Rev. Alexander S. Twombley, D.
  D. (in "Beacon Lights of History"), which is based chiefly upon Lord's
  _Reminiscences of Fifty Years in the Lecture Field_.




LORD (O. Eng. _hláford_, i.e. _hláfweard_, the warder or keeper of
bread, _hláf_, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic
language), in its primary sense, the head of a household, the master of
those dependent on him for their daily bread, correlative to O. Eng.
_hláf-aéta_, loaf-eater, servant; the word frequently occurs in this
sense in the Bible, cf. Matt. xxiv. 45. As a term implying the ownership
of property, "lord" survives in "lord of the manor" and "landlord." The
chief applications are due to its use as the equivalent of Lat.
_dominus_, Gr. [Greek: kyrios] and Fr. _seigneur_; thus in the Old
Testament it represents _Yahweh_, Jehovah, and in the New Testament
[Greek: kyrios], as a title of Jesus Christ. Selden's words may be
quoted for the more general meanings of "lord"; "the name Dominus is ...
to be thought of only as a distinguishing attribute of Greatness and as
our English word Lord is; and that without any relation of it to an
Interest of property or to servitude, and only as it denotes such
Superiours as King or Subjects of the greater Nobility with us and men
of special Eminency in other States, known by the names of Heeren, Dons,
Sieurs, signiors, seigneurs ... and the like." It is thus not only a
general word for a prince or sovereign, but also the common word for a
feudal superior, and particularly of a feudal tenant holding directly of
the king, a baron (q.v.), hence a peer of the realm, a member of the
House of Lords, constituted of the lords temporal and the lords
spiritual; this is the chief modern usage. The prefix "lord" is
ordinarily used as a less formal alternative to the full title, whether
held by right or by courtesy, of marquess, earl or viscount, and is
always so used in the case of a baron (which in English usage is
generally confined to the holder of a foreign title). Where the name is
territorial, the "of" is dropped, thus, the marquess of A., but Lord A.
The younger sons of dukes and marquesses have, by courtesy, the title of
Lord prefixed to the Christian and surname, e.g. Lord John Russell. In
the case of bishops, the full and formal title of address is the Lord
Bishop of A., whether he be a spiritual peer or not. Many high officials
of the British government have the word "lord" prefixed to their titles;
some of them are treated in separate articles; for lord privy seal see
PRIVY SEAL. In certain cases the members of a board which has taken the
place of an office of state are known as lords commissioners or,
shortly, lords of the office in question, e.g. lords of the treasury,
civil or naval lords of the admiralty. For lord lieutenant and lord
mayor see LIEUTENANT and MAYOR. As the proper form of address "my lord"
is used not only to those members of the nobility to whom the title
"Lord" is applicable, and to bishops, but also to all judges of the High
Court in England, and of the Scottish and Irish Superior Courts, and to
lord mayors and lord provosts (see also LADY).




LORD ADVOCATE, or king's advocate, the principal law-officer of the
crown in Scotland. His business is to act as a public prosecutor, and to
plead in all causes that concern the crown. He is at the head of the
system of public prosecutions by which criminal justice is administered
in Scotland, and thus his functions are of a far more extensive
character than those of the English law-officers of the crown. He is
aided by a solicitor-general and by subordinate assistants called
advocates-depute. The office of king's advocate seems to have been
established about the beginning of the 16th century. Originally he had
no power to prosecute crimes without the concurrence of a private party;
but in the year 1597 he was empowered to prosecute crimes at his own
instance. He has the privilege of pleading in court with his hat on.








*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "LOGARITHM" TO "LORD ADVOCATE" ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.


